anxa 2820 -846 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Bulletin 87 CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF THE UPPER GILA RIVER REGION, NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA SECOND MUSEUM-GATES EXPEDITION BY WALTER HOUGH Curator , Division of Ethnology , United States National Museum WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1914 # Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/cultureofancientOOhoug SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Bulletin 87 CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF THE UPPER GILA RIVER REGION, NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA SECOND MUSEUM-GATES EXPEDITION BY WALTER HOUGH Curator , Division of Ethnology , United States National Museum WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1914 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Issued March 21 , 1914 . ii ADVERTISEMENT. The scientific publications of the United States National Museum, consist of two series — the Proceedings and the Bulletins. The scientific publications of the United States National Museum are intended primarily as a medium for the publication of original, and usually brief, papers based on the collections of the National Museum, presenting newly acquired facts in zoology, geology, and anthropol- ogy, including descriptions of new forms of animals, and revisions of limited groups. One or two volumes are issued annually and dis- tributed to libraries and scientific organizations. A limited number of copies of each paper, in pamphlet form, is distributed to specialists and others interested in the different subjects as soon as printed. The date of publication is printed on each paper, and these dates are also recorded in the tables of contents of the volumes. The Bulletins , the first of which was issued in 1875, consist of a series of separate publications comprising chiefly monographs of large zoological groups and other general systematic treatises (occa- sionally in several volumes), faunal work, reports of expeditions, and catalogues of type-specimens, special collections, etc. The majority of the volumes are octavos, but a quarto size has been adopted in a few instances in wtich large plates were regarded as indispensable. Since 1902 a series of octavo volumes containing papers relating to the botanical collections of the Museum, and known as the Con- tributions from the National Herbarium, has been published as bulletins. The present work forms No. 87 of the Bulletin series. Richard Rathbun, Assistant Secretary , Smithsonian Institution , In charge of the United States National Museum. Washington, D. C., February 13, 19 H. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS, Page. Introduction 1 Itinerary 2 Tularosa Cave 2 Natural history 4 Mammals 4 Birds 5 Other animals. 7 Corn 7 Cotton 9 Gourds and squashes . 9 Beans 10 Fruits 10 Roots 10 Nuts 11 Parts of wild plants 11 Stone, bone, shell, and metal. 11 Materials and general remarks 11 Domestic utensils of stone 13 Mortars and pestles 15 Stone vessels 16 Smoothing stones 17 Pottery-working stones 18 Arrowheads, throwsticks, and darts 19 Axes, hammers, and mauls 20 Clubheads, balls 21 Knife 21 Scrapers 22 Saws 22 Drills 23 Beads and ornaments 24 Process of bead making 26 Crystals and reflectors 30 Ceremonial mortars and tablets 30 Plaques 31 Sculptures 32 Pictographs 33 Paint stones 33 Salt 33 Bone 33 Shell 37 Metal work 37 Pottery 38 Coiled ware of the Blue River region 38 Brown ware of the Blue River region 40 Gray ware of the Blue River region 41 Gray ware of Spur Ranch 42 Gray ware of the Tularosa Valley 42 Gray ware of Apache Creek 43 v VI CONTENTS. Pottery — Continued . Red ware of Blue River Red ware of Apache Creek Red ware of Tularosa River Pottery of Upper Mimbres Pottery of Bear Creek Cave Pottery of Tularosa Cave Pottery designs White Line designs, Blue River- Wood Arrow making Fire-making implements Textiles Knots in yucca strips Cord Cord making series and products Weaving tools Braiding Woven textiles Dyes on cords Sandals Hair Leather work Basketry Twined work Wrapped work Tied work Twilled work Diaper work Coiled work Religious objects Deposit of offerings in caves Psychology of the paho Twig pahos Stub pahos Crook pahos Roundel pahos Bow pahos Birds in religious observances. . . Bird circuit symbolism Fire pahos Ceremonial cigarettes Firesticks and torch offerings Cloud blowers Costume pahos Pottery figurines Spring pahos Mountain pahos Basketry pahos Designs on painted basket pahos. Flute pahos Game pahos Miscellaneous pahos Ornamentation of offerings Mortuary Index Page. 43 44 44 45 45 45 46 56 58 63 66 66 67 68 69 73 75 76 83 83 86 86 87 87 87 87 88 89 89 90 90 91 91 92 93 96 97 101 103 106 107 110 111 114 115 117 118 123 124 125 127 128 130 132 135 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS, PLATES. Facing page. 1. Desiccated turkey from Tularosa Cave 5 2. Corn ears, cobs and stems of ears that have been strung 8 3. Stone implements for grinding and abrading 13 4. Stone implements for cutting and pounding 20 5. Coiled and paste-ornamented pottery 40 6. Coiled and paste-ornamented pottery 40 7. Pottery vessels from Spur Ranch 40 8. Gray ware from Blue River and Apache Creek 42 9. Gray ware from Spur Ranch 42 10. Red ware from Blue River 44 11. Pottery vases and bowls from Fort Bayard, New Mexico 45 12. Bent wood rings and wooden hook 59 13. Digging sticks and fire-sharpened wooden implements 62 14. Worked wood and bark and basketry manikin 63 15. Fire-making apparatus and slow wood 66 16. Twilled basketry 89 17. Twilled and coiled basketry 90 18. Stub pahos from Bear Creek Cave 92 19. Crook pahos from Bear Creek and Johnson Caves 95 20. Roundel pahos from Bear Creek Cave 96 21. Painted bird offering from Bear Creek Cave 105 22. Painted wooden strips from Bear Creek Cave 106 23. Costume pahos from Bear Creek Cave 114 24. Coiled painted basket pahos from Bear Creek Cave 123 25. Game pahos and game set 128 26. Painted wood and pith offerings 129 27. Desiccated body of an infant buried in Tularosa Cave 132 28. Objects accompanying infant burial 132 29. Desiccated body of an infant 133 FIGURES. Page. 1. Hair brush from Tularosa Cave 3 2. Pottery fire vessel from Tularosa Cave 3 3. Trade bundle of parrot feathers from Tularosa Cave 6 4. Jaybird plume from Tularosa Cave 7 5. Gourd seed vessel from Tularosa Cave 10 6. Brush of yucca from Tularosa Cave 11 7. Metate set on a foundation from Blue 14 8. Grinding stones from Blue 15 9. Stone mortar from Spur Ranch 15 10. Pestle from Spur Ranchi 15 11. Carved stone vessel from Solomonsville 16 VII VIII ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. 12. Small stone vessel from Spur Ranch 16 13. Small stone vessel from Spur Ranch 16 14. Stone vessel from upper San Francisco River 17 15. Polishing stone from Apache Creek 17 16. Smoothing stone from Spur Ranch 17 17. Stone rasp from Tularosa Cave 17 18. Arrow-smoothing stone from Spur Ranch 18 19. Smoothing stone from Spur Ranch 18 20. Smoothing stone from lower San Francisco River 18 21. Throwstick, darts, knives, and punch from near Lava, New Mexico 19 22. Stone ax from Spur Ranch 20 23. Stone grooved maul from Spur Ranch 20 24. Stone ball from Spur Ranch 21 25. Stone ball from Spur Ranch 21 26. Stone ball from Spur Ranch 21 27. Stone hammer from Spur Ranch 21 28. Stone scraper from Tularosa Cave 22 29. Stone scraper from Spur Ranch 22 30. Stone saw from Joseph, Tularosa River 23 31. Stone saw from Luna, New Mexico 23 32. Stone saw from Apache Creek 23 33. Stone saw from Blue River 23 34. Chalcedony drill from Spur Ranch 24 35. Chalcedony drill from Spur Ranch 24 36. Chalcedony drill from Spur Ranch 24 37. Chert drill from Spur Ranch 25 38. Chert drill from Spur Ranch 25 39. Hematite cylinder perforated from Tularosa River 27 40. Hematite cylinder perforated from Tularosa River. . r 27 41. Perforated cylinders from Tularosa River 27 42. Conoid fetish from Tularosa River 27 43. Carvings in stone and shell from Spur Ranch 28 44. Sandstone disk partly perforated from Tularosa Cave 29 45. Scored spindle-shape stone from Blue 29 46. Lava block with scorings from Blue 30 47. Carved pottery ornament from Spur Ranch 30 48. Chalcedony mirror from Spur Ranch 30 49. Ceremonial painted mortar from Blue 31 50. Ceremonial painted mortar from Spur Ranch 31 51. Painted stone slab from Spur Ranch 31 52. Stone tablet from Spur Ranch 32 53. Sculptured slab from San Francisco River 32 54. Sculpture in form of animal, San Francisco River 32 55. Sculpture in form of animal, San Francisco River 32 56. Sculptured animal head, East Camp, New Mexico 33 57. Bone awl from Spur Ranch 34 58. Bone awl from Spur Ranch 34 59. Bone awl from Spur Ranch 34 60. Bone awl with spatulate end from Spur Ranch 34 61. Bone awl from Tularosa Cave 34 62. Short bone awl from Spur Ranch 34 63. Bone implement, terraced, from upper San Francisco River 35 64. Bone implement from Spur Ranch 35 ILLUSTRATIONS. IX Page. 65. Antler spike from Tularosa Cave 35 66. Antler spike with chisel point from Spur Ranch 35 67. Bird bone awl from Luna, New Mexico 35 68. Bone awl from Tularosa Cave 35 63. Leather-working tool of bone from Spur Ranch 36 70. Leather-working tool of bone from Tularosa Cave 36 71. Antler spike with chisel point from Luna, New Mexico 36 72. Deer rib knife from Luna, New Mexico 36 73. Antler punch from Tularosa Cave 36 74. Leather working tool of bone from Spur Ranch 36 75. Bunt head of bone for throwstick darts from Luna, New Mexico 36 76. Bunt heads of bone for throwstick darts from Luna, New Mexico 36 77. Bone rings, from Spur Ranch 36 78. Copper bell from Tonto Basin, Arizona 37 79. Copper bell from Tularosa River 37 80. Design from bottom of a bowl from Blue 46 81. Serpent effigy vase (front view) from Blue 46 82. Serpent effigy vase (back view) from Blue 46 83. Serpent effigy vase (shoulder view) from Blue 46 84. Snake design from bowl from Spur Ranch 47 85. Bird design on bowl from Blue 48 86. Design on bowl from Spur Ranch 48 87. Design from a bowl from Tularosa River 48 88. Design on vase from San Francisco River 48 89. Designs from bowl from Blue 49 90. Design from a dipper from Tularosa River 49 91. Design from a red bowl from Apache Creek 50 92. Bird design from a bowl from Blue 50 93. Bird design from a vase from Blue 50 94. Bird fret from a vase from Blue 51 95. Bird terrace design from a vase from Blue 51 96. Design from a vase from Tularosa River. 51 97. Design from a vase from Tularosa River 51 98. Design from the neck of a vase from Tularosa River 52 99. Design from a bird-form vase from San Francisco River 52 100. Design from a vase from Blue 52 101. Design from a bird-form vase from San Francisco River 52 102. Design from a vase from Tularosa River 52 103. Design from a vase from Tularosa River 53 104. Design from a vase from Spur Ranch 53 105. Design from a vase from Apache Creek 53 106. Design from a vase from San Francisco River 53 107. Design from a bowl from Blue 54 108. Design from a vase from Spur Ranch 54 109. Design from a vase from Spur Ranch 55 110. Design from a vase from Fort Bayard 55 111. Design from the handle of a dipper from Tularosa River 55 112. Design from the handle of a dipper from Tularosa River 55 113. Design from the rim of a vase from Tularosa River 55 114. Design from a bird-shaped vase from Blue 55 115. Design from a bird-shaped vase from Blue 56 116. Design from a red bowl from Blue 56 117. Design from a bowl from Blue 56 X ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. 118. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 119. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 120. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 121. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 122. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 123. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 124. Design from a bowl from Blue 57 125. Design from a bowl from Blue 58 126. Design from a bowl from Blue 58 127. Design from a bowl from Blue 58 128. Hook made of bent and twisted branch from Blue River 59 129. Example of sectioning wood from Tularosa Cave 60 130. Example of sectioning wood from Tularosa Cave 60 131. Wooden pin from Tularosa Cave 60 132. Sawing on brittle wood from Tularosa Cave 61 133. Cylindrical block from Tularosa Cave 61 134. Cylindrical block from Tularosa Cave 61 135. Cylindrical block from Tularosa Cave 61 136. Bunt head for throwdart from Tularosa Cave 61 137. Wooden die from Tularosa Cave 61 138. Stone knife or dart head from Tularosa Cave 62 139. Roundel rod from Silver City, New Mexico 62 140. Examples of arrow construction from Blue River 63 141. Examples of fitting arrow foreshafts from Blue River.. .• 64 142. Examples of setting arrow points from Blue River 65 143. Plain, bunt, and barbed arrows from Blue River 66 144. Decoration of arrow from Blue River 66 145. Knots in yucca strips from Tularosa Cave 67 146. Lashings of yucca strips from Tularosa Cave 68 147. Cord making series from Tularosa Cave 70 148. Feather cord making from Tularosa Cave 71 149. Feather jacket from Tularosa Cave 72 150. Method of wearing cord jacket, belt, and loin cords from Tularosa Cave. . 73 151. Spindle whorl from Camp Verde 73 152. Spindle whorl from near Phoenix, Arizona 74 153. Spindle whorl from Pueblo Viejo Valley, Upper Gila 74 154. Spindle whorl from Solomonsville, Arizona 74 155. Wound cord from Bear Creek Cave 74 156. Ball or copp of yucca cord from Bear Creek Cave 75 157. Braid of yucca from Eagle Creek 75 158. Braided sash from Tularosa Cave 75 159. Braided fringe from Bear Creek Cave 76 160. Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave 77 161. Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave 77 162. Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave 78 163. Ornamented cloth from Casa Grande 78 164. Detail of pattern of ornamented cloth from Casa Grande 79 165. Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave 79 166. Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave .* 80 167. Sacred cigarette with woven sash from Phoenix 80 168. Ornamented woven band from Red Rock 81 169. Pattern of woven band from Red Rock 81 170. Woven fabric band from Red Rock 82 ILLUSTRATIONS. XI Page. 171. Knot work band from Bear Creek Cave 82 172. Sandal from Tularosa Cave 83 173. Sandal from Tularosa Cave 84 174. Sandal from Tularosa Cave 84 175. Sandal from Tularosa Cave 84 176. Shoe-sandal from Tularosa Cave 85 177. Shoe-sandal from Tularosa Cave 86 178. Weaving of rushes from Tularosa Cave 87 179. Top of twilled basket from Bear Creek Cave 88 180. Detail of basket rim from Bear Creek Cave 88 181. Basketry cylinder from Bear Creek Cave 89 182. Twig baho from Bear Creek Cave 92 183. Twig phho from Bear Creek Cave 92 184. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 92 185. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave. 92 186. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 92 187. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 93 188. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 93 189. Beed paho from Bear Creek Cave 93 190. Reed paho from Bear Creek Cave 93 191. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 93 192. Stub paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 193. Stub paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 194. Twig paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 195. Reed paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 196. Head of stub paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 197. Head of stub paho from Bear Creek Cave 94 198. Crook paho from Silver City, New Mexico 95 199. Crook paho with wooden disk from Bear Creek Cave 95 200. Crotch paho from Bear Creek Cave 96 201. Roundel paho from Bear Creek Cave 96 202. Ceremonial bow and arrows from the Nishinam Indians, California 97 203. Bunt head ceremonial arrow from Bear Creek Cave 98 204. Decorated bow from Bear Creek Cave 98 205. Ceremonial bow and arrows from Bear Creek Cave 99 206. Ceremonial bow from Bear Creek Cave 99 207. Ceremonial bow with cigarettes from Bear Creek Cave 99 208. Ceremonial bow from Zuni Salt Lake 100 209. Ceremonial bow from Zuni 101 210. Ceremonial bow from Zuni 102 211. Carved head of bird staff from Blue River 103 212. Carved head of bird staff from Bear Creek Cave 103 213. Carved head of bird staff from Bear Creek Cave 103 214. Marionette bird of the Hopi Indians, Arizona 104 215. Marionette bird of the Hopi Indians, Arizona 104 216. Carved bird from Silver City, New Mexico 104 217. Bird design on plume staff from Bear Creek Cave 105 218. Plumes on bird paho from Silver City, New Mexico 105 219. Plumes on bird paho from Silver City, New Mexico 106 220. Plumes on bird paho from Silver City, New Mexico 106 221. Disk of painted wood from Bear Creek Cave 106 222. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 107 223. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 107 xn ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. 224. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 107 • 225. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 107 226. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 107 227. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 108 228. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 108 229. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave.. 108 230. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 108 231. Ceremonial cigarette from Phoenix, Arizona 108 232. Ceremonial cigarette from Bear Creek Cave 109 233. Ceremonial cigarette on a bow from Bear Creek Cave 109 234. Ceremonial cigarette, double, from Bear Creek Cave 109 235. Ceremonial cigarette, double, from Bear Creek Cave 109 236. Ceremonial cigarette, double, from Bear Creek Cave 109 237. Ceremonial cigarette, quadruple, from Bear Creek Cave 109 238. Ceremonial cigarette, triple, from Bear Creek Cave 109 239. Ceremonial cigarette, quadruple, from Phoenix, Arizona 109 240. Ceremonial cigarette, quadruple, from Phoenix, Arizona 109 241. Ceremonial cigarette with bead offering from Bear Creek Cave 109 242. Ceremonial cigarette with bead offering from Bear Creek Cave 109 243. Ceremonial cigarette with bead offering from Bear Creek Cave 110 244. Ceremonial cigarette with bead offering from Bear Creek Cave 110 245. Ceremonial cigarette with bead offering from Bear Creek Cave 110 246. Torch of rods from Bear Creek Cave 110 247. Pipe in process from Tularosa Cave Ill 248. Pipe of pottery from Spur Ranch Ill 249. Pipe of serpentine from Tularosa River 112 250. Small cloud blower from Tularosa River 112 251. Small cloud blower from Springerville, Arizona 112 252. Cloud blower from upper San Francisco River 113 253. Cloud blower from Blue 113 254. Cloud blower from upper San Francisco River 113 255. Cloud blower from Arizona 113 256. Cloud blower from Spur Ranch 113 257. Cloud blower from upper San Francisco River 113 258. Cloud blower from Spur Ranch 114 259. Cloud blower from Spur Ranch 114 260. Pottery figurine from Tularosa Cave 116 261. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 262. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 263. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 264. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 265. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 266. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 267. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 268. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 269. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 270. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 271. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 272. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 273. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 116 274. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico - 116 275. Pottery figurine from Luna, New Mexico 116 276. Pottery figurine from Spur Ranch 117 ILLUSTRATIONS. xin Page. 277. Pottery figurine from Tularosa Cave 117 278.. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 117 279. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 280. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 281. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 282. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring llg 283. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 284. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 285. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 286. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 118 287. Pottery offering from Gallo Spring 118 288. Pottery offering from Apache Creek 119 289. Pottery offering from Apache Creek 119 290. Pottery offering from Luna, New Mexico 119 291. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 292. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 293. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 294. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 295. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 296. Pottery offering from Spur Ranch 119 297. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 119 298. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 119 299. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 300. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 301. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 302. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 303. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 304. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 305. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 306. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 307. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 308. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 120 309. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 121 310. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 121 311. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 121 312. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 121 313. Pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 121 314. Pottery offering with painted design from Bear Creek Cave 122 315. Pottery offering with painted design from Bear Creek Cave 122 316. Design on pottery offering from Bear Creek Cave 122 317. Basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 123 318. Basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 123 319. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 124 320. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 124 321. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 124 322. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 124 323. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave. 125 324. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 125 325. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 125 326. Design on basket paho from Bear Creek Cave 125 327. Flute paho painted design from Bear Creek Cave 126 328. Flute with burnt ornament from Tularosa Cave 126 329. Flute paho of basketry from Bear Creek Cave 126 XIV ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. 330. Flute paho painted design from Bear Creek Cave 126 331. Flute paho of basketry from Bear Creek Cave 126 332. Heed dice offerings from Bear Creek Cave 127 333. Heed dice offerings from Bear Creek Cave 127 334. Heed dice offerings from Bear Creek Cave 127 335. Heed dice offerings from Tularosa Cave 127 336. Cross paho from San Francisco River 128 337. Snake paho from Eagle Creek 129 338. Reed paho from Tularosa Cave 129 339. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 130 340. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 130 341. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 130 342. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 131 343. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave. . 131 344. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 131 345. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 131 346. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 132 347. Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 132 348 Ornament of votive offering from Bear Creek Cave 132 CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF THE UPPER GILA RIYER REGION, NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA. SECOND MUSEUM-GATES EXPEDITION. By Walter Hough,, Curator, Division of Ethnology, United States National Museum. INTRODUCTION. The object of the Museum- Gates Expedition was to examine into the location, distribution, extent, and class of ruins in areas adjoin- ing those already explored or partially explored by the United States National Museum, and during the two seasons’ work which was made possible by the interest and liberality of Peter Goddard Gates, much of value was accomplished. The season of 1901 was spent in northeastern Arizona in investigations of ruins which had not been examined by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in previous years, the results of which are published in the Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1901. In 1905 the work was resumed and adjoining territory south of the White Mountains in Arizona and New Mexico, on the Blue, San Francisco, and Tularosa Rivers, was examined, thus connecting the work with that carried on by Doctor Fewkes and the writer in the region of the Upper Gila during the year 1897. The results of the second Museum-Gates Expedition are perhaps even more important than those of the expedition of 1901. Of objective material the results comprise a collection of several thou- sand artifacts, and especially valuable^ because of its richness in perishable objects which had been preserved in caves or other pro- tective situations. The study of this series in connection with the field notes, plans of sites, and natural history collections is expected to throw much light on an archeological area that has not heretofore been scientifically explored. The general considerations concerning the geography and physi- ography, history, inhabitants, culture, and the distribution of the ruins of this region have been presented in Bulletin 35 of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1907. Wherever possible, comparisons have been made with the customs of the actual Pueblos. 14278°— Bull. 87—14 2 1 2 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. ITINERARY. The second Museum-Gates expedition party, consisting of P. G. Gates, Dr. Walter Hough, and Clancey M. Lewis, with Edward Gannett as teamster and guide, assembled at Clifton, Arizona, on June 8, 1905, and after outfitting, began the journey north, following San Francisco River. Small ruins were noted between Clifton and Carpenter, at the mouth of Blue River, and at the latter place the examination of several sites required a stay of three days. The heavy rains of the previous winter had obliterated the road along the San Francisco River, and for this reason it was decided to fol- low Blue River to its head, whence it would be easy to cross into the valley of the San Franciso. At J. H. Cosper’s farm a stay of a week was made, and ruins in the vicinity, especially the great Bacred cavern on Bear Creek, were thoroughly examined. This locality is the southern limit of the reconnoissance made by the writer in 1903. Two weeks were employed in the excavation of im- portant ruins at Blue Post Office, on the land of Mr. Charles Martin. At this point Mr. Gates left the party, returning to Los Angeles, and shortly after his departure the camp was swept away by one of the cloud-bursts peculiar to this region, the members of the party narrowly escaping injury. On August 8, Luna, on the upper San Francisco River, in western Socorro County, New Mexico, was reached. Here the party stayed eight days, moving thence by the way of East Camp to the N. H. Ranch in the beautiful valley of Apache Creek. Large ruins in this neighborhood occupied the party for a week, when a move was made by way of Gallo Spring to Delgar’s Ranch, near Joseph Post Office; in the Tularosa River Valley, where a stay of four days was made. Near the former site of Old Fort Tularosa, now Plaza Aragon, 12 days were spent in working in an interesting cave. From this place the party pro- ceeded by forced marches northward across the Datil Mountains down Mangas Canyon to the Rito Quemado and the sacred Salt Lake of the Zuhi, arriving at Zuhi Pueblo on September 18. After a stay of three days here, the party reached the Santa Fe railroad at Gallup, New Mexico, on the 22d. having been in the field three and a half months. TULAROSA CAVE. The Tularosa is a small tributary of San Francisco River, flowing southwest from its source in the Datil Mountains and emptying a few miles above Reserve Post Office, Socorro County, New Mexico. In its middle course it flows through a beautiful plain surrounded by mountains, and in its lower course traverses a deep canyon. Beyond the upper end of the valley, above the clear, rushing mountain stream, is a bold cliff of yellow tuff in which is a cave of moderate, ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 3 dimensions, which at an earlier time formed the rear chamber of a row of stone houses built across its front and protected by the shelter of the overhanging cliff. Only a few courses of flimsy masonry marked the ground plan of the houses, all the rest of the structure being buried in the steep talus which slopes to the Magdalena road by the stream. The cave was filled almost to the roof with debris, only a small portion of which had been disturbed by searchers who removed a desiccated body buried not far from the entrance. The material collected from the cave represents in greater part the domestic life of the people who lived in the stone houses. It might well be true that in the earliest time the cave was a shelter for bear, and the well- packed mass of grass and leaves of plants over the irregular floor may have been the bedding of these animals. This mass is now packed densely and contains little of the personal effects of human beings ; but instead of being the work of bears it may have been the couch of women and children, who in early Pueblo times slept deep in the shelter of the cave in the darkness behind the screen of houses, where the men held guard with bow never far from hand. Subsequently the cave became more and more filled with discarded things, and different levels appear in the section. Thus at two different periods a portion, at least, of the cave was given over to the turkey pen and at another level there had been human inhabitation, and Fig. 2. — Pottery fire vessel from Tularosa Cave. a grass stem hairbrush like that of the present Pueblos (fig. 1) was found here. A fire pot (fig. 2, Cat. No. 256582, U.S.N.M. ; 4 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. diameter, 7 % inches; height, 3| inches), ashes, and other traces of fire were seen. In several parts of the cave were areas which had been burnt, but the fires had died out before extending very far. These fires could not be definitely assigned to periods previous to the presence of the white man in this region, but the presumption is that some of them were accidental during ancient occupancy of the cave. The fire pot, lined with ash cement, shows that precautions were neces- sary to prevent fire among the inflammable materials round about. Burials, of which there were apparently four, required digging down into the rubbish for the deposit of the dead, but these grave openings were begun at different levels as the rubbish accumulated, the lowest being that of a child (see pis. 27, 28), and the highest, that of an adult, whose remains are now in the collection of W. J. Andrus, of Hackensack, New Jersey. In clearing out the debris a round hole was found to have been excavated in the matted grass down to the bottom of the deepest portion of the cave, and which had subse- quently been filled up. The walls of this hole were quite regular and the diameter about 2 feet. Nothing but rubbish was found in the hole, and it is impossible to say what it was used for. Loose and fixed stones and a few small bows and arrows and other offerings were en- countered near a rock mass, according with the custom of locating shrines still observed by the present Pueblos. In the immediate neighborhood of the cave still remain some marks of the industries of the inhabitants. In front of the cave is a considerable talus lying against the steep hillside, held in place to a great extent by the vegetation nourished in the rich soil. No pictographs or other artificial scarrings exist on the faces of the tufa cliff, as this is not an enduring material for preserving records of such character. At one side of the entrance is a splendid block of fine-grained gray rock on whose surface are regular oval shallow pits in which stone implements were sharpened. The overhang above the cave is a breccia of basalt and tufa lined with mud nests of swallows, and formerly masses of this cliff have broken away, one large section having fallen into the houses and blocked the mouth of the cave. NATURAL HISTORY. MAMMALS. The finds in the rejectage in the cave at the rear of the Tularosa cliff house shed much light on the extent to which animal life entered into the material culture of these ancients. Here were found, in conditions particularly favorable for their preservation, remains of the following mammals, identified by Dr. Marcus W. Lyon, jr., 1 1 Mammal Remains from Two Prehistoric Village Sites in New Mexico and Arizona, Proc. U. S. Nat Mus., vol. 31, 1906, pp. 647-649. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 1 Desiccated Turkey from Tularosa Cave. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 5 and of birds, identified by Dr. C. W. Richmond, of the United States National Museum: Deer ( Odocoileus sp.). Probably both the white-tailed and mule deer. Pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana (Ord). Fragments of skin and the entire skin of a young individual were found, the latter form- ing part of the wrapping around the desiccated body of an infant. Bison or American Buffalo ( Bison bison Linnaeus). Various bones, a horn, and a small piece of skin forming the sole of a sandal, also cord twisted from the hair. Rock spermophile {Citellus grammurus (Say)). Marmot or woodchuck ( Marmota flaviv enter or engelhardtif ) . Sonoran white-footed mouse ( Peromyscus sonoriensis (LeConte)). Rio Grande white-footed mouse ( Peromyscus tornillo Meams). Wood rat ( Neotoma sp.). Pallid muskrat ( Fiber zibethicus pallidus Meams). Jack rabbit ( Lepus sp.). Cottontail rabbit ( Sylvilagus sp.). Plateau lynx ( Lynx bailey i Merriam). Scott’s gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus scottii Mearns). Common skunk {Mephitis estor Merriam). Spotted skunk {Spilogale sp.). Southwestern grizzly bear {Ursus horribilis horriceus (Baird)). From Apache Creek, Tularosa River, come several skulls of Mearns coyote {Canis mearnsi ), but no remains of the domestic dog were found in any of the sites, yet as cord made apparently of dog hair was found in the Tularosa cave, there is no reason to believe that this animal was absent from this region. From the open-air ruin at Blue post office, Arizona, were recovered remains of deer, wood rat, jack rabbit, cottontail rabbit, cougar or puma, plateau lynx, Scott’s gray fox, and the black bear. It is evident, also, that the list does not comprise all the mammals made use of by the people who lived in Tularosa cave, since strips of skin worked into elements for weaving blankets and clothing, like the fur robes made at present by the Hopi, Ute, and many other far- western tribes and anteriorly by the eastern Indians, show pelage of a number of species. BIRDS Western red-tailed hawk {Buteo borealis calurus). A desiccated bird in down. Merriam’s turkey {Meleagria gallopavo merriami). A desiccated adult bird (pi. 1), parts of other individuals, desiccated chicks, and a number of eggs were found in a portion of the cave which was evi- dently a pen where turkeys were kept in captivity, there being great quantities of the droppings of the birds in the debris. The turkey 6 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. was most useful in furnishing feathers for the manufacture of warm clothing (for manufacture of costume see p. 71), much needed at this elevation, and were kept for the purpose like sheep at a later period. The discovery of ancient turkey compounds is mentioned by the earlier explorers in the Pueblo region, and Castaneda was presented at Acoma in 1540 with numbers of (turkey) 66 cocks with very big wattles.” 1 Castaneda also mentions in his description of Pueblo life that “ there are a great many native fowls in these provinces, and cocks with great hanging chins.” 2 Mention is also made of the use of turkey feathers for clothing. A foot, with leg bone attached, of a species of grackle ( Quiscalus ) completes the list of bird remains found in the cave, except feathers, which belong to a number of species identified by Mr. E. W. Nelson. The collections from this region show the importance of bird life in a be d Fig. 3. — Trade bundle op parrot feathers from Tularosa Cave. domestic economy, costume, and religion. For the extent to which birds were known to the Pueblos one need but examine the ornitho- logical vocabulary of the Hopi by Dr. E. A. Mearns, U. S. A., 3 Dr. J. Walter Fewkes’s description of the symbolism on Sikyatki pot- tery, 4 and Mrs. M. C. Stevenson’s memoir on the Zuni. 5 Haven ( Corvus corax sinuatus). Bluebird ( Sialia mexicana Baird). Parrot ( Rhynchopsitta pachyrhynchus ) . Feathers of this parrot were much prized (see fig. 3). Big macaw (Ara militaris). This bird is not found farther north than extreme southern Sonora, and the feather must have passed into the hands of the Tularosa people through aboriginal commerce, which in Mexico, as Sahagun relates, was conducted by traders of feathers, etc., to distant places. 1 The Coronado Expedition, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology, p. 491. 2 Idem, p. 521. 3 Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 9, Dec. 1896, p. 391. 4 Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895, 17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnology. 5 The Zuni Indians, 23d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnology. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPEB GILA BEGIOK. 7 Jay ( Gyanocitta stelleri diademata and Cyanocephalus cyanopha- lus). Flicker ( Colaptus cafer). Woodpecker (Balance sphyra). The scalp used for decoration among the California Indians. A plume consisting of two jay feathers attached to a cord of wiry fiber of the yucca or dasylirion was found in the debris. The quills of the feathers are bent over and secured in a loop of the strand of cord and the latter was then twisted below the fastening into a two-strand string. One of the feathers appears to be cut, as in the feather sym- bolism of the Plains tribes (fig. 4, Cat. No. 246372, U.S.N.M.). Sparrowhawk ( Falco sparverious phalcena). Snowbird (Junco sp.) and Night heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax ncevius). A trade bundle of parrot feathers, so prized by the Pueblo Indians, was found in the Tularosa cave. This very interesting relic of early commerce consists of a strip of wildcat skin, which forms the wrapping of a small bundle of the parrot feathers, which (fig. 3, a, b) were tied in a neat bunch with a fiber, inclosed in the skin (fig. 3, c ), and secured with a cord of yucca (fig. 3, d). It is probable that these feathers were procured in the Huachuca and Chiricahua Mountains, where the thick-billed parrot has been known to range. OTHER ANIMALS. Remains of the tortoise, lizard, and snakes were somewhat frequently found. An interesting use of the iridescent thighs of the California fruit beetle (Allorhina mutabilis) for beads was observed in the Bear Creek cave. CORN. Ears and scattered grains of corn were found in some quantity in the Tularosa Cave, where it had evidently been placed with burials. The ears are 3 of 8, 2 of 12, and one of 16 rows. One cob is of 18 rows. The grains are smooth and short, of yellow, blue, and carmine, but much faded by aging. The cob is generally slender, sometimes bifed or showing a tendency to pairing, and the typical ear is 5 inches long, while there seems to be a preponderance of stout nubbins. (PI. 2, figs. 1-12, 4| to 5f inches long.) From Spur Ranch, near Luna, New Mexico, come 6 cobs of 8, and 2 of 10 rows. The cobs are 3J to 8 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 5f inches long, and slender, being 1J to | inches in diameter. In the upper Blue River caves the cobs are of 12 rows. No grains were found. In the Johnson caves, middle Blue River, the cobs are of 10 rows and from 3 to 7^ inches long, in the upper cave, and in the lower cave, which had never been entered by white people previous to this exploration, the 12 cobs obtained there are 5 of 10, 6 of 12, and 1 of 16 rows, measuring 4f to 6J inches in length and J to 1£ inches diameter. From a cave near Silver City, New Mexico (Cat. No. 58180, U.S.N.M., collector H. H. Rusby), the specimen is of 10 rows, the cob slender and 4 inches long. From Beaver Creek, near Camp Verde, Arizona, corncobs (Cat. No. 88403, U.S.N.M., collected by A. R. Marvine) are of 8 and 10 rows. The corn of the ancient Tarahumares secured by James Mooney from a cave near Aguas Calientes, southwestern Chihuahua, (Cat. No. 209381, U.S.N.M.), is of 8 and 10 rows, with red and mottled orange or yellow rugose grains deeply set in the septse of the cob. The ears are 4 to 5 inches long and the cob f inch in diameter. From Wukoki (Black Falls) ruin on the Little Colorado River, Arizona, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes collected 6 corncobs, 3 each of 8 and 10 rows. (Cat. No. 270391, U.S.N.M.) One ear of 8-rowed corn in a charred state was removed from Kawaiokuh ruin, Jetty to Valley, northeastern Arizona, by the writer. Seven cobs from the cliff ruins of Canyon Del Muerto, northeastern Arizona, from the collection of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute (Cat, No. 250292, U.S.N.M.), show 2 of 10, 4 of 12, and 1 of 14 rows. They are 4 \ to 6J inches long and uniformly J inch in diameter. Eight ears from this col- lection show 1 of 8, 2 of 10, 4 of 12, and 1 of 16 rows. The colors are faded red, yellow, and black. Some of the ears have small trans- lucent grains, and some of the grains of the mature corn are dented. From Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde, southern Colorado, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes collected 10 cobs, 3 of which are 12 and 7 of 10 rows. The ears are 3J to 5 inches long and $■ to 1 inch diameter. (Cat. No. 257467, U.S.N.M.) From Spruce-tree House, Mesa Verde, the cobs, numbering 10, show great variety, being 2 of 10, 5 of 12, and 1 each of 8, 14, and 16 rows. The cobs measure 4 to 5J inches long and J to 1 inch in diameter. One well-preserved ear comes from Wickiup Canyon, San Juan County, Utah, collected by A. C. Jessup. (Cat. No. 237845, U.S.N.M.) It is 8-rowed, with small, smooth, yellow, flinty grains. The ear is 4 inches long and If inches in diameter. The Mesa Verde corn is 8, 10, and 12 rowed. (Cat. No. 255196, U.S.N.M., W. L. Shear collector; three specimens.) Four specimens of cobs from a cavate lodge near Santa Clara, New Mexico (Cat. No. 234781, U.S.N.M., collected by Mrs. M. C. Steven- son), are 12, 14, and 16 rowed, 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. One cob has been dressed down for use and another has a feather and U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 2 Corn Ears, Cobs and Stems of Ears that have been Strung. For explanation of plate see pages 7 and 9. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 9 a wooden point stuck in the pith to make a dart. An ear stalk in this lot is quite large and has seven joints. The Hopi corn, which preserves best the ancient Pueblo type, is generally of 12 rows, the smaller grains, “ pop corn,” are of 14 and 16 rows. An interesting object consisting of a row of ears of new corn strong on yucca fiber cord comes from the Tularosa Cave. (PI. 2, fig. 13.) The Pueblos were accustomed to prepare new corn in this manner for hanging from the rafters of the house for winter use. Another similarity is the corncob smoothed by wear among the Pueblos for dressing cord, and perhaps used by the ancients for the same purpose. Game darts of corncob with a feather thrust into one end like those now seen among the Pueblos appear to have been made by the ancient peoples of this region. The husk is found attached to pahos, or prayer sticks, overlaid on cord, shredded for some pur- pose, and in one case made into a sandal. Sections or joints of corn- stalk, showing a comparatively slender plant, are found in the caves, and from the Tularosa Cave comes a joint with the base of the ear and husk attached. A tassel was also recovered from the debris. Corn husk tied in bundles is common in nearly all the sites explored, and a number of neatly folded bundles of dried green leaves were encountered during the work. COTTON. Seeds of cotton were apparently not present in the sites investi- gated, but there was abundance of cord and cloth, indicating that cotton was employed to some extent. Tularosa Cave, where the fullest series of objects illustrating the life of the former inhabitants of the region were found, is at too great an elevation for the raising of cot- ton, but the lower Blue and Gila have a suitable climate, and, with- out doubt, cotton was anciently raised there, as it has been up to quite recent times by the Pima on the lower Gila. The cotton used by the tribes inhabiting the colder portions of the area was brought to them by aboriginal commerce. GOURDS AND SQUASHES. Gourds of several varieties were employed for various economic and ceremonial purposes, but the fruits were small, so far as can be deduced from the remains of the shells. These are a necked species, smooth and having a rather thick rind, which assumes a beautiful dark-brown color and high polish from age and handling; a rugose species with thin yellow rind, showing green irregular bands and dry- ing irregularly ; a species with very thin smooth yellow rind without markings, the rind sometimes cut into rows of points evidently as ornaments or ceremonial decoration; and the small wild gourd, the rind of which is very fragile and much marked. The wild gourd is 10 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. commonly found in cave rubbish, but on account of its extreme bitter- ness it may not have been eaten, and the shell is too thin for practi- cal uses, but the dried chaffy fibrous pulp may have been valued for some purposes. Necked gourds were used as seed vessels (fig. 5, diam- eter, 4J inches; height, 7 inches; Cat. No. 246294, U.S.N.M.) and dippers. No evidence could be procured that gourd rattles were made. Some of the fragments from the Tularosa Cave show orna- mentation by scratching on the outer surface of the gourd. Gourd shell was also made into ornaments (see figs. 219 and 220), probably representing flowers, as among the Hopi and other Pueblos, and perforated or otherwise worked fragments are found in some number in the cave debris. One potter’s tool of gourd in the form of a spoon- like spatula and resembling those used at present by the Pueblos, was taken from the Tularosa Cave. Squash stems are common in the caves, and occa- sionally pieces of the rind are seen. The stems are large and bulbous, indicating a bulky fruit. Seeds of the squash and of other plants of this genus are sometimes preserved in the cave deposits. BEANS. Beans of apparently three varieties were among the valuable food resources of the tribes of the upper Gila-Salt drainage. One of these is a dark purple, medium size, oblong bean of the typical kidney shape; another a small oblong, dark, purple-brown bean ; and the third a small, rather full, yellow bean. Specimens are very scarce in the caves, though the dried husks are frequently observed. Fig. 5. — Gourd seed VESSEL FROM TULA- ROSA Cave. FRUITS. The banana-like fruits of the datil ( Yucca baccata ), and tunas from cacti of several species, were consumed as food, as no doubt were the wild gooseberry and other fruits in season along the mountains. It is known, also, from specimens found, that the roasted leaves of the agave, which furnish an agreeable sweetmeat, were eaten by these Indians. The wild grape grows abundantly along the streams and at the time of blooming fills the valleys with a delicious odor. The fruit is sour but edible. ROOTS. There were found a number of roots which had been gathered and dried by the aborigines, but of these only the rough masses of soap- root ( Yucca sp.) and of the wild gourd can be identified. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 11 NUTS. Small acorns, such as are now eaten by the Mexicans, walnuts, and piny on and juniper nuts were recovered from the caves. The small oaks furnishing the acorns grow on the high land above the streams, and with cedar and juniper berries form the principal food supply of bears. Walnuts grow in profusion along the streams, the trees being quite different in habit from those in the East, forming clumps of stems clothed in dense foliage and yielding great quantities of nuts. PAETS OF WILD PLANTS. Spines of the agave ; leaves of the yucca and dasylirion ; the curious woody seed cases of the Oenethera ; the devil’s claw( Martynia sp.) ; grass of several species; Artemisia sp. ; thistle, Carduus neo-mexi- canus / Amaranthus palmeri; stems of two species of rush; arrow reed ; pine cones ; bark of cedar and oak ; galls of the oak ; pithy stems of Ambrosia , the white pith of which was used on offerings; flowering stems of the yucca and like plants ; twigs and branches of various shrubs ; openwork stems of the Cactus opuntia spinosior Tou- rney; fungi, lichen, and galls were found, principally in the debris of Tularosa Cave. Branches of oak, the twigs coiled up at the ends, forming a close bunch of leaves, were numerous in the Tularosa Cave. The use of these leaf bunches can not be determined, but they were perhaps gath- ered for bedding. fig. 6. — brush of Strips of yucca leaf pounded or chewed at one end tularosa^aye to release the fiber were employed as brushes (fig. 6), like those used by the present Pueblos for decorating pottery, and brushes for cleaning the teeth and for other purposes were made by chewing the ends of soft sticks. (Cat. No. 246018, U.S.N.M. ; length, 4| inches; Tularosa Cave.) STONE, BONE, SHELL, AND METAL. MATERIALS AND GENERAL REMARKS. In the Pueblo region there are few materials found in place suitable for the making of stone implements, and the natives had to depend principally on detrital quarries. Especially is this true of stone suit- able for flaking and chipping, and hence the region lacks in the quantity, boldness, and fineness of chipped artifacts found in other regions. Chalcedony and wood opals are in place, but are almost valueless on account of containing flaws; some chalcedony, however, could be worked into small arrowheads and knives, and this material was often ground into cylinders and highly polished. Obsidian was 12 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. found in the form of small water-worn masses in gravels of the larger streams and was the principal material employed for arrowheads. Occasionally red and yellow jasper and very rarely a specimen of the highly prized green jasper were encountered. Hematite had also a limited use. A red claystone, resembling catlinite, a brownish to grayish slate, a very fine dark blue soapstone, turquoise, variscite, and occasionally fluorite were used for beads, but the commonest material is a white calcite which occurs in layers of convenient thickness, and the beads made from this material resemble closely those made from shell. Turquoise also occurs in laminae, thus facilitating greatly the manufacture of beads from this comparatively hard stone. The rocks of greatest economic importance to peoples in the Pueblo stage of culture are those of tough resistant structure and those of crystalline structure. The former are abundant in the volcanic or eruptive rocks of the region, hence weapons, hammers, etc., could be made of good stone when found. But the latter are scarce and abrasives would have to be supplied by stone of vesicular character. The art of working stone among the inhabitants of the upper Tularosa was limited in extent and the artifacts crude, but a few miles away, in the valley of the lower river, aboriginal objects are superior, equalling the best in the Pueblo region. Such contrasts are common among the remains of the ancient Pueblos, and depend, per- haps, on the number of people inhabiting a pueblo, their situation, well being, and resources. All these things, when favorable, aid in stimulating arts. It is invariably found that the artifacts of a large and populous pueblo are superior to those of a small settlement, even when the latter is in the same valley and within a few miles of the for- mer. It appears also that Pueblo industries were specialized in ancient times ; that is, were clan industries which later became village indus- tries, a social feature observed all over the world, a good example of which may be seen in the basket industry of the Hopi towns, where wicker baskets are confined to Oraibi and coiled baskets to most of the Middle Mesa villages. Nevertheless, where these conditions are satisfied and the material for making stone implements is abundant and accessible, it is some- times found that the art of working stone remains in a very back- ward state, and sometimes, on the contrary, when good materials are lacking and must be brought long distances, the art shows pecul- iar excellence. Of this the culture remains of the ancient prairies and plains tribes give numerous instances. It is not safe, also, to base conclusions as to the artistic rank of a group of people on the rude or primitive character of workmanship or design in any one material. We may find that axes, hammers, metates, rubbing stones, mortars, etc., suggest the work of novices, of people in a low degree of culture, or of those who are satisfied with U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 3 Stone Implements for Grinding and Abrading. For explanation of plate see page 13. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 13 the least effort to produce a given result, and discover to our sur- prise that the work in fine stone, shell, and bone of the same people evidences a high degree of skill and taste. It might be well to inquire whether artistic works in the more enduring materials were not the outcome of tribal well-being as regards the food supply and the resulting leisure to perform these works. Unquestionably there are seasonal occupations pursued when the land and rivers are yielding sustenance and the temperature has reached its zonal limit, which must affect man as it affects plants and animals, and at this favorable time, to take the Pueblos as examples, we find pottery making, weaving, wood carving, and such arts going on, or the artistic feeling may be expressed through the drama of ceremonies. Enforced leisure also is a powerful stimulus ; for exam- ple, the western Eskimo utilize their long night not only in the prac- tical work of repairing and making additions to the hunting equip- ment for the next season, but in carving and decorating ivory, wood, or horn objects which may be of economic value or merely expressive of a sentiment for art. It may be conceded on the whole that the comparative degree of advancement or efflorescence of art is due largely to the material well-being of social units. DOMESTIC UTENSILS OF STONE. The most common domestic utensils of stone are metates and manos. The type universal through the Pueblo region is common here. The metate is made commonly of coarse volcanic rock, and there is apparently not the same discrimination as to the grades of fineness of stone as is observed in the northern portion of the Pueblo region. Metates with feet, after the Mexican type, do not belong to this region, the few specimens found in the Gila Valley probably being recent introductions from the country to the south. The mano, which is always made nearly as wide as the metate, has a tendency to take the same shape on wearing as those of the present or ancient Hopi, for instance. Ordinarily, however, the mano was a thick oblong stone with the corners rounded off and with grooved sides. (PI. 3, figs. 2, 6, 8.) It was apparently ground perfectly flat upon the metate and not raised during the stroke, a habit among the present Pueblos which reduces the mano to a form wedgelike in section, and thus often the worn-out specimen is a thin flat tablet. The metate has a tendency to become channeled, the wear of the hand-stone leaving raised sides, but these sides never have the height of those observed in the metates from Chaves Pass which project above the grinding surface nearly a foot, showing that very large blocks of rock formed the original implement. The metate was mounted in a sloping position upon a foundation of stones embedded 14 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. in mnd. One specimen, of oval shape, was found in place at Blue. It was observed, also, that a depression was formed in the base under the lip of the metate for placing the bowl to receive the meal. (Fig. 7.) At Blue, Arizona, where extensive examination was made of the debris surrounding the pueblo, many hand stones of irregular size and wear were observed. (PL 3, fig. 1.) Most of these, it is probable, represent stones which were picked up and adapted to use for grinding, and not pecked into shape, although some of these stones may have been those used by the potter in reducing the lumps of clay and other materials used in pottery, as among the Walpi potters, where a number of flat and other stones were applied to vari- ous purposes without having received specific form. Still another class of hand stones of very regular shape, a little longer than broad (pi. 3, fig. 4) , was occasionally met with at Blue and somewhat frequently in the lower valley of Blue River. (See fig. 20.) stone utensils. It is probable that they had some use in pounding deerskins or other soft materials. A few hand stones were also found at Blue having a ridge along the back resembling somewhat the rubbing stones from the Gila Valley and from Mexico. Small grit stones of more or less irregular form, but worn on several faces, were seen. (PI. 3, fig. 9.) These appear to have been used on surfaces where abrasion was required. They have commonly been called whetstones, but their use appears to have been on flat areas. Lava was also used where a strong abrading agent was required. The lava artifacts are commonly of irregular form. (PI. 3, figs. 8 and 5.) Grinding, rubbing, polishing, smoothing, and other abrading stones for use in the hands are relatively common, and in very many cases they are merely stones of suitable size showing such use and lacking the work necessary to make them definite implements such as can be classi- fied in terms of art form. Most of these makeshift implements were found in the Martin ruin at Blue. (Fig. 8.) Ground depressions on rocks in place are not often observed in this region, but a fine Fig. 7. — Metate set on a foundation from Blue. These resemble a type of stone implements from southern Califor- nia. They are usually of very hard material and do not altogether seem to have been used for rubbing on a flat surface. As a rule these stones are better finished than any other of the domestic ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 15 example of a series of such depressions was seen on a large block of stone near Tularosa Cave. Worked stones connected with household uses or architecture were observed at the Delgar ruin, on the lower Tularosa. They consist Fig. 8. — Grinding stones from Blub. Fig. 9. — Stone mortar from Spur Ranch. of several subconical blocks like the seats described by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from Four Mile Euin ; 1 a conical stone about 15 inches high ; and a number of large stone disks chipped on the edge. Objects of this character were not found in any other ruins. MORTARS AND PESTLES. No large well-finished pestles are found in this region, and on the whole this imple- ment was merely a thing of utility receiving scant treatment in the way of working out and finishing. Most of the pestles were made from stones which approached the shape desired and necessi- tated little labor to reduce them to the size required. Mortars are small and rarely has much care been given by the stoneworker to secure accuracy of form or smoothness of finish. A more specific description of a mortar and pestle from the Spur Eanch, Luna, New Mexico, follows: Bowl-shaped mortar of breccia, irregularly vvorked on the exterior. (Fig. 9.) The working cavity is very regular, is inches in diameter and 8f inches deep. An oblong cylindroid of fine grain, almost white stone, found in the same room with the mortar, but not in close association with it, is perhaps the pestle. It is 5| inches long and 2 by 2§ inches in diameter, the end smooth and rounded, and the sides showing marks of the pecking required to bring it into shape. It has two shallow pits in the surface, probably to facilitate gripping by the hand. (Fig. 10, Cat. No. 231886, U.S.N.M.) Such mortars were probably used for pounding Fug. 10. — Pestle from Spur Ranch. 1 Two Summers’ Work in Pueblo Ruins, 22d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. FJtmology. 1900— 1901 (1904), plate 65. 16 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. yucca and other leaves for fiber, crushing leaves and roots for in- fusions, and for comminuting such materials not suitable for reduc- tion on the grinding slab. The Pueblo mortar is never large and was not used for the prepara- tion of food, but was employed for a number of small tasks as occasion required. Generally they were not portable, being formed in neighboring rock masses wherever the conditions were favor- able. STONE VESSELS. In the Upper Gila Valley (Pueblo Viejo Valley) there are encoun- tered somewhat fre- Fig. 11 . Carved stone vessel from Solomonsville. quently stone vessels of superior workmanship, the material being very hard, the form very characteristic, and the finish excellent. They are oblong, terminating in projections at both ends (fig. 11). This vessel was also probably a form of mortar for small quantities of material. (Cat. No, 238437, U.S.N.M.) Another small stone mortar (fig. 12) is of gray tufaceous rock and has a small projection on one side, forming the handle. The specimen was found in a grave containing worked shell objects. (See fig. 12, Cat, No. 231823, U.S.N.M.; diameter, fig. 12.— small stone If inches ; height, If inches ; Spur Ranch, Luna, ranch. FR ° M S p u r N ew Mexico; and fig. 13.) A stone cup, neatly worked from gray tufaceous rock, and having side walls and flat bottom, is shown in figure 13. (Cat. No. 231965, U.S.N.M. ; diameter, 2f inches; height, If inches; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) In many cases natural stones, mostly concretionary, with cavities of a shape suggesting use as vessels, have been found in the ruins. Figure 14 illustrates a stone vessel made from Fig. 13 . — Small stone ® , . _ ,. , , , , vessel from Spur very hard, fine-grained, gray limestone, smoothly RANCH - finished. The working surface is evenly curved and polished. It is possible that this vessel was used for grind- ing paint, but the surface shows no such wear. Stone vessels of ANCIENT PUEBLOS OE UPPER GILA REGION. 17 this character are quite rare in this region, except on the upper Gila, where they take the forms shown in figure 11. (Cat. No. 98695, U.S.N.M. ; diameter, 5f inches; height, If inches.) Pig. 15 —Polishing stone from Apache Creek. SMOOTHING STONES. Important implements of every Pueblo household, ancient and modern, were polishing stones, which had their fig. 14.— stone vessel from upper most extensive use for work in clay, San Francisco river. whether in producing a fine surface on pottery or in polishing the mud floor. The polishing stone is essentially a woman’s tool, since work in clay has always been her specialty. One of these (fig. 15) is of an extremely fine-grained yellow stone, beautifully worked into the form desired by the potter and highly polished. This was, no doubt, a prized object, and was found in a grave containing human remains. (Cat. No. 245942, U.S.N.M.; width, 1 inch; length, If inches; thickness, ff inch; N. H. Ranch, Apache Creek, Socorro County, New Mexico.) A smoothing stone from the Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico, is formed of hard, fine-grained stone resembling limestone (fig. 16). On one side is a flat, highly polished area which indicates its use on some soft ma- terial, though probably not for pottery finishing. (Cat. No. 281963, U.S.N.M.; diameter, 3 inches; thickness, If inches.) In the Tularosa Cave, New Mexico, was found a block of very coarse sandstone (fig. 17) , on one face of which is a groove for the purpose of rasping wooden rods. In the process the stone has become more deeply grooved. No. 246471, U.S.N.M.; dimensions, 4f by 2 inches.) Another specimen has two grooves crossing at right angles. (PI. 3, fig. 7.) Grooved smoothing stones for arrows and rods are not plentiful in the region. They are also simple in form compared with those of the Pueblo Viejo Valley on the upper Gila. The material is very fine-grained stone, usually limestone. The groove is polished and is probably designed more for smoothing wood than for abrading it. Some of these stones show evidences of heat and some are cracked by having been subjected to fire. One of 14278°— Bull. 87—14 3 Fig. 16. — Smoothing stone from Spur Ranch. (Cat. Fig. 17. — Stone rasp from Tularosa Cave. 18 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fig. 18. — Arrow-smoothing STONE FROM SPUR RANCH. fit ' /TfcfS Hi Iff If *•-1!...* J'/i' /A M Il v'llJ i nyy iw 1 these simple stones is shown in figure 18, Cat. No. 231859, U.S.N.M. ; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) POTTERY-WORKING STONES. Circular or oblong flattish stones of convenient size for grasping in the palm, and fingers of the hand are used by the Pima-Papago- Maricopa group, the Mohave,Yumas,Diegue- nos, Kawia, and other southern California pottery-making tribes. These stones are either selected bowlders, stones picked up from ancient sites, or stones probably worked to form by the present tribes. In all cases the stone having the proper contour would be selected for the purpose, and as many neatly dressed stones of the type of the small grinding stone, which is circular or of pillow shape, are to be secured from the immediate neighborhood of ruins in this region, they have been taken to the camps of the __ Indians and employed in pottery ( \ making. Russell says that the Pima “use a flat circular stone about 4 inches iii diameter.” 1 The implements required by the Indian potters of the Southwest- ern border are paddles of wood or stone, and an anvil stone, or bumper, which is held within the vessel in process of coiling, and between the stone and the paddle the coils are pressed down, the clay is thinned or regulated in thickness, while at equal rate the vessel is expanded and reduced to the form desired. By this means, in the hands of an expert potter, vessels of remarkable thinness can be produced. A smoothing stone which may pos- sibly be a pottery-working tool is oval in shape and finally worked from very hard grit stone. (Fig. 19; Cat. No. 231881, U.S.N.M. ; length, 5J inches; width, 4 inches ; thickness, l T 5 e inches ; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) A finely finished specimen of purple quartzite was found at the Stockton Ranch on San Francisco River near the mouth of the Blue. The edges of the implement are pecked to give a roughened surface to r\. 'hi Fig. 19. — Smoothing stone from Spur Ranch. Fig. 20. — Smoothing stone from lower San Francisco River. 1 2(>th Ann, Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, p. 126, ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 19 aid the hand grasp. (Fig. 20; Cat. No. 246509, U.S.N.M; length, 4^ inches; width, 3J inches; thickness, 2 inches.) ARROWHEADS, THROWSTICKS, AND DARTS. The arrowheads of this region are almost exclusively of obsidian which varies from an opaque black to translucent, almost as clear as rock crystal. They are small, usually nocked, and sometimes serrated. Such heads as have been found still remaining on the arrows are small, and this appears to be characteristic of those arrows intended for war or for hunting. (See fig. 142.) Some rather long, slender arrowpoints appear to have been fashioned for use as offerings. As a rule the arrow- heads do not show great skill in their manufacture, but occasionally an ex- quisitely chipped one is encountered. The points for the throwstick darts appear to be extremely scarce, so far as can be determined, and there is a likelihood that they never were very plentiful. (See fig. 21.) No throwsticks were found by the Museum-Gates Expedition, nor is it known that any have been found in this region. The only evidence that such an implement was used is a few foreshafts of darts of the kind hurled by means of the throwstick. ( See fig. 21. ) The shapes of some of the worked rods appear to suggest the throwstick (see pi. 20, fig. 2), but it is not pos- sible to reach a definite conclusion on the subject. Also the articulating ends of bones (see fig. 136) may be bunt heads of throwdarts. Mr. John R. De Mier, of Las Cruces, New Mexico, found in guano caves 9 miles east of Lava, New Mexico (on the Albuquerque-El Paso branch of the Santa Fe route), a number of interesting objects which he forwarded to the National Museum. The collection con- tains a throwing stick (fig. 21) consisting of a slat of oak, 25 \ inches long and 1J inches wide, warped strongly and grooved on both sides at intervals along the middle line, the ends of the stick Fig. 21. — Throwstick, darts, KNIVES, AND PUNCH FROM NEAR Lava, New Mexico. 20 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. being roughened as for wrapping; a throw-dart head, consisting of a blade of elegant outline of white opaque chert, 3f inches long and J- inch wide, mounted with sinew in a wooden foreshaft 3| inches long (fig. 21) ; two knives or throw-dart heads of yellow jasper and dark-brown chert, 3J and 3 inches long (fig. 21) ; an arrowhead of white chert If inches long; and an antler stone working tool 4 inches long, dark-brown from age and highly polished from use (fig. 21). AXES, HAMMERS, AND MAULS. It is not usual to find a well fin- ished specimen of the ax, and it is evident that the only care on the part of the workers was to make an effec- tive tool. It is also curious that so few axes are found, and this is all the more remarkable in areas that have evidently been inhabited for a long time by apparently a large population. The type has invariably a single groove, usually running clear around the specimen. The material is almost always a bluish volcanic rock or basalt which is well suited for the purpose. An unusual form of greenish stone implement worked to wedge- shape suggests an ungrooved ax. (Fig. 22 and section.) The poll of the specimen has not been carefully worked. It may be an un- finished ax, or may have been made for some special purpose. (Cat. No. 231858, U.S.N.M. ; length, 6f inches; width, 3 inches; thickness, If inches ; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) A hammer-maul consisting of a bowlder of gray stone, having Fig. 22. — Stone ax from Spur Ranch. grooves cut on the opposite sides, is shown (fig. 23), with outline. Originally this implement was probably hafted and used as a maul. ( Cat. No. 231833, U.S.N.M. ; diameter, 4J inches; thickness, 3f inches; Spur Ranch, Luna, New FIg. 23. — Stone grooved maul from Spur Ranch. Mexico.) Another specimen from the same locality (pi. 4, fig. 10) is grooved deeply almost around the circumference. (Cat. No. 231960, U.S. N.M. ; diameter, 3f inches; length, 6 inches.) A block of bluish chalcedony much chipped (pi. 4, fig. 9) resembles the hammers from the Petrified Forest region, northern Arizona. The specimen shows little use as a hammer. (Cat. No. 232066, U.S. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 4 Stone Implements for Cutting and Pounding. For explanation of plate see pages 20 and 22. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 21 N.M. ; diameter, 2| inches; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) A block of hard black basalt chipped on two-thirds of its circumference (ph 4, fig. 6) is also probably a hammer or striking tool. (Cat. No. 246462, U.S.N.M.; Tularosa Cave, New Mexico.) An unmodified stone hammer of hard brown stone (pi. 4, fig. 8) is from a small cliff-house ruin near Spur Ranch. (Cat. No. 232065, U.S.N.M.; length, 3-J inches.) A pitted hammer of triangular shape (pi. 4, fig. 7) is made of coarse basalt. One side is smooth as though the specimen had at times been used as a rubbing implement. (Diam- eter, 3J inches; thickness, 1J inches; Tularosa Cave, New Mexico.) CLUBHEADS, BALLS. 24. Figs. 24-26.- 25. 26. -Stone balls from Spur Ranch. Balls of hard stone of rea- sonably accurate spherical shape are encountered in the ruins, but never as mortuary objects with the dead. It is possible that they are hammerstones worked down from long use, but apparently they were reduced by the ordinary processes of stone working for a definite purpose and, it appears prob- able, were originally inclosed in rawhide for the slung shot or flexible head club, such as is used by the Apaches. No specimens so mounted, however, have been found in archeological sites, such as caves or shelters, where they would likely be preserved. Another suggestion is that these balls are used in games, and probably the smaller specimens had this employment, as this form has survived among the Pueblos and the Pimas, Cocopas, Mohaves, and other southern Arizona and California tribes. Some of the stone balls are from Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico. (Figs. 24, 25, 26.) These are smoothly made from hard stone and were probably used in games, or, with less probability, as clubheads. (Cat. No. 231958, U.S.N.M. ; diam- eter, If, If, and If inches.) What appears to be a clubhead is made of soft stone, is oblong and rounded, and on one side a projection has been formed, evidently for the purpose of hafting. (Fig. 27.) The rounded surface shows pittings, as though the implement were used for hammering. The character of the material, however, does not indicate its use as a hammer. (Cat. No. 231940, U.S.N.M.; length, 3 inches; width, 2-J ; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) Ftg. 27. — Stone ham- mer from Spur Ranch. knife. The knife of chipped flint or other material is not very common in this region, and it appears probable that its place was taken by the sharp-edged spalls, more or less worked, which are found in abun- dance near the ruins. (See fig. 138.) Occasionally the chipped 22 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. blades are hafted, perhaps for the foreshafts of the short dart hurled with the throwing stick. Large chipped blades are almost never found in this region, though they occur in the Little Colorado Valley and are at the present time used by the Zuni as cult objects. SCRAPERS. Pig. 28. — Stone scraper from Tula rosa Cave. Flakes of chert and quartzite which appear to be simple scraping tools were found occasionally in the ruins, and in some number in Tularosa Cave, where they are associated with pieces of branches which had been cut by re- peated scraping. (See Wood.) There are also oval spalls, nearly uniform in shape and size, oc- curring in all sites and in such numbers as to be regarded as an accredited implement. Usually they show wear, and in some cases have been ground to an edge. There is proof that this implement was used for wood working. (See p. 61.) It also was a convenient tool for other purposes, such as fleshing, bark peeling, graining leather, etc. The scraper blade of oval cuboid shape is not found in archeological sites here or in any other part of the Pueblo region. Flakes of obsidian appear to have been used in dressing bows, arrow foreshafts, etc., as glass is used by the cabinetmaker. In this region of altered, igneous, and eruptive rocks there are innumerable spalls of all shapes and sizes at hand for selection. That they were so selected is seen from the spalls found in Tularosa Cave. Plate 4, figure 1, shows a spall of gray basalt having an excellent cutting edge; figure 3, a spall of black basalt, the edge of which has been improved by chipping; figure 4, a plate of red chert chipped carefully; figure 5, a much-used spall worn on the edge; and figure 2, a square plate of basalt chipped on two sides (5f inches square) . A more finished scraper, or cutting implement Fig . 29 . consists of a spall of blue-gray basalt, the edge of which is chipped (fig. 28). (Cat. No. 246462, U.S.N.M. ; length, 2J inches; width, If inches; Tularosa Cave, New Mexico. Another example of hard purple rock, chipped on a portion of the edge (fig. 29) comes from the Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico. (Cat. No. 231815, U.S.N.M. ; length, 2J inches; width, If inches.) Stone scraper from Spur Ranch. saws. A great number of saws which consist of flaked or thin plates of volcanic rock, worked straight along one edge, which may be toothed ANCIENT PUEBLOS OE UPPER GILA REGION. 23 or merely sharp, are found south of the White Mountains, but such objects are very infrequent in the rest of the Pueblo region. (Figs. 30, 31, 32, 33.) They were used for working wood, specimens of which in process are shown. (Fig. 129.) P. G. Gates, of Pasadena, California, possesses a speci- men which was bound up with a strip of wood showing the marks of work of this implement. The specimen was found in a cave near Soda Springs in the White Mountain Apache Keserva- tion. The prevalence of these instruments is due to the abundance of suitable spalls of volcanic rock found in this region, while in northern Arizona rocks are almost altogether sand- stone and other sedimentary strata. Fig. 30. — Stone saw from Joseph, Tula- rosa River. a- g> Fig. 31. — Stone saw from Luna, New Mexico. DRILLS. Drill points which have been found on the ruins differ not at all from the customary form of this implement in America. The material is commonly chert, chalcedony, and sometimes obsidian. Often the drill point is long and finely chipped and frequently the base is flared, as though it were used between the fingers as a gimlet. It is also possible that this large form of drill was not hafted. The size of the drill corresponds to the holes made in pottery for mending purposes, in bone, in the larger stone ornaments, and sometimes, though rarely, in wood. In the latter material a bone awl was employed. Several mounted flint drills were found. Large drills or reamers were apparently not needed except occasionally for tubular bores in the cloud blowers and pipes. The ordinary drill bit would not be suitable for finer perforations, which in beads are often very small, requiring a fine needle to carry a thread through them. (See p. 25.) The means used to produce the perforations are not definitely known, but they might have been a cactus spine, or slender splint of bone having enough burr to abrade the soft stone usually formed into beads. A sliver of hardwood when started to drilling in some stones will crush the structure under its point and by revolution this powder still further abrades continuously, needing only the addition of water to keep the drill from jamming or gumming. Harder stone requires abrasives whose use was well known by the Indians, and the character of the stone influenced the kind of drill. Fig. 32. — Stone saw from Apache Creek. Fig. 33. — Stone saw from Blub River. 24 BULLETIN" 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. a Fig. 34. — Chalcedony drill from Spur Ranch. A thorn, a- thornlike branch, a cactus spine or a sliver of obsidian or chert might be used, the cutting end requiring to be of even caliber for a very short part of the length of the drill, as* only thin pieces of stone were usually perforated, and commonly the bead blank or small object was drilled until the point appeared on the underside when it was turned over, the point set in the minute orifice, and the work completed. So far as can be known, the small points were set in a rod which was twirled between the palms. The delicate, sharp-pointed fragment of white chalcedony 1 inch long from the Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico, is a type of the unworked drill. (Fig. 34, a and b.) A specimen (fig. 35) made from a thin spall of fine chalcedony, the base flaring for purchase in the fingers, shows more work. (Cat. No. 2319T3, U.S.N.M. ; length, inches; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) Other specimens from the same locality are milky chalcedony, the work only showing on the blade. (Fig. 36; Cat. No. 231816, U.S.N.M.; length, 1 inch; width, J inch.) A better specimen is made of reddish-brown chert and has a neatly chipped blade and ovate finger grip. (Fig. 37 ; Cat. No. 232017, U.S.N.M.; length, If inches; £ inch wide. Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) The finest specimen, an excellent example of flint chipping (fig. 38), was found at Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico. It is 2^ inches in length and was doubtless originally hafted. (Cat. No. 231874, U.S.N.M.) BEADS AND ORNAMENTS. Nowhere in America was the bead maker’s art more developed than in the Pueblo region, and there is observed also in different parts of this area a diver- sity in skill and in the extent to which the work was carried. In general the zone of superior beadwork and minute stone carving lies between the Little Colorado and Gila Rivers, with extensions to the south in Sonora. In this zone the beadwork is greatly in advance of that in any other portion of this hemisphere, and it is probable that nowhere else in the world was as great proficiency displayed. This assertion regards the accuracy of calibration and of drilling, apparent ease with which minute beads and astonishingly fine perforations were Fig. 35. — Chalcedony DRILL FROM SPUR Ranch. DONY DRILL FROM Spur Ranch. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OP UPPER GILA REGION. 25 Fig. 37. — Chert DRILL FROM SPUR Ranch. worked, selections of material, and combinations of colors, and, as far as the great collections of the United States National Museum are concerned, the assertion is valid. For example, the finest beads yet discovered is a string 4 inches long from Bear Creek Cave, Blue River, Arizona. The individual beads measure one- sixteenth of an inch in diameter and the perforation . is one-thirty- second of an inch. The material is black steatite. From the same locality turquois beads meas- ure one-twelfth of an inch with perforation of 0.023 of an inch. Larger beads measure three-sixteenths inch with one-sixteenth inch perforation. Examina- tion of these beads under a glass shows their perfec- tion of form. Within this area the centers of the best bead work are: Upper Blue and San Francisco rivers, Tula- rosa Valley, Casa Grande in the Gila-Salt drainage, Chaves Pass on the northern slope of the White Mountains, and the Petrified-Forest region in the drainage of the Little Colorado. The character of the work and materials are as follows : Blue River. — Travertine, white, cream, gray ; shell ; steatite, black, brown, transparent brown; turquois, blue, green; clay slate, red and brown ; fluorite, yellow, pink shaded to purple. When found strung they are spaced and arranged according to colors and are perfect specimens of fine work- manship. Upper San Francisco River. — Finely worked zooic ornaments of shell, calcium carbonate, serpentine, and turquois ; beads of travertine, steatite, and shell, often two-lobed. Polishing of chalcedony is sometimes prac- ticed. (See p. 27.) Tularosa River. — Carving in hard and fine-grain stone, serpentine, hematite, etc.; perforation of hard stone; mosaic or inlay of comparatively large plates of turquois. Shell carving ; bonework. Gila Valley — Casa Grande. — Shell carving, minute stone carving in turquois, etc. Beads of fluorite, tur- quois, red stone, soapstone, etc., shell. Chaves Pass. — Very fine red clay slate; steatite; turquois; calcium carbonate; jet; gray limestone. These beads often require a very fine needle to string mosaic work here and excellent shell carving and Fig. 38. — Chert DRILL FROM SPUR Ranch. them. Finest etched and carved bone. Petrified Forest region.- hematite, and other hard -Worked and polished chalcedony, agate, stone fashioned into conoids, cylinders, 26 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. and plates. This art extends from Zuni north to the Puerco River to the month of that river above Holbrook, Arizona, and reappears in the valley of the Blue and Tularosa rivers. Beads in quantity made of travertine and shell. Small zooic carvings and beads of dark-blue steatite (Woodruff, Arizona). PROCESS OF BEAD MAKING. The process of making beads appears to be as follows : Pieces of selected stone were rubbed into flat plates of uniform thickness, these bits were then taken between the thumb and fingers and the edge rubbed, turning the stone at intervals, thus leaving a polygonal figure six or more sided ; the hole was drilled through this more or less regular disk; the disks were then strung tightly and drawn over a grinding surface, perhaps being rubbed to and fro by the hand, then were finished more accurately by being drawn through a groove between two fine-grain stones. 'While still strung they were polished by rubbing on skins, using fine gritty dust as a medium. Most of these steps of the process are verified by specimens found in an incomplete state and by present observation as follows: The Zuni bead worker’s materials, methods, and tools are very simple and consist of plates of turquois, calcite, and shell, a gritty lap stone for grinding, a pump drill with flint point, two grooved plates of stone for equalizing the beads, and string of sinew, cotton, or yucca fiber for assembling the finished product. The bead mate- rial employed commonly occurs in thin equal masses or plates from which the blanks are broken with a small stone and subsequently ground smooth on the flat sides and the edges finished roughly on the lap stone. The blanks are then held with the fingers on a flat stone anvil resting on the knee of the bead maker and drilled first on one side and then on the other. Sometimes a mistake is made in center- ing, the two cavities not accurately meeting. In this connection, let me add that the ancient bead worker drove two slanting holes into the flat side of a tablet or button-like object which he wished to sus- pend, and when the drill holes met a practicable passage for the cord was made. The next step was to string the beads tightly together on a strong cord and pull this rather rigid column of beads between two grooved strips of fine-grain sandstone, using plenty of water. This ground every bead to even size and gave a polish which was brought to a high brilliancy by wear around the neck of the Pueblo Indian. The work on small ornaments or fetiches of stone is of a superior order like that practiced in fitting the parts of arrows. The ex- amples, shown in fig. 48, page 28, would tax the skill of a lapidary supplied with the best tools and machinery of his art. On the orna- ments mentioned, drilling, graving, the production of small circular depressions, etc., are found, and the workers manifestly had a keen ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 27 appreciation of form and character even more marked than that dis- played by the Eskimo. Cylinders, cones, disks, and objects of various forms in hematite, chalcedony, serpentine, and jasper, finely polished, have been found in the region, especially in the Tularosa Valley. (Figs. 89-42.) The disk of chalcedony (see fig. 48), chipped to shape and polished on one face is a remarkable object. It was found in a ceremonial room at the Spur Banch, and it is supposed to be a mirror, used probably as are the facets of the rock crystal of the ancient Hopi for reflecting sunlight into the charm-liquid or “ medicine.” One of the most remarkable and gratifying finds of the expedition of 1903 was unearthed in a crumbled ruin about one-half mile east of the house of Montague Stevens, owner of the Spur Banch, near Luna, New Mexico. It was taken from beneath the floor near the corner of a room. The jar (fig. 43a) of brown pottery, so rudely Figs. 39, 40. — Hematite cylinders, perforated, from Tularosa River. Fig. 41. — Perforated cylinders from Tularosa River. Fig. 42. — Conoid fetish from Tularosa River. fashioned that one would surmise that contrary to all precedents it had been formed by a man, was closed with a mass of clay, and on breaking the luting and turning out the contents into the hand one could hardly repress an exclamation of surprise at the character of the find. The specimens (fig. 43) are as follows: (a) 231838. Jar of brown pottery, 2 inches diameter; 4£ inches high. (&) 231839. Bird amulet of yellow-green serpentine. (c) Small reniform bead of turquois. {d) 231842. Amulet accurately cut from shell. It appears to represent an animal, but its meaning is conjectural. ( e ) 231851. Bird-head amulet carved from turquoise. Two small carvings of this character were found at Bear Creek Cave, Blue River, Ari- zona, and there have been recovered from the great ancient town on the lower Tularosa (Delgar Ranch) a number of remarkable amuletic objects carved from rare and beautiful stone. In 28 BULLETIN 8*7, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, ANCIENT PUEBLOS OE UPPER GILA REGION. 29 northern Mexico they appear to be more prevalent, and a com- parison of the carvings just described with those figured by Dr. Ales HrdliSka 1 suggest a connection of great interest. The amulets from Spur Ranch belonged, doubtless, to a medicine man. They differ widely from the medicine paraphernalia secured from a grave near the Petrified Forest of Arizona. 2 (/) 231850. Small pendant of shell. (g) 231840. Bird amulet of shell, well carved. This specimen is a rare but not unique example of ancient Pueblo fancy, being carved to repre- sent two animals, and changes in appearance from a bird to a small mammal, or back again on inversion. ( h ) 231841. Bird amulet carved from white stone. ( i ) 231843. Tadpole amulet, exquisitely carved from fine white stone. O') 231849. Olive shell ( Olivella Mplicata), highly prized by ancient and mod- ern Pueblos for beads. (fc) 231847. Shell, Columbella , prepared for stringing by breaking away the apex and forming a hole in the side. (l) 231844. Shell amulet of square form, pierced for suspension by one corner, and having a square opening cut in the center. The specimen shows that the square was cut out by drilling around the margin of the figure. It appears to be a world quarter symbol and is usually represented having a bird at each quadrant (see fig. 92). (m) 231845. Natural shell Glycimerus. Pierced for suspension. (ft) 231846. Shell of Conus species. (o) 231848. Disk of pearly shell. sand- (Fig. Hit Fig. 44. — Sandstone DISK PARTLY PERFO- RATED FROM TULA- rosa Cave. From the Tularosa Cave comes a disk of fine-grained red stone having a hole partly drilled through it near the edge. 44.) It appears that this was an attempt to form an ornament for the necklace. (Cat. No. 246465, U.S.N.M.) A cylinder of fine-grained purplish stone hav- ing five grooves cut around it was found in the Martin ruin. These grooves were sawed with a flint blade and the shape of the stone appears to be natural. Its use can not be determined, but it was probably a fetish. (Fig. 45.) A smaller specimen was found at Luna and one has been described 3 with illustration from Potts Valley, Santa Catalina Island, Cali- fornia. It is not known whether there is any relation between this object and the roundel sticks preserved in the caves. (Cat. No. 245931, U.S.N.M.; length, 2-J inches; Blue, Arizona.) From the same locality also comes a small block of red lava in which designs have been scored. (Fig. 46.) (Cat. No. 231809, U.S.N.M.; length, 2 inches; width, bj inches; thickness, J inch.) Fig. 45. — Scored spindle-shape STONE FROM BLUE. 1 The region of the ancient “ Chichimecs ” with notes on the Tepecanos and the ruin of the La Quemada, Mexico. American Anthropologist (n. s.), vol. 5, No. 3, 1903, pi. 40. a Museum-Gates Expedition, 1901. Ann. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1901, p. 313, pi. 43. *U. S. Geographical Survey, Wheeler, 1879, vol. 7, p. 711, 30 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sometimes pottery was worked as stone. This piece (fig. 47) is remarkable for the amount of labor which has been expended in drill- ing. grinding, and finishing a fragment of pottery to produce a result requiring some ingenuity to interpret. It is a good example, however, of the working of pottery in the manner of stone, examples of which, usually quite simple, are observed in the spindle whorls, scrapers, and disks found with com- parative frequency in the ruins in the Pueblo region. The carving appears to represent an animal or perhaps two and may be a puzzle figure. (Cat. No. 231814, U.S.N.M. ; length, 1J inches ; width, 1 inch ; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) CRYSTALS AND REFLECTORS. Quartz crystals are found among the house plans in every ruin, though the specimens are fig. 47.— carved pottery not plentiful. Occasionally they are found in ornament from spur graves. It is probable that quartz crystals were here used as among the Hopi fraternities for reflecting the sun’s rays into the charm liquid employed in certain ceremonies. An interesting specimen is a piece of trans- lucent milky chalcedony worked into circular shape by pecking and chipping, ground down and polished on one surface which reflects with reasonable accuracy. (Fig. 48.) This was prob- ably not a mirror for personal use, but was no doubt employed in ceremonies for throwing sun- light into the charmed medicine liquid, an office for which the facets of crystals are often found useful. The specimen was found in a large cere- monial chamber. (Cat. No. 231869, U.S.N.M.; diameter, 2J inches; thickness, 1J inches; Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico.) CEREMONIAL MORTARS AND TABLETS. These objects are made from tufa and are oftener round than square and necessarily, from the soft character of the material, would be of little use for active work. They are decorated with ceremonial colors on the exterior and are usually found in situations referring them to employment in ceremonies, more likely as receptacles for objects connected with the ritual than as mortars, their shape having given them this designation. Fig. 48. — Chalcedony MIRROR FROM SPUR Ranch. Fig. 46. — Lava block with SCORINGS FROM BLUE. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 31 Fig. 49. — Ceremonial painted MORTAR FROM BLUE. A shallow mortar from Blue post office is made from tufa and has convex sides. (Fig. 19.) The specimen is carefully finished both inside and out, and on the exterior are painted bands alternately red, yellow, and black. Cat. No. 245907, U.S.N.M.; diam- eter, 4| inches; height, 2 inches. Another painted mortar (fig. 50) is worked from soft brown tufa. The form is angular, the sides forming a terrace de- sign painted in red. This mortar or dish was found with ceremonial objects in a large room in the Spur Ranch pueblo. (Cat. No. 231901, U.S.N.M.; dimensions, 4J inches square, 2J inches high.) A stone tablet (fig. 51) was also found in this room. It is painted in alternate bands of red and black, reminding one of the striped bodies of the Hopi tihus. (Cat. No. 231900, U.S.N.M. ; size, 4-J inches long, 2 inches wide, and five-eighths inch thick.) PLAQUES. The rectangular slabs of fine-gray stone with a shallow excavation on one face, usually bordered with a simple design in parallel or divergent groov- ings are peculiarly characteristic of the archeology of the Gila Valley and are especially abundant in the ruins on the fluvial plains of the river. South of the Gila, and in northern Mexico, to an extent not yet determined, but probably throughout the ethnic area of the Piman stock, these tablets occur, while north of the Gila they extend spar- ingly to the crest of the great breaks, beyond which they do not pass. Occasionally they take other forms, such as the bird form figured by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. 1 They are supposed to have been connected with religious rites of the people, and Doctor Fewkes has suggested that they were originally painted with symbolic drawings and that they may be analogous to the tablets of the present Pueblo. Russell calls them magic tablets, and secured two from a medicine man. 2 3 One of these tablets was found at Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico. It is cut from gray fine-grained stone ; the form is that of an oblong Fig. 50. — Ceremonial painted MORTAR FROM SPUR RANCH. Fig. 51. — Painted stone SLAB FROM SPUR RANCH. 1 Two Summers’ Work in Pueblo Ruins. 22d Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 185-6. 3 The Pima Indians. 26th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, p. 112, 32 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Pig. 52. — Stone tablet from Spur Ranch. dish, shallow and with a broad margin. (Fig. 52.) It is almost iden- tical with the tablets found along the Gila River. (Cat. No. 231868, U.S.N.M. ; dimensions, 3 by If inches.) SCULPTURES. Occasionally sculptures of exceptional form are found in this region. One of these (fig. 53) was secured by E. W. Nelson on the upper San Francisco River. It is the most noteworthy ob j ect of its class from this region, representing a turtle in high relief on a slab of brownish tufa. The specimen was removed by excavation from the ruins of a village. (Cat. No. 98715, U.S.N.M.) Two others from the same locality also show rather ambitious efforts at sculptures in the round. (Figs. 54, 55, Cat. Nos. 98203, 98714, U.S.N.M.) A remarkable specimen in the Na- tional Museum is a small mortar of very hard rock, representing a coiled snake, and there is also a snake tablet from Cochise County, Arizona, the latter figured by W. H. Holmes. 1 The Casa Grande ruin has fur- nished a number of excellent small sculptures. One of these, repre- senting a mountain sheep, was collected by Cosmos Mindeleff . Other specimens-collected by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka are in the American Museum of Natural His- tory, New York. An interesting sculp- tured tablet was found by Dr. J.W. Fewkes in the ruins at Solomonsville, Arizona, 2 In this local- ity, also, oblong dishes with two projecting nodes at either end, carved from very hard stone, are found, and may be considered as superior pieces of work in stone. (See fig. 11.) A number of minute specimens in serpentine and other prized aboriginal materials are encoun- tered. Several fine specimens of this sort are in the possession of George G. Heye, of New York. on the Tularosa River. In Fig. 53.- -SCULPTURED SLAB FROM SAN Francisco River. Fig. 54. — Sculpture in form of animal, San Francisco River. Fig. 55. — Sculpture in FORM OF ANIMAL, SAN Francisco River. at the Delgar ruin, They were secured this connection, a 1 American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., No. 1, January-March, 1906, pp. 101-108. 2 22d Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, p. 180. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 33 small rude carving of tufa, representing some animal, probably a turkey, was found in a ruin at East Camp, New Mexico. (Fig. 56.) PICTOGRAPHS. On the upper Tularosa at a point where the river enters a box canyon below Joseph, New Mexico, are smooth cliff faces decorated with numerous petroglyphs, which are generally very well drawn. 1 Many of these were figured by Henry Hales. 2 On the Blue Fiver near the ranch of Henry Jones are figures representing bear tracks, deer, men, dragonflies, stars, and other objects, and along this river where smooth rock faces are encountered petroglyphs may be seen. PAINT STONES. Occasionally evidences of pulverized paints are found in the graves and ruins, but commonly the ancient tribes retained the paint in its natural rock condition, as do the present-day Pueblos, and ground the masses on flat stone sur- faces with some liquid medium, when the color was required. The ores from which paint was derived are copper carbonate, blue and green; kaolin and limestone, white; hematite, red and brown; iron ocher, red and yellow ; carbon, black ; tinted clays, pink and cream; and in very rare instances fig. 56.— sculptured A . ANIMAL HEAD. EAST noticed on pottery, some agent, perhaps manganese, camp, new Mexico. was employed to produce purple. SALT. Sources of salt in a dry state are very few in this region. Salt Fiver takes its name from the salinity of its waters derived from great salt springs which gush out into the stream at several places in its course. These sources, however, do not deposit salt and are be- sides very inaccessible. Zuni salt lake, which was far but reached by comparatively easy trails across the mountains, was probably visited for this precious mineral. Hidden in a nook on top of the debris of Tularosa Cave was found a bag of lambskin sewn with sinew con- taining a hardened mass of Zuni salt, showing plainly the depression formed by the pack strap. This bag was probably deposited there at an early day by Mexican herders. BONE. Art in bone was not highly developed in this section of the Pueblo region, though the resources were more largely animal than in 1 Bull. 35, Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pi. 6, Washington, 1907. 2 Smithsonian Kept., 1892, p. 535. 14278°— Bull. 87—14 4 34 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. other areas. Bone implements here are entirely practical and rarely show effort at ornamentation or regularity of form and finish. They consist of sharpened splinters of bone or slender bones which appear to represent several implements, the commonest of which is the awl, having a sharp point and others with rounded or chisel-like ex- tremities whose use is not suggested. A few fleshers made from large bones were found. Spikes from the antlers of the deer are frequently seen in the debris of ruins. They show wear and the points are blunt, wedge-shaped and scored, as though employed on a hard substance and it is possible that they may have had use for split- ting wood or for chipping stone. These spikes are ready - to-hand tools and it is reasonable to say were among the first bon© implements in the possession of man. The most familiar and common implements of bone are awls, whose general use is for sewing, but the awl was a handy tool and may have been employed in a number of 61 . Figs. 57-59. — Bone awls from Spur Ranch. Fig. 60. — Bone awl with spatulate end from Spur Ranch. Fig. 61. — Bone awl from Tularosa Cave. Fig. 62. — Short bone awl from Spur Ranch. ways. The awls in the collection are mostly of deer bone, the fibula being preferred. The piercing end is short, slender, and effective (figs. 57-8; 61-2, Cat. Nos. 231834, 231887, a, b, e, U.S.M.; Spur Ranch and Cat. No . 246474, U.S.N.M., Tularosa Cave) , or the working end is ground to spatulate edge (figs. 59, 60, 68, Cat. Nos. 231887, 231931, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch and 246476, U.S.N.M., Tularosa Cave.) A small bird bone comes from Luna (fig. 66), Cat. No. 246481, U.S.N.M. Two interesting specimens which appear to be awls widen out at the upper end and one of them is terraced (fig. 63, Cat. No. 76239, U.S.N.M., Upper San Francisco River, New Mexico, collected by ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 35 E. W. Nelson), and this feature may have been useful as a gauge for coiled pottery decoration. The other (fig. 64, Cat. No. 231887, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico) is squared off at the top. The use of a spatulate edge awl-like tool is indicated in the exceed- ingly fine imbricated coil which was worked on the surface of some of the pottery of this region, and some of the specimens described may have been employed for the purpose. Spikes of deer antlers were ringed and broken from the antler and the point is sometimes natural (fig. 65, Cat. No. 246474, U.S.N.M., Tularosa Cave), or ground wedge-shape (figs. 67, 71, Cat. Nos. 232057, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch, and 245485, U.S.N.M., Luna). Sometimes the piece was worked and may have been used to knock spalls from stone. (Fig. 73, Cat. No. 246477, U.S.N.M., Tula- rosa Cave.) Deer-rib knives were used (fig. 72, Cat. No. 246481, U.S.N.M., Luna), but apparently not to the ex- tent observed at For- 64. Fig. 63. — Bone implement, terraced, from upper San Francisco River. Fig. 64. — Bone implement from Spur Ranch. Fig. 65. — Antler spike from Tularosa Cave. Fig. 66. — Antler spike with chisel point from Spur Ranch. Fig. 67. — Bird bone awl from Luna, New Mexico. Fig. 68. — Bone awl from Tularosa Cave. estdale and other ancient pueblos on the north side of the moun- tains. Leather-working tools formed of long bones were found. One of these (fig. 70, Cat. 246477, U.S.N.M., Tularosa Cave) is ground on the face, forming a sharp edge for dressing leather; another (fig. 69, Cat. No. 231892, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch) utilizes the sharp edges bor- dering the median groove of a deer’s leg bone ; and a third specimen is made by cutting diagonally the femur of a deer (fig. 74, Cat. No. 231890, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch). This is in effect the graining tool 36 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. widespread among the American Indians, but simpler in conception. Excellent specimens of this scraper in the National Museum were found by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes at the Mesa Verde, Colo- rado. Bone was sectioned by sawing a groove with a stone blade and the por- tions broken apart when Fig. 69. — Leather-working tool of bone from Spur Ranch. Fig. 70. — Leather-working tool of bone from Tularosa Cave* Fig. 71. — Antler spike with chisel point from Luna, New Mexico. Fig. 72. — Deer rib knife from Luna., New Mexico. Fig. 73. — Antler punch from Tularosa Cave. the cut was deep enough (fig. 77, Cat. No. 231970, U.S.N.M., Spur Kanch), and the edges finished by grinding on a stone. Bone beads, rings, and the bunt heads for throwstick darts were made in this manner (figs. 75, 76, Cat. No. 246482, U.S.N.M., Luna), as these specimens appear to show similar workmanship. Fig. 74. — Leather-working tool of bone from Spur Ranch. Figs. 75-76. — Bunt heads of bone for throwstick darts from Luna, New Mexico. Fig. 77. — Bone rings from Spur Ranch. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 37 SHELL Shell had use only for ornaments, such as beads, bracelets, and tinklers. The uniformity of shell objects over the whole Pueblo region suggests that they may have been distributed from one locality where they were manufactured, though occasionally a specimen is found in process. Shells carved in the form of a frog are rather com- mon in the Little Colorado Valley and on the Lower Gila, but are rare in the Blue River region. Small Pacific - coast clamshells of graded size were found with burials of children at Blue, and the writer has noticed their occur- rence with children’s remains in other localities. So far as is known they have never been encountered in the graves of adults. METAL WORK. There is no evidence that the ancient Pueblos were acquainted with the working of metal, and it is apparent that they had slight knowledge of free metal of any character. Only at the Delgar ruin on Tularosa River has there been found a mass of native cop- per, probably brought from the Rio Grande, where it is found free. This mass had been rubbed and smoothed and treated in every way as a stone. The small bells, which have been found to the number of about 15 in Pueblo graves, were made in Mexico, and came as a valued article of trade through primitive commerce. A small globular hawk-bell with stone sounder (fig. 78 a, bell natural size; &, view from beneath; c , stone sounder) was collected in Tonto Basin by James Douglas. (Cat. No. 173068, TJ.S.R.M.) This is the type of copper bell found quite generally distributed in the Pueblo region west of the Rio Grande. Henry Hales collected the largest and most elaborately- worked bell that has been found in ancient ruins of the Southwest. (Fig. 79, a.) Fig. 79. — Copper bell prom Tttla- rosa River. 38 BULLETIN 87 , UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The upper portion is built up of wire, the winding as in a coiled basket (fig. 79, ~b) ; the collar is formed in a similar way and is decorated with chevrons of straight lines (fig. 79, c ) ; the globular portion, however, is not formed of wire but was drawn from a mass of copper by hammering, the slit being cut out afterward. The bell was made in three sections, the top with its staple, the collar with a raised band at its lower margin, and the globular body, and these parts were brazed together after the copper sounder (fig. 79, d) was inserted. The word “ brazed ” is used in the sense of cementation together of the parts by heat when inclosed in conjunction in a mass of fire-resistant founder’s earth; the hollow of the bell was cored with the same material. The bell was made in Mexico where metal working was practiced, and was brought to the great ancient town in the valley of the Tularosa in the course of primitive traffic. It is an excellent specimen of ancient Mexican art in metal. (Cat. No. 170547, U.S.N.M. ; diameter, 2 inches; length, inches; Delgar Ranch, Tularosa River, New Mexico.) POTTERY. On the whole the region explored, with the exception of the Tula- rosa Valley, is not characterized by the great excellence observed in the ware found northeast of the Little Colorado. It is better than that of the Rio Grande Valley to the east and northeast, or the Gila Valley to the westward, where the ware appears to be affiliated with that of northern Mexico. On the north it grades somewhat into the pottery of the higher boreal slopes of the White Mountains, where brown and painted coil ware are the prevalent types. The decorative designs on the pottery of this region are of older type than those of the Rio Grande or those found on the pottery of the Pueblos who migrated westward from that river into Arizona and settled among the Pueblos whose pottery was decorated with the archaic conven- tionalized symbolism. The preponderance and broad development of coiled ware in this region also gives an older phase to its ceramic art, and illustrates best the artistic relationship of basketry and pottery. COILED WARE OF THE BLUE RIVER REGION. In regions where excellent pottery clay was at hand coiled ware was employed for cooking vessels. On the Blue River, however, where no such conditions prevail, coiled ware entered into all classes of uses and scarcely anywhere are more excellent examples of this work found. As is known, coiling arises from a structural method in which vessels are formed of ropes of clay applied spirally and ANCIENT PUEBLOS OE UPPER GILA REGION. 39 caused to adhere by pressure. In the final process of smoothing the vessel coiling is obliterated ; but in the stage of construction the exte- rior of the vessel remains ridged, while the interior is smoothed, on account of the squeezing together of the clay there to make the coils adhere. It was customary to indent these ridges, producing in this way a rough but pleasing surface. The indentation was always made with the tip of the finger, and sometimes the asperities of the surface were reduced slightly by rubbing with a polishing stone. Such ex- amples are quite common in the region west of the upper Rio Grande Valley, but are comparatively rare again in the Gila Valley and in the lower Gila and Mexico scarcely occur at all. The variety of coil which is typical of the Blue River region was formed by pressing down the coil into a narrow ridge, producing in this way an imbri- cated surface effect. The coil appears to have been formed with the finger, although in some cases a knife-like tool was used. The rough edges of these ridge coils were smoothed down. The result was a series of ridges, giving the vessel the effect of a basket ; and by press- ing these ridges at intervals with a tool patterns resembling those on baskets were formed. (See pi. 5.) Quite frequently patterns were made by drawing a blunt tool across the surface and supplementing this with small depressions at regular intervals. (See pis. 5, 6.) One excellent specimen of this type, a vase of large size decorated with impressions in the coil, from Spur Ranch, is shown. (Pl. 7, fig. 2.) The specimen was found sunken in the floor in the corner of a room which had been used for ceremonies. The vessel was covered with soot when found and had been put to domestic use before it was buried in the room. A similar jar was found in the corner of a room in a small cliff dwelling on the Rita Blanca above the Spur Ranch house, and specimens have been discovered at other places. (Cat. No. 231920, U.S.N.M.) This type is practically confined to the re- gion described in this paper, but may, like the painted coil type, overlap the margins of neighboring geographical areas to a slight extent. In this region there are also found vessels whose surface is covered with partial coiling, the remaining surface being polished, this portion usually being the body of the vessel, while the coiling extends over the neck and down on to the shoulder. F requently small bottle forms are decorated with fine coil patterns. The great variety of coiling and the prevalence of the simple but effective means of modifying it for decorative purposes render the pottery of this re- gion extremely interesting, and since the ware is particularly subject to breakage entire pieces are rare. The fragments may be utilized to convey an idea of its value to the student of archaic designs. The fragments on plates 5 and 6 are mostly from the necks of vessels which carried the decoration, while the globular body was plain. 40 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Plate 5, figures 1 and 2, which show scoring over imbrication, are from lower Blue River and Spur Ranch, respectively ; 3 and 4, with orna- mented imbrication, are from Blue and Tularosa; figures 5 to 17, with scored ornaments, are from Spur Ranch, upper and lower Blue and Tularosa rivers; and 18 and 19 are from the Tularosa Cave. On plate 6, 1 is of indented coil, Blue; 2, pinched wave coil, Spur Ranch; 3, scored and indented coil, Tularosa Cave; 4-5, coil pinched to form lumps, lower Blue River ; 6, basket impression on unburnt paste containing pounded juniper bark, Tularosa Cave; 7, pinched wave coil, Spur Ranch; scored coil, Tularosa; 8 and 9, scored coil, Spur Ranch; 10, very fine indented coil, lower Tularosa; 11, scored coil, Tularosa Cave; 12, wave coil, Spur Ranch; 13, malleated surface like beaten copper, Tularosa Cave; 14 to 17, scored coil and bottom spiral of vessel, Spur Ranch ; 18, lapped and pinched coil, lower Blue River; 19 to 21, scored coil, Spur Ranch. Some of the small rude offerings are ornamented with punch or finger-nail incisions. The finest examples of coil work are found in the Tularosa Valley, one unique specimen from this locality having a fret pattern excavated in the surface. From the Stevens Cienaga on Spur Ranch, at a ruin showing subterranean circular dwellings, there was discovered a unique vessel in fragmentary condition, having two upward curving handles, the ends of which are grooved. The vessel is dark brown and unpolished. (PI. 7, fig. 1, Cat. No. 231831, U.S.N.M.) BROWN WARE OF THE BLUE RIVER REGION. The common ware of the Blue River region is brown in color, the paste rather coarse and weak and not sonorous in the finished product. It is made from the volcanic clays occurring along the streams and ap- pears to have had no temper. These clays belong to the class called by the potters fat clays, susceptible of high polish on the unbaked ware, which was accomplished by the ancient potters by rubbing the sur- face with smooth stones. Bowls preponderate, and these are invari- ably a lustrous black on the interior, the process here being the same as that employed by the potters of the upper Rio Grande, especially at Santa Clara, where smothering in the fire in the presence of uncon- sumed organic material fills the pores of the vessel with carbon, producing an intense black. The process was known in Mexico and may be observed in the grayish-black ware of Oaxaca. Some of the pottery of the southern United States appears to have been made by the same process. Brown ware, like that of the Blue River, is found over the entire watershed of the Gila-Salt River, where it is typical, but it crosses the great ridge into the Little Colorado drainage at some x 3 oints. A greater variety of forms than in other localities, how- ever, is found in the ruins examined on the Blue River. The sole dec- oration of the bowls is a band of impressions, like those on coiled ware, Coiled and Paste-Ornamented Pottery. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 5 f.j ■m fmrnfjmm mm, si For explanation of plate see page 40. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 6 Coiled and Paste-Ornamented Pottery. For explanation of plate see page 4q. / U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 7 Pottery Vessels from Spur Ranch. For explanation of plate see pages 39 and 40. 1 ANCIENT PUEBLOS OE UPPER GILA REGION. 41 just below the edge of the rim. This, for purposes of description, has been called fillet rim. In these ruins was discovered a variety of brown ware which occurs in only a few other localities of this region and which has not heretofore been described. These are bowls usually of a large size, with lustrous black interior, fillet rim, the exterior washed with red, on which maze designs in white lines have been painted. These vessels are even more fragile than the common brown ware, and rarely can a perfect specimen be secured. This ware seems to be related to the a painted on coil ” ware found in a limited area north of the mountains, type-specimens of which have been described- in the Museum-Gates Report for 1901 from the Pet- rified Forest of Arizona, and which seems to be localized at Linden, Arizona, on the high plateau at the headwaters of Silver Creek, an affluent of the Little Colorado. The forms of the brown ware found at Blue, as indicated, are various, and consist of vases, bowls, bottle forms, numerous diminu- tive pieces, probably offerings to the springs, and animal shapes. Occasionally these objects are washed with red. Several unusual vessels have been found in the ruins on Blue River, and so far as is known to the writer, the type is confined to this region. They consist of vases which are formed by erecting the neck portion from the interior rim of a bowl. As this construction was all accomplished while the clay was green, it not being possible to add to a vessel already baked, we seem to have here a suggestion as to the method by which vases may have been formed. It appears in many cases that the basis of the vase was a bowl, the closing over of the concave being effected in such a manner as to obliterate or soften down the junction with the edge of the bowl. Not much stress, however, can be laid upon this statement, which appears to be largely theoretical. GRAY WARE OF THE BLUE RIVER REGION. The gray ware of the Blue River region has a coarse hard paste, burning dark gray to lead color. For this reason all specimens that have come to hand have been washed with kaolin, which in some cases has crackled in firing. The paste also has a tendency to distort on firing, so that it is rare to see a perfectly shaped bowl, but it is not so rare to see a vase of correct outline, since the latter form insures the greater stability in the kiln. There are in the gray pottery many evidences of carelessness in finishing the rims of vases and the edges and exteriors of bowls. The vessels also show a lack of delicacy in finish. The designs are commonly of intense black pigment, though in some cases shades of dark brown occur. It is noticed that vessels which have been much worn from use show this brown color. Quite 42 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. frequently the pottery is marred by large smoked areas due to the fuel resting against it during the process of burning. It is evident that the fuel consisted of wood, the smoke markings being from angular pieces of charcoal. The forms are: Bowls, always less than 10 inches in diameter; vases Avith loop handles, either flattened, twisted, or simulating ani- mal figures, birds and heads of animals projecting from the rim. (PL 8, figs. 1 and 2, Cat. N os. 736 and 741, Gates Coll.; Blue, Ari- zona.) The neck is occasionally quite tall in proportion to the body and usually taller than in specimens from the Tularosa. The pre- vailing type is globular, but sometimes the vessels are of bird or ani- mal forms. One specimen especially, in the form of a plumed serpent, is remarkable (see figs. 81, 82, and 83) and another, a bird form, is an excellent example of taste, skill, and execution. A few dipper forms are found, but they are very scarce compared Avith other areas north of the mountains. Canteens holding about 3 pints are present in small number. The relative frequency of gray pottery in the Blue River region is about 12 per cent. The gray pottery of the Blue River is much inferior to that of the Tularosa River both in crafts- manship, accuracy of draAving, and in quality of paste. GRAY WARE OF SPUR RANCH. As one ascends out of the gorges of the Blue, Tularosa, and San Francisco rivers and mounts to the highland in which they arise, gray Avare becomes very scarce, and little also has been found from the Datil Mountains on the east to the White Mountains on the west. From the neighborhood of Luna, New Mexico, a few specimens have been procured, and these in the main are related to those of the upper Blue River on the south, and possibly some of them may have been brought from that region. Several specimens, however, are unique. (See fig. 84, p. 47, also pi. 9, figs. 1 and 2.) GRAY WARE OF THE TULAROSA VALLEY. On account of its exceptional situation and the fertility of its land, the Tularosa Valley maintained a considerable population in ancient times and, as if reflecting a life of abundance and isolation, there are found evidences - of one of the highest cultures in the south Avest. Gray ware was abundant here and excelled that of any other region. The paste is fine, and was dextrously fashioned into vessels which show the artist’s appreciation of form and texture. The craft here also shows a greater inventiveness in the production of forms than is met with elsewhere. In scarcely any other region do we find so many examples of the pure white paste, which, if fired at a higher heat than was possessed by these Indians, might have produced a semiporcelain. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 8 Gray Ware from Blue River and Apache Creek. For explanation of plate see page 42. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 9 Gray Ware from Spur Ranch. For explanation of plate see page 42. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 43 The decoration is varied and shows great skill in the combination of the symbolic elements at the command of the artist. The designs are in deep, often lustrous, black, and are well drawn. The center of the best Tularosa art was in the great pueblos at the lower end of the valley, while that of the smaller pueblos on the terraces about the valley is only of average quality. In the larger pueblos mentioned excellence was not confined to the gray ware, but all classes partook of the quality of craftsmanship. The brown ware, which is charac- teristic of the whole vast region treated in this paper, here also reaches its acme. No finer shapes or coiling can be found anywhere in the Southwest. The proportion of red ware also is slightly higher than in the pueblos where gray ware is prevalent, and this also is ex- cellent in design and finish. GRAY WARE OF APACHE CREEK. The gray ware of Apache Creek is of better quality and finish than that of Blue River, but not equal to that of the Tularosa, with which, however, it is closely affiliated. The paste is coarse, usually almost lead color, but sometimes white. However, the paste was always washed with a kaolin white upon which the designs were drawn. The forms are commonly vases with curved handles or animal handles, bowls, canteens, and a few aberrant shapes. (See pi. 8, fig. 3.) No animal forms were secured. The decoration is in black; sometimes shading to dark brown, the patterns usually dual, but sometimes linear. The motifs are the customary interlocking frets so widely diffused on gray ware. The bowls have exterior decorations, which is somewhat unusual on gray ware. Sometimes this .band of decoration is continuous or separate design units. The smaller bowls frequently have a curved handle at one side. The neck of one of the vases is ornamented with numer- ous stars. Frequently the ware is crackled. The percentage of gray ware is small compared with that of the brown and red. RED WARE OF BLUE RIVER. The finds taken from the Martin Ruin at Blue contain a fair num- ber of specimens of red pottery in most respects like that encountered in the ruins where gray ware preponderates. The red ware , is in every respect like the gray, except as to the surface treatment. The paste is found to be the same, a granular mass varying from a dark to a light shade of gray, but sometimes being as yellow as that em- ployed in the ancient Hopi pottery. The examination of a section of the pottery shows that the surface has been covered with a wash of clay, usually burning to a deep, pleasing red, but sometimes verg- 44 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. ing to a yellow brown. It may be said, however, that the individual specimens of red ware, for instance the bowls, are much larger than any specimens of gray ware which have been found in the ruin. The specimens are also of more elegant form and show no effects of warping in the fire. The common form is a deep, incurving bowl (pi. 10, fig. 3), usually of large size, following in this respect the brown bowls. Yases with animal and loop handles; canteen or globular bottle shapes, and bird- form vases comprise the list of shapes. (PL 10, 1 and 2, Cat. No. 702, 697; Gates Coll.) The decoration of the interior, except in one case, is invariably in black, the designs being almost altogether dual. Many of the bowls have exterior terrace and volute designs in white lines; one speci- men which has a white interior decoration has a series of conven- tional birds painted on the exterior. Another has an individual diamond-shape pattern in black outlined in white. Still another has conventional birds applied in low-relief in red on a yellowish ground. The designs are almost invariably in fours. One excellent specimen is decorated with the four-bird convention in a circular field out- lined by hachure and in the center of the bottom the same design re- peated, but the birds mounted at the corners of the square are sup- plied with beaks and tails. The specimen is a remarkable example of the juxtaposition of geometric and realistic design. (See fig. 85.) A small bird-form vase in the collection is of excellent workmanship and is a good example of the skill of the pottery maker and deco- rator. The design upon it represents the dual interlocking birds, four in number, centering over the breast, the two wings and the tail. The handle at the neck is the head of an animal. In some cases it is difficult to separate the soft brown ware which at times has been washed with red, from the red ware which has been described. It may also be said that the red vessels have their counterparts in ancient sites widely separated from the ruins on Blue River. Both red and gray pottery have taken part in an extended distribution over the Southwest west of the Rio Grande and north of the Gila. BED WAKE OF APACHE CREEK. Some red ware has been found at Apache Creek and one specimen from the N. H. Ranch, presented by Mrs. Montague Stevens, has a pattern of exceptional interest, apparently representing four sun shields. This specimen is also of hard paste washed with red, the design being in black. (See fig. 91.) RED WARE OF TULAROSA RIVER. In the Delgar Ruins on the Tularosa River some red ware has been secured. This ware is quite as well decorated as the gray, but owing U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 10 Red Ware from Blue River. For explanation of flate see page 44. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 11 Pottery Vases and Bowls from Fort Bayard, New Mexico. For explanation of plate see page 45. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 45 to its fragility, not many whole specimens were taken out. It is also of gray paste, but more granular than usual, probably due to the character of the material employed. POTTERY OF UPPER MIMBRES. The Museum was fortunate in securing from Mrs. W. O. Owen a small collection of pottery taken from ruins at Fort Bayard. This collection consists principally of the gray type, but having a different character from any such ware in the Southwest. The paste is in no case the clear white or gray of some other locali- ties, but is rather a brown body of somewhat fragile texture which has been covered with a wash of white. The pigment used in decoration bums to a beautiful red brown, due perhaps to the presence of yellow ocher in the iron ore employed for paint. The shapes are bowls somewhat conical in form (pi. 11, figs. 6 and 7), occasionally with flaring rim and usually distorted in firing (fig. 5) ; globose bowls (fig. 3) ; pear- formed vases with two perforated lugs (fig. 2) ; flattened vases of fine coiled work with pairs of spur projections around the shoulder (fig. 1) , and the ordinary coiled vases existing generally in the region (fig. 4). The globose bowl (fig. 3) (Cat. No. 178822, U.S.N.M.) is washed on the upper portion only. No decorations appear on the exterior of the bowls. The symbolism is simple and is executed in the hachure and solid color common to the gray pottery, but bands of lines are much used. There is much to connect this pottery with the Casa Grandes region of Chihuahua. It is said that bowls have been found in these ruins at Fort Bayard which contain zooic designs in the circular field at the bottom. POTTERY OF BEAR CREEK CAVE. Illustrations of ware deposited as offerings are shown in figures 278 to 316, pages 117-122. They are of plain brown ware, sometimes washed red; coiled ware; and were decorated with water color, but no gray or pure red pottery vessels were found, indicating either a ceremonial proscription as to the class of ware to be used for offer- ings, or the absence of other types of pottery among the worshippers. POTTERY OF TULAROSA CAVE. The pottery and pottery fragments found in the Tularosa Cave are of rude ware, and it appears that the Indians here did not possess any of the finer vessels common in the ruins a few miles lower down the river. The ware from the cave, however, is of the region and consists of plain brown, scored coil, and some that may be classed with gray type, but very rude, prevalent in the order named. A 46 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. curious fragment of a vessel molded in a basket, unburnt, and hav- ing the paste mixed with bark (see pi. 6, fig. 6) was found in the cave. POTTERY DESIGNS. The designs on the bowls commonly contain four elements based on the world quarters, the bottom area usually being circular and Fig. 80. — Design from bottom of a bowl from Blue. blank. Designs, however, are met with based on three, five, and six elements. Only one bowl bearing an isolated design on the Fig. 81. — Serpent effigy vase (front view) from Blue. bottom area was collected (fig. 80, Cat. No. 245518, U.S.N.M., Blue Biver), and none of the gray bowls have exterior decorations. The designs, in order of frequency, are combined hatched and solid color, solid color, and checker, two cases of the latter being noticed. The Fig. 82. — Serpent effigy vase (back view) from Blue. Fig. 83. — Serpent effigy vase (shoul- der view) from Blue. dipper follows the bowl in the quadrate designs. The vases are usually decorated around the body with a repeat design of interlock- ing frets. Those pieces, which are decorated with the interlocking volutes, are invariably in fours. The bird and animal forms are decorated in consonance with the animal topography. (See figs. 81, 82, 83.) The patterns on the rims are almost invariably stepped. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 47 although sometimes a running design or a design in sections is ap- plied. The edge of both bowls and vases is frequently decorated with spots or hyphenlike figures. The handles of vases, if plain, have geometrical figures ; if animal, are decorated accordingly. Occasionally the decoration on a plain handle indicates that a de- graded animal form is present. Figures 81, 82, and 83 are of a re- markable vessel, representing the great plumed serpent, whose my- thology extends among so many different tribes. Great care has been exerted in forming and decorating this vessel. The back of the ser- pent bears designs which embrace lightning, snake, and feather sym- bols, but the shoulder and tail patterns have an arrangement that is strange and appear to convey a hidden meaning. The head bears unique designs, of which the plume passing between the low horns is recognizable. The neck has a fret made up of lightning-snake and snake motives and the handle bears cloud symbols. Fragments of a similar effigy vessel have been found in the great ceremonial kiva of Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico, 1 and form one of several connecting links between that re- gion and the Gila-Salt region. (Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245540, U.S.N.M.) Another remarkable specimen (fig. 84) is ornamented with two snakes coiled about the interior. One snake is black and the other is patterned with diagonal lines, as though to represent the markings of the snake. The tails of these snakes begin at the rim and the heads are brought together at the center of the bottom, which is unusual, the customary method being to oppose and interlock such figures. The head is arrow-shaped, in solid black, having in the center a white area with a black dot for the eye. The exterior lead color surface is spotted with kaolin, evidently put on with the finger. This spotting does not cover the entire surface, a wedge-shaped clear space being left on one side. This bowl was for ceremonial use. (Cat. No. 231990, U.S.N.M., Spur Ranch Cienaga.) Figure 85 shows circles inclosing a four-bird world quarter conven- tion on a gradined background. In the center, as though interpreting the design, are four birds perched on angles of a square. (See Bird Circuit Symbolism, p. 103.) The bowl is bright red and well finished. Fig. 84. — Snake design from bowl from Spur Ranch. 1 Work cited on p. 50. 48 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The design shows a hesitancy in the drawing of the inclination of the gradines. (Blue, Arizona, Cat, No. 245545, U.S.N.M.) Figure 86 is from a well-made bowl, the walls being quite thin. The decoration is in dual pattern, the gradined element being painted Fig. 85. — Bird design on bowl from Fig. 86. — Design on bowl from Spur Blue. Ranch. in purple. The color appears to be a thin transparent wash which does not interfere with the hatched lines. In the circular field in the bottom of the bowl is a four-bird convention. The specimen is from the Sour Banch Cienaga, near Luna, New Mexico. (Cat. No. 232002, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 87. — Design from a bowl from Fig. 88. — Design on vase from Tularosa River. San Francisco River. A good design (fig. 87) is taken from a bowl found on the Tula- rosa Biver by Henry Hales. (Cat. No. 155151, U.S.N.M.) The motives are interlocking birds in three pairs, producing a design full of movement, and with a pleasing harmony in the relation of the white and black elements, worthy of the artists of the J apanese mon or crests. A design of superior order is shown in figure 88, which ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 49 Fig. 89. — Designs from bowl from Blue. represents a vase with animal handle from the upper San Francisco Eiver in New Mexico, collected by E. W. Nelson. (Cat. No. 109773, U.S.N.M.) The design is in four, applied diagonally with great skill to the globular surface, and each section is in four bands of pairs of birds with interlocking bills. The backs of the birds are denticu- lated, giving the white space be- tween the pairs a zigzag effect. This is also carried along the upper margin of each gore, and in the angle is a hooked figure. The neck of the vase is decorated with a fret which is an evolution of the bird pair motive. The con- fidence and mastery with which this complicated and difficult de- sign is placed on the vessel is surprising. Figure 89 shows a design in three lobes outlined with black and terminating in three whorls, the background decorated with black and white checker diminishing in size toward the center. This is the conventional plumage motive, and it is possible that the design is a three-bird convention. From a bowl, Blue, Arizona. (Cat. No. 245508, U.S.N.M.) Figure 90 is a design taken from a dipper collected on the Tularosa Eiver, New Mexico, by Henry Hales (Cat. No. 155157, U.S.N.M.), and is a very interesting example of the har- monizing of bird motives in an irregular space. Figure 91 is from a beautiful red bowl of superior form and finish. The design, of which one repeat is given, has not been met with before and appears to be unique. The circular designs may be sun shields with feathers. (Apache Creek, Cat. No. 232083, U.S.N.M. Gift of Mrs. Montague Stevens.) Another excellent specimen is in the form Fig. 90 —Design from a dip- G f a vase w ith low body and long tubular per from Tularosa River. . . , . . , , neck, to which is attached a handle. Ihe bottom is punched upward. The decoration is in dual designs well executed. The paste of this vessel is fine, gray in color, and not crackled. (Spur Eanch, Cienaga, Cat. No. 232001, U.S.N.M. 14278°— Bull. 87—14 5 50 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. (pi. 9, fig. 1) .) The specimen is similar to those from Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico, discovered by George Pepper, of the Hyde expedition. 1 Figure 92, bird design in dual treatment, forming volutes full of movement. The design is simple, owing, perhaps, to the form and area of the space to be covered, and this exigency has had as much to do with the simplification and conventionalization of designs as any other cause. (From a bowl found at Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245524, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 91. — Design from a red bowl from Apache Creek. Figure 93, bird design, interpreted in cloud and rain forms, in solid black and gradined figures (dual treatment). The triangular figures above are feathers (wings). It is probable that the idea here is a combination of the bird and feathered serpent, the latter being represented by the black element of the volutes. (From a vase, Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245518, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 92. — Bird design from a bowl from Blue. Fig. 93. — Bird design from a vase from Blue. Figure 94 is a more complicated design, made up of the dual inter- locking bird frets running in two series. The result is mixed and less artistic than usual. (From a vase, Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245522, U.S.N.M.) Figure 95, a terrace design entirely in black, the terraces repre- senting the interlocking birds, and in the triangle above is appar- ently a symbol representing a bird, which occurs also in other de- signs. As the design is applied to the body of the vase, the lower 1 Exploration of a Burial Room in Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico. Putnam Anniversary Volume of Anthropological Essays, New York, 1909, pi. Ill, p. 206. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 51 margin is irregular, the sections of the design forming gores. This was evidently intended as an artistic treatment of the border, as in point lace. (From a vase, Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 244527, U.S.N.M.) Figure 96, a similar de- sign, but less complicated, in which the interlocking bird elements are arranged in a maze pattern and the triangles carry the bird symbol. This pleasing de- sign is from a vase from the Tularosa River. (Col- lected by Henry Hales, Cat. No. 155124, U.S.N.M.) Figure 97, a dual design in which the original elements are very much simplified, being merely zigzag. The key, however of the Fig. 95. — Bird terrace design from a vase Fig. 96. — Design from a vase from from Blue. Tularosa River. design lies in the bird symbol in the pendent triangles occurring in several of the illustrations. Attention is called to an obvious error in the position of one of the bird symbols on the right of the design and also a curious diversity in the drawing of the gra- dines in the lower zig- zag. (From a vase from the Tularosa River, New Mexico. Collected by E. W. Nelson, Cat. No. 115829, U.S.N.M.) Figure 98 is from the border around the neck of the above vase and the design consists of an arrangement of the bird symbol. Fig. 94. — Bird fret from a vase from Blue. beautified by the addition of the wings and tails This design is peculiarly interesting, because it is to the meaning of these inter- locking volutes. (Alma, New Mexico. Collected by E. W. Nel- son, Cat. No. 109778, U.S.N.M.) Figure 102. This design is easily seen to be the interlocking bird pattern, and it also presents an- other form of the bird symbol in the triangular areas above and be- low. From a vase from the Tula- rosa River. (Collected by Henry U.S.N.M.) of the birds. i definite key Fig. 102. — Design from a vase from Tularosa River. Hales, Cat. No. 155127, 52 BULLETIN Si, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Figure 99, a somewhat similar arrangement of the bird symbols, but different from the latter in being connected, forming a pleasing Fig. 101. — Design from a bird-form vase from San Francisco River. Fig. 98. — Design from the neck of a vase from Tularosa River. Fig. 99. — Design from a bird-form vase from San Francisco River. fret. The design is from a bird-form vessel from the San Francisco River at Alma, New Mexico. Collected by E. W. Nelson, Cat. No. 109779, U.S.N.M. Figure 100. In this is shown a square treatment of the bird de- sign. (From a vase from Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245518, Fig. 100. — Design from a vase from U.S.N.M.) Blue - Figure 101, from a bird- form vase is the most spirited design that has been found in this region. It consists of volutes which are birds, and is strengthened and ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 53 Figure 103 shows the same design repeated on the same vessel, this section of it being applied to the rim. The bird symbol is gradined Fig. 103. -Design from a vase from Tularosa River. Fig. 104. — Design from a vase from Spur Ranch. and repeated in black, slightly different in form, below. (Tularosa River, New Mexico. Collected by Henry Hales, Cat. No. 155127, U.S.N.M.) Figure 104. This shows a very simplified treatment of the bird figures in dual design and was applied to the long, tubular neck of a vase from Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico, Cat. No. 232001, U.S.N.M. Figure 105. This design oc- curs somewhat frequently on gray pottery of this region. It appears to be a design based upon birds, but does not follow either the con- ventional or artistic rules of such designs. It may be de- scribed as a rain - and - cloud design. (From a vase, Apache Creek, Tularosa River, New Mexico, Cat. No. 245772, U.S.N.M.) Figure 106. This pleas- ing and artistic design is based upon four birds, the key symbol of which oc- curs in the center of the gradine squares. For a very interesting working out of this design, see figure 85. (From body of vase, upper San Francisco River, New Mexico. Collected by E. W. Nelson, Cat. No. 114870, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 105. — Design from a vase from Apache Crbek. Fig. 106. — Design from a vase from San Francisco River. 54 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Figure 107. This design in solid black represents two birds in ter- race form, the zigzag line representing the running element of the design. The broad area of the terrace contains modifications of the bird symbol. (From the interior of a bowl, Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. Figure 108. This design, which is a section of that covering a whole vase, ap- parently is intended to show a succession of zigzags formed by alternate opposed series in solid black and gradine. (Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico, Cat. No. 231987, U.S.N.M.) Figure 109. A similar de- Fig. 107. — Design from a bowl from Blue. . 0 , sign is found on the rim of a vase (fig. 104), and in it the zigzag line is manifestly important. The triangular spaces show the simplest form of the bird symbol. (Spur Ranch, Luna, New Mexico, Cat. No. 232001, U.S.N.M.) Figure 110. Another design shows a pair of zigzag lines treated very much as the white line decorations on the red bowls from the Blue River. This is from the rim of a vase found at Fort Bayard, New Mexico, by Mrs. W. O. Owen, Cat. No. 178826, U.S.N.M. Figure 111. This is a design simplified for application to the handle of a dipper. It appar- ently represents a succession of opposing black and gradine bird symbols whose opposition forms a zigzag. The denticulation on the margin of the triangles is ap- parently a feather convention. (Tularosa River, New Mexico. Collected by H. Hales, Cat. No. 155158, U.S.N.M.) Figure 112, design from the handle of the dipper previously mentioned. So far as is known the design is unique and it is difficult to assign its meaning. It is evidently a clipped or abbreviated design suited to the narrow space it must occupy, and appears to be the bird-rain triangular symbol arranged centrally, instead of in zigzag. Fig. 108.- -Design from a yase from Spur Ranch. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 55 Figure 113. This design is from the rim of a globular vase, and is therefore abbreviated, and does not seem to follow the ordinary rules Fig. 109. — Design from a vase from Fig. 110. — Design from a vase from Fort Spur Ranch. Bayard. to which designs of birds adhere. It is, however, a bird convention. (Tularosa Kiver, New Mexico. Collected by Henry Hales, Cat. No. 155124, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 111. — Design from the handle of a dipper from Tularosa River. Figure 114. This design is from the breast of a bird-shape vase and belongs to the class of zooic topographical designs which may be Fig. 112. — Design from the handle of a dipper from Tularosa River. observed on a number of figures in this report. These are very inter- esting and appear to be related in some way, not only to the repre- sentation of the topography of this portion of the bird, but to convey an idea of the separate entity of these parts. (Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245535, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 113. — Design from the rim of a vase Fig. 114. — Design from a bird-shaped from Tularosa River. vase from Blue. Figure 115. This is one of the designs that appear rarely without combination. It is from a bird-shaped vase and apparently repre- sents plumage. (Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245535, U.S.N.M.) Figure 116. This is an independent design occuring on a hard- burnt bowl of red ware. It resembles some of the designs in white 56 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fig. 115. — Design from a bird-shafed vase from Blue. line occurring on the soft red bowls (see fig. 125). (Blue, Arizona, Cat. No. 245546, U.S.N.M.) WHITE-LINE DESIGNS OF BLUE RIVER. The designs drawn in white lines on the red-brown bowls of upper Blue River form a unique series. But two specimens among the white-line pottery bear recog- nizable animal designs. One of these from a bowl (Cat. No. 245639, U.S.N.M.) is a most in- teresting convention of the moun- tain lion whose figure is reduced to straight lines and equal spacing. (Fig. 117.) The grouping of the feet as if in perspective and the convention of the head are note- worthy, and these parts are reduced to design units which would form the key to further elaborations of this motive in frets. Another bowl (Cat. No. 245553, U.S.N.M.) has a series of five conventional birds drawn in white encircling the exterior rim (fig. 118). The cus- tomary designs consist of run- ning frets of two or three lines alternately straight and waved (figs. 119, 120) or stepped (fig. 121) ; a running one-line maze (fig. 122) ; a terminating trape- zoid fret (snake) (fig. 123) ; a swastika fret with waved termi- nals in a trapezoid figure sur- rounded with a waved border (fig. 124) ; a key swastika maze in which the circumscribing lines enter forming interlocking keys (bird) (fig. 125) ; and a swastika with stepped terminals inclosed in trapezoid surrounded with a zigzag border (bird) (fig. 126). Some of the designs are rude (fig. 127), but usually the trapezoid compositions are elaborate and drawn with accuracy. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 57 118. Figs. 118-124. — Designs from bowls from Blue. 58 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. WOOD. Fig. 125. — Design from a bowl from Blue. In this region the chief demand for large masses of wood was for house beams, and whenever possible straight-growing trees were selected, the cottonwood wherever it was to be had answering the purpose in most cases, formerly as at present. The most available tree in the mountains was the pine, the felling of which offered little difficulty when fire was used. The cliff -dwellings of the Gila- Salt drainage were of one story, the roof being formed by the over- hang of the rock, and for this rea- son the beams, poles, and masses of branches, grass, etc., of the open-air pueblos were not always required. Occasionally, however, a rough post of juniper, quite irregular in shape, is planted in a wall. Smaller wands and poles for roof structures, etc., were cut along the streams, the method apparently being to bend over the sapling and scrape and saw with a sharp edge spall or chipped implement, the cutting being expedited by the straining of the wood fibers at the point of bending. This process was operated on the other side of the sapling which could then be twisted or worked apart. Butts of rods remaining in the caves seem to indicate this method of work. The twigs were removed from the rods intended for basket rims and saplings were cut for bows, etc., by means of the stone knife, and the rods were subsequently ground down on abrading stones, but rarely leveled, the usual result being rounded projections over the insertions of the twigs, and, in the case of the bow, giving fig. 127 —design from a bowl from blue, greater strength and durability. A material of the greatest usefulness was found in the flowering stalks of yucca, dasylirion, and agave, which are light, strong, and of good length, especially the agave flower stalk. The dasylirion Fig. 126. — Design from a bowl from Blue. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 12 Bent Wood Rings and Wooden Hook. For explanation of plate see page 59. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 59 and agave stems could be readily split, forming miniature boards, which were used in preparing different offerings. (See figs. 218- 221.) Many pieces of the flowering stalk, split in halves as well as whole pieces, were found in Tularosa Cave. Occasionally in the Tularosa Cave small bundles of basket splints were found. These retain the inner bark on one side and, like those of Canyon del Muerto and Mesa Verde, were stripped from slender, freshly cut rods of some tough fissile wood. The Tularosa splints are smoothly finished on the w y ood side, and the marks show that they were laid on a flat surface and finished with a fine-grain stone. A method quite common in this region of reducing a branch to the equivalent of a rope was by twisting the wood until it became soft, in the manner of the old English fagot gatherer, and many of the twisted and looped branches from the Tularosa Cave resemble fagot ties. From Lower Johnson Cave, Blue River, Arizona, there is in the collection a rude hook, 9 inches long and 4J inches wide (fig. 128), made by bending a tough green branch on itself to the shape of a hook and tying parts together with strips of yucca. It was prob- ably used for lowering or drawing up things over the cliff which falls almost sheer for many feet below the mouth of the cave. (Cat. No. 246197, U.S.N.M.) Bending wood by heat was known, and a number of the examples of crooks show traces of fire. (See pi. 19.) Examples of bent wood and a hook are shown on plate 12. Figure 1 is a hook showing rude work, probably used as a wall hanger in the house (Cat. No. 246451, U.S.N.M.) ; figure 2 is a hoop crossed with a rude netting of yucca splints, probably for suspending food or perishable objects from the ceiling away from rodents. (Cat. No. 2159, U.S.N.M., from a cave on upper Eagle Creek, Arizona.) Figures 8, 4, 5, 6 are hoops of yucca and branches lashed and wound with yucca. (Cat. Nos. 246364, 2156, 2153, and 246365, U.S.N.M., Tularosa Cave and Eagle Creek.) Sometimes rings of bark were removed from rods alternately, the purpose seemingly being that of ornamentation. Gathering firewood appears to have been accomplished by breaking branches from juniper trees by means of a large stone maul. On several occasions these large mauls have been found in juniper groves away from villages, and as the wood of this tree is very brittle, the connection of this implement with wood gathering is probable. Blub River. 60 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The most numerous and the best examples showing the process of cutting wood were found in the Tularosa Cave. The rejected scraps of sticks, with a bunch of shavings at one end, are mute testimonies of the manner in which the cutting was done. In sectioning a stick of tough w r ood the workman, with a suitable sharp stone flake or hafted knife, pared off strips by scraping pressure, fol- lowing the direction of the grain, until a slender spindle was left, which could be easily broken without slivering. (Figs. 129, 130, Cat. No. 246452, U.S.N.M.) In most cases a spindle end L was desired, as in pah os and bows, for example. A well- finished wooden pin, the shavings Fig. 129. — Example of sec- tioning wood from Tula- rosa Cave. left at the upper end and compressed by driving the pin, is shown. (Fig. 131, Cat. No. 246453, U.S.N.M.) In short- grain, brittle wood like juniper, section- ing- was done by saw- ing. (Fig. 132, a, b, Cat. No. 246453, U.S.N.M.) Short cylinders were made by scraping as described, the shavings being later removed from the blunt end ; the stick was then reversed and the same process followed with regard to the other end, the splinters and rough- ness cut away with a flint, and the ends rubbed smooth on coarse stone. (Figs. 133, 134, 135, Cat. No. 246449, U.S.N.M.) In what appears to be the bunt head for a throwing shaft, such as are de- scribed by George Pepper, from Pueblo Bonito, the spindle end remains. (Fig. 136, Cat. No. 246449, U.S.N.M.) A small block (fig. 137 &, &), probably a die used in a game, shows ex- Fig. 130. — Example of sec- tioning wood from Tula- rosa Cave. I Fig. 131. — Wooden pin from Tula- rosa Cave. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 61 Fig. 132.- Sawing on brittle wood from Tula- rosa Cave. tremely neat finish and has been split from its fellow. Reducing wood to thin strips by splitting was apparently not practiced at the Tularosa Cave, but the offer- ings at the Bear Creek Cave, described on page 105, show that the practice was com- mon among the worshippers there. Beyond the hafted stone knives or dart heads (fig. 138, Cat. No. 246537, U.S.N.M., 51 inches long, blade 1J inches long) no formal tools for woodworking are found in the Tularosa Cave, but many hand spalls of chal- cedony and basalt, some of which are chipped along one edge, occur in the debris. A most effective knife-saw, oblong-oval in shape with one straight edge serrated or smooth, is common over a great area on the southern Arizona mountain slope. A specimen in the collec- tion of P. G. Gates, found in the upper waters of the Salt River in the San Carlos Reserve, was bound up with a piece of wood which the saw had been used in cutting and deposited with a burial in a cave. This inter- esting specimen corroborates the use of the serrated flake as a wood- working tool. (See figs. 28-33.) No evidences of drilling wood were found in this locality, but examples 133. 134. 135. Figs. 133-135. — Cylindrical blocks from Tula- rosa Cave. Fig. 136. — Bunt head for throwdart from Tularosa Cave. Fig. 137. — Wooden die from Tularosa Cave. are noted from Blue River. Pretty generally fire-pointed sticks occur in the southern caves, but have no special significance, as 62 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. the custom of fire hardening wood is well-nigh universal. Similarly, the finishing and shaping wood by means of coarse-grained stone is observed here and stones bearing grooves both effecting the rubbing of rods and formed in the process are rela- tively frequent (see fig. IT) and may often be seen on stones in places near habitations. The grooved stones used for finishing arrow fore- shafts or other slender rods are simple com- pared with the elaborated specimens from the Gila Valley. 1 There is shown in figure 139, an interest- ing specimen worked from a stick by scraping and finished by rubbing, a process of forming wood practiced by the Hopi who frequently accomplish the work by attrition with gritty stone alone. This is the head portion of a long roundel staff and is painted in lively colors of red, yellow, green, and black. (Cat. No. 4562, U.S.N.M., cave near Silver City, New Mexico. Length, 11 inches; diameter, | inch.) A few examples of carving in wood from this region may be seen in figures 211 to 213. They are remark- able instances of work with stone tools. Tools of wood which ex- plain some of the methods of wood working and which are also interesting as implements were found in greatest num- Examples of these are shown on plate 13 ; figure 1 is a digging stick, one end of which has been reduced in size by the removal of a sliver, sharpened by rubbing on a stone and pol- ished by use. It is 20 inches long (Cat. No. 246456, U.S.N.M.) ; 2 is a short piece of split wood burnt at one end and probably used as a fire tender (Cat. No. 246458, U.S.N.M.) ; 3 is the end of a wooden im- plement very smoothly worn (Cat. No. 246458(2, U.S.N.M.) ; 4 is a complete digging stick ground comparatively thin at the work- ft Fig. 138. — Stone knife or DART HEAD FROM TULA- rosa Cave. ber in Tularosa cave. Fig. 139. — Roundel rod from Silver CitYj New Mex- ico. 1 Two Summers’ Work in Pueblo Ruins, 22d Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, p. 182. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 13 Digging Sticks and Fire-Sharpened Wooden Implements. For explanation of plate see page 62. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 14 Worked Wood and Bark and Basketry Manikin. For explanation of plate see page 63 ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 63 ing end, the knots and roughness of the branch being planed down by rubbing on a stone, as in other specimens; length, 28-J inches (Cat. No. 246456(2, U.S.N.M.) ; 5, 6, and 7 are digging sticks worn down by use and subsequently employed as fire tenders or other temporary purposes. Plate 14 contains two pieces of wood working, one (fig. 1) a shovellike implement of bark and the other (fig. 2) a shell of wood from a cottonwood tree showing plainly the marks of a stone Fig. 140. — Examples of arrow construction from Blue River. excavating tool (Cat. Nos. 246199, 246205, U.S.N.M.), lower cave at Johnson’s Blue Biver. The remaining figures are fragments of a basketry image found in the same cave. (Cat. No. 246195, U.S.N.M.) ARROW MAKING. The shafts are of reed, whose only preparation was the smoothing of the joints by removal of slight inequalities on the leaf scar. The 64 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. weak reed tube offers very unstable material for the nock, and is liable to be torn by the recoil or pressure of the bow string. This was met by fitting a rod of even size in the tube (fig. 140 a , 6), and the rod was held by the sinew lashing engaging one extremity of the feathering. Frequently an extra sinew winding was applied (fig. 140 Cj e ) , which constricted the arrow and gave an excellent purchase for the fingers. The feathering is usually applied near the nock end, as in < 2 , 5, and d , but sometimes removed further up the shaft as in c. The feather strips are not glued to the shaft, and appear to have been sprung or bowed in the specimens on which the feathering has sur- vived. A number of arrows of the best workmanship show that the method of applying the feathering was first to bind the forward end of the strips under the sinew, proceed with the lower sinew wrapping for a short distance, then bind the lower end of the feathers in and continue the sinew to the nock. (Fig. 140 e.) The sinew was applied with great neatness and skill. The foreshafts are of hard- wood, finished with remarkable care and exactness, tapering grad- ually from the line of junction with the shaft to the point and tapering more abruptly to the lower end. Three types of inser- tion of the foreshaft are observed. In the first (fig. 141, a, 5), it is not set so deeply, and the crown of the bulge occurs a little above the junction with the shaft, which therefore shows a slight constriction at this point. The sinew bind- ing is applied close below the junction of the parts. In the second (fig. 141 c, d), the foreshaft is set deeply, and a slight swell is formed in the shaft. The sinew encircles the shaft some distance below the insertion of the foreshaft. In the third (fig. 141, e , /), the foreshaft is cut away, forming a collar, and the portion to be inserted in the shaft tapered to a rather slender spindle. The collar is gauged to the thickness of the walls of the reed, and when the parts are brought together the junction is perfect, and the caliber of the arrow shaft and foreshaft equal, the sinew wrapping altering it very little. This joinery is surprisingly neat, accurate, and strong, and passes the most rigid inspection. The work would excite admiration were the finest tools for its execution in the hands of the artisan ; it is known, Fig. 141 . — Examples of fitting arrow FORESHAFTS FROM BLUE RlVER. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 65 however, that no tools worthy of the name were available to the aboriginal fieteher. The setting of the arrowpoint was accomplished by fixing it with sinew in the notch cut at the end of the foreshaft (fig. 142 a, &), the Fig. 142. — Examples of setting arrow points from Blue River. methods being commonly to throw a figure 8 lashing over the notches of the point (fig. 142, c, d , 6, y, A, i, j) and sometimes to envelop the tangs in the sinew wrapping (fig. 142 /). In smooth edge triangular points (fig. 142 j) the lashing was thrown high on the sides to et a purchase for the sinew. 14278°— Bull. 87—14 6 66 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. It is common to find in the cave debris the points retaining the sinew lashing, and the intention probably was for the arrowhead to stay in the wound. The foreshaft of many of the arrows offered in the caves were not nocked for the arrow point. In all other respects they are effective arrows, and they may have been used without the- points for hunting (fig. 143 a). One specimen (fig. 143 b) has a barb which suggests that other plain foreshafts may have been thus equipped. There were found sev- eral bunt-head arrows (fig. 143 i t) • -i n 'j-j.CS T) i OF ARROW FROM Blue River and irom one site at Spur Ranch are Blue River< shown on plate 15. They are made of the flower- ing stalk of the yucca, and are identical, except in material, with those used at present by the Southwestern Indians. On the right of the plate is a large mass of decayed wood from the lower cave at Johnson’s, Blue River, which was used as a slow-match. (Cat. No. 246200, U.S.N.M.) TEXTILES. In point of usefulness the yucca and allied plants yield to no other vegetation of the region, and especially as primitive tying material their value was very great. These plants satisfied the equation on Fig. 143. — Plain, bunt, AND BARBED ARROWS from Blue River. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 87 PL. 15 Fire-Making Apparatus and Slow Wood. For explanation of plate see page 66. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 67 the textile side of civilization, being adequate to all uses from the strip of natural leaf, through cord, to finished fabrics. 1 KNOTS IN YUCCA STRIPS. Innumerable knots tied in strips of yucca and cord were found in the Tularosa and Bear Creek caves. They are simple, and no exam- ples show particular inventiveness in the joining of materials, except the ends of the carrying bands. The overhand knot (fig. 145 a) is com- mon ; a knot for securing a strip around a stick consists of the ordinary knot formed by two half hitches, (fig. 14 5 b.) The square knot shown in obverse and re- verse (fig. 145, c y d) was often used, and was effective in the yucca leaf, which has a tend- ency to shear un- less the paren- chyma is worked out of the fiber. A similar knot is shown at 6, / (fig. 145). The pack cord knots are very interesting and ingenious and likewise of extraordinary strength (fig. 145 g, h). They were formed by taking two leaves of yucca, laying them butt to point one over the other, bending up the end of one and securing it with a tie. A wooden toggle was placed in the bend, the leaves pierced above the peg and strong cords rove through and around the sections, the method being to loop the cord over the standing part above the peg, bring the ends around the sides and draw them 1 The Palm and Agave as Culture Plants. Compte Rendu du Congrbs International des Americanistes, XV Sess., Quebec, 1906, vol. 1, p. 215-221. 68 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. through the hole, one cord above and one below the horizontal part of the loop. (Fig. 145 g , A, side and back view.) An exceptionally strong lashing of this sort (fig. 146 b) is made with braided cord, the under leaf is braided at the end, and the thong is wound about the cord. Another lashing is made with a hank of untwisted fiber secured to a yucca leaf bent over the toggle. (Fig. 146 c.) The specimens indicate that heavy back loads were carried in a carrying frame, no examples of which have survived, but a model placed in the Bear Creek Cave shrine (see fig. 318) may be of the form used on the Tularosa. On the other hand, the pack may have been merely se- cured with cord or smaller burdens held fixed in a pouch construction made by tying yucca strips in a manner re- sembling network, specimens of which were found both on the Tularosa and Blue B/ivers. True network, how T ever, appears not to have been known by the peoples of this region. CORD. The surprising variety of cord found in the debris of this cave gives an idea of the comprehensive value that this first element of the textile industry had to the ancients of the Tula- rosa. The commonest kind of cord here is a thick, very linty, two-strand, not hard-twisted cord, which appears to be of shredded yucca fiber. It is gener- ally of natural color, but is sometimes rubbed red Fig. 146. — Lashings of yucca strips from Tularosa with ocher, and was used Cavb ' almost exclusively for the application of feathers (see fig. 148), the cords so overlaid being combined to form garments, etc., resembling the twisted fur strip blankets of the Pueblos, Utes, Californian, and other Indians. A second variety is a very strong, clean cord made from yucca, dasylirion, and like long, wiry fiber, which now has aged to yellow brown and dark brown. It was twisted by hand and used for bow- strings and for purposes where very strong cord was needed. It is sometimes thick like small rope and is two-ply, three-ply, two-ply laid up, braided and sometimes two braids laid up to form cord. Cord of this character was most useful. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 69 Bark cord, apparently of walnut or natural bark, dyed, was made and had a limited use as a bundle to be placed beneath the baby in the cradle. Cotton cord found here is coarse and of natural color or rubbed with red ocher. Cotton cords were sometimes formed into a braid at the corner of some textiles. Its common use was for loin bundles. (See fig. 158.) A few specimens of sinew cord were found, one well laid up with a loop ingeniously formed at the end. Cord made from human and other hair is comparatively rare. COED-MAKING SERIES AND PRODUCTS. Baw material for fiber was furnished by several species of yucca, several of dasylirion, and one or more of agave. These plants are abundant, and no doubt the supply available for the aboriginal cord wainer was far above his needs ; and that the extracted fiber was not regarded as of much value is shown by the amount of it in various stages of elaboration thrown away into the back of the cave. In most cases it is not possible to ascertain by the eye the particular plant from which a given mass of fiber was derived, but as most of the natural leaves and leaves in the first stages of fiber extraction are of yucca, it is presumed that this plant was the chief source of supply; and also, it produces a very good fiber in greater amount than the other plants mentioned. Yucca leaves (fig. 147 a) and the central spike of closely wrapped pale leaves were common in the debris, and with them leaves which had been coarsely shredded by pounding with a stone. (Fig. 147 b.) A “quid” (opened out for purposes of drawing) containing the entire mass of fiber in one leaf, the spine end of which has not been reduced to fiber, is shown at c. These “ quids,” which are flattened masses of roughly circular out- line, found in great numbers in the rubbish of dry-rock shelters formerly inhabited or connected with the houses of the ancient Pueblos appear to have been formed by chewing, but there is some doubt on this point, as the chewing of the dense acrid leaf would seem to require good teeth and a powerful resolution. It is probable that the leaves were boiled, pounded in a small mortar, and dried, when the parenchyma would easily fall away in small fragments and dust on rubbing the fiber between the palms. The Zuni, Mrs. M. C. Stevenson informs me, boil the yucca leaf to extract the fiber. A specimen of the cleaned, straightened fiber and a small hank twisted up for future use are shown at d and e. Two-strand (fig. 147 / and g) ; two-strand, two-ply (fig. 147 h) ; three-strand (fig. 147 i ) ; and four-strand (fig. 147 j) combine the varieties of yucca fiber cord observed, except a few braided specimens (fig. 147), the 70 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. smoother, long fiber cords, which were twisted by hand, being em- ployed for bowstrings. Much of the cord was spun from finely shredded yucca fiber by means of the spindle with a disk whorl like those used by the Pueblos, the treatment in this case being similar to that employed with cotton or other short fiber. Spindle whorls. Fig. 147. — Cord-making series from Tularosa Cave. while not common, have been recovered from the open-air ruins and caves in this locality. Cotton and bark cord is of common occurrence in the Tularosa and Bear Creek caves, but no data survive which allow us to reconstruct the series of steps used in their manufacture. A few fragments of sinew cord were recovered. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 71 From the frequent occurrence of fragments of feathered cord in the Tularosa Cave debris, one may judge that its use was quite com- mon; only one whole garment, however, was recovered. (See fig. 149.) The process of feathering cord was to strip the downy piles of the turkey (fig. 148 a , Cat. No. 246649 U.S.N.M.), and wind them spirally around a cord of fiber (fig. 148 c; at b is shown the strip un- wound), crossing the larger end under the first one or two winds and securing the smaller end under the beginning of the next winding. The finished cord is shown in figure 148 d. Strips of fur were wound in the same manner. (Fig. 148 e.) In some cases pairs of strips of fur were twisted together, forming a cord, and these cords joined by twining, as in the feathered cord ; again, one strip of fur was twisted on itself, making a neat cord. e Fig. 148. — Feather cord making from Tularosa Cave. In using very fine down or very soft hair the method was to twist it between two-cord strands whose grip would hold the material firmly. Bits of tender skin of mice, etc., were also twisted up with the strands and laid up into cord. Skin strong enough was twisted spirally, forming an element like a cord, which was made into a fabric by twining. These interesting devices by which fur can be worked like cords admits of the skins of small mammals becoming in effect one skin, but more flexible and perhaps warmer than a bear or a buffalo skin. Cords of fur and of feathers were used to form clothing, blankets, pouches, ornaments for parts of costumes, for necklaces, and probably for waist ornaments. 72 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. A jacket, Cat. No. 246430, U.S.N.M. (fig. 149), was taken from a mummied body, which was recovered at a depth of 7 feet in the debris of the Tularosa Cave. It is made up of thick feathered cord (fig. 149 a) twined together in the same fashion as the rabbit skin or feather robes of the Pueblos, Utes, California tribes, and other In- dians of the West. The texture of the garment is practically formed of one cord passed to and fro side by side until a wide band of proper length to girt the body was formed, and the twining string, which is in some cases dark blue, inclosed the upper series of loops, which Fig. 149. — Feather jacket from Tularosa Caye. were twined flatwise, forming an ornamental border. A belt of dog’s hair (see fig. 150) held the jacket in place, and a loin band consist- ing of a hank of cords dyed pink with juice of< some fruit passes be- tween the limbs and is supported on a cord which goes through the loop end and around the waist. The method of wearing the garment is shown in this figure. The jacket reminds one of the rod-armor jackets which were used extensively among the American Indians, and possibly the idea” of protection against arrow wounds, as well as the requirements of personal comfort may have been connected with its use. It is a matter of great interest and importance to be able ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 73 to recover from oblivion the vestiture of an ancient Pueblo tribe, espe- cially since in the vast majority of instances no relics of this char- acter have been preserved. WEAVING TOOLS. No weaving tools or devices have been recovered from the caves explored, which leaves the method of weaving to conjecture; but there is no reason to believe that the art was other than in a primitive stage as to tools and mechanical aids, thus depending entirely on skill of hands, as in the simple weaving apparatus of the Chilkat Indians of Canada. The heddle, which admits of throwing a shed and simplifies and expe- dites weaving, seems to have been unknown in North America prior to its introduction among the Pueblos through the Spaniards, but was known in Mexico and in the cul- tured countries of Central and South America. The Navaho received their hed- dle from the Pueblos, and to this day do not make full use of it, but raise groups of warp threads by means of the sword- batten, and never on any occasion throw the shuttle the whole breadth of the warp, even when stripes are being woven. The complete heddle lifts are known only to the Pueblo Indians. Spindle whorls, consisting of a flat disk worked from thin layers of stone or from fragments of baked pottery, are the type found in the northern part of the Pueblo region, and the ancient whorls differ in no respect from the modern Pueblo specimens except that the latter are made of hardwood and horn, and only occasionally does one of stone occur. „ In the portion of the Pueblo region nearest Mexico whorl from Camp are found lenticular whorls of pottery deeper below Verde. a median horizontal line, like the body of a top, and nearest in form to the ancient whorls of Mexico. One of these lentiform whorls was found in the cavate lodges near Camp Verde, Arizona, by Victor Mindeleff. It is of coarse brown ware, but the upper surface is somewhat smoothed. The hole for the spindle is \ inch in diameter. The whorl measures inches in diameter and f inch thick. (Fig. 151.) CORDS FROM TULAROSA CAVE. 74 BULLETIN 81, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fig. 152. — Spindle WHORL PROM NEAR Phoenix, Arizona. Fig. 153. — Spindle whorl prom Pueblo Viejo Valley, Upper Gila. Another from adobe ruins, 4J miles east of Phoenix, Arizona, collected by Dr. Edward Palmer, is of light-brown pottery having a smooth surface. It is If inches in diameter and f inch thick, the spindle hole f inch in diameter. (Cat, No. 98007, U.S.N.M., fig. 152.) The specimens found with the whorl consist of shell ornaments and a hardwood paddle-shaped implement, A crude large spindle whorl of light yellow tuff 2J inches thick, pierced with a hole f inch in diameter, was found by J. H. Carlton in the Pueblo Viejo Valley, Upper Gila River, Gra- ham County, Arizona. (Cat. No. 98633, U.S.N.M., fig. 153.) Pottery spindle whorls are also found in the region south of the headwaters of the Gila, one in the Museum coming from Solomonsville, Graham County, Arizona, collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes (Cat. No. 177552, U.S.N.M., fig. 154), If inches in diameter, hole inch. They are usually smaller than like whorls from the North, indicating the spinning of finer thread. Fine thread was produced by the spinners of this region and specimens are of somewhat fre- quent occurrence. It was made up in hanks and undyed. One of these hanks was found by Charles Solomon on Bonita Creek, near Solomonsville, Arizona. It was laid over in strands 26 inches to the turn; the yarn is about the number of small cotton parcel cord. Much of the yarn owes its preservation to charring in the house ruins, and we are thus enabled to say that thread of the fineness of No. 12 cotton was made. Specimens of six-strand cord of yucca fiber over which are wound two cords of different color, the method being to serve each color alternately, pass- ing the cord not needed underneath, were found in Bear Creek Cave. (Fig. 155, < 2 , 6.) The result imitates a strand of beads, which was evidently the idea in the mind of the man who placed the cord around a large reed cigarette as an offering. A ball of yucca fiber cord (fig. 156, method of wrapping shown at a ), formed by carefully winding the cord on a cylindrical object, Fig. 154. — Spindle whorl pro M Solomonsville, Arizona. Fig. 155. — Wound cord from Bear Creek Cave. ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 75 Fig. 156. — Ball or copp of yucca cord from Bear Creek Caye. was collected at Bear Creek Cave. The ball appears to have been dipped in some viscid substance at the time it was made, in order to hold it in shape. The ball may have been wound on a prayer-stick, or rounded rod, or on the extremity of a bow to hold the string in place as observed on the nockless bows of the East In- dies and Africa. The orifice in the ball is slightly unsym- metrical and accords with the section of the simple pointed bows of this region. BRAIDING. A primitive textile in the form of a braid of yucca was found in a cave on Eagle Creek north of Morenci, Arizona, near White Mountain Apache Reserve line by Bryan D. Horton. (Cat. No. 2151, U.S.N.M.) It is neatly braided from six strips of yucca leaf (fig. 157) and was evidently thrown away before completion. It was probably in- tended to form a portion of the carrying band. Braiding in all varieties was known by the inhabitants of this region. Fig. 157. — Braid of YUCCA FROM EAGLE Creek. Fig. 158. — Braided sash from Tularosa Cave. A sash (Cat. No. 246430, U.S.N.M.) girded the loins of a mummy buried in the debris of the Tularosa Cave and held the jacket of feather cords to the body. (Figs. 149, 150.) The material is well- 76 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. spun cord of white dog hair worked in a flat braid of 26 strands, the ends divided into three masses and braided round, the outside bundles knotted just above the commencement of the round braiding. (Fig. 158, ( a ) entire belt, (5) detail of end, (c) 10-strand cord, ( d ) braid of 18 strands, ( e ) 8-strand cord.) An ornamental fringe was collected in Bear Creek Cave, Blue River, Arizona. It consists of a square braid cord of 8 strands (fig. 159 a ) , over which is slipped a ring formed by winding cord around a core of fiber. (Fig. 159 6, c.) The ring is allowed some play, but is prevented from slipping back on the square braid by binding with fiber the two loose ends of the wrapping cord. The strands of the braid are formed into a ball at the end after the ring is slipped on. (Fig. 159 d.) A number of these finely made objects were found in a shrine, but they had been burnt away from their attachment. They probably formed the fringe of a sacred sash like those of the Zuni and Hopi which have a fringe of almost identical construction but much coarser than the specimen described. WOVEN TEXTILES. The fragmentary re- mains of ancient orna- mented textiles which oc- casionally come to light give an idea of the quality Fig. 159 . — Braided fringe from Bear Creek Cave, of the fabrics that have perished. One mantle of superb color and design found in a Grand Gulch cliff dwelling of the Mesa Verde and belonging to the American Museum of Natural History of New York shows the great taste and skill of the ancient dyers and weavers. The Zuni in 1540 had weavings that excited the admiration of Europeans. Witness the consignment by Cor- onado of various articles to Mendoza, one of which is a garment of such remarkable workmanship that he takes pains to impress upon his patron that it was not made with a needle. 1 It appears prob- able that the garment was of the fine fabric decorated with open- work pattern of which only fragments have been figured in this monograph, found by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in Casa Grande, where it was preserved by charring. (See fig. 168.) A. F. Bandelier first called attention to this remarkable textile and described it as drawnwork. The fabric is of such a character as to impress those who have found it with a feeling of surprise at its technic and quality of ornamentation, which would seem to be beyond 1 Tlie Coronado Expedition. 14th Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethnol., Pt. 1, p. 562* ANCIENT PUEBLOS OF UPPER GILA REGION. 77 Fig. 160. — Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave. the ability of the ancient tribes, so far as their culture is declared by the relics recovered from the ruins. This weaving, however, is very simple and is not more difficult than basket work, neither did it require instrumental aid beyond a rude frame. The weaving is like the early Italian bu- ratto work. Scattered through- out the debris of the Bear Creek Cave small squares of cloth with a cir- cular opening in the center, apparently finished in button- hole stitch, were somewhat fre- quently encoun- tered, but only one fragment of this cloth from which the squares mentioned had not broken away was found. (Fig. 160, Cat. No. 246123 a , U.S.N.M.) This fragment resembles that shown in figure 161 (Cat. No. 246123 &, U.S.N.M.) , but the openings are worked with 12 instead of 6 threads (fig. 160 6), and the winding is tighter on the roundels (fig. 160 c). The at- tachment of the warp threads to the edging cords is shown at a (fig. 160), and a scheme of the pattern at d. It appears that this variety of openwork cloth was more common with the devotees of the Bear Creek shrine than other textiles. The cloth was perishable, however, because it was closely woven, giving it a tendency to crack and disintegrate from age. In a weaving of cotton cord (Cat. No. 246123&, U.S.N.M., fig. 161, Bear Creek Cave) the pattern consists of a series of cir- cular openings formed by the same methods employed in the fabric described under 126123 «, Cat. No. U.S.N.M. The fragment shows also a modifica- tion of the design made up of triangles, probably a double symbol of birds. (See squares on serpent effigy vase, p. 46.) A fragment of texture of small white cotton thread in plain weav- ing (Cat. No. 246123c, U.S.N.M., Bear Creek Cave) has an orna- mentation consisting of a row of openings formed by gathering 4 Fig. 161. — Ornamented cloth from Bear Creek Cave. 78 BULLETIN 87, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. triangles square 162 a.) construc- warp threads and winding the fourth thread around the other three, bringing it down into its proper place in the warp below (fig. 162 5, with diagram of spiral). After an inter- val of plain weaving there begins a design made up of a frame of superimposed surrounding cross. (Fig. The vertical tions of the this pattern are formed as described above, the horizontal as in figure 162