Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/mennoirsrelativetOOinst n.i R T nf III.' LAKK ZAC. Jor Hr Smm- mui- if, J.Y/iji/:i'.s'.sy MEMOIRS RELATIVE TO EGYPT, WRITTEN IN THAT COUNTRY DURING THE CAMPAIGNS OF GENERAL BONAPARTE, Jn the Years 1798 and 1799, BY THE LEARNED AND SCIENTIFIC MEN WHO ACCOMPANIED THE FRENCH EXPEDITION. guI)li.d;eD in gari.^ Tuttioritii* LONDON : Printed by T. Gillet, Salisbury-Square, FOR R. PHILLIPS, 71, ST. PAULAS CHURCH YARD; SOLD BY T. HURST, 32 , PATERNOSTER-ROW; MESSRS. CARPENTER AND CO. OLD BOND-STREET ; E. BALFOUR, EDINBURGH ; AND BY J. ARCHER, DUBLIN. 1800 . ADVERTISEMENT ■ GF THE TRANSLATOR. W HEN the ever-memorable expedition of the French againfi: Egypt was committed to the care of General Bonaparte^ it is well known that he perfuaded a number of men of learning and fcience to accompany him, many of whom had been eminent in France for their talents and indutlry. The Work which is here prefented to the Public is a faithful tranflation of the Memoirs and Obferva- tions of thofe perfons. It contifts of a number of papers on various topics, which were brought from Egypt by General Bonaparte, prefented by him to the National Infiitute, and lately feledled, arranged, and publifhed ^y that learned and difHnguifhed Body* The reader will naturally expedl to find confider- able information concerning the manners, cuftoms, arts, and natural produdlions of the curious and in- terefiing country to which thefe papers relate. In this expedlation, he will not be difippointed. Al- lowing for the great difficulties which attend the colledling of fcientific information in a country where every progrefs was made in a hofiile manner, and which, though fo much celebrated in hifiory, has w ADVERTISEMENT, has long been in a (late of very imperfecl civilizationr thefe fcientific Memoirs will be found to confain a variety of matter highly interefting to the lovers of philofophical knowledge, and which will materially affift the labours of thofe who may choofe to exa- mine into the chara6lerill;ic diftindlions of the lin- gular people who occupy this remarkable portion of the globe. Some of the Memoirs bear the marks of being haltily compofed, but thefe form by no means a large portion of the prefent Work ; and as it is underltood that the French original is a feledlion of the Me- moirs which were judged the moft worthy of publi- cation, no omiffions or alterations have been made by the Englilh Editor, which might render the tranllation any thing elfe than an accurate and com- plete copy of the original Work. , London, March 31 /?, 1800 . CONTENTS CONTENTS. Formation of the Injlitute of Egy^t • 1 Lift of the Members of the Inf itute - *1 Summary of the Proceedings of the Injiitute - 3 A Report relative to the Manufadlure of the Salt- petre and Gunpowder of Egypt ^ by Citizen An- dreoffy - - - - 3S Defcription of the Route from Cairo to Ifalehhyeh, by Citizen Shulhoujki - - 44 Circular Letter from Citizen Defgenettes to the Medical Men of the Army of the Eaft^ for drawing up a phyfico -medical Topography of Egypt - - - 6l Report relative to Pompey s Column^ by Citizen Norry - - - - 6S Memoir relative to the optical Phenomenon^ knovm by the name of Mirage, by Citizen Gafpard Monge - - - “74 Obfervations on the Wing of the Oftrich, by Citi- zen Geoffroy - - - gi Obfervations on the Arabian Horfes of the Defert 1 oo Account of the prevailing Ophthalmia of Egypt, by Citizen Bruant, Phyfician in Ordinary to the ^Army - » . Ho A Letter VI CONTENTS. Page A Letter from Adjutant -General JuTien to Citi- zen Geoffroy^ Member of the Injlitute of Egypt 1 IQ Defcription of a new fpecies of NymphceUy by Citi^ zen Savigny - - 3 22 Remarks on the Topography of Menouf in the Delta f by Citizen Carrie ^ Phyficlan in Ordinary to the Army - - - 13a An Arabian Ode on.the Conquefi of Egypt, by ' Cl- . tizen J, J. Marcel - - 135 Report of the Commljfioners charged with the Exa- mination of a Monument near the Grand Aque- duct of Cairo, by Citizen Denou, read in the Slt- tlng of the Inftltute OjQth Vendemalre, year ^ 14Q Obfervations 6n the Colours of the Sea, by Citizen Cojiaz - - - - ]5t Flan of a School for Dejigns, read by Citizen Du- tertre at the Sitting of the Inftltute, 6th Vende- malre, year 7 - " - 153 Flan of an Agricultural EJiabllfhment in Egypt, by Citizen NeCloux, read before the Inftltute \6th Vendemalre, year ^ - - 155 Extract of Obfervations by Citizen Cerefole, FJiy- ficlan In Ordinary to the Army, during a Journey along the Weftern Banks of the Nile, from Cairo to Shut - - - “103 An Attempt to tranjlate a Fragment of the Koran into Verfe, by Citizen Marcel - - 174 On the Dying of Cotton and Flax, by Means of the Carthamus - - - 18o Memoir CONTENTS. vii ige Memoir relative to the hahe Menzalehy in confe- quence of the Knowledge ohtained^ in Vende^ malre, "]th year^' hy Andreojfy^ General of Ar^ tillery _ _ - - ]84 Memoir on a Journey made on the Tanitsque Branch of the Nile, hy Citizen Mains - 241 ^Particulars concerning the Pdlley of the Natron Lakes, and that of the Old Bed of the River, hy Andreojfy, General of Artillery - 253 Topography of the Dry River - ^ 27 o Of the Sands - - - 278 Concerning the Coptic Monafirles - . 281 Of the Djeouahy Arabs, and the Bedouins - 288 Ohfervations on the Natron, hy Citizen Berthollet 3o4 Ohfervations on the dyeing properties of the Hhenne, hy Citizens D ef CO tiles and Berthollet - 313 EudSorneirical Ohfervations, hy ditto - 317 Ohfervations on certain Procejfes for correcting the defects of particular kinds of Steel and Caft Iron, hy Citizen Leon le Eavafeur, Chief of Brigade, Director of Artillery, &-c. - ' - 3 29 Report on the Oafes - - - 345 Remarks on the ufe of Oil in the Plague, hy Citi- zen Defgenettes, Chief Phyfi clan to the Army 35S Ohfervations made to determine the Geographical Pofi tion of Alexandria, and the Direction, Va- riation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle, hy Ci- tizen Nonet - - 365 vm CONTENTS. Page Analyjis of the Slime of the Nilcy hy Citizen Reg- nault - - - , 388 Remarks on the Management and Produce of the . Land in the Province of DamiettUy hy Citizen Girard 393 Ohjervations on the Fountain of MofeSy hy Citizen Gafpard Monge - - 418 ExtraBs from the Geography of Ahd-er-rajhid EL Bakouy on the Defcription of Egypt y hy Citizen Marcel - - - 427 Eijcourfe of Citizen Denou, to he read at the In- Jlitute of Cairo ^ on his return from Upper Egypt 449 N. B. The notes figned (L — s) are by Citizen Langles, Mem- ber of the National Inftitute of France, and Keeper of the Ori- ginal Manufcripts in the National Library. The Binder is requefed to place the Chart of the Lake of Menzaleh oppofte the Titlcy and the Map of the Natron Lakes oppofte page 210, MEMOIRS MEMOIRS relative to EGYPT. T^ORMATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF EGYPT. B onaparte, the commander in chief, by a fpecial order, dated the 3d Frudlidor, 6th year (20th Anguft, l/QS), enjoined, that an In- ftitute fliould be formed at Cairo, for the culti- vation of Arts and Sciences. It is intended that this eftablifliment fhall be principally occupied : 1®. With the propagation and progrefs of knowledge throughout Egypt ; and 2^. With an enquiry into, the ftudy, and the communication of natural, economical, and hif- torical fads relative to that country. The Egyptian Inftitute is divided into four fedions, which are thofe of Mathematics, Na- tural Philofophy, Literature and the Fine Arts, and Political Economy. Each fedion is com- pofed of twelve members ; that of Mathematics, i mELATIVE TO EGYPT, 5 Citizens Coftaz, Shulkoufkl, SucI, and Talllen,. ^ A committee, confifting of the citizens Caffarelli, Coftaz, Geoffroy, Monge, and Tallien, was af- terv/ards appointed : it was charged wdth pro- pofing a plan of regulations for the Inftitute. In the ftiTion of the 11th Fruftidor, citizeii Aiidreofly delivered a report relative to the fabrication of gunpowder in Egypt, and Citizen Monge read a memoir on the optical pheno- menon, called mirage by the French failors, A committee was afterwards appointed, to draw up comparative tables of the weights and meafares of Egypt, and thofe of France : it was eompofed of the citizens Coftaz, GcolFroy, and Malus. Another was enjoined to make prepa- rations for facilitating the compofition of an Arabian vocabulary, to enable the French to keep up the neceffary communications with the inhabitants of Egypt : this confifted of the citi- zens, Dcfgcnettes, Shulkoudei, and Talllen. The citizen Monge, on the lOth Fruftidor, exhibited to the aflemby a fpeclmen of the ftone with Vvhich the caftlc of Cairo liad been built ; it 'was cut out of the rock on which the tbrtifi- cations now itand. This calcareous ftone is coiq-^ Thi-s is ufually denominated a feg-hank by tbe Engliui navigators, and is very common ia the warm latitudes. 7V. B 3 pofed 5 MEMOIRS pofed of what is commorxlj called the numynlf- matkal Jliell, becaufe it refembles little pieces of money. Thefe Ihells fplit with great facility, if taken longitudinally ; within is found a very thin fubftance, difpofed in a fpiral form ; it ferves as a lodging to the animal that forms it. A ftone in every refpeft fimilar to this is found at Laon, the principal town of the department of the Aifne, where it has been employed in build- ing. One would think that he fav/ the walls of that place, when he beholds the ruins of the caftle of Cairo. Citizen Berthollet read a memoir on the formation of ammoniac ; he explained the nature of the precipitate that refults from the diflblutlon of tin, in confequence of the mixture of the muriatic with the nitric acid. This precipitate is not, as has been hitherto fuppofed, an indif- foluble oxyd of tin, but a combination of tin, highly oxy dated with the ammoniac. The tin, between which and oxygene there is a great affinity, decompofes the nitric acid and the wa- ter, and then the azote and hydrogene unite to- gether to produce the ammoniac. The laft fub- ftance combines with the oxyd of tin, and forms the precipitate we have juft mentioned. This explanation is fupported by the follow- ing RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 1 ing experiments : — the ammoniac is withdrawn from this precipitate by the action of heat and the admixture of lime. The diffolution of tin in the muriatic acid, even when impregnated" with the oxygenated muriatic acid, does not then afford any precipitate ; but this is formed the moment that a little ammoniac is poured in. The muriatic diiTolution of tin, to w'hich is add- ed the oxygenated muriatic of potalli, preferves it without being fubjeft to tyirn thick, even when it is cxpofed to heat. It is highly important in the art of dying to be able to keep the diffolution of tin without its cither getting foul, or the oxyd of tin fettling at the bottom, by means of precipitation. It has been propofed that it fliould be prepared with the muriatic acid alone, and that the dyer Ihould impregnate it with the oxygenated muriatic acid daring each operation ; but, inftead of this enr- barraffing impregnation., which is attended with great uncertainty in refped; to the proportions, citizen Berthollet propofcs to add ,a determi- nate quantity of the oxygenated muriatic of potafh, by means of w^hich, tin highly oxy dated, ceafes tqfolicit the decpmpqution of watpr, and confequentl)- the formj.tion of aminoniac ; fo that the diliblution .is yhus preferved in an uni- form date. 5 MEMOIRS V, He announces, that feveral other metallic pre- cipitates are allb indebted for their diftindlive properties, to the ammoniac which has formed itfelf, and remains in combination with them. In the feffion of the 21 ft Fruftidor, citizen Shuikoufki informed his colleagues, that he had obferved a buft of Ifis on the banks of the Nile, near Feraneh, and two ftones inferibed with hieroglyphics in a garden of the fame village ; he requefted that they might be tranfported to * Cairo, and placed within -the buildings occupied by the Inftitute. Citizen Say read a note containing the refult of a comparative experiment with wood, reed, and the ftalk of the carthamus ( cartliamus thic- iorhiSy Lin.) for the purpofe of heating ovens. This note aifo exhibited the adx^antages and dif~ advantages of each of thefe three cumbuftibles, as well in relped: to the duration, as to the de- gree of heat produced by the confiimption of a determinate quantity. The committee for perfefting the grinding of corn, informed the aflembiy that the arrival of feveral mechanics attached to the commiffion of arts, would facilitate the coriftrudiion of a wind- mill. Citizen Geoffory read a memoir on the vring of the HELATIYE TO EGYPT, 9 the oftrlch, and citizen Beauchamp was nomi- nated a member of the Infhitute in the feillon of Natural Hlftory. On the 20th Frutftidor, citizen Say, in the name of a committee, prefented a report relative to the moil: advantageous fpecies of fuel for the ovens of the army, and alfo on the means of lef- fening its confumption. It refults from this, that the ftalks of the carthamus, reeds, and the ftraw of Indian corn, can furnifh a fufficlent quantity of cumbuftlbles for the ovens, and that too at a lefs price than in Frauce ; the difference may be eftimated at 20 per cent. The conftruc- tion of the ovens, care in the manner of heating them, and the rapid fuccelhon of batches, will dimlnilli the quantum required ; in addition to thefe means, new ovens may be built, in v/hich the current of air fhall be more rapid than in thofc now in ufe. Citizen Bonaparte laid on the table a copy of the Mete'orolo 2 ;ical Rerifter for the 7th jear he at the fame time invited the Inltitute to take the neceffary mcafiires for drawing up an almanack. The citizens Beauchamp, Monge, Nouct, and D. Raphael, were intrufted with the completion of it. This triple calendar is to comprehend the divifion of time, according to the 1.0 MEMOIRS the different modes adopted by the French^ the Cophts^ and the Muffulmen. Citizen Fourier read a memorial on the ge- neral refolutlon of algebraical equations* Citizen Parfevai recited a tranflation of a frag- ment of the feventeenth canto of Taffo. The citizen Defgenettes addreffed the affem- bly relative to the falubrity of Egypt ; he began by enumerating the divifions of the year^ ac- cording to Profper Alpinus. That phyfician diftingui flies four feafons occurring at different periods from thofe in Europe : the fprlng, which is compofed of the months of January and Februar}' ; the fummer^ which continues fix months, and is divided into two diftlndl portions, of which March, April, and May, conffitute the one, and June, July, and Auguft, the other. The autumn, confifts of September and Oftober; the wdnter, of November and December. Citizen Defgenettes briefly enumerated the maladies peculiar to each of thefe feafons ; he remarked that the army, during the laft fummer, had in general experienced only three difcafes, the ophthalmy, the diarrhoea, and the dyfentery, relative to which he delivered a number of ob- fervations which he means to publifli. He affigns . as the predominant caufc of thefe maia- dics, RELATIVE TO EGA^PT, n dies, efpecially the two laft, the frequent changes of the atmofphere ; he has accordingly invariably diredled towards this point, the advice given by him in the various orders of the day. Repeated obfervations have in fadl demonftrated that in nearly all difeafes, there is a general tendency to carry the humour which conftitutes trail fpi- ration from within towards the furface ; that is to fay, from the inteftines to the fkin. This remark Ihews with how much circumfpecHon all violent or draftic purgatives ought to be avoided, and the advantages refulting from the employment of the minor athes, when evacuation^ becomes neceflary. The ancients have longfmce recommended flight purgatives, whenever there was any danger of diminidilng the tranfpiration^ and Saiidlorius hath fince demonftrated by his ftatical experiments, that the admhniftration of thefe means, fcarcely produces fenfible evacua- tions. It has alfo been remarked, that mercurial preparations taken internally, and external fric- tions, even when methodically adminiftered, far from producing falutary effedls, have often proved greatly detrimental, in the treatment of venereal maladies, fo that it became neceflary to recur to fudorifics for a cure. . Citizen Defgencttcs afterwards alluded to the ' prefent MEMOIRS prefent medical epoch of the year, the paffage froiri fummer to autumn, being that which is the moft critical in Europe ; but he thinks, that it may not perhaps prove equally deleterious in this climatC;^ as the autumn is very fhort, and already announ- ces itfelf as little elfe than a continuation of fum- mer. The maladies to be dreaded in autumn, are fevers, efpecially intermittent ones ; and the latter, which are rather dangerous, are generally fuppofed to be indebted for their exiftence, to the neighbourhood of marfhes ; but the rapid manner in which the Nile retreats, and that, by means of which the earth is all of a fudden cover- ed with an abundant vegetation, ought to render iis eafy in regard to this particular : the foil we Inhabit has no affinity whatever to a marfli. The phyficlan whofe difeourfe we here analyze, concluded by a reference to that redoubtable ma- lady, which already excites the foiicitude of go- vernment, and announced, that notwlthftand- ing his repeated enquiries, he was as yet unable to obtain a fatlsfa<51ory history of it. He has how-r ever perceived, that in this country they gener- ally confound all pcftilentlal fevers which are ex- ceedingly various, and form a genus of themfelves, with the plague properly lb called, which is a very cireuiii'*^ RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 13 Gifcumfcribed fpecles. Future obfervations, muft decide this queftioii. During the feffion of the firft complimentary day, of the year 0, (September if, l/QS) Ci- tizen Beauchamp prefented an abridged calen- dar capable of being inftantly printed for the ufe of the army. This contains both the old and new divifion of time. Citizen Berthollet enumerated the modes prac- tifed at prefent in Egypt for the manufacture of indigo ; they are extremely fimple but imperfect. It will however be eafy, by means of a few changes to improve the fabrication of this impor- tant production. Citizen Fourier read the defeription of a ma- chine, worked entirely by the wind, and capable of being employed for watering the ground. The wheel expofed to the action of this element is horizontal ; all the other parts are ftationary, and the falls fo placed, that they always turn round in the fame manner, whatever may be the direction of the current of air. The members did not affemble, on the firft Vendemuiire, 7th year^ (September 22d, l/QB) on account of the celebration of the feftival in honor of the anniverfary of tlie foundation of the Republic. On' If Memoirs On the Gth, citizen Pouffielgue prefcnted a printed work by citizen Corancez^ the title of v/hich was, A fiiinmary of a new method^ for reducing the principal theorems of geometry^ to a fimple analytical procefs.” The Inftitute gave orders, that this work fliould be depofited in its library. Citizen Norry read a memoir on Pompey’s co- lumn. In confequence of this paper, citizen Dolomieu delivered his opinion relative to the epoch of its ereftion, w^hich according to him, ought to be referred to the age, that follows the reign of Conftantine. The capital and pedeftai, exhibit the marks of decay, vifible in the architefliure of thofe times ; but the fhaft muft appertain to an anterior epoch, when this art flouriflied in all its purity. Citizen Savigny read a memoir relative to a new fpecies of nympiiaa. Citizen Dutertre prefented a paper on the eftablifhment of a public fchool for drawing. His propofition was referred to the examination of a committee, compofed of the citizens Denon, Defgenettes, Norry, Redoute, Rigo, and Sueju Citizen Coftaz read a memoir, in which he explained the variations of the colour of the fea. Citizen Parfeval recited a tranflation in verfe, of RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 15 a fragment of the feventeenth canto of Je-^ rufalem 'Delivered. On the 4th VeJidematre, the Preiident made an offer in the name of General of Brigade Beliard, of twenty mummies of birds, preferved in pots«^ of free-ftone, fealed up. The examination was referred to a corn- mittee compofed of the citizens Bonaparte, Def» genettes, Dolomieu, Dutertre, Geoffroy, and Sucy. Citizen Porte, a Frenchman fettled at Cairo before the arrival of the army, and who has been occupied ever fince, about the cultivation and manufafture of indigo, prefented a fpecimen of the produce. A committee compofed of the ci- tizens Berthollet, Coftaz, and Defcotels, was no- minated to deliver in a report upon this fubjedl. A member of the Inftitute read a memoir on the ophthalmy,^ drawn up by Citizen Larrey. The Citizen Beauchamp delivered a narrative of his voyage from Conftantinople to Trebifbnd. It is well known that Bonne affigns a very dif- ferent pofition to the Cafpian Sea, from that w^hich we find in Danville’s maps. He, indeed, preferves the well-known fituation of Aftracan ; but by giving to the Black Sea a confiderable extent from caft to weft, he brings forward the A difsafe of the eves. Cafpian, 15 memoirs Cafplan, and withdraws a remarkable portion of Afia towards the eaft. Citizen Beauchamp having already determined the longitude of Ilpa- han, thus dlfcovered the error of Bonne, but it became ftill ncceffary to give an exact admea- fiircment of the length of the Black Sea, by afcertaining the fituation of Trebifond, in refpedk to the meridian of Pera ; this has alfo been ac* complifhed by Citizen Beauchamp, on the re- commendation of th'e board of longitude, and the queftion is now fully decided. The differ- ence of longitude between Paris and Trebifond, is not 43^, as Bonne maintains, but 37^ 18^ S" ; which fubtrahfs more than 80 leagues from the length of the Black Sea. This determination was obtained by the application of the ma- rine time-kecpcr, the diftanC^es of the fun and moon, and the eclipfes of the fatellites of Jupi- ter. The author of the memoir has annexed an account of the difficulties experienced by him, in repairing by fea to Trebifond, which is no longer remarkable at prefent, than in confequence of our rccollefting that it was onCe the abode of the Greek emperors, Citizen Delillc read a mem.oir on the palm- tree that produces the fruit called donwiy (or dGum,^ After the enumeration of the charadlers common RELATIVE TO EGY^T. common to the different genera of palm-trees, the author gave a minute defcription of the berry of the domm, and made it appear evident that this is precifely the fame as vs^hat Theophraftus has denominated aijiofera. It is not a little remark- able, that Bauhin, Pococke the traveller, and Linnasus himfelf, who have mentioned the palm-tree of the Thebaid, have not recolledled that the domm is the cufi of Theophraftus, al- though a figure of it be found in Diofcorides* It is the more important not to negledt thefe ap- proximations, as it may be eafily fuppofed that certain plants have experienced confiderable changes, during an interval of feveral centuries ; and we have here an opportunity to remark with what care the ancients defcribed plants truly worthy of notice, or in other words, fuch as were ufefuL Citizen Dolomieu infilled, in a memoir, on the neceffity of combining with the ftudy of an- cient geography, a feries of geological obferva- tions on the conftitution of the foil, and the changes which may have been produced by time : he applied thefe remarks to the fite, of the an- cient Alexandria, and he fixes it in the interval that feparates two portions of a fueceffipn of little hills, the 7ieucleiis of which, is compofed C of IS MEMOIRS of a fandy calcareous ftone. Citizen Dolomietf attributes the alterations obferved by him, to the encroachment of the fea, and the decay pro- duced by it ; to a progreffive increafe of foll^ carried thither by the waves, added to the immenfe quantities of rubbifli, which have ac- cumulated there ; fo that it is now difficult to dif- tinguiffi the mins which appertain to- the differ- ent epochs. He further obfciwes, that the fea appears to have altered its level, and to have ob- tained an elevation of nearly two feet, lince the time of the Ptolomcys : he propofes to make an attempt to develope this fubjedi: in a future me- moir. Citizen Norry, in the name of a committee, read a report on the eftablifhment of a fchool of defign : this report was approved of by the In- ftitute, and is to be prefented to the commander in chief. Citizen Parfev^l continued the recital of a poetical tranllation of a fragment of the feven;- teenth canto of Taffo. On the lOth Ve7tde7nah‘e {OdiQhtx 7th) the general of divifion Berthier, chief of the general- ibaff of the army of Egypt, tranfmitted to the Inftitute a plan of Egypt, according to its new divllions,- A letter RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 10 A letter was read from citizen Dubois, profef- Tor of the fchool of medicine at Paris, In which he obferved that a violent malady rendered him incapable of remaining any longer in Egypt, and thus deprived him of the fatisfadlion of partici* pating in the labours of the Inftitute. The le» cretary was inftruiled to notify to citizen Du* bois, in the name of all the members of the Inftitute j the regret occafioned by this fepara* tion. Citizen Nouet read a memorial, containing the refult of the obfervations made by him at Alexandria, with the view of determining the geographical pofition of that city, and alfo the direiftion of the magnetic needle. Citizen Dolomieu ftated to the Inftitute, the precautions and difeernment, which appeared to him neceftliry, in refped: to the choice, the pre- fervatlon, and the removal of ancient monu- ments. A commxittec, was in confequence of this, appointed to collecl all the objedts of anti- quity w^hich could be procured, diftlnguifliing fuch as local intereft might render w^orthy of fe- ieftion, from thofe that could not be removed without inconvenience. The committee was compofed of the citizens Caftarelli, Defgenettes, Dolomieu, Dutertre, Norry and Sucy. C 2 A memoir 20 MEMOIRS A memoir communicated by citizen Nectoujt was read, in which he expofed the peculiar facb lity with which an eftablifhment confecratcd to agriculture, might be formed in Egypt. A com- mittee was appointed to examine into this fub- jecS ; it -was at the fame time inftrufted, to make the neceffary dlfpofitions for the melioration of the different fpecies of produce, and to endeavour in particular, that this country fhould enjoy the advantages refulting from the multiplication of the cochineal. Citizens Berthollet, Coftaz, De- lille, Defgenettes, Gloutler, and Tallien, were the commiffioners nominated on this occafion. On the 2ift Fende?naire, citizen Nouet, in the name of a committee, prefented an almanack exhibiting the divifions of time, in conformity to the ufage of the French, the Cophts, and the Turks. Citizen Defgenettes, in the name of citi- zen Frank, phyfician in ordinary to the army, prefented the two firft volumes of a work writ- ten in Italian, and entitled : BibJioteca fnedtea Browriiana, publkata da Buigi Franks Firenze, 17Q7.” Citizen Defgenettes feized this occafion, to prefent a fjccincd expofition of the fundamen- tal principles of Brown. While analyfing his dodlrine, of which he difeovered evident traces in RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 2l ^ in the early periods of dogmatical medicine, he proved himfelf equally averfe to the excef- five enthufiafm of its feftarifts, and the no lefs exaggerated declamations of its adverfaries. On the whole, citizen Defgenettes took pleafure in praifing the philofophical and extend ve views of Brown, relative to the fimplification of the materia medica, as well as the ufe of feveral ener» getical remedies, among which is opium. The work in queftion is to be depofited in the library of the Inftitute. Citizen Le Pere prefented a copy of the plan of Alexandria,' on a reduced fcale : this plan which is in the ratio of a thoufandth part of the various dimenfions therein fpecified, was efFefted after uncommon labour, by the engineers of the department of roads and bridges, united to the officers of general engineers, and thofe dedicated to geography. The aftronomers of the Inftitute, alfo concurred in this work, having connected the principal points by means of a feries of tri- angles, and determined the latitude and longi- tude of the minaret of the caftle where the light- houfe is fituated. An exaft account of the foundings of the road and two ports, is continued at Alexandria ; the progrefs of the alluvions and the ftate and force C 3 of 22 MEMOIRS of the winds, are alfo attended to. By a corapa- rifon of the refults, a certain chara<5ter of utility and precifion will be given to all our plans for a maritime pftablifhment. Proper perfons are alfo bufied about the de- feription of the fubterraneous canals, which re- ceive the waters of the Khalydje ; an hydraulic plan of the city of the Arabs, will be thus ob- tained ; the number of cifterns that have been preferved, may be eftimated at 300 , and a few years fince, they furnilhed a fufficient fupply of water for eighteen months. Citizen Beauchamp invoked the attention of the Inftitute to fevcral objedls, tending either to augment the advantages refulting from the pof- feffion of Egypt, to contribute to the progrefs of the fciences, or to become ufeful by application to the purpofes of life. He at the fame time annexed a feries of queftions, and propofed to appoint different committees either to examine into, or folve them. The Inftitute, after dif- cuffing the fubjed:, nominated the following : J A committee, charged with collecting the moft exad information as to the means of culti- vating the vine in this country. It is alfo to point out fuch fpots as are beft adapted for that purpofci The citizens Delille, Dolomieu, Geoft RELATIVE TO EGYPT. :23 froy^ Gioutler, and Savigny, were the comrnif» farles felefted on the occafion. 2^. The aqueduft that conveys the waters of the Nile as far as the citadel, has experienced a confiderable deterioration ; the advantage ufually derived from it has fuffered an interruption, and hitherto, the labours of more than one hundred and fifty oxen, fmiiifh but an inconfiderable iup-» ply : it has been therefore propofed to offer a prize to the perfon, who ihall prefent the beft and mod: ecoi^omical plan, for furniflilng the citadel with water. A committee, compofed of the citizens Caffarelli, Coftaz, Fourier, Le Perc, Norry, and Say, fliall be employed to draw up tht programmaj. 3^. A committee of the citizens Deliile, Geof- frey, Gloutier, Le Perc, Malus, and Norry, is to examine if the immenfe mafs of ruins that feems to form a circle around Cairo, can be coii“ verted to any ufeful purpofe. 4^. Citizen Bonaparte having recapitulated the advantages refulting from an obfervatory, and pointed out the means of accelerating fuch an eftabllfhment, it is propofed that the citizens Norry and Calfarelli be added to the aftronomers of the Inftitute, in^order to fix on a proper fta- tlon. The report to be deli vexed at the next meeting. C 4 5^. As 24 MEMOIRS 5®. As the megyas or nilometer, may give rife to interefting enquiries relative to the two- fold obje6l of ancient geography and public ufage : it is therefore refolved that a committee be inftrudled to prefent an exa6l defeription of this monument ; to detail the hiftorical fadls which it has given rife tO;, and to point out the changes ' it has experienced, diftinguifhing thofe which arife from the elevation of the bed of the river ; it h to examine at the fame time, whether machines that are capable of being moved by the current of the ftream can be ftationed there to advantage. The citizens Coftaz, Dolomieu, Dutertre, Le Pere, Norry, and Tallien, are to compofe the committee. It is propofed, as fooii as pofhble, to com- mence an uninterrupted feries of thermometri- cal and hygrometrical obfervations, and alfo, to make experiments on the flow movements and ofcillations of the magnetic needle. The citizens Coflaz, Beauchamp, and Nouet, are to invefti- gate this fubjecl. 7°. Tv>^o committees, the one confifting of the citizens Defgenettes, Dolomieu, and Say ; the other, of the citizens Defcotils, Malus, and Savigny, are appointed to fuperintend the dig- ging of wells; in various parts of the neighbouring defert^ RELA.TIVE TO EGYPT. 25 defert^ and alfo to examine the nature of the wa- ter, and all the fubordinate circumftances. S'", In the neighbourhood of the aqueduft there is a confiderable number of columns, which feem to have been formerly deftined to decorate fome public edifice : the citizens Denon, Norry, and Rigel, are to examine thefe columns in con- cert, and make a report on this fubjedl. On the 2Cth, citizen Norry delivered in a report in the name of the committee, charged to examine whether it were poffible to derive any advantage from the ruins heaped up in a con- fufed manner, around the city. He propofed to remove and employ a part in the public works ; the fiimmits of thefe piles will thus be flattened, and lefs difficulty will be experienced in refpedl to cultivation. It is likely that wells may be dug, the waters of which can be elevated to the neceffary heighth, by means of machines of a fimple conftruclion : this fpecies of hills will then enjoy the very rare advantage, in a country like this, reffilting from the varieties, of expofitlon. Citizen Dolomieu obferved on this fubjedl, that the numiber of thefe heaps augments in a eonfiderable degree, daily, and he remarked that it would be defirable that the committee fhould point QVLt the means of preventing fach an accu- mnlatlon. 2G MEMOIRS rnulation. Thefe obfervations Vvxre referred to feveral members, who are invited to make a new report on this fubjedi. A commltte having been felefted to examine the indigo prefented to the Inftitute by ci- tizen Porte, citizen Defeotils read a report on the fubjeft. He defcribed the prpcefs employed at St. Domin 2 :o for the manufa<9:ure of this valuable commodity, and compared it with -that at prefent in ufe throughout Egypt. In both methcds they agitate the liquor which con- tains the blue colouring matter with paddles r this fubftance, combining with oxygen, becomes infoluble, and the indigo precipitates. But the principal dIfFerence conhfts in this, that here they bruife the plant after having macerated it for an hour in >\xter, at the temperature of about fe- venty degrees, while in St. Domingo, the pro- cefs of fermentation is allovved to commence. It refults from the iirfi: mode that the foft parts of the plant mingle with the indigo, in confe- quence of which the colour is altered ; and It appears on the other hand, that the fermentation deftroys the extract of the plant, which remain- ing in combinatipn with the colouring matter, oppofes the complete oxygenation. The committee was convinced that the Egyp- tian RELATIVE TQ EGYPT.' tian procefs^ which no traveller hath hitherto 36 MEMOIRS mittee^ compofed of the citizens Coftaz and Fou- rier. Citizen Savigny read a diiTertatlon on the na- tural hiftory of the country : he enumerated the various fpecies of animals hitherto obferved by him in the Lower Egypt, more particularly the different kinds of infecls. He at the fame time pointed out fome of the caufes which may have contributed to reduce the varietj/ of the fpecies in this country. Citizen Norry, in a letter tranfmitted from Alexandria, ftated the motives which, by prevent- ing him from making a longer ftay in Egypt, thus deprived him of the fatisfaction of partici- pating in the labours of the Inftitute. In confe- quence of the obfervations of a member, it was refolved, that the fedtion of the Fine Arts fhould prepare a lift of candidates by the 11th Frimaire, for the purpofe of fupplying his place. Citizen Sucy read forne remarks on the caufes of the regular incrcafe of the Nile, and infiftcd on the utility of confulting fuch of the inha- bitants of the neighbouring countries as were then in Cairo, relative to the fource of that river. He alfo moved that the committee ap- pointed to take this fubjedl into its confidera- tion might at the fame time colledl every pof- fible RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 37 fible article of information relative to the upper waters of the Nile, and the hiftory, both natural and civil, of Abyffinia and Nubia. This propo- rtion was adopted, and the citizens Beauchamp, Coflaz, Dolomieu, Geoffroy, and Sucy, were fckded to compofe the committee. I) 3 EXTRACT 38 MEMOIRS EXTRACT OF A REPORT Delivered to the htflitute, relative to the Manun failure of the Saltpetre and Gunpowder of the Country. By Citizen Andreossy. At Cairo, the 11th Fruftidor, 6th Year of the French Republic. S ULPHUR, charcoal and faltpetre, are, as every body knows, the materials made ufe of for the compofition of gunpowder. Egypt does not produce any fulphur ; it is ufually car- ried hither from Venice and Triefte ; it might be brought diredly from Sicily, in which cafe it would be cheaper The produftion of which they make charcoal is felf-fown in the country ; this is the lupin^ a plant that bears a fmall bitter fruit, w^hich might be employed in the manufafture of beer. The ftalk of the lupin is converted into a very foft charcoal, which leaves a dlftinft mark when applied to paper. Thls^charcoal is burnt in trenches, and the fpace of three hours is fufficient for that purpofe. After pounding it, it is paffed fix or feveri times through a fieve, on purpofe to / obtain RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 39 obtain the finer particles alone. This cumbuf- tible may be employed in large quantities, with- out augmenting the confumption of wood proper for fuel. Saltpetre appears to be an indigenous produc- tion of Egypt ; the infrequency of rain, a cbn- tinual heat, the moift air of the night, a foft and light foil ; all thefe concur in its formation, It is faid that the earth containing faltpetre is found in veins, which are worked in fome places in the neighbourhood of Cairo ; thefe veins are very produbtivc during three or four months, and at the end of that period, they are abandoned for an equal fpace of time, during which the ground being expofed to the Influence of the climate, becomes once more prolific. The procefs employed here in the manufac- ture of faltpetre, is exadlly the fame with that pradlifed in Europe. One circumflance, how- ever, renders this mode not only very fimple but alfo unexpenfive. The faltpetre is fotmd in this country already formed in the earth, while in France they are ufaally obliged to obtain nitre with an earthy bafis by means of a ley, which is afterwards converted into faltpetre by the ad- mixture of potaflr, an expenfive and foreign pro- dud:ipn. P 4 S? It petr MEMOIRS AO Saltpetre is manufa<5lured on the road from New to Old Cairo, behind thofe little eminences ot rubbifh, produced by the avarice and carelefs- nefs of the Mamelukes : this eftablifhment does not prefent any thing remarkable. Boxes made of boards ferve as vats, and they are placed in the open air. A trench formed on the furface of the earth, conducts the water impregnated with faltpetre into a refervoir under a hut, while a large cop- per caldron with a furnace beneath, is fixed by its fide. The combuftibles employed on this occafion are the ftalks of Indian corn, as well as a plant that appears to be a fpecies of grafs, which grows in arid lands ; this plant docs not produce fu much heat as the ftalks of Indian corn. The faltpetre obtained by the firft boiling. Is pretty good. It is purified by a fecond and third operation, during which a mucilage of w hites of eggs is employed. The gunpowftet is fabricated by means of manual labour; it is compofed of eight parts of faltpetre, two of fulphiiy and twm, of charcoal. Thefe three materials are, thrown into mortars cut in ftone, and rounded at the bottom ; the diameter at top is one foot, and the depth is alfo I?.ELATIVE TO EGYPT. 41 alfo one foot. In a parallel direftion, and at a little diftan^e from thefe^ is a ftone bench;, on which the workmen fit. They are naked from head to foot;, except a few rags/ which are twift- ed round the middle. Every mortar contains fifteen pound of compofition : this is pounded for feven hours, by means of a peftle formed of an extremely hard Vv^ood that is brought from Syria. The w^orkmen accompany the defeent of the peftles with a ftrdng afpiration, wdiich enables them to adl in concert, and ferves to produce uniformity in the operation. They labour with thefe peftles, which vreigh 9,2Q4 grammes^ during four hours, they then reft for two, refume their w^ork for three more, and gain by this employ» ment about from twenty to tvv enty-ftve a day. A very fmall quantity of water is thrown into the mortars, to render the compofition humid, and facilitate the mixture and comipreffion of the materials. When taken out of thefe, it is palled through hair fieves, like thofc employed for corn, the interfticcs of vrhich have more or lels width, in proportion to the finer or coarfer powder that may be wanted. The commodity is then grained, by preffing it againft a grating with 42 MEMOIRS with the hand, taking care to communicate a circular motion to it at the fame time. The gunpowder manufadlured at Cairo ap- pears to be good ; the materials of which it is compofed are excellent in point of quality ; and according to recent enquiries, it appears that fe- ven hours is a longer portion of time than is re- quired for grinding it ; by regulating it according to the ftandard of France, which is acknowledg- ed to bethebeft, the ftrength may be augment- ed, and the confumption of falphur, the foie material that is imported, greatly diminiihed. Gunpowder is not fo dear at prefent in Cairo as it was in France, anterior to the revolution. Egypt exports yearly to Leghorn, and Mar- fellles, fifteen hundred qanthars ^ of faltpetre, of the third boiling, which is fold at Cairo, at from nine to nine dollars and a half each. About two thoufand qantjiar of gunpowder, are manufactur- ed every year at Cairo ; from fifty to fixty qajitliar v/ere formerly coafumed in efcorting the cara- v^ans ; the remainder was either exported to Sy- ria, and Cyprus, or fold to the Arabs. The qanthar (gontkar, or ganthar) is the quintal of the country ; it weighs about 91 pounds avoirdupois, and is rlivided into a hundred rothl. The rothl amounts to 14- ounces, 4 qr. 27 grains. (J. J. M.) The RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 43 The Mameintes do not poflefs any large ma- gazines. Each Bey collcds in his dwelling forne qanthars of gunpovyder, two or three pieces of canon, and a few chefts of arms, in propor- tion as he poffciTcs Mamelukes, and horfes pror per for mounting them : the union of all thefe conftitutes the v/hole military force of Egypt. Mourad'Bey was the only one who w^as accuftom- ed to keep any quantity of gunpowder. After the death of Ifmail-Bey, he found about a thoufand qafithar of ammunition among the fpoils, and within the fpace of the laft feven years, he has purchafed from five to fix hundred more. The fabrication of gunpowder w^as confided to the induftry of a fev/ foreigners, who had fettled in Egypt. It has already been feen, that the confumption of the government, added to the exportation, amounted to a mere trifle ; thus the produdl w^as of courfe inconfiderable ; nothing is more eafy however than to encreafe it. Egypt pofTeffes two eiTential materials, the charcoal and the faltpetre, the latter of which is in fome meafure already prepared ; fulphur can be brought at proper opportunities from Sicily by the way of Malta ; the eftablifhment may thus be eafily augmented, and the workmanfnlp fim- plified, Egypt can furnifli gunpowder to our French 44 memoirs French iilands in the Mediterranean, to the ar- fenals of our Italian and Spanifli armies, and might even export to Marfeilles, and the ports of Languedoc, and Rouffillon, a large quantity of faltpetre, "which would circulate throughout the fouthern departments of France, and alfo in the mterlor. Higher Egypt poffefles fome manufa<5fories of faltpetre and gunpowder, the particulars of which, wc have not as yet been able to learn. N. B. We have entered into a few of the de- tails relative to the fabrication of gunpowder, the objed: of wRich was entirely foreign to the fragram7na, merely for the purpofe of painting the barbarous phyfiognomy of the arts, among a people who have attained the laft ftage of degeneracy, DESCRIPTION OF THE ROUTE FROM CAIRO TO SSALEHHYEH. Cairo, 16th Fru£lidor, 6tb year. Egypt has always fixed the attention of the lite- rarv world, more than any other portion of Africa. A multitude of travellers have accordingly repaired thither to fcek for the veftiges of its ancient fplen- dor, but a wretched, and barbarous people, have conflantly oppofed their refearches. It w^as im- poffible RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 45 poffible for the antiquary to rummage the bofoni of the earth; the naturallfts were afraid to wan- der along the fields ; the geographer did not dare to make ufe of his inftruments : thus the prying eye of the European could merely fkim along the banks of the Nile, and beyond its fliores we knew little or nothing. But the conquefi: of Egypt prefeiits a new field for letters. All our notions relative to that in- terefting country will be fucceffively aggrandized; that fpirit of inveftigation with which we arc at prefent ele&ified will be fatlsfied, and wc fliall be at length able to point out the road that leads to the perfedtion of divers branches of the fciences. But that which will be firft enriched by our labours is geography. To conquer, is in other words, to march over, and become ac- quainted with a country. The French had fcarcely carried the terror of their arms into new climates, when they haftened to render even the preparations for viftory ufeful, that they might thus do homage to the arts. The rapfid fi^etch of the various pofitions of a country, and their connexion with military movements, will henceforth ferve to direft the progrefs of the merchant, and, perhaps, to extend the induftry of the farmer. They 46 MEMOItlS . The route followed by the three divisions of the army in purfuit of Ibrahim-Bey, was un- known until our time. Since the period of the croifades^ no European had traverfed thofe provinces. Neither Fococke in his numerous journies ; nor Niebuhr^ who difplayed fo much conftancy in his refearches; nor Norden^ who defcribed Egypt with uncommon minutenefs, dared to penetrate them. The defcription of this extent of territory^ being then abfolutely new, it has of courfe fome preteniions to the curiofity of the public. One leaves Cairo by the gate of Naffr (^Bah-en- najjr^y the gate of vihlory). The defert is the firft ^ The gate TEn-nafk (or of victory) is one of the en- trances of Cairo, and looks towards the ealf. It was ori- ginally lituated at fome dilharce from the place where it now Hands, according to the Maqryzy ; but when the Emyr EI- Tjyonch Bcdred-dyn El- Djemaly quitted the city of Acre# to become vizi# of Egypt, under the Khalyfat of Al-Mof- tanlTer Billah, in the year 4G5 of the hegira (1072 of the vulgar aera), he built the waUs of Cairo, and changed the Ipot which the general Djaucher had aligned to this gate# in. order to transfei’ it to its prefent polition, and it is now nearer to the MoJ)Liy FA-Pyd. Ele added to it a kind of cevv’ered way, ( Bac hour ah) part of which iliil remained when the HHer of El-Ttaiier BarqOuq caufed a clHern to bd relative to egy^t. 47 firft objed: which attrafts the eye ; its parched limits encircle the v/alls of the city, after having invaded part of the fuburbs. Groupes of de^ ferted houfes are to be feen in the midft of this whitened plain. The moft confiderable of thefe places is called Qouhheh, (El-Qoubbet El-a^ addyeh, the dome or cupola of juftice It is a mofque furrounded by regular edifices, built with ftone, and having galleries before them. At a league from Qoubbeh you fall in with the vil^ lage be.dtig there, which is at prefent deflroyedj and a road fub* ilituted in its place.” Above the gate of En-naJJr is to be feen the following infcription in koufic cliarafters : La lllah illcth allaL om Mohhammed rccoul ullah^ ALyotuly ullah^ Jfclouat ullah A lay hounia (there is no god bat God; Mohhammed is the apoille of God, and AJiy the friend of God ; may the di» vine grace protect them!)” See La DefcriptionGeog. PoliL &c. de TEgypte, par le Maqryzy, article des portes du Caire, pages 212 et 213 da numero 682. M.S. Arab, de !a Bibi. Nat. (L— s. j ^ Ei Qoubbet Ela’-a’adelyeh, does not fignify the dome. or cupola of jufiee., but merely the cupola (the mofque j A’delyenne, that is to fay, founded by El-melek Ei-a’adel Aboubekr Ebii Eyoub, brother of the famous Saladin (Sfaiahhed dyn), and known in the hiilory of the Croifades by the naiiie of Saphadin. This prince, who was at firfl lultan 48 memoirs / lage oi El- Mathary eh . The obeliiTc perceived there, points out the rains of the ancient Helio- polis. A fearch has juft been commenced^ which may lead to the difcovcry of more iriterefc- ingobjefts. The village of El-Mardje, which lies at the back of this^’ is perceived at a great dlftance on account of the groi^^ by which it is fiirrounded. Several thoufand palm trees, plant- ed In the manner of a quincunx, fhade the ruined huts. This routes which Is that followed by the ca- ravans, in their journey to Syria, aftonifnes the European on account of the fantaftical appear^ ances it exhibits : it feems to form the boundary betwxen Egypt and the defert. The fands are ahways on your right, the cultivated lands conftantly on your left ; the human eye fuitan of Krak, and Daraafcus, afcended the throne of Egypt, after having difplaced tvlanfour, his grand nephew. He died Augull 1, iLUS of the vulgar sera, at the age of feventy-three years ; he had reigned eighteen. , See the Univerfal Hifloiy of Gregory Aboulf-iradje, in Arabic and Syriac. (L s.) * El-Matharyeh iignifes rain, or frefli water. This place is in fa£l the only one, within a confiderable diftance, v>d:ere a fpring is to be foimd. It vvas formerly famous on ac- count of the balm produced there ; it is iho. .o' inchems^ or fountain of the fun of the acients The French commonly write it la Muthane. (E s } 13 RELATIVE TO EGYPTc 49 is bewildered in the extent of the firft ; it gladljr repofes on the other. The more you advance, the more Egypt is covered with woods: the villages are fcarcely diftinguifliable amidft the enormous maffes of date trees. Large fyca- mores are not uncommon, and almoft every where we meet with vaft inclofures of acacia and citron trees. But it is neceffary to prevent all illufion while depidling thefe groves ; neither verdure, nor flowers, nor rivulets embellifh their neighbourhood. Trees> which are accompanied by fo rnany charms in Europe, here infert their roots in an argilaceous foil, yawning with fif- fures, and every where evincing the afpedl of the moft hideous poverty. If the eye Ihould whh to fix itfelf on one fide^ on a more adlive vegetation, a little refledlion deftroys the momentary impreflion, for the out - line of the defert is at the fame time beheld making an incurfion on the cultivated land. The hillocks deflitute of cupolas exhibit only abandoned habitations, and at every flep we meet with the traces of agriculture, nearly ef- faced by the fand, while we fearch in vain for a fmall portion of the arid border that has been reftored to hufbandry. From the village of Ehmardje may bedilHn- E guilhed 5«5 MEMOIRS guiflied tlie fpot called El-khanqah, whnch is con- lidered as one of the moft important places in the country. Between thefe two villages is a tufted grove ; it occupies the fummit of an afcent, that inclines gently towards the defert, and termi- nates at the famous lake Berket-el-hhadje (the lake of pilgrims). At prefent it is nothing more than a parched mafs, furrounded by feveral rows of trees. The hamlet which 1 have juft defcribed, appears to correfpond with that which formerly con- tained the Pelufiac branch ; this was the moft eafterly channel of the Nile ; it advanced to- wards the defert, and has probably difappeared ill coiifequence of the overwhelming whirlwinds. The v/ater formerly conveyed by it is no longer vlfible, while at a fliort diftance in its rear, canals ftill exift in the place of thofe which dowTd to- wards the mouth of the Mendezian channel. The frequent paffage of caravans was affuredly the caufe of the increafe of El-Khanqah. What ftiii exifts of this village, three parts of which are converted into ruins, indicates a remnant of its former opulence, and alfo of the care wdth which it had been confiTudted : it is the firft place in Egypt where I have feen a ftreet laid out in a ftraight line. After RELATIVE TO EGYPTa 51 A' ter paffing El-Khanqah we meet with a fuc« celRon of villages, which prefent nothing re- markable ; and at the end of feven hours arrive at Belbeys, the only town to be met with in this route. Belbeys, which is believed to be the an- cient Bubaftum, only contains mined houfes, and miferable inhabitants ; it fcarcely occupies one third of its former dimenfions, as may be eafily perceived from the traces of the ramparts, which yet exift. Six centuries fince, this place was the only bulwark of Egypt againft Syria. In 1 1 04 it oppofed a vigorous refiftance to the attacks of Amurath, king of Jerufalem, and contained wealth fufiicient to occupy his army during three whole days with its pillage. This event, which appears to have been com- mon enough, was perhaps the principal caufe of the ruin of the Latins in Paleftlne. Until then, the valour of our knights was fupported by the aufterity of their manners, and a fpotlefs probity : they were refpefted by their numerous enemies, who even appeared jealous to imitate them. But Amurath, by invading Egypt in oppofition to the faith of treaties (in llOS), and withdrawing in confequence of the receipt of certain films of money, deftroyed the illufion produced by the valour of the Franks. The Turks were not E 2 alliamed I^IEMOIRS o2 afliamcd to add perfidy to the immcnfe fupe- riority of their forces ; and the feeblenefs of the Ghriftlan adventurers increafing by corruption, rendered them unable to retard their fall. On leaving Belbeys the country appears more fertile than ordinary ; the villages fucceed with- out interruption, and conned: themfelves to- gether by means of orchards. The fountains and infulated cupolas alfo become more frequent. But thefe fcenes are difpelled the moment we pafs Sforiah : all the cultivated lands difappcar towards the left fide ; and it is neceflarj to tra- verfe three leagues of defert, as far as Qorayn, unlefs a confiderable circuit be preferred. The place called Qof^ayn ( Qorain ^ is a pretty large wood, which contains from eight to ten houfes, with their gardens. It enjoys confider- able reputation in this country, on account of its caftlc; but certainly no European ^^dll be willing to attach the idea of a ftrong hold, to a colledion of houfes furrounded by an earthen wall, through which he enters by a gate, deftltute even of iaitenings ; but in this country, defences like tJiefe are fufficient to convert any enclofure into an ixiexpugnablc afylum, the violation of wBlch Vviil never be attempted by men on horfeback, armed with nothing better than lances. From relative to EGYPT. 5 3 From Qorayn, fix leagues ftill remain before you arrive at Sfalehhyeh. During one half of the journey the road leads along the fide of fomc villages, but they are foon left at a diftance, as it is nccelfary to pafs through an uncultivated wafte, that continues until you arrive at the place of your deftination. Sfalehhyeh, although it does not poffefs that pleafmg appearance which the tufted gardens of Qorayn produce, is however far more extenfive : a wood, above two leagues in length, enclofes about ten villages, as well as a fine mofque built entirely of ftone. The Arabs call all thefe infu” lated woods, ifles, ( djezyret J, an exprelfion that conveys an allufion to the uncultivated lands that furround them, and which prevent as few re- fources as the waters which encircle an inhabited land. The name Sfalehhyeh is derived from that of MeJek-Sfalehh'^' , the famous fultan whom our ^ It is necelTary tq write and pronounce it SjclaJiIi, and not Sfalehh. The whole of the name is Sjelahh ed-dynyou- confebn eyoub ebn cJiady. The word cl-mclck is a title that hgnihes king. I think it proper to remark here, that the fi/.y'does not appear to me to be neceflarv in the word Sfa- lehehyeh, which ought to be written Sfalehehyeh, without the alif. (L — s.) E 3 authors 54 MEMOIRS authors term Saladin ; it was he who firft fixed the attention of Egypt on thofe diftant villages. Experience had convinced this warlike prince of the infufficiency of the ramparts of Belbeys ; . he alfo perceived the danger that menaced Da- mietta (Damyath)y if the Chriftians happened to attack it^ and he did not wifh that the ex-^ iftence of his empire fliould be fhaken by a fingle fiege. To poflefs a ftrong place on the enemy’s flank while afeending the branch of Damafeus, and to flop the progrefs of an army coming from Syria, was the objedt propofed by Saladin, in conftrudling a fortrefs at Sfalehhyeh, which is abfolutely the lafl; boundary of the cultivated lands of Egypt. At the end of thefe woods commences the ifthnius of Soues ( Souys ), and it is then necefifary to traverfe fifty leagues before any inhabited fpot is to be met with. During the whole of this fpace the traveller meets with nothing but a barren foil, and falls in with only feven wells, which afford but a fcanty fupply of brackifli water. It was in vain we endeayoured to difeover the veftiges of the fortrefs of Melek-SfaJehh : even the traditioti of its fite has been forgotten. After having thus prefented a general idea of the places which it is neceffary to trayerfe during the RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 55 the fpace of twenty-five leagues, it may be pro- per to take a rapid furvey of the foil and th^ in- habitants. The preponderant cajl in thefe countries, with- out being the moft numerous, is that of the Be- douyns. Their camps are ftretched at fome dlf- tance from the villages of Egypt, for t. ey always give a preference to the foil where they reign — > the fands of the defert. Thefe Arabs appear to me to be more opulent than thofe which I have formerly feen along the banks of the Nile. It is true indeed, that a thoufand refources are here prefented to their induftry : fometimes they traf- fic with the produce of their herds, at others, they either extort a ranfom from, or efcort the caravans. Many of them cultivate the earth, and all of them poflefs a peculiar tafte for the branch which is the moft lucrative of all their revenues : that of pillaging every thing without the pale of their tribe. Their cabins appear to be different from thofe low tents, wdiere the Arabs of Da- manhour fquat themfelves down ; the walls of their habitations confift of matts compofed of rufhes ; and the tent, which is always fpacious, only covers the middle of it. Within prevails a kind of abundance, which is ahvays however relative : milk, rice, barley,. E 4 are 56 MEMOIRS are not uncommon ; the utenfils are numerous^, and not unfrequently bales of valuable goods taken from travellers are buried beneath. This degree of plenty has an influence on their- manners. Although well provided with every thing except fire-arms, which are difficult to be procured, yet they but feldom engage with their enemies. They treat with the Mamelukes, and fpare the inhabitants, never recurring to violence, unlefs perfidy fhould prove unfuccefsful, and at- taching no fhame to a precipitate flight from danger. Accordingly, on our arrival, one of our horfemen drove feveral of them before him — this cow^ardice furprifed us greatly, as it formed an exad; contraft with the courage of the Be- douyns in the neighbourhood of the branch of Rofetta (Rachyd), whom we had feen approach under the very muzzles of our mufliets, in fearch of an uncertain booty. The Fellah inhabiting the Charqueh, appears " to me to be lefs wretched than him who lives on the borders of the Nile: there are fhades even in mifery. The culture of the foil of itfelf demon- ftrates, that all the produce is not wholly abforbed by the proprietor who refides at Cairo. Until then, during the courfe of our journey, we had feen nothing but immenfe fields, full of large crevices. RELATIVE TO ECTPT. ^revices, which being "equally deftitute of fur- rows and enclofures, appear to have been tilled by an uninterefted hand;, and to be watered once a year by the encreafe of the Nile alone. Here it is otherwife ; every foot of earth exhibits the toil of the peafant ; the wells are kept in order ; trenches prepared with great exadlnefs, condudl the canal along the fields, while an immenfe niimbcr of beds, furrounded by a ledge, preferve the moifture on the fields that have been already watered. Other obfervations mav be added to thefe refpecSing the cultivation of the lands, and I might quote the immenfe quantity of date trees, each of w^hich has its net, thofe fpacious orchards, thofe villages lurimindcd by a fquare wall, if they be near the defert ; in fine, that lively folicitude painted on the countenances of the inhabitants at our approach, far different from the apathy which ever accompanies extreme indigence, and which we had remarked in other places, during the courfe of our journey. But to w^t are we to attribute this meliora- tion in the lot of the peafant ? Is it the con- fumption occafioned by the caravans ? And is this the only commerce ? I do not prefume that -tp be the cafe, and I am rather inclined to afcribe the 58 MEMOIRS the caufe to the diftance of their oppreffors. The Mamelukes levy their exadions with fecurity in fuch places as are fituated on the borders of navigable canals ; for their waters bearing away Viith rapidity the fruits of their fpoliations, all fatigue on the part of the emiffaries of the go- vernment is thus fpared. But here, in order to traverfe twenty leagues of ground, more expenfive preparations muft be recurred to, and a larger body of fatelites employed : a few men are not fufRcient to domineer over a crowd of villages, fituated in a narrow fpace, and thofe Arabian camps replete with combatants. To form an eftablifhment with a numerous retinue, it would be neeeffary to leave Cairo ; and to mul- tiply the number of their forces, by means of conftant adivity, would not comport with the indolence of the Mamelukes. The Beys, w^ho are proprietors of the Charqyeh, being forced to choofe between a lefs abundant, but certain re- venue, and the hope of a larger one, accompanied by danger and fatigue, prefer repofe. Their principal wants originate in luxury and enjoy- ment ; and thus the inhabitants of the borders of this defert find a refuge agalnfi: tyranny in the vices of their mailers. P. S. I lliall HELATIYE TO EGYPT, 59 P. S. I fliall affix to the bottom of this de- fcription an approximation of the refpeftive dlf- tances, and al fo of the population of the places already mentioned ; this will ferye to fix the ideas which may be formed relative to thefe countries, until more exadl obfervatlons fliall have rectified mine. EbQoubbeh, a deferted village, at half a league from Cairo. El-Math ary eh, five hundred inhabitants ; fitu- ated one league from El-Qoubbeh. El-Mardje, eight hundred inhabitants; it is a league and a half from El-Matharyeh. El-Khanqah, one thoufand inhabitants.; it is a league and a half from El-Mardje. El-Menyeh, two hamlets, at tw^o leagues and a half from El-Khanqah, with about one thou- fand inhabitants. Belbeys, eight hundred heads of families. This in the Eaft, on account of the number of women, may be eftimated at fix perfons to each family ; thus amounting to nearly five thou- fand inhabitants. This town is five leagues from El-Menyeh. Sfouat, eight hundred inhabitants ; four miles from Belbevs. Qopavii, 6o ' MEMOIRS Qorayn, three leagues from Sfouat ; confining of from eight to ten hamlets, which contain about four thoufand inhabitants. Sfalehhyeh, fix leagues from Qorayn ; fifteen hamlets, and about fix thoufand inhabitants. There are feveral other intermediate places, but we traverfed them with fuch rapidity, that it was impoffible to make any remarks. CIRCULAR ESt-ATIVE TO EGYPT. 6i CIRCULAR LETTER, From Citizen Desgenettes, Fo the medical Men of the Army of the Fafi^ rela-^ five to a Plan for drawing up a Phyjico -Medical Topography of Egypt, Head Quarters at Cairo, 25th Thermidor, 6th Year of the French Republic. T he army, citlzens-colleagues, after a fiege, feveral battles, many fkirmiOies, and the moft diftreffing marches acrofs the deferts, be- gins, for the firft time, to enjoy fome moments of repofe, fince its arrival in Egypt. Its prodi- gious adlivity hath hitherto Rifled the germ of thofe difeafes, which are now likely to make their appearance, and concerning the treatment of which, it is proper for us to make the neceflary proviflon. The prefent feafon, like all others, hath ma- ladies peculiar to itfelf : diarrhoeas and the dy- fentery are thofe we have moft to dread ; and the ophthalmy, which is endemic in Egypt, begins , to aflbciate itfelf with thefc, in an alarming man- ner. 62 MEMOIRS her. This laft difeafe is fometimes fimple, and idiophatic ; it is then to be confidered as apper- taining to the clafs of ordinary and local inflam- mations;, and is to be treated in the fame man- ner. At other times it is concomitant with, or fymptomatic of diarrhoeas, and dyfenteries, and it is mofl: likely to follow the fnppreffion of thofe evacuations, which it becomes neceflTary to re- call by minoratives. Perhaps, alfo, in fome circumftances, the oph- thalmy is to be viewed as a crifls of diarrhoea and dyfentery. In other refpedls, the oetiology of the feveral kinds of ophthalmies is Ample, and may be explained by this axiom, in the theory of fluxes : wherever a point of irritation exiflis, there the humours conftantly flow. In addrefling myfelf to you, citizens-colleagues, relative to our commoil duties, and the means of rendering ourfelves as ufeful as poflible to the army, I cannot be too earneft in recommending the perufal of Propfer Alplnus ( de medkina JEgyptiorum). That eftimable w'ork points out to each of us the propriety of undertaking a very commendable tafk ; this confifts in making ex- tracts, in the coiirfe of which, fctting aflde a ver- bofe didtion, and exploded theories, that portion only fliould be preferved, which appertains to adlual RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 63 aftual obfervation, and the grand practical de-* du(3;ions to be drawn from it, Thofe extrafts might become, as it were, the text of a com- mentary, in which we could infert fuch intereft- ing fafts as might happen to occur in the courfe of our daily pradlice. The fame author hath written another excel- lent work [Rerum M^gyptlarum, Uhrl IV, J, which contains a variety of interefting details relative to the natural and civil hiftory of Egypt, as well as ^ the manners, arts, and whatever elfe is likely to become the obje encreafes in the ratio of the fmus of the former, and the encreafe of the angle itfelf, is lefs than that of the angle of the incidental ray. Thus, in proportion as the angle of incidence augments, the angle formed by the broken ray augments alfo, but always by little and little ; fo, that when the angle of incidence hath arrived at its largeft dimenfions, that is to fay, when it is within an infinitely fmall f[:)ace of the angle which the broken ray makes with the perpendi- cular, is Icfs than : this is a maximum, or, in other words, no ray of light can pafs from the firft RELATIVE TO EGYPT. fO firft medium into a fecond^ under a greater angle. When the ray of light paffes on the contrary^ from a denfer medium into one lefs fo, it exadlly follows the fame line as in the firft cafe, but in a contrary diredlion ; that is to fay, if in the denfe medium it has the fame diredion as the broken ray in the fiu'ft cafe, it divides at the furface, and afiumes the diredion which has been alfo fol- lowed by the incidental ray. In confequence of this it may be inferred that ■on the paflage from a more to a lefs denfe me» dium : 1^, If the ray of light be comprehended be- tween the perpendicular and the diredion of the diverging ray which conftitutes the maximum angle ; this ray will projed into the lefs denfe medium. 2^. If the ray of light pofieftes the fame direc- tion as the diverging ray, the angle of which is the maximum, it will again iflue forth, by making an angle of with the perpendicular, or by re- maining in the plane, which ferves as a tangent to the furface. But If the angle which the ray of light forms with the perpendicular, be greater than the maximum of the angle of refradion, or what amounts to the fame, if the ray be com- preficd so MEMOIRS preiTed between the furface and the diverging ray, the angle of which is the inaxinium, it will not leave the deiife medium ; it v/ill refiedt itfelf to the furface, and re-enter the fame medium, by making the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence, tliefe two angles being in the fame plane, perpendicular to the furface. It is on this lafl: propofition that the explanation of the mirage is principally founded. The tranfpareiicy of the atmofphere, that is to fay, the faculty which it poffeffes of allowing the rays of light to pafs through wdth rapidity, does not permit it to acquire a very high degree of tcm.pcrature by its direct expofition to the fim alone ; but wdien, after having traverfed the mofphere, the light becoming extinguifiied by an arid foil, that ferves only in a very fmall degree as a condiidior, hath confidetably warmed the furface of this earth ; it is then that the inferior firatum of the atmofphere, by its contadl with the heated furface of the foil, contradls a very high degree of temperature. T\m Jlratum dilates itfelf ; its fpecific v/eight dimiiiiilies ; and in confequence of the laws of hydroftatics, it elevates itfelf, until by becoming cool, it hath recovered a denfity equal to that of the farrounding element. It is then fucceeded kELATlVE TO EGYPT. Si by the Jiratum immediately above it> through which it pafles^ and the other foon experiences a fimilar operation. Thence is produced a conti- nual efhux of rarified air, always elevating itfelf through a denfer medium, that in its turn expe^ riences a depreffion ; and this efflux is rendered fienfible by the^/?ri^, which alter and agitate the images of fixed objedls that Are fituated beyond them. In our European climates, we are acquainted with produced by the fame caufe ; but they are not fo numerous, and do not poffefs fuch an afcenfional rapidity as in the defert, where the altitude of the fun is greater, and the aridity of the foil, by depriving it of evaporation, does not permit any other employment of the caloric. Thus towards the middle of the day, and dur^ ing the greateft degrees of heat, the jiratum of the atmofphere, in contafl: with the foil, is of an evidently lefs degree of denfity than the Jirata immediately above it. The brilliancy of the fky proceeds merely from the rays of the fun being refledled in every direc- tion by the tranfparent fnolecul^oi the atmofphere. Such of the rays of light as are tranfmitted by the more elevated part of the fky, and which deicend to the earth after making a confiderable angle / G • with B2 MEMOIRS with the horizon, take a new direclion on enter- ing the inferior dilated Jlraium, and encounter the element on which we live, by means of a much fmaller angle. But thofe that proceed from the lower parts of the fky, and form fmall angles with the horizon, when they reach the fiirface which feparates the inferior and dilated Jlratum of the atmofphere, from the more denfe ftratum above, are unable 'to leave the latter ; in conformity, therefore, to the principle of optics already alluded to, they rededl themfelvcs in an afeending direc- tion, by making an angle of refledlion equal to the ande of incidence, as if the furface which feparates the two Jirata, conftituted a mirror ; and they then reprefent to the eye placed in the denfe Jiratum, the Inverted image of the lower parts of the fliy, which appear as if below the real horizon. Jn this cafe, if ypu were not advertlfed of your error, as the reprefentation of that part of the heavens perceived by means of refledtion, is al- mofi; of the dime brilliancy as that feen diredtiy, you would imagine that the fS^y w^as greatly pro- longed, and far nighcr than it really is. If this phenomenon were to occur at fea, it w ould alter the altitude of the fun, take n by an inftrument, and augment it in the ratio ol the quantity 83 RELA^TITE TO EGYPT. quantity of the apparent limit of the horizon de ^ prcfled. But if fome tcrreftrial objefts, fuch as viB iages, trees, or little hills^ give .you notice that the limits of the horizon are more diftant and that the ity is not really fo near, (as the furface oi the water is not ufually vifible under a fmall angle, but by the image of the fky which it re-’ flcdls,) you will perceive the reprefentation of the iky, and imagine that you behold a fuperficies of rededling Vv^ater. The villages and trees that are at a projaer dif- tance, by intercepting a portion of the rays of light tranfmitted by the lower regions of the heavens, occafion fo many voids in the image of the iky, produced by reiledlion. Theie voids are wholly occupied by the inverted images of the fame objedls, becaufe fuch of the rays of light as are tranfmitted by them, and which form angles w ith the horizon, equal to thofe conffituted by the intercepted rays, are refiedled back in the fame manner as thofe would have been. But as the reflefting furface w^hich feparates the two Jirata of air, of different denfities^j is neither per- feftly level, nor perfedUy motloiilefs ; the lafl: images wdll, of coilrfe, appear badly defined, and agitated towards the edges, like thofe produced G 2 by 84 ^ MEM'OIRS by the fkrfacc of water w^hich may have con^ trafted flight undulations. It is eaflly to be difeovered why this pheno- menon cannot take place when the horizon is terminated by an elevated chain of mountains ; ibr thofe moiintams' intercept all the rays of light tranfmitted by the lower parts of the Iky, and only allow tdiofe to pafs above them which form lufliciently large angles with the dilated furface^ to prevent the refleftioii from taking place. In an uniform ftatC;, that is to f^y, by fuppofmg that the denfity and thieknefs of the dilated Jira- turn are conftant;, and the temperature of the fu- perior Jiraitmi invariable, the greateft pofTibk angle under which the rays of light could be thus reflefted, would be determined with preclfion : for the largenefs of this angle depends entirely on the immediate connexion between the fmus of the angles’ of incidence and refledilon for the two media. But of all the rays reflefted, thofe which form the greateft angle with the horizon, appear to Iffue from the neareft point to that where the phenomenon commences. In am uniform ftate then, the point at whlch- the phenomenon commences is always at a certain, diftance from the obferver : accordingly, if he fliQuld happen to advance, the fpot at which :8S RELATIVE TO EGYPT. ’the inundation feems to begin, appears to advance alfo in the fame diredtion, and with the fame celerity. If the line of march fhould, therefore, ^be diredled towards a village, which appears to be fitucited in the midft of the inundation, the limits of the inundation will feem to recede in- fenfiblj from this village, and are foon after fecn to ftretch beyond it. When the fun is near the horizon at his rihng, the earth cannot have been fufficiently warmed ; and at his fetting, it has become too cold for the nhenomenon ,of the mirage. It then appears to be extremely difhcult to perceive botli a diredl :and refledted image of the fun, on account of the elevated temperature of the inferlory/V:-a//i'/;/ :Of the atmofphcre. But during the fecond -quar*’ ter of the moon, that planet rlfcs in the after- noon, a time when circiimftances are more fa- vourable to the mirage^ If it then happens that the brilliancy of the fun, and the clearnefs of the atmofphcre, fliould permit the moon to be dlf- cerned at her lifmg, two images of that planet will be obferved, one above the other, in the fame vertical line. This phenomenon is known by -the name of parafdene. The tranfparency of the fca allovv^s the rays of the fun to penetrate to a confidcrable depth ; its G 3 furface MEMOIRS 86 furfacc from its expofition does not, however;, become near fo warm as an arid foil in the fame circumftances ; it cannot communicate, there- fore, to the ftratum of air that repofes upon it fo elevated a temperature ; and on this account, the mirage is not fo common at fta as in the defert. But the elevation of the temiperature is not the foie caufe, which under a conftant preffure, may dilate the inferior ftratum of the atmofphere. Iii fa 61 , the air poffeffes the faculty of diirolving wa- ter, fo far, even, as to attain the point of fatura- tion without lofing its tranfparency ; and Sauifare hath proved that the fpecific weight of the air decreafes in proportion to the quantity of water kept in diffolution. When, therefore, any wind at fea is not impregnated with water, the inferior Jiratum of the atmofphere, which is in contadl with the furface of the ocean, dlffolves water anew, and thus becomes dilated. This caufe, added to the flight augmentation of the temper- ature may, however, produce a ftate of things fa- vourable to the mirage y which mariners, indeed, frequently obfcrve. This laft caufe, or in other words, the dilatation of the inferior Jiratum of the atmofphere, occa- fioned by the diffblution of a large quantity of water, may take place every moment of the day? RELATIVE .TO EGYPT. .87 day, as well when the fun is near the* horizon, as when he approaches the meridian. It is poffi- ble that parhelion might then be produced, a phe- nomenon in confequence of which, either at the rifing or fettiiig of the fun, one beholds two images of that luminous body above the apparent horizon at the fame time. But I never had oc- cafion to obferve this latter phenomenon, which is very unfrequent, or to remark the circum- ftances that accompany it. I therefore propofe this latter explanation with a certain degree of refervc, and merely with an intent of furnifliing the means of making ufcful obfervations. Additiojv. Since reading the above memoir, I have had fre- quent opportunities of obferving the Mirage at land; this has occurred in various feafons, as well as under different circumftanees; and the refult, even including the mdnuteft details, has always been in conformity to the explanation already given by me. Of all thefe obfervations, there is one only, the relation of which may prove ufeful here, I was along with General Bonaparte in the valley of Suez, when he difeovered the canal that formerly united the Bed Sea with the Medi- terranean. This valley, which is fome leagues in G 4 length, ks MEMOIRS length, is bounded on the eaft by that chain of mountains that extends from Syria to Mount Sinai ; and on the weft, by the mountains of Egypt. Thefe mountains are in general fuf- ficiently elevated to exclude the rays of light tranfmitted by the inferior parts of the fky, and fiich of the rays as are not thus intercepted, reach the earth under too large an angle to be reflefted by the inferior dilated Jtraium of the atmofphere. Thus in the hotteft part ot the day one does not perceive the refledled furface ot any portion of the ftcy, nor is the appearance of an inundatiori any where to be feen. Notwithftanding this, the efFecl of the Mirage is not entirely loft ; the vifible objedls placed ge- nerally on an afcent, wdiofe pofition correfponds, with the inferior parts of the ftcy, the image of Which refiedts itfelf, participates in the effedl, although in a lefs ftriking manner, on account of their fmall extent, and alfo with lefs force, be- caufe the colour is far more obfcure than that of the fky. Independently of the reprefentation produced by the direft rays of light, the rays ^vhlch have emanated from thefe objefts, and are direfted towards the earth, become refledt- cd by the inferior Jiratum of the air, in the fame manner as the ftays proceeding from the inferior RELATIVE TO EGYPT. inferior parts of the atmofphere, of which they occupy the place: thus producing a fecond image of thefe objeds inverted, and placed vertically above the former. This duplication of images produces optical ih- iufions, againil which it is proper to be on our guard in a dcfert that may be occupied by an ene» my, while no one is at hand to give information relative to fuch alarming appearances. I fhall take advantage of this opportunity to mention another optical phenomenon, which is not fufficiently interefting to be made the fubje(fl of a particular memoir. During our return from Egypt, when w"e ap» preached the European climates, one morning a few minutes after fun-rife, the iky was clear towards the cafl: ; it rained at the fame time in a weftern direction, and we beheld two ordinaiy rainbows ; the one, interior, produced by a fingle refleflion of the rays of light within the fpace where the rain fell ; the other, exterior, occa- fioned by two reflections. At this moment both the fea and the atmofphere were perfectly calm, and the furface of the water, w^hicli was very fmooth, reflected the image of the fun in. a very difcernlble manner. This refleCted image alfo gave rife to twm other rainbows. The two firfl: mem QO MEMOIRS? mentioned, which were produced by direcl and dcfcending rays, formed fegments lefs than half the circumfprence ; the two others, occaiioncd by the reflefted and afcending rays, on the con- trary, prefented fegments greater than 180 ^. Of thefe four fimultaneous rainbows, the analogous ones had the fame bafis, and diverged like two -fegments of the fame circumference of a circle, which had reverted on their common chord. This phenomenon is only remarkable on ac- count of the circumftances which gave rife to it; and it is fufiicient to have mentioned it here^. * The Arabs call this phenomenon al-heldhat'i\\Q plural pf al~be‘idah, the light, the fpkndor. (L— s.} OBSER- RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 91 OBSERVATIONS On the Whig of the Ofrkh; By Citizen Geoffroy, ^ f^EIE Oftrich, Na ameli^ in Arabic, inhabits the deferts of Africa : it is common alfo in the mountains fituated to the fouth-weft of Alex- andria. This is a bird known in very ancient times, and which has given rife to many attempts at the marvellous, by attributing to it the faculty of drgefting iron, and of hatching its eggs by- placing them in the fand. Its gigantic height, and aflonifhing conforma- tion, have more juftly attradled the attention of naturalifcs. They have been ftruck in an efpe- cial manner with a certain analogy between it and the camel : the oftrich, like him, repofes his cumbrous mafs on certain bare and callous fub- ftances ; it is the foie of all the numerous tribe of birds wRich poffeffes but twm toes to each foot ; and this frefii mark of refemblance wdth the camel, is one of the moft fingular fa 61 s relative to its conformation. But MEMOIRS But the oftrich appears to appertain to qua- drupeds, by other and no lefs important affinities: the male poffeiTes the virile member, and the female has a clitoris, parts Vvffiich are wanting in nearly all other birds ; it never leaves the earth ; like the quadrupeds, it is condemned, as it were, to traverfe the furface with difficulty ; and it is undoubtedly a very remarkable thing to fee affociated along with the inhabitants of the air, thofe nimble beings, for which motion appears to be abfoiutely neceffary, both as a want and as a pleafure — a clumfy, heavy animal, precifely deprived of the principal prerogatives which dif- tinguifh and charafterife its kind. But it is ftill more furprifing, that thefe dero- gations from a general law do not proceed from either the modification or degradation of a fingle member ; if the oftrich does not afeend like other birds, this is not the fault of one or two, or even of three qualities, in the organs of flight, but becaufe it is completely deprived of all the inftruments deftined for this cxerci fc. Between the vifible external parts of the wing, and the internal organs which appertain to it, there ■exifts, in faff, a ftriking relation, wdfich has hi- therto cfcaped the notice of the curious, as the diftedlions made by them have been undertaken merebr Q3 RELATIVE TO' EOTRT. Merely with the view of obtaining a knowledge of the vifcera of the ofirich. The anterior extremities of this fpecies, feeni to induce me to believe^ that nature hath, in fome meafure, propofed to create a birder in which the organs of flight fhould be altered and modi- fied to that degree, fo as to be nearly entirely ef- faced ; and as the figure' of this animal is in part eonftruSed after that of quadrupeds, with this dlfterence, that a certain number of organs, and particularly the legs, are appropriated to flight, one is led to think, that in the fonnation of the oftrlch nature hath falien into a manifeft contra- didlion. Let us not be ea2:er however to blame fo ftrange an anomaly ; we ought firfl to learn how fhe has deviated from her ordinary road, and. what are the means fhe has recurred to upon this occafion. In order that the dlfcufiiGn of this qneftldn may be more eafily undertaken, and that the difference between the anterior extremities of the ofirich and thofe of birds in general, may be more readily tin- derftood, I fliail here prefent a defeription of thefe organs in quadrupeds ; L fiiall afterwards examine them in refpeft to birds, and finally deferibe them in the oftrich. The organs of running, or of flight, both in a- qua- 04 ' MEMOIRS quadruped and a bird, are cumpofed of three principal parts : the arms or wings, the mufcles W'hich put thefe in motion, and the bone to w^hich the mufcles are attached. In men and monkies^ who fcarcely ever make ufe of their anterior ex- tremities, but for the purpofe of taking hold of fomething, and in quadrupeds, who ufe them for the purpofe of motion, the points of fixation are incapable of affording any other than a middling, while the mufcles pofifefs but a fmall degree of ftrength and thicknefs : accordingly the Jlermim is cartilaginous in this family, and the pedloral mufclc fmall, Neverthelefs, fo far as the efforts of the anterior extremities of thefe ani- mals are concerned, the mufcular fibres, and their appendages, are more than liifficient for that purpofe. It is, not, however, the fame in refjsecf to birds, deflined to ftim through a very thin and light element, and with whom the anterior extremi- ties perform the office of oars ; now, in order that thefe oars may be enabled to agitate a greater mafs of air, they ftand in need of a greater degree of cxtciifion ; thence proceeds the very great lena,th of the anterior extremities of birds. So long a lever, intended to aS: on a light fluid like the atrnofphere, requires, in its turn, a great mov- RELATIVE TO EGYPT. Q5 iiig force, and the pedoral mufcle is accordingly exceedingly thick and ample. Moreover, it be- comes neceffary that the Jier7mni fhould be en- abled to receive a mufcle of fo large a lize, in a proportionate receptacle, and alfo to furnifli it with very ftrong appendages : the Jlermim of birds is, therefore, fo broad as to cover three parts of the belly. It is alfo entirely ofli- fied, and towards the middle there is a con- fiderable rifmg which traverfes it in a ftraight line, and is known by the name of the hrechet, or brillcet. The mufcle fills up the fifliire wTich thiS/ projeftion forms on the ^ffcnium, w^hile its hinder parts are attached in a folid manner to the hrechet. A bone, with ivhich there is no analogy among quadrupeds, is called by the French the fork, and by the Englifh, the merry-thought ; it is in form of a V, and is placed before the Jterjmm ; the ufe of it is to prevent the wings when lowered, from approaching one another and thus compreiling the bread:. In fliort, that nothing relative to the mechan- ifin of flight may be omitted, I fhall here point out the chief diftcrence between the fyftem of refplration in birds and quadrupeds. The lungs, inftead of being freely fufpended in a bag, as in quadrupeds. MEMontS quadrupeds, are adherent to the fides In birds, without any particular envelope, being pierced with holes, each of which opens either into a pouch or veficle ; the whole of the abdomen is full of thefe veficles, which, by being inflated, confiderably augment the volume of the bird, and thus render it fpecifically lighter. If we proceed to the examination of the pecu- liarities prefented by the oftrich, we fliall obferve : 1^. That its anterior extremities arc far more fliort, in proportion, tharl in other birds. (Th ere is another fpecies which, as well as the oftrich, never forfakes the earth : this is the caffi- owary, in which this fore-fhortening is fo very confiderable, that no veftige of a w ing appears on the outfide. The form is not, however, entirely ftippreflcd, for the various parts are found below the fkin). 2^^. The fternum of the oftrich is extremely fmall ; it forms nearly the fixth part of the length of the trunk ; it is deftitute of the hrichet^ and is always found completely offtfied, and even pretty thick : this great degree of folidity is employed to fupport one of the tVvO callofities on which the animal fiipports itfelf when in a ftate of repofe. The fccoiid callofity is inferted at the os puhis^ which, on this account, is prolonged confiderably efore. relative to rgypt. 97 3^. The pedoral mufcle is ftili fmaller than the fternum ; it fcarcely covers the third part of It : the middle of the fternum is filled with fat, which forms a cufhion, as it were, for the ante- rior callofity* 4^. The aif-veficles, or portions of the lungs> are confiderably reduced both in refped: to num- ber and capacity. 5®. It will be readily perceived that the oftricb. 'Hands in no need of what is commonly called the mer ry -thought i or that bone in form of a V, which is deftined to prevent the wings from clofing during violent movements. Neverthelefs, this bone exifts ; but being divided towards the lower part, it is ufelefs ; each of its arms is joined by means of its anterior extremity with the bone, which is compofed of the clavicule and the omo- plate, or flioulder-blade. Although ufelefs in the prefent cafe, thofe ru- diments of the merry-thotight have not been fup- prefied, becaufe nature never proceeds by rapid ftrides, and always leaves the veftiges of an organ, even when it is fuperfluous, provided this organ has adled an important part in the other fpecies of the fame family. Thus the veftiges of the wing of thecaffiowaryare to be found beneath the fkin that covers the fides ; thus, alfo, at the internal angle H QS MEMOIRS of the human eye, there is a fwelling of the flcin which we recognize as the rudiments of the nidiant membrane, with which many quadrupeds and birds are provided. 6^. I fliall not add any thing to what is already written relative to the plumage of the oftrich ; it has been judicioufly obferved, that all the feathers are of the fame kind ; that their beards or fila- ments confifl: of detached threads, without either reciprocal confiftence or adhefion,. and that the quills which compofe the wing, far from being able, like thofe of other birds, to aft in concert for the purpofe of agitating the air, confift of longer and more flender filaments than the others. The plumage of this bird is the objefl of a con- fiderable traffic, and when tranfported into Eu- rope, is employed fill diftinguifliing the grada- tions of military rank, and adorning the heads of females. I fhall not enumerate any more of the obferva- tions which the wing of the oftriqh might give rife to : the narrow limits of this paper render it incumbent on my part to come to a fpeedy con- clufion ; and in addition to this, I deem what I have already fald fufficient to demonflrate the two facts intended to be efl-abliflied : iT That if the oftrich be reduced, in refpefk to RELATIVE TO EGYPT. Q9 to motion^ to the condition of quadrupeds, the caufe is not to be attributed folely to the fhort- hefs of the wings, 'and the Hate of the plumage, but to all the organs, either employed direftly or indirectly in flight, which are modified together, and as if it were in concert, fo as to deprive it of the moft charming prerogative appertaining to birds. And, 2^. That whatever modifications the organs of flight may have undergone, thefe are not lb important but that the bird is ftill recognizable, by certain indications of the general plan confe- fccrated to this family. H2 OBSERVA- TOO MEMOIRS OBSERVATIONS On the Arabian Horjes of the Defert. \ HE horfes of the Arabian race have been. at all times, diftinguiflied on account of their excellent qualities, and admirable figures. They are generally efteemed throughout Afia ; but there are certain tribes in the defert, in poifeflion of the fineft breed : thefe are the Arabs who live on the banks of the Euphrates, and the Tigris, between Bagdad and Buflbrah. The Cheykhs take great care to preferve thefe races uncon- taminated, and without alteration. The horfes are divided into two clalTes ; the nobles, and the plebeians : the latter are crofled in a variety of different manners, and form the moft numerous fpecies ; but it is not intended to mention any other than the firft. And here it will be neceflary to make an obfervation on a fingular cuftom, which appears in fufficient con- formity with experience ; it is, that the genea- logy of the Arabian horfes is tranfmitted by fe- males alone : the nobility of the male is only in- dividual. The Arabs are accuftomed to fay, fuch a marc RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 101 marc is the produce of fuch another mare and they are at great pains to prevent the breed from being adulterated. When the mares are in heat, they take care they fhall be covered by ftallions v^hofe defcent is well known ; and when they are fent to grafs, they are carefully tethered. No fooner is a foal produced than the chiefs atteft the fadl, by means of a patent drav/n up in due form, and figned by feveral witnefles. That of the male, as we have already obferved, does not pafs to his defcendants ; but that of the female makes mention of all her maternal progenitors. This certificate always ac- companies the fale. There are four diftinguifhed races of the Ara- bian horfes in the neighbourhood of Bagdad, the names of which I have forgotten. There is fome difference in their form, which, of courfe, does not efcape the notice of the jockies : as for them, they have no manner of occafion to perufe pa- tents, in order to difcover either if a mare be noble, or from what fleed fhe comes. The Arabs ^vean their colts after having fucked fifty or fixty days. When produced in towns, or when the proprietor is not defirous to rear them himfelf, the females are fent among the inhabi- tants of the defert. The ufual mode of bargain- H 3 ing 102 MEMOIRS ing on this occafion is, in their language, to give one foot of the mare, and fometimes two, or in other words, they pay to the perfon who has had charge of her, a quarter, or even one half of the value, according to an eftimate made by expe- rienced judges. The Arabs carry on a great trade in horfes ; they fell them at two or three years old, and for the moft part keep the mares, from which they derive confiderable profit. It is alfo pretended that they prefer thefe, becaufe they do not neigh, ' which would difcover them during their nod:ur- na! expeditions. The princes never mount any , other ; the Turks, on the contrary, make ufe of ftone- horfes alone. The traffic in horfes i^ not confined to ftrangers : they carry on a ipecies among themf^lves which is fmgular enough, for they fell the fuUpye 'produce, without entirely alienating the pofleffion. In confequcnce of this bargain the whole appertains to the purchafer, except the firft filly, which re- verts to the feller, but the former has ftill a cer- tain claim on this firft mare, as has alfo the feller on her firft filly, fo that thefe petenfions are con- tinued forages. The Arabs begin to place the faddle on the colt at the age of fifteen or fixteen months ; and it RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 1 03 it is never taken off after this, even during the flight. The ftirrups, conftmdied in form of an oblong fquare, ?tre about a foot in extent, and a little convex ; they never hang lower than the belly, which prevents the animals from lying on one fide. They foon alter experience another conftraint, being obliged to fubmit to a fnaffle, which is fixed pretty near the pommel of the faddle, to accullom them to hold their heads in almoft a perpendicular direction ; they are then left in this fituation, during the whole of the day. It is alfb, perhaps, for the fam.e reafon that the manger is conftrudled both high and deep. The Arabian horfe is neither accuftomed to hay, nor ufed to the manner in which it is diftri- bated in Europe ; his food confifts of from five to fix pounds averdupois of barley, which is given at fun-fet. This cuftom renders him patient and indefatigable during the wEole of the day. While kept under cover, he is permitted to amufe himfelf wdth a little cut barley ftrawv It follows from what I have firfl: fiiid, that an Arabian horfeman, carrying fixty pounds of barley behind him, can traverfe the deferts during the H 4 fpew:e 104 MEMOmS fpace of ten days. A few dates, and fome pound§ of wheaten meal, which he converts into bread conftitute his foie food : thefe are carried by him in either a leathern or wooden box. Another -of thefe, paffing under his belly, and attached to the two fklrts of the faddle, fatisfies the third; of both man and horfe. The Arabs, before they are two years old, be- gin by making their children mount their horfes : they are perfedily well acquainted with them, as they are all brought up together under the fame tent. They give them but two paces : the walk, and the gallop. They alfo cut the mane and lhave the tail, that thefe may become more bufhy. The faddle neceffarily leans forward, on ac*- count of the pofition of the horfeman, whofe ftirrups are very fhort ; they differ greatly, in this particular, from the Mamelukes of Cairo, and but little from our own light cavalry. It does not belong to me here to decide what kind of faddle affords the firmed: feat to the horfeman ; but, on exaimining the arms of the Arabs of the defert, it would appear that the manner in which they fit is advantageous. They make ufe of ja- velins, which they keep underneath their thighs, of KELATIVE TO EGYPT. 105 of lances, and of fabres. The management of thefe obliges them to be feated high, in order to tife them to advantage. The Arabs, as every one knows, make war both by attack, and flight. Their pofition in the faddle affords them an opportunity of leaning over the neck of the mare, to avoid the lance and javelin. They accuftom them to gallop at full fpeed, and to flop all of a fudden, in order to wheel about with celerity, . and dart the pike at the enemy. One of the greatefl; re- commendations in thefe horfes, being to know when to retire at the proper moment, they pur- fue them while young, with the lance at their polteriors, and they are fo much accuftomed to this management, that when they perceii^e a horfeman near them, it is only neceflary to let go the bridle, in order to be out of fight in an inftant. The lance of the Arabian horfeman is formed out of Chinefe bamboo, knotty, light and elaftic, about twxlve feet in length, terminating in an iron point well tem.pered, and furmounted by a tuft of filk : it IS not Immoveable in their hands, as it was formerly in thofe of our ancient warriors ; when they attack, they hold it wdthin one third of 1Q6 MEMOIRS of the end, and allow it to glide along through their hands, without quitting it, however. The Arab is fo nimble that he will mount his horfe, with the affiftance of his fpear alone. Thefe people have a moft excellent cuftom, by means of which they preferve the feet of their cattle ; when they have rode any diftance, and the animal is in a perfpiration, they never tie him up until he has been w^alkcd backw^ards and for^ w^ards, by a perfon holding the bridle, for a quar- ter of an hour ; they afterwards leave him faft- ened to the faddle for an hour or two longer, before they give him any thing to eat. The Arabs have a particular knack at making their mares conceive : when they perceive that they are beginning to be in heat, they mount them two or three days running, in order to fa- tigue them, and alfo diminiili their ration of corn at the fame time, with a view of rendering them feeble ; in this they conform themfelvcs to the opinion of BufFon : that naturalift fuppofes the temiales, which are the ieaft vigorous, to be the beft breeders. The Arabs keep their ftallions for the mares, and they confecrate thofe of from four to five years old to that purpofe alone. They do not, in RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 107 ill general^ employ faddle horfes on this oocar lion, as they become unruly in confcquence of it. The Arabs prepare the* mare before they bring forth the ftalhon : after having tied her by the feet, and taken off her hind Ihoes, the farrier takes a bit of foap, which he introduces into the vagina'; he anoints it w ith this as deep as poiiible, and alfo fets the entrance of the matrix llraight«, fhould he perceive it to wind. I have been af- fured of a fail, wdiich I cannot yet believe : it is^, that when they hud a mare to be barren, they Vven remqve the matrix out of the vagina, ferape the fmall black points which they perceive there, and fometimes aelually fow up little holes. As foon as the ftallion has left the female, they im- mediately throw a bucket of water over the hind parts, and make her gallop, by means oi a perfon w'ho runs alon2^ with the halter. It is eafily perceptible at the end of three or four months, whether the mare be in foal. Kerc follows an account -of what I miyfelf have feeii praclifed : the iiank of the animal is prelented to the fun, and when it becomes warm, cold wa- ter is, thrown over the belly, and thighs ; and the contraction experienced by the mother, in confc- quence of this operation, being transferred to the matrix, caufes the fc^tiis to move. Every 108 MEMOIRS Every Arab poiTefTes a horfe, which he main- tains at a trifling expencc; The price varies ac- cording to the quality ; the plebeians are fold at, from fifty Frenchlivrcs, to one hundred and twenty a piece, while young; thofe of diftinguifhed birth, at from one thoufand, to ten thoufand livres. In refped: to the mares, which are always, one third dearer than the ftallions, thofe confidered as very valuable are never dlfpofed of entirely, as the proprietor alv/ays takes care to ftipulate for the refervation mentioned above. Such of the Arabian horfes as are kept in towns, difpiay much grace and elegance : thofe of the^defert have an humble air, and are very lean : a well fed animal would not be of any fer- vice to his mailer, during a long and perilous expedition. , Lightnefs and celerity in running, of courfe, conftitute a grand difference in refpeft to their cattle ; but notwlthflanding all the fables, and vaunting of the natives, they do not poffefs the fame quicknefs of motion as the race-horfes of Europe : thefe traverfe an extent of ground equal to two thoufand yards in the fpace of four minutes, v/hich is tantamount to three-fourths of the flij2:ht of the fw allow. O - The height of the Arabian courfers is not fo great, RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 100 great, In general, as thofe of the French; but it is more uniform : they greatly refemble the cattle of the Limoufm, in every thing but the hind quarters, which are more plumpt The Arabian horfe is remarkable for the fmall- nefs of his hoof, and the foundnefs of his legs. He is to be found of all colours, black only ex- cepted. - / Account iAscouHt of ilie prevailing ophthalmia of EGYPT, By Citizen Bruant> Bliyjician iit Ordinary to the Arniy,^ Head Quarters at Cairo, 15thFru£tidor, etliYear. A ll the travellers of the medical profeffion, who have written on Egypt, have fpoken of the ophthalmia (inflammation in the eyes), fo frequent in this country, in a vague and inaccu- rate manner : and yet this dlforder, which is al- ways troublefome, is often followed by feriouS confequences, and to this caufe alone is to be at- tributed the frequency of blindnefs throughout Egypt. In the inflammation of the eyes, wLich is now prevalent in our army, we have not been able to difcover any eftabllflied fadts, capable of regulat- ing our treatment of this dlforder. Our pradtice has, hitherto, been merely founded on the adlual T)iis account is taken from the correfpondence 6f Ci- tizen Defgenettes, priadpal Phyfician to the army. Hate relative to EGYPT. lit ftate of the patient, the previous ciraimftances of the diforder, or fometimes fimply on the general indications of juva7itia and Icedentia, in fimi- lar circumftances. The greater part of our patients afFedled with this inflammation, have come from the advanced pofts and encampments; all of them have been more or lefs expofed to the united adlion of ex- ceffive heat and light, which may be here re-^ garded as one of the principal caufes of this dif- order. To thefe m.ay be added others no lefs powerful, among which the chief is, as Profper Alpinus has obferved, that fcorching nitrous duft which the winds are conftantly raifing in clouds in the atmofphere. All thefe caufes unite in making the ball of the eye a center of Irritation, and confequentiy of inflammation. As the ope- ration of thefe predifpofing caufes is conftant, and varies little at'any feafon of the year, the dif- eafe which they produce prevails at all times, but principally during the three months wTxich pre- cede the inundation of the Nile, at which time the neceflary labours of agriculture fully employ the Inhabitants, and expofe them more directly to the influence of the circumftances which I have juft mentioned. Hence it is that the ophthalmia is at that feafon but little to be found 112 MEMOIHS found among the natives^, whilft It attach s oul* foldiers in great number, who are obliged to make laborious marches, or who live in camps difad- vantageouffy fituated. The greater number of the inflances of oph- thalmia which come under our care, originate from local circumftances of this kind ; there are^ however, others produced by more remote and general caufes of difeafes ; as for example, we have met with fome that evidently originated from a load of acrid bilious fordes in the primcC vi^. Thefe are not eafily diftinguifhable from the others, for often the fymptoms of foulnefs of ftomach are at firffc obfcure, and do not affume a decided charafter till after the operation of an emetic : the mofi: certain indications of inflam- mation of the eyes from this affedlion of the fto- mach are, an irregular headach, a thirft more or lefs conftant, and a yellownefs in the tongue and inflamed parts. Again, there is a third fpecies of ophthalmia which we have remarked, and which will not range under either of the two former kinds, that principally attacks perfons of a delicate habit ; thofe who are weakened by a long continuance of ficknefs, and are only convalefcent, and thefe are often thereby detained for a long time in the hofpitaL JIELATIVE TO EGYPT. 113 hofpital. In thefe fpecies of ophthalmia the in- flammatory lymptoms are but indiftinftly mark- ed, there is little or no fwelling ; but a number of nervous fymptoms are to be oblerved, fuch as violent fpafms in the eyelid and the parts con- tiguous to it, which caufes a great encreafe in the fecretion of tears. The eye itfelf, is at the fame time highly fufceptible to light, and the eyelids ftrongly approach each other. Thefe differences in the fymptoms and predif- poiing caufes, it is obvious, mufl: confiderably modify the diagnofis in this difeafe. In general, however, it may be defcribed in the following manner : it comes on all at once, and during a flate of perfedl health, it begins by a (harp pain in the eye, accompanied with much watering ; the eye fupports the light with difficulty ; foon after the veflels which furround the tunica con- jundllva fwell, and render the motion of the eye- lids painful and difficult. As the diforder ad- vances, the conjundliva itfelf, fwells and becomes puffy ; it rifes above the tranfparent cornea, which then appears as if funk in ; and the fwelling and inflammation foon extend to the eyelids, and their motion is interrupted. At lafl; the fymptoms, littk by little, abate of their violence, the fwell- I ing 114 MEMOIRS ing of the eyelid difperfes, and the eye opens : it then appears covered with a whitifli matter, per- fectly refembling pus, which collects conftantly at the inner angle, efpecially during the night, which caufes much difficulty in opening the eye in the morning : by degrees it acquires a purplifh tinge, and at laft returns to its natural colour and appearance. In the height of the dlforder the patient often experiences violent pains, either extending all over the head, or only confined to the arch of the eyebrow. The pulfe is a little encreafed in quick- nefs, and the eye has alwa^^s a great fenfibility to light, and the rays of the fun give a painful im- preffion : the faculty of feeing is encreafed, as happens in the greater number of the pathologic affections of this organ that are connected with great irritation. Towards the decline of the dif- eafe, however, the patient fees objefts in a con- fufed manner, as if through a mift, and befides, experiences many of the fymptoms which attend an Incipient amaurofis. The duration of this ophthalmia varies from eight to thirty days, or e\ eii more, according to the concomitant fymptoms, and the confequences •of the diforder. Thefe are, for the moft part^ wcaknefs, il5 ’Relative to Egypt. Weaknefs^ and indiftind:nefs of vifion, and fome- times fmall ulcers over the whole extent of the tilbuginea and cornea. The moll: important objed: of enquiry on th^ fubjed of this difeafe, would be to find out a me- thod of prevention ; but it is almofc impoffible to feclude the body from the influence of thofe external caufes of diforder which are conftantly iprefent ; all that can be done, is to moderate their adion in the niofl: favoiircible mannen Whatever be the means propofed for this objed, they lli'ould be exprefsiy infifted on, and on that account, fhould be fo fimple and eafy of applica- catioUj that the foldier may make them a part of his regular duty, which he will neither negled nor omit. Among the befi: prophyladics, may be reckoned frequent wafliing of the eye with cold water, from which I have experienced the happiefi: effeds in a beginning ophthalmia ; and on that account, I doubt not> that it would be be ftill more efficacious as a preventative. This has, too, the capital advantage over other me- thods, in being applied with the utmofl: eafe, and yields to none in virtue. The diforder which we are fpcaking of very often cures itfelf by the fpontaneous efforts of nature, and without having recourfe to art ; and I 2 on^ MEMOIB.S ll6 one may fay, with truth, that nothing fo much ftands in the way of a cure, as a multiplicity of remedies, efpeclally external applications. Some of our patients have been relieved by an eruption coming out upon the temples ; and others, the greater number, by a flight diarrhoea ; and it is conformably to thefe natural indications that I endeavour to keep the bowels open during the whole of the diforder, by decod:ion of tamarinds, and other fuch laxative ptifans. Our treatment has varied according to the dif- ferent fpecies of ophthalmia which we have dlf- tinguifhed : I fliall point it out in a few words. When the diforder is merely local, and the in- flammation not yet eftablifhed, we employ with fuccefs the cold lotions which I have mentioned, and repellents of every kind. Bleeding from the arm would, in fuch cafes, promife much advan- tage ; but the decided bilious character of the greater part of thefe diforders, have prevented us from having recourfe to this evacuation : befides, it is ftrongly counter- indicated in our foldiers, weakened as they have been by a long warfare. Topical bleeding, which, however, we have not hitherto been able to adminifter, would, pro- bably, be as certain, and more favourable in its operation than general bleeding ; at leafl: we have RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 31,7 have^ in favour of this opinion, the example of the inhabitants of the country, who take blood from the corner of the eye with fuccefs : this praftice muft, at leaft, moderate the violence of the fymptoms when the inflammation is at its height, and mufl:, therefore, neceflTarily run through its regular ftages.' Hitherto we have confined ourfelves to removing from the eye every irritating caufe, and efpecially light. When the pain is very violent wx apply a few emollients, but fparingly, becaufe the relaxation which they occafion would render the fwelling very obfli- nate, and much retard the cure. The application of a blifler to the nape of the neck is, belides, more ferviceable in this cafe, efpecially when the pain is not confined to the eye, but fpreads over the greater part of the head. As foon as the violence of inflammation abates, we have re» courfe to refolvent collyria, which we gradually render flronger, and thus complete the cure. When the fymptoms indicate that the oph» thalmia arlfes from a dlfordered ftomach, evacu- ants mufl: immediately be reforted to. I have already obferved that the firfl: emetic has often no other effed than to render this complaint more ftrongly marked ; it is therefore neceflary to enfure fuccefs to adminliler a fecond emetic : I 3 often^ IIB often, too, we are obliged to evacuate the bowels,^ wl^ieh I do by adding a few grains of jalap to the other purgatives. This mode of treatment muft be continued daily in thefe ftomach com- plaints attended with inflammation of another organ ; they require the more adlive evacuants, except particularly counter-indicated. In the ophthalmia which 'we are now confidering, the flomach affediion is fometimes, however^ only a iymptom wdiich accompanies the idiopathic dif- eafe, and runs its courfe after the original difor- der is worn off : it requires the fame plan of treatment as is mentioned above. In the third fpecics of ophthalmia which I have laid down, along with tonics employed in- ternally, I join the ufe of external antifpafmo- dies : I have found none more powerful than blifters, which therefore, in thefe cafes, form the principal remedy, whilfl: in the truly inflam- matory ophthalmia they are only indireflly ufe- fuL Their good eficdl is the moft certain when applied behind the ears : this too is the place where the Egyptians apply the adlual cautery, when they employ this remedy for ophthalmia of long ftanding, and other inveterate diforders of the eyes. EXTRACT RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 119 EXTRACT OF A LETTER from A-djutafit-General to CiftzenGE.ov~ FROY, Member of the hifitute of Egypt. Rofetta, 20th Vendetnaira, Year 7 . Y OU afk me, citizens, to fend you more par- ticulars concerning; an obfervation which I have had occafion to make relative to the me- thod of making oaths in Egypt. It is but little that I have to. add ; but the leaft particulars be- ing Intereftlng to the impartial obferver of the ■ manners and cuftoms of a people fo remarkable, and fo little known as the Egyptians are, it is wdth pleafure that I tranfmit you any parti- culars. When the Mamelukes appeared before us for the firft time at Bahhmanyeh, our advanced guard flopped an inhabitant of the country who was croffing the plain : the foldiers who detained him aflerting that they faw him come from out of the enemy’s ranks, looked upon him as a fpy, and treated him rather roughly. On . meeting with him, I ordered him to be condudled to head-quarters, but without do- I 4 ing 120 MEMOIRS ing him any injury. The poor fellow, encou- raged by what he faw of my manner of fpeaklng, endeavoured to convince me that he was not an adherent of the Mamelukes, and fpoke with great vehemence, following up his words with very expreffive geftures ; but as I had no inter- preter, he faw that I could not comprehend what he faid. He then took up his blue Ihirt, and holding his phallus in his hand, he remained a few moments in that theatrical attitude, like a god fwearing by Styx, and by his countenance he feemed to fay, After the terrible adjuration that I have made, dare you any longer doubt my innocence and veracity.” His gefture called to my recolleftion, that in the time of Abraham the truth was fworn to by taking in the hand the organs of generation. This ancient cuftom, preferved ftill among the modern Arabs, is not the only one : the more one filudies the manners of this half-favage peo- ple, the more light is thrown on the hiftory of the OldTeftament; and thus events, which have been regarded by fome Europeans as fupernatural, becaufe only extravagant, are eafily explained, and one learns how to appreciate properly the merits of the heroes of the Mofaic hiftory. It may be alfo obferved, that the example juft men- RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 121 mentioned is not the only one in which the Egyptians depart from what we efteem the rules of decency ; they appear extremely fevere wdth regard to the manners of their wives and daugh- ters, and yet they care very little for difcoverlng what we conceal with fo much care. The moft grofsly licentious fongs, and the moft dlfgufting dances, are the amufements which, in the privacy of their habitations, a grave mufllilman procures for his family.—Explain, who can, thefc whim- ficai contradidlions» DESCRIP- 12 ::^ MEMOIB-S DESCRIPTION Of a Species' of NympJuea. fiead at the Infliute hy Citizen SAVIG:^^y^ on tlie- 0th Vendemiairey year 7- MONG the aquatic plants whofe bloffoms^ by their brl!llance, their richnefs, and their vraried colours^ compofe the mofl ftriking orna- ments of our brooks^ our rivers^ and lakes, there is a Unall family v/kh the following natural cha- racters -Their ftature is generally low^^ their roots longs the leayes ufually radical, fometimes fioating on the furfaccs fometimes entirely fub- merged ; the flowers are perfects wdth a divided calyx, and many petals ; the itamens inferted in the piflil ; the feed-bud, generally inferior, ter- minated with ftyles, or merely with ftigmata. Thefe plants are ranged among the unilobate, becaufe their feed is a Angle cotyledon, or if there are two, one is very fmall, and fcarcely per-, ceptible. Of all the genera which this family compre- hends, there is none whofe flowers exceed in Aze and TiELA-TlVE TO EGTPT. 423 md beauty tliofe of the genus nymphiea. The diiFerent fpecies of which it Is compofed are rea- dily known by their numerous petals and fta- mens, by their feffile ftigma forming a large ra- diated dffk, and iituated immediately on the fummit of the feed-bud, and laftly, by their dry feed- veffel, divided into many cells, each of which inclofes feveral feeds. Of this genus there are only two fpecies in Europe, both of wEich are found ill the neighbourhood of Paris; and pro- bably no one has ever walked on the banks of the Seine, or in the low, marihy meadows that bor- der it, without admiring the large bloffoms of the yellow water-lily, or tliofe ftill more beautl- ful, and ftiil more fplendid, of the w^hite water- iilly. Egypt, as we fhall fee, has, in this refpcct, no reafon to envy the countries of Europe. In fadt, from the time that the Nile begins to rife and overflow, to that of its compieat rcbii:ing, the whole furface of the canals, the rl- ver, and almoft all the inundated land, is ena- melle:' ' ith flowers, whole magnificent bloflbms of white and blue charm the eye wdth their fpleridour, and fill the air with their agreceable periumes. Thefe flowers belong to the two fpecies of nymphaea, which are indigenous in Egypt. The firft. 124 MEMOIRS firft, called by Linnaeus, nymphcEa lotus, has long been celebrated by hiftorians and poets ; all tra- veller^, ancient and modern, have paid it the tribute of their praife and admiration. Savary, in his Letters on Egypt, often introduces it to embellifh his pldlures ; it is alfo equally well known by fyftematlc authors, moil of whom have charadlerifed it in a very fatisfadtory man-= ner. The fame has not been the cafe with the fe- cond ipecies, namely, that with azure bloifoms : few travellers feem even to have noticed it ; and the defcription of thofe who have mentioned it is fingularly vague and obfcure, Forfkal, who vlfited Egypt in IT^L and who gave a very full flora of the country, does not feem to have ob- ferved it ; and his filence in this refpedl is the more furprifmg, as the plant in queftion always grows by the fide of the nymphsea lotus, feeming to delight in mingling its bloifoms with thofe of its kindred fpecies. It is not even mentioned in the lail edition of the Syjiema Nature, publifhed by Gmelin, notwithilandlng the care of this author in colledting all the fpecies which are difperfed through different publications. It became therefore a dejideratum to give a name and fpecific charadter to this nymphsea, as well RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 125 well as an exa<5l defcription, and thus to enrich botany with a new plant. To efFeft this is the obje earthy, and unpalatable. The leaves of each fpecies are large, numerous, fub-rotund, divided into two lobes from their bafe to the infertion of the leaf-ftalk, that is, to about the centre of the difk. They arc thinner than thofe of the European water-lilies, of a deep green, fiiining on the upper furfacc, and often tinged with purple on the under one. The leaf MEMomS 120 leaf-ftalks are radical, cylindrical, flightly com- prefled, and long enough to allow the leaf to float on the furface of the water. The flowers are very large, often more than four inches in diameter; the peduncles tpring from the root, and are each terminated by a Angle flower. The calyx is compofed of eight leaflets, ar- ranged in two circles, and coloured on the inflde ; thofe of the inner circle are the moft coloured, and fomev/hat refemble the petals. Thefe laft, to the number of from twelve to twenty, are alfo difpofed in feveral feries. The ftamens are yel- low, with large petaliforni fllaments. The rays of the ftigma vary in number from twelve to twenty-five * they are of the fame colour as the ftamens, compreffed, and flightly inflected at the fummit. Such are the common charafters of the roots, leaves, and flowers ; the following are the chief fpecific diflerences. The leaves of the- nymphasa lotus are fur- rounded v/ith a fharp,. ftifl’ almoft prickly ferra- ture : their lobes are generally exactly parallel ; their inferior furface is overfpread with promi- nent fibres ; and the leaf-ftalks are hifpid. TJiofe Relative to Egypt. Thofe of the nymphaea Ccemlea, on the con» trary, are fcarcely waved at the edges, and their lobes are more pointed and divergent. The in- ferior furface prefents very few fibres, of "whicli the largeft alone are flightly prominent, the others being indented : the leaf-ftalks alfo are perfedlly frnooth. In the nymphasa lotus the flowers are always more expanded : the leaflets of the calyx are ovato-lanceoiate, greenilh on the outfide, without fpots, but marked with feven pale very diftiR and the aftonifliing fwiftnefs of his conquefts. Vic- torious over kings leagued againft him, a new deftiny awaits him, he prepares new triumphs. Immediately at his orders his unwearied legions throng to his ftandard, at his commands the afto- nilhed fea is covered with a multitude of fhips, Alexandria, in fpite of the obftacles that op- pofe him, cannot withftand his affault ; Moh- harrem ^ fees him enter her gates victorious. Mohharrem ! happy month, thou openeft the year with glory, and addeft to thy honours that of leading the French heroes to their career of triumph. Cairo foon beholds the conquering army, exulting in its new trophies, inundate her plains and fcale her ramparts* Every young warrior burns with impatience to fignalize his valour. Bonaparte difpofes his war- like fquadrons like an able general, and prepares for the attack : he difplays the moft confummate ftili in the art of war, the fruit of reflefition and long experience.-— Inftantly at his orders his bat- talions rufli forward v/ith impetuofity, and with a rapid courfe charge the prcfumtuous Mamlukes * Mohharrem is the fill month of the Heira. Then RELATIVE TO EGYPT» 14S Nedboun teouahhadd bel-ouaray beehehame- tin dsat eu’itibar Qahara el-memalek djemmetan ^oue qadhay el- morM bema ichar. Oue atay bedjeichin ouaferin ^ oue merakebin theouat el-bahhar. One temellek el-elkenderyeh fer’atan doun eu iticar Be Mohharremin chehroun bihi ^ hhacjan iftlt- ahhin one entachar One mela el-arMhy a’lkeran ^ hhaoul el-kina- neti one istidar. Min koiill iTodatin one fetay ^ youm el-qettal hou ifsthibar SfefF el-flbufouf behhikmetin *oue fenomi hhar- bin one ekhtibar One fetha becheddet a’zmenou^ a’lay djyouch el-ghouzz f ghaar. t Gguzz is the generic name by which the Mamlukes are generally diftinguifhed in Egypt. The Arabians have taken the term from G/iuz or Ghouje the name of a Turkifh (or 144 Memoirs Then the battle glows like a fiery furnace, the din of arms fpreads terror afar off, and congeals the foul with difmay : the very infant who, in the midfl of common battles, knows not what it IS to fear^ now feels his hair briftl^ and bleached with fright. Soon the beys tremble and are dif- comfited, they drink deep of the cup of bitternefs, and their harraffed fouls fall a prey to defpair at the event of this difaftrous day. O ever memorable day ! O God ! preferve us from being again fpeftators of fo dreadful a battle. This innumerable multitude, armed by the beys for their defence, half cut to pieces, retire dif- mayed into the deferts. Death purfues their devoted heads, as if heaven, irritated by their crimes, had rained upon them its avenging flames. In this general difafter each chief and each foldier has no other wifli than to fly far from a land which their tyranny has rendered inhofpi- table to them ; a black defpair weighs down their funken fpirlts, and misfortune for ever be- comes a companion to their fleps. Bonaparte triumphs, and the defeat of the Mamelukes has decided their fate for ever. Their RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 145 Oue atcar nar el-hharb fy * youmin techyb bihy el-ffoughar Oue leouay el-ei’n ana’leihoum ^ oue faqahoum 1 A Al /A kas el-merar Oue arahoum youman chedyd el hharb fyhi el- a’ql hharr. i oumoun youqM behhaqihi llllah derrak min nihar Oue tebeddedet tilk M ^ djemahyr el-a’dydet fy il qefar Oue raou al-menyet fouqhoum ^ qad emtheret djemrat nar. Oue ebbethech minhourn oue al-fetay ^ thaleb el-hazymet oue el-firar Oue el-kerb hhall blhim oue hliaq el-oiiyl fy tilk ebdyar Oue i’ltizz Bounaparteh ^ cue ebghouzz ouellet benkicar. (or Tartar) nation, who are “ intrepid, rapacious and cruel,” according to Call:dl, Lexicsn Ferjico-latinum^ page L 403. 140 MEMOIRS Their power is rooted out, and their princes, difperfed and humiliated, have no other courfe to run than that of mifery and difgrace. Cairo opens her gates and receives the victor in her bofom. The will of God is accomplifhed, and the fecond month Sfafar ^ fees the glorious com- pletion of the triumphs which begun with the rifing yean 403 . The Egyptians and Arabs have given this name to the Mamlukes, not fo much to denote the country from which they originate, as they are bought while children from different countries, as to exprefs the contempt and ha” tred which thev bear for them. In fa£I, the name of Turk or Tartar^ which is fynonimous, is the moft cruel reproach that can be uttered by an Arab or Perfian. This is the rea- fon why the fubjefls of the Grand Seignor, whom we gene- rally call Tiirks^ becaufe they originated from Turkeftaw, a province of Tartary, rejefi; the appellation with difdain, and only acknowledge that of O' tcmanlou^ or as we call it Ottoman^ that is to fay, fubjefts of Othman, the founder of this em- pire in about 1300 . (L s.) * Sfafar is the fscond month of the Muffulman year^ This year it correfponded with a part of Meflidor 'and Ther- rnidor. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 147 Oue techtetet omraouha * oue ghadet bezullin oue ihhtiqar Oue foutouhh Meflrin kana fy Sfafarin oue eumr ullah fsar ^ Oue beyoum febtin fyhi qad * arkhet tamm al- entefsar. ■ M CC XIIP ^ Without entering at large into the rules peculiar to Arabian poetry, I fnall conlirie my feif to two remarks which appear to be cllential to our knowledge on this fubjedl. Flrft) The verfe employed in this ode is compofed of two hemiftiches, each of which is called by the Arabs mijjra’a (houfe-porch) or (wall), and the union of the two forms the whole verfe, called bcyt (hou(^). Thefe verfes are divided and feem in long and ihort feet nearly the fame as in Greek or Latin poetry, but they have this efiential difference, that all the latter hemiiliches are terminated by the fame ryhme, v/hich continues throughout the piece. Secondly, The laft words of the lafl verfe (which are un- declined) prefent a lingular peculiarity; which is, that by their literal compolition they give the date of the year of the Hegira, in which the conquefl of Egypt was elfedled. The charadlers of the Arabic alphabet are often employed as numeral figures, and every letter of thefe two words has a numeral expreffion, the Liiiion of which forms the whole Rumber 1213. The Greek and Latin authors prefent hmilar examples of chronological verfes, L 2 To 148 To underftand this In a clearer manner I fliall give fe^ parately the letters of the two words tamm el-enteffar with their numeral expreffion ta - - - - - 40Q: mym - - - , 40' alif- - - „ - 1 lam alif - - 41 noun - " » - so> ta - - - - - 400 ffad - ‘ - - - - 90 alif - - - - - 1 fa - - - » - 200 1213 t • It may not be amifs to add, that as- to numei-a! value the Arabic let- ters follow the order of tlie Samaritan, Hebrew, and Syriac alphabets j which feems to me to eftablifh inconteftably the prior antiquity of thefe alphabets, even over the ancient Arabic called kouficy whence is derived, the nejkhy (the modern, Arabic), and which is itfelf derived from the ftrang- iielo or, ancient Syriac. (L—s-.) -f The year 1215 began the 27th Prairial In the year 7 of the republic (Saturday, June 1^5, 1798, old ftyle). The date of the events mentioned- in this ode are too famous to make it neceffary to lay them before the rea- der, (L«-s.) . t REPORT RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 149 REPORT 'Of the Commijjioners charged with the E-xa?nmatkn of a Monument near the GREAT AQUEDUCT OF CAIRO, By Citizen Denon. Bead in the Sitting of the Infitute^ on the 2^th Vendemaire^ Year 7- T he Inftltnte, defirous of afcertaiiiing whe- ther the columns lying near the great aque- du6l are the remains of an ancient edifice, nomi- nated as commiffioners for this purpofe citizens Norry, Rigo, and inyfelf. We repaired to the place, accompanied by fome labourers to remove the rubbilh, fo as to bring the whole of the ruins before our view. Out of the whole number we found only four columns that were entire, four broken in two by their fall, one broken into three, and feven frag- ments of fliafts of different diameters ; the other parts of wdiich could not be found. We began by meafuring the entire columns ; of thefe the largeft was eight metres feventy-nine L 3 centi- 150 MEMOIRS centimetres in knth ; one metre eight centk. metres in diameter at the bafe ; one metre in di- ameter at the top. It was ill wrought^ and chifelled and poiiilied again in the defedliye places. The length of the fecond was feven metres twenty centimetres^ and the diameter of its bafe was eighty fix centimetres ; it w^as the moil beau- tiful. of the vvhole number;, well chifelled and polifhed. ' I lliall fpare the Inftitute the neceffity of hear- ing dry details of meafurement, v/hich will only prove the accuracy of its commiffioners, and which may be confulted at pleafure in the memoirs. Thefe columns, from their vicinity to the mi- naret of a ruined mofque, appear to have formed part of the building ; this cannot, however, be af^ certained on account of the faltpetre manufac- tory which is eredled between the ruined co- lonade and the minaret ; nor is the determina- tion of this point a matter of the lead: confe- quence, it being evident, from the ftyle of mo- dern barbarifm that prevails throughout, that the building itfelf w^as raifed, after the conqueft of Egypt by the Mamelukes, out of fome rich re- mains of antiquity united together into a difeor- dant whole. OBSEIl RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 151 OBSERVATIONS O71 the Colour of the Sea^ By Citizen Costaz. HE colour of the fea differs confiderablj when viewed from the Ihore, or from a fliip at a diftance from land ; in the former cafe it leems green^ in the latter blue, the tint of which is fiibjeft to feveral variations. From fun« rife to noon the colour of the fea varies gradually from indigo to ultra-marine, to Pruffian blue, and at length to Iky blue, according to the de» creafed obliquity of the rays of the fun : from noon to evening the fame variations of fliade t?*ke place, but in an inverfe order. Any part of the fea that is in Ihade, however, even during mid™ day, while the reft is of a fley blue, will preferve its deep indigo tint. A cloudy day alfo produces the fame effedl. Hence it appears that indigo blue is the natural colour of the fea, and all the other tints of blue are produced by the dilution of this with a greater or lefs proportion of the white light of the fun. In the fame manner the green colour of the fea, when viewed from the L4 ihorc^ 152 MEMOIKS fhore, is a mixture of its natural blue with the yellowifh colour of the fand at the bottom. If it be objected that fea water in a glafs is perfectly colourlefs, I reply, that the colour is too dilute to be perceived, except in large maffes ; juft in the fame manner as common air, which is without the leaft tint in a veflel of colourlefs glafs, yet is of a bright blue when viewed through the whole depth of the atmofphere. Indeed, this appears to be the cafe with all other tranfparent bodies that feem to us void of colours, the tint being too dilute to become vifible, unlefs the bulk is very confiderable. PLAN r' . ' RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 153 PLAN Of a School for Defgfi, Read by Ctfizm Dutertre at the Sitting of the Inf it lit e, Qth Vendem ah' e, year 7. I SHALL not enter into any particulars of the the general utility of the art of deiign, per”« fuaded that you are all convinced of its import- tan ce as an eiiential part of a liberal education. The application of this talent to our labours and refearches will render our defcriptions more ftriking by the llluftratlon of figures : by this means we fhall preferve thofe monuments which time has impaired, and which barbarlfm has disfigured or refpedted. We fhall prefent to view the moft interefting or pidlurefque fitua- tlons ; we fhall reprefent with accuracy the uten- fils of agriculture, and machines and inftruments of all kinds ; Vv e fhall convey correct ideas of the external conformations of plants and animals, as well as their internal organization ; wG'fliall copy the fineft forms of the moft beautiful varieties of the human figure ; and fhall not neglect to trace out the deformities confequent of difeafe, for the benefit of thofe who emolov themfelves in the 1 ,/ healiniT art. I propofe 154 MEMOiiiS I propoft, therefore, to eftablifli in the Inftitate a School of Defign, under the following regula^ tions ift. That there lhall be models made of the human figure for the ufe of beginners, in o-rder to prepare them for the fmdy of the living fubjedl* 2nd. That the fchool where thefts lliall be depofited be open every day for ' the ufe of the fcholars. 3d. That the fcholars fliall have liberty tq copy from a living model every day, from fix in the evening to eight, during a decade. 4th. That there fhall be no profeffor by name : all the artifts being invited to fupply inftrudliou to thofe who may frequent the fchopL 5th. That fuch members of , the Inftitute as are converfant in anatomy, fhall be invited to give fome dcmonftrations^ wdth a view to affifi: the artilL fith. That this plan fhall be fubmitted to the examination of a committee, w^ho fliall afcertaia the expence confequent on the eftablifliment. PLAN X55 ?IELATIVE TO EGYPT, PLAN Of an Agricultural 'EJiahllJhment hi Egyp. By Citizen Nectoux. Read before the Injiitute, 1 0th Vendemairey year T he principal attention of an enlightened goyernment ought ever to be turned to« wards agriculture : it excites induftry^ animates commerce, and becomes an inexhauftible fource of glory and happinefs to nations. The imporLance of an agricultural eftablifli* meiit is fo generalL achnowledgecl, that we -cannot delay the creation of one in a country, the phyfical organization of which confers on all kinds of prodiidtions the fite, expofition, and degree of temperature proper for each. In iliort, Egypt gives the government jufc grounds for hoping that vre fnall be able to cultivate, with fuccefs, all the plants of acknowledged utility, yehether indigenous or exotic. The conformity of the climate with that of South America, during a large ^portion of the year, promifes new fources of riches in the fligar- cane, indigo, and cotton; perhaps the coffee tree. J56 MEMoms tree^ and a number of other productions, no lefs interefting, may be alfo introduced. Among thefe ought to be diftinguiflied, in a particular manner, the culture of cochineal, being of infi- nite confequence, at leafi: fo far as wealth is concerned. It is alfo attended with this advan- tage, that it requires but a flight preparation in order to render it marketable : it befides accom- modates itfelf to lands of a middling quality ; and thofe vvhere but little rain falls are the mofl: favourable. The fugar-cane, indigo, and cotton, are, in faCI, already reared in this country, but with fo fmall a portion of fuccefs, or, more properly Ipeaklng, with fo little fkill and encouragement, that they may be fairly confidered as a new branch. But the direction of thefe eftabllfliments can be confided to thofe men alone, who, to a know- ledge of warm climates, unite the praCUce and theory of colonial agriculture, and have, in fome meafure, guaranteed their fuccefs by a long ferles of voyages and experiments. The great number of unfuccefsful effays of this kind, more efpecially in our wdndw^ard and leeward iflands in the Wefi: Indies, ought to be attributed : To relative to- EGYPT. ISJ ' To an improper choice of pofition; And 2^. To inexperience in refpeft to that fpecies of culture, which, by appertaining to hot countries, is entirely different from the mode followed in Europe ; for it is not in this cafe in- tended to attempt the produftions of France, or the northern nations, but precifely thofe in which they are deficient, w^hich they are, in faft, inca« pable of attaining, but which have become ab- folutely neceffary to the inhabitants. To avoid all error, in refped: to an appropriate fite, it is neceffary to w^ait until the country can be traverfed in fecurity, and its internal organiz-” ation examined, fo that every commodity may be reared in the place moft analogous to its na- ture. The enormous Ioffes attendant on bad fuccefs, will be thus prevented ; but even then,r eflablifhments of this kind, ought only to be con- fided to men capable of adminifterlng to the new plantations that care which is fo requifite at the commencement, either to accelerate their pro- duce, or to-’ multiply it by all the modes w^hieh it is in the power of art to employ. By adopting fuch precautions as thefe, it would not only be eafy to diftribute a fufficient quan- tity of the different fpecies of produdtions meant to be introduced among the inhabitants, but alfo to 158 MEMOIRS to form pupils capable of turning to advantage the treafure committed to their charge. It is thus, that, ftlmulating them by means of their proper interefts, they might be fnatched at the fame time both from apathy and ignorance, un- der the yoke of which, defpotifm hath hitherto kept them bent. At the afpedl of thefe improvements, the Egyptian would behold the golden cane, Vv hence the fugar is extradted, fpring out of one part of his native country ; in another^ they would con- template the colFce tree loaded with its red and precious berries ; here they w^ould fee the young flioot of the indigo fhmb ; there the filky cotton, fo admirably adapted for garments ; in fbort, a multitude of other produdlions equally intereft- ing. The culture of thefe wmuld inftantly engage their attention ; and the hope of immenfe ad- vantages would determine tliein to prefer fuch gains as are a little tardy, but much more conh- derable, to thofe wdiich offer but a middling har- vcit. The botanical cultivator w^ould here unite the ufeful with the agreeable, and with the affiftance of thofe labours, which wmuld foon become fa- miliar, he would be enabled to heap up treafures for commerce, dying, and the other arts, ■ RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 159 The hofpitals would derive daily affiftance from the plants of the country, which would be collefted in gardens confecrated to that piirpofe ; and we fhould have a new opportunity of deter- mining v/hether each climate produces fimples adapted to the cure of the maladies vvhich pre- vail there. There is no perfon who has not remarked in, the courfe of his travels, that the peafantry are every where acquainted with a number of reme- dies extrafted from vegetables ; and it is only to be lamented that their knowledge is ufually con- fined to their own habitations. The foie mode of uniting all the advantages which I have juft pointed out, would be to in- fpedt the country, and, after colledtion, to place all the plants in a national garden, where every inhabitant might obtain a complete knov/ledge of them. In relpedl to fuch as would require fome experiments for perfedtiiig the dyer’s art, thefe might be cultivated on a great fcale ; and it is notorious that this country prefcnts amaz- ing refourccs, fo far as the lucrative trade of drugs and dye ftuffs are concerned. It is in national eftablifhments that ffrand ex- O periments fiiould be made ; it is there that thofe precious commodities ought firft to be brought MEMOIRS 160 to perfeftion, which formerly acquired for St» Domingo the appellation of the French gold- mines. They are alfo to be found on the furface of the Egyptian lands. This territory prefents a fin- gular foil, in which the productions of all the four quarters of the world may be reared. There is not a fingle fpot on the whole globe that pre- fcnts equal advantages in refped: to pofition. In order to render fuch an eftablifhment ad- vantageous, it ought to be placed in a lituation that has been felefted with great difcernment ; it is neccflary that the climate fhould be tem- perate, that is to fay, placed as nearly between fifteen and twenty- four degrees as poffible ; the foil ihouid be deep, of a good quality, flieltered from tlie prevailing winds, by either natural or artificial means, and refrdhed with a current of WMter, or by means of hydraulic machines. After having made choice of a proper Ipot, it ought to be advantageoufly laid out, and the ne- ceflary labours in refpedl to cultivation com- menced ; nothing iliould be negledted, not even botanical excurfions, for the purpofe of multi- plying the different fpecies ; but I once more repeat it, that until a perfed knowledge of the country KELATIVE TO EGYPT, l&l country has been once obtained, nothing of this kind Ihouid be attempted. It alfo appears to me highly proper, while forming eftabliihments, whence are to iffiie the knowledge neceffary for the perfedlion of a nevf fpecies of agriculture, to make choice of a place large enough for the purpofe of alfo eredting manufadlories, for the various produdtions about to be reared. It is there, that the eye of an in- fpedlor, continually employed in obfervatlon, would be enabled to utilize and fmplify the pro- cefs of each, in order that he might communi- cate them in fucceffion, by means of memoirs addrelTed to the cultivators. It is requlfite for the fuccefs of fuch an enter- prize, that men acquainted with the nature of the different produdlions, fuch as the fu gar- cane, indigo, coffee, and cotton, fiiould be collected ; they might be chofen from among the ancient colonifts at prefent reflding in France. It might not be difficult perhaps, to train up proper per- fons for the cultivation of the two lafi: ; hut it is indlfpemibly neceffary to feledl experienced men for the tw o firfh. I deem it proper to remove eflabllffiments fuch as thefe, to a confiderable diftance from the fea fliores, as they are expofed to impetuous M winds, 162 MEMOIRS winds, as well as to a faline atmofphere ; fimila^ care ought to be taken, to avoid the neighbour- hood of the fands of the defert. A fpot might be found at a fmall diftance from the banks of the Nile, which would add to many other ad- vantages, that of not expofmg fuch plants as are imported and exported, to the inconveniencies attendant on land carriage ; thefe frequently oc- cafion their lofs. One of the gardens ought to become a kind of receptacle for all the vegetable produ6lions cultivated in the others : there alfo might be prepared thofe colleftions of living plants and feeds, deftined for the mufeum of natural hif- tory. I am content with tracing a mere out- line ; we muft at prefent confine ourfelves to ge- neral obfervations alone, having as yet examined Egypt only in a rapid and fuperficial manner : it appears to me, therefore, to be the fageft mode, to leave the minutia of every kind to another time, when they can be difcufled in particular memoirs. EXTRACT "RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 163 EXTRACT f)f Ohfervatlons by Citl%e?i Ceuesole^ Fliyjtcian hi Ordinary to the Army, during a Journey the Wejlern Ranh to Sloiit. Head Quarters at Cairo, 30th Vendemaire® 7 th Year of the French RepubliCo complexion of the inhabitant of Sayd^ (Sla’id) is of a brownifii hue, the features of tlie face are ftrongly marked, the eyes are black, fmall, deep in their fockets, the pupil contradlcd, the afpedl fierce ; the mufcles which are promi- nent, project confiderably at the extremities. The features of the women are more foft, and the cen- ter of the whole perfon more obtufe ; but they do not poflefs either the lufture of beauty, or the grace of the European ; an oblongated and flabby breaft, added to a prominent belly, at an early period of life, mar the advantages refulting from their height ; their eyes,, however, muft be allow- ed to be expreffive, and their teeth are extremely white. In proportion as one advances towards M 2 Siout of the Nile, from Cairo 104 MEMOIRS Siout (Syouth), he difcovcrs in the form of the nofe, the lips^ the traces of connexion with the natives of the internal parts of Africa. The temperaments of the inhabitants differ according to age and fex ; the children are in ge- neral difpofed to phlegm, and confequently weak, while the adults, more efpecially the men, are fanguine and robuft. The intelled;uai faculties correfpond with the fupplenefs and adlivlty of their organs. Thefe are evidently modified, as well as the phyfical ftrength, by their more or lefs Indolent piode of life, their habits, the neighbourhood of, or dlfiiance from the Nile, the air which they breathe in confequence of being fliut up along with the cattle, in their ftables, or accuflomed to ’wander in full liberty throughout the country. Here is to be found a fobrlety, even in the bofom of abundance ; the people in eafy circum- ftances have good bread, flelh, fifh, eggs, and gar- den ftulF on their tables : the poor eat broths com- pofed of the meal of Indian corn, or of legumes. The term of life is pretty much the fame among both clafles, notwithflanding the difference of their manner of living ; the men begin to lofe their ftrength at about fifty years of age, and are very old at fixty ; allowing for a few exceptions, the RELATIVE TO EGYPT» lQ5 die women In this part of the country, as elfe- where, fall fooner into decrepitude. Menftmation and fecundity commence at from ten to twelve years of age, and terminate at from thirty- five to forty and forty- five. The boys when twelve or fourteen years old> begin to ex- perience certain defires > they even excite thefe ■ by means of fHmulants, and in the complaifance of the other fex, eafiiy find the means of fatisfy- ing their cravings. It is perhaps on this account^ that a certain vice which makes fo many ravages among us, is but little knowm among them. The water of the Nile, either clarified or fil- trated, is their ufual beverage ; but the Egyp- tians do not always drink when they feel an in- clination ; they prefer taking mouth fulls of the liquid, without fwallowing it, and pretend that this element, fo ufeful when ufed in moderation, becomes hurtful when drunk to excefs ; that it produces too great an abundance of fweat or of urine ; opens the belly ; and enfeebles the whole fyftem. They delight in flierbets, liquorice wa- ter, pills made of hemp feed, and fome articles of confedlionary not equally rclllhed by us. The children of both fexes are commonly naked, from ten to twelve years of age, in the country adjacent to Mlnejeh, and Siout (Syouth) ; M 3 and / 1 06 MEMOIRS and it is eafy to be perceived, that the organs are then fully developed. A flight drcfs of wool or cotton afterwards cover their dark and hardened ikin ; in other refpecJls they preferve the fafliions of Lower Egypt, in their veflments and turbans.. The men live on the fame floor along with the domeftic animals, and fleep fometimes on mats,, with their clothes upon them. The firfl: and only ftory, or, by way of exprefl"- ing myfelf more clearly, the whole of the upper part of their habitations, is confecrated to pigeons and turtle doves, which abound in the Sayd (Sfa’id). In the towns there are fome well built houfes ; rich people poffefs their hharems, and enjoy the other luxuries of life ; the markets abound wdth fliops, which are dark and narrow. On calling an eye on the inftruments and labours of the ar- tizans, they are difcovered to be rude and imper-? feci, although they themfelves are far from being deftitute of addrefs. The children, whofe parents are in pretty eafy circumftances, learn to read ; the Copht mer- chants f Quoh files ) are acquainted with the firfl: rules of arithmetic; and to thefe limited attain- ments may be attributed all their influence. There are beggars, who run about the ftreets accom- relative to EGYPT. 167 tccompanicd by muficians ; and alfo many San- tons, for whom the people are infpired with great veneration. The peafants, far more refpedable, and infi-’ nltely more ufcful than the contemplative myf- tics, few, till, and refrefh the fandy plains wdth the waters of the Nile. The vegetation, which is at once rapid and delightful, has a great ana- logy to the animals which it fuftains. The vices of poliflied nations are prevalent throughout the Sayd (Sfa ‘id), and they are car- ried to fuch a pitch, as to produce thofe evils ‘ever attendant on ignorance and Haver j. At the gates of Siout (Syouth) there are a number of diforderly women, who flop the paf- fengers ; and they are acquainted in that place with the fhameful fpecies of proilitution, which counteracts the end of nature, and her admira- ble laws for the reproduction of beings. Notwithftanding their refignatlon to deftlny, which makes them confider maladies as an in- evi cable chaftlfement, the old men, and particu- larly the old women, diftribute amulets and talif- mans for all ills, but more efpecially as a pre- ventive againft magic and magicians, who, ac- cording to their way of thinking, occafion all the evils incident to the univerfe. M 4 The l08 MEMOIRS The knowledge of medicine,, if wc may con- fer that name on a rude and ridiculous empi- ricifm, confifts in a feries of loofe obfervations, entirely unconncdled with each other. The fick are expofed in the ftreets, or at the doors of the mofques ; it is there, more efpeclally, that they exhibit the difguftful and afflidllng fpedlacle of fuch difeafes as attack the abforbent fyftern of the fkin, and conftltute that numerous clafs on which nofologifts have conferred the appella- tion of cachexy. Whether the maladies be old and inveterate, or violent and recent, they ma- nifeft nearly the fame indifference in. refpcdl to their termination. Notwithftanding this, the inhabitants of the Sayd (Sfa id) are infpired wdth great confidence in regard to foreign phyficlans, and they readily com- municate their fitiiation to them. They accord- ingly have learned to give decodlions of herbs to their children, on purpofe to deftroy worms; and a drink, compofed of linfeed oil, for the pur- pofe of calming convulfions ; they have found out alfo that the nurfes (and this is an intereffing fact) often drink the medicaments deftined for their infants ; that confumptlons frequently fuc- cced obftnidHcns of the belly; and that the fmali- RELATIVE TO EGYPT. IOQ fmall-pox is dangerous^ often producing weak- nefs in the eyes, and fometimes blindnefs. Their treatment of this laft malady is direftly oppoftte to what experience teaches us to con- fider falutary : the lick are ftiut up in clofe apart- ments, carefully wrapped up, and fubjeeft to a hot regimen. May the inhabitants of thefe coun- tries learn, fome day, to adopt the more natural method which hath fo much foftened that once- redoubtablc fcourge throughout Idurope ! The children are feldom diftorted : this cir- cumftance, perhaps, proceeds from the liberty they experience, as their limbs are never com- preiled by any kind of bandages whatever. At Minyeh I was confulted about a girl of fifteen years of age, who was affliefted with the chlorofis. Her mother, and fome other old women, had endeavoured in vain to reftore her, by means of mechanical irritation, a few drugs and many amulets. I advifed the ufe of chaly- beate ; but the repugnance teftified by them, in refpeeft to fuch medicines as proceed from the mineral kingdom, prevented the family from re- curring to this mode of cure. An old empiric of Siout (Syouth) accompa- nied me almoft conftantly, with a V4cw of afiTift- ing in my enquiries. He had but one eye, was a great ME^.^OIRS a great boaflerj and vras accuftomcd to vaunt that he pofleffed marvellous fecrets, by means of which he could cure all kinds of maladies. Thefe he pretended to have either extradled from the Koran, where afTuredly they are not to be found ; or to have become acquainted with, in confe- quence of the infpirations of the Prophet, w'ith whom his connedlion was equally problematical. Child-bearing is here accompanied with an in- clination to vomit, and other defires, fome of which are very fantaftical. The women fre- quently mifcarry in fummer. They fiilFer more at the birth of their laft that! their firft child^ and would rather die than allow themfelves to be affifted by a man-midwife. If young women are not with^ child within a little time after their marriage, they folicit the affiftance of the more aged, who anoint fuch of the internal parts of the fexual organs as can be eaiily reached, with liniments ; they alfo give them powders, the nature of which we are no more acquainted with than the virtues of thofe enchantments which they ufe at the fame time I Sterility is branded with infamy by the law of Mahomet ! In hyfterical affedlions to which the females are fubjeft, they either make them fmell the dung . I RELATIVE TO EGYPT. !7I dung of the camel, or apply it in form of a cata- plafm, along with four milk, to the temples, the ftomach, and the lower part of the belly. The women are frequently fubjedl to difeafes of the vagina and the redium. During internal maladies, the inhabitants of Sayd (Sfa’id), generally give themfelves up to lepofe and a vegetable diet, which they fcrupu- loufiy obferve. They are acquainted with the purgative faculty of aloes, caffia, and tamarinds ; but they do not know when to adminifter thefe medicaments with propriety. Some of them eat flices of quince powdered with pepper, to ftop adiarrhc^a; others drink lemon-juice. Cachexy is reputed incurable. Cancers are covered with powdered chalk ; they alfo apply animals juft killed and opened, to the head,, the fide, and other parts of the body, in recent pains : fric- tions, as alfo hot and cold baths, are in great vogue. In maladies of the eyes, the head is frequently lliaved, and afterwards rubbed with vinegar ; fome colour the eye-lafhcs, and apply a black plaifter to the eye-lids. They alfo fcarify the angles of the eyes, and throw certain powders on that delicate organ itfelf ; but water, either by itfelf, or wmen employed as the vehicle of any me dir- MEMOIRS i / ^ medicament, is rejedled ; all liquid topical ap- plications are confidered to be dangerous. They often praftife bleeding with a fleam y fimilar to that employed by our farriers : they adapt, to the flirface of the fkin, the bafe of a cone formed by the horn of a young bull, which has been piered at the top. By means of fuc- tion, they attain the fame eiFedl as that pro- duced by a cupping-glafs, and are thus enabled more cafily to fcarify the parts. Milk and honey are employed in difeafes of the breaft ; tobacco and coffee are confidered as aperients, which facilitate digeftion. I have feen a great number of hernias, of all manner of forms and fizes, without any pains whatever being taken either to confine or fupport them. At Siout (Syouth), 1 adminiftered a vomit to a young man ; during the operation, all his family were greatly alarmed ; he was indeed believed to be poifoned, but the eafe that enfued at length reconciled them to this remedy. When a wound has been occafioned by fire-arms, oil or melted butter is applied ; they afterwards ufe fome portions of ficfli belonging to an animal newly killed, which they carefully renew ; they then cover the whole with the Ikin of the fame, and leave the patient to nature and repofe. They RELATIVE TO EGYPT- 173 They endeavour to reduce diilocations, by employing very violent dlftention. They aban- don venereal maladies, leprofy, and the elephan- tiafis, to themfelves. I was unable to attain fo much information relative to the plague as I could have w'iilied. I am induced to conclude, however, after much enquiry, that the term plague, or loubeh, in Arabic, is a generlcal denomination applied to all very violent and malignant difeafes. They affert in the Sayd (Sfa’id), that this malady has been always brought thither from Lower Egypt, The refignation of the muffuimen to their deftiny, prevents them from guarding againft that horrible fcourge. The dogmas of the an- cient Egyptians, who confidered life merely as a paffage to a long, future exiftence, a lleep that leads to an eternal waking, feem to be alfo pre- ferved among their defcendants ; and one is al- moft convinced of the truth of it, when on com- paring the houfes and the tombs together, he ' always beholds the dead better lodged than the livings . AN If 4 MEMOIRS AN ATTEMPT To tranjlate a Fragment of the Koran mic Verfe, By Citizen Marcel. HE Qaoraa, Koram, or Eminent Book, h confidered by the Muffulmen as a mafter- piece of eloquence : the Arabs indeed pretend, that there is not a better written production in their whole language ; and it is certain that the fon of Abdallah was lefs indebted to the fwords of his partifans for the greater part of his aftonifliing fuccefs, than to the hundred and fourteen fourat^ or chapters, which he caufed to defeend in fuc- ceffion from heaven, on purpofe, as occafion ferved, to eleCtrify the rude minds of his coun-* trymen. The Koran, like the Bible and the Vedas, con- tains the principles of a pure morality, intermixed with a variety of ridiculous fiCHons, which phE lofophy v/ould not be able to contemplate with- out pity, did ihe not confider at the fame time, that it was precifely this very combination of truths and reveries that enfured the triumphs of the Apofle of God, whofe policy, enlightened by the EELATIVE TQ EGYPT. ftudy of the h-aman heart, and the know- ledge of the charafter of his contemporaries, eafily perceived that it was neceffary to employ the obfcure and -aninteiiigible language of pro- phecy to thofe who were deaf to his voice, when preaching truths far too fimple for them, he ex- claimed*: Adore the Supreme Archited: of the Univerfe alone! This God is one, indivifible, without equal, without affbciate ; he neither en- genders, nor is engendered ; men of all religions ^re acceptable in his eyes, provided they be juft and benevolent.” The ftile of the Koran is different, according to the different objeds of which it treats. When the happinefs deftlned for the faithful Is to be depided, it exhibits a richnefs of imagery, and a magnificence of expreffion that dazzles by its variety ; and when it addreffes himfelf to the enemies of IJlamifnv^ it refembles a fire that fcorches, or thunder, that lays every obftacle in the duft. * Soiirat 2, 64, and 1 1 2 . Nota. This word lignifies the fc£ps of a ftair, &c. The chapters of the Koran are the ifeps by which one afeends to the work itfelf. The verfes are called ayat^ marvel, or miracle. Each verfe of the Koran appears to a Muffulman to be a miraculous production of divine power. (L — s.) In 170 MEMOIRS In addition to this, he takes advantage of the genius of his language ; his phrafeology may, perhaps, feem to us to be fomewhat diftorted, and wholly deftitute of tranfitions : it is alfo re- plete with metaphors which we are apt to con- fider as unreftrained and hyperbolical, but which appear to the Arabs to be grand and lofty. But he is truly fublime when he fpcaks of the Divinity, and invokes or addreffes prayers to him, which are always expreffed in a dignified man- ner, wholly deftitute of myftical affedlation. As an example of this, may be cited the firft Souratf called Sourat el-jatihJiat, or Introductory chapter, for which the Muflulmen entertain fo fmgiilar an efteem, that they repeat it feveral times a day. ; I regret that I am not able to tranfufe into a tranfiation thofe beauties that fparkle in the original ; beauties fo manifeft, that when the celebrated Lehetd happened to read at a gate of the mofque where a number of the Arabian poets had aflemblcd, fome fragments of the Koran which Mahomet (Mohhammed) had caufed to be attached to it, he inftantly withdrew the poem he himfelf had carried thither, declaring that no writer ought to attempt to rival the author of the paflages he had then perufed. translatio:nu 177 - RELATIVE TO EGYPT. TRANSLATION. In the name of the Being, fuprenie in power 'as in effence ; in- the name of a gracious Deity ; a God replete with benevolence, who every day loads us with his gifts ; toward whom we ele- vate our eyes, and offer up incerife ! All praife be afcribed to the God of heaven, of earth, and of the ocean ; the Father of the univerfe !• — -Ruler of worlds !— Arbiter of the deftlnles of mankind at the day of judgment 1~ Avenger of the oppreffed- — Supporter of the in- nocent! * It is towards thee that our hearts offer up their prayers ; it is thee whom we implore as a coniy mon father ! hearken to thy children ! may . equity always follow their fteps, and be thefr affured guide ! O may they fly from the delu'» five paths of error ! may no crime on their part call down thy wrath ! and diredling conftantly towards thee their hearts and minds ; may they always prove themfelves thy real adorers ! 178 MEMOIRS TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION Of thefrjl Sourate of the Koran, By Citizen — -*s. Soilrat faitJihat al~kitdh el~azy%, oid hye seFa ciyat, • Mekkyet. Bism lliahi er-rahhmani er-rahhymi Ei-hhamdou lillahi rabbi el a’alemyne. Er-rahlimani er-rahhymi, Maieki yeoumi ed-dyni. Eyyaka na’bodou oue eyyaka nefte inou Ehdena el-ssiratha el mouiteqyme Sfiratha el-Icdfync au’amte a’leihim. Ghairoul-magdoubi a’leihim oue la edh-dlialyne. TRA27SLATION. The Sourate which heghis the augujl book, contains fencen vcrfes, and was written at Mecca, In the name of God, benign and merciful ! Ail praife be to God, the governor of worlds ; merciful and benign ; fovereign diredlor of the day of judgment. Wc ilELAtiVE TD EGYPT. 179 We adore theC;, and implore thy fuccour ! — • laired: us in the ftraight path ; in the way of thofe who experience thy benefits ; who have never provoked thy wrath ; and never wandered from thy worlhip ! According: to the commentaries on the fnar"^ gin of the edition of the Koran, publifhed en- tirely in Arabic, at St. Peterfburgh, in 1/8Q, in one volume, folio, for fuch of the Muffulmen as are fubjedls of Ruffia, the theologians (eu’Icma) are not agreed as to the place where this Sourate defeended from heaven : Some of them main' tain that it was at Mecca ; others, at Medina. The following are two of the names given to it ; the mother of the Koran and the feven repetitions., becaufe it contains feven verfes, which the Muf- fulmen have continually in their mouths.” The author of the coitimentary juft quoted by me, remarks that this Sourate contains 20 words, and 123 letters.” It is well known that the Muffulmen have had the patience to perform the fame taff for the whole Koran, See Reland^ De Rellg. Mohajir^, 25 . (L— — s). 180 MEMOIRS On the Dyhig of Cotton and Flax, hy Means of the Carthamns, ^ I^HE Carthamus is the flower of a plant fcarcely ever cultivated any where except in Egypt; but which is an important object in the commerce of that country. It is employed in Europe for dying filks of a poppy, a cherry, and an orange colour : the rouge w^hich confers on women the colour of the rofe, is comipofed of the tint of the carthamus, mingled with talc powdered very fine. The dyers in Europe but fcldom make ufe of it for cotton, not being able to obtain a fufiici- ently rich colour by that means : perceiving, howxver, that it is here employed with fuccefs, by thofe of the fame profeffion, I repaired to one of their fliops, in company wdth the citizens Def- cotils and Champy, jun. and caufed a piece of mufiiii and another of linen to be dved in our prefence. The dyer made ufe of Well-water, that is to fay, of water containing a little alkali, to cleanfc the carthamus from the yellow fubftance which it is firfl needfary to feparate from that which is the RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 181 the red colouring matter ; after macerating and leaving it for twenty- four hours, he expreffcd the carthamus, and transferred it to a fecond water, where it remained during twenty-four hours more, when the fame operation -was rc» In this ftate the carthamus was mixed with a fifth of its own weight of certain afhes, which con- tain but a fmall portion of foda, and then placed beneath the ftone of a common mill. After fe- veral turns of the mlll-ftone, it was collefted with a view of being employed. The dyer then -caufed a fmall quantity of the water of the Nile to be applied, fo that the liquid thus filtered through it became tinted with the colouring fubftance ; this being done, he feparated the lafi: portion filtered, and employed it the firft, mixing a little citron juice with it at the fame time. The cotton being now^ impregnated wdth a faint co- lour, the firft liquid was mingled with a confi- derable quantity of citron juice, in a caldron placed over a furnace, and the dying was com- pleted in a warm bath of betwxen forty and fifty degrees : the cotton foon after affumed a highly faturated and beautiful colour. On leav- ing the copper, it was paiTed through water acidulated by means of citron juice, and finally dried. N 3 The 1S2 MExMOTRS The iinen was treated in the fame manner ; it was, indeed, lefs fa tu rated with the colour, but the tint was ftiil beautiful. The difference betv/een this procefs and that praftifed in Europe, confifts in this : 1 ^, That water, in a fmall degree alkaline, is made ufe of, on purpofe to extradl the yellow colour. 2 ^, That the alkaline is incorporated with the carthamus by means of a milhftone, inftead of a fimple admixture, which probably caufes it to yield a greater quantity of the colour when dif- folved in water. And 3^, That the bath is here a little heated, while this operation is performed in Europe with cold water. The cotton dyed by means of the carthamus, does not ftand the application of foap, becaufe its colouring matter is foluble in alkalies ; in that cafe it affumes a violet tint : it however will en - dure a flight application of foap, provided it be, thrown immediately after into water acidulated by the juice of citron ; it will not, even then, it "s true, re-afTume its original colour, but prefent an agreeable lilac fliade. The luftre of the carthamus does not long en- dure the adtioD of the fun, yet it becomes weaker without changing its hue; and all its former viaout RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 183 vigour may be reftored by means of a fecond dying. But, in order to fucceed in that opera- tion, it will be neceffary to begin by putting the fluff in a bath compofed of an alkaline water of carthamus, and not add the citron juice, until it has been impregnated with th with a total fubmerfion, by the burfting of the dykes j\ The eftedi: is the fame In the countries* wdiich are watered by the banked rivers of Italy, Hol- land, Zealand, and Maritime Flanders, thofe deltas, formed by the depofits of the Rhine, the Meufe, and the Scheldt, but wdiich have been Abbati Mari, Mantovano, Idrctullca pratlca ragionata, t Citizen Dolomieu has given fimilar views of this fub- jed:, in his excellent memoir on Egvpt, publiflred in 1794. I am extremely flattered by finding that myfeafonings agree with thofe of that able naturalift, with whofe work I pre- vioufly wiflied to become acquainted. preferved R£LATIV£ to EGYPT, 213 prelerved by the banks from fabfeqiient iiiunda'- tioiis, exa^i:l}^ in the fame circumitances, I conclude then, that when a low plain wapied hy the fea, is croped hy rivers , which bring with them much mud, and is elevated to the heighth of the great ef floods, fitch plain mtiji have been formed hy depojits from inundations. Now let us apply to the Nile what we have juft faid of the Po. We can the more eafily form a comparifon between thefe two rivers, be» caufe they have each of them long courfes, abound with mud, have periodical inundations, and run into the fame fea. Before the courfc of the Nile was re«;ulated, the waters, iffuing from the mountains, diffufed themfelves like thofe of the Po, upon a great fur- face, which they inundated during the whole year, d3efoftris collecied the waters of the Nile into cliannels below Memphis, confined them within banks, and in this manner formed feveral deltas. Now, if the ancient Egyptians had ex- cluded the waters of the river from thofe deltas, not only, from the nature of the climate, w'ouid they have been deprived of cultivation, but agreeably to the principles I have Juft laid down, •inftcad of feeina; the Nile run between natural P 3 ‘ banks 214 MEMOIRS banks, wc fliould have had a river confined by^ artificial dykes, which would have held poflcfiTion of the foil of Egypt. 7/s michuie then that the deltas of Egypt has ' heen formed hy inundations, favoured hy the Iaho 7 irs of man. The deltas, too much limited between the two prefent branches of the Nile, ought to be con- sidered as bounded by the mountains which ftfetch to the weft, towards iklexandrla, and by the hills v/hlch form the termination of m.ount Mokatham. The diredtlon of the ancient branches whofe regularity Indicates the labour of man, announces that the extent which the ancient Egyptians had attributed to the Delta was the defign of nature. After what we have faid, the draining of lake Menzaleh is reduced, lit, To find the direction of, and to dig anew the Tanitic and hdendefian branches. 2dly, To introduce into partial deltas the wa- ters of the Nile, during the inundations, in order to obtain mud. This can be done without dan- ger, becaulc there is an Immenfe difeharge of the waters of the Nile, by the branch of Damietta, and the canal of Mo’ez. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 21.5 3 dly, To make cuts, Ihut with flood-gates, in the part of the country between the reftored branches of the river. 4 thly and laftly. To open the flood-gates., when, the waters of the fea retire from the coaft, in order that the waters of the Nile may flow out after they have depofited their mud.'^ All thefe operations, though prafticable, re- quire to be performed with much fkill and cau- tion, that the Damietta branch may not be too rapidly exhaufted. The channel of this branch muft afterwards be narrowed. Herodotus was the flrfl: who maintained that the Delta was formed by the river Nile. This opinion has been dilpiited by modern authors. Freret f Memoirs of the Academy of Infcrlptlons , 1742), feduced by the fpirit of fyfliem, has com- bated it with the greater zeal. He has gone fo far as to doubt whether the mud which the Nile carries down in its inundations, can form a de- * The Trandator has endeavoured to do aiinofl literal ]\xi- tice to this memoir; but cannot flatter himfeif with having always perfedlly underflood the original, which certainly is not remarkable for perfpicuity, much lets for elegance or folid reafoning. It is one of the few, in this colledion, which bsar evident marks of having been too haflily written. P 4 2l6 MEMOIRS pofit. 3ut how have the canals of Egypt been> filled up, if not by the llime of the Nile ? Why fuppofe that the waters which fpread laterally, and which are, of courfe, lefs rapid, fhould not depofit the fubftances with which they arc charged, while this depofit is performed by the waters confined in the different channels of the Nile, the rapidity of which is lefs fubjeft to change ) Herodotus was alfo the firft w ho difeovered the caufe of the formation of fprings, which was not confirmed until the laft century, and of w^hich Defcartes gave an ingenious, but little probable explanation. Thus we no longer doubt the ex- iftence of that beautiful mechanifm, the circula- tian of the w^aters of the mountains tow^ards the fea, and of the waters of the fea towards the mountains, determined by evaporation and by the intervention of winds and hills. The Influence of oppofite temperatures ought alfo to be added ; for I believe it may be afferted, that m a central * There was found at Rofetta, four feet unefer ground, a flab of granite with three inferiptions, one in hieroglyphic charaflers, another in Syriac, and a third in Greek. The Greek and Syriac inferiptions exprefs the fame thing viz. — 'rhat P tolemcy-Eupater had employed feven years qfkd a half in clearing out all the canals of Egypt. and RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 217 - mid elevated chain the clouds do not pafs the line of the middle of the ft f pended waters, hecaufe that^ line feparates two climates. The necks of the mountains are the parts moft acceffible and pe- netrable from this line ; and though not fo ele- vated, they are not the lefs placed within the vortex of atmofperic revolutions. This principle, combined with the explana^ tion of the prevailing winds of the folfiiice, ac- counts for the periodical rains which occafion the overflowings of the Nile, and afterwards thofe of the Niger, a river which flows behind the moun- tains of Ethiopia. The manner in which we have explained the formation of the Delta leads to a conclufion, that the bottom of the Nile is raifed in proportion as the adjoining foil is elevated. But what is the relation between the increafe of the foil and the increafe of the bottom of the river ? and what is the probability that the inundations of the Nile ma}^ not either prove infuflicient or be too great f Thefe queftions are not eafily refolved. It is certain, however, that in ordinary inun- dations, the waters of the Nile by no means cover the whole of the foil of Egypt, and It appears that this was alfo the cafe in the moft diftant periods. The SIS MEMOIRS The ancient Egyptians were convinced, that . it was neceflary they Ihould be able to diredl the waters of the Nile, left fome portions of their territory lliould be deprived of one of the prin- ciples of vegetation. Hiftorians pretend that lake M^erls was dug to regulate the inundations of the Nile. The waters which flowed into this immenfe refervoir, and which were retained or diftributed at plcafure, by means of the canal of Youeef, fupplied, It Is faid, the deficiency of im- I perfed: inundations, and when the flux was ex- traordinary, delivered the foil from the waters by which it would have, other wife, been too long covered. This may be confidered as the molt, fublime idea that ever was ftarted, and at the fame \ time, the beft calculated to promote the true profperity of a country.’^' The canal through which the w-aters of lake Maeris, or rather thofe of the Nile, flow into Upper Egypt, and to lake Mareotls, ftill exifts, but is much w^afted towards the end of its courfe. * In the paper on t/ic valley of ihe lakes of Natron, and on that of the waterlefs River, it will be feen what opinion has been formed with refpe£l to lake Maoris, and the primitive fyfteni of the waters of Egypt. 'The RELATIVE TO EGYPT. The part of the province of Behhyreh, adjoining the defert, which its waters formerly fertilized^ is now uncultivated, SECT. VI. hature of the Tongue of hand which feparates Lake Menzaleh from the Sea. FROM what we have faid in this effay, it ap- pears that the geology of Lower Egypt depends upon very fimple principles. Great currents^ volcanoes, earthquakes, and thofe violent ftorms which are regarded as melancholy events, and the recolledlion of which is long impreffed on the mind, being unknowm to Egypt, the ftrata muft preferve the general affeilions of the fubfiiances of which the foil is formed, and the modifica- tions of thefe ftrata muft follow the adllon of the elements (which, in this country, is always uniform) combined with the laws of motion, and the refiftance of the obftacles oppofed. The rains, which fall regularlyevery year during the fummer folftlce, on the mountains of Abyf- finia, rob thofe elevated ridges of their foil, to en- rich the valleys of the Nile and the Delta. The matter carried down by the Nile is de- pofited at every point where the rapidity of the current 220 MEMOIRS current is diminiflied. The folh over which the W’ater fpreads, becomes more elevated. The de- pofits alfo form banks of fand which produce changes in the courfe of the river, affift in the formation of bars, and the extenfion of flioals. During tempefts the winds raife the fands from the bottom of the fea, and drive them towards the coalls. At low water the wind again feizes the dry fand, and blows it into the mouths of rivers. Thus fiioals and downs are formed, and bottoms covered with concealed rocks are con- \xrted into flat fhores. The lateral current which follows the coafts of the Mediterranean, from weft to eaft, corr^- bines with the courfe of the branches of the Nile, and, in confequence of a diminution mf rapidity, produces on the left, between the two principal currents, an accumulation of foil which fiioots out into points more or lefs acute, wdiile the fliore to the right, included between the diredtion of the courfe of the river and that refulting from both currents, affumes a round form. The fubftaiices carried forward by this com- bined motion contribute to the extenfion of the fhores, particularly thofe on the right, from which originate the elevated points that appear between RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 221 between Damietta and Pelufmra, as well as the funk rocks, and that long ledge w^hlch is pro- longed under water, and which prevents any good anchorage near the coaft. The nature of thofc anchoring-grounds is llkewife fubordiiiate to the dircdlion of the fands and fiime of the liver. The bay of Damietta, on the left of the mouth of the Nile, has a hard bottom of black clay, while the bottom of the roads of Bougafeh. and of Cap-Bouyau, fituated to the right, con- fifts of foft, yellowiili mud, and here veffels fometimes give chace to each other for two or three leagues, vnthout incurring danger. Analogy induces us to believe that the Ihores wiiich connect Cap Bouiios and Behhyreh with the branches of the Nile, owes their formation to fimiiar caufes. Finally, the lateral currents, during their ordinary motion, or when ailed upon by the wefterly winds, meeting in the Gulph of Ghazah, form agitations, the effeil of which is too little known and too little ftudied. But which contri- bute to the extenfion of that fnore. Meanwhile, if we confider that from the Delta to the fup.'.mlt of the Abyffinlan mountains, the Nile flow^s between two ridges of hills which arc calcareous as far as Acouan, and formed of gra- nite 022 MEMOIRS Tiite in the upper part, we will have a pretty good idea of the geology of Egypt. The hills which ikirt the deferts of Lybia on the fide of Lower Egypt appear to be fandy : they are covered with quartzous gravel, but the nucleus is calcareous rock. This is obvious on defeending into the wxlls of the mummies of birds above Sfakharah, on entering the catacombs adjoining the pyra- mids of Djyzeh, or on examining the fphinx, and even the foil on which the pyramids are eredled. SECT. VII. Notice on the Towns which communicate with Lale Menzaleh, The part of Egypt which I have vifited exhi- bits every where the appearance of a great depo- pulation. The towns of this difirict, fituated on the way from Syria, lay in the path of con- querors, and muft have fuffered from the pre- fence of invading armies principally compofed of barbarous people, and commanded by fuch chiefs as Cambyfes or Omar. But the principal caufe of their decay has doubtlefs been the fup- preffion of the Pelufiac, Tanitic and Mendefian branches of the Nile. On the banks, or in the neighbourhood of thefe UELATIVE TO -EGYPT. 223 tliefe branches, there were confiderable towns,» fb.ch as Tennys'^', Tounah, Samnah, Pelufium, and others of lefs importance. The ruins of Tennys and Tonnah are now far- rounded by water, and belong, as we have faid, to Lake Menzaleh. Like all the towns wdiich were fubjedi: to inundations, they were built on caufev/ays. The foil, inter/perfed with mins, is at prefent entirely uncultivated. A kind of criftalization has covered the furface, and the earth crackles and crumbles under the feet like fnow which has juft begun to freeze. This ren- ders travelling very difagreeable in thefe if]ands> Tennys was a large city ; a wall flanked with baftions, and a ditch filled with water, ferved to defend it. Now it does not prefent a fingle ha- bitation or veftige of baths ; fubterranean ruins, vaulted with much art, the walls of which are lined with a very hard cement in excellent pre- fervation ; fragments of a redlangular bafon of red granite : fuch are the only objedls that can be diftindlly traced in the midfi: of immenfe ruins of bricks, porcelain, pottery, and glafs of every colour. The people of the furrounding country Tennys, a Roman town, built on the ruins of an Egyp- tian city, flouiiflied in the lime of Augukus, are -£ memoirs are conftantly exploring this lile, whence they dig up materials proper for building their habi- tations. In this manner are conveyed the columns, pe- deftals, capitals, and other remains of antiquity, which are placed in fo barbarous a manner in the mofques and principal edifices, or introduced into more ordinary buildings. Thus the fite of the entrance of the branches of Damietta is a fragment of a very fine obelifk, ornamented with hieroglyphics. We alfo found in that city a door-way, on each fide of which was a pedeilal full of infcriptlons, the one in Greek, the other in Latin, and in a mofque a column of mined grey marble, with a Greek infeription a little defaced. Tounah was a Icfs confiderable place than Tennys. In the former we were fo fortunate as to meet with an antique cameo, lying on the ground.^ It is of agate, mcafures 36 mllll- metres by 2Q, and reprefents the head of a man in profile, which has a great deal of charadlcr Its penetrating eye, frigid air, and difdalnful lip^ afford reafon to imagine it was intended for that Auguftus who refifted Cleopatra’s charms, and * This cameo is now in the poffeffion of Madame Bona- parte, to whom it was brought by the General. furmoimted RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 225 fiirmountcd every obftacle that feparated him from the poffeffioil of power. Samnah^ ftands on the banks of the canal of Mo’ez. It appears to have been an immenfe city, and to have extended a conhdcrable way along thd canal. Within its confines is a kind of forum or public fquare of an oblong form with a grand entrance towards the canal of Mo’ez, and avenues on each fide. The longer axis of the parallelo- gram is eaft and weft^ and on this line are vari- ous monuments of antiquity in ruins, and obe- iifbs broken and throv/n down. When we re- jSedl on thefe immenfe remains, our wonder is equally excited at the efforts necelfary to break them fo near their bafes and throw them down, and at the means that muft have been employed to ralfc them. Time has fpared the hierogly- phics on one of thefe obeliiks, of which a draw- ing has been taken, Samnah is now the market for dates brought from Sfalehhyeh by the fiiliermen of the lake, who take them in exchange for their falt-fifii. Pelufiumf i^> fituated at the eailern extremity of Samnah, (San) was the ancient Tanis, called in the Septuagint tranflation of tlie Bible, which was made in the country, "bzoan (Zo^y^v) whence comes San. (d" AnvUle.) t So called from the Greek word riyiAao-tov, meed. The itrabs preferve this appellation in its prefent name Thyneh, Q tbe 226 MEMOIRS the lake Menzaleh, between the fea and the fand hills, in the middle of a fmooth, naked, and bar- ren plain. The extremity of the Pelufian branchy which is now almofl entirely reduced to a great channel of mud, traverfes this plain from the lake to the fea. The caftle of Thyneh, which is falling to ruins, is on the bank of this channel, but at a confiderable dlftance from the fhore. It appears to have been built about the time of the conqueil of Selim. The ruins of Faramah arc to the eaftward of Pelufium toward the fea. After paffing the bar at the mouth of the Pe- lufiaii channel, there is, for a certain fpace, depth of water fufficient to ilielter a flotilla of little veilels. It was from this place that the veflels of the lake of Menzaleh carried on a contraband trade with Syria. The road that leads from the mouth of 0mm- Faredje to Katthleh (Qathy’eh^) pafles to the weftw^ard * Katthieh (Qatby’eh) feems to be the place which Quintus Curtius (lib. iv. c. 1 .) calls Alexander’s camp. Seven days,” fays that writer, after the departure of “ Alexander from Gaza, he arrived in that part of Egypt now called the Camp of Alexander. Thence he caufed his infantry to file otF towards Pelufium, and embarked on the Nile with a fmall efcort of chofen men.” Katt- hieh, on account of fome very abundant wells, was the only place RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 227 weftward of Thyneh, and through Pelufium ; but is extremely muddy, and it is better to go nearer to the Pelufian mouth. We may fhew by the way that the elevation of the fand“hills to the caftward of Pelufium, and which extend upward towards the province of Charqyeh, fhow that the canal of junction between the Arabian Gulph and the Mediterra- nean Sea, could not end any where but at the Pelufian branch, and at a confiderable diftance from the mouth of that branch. Hence this canal muft have been carried from the Nile, to- wards the Red Sea, and the fear of an irruption of this fea tow^'ards the Mediterranean (wdiich, however, I imagine unfounded, and wRich might have been prevented by proper fluices) thus be- comes much lefs probable. On the plain of Pelufium, going from the fea toward the fand hills, and till within a fmall diftance from the latter, are found fliclls, at firft in great abundance, but afterwards in fmalier place the Macedonians could find for an encampment, the ieventh day after their departure from Ga-za, and it is alfo the neareft point for troops to file off upon Pelufium. The march from Gaza to Katthieh (Qathy eTi) which the foi- diers of Alexander performed in feven days, was accom>* plifhed in fix by thofe of Bonaparte. Q2 quantities ; MEMOIRS 228 quantities ; the ground is alfo covered throughout its whole extent with a faline cruft. Thus every thing ftiows that the fea flows in there, and con- tinues to cover the land during a part of the .year, probably at the time of the ftirnmer fol- ftice. The exhalation is very great in the plain of Pelufmm, and half an hour after fun-rife all objefts appear fo much dlftorted that they can- not be diftingulflied.* Strabo informs us, that in his time Pelufium was 20 ftadia in circumference, and flood at a like diftance from the fea. In faeft the whole length of wall that furrounds Pelufium is 20 ftadia; but the fea is now four times more dlftant than in the time of Strabo : fo that if we draw a curved line at Oo ftadia from Pe- luflum, to meet the moft advanced point of the coaft to the left of the mouth of the canal of Omm-Faredje, we fliall have the extent of land * This phenomenon was alfo remarked by the ancients. Quintus Curtius (lib. vii. c. 5.) fays, that “ In the deferts of Sogdiana, the heat of the fun in fummer burns the fand, and a fog which rifes from the heated entrails of the earth, obfeures the light, fo that the fields appear like a vafl extent of fea.” Citizen Monge has inferted in this colleftion a very y;ell written memoir on this phenomenon, of which he has given an explanation. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 22Q formed by the fond and earth depofited on its right the lateral current which runs along the coaft of the Mediterranean from weft to eaft. Thus the long canal of Omm-Faredje which is evidently of recent formation, will difoppear, and the ifland of Tennys will be brought two leagues nearer to the fea, a htuation which coincides better with that afiigned to it by the ancients. On the plain where Pelufmrn is fituated are not the leaft traces of vegetation. There is howe- ver, an infulated knoll crowned with fhrubs, and a few birds are the only guefts that enli- ven the foliage or the defert that furrounds it. But the aftonifhed Traveller perceives no other JL traces of an immenfe city and its vaft popula- tion, than a few miferable ruins and columns that lie buried in the earth. In vain may he fearch for anv traces or remains of a warrior who w - was long, happy, and fucccfsfal, but who at length was forced to yield to the better fortunes of Cccfor. No, he will fund nothing but the ideal memory of that celebrated hero, who fell a vidlim to ingratitude by the bafeft of ailaffina- tions. A monument near the fliore where Pompey landed would awaken innumerably interefting reflections ; 230 MEMOIRS refledlions it would alfo commemorate the "^era when the defeendants of thofe Frenchmen who completed the deftruftion of Pelufium'f' re- covering from an immortal ftruggle againft a co- alition of all Europe ; after having pafled the Mediterranean and penetrated into Alexandria, came, after an interval of fix centuries, not like fanatical knight- errants, but as warriors who are friends to mankind and to the arts, to fignalize the other extremity of the bafis of Egypt, and the two routes that lead into Afia and to India.— They have trod the burning foil of Nubia, and will feek to dignify their fteps in thefe countries by a ftill more honourable monument, the civi- lization of the nations of the Eaft, SECT, VIIL ' Analyfn of the Conftrn^lhn of the Charts ybeli to that of Tennys . . . . 16,320 22,120 5-, 8 00 From the Tan i tic mouth to that of Pelufium .... 22,950 ! 7,564 15,386- 1 7'otal of the windings of the coafl; excluhve of tlie breadth of the mouths. . . 57,! 20 j 45,407 ! 1,713 The RELATIVE TO :^QYPT. 235 The total of the windings of the coaft, in- cluding the breadth of the mouth, is 45,677 fa- thoms, or 89,087 metres. I muft not conclude without paying to my colleagues the tribute of praife which they me- rit, for the intelligence, zeal and aftivity with which they feconded my efforts^. They have additionally proved, that they knew how to re- concile exaclnefs of operation, with the celerity which preffing military difpatch neceffarily re- quired. The chart annexed to the memoir, although more exad!: than D’Anville’s, would have been improved by including in its conftrudlion the pofition aftronomically determined by Citizen Nouet. APPENDIX. The following is nearly the population of the towns and villages adjoining Lake Menzaleh ; I fay nearly, bccaufe, on account of the prejudice againft an enumeration, nothing can be afcer- taiiied on that head ; and the information which we obtained Avas extremely a ague. * Citizens Fevre, Potier, Bouchard, Trnet, and Sabatier. Lcfbeh 2236 MEMOiRg LefbeH - - - - 250 At Alliouet - - - ido ElbetetKeta - - 150 Affakaria - - - - lOO Efbet inaitiora - - 150 Rahaihyeh - - - - 150 Kfbet Karnoiiiiyeh - 200 Menzaleh - - - 8,000 t)amietta - - - 18,000 Canton of Menzaleh - 500 ^eiianieh - - w - 300 NafTeimi - - - - 200 Miayeh . - - - 1 50 Obon et Lam - - 1 00 Siouata - ^ - IjpOO Mattharieh - - - 3,000 kaflab-^eLKache - 120 El-Malakaime - . - 80 Total - - 32,650 Inhabitants. MEMOm KELATIVE TO EGA'PT, 241 MEMOIR, On a Joumey made, in the end of Frimalre, on the Ta?iitique Branch of the Nile. By Citizen Malus. O N the 25th of FrimairC;, Citizen Fevre and I fet out from Cairo, with a view to examine a fuppofed communication between the Nile and the Lake Meiizaleh. The objeft of our journey was to afcertain, whether or not that canal was navigable, at what time of the year it ceafed to be fo, and to make obfervations on the furround- ing country. In order to arrive at the obje6l of our journey, we traverfed the whole extent of the province of Kelyoubeh, which we found abounding in grain, pafturage, and woods of different kinds* The villages are large, the flocks numerous, and a degree of fecurity reigns among the inhabitants, which we did not obferve in the reft of our journey. W'e found the communication eafy, till we proceeded a league beyong Kelyoub, where the country begins to be interfered by a number of trenches dug for the purpofe of irrigation, but a free paiTage is procured at a fmall expence. The Pv ^ roads. 242 iifEMOIKS- roads, although difficult, are agreeable. Moft of them are bordered with rich gardens, pro- ducing trees and plants of 'different kinds, and others traverfe thick woods and immenfe nurfe- ries. The variety of the fcene announces a kind of luxury in agriculture^ which does not prevail in the other provinces through vrhich we had paffed. On the third day of our journey, we reached the limits of the province of Kelyoubeh, which terminates at Atryb. This little village is built at the extremity of the ruins of a city, which appears to have held a diffingulflied rank. Thefe ruins are fix hundred fathoms in length, and four hundred in breadth. The- fcite of a royal palace, of the principal ftrcet and of a public fquare were pointed out to us. No trace of the palace can now be difcovered : but the inhabit- ants affirm that, in digging the foundations of houfes, they find large blocks of marble. It may be prefiimed, that they have converted thofe blocks into lim.e, and that all the calcareous ftones difcovered in the remains of this city have been put to the fame ufe ; for fuch appears to be the.pradlice in all the towns in Egypt, and the remains of lime-kilns are ftill vifible among the ruins of this. We alfo obferved little fub- terraneous RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 243 terraneous vaults, fimilar to thofe in which the prefent inhabitants of Cairo depofit their dead, and thefe were probably intended for the fame purpofe. The traces of the great ftreet are ffill very difliindl, and form a right angle with the Nile, which wafnes the extremity of the ruins. Another lefs confiderable ftreet traverfes the town, from fouth to north. At the dlftance of a league from thefe ruins, ftands the village of Mo’ez, and the beginning of the canal, which it was our intention to exa- mine, and which bears its name for a part of its courfe. On the 27th Frimaire, when we arrived there, the Nile, at that diftance from its mouth, was three hundred metres wide, and the canal fifty. A part of the waters of the river, diredl- ing their courfe towards the fouth-eaft, increafed in rapidity in this new branch. At the firfl: fight WT fufpedted that this canal had not been dug by human hands, but that it was really a river ; and fucceeding obfervations verified our fufpi- cion. By accurate operations, we determined the fituations and bearings of all the points, in the vicinity of the origin of the canal, and from thence we began to conftrud: the furvey which was to accompany our memoir. R 2 In 244 MEMOIRS In the firfi: fix leagues we obferved nothing re- markable. We conftantly followed the courfe of the canab and obferved all its curvatures. The mean velocity of the current is about two hundred metres in a minute ; and its depth throughout, exceeds five metres. The plain which it waters is fertile and well cultivated. It pro- duces wheat, maiz, or Indian corn, and fugar- canes, with fome meadow-s interfperfed. It is watered by a great number of canals, in w-hich the water is retained by dykes conftrudled on the banks of |:he great canal. Many of them, in the feafon,. vv^hen the waters are plentiful, may afford the means of communication with the interior - country. Among the moil confiderable, is the canal of F}/lfeti, half a league from the Nile ; then, at the diftance of fix leagues and a half is that of Zamkaloueh, which extends to the vi- cinity of Belbeis. In the mouth of the firft, there was at that time three feet water ; that of the fecond was elevated two feet above the level of the great canal. At the height of Denyeh the canal is divided into two branches. We followed the eaftcrn branch ; the weftern feparates into many rami- fications, which join lower down, to that which we furveyed. At RELATITE TO EGYPT, 2^5 At the point where thefe two branches fepa- ratC;, we faw the mins of Thai Baftah:, or of the ancient Bubafte, at a great diftance. They are iituated at the diftance of feven leagues from the Nile, and half a league from the right bank of the canal. We there viewed many fragments of monuments which might illuftrate the hiftory of the Egyptian architedlure. Among others, we obferved a portion of a very maffive cornifti, the fculpture of which was in a ftate of high prefcrvation. This fragment, which might be eight feet in length, and fix in height, is com- pofed of a very hard brown granite. The work upon it is highly finiflied, and it is covered with hieroglyphics, of which we have given a draw- ing. Among the hieroglyphics, or other maiTes of granite, we found fome charadlers which were wholly new to us. One fide of an obelilk, in particular, is wholly ftudded over with ftars, re- prefenting the firmament. They have each five rays, two centimetres in length, and are joined in an irregular manner to each other. Enormous maftes of granite, almoft all mutilated, lie in aftonifhlng heaps, and it is not eafy to conceive what force could have broken and piled them on each other. Many of them have been made into mill-ftoncs, fome of which, complcatly cut, B 3 240 WExMOlRS have been left on the fpot, doubtlefs from the want of means to convey them away. This city, like all the other Egyptian cities, was raifed on maffive foundations of unburnt bricks. Thefe bricks are abvout a foot in length, eight inches in breadth, and as much in thick- nefs, and are precifely of the fame material with that of the bricks now made in Egypt. The burnt bricks occafionally found, are very differ- ent from thofe ufed at the prefent day. The extent of Bubafte is about twelve or four- teen hundred metres each way. In the centre of it is an immenfe bafon, in the middle of which the monuments juft deferibed, are fituated. In this city, the feaft of Diana, the principal one obferved by the Egyptians, was annually celebrated. On that occafion, the concourfe of ftrangers, according to Herodotus, w^as not lefs than feven hundred thoufand, exclufive of chil- dren. This feaft was a kind of orgy, which re- fembled the Bacchanalia of the Greeks ; and the ancients fpeak with aftonifhment of the quantity of wine confumed at it. In this city alfo were coliefted all the mummies of cats to be found in Egypt. That animal was held by the Egyptians, in almoft as much reverence as the -ibis ; and the^ conveyed the mummies of the latter to Hermopolis^ RELATIVE Tp EGYPT, 247 Hermopolis, and thofe of the former to Bubafte. Before the town, is a large Ifland formed by the branch of the canal which we have already men- tioned. The ancient name of this ifland was Miecphoris. It formed a province inhabited by the Calafiries, a tribe deftlned folely to the bufi- nefs of arms ; at prefent it is a well cultivated plain, and contains great woods of palm-trees and fome very rich villages ; among others Guenyeh, Vv^hich gives its name to the weftem branch of the canal. At the diftance of three leagues from Bubaft^, and upon the fame fide of the canal Hands the little modern town of Heiheh, which is Very po- pulous, and is, furrounded with a thick foreft of palm-trees. It is alfo encircled by a wall fifteen feet high, in very good repair, furniflied with bat- tlements and flanked by fubftantlal towers wdth double parapets. The gates are in the form of tamhours, which flank a part of the curtain. This little town appears to carry on a very con- fiderable trade ; and there v/ere at that time un- der its walls, thirty large boats, laden with cot- ton, dates and grain. From this town, to the loweft extremity of the canal, weobferved on both its banks, a great mumber of tow^ers, conftrudled without either B. 4 ■ doors MEMOIRS 2 . 4.8 doors or vfiiidows ; but they are furnifhed with port-holes and battlements, and ferve as places of refuge for the inhabitants, when furprized and purfued by the Arabs of the defert. Beyond Heiheh, in the midft of a low fwam- py plain, ft and the ruins of a town, w^hich the inhabitants of the village of Orbet, founded upon them, told us, was Kourb. We found there the foot of a coloflus, and the trunk of a ftatue ; alfo fome pieces of columns and fragments of granite. This tovvUi could not have been confiderable, nor as we judged above a fourth part fo large as BubaftA The inhabitants told us that it was founded by an European, long before the days of Mahomet. But this opinion of theirs is not probable ; though it be alfo entertained by the inhabitants of the ruins of Atryb. A league farther, on the oppofite bank, ftands a rich village called Kafr-Fournigheh, w^hich is confidered as the limlt.of the civilized country. The barks of theNile never dare todefcend below It; nor thofe of the lower xountry to proceed above it. The villages which we vifited beyond that point, appeared much lefs opulent ; and the land was more uncultivated, although the foil was equally good. The country is much thicker fet w ithtowxrs; every habitation is ftirrounded wdth folid EELATIVE TO EGYPT, 24 Q folid walls, and each village has but one gate ; and aimoft all the inhabitants go armed, even when employed in the labours of the field. We found the canal narrower, after we palTed Fournigheh, where its breadth is only about lixty metres, its depth being ftlll the fam,e. When it approaches the lake Menzaieh, into which Lt difcharges its waters, the depth becomes about twelve feet. From Ei-Orbet, the country is in- terfered with a multitude of canals, ponds and marilies, which render travelling difficult in the extreme. Many of thefe ponds retain their waters for fix or eight months in the year, Op- pofite to El-Laba’idy, on the left bank, is a very large lake, extending to Aboii-daout, which communicates by many openings with the canal, and wiiich preferves its Vv aters for eight months, during part of which it is navigable. This lake, though feparated from that of Menzaieh only by a narrow ftripe of land, has no communication Vvith it. Two leagues from the extremity of the canal, and on the right bank, we furveyed at different times, the ruins of San, or Tanis, wiiich feveral .perfons have already vifited. We found there only feven obelifks, partly broken, a capital of a polumn, of the order fince called Corinthian, an d a monument 2aO MEMOIRS monument of granite, broken in two, which we prefumed to have been iepulchral. We alfomet Vvdth fome fragments of vafes, compofed of a very iinc earth, and fome of them coated with a var- niih, which is not yet decayed ; to which we may add burnt bricks of difFerent kinds, and bits of glafs and cryftal, extremely wxll polilhed. Be- poiid this point, and as far as the lake Menzaleh, the plain is very low, and almoft wholly inun- dated ; and it is interfedled with a multitude of canals, croffing one another in all diredlions. Frontina; San, there is a little canal leading: to Salehveh, which is navigable only for one month in the year. Thus we reached the extremity of the canal ; having affured ourfelves that it is navigable throughout its whole extent. After having col- lected this general information, we learned more particularly, that it was pradlicable for large jermes^ only for eight months in the year. After that period, it may, for fome time, be navigated by little light boats ; but this only in the lower ppti't of the canal. For nine months of the year, the w'atcrs of the Nile flow freely towards the lake Menzaleh, and during the three lafi: months, the W'aters of the lake flow back into the inte- rior country. To provide againfi: this incon- venience. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 251 veniencc, a bank is yearly conftrufted-, wbich lafts three months. But;, notwithftandiiig this precaution,, the f&ilt water ftill flows back to the diftance of feyen or eight leagues ; and oppofite El-Labaidy, where there is but a foot of water, it is entirely fait. Such is nearly the fum of the information, which we collected reipedting this canal. From its breadth, its foundings, and the great number of ruins on its banks, wc may almoft conclude with certainty, that it flows in the channel of the ancient Tanitique branch of the Nile. To prove this, we need not repeat the obfcrvations which have been already made and communi- cated in another place. We fhall alfo wave any remarks on the juncflion of this branch with the lake of Menzalch, and the means of com- mmiication between Damietta and Salehyeh, wFJch the lower canal might afford. As to the communication wdth Cairo, vre fliall only obferve, that it would be eafier and more Ample, to pafs direffly to San by Mo’ez, than by the lake Men- zaleh. By this means, the neceiTity of unload- ing at Damietta, land carriage to the lake, and re-loading on its banks, wmuld be avoided, which would be a faying of time and expenfe. The * See the Memoir on the Lake of Menzaieh, § 1. reafon 252 MEMOIRS reafon why fo little advantage has hitherto been derived from this communication, is to be re- ferred to the depredations by which it is con- tinually infefted, owing to the want of a public force to reftrain the rapacity of Individuals. Hence proceed hatred between the different vil- lages, and a petty warfare, which hath put an end to all confidence. When a fyftem of government and police fhall be extended to thofe parts, property becoming more fecure, mutual confidence wall be reftored, commerce wdll refume a new adlivity, immenfe tracts will be fubjedled to agriculture, the con- dition of the inhabitants will be improved, and riches and abundance will be diffufed through that fertile country. Particulars V F .4 R T I^ELATIVE TO EGYPT. 253 Parttatlars concerning the Valley of the Natron^ Lakes, and that of the old Bed of the Rher„ colledied during an Vxcurfon thither on the. 4th, 5th, ^)th, 7th, and Qth of Pluviofe, 7th Year. Ey And EE OSS 1 5 General of Artillery. T he only part of Egypt that Europeans in general are acquainted with, is the vallcT through which the Nile flows at prefent ; there feems, hov/ever, good reafon to believe from geo- logical confideratioiis, from the accounts of an- cient hlftorians, and of a few amons the later travellers, that this river in Ibme very remote period penetrated into the heart of the Lybian deferts, where the traces of its courfe may ftill be feen. Herodotus affirms that the prefent bafon of the Nile was originally a refervoir, conftrudled under the ancient kings of Egypt, a work o^ human fklll and induftry, probably the greateft upon record. It is from the inveftigation of this primitive courfe of the Nile that we may expedl to ob- tain the moft correft ideas of the geology of EgypE of the w^orks that wxre undertaken to enfure 254 MEMOIRS 1 cnfure its fertility^, and of the moft effeftual mc^ thod to repair the difordcrs which time^ barba- rifm, and ignorance, have produced in a country deftitute of rain, and which, without the annual inundation and artificial waterings, would be condemned to perpetual barrennefs. This ancient bed of the river is diftinguiflied among geogra- phers by the appellation Bahhar-hela-me {the dry river) and is called by the natives of the country BahJiar-el-farigh {empty river). At no great diftance are the lakes of Natron, the work- ing of which, has been again refumed within the laid fifty years, on account of the increafing value of their produft in the various manufadto- lies of Europe : in the fame vicinity alfo were founded the convents of Coptic monks in the fourth century, a period when the aftive fana- ticifm of rnonaftlc inftitutlons crouded the de- ferts of Thebais, with zealots and martyrs. It was of importance to become acquainted wdth this part of Egypt, efpecially on account of the advantages that might be hence derived to geology and the arts ; for this reafon citizens Bcrthollet, Fourier, and Hedoute, jun. ^ were * A Ikilful artid in deligning plants, animals, &c. efpe- cially fiflies. Citizens Duchanoy' and Regnault, the latter s pupil of Bevthollet, were joined in the commillion. defired RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 255 dcfired to repair thither. A military force under my command accompanied them, for the pur- pofe of protefting their refearches In a dlftrid: open to the incurfions of the wandering Arabs ; who, fometimes defceiidlng from Upper Egypt, and fometimes emerging from the deferts of Bar- bary, carry murder and devaitation through the entire frontier. During the whole expedition, we carefully noted vvdiatever appeared to us of any Importance In our refpG lakes : the furface of the plain, gently wayc(i> and conftantly parallel to the fea, is throughout nearly on the fame level ; the foil firm and folid, is compofed of gravel and rounded pebbles, con- filling of flint of various colours, and agate. The weft winds which blow here with great violence, have driven almoft the whole of the loofe fand acrofs the hills which border the Nile, into the valley. The calcareous rock rifing to the furface, here and there diverfifies the view ; all the reft is unvaried defert inacceffible to vege- tation, except to a few fcattered flirivelled Ipeci- mens of nitrarla and hyofcyamus. The impoflibility of almoft any animal fub- fifting on fo arid a foil, was doiibtlefs the reafon of our feeing there only a few individuals of a fmgle fpecies of infecl, the mantis ohfcura, whofe name is emphatically expreffive of the deep foli- tudc in which it lives in the midft of this fpa- cious defert. The direftion of our march from Terraneh w’as firft from eaft to vf eft ; but about two hours before our arrival at the valley of Natron, after having paifed a low hillock called Ras-etiBaharah f the ■co%v s head ) our route changed to nearly north - weft by weft. We halted by the fide of a kajfr, or ruined fort, fituated on a gentle rife ; the fquare RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 25^ fquare enclofiire and round towers which flanked two of its an des are built of blocks of natron, a fufflcient proof of the Infrequency ot rain in this diftrid:. A little below, in the bottom df the valley, are feen the lakes of Natron ; in front, at fome diftance, on the oppofite afcent of the valley is the convent of the Greeks or El-Bara^^ mous ; and on the left appear the neighbouring monaiteries of the Syrians and of Aniba-Bkou We included in a triangle the convents of the Syrians and of El-Baramous, and the ruined fort, meafuring the diftance between the two laft to ferve for a bafe : the length of this was /231| metres ; the diftance, as found by calculation, between the fort and the convent of the Syrians was equal to 74 3 Of metres, and that between the laft mentioned place and EBBaramous, was equal to 9258? metres. The road from the fort to either of the other places lies acrofs a tradi: of fand in fome parts loofe, in others firm and co- vered with faline efflorefcences : a few plants are feen here and there ; banks of gypfum and lime- ftone are met with through the whole diftridl, and there is a ridge of exaeilent chalk between the two convents of the Syrians and the Greeks. :XATURAL 25S MEMOIRS ■ JfATURAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE VALLEY. The valley of Natron makes an angle of about 44 degrees weft of the magnetic meridian ; the lakes alfo He in the fame direftion in the val- ley with regard to their relative pofition and their longeft diameter. In the map of Father Sicard only one large lake is laid dowm at right angles to the dlredlion of the valley ; thus not only committing a local error, but in diredl contra- dlftion to hydrography in general. There are, in faft, fix lakes, three to the north of Kafir, and three to the fouth. The inhabitants of Terraneh indeed, reckon feven ; the lake (No. 4.) 'having been formerly divided by a dyke, w^hich is at pre- fent broken through. Danville, on the authority of Strabo, makes two lakes, but in the fame di- reftion as Father Sicard’s. The lakes comprife a furface about fix leagues in length, by fix or eight hundred metres in breadth, from one fide of the valley to the op- pofite ; they are feparated from each other by banks of dry fand. The tw^o fouthernmoft are called (the lakes of the Monaf- tcries), the remaining four have no particular appellation. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 25 Q appellation. The Sammalou Arabs^ carry on a contraband traffic v/ith Alexandria in natron, which they procure from the northern lake (No. 6.) Drinkable water, though brackifh, is found along the lakes on the fide nearefl: the Nile ; thefe fprings are very abundant during three moaths in the year, from the beginning of Pluviofe ; they then begin to fail, and fome of the lakes are entirely dried up. It is of importance to notice the natural ftatc of thefe lakes. Their fides are hollowed out into fmall creeks, from the top of which the water flow s, as is cuftomary at the heads of valleys : each of thefe is occupied by a rivulet that dif- charges itfelf into one of the lakes ; the ground above thefe fprings in the lake (No. 3.), wffiich we particularly examined, for an extent of about two hundred and fifty metres, is covered with faline cryftals, among which grows, in confider- able quantity, that kind of compreffed mill, of * The Sammalou as well as the Djeouaby ^Arabs,. of whom we fhall have occahon to fpeak hereafter,, are a tribe of hofpitable fhepherds. They are governed by three chiefs, the principal of whom is Scheik Soliman-Abou- Demen. Their force amounts tp about one thoufand men and forty hoifcs. S 2 which 250 MEMOIRS which the common mats of the country arc made. The fprlngs themfelvxs occupy a tradl about ninety- eight metres broad, and a band of natron thirty-one metres wide encompafles the edge of the lake. The dimenfions of the lake itfelf are 514 by lOQ metres; its greateft depth is half a metre ; the bottom is chalk mixed with fand. The colour of the water in this fingle lake is almoft that of blood. The above is the ftate of the lake (No. S.), on the fide neareft the Nile. The oppofite fhore is mere fand, dcftitute of fprings, and almoft of vegetation. Whence originate the fprings that feed thefe lakes ? Do they come from the Nile by a flow filtration through the mafs of defert thirty miles broad that feparates the two valleys, following the general declivity of the country to the north- weft ; or do they rife at the head of the valley in the province of Faioum, where it probably unites wdth that of the Nile ? The fe- cond opinion, though the moft natural, feems to be rendered inadmiffible by the fituation of the Ibeams, which all originate from the eaftern fide of the valley : there are, Indeed, a few fprings on the oppofite fide, but very deep feated. A further confirmation of this opinion is, that the rife RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 261 rife and fall of the waters of the lake regularly happen within a fhort time after the annual in- undation of the Nile. ANALYSIS OF THE WATERS OF THE LAKES. The waters of the feveral lakes contain fe- veral falts, which differ in proportion, even in parts of the fame lake, that have little commu- nication with each other. Thefe falts are always muriat of foda, carbonat of foda, and a fmali quantity of fulphat of foda : in fome parts the carbonat of foda predominates, in others the mu- riat of foda. It appears from the nature of the foil that the carbonat of foda is carried into the lakes by the water of the fountains which we ha\x fpoke.ru of, or wafhed down by the rains ; and this explains why the proportion of fait varies fo much in dif- ferent parts. The waters of one part of the lake (No. 3.), and thofe of the lake (No, 4 .), are tinged red by a vegeto-animal fubitance. On evaporating thefe waters, the marine fait, which cryftal- lizes the firft, retains this red hue, and at the fame time acquires an agreeable fmell, like that of the rofe. Citizen Berthollet is of opinion that the pro- S 3 duclion. 262 MEMOIRS duftion of the foda is owing to the decompofitibn of the fea fait by means of the carbonat of lime which is found every where in the moift foil in which thefe changes take place. The prefence of moifture is abfolutely necelTary to the decom- pofition of marine fait, and this has always been found in thefe circumftances. As to calcareous earth, it abounds every where between the Nile and thefe lakes, as well as in the valley, where it appears as lime-ftone rock or in the form of chalk, MANNER OF PROCURING THE NATRON. The working the fait lakes is one of the em- ployments of the inhabitants of the Terraneh,* a canton which is included in the new boundaries of the province of Djyzeb.f The natron is only carried ^ The canton of Tcrraneh contains lix villages : Aboryat, KalTr-Daoud, Terraneh, Lagmat, Natagbe, and Abounie- habe. t Under the dominion of the Beys the province of Djyzeb was bounded to the north by the Djefr-el-Ecoued, or the Black Dyke, which feparated it from the province of Bahyreh. At prefent it extends as far as the village of Aboulgraoue. The Djefr-el-Ecoued crofTes the plain from the fandy levels whence it begins, as far as the Mile. The extremity of this dyke, near the village of Omm-dynar is furnifhed with flood-gates to let off the waters brought by the ■RELATIVE TO EGYPTo ^ 6 ^ carried during the interval between feed-tinie and harveft. The caravans affemble for this purpofe at Ter- raneh. Each caravan is ufually compofed of a hundred and fifty camels, and five or fix hundred afles. It fets out with its efcort at fun-fet, ar- rives on the fpot in the courfe of the next day, breaks up the natron and takes its lading, and returns without delay. On its way back the ca- ravan halts at mid-day, and fires are made of the dung of the afles and camels of a former party. The guards belonging to the efcort and the drivers then drink their coffee, fmoke their pipes, and make a few cakes with flour and water mixed on ,a wooden trencher, and afterwards baked over the fire. The captain of the troop then places fentinels for fear of a furprize from the Arabs, and the reft of the caravan fleep for fome hours ; they then refume their journey, and by the morn- ing of the third day they are returned to Ter- raneh. the inundations of the Nile. Th^fe waters are kept in as Jong as is requifite, by the Djzefr-el-Fxoued, and thus ren» der the plain highly fertile and produSive. * The great fcarcity of fuel renders it on this account ex- pedient for one caravan always to halt in the fpot occupied by the lafl. S 4 Every 2(54 MEMOIRS Every caravan is reckoned to convey fix hun- dred kanthars of natron of forty-eight okahs each,'^ The natron is ftored at Terraneh, and is fbip- ped from hence to Rofetta, thence to Alexandria, and from this port to Europe ; or elfe it is fent up to Cairo and there difpofed of for the ufe of the linen bleachers or the glafs makers. It is reckoned to lofe a tenth of its weight by wafte and drying during the carriage. The Fellahs of the fix villages of Terraneh pay their myry in cargoes of natron. When from the prefence of the Arabs, or any other impediment, the Fellahs are prevented from fetching the natron, the duty is commuted for eleven parahsf upon each kanthar of this fait which they were required to furnifli. Another fpecies of natron is to be met with at Cairo, brought thither by the Gelab negroes from Arfour and Sen- nar, which is employed in the preparation of the Egyptian tobacco as a feafoning. Citizen Reynault has analyzed this fait, and finds that it contains a greater proportion of mu- liat of foda than the fpecimens which have already been mentioned. The okah weighs 400 drahms or 2-| French pounds, equal to 2 pounds 5 ounces l-20ih of an ounce Englifh avoirdupois weight. , f Twenty fous of France (about ten Englifh pence), are equivalent to twentv-eight parahs. • ■ The RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 205 The natron is fold in Egypt for one patah of ninety parahs for the kanthar of thirty-fix okahs, the buyer paying the carriage by water. The cpllejftor who farms this duty furnillies powder and ball for the caravan, and pays the efcort confifting of fixty armed men, called bafclat, w^ho all receive equal w’-ages. The farming of the natron was precifely a g£i- heJle, The villages that poffelTed manufadtories that ufed this article were obliged to purcliafe, annually, a certain quantity of this fait from the principal agent. The difficulty of penetrating into the natron valley flood much in the way of any opportunity of obfervlng the lakes, fo that they were not ex- amined with any kind of regularity. The bor- ders of the feveral lakes are covered, as we have already mentioned, with cryflalline maffes of fait, which, however, are not touched, though they might yield a great profit, as they are in im- menfe quantity. At prefent there is only the lake (No. 4 .) which is worked. The men go naked in the water, and break or tear off the lumps of natron with a fort of round iron mat- tock of fixty pounds weight, with a head blunt on one fide and coming to a ffiarp point on the other. They take no pains, however, to collect only 266 >IEMOIRS only the furface of the mafs which might be ga- thered with much more eafe than the other part.' It makes an odd fpeftacle to fee thefe black or tawny Egyptians coming out of the water quite powdered with the fait, TRADE OF THE NATRON. To eftablifh this article of commerce on a right footing would require a proper analyfis of the fait, which the inhabitants are not equal to ; and a degree of aftivity and attention which is not pradlifed in a country where the honeft gains of induftry are expofed to be a prey to the rapa- city of the governors. The natron has been fuf- fered to remain adulterated with different falts^ efpecially fea fait, whence arofe an encreafe of weight w^hich enhanced the price of carriage. On the other hand, the manufadturers of Mar- feilles complained of the ferioiis Ioffes which they experienced in the v/ear of the veffeis in wdiich this impure natron w^as boiled. They began to look toward the foda of Alicant, and Egypt was about to lofe this market in Europe, when the war broke out and rendered all foreign commu- nication more difficult. It was in the years 1/88, 8Q, and go that the merchants of Marfcillcs, giving unbounded fcope to RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 267 to a new fpeculation, Imported into France a vaft quantity of natron, a part of which ftill remains in their warehoufes. The export trade of this article from Egypt to foreign countries has been confined to Venice, France, and England. The demand for France. and England was nearly the fame. Venice only took a fifth part of the quantity confumed by the other countries. Citizen Reynault is at prefent employed on a very important objecT; to this article, that of fe- parating in the great way the foda contained in the natron, fo as to be able to ofier it for fale in a ftate of perfedl purity ; which will add but little to the general coft of w^orking this fait, and double the value of the produft. In certain kinds of natron the fea fait is found lying between two horizontal beds of foda, and, here, therefore, it may be feparatedby mere mechanical means. The trade of Egypt in natron wEen a colony of France will, therefore, depend eflentially on thefe two confiderations : firft, in a free and un- molefted w^orking of the fait lakes, which will be obtained by proper efcorts and military pofts, fuch as reftoring that of Kafir, and the Coptic convents, by which means the Arabs will be better known, and therefore lefs dreaded ; and fecondly, 208 MEMOIRS fecondly, by a proper fele and would only have been produced by a large current of water. This hol-= low i found again, and traced it along the whole extent of the province of Djyzreh for the fpace of thirty leagues. Higher up its courfe it feems to incline more forward, perhaps as far as the origin of the canal of Youfef, that is to fay, to that point where it is probable that the Nile has been turned in order to be carried along the right bank, at the bottom of which valley flow the waters of the Bahhar Youfef*, * This canal, which in the province of Djyzeh bears at firft the name of Ei-lebene, then ElaiTera, refumes in the T 2 Thus 2/0 MEMOIRS Thus from the teftimony of geology, which h imprinted on the foil of Egypt, it appears : ift. That the Nile, or more probably only a part of the waters of this river, flowed in the interior of the deferts of Lybia along the vallies of the natron lakes and the dry river. 2d. That the waters were turned afide in the aftual valley of the river ; and this perhaps is the occafipn why, in the time of Herodotus, the w a- ters during the inundation rofe to fifteen cubits, whilft in the time of Marls they only reached eight cubits, and why in our time they only rife as high as eighteen cubits. 3d. That the Nile after this change flowed entire along the hills of Lybia, and formed the hollow which is feen in Lower Egypt and part of Middle Egypt. 4th. That the Nile was thrown back uport the right fhore, and this period immediately preced- ed the regular difpofition of the feven branches of the Nile and the formation of the Delta. (See the memoir concerning the lake Menzaleh).- 5 th. The geological teftimonles which bear proof to the preceding fad;s likewife confirm province of Bahyreh the appellation of Bahhar-Yowef, the fame tliat it bearskin Upper Egypt. What. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 2;7 what we have faid in th^ fame memoir^ that the waters of the Nile have a tendency to bear to the weft, which bearing is marked in Egypt, as it would be for any point in other countries, by the general topography of the foil. It follows frprn this laft circumftance that the projecft of Albuquerque to min the fertility of Egypt, by turning the courfe of the Nile, would be more practicable by n^aking a canal from this river into the deferts of Lybia thap into the Red Sea, as was intended. The valley of the dry river is not the forth eft point of the interior of Africa t]rat is vifited in this direction. The inhabitants of Terraneh go beyond this valley to cut a particular fort of rufhes which are ufed in making the fineft mats. The Djeouaby Arabs are employed in carrying thefp rufhes to Mepopff, where they arp fold, 111 ^ Menouf is fituated on the Delta, near Terraneh, two leagues from the branch of the Delta, and four from that of Damietta, on the eallern lide of the canal of Faraounyeh, which crofles obliquely the fouth part of the Delta. This canal on the tide of Damietta is clofe^ by the iyke of Faraouyneh. It is by means of this dyke and canal that an enlightened adminiilration might effect a juft partition of water between the eallern and v/ellern provinces of the Delta. Thus T 3 mi^ht 278 MEMOIRS In order to reach the place beyond the valley of the dry river, where thefe rufhes are procured, it is neceffary to make three long day’s journics acrofs a tradl entirely deftitute of water. PROGRESS OF THE SANDS. It has been already mentioned that the valiej^ of the dry river was much encumbered with iarid, which, as well as what is found in the valley of the Nile, appears to have been brought hither by the violent winds v/hich blow over the elevated plains fituated to the weftward. The valley of natron and that of the dry river being feparated from each other by a mere ridge, the former has been fcarcely at all incommoded by the fhifting fands, although its eaftern boundary is the high defert that lies between this valley and the Nile. This clearly proves the progrefs of the fands to be from weft to eaft, and their adlual advance in this direftion for many years has Induced very ferious apprehenfions on ac- might the diforr^ers of the former tyranny be in fome de- gree repaired, which, by favouring the provirxes of Manfou - reh and Damiecta at the expeiice of Bahyreh, have reduced this lall for want of vvatev; in great meafure into a mere de- fert? cou^t EELATIVE TO EGYPT, 279 count of the left bank of the river;, which is bj iar the moft fertile part of Egypt. Not to wander beyond the limits of the map;, we may begin by obferving that the fand hills on which Benifelame is fituated, and which en- clofe Atris and Ouardan, are drifted up by the weft winds frorn the defer ts of Lybia. The alluvial foil formed from the depofitions of the Nile ferves them for a bafe, which accounts for the beautiful fycamores prevloufly rooted in this foil, w^hich are found difperfed through the whole of thefe arid downs. The lands here and in other parts are blown on the bank of the Nile, juft as the afhes from Vefuvius are on the fea Ihore ; the road by the river fide is obftrufted by thena to fuch a degree, as to induce moft travel- lers at p4”efent to defert it. The above fadls, and thofe mentioned in the memoir concernins; the lake Men 2 :aleh, lead to the following conftdera^ tions. There feem tube three caufes which, by their union for many years, have impaired the profpe- rlty and contrafted the fertile terrltoi*)" of Egypt. A turbulent adminiftration,aflive only in mlfchief; the diminlilred adtion of the Nile, in confequcnce of negleft, which has agalnyielded to the encroach- ments of the fea much of the newly formed land of Lower Egypt ; and the unintermitted adlion oi T 4 the 280 MEMOIRS the wind, which has driven the fand from the weftern deferts on the cultivable land, and iiato the river and canals* The two firft caufes may in part, at leaft, be removed, but no human ef- fort can raife a barrier to the progrefs of the fands. In this deficiency of natural means, ignorance and credulity have invoked the aid of fuperfti- tion ; and accordingly we read in the Arabian authors,^ that the fphinx near the great pyramids is a talifman to arrefi: the progrefs of the fands of L} bia, and prevent them from entering the pro- vince of Djyzeh. From what has been mentioned before, how- ever, it feems probable that this invafion by the Lybian fands is near its termination, at leaft in Lower Egypt; and, in fad;, there are few mov- ing fands on the plain to the weft of the Nile. This plain is calcareous rock, whereas almoft the whole of the fand in the valley of the Nile is quartz : for the future, therefore, no fand can be drifted from this trad except fuch as proceeds from the decompofition of the calcareous rock. The fands from the interior of Africa, in their progrefs towards the Nile, are effcdually ftopped by the valley of the dry river, which includes ^ See the geography of Abdul-thachyd, who Wrote about the year 1403. the RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 281 fhe provinces of Djyzeh, and Bahyreh. It is true this valley is already much encumbered, but many years muft elapfe before it is quite filled up ; and even when this event takes place, the valley of the natron lakes oppofes a barrier, which muft be in the fame manner overcome, before any fand can reach the plain weft of the Nile. The acftion of the winds on the fands which are in the valley of the Nile itfelf, is, without queftion, the moft formidable. Thefe are in al- moft perpetual motion, and by degrees will pro- bably reach to the very brink of the river, as is already the cafe in the narroweft parts of the val- ley. The river too, accelerates the evil by the eonftant wearing away of the weftern bank, thus of Itfelf approaching the fands, and at the fame time eroding the moft fertile part of Egypt, SECT, III. CONCERNING THE COPTIC MONASTERIES. THE Coptic monks w^ere eftablifhed in the yalley of natron in the fourth century ; but the monafteries themfelves have been feveral times rebuilt fmce that period. Three of thefe are in the memoirs .:?S2 the form of a long fqiiare^ the dimenfions oi ■which are from QS to 142 metres in one direc- tion, and from 58 to 68 metres m the other, giving a medium furface of about 7500 fquare metres. The walls by which they are furrounded are, at leaft, thirteen metres in height, and from tw^Q and a half to three metres thick at the bafe. In the upper part of the wall is a platform about a metre in breadth, above which are loop holes in the wtJI itfelf, and fmall baftions to enable the inhabitants to keep oiT the Arabs by throwing ftoiies, for the inifitutions of thefe monks do not alow them to make ufe of fire-arms. The baf- tions are mafked to protedl the garrifon from mulietry. The monafteries have only a Angle entrance, which is low and narrow^ not exceeding one^ metre in height, and two-thirds of a metre in wddtb. This is clofed by a very thick door, fall-, ened by a lock at the iop, by a ftrong wooden bolt about the middle, and ^ little lower, by a bwar bedded in the wall. The door is further ferengthened, on the infide, by a covering of broad iron plates. On the outfide the entrance is, as it were, hermetically fealed by two blocks of gra- nite, placed upright, and by the fide of each other, KELATIVE TO EGYPT. ?83 other. The diameter of thefe blocks is rather lefs than the height of the entrance, and their thicknefs fuch as to allow them to lie fide by fide within the door pofts. The door is alfo de- fended by a kind of portcullis, When they want to clofe up the entrance, a monk begins by roll- ing one of the blocks of ftone into its place, he then Hides into the gateway, and pulls towards him the other block, and places it by the fide of the firft ; this kind of outwork being thus ar- ranged, he clofes the door. The ufe of the port- cullis is to expofe any who may attempt to re- tnove the ftones. The bell of the monaftery is fixed by the hde of the portcullis. A long rope made of the fila- ments of the date tree, hangs from it almofl: to the ground. It fometimes happens that the monks are roufed, during the night, by the found of the bell ; but always diftmiling, even when they recognize, from the top of the w^all, their friends below^, they never open the door to them, till a monk, defeending by means of a rope to the portcullis, examines them face to face, and is convinced that no furprlfe is intended. While the door is opening a monk remains fentinel on the top of the wall, to obferve whether any Arabs appear in fight. Within S84 MEMOIRS Within each monaftcry is a fquare tower, ae-^ ^effible only by a drawbridge five metres long, and about fix and a half above the furface of the ground. This bridge is raifed by means of a cord ©r chain, which paffes through the wall, and is wound round a horizontal windlafs wdthin the tower. The top is a platform higher than 4he boundary wall. The three monafteries in the neighbourhood of the lakes have wells thirteen metres deep, containing about one metre of frefli water, which is raifed by a wheel and bucket. Thefe wells fupply the wants of the monks, and are fufficient to water a little garden in each monaftery, in which are cultivated a few legumes ; and where grow the date tree, the olive, the tamarind, the henne, and the fycamorq. By the beginning of Pluviofe the water of the wells is at its maximum of elevation ; it finks in fummer, but the fprings are never entirely dry. The monaftery of the Spians pofTeffes the miraculous tree of St. Ephrem,^ which is about fix metres and a half high, ^ Jt is related that in the earfy age of monaftic fervor, the irronks of the defert, already difgufted with their iituation, comipiained of the total want of vegetatioa ip their fandy folitude. St. Ephrem, to prove and enlivep their zeal, or- dered one of his profelytes to plant his llafF in the fand, af- furing ilFXA*fltE TO EGYiPT. 2-8V5 Klgh, and three in girth : it is an Ifidlan tama- rind, {tamarindu$ mdkn, Linn.) of which thefe monks think themfelves the foie pofleffors. The tree is, indeed, very rare in Lower Egypt, but is common enough in the Said. The fourth monaftery, which bears the name of St. Macaire, has only one well, and the water of this is fait : but at the diftance of tbur hundred metres there is a copious well of frefli water,^ well as a fpring on the oppofite fide of the valley. The other two monafteries have alfo a fimilar fpring in their vicinity. The cells of the monks are recefTes into which the fun never penetrates, but by the door, which is a little more than a metre in heighth. The whole Hock of furniture, and utenfils of each, confifts of a mat, a jug, and a kolleh.f The firing liito that it v/ould become a tree. After fome per- fuafoii the young monk obeyed. A miracle took place, the flafF fhot out roots and branches, and became a tree^, which ever fince has been called St. Ephrem’s tree, or the tree of obedience. ^ The depth of this well is five metres, its fquare dImen-’ fions about one metre and a third, and there is about one metre in depth of water. t Thekolleh, or bardak as it is more ufually called, Is a large jar, made of flightly baked clay to hold v/ater in, which is kept cool by expofing the vefiel to a current of air. chapels MEMoiiis 2^6 chapels d’ecorated with images coarfely painted, are kept tolerably neat, but beyond their precinfts every thing is in diford er, dirty, 'and difgufting. The poverty of thefe monks not allowing them to decorate their chapels with any coftly orna- ments, does not, how^eVer, deter them from pro- curing the beft fubftitutes that they are able ; thus, inftead of fxiver lamps, they make ufe of oftridges eggs, which, have a very pleafing efFcft* Several of thefe monks are blind, and all of them have a haggard, melancholy, and reftlefs air.. Their revenues being extremely fmall, theit chief fibfiiiance is on alms. They live oti beans and lentils prepared. with oil : their time is palTed in prayer, and even amidft this fea of fand the fmoke of incenfe arifes, and the crofs furmounts the iiigheft pinnacles. In the monaftery of the Greeks are nine monks, eighteen in that of the Syrians, twelve in that of Amba-bicoi, and twenty in the fourth ; all of whom are fubjedt to the ju^ rifdlblion of the natrlarch of Cairo. VV^e are unacquainted with the aimifcments of thefe pious Cenobites, w^e perceived no indi- cation of cultivation of mind or of manual oc- cupation. Their whole library confifts of fbme Afcetic manuferipts on parchment or cotton paper, fome in Arabic and the refe in Coptic, with an- Ai able tranuation : we brought back w ith us fome relative to EGYPT. 2 Sf ibme of thcfe laft which fecmed to be about €oo years old. The monks appeared to be flat- tered with our vifit, and our minute infpeciioii of the interior of their dwxllings, and before our departure they offered to us, and We accepted the bread of the communion^, A kind of forced hofpitality is exercifed by thefe monks towards the Arabs ; neyerthelefs fo iufpicious are they of their guefe as never to tra- vel from one monaftery to another except by night. The wandering tribes in their journies through the valley fcop under the vralis of the monafteries for refrefiments for themfelves and their horfes : thefe the monks lower from- the top of the wall, for they never open the door in the prefence of an Arab. By means of a bag attached to a rope, they let dowm from one of the angles of the boundary w^all fome bread legumes and barley. They think it prudent to pay this tri- bute for fear of being robbed and affaffmated if met with beyond their walls. Thus oppreffed and expofed to perpetual alarms, it is not furprifmg that they bear with impatience the dominant * The cornmimlon-bread, made of unleavened pafte, is in the form of round cakes, about the lize of the palm of the hand, and a finger’s breadth in thicknefs, and covered witli Arabic charaflers. religion ; ^88 MEMOIRS religion ; fuch is the fatal efFe6l of religious pre« judices and religious differences, that even in thefe holy retreats we were piouily afked when we Intended to majjacre all the MvJJulmans Nor was this the firft time fmee our arrival in Egypt that we heard fimilar enquiries. Such, however, is the combined influence of interefl: and fuperftition, as oceafionally to bring together thefe natural enemies. • It is cuftomary in fome of the provinces when a Muffulman is about to eftablifli a dove-houfe, for him to fend an exprefs to the monafteries of the deftrt with the ufual prefent : the good monks courteoufly receive the gift, and fend back in return a myfte- jious letter which, according to the common faith, if laid in the dove-houfe, will render the colony ftrong and populousi OF THE DJEOIhVBY ARABS AND THE BEDOUINS. The banks of the Natron lakes are frequented every year by the Djeouabys^, a hofpitable tribe who lead a fhepherd’s life, and encamp there * The Djeouahvs have for their leaders Karamit-abou- ghaleb, chief fheik of the tribe, Hhadjy-thahh-aloudihil and Hhadjy-ica-abou-ali. This tribe is compofed of about two thoufand men, and poffefTes about fixty horfes. every RELATIVE TO EGYPT* 28Q every winter with their flocks. They are em- ployed during this time in carrying natron and prickly reeds ; they alfo have fome traffic in dates w^hich they fetch in caravans from Sioua in the Ammonian Oafls : it is a journey of twelve to fifteen days. Thefe Arabs are maraboutlis or peaceful people, ^ who wander here and there to find water and pafture for their cattle. This tribe has more than any other, preferved their ancient cufloms ; they are merely Ihepherds, and refufe to cultivate the foil. Their manners are mild, and partake of the fimplicity of their way of life. They are not however exempted from the turbu- lence of the paflions, and efpecially that of love, which in every country, and efpecially in theEafl:, is clofely allied to jealoufy, and this fometimes hurries them into the mofl: cruel exceflesf. The * They never make war, and only take up arms to de-= fend themfelves, and even this but rarely ; they almoft always trade for money. t Haoud a refpeftable old man, head of a large family, and a dependent on Bhadjy Taha, had his only fon alfaf” linated in the arms of his wife. She had had a former hufband who repudiated her on frivolous pretences, but filled with love and rage, this atrocious wretch fwore that he would kill with his own hand every one who fhould marry her, and he kept his word. Haoud not betng able U to 290 MEMOIRS The cioathing of the Djeouabys confifts of an ihhram and a hernotis, a kind of cloak fimilar to the furplice which is worn by thofe that officiate in the Romifh church : it is made of white wool. This fluff which is afed to clothe both men and w’-omen is manufadlured in Barbary ; it is bought at Cairo, but chiefly at Alexandria. The w^o- men fpln the wool from their own iheep to make the cloth ufed for their tents, and other com- mon purpofes. * The wealth of the Djeouabys, and in ge- neral of the Arabs of the defert, confifts in camels and flieep, vrhilft that of the Arabs who inhabit the villages is in large cattle, for thefe laft have but few^ camels. Who would imagine that in the midft of deferts a ftile of eafy circum- ftances eftabllilics the fame diflindlions as with civilized people, and turns afide natural propen- fities ? The Arabian women do not all fuckle their own children, the more opulent employ wet nurfes. to bear the light of the murderer of his own fon, had retired to Upper Egypt, and, without wilhing it, he had drawn with him feveral Uiiiilies. 1 his unfortunate father perceiving, that his retirement occasioned difordcr in the tribe, has ra- ther chofen to fupprefs his refentment than injure the com- mon intcreft, and has returned to Bhadjy Taha. But he appears always meianchoiy, his eyes filled with tears, and he drags out a languiflung exigence. Thefe RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 2Qi Thofe rnothers who do not abandon their chil- dren to hired nurfes appear equally fufceptible of the fame feelings towards this tender age as the more civilized people. At the attack of an Ara- bian camp which was furprized by fome of our troops, the men took to their horfes and fled with precipitation towards the Nile, abandoning the women to their fate. Thefe, whether by the impulfe of the moment, or from reflexion, thought to protect: themfelves from the fury of the foldiers, and retard their progrefs^ by laying their children at the feet of theit purfiiers, This^ however, did not ftop oiir brave men, for in the midft of purfuit they lifted frOnl the ground thefe little innocents, gavb them into the arms of their mothers, and continued as before to follow their enemies. It is very difficult to prevent diforder from relgriing in a camp taken by affault. In thefe cafes the Arab women, under the apprehenflon of fubmitting to the defires of the conquerors, have been known to have recoutfe to a lingular ftratagem in order to infpire difguft^ that of be- fmearing over their faces with cow-dung. The Arabs of the defert bear the name of Khaiah Arabs, or inhabitants of tents, Uiauih, meaning canvas. The village Arabs are called / U 2 Khaith, MEMOIRS ^(J2 Khaith, or dwellers within walls. TheTe lafr were once wandering tribes who gradually ap- |>roaching a more cultivated country, at firft dwelt in tents, but infenfibly changed them for fettled habitations like the fellahs of Egypt. There is no kind of convention which binds the members of any tribe to the chief ; he is al-' mofl: always of an ancient family, and relpedted as fuch ; but to maintain his authority as the head of the tribe, he muft employ perfuafion, addrefs, accommodating manners, in a word, all the art of an experienced leader; he has, how- ever, the right of making peace or war, and is charged with what concerns the general welfare of the tribe. As foon as peace is made with a tribe, or a treaty commenced, the chief is invefted wdth a cloak, or peliffe ; and this cuftom of making prefents is fo fully eftabliflied, that the contradl would not be thought binding without this dif- ‘ tiuAion. The Arab fheiks negociate with a fort of dig- nity, or rather referve, like all other knaves. What has been called eating bread and fait With their new friends, and which has been thought fo facred a pledge, is, in faft, a mere farce, confecrated by , cuftom. The Arabs on each RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 2Q3 each bank of the Nile have fliewn that they pay no regard to the facrednefs of an oath : they violate their own treaties whenever fear or in- tereft impels them to it. When the Arabs prefent themfelves before a perfon whom they refpe<5l, they leave their horfes at about a hundred paces diftance, and then ad- vance on foot. I They know no other laws than that of retali- ation. Where there are no penal laws, nor ma- giftrates to put them in execution, murder would go unpuniflied, if affaffination did not in fome degree fupply the want of public energy. Hence it is that this, which with us is looked upon as a bafe crime, becomes a legitimate a.A of ven- geance, which is purfued by the relations of the fufFerer from generation to generation. Thefe murders conftantly foment warfare be- tween different tribes, or between the wandering tribes and the villages. It is then called havmg blood between them. Sometimes, to ranfoni the blood and to reftore peace, a payment is made as a compromife ; but this is accounted fhameful, and thus the weak, or pufillanimous, become doubly tributary to the fironger. The villages that refufe to pay, are liable to be U 3 pillaged MEMOIRS 294 pillaged three times. Thefe plunders ftrike the country with terror, and make the inhabitants regard the Arabs as fome of the miofl: formidable fcourges with which they are afflidted. I alked a fheik if he had had the plague this year in his village? We have had,” faid he, the plague and the Arabs.” The Arabians;, like all the inhabitants pf the Eaft, are much addided to pasderafty. The Arabs fay five prayers in the day: they eat in the forenoon, and again before the fifth prayer, or at the end of twilight. Two inhabitants of the villages will qonfupie as much food as ten Arabs. Thefe make but little bread — t© grind their corn they ufe hand-mills, furniflied with fmall grindftones. They eat dates, drink little water, and camel’s milk in preference, and deep about fix hours. Flefh meat is a rarity to them. They make no fumptuous entertainments ; a roafted fheep fet on table entire, all but the head, which is cut off, is the principal difli, and that is ferved up whenever a fheik is of the party. The Arabs only meafure theij day by the Hated times for prayers. They meafure time by the length of their fhadow : the lliadow is meafnred with their naked feet, w'hlch they place alter- nately one before the other. Their rules for efti mating RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 295 eftimating are ; That in the fummer fblftice, mid-day is one foot from the vertical point; that in winter^ at the fame hour, the fhadow is nine feet in length; that in fummer the lhadow which anfwers to the middle point of the interval from noon to funfet is feven feet beyond the place of the 111 ado w at noon.-^Thefe meafurements arc exaftly conformable to the latitude of the coun- try. Thefe people, ignorant and credulous, are per- fuaded that the treatment of ^ fever, and other difeafes, confifts in placing under the head of the iick man a flip of paper containing fome myftic words, written by a dervife ; and the patient lies down full of confiderxee in this receipt^ and ffill more in Providence. The women, when arrived at the full term of their pregnancy, find what ailiflaiice they require in deliverj^, among peribns of their own fex, who make it their profeffion. I was affined, that if the unmarried women or widow^s become preg- nant, th^ killed by tfie irreiations, unlefs they deftroy thernfelycs. The Arabs have a great dread of the fmall-pox and the plague : thofc wliQ have not had thefe difeafes take great pains to avoid thofe that are U 4 fuf^ MEMOIRS fuffering under them. The fmall-pox leaves very confiderable pitting in their faces. Notwithr ftanding the prejudices of religion, the bodies of thofe dead of the plague are burnt with the greateft care. The ages of their children are dated from cer- tain events or periods : thus thofe born this year will date from the entry of the French into Egypt. The Arabs have a kind of chronicle which com- prehends about ten years. They have no public regifters. The date of the birth of their children is written on a flip of paper over a page of the Koran, and that of the children of the village on the gates or walls of the houfes. • The want of chirurgical inftruments gives rife to a very Angular cuftom in ^ gun-fhot wounds, the intention of which (however fulfllled) is to fupply the place of forceps to extradl the ball when it has only made a flefli- wound. This cuftom is to make an inciAon in the hinder parts of a frog, of a correfponding Aze with the lips of the wound, and unite the whole with a good li- gature. They pretend that this procefs, and the convulAve movement of the dying animal, draws to the furface the ball that made the wound. They then drefs the wound with oil or butter, an(l RELATIVE TG EGYPT. 2Qy ^nd burn it with verdigrife, to hinder it from ciofmg too foon. It is for the fame purpofe^ and in order to promote fuppur4tion, that they put in the wound a fmall ftone^, which is the fame with the cautery which is employed in Europe. The Arabs always carry with them that which makes the greater part of their riches^ and with which they provifion their dwelling camps. They preferve their chopped ftraw and their grain in large pits dug under ground. The neighbour- hood of a well of frefii water, a few flips of land of a fcanty produdl, or fait lakes that can be worked with fome profit, determine the fite of thefe encampments. The Arabs poilefs befides, at four or five leagues from the margin of culti- vated countries, ftore-houfes kept faft clofed, and further on in the defert depofits under the fand known by fome outward marks to the proprietors only. The Djeouabys, In order to efcape being pil- laged by the wandering tribes, are obliged to re- ceive them into their camps, and furnifli them with provifions, and barley for their horfes. The Arabs of the defert are a lawlefs predatory race, and had been in a ftate of conftant warfare with the Mamelukes, who, however, kept them in fome kind of awe. On the firft arrival of the French MEMOIRS French the women of the Hennadys^ chanted Siiccefs to the people who have driven Monrad from Cairo. Succefs to the people who have brought us into the villages, ^uccefs to the people who have fed us with fmthyerf. Since, howeyer, we have repreffed their Incur- ilons by vigorous meafures, they have ce^ed to celebrate our arrival. The fame diftj^uft ought to be entertained of thefe Arabs as of robbers and ailaffins they are but little formidable as a mi- litary force, except jvhere they experience no oppofition ; and the expeditions, of the French in puifiiit of them penetrating into the centre of their arid fands and their deferts,, which were efteemed inacceffible, will, no doubt, be attended with the happiefl effedls. The principal weapon of the Arabs is a pike*> ♦ Monfa-Abu-AIi is the chief of the principal tribe of Hennadys. I'hey poifefs about three or four hundred horfes, and with their allies can mufler from 900 to 1000 cavalry. The Hennadys are the moil ancient o-f the Ly- bian. tribes that are known in Egypt. t A kind of cake fpread over with butter, which is eaten with honey, or more commonly with molailes. The pike confifls of a fquared iron head, terminated by Si fliarp point, and fixed to a pole from four to live metres long. The wounds made by this weapon are not fo deep as thofe of the lance, the head of which is comprelTedi but their confequences are generally m^rc ferious, not unfre- quently REI.ATIVE TO EGYPT. 299 which they wield, and throw with great dexte® rity. They manage their horfc3 with equal Ikill, and pay the greateft attention to them ; never^ thelefs, one of their pra£lices appears to an Euro- pean, at leaft, very injudicious ; it is that of checking the horfe on full fpeed, and making him rear on his hind legs. The Arabs never attack in line, but always like foragers, uttering at the fame time loud cries and inveftives ; their ftyle pf fighting being merely that of light troops. The horfes of the Arabs are very fwift, and they pufh them to their full fpeed ; at the fame time, and wTthout letting go the reins, which they hold in their left hand, they charge an enemy in front. If fuccefsful they ftrip him, and fometimes cut off his head, which they bear in friumph at the end of their pike. When they mifs their blow they return to the charge by a half wheel to right or left, or endeavour to gain the Vantage ground. The Arabs are in general but ill equipped. Their fire-arms and powder are very bad ; their balls are not well caft ; the pow^der is granulated guently terminating in locked jaw. The Arabs eaft of the Nile have, aimofl all of them, pikes or lances ; but thofe pf Lyhia carry hre-arms. in 300 MEMOIRS in an inartificial manner^ and is for the moft part charcoal ; they carry it in a wooden flafk, and the balls feparately in a leathern bag, feldom charging their pieces with cartouches. The Arabs bordering on Egypt were in the ha- bit of fending fples to Boulak, difguifed as huf- bandmen, in order to learn the kind and number of the troops about to march againfi: them from Cairo. As foon as their ipies returned, the tribe broke up camp, and fent far into the defert their wives and children, and all their valuables. The men themfelves made a few days march to fa- tigue their enemies, and in the mean time, be- ing joined by the confederate tribes, they either commenced hoftllities or received the attack. Every camp has advanced ^ guards on the neighbouring heights, who carry their turbans on the point of their lances. If the camp is to ad- vance, the vedettes march on the fame fide as the enemy, or the prey which they propofe to carry off ; if the contrary, the vedettes return to- ' wards the camp. As foon as the Arabs are apprehenfive of an attack, they feparate into feveral fmall camps at a great diftance from each other, and tie their camels RtLATlYE TO E6ypT. 30t camels to the tents fo as to be able to move off at a moment’s notice. When one tribe is engaged with another, the women come within fight of the combatants, playing on the tambourine, and iinglng ftrains powerful to excite their courage : the wounded are taken care of by their wives or mlftreffes. The women hold valor in great efriniation, and a chief covered \vith fears is the boaft of the whole tribe ; thus the fupport of empires is the band of union among thefe raiferable hordes of robbers. A cornbat in which twenty or twenty-five men are killed, is reckoned a bloody battle, the date of which forms an important era. It is necelTary when marching during night in the defert, againft the Arabs, to be aware of a circumflance, which would otherwife, often give a needlefs alarm of the prefence of the enemy ; this is the light of the horizontal ftars, which here, as well as at fea, are very apt to be miftaken for fires. The natural encreafe of mankind impofes on them the neceffity of feeking for fubfiftence ; hence the forty thoufand Arabs that border upon Egypt, finding no refource in their arid fands, confider this country as their own domain, and under Soi MEMOIRS under this pretext, are perpetually making pre- datory incurfions. The government has often irieffedually, and never with niore than partial fuccefs, endeavoured to reprefs this mifchief ; in the mfean time the unhappy cultitator was ex- pofed to th6 \^xatious oppreflTion of the agents of goverhmeriii and the devaftation and cruelty of the Arabs. Such Was the condition of the in- habitants of Egypt i It is greatly to be wiflied that it may be henceforth ameliorated; itir, '■' limerary RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 303 Itinerary of the Expeditlm to the Natron Lakes and the Dry River, Eftimated dr meafured Diftances. Metres. Hours. OBSERVATIONS, From Terraneh to Kafll*. . . 12 According to the rate of the cara- From Kaffr to lake No. 3. . 628 From KalTr to the South ex- tremity of -the lakes. . . if vans. From Kaffr to the North ex- trenifty. 4 , From Kaffr to the monaftery El-Baramous. ...... 7,231 ( From Kaffr to the monaftery ! of the Syrians . From El-Baramous to the monaftery of the Syrians. 7,430, 9,258 i 1 \ \ \ From the monaftery of the Syrians to that of Amba- bicoi 444 \ From the monaftery of the Syrians to that of St, Ma- caire From EI-Baramous to the Dry River 3 if By eftimaiioo* Do, From the monaftery of the Syrians to the Dry River. . • . . if Diredt, N, and $, From St, Micaire to the Dry River. . . . . ...... From St. MicairetoOuardan. \ i By eftimation. through Beny-Selameh. , . . . ■ ii On the 5th, we reached the Noithcra extremity of the lakes; on the 6th, the Monaflery Ki-Baramous ; and on the 7th, we croiTed the. dry river. Jingles nxjhich certain DireJUons make the Magnetic Meridian, The direction from Kadr to the monafiery EhBaramous - iqz ^ From KafTr to the monaftery of the Syrians - - i8o General diredfion of the lakes - - * 44, The eail front of the monaftery of the Syrians » - 7 The entrance of St, Macaire, N. & S. ^ - - 10 The entrances of the three other monalleries look towards the north. 304 MEMOIRS OhferOathm o?t the Natroiiy By Citizen Berth ollet. T he valley of the natron lakes prefents feverat objefts worthy of particular attention. It is a vaft laboratory, where nature prepares an im^ menfe quantity of foda, the ufe of which, under the name of natron, goes back to the earlieft re- cords of hiftory, and for little more than the ex- pence of colledling and carriage, the whole de- mand of the mother country may be fupplied^ There are found in the fix lakes already men* tioncd, falts that differ from each other even in parts of the fame lake that have little communi- cation with each other. Thefe are in general muriat of foda, carbonat of foda, » and a little ful- phat of foda, but In various proportions, fo that the carbonat of foda prevails in fome, and the muriat in others. The lake No. 3, which we particularly ex- amined, is divided into two parts, the waters of which have fcarcely any communication ; the eaftern part contains only common fait, and the wxftcrn little elfe than carbonat of foda, fo that ■we find on one fide of the lake, by fpontaneous evaporation marine fait, and on the other carbo- nat of foda, each al moft pure. Durins: RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 305 During fummer, the faturated water depofits faline crjftals, and when at holds both muriat and carbonat of fo da, the former cryftalllzes firft^ and then the carbonat of foda, fo that there are formed alternate ftrata of the two falts, which increafe every year, provided they are not dif= turbed. The water of part of lake No. 3 ^ and that of No. 4 is red, as is alfo the muriat of foda which is depofited ; this colour is owing to fome' fub- ftance that is not mineral, but which burns^ giving out ammoniacal vapours ; when the fame fubfides on the carbonat of foda it becomes black. The faline maffes that cryftallize in lake No, 4, or on its fides, are the moft eagerly fought af- ter by the caravans that bring the natron to Ter- raneh. The red colour w^hich it has, gains it the name of Natron of the Sultan. We are inform- ed that it is preferred in the Delta to any other for bleaching linen and thread. It is however, for the moft part only common fait, and care fhould be taken not to export it to Europe for fear of difcredltins: the trade. o The fix lakes are in part furrotinded with reeds. The foil which feparates them, and which forms the valley is in general covered with in- cruftations, compofed principally of maffes of X carbonat 3o6 MEMoi^as carbonat of foda of greater or lefs purity, but partly of muriat of foda. There are fandy fpots that contain no fait, and others that are too wet and clayey to retain it. Some of the maffes of carbonat of foda are more than three decimetres in thicknefs, and have acquired a hardnefs ap- proaching to that of ftone. Of fuch are built the walls of Kaffr. We collected Indifcrlmlnately fpecimens of the natron in different beds around the lakes, and fubmitted a determinate quantity of each to an allay. We diffolved them, filtered the fblu- tlon, dried the earth remaining on the filter, fa- turated the alkali of the liquid, and compared the quantity of muriatic acid necelfary for its fa- turation, with that required by an equal weight of carbonat of foda deprived of its water of cry- ftallization. The refults of thefe experiments are given in a tabular form drawn up with care by citizen Regnault. It might be fiippofed that the foil of the valley of the natron lake would be equally impregnat- ed with the foda and muriat of foda which ef- florefce or cryftallizes on its furface. Several cir- cumftances however thatw^e have remarked fcem to prove, that the carbonat of foda owes its ori- gin to the dceompofition of the marine fait. In So? HELATIVE TO EGYPT. In that part of the lake No. 3, which I have fald only contains fea-falt^ is found a circular iiland that is covered with natron : the fifth fpe^- cimen., as marked in the table, was procured from thence. After having removed the cruft of na- tron, the moift foil only contains muriat of foda : the carbonat of foda therefore which is found there furroimded with v/ater that only contains fea-falt, and upon a foil impregnated wdth fea-» fait, muft neceflarily owe its origin to this fait. In like manner, in feveral places that are cover- ed w ith fea-falt, fmall fpots, fometimes not more than a fquare decimeter in fize, are found, upon which natron has depofited, formed in the midft of fea-falt. The foil which is covered by layers or Incruf- tations of natron, does not itfelf contain a fenfi- ble quantity of foda ; but it is always found im- pregnated with fea-falt. It appears therefore inconteftable that the ma- rine fait produces, by its decompofition, the car- bonat of foda which is contained in the natron, in all thofe places where its depofition is not ow- ing to the evaporation of water. Let us now examine what are the circum- ftances which determine its decompofition. X 2 If 308 MEMOIRS If the foil is too argillaceous no natron is found at the furface, but only fea-falt, or at leaft, it contains but very little carbonat of foda. If it is too fillceous, no fait at all is yielded, the rains having doubtlefs wafhed avv^ay every thing faline. The foil in which this decompofitlon of fea-falt is taking place always contains a conhderable por^ tion of carbonat of lime, and has always been found in a moift ftate. It appears then certain, that it is the carbonat of lime which occafions the decompofitlon of the muriat of foda, with which it is made to come in contadl by means of the heat and moifture. There is likewife found in every foil, whether clayey, chalky, or fandy, a fmall quantity of oxyd of iron, but which probably docs not influence the formation of carbonat of foda. Since the muriat of lime which refults from the decompofitlon of the muriat of foda is very deliquefeent, it muft doubtlefs fink deep into the foil till it is itfelf decompofed by fome fubftanc^ that it may meet with. In thofe places principally where the earth is too argillaceous, the produdlion of the natron is Angularly favoured by the ftems of rufhes, around which the carbonat of foda adheres as fall as it forms, and gradually climbs to the top of the ftalk^ RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 309 ftalk^ fo that it is not uncommon to find a ruili covered with a thick coating of natron^ whilft the foil which furrounds it^ contains only miiriat of foda^ mixed with a very fmall portion of car- bonat of foda. When the natron which covers any foil has been carried off, it requires^ as we have been in- formed, four years for its rcproduftion, if the fea- ions have been moift, and fix if they have been dry. It appears that the rains which fall in this part of Egypt, and which produce the beds of fmall torrents that are feen around the lakes, ferve not only to keep up the due degree of moif- ture neceffary for the decompofition of the fca- lalt, but alfb bring wdth them this fait, whereby the land becomes impregnated and capable of de- compofition : fo, in a higher plain near the for- mer Coptic convent, we found a great extent of ground covered with a thick cruft of marine fait, and in feveral other parts of the defert, in the neighbourhood, fimilar cryftallizations of fait have ,been met wdth. The rain torrents in their paf- fage to the lakes carry with them not only the fea-falt, but the foda which may fall in their way, and hence, according to the courfe of the currents^ we find the water in the lakes to con- X 3 tain 310 MEMOIRS tain in particular parts, either fea-falt alone, or carbonat of foda alone, or thefe tv/o falts in dif» ferent proportions. The general refult of thefe obfervations is, that the circumftances which determine the for- mation of carbonat of foda are : ift, A mixture of carbonat of lime and fea-fak ; and 2dly, A pretty uniform moifture. The ftalks of the reeds fa- vour this production, by affifting the efflorefence of the carbonat of foda, and the heat of the climate doubtlefs contributes to this elFedt. - It is on the confideration of thefe circumftances that I mean to ground the explanation of this produdlion in a memoir which I fliall foon pre- fent to the Inftitute*. It will be feen by the table hereto annexed, that there are fome famples of natron which con- tain much carbonat of foda, and therefore, may be looked upon as a very good foda, but that others are of a much Inferior quality, fo that in order to eftablifh the ufe of this article in Europe * I began the reading of this memoir, v/hichis entitled. An Enqniry into the Laws of Chemical Affinity”, at the Jail fittings of the Inllitute of Egypt, at which I affifted. On my return to Paris, I prefented it to the IN atioiial Infti- tute, wh^ve it ha? been read. with RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 311 with confidence, it would be neceiTary to have an intelligent agent on the Ipot, to fele6l the fait, and to fix difierent prices according to the goodnefs of the natron, which fliould be deter- mined, not by accidental changes of colour, but actually afcertaining its contents in carbonat of foda. Thefe works would then become an irn~ portant branch of the revenues of Egypt. What would be ftill more advifeable, is to pu- rify the carbonat of foda on the very fpot where it is worked, or at Terraneh, the place where the caravans unload and depofit their natron, fo that it fliould be quite free from earth, contain but little fea-falt, and be manufaftured in an uniform manner. Citizen P^egnault has under- taken experiments to arrive at this defired end, by which he prppofes to take advantage of the greater folubiiity of carbonat of foda, over mu- riat of foda, and the evaporation which may be produced by the heat of the fun. X 4 T'ahk 312 memoirs rs ‘C < o 3 B “S' ‘g c p T 3 o X 1 rj *o X3 P -o c KS Cu t-l o ^ a> cs = 5 J o « -a c as J2 a o u os OS o u o -> oJ ^ o -p y c J a JZ u P c« 'P C u. -' G C U- U-. oo o o o o C — ■a .- a o § a ^ P .G XJ X 'G ^ C 2 ^ G . •' P ^ I u, ►b -^u2< a~ t)j3-p “• G P c-C .G ^ p .G cs ^ G P cr-„ p G c 03 P == J 2 p 1^ - v2-S'o a :S C P o 2 uD inO ” P- C 0-"0 0b/e?^atio7ts is found near the lake, No. 2. It contains no foda, but is only fca fait coloured with a vegeto- animal matter — — o 8 of fand. As this laft fpecies of natron lies between alternate layers of carbonat of foda and miiriat of foda, there was great difference found in the analyfis of different fpecimens. EELATIVE TO EGYPT, 313 OhferuaUons o?i the dyeing Properties of the HhennL By Citizens Descotils a7id Berthollet. The Hhenne is a fhrub which grows in In- dia, and is cultivated in Egypt, principally in the heigbourhood of Cairo. It is of the family of falicaria : it was known to the ancients under the name of Cyprus, and was employed in dyeing the cloth with which the mummies were co- \ vered. The leaves after being haftily dried are beaten into a pafte, which is ufed to dye of a red orange the nails and palms of the hands. The Hhenne when reduced to powder has an olive colour. By boiling with water it gives a very deep yellow orange^ liquor, highly loaded with colouring particles. By long expofure to the air this decodllon, if diluted with water, lofes a part of its colouring matter, without, however, altering its fhade, and brown pellicles form on the liquor. The oxygenated marine acid deftroys its co- lour, but it requires a large quantity to produce this effed. Acid 314 MEMOIRS Acids weaken the tint, alkalies render it deeper ; but neither of them alter its tranfpa- rency. Lime-water afts on the colour like the alkalies, but it makes the liquid turbid. Muriat of foda produces no alteration. Sulphat of alumine llowly produces a bright yellow depofit, lefs tending to orange than the natural colour. Nitro-muriat often occafions more fpeedily a pale orange precipitate. Sulphat of iron troubles the liquor and gives a black a little mixed with green ; but no pre- cipitate fettles to the bottom:. Nitrat of iron gives a black precipitate approaching to green. A folution of glue produces no precipitate, ihewing that the Hhenne contains no tan, and cannot therefore be employed in tanning hides. We dyed with a decodllon of Hhenne a ftrip of woollen cloth not previoufly prepared, aether that had been alumed, and another that had been foaked in a nitro-muriat of tin, prepared with a mixture of nitric acid and muria.t of a,m- monlac. The firft took a yellow colour approaching to orange. The fecond a brown yellow. The RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 315 The third a yellow much brighter, and with more orange in it than the firft. Other fpecimens took clearer colours when dyed with a deco6lion lefs loaded with colour- ing matter. By this means various gradations may be made to a very clear yellow v/ith cloth not prepared, and as low as a grey a little mixed with green on alumed cloth. By wafhing with foap, thefe dyed ftrips took a more orange tint and a little weaker, but on the whole very little colour w^as loft. Stuff prepared with fulphat of iron took a brown, bordering on green. A little of this met- tallic fait added towards the end of the dying procefs gave fomewhat of a coffee-brown, w/hich appeared to us to be very good ; by merely dip- ing the cloth, after it has come out of the dye- vat, in a folution of fulphat of iron, it acquires a browm tint w^hich adds confiderably to its beauty. Some of thefe fpecimens having been expofed to the fun for fevcral days, appeared to have un- dergone no other change than having taken ra- ther more of an orange tirade. The alumed cloth, and that which had been prepared wdth fulphat of iron, had not experienced the flighteft change. The colours alfo refifted the ahlion of the 316 MEMOIRS the oxymuriatic acid in the fame manner as the moft permanent dyes. Cotton, both unprepared and alumed, acquir- ed only a dull yellow colour ; unprepared lilk took a bad ruflet-brown ; but by means of nitro- muriat of tin acquired a good orange yellow. The refult of thefe experiments is, that the Hhenne abounds in colouring matter, which may be advantageoufly employed in dyeing wool; that by itfelf it gives permanent fawn colours, and that by means of alum and fulphat of iron it may be made to yield different fhades of brown, valuable for their variety, their cheapnefs md permanency. EUDIO^ RELATIVE TO EGYPT. EUDIOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS, By Citizen Berthollet. S INCE the difcovery of the compofition of atmafpheric air, various attempts have been made to afcertain the relative proportion of the oxygenous and azotic gas, with all the variations arifing from climate and other caufes. A general acquiefcence has not, hovv^ever, yet been obtain- ed with regard to the bcft method of doing this. Advantage was firft taken of the property of nitrous gas to abforb oxygen gas, and chemlfts were contented with noting the diminution of volume in the air thus examined, taking for granted that the purity of the air was in exaft proportion to the diminution which it expe- rienced. Enquiry was then made into the real quantity of oxygen that combined with the nitrous gas, in order to determine, by the abforption pro- duced on mixture of the two gaffes, the propor- tion of oxygen and azot in atmofpheric air. Nitrous gas, however, will not give the fame refult without great care in its preparation, as Ingenhoufe has Ihewn long fmee ; Vv^hen there- fore BIB MEMOIRS fore we wifk to efHmate from this the proportion of oxygen gas, we fhall find ourfelves deftitute of any fixed bafis for eftimating what proportion of the abforption is due to the nitrous gas, and what to the oxygen. I flnd> by an extract in the hulletin de la So- ciete Phllomathlque, which has juft reached us, that M. Humboldt has endeavoured, by feveral ingenious experiments, to do away the uncertain- ty, originating from variations in the nitrous gas, and that he offers as correct, a method of de- terming by this re- agent the exaft proportion of oxygen gas, by introducing feveral corrections into his calculations. I hope, however, to prove from experiments that I am now engaged in^ with citizen Champy, jun. that this method is founded on inadmiffible fuppofitions. Volta’s proof by hydrogen gas is far more precife, but has the difadvantage of requiring a complicated apparatus ; and variations may be produced m the hydrogen from the quantity of carbon held by it in folution, fo as to caufe a fen- ^ Thefe experiments were not yet finifhecl when I quitted Cairo, and not having brought with me the minutes con* taioing the calculations, I have been obliged to recommence my experiments, the relult of which I lhall fnortiy publilh. RELATIVE TO EGYpl^« 3ig fible diiference in the refult. This method may neverthelefs be regarded as fafficlently exad;^ when nothing more is wanted than the compa- rifon of different airs, and when the hydrogen employed is all of the fame kind ; but accuracy muft not be expedled in this way, if the Intention is to determine the abfolute quantity of oxygen^ The proportions by v/eight of oxygen and hydro- gen that enter into the compofition of water are fufficiently well known, but the relative fpecific gravities of the two gaffes are not yet exadlly af- certained ; the difference alfo obfervable in hy- drogen renders it impoifible to proportion accu- rately the refpediive fhares of the oxygen and hydrogen in the diminution of bulk caiifed by their comibuftion. Liquid alkaline fulphuret prefents the double advantage of giving at the fame time the rela- tive proportions of the air fubmitted to experi- ment, and the abfolute quantity of oxygen gas, for the whole dimunltlon is here due to the oxy- gen, whereas in the preceding methods k is divided between the oxygen and nitrous gas, or hydrogen. There is alfo no occafion for any further corrections than what are required by the different temperature and atrnofpberlc preL fure, at the time when the air was begun to be operated 320 MEMOIRS Operated on, and when the diminution was cal- culated. It is impoiTible that the abforption of oxygen Ihould be incomplete when water fufiiciently charged with falphuret is made ufe of, on ac- count of the greatly fuperior affinity between fulphuret and oxygen, than between this laft and azotic gas ; and if any diminution fhould be ex- perienced, after the feparation of the oxygen, by mixing the azot with nitrous gas, this is not to be attributed to any remaining oxygen, as I fhall prefently ffiow. It muft indeed be allowed that the volume of the remaining air is not precifely the adlual bulk of the azot, becaufe it holds in folution a little fulphuret, or rather fulphurated hydrogen, which always, exills in the liquid fulphuret; and this mixture may be detected by its peculiar fmell ; but by waffiing the azot with a little water its odour entirely difappears, without any fenfible decreafe of its bulk, fhewing the quantity of ful- phurated hydrogen to be extremely fmall. There is no fear of the azot itfelf being ab- forbed by the fulphuret, for if this abforption be- gun it would go on, whereas the volume of azotic gas confined over fulphuret remains permanent as foon as the oxygen is abforbed. It RELATIVE TO EGYPT* 321 It is poffible therefore to determine, by means of the liquid fulphuret, the proportion of oxygen contained in any air, with as great precifion as can reafonably be expected from chemical re- agents. The only incoilvenience of this method is the llownefs with which the fulphuret a where it is very common, and which has anfvver- ed with fjcccfs the trials that have been made of it in the forge of the ordnance in the dock- yard of Toulon. This iron muft be heated to v/hitenefs, and almoft till it melts, and forged in this ftatc ; wdien its M-EMOIRS sa2 its glow abates, ^and it begins to grow red, the forging muft be flopped, for it is at this time that it becomes brittle under the hammer^ and would fplit if the hammering were continu- ed. When it is become of a faint cheny'red, it may be again worked, and forged till it is cold. The cooling may indeed behaflened by plunging it in w^ater. Tproved fome hot-fliort iron thrown afide as refufe at Toulon, and wrought it the fame way I have juft been mentioning. There are two methods of tryina: the tenacity -O ^ of iron ; the one by means of a w eight fufpended at one extremity of a bar, w hilft the other is firmly fixed in a wall ; the other by means of twifting. For thislaft trial I fxcd in a vice a bar made with an eye, through wdiich was pafled a lever of iron : it required a great force to twdft off the ftem of that made of hot-fliort iron, w'hllft another made with what pafled for the beft iron in the forges broke with eafc. In the flrft trial (by means of a weight) the mean degree of tenacity waas found to be in fli- v'our of the hot-ftiort iron in the proportion of 4 to 3 . The degree in the fecond trial, which was much more to the advaiita however, they will not I trufl; be deftitute of intereft, and this has been my inducernent in drawing up the preceding account ; it is poffible alfo that they may be here applied to advantage, and this is a fufficient apology for them, if they ' Hand in need of any. .REPORT RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 345 EEPORT ON THE OASES. Citizen Eipault pre/efited to the ' Injlitute, a Memoir, intitle d, Refe arches on the Oafes and Citizen Fourier read the Report of the HE Oafes are tracts of cultivated land. fituated like iflands, in the midft of the de- ferts of Lybia. In thefe cantons an abundance of water preferves perpetual vegetation ; a profu- fion of trees of different kinds adorn the foil, and the inhabitants collect a confiderable quantity of The writers of Greece, and thofe of the mid* die ages, have defcribed this fpecies of iflands with an accuracy which might have been deem- ed fatisfaftory, if their text had not been obfcur- ed by a multitude of commentaries. Thefe dif- cuffions have involved this fubjeft in an uncer- tainty, which it is neceffary to diffipate. Strabo hath enumerated only three Oafes, al- though many other cantons may be included under that denomination. The principal object of the memoir of citizen Ripault was to afcertain CommiJJioners appointed to examine that Memoir. fruit. with 340 MEMOIRS With precifion the pofition of thofe three Oafes, which he has done with muxh diftinflnefs. The firft, or the Oa/is niagna, is fituatcd, almoft as high as Jirjeh^ in the parallel of 26 degrees and a half. The fecond^ or Oajts parva, is in the latitude of 29 degrees^ 2 minutes, \vhich is nearly the pa- rallel of Benicouef. With regard to the third Oafis, the author of the memoir has made it ap- pear, that it is none other than the little coun- try now called Siwah^ concerning which he col- ledled, at Alexandria, much intereftlng informa- tion : its latitude is 2Q degrees 20 mfeutes. The w^riter whofe opinion is moft oppofite to that adopted in the memoir, is the author of queftions propofed to the Danifh travellers*. His opinion is confufedly ftated, in the Tatin commentary on Aboulfeda ; but, as it. almoft direclly contradidls the accounts of Herodotus, Strabo and Ptolomy, any refutation of it £eems imneceffary. There is fcarcely an article in the ancient geo- graphy, on wdiich more errors have been com- mitted, than on the fubiedl of the Oafes. Mo- derh travellers and hlftorians appear to have entertained very incorredt ideas of them. Savary ^ Michaelis. alters relative to EGYPT. alters their latitude feveral degrees, places the Oafis of Ammon at random on his map, and banilhes thither the great Athanafius, though that faint never was there : and he advifes thofe W'ho would undertake to recover the ancient literature of the Egyptians, to fearch thofe iflands carefully for books, which, being loft to the jeft of the world, cannot fail to be there ! Niebuhr and Norden make no mention of any 'of the three Oafcs ; and Pocock briefly reports what had been written by others on the fubjed:. But the pofitions of the two firft are determined with precifion in the maps of Danville; though, in tracing the Ammonian Oafis, that illuftrious geogra|^her does not diftinguifli it from the tem- ple of Ammon, and places, at a little diftance from it^ fite, the ancient city of Mareotis, on the territory of Siwah. Doftor Poncet and Lenoir du Roule are the only Europeans, who are known to have pene- trated Into the great Elouah ; and, by the ac- counts of the former, that country is not lefs than twenty-five leagues in length, and four or five in breadth. The papers of the latter v/ere loft at Sennaar, where that ambaiTador of Louis XIV. periflied in a tumult ; the vidlim of his own zeal 348 MEMOIRS zeal, and the machinations carried on in a con- vent*. Siwah is fituated to the ^veftward of Ammon. A young Englifhman, of the name of Browne, whofe ^ The conveiTon of Abyffinia to the catholic faith, has feveral times excited the zeal ofmiffionaries. The reform- ed Francifeans, and the fathers of the holy land, who con- tended for the million to Egypt, were Hill more ardently felicitous to be charged with the re-eftablifhment of the Ro- milh religion in Ethiopia. 4'he priells of the holy land polTcfled moft credit at Rome ; but their rivals, the Francif- eans, fupported their pretenlions, by reprefenting the nu- merous fervices which they incelTantly rendered to the Chriftians in Nubia. Not that there were any other Chrif- tians than the Francifeans themfelves in that country ; but they indulged that fuppofition, without which their miffion would have had no objedf. During this conteft, the enterprize, of which they mu- tually ifrove to have the honour, flattered the ambition of the Jefuits. That order then poflefTed no influence at the court of Rome ; but they had recourfe to the powerful me- diation of Louis XIV. That monarch reprefented to the pope, that the Jefuits were much more capable, than the Francifeans and Capu- chins, of fecuring the triumph of the faith in Ethiopia. The pope appeared to acquiefee ; but, at the fame time that he authorized the Jefuits to fulfil the religious views of the king of France, he charged a monk of a different order, with the execution of his own defigns ; and, as if he had had a mind to bellow the country on the firll occupant, he added, that the moll able might make a beginning. I'he RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 349 whofe travels are now In the prefs*, hath vifited the temple of Ammon, and the country of Si- wah. Citizen Ripault hath collefted from the inhabitants The Jefuits, to elude this new competition, made appli-- cation to the French conful at Cairo. That officer, the au- thor of TclUamed^ an impious work proferibed by the Sor- bonne, and the Jefuits, whofe ambitious conduT had before expelled them from Abyffinia, laboured in conjun£lion with the king of France, to fupplant the monks of St. Francis, in the projedl of converting the people of that country. The Jefuits, according to their cuftom, hadfurniffied a political motive for that intrigue ; and ffiewing as much zeal for the glory of the monarch as for the interefts of religion, they engaged to prevail on the king of Abyffinia, to fend a pomp- ous embaffy to Louis XIV. The conful, Maillet, feized this idea with avidity, and took advantage of the firft op- portunity which prefented itfelf. Jefus (Yegous) king of Abyffinia, had long laboured under a malady, for which he had in vain confulted his own phy- licians, and he therefore invited the moH learned of that profeffion, from other countries. Hajy Ali, who was charged with that commiffion, was afflicted with the fame diforder, and confequently v<7as to experience, in his own perfon, the effedls of the remedies preferibed. Charles Poncet, a French phyfician refiding at Cairo, was recom- mended by Maillet ; inhead of two Capuchins, who prac- tifed medicine, and whom A*iy had himfelf chofen ; and the conful gave him, as a companion, Father Brevedent, a Jefuit, who poffieffed a gfcat cliarader for knowledge and piety. Browne’s Travels have hnce been publithed in hondon,-^T<‘ nrijlutor. B56 memoirs inhabitants themfdves, the accounts which are fubjoined to his memoir. The civil hiftory of the Oafes is but little known;, piety. To avoid the oneafinefs he was likely to experience, under the juftiy dreaded name of a Jefuit, thefatherattended i'oncet as his fervant. He was one of the moil ardent millionaries the church ever potTelTed. His brethren have beftowed many eulogies on his iincerity and zeal, and he confirmed their teflimony by working miracles, of which Poncet faid he had been a witnefs. Bruce adds that Father Brevedent was an excellent mathematician ; of this we have proofs, in the writings of that period, which fhew that he had fought and J'ound a perpetual motion ! It required indeed nothing lefs than a man accuflomed to perform impoffibilities, to eflabiifh the Romifh religion in a country where the jefuits had already developed their views, and where the outrages committed by the Portuguefe, fome time after the expedition of Gama, had rendered the i^ame of European odious. The double talent of the French Jefuit was not more ufeful to the progrefs of religion, than to that of the fciences j for, after taking the latitudes of fome places, in which he appeared to be grofsly miftaken, he died before he reached Gondar, like Saint Francis Xavier, within fight of China, which he went to convert. Poncet continued his journey, and according to his own account, foon after his arrival in the capital, he cured the king and the royal family. The Jefuits afterwards printed an account of his journey in the Recueil des Lettres Edl~ Jiantes, accompanied with a recital of every thing which ^ could be ufeful to their interefls. There we read, thatPon- cct R'ELATIYE TO EGYPT. 351 ' known, and cannot be fuppofed very fertile in events. According to Herodotus, fifty thoufand men belonging to the army of Cambyfes, employed in cet made a ftrong impvellion on the Abyffinian monarch, whom he daily entertained with anecdotes of Louis XIV. alTui'ing us that that prince was known in Ethiopia as the hero of Isurope, and France, as the hneft country in the world; that king Yecous had long refolved.to fend an €rn« balTy to Paris ; and that his own fon, then but eight years of age, and confequently too young to undertake the journey v/as already deilined to fulfil that important truft ; that the king had a fingular talfe for the fciences, and that he re- ceived lelTons iiL chemiftry from the phyfieian at Cairo that he con.verfed very learned'ly with Poncet, on the dif- tinfliortof the two natures of Jefus Chrifl that he had him- felf difeovered the error of the Copts and the Eutycheans^. and that he was not far fronT agreeing with the Jefuits con- Gerning- that important queflioii, on which- depended the fal- vation of Abyflinia. Poneet, on leaving Gondar, brought an ambaffador with him : It appears that an- Arminian flrangCG of the name of Mourat, was in fadf entrufted with letters and fome prefents for the court of France, and that he came to Cairo with Poncet, who alone brought the ac- counts to Parts. The Conful Maillet had a difpute with the Ethiopian ambaflador ; and,, on the other hand Poncet, vvhofe firfi: reception, was very flattering,- was ill treated by feveral of the dignified clergy in France. They maintained that his journey was an impoilure ; that he had never beea. at Gondar ; and that Ethiopia was a very different country from that which he deferibed ; and- they fupported thefe reproach se 852 MEMOIRS in attempting the unprofitable conqueft of the country of the x^mraonlans, perifhed in the fands> at fome diftance from the great Oafis. The au- thor reproaches with the moil puerile arguments. Thus were Poncet and Mourat abandoned to their fate. In France, however, the project of preaching the Romifh faith in Ethiopia was periified in ; and it immediately became a queftion, how the firfl advances of this outlandilb king fhould be anfwered. The embally was offered to Maillet, whojdreading the fatigues anddangers to which theenterprize would expofe him, recommended Le Noir du Roule, the French vice-conful at Damietta, as a proper perfon to un- dertake it. That young Frenchman was diffinguifhed by his zeal for the interefts of his nation, and by the brilliant qualities of his mind. The glory of themiffion feduced his imagination, and he fulfilled it with more enthufiafm than prudence. He fet out from Cairo in 1704 ; and foon became fenfi- ble of the difficulties and dangers with which he was fuirounded. In truth, the Francifeans and the Capuchins could not pardon this attempt to convert Abyffiaia without their participation, and refolved to take vengeance on the ambaffador. He bore the commiflion of the moff powerful monarch in Europe ; the Pacha of Cairo and Ifmael Bey had, by exprefs orders and warm recommendations, endeavour- ed to fecure the fafety of his perfon ; the king of Abyflinia, being apprifed that Du Roule was on the journey, had in- formed the princes of Nubia, his allies, how much he wifh- ed to receive the ambaffiador : ail thefe favourable circum- fiances, hovv-ever, afforded but a weak protedlion againff the macliinations ilELATIVE TO EGYPT 353 iiidf of the memoir is too well acquainted with Merodotus, and the fmall population of Ammon> not to have difeovered the exaggeration of this recital ; arid he thought it unworthy of a fingle remark. machinations of aiigty moriks. The attendants of Du Roule could not refrain from tems at his departure ; fo well did they know the influence of thofe priefls. They perfuaded the merchants that the expedition would ruin their commerce ; the Mahometans, that this was an at- tempt to convert Nubia to chriflianiiy ; the chriftlans were told that the interefls of religion were rnanifeflly ncglefled ; the princes of the countries through which the embafly was to pafs, were alarmed for the exiilence of their authority ; and the people at large were afllired, that it was compofed of forcerers, whofe errand to Ethiopia was, to Hop tlie icourfe of the river. All thefe reports were readily believed. Du Roule wrote letter after letter to the Conful of France, drew up a Rate of fa6ls, and firmly rejefted the advice which was given him to return. Death threatened him in every town in Nubia, and he met it at Sennaar, before the king’s palace. The Frenchmesi who compofed his fuite were inaf- facred at the fame time : he had ordered them to make no reflflance. This crime pafled unpuniflied, which would not have been the cafe, if the Court of France had been as folicitous as the king of AbyiTinia was, to convi6l the authors of it ; but at that time they had other outrages to revenge. The papers of Du Roule were ioft ; and thofe which have been quoted by Danville were written at Cairo, before that unfortunate man entered on his journey to Nubia. JSlote of Citizen Fo u R. i £ R . A a Wg 3 5 4 We fliall not (lop to defcribe the v/ell known journey of Alexander^ to the temple of Ammon. The fucceiTors of that great man, the two firft Ptolemies, whofe glory is durable, becaufe com- mitted to the g;rateful remembrance of literature and the fcicnces, which they cheriilied, rendered thofe little countries, as wxll as the reft of Egypt, happy under their wife adminiftration. Some ages afterwards, thefe ifolated cantons refounded wdth theological controvcrfies. The liicccftbrs of Casfar, and of Marcus Aurelius, in obedience to the. decrees of the councils, bamlfiied the fedtaries to the Oafes. There Nefborius, for many years, expiated the crime of having over much diftinguiflied the two natures, at the fame 'time that Eutyches fulfered for having confound- ed them. The fequeftered fituatlon of the Oafes, which formerly could not defend them from ecclefiafti- cal diflentions, did not afford them greater fe- curity againft the oppreflion of the Beys, in more modern times. The memoir of citizen Ripault contains a number of ufcful obfervatlons, fupported by folld reafonings. It is a critical work, WTltten. with judgment and perfpicuity, and juftlfies the choice of the Inftitute, in appointing the author to fill the 355 kELATIVE TO EGYPT. the place of librarian. We entreat him to con- tinue his literary refearches, and^ particularly, to fiiiiili the French tranflation of Abou-l-feda,^ from * Abou-l-feda is a writer very much celebrated among the Orientals, and is even advantageoully known in Europe, in the double capacity of geographer and hiftoriao ; and he has well merited the reputation of being one of the molt candid and accurate of the Arabian authors. His entire name, as it Hands in the title of his works, is E5nad-ed~dyn Abou-l feda I [mad Ebn-Na(Jer ; that is, The pillar of religion^ the father of redemption^ IfmaeU the fon of Naffer, or of the protedor. Some authors, arranging his dif= * /erent names and Hrnames, in another order, write them thus ; Ifnciyl ebn A* ly el-malek cl-niouyad E mad-ed-^dyn Ahoudfeda faheh Hamah, that is Ifmael the fon of Aly, the happy and helpful king, the fupport of religion, Abou-lfeda^ the fovereign of Hamah. Some give him IHii an additional lirname, that of Ebn el-afdhal Ady. According to the commonly received opinion, Abou-i- feda was born in the year of the Hegira 672, or in the year 1273, of the vulgar jera. He bore the title of Sultan of Elamah, a town and principality, near Damafeus, in Syria* To Hamah he affigns, in his geography, 60 degrees 45 mi» nutes of longitude, and 34 degrees 43 minutes of north la- titude. His.brother Ahmed, firnamed el-Malek en-Naffer, that is, the Protedor King, was fovereign of Hamah, and reigned there till the 729th year of the Hegira, being the 1328th of the vulgar seia, when he was depofed. Abou-I-feda fucceeded him, and on his acceffion to the throne, aiTumed the title of eUMalek et Saleh ; that is the virtuous king. But A a 2 his 356 MEMOIRS from the Latin edition of MIchaelis. We regret that we havC;, in this country, only one of the works his advanced age did not permit him long to enjoy this dig- nity ; for he died in the third year of his reign, and the hxtieth of his age, in the year of the Hegira 732, or 1 33 i of the vulgar $ra. Some hiftorians affign him a longer life, protrafling it to the 746th year of the Hegira, which anfwers to the 1345th of the vulgar aera. Abouifedha is the author of two conliderable works, which are often quoted, not only by the oriental writers, but by fuch of the Europeans as have treated of the politi- cal and geographical hiftory of the Eall. The firfl of thefe, entitled Tekouim cl-bouldan ; that is, a Lift or Table of the inhabited parts of the Earth, is an extenfive geographical treatife^ arranged in the form of tables, as its title imports. The countries, provinces and cities, ftand in the order of their refpe(ftive climates, their longitudes and latitudes are annexed, and the defeription of every place is accompanied with notes and remarks, which are often very interefting, and which are the more valuable to us, as they afford us the means of comparing the condition of the Eaft, in the lime of Abouifedha, with its prefent ftate. This work of Abouifedha has been augmented and iL iuftrated by Mohamed cbn Aly^ firnamed by the Turks .SV- y>ahy~’zadeh ; that is, the fon of a foldier. This writer has commented on, and explained many places, and has dedi^ cated the work, under the title of Ouadheh ct-megalek ela 7)iarefat el-holdan oii-ci-memalek^ to Sultan Mourad-khan (Aniurath III.) a prince who patronized learning, and cultivated it himfelf, having compofed feveral works in the Arabic, Turkifti, and Perfian languages. The EELATIVE TO EGYPT. 35; works of that prince, who hath rendered fuch important fer vices to the fciences. The Tekoulm El-boldan of Aboulfedha mull not be con- founded with another work, under the fame title, afcribed to Salhajy^ nor with another geographical treatife, entitled Tekouhn El-belad, compofed by an Arabian author, cited (under the name oi El- Balkhy^ that is, a native of Balkh, the capital of Khora 9 an), by Ebn-el-ouardy^ in the preface to his Kheridat El-njalb. The fecond work of Aboulfedha is entitled El-Moukh- tajfar fy ackhhar El^bachar^ or, an abridged colledion of the Hiftories of the World, ai>d contains a fummary of uni- j verfal and general hiflory, brought down to the age in I which the author flourillied. The title of Moukhtallar is I not peculiar to this work, but is prefixed to a great number j of other Arabic books. j The Eulogy of Aboulfedha is to be found in the Diwan, I ©r, a eolle^ion of the Mijcellayieous Works of Mohainmed (bn Mohammed El-Fareky, commonly known by the name' of Ehn Nobatah. This colleftion, entitled Souk-el-rekik^ j Is depolited in the National Library at Paris, No. 1450. ! iVtf/4? of Citizen J. J. Mar CEL. i I I A a 3 358 MEMOIRS REMAUKS On the JJfe of Oil hi the Plague, By Citizen Desgenettes, Chief Phyfician to the Army of the Baft. A SERIES of obfervations and reafonlngs led George Baldwinj the Britifli Conful at Alexandria, to believe that friftion of the bodies of perfons expofed to the plague, with lukewarm oil of olives, would be not only a prefervative againft, but an efficacious mean of removing, that malady. In order to bring his opinion to the teft of experiment, he imparted it to Father Louis of Pavia, who had fuperintended the hof« pital of Smyrna for feven and twenty years, re- quefting him to make a trial of this remedy : and that prieft obferved that, of all the means againft the plague, employed under his infpe<51ion, this was the moft ufeful. From the trials made of this remedy, there re- fulted a feries of direftions on the manner of ad- rniniftering it, and of the regimen to be obferved during the time. It RELATIVE TO EGYPT. S5Q It is not fufiicient barely to anoint the whole body with oil : it mufe alfo be ftrongly rubbed with it ; and hence the word friftion has been preferred to unbtioii. The fridllon ought to be made with a clean Ipunge, and a motion fo quicks that it may be over in three minutes. It fliould be made only once, on the day Vvdien the difeafe makes its ap- pearance. If the perfpiration be not abundant^ the fric- tions miift be repeated till the patient fwims^ fo to fpeak, in his fweat ; and neither his fhirt nor bis bed fhould be changed, till the perfpiration ceafe. This operation fiiould be performed in a ciofe chamber, furni/hed with a chafing-difh' full of live coals, on which fugar or juniper-ber- ries ought, from time to time, to be ftrewed. It is impoffible to determine the time which flroald Intervene between the fridlions, becaufe a lecoiid friftion cannot be made, till the per- fpiration has entirely ceafed ; a circurhftance which depends on the conftitution of the pa- tient. Before each repetition of the fridfion with oil, the fweat muft be wiped from the patient’s body with a warm cloth. Thefe fridlions may be continued fcveral days fucceffively, till a fa- vourable change is obferved, and then they may A a 4 be 36o MEMOIRS be more flight. It is difficult to determine pr^- cifely the quantity of oil neceffary for each frio, tion ; but a pound fliould certainly be fufficlent ; the frefheft and pureft oil is to be preferred, and it fhould be rather lukewarm than hot. ^he breaft and the privities fhould be flightly rubbed ; p,nd the parts which are qot under fridlion fhould be carefully covered, to avoid pold. If there are tumors and buboes, they fhould bp gently anoint-- ed, till they are fufficiently ready for the appli^ cation of emollient cataplafms, to induce fup“ puratlon. The perfon who performs thq fridlions fhould before-hand anoint his body with oil ; it is ufe- iefs for him to rub himfelf ; nor does it fignify W^h ether he anoint hi^iftlf with more or left quicknefs. It will alfo be prudent for him to ob^ ferve the ordinary precautions as to oil-fkin or cere-cloth cloaths, wooden-flioes, &c. to avol4 the breath of the patient, and above all, tp pre- ferve a great deal of courage and coolnefs. . We cannot too much recommend, that the frictions be not delayed after the difeafe makes its appearance.- The perfpirations are very much promoted by giving the patient an infufion of the flowers of the alder-tree, without any fugar. As to regimen, the patient may be fupported^ for RELATIVE TO EGYPT. ^Ql far the firft four or five days, with a foup of Ver? micelli, well boiled in water alone, without falt» Afterwards a fmall fpoonful of cherries preferved in fugar, may be additionally given him fix or feven times a day ; for k is to be ftared th^t honey w^ould be too lax-ative, When there are hopes of a cure, that is, when^ after five or fix days, the patient finds himfelf better, he may be allowed in the morning a cup of good Mocha coffee, and a fugared bifcuit, and the number of bifcuits may be increafed, as he recovers his ftrength. For fifteen or twenty days, the patient fhould dine and fop on rice or vermicelli, boiled in wa- ter alone, a little bread, dried raifins and pre- ferved cherries, in greater plenty than before ; and the quantity of bread, which ought to be of the beft quality, may be increafed. In fum- mcr, his foup may be made of little gourds f courges ), and in wdnter of pot-herbs, with no other feafonlng than a little oil of fwcet almonds. In the courfe of the day, according to the ftate of the convalefcent, oranges, very ripe or baked pears, or even bifcuits, may be given him, in fiich quantity, that dlgeftion may be eafiiy car^ ped on, and his appetite never wholly fatisfied. At the end of thirty or even five-and-thirty days, his 3^2 MEMOIRS his morning and evening repafts may confift of foup made of chicken, or a neck of mutton ; but lie fhould not be allowed to ufe folia meat, be^ fore the expiration of forty daj^s, in order to avoid indigeftion, which is dangerous, and fre- quently accompanied with the return of buboes. After the fortieth day, he may eat roafted or boiled veah and may take a moderate quantity of wine ; but flaould carefully avoid every thing which is of difficult digeftion. The following are Ibme proofs of the efficacy of oil In one year, in which the plague carried off a million of people In Upper and Lowxr Egypt, there was nbt a fmgle inftance of an oil-porter being attacked’ with that malady The fame obfervatlon was made at Tunis ; and thefe facts firft fuggefted the idea of employing oil, both as a prefervative and as a remedy. In 1793, two-and-twenty Venetian failors lived on a low fwamp, for the fpace of five-and- twenty days, with three perfons who died of the * The Tranflator has been informed that, when the plague raged in London, the tallow-chandlers generally, or urxiver- fally, efcaped infetlion. The tobacconifts are faid to have been equally fortunate. plague ; RELATIVE TO EGYPT, plague ; but nrKflion with oil fayed ail the reft of the party. In the fame year, three Armenian famlMes^ one of them confifting of thirteen individuals, another of eleven, and the third of nine, ftived themfelves by the fame means. They attended their in« feefted parents, lay on the fame beds, and might be faid to hold them inceftantly in their arms ; yet they efcaped the contagion. in 1794, a poor woman was ftiut up in a chamber with thirteen perfons, infefted with the plague, of whom fhe had the care, and by means of unftion, die preferved herfelf from the con« tagion. T wo perfons belonging to a familj/ of Ragufa, caught the infection in the laft mentioned year. They plunged themfelves, fo to fpeak, into oil, and were exempted from all harm. In diort this practice is at prefent approved, and generally followed at Smyrna. In the courfc of thefe obfervatlons, we find ftveral admonitions ; particularly on the necef- fity of immediately adminiftering the fridiions to the infefted, A delay of five or fix days would render them wholly incfieclual. A diarrhoea is regarded as a mortal iymptom : the fridions however ought not to be difeon- tinned MEMOIRS tmued on that account ; for four patlentS;, who had arrived at that dangerous crlfis, were never^ ^clefs cured. The hofpital at Smyrna received, in five years, two hundred and fifty infeded patients ; and it may be fafely affirmed that every one of them, who were allowed proper time, and fubmitted to the above treatment, obtained a cure. An immenfe number have been prelerved from contagiori by unftion, affifted by tomperr ance. The little work, of which the prefent is an abfiraft, is concluded by the favourable attefta- .•dons of the Confuls of England, and the empire;, at Smyrna ; and a number of tefti monies' of per- fons in public employments, and of refpedablc individuals, who have endeavoured to extend this method of treatment into every country intc- refied in it. , . We have omitted nothing eflential, and dif« regarding all theory, we only prefcnt fafts, al- ready fupported by numerous, teftimonies, and which we fubrnit anew to the teft of experl- REPOUT ItELATlVE TO E0YFT,' -SS# REPORT Of the Ohfer^atloHs made determine the Gm-^ graphical Pcjitmt of Alexandria^ and the Dlret^ ilou f the Magnetic Needle^ By Gitlzen Noi/ETi I CARRIED with me from Paris an aftrano^ mical citcle, with two moveable tekfeopes^ and a marine watch made by Louis Berthoud* Citizen Qiienot was furnilhed with a circle of Tcfiedion^ and a marine w^atch. We diftinguilh-^ ed ^ The circle of refledllon here mentiene office, an ex- teallve :kEMCIRS ed the two watches, calling the firft No. 34^ and the fecond No. IQ. Before my departure, I had eccafion to regulate the movement of No. 34, for about fifteen days, by comparing it every day at noon, with the pendulum clock of the marine obferv^atory, and thence deducing its diurnal ac- celeration of 1 2‘\ mean time. During the journey, I could not keep this watch fuipended in its box ; I carried it in a walftcoat pocket, in a pofition always vertical, and with the point of noon uppermoft, as the maker had advifed me. We took Marfeilles in our way, in order to regulate the movement of our watches, at the marine obfervatory of that city; and, having compared them, on the 15th of Floreal, with the pendulum clock in the obfer- vatory, the movement of No. Ig w^as found to be very little altered ; but No. 34 had gained, fmee our departure from Paris, 2^^ of diurnal ac- celeration : whence I concluded that this watch wmuld bemfelefs in journies by land. tenfve fpecification of fome new, and improved* aftro-- nomical and magnetical inftrumeats, among which were variation and dipping compares and needles, of precifely the fame conflruftion with thofe afterwards mentioned in this report, and feveral which poffefs elTential advantages incompatible witli thofe conilrudions.— Having RELATIVE "TO EGYPT. S§7 Having reached Toulon, I put my watch. No. 34 , in its box or cafe, and, during our fhort ftay in that town, and 6 n the road, we made ob- fervations to determine anew the movement of this watch ; and we found that, from the 18th to the 27 th of Floreal, its movement had re» turned to 10 ^' of acceleration. On the 27 th Prairial, we had a very favourable opportunity of regulating our watches, at the ob» fervatory of Malta. During our paffage from Toulon to that illaad. No. 34 had a daily acce-» lerafion of 1 f',5, and No, IQ of 5^7, being pretty nearly their ordinary movement. On the 14th of Meffidor, at the anchorage near the tov/er of Marabou (Marabouth) citizen Quenot, from the abfoliite altitudes of the fun taken with his circle, found, by his watch, the longitude of Alexandria to be 50'' 17 k This obfervation, compared with No. 34, gave, for the longitude of Alexandria 1^' 50^ 50 '^, allowing for the daily acceleration of 11 found at Malta. But this watch was probably influenced by the temperature, as the fubfequent obfervations proved. For, in the firft days of Thermidor, wc had obtained, by obfervations daily made on fliore, 7 ^'}^ of diurnal acceleration; but at Malta wc had I i'^,5 : taking therefore the mean of the two ilEMOlRS two refults, we had Q''i of advance upon tlic tnean time. If we multiply q'^,5 by 27 , the days intervening between the 2 /th Prairial and the 14th of Meffidor, we fnall have inftead of 3^ 15^5 employed above. With this new ac- celeration wfe found, by No; 34, for the longi- tude of the anchoring place, Aq' 4o" the dif- tance of the Aquillon from the tower of Mara- bou, being eftimated at 60 Od metres; The Pharos was 50 degrees to the fouth-eall of uSj and the diftance from the anchoring place to the meridian of the Pharos^ according to the plan of Alexandria, was i4,0od metres. This diftance, reduced into longitude^ for the latitude of 31°^ 12 '", gives 38^' in time,, for the difference of meridians between the anchorage and the Pharos. But, by No. 34, we found the longi- tude of the anchoring place of the Aquillon> 1 '' 4Q^ 40^2 If to this we add 38'', becaufe w^e Were fituated to the weflward, we Ihall have, for the longitude of the Pharos of Alexandria, - - 1 '^ 50^ 18'^ By No. ]Q we foUnd it 1 50 17 Citizen Quenot, from 42 obfervations of the eaftern and weftern diftanccs of the tnoon from the fun, in which the errors of the theory ought to balance each other, found the longitude of Alexandria Relative to Egypt. S6q Alexandria to be 50^ 2o", Thus the three different refults vary only and confequently appear to merit confidence. Let us now fee what refults were afforded by the celeftial phoenomena. -On the 24th of Meffidor, the immerfion of the firfl: fatellite of Jupiter, gave, for the differ” cnce of meridians, 1^' 50^ 5&'. On the 8th of Thermidor, the immerfion of Jupiter’s fecond fatellite, gave, for the difference of meridians, L 50^ 23^', Slight clouds were paffing during the obfervation. Idem, The emerfon of the fecond fatellite of Jupiter, gives, for the difference of meridians, 3V is". The path of the Satellite was near the edge of Jupiter’s difh. On the 20th Thermidor, the immerfion of Jupiter’s third fatellite, gave, for the difference of meridians, l^L5i/7'h On the 3d Frudlidor, there was an immerfioR of the fecond fatellite of Jupiter ; but it was not diftindlly perceived, by reafon of a fmall cloud : the obfervation is therefore doubtful. Idem, The immerfion of the firfi: fatellite of Jupiter, gave, for the difference of meridians, ^ 50^ 44^f On the 10th Frutflidor, the immerfion of the B b firft 3;o MEMOIRS firft fatellite of Jupiter, gave, for the dlfFerence of meridians, 5o' 1 7 ‘'. Jupiter was near the ze- nith, the inftrument could fcarcely reach it, and the image of the objeft was formed on the edge of the field of the telefcope. On the 15th Fruftidor, there was an immer- fion of the fecond fatellite of Jupiter, which gave, for the difference of meridians, 51'' 4". The wind fhook the telefcope. Among all thefe obfervations, we chofe the four following, viz. The 24th Mcffidor, which gives 50^ 56'' The 8th Thermidor, which gives 1 50 23 The 3d Fruclidor, which gives 1 50 40 The 15th Friu^tldor, which gives l 51 4 The mean of all - 1 50 46 Thefe obfervations, to merit confidence, fhould be confirmed by correipondlng one?, made in obfervatorics, whofe geographical pofition is well eftablifhed, and the error of the theory thence deduced. But we may for the prefent, look upon the determination of the longitude of Alexandria, deduced from the motion of marine time-pieces, and the obfeured diflances of the moon from the fun, as exadt. The S7t RELATIVE TO EGYPT. The 3d Frudlidor afforded us a decifive obfer- Vation, for fixing the geographical pofitipn of Alexandria, by means of an occultation of the ftar (p of Sagittarius, by the body of the moon ; but, for once, the fky was fo entirely obfcured by clouds, as to deprive us of the benefit of this phoenomenon; At half pafl: nine o’clock, the clouds were diffipated, and we endeavoured to obferve the immerfion ; but> as we were ignorant of the inftant of immerfion, we fat down too foon at the telefcope. After continuing our ob-« fervation half an hour, I traced the whole limb of the moon, to fee if the ftar had not efcapcd us, and, at the moment when I returned to the point which I had watched fo long, I perceived that the emerfion had already taken place about of time. This obfcrvation being uncertain, I made no ufe of it. To determine the latitude of Alexandria, we made ufe of a quadrant of 1 3 inches radius, con-* iftrudled by citizen Lenoir, maker of aftronomi-’ cal inftruments. There was adapted tt) the move- able telefcope a metal mirror, to refledl the image of the objed: perpendicularly to the axis of the telefcope, a conftrudiion which is nccefiary in climates where the fun approaches the zeniths B b 2 The 372 MEMOIRS The refults which v/e obtained were nine in number, viz. 31 ® 11 '' 1 1 57 12 6 12 11 12 12 12 20 12 28 12 28 12 32 J In thefe obfervatlons allowance was made for half the thicknefs of the thread . . = — For refraftion . . . — 18^^ For the error of the telefcope . . . + 2^ 0^^ 110 8 13® 12" IF^ This latitude was obferved on the terrace of the Batavian Conful ; but, according to the plan of Alexandria, the diftance of this place of obfer- vation from the perpendicular axis of the Pharos, is 1583 metres, which, reduced to parts of the meridian, gives 51 ”, to be added to 31° 12' 14", in order to obtain the latitude of the Pharos ai°is"5". . Ths E^LATIVE TO EGYPT. 373 The Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle^ ohferved at the Flagfiaff of. the Commandant of Engineers. Thefe obfervations were preceded by fome preliminary ones, to determine the direftian of a point of the horizon, in refped; of the north and fouth points of the world. We gave the pre- ference to the Pharos, becaufe it was onr ftand- ard for regulating the triangles which adjuft the principal points of the plan of Alexandria. On the 2lft, 22d, and 23d of Thermldor, wc obferved, with the aftronomical circle, eight azi- muthal differences between the Pharos and the centre of the fun. Some inftants after fun-rife, thefe differences of azimuth, each compofed of two conjoined angles reduced to the horizon, gave the angles at the zenith, between the ver- ticals of the Pharos and the Sun, which being combined with the azimuths of the fun, calcu- lated for the fame inftant, gave, for the azimuth of the Pharos, the eight following refults : Bb 3 12 ^ 3n MEMOIRS 12 ^ 59^ 52 '^ Weft, 13 O 12 12 58 31 12 58 14 13 2 20 12 59 6 12 59 0 12 59 6 The mean, 12 ^ 59' 33 ^' Weft. The compafs which we nfcd was 21 centi- metres in diameter, carrying on its centre a needle in the form of a parallelogram, 18 centi- metres and a half In length, armed in the middle with a cap of agate, moveable on two pivots, to adjuft the needle by vibration. This compafs was concentric to a circle, in which it moved like an index ; and, by means of a Vernier, indicated on the circle the different fucccfliye arches which it dcfcribed. To mul- ply obferyations, on the different points of the circumference of the exterior circle, the zero of the compafs was made to coincide with the index of the needle, at the fame time that the Vernier of the compafs coincided with the zero of the exterior circle ; the compaft was then inovcd (the exterior circle remaining fixed) till its RELATIVi: TO EGYPT. 3;5 its zero correfponded with the objed:, in the horizon, whofe azimuth was known. This cor- refpondence was indicated by a meridian tele- fcope, which moved in the meridian of the com- pafs, adjusted by vibration. We determined the difference of azimuth, between the Pharos and the little Pharos (Pha- rillon ) in order to obtain the azimuth of the lat- ter, froro which we deduced the variation of the needle, If we had made the Pharos our objed, it would only have given us an angle of 6^ and a half with the diredion of the needle. There is annexed a table of multiple obferva- tions, ' made on two immediately iucceeding days ; and wx have carried them to two com- pieat revolutions of the exterior circle, in order to corred the errors unavoidable in dividing in- ftruments of fo fmall a radius. The firft column contains the arches of the difference of azimuth indicated on the interior circle of the compafs. All the arches are reckon- ed from the zero poipt of the compafs, and are always indicated by the fame portion of the cir- cumference. Thus the variations obfervable in them arife partly from the inertia of the needle, or from the fridlon on its pivot. The fecond column contains the multiple an- B b 4 des MEMOIRS 3;6 gles given on the exterior circle;^ and the third column exhibits the Quotients of the anrfes of A b 55^58^ 55 50 III 5° 55 55 56 0 55 55 57 55 30 167 18 55 44 55 3 ^ 167 4 55 41 5S 15 222 28 55 37 55 37 ■ 222 15 55 34 55 45 278 i 5 -| 55 39 55 55 278 13 55 39 55 30 333 45 55 3S 55 45 333 48 35 38 55 45 389 40 1 55 40 55 45 389 45 55 41 55 15 445 52 55 44 56 12 445 55 35 44 56 0 501 48 55 44 55 45 501 48 55 45 56 20 55 ^ 0 55 48 56 30 55S 5 55 48 56 30 614 30 55 52 56 30 614 30 55 53 5:6 5 670 25 55 52 S6 10 670 35 55 53 56 45 727 15 ;53 5^^5 56 45 727 20 55 57 Nove. In order to compenfate the errors of divifion, the ob-? fervations \vere continued to 72/ degrees, which complete two. eireumferences. Laft refult of the multiple angles between the direction of the needle and the Pharlllon 55° b7' Azimuth of the Pharillon » - - 42 51 N.E^ Difference, or variation of the compafs 13 6 Wo BSi RELATIVE TO EGYPT. ^ Ohfervations on the Dipping Compafs^ the Face of the Limb being towards the Eaji, 0 Limits \rches a Limits i Arches Times n»* of efcrib- Time of d lefcrib- obferved. 3 0 0 ofciil. ed. obferved. 3 0 2 ofciil. ed. - -/ 3" 28" 0® 46° t 8" 0^ , 46^ 30 8 38 37 28 8 3 ^ 59>5 29 28 13 33 8 5 28 12 34 56 27 28 17 29 33 28 17 29 55 28 21 25 9 I 28 20 26 57 ^3 2§ 25 2 1 29 28 ^3 ■' 23 58 5 i >5 21 30 1 1 ^7 30 19 16 10 57 27 30 29 26 29 . 20 ' ^7 52 32 < 1 H 56 3 ^ 3 ^ 59 23 - ^ I , b 34 12 i I 27 30 33 ^3 54>5 36 10 57 1 1 35 1 1 0 26 ^ I 38 8 12 28 30 37 9 57 40 6 58 20 38 8 1 2 27 57 27 30 30 30 41 42 43 5 4 3 ^3 1 4 28 57 26 0 29 29 40 41 42 6 !i 4 54 27 26 43.5 2.5 £3 ^7 2<7 43 3 3 20 45 ! 1^5 44. s 45 ^5 1 ,15 20 44 24 , 22 44 44^5 2 i »5 4 8 45 >3 0^7 16 6' 22 44.7 ' o,S Reft. 1 1 i 46 28 I ^9 45 1 i 15 47 1 1 4^.3 1 t ; Reft, ; .|. 6,5 Memoirs Times obferved. Differences. Limits of ofcill. Ardies deferib- cd. Times obferved. Differences. Limits of ofcill. Arches deferib- ed. 24' 14" 1° 46° 39' 43'’ 0® 46° 43 29^^ 8 39 40 12 29" /z 39 25 11 28 t ^3 34 |l 27 33 40 29 17 ,30 7 28 1 ^7 29 26 7 27 2 1 126 i i 33 28 21 28 28 22 35 24 i 42 - 3 ! i 24 28 i ;i 28 ro ^7 3 ^7 |20 j 27 29 30 i ;i 7 ]43 ^ 29 29 18 28 2 30 3 ^ ^5 j 30 30 31 ‘■5 30 33 ^4 1 |44 2 32 33 13 £9'' 2 30 35 12 j 33 3 ^ ; 35 i I 35 33 37 10 45 3 37 9 30 5 30 39 8 33 30 38. 8 35 30 40 7 46 3 30 40 6 31 5 30 41 6 32 29 41 ,.*> 34 29 43 4 47 » 29 42 4 3 ^ , 3 29 43>5 3>5 29 28 43 3 3 ® 27 44 3 57 28 431 2,5 2 56 26 45 2 48 23 26 44 I 33 21 25 46 I 48 45 1 48 27 46.5 0,5 1 49 M 23 45,0 Reft. 47 32 21 45^5 21 53 45.7 J, Reft. 46.3 Relative to EcYipf. 883 . c 0 Limits Arches 5 ^ Limits Arches Times of defcrib- Times fV of defcrib- obferved. s r> ofclll. ed. obferved. n S ofcill. ed. 51 ' 53" 29^' 45° 9' 34" 29" lO 45'' 58 22 7 i 39 'lo 3 7 i : 39 51 29 13 33 52 29 13 33 CO ON 27 i 7 29 1 1 0 28 ^7 29 45 27 20 26 1 1 28 28 20 26 0 14 29 23 ^3 , 55 27 24 22 : 42 28 26 20 t£ 24 29 26 I20 ! II 29 29 17 53 29 29 li-. ( ' 4 l 31 IS 13 23 3 ^ 31 h 2 12 31 33 13 I 53 1 30 33 : 42 30 35 II I 14 24 3 ^ 35 s I K 3 14 32 36 10 55 3 ^ 37 9 43 29 3S 8 j'5 25 3© 3S 8 4 12 29 39 i 28 7 5 39 7 41 29 40 i 6 16 20 27 41 5 00 27 42 ! 4 47 27 41 i 4,5 26 26 34 25 42 1 3>5 1 n ^ 3 , 26 42 4 59 43 3 39 43 3 6 23 24 44 2 1 8 4 25 43^7 2,3 44 21 44 j 5 I >5 29 25 44.3 ^ 3 ? 21 26 7 5 45 I 55 45 1,0 23 42 18 19 45>3 45^7 0,3 19 20 52 27 30 45^3 45^5 0.7 Reft. 46 Reft. ' ! MEMOIRS ‘ ^'84 Cofifinuation of Ohfervatlons on the Dipping Compafs^ the Face of the Limb being tmmed towards the Weft, Times obferved. Differences. 1 Limits of ofcill. Half. arches defcrlb- ed. Times obferved, 1 Difl’erences. Limits of ofcill. Half- arches defcrib- ed. f 2d’ 0^ 49^ 18^ 6" 0^ 48^'. 49 29" 7 42 35 . if 7 41 28 28 8 17 ^3 36 19 3 ^3 35 45 28 17 32 3 ° 27 17 31 2 27 20 29 58 28 2 1 27 28 28 40 24 25 20 26 44 24 io 8 28 26 56 ; 3 ® 27 21 3 ^ 28 29 20 21 26 3 ® 29 19 II 6 31 18 56 3 ® 33 i6 0 / 3 ^ 33 46 22 27 ^ 31 35 13 12 9 3 ^ 35 J 4 58’ 31 37 1 1 36 27 41 8 ^3 29 31 39 9 ^3 3 27 42,5 6j2 24 0 31 40^5 8 3© 27 44 ^ 5 32 32 42,5 6 57 27 45 4 25 2 30 44 4 14 21 24 46 3 29 27 45.3 3 45 20 47 2 5 ^ 27 46,3 2 Lr\ GO ^7 47^5 ^>5 26 ^9 2'3 47>3 I T-S 13 ^5 47^7 1,0 42 ^3 47^-7 Reft. 48,7 1 I27 ^5 23 48 ®>5 j Reft. 4875 Relative to EbypT, 385 Times obfcrved. Differences.; Limits of ofcill. Half- arches deferib- ed. Times obferved. Differences. Limits of ofcill. Half. arches deferib- ed. I'' ^ A iJ! 5 ^ 49 o 9 48^ 0.^ 1 7^/ 0° 49 ° On 00 29'^ 7 41 , 46 29^^ 6,5 42,8 57 29 15 33 3 14 28 1 1 38 27 28 54 24 '9 29 42 i 5>5 34 28 28 5 ^ ^^3 25 4 10 19 30 55 29 27 21 38 28 22>5 27 50 29 30 18 5 6 28 25.5 24 56 19 29 32 16 34 28 28 2 r 47 28 34 14 6 4 30 3 x' 18 57 15 28 36 12 34 30 34 15 42 27 37 >S 11^5 7 3 29 37 12 58 8, 26 39 9 33 30 39 ro 34 26 40.5 7,2 8 0 27 41 8 53 24 43 4,7 27 27 43 i 6 59 2 ' 23 45 > 7 ' 2 55 28 45 4 44 23 46,5 1,2 6 23 28 46 3 0 8 24 47 0,7 51 28 47 2 Reft. 47^7 10 ij 24 48 I 37 22 48,3 A 1 R-eft. 49>3 ' \ Q c MEMOIRS 386 Times oibferved. Differences. Limit of ofcill. Half- arches defcrib- ed Times . obferved. Differences. | Limit: of ofcill, Half- s arches defcrib- . cd. 13' 2^" I® 48" 24^ 19^^ 49 .° 3 14 17 29" 7>7 40.3 48 29'' 6.5 428 28 28 45 13.3 35 25 16 14 35.3 15 12 27 i 7 i 30,5 44 28 16 33.3 41 29 21 27. 26 12 28 19.5 29,8 w ON NO 28 23.7 24 40 28 23 26,3 38 29. 27 21 27 9 29 ^6,5 22,8 17 7 29 29,5 ■ 8,5 39 30 28 21.3 38 31 31^7 16,3 28 9 30 30,5 18,8 18 19 31 34 14 40 31 32,7 16,6 40 31 36.3 ”.7 2911 31 35 ^4.3 19 12 32 33,3 9.7 42 31 37 12,3 44 32 40 8 30 II 29 39 10,3 20 16 32 41.5 6,8 40 29 40.5 8,8 47 31 43 5>3 31 8 28 42 21 17 30 43^7 4,6 3 ^ 28 43.3 6 48 30 44.5 3>8 32 2 26 44.3 5 00 30 4 -< 3,7 1,6 28 26 + 5.3 4 40 23. 1 - 7>3 I 1 53 25 ^ +6 23 I 2 I_ 1 - 7^7 0,6 , 33 ^7 24 , ^7 2.3 21 20 ^8 °>3 4 ^ 24 1 - 7.5 1,3 Reft. ^8,3 54 4 ^8 '.3 1 Reft. 1 f-j *9.3 kELATIYE TO EOtPT. 38/ The firft column marks the time at which feach tenth ofeillation ended. The feeond column expreffes the time em- ployed in making ten ofcillations. The third column marks the limit or term of every tenth ofeillation. The fourth columtl contains the magnitudes of the half arches deferibed in every ten ofcilla- tions. The dip deduced from the laft refults of every column, the face of the limb being. Towards the Eaft. Towards the Weft. 46° 0' 48° 43 ' 46 30 48 30 46 15 49 20 46 0 48 15 46 10 49 20 46 10 48 SO 48 50 Mean, 47° 30' MEMOlRa B8S ,A.nalyJi$ of the Slime of fhe Nller By Cithen Regnault. T he influence of the flime, or mud, of the Nile, and its ufes in the arts, have induced me to fubjecl it to chemical analyfis. After the annual inundation, the foil of Egypt is covered with a ftratum of flimc more or lefs thick. Its colour, at iirft black, is changed by the deficcation of the air, into a yellowifli brown. It then cracks, and prefents fra Oxyd of iron 6 parts, Alumine — 48 . Before decompofing the other portion of the folution of fllme, it was deprived of the excefs of acido The precipitate obtained by the carbonate of pot-afti was expofed to a ftrong heat in a cru- cible ftet a rotir) in order to oxydate the iron, and to prevent it, as well as the alumine, from being affefted by the acetous acid. This acid, kept in digeftlon on the precipitate, formed, with the lime of the magnefia, falt§ which, when feparated and converted into carbonates, gave, by doubling the quantities. Carbonate of lime — —I 8 parts. Carbonate of magnefia 4 . Thus, in 100 parts, the fiime of the Nile contains n of relative to EGYPT, 391 1 1 of water, g of carbon, 0 of oxyd of iron, 4 of filex, 4 of carbonate of magnefia, * 3 8 of carbonate of lime, 48 of alumlne. Total 100 parts^ It muft be obferved, that the quantities of fdex and al amine vary, according to the places where the llime is taken up. On the banks of the Nile, the (lime contains a great quantity of land, and as it is carried by the waters of the in- undation, to difiant grounds, it lofeS a portion of land proportionable to its diftance from the river ; fo that, when this dlftance is coniiderable, the argil is found almoft pure ; and thus the foil of Egypt prefents clay in the different ftates of pu-^ rity required in the arts. We find, in the fllme of the Nile, the princi- ples which promote vegetation. The cultivators of the foil look upon it as a fafficient manure ; and fo much are they convinced of this, that, when the land ftands in need of manure, they cover it with the fllme of the Nile, referving ♦heir ffable dung for other purpofes : fo^r cxaui^ c c 4 pie. 392 pie, they dry it, and burn it inftead of fire-wood, which is fcarce in Egypt. Profper Alpinus juftifies fhis opinion; for, when tpeaking of the flime, he fays, Agri ita phigueji- nnt, ut Jiercorailone non egeant. (The land is fq rich, that it requires no dung.) We adopt the fame opinion ; for if the flow progrefs of vege- tation, obfervable in fome parts of Egypt, were to be urged qs an objection againft it, we might fairly afk, Whether that flow progrefs fhould be afcribed to the want of manure, or of proper culture ? The flime of the Nile is employed in feveral arts Excellent bricks, and vafes of different forms, are made of it. The fame material enters into the compofition of pipes. Glafs- makers ufe it in conflruding their furnaces, and the country people cover their houfes with it. We hope that, when the qualities of the flime come to be bet- ter known, it will be applied to more valuable purpofes, fuch as delft- ware and porcelain ; and thefe arts, if introduced into Egypt, W'ould con» tribute to the profperity of the new colony. M^marks UELkTlYE TO EGYPTe SQ§ Remarks on the Management and Produce of the. hand, in the Province of Damietta, By Citizen Girard. , T he rice of the province of Damietta, being in more eftimation than that of any other part of Egypt, I thought I fliould be ufefully em- ployed, during my ftay, in colledling all the in- formation I could procure, on the management of the land proper for the cultivation of that grain, and on the commerce carried on in it, to Syria, and the other countries of the Eaft. To arrive at refults rigoroufly exadt, in the re- fearches which I propofed to make, would have required the experience of feveral years ; confe- quently I can only prefent thefe remarks as the firfi: fketch of a more perfedl work, v/hich time alone can furnifh the means of executing. It will be proper, in the firft place, to fettle the proportion of the meafures of fuperficies and capacity, ufed in the province of Damietta, to our. own correfponding meafures. The cultivators commonly meafare their lands by the number of wheels neceffary to raife the water 304 MElMOIRS water defigned to Irrigate them, or by the num- ber of days employed in cultivating them. But this way of meafuring, having nothing determi- nate, is not admitted into the public a — ^ — 80 Three other men, alfo employed) during the whole year, in working the machines for raifmg the water, and in other day la- bour. They are paid § paras per day, mak- ing yearly, for the three — — * 108 The cultivators employ befides, an over- feer to whom they commonly give yearly 72 Total QOS Which fum of Q08 pataqucs is independent of the management of the rice fields. I fhail fuppofe that the ten fedans, after the rice is taken off* the ground, are fowed with tre- foil or wheat, &c. and I fnall compare the produce arifing. from thefe tw^o modes of management* The rice is fown in the month of Germiilah Before it is committed to the foil, it is fteeped five or fix days, in boxes immerfed in the Nile, or the canals which branch from it. When it IS fufficiently foftcned by the w^ater, it is fpread on mats, formed into little heaps, and covered up with liay. The heat, produced in each of D d thefe • 402 “ MEMOIRS thefc malTes, induces germination, and the rice is not thrown into the ground, till the germ is fufficiently developed. The field appointed to receive it, is firft kept under water for fever al days. It is next ploughed in two different diredlions, perpendicular to eat:h other : it then receives a third ploughing, after which it is again fubmerged. To fmooth its furface a long piece of wood, drawn by two oxen, is paffcd orer it. It is then cleanfed with a kind of rake, and, it being now reduced to a puddle, the rice is thrown into k while in this ftate. T wo days afterwards the land is covered anew^ with water, to the depth of about two inches,, which remains on it for two or three days. The water is then drained off, and is fucceeded by a new fubmerfion, which remains for the: feme time : and this operation is continued till the harveft. Twenty or thirty days after the rice is fbwn, according as the vegetation is more or lefs ad- vanced, the ricc-field is weeded, and they are careful in removing all intrufive plants as they make their appearance. As one grain of rice almoft always produces feveral ftalks, a part of them is drawn out and tranfe RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 403 transplanted into a convenient field prepared for them. The rice harvefl: takes place towards the end of Brumaire. It is reaped like corn, tied up into little Iheafs, and carried to a floor, where the grain is Separated from the ftraw by a particular inftrument. It is then cleanfed, hufked, put up in bafkets made of palm-tree leaves, and thus preferved for ufe. Nothing can be more Simple than the Egyp» tian inftruments of hufbandry, and from hence, and the prefent indifpofition of that people to improvements, we may infer the remote anti- quity of thofe inftruments. “ Their plough is compofed of two pieces of wood, united at one of their extremities, at an angle of about fifty or Sixty degrees. The longeft carries at the other end the yoke to which the oxen are faflened : the fiiorteft is armed with a Ihare, in form of a fpade, which, in tracing the furrow, throws the mould equally on each fide. It is diredled by a man who, with one hand, keeps it in a vertical plane, by means of two up- right bars ( montantsjy and, with the other, con- dudls the oxen. The miry ftatc into which the land is reduced D d 2 when 404 MEMOIRS when the leed is caft into it, renders the harrow ufelefs, but its place is fupplied by the trunk of a tree drawn horizontally. The fickle of the Egyptians is exadlly of the fame form with that ufed in France ; but it ap- peared to be fomewhat fmaller. It is ufed equally for reaping rice, wheat, barley, and trefoil. To feparate the rice from its pedicle, or ftalk, they employ a very complicated machine. It is compofed of a horizontal frame, formed of four pieces joined together at right angles. Two of thefe pieces receive, in a pofitlon parallel to the two others, three w^ooden axles, on which are fixed, by their centres, three and four wheels of plate-iron, two millimetres in thicknefs, and four decimetres in height. Thus the whole aflemblage is moveable horizontally upon the wheels, which are fo dlfpofed, that thofe fixed on the fame axle correfpond to the middle of the fpace included betv/een thofe fixed on the next following axle.^ Above this frame is fixed a kind of feat, of clumfy joinery, * It coft the Tranlhitor, though not iinaccuflomed to con- template machinery, fome thought to underftand the ftrucr ture and a£tioii of tliis machine, from this merely verbal de- feription of it. The reader will obferve, in the prefent work. RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 40S joinery, on which fits the condudor of the oxen, yoked to it. This machine, which refembles a rolling chair, is drawn, for fix hours, in all di- rections, over the fheaves of rice, which are un- bound and fpread upon an area containing about four hundred fquare metres. This operation be- ing finilhed, the rice, though difengaged from its ftalk, is flill mixed with other feeds and ex- traneous fubftances ; they therefore fan it grofsly, by toffing up fmall portions of it with wooden forks, the wind carrying off only the lighteft parts. But the rice, to be perfectly cleanfed, muff be paffed feveral times through fieves, which is done at the mills where they trip off its hufk; I now proceed to enumerate the articles of expenditure. In fowing ten fedans with rice. They fow on a fedan three eights of a dareb ; but as they throw feed only into half of the land, the other half being referved for the tranfplanta- tion of the fuperabundant ilioots plucked out of the fown fields, the ten fedans will require but fifteen eighths of a dareb, which, at the rate of work, fome other inftances, in which plates would have been ufeful, not to fay neceifary ; and it is furprifing that they have been omitted, or fo fparingly fumifhed, in the Freneli original. Tranfiaior. D d 3 twenty- 406 MEMOIB'S twenty»four pataques, each darcb will coft 45 P. Belides the labourers hired by the year, the cultivator is obliged to em- ployed extra jobbers in weeding, tranf- planting the rice, and cleanfmg the canals. The number of days they are fo employed may be reckoned at four hundred and fifty, which, at ten paras each, make ~ — ~ 50 The day-labourers, w^ho are employ- ed in harveft, are paid in kind. The reapers, and thofe who carry the flieaves to the area, are paid a dareb of rice 24 Thofe who drive the oxen, yoked in the carriage for feparating the grain from the ftalk, receive for the harveft work of ten fedans, fuch as it may be, five fixteenths of a dareb — 7 45 Total expence of fowing and reaping the rice — ' — — 126 45 Annual expence, independent of this, found above ■ — ^ — — go 8 Total — 1034 45 Immediately after the rice has been reaped, the land is covered with water for fome days, and, EEL.\TIVE TO EGYPT. 40? and, without any preparatory labour, fown anew with trefoil, the only fodder known in the pro- vince of Damietta. They fow on a fedan three meafures of feed, each w^orth thirty paras, which, for the ten fe- dans, amount to 10 P. The cutting of the fodder, of which they have three crops from the month of Frimare till the fpring, cofts only ten pataques, a part of this work being done by the labourers employed for the whole year, whofe wages have been already flated — — » ™ 10 Sum ~ 20 Adding to this fum that which has been ftated as independent advances. and the expences relative to the cul- ture of the rice, ™ ™ 1034 45 We fiiall have for the expence of L cultivating ten fedans, fown fucceffive- iy with rice and trefoil, a total of 1054 45 The lands about Damietta, in the beft years, yield fix darebs of rice per fedan, and in the worft, only one : the mean between thefe ex- D d 4 tremes. 4 OS MEMOIRS tremes, fuppofing the aumber of good ycar$ equal to that of the worft, Is three darebs and a half. Thus we may fappofe that ten fedans, yield, in common years, thirty-five darebs, which, at twenty-four pataques each, produce 840 P. The ftraw" of the crop of rice is ciily ufed for burning, and is worth — %2 We may fuppofe that fix tenths of the trefoil, fowed after the rice is reap“ ed, are fold green, and that the other four-tenths are dried. The crop of a fedan of green trefoil is fold for fifteen pataques : thus the three crops of a fedan will give 45 pa- taques, which, for fix fedans, is 2/ 0 The crop of a fedan of dried trefoil fells for tv/clve pataques, and the va- lue of three crops of the four remain- ing fedans, is — — - 144 I'otal value of ten fedans in rice and trefoil, — — 1206 Deduffing from this fam the amount of the expences of cultivation, there remains, for the profit of the cultivator, 231 pataques, 45 paras. It remains that we enquire what would be the profit. RELATIVE TO EGTPT, 40Q profit, if inftead of trefoil, wheat had been fown^ after the crop of rice, on the ten fedans, which we fuppofe in cultivation. The labour and other preparations of the foih in which the wheat is to be fown, are performed by the cultivator’s own people. Their wages having been comprehended in the independent advances, as alfo the maintenance of the oxen employed in their labours, we have only to reck- on here, the value of the feed, and the expences of the harveft. Half an ardeb of wheat, which is commonly fowed on a fedan of land, at the rate of 0 pata- ques per ardeb, caufes, for the ten fedans, ai^ expence of — — — 30 Expences of reaping, eftlmated in the fame manner as the reaping of the rice, at three pataques per fedan 30 The former expences were found to be — ~ 1034 45 We fliall then have, for the an- nual expence of ten fedans fowed fuccefiivelY with rice and wheat 10Q4 45 Lands in wheat bring, in common years, five ardebs per fedan, wdiich, at the rate of 0 pata- ques 410 MEMOIRS ques per ardeb, produces for the crop of the ten fedans ~ — 300 P. The ftraw of one fedan of wheat is fold for 0 pataques, or for the ten fedans 6o Anterior value of the rice — 852 Total produce of the ten fedans, fown fucceffivdy with rice and wheat 1212 Deducting from this fum, the expences of cul- tivation, which we found amounted to 10Q4 pa- taques 45 paras, there remains, for the profit of the cultivator, 117 pataques 45 paras. The refalts of the details into which we have entered, are ift, That lands fown with rice, in the pro- vince of Damietta, produce, in common years I 8’4 for one ; whereas thofe fown with wheat only produce 10. 2dly, That the mean price, per day, of the la- bours of agriculture is 10 paras. 3dly, That the feeding of the oxen, may be efti- mated at 12 paras per day, in the different fea- fons of the year. On this laft article, I muft obferve, that the oxen which work the mills for cleaning the rice, of which I fhall hereafter fpeak, being generally a great deal ftronger, and having more fevere la- bour RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 411 boor to undergo, require for their dally fupport, an expence of not lefs than 18 or 20 paras. Barley is fown in places where the irrigation is more difficult, and where only a fmall number of cattle can be kept. The produce of the grain fown in rice-grounds v/ould not be fufficient to compenfate the coft of irrigation, which muft always be fupported, whatever be the fucceffioii of crops. As to flax, what is ufed in the linen manufac* tures of Damietta, comes from the neighbour- hood of Manfoura, Semenhoueh and Cairo* Neverthelefs experience has proved, that it may be cultivated in the province of Damietta. The following is fome information, furnifiied by the Sheik of Senanieh, who told me that he was the firfl: perfon in the country who entered upon the culture of this article. The land on which the flax is to be fown is allowed to lie fallow for fix or feven months. It is then ploughed four times, and covered with a layer of afhes, after which the flax is fown. It re- xnains upon the land, fromFrimaire to Germinal. The field is interfered with little trenches, in- to which water is introduced, when the plant re- quires irrigation. Immediately after the flax is reaped, the land is prepared to receive rice tranf- planted from fome other field. The 41Z MEMOIRS Pataqueu The expence for labour for ten fedans, is 23 Manure, including its carriage — l6 Half an ardeb of feed is fown on each fe- dan, which, at the rate of nine pataques per ardeb, occafions for the ten fedans, an ex- pence of — — — 45 Irrigation, at different times - — 20 Reaping the flax, at the rate of fix pata- ques per fedan — 6o Spreading it on the field, and making it up into flieafs ‘ — • — ^ 30 Thre filing out and collecting the feed ' 35 Carrying home the flax, at leaft - — 40 Steeping it, and the concomitant expences ■ 36 Total expence of cultivation 305 Three ardebs of flax-feed are gathered from each fedan. It is fold at 9 pataques and 54 paras per ardeb, which produces, for the ten fedans, — - — ^28^ The flax reaped from a fedan is fold for 22 nataoues, and for the ten fedans 220 A J. ^ Total produce ~ 508 Deducing RELATIVE TO EGYl'T. 41$ Deducting from this fum the expence of cul- tivation, there remains for the profit of the cul-- tivator, 1Q2 pataque?. This profit of ig2 pata- ques, will appear extlraordinary, when compared with that which refalts from the cultivation of rice ; but I v/ould ohferve, that in the detail of cxpences, I have only included the hire (heat mi) of the oxen, during the time of their being em- ployed by tile cultivator in labour and irrigation. All the lands in the neighbourhood of Damiet- ta, are fold at the rate of ten times their annual rent, dedufting taxes. The fame caufes which have railed the interelt of money above its ordi- nary rate, in feveral of the States of Europe, have in Egypt deprefied the value of land, in which individuals, ftri as it lies in the v/arehoufes of Damletta, cofts, in common years, twenty-two pataques per ardeb. It appears from the cuftom-houfe books of this place, tliat the quantity of rice exported, for eight years, from the port of Damietta, was 228,35/ ardebs, which makes an annual average exportation of 28,544 ardebs.^ The quantity of rice exported was, In 17:) I - - - - - 38,853 ardebs In 1792 ----- 31,039 In 1793 ----- 26,256 la 1794 ----- 19,242 In 1795 ----- 24,275 In 1796 ----- 22,315 in 1797 - - --- - 29,544- In 179S ----- 36,863 Total 228,387 Average annual exportation 28,544 Such RELATIYE TO EGYPT. 417 Such is the information which I have collec^led, concerning the cultivation and commerce of rice, t make no doubt but^ by new refearches, one might obtain refults much nearer the truth. But, to obtain them with the utmoft accuracy, the cultivators, whom it will be neceflary to confult on the produce of their lands, muft be well con- vinced that the queftions addreffed to them, are not put with a view to load them with new taxes : otherwife they will always be inclined, as they are at prefent, to magnify the account of their expences, at the fame time that they will endeavour to diminilh that of their profits. E e Ohfervatlons MEMOrit^ 4,1 S Ohjervatmis on TKE FOUNTAIN OF MOSES, By Citizen Gaspard Monge. ^’’^N the wefteni feore of the Gulph of Suez, four leagues to the fouth of the town, and almofi: oppofite, to the Aallej of Pilgrimage fBgarement), are certain fprings marked on ail maps, and known by the name of the fountain of Mofes. It would be a miftake to fuppofe, that the name of thofe fprings derived its origin from the fabulous times of Egypt, and had been preferved till our days, by uninterrupted tradi- tion. It is very probable that, like the fountain of the Virgin at Matarieh, (_the ancient Helropolls) and like fome others, that name docs not reach beyond the eftablidiment of Chriftianity in Egypt,, when the ancient names relating to an exploded religion, gave place to others analogous to the new opinions. Although the water of the fountain of Mofes be lefs fait than that of many wells dug in other parts of the defert, yet it is brackifh, and confe- quently does not quench thirft fo wxll as frehr w^ater : RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 4 IQ' water : but it is capable of preferving vegetable and animal life^ and we drank it for four and twenty hours, during a painful journey, w ithout being incommoded by it. Befides, as this water is continually exhaufted and renewed, it is always tranfparent, and hath no difagreeable fmell or tafte ; whereas that of moft other wells is com- monly rendered turbid by the agitation excited in drawing it, and has almoft alw^ays a fetid odour. For example, the well of Agirout, fitu- ated four leagues to the north of Suez, and which refrefhes the caravan of Mecca, on the third day from Cairo, is two hundred feet deep ; but the pu- trefaction of the animal and vegetable fubftances which fall into it, from accidents almoft una- voidable, gives the w^ater, in addition to its natu- ral faltnefs, an odour of ftilphurated hydrogene which is fcarcely fupportablc. In all ages the fountain of Mofes muft have been exceedingly valuable tothe Arabians of Tor, who inhabit the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai, Tlie Arabians, obliged to draw ifom Egypt a part of their fubfiftence, and the objefts of foreign induftry, muft alw^ays have carried in exchange the products of the meagre forefts, which cover their mountains. This tranfport could only be E e 2 performed 42'0- MEMO IRS performed by caravans, and the fountain of ■ Mofes muft always have been one of their fta- tions. Befides, from the time when maritime eftablifhments were formed in the bottom of the gulph, whether at Suez, itielf, or at the entry of the valley of Pilgrimage, on the road from the Red Sea to Memphis, the fountain of Mofes muft have been frequented ; becaufe it was an indlfpenfible refource when, after long droughts, the elfterns for preferving rain water Were exhaufted. But the epoch at w^hich the fountain of Mofes- appcars to have excited the moft intereft,. is that of the war which the Venetians and the Egyp- tians' jointly waged with the Portuguefe,, after the difcovery of the paftage to the Indies,, by the Cape, of Good Hope. It is well known that: thefe re- publicans, in order tc- defend the fceptre of com- merce which they had hithertoReld, and which* was about to elude their grafp, built and armed fleets at Suez. It is not probable that they ever eftabliftied dock-yards at the fountain of Mofes, which prefented no local advantages for ftich an objeft ; but it appears that they formed an ex- tenfive watering place there. No part of the ■works which w^ere above ground remains. The whole HEXATIVE TO EGYPT. 421 whole, has been fcattered or deftroyed by the Arabs, except the foundations and fome fubter- caneous works. Thefe veftiges, which are ftlH confiderable, and which, during our fliort ft ay, we could but partially furvey, principally confift ^of large refervoirs conftrufted with care, to which the water was brought from the fprings, in fub- terraneous channels, and from whence it was conduced by a great channel to the fea fhorCo General Buonaparte difcovered this laft channel, and had it furveyed in its whole extent, which is from feven to eight hundred fathoms. It is conftrucfted of good mafonry^ covered through its whole length, and has the fame declivity with that of the foil in which it is formed. The fand, which the water has carried into it fincc it was abandoned, has obftrucfted it in the firft fifty fa- thoms ; but all the reft is in fo good a condition, that, with a moderate expence, it might be re- paired, and made fit for fervice. On the beach., the channel terminatesbetween two fmall mounts ft^namelonsj, lengthened out with rubbilh, and wdiich appeared to us to be the veftiges of a wa- tering place properly fo called. This watering place muft have been difpofcd in a manner agree- ing with the form and nature of the veflels in which they generally embarked the water. E e 3 At [ 422 MEMOIRS At the diflance of two hundred fathoms, to the northward of the laft fpring, there is a con- fiderable hillock, which, like the Mo?iie Tejiaccio at Rome, is wholly formed of fragments of jars, and other earthen veffels, fpoiled in the burning. We found evident remains of furnaces, fo that there muft have been on that fpot, a large manu- factory of pottery. The objeCt of that eftab- lifhment could not be the fabrication of the earthen ware, which compofcs the chain pumps f chapeleis^ J , by which the water is drawn from the wells, to irrigate the lands throughout all Egypt, wliich have not the advantage of inunda- tion. Indeed, ever fmce the lands about the fountain of Mofcs were inhabited, they were cul- tivated all the way from the Iprings to the flaore. We itill fee there a great number of young date trees, diflributed wdth an order which cannot be the effect of chance. Thefe date trees, which have probably fprung from the ffocks of old ones, are at leaft an Indication of an ancient cultiva^ In Savcrien’s Dl£iionnalre de Mathcmatipue^ &c. chapelct is defcribed as a fort of chain pump, which he fays, on the authority of Perrault, was invented by a Florentine of the name of Francini, and executed about the year 1680 , in the French King’s library at Paris. But this engine is probably of a different conflrudlion from that mentioned in the text, which is faid below to be of high antiquity. — Tranjlator, tion. •RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 423 tion, which hath been abandoned. But that cultivation required no drawing of water for irri- gation ; for the water of the fountains could eafily be conduced, in open trench es^ to all the cultivated fields, and therefore the chain pumps were not neceffary. Accordingly, among the o;reat number of fraitments which form the hil- lock, v/e did not find one which could have be- longed to the chain pumps, the form of wBich hath not varied for many ages. And we were inclined to believe, that the objed: of eftablifhing this great pottery was the manufacture of large jars, to keep w^ater on fliip-board, in a country where the fcarcity of wood, and perhaps the want of induftry, rendered the conftruCtion of cafks impracticable. Thus, thofe who came for water to the fountain of Mofes, were fure to find there jars proper to contain it, and probably other earthen veiTels for which they had occafion. The fountain of Mofes prefents a remarkable hydroftatical phenomenon. The different fprings which compofe it, and which are eight in num- ber, are all fituated on the tops of conical hillocks, each terminating in a crater, which forms a bafon for its fpring, the water running down the coni- cal furface in natural channels. Thofe hillocks are of different heights : the hlghefl: is elevated E e 4 about 424 MEMOms about forty feet above the furrounding Turface. The fpring of this lafi: has been long dried up, its crater is filled with fand, which the wind has carried into it, and there is ftill near it the trunk of a date tree, which, after attaining a great height, was cut down by the Arabs. It was not difficult for us to give a reafon for the formation of the hillocks, on the top of which the fprings arife. The humidity which the wa- ter of a fpring diffufes through the neighbouring foil, preferves around its bafon a perpetual vege- tation. The grafs produced by that vegetation diminifhes the velocity of the wind which agi- tates it, and makes it leave the larger grains of the fand which it carries along. This fand, fheltered by the ftalks, at the roots of which it is depofited, and retained by the moifture which makes it begin to adhere, is enabled to refift the attacks of the moft violent wind. The car- bonat, or the fulphat of lime, which the water of the fpring holds in folution, and which is de- nuded by evaporation, cryftallizes among the grains of fand^ and forms a glutinous fubftance, which compleats their adherence. Hence the edges of the bafon are a little ralfed, and the wa- ter is forced proportionably to raife its level, in order to make its efcape from the bafon, and to diffufe KELATIVE TO Et^YPT. 425 ■ difiufe%felf abroad. The circumftances v^^hich give rife to this operation, being, from their na- ture, often repeated, their progrefs, though flow, arc, fo tofpeak, continual, and, after alonglapfe of time, the fpring, which is always gaining ele- vation, iffues from the fummit of a little conical hill, formed of a fandy ftone, which ftrikes fire with fteel, and is impregnated wdth fait, like the water of the fountain. The fpring, which has the moll elevated cra- ter, being dried up, it is natural to fuppofc that the height of forty feet, to which it has arrived, is a maximum, determined not fo much by the preflure which affects it at the bafe of the hil- lock, as by the refiftance of the walls of the na- tural fubterraneous conduits which convey it ; fo that the %vater having reached that height, might have burfi: thofe walls, broke out at other iffues, and produced new fprings, which drained the firft, and which, in fucceffion, have formed the little hills on the tops of wdiich they are all at pre- fent fituated. However this may be, it is very probable, that at a remote period, the fountain of Mofes had no other exit than that which has been long dried up, and that the eight fprings which now’ afford w^ater, and v/hofe craters are lefs elevated, I have MEMOIRS 420 have been produced at a later period, ellber by the natural rupture of too weak conduits, or by the excavations which have been made for differ- ent purpofes, at the time when the fountain wa^ frequented, and when its vicinity vvas inhabited. It would have been interefting to examine the form and ftrudlure of the natural channels which convey the water to the fountain of Mofes, acrofs an extenfive plain of fand, and in which it bears a preffure capable of raifmg it more than forty feet above its level, and to afeertain w^hether this water comes from a chain of mountains which originate in Syria, and terminate at Mount Sinai, *and which is feen at the diftance of about four leagues to the eafl of the fountain ; but our time v/ould not allow us to enter on thefe refearches, which were of no immediate utility. EXTRACTS B.ELAT1VE TO EGYPT. 42i EXTRACTS Frofu the Geography of Abd-er-rafild El-Bahiiy^ on the Defcription of Egypt, By Citizen Marcel. A LY Abd-er-rafiiid;, Ebn-falch^ Ebn-Nou- rj, iirnamed El-Bakouy^ was a native of Bakouieh f, a very coiifidcrable town^, fituated iu the In the National Library Is a copy of this work, No. 585 , of Arabic MSS. I lhaii take the liberty to extrad from it fome various readings, in order to curnpleat the interck- ing remarks of Citizen Marcel, and thofe which Citizen Deguignes has made on the fame work, and which are to be found in the fecond volume of Notices tef III xtr alts des Manufchts de la Bibliotheque Nationalc, — L — S. (Thefe letters, L — s, hand for the name of Langles, one of the librarians in the Bibliotheque Natlonale. — Traufiator,) f Bakouieh, or Bakou, is a port on the Cafpian Sea, and the capital of Shirvan, the northern province of Perfia. T'his town is known in Europe by its commerce, and famous in the Eak, efpecially among the Hindoos, on account of the fprings of Naphtha, which exiil in its neighbourhood. The followers of Brachma have gone on pilgrimage to thofe fprings, from the mok remote times, as the Pouranas, and other ancient Sanferit books, attek. Among the numerous European travellers who have fpoken of Bakou, I fhali content MEMOIRS 428 the country of Derbend, on the borders of the Cafpian Sea. His father, El-Imam El-alem faleh ebn Noury, followed the feft of the Iman Shafey^- and arrived at extreme old age. The year of the birth of Abd-er-raihid is not ^Ycll determined ; but it is certain that he v^^rote about the year 8o0 of the Hegira, or 1-103 of the vulgar asra. His work, entitled Kitab ialkis £/- atfar fy ajalh FJ-7}ielik FJ-kaJiar^ that is, the content myfelf with citing the interefling and adventurous Forher, who vilited thofe fprings of Naphtha, called Atejh- g-ah (the place of hre in Perhan), and wdio recounts a long converfation vv'hkh he had with the Hindoo mendicants, or hermits, who have fettled near this place of devotion to re- ceive their pious countrymen. See A Journey from Bengal to Englandy thrmgh the Northern part of India^ Kafhmire^ Afghamfan and Perfa^ and Into RuJJia, by the Cafpian Sea. Voh ii. p. 227, 23i. _ (L— S-) * 'DoPoy Aboil Ahdaliah.f Mohammed ebn Edrys^ hrnamed Eft Shafeiy was the hrft who wrote on the muffulman ju- rifprudence. He compofed a hook on the Offoul^ or foun- dations of iflamifm, in which are comprifed all the laws of the Mahometans, both civil and religious. There are be- hde two works of his, entitled Sounan and Mcfnad^ on the fame fubjeci. He became the founder, and the chief of one of the fedls acknowledged to be orthodox by the mufful- mans ; and his doflrine is in fuch eftimation in the Eaft, that Salah-ed-Din (Saladin) founded at Cairo a college, in which any other fyfeem was prohibited to be profeffed or taught. book RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 42CJ book explainiog the traditions concerning the wonders of the Almighty King, is a kind of uni- verfal geography, arranged according to the order of the climates, the compofition of which he finidied in the 815th^ year of the Hegira, or the X412th of the common a^ra. I thought that an extract from this work, relative to the dcfcription of Egypt, might be ufeful upon many accounts : and this confidera- tion has induced me to make public an cxtrad: which I made for my owm private ufe. It fceined to me, that in our prefent clrcum- ftances, it w^as abfolutely neceffary for us to be- come as accurately acquainted with Egypt as poffible, and that one of the moft efFeftual means to acquire that acquaintance, was a comparlfon of what modern travellers and European geogra- phers- have written concerning that celebrated country, with a defeription which the oriental writers gave of it fome ages before, and with the- * The manufeript in the National Library has thefe vrords, p. 142, St^ne/i fet oue af/ier one tfemamnaieh, “ this ‘•‘ writing came from the pen of its author, in the year “ eight hundred and fixteen^' and not 806, as is intimated in the Remarks of citizen Deguignes, p. 456, and which is. ¥ihbly an error In the printing. (L — s.) accounts,. 43Q MEMOIRS accounts left us by Greek hlftorians, and gcogru-' phers, at a period much more remote. I have therefore made with pleafure an extract from one of the Arabian Geographers, whofc writings, though lefs known in Europe than thofe of many other oriental authors, contain neverthelefs details perhaps as valuable as thofe which have a more extended reputation among us, details which may be fappofed fo much the more curious and intereftlng, as they have been hi- therto unknown. It mufi: be allowed, that the work of Abd-er- rafnid contains, in common with thofe of ail the eaftern writers, fome inaccuracies, which aiife from their general ignorance of ancient hiftory ; but thefe inaccuracies are eafily perceived, and hence there is • little danger of their leading us into error. The orientals interlard all their writings with prodigies and extravagant ftories, to which they give entire credit. I thought it my duty not to retrench any of thefe fables in this extradl, and that I ought to leave the author his oven oriental ftyle and original form ; as thofe hclions aftord us the means of appreciating more exactly the prQgrefs which the fciences and geographical knowledge RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 431 knowledge had made In the Eaft, at the epoch when Abd-er-rafhid wrote. Befides, it Ihould be confidered, that almofi; all thofe fables are only truths more or lefs disfi- gured, which always fubfifl: under the grofs co- verina: with which credulity and error have thought proper to conceal them ; and perhaps it belongs to true philofophy, reftored by vidtory to her original country, to carry her illuminating torch under thefe thick veils, to expofe by her light that incoherent mafs of heterogeneous opi- nions, that chaos of f^^ftems, differently altered, which circulate among all the people of the Eaft, and, by clear dlfcuffion, to draw from them fome real fadls, fome accurate truths, which hitherto might have efcaped the moft penetrating and attentive eyes. Thefe extra dts, from the geography of Abd- cr-rafhid, will be followed by fome portions of Aboul-faraje, and other oriental hiftorlans, from whom it cannot be difputed that we ought ne- ceflarily to draw our information, if w^e wdfh to have that true knowledge of the hlftory of the Eaft, which can only be derived from that channel. First 432 MEMdIRS Firsi* Extract. Of Egypt m Ge7ieraL THE parts of the earth capable of being in« habited, both on the north and fouth, are di- vided into feven climates of different magnitudes « They extend in length, from the weft to the eaft, from the iilands called Jefalr-ePKalidat (the Canaries), whence Bathalmious EUKlotidy^ (Ptolomy) hath begun to calculate his degrees. They comprehend all the region of the earth which extends between the two feas. Their » ^ It is thus that the learned Caliri, in his Bibliotheca Arabico-hifpana^ tom. 1. p. 349, and other orientalifls, read this word, and they tranilate it by Claudius. But I adopt much more willingly the fentiment of D’Herbelot (Biblioth. Orient, p. 193), who reads \t,Jloudy (orfloudfy), and tranf- lates it, a native of Pelufum. In fadl, Ptolomy was a na- tive of that town, which is now called Thineh. (See D’An- ville’s Memoir on Egypt, p. 97. — The change of kloudfy into floudfy is fo much the more eafy, as there is only the difference of a diacritic point, inftead of two, over the ini- tial letter, which produces a fe^ inflead of a kaf. Add to this that in Arabic, as in our European languages, the firft name always precedes th^ appellative. It muft then have been el-kloud/y d-bathalmious^ or rather el-kloudtous ; for all the Latin words terminating in us^ preferve that termination in Arabic : befides, the national name is always placed after the proper name.— (L— »s.) breadth RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 43^ breadth, from north to fouth, extends from the circle of the fliar Sohail (Canopus) to that of Benat-en-Nach'^ , the Great Bear, The Said,. ox Upper Egypt, and the courfe of the Nile> make a part of the firft and fecond climates : this region extends on the fouth to the country of Nouheh (Nubia). Lower Egypt, the towns of Mefr (Cairo), and of IJkenderieh (Alexandria), are contained in the third climate ; at its extremity, the length of the day is thirteen hours and a half and a quarter. Mefr (Egypt in general). The extent of this famous country is forty miles j'. Its length is from El-Arfh to Afouan, and its breadth from Eilah to Barkah, The name Vv^hich it bears comes from Mefr, the fon of Mef I i 1 I * Literally, the daughters of the funeral car. This expref- iioii particularly denotes the three lail flars, which form the tail of the Great Bear, although it be often apphed to the whole conilellation, which is alfo called Ed-Doubheh (the Bear) . t The manufeript in the National Library '{ignifies nights. The fame expreffions are fou^id in the'-geographical and hiftorical defeription of Egypt by Al Mahrify, No. 797 of the Arabic manuferipts, p. 11. The Arabian authors frequently reckon by nights’, and not by days’, journeys* This meafure is the fame to them, and is equivalent to fix or feven of our common leagues, — (L— s.) Ff ram, MEMOIRS 4s4 raim^, the fon of Cham. It is looked upoti as the beft country in the world ; and, as long as there are men in it, abundance will reigri there. It is furrounded with moving fands, which are agitated by the impulfe of the winds. It very feldom rains there, and the little rain which falls, only augments its fertility and its riches. At the end of fummer, the time when all waters commonly diminifli, the Nile ac- quires, on thecon trary, fuch an Increafe, that all the lands of Egypt are inundated ; and, when this increafe rlfes to 1 2 cubits, it is folemnly an- nounced to the people. There is in the middle of the Nile, a mofque,^ built by the CallfF Al-Mamou?i\y when he came into ^ Gen. di. x. 7. f Al-M amoun ahoul abbas^ abd-oullah, ehn Ilaroun* This prince, the foil of Ilaroun- ar -Rajhi d\ was the fe» venth Califr of the houfe of the Abbacldes. He was born irt fhe year 170 of the Hegira (786 of the common $ra) and fucceeded, in the year lOS (813) to his brother tlie CalifF El- Amin Mohammed ebn Ilaroun. The memory of Al-Mamoun will always be dear to litera- ture and the fciences, whidi he loved and pro teded in an efFeflual manner, and favoured their progrefs and advance- ment with all' his power, and at an extaordinary ex- pence. It is to him that the Aiabians owe the knowledge of the l^ELATIVE TO EGYPT. 435 into Egypt. Behind this mofque, is a canal, from the midft of which rifes a column of white marble 24 cubits in height. Every cubit of it is beft books in Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin, which he caufed to be tranflated into Arabic, and extended and encouraged the fiiidy of tlrem. To him alfo, the learned in Europe owe the prefervation of fundry works and frag- ments of ancient Greek and Latin authors, who, no longer exifting in their original languages, have found a refuge in the Arabic tranflations. Not content with having transfufed into his own lan- guage, the riches of other nations, Al-Mamoun wifhed alfo to invite all the learned men whom he could colIe£l;, not on- ly among the nations fubje6led to his empire, but alfo among the Jews, the Chridians, the Greeks and Perfians, and even among the Magi, the Guebres and the Indians. Whatever was their feft or their religion, they partook equally of his favours. He was happy in their fociety, and delighted above all things, in affiding at their literary difcuffions. Under his reign, flourifned the aftronomcr Jlahejh el-- Merouzy, the author of three books of aftronomicai tables, Ahmed ehn Kotfeir el-Farghany^ known to us, under the name of Alfragan, Abdouluih ebn Sahel ehn Nouhakht, Mo- hammed ehn money el khouarezmy, Ma-Jha-allah el yehoiidy, and Yahia ehn-Ahyl-manfour^ whom he caufed to make a great number of aftronomical obfervations, at Chamajieh, near Bagdad, and on mount Kajioun near Damafeus. Among the learned phylicians, whom he alTemblcd at his court, we diftinguifh Sahel ehn faboujy lirnamed el-kouceje, Jehrail, who treated of the difeafes of the eye, and Youhan- na ebn-cl-Bathrik, to whom was given the name of cl-ter- F f 2 j email 436 Memoirs is marked and divided into 24 inches, and each inch is again fubdivided into 6 lines, or fmall meafures. This column ferves to indicate with exaftnefs, the fucceffive augmentations of the Nile, the overflowing waters of which cover the earth for the Ipace of forty days*. The Nile is generally regarded as the river which has the longefl: courfe. It is faid to ex- tend one month in the country of the rnulTuI- mans, two months in that of Noiiheh, (Nubia) and four months in the deferts which contain its fource. It has its origin in the Belad el-Kamar (the country of the moon) beyond the equato- rial circle ; and runs from fouth to north, in the hottefl: regions. Its augmentations and diminu- tions take place in regular proportion. This river gives birth to a great number' of Temfah (crocodiles) animals which exifl: no where elfe^ jeman (the tranflator) becaufe he tranflated into Arabic, the Greek authors who wrote on medicine. Al-Mamoun, afterreigning twenty yearsand eight months, died of the fever and ague, near the' river Bedendoun^ at the age of 48, in the year 218 of the Hegira, or 833 of the common sera. In the manufcript lodged in the national library, the word rendered in this paragraph canal, is Sehrije, a bafon, a fifli-pond. What is meant, is the Meklas, of the ifland of Raoudhah, conftru(EIed by order of al-Mamoun, in the 200th year of the Hegira (L-s.j except KELATIVE TO EGYPT. 437 except in the river Sind, which waters the coun- try of Hende (India) but thofe which are pro- duced in this lafl: river are much leli than thofe of the Nile*. There is alfo in Egypt, a tree which is lumi- rous during the night, and appears as if covered with flame. The Greeks gave it the nanae of MouklkotiS, That country likewife produces a plant, of avhich cords and cables are made. The natives of Egypt give it the name of Dis (a kind of reed). The mountains of Safan f produce cottons of a Angular ^ The Sind {SinJ/iyin Saafcrit) alfo forms, like the Nile, a Delta at its mouth ; and major Rennel, in his Memoir for a map of Ilindofan, p,. 285, points out many llriking re- femblances between the province of Sind and Egypt. It is alfo obfervabie, that crocodiles are not rare in feveral parts of Africa and Aha, and particularly in India, where there appear to be two fpecies. .(L — ^s.) t The manufcript in the national library, makes no me 11 ^ tion of the mountains of Safan, and I even doubt whether any mountains in Egvpt ever bore that name. Perhaps the tranllator faw a diacritic point where there Pnould not have been one, and read Jcbal cl Safan (the mountains of Safan) infliead of llahhal cl-fufun (cables of vellelsj as the Arabians ufually fupprefs the vowels, tbefe two readings of- fer no difference, but the diacritic point which I have mentioned'. The fenfe which I propofe, appears to me to be jufiihed by the following words, “ They make with thefe F f 3 reedsj 438 MEMOIRS a lingular nature. They are kindled, burn, and are extinguifhed, like a flambeau ; infomuch, that, when a light is wanted, it is fufncient to take them by one end and agitate them for fome time : the motion inflames them, without the contadl of fire. Egypt alfo boafts of producing afles of an ex- traordinary fize, and in point of ftrength, fimilar to mules. In Ibme of the cantons of it the foil is fald to yield melons, of Indian origin*, the tafte of which is very agreeable, and their fize fome- times lo large, that two of them are faid to be a fufiicient load for a camel. Among the feathered tribe there met with, we diftinguifti a bird which preys on fillies. Its body is black, but its head is covered with “ reeds (Dls) cables for velTcis ; they alfo kindle bits of it, which burn like a flambeau, and afterwards are extinguifn^- ed, &c.’' See the manufcript in the National Library p. 60. (L — s.) Bathik hlndy, the melon of India, Angouria'. The Arabians alfo call this fruit B-athlk rekky and Feje^ and the Turks Chamkaouny, the melon of Syria. The generic name of the melon m Arabic is Bathik, inTurkifli Kaouriy and Perflan Korbzeh. On this fruit, confuit Forikal’s Flora jFgyptiaco-arahica, p. 167, chap, ixxv, cxxii, Hoefles’s Nachrlchten von marokkos, p. 309, Abdellatiphi Compendi- um memorahilium Mgypti^ cap. ii. p. 26, of the Arabic edition of jofepli White, and p, 87 of the German edition of M= Gunther Wahl. (L.— s.) white RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 43Q white feathers : the name of it is Oukah-en Nil, the eagle of the Nile. The Nems (the Ichneumon), is another animal peculiar to Egypt ; its fize is fmalh t^nd its colour red, except the belly^ which is white. It is faid to have a fmgular enmity to the crocodile. It av^oids the fight of large ferpents ; but, if it hap- pen to be caught by one of thofe reptiles, it dif- fufes through its mouth an odour ib infupport- ably fetid, that the ferpent tears itfelf to pieces in endeavouring to get rid of it. Among the moft wonderful and remarkable things in Egypt, are the two great pyramids (Eh Heramaii), fituated on the weftern bank of the Nile, near Fofthath.'^ They are built of great fquared ftoiies, and their height is three hundred and feventecn cubits (5-J8 feet, 1 inch, Q lines). Their four fides, which gradually diminifh in af- Cendiiig, are equal to each other, and their breadth at the bafef. is four hundred and fixty cubits (7Q5 feet 5 inchics). ^ Situated In the face of Fofehath (E!-hcraman el-mo- Ladfyan Hi Fofthatli). M. S. in tlie library, p. 60. t Ail the writers ancien' and luodern, who have deferibed the pyramids, have varied in giving their dimensions. T'he height of the great pyramid, according to 4' ap- proaches nearly to that given by piodgms Siculus (near fix ¥ f 4 hundred 440 MEMOIRS The confi:m6lion of thefe ancient monuments, built with all the proportions neceflary to give them folidity, is a mafter-piece of art, and neither winds, tempefts, nor earthquakes, have hitherto fhaken them. It is afferted, that formerly the pyramids were covered with different fculptures, and even that they bore infcriptions in ancient charadlers, called moufnad or herniary,'^. This infcription bore, hundred feetb and the bate which he here gives of one of the faces, is almoft fhe fame with that which we find in Herodotus, (eight hundred feet). Note. The men of fcience who went on the expedition to Egypt, have determined the height of this pyramid. * In the ancient Arabic were too principal dialedls, which took their names from the mofi: confiderable tribes who ufed them. The one was called Arahlet Hemiar (the Arabic of He«^ miar), and the othtx Arahlet Koraijh (the Arabic ofKoraifh). The following is what we learn from the oriental writers, iefpe£ling thofe two ancient idioms. The dialed! oi Koraljh is common to the Koraifhites, the defeendants of Ifhmael, and to the tribes fettled in the He- ja%, a portion of Arabia, where v<^e find the two celebrated cities of Mecca m-\d Fatfrib (Medina). It was accounted the mofi; pure language ; and thus it received, by way of eminence, the name of the clear and elegant language. This was the dialed which Mahomet fpoke and ufed, in all his v/ritings. This language was afterwards infenfibly altered, by the - ' ‘ ^ • ■ ■ - niixture RELATIVE TO EGYPT, 441 That the conftruftion of thofe monuments at- tefted the power of the Egyptian nation, and mixture of foreign words, brought by the numerous cara» vans which annually viht Mecca ; and at prefent it is only a jumble of different idioms, Afiatic and African. The dialedl of Hem.iar claims an origin much more an- cient than that of ; and the Arabian authors affure us that it was iifed in the moft remote times, even from the period when the Arabians began to be incorporated as a nation. It was the particular idiom of the tribes known by the name of the Hemiarites (the of Ptolomy), who inhabited a portion of Arabia the Happy, and drew their origin from Uemiar^ the fon of Abd-ejh-fhems, one of the children of Yachab^ and the grandfons of Kahthan or lok^ than, who is believed to have been the firfl king of Yemen, Thefe tribes were confdered as the moll noble and confi- derable in ail Yemen. They have given kings to all the neighbouring nations, and the dynafty of the IJmaelians^ who reigned in Perfia, was of Hemiarite origin. A long time before muffulmanifm, the Hemiarites had already conquered a part of Afi’ica, where they had eftablifhed their colonies, and diffufed their language. The capital of the ancient Hemiarites was Marlha^ known at the prefent day, by the name of Mareb. According to Aboul-feda^ the kings of the Hemiarite race reigned over Yemen, for a period of 2020 years, from He^ miar, who afeended the throne about the year 1698, before the vulgar tera, ioZoul Naouas, who loft his crown and his life feventy years before the birth of Mahomet (502 of the com- mon :era), in an irruption of the Ethiopians, who feized upon all his dominions. The 442 MEM.Oni'S that it was eafier for men to deftroy them, than to ere <5!: their equals.”^ The Hemiarite language was loil in tlie conqiiefts of Mahomet and his fuccelTors, and no ve-Rige of it remains ; but all hiRoriaiis agree, that it was very different from the Arabic language, prcperiy fo called ; and, on this fubjedl, they cite the following proverb, common in the mouths of the Arabians : “ Let the Arabian who comes to Dfafar (one of the principai towns of the Hemiarites), learn the dialeft of Hemiar.” The Hemiarites had not only a dialed peculiar to them- ielves, but alfo their own manner of writing, the charaders of which are alfo unknown to us. That writing bore the ■name of ?,Ioufnad ; and ebn Khallkan tells us, “ that the letters of it were difunited, and very diRant from each other.’’ It was unlawful to communicate the knowledge of it to families of the inferior clafs, or to any Rranger, without the fpecial permiffion of the government. Neverthelefs, more than one Arabian author is faid to have difeovered, and interpreted Hemiarite inferiptions. Aboul-feda fays that Shamer ebn Malck, king of Yemen, caufed to be engraved upon one of the gates of Samarkand, about the year 900 before the common asra, a Hemiarite infeription, which Rgnilied, “ That from Sanaa to Samar- “ kand, was a thoufand parafangs.” It appears that the Hemiarite charaders were already for- gotten in the time of Mahomet, andThat their place was fupplied by another manner of writing, which had become common among the different tribes of Arabia. This manner of writing was called koufy, from the name of the town of Koufa^ in Mefopotarnia, where it was invented, 44S RELATIVE TO EGYPT. Tradition informs us that thofe pyramids con- tain fepulchres, and that in the year 225 of He- gira of the prophet, to whom be falvation and benedi(Sion (83Q of the common ara), there was invented, and from whence it was brought to Mecca and Medina, by Mazar Ebn -Morar El-Anhary. In the eaft, are many monuments, on wliich w^e read CLifick infcnptions. I have obferved them particularly on the foffits (fofites) f of the entrances of the great mofque at -Alexandria, and in feveral parts of the citadel of Cairo. In Ihort, the cufick chara^fers themfeives gave place to the Arabian writing now iri ufe, which was invented by the Vilir Ebn-Mokhiy and which has been tranfmitted to our days. Without any fenfible change. * The following is the text and the tranfiatlon of this fcriptioo, as it Hands in our manufcript, p. 60 : — ‘‘ Anny henicGii houma fenien yeda-ay koueh fy mulk-hi fely ha de^ mou-houma feen el hadem eicer min cl-bena oue had kecoue- nahouma heldcihaje fe men ijtetha a fe-Uekfou hourna be!- hafrE — I built both of them: let him who wifhes to ibow his power dehroy them. It is nevcrhelefs ealier to “ deilroy than to build. We covered them with a precious “ robe : let any who can, cover them only with mats.” Almakrify, under the article Pyramids, cites four readings of this infeription, the fubHance of which is always the fame. (L— s.j f Soffita, Sqffita, or Soffit, fignifies, in ordinary buildings, the board over the top ol a window j in great edifices, the ceiling of an appartment, lornied by crefs beams, or flying cornices, and hav'ng the iqnare pannels of its compartmenis enriched with fculpture, &c. See Neve’s Builder’s Di6lionary. I'ratijlalcri found 444 MEMOIRS found in them a book, written in unknown cha^ rafters, of which, however, an old man of the Chriftian monaftery of Kalmoun accompliflied a tranilation. That book made mention of celeftial obferva- tlons, made for the conftruftion of the pyramids, and obfervations ftill more ancient, according to which, by comparing the different relations of the heavens to the earth, a prediftion had been dif- covered, importing, that the earth would one day be entirely overwhelmed and deftroyed ^ In confequence of this prediftion, a king of E«:yptj named Sounds the fon of Salhoul, re- folved to have a tomb erefted for himfelf, and two others for the reft of his family. He chofe for his own tomb, the pyramid fituated the moft: eaftcrly. That which ftands towards the weft, was defigned to contain the tomb of his brother, and his nephews were to have their "" fepulchre in the third..-.....” ^ Our manufcript gives a very different fenfe. The fol- lowing is a tranilation of it : it is always the text of the ancient Egyptian book, “ We have infcribed upon the wails (or the great pyraniid) the calamity which is to *■ defeend from heaven on the four points of the world, and that when the heart of Leo fliall paL into the firff minute of the head of Cancer ; and fuch will be the fi- tu-ation of the planets in the heavens, the fun and the moon being in the iiril minute of Aries, 5rc.’^ Celeftial RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 445 Celeftlal obfervations had been made at the firft minute of the fun’s entry into the heart of Leo, approaching to the head of Can- ‘ cer, all the other ftars entering into that fign ; the fim and the moon in the firft minute of Aries ; Refan ^ (Saturn) in the twenty-eighth degree, one minute of the fame fign ; Melokh (Mars) in the twenty-ninth degree, three mi- nutes of Pifces ; Venus at the twenty -eighth de- te . Memiry at the twenthfeveyith degree of the fame fg?i and Pikheus (Jupiter) in Li- bra ” Sourid Our manufcript makes no mention of an inundation. In it we read that the afironomers having predifted, that a calamity [afet)) proceeding from heaven and earth, fhould deftroy the plants and animals of the earth, they “ advifed Sourid Ben Salouk to have a tomb built for him ‘‘ and his family. For this reafon, the eaflern pyramid was “ conflru61:ed for him, the weftem for his brother, and for “ his nephew that which had a covering, &c.” (L — s.) * Refan (Pr;^av), Melockh (MaXo^), and Pikheus (nix^vs)9 are the names which the ancient Egyptians gave to the planets, Saturn, Mars and liipiter, The Arabians called them by the names of Zohel, Meirikh and Mouchtery. t I have interpolated the palPage in Italicks, from the M.S. in the National Library, i may add, that thefe agro- nomical obfervatigns are more exteofivc and detailed, in the work of Al-Makrily. They are to be found at large in my Memoir on the Pyraiirids, (L — s ) 446 MEMOIRS Sourid, after his death, was interred, ac- cording to his orders, in the eaftern pyramid^ his brother in the weftern pyramid, and Kou- ros* his nephew, in the third pyramid.” The entrance into thofe pyramids was by a fubterraneous edifice f, the length of v/hich was one hundred and fifty cubits (259 feet, 4 inches, 0 lines). The portico of the eafeern py- ram id was fituated towards the eaft, and that of the weftern towards the weft : the entrance of the third, which was called Mouzer J, was dire died towards the north. Thofe monuments were believed to contain immenfe riches ^ This fragment was tranflated from the Coptlcy or ancient Egyptian language into Arabic. And fence the aftronomical epochs ; recorded in this book, have been examined and compared, it has been found, that from the foundation of the py» Koroures, according to our manufeript. L — s.) t Ezeje, an arched fubterraneous gallery. (L — s.) II Mouzer does not appear to me a particular denomina- tion. But I believe that it Ihould be pronounced Mouc%%er (the two words are written alike), and tranflated, the pyra- mid covered with a garment. This pyramid, which our author fays is the leaft, is probably overlaid with marble. See the infetiption which I have above inferted, page 400 . (L-s) ramids RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 44? ramids, there have elapfed 4331 years. It was then enquired, What number of years hade lapfed from the Thoitfan (the deluge), and this period was found to be 3Q41 years. Thus this book informs us, that the pyramids were conftrudled 3^0 years before the deluge ; but the truth of this is only known to God and his prophet. One of the wonderful things in Egypt is the fratue named Aboyl-houla^ (the fphinx). This monument, which reprefents the image of a human head, is iituated near the pyramids, where it appears half out of the ground. It ferves as a talifman againft the fands, to hinder them from penetrating into the country of Jizeh. There is alfo in Egypt a remarkable fountain, bearing the name of NathouL Its fource is in deep cavern, from the roof of which it falls in drops like rain, and carries along -with it a flime,. which adhering to its fides, is there infpiffated, and produces rats, mice, and other impure ani- mals. Mount Mokatham extends along Egypt, from Soueys (Suez), and runs parallel to the courfe ot * Abou-el-houl (the Father of Terror) on account of the monftrous figure of that colofTus. It was ancientiy called Beihit, according to AI-Makriiy, vvlio gives no explanation of this name. 448 MEMOIRS the Nile as far as the country of the Ethiopians^. It produces neither plants nor trees, nor potable water, except from a little fountain, rather bit- ter and bracklfh, at a chriftian monaftery. It has beer pretended, that this mountain for- merly contained a mine of emeralds. At prefent are found there a great number of mummies, or dead bodies dried and preferved in the fand, like thofe which are taken out of the wells of Saka-^ rah f, in the plain of the pyramids. * Our manufcript adds, “ That it commands the mouni- tain Karafah, (near to Cairo, and famous for its obfer- vatory) and that mofques and chapels have been built on its fummit.’’ (L— s.) f Read Sakharah, that is to fay, the rock. In faft, the bottom of this plain is a rock covered with fome feet of fand. See the Dcfcription of the Plains of Heliopolis and Memphis, by Fourmont, p. 220. This laft member of the phrafe is not in our manufcript. I conjecture, that it ha;s been added by citizen Marcel; to give greater perfpicuity to his tranflation. (L— s.) DISCOURSE relative to EGYPT. 44Q DISCOURSE Of Citizen Denon, To be read at the hflitute of Cairo ^ on his Return ) fro?n Upper Egypt. Citizen Prefident;, Y OU have told me, that the Inftitute expedl- ed me to give an account of mj journey into Upper Egypt, by reading to them, at their different meetings, the journal which I iliould have joined to the drawings which I have brought with me. The earneft defire I feel to fulfil the re- queft of the Inftitute, will induce me to haften the arrangement of the notes Vvdiich 1 took, with no other pretenfion than that of not negledling any objeft that wus daily prefented to my curio- fity, thinking that every thing was curious in a country altogether new to Europe : and that, at my return, every one would be afking me for fome account of the objedl of his perfonal curio- fity. I had in view objecfts of every kjnd ; and if I am afraid, in this, place, of tiring thofe to whom I ftiew" the number of my produdlions, becaufe I exhibit to them things which they have daily G g under 430 MEMOIRS under their eyes ; when arrived in France, I fliall perhaps, reproach m) felf for not having multi- plied them ftill more, or rather I fhall regret, that clrcumftances allowed me neither fufficicnt time nor opportunity. If my zeal has put into adlion all my refourccs, they have been feconded and fupportcd with all the affiftance which I could expedl from the Commander in Chief, whofe vaft conceptions do not make him forget details. Knowing that the objedl of my journey w’as to viiit the monuments of Upper Egypt, he fent me ■with the divifion appointed to make the conquefi: of it. In General Defaix, I found a man learned, curious, and friendly to the arts. I received from him all the civilities wKiclr eircumftances ■would permit. With General Beliard I expe- rienced equality, fiienddiip, and unaltered atten- tion ; good nature on the part of the officers ; and a cordial Vv^iih to oblige, in all the foldiers of the twenty-firft demi-brigade. In fliort, I fo identified my felf with the battalion which it formed, and which was become my ordinary abode, that 1 forgot I w^as on a WTuIike expedi- tion, or that war w^as foreign to my occupations. Having to purfue an enemy always on horfe- back, the movements of the divifion wxre nu- merous^ RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 451 merous and unforefeeii. Forced to pafs rapidly the moft interefting monuments, and to flop where there was nothing worthy of obfervation ; if, in my nullity, I fometimes felt the fatigue of unprofitable marches, I alfo experienced that it is frequently advantageous to take a firft glance of great objedls, before detailing them ; that dazzled by their number, they may not clafs xthemfelves in the mind by mere refledlion ; that, if we muft carefully preferve the firft impreffions, it is only in the abfence of the objedls which firft gave them birth, that we can analyze them, judge of them, adopt them. I have alfo thought, that a travelling artift, when entering on a jour- ney, ought to leave behind him all partiality to his profeffion ; that it is not that which would make a fine drawing, which ought to occupy him, but that curiofity fliould infpire the afpedl of the place which he has to delineate. I have already received my recompenfe for abandoning this partiality, in the complaifant curiofity w^hich you. Citizen, have manifefted to obferve with avidity, even the leaft among the immenfe num- ber of defigns which I have brought hither, de- figns which I moft commonly fketched upon my knee, in a ftanding pofture, and even on horfe™ G g 2 back. ‘152 MEMOIRS back ; having never been able to finifh a tingle one to my mind, nor once, for a w^hole year, to procure a table fufficiently plain to allow me the ufe of a ruler. It was, therefore, with a viev/ to anfwer your queftions, that I iketched this multitude of de- figns, frequently on too fmall a fcale, becaufe our marches were too precipitate to attempt the de- tails of objects, of which it was my wifh to pre- fent^ou, both with a juft and general view. In this manner, I took in a mafs the pyramids of Sak- hourah, the fituation of which I traverfed at full gallop, in my way to Benecjouef, in the mud houfes of which I remained for a month. This time I employed in comparing the charadters, and in defignlng the figures and the drefs, of the dif- ferent nations who now inhabit Egypt ; their manufactures, and the relative fituations of their villages. At lafi: I faw the portico of Hermopolis ; and the great malTes of its ruins, gave me the firft image of the colofi'al Egyptian architecture. Every rock which compofed this edifice ap- peared, in my eye, as if infcribed Posterity, Eternity. Soon after Denderah (TentyrisJ, taught me, that RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 453 that it is not in the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders alone, that we muft feek the beauties of architeclure ; and that beauty exifts wherever harmony of parts is found. The morning brought me to its edifices, and the evening tore me from them, rather agitated than fatisfied. I faw a hun- dred things, while a thoufand efcaped me. I was, for the firft time, introduced to the archives of the arts and fciences. I had a prefentiment that I ihould fee nothing more beautiful in Egypt ; and twenty journeys, which I have made to Denderah, have only confirmed me in this opinion. The arts and fciences, united by good tafiie, have decorated the temple of Ifis. Aftro- nomy, morality, and metaphyfics, have here bodily forms, which decorate the ceilings, the frizes, and the pedeftals, with as much tafte and grace, as our poor, Infignificant Arabefc imita- tions give to our clofets. We continually advanced. I will confefs that a thoufand times I dreaded that Mourad, tired of fleeing before us, would furrender himfelf, or ha- zard a decifive battle. I thought that that of Samhout would give him the finifliing blow ; hut inftead of fighting us, he thought that the defert would be more fatal to us than his arms ; G g 3 and 454 MEMOIRS and an opportunity of deftroying him ftill eluded Defaix^ while I entertained the hope of purfuing him beyond the tropic. We approached Thebes — Thebes, the very name of which excites the recollediion of great ideas. As if it had been poffible that it could efcape me, I delineated it at as great a dlftance as I could perceive it ; and as I made this defign, I indulged the hope, that you would one day par- ticipate the fentiment by which I was anlrnated. We were obliged to traverfe it rapidly, and fcarcely had I viewed it a moment, when -I was forced to quit it. There was a coloiTus which could only be mea- fured by the eye, and by the aftonilhment which it occafioned. On the right were embowelled and fculptured mountains ; on the left, temples, which, at more than a league’s diftance, appeared like other rocks ; and palaces, like-other temples, from which I was fnatched. I turned round mechanically to feek for the hundred gates, a poetic expreffion, by which Homer intended to paint, in a fingle word, this fuperb city, loading the earth wdth the weight of its porticoes, and fo large, that Egypt could fcarcely contain its extentc Seven journeys have not fatisfied the curiofity RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 455 curioiity excited by the firft ; and it was not be- fore the fourth, that I reached the other bank of the river. Farther on, Her month would have appeared fuperb, if 1 had not found it almoft at the gates of Thebes. The temple of 'Effie, the ancient Latopolh, ap- peared to me the perfediion of Egyptian art, one of the fineft produftiens of antiquity. That of Ed foil, Qx ApoUhwpolh magua, is one of the largeft, bell preferved, and bell fituated of all the Egyp- tian. monuments. Ill its prefent ftate, it appeared like a fortrefs commanding the town. There the defeiny of my journey was decided, and we proceeded irrevocably on our way to Syenc (E^ouan). In traverfmg thofe deferts, I, for the lirft time, became fenfible of the weight of years, which I had not reckoned, when I engaged in this expedition : my courage, rather than my ftrength carried me through. There I quitted the army, to 'remain with the demi-brigade which was polled to confine Mourad to the de~ fert. Proud of finding my country poflefs the fame boundary 'with the Roman empire, I occu- pied with glory the fame quarters, with the three cohorts which had formerly defended it. During tlie 455 . MEMOIRS the two and twenty days that I remained In this celebrated ftatlon, I took poffeffion of all the en- virons. I puflicd my conqiiefts even into Nubia, beyond Phile, a delightful ifland, the curiofities of which muft ftill be fnatched from the favage inhabitants. Six days march, and five days of fiege, at laft opened to me its temples. Feeling all the importance of defcribing to you the place which I now inhabited, all the curiofities v/hich it contained, and which it would yield to you, I delineated even the rocks and quarries of gra- nite, from whence proceeded thofe coloffal figures, thofe obellfks ftill more coloffal, thofe rocks covered wdth hieroglyphics. It was my wifh to give you the forms, and the very patterns of every thing interefting, w^hich I faw. Not being able to give a chart of the country, I made a bird’s Cye ffietch of the entry of the Nile into Egypt, and took view s of that river rolling its wa- ters, among pointed rocks of granite, wEich feem to have marked the limits of the burning Ethi- opia, and of a country more happy, and more temperate. Leaving for ever thofe rugged countries, I returned towards the verdant Ele- phantina, the garden of the tropic. I fearched, I meafured all the monuments prcferved in it» and RELATIVE TO EGYPT. 4 ^ 7 . and I quitted with regret that peaceful retreat, wdiere agreeable occupations had reftored me to health and ftrength. On the right bank of the Nile, I found Omhos^ the town of the crocodile, and that of Juno Lu- cina, Copies, near to which I w^as under the ne- ceffity of defending the riches which I was bringing away, from the atrocious fanaticlfm of the Mekyns. When fixed at Kene, I went with thofe who crofTed the defert to Kojfelr, in order to put a flop to new emigrations from Arabia. I faw what may be called a breach of the chain of Moka- tham, the flerlie borders of the red fea. I be- came acquainted with, and refpedled that patient animal, which nature feems to have placed in this region, as a reparation for her error in mak- ing a defert. I then returned to Kene, from whence I fucceffively revifited Edfou, Efne, Her- montis, Thebes, Dendera; and Edfou and Thebes again. In fliort, I accompanied every party which was detached, in every dire