THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITEIUIIY TEEASUEY. London : Printed by A. Spottiswoode, New- Street- Square. S € I ENTI JFl C ! ) 1,1 T ]• 11KE.Y THE iBELLES LETTRES § ('o/h/(7i.s('(/ ill l(>riii . ffiniiiid/- III s/i'/c , i'>/ii(>ns i/i i/ifc/y/ii/Or/i ; FJllhn^d/^{>^ (I /I <: I f( 'll sh V ■ / 'f sii/'/< V /.s- /// Tlic wholv siiiiouuded witli .Mfinniifif y^cs, ('('ntfiini/i/' ft'/nisr Fcir/s //'//// (I />/>!'( f/>rii lie i^hsi'r\'(i/i(>/is. BY SAMIUvL MAIWI^EM, IV E w it:ii.)in('!ioK . LONDON. LONGMAN BROWN.GREEN AND LONGMANS . THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITEEAEY A NEW AND OF THE BELLES LETTRES. BY SAMUEL MAUNDER, AUTHOR OF "THE TREASURY OF KNOWLEDGE," "BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY," &c. FOURTH EDITION. LONDON: LONGiMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, FATERNTOSTER ROW. PREFACE. 4 There are few tasks of more difficult accomplishment, than the one which an Author feels bound to undertake, when a performance which has engrossed much of his time, and to which he has probably directed his best energies, is about to be submitted to the public. Literary usage appears, liowever, to have decided, that upon such an occasion, some prefatory observations are considered indispensable ; but, while prompted by a natural desire to enter somewhat freely into the merits of that which has occupied his most earnest attention, the overwhelming apprehension of being thought egotistical, and the bare possibility of really becoming so, will often paralyze the Writer's well-intentioned efforts. In the present instance, I can truly say, that my incessant occupation from the hour I commenced this volume to the very eve of its publication, coupled as it has been with an anxious desire to render it worthy of public favour, have left me no time to consider what arguments would be most likely to fix the reader's attention to the following pages ; in what terms I should entreat his kind indulgence ; or upon what grounds I could venture to deprecate the severity of criticism. May I be allowed to say, that I have endeavoured to produce a v/ork, which — while I am fully sensible of its numerous imperfections — I trust, may be generally acceptable, and, I hope, extensively useful ? Its design, though briefly, is not obscurely, stated in the title-page : and its contents, multifa- rious as they are, are so perceptible at a cursory glance, owing to the alpha- betical arrangement, that it would be almost impertinent to trouble the reader with more than a mere reference to the general plan. A wonderful change has of late years taken place in the means adopted for the diffusion of a taste for literature and science. The talents and attain- ments of eminent Professors, in every department of literature, in every branch of art, in every scientific pursuit, are now called into vigorous and united action; and it may indeed be truly said, that we live in an era when the youth of our country cannot fail to meet, in all directions, with advo- cates as sincere as they are disinterested, for their intellectual progress, their moral advancement, and for the grand result of these— their future happiness. iv preface. Some are labouring, with well-directed zeal, to establish literary and scientific institutions ; others are cheerfully becoming the indefatigable instructors of imperfectly educated adults ; and many, with an ardour and earnestness of purpose in the highest degree creditable to them as men of science and as citi- zens of the world, are unfolding the treasures of their well-stored minds to delighted audiences in the lecture-room. It is evident that in a publication of this varied character, it would be ab- surd to lay claim to any great merit on the score of originality ; for, although I have not unfrequently ventured to deviate from the beaten path, under an idea that certain subjects might be rendered more inviting to the desultory reader, without detracting aught from their real value, I believe that, in such instances, no unwarrantable liberties have been taken, no levity indulged in where the subject required a becoming gravity, and no attempt made to ren- der an article merely amusing, which ought to be strictly didactic or lo- gically exact. In short, it has been my constant aim, as far as the limits of this publication would permit, to collect into different foci the result of the observations I have made, and to reflect the scintillations of light from every quarter within the compass of my circumscribed vision. It may, at first sight, appear that a great disparity exists between the length of the different articles. It must be remembered, however, that many are merely definitions of technical terms, which could be better and more clearly expressed in a brief sentence or two, than in half a column. The magnitude or intricacy of others demanded a comparatively long discussion ; and there are not a few which, either from their novelty or their present popularity, would be considered as too slightly noticed, if the same process of conden- sation had been used in regard to them, as was applied to others, of equal importance perhaps, but more generally known, or better understood. I am well aware how natural it is for a person who is engaged in any par- ticular study, or who has a predilection for some given topic, to be desirous of making himself as fully acquainted with it as possible, and to feel, per- haps, a degree of disappointment, where another person, with different views and pursuits, would be abundantly satisfied; but the candid reader, I am persuaded, will grant, that a complete system of any science can hardly be expected in a work whose highest excellence must, after all, be a judicious brevity ; and that if principles be clearly stated, they will often suffice till the details can be sought in works especially adapted for their elucidation. My great object has been to produce a book that should meet the wants and wishes of a very large and most respectable class of readers, whose oppor- tunities of studying the ponderous tomes of science are as unfrequent as their aspirations after knowledge are ardent. To the literati, I know it can present few attractions ; to the man of science it presumes not to offer anything new. But there may be times, when even these may find it convenient to consult a hand-book of reference, so portable and yet so full, if it be merely to refresh the memory on some neglected or forgotten theme. I consider it unnecessary to enumerate the various branches of literature which are comprised in the following pages, my object having been to con- centrate therein, as far as was possible, the whole of the liberal arts— briefly, it is true, but with as much perspicuity, and in language as simple and fami- liar as I could command ; neither do I deem it at all important to name the numerous works which I have found it necessary to consult. It will be seen, throughout the work, that wherever I have been indebted for any ma- terial information, I have not failed to acknowledge the source whence it was derived. But although it may be needless to dilate on the general nature of the contents, for the reasons before given, it is essential to notice that the facts in science^ S^c. which surround the pages, have, with few exceptions, a direct reference to some subject treated on in that particular page, or contain a further illustration of it. These marginal observations have occupied no inconsiderable time; and I hope they will not be less valuable than the moral precepts and proverbs have been found which encompass the pages of *' The Treasury of Knowledge" and *• The Biographical Treasury." And now, in bringing these remarks to a close, it may not be improper to observe, that, although I have studiously avoided the introduction of any matter foreign to the immediate subject under consideration, I have not been unmindful of the connection that exists between the natural and the moral world, nor have I neglected any suitable opportunity of enforcing sound prin- ciples in ethics, and that willing obedience to the laws, without which science is acquired in vain, and learning often proves a curse, The philosophic youth <* To Nature's voice attends, from month to month, And day to day, through the revolving year ; Admiring, sees her in her every shape ; Feels all her sweet emotions at his heart ; "While Tkcth, divinely breaking on his mind, Elates his being, and unfolds his powers." — Thomson. Dec. mh, 1840. S. M. TIIK PHOGKESS OV LIXD U ATU IS THE MOST ClSllTAIN SIGN OF 01 VXLIZATIOK. SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY TREASURY. J\. IS the first letter, and the first vowel, of the alphabet in evei'v known language, except the Ethiopia ; and is used either as a word, an abbreviation, or a sign. If pro- nounced open, as in father, it is the sim- plest and easiest of all sounds ; the first, in fact, uttered by human beings in their most infantile state, serving to express many and even opposite emotions, accord- ing to the mode in which it is uttered. A has therefore, perhaps, had the first place in the alphabet assigned to it. In the Eng- lish language it has four different sounds : the broad sound, as in fall ; the open, as in FATHER ; the slender, or close, as in FACE ; and the short sound, as in fat. Most of the other modern languages, as French, Italian, German, &c. have only the open, or Italian a, pronounced short or long. ^Among the Greeks and Romans, A was used as an arithmetical sign : by the former for 1 ; by the latter for 500 ; or with a stroke over it for 5,000. The Romans also very extensively used it as an abbre- viation ; which practice we still retain, as A.M., artium magister; A.D. anno domini, &^c. A, a, or aa, in medical prescriptions, denote ana, or equal parts of each. A, in music, is the nominal of the sixth note in the diatonic scale ; in algebra it denotes a known quantity ; in logic, an universal affir- mative proposition ; in heraldry, the dexter chief, or chief point in an escutcheon ; and it is the first of the dominical letters in the calendar. AA'M, or HAA'M, a Dutch liquid mea- sure, containing about 36 English gallons. AAN'CHE, a name sometimes given to wind instruments with reeds or tongues, as the clarionet, hautboy, &c. AA'NES, in music, the tones and modes of the modern Greeks. AARD'VARK, or Earth Pig, an animal common in Southern Africa, which feeds entirely upon ants, and is remarkable for the facility with which he burrows deep in the earth to avoid his pursuers, and for the instinct he displays in securing- his insect prey. AAYO'RA, a species of palm-tree. AB, in the Hebrew calendar, the 11th month of the civil year, and the 5th of the ecclesiastical. In the Syriac calendar, it is the last of the summer months. The east- ern Christians called the first day of this month Suum Miriam, the fast of Mary, and the 15 th, on which day the fast ended, Fathr-Miriam. A'BAB, a sort of militia among the Turks. AB'ACA, a plant, of which there are two species, growing in the Philippine Islands; the white producing lint, of which fine linen is manufactured ; and the grey, hemp, which is made into cordage. ABACINA'RE, a punishment, described by writers of the middle ages, wherein the criminal was blinded, by holding red-hot irons before his eyes. ABACIS'CUS, in ancient architecture, the square compartments of Mosaic pave- ments. AB'ACOT, a cap of state worn in the form of a double crown, used by the an- cient kings of England. AB ACTUS, a term used by ancient phy- sicians for a miscarriage. AB'ACUS, a sort of cupboard or buffet, used by the Romans, and which in times of great luxury was plated with gold. Abacus, in architecture, the superior mem- ber of the capital of a column, to which it serves as a kind of crown. It was origin- ally intended to represent a square tile laid over a basket ; and it still retains its ori- ginal form in the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders ; but in the Corinthian and Compo- site, its four sides or faces are arched in- wards, having a rose or some other orna- ment in the middle. Abacus, among an- cient mathematicians, was a table strewed over with dust, or sand, on which they drew their figures. Abacus, in arithmetic, an ancient instrument for facilitating opera- tions by means of counters. Its form is various ; but that chiefly used in Europe is made by drawing parallel lines distant from each other at least twice the diameter of a counter ; which placed on the lowest line, signifies 1 ; on the second, 10 ; on the third, 100 ; on the fourth, 1000 ; and so on. In the intermediate spaces, the same coun- ters are estimated at one half of the value of the line immediately superior. There language, as well as the faculty of speech, is of divine origin. THE TROUGH IN WHICH THE ORE IS WASHED IN MINES IS CALLED ABACUS MAJOR. ABA ^f;e Scientific an"D ICitcrarw ©reasuri? ; [abb were also other inventions similarly deno- minated; viz. Abacus Pythagoricus, a multiplication table, invented by Pytha- goras ; and Abacus Logisticus, a rectan- gled triangle, whose sides, forming the right angle, contain all the numbers from 1 to 60, and its area the products of each two of the opposite numbers. This is also called a canon of sexagesimals. In justice to the present advanced state of science, and at the same time, as a sincere though feeble tribute to the genius of one of the most scientific men of the age, we are bound to notice in this place a most extraordinary automatic invention by Mr. Babbage, (infinitely exceeding the powers of the abacus of ancient arithme- ticians,) the object of which is to compute and print the most difficult astronomical or navigation tables, &c., such as could not otherwise be effected without immense in- tellectual and manual labour. We hear that the machine is not yet quite completed, but the inventor asserts, and his assertions are verified by Sir David Brewster and other eminent men, that not only can the highest operations of arithmetic be performed by this stupendous engine, but it is capable of correcting its own errors, and, when cor- rected, it can print off the results, inde- pendent of human aid ! By this it appears that the machine consists of two parts, a calculating, and a printing part, both of which are absolutely necessary to its entire perfection. In explaining his mode of ac- complishing such great objects, the inven- tor observes, " that nearly all tables of numbers which follow any law, however complicated, may be formed, to a greater or less extent, solely by the proper ar- rangement of the successive addition and subtraction of numbers befitting each table ;" and he then proceeds to shew, by a series of tables and explanations, the theory of his art, as well as the mechanical execution required for its performance. The limits of our work, however, arc in- adequate to give a fair illustration of so skilful a contrivance, but it may be suffi- cient to lead the enquiring mind to farther investigation. [We may here remark, en passant, that it is to this end that a book of reference, so extensive in its aim as the present, must of necessity be constantly directed. Wherever, by reason of its bre- vity, or the magnitude of the subject on which it treats, it cannot enter into the ne- cessary details, it may still excite a laudable curiosity for more elaborate information, and thereby lead to its acquirement.] ABATEMENT, in law, signifies the re- jecting a suit, on account of some fault either in the matter or proceeding. Abatement, in heraldi-y, something added 10 a coat of arras, in order to lessen its true dignity, and point out some imperfec- tion or stain in the character of the person who bears it. In commerce. Abate- ment means a discount in the price of commodities for money advanced by the buyer, or some other cause. AB'ATIS, trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy, so as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them. ABATOR, in law, one who enters into i. house or lands, void by the death of the last possessor, before the true heir. AB'ATURES, a term, with huntsmen, to denote the sprigs or grass thrown down by the stag in passing bv. ABB, or ABB-WCiOL, a term used by clothiers for the warp. AB'BE, a French word, literally meaning an abbot; but the character generally spo- ken of under the name of abb6 has long ceased to be of any official nature. Before the Revolution, the term abb^ designated a very numerous body of persons, who had little or no connexion with the church, ex- cept the apparent one which they derived from this title, but who followed a course of theological study, in hopes that the king would confer on them a real abbey, that is, a part of the revenues of a monastery. They were engaged in every kind of literary occupation, and exerted an important influ- ence on the character of the country ; nor was there scarcely a family of distinction in France wherein an abbe was not found in the capacity of a familiar friend and spi- ritual adviser. AB'BESS, the superior of a nunneiy, or other religious community of women. She has the same authority as an abbot, but can- not exercise any of the spiritual functions. AB'BEY, a religious house governed by a superior, under the title of an abbot or abbess. Abbeys differ in nothing from priories, except that the latter are governed by priors, instead of abbots. The abbeys of England, at their dissolution under Henry VIII., became lay -sees; when no less than 190 were dissolved, the yearly re- venue of which has been estimated at 2,853,000Z. ; an almost incredible sum, con- sidering the value of money in those days. At present, an abbey is, in general, the ca- thedral or episcopal church of the see or diocese in which it stands. AB'BOT, was originally the name of every aged monk ; but, since the 8th cen- tury, it denotes the head of a monastery. In most countries they held a rank next to that of bishop, and had votes in the eccle- siastical councils. At present they are chiefly distinguished into regular and com- mendatory; the former being real monks or religious, and the latter only seculars or lay-men. These last, notwithstanding that the term commendam seems to signify the contrary, have the perpetual enjoyment of the fruits of their abbeys. Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot consisted in clothing him with the habit called caculla, or cowl : putting the pastoral staff into his hand, and the shoes called pedales, on his feet ; but at present, it is only a simple be- nediction. It was because certain ab- bots and priors in England, in right of their monasteries, held lands of the crown, for which they gwed military service, that they obtained the title of lords, and were summoned, as barons, to parliament ; and THE idle inmates OF A MONASTERY ARE DESIGNATED ABBEY-LUBBEBS. abe] BY THE JB-\VISH LAW, ABDUCTION IS CONSIDEREB A CAPITAL OFFENCE. % 'Nzfxi IBictionanj of ii)z I^Dclles liCctms. [a BO from this custom the bishops, in modern times, have the same honour. ABBREVIATION, a contracted man- ner of writing words so as to retain only the initial letters. Such abbreviations were in common use with the Romans, as they are with us, to save tinie and space. [For a complete list of those most necessary to be known at present, we refer to " Tke Treasury of Knowledge."'\ Abbrevia- tion, a mathem^atical term, given to the process by which a fraction is reduced to lower terms. Abbreviation, (in mu- sic.) One dash, through the stem of a minim or crotchet, or under a semibreve, converts it into as many quavers as it is equal to in time : two dashes into semiqua- vers ; three into demisemiqu^avers ; and so on. When minims are connected together like quavers, semiquavers, &c., they are to be repeated as many times as if they were really such notes. An oblique dash through the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th lines after an arpeg- gio, signifies that it is to be repeated ; for quavers, a single dash being used ; for se- miquavers, a double one ; and so on. ABBRE'VIATORS, officers who assist the vice-chancellor in drawing up the Pope's briefs, and reducing petitions into proper form, to be converted into bulls. ABDICATION, properly speaking, is a voluntary resignation of a dignity, particu- larly a regal one ; and if he in whose favour the abdication was made, dies, or declines the offered dignity, the right of the abdi- cated prince is reverted. Involuntary re- signations are, however, also termed abdi- cations, as in the case of Napoleon's abdi- cation at Fontainbleau. ABDITA'RIUM, or ABDITO'RUM, in archseology, a secret place for hiding or preserving valuables. ABDO'MEN, that part of the body usu- ally called the belly. It contains the vis- cera more or less immediately connected with digestion, and the kidneys which se- crete the urine. By anatomists, the abdo- men is divided into three anterior regions, viz. the epigastric, or upper one ; the um- bilical, or middle one ; and the hypogastric, or lower one: there is also one posterior region, called regio lumbaris. ABDOMINA'LES, a numerous order of fishes, which have the ventral fins placed behind the pectoral, in the abdomen; as salmon, trout, herrings, carp, sprats, &c. It includes the greatest number of the fresh-water species. ABDUCTION, the crime of unlawfully taking away, either by force or fraud and persuasion, the person of another, whether of child, wife, ward, heiress, or woman ge- nerally. The word abduction is also used in surgery, to express a peculiar fracture of the bones. ABDUCTOR, in anatomy, a name given to several muscles on account of their ser- ving to open or draw backwards the parts into which they are inserted. ABE'LIANS, or A'BELITES, a Chris- tian sect which sprang from the Gnostics. They abstained from matrimony, but adopted the children of others, and brought them up in their own principles. ABELMOS'CHUS, the seed of an Egyp- tian plant, which resembles musk in its perfume, and is used by the Arabians in their coffee. ABERRATION, in astronomy, an ap- parent motion of the fixed stars, occasioned by the progressive motion of light. Aberration, in optics, the deviation of the rays of light, when reflected by a lens or speculum, whereby they are prevented from meeting in the same point. Aberra- tions are of two kinds, one arismg from the figure of the reflecting body, the other from the unequal refrangibility of the rays themselves. ABEY'ANCE, in law, the expectancy of an estate or possession : thus, if lands be leased from one person for life, M'ith rever- sion to another for years, the latter estate is in abeyance till the death of the lessee. It is a fixed principle of law, that the fee- simple of aU lands is in somebody, or else in abeyance. ABJURA'TION, a forswearing, or re- nouncing by oath : in the old law it signi- fied a sworn banishment, or an oath taken to forsake the realm for ever. In its mo- dern, and now more usu«il signification, it extends to persons, and doctrines, as well as places. ABLACTATION, a sort of ingrafting trees, by leaving the graft on its proper stock, until it be fully incorporated with the new stock. Also, the weaning a child from the breast. ABLECTI, in ancient Rome, a chosen band of foreign troops, selected from the cxtraordinarii sociorum. ABLEG'MINA, in Roman antiquity, choice parts of the entrails of victims, called also projicics, porricice, prosecta, and prosegmina. The ablegmina were sprinkled with flour, and burnt on the altar; the priests pouring some wine on them. AB'LUENTS, diluting medicines, or such as dissolve and carry off impurities from any part of the body. ABLUTION, a religious ceremody of washing the body, still used by the Turks and Mahomedans. It originated in the obvious necessity of practising cleanliness, for the prevention of diseases in hot coun- tries ; for which purpose it was made a re- ligious rite ; and by an easy transition of idea, the purity of the body was made to typify the purity of the soul : an idea the more rational, as it is perhaps physically certain that outward wretchedness debases the inward mind. Ablution, among physicians, is used either for washing the external parts of the body by baths; or deterging the bowels by thin diluting fluids. ABOL'LA, a kind of military garment worn bv the Greek and Roman soldiers. ABOMA'SUS, the paunch, or fourth stomach of ruminating animals, in which the process of digestion is completed. Ru- minating animals, or such as chew the cud, have four stomachs ; the first, is called the ROMISH CHURCH RETAINS ABLUTION BEFORE MASS, AND SOMETIMFS AFTER. TUB MOST ABSORBENT SOUS ABE COMPOSED OF ALUMINOUS EAP-TUS. abr] ^f)c *cunlific anH Xitcrarp ^rcnsiui) ; [abs venter; the second, reticulum; the third, omasus ; and the fourth, abomasus. It is in the abomasus of calves and lambs that the runnet i.- found, used for curdling milk. ABORI"GENES, a name given to the original or first inhabitants of any country ; but more particvilarly used for the ancient inhabitants of Latium, when iEneas with his Trojans came into Italy. ABORTION, in a Jigia-ative sense, any production that does not come to maturity, or any design or project which fails before it is properly matured. In medicine, it means a miscarriage, or the foetus brought forth before it is perfectly formed. ABOUT', the situation of a ship imme- diately after she has tacked. About SHIP, an order to the crew to prepare for tacking. AB'RACADAB'RA, a tenn of incanta- tion, formerly used as a spell or charm, and worn about the neck as an amulet against several diseases. In order to give it the more virtue, it was to be written as many times as the word contains letters, omitting always the last letter of the for- mer, and so forming a triangle. But charms and incantations have had their day ; and abracadabra, if used at all, now serves as a word of jest, like hocus pocus, and other unmeaning gibberish. ABRA'SION, in medicine, the corroding or wearing of the intestines, by sharp and acrimonious humours, or medicines. ABRAX'AS, or ABllASAX', in church-his- tory, a mystical term expressing the supreme God, under whom the Basilidians supposed 365 dependent deities. It was the principle of the Gnostic hierarchy. Abraxas, or Abrasax Stones, are very numerou^s, and represent the human body, with the head of a cock, and the feet of a reptile. The name oi Abrasax stone is, in modern times, applied to a variety of gems that exhibit enigmatical compositions, but have not the true characteristics of the Basilidians. AB'RAUM, a kind of red clay used by cabinet-makers to deepen the colour of new mahogany. ABREAST', side by side, or opposite to; a sea term, applied to two or more ships ranged together. Abreast of a place, means directlv opposite to it. ABREUVOIR', a French word for a watering-place, or any place dug for re- taining water, as in camps. In architec- ture, the interstices between two stones to be filled up with mortar or cement are called abreuvoirs. ABRIDG'MENT, the bringing the con- tents of a book within a short compass. The perfection of an abridgment consists in taking only what is material and sub- stantial, and rejecting all superfluities, whether of sentiment or style : in which light, abridgments must be allowed to be eminently serviceable to all whose occu- pations prevent them from devoting much time to literary pursuits. Abridgment, in law, the shortening a count, or declara- tion : thus, in assize, a man is said to abridge his plaint, and a woman her de- mand in an action of dower, if any land is put therein, which is not in the tenure of the defendant ; for on a plea of non-tenure, in abatement of the writ, the plaintiff may leave out those lands, and pray that the tenant may answer to the remainder. ABRO'TANUM, in botany, a species of plant arranged under the genus Artemisia ; called also Southernwood. AB'SCESS, an inflammatory tumour containing purulent matter. ABSCIS'SA, the part of any diameter or axis of a curve line, cut off by a perpen- dicular line, called the ordinate. ABSCIS'SION, in rhetoric, a figure of speech, whereby the speaker stops short in the middle of his discourse, and leaves his hearers to draw their own inferences from the facts he has stated. In astronomy, the term abscission denotes the cutting off the light of the first of three planets when the third comes in conjunction with the middle one. ABSENTEE', a word of modern times, applied to land-owners and capitalists, who expend their incomes in another countrv. ABSOLU'TION, a religious ceremony of the church of Rome, by which the priests assume the power to forgive sins. In the ancient Christian church, absolution was a judicial act, by which the priest, in the name of the community, invoking the fa- vour of God, announced to the penitent his remission from ecclesiastical punish- ment, and readmission into the bosom of the church. The fathers of the Protestant church maintain, that God alone can for- give and deliver from sin ; that a judicial power over the souls of Christians is con- ferred neither on priests nor teachers. AB'SOLUTISM, in matters of theology, a doctrine charged on the Calvinists ; whereby God is supposed to act from mere pleasure, in regard to the salvation of man- kind. Absolutism is the grand obstacle to an union between the Lutherans and Cal- vinists. ABSORP'TION, the process in animated nature, by which the digested aliments or substances that support the body are car- ried into the blood. In chemistry, absorp- tion means the conversion of a gaseous fluid into a liquid or solid, on being united with some other solid. ABSORB'ENTS, calcarious earths, or other medicines which soak up the redund- ant humours of the bodv. ABSORB ENT VESSELS, are those which absorb the digested aliment, and carry the new matter, called ckvlc, into the system. They are either lacteal, or hjm- phatic. The chyle being white like milk, gives the name lacteal or milky to the ves- sels through which it is conveyed. The substance contained in the lymphatic ves- sels is the old and worn-out particles of the system, and such others as may have been received in it from the surfaces of the body : it is perfectly transparent, on which account it is called lymph, giving the name lymphatic to its vessels. The term Ab- sorbent Vessels is also used by some TITE ABSORBENT POWER OF WATER IS A TEST OF THE GOODNESS OF SOIL. TOTAL ABSTINENCE ABOVE SEVEN DAYS IS SAID TO BE FATAL TO MAN. ABS] % *Neto ©ictionarp of t^)z %zUz^ ICcttm. [aca naturalists for the fibres of the roots of plants, which draw nourishment from the surrounding earth. ABSTE'MII, a name given to persons who could not partake of the sacrament from their natural aversion to wine. ABSTER'GENTS, medicines proper for cleansing the body from concretions and other impurities, not to be effected by sim- ple abluents. Abstergents are of a sapo- naceous nature, and therefore very different from mere abluents. AB'STINENCE, the abstaining or re- fraining from what is either useful, agree- able, or pernicious; but more especially, from eating and drinking. In the Romish church there are " days of abstinence," as well as " fast days ;" the former importing a partial, and the latter, almost a total ab- stinence from food. AB'STINENTS,a sect of Christians who appeared in France about the end of tiie third century, professing celibacy, and ab- stinence from particular kinds of food, &c. The most rigid Abstinents of the pre- sent day, are those who, under the whim- sical denomination of tee-tot alters, (tea- totaUers ? ) profess to abstain wholly from the use of all liquors stronger than tea or coffee. In the United States, according to a calculation which has appeared, nearly half-a-million belong to the different "tem- perance societies and even their disci- ples in England, on a general muster-day, are able to make a display of forces suffi- ciently numerous, we should think, to alarm the proprietors and keepers of those tem- ples of sin called gin-palaces, which rear their unblushing heads in every street in the metropolis, presenting to the mind, when viewed in contrast with the squeilid and filthy wretches who support them, a truly appalling picture of moral, mental, and physical degradation. Whatever means may be found most effectual for banishing the detestable vice of drunkenness from ci- vUized life, should most assuredly be pro- moted, whether it be tee-totaUsm, the stocks, or the whipping-post ; yet we can- not help feeling that there is something bordering upon the ludicrous in these pro- miscuous assemblages, where "reformed" drunkards, i. e. emaciated old sots, either affecting abstemiousness or having spent all their substance in bacchanalian orgies, set up for apostles of temperance, and de- scant on their former bibulous propensi- ties, in order that blushing maidens and in- nocent youths may have an adequate idea of the enormity of drinking a glass of home- made wine. It should, however be observed that, as among professing Christians some are less strict than others, so among the advocates of the " temperance system," some give much greater latitude than others to the meaning of the term ; nay, there are those, we understand, who, so far from insisting on the necessity of tee-to- talism, regard it as a wishy-washy doctrine, and are willing to allow their converts a generous glass whenever the wants of the body require one. There appears to be a wise liberality in this, which induces us to hope their efforts may eventually succeed. AB'STRACT, a concise but general view, or analysis, of some large work ; in which sense it differs from an abridgment only as being shorter, and its entering less mi- nutely into particulars; and from an ex- tract, as this last is only a particular view of some part or passage of it. ABSTRACTION, in logic, that operation of the mind whereby it forms abstract ideas. The faculty of abstraction stands directly opposite to that of compounding. By com- position we consider those things together, which, in reality, are not joined together in any one existence. And by abstraction, we consider those things separately and apart, which, in reality do not exist apart. In its passive sense it implies occupation with one's-self to the exclusion of other ob- , jects. Abstraction, in chemistry, the process of drawing off by distillation any part of a compound, and returning it again to the residue to be redistilled* ABSTRACTI"TIOUS, an epithet for the native spirits of aromatic vegetables, in distinction from those produced by fer- mentation. ABUT MENTS, the extremities of any body adjoining another, as the extremities of a bridge resting on the banks or sides of a river. Also the junctions or meetings of two pieces of timber. ABYSS', any deep place that is supposed to be bottomless, as the deepest or un- fathomable parts of the sea. ACA'CIA, a beautiful shrub, one of the species of which bears rose-coloured flowers. In the materia medica, acacia is the inspissated juice of the pods of the mimosa Nilotica of Linnaeus. ACE'NA, a genus of curious evergreen herbaceous exotics, chiefly from South America and New Holland. ACADEM'ICS, certain philosophers who followed the doctrine of Socrates and Plato, as to the uncertainty of knowledge and the incomprehensibiuty of truth. Aca- demic, in this sense amounts to much the same with Platonist; the difference be- tween them being only in point of time. They who embraced the system of Plato, among the ancients, were c£dled Academici ; whereas those who did the same since the restoration of learning, have assumed the denomination of Platonists. ACAD'EMY, in Grecian antiquity, a large villa in one of the suburbs of Athens, where the sect of philosophers called Aca- demics held their assemblies. It took its name from Academus, a celebrated Athe- nian, who resided there, and became cele- brated from its being the place in which Plato taught philosophy. Academy, in the modern acceptation, is a society of per- sons united for the pursuit of some objects of study and application, as the Royal Academy of Arts of London, and the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin. The first academy of science, in modern times, was established at Naples, by Baptista Porta, in 1560. academies of the fine ABTS ARB THE BEST INCENTIVES TO GENIUS. CJ5 3 aca] THK ACCKLEKATIOK OF THE MOON WAS BlSCOVliKEJJ BY 1)11. IlALLlsY. ACAL'YPHA, a genus of exotic shrubs, natives of North and South America: the calyx of the male flowers consists of four small, roundish, concave, and equal petals, but no corolla; in the female flower the calyx is composed of three leaves, and no corolla. ACALEP'T.'E (Sea Nettles), third class of Cuvier's Zooxthites. The ft-ee species [acaleptdR libera:), float on the sea. The hydrostatic {acalepta; hydrostatics), are so named from the air bladders or vessels by which means they suspend themselves in the water. ACANA'CE/E, a class of plants which are prickly, and bear their flowers and seeds on a kind of head. ACAN'THA, a name given to the prickles of thorny plants. Acantha is also used by zoologists for the spines of certain fishes, as those of the echimis marinus,&c. ACANTHA'CEOUS, an epithet given to all the plants of the thistle kind. ACAN'THINE, among the ancients, something belonging to, or resembling the herb acanthus: hence we read of acan- thine garments, acanthine woods, &c. ACAN'TIIOPIS, a genus of venomous serpents, classed by Cuvier with the vipers, but differing from them in many essential characters. They are natives of New Hol- land, where they live in holes at the roots of trees. Their name is derived from the tail, which is terminated by a little spur. ACANTHOPTERY'GII, one of the divi- sions in the natural order of fishes which Cuvier has established. Its name is sug gested bv its spinous fins. ACANTHOS'CELIS, a genus of insects. Order, coleoptera; family, scarabida. ACANTHOCI'NUS, a genus of insects. Order, coleoptera; family, cerambycidee. ACAN'THURUS (Thorn-tailed or Lan- cet Fish), a genus of fishes; ninth family of Cuvier's order, with spinous fins; found in the West Indian Seas, and much re- lished as food. ACAN'THUS, in architecture, an orna- ment representing the leaves of the acan- thus, or herb bear's-brecch ; principally employed in the Corinthian and Compo site capitals. ACAN'ZII, Turkish light-horse, the avant-guard of the Grand Scignor's army. ACAS'TA, a genvis of shells found in sponge, and never affixed to hard bodies. A'CARUS, in zoology, a numerous genus of insects, comprehending the vermin which infest several animals, and mites in general. ACAT'ALEPSY (cca^a^eps/a), among an- cient philosophers, the impossibility of comprehending something ; uncertainty in science. ACA'TERY, an officer of the king's household, designed to be a check between the clerks of the kitchen and the pur- veyors. ACATHOL'ICI, the name by which Protestants are distinguished in some Ca- tholic countries, as a term less objection- able than heretics. ACA'TIUM, in antiquity, a kind of boat or pinnace used in military affairs. The acatium was a species of the naves ac- tuarice. ACAU'LOSE, or ACAU'LOUS, among botanists, a term used for such plants as have no stem. ACCA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, solemn festivals held in honour of Acca Laurentia, the nurse of Romulus : they were also call- ed Laurentalia. ACCAPITA'RE, in our old law books, the act of becoming a vassal, or paying homage to some lord. Hence Accapitum signified the money paid by a vassal upon such an occasion. ACCELERATION, in mechanics, the inci'case of velocity in a moving body. Ac- celerated motion is that which continually receives fresh accessions of velocity, and is either equally or unequally accelerated. The word is particularly applied to falling bodies tending towards the centre of the earth by the force of gravity. Accele- rating FOKCE, being a sort of centripetal force, is expressed by that velocity, gene- rated in a given time, with which bodies (considered as i^hysical points) move to- wards the central body attracting them by its absolute force. This accelerating force is greater or less, according to the distance of the centre of the force, in a reciprocal duplicate proportion. The word Accele- ration, is also used astronomicaDy, and is applied to the moon, the planets, and fixed ^*^ACCENDEN'TES, or ACCENSO'RES, in the church of Rome, an inferior rank of ministers, whose business it is to light, snuff, and trim the candles and tapers. ACCEN'DONES, in Roman antiquity, officers in the gladiatorial schools, who ex- cited and animated the combatants during the engagement. ACCEN'SI, in Roman antiquity, certain supernumerary soldiers, designed to sup- ply the place of those who should be killed, or anywise disabled. Ac c en si also de- noted a kind of inferior officers, appointed to attend the Roman magistrates. ACCENT; a modification of the voice in pronouncing certain words or syllables: also, the marks on the words or syllables ; as, the acute accent, marked thus ('), the grave accent thus ( ' ) the circumflex thus ('). This is called grammatical accent, but there is also a rhetorical accent or empha- sis, which is designed to give to a sen- tence distinctness and clearness. In a sentence, therefore, the stress is laid on the most important word, and in a word on the most important syllable. "When the accent falls on a vowel, that vowel has its long sound, as in po'rous ; but when it falls on a consonant, the preceding- vowel is short, as in pot'ter. Accents also not only give a pleasing variety and beauty to the modulation of the voice, but often serve to ascertain the true meaning of the word. In music, accent denotes a certain mo- dulation or Marbling of the sounds, to express passions, either naturally by the voice, or artificially by instrvmient s. lEvery THE ACCENSI in THE ROMAN ARMIES FOUGHT WITHOUT ARMOUR. IN COMMERCE, AN ACCOUNT 18 A REGISTRY Or DEBTS, CREDITS, A>D CHARGES. ACC ACC bar or measure is divided into tlie accented and unaccented parts ; the former being the principal, on which the spirit of the music depends. In mathematics, the ac- cent is used to avoid the confusion of using too many letters in an algebraical problem. ACCEN'TOR, a genus of birds which feed both on insects and seed ; as the com- mon hedge sparrow. ACCEP'TANCE, in commerce, is when a man subsci'ibes, signs, and makes him- self a debtor for the sum contained in a bill of exchange, or other obligation, drawn upon, or addressed to him ; which is done by his writing the word "Accepted" on it, and signing his name. ACCEP TOR, the person who accepts a bill of exchange by signing it, and thereby becoming bound to pay its contents. ACCEPTILA'TION, among civilians, sig- nifies an acquittance given by a creditor to a debtor, without receiving any money. ACCESS, in a general sense, denotes the approach of one thing towards another ; but it is more proper to say, the approacli of bodies, the appulse of the planets, &c. Access, or Accession, in medicine, is used to denote the beginning of a paroxysm, or a fit of some periodical disease. ACCESSARY, in law, a person who aids in the commission of some felonious action. There are two kinds of accessaries, viz. be- fore the fact, and after it. The first is he who commands and procures another to commit an offence ; who, though he be ab- sent when it is committed, is now regarded as much a principal as the actual offender. The accessary after the fact is one who re- ceives, comforts, or assists the offender, knowing him to be such. In the highest crimes, as high treason, &c. and the lowest, as riots, forcible entries, &c. there are no accessaries, but all concerned are prin- cipals. ACCIACATU'RA, in music, a sweeping of the chords of the pianoforte, and drop- ping sprinkled notes usual in accompani- ments. ACCIDENS, or ter accidens, a term applied to the operations of natural bodies, I in distinction fromi^er se; tluis fire is said to burn per se, but a heated iron per ac- cidens. ACCIDENCE, a display of the varia- tions of words according to their govern- ment or sense. ACCIDENT, that which belongs acci- dentally, not essentially, to a thing, as sweetness, softness, &c. Accidental, in heraldry, an additional mark in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or retained, without altering its character. ACCIDENTAL, in philosophy, a term applied to effects which result from causes occurring by accident. Accidental roiNT, in perspective, that point in the horizontal line, where all lines parallel among themselves meet the perspective plane. Accidental colours depend on the affections of the eye in contradistinction to light itself. ACCIP'ITRES, the first order of birds. including four genera of birds of prcj-, whose distinguishing characteristics are, that they have hooked bills, strong legsi, aiid sharp claws. ACCLAMATION, in Roman antiquity, a shout raised by the people, to testify their applause, or approbation of their princes, generals, &c. In ages when people were more accustomed to give full utterance to their feelings, acclamations were very com- mon, whenever a mass of people was influ- enced by one common feeling. We find, therefore, acclamations in theatres, senates, ecclesiastical meetings, elections, at nup- tials, triumphs, &c. In the early times of Christianity, the bishops were elected by acclamation. The first German emperors were elected in the same way ; and at the present day, wherever the forms of civilized life are least regarded, api>robation or dis- approbation of proposed public measures is shown by acclamations of the assem- bled multitude. ACCOLA, among the Romans, signified a person who lived near some place ; in which sense it diffei'ed from incola, the in- habitant of such a place. ACCOLA'DE, the ancient ceremony of conferring knighthood, by the king's laying his arms about the young knight's neck, and embracing him. This familiar expres- sion of regard appears to have been ex- changed for the more stately act of touch- ing, or gently striking, with the royal sword, the neck of the kneeling knight. The present ceremony of conferring the honour of knighthood is evidently derived from it. ACCOM'PANIMENT, an instrumental part added to a musical composition by way of embellishment, and in order to sup- port the principal melody. When the piece may be performed with or without the ac- companiment at pleasure, it is called ac- comjianiment ad libitum; but when it is indispensable, accompaniment obligato. ACCOM'PLICE, in law, a person who is privy to, or aiding in, the perpetration of some crime. ACCOM'PLISHMENT, in a general sense, denotes the perfecting, or entirely finishing and completing any matter or thing; but it more expressly describes the acquirement of some branch of learning, useful art, or elegant amusement. Ac- complishment is also particularly used for the fulfilment of a prophecy ; in which sense, we read of a literal accomplishment, a mystical accomplishment, &c. ACCORDATU'RA, an Italian word, to express the tuning of an instrument. ACCOR'DION, a new musical instru- ment, of German invention, but now also made in this country, consisting of a dou- ble series of vibrating tongues, acted on by a current of air from a sort of bellows, and producing tones very similar to those of the organ. ACCOUNT'ANT, or ACCOMPT'ANT, in a general sense, denotes one whose bu- siness it is to compute, adjust, and range in due order accounts in commerce. In a ACIDS AND ALKALIES, MIXED IN EQUAL PROPORTIONS, NEUTRALIZE EACH OTHER TUE ACCENT, OR SYLLABIC EMPHASIS, ALONE BEGULATES ENGLISH VERSE. ace] VLljt Scientific antf lEitcrarp treasure ; [aco more restricted sense, the term is applica- ble to a person appointed*to keep the ac- counts of a public company or office : thus, we say the accountant of the India-Com- pany, the Custom-house, the Excise, &c. Accountant-General, in the court of Chancery, is an officer appointed to re- ceive all moneys lodged in court. ACCOUTREMENTS, the necessaries of a soldier, as belts, pouches, cartridge- boxes, &c. ACCRE'TION, the increase or growth of a body by an external addition of new parts ; thus shells, stones, and various other substances are formed. ACCUBA TION, the posture used among the Greeks and Romans at their meals, which was with the body extended on a couch, and the head resting on a pillow, or on the elbow, supported by a pillow. This practice was not permitted among soldiers, children, and servants ; nor was it known until luxury had corrupted manners. Their couches were called Accubita. ACEPH'ALI, a sect of Christians, so called because they admitted no head, or superior, either lay or ecclesiastic. ACER'RA, in Roman antiquity, was a small altar erected near the bed on which a dead person was laid out. Incense and perfumes were burnt upon it, tUl the time of the funeral. The real intention, pro- bably, was to prevent or overcome any of- fensive smells that might arise about the corpse. ACETAB'ULUM, in anatomy, is a large round cavity in a bone, which receives the convex head of another, thereby forming that species of articulation termed enar- throsis. Also the name of a Roman mea- sure equal to about one-eighth of our pint. A'CETATES,certain neutral salts formed by the combination of acetic acid with a salifiable base, as the acetate of potash. These salts differ from acetites in this re- spect ; the acid employed in the production of the former is fully saturated with oxy- gen, or the acidifying principle, that is, it is completely acid ; while that which is used to form the latter, contains a less pro- portion of oxygen than is sufficient to satu- rate it. ACETIC ACID, a vegetable acid, which is produced by distilling the acetous acid with metallic oxydes. It is of a green co- lour, but becomes white by rectification ; is extremely volatUe and inflammable; cor- rodes and cauterizes the skin; and when heated in contact with air, takes fire. It is the sour principle, in fact, which exists m vinegar. ACETIM'ETER, an apparatus for deter- mining the strength of vinegar. A"CETITES, compound or neutral salts, formed by the union of the acetous acid, or distilled vinegar, with different bases : the most remarkable of these substances, and those whose properties are best knov/n, are the acetite of alumine, copper and lead. ACETOUS, an epithet applied to such substances as are sour, or partake of the nature of vinegar. ^Acetous Acid, dis- tilled vinegar, or the acid of vinegar, is ob- tained from mucilaginous substances by fermentation. ACETUM, vinegar, or any acid liquor made from potable juices, particularly vnne and beer. ACHROMATIC, colourless; a term ap. plied to telescopes which were first con- trived by Dr. Bevis to remedy the aberra- tions of colour. ACIC'ULiE, in natural history, certain small spikes, or prickles, in form of needles, wherewith nature has armed several ani- mals, as the hedge-hog, echinus marinus, &c. A"CID, in a general sense, denotes such things as affect the palate with a sour, sharp, and tart taste ; change blue vegeta- ble colours to red ; and combine with all the alkalis, and most of the metallic oxydes and earths, bo as to form the compounds called salts. Acids are distinguished ac- cording to the proportion of oxygen which they contain, by the terminations ic and ous, as nitric acid, and nitrous acid, sul- phuric acid, and sulphurous acid ; the for- mer of which denotes the larger dose or portion of oxygen, and the latter the smaller. When the prefix hypo is put to either of these, it denotes a degree below it in point of oxidizement, as hyposulphuric acid, an intermediate between the sulphu- ric and the sulphurous acid. The principal acids are vinegar and its spirits ; the juices of lemons, oranges, sorrel, citrons, &c. ; also the spirits of nitre, alum, vitriol, sul- phur, and sea-salt. Acid and alkali have been considered by some chemists as the two athletse of nature, the great instru- ments whereby all things were effected ; and the cause not only of natural, but pre- ternatural things, as diseases and cures. ACID'IFIABLE, capable of being con- verted into an acid by an acidifying prin- ciple. An acidifiable base or radical is any substance that is capable of uniting with such a quantity of oxygen as to become possessed of acid properties. ACID'ULyE, or Acidulated Waters, a species of mineral waters which contain a considerable quantity of carbonic acid, and which are known by the pungency of their taste, the sparkling appearance which they assume when shaken or poured from one vessel into another, and the facility with which tkey boil. ACID'ULOUS, an epithet expressing either a slight degree of acid, or an excess of acid in a compound salt. AC IN E' SI A, the interval of rest which takes place between the contraction and dilatation of the pulse. ACI'NUS, in botany, a name given to grapes or berries growing in clusters, in opposition to baccee, or such berries as grow single. ACLI'DES, a missile weapon, in use amongst the Romans ; it was of the form of a spear with a thong tied to it, by which, after the discharge, it was drawn back. ACOLLE', in heraldry, a term some- times used to denote two things joined to- ACCLAMATIONS WERE GIVEN BY THE VOICE; APPLAUSES, BY THE HANDS. IN PROPORTION AS THE AIR IS DENSER, SOUNDS ARB MORE INTENSE. \cq] % Nett) UBictionarw of ll;c a^elles Xettrcs. ACR gether; at other times, animals with col- lars or crowns about their necks; and finally, batons, or swords, placed saltier- wise behind the shield. ACOLY'TUI, in ecclesiastical history, denotes candidates for the ministry, so called from their continually attending the bishop. It is also an appellation given to the stoics, on account of their steady adhe- rence to what they had once resolved. ACON'ITA, a vegetable poison extracted from the aconite, or wolfsbane. A"CONITE, the plant wolfsbane, or monks-hood, the flower of which resembles the hood of a monk ; the plant is a violent poison. ACON'TIAS, in zoology, a venomous serpent, otherwise called the unguis facu- lus, or dart-snake, from its vibrating its body in the manner of a dart. ACON'TIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of dart or javelin, resembling the Ro- man pilum. ACOUSMAT'ICI, in Grecian antiquity, such disciples of Pythagoras, as had not finished their five years' probation. The acousmatici were instructed by bare posi- tive precepts and rules, without reasons or demonstrations, and these precepts they called acousmata. ACOUSTICS, that branch of science which treats of the nature and modifica- tions of sound. It is usually divided into two parts, viz. diacousiics, which explains the properties of those sounds that come di- rectly from the sonorous body to the ear ; and catacoustics, which treats of reflect- ed sounds. Almost all sounds that affect us are conveyed to the ear by means of the air; but water is a good conductor of sound ; so also are timber and flannel. It must be obsei-ved, that a body, while in the act of sounding, is in a state of vibration, which it communicates to the surrounding air, and that the undulations of the air aflfect the ear, and excite in us the sense of sound. Sound, of all kinds, it is ascertained, tra- vels at the rate of thirteen miles in a mi- nute : the softest whisper travels as fast as the most tremendous thunder. The know- ledge of this fact has been applied to the measurement of distances. Thus, if we see a vivid flash of lightning, and in two se- conds hear a tremendous clap of thunder, we may be assured that the thunder cloud is not more than 760 yards distant. ACCIUIT'TAL, a discharge, deliverance, or setting free of a person from the guilt or suspicion of an oflFence. Acquittal is of two kinds ; in law, and in fact. When two are indicted and tried for a felony, one as principal, the other as accessary, the prin- cipal being discharged, the accessary is, by consequence, also freed : in which case, as the accessary is acquitted by law, so is the principal in fact. Acquittal is also used for a freedom from entries and molesta- tions of a superior lord, on account of ser- vices issuins out of land. ACQUITTANCE, a discharge in writ^ ing for a sum of money, witnessing that the party is paid the same. ACRA'SIA, in medicine, the predomi- nancy of one quality above another. It was also used to express excess of any kind, as the drinking of unmixed wine, which among the Greeks amounted to intempe- rance. A'CRE, a measure of land, very general in name, but varying in ditferent places as to the extent which it is intended to de- note. The English acre contains 4 square roods, or 160 square poles of 5 yards and a half, or 4840 square yards. The French acre is equal to one and a quarter of an English acre. ACRID, an epithet to denote such sub- stances as are hot, dry, and pungent to the taste. ACRIS'IA, or A'CRISY, the want of a crisis, or discriminating state, in a disorder which is very fluctuating. ACROAT'IC,in the Aristotelian schools, a denomination given to such lectures as were calculated only for the intimate friends and disciples of that philosopher; being chiefly employed in demonstrating some speculative or abstruse part of philo- sophy. The acroatic lectures stood con- tradistinguished from the exoteric ones, which were adapted to a common auditory. ACROBAT'ICA, or ACROBAT'ICUM, in Grecian antiquity, an engine on wliich people were raised aloft, that they might have the better prospect. ACROCERAU'NIAN, an epithet applied to certain mountains, between Epirus and Illyricum, which project into the Adriatic, and obtain their name from being often struck with lightning. ACROCHIRIS'jNIUS, arnongthe Greeks, was a sort of gpnnastic exercise, in which the two combatants contended with their hands and feet only, without closing or en- gaging the other parts of the body. It was, in fact, a species of wrestling. ACRO'DIIYA, in natural history, all fruits that have rinds or shells, such as acorns, almonds, &c. ACRO MION, in anatomy, that part of the spine of the scapula which receives the end of the clavicle. ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM, a po- etical ccm.positon, wherein each subsequent verse commences with that which the verse pi'eceding terminates. ACRON'ICAL, or ACHRON YCAL, in astronomy, an appellation given to the rising of a star above the horizon, at sun- set ; or to its setting, when the sun rises. Acronical is one of the three poetical ris- ings of a star; the other two being called cosmical and helical. ACROP'OLIS, the citadel of Athens. It was formerly the whole city, and at first called Acropia, from Acrops the founder; but, after the inhabitants were greatly in- creased in number, the whole plain around it was tilled with buildings, and the ori- ginal city became the centre, under the de- nomination of Acropolis, or the upper city. A'CROSPIRE, the popular term for what among botanists is called the germ, plume, or plumule. AN ECHO RETURNS A MONOSYLIiABI.E AT FORTY FEET DISTANCE. ACTION, WHEN PKODUCED BY ONE BODY ON ANOTUEK, IS CALLED MECHANICAL, act] ©]&e Scientific an"D Xitcrar^ treasury ; [act ACROS TIC, a poem, the lines of which are so contrived, that the first letters of each, taken together, will make a proper name or other word. ACROSTiCUM, in botany, the name of a genus of the cryptogamia class of plants, and of that order called the filices, the fructitications of which are collected into clusters, and cover the whole under-surface of the leaves. ACROSTO'LIUM,in the naval architec- ture of the ancients, the extreme part of the ornament used on the prows of their ships. It was usual to tear the acrostolia from the prows of vanquished ships, as a token of victory. ACROTE'RIA, in architectvire, small pedestals, upon which globes, vases, or statues stand at the ends or middle of pe- diments. It also denotes the figures them- selves placed in such situations. Among ancient physicians, the term Acroteria was used to denote the larger extremities of the body. ACROTHYM'IA, in surgery, a large tu- mour, usually rising in the shape of a wart, though sometimes depressed and flat. ACT, in a general sense, denotes the ex- ertion, or effectual application, of some power or faculty. Act is distinguished from power, as the effect from the cause, or as a thing produced, from that which produces it. Act, among logicians, more particularly denotes an operation of the human mind; in which sense, compre- hending, judging, willing, &c. are called acts. Act, in law, is used for an instru- ment or deed in writing, serving to prove the truth of some bargain or transaction. Thus, records, certificates, &c. are called acts. Act is sdso used for the final reso- lution, or decree of an assembly, senate, council, &c. Acts of parliament are called statutes ; acts of the royal society, transactions ; those of the French academy of sciences, memoirs ; those of the academy of sciences at Petersburg, commentaries ; those of Leipsic, acta eruditormn ; the de- crees of the lords of session, at Edinburgh, acta sederunt, &c. Act, in the universi- ties, is the delivery of orations, or other exercises, in proof of the proficiency of a student who is to take a degree. At Ox- ford, the time when masters or doctors complete their den'ees, is called the act. At Cambridge, the same period is called the commencement. Act, in a dramatic sense, is the name i^i^en to certain portions of a play, intended to give respite both to the spectators and the actors. In the an- cient drama, five acts were required both in tragedy and comedy; and in what is termed the regular drama that rule is still observed, the acts being divided into smaller portions, called scenes. ACT OF Faith, or Auto-da-fe. In dark and barbarouii countries, where the Spa- nish inquisition had power, the act of faith was a solemn murder of infidels and here- tics, usually performed on some great fes- tival, and always on a Sunday. Act or Grace, in English law, an extraordinary act of the king in council, whereby, at the beginning of a new reign, or on other Sreat occasions, a free pardon has been sometimes granted to criminals. ACTS OF the Apostles, a canonical book of the New Testament, which con- tains great part of the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul; commencing at the ascen- sion of our Saviour, and continued down to St. Paul's arrival at Rome, after his appeal to Cicsar ; comprehending in all about thirty years. St. Luke has been generally taken for the author. ACTA PUB'LICA, in Roman history, the journal of the senate. It seems to have resembled the votes of the House of Com- mons amongst us, wherein a short account was given to the public of what passed in the senate-house. ACTA DIUR'NA, was a sort of Roman gazette, containing an authorised narrative of the transactions worthy of notice, which happened at Rome. ACTA CONSISTO'RII, the edicts or declarations of the council of state of the emperors. ACTIAN GAMES, or Ludi Actiaca, w^ere instituted in commemoration of the victory obtained by Augustus over Anthony at Actium. They returned every fifth year, according to the general opinion, and were sacred to Apollo, who was then called Ac- tius Apollo. Actian years became an era, commencing from the battle of Actium, called also the era of Augustus. The Ac- tian games consisted of shows of gladia- tors, wrestlers, and other exercises, and were kept generally at Nicopolis, a city built by Augustus, near Actium, for that purpose, with a view to perpetuate the fame of his victory. ACTIN'IA, or Sea Anemonies, in zoo- logy, a genus belonging to the order of vermes molluscm. They are viviparous, and form one of those wonderful links in the chain of creation, that connect the animal and v^etable kingdoms, by partaking of the nature of both. ACTIN'OLITE, a mineral, of which there are three varieties, the crystalhzed, the asbestous, and the glassy. It is prin- cipally found in primitive districts, with a magnesian basis. ACTION, in mechanics and physics, is the pressure or percussion of one body against another. It is one of the laws of nature, that action and re-action are equal, that is, the resistance of the body moved is always equal to the force communicated to it; or, which is the same thing, the moving body loses as much of its force as it communicates to the body moved. Action, in ethics, something done by a free or moral agent, capable of distinguishing good from evil. The essence of a moral ac- tion consists in its being done knowingly and voluntarily: that is, the agent must not only be able to distinguish whether it be good or bad in itself; but he must like- wise be entirely free from compulsion of any kind, and at full liberty to follow the dictates of his own understanding. Hence ACTION, WHEN PRODUCED BY ONE's OWN WILL, IS SPONTANEOUS OR VOLUNTARY. THE COMBIKKCE OP GREAT BRITAIN IS ACTIVE; THAT OF CHINA IS PASSIVE. act] IsTctD Btctlonaii) of tlje ^Selks ICcttrcs. [a the actions of idiots, slaves, &c. cannot be called moral. Hence also appears the ab- surdity of fatalism, which undermines the very foundation of morality. Action, in rhetoric, may be defined, the accommoda- tion of the voice, but more especially the gesture of an orator, to the subject he is upon. Cicero tells us, " that it does not so much matter w^hat an orator says, as how he says it." Horace, in his art of po- etry, is no less explicit in setting forth its vast influence on mankind: " With those who laugh, our social joy ap- pears ; With those who mourn, we sympathize in tears ; If you would have me weep, begin the strain, Then I shall feel your sorrows ; feel your pain." Action, in a theatrical sense, is nearly the same with action among orators ; only the actor adapts his action to an assumed character, whereas the orator is supposed to be in reality what his action expresses. Action, in painting and sculpture, de- notes the posture of a statue or picture, serving to express some passion, &c. Action, in the miUtary art, is an engage- ment between two armies, or between dif- ferent bodies of troops belonging thereto. ACTIONS, in law, are either criminal or civil. [For the various kinds, see Dictionary of Law Terms, in the " Treasury of Know- ledge."] AC'TIONARY, in commerce, a term used among foreigners, for the proprietor of an action or share of a public company's stock. ACTIVE, in a general sense, denotes something that communicates motion or action to another, in which sense it stands opposed to passive. Active, among grammarians, an appellation given to words expressing some action, as I write, I read, &c. Active Power, in metaphysics, the power of executing any work or labour ; in contradistinction to speculative powers, as those of seeing, hearing, reasoning, &c. Active Principles, in chemistry, those which act of themselves, without any foreign assistance : such are mercury, sul- phur, and salt, supposed to be. Some au- thors contend that sulphur, or fire, is the only active principle and source of all the motion in the world; and there are others who call oil, salt, and spirit, active prin- ciples, merely because their parts are bet- ter fitted for motion than those of earth or water. ACTOR, in a dramatic sense, is a man who enacts some part or character in a play. It is remarkable with what differ- ence actors were treated among the an- cients. At Athens they were held in such esteem, as to be sometimes sent on em- bassies to foreign powers; whereas, at Rome, if a citizen became an actor, he thereby forfeited his freedom. Actors in the present day have little to complain of, in regard to the treatment they receive : according as they contribute to the gratifi- cation of the public so are they rewarded ; and if their moral conduct be irreproach- able, no persons are more esteemed or lauded. ACTRESS, a female dramatic performer. They were unknown to the ancients, among whom men always took the parts of women. Nor were they introduced on the English stage till the days of the Stuarts. ACTUA'RIUS, or ACTA'RIUS, in Ro- man antiquity, an officer, or rather notary, appointed to write down the proceedings of a court. Actuarii were also officers who kept the military accounts, and dis- tributed the corn to the soldiers. ACTUARY, the chief clerk, or person, who compiles minutes of the proceedings of a company in business, ACTUS, in antiquity, a measure of length containing one hundred and twenty Roman feet. ACU'LEATE, or ACU'LEATED, an ap- pellation given to anything that has aculei, or prickles: thus, in ichthyology, fishes are divided into aculeated, and non-acu' leated. ACU'MEN, mental sharpness, or quick discernment; great intellectual capacity. In ancient music, acumen denotes a sound produced by raising the voice to a high pitch. ACU'MINA, in antiquity, a kind of mi- litary omen, taken from the points or edges of spears, swords, &c. ACUPUNCTURA'TION, an oriental practice of puncturing diseased parts of the body with fine needles, by which the morbid galvanic action of the parts is re- stored, and painful disorders removed. In China and Japan it has been a part of their system of surgery time out of mind, and of late years it has been in some repute in England. ACU'TE, an appellation given to such things as terminate in a sharp point, or edge : thus, we say an acute angle, acute- angled triangle, &c. Acute, in music, an epithet given to sharp or shrill sounds, in opposition to those called grave. Acute diseases are distinguished from chronic, by being attended with violent symptoms, and requiring immediate aid : chronic dis- eases, those which usually last long. ACYROLO'GIA,in grammar, denotes an improper word, phrase, or expression: it differs a little from the catachresis. AD, a Latin preposition, expressing the relation of one thing to another. It is fre- quently prefixed to other words : thus, ad HOMiNEM, among logicians, an argument drawn from the professed belief or prin- ciples of those with whom we argue. Ad liUDOS, in Roman antiqu^ity, a kind of punishment, whereby the criminals enter- tained the people, either by fighting with wild beasts, or with each other. ^Ad VALOREM, in commerce, according to the value. Ad infinitum, indefinitely, or to infinity. ADA'GIO, a degree quicker than grave time, in music, but with graceful and ele- gant execution. AD'AMANT, a sort of diamond, and the ADAMANTINE SPAR WILL CUT GLASS EASILT, AND SCRATCH ROCK CRYSTAL. 11 ADUESION IS USED IN A MTEKAL SENSE; ADHERENCE, METAFUORICALLY. ADJ [adm hardest, most brilliant, and most valuable of the precious stones. AD DER, a small poisonous serpent with plaits on the belly, and scales under the tail; it is by no means rare in Britain. ADDICTI, in Roman history, those who ■were delivered over to their creditors to be made slaves until they discharged their debts. ADDI"TION, in a general sense, is the unitin* or joining several things together: or, it denotes something added to another. Addition, in arithmetic, the first of the four fundamental rules of that art, whereby we connect into a total sum se- veral small ones. "When the number has only one kind of figures, it is called simple addition ; when it has two or several de- nominations, it is compound. Additions in law, denote all kinds of designations given to a man, over and above his proper name and surname, to show his estate, de- gree, profession, place of abode, &c. ADENOG RAPHY, or ADENOL'OGY, that part of anatomy which treats of the glands. ADDORS'ED, a term in heraldry, sig- nifying back to back. A'DEPS, in anatomy, denotes the fat found in the abdomen ; differing from the common fat or pinguedo, as being thicker, harder, and of a more earthy substance. Adefs, among physicians, is used in a more general sense, for all kinds of animal fat, ADHE'SION, the phenomenon by which the particles of bodies continue together. Adhesion denotes union to a certain point between two bodies, and Cohesion retains together the component particles of the same mass. Adhesion, among logicians, denotes the maintaining some tenet, merely on account of its supposed advantage, without any positive evidence of its truth. In medicine, it signifies the junction of parts that ought to be separated. ADIAN'THUM, in botany, maiden-hair ; a genus of plants of the oxdicr filices, and class cryptogamia. They are perennials. ADIPO'CERE, a substance resembhng spermaceti, which is formed from an ani- mal in its progress towards decomposition. AD'IPOSE, in a general sense, denotes something belonging to the fat of the body. The term adipose is chiefly used by phy- sicians and anatomists, in whose writings we read of adipose cells, adipose ducts, adipose membranes, adipose vessels, &c. A'DIT OF A MINE, the aperture whereby it is entered, and the water and ores carried away; it is distinguished from the air- shaft, and usually made on the side of a hill. Adit of a shif, in antiquity, was a space in the upper part, where the ship was widest, at which people entered. Adits of a theatre, were doors on the stairs, whereby persons entered from the outer porticoes, and descended into the seats. AD'JECTIVE, in grammar, a word ex- pressing some quality, or other accident, of the substantive with which it is joined. ADJOURN'MENT, the putting oflf a court or other meeting till another day. In parliament, adjournment differs from prorogation, the former being not only for the shorter time, but also done by the house itself, whereas the latter is an act of royal authority. AD'JUNCT, some quality belonging either to body or mind, either natural or acquired. Thus, thinking is an adjunct of the mind, and growth of the body. It also denotes something added to another, without being any necessary part of it. Thus water ab- sorbed by a sponge is an adjunct, but no necessary part of that substance. AD JUTANT, a military officer, whose duty it is to carry orders from the major to the colonel and Serjeants. When detach- ments are to be made, he gives the number to be furnished by each company or troop, and assigns the hour and place of rendez- vous. He also places the guards, receives and distributes the ammunition to the companies, &c. AD'JUTANT-GEN'ERAL, an officer of distinction, who assists the general, by forming the several details of duty of the army with the brigade majors. ADLOCU'TION, or ADLOCU'TIO, in Roman antiquity, the address made by ge- nerals to their armies, in order to rouse their courage before a battle. ADMINICLE, in Scotch law, signifies any writing or deed referred to by a party, in an action of law, proving his allegations. ADMINISTRATION, the executive go- vernment of a country. ADMINISTRATOR, in law, the per- son to whom the estate and effects of an intestate are committed, for which he is to be accountable when required. AD'MIRAL, the commander of a fleet of ships of war ; having two subordinate com- manders, as vice-admiral and rear-admiral ; and distinguished into three classes, by the colour of their flags, as white, blue, and red. The admiral carries his flag at the main-top-mast head ; the vice-admiral at the fore-top-mast head; and the rear-ad- miral, at the mizen-top-mast head. The Lord High Admiral of Great Britain, called in some ancient records, Capituneus Marinorum, is judge or president of the court of admiralty. He has the manage- ment of all maritime afi'airs, and the go- vernment of the royal navy, with power of deciding in all maritime causes, both civil and criminal. In short, his power is so extensive and absolute in all matters that come under his cognizance, that the office has usually been given to princes of the blood, or the most eminent persons among the nobiUty. For a short time it was filled by his late Majesty William IV. when duke of Clarence, after having been in abeyance just a century ; during which period, as at present, the office was executed by a certain number of commissioners, called lords of the admiralty. AD'MIRALTY, Court of, is a sovereign court, instituted by Edward III., and held by the lord high-admiral, or the commis- sioners of the admiralty ; where cognizance the adit, or horizontal entrance of a mine, is ai-so called the drift. TUE ADUliTERATION OF COIN IS A CAFITAL CHIME IN ALL NATIONS. ADO ^ 'Nm UBictionari) of if)c ^eUes ICctties. [a is taken in all maritime affairs, civil or criminal. All crimes committed on the high-seas, or in great rivers, beneath the bridge next the sea, are cognizable only in this court, by judge and jury, and before which they must be tried. Vice-Admi- ralty Courts, are established in all the dependencies of Great Britain, and have cognizance of all cases of captured vessels, misdemeanours in merchant ships, &c. ADMITTEN'DO Clekico, a writ grant- ed to a person who has i*ecovered his right of presentation in the common pleas ; by which the bishop, or metropolitan, is or- dained to admit his clerk. Admittkndo IN SociuM, a writ associating certain per- sons to the justices of assize already ap- pointed. ADMONFTIO FUS'TIUM, among the Romans, a military punishment, not unlike our whipping, only that it was performed with vine branches. ADMORTIZA'TION, in the feudal cus- toms, the reducing the property of lands or tenements to mortmain. ADNATA, in anatomy, one of the tunics or coats of the eye, otherwise called con- junctiva and albuginea, and is the same with the white of the eye. Also, an epithet for what grows upon animal or vegetable bodies, inseparably, as hair, &c., or acci- dentally, as fungus, &c. ADONA'I, one of the names of God used in the Scriptures, and properly signifying my lords, in the plural, as Adoni does my lord, in the singular number. ADO'NIA, solemn feasts in honour of Venus, instituted in memory of her beloved Adonis, and observed with great solemnity by the Greeks, Phoenicians, Lycians, Sy- rians, Egyptians, &c. They lasted two days, during the tirst of which the women carried about images of Venus and Adonis, weeping, tearing their hair, beating their breasts, and using every token of grief. On the second, they sung his praises, and made rejoicings, as if Adonis had been raised to life again. ADOPTION, a practice among the Greeks and Romans, of making a person one's heir, and investing him with all the rights and privileges of a son. In Rome, before adoption could take place, the natu- ral father was obliged to renounce all au- thority over his son, and with great for- mality consent that he should be translated into the family of the adopter. The adop- tion of a person already free was called adrogation. Adovtion, in a theological sense, denotes an act of God's free grace, whereby those who believe in Christ are accounted the children of God, and entitled to a share in the inheritance of the king- dom of heaven. ADORATION, a mode of reverence or worship anciently shown to the gods, by raising the right hand to the mouth, and gently applying it to the lips ; also, in ge- neral, any outward sign of worship, by kissing tlie hand or feet, walking barefoot, or the like. Among the Jews, adoration consisted in kissing the hands, bowing. kneeling, and even prostration. But the posture of adoration most common in all ages and countries, is kneeling ; and it is by far the most natural, as it implies hu- mility, and a consciousness of the necessity of self-abasement. ADO'REA, in Roman antiquity, grain, or a kind of cakes made of fine tlour, and offered in sacrifice ; a dole or distribution of corn, as a reward for some service ; whence, by metonymy, it is put for praise or rewards in general. ADOSCULA TION, the impregnation of plants, effected by the falling of the farina foecundans on the pistil. ADOSSE'E, in heraldry, two animals placed back to back. It also denotes any other figure, as axes, keys, &c. placed with their heads facing different ways. AD PON'DUS OM'NIUM, among phy- sicians, denotes, that the last-mentioned ingredient ought to weigh as much as all the before-mentionediiigredients together, AD QUOD DAM'NUM, in law, a writ issued before the king grants certain li- berties, as a fair, market, &c. ; ordering the sheriff to inquire what damage such a grant is likely to be attended with. ADROGATION, in antiquity, that kind of adoption which took place in regard to a person already his own master. See Adop- tion. ADSIDEL'LA, in antiquity, the table at which the priests sat during the sacri- fices. ADSTRICTION, among physicians, a term used to denote the too great rigidity and closeness of the emunctories of the body, particularly the pores of the skin ; also to signify the styptic quahty of medi- cines. AD TER'MINUM qui pr.eteriit, in law, a writ of entry, that lies for the lessor or his heirs, if after the expiration of a term for life or years, granted by lease, the tenant or other occupier of the lands, &c. withholds the same from such lessor. ADULTERATION, in a general sense, denotes the act of debasing, by an impro- per mixture, something that was pure and genuine. Thus, adulteration of coin, is the casting or making it of a metal inferior in goodness to the standard, by using too great a proportion of alloy. Inferior in- gredients put into bread, beer, wine, &c. by bakers, brewers, and other traders, for the purpose of imposing on the public, is also called adulteration, and cannot be too se- verely reprehended or punished ; the con- sequences often proving fatal to the health, and always greatly abridging the comforts, of those who are the victims of such nefari- ous practices. ADULTERY, a violation of the nuptial bed ; a crime which has been regarded by all civihzed nations with abhorrence, and in ancient times was punished as a capital offence. By the Jewish law, the penalty was death. In England it is at present considered a spiritual offence, cognizable by the spiritual court, where it is punished by fine and penance ; but by the common TITE SAXONS FORMERLY BURNT THE ADULTERESS AND HANGED DER PARAMOVB. FEUDAL ADVOCATES WERE TUOSE WHO LED THE VASSALS OF THE CHURCH TO WAR. ADV] W)t Scientific anU Xiuxaxvt ^rcasurp ; law, the party aggrieved cau only proceed by action for damages. ADUST', an appellation given to such humours as are become of a hot and liery nature. Thus blood is said to be adust, wiien, the more subtile and volatile part being evaporated, the remainder is vapid and impure. ADUS'TION, an inflammation of the parts about the brain and its membranes, attended with hollowness of the sinciput and eyes, a pale colour, and dryness of the body. Also, a surgical operation, of a na- ture similar to cauterization. ADVA'NCE, in commerce, money paid before goods are delivered, work done, or any consideration given. ADVA'NCED-GUARD, or VAN'- GUARD, in the military art, the first line or division of an army ranged or marching in order of battle. AD'VENT, the coming of our Saviour ; also the festival c-ommemorative of the Ad- vent, which falls about a month before Christmas. ADVENTURE, Bill of; in commerce, a writing signed by a merchant, to testify that the goods shipped on board a certain vessel belong to another person, he himself being answerable only for the produce. It also means, the goods sent out at a ven- ture. AD'VERB, a word so called from its signification and connexion vdtli verbs ; though they are also frequently joined with adjectives and other parts of speech to mo- dify their meaning. ADVERSA'RIA, a memorandum-book, journal, or common -place book. ADVERTISEMENT, any printed pub- lication of circumstances, either of public or private interest, particularly that in- serted in the newspapers. AD'VOCATE, a barrister; a pleader in civil or ecclesiastical causes. Advocates were held in great honour during the first ages of the Roman commonwealth, being styled comites, honorati, clarissimi, and even patroni. And in almost every civil- ized country, men of the first talents are found among its advocates.- — ^The Lord Advocate is an officer of state in Scot- land, who pleads in all causes of the crown, or where the king is concerned. ADVOCATION, among civilians, the act of calling another to assist us by plead- ing some cause. Letters of Advoca- tion, in the law of Scotland, signify a writ issued by the lords of session, advocating or calling a cause from an incompetent judge to themselves. ADVOWE'E, in law, signifies the patron of a church, or he who has a right to pre- sent to a benefice. ADVOW'SON, in law, a right of presen- tation to a vacant church or benefice. He who possesses this right is called the pa- tron of the living. This right is so called because it was first gained l3y such as were founders, benefactors, or maintainers of the church. Advowsons are either p yes en- tative, as when the patron presents or of- fers his clerk to the bishop to be insti- tuted ; collative, as where the benefice is given by the bishop, as original patron thereof, or by means of the right he has acquired by lapse ; or donative, as where the king, or other patron, by a simple do- nation in writing, puts the clerk into pos- session, without presentation, institution, or induction. A'DY, the palm-tree of the island of St. Thomas ; the fruit of which is of the size and shape of a lemon, and contains an aromatic kernel, from which an oil, an- swering the purpose of butter, is prepared. AD'YTUM, the most retired and secret place of the heathen temples, into which none but the priests were allowed to enter. The adytum of the Greeks and Romans answered to the sanctum sanctorum of the Jews, and was the place from whence ora- cles were delivered. The term is purely Greek, signifying inaccessible. iEACE'A, in Grecian antiquity, solemn festivals and games in honour of iEacus, who, on account of his justice upon earth, was thought to have been one of the judges in hell. At the end of the solemnity, the victors in the games used to present a gar- land of flowers. iECHMOL'OTARCH, the title given to the principal leader or governor of the Jewish captives residing in Chalda;a, Assy- ria, and the neighbouring countries. The Jews themselves call this magistrate JfJoscA- galnth, or chief of the captivity. Ji'DES, in Roman antiquity, besides its more ordinary signification of a house, or the internal part of a house, where the fa- mily used to eat, likewise signified an infe- rior kind of temple, consecrated indeed to some deity, but not by the augurs. There were a vast number of these in ancient Rome : thus we read of the ades fortunes, aedes pads, ades Herculis, &c. iEDIC'ULA, a small aedes or temple, which was erected in every village or parish. iEDI'LES, a Roman magistrate, whose chief business was to superintend buildings of all kinds, but more especially public ones, as temples, aqueducts, bridges, &c. ; and to take care of the highways, weights, and measures, &c. The ^diles were dis- tinguished into the adiles plebeii, who were chosen from the plebeians, as assis- tants to the tribunes ; and the tediles cu- riiles, from the patricians, to pi'ovide for certain public games. ^DIT'UUS, an officer who had the charge of the Roman temples. .ffi'GILOPS, an abscess in the canthus, or corner of the eye near the nose. ^GiLOFS, in botany, is the cerriis, or holm- oak. ^'GIS, a shield, particularly the shield of Jupiter. In anatomy, the term .^ois is used for an affection of the eye, when it has small cicatrices, which cause a dim- ness of sight. iEGOPHTHA L'M O S, the goat's-eye stone; those species of agate or other se- mipellucid gems which have circular spots in them, resembling the eye of the goat. 14 JURIDICAL advocates HELD COURTS AND TRIED THE CAUSES OF THEIR VASSALS. VINCENT XUNARDI, IN 1784, MADE THE FIKST AKRIAL ASCENT IN ENGLAND. aer] [aff iHNE'ID, the title of Virgil's epic poem, in which he celebrates the adventures of jEneas, one of the bravest among the Tro- jan heroes. The author introduces him as sailing from Troy, after its destruction, in search of the sliores of Italy, on which it had been promised by the gods that he should found an empire destined to be im- mortal ; and the poem ends with the com- plete success of /Eneas over Turnus, king of the Rutuli, whose dominions he had in- vaded, and who falls by his hand. The un- rivalled force, elegance, and beauty of Vir- gil's style have been the theme of admira- tion in every succeeding age, and given him an indisputable right to a niche in the tem- ple of Apollo, second only to that of Homer. iEO'LIAN HARP, an arrangement of strings placed in a window and played upon by the wind. It produces the effect of a distant choir of music in the air, sweetly mingling all the harmonic notes, and swelling or diminishing its sounds accor- ding to the strength or weakness of the blast. ^OL'OPILE, a hollow metal ball, in which is inserted a slender neck, or pipe ; from whence, after the vessel has been partly filled with water, and heated, issues a powerful gust of wind. It also serves to show the convertibility of water into steam. ^'RA, or E RA, a fixed historical period whence years are reckoned : as the build- ing of Rome, or the birth of Christ. Era and Epoch are not exactly synonymous. An era is a point fixed by a particular peo- ple or nation ; an epoch, one determined by chronologists and historians. The idea of an era, also, comprehends a certain suc- cession of years, proceeding from a fixed event ; and an epoch is that event itself. iERA'RIUM, in Roman antiquity, the treasury, or place where the public money was deposited. Mrarium and fiscus are sometimes used in a synonymous sense, although the latter, strictly speaking, con- tained only the money belonging to the emperor. iERARiuM Ilithi^e, or Ju- NONis LuciN^, a place where the monies were deposited, which parents paid on the birth of each child. There are several other treasuries mentioned by historians, as the cerarium juventutis, veneris, &c. iERA'RIUS, in a general sense, denotes any person employed in coining, or manag- ing the public moneys; but the word was more particularly used by the Romans for a degraded citizen, whose name had been struck off the list of his century. The ararii were so called on account of their being liable to all the taxes and other bur- dens of the state, without enjoying any of its privileges. AERODYNAM'ICS, that branch of aer- ology which ti-eats of the powers and mo- tion of elastic fluids. Aerodynamics are often explained in connexion wdth hydro- dynamics, a branch of hydrology. AEROG'RAPHY, a description of the air, or atmosphere, its limits, dimensions, and other most obvious properties. AE'ROLITES, meteoric stones, w^hich fall in a state of combustion from the at- mosphere. AEROL'OGY, the doctrine or science of air, as connected with the animal economy. [See Air, Atmosphere, and Gas.] AE'ROMANCY, a kind of divination amongst the Greeks, and from them adopt- ed by the Romans, w^hereby they pretended to foretel future events from certain spec- tral phaenomena or noises in the aiir. By aeromancy, in the present day, is meant the art of foretelling the changes and vari- ations of the air and weather, by means of meteorological observations ; but, judging by the attempts which have hitherto been made, the science, as it is called, seems to be little better than guess-work. AEROM'ETRY, the art of measuring the air, so as to ascertain its pressure or weight, its elasticity, rarefaction, &c. A'ERONAUT, one who sails in the airin a balloon. AERONAU'TICS, or AEROSTA'TION, the art of navigating the air, by employing air-balloons, or silken globes, filled with gas lighter than atmospheric air. iERU'GO, in natural history, properly signifies the rust of copper. uErugo is ei- ther natural, as that found about copper- mines; or artificial, like verdigris. iERU'GINOUS, an epithet given to such things as resemble, or partake of the na- ture of, the rust of copper. iESCHYNOM'ENOUS, an epithet for " sensitive" plants, or such as move upon being touched. The term JEschynomene is used to denote this genus of plants, of which there are many species. iES'TIVA, summer encampments for the Roman soldiers, in distinction from the hi- bernia, or winter quarters. iE'STIVAL, in a general sense, denotes something connected with, or belonging to summer. Hence we say sestival point, sestival sign, sestival solstice, &c. ESTIVATION, in botany, the state of the bud in summer, or the disposition of the petals within the flower-bud when they have arrived at perfection. iE'THER, the most subtile of all fluids, which, commencing from the limits of our atmosphere, occupies the firmament which is above the region of the air. The term is used by natural philosophers ancient and modern ; but not always in the same signi- fication. According to electricians, it is the electric fluid, or solar light. It may, however, generally be understood to be a fluid that fills all space ; in which the stars revolve ; and which, when impregnated with earthy exhalations, forms the air or atmo- sphere. iE'THIOPS, a medicine, so called from its black colour, of which there are various kinds, as JEthiop's mineral, antimonial M- thiops, &c. iETI'TESjOr EAGLE-STONES, a name given to pebbles or stones of any kind, which have a loose nucleus rattling within them. These eagle-stones are frequently found in our gravel-pits. AFFETUO'SO, affetto, Ital., in a tender NO positive utility has tet resulted from aeronautic studies. AGA A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT MUST BB TWENTY-ONE TEARS OF AGE. ^I;e Sckntiuc anti ICitcrari) treasury ; I AGE and affecting style; a term employed in music-books, at the beginning of a move- ment. AFFI'ANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plighting of troth, between a man and a woman; to bind one's self to the perform- ance of a marriage contract. AFFIDA'VIT, an oath in writing, taken before some person who is legally author- ized to administer the same. AFFIN'ITY, in civil law, the relationship in which each of the parties married stands to the kindred of the other. Affinity is distinguished into three kinds: 1. Direct affinity, or that subsisting between the husband and his wife's relations by blood ; or between the wife and her husband's re- lations, by blood. 2. Secondary affinity, or that which subsists between the husband and his wife's relations, by marriage. 3. Collateral affinity, or that which subsists between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations. It should, however, be observed, that a person cannot, by legal succession, receive an inheritance from a relation by affinity ; neither does it extend to the nearest relations of husband and wife, so as to create a mutual relation be- tween them. Affinity, in chemistry, the attractive power observable in the dif- ferent parts of bodies, by which they com- bine; as the affinity of sulphuric acid for potash and lime. AFFI'ON, an Arabic name for opium. AFFIRMATION, a simple asseveration, which, according to a set form of words, is allowed to the Quakers in lieu of taking an cath. False affirmation is subject to the same penalties as perjurv. AFFIR'MATIVE, an epithet used by lo- gicians for a species of proposition wherein any predicate is affirmed of its subject ; as, " a dog is a quadruped :" here " quadru- ped" is affirmed of a dog. AF'FIX, in grammar, a particle added at the close of a word, either to diversify its form, or alter its signitication. AFFLA'TUS, in a general sense, a di- vine influence communicating to the re- ceiver supernatural powers, particularly the gift of prophecy. Among heathen my- thologists and poets, it denotes the actual inspiration of some divinity : thus Virgil, " afflata est numine quando Jam propriore Dei." Tully, however, extends the meaning of the word farther, by attributing all great ac- tions to a divine afflatus. AFFRONTE'E, in heraldry, an appella- tion given to animals facing each other. AFLOAT', a term used to denote that a ship is in water sufficiently deep to buoy her up. A'FORA, in botany, an epithet for the pericarps of plants that are without valves. A FORTIO'RI, a term implying that what follows is a more powerful argument than what has been before adduced. AFTERMATH, the grass which springs or grows up after mowing ; or the grass, or stubble, cut after corn. A'GA, in the Mogul language, a great lord or commander ; in the Turkish, it is applied, in courtesy, to a gentleman or wealthy landholder ; or on account of post or rank, as to the commander-in-chief of the janissaries. The chief officers under the khan of Tartarv are also called agas. AGALMAT'OLITE, a soft mineral sub- stance, chiefly found in China, where it is wrought into various ornaments. AG' ATM, love-feasts kept by the ancient christians, as a token of brotherly charity and mutual benevolence. In course of time abuses crept in, and rendered the abolition of them necessary. AGAPE'T^, a society of unmarried wo- men among the primitive christians, who attended on and served the clergy. At first there was nothing improper in these socie- ties, though they were afterwards charged with gross immoralities, and were wholly abolished by the council of Lateran, in 1139. AG'ARIC, or AGA'RICUM, a genus of plants, of the cryptogamia algae class, growing on the trunks of trees, and resem- bling the common mushroom, both in sub- stance and structure. AG' ATE, a precious stone, or mineral, composed of various substances, as chalce- dony, cornelian, jasper, &c. ; also a stone of the agate kind engraven by art, which constitutes, among antiquarians, a species of gems. AGE, a certain period or limit of time, marked for the convenience of chronology and history by some remarkable events. Chronologers usually reckon seven such ages, namely, 1. From the creation to the deluge. 2. From the deluge to the birth of Abraham. 3. From the birth of Abra- ham to the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt. 4. From the departure of the Israelites to the building of the temple by Solomon. 5. From the laying the founda- tion of the temple to the reign of Cyrus in Babylon. 6. From the reign of Cyrus to the coming of Christ. 7. Since the birth of our Saviour. — Among ancient historians, the duration of the world was also subdi- vided into three periods, or ages : the first, reaching from the creation to the deluge which happened in Greece during the reign of Ogyges, is called the obscure or uncer- tain age ; the second, called the fabulous or heroic, terminates at the first olympiad ; where the third, or historical age, com- mences. The poets also distinguished the period of the world into four ages ; the golden age, or the age of simplicity and happiness; the silver age, which was less pure than the golden age, and in \\ hich men began to till the ground for their sus- tenance; the brazen age, when strife and contentious began ; and the iron age, when justice and honour had left the earth. Age, in law, signifies certain periods of life, when persons of both sexes are considered competent to perform certain acts, which, for want of years and discretion, they were incapable of before : thus a man may take the oath of allegiance at twelve years of age ; is at the age of discretion at fovirteen KG ONE CAN BE ORDAINED A PRIEST TILL HE IS TWENTY-FOUR YEARS OLD. AGENTS, IN MEDICINE, ARE TUOSE TOWERS WHICH ACT UPON THE BODY. to choose his guardian and contract a mar- riage ; and is at lull age at twenty-one. A woman at the age of nine is dowable ; at twelve may confirm her consent to mar- riage; at fourteen may receive her land into her own hands; and at twenty-one may alienate her lands and tenements. Among ancient physiologists, the life or age of man was divided into six stages : pueritia, or childhood, extending from birth to the year 5 ; adolescentia, or boyhood, to the year 18; juventus, or youth, to the year 30 ; virilis 'ith respect to its properties, and to the innu- merable combinations of bodies contained in it, are infinite. Lord Bacon thinks the best air is to be met with in open cham- paign countries ; where the soil is dry, not parched or sandy, and spontaneously pro- duces wild thyme, wild marjoram, and the like sweet-scented plant s. That near rivers he thinks rather prejudicial, unless they are small, clear, and have a gravelly chan- nel. The morning air is deemed more re- freshing than that of the evening, and air agitated with breezes, than that which is serene and still. Though invisible, except in large masses, without smell or taste, yet it is a substance possessing all the princi- pal attributes of matter ; it is impenetrable, ponderable, compressible, dilatable, per- fectly elastic, and its particles are operated on like those of other bodies, by chemical action. It is indispensable to the life of all organic beings ; it is the agent of com- bustion; devolves heat and light; and is the principal medium of sounds. In the elegant fables of the Greeks, Air was per- sonified under the names of Jupiter and Juno. Jupiter was said to reign in the upper atmosphere, and Juno in the lower. The air is sometimes, also, represented as a divinity, whose wife is the moon, and whose daughter the dew. Air, in music, is properly the tune which is adapted to the words of a song, or piece of poetry in- tended to be sung ; and, by the extension of the term, the song itself is called an air. In operas, the name of air is given to all measured music, to distinguish it fifom the recitative ; and, generally, to every piece of music, whether vocal or instrumental, which has its beginning and end. Ari- etta signifies a short, less elaborate air, designed to express a more simple and transient emotion. AIR-BLADDER, or the Swimming- bladder, a vehicle found in the bodies of all fishes ; the cartilaginous, cetaceous, and perhaps a few other kinds excepted. By this bladder, which is always more or less replete with air, the fish is enabled to sus- tain its body at any depth. Near the bot- tom, the great weight of the incumbent water compresses the body of the fish, or rather the inclosed air-bladder, till it be- comes equiponderant with an equal bulk of water. In the middle region, where the pressure is less, the air-bladder expands ; and thereby increases the bulk of the fish, without adding anything to its weight, till it becomes equiponderant with an equal bulk of water. As the fish continues to rise, the air-bladder still expands and sus- AT three miles HEIGHT, AIR IS TV.'ICE AS THIN AS AT THE LEVEL OF THE SEA. THB AIR-BUBBLES PRODUCED BY FREEZING, BENDER ICE LIGHTER THAN WATER. AJU] ^]^e Scientific antf ICiterar^ treasury ; [alb tains it; thus, according to tlie different degrees of contraction and dilatation of this bladder, they can keep higher or lower in the water at pleasure. AIR'-GUN, a gun constructed so as to propel bullets solely by means of condensed air ; which is effected without causing any explosion. AIR'. JACKET, a sort of jacket made of leather, in which are several bags or blad- ders, containing air. By the help of these bladders, which are placed near the breast, a person is supported in the water, without making the efforts used in smmming. AIR'-PUMP, a machine for exhausting the air out of vessels, in the same manner as water is drawn up by a pump. The ope- ration of this machine depends on the elasticity of the air: for, by working the pump, the air in the receiver will expand Itself; by which means part of it will be forced into the barrel of the pump, to be carried off. By thus continuing to work the pump, the air in the receiver will be gradually exhausted ; but can never be wholly drawn out, so as to leave a perfect vacuum within the vessel ; for it must be considered, that the air which is exhausted, is only pushed out by the spring of that which remains behind; if, therefore, every particle were supposed to be exhausted, the last would be expelled without an agent ; or there would be an effect without a cause. AIR'-SHAFTS,iu mining;, holes or shafts let down from the open air, to discharge the foul air or gases. AIR' -THREADS, in natural history, the long filaments seen floating in the air at the autumnal season of the year. These threads are the work of spiders, especially of that species called the long-legged field- spider. This animal, having gained the summit of a bush or tree, darts from its tail several of these threads, till at length it produces one capable of sustaining it in the air : on this it mounts in quest of prey, and frequently rises to considerable heights. AIR'-VESSELS, spiral ducts or canals in the leaves and other parts of plants, which are supposed to supply them with air, after the manner of lungs in animals. In navigation, the term air-vessels has been appUed to a late invention for ren- dering life-boats of more service, and ships in general more safe. It consists of a set of tube-formed air-vessels carried round the planking. AIR- LAMP, a pneumatic machine, formed by the combination of inflammable air and electricity to produce a flame, which by means of a stop-cock, may be repressed or continued at pleasure. A'JUTAGE, or AD'JUTAGE, in hydrau- lics, part of the apparatus of a jet d'eau, or artificial fountain ; being a kind of tube fitted to the aperture or mouth of the cistern, or the pipe; through which the water is to be played in any direction. AL, an Arabian particle, answering to the English the, and employed in the same manner to mark any thing definitely. A'LA, or A'LJE, in ancient military af- fairs, the wings of an army, or the horse on each side flanking the foot. AL'ABASTER, a well-known sulphate of lime, forming a soft, granular, imper- fectly transparent, marble ; used for orna- ments in houses, and by statuaries. It is found in Germany, France, and Italy. Alabaster, in antiquity, a term not only used for a box of precious ointment, but also for a liquid measure, containing ten ounces of wane, or nine of oil. ALABAS'TRA, in plants, are those little herbaceous leaves which encompass the bottoms of flowers, particularly the rose. ALABAS'TRUM Dendhoide, the name of a species of laminated alabaster, beauti- fully variegated with the figures of trees, shrubs, &c. ALA'NA Terra, the ochraferri of Lin- naeus, or red ochre, supposed to be what the ancients called Samius lapis, thfi Sa- mian stone. ALA'RES, in Roman antiquity, an epi- thet given to the cavalry, on account of their oeing placed in the two wings, or alse, of the army. ALA'RAT, according to the Mahometan creed, the party-wall which separates hea- ven from hell. ALAR'UM, any contrivance for the pur- pose of alarm. A bell, or rattle, to call as- sistance. A bell fastened to, or commu- nicating with, a door or window. ALB, orALBE, {alba), in the Romish church, a vestment of white linen, hang- ing down to their feet, and answering to the surplice of our clergy. In the ancient church, it was usual with those newly bap- tized, to wear an alb, or white vestment ; and hence the Sunday after Easter was called dominica in albis, on account of the albs worn by those baptized on Easter-day. AL'BATROSS, or Man-of-War Bird, the Diomedes of Linnaeus, a large and voracious bird, which inhabits many countries be- tween the troiHCS. ALBIGEN'SES, a name common to se- veral sects, particularly the Cathari and Waldenses, who agreed in opposing the dominion of the Romish hierarchy, and en- deavouring to restore the simplicity of primitive Christianity. They endured the severest persecutions, and after the middle of the 13th century, the name of Albigenses altogether disappeared ; but fugitives of their party formed, in the mountains of Piedmont and in Lombardy, what is called the French Church, which was continued through the Waldenses, to the era of the Reformation. ALBI'NOS, or Leuc^'thiops, a variety of the human species, that frequently oc- curs in Africa. The Portuguese first gave the name of Albino to the white negi-o, and they formerly described them as a distinct race ; but modern naturalists have discovered them in various countries of Europe, viz. in Switzerland, among the Sa- voyards in the valley of Chamouni; in France, in the tract of the Rhine ; in Tjrrol, &c. Their characteristics are now said to HUME TERMS THE ALBIGENSES "THE MOST INOFFENSIVE OF MANKIND." THE FLAME OF PURE ALCOHOL IS BLUE, AND IT LEAVES 7iO RESIDUUM. ALC] l^zixi JBictionary of tf)e IScUcs Xettrcs. [ale be owing to a disease whicli may attack men in every climate, and to which even certain animals are subject. Their skin has a dull white or cadaverous appearance ; tlie iris of the eye is of a bright red, or of h blue colour ; and the hair is either white and silky, or of a very flaxen colour. "When this variety is found among the negroes, the woolly excrescence which covers the heads of that race is white. AL'BULA, mineral waters of an alumi- nous kind ; hence of an astringent quality, and of use in wounds. ALBU'GO, a disease of the eye, which consists of a white speck. AL'BUM, a white table or register, whereon the Roman praetors had their de- crees written. There were many of them in use, and they received their appellations from the various magistrates whose names were thereon entered ; as the album judi- cum, the album decurionum, &c. The fashionable Albums of the present day are derived from the practice adopted in many foreign countries of having a white paper book, in which strangers of distinction or literary eminence were invited to insert their names, or any observation in prose or verse, as a memorial of their visit. ALBU'MEN, a white or transparent viscous fluid, without taste or smell, which is the substance of the nerves ; the serous part of the blood ; and the white of eggs, and of milk. ALBUR'NUM, the soft white substance between the inner bark and the wood of shrubs and trees. ALCA'ICS, a term given to several kinds of verse, from their inventor, the poet Alcaius. AL'CAIDE, or AL'CALDE, a Spanish or Portuguese magistrate, or officer of justice, answering nearly to the French prevost, and the British justice of peace. Both the name and office are of Moorish origin. AL'CHEMY, or AL'CHYMY, that obso- lete branch of chemistry which had for its object the transmutation of metals into gold ; the finding the panacea, or universal remedy; and other things equally ridi- culous in the eyes of philosophers of a more enlightened age. Though designing men have often used alchymy as a means of defrauding the credulous of their money, many have laboured in. the fruitless search with indefatigable patience and purity of heart ; and various discoveries of real value to science have been the accidental results of their labours. AL COIIOL, an Arabian Avord, signifying any thing reduced into thin parts, or ren- dered extremely subtile by distillation. The word, at present, is used for a highly recti- fled spirit. This preparation is extremely light and inflammable : it is colourless and transparent, appearing to the eye like pure water. To the palate it is exceedingly hot and burning : but without any peculiar taste. It is chiefly em.ploy€d in preparing varnishes, and dissolving gums, resins, &c. Its antiseptic power makes it alsoxiseful in preserving anatomical preparations. [Much valuable information respecting the nature, properties and methods for ])rociiving and concentrating alcohol, together with vari- ous alcoholmctrical tables, will be found on referring to Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts.] ALCOHOLIZATION, the process of rectifying any spirit, or reducing it to a perfect alcohol. AL'COR, a small star, adjoining the bright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa Major. AL'CORAN, or the Koran, the name of the volume containing the revelations, doc- trines, and precepts of Mahomet, in which his followers place implicit conlidence. The general aim of the Alcoran was to unite the professors of the three diflereut religions then followed in Arabia, Idolaters, Jews, and Christians, in the knowledge and worship of one God, under the sanc- tion of certain laws, and the outward signs of ceremonies, partly of ancient, and partly of novel institution, enforced by the con- sideration of rewards and punishments, both temporal and eternal, and to bring all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet and ambassador of God, who was to establish the true religion on earth. [The reader has an easy opportunity of gratifying his curiosity with regard to the doctrines of the Koran, by consulting an English translation of that work by G. Sale.] ALCYO'NIUM, in botany, a genus of submarine plants, consisting of a rigid flbrous substance, disposed in various forms, and sometimes coated over with a crust of a similar but more compact matter than the rest. ALDEBA'RAN, a star of the first mag- nitude, vulgarly called the Bull's Eye, as making the eye of the constellation Tau- rus. AL'DER, the befula alnus, of Linnaeus, a tree which thrives particularly in moist places. The principal sorts of alder are the round leaved, or common alder, the long- leaved, and the dwarf alder. AL'DERMAN, a magistrate next in au- thority to the mayor, in a city or borough. Their nvimber is not limited, but differs ac- cording to the magnitude of the place, w here they exercise the authority of commission- ers of the peace. In London, their number is twenty-six ; each having a ward, or dis- trict of the city committed to his more pe- cviliar care ; but, serving by rotation, as sit- ting magistrate for the whole. Alder- man, among our Saxon ancestors, was a de- gree of nobility, from which is derived the earl of the present day. ALE, a fermented liquor, obtained from an infusion of malt and hops. Fale ale is brewed from slightly dried malt, and brown from malt highly dried. Ale is thought to be the same kind of liquor with the cerevisia, zythum, and carmi of the ancients. A'LEA, in antiquity, denotes in general all kinds of games of chance ; but, in a more restricted sense, was used for a par- ticular game played with dice and tables, not unlike our backgammon, and wherein ALCOHOL, OR TKOOV SPIRIT, CONTAINS ABOUT ONE HALF ITS WEIGHT OF WATER. ALGEBRA MAY BE EEGARDED AS A SPECIES 0¥ THE ANALYTIC AKT. alg] '^i)z Scientific antJ lEiterarp ^reasuiii ; [ali black and white stones were used instead of wooden men. ALECTOROMAN'TIA, in Grecian anti. quity, a species of divination performed by means of a cock, in the following manner : A circle being described on the ground, and divided into twenty-four equal portions, in each of these spaces was written one of the letters of the alphabet, and on each of the letters was laid a gi*ain of wheat ; after which a cock being turned loose in the circle, particular notice was taken of the grains picked up by the cock, because the letters under them being formed into a word, made the answer desired. A-LEE', a sea term, used when the wind, crossing or flanking the line of a ship's course, presses upon the masts and sails so as to make her incline to one side, which is called the lee-side: hence, when the helm is moved over to this side, it is said to be a-lee. ALEM'BIC, a vessel formerly used for distilling ; in the place of which retorts are now mostly in use. ALEU'ROMANCY, a species of divina- tion performed by meal or flour. It is sometimes called alphitomaucy and cry- thomancy. ALEXAN'DRIAN LIBRARY. This cel- ebrated library was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use of an academy that he instituted in Alexandria ; and, by continual additions by his successors, became at last the finest library in the world, containing no fewer than 700,000 volumes. The me- thod followed in collecting books for this library, was, to seize all those which were brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners. The books were transcribed in the museum by persons appointed for that purpose, the copies were then delivered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in the library. It was eventuaDy burnt by order of the caliph Omar, a. d. 624. ALEXAN'DRIAN MANUSCRIPT, or Codex Alexandrinus, a famous copy of the Scriptures, consisting of four vo- lumes, in a large quarto size; v^^hich con- tains the whole Bible, in Greek* including the Old and New Testaments, with the Apocrypha, and some smaller pieces, but not quite complete. This manuscript is now preserved in the British Museum. It was sent as a present to king Charles I., from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Con- stantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, ambas- sador from England to the grand seignior, about the vear 1628. ALEXAN'DRIAN, or ALEXAN'DRINE, in poetry, a kind of verse, consisting of twelve, or of twelve and tliirteen syllables alternately, the pause being always on the sixth syllable. It is so called from a poem on the life of Alexander, -written in this way, by some French poet. AL'GAROTH, Powder of, a precipitate obtained by pouring water into the acidu- lous chloride of antimony. AL'G^, in botany, an order of the cryp- togamia class of plants. It is one of the seven families or natural tribes into which the vegetable kingdom is distributed. The plants belonging to this order have their root, leaf, and stem entire. Under this de- scription are comprehended all the sea- weeds, and many other aquatic plants. AL'GEBRA, a species of abstract arith- metic, in which letters are put for any numbers, and any desired operations per- formed in a short and simple manner. The first letters of the alphabet are gene- rally adopted for known quantities, and the last for unknown, and the operations are performed by characters, as -f for ad- dition ; — for subtraction ; x for multipli- cation ; and -j- for division ; with = for equality. Thus, a, b, c, &c., are commonly put for known quantities: and z, y, x, &c., for unknown or indeterminate quantities : thus if a -t- ar be equal to 9 and a is known to be equal to 4, then a: = 9 — 4 = 5. Again, if a + a; = 12, and a ~ x — S, then by add- ing the two quantities together I get 2 a = 20 (because there being -f x and — x they destroy one another) and ct = ^ «= 10, of course a; = 2. On such operations as these, extended almost indefinitely, al- gebra depends, and by them every problem in arithmetic, and almost all in geometry may be solved. AL'GOL, a fixed star in Caput Medusee, and marked /3 in Perseus. This star is subject to periodic variations in its bright- ness. It changes from the second magni- tude to the fourth in about three hours and a half, and back again in the same time; when it continues of the greatest brightness for about two days and seven hours, then it changes again. AL'GENEB, the name of two fixed stars of the second magnitude ; one on the wing of Pegasus, the other on the right shoulder of the constellation Perseus. AL'GORITHM, a term frequently used to denote the practical rules of algebra, and sometimes for the practice of common arithmetic. AL'GUAZIL, the title of one of the lower orders of Spanish officers of justice, whose business is to execute the orders of the magistrate. A'LIAS, in law, a Latin word signifying otherwise ; often used in describing the ac- cused, who has assumed other names beside his real one. AL'IBI, in law, a Latin word signifying, literally, elsewhere. It is used by the ac- cused, when he wishes to prove his inno- cence, by showing that he was in another place when the act was committed. ALICON'DA, a tree of immense size, which grows at Congo, on the coast of Africa. It bears a melon-like fruit, which affords pulpy nutritious food, and the bark yields a coarse thread, with which the Africans weave a kind of cloth. A'LIEN, in law, a person born in a foreign country, in contradistinction to a denizen or natural subject. An alien is incapable of inheriting lands in England, till natural- ized by an act of parliament. No alien is entitled to vote in the choice of members THE alexandrine FORM OF VERSE BECOMES FATIGUING FROM ITS MONOTONY. alk] MANT A SIMPLE ALIMENT IS MADE INDIGESTIBLE BY MODKRN COOKERY. % 'Nm Mniomxxt of tl^c ISelUs ICettrcs. [all of parliament, lias a riglit to enjoy offices, or can be returned on any jury, unless where an alien is party in a cause ; and. then the jury is composed of an equal num- ber of denizens and aliens. ALIENA TION, in law, the act of making a thing another man's : or the altering and transferring the property and possession of lands, tenements, or other things, from one man to another. To alienate, in mort- main, is to make over lands or tenements to a religious community, or other body politic. To alienate in fee, is to sell the fee-simple of any land, or other incorporeal right. ALI'GNMENT, in naval affairs, a sup- posed line drawn to preserve a fleet in its just direction. AL'IMENT, whatever serves as nutri- ment to animal life. Climate, custom, and the different degrees of want and of civili- zation, give rise to an innumerable diver- sity of food and drink, from the repast of a savage to that of an epicure ; or from the diet of the carnivorous native of the north to that of the Brahmin, whose appetite is satisfied with vegetables ; but all kinds of aliment must contain nutritious substance, which, being extracted by digestion, ent(;rs the blood, and effects the repair of the body. ALIMENTARY, in a general sense, is a term applied to whatever belongs to ali- ment or food. Alimentary Duct, a name by which some call the intestines, on account of the food passing through them. Alimentary Law, among the Ro- mans, that whereby children were obliged to maintain their aged parents. AL'IMONY, in law, the maintenance sued for by a wife, in case of a legal sepa- ration from her husband, wherein she is neither chargeable with elopement nor adultery. ALIP'TA, amongst the Romans, was a slave, whose province it was to anoint his master when he bathed. AL'IQUANT PARTS, such numbers in arithmetic as will not divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 7> which is the aliquant part of 16. AL'IQUOT PARTS, such parts of a num- ber as will divide or measure a whole num- ber exactly, as 2 the aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and 4 of 16. Aliquot parts must not be confounded with commensurable ones ; for though the former be all commensurable, yet these are not always aliquot parts: thus 4 is commensurable with 6, but is not an aliquot part of it. ALI'TES, in Roman antiquity, a desig- nation given to such birds as afforded mat- ter for auguries by their flight ; in which sense, they are contradistinguished from those called oscines, or those which gave auguries by singing or croaking. AL'KA, in ornithology, a bird of the an- seres, or goose-kind, about the size of a duck, and quite black, except on the breast and belly, which are white : it is commonly called the awk or razor-bill. AL'KAHEST, an universal menstruum possessing the virtue of pervading every substance, and capable of resolving all bodies into their ens primum, or first mat- ter. It is explained by Van Helmont to signify a salt of the highest sort, that had attained to the highest state of purity and subtilty. AL'KALI, among chemists and physi- cians, an appellation given to all sub- stances which excite a fermentation when mixed with acids. Originally the term al- kali signified only the salt extracted from the ashes of kali or glass-wort ; afterwards, it was used for the salts of all plants, ex- tracted in the same manner ; and as these were observed to ferment with, acids, the signification of tha term was still farther extended, so as to comprehend whatever substances had this effect. Potash is called the vegetable alkali, because it is procured from the ashes of all vegetables, in a greater or less proportion, except ma- rine plants, and a few that grow near the sea-shore, which yield soda. This latter is termed the mineral alkali, because it is not only obtained from the ashes of the last- mentioned plants, but is sometimes found native in the earth. Ammonia, or the volatile alkali, is procured by decomposi- tion, from all animal, and from some vege- table substances; andby putrefaction from all these matters. It is distinguished from the fixed alkalies by its volatility, which is so great that it very easily assumes a ga- seous form, and is dissipated by a very moderate degree of heat ; and by its pun- gent smell. Its purest form is that of a gas : it is never solid, unless combined with some other substances ; nor liquid but when it is united with water. It is weaker in all its affinities than the fixed alkalies ; and is composed of hydrogen and azote, m the proportion of 193 parts of the former to 807 of the latter. ALKAKEN'GI, or Winter Cherry, the fruit of which is a species of nightshade. Alkakengi, in medicine, is used as an abstergent, dissolvent, and diuretic, and is celebrated for its lithotriptic quality. ALKALIM'ETER, a scientific instru- ment invented by Descroizelles to measure the purity of different alkalies. AI/KALINE, in a general sense, is ap- plied to all such things as have the pro- perties of an alkali. ALKALIZA'TION, the impregnating a liquor with alkaline salts. AL'KANET, the bark of a root used in dyeing; also for the colouring of oils, in compositions for giving colour to mahogany furniture, and other purposes. It imparts a fine deep-red colour to all unctuous sub- stances and to spirits of wine ; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. It is chiefly imported from the Levant, and the plant is a species of bugloss. ALKER'MES, in pharmacy, a compound cordial medicine, of the form and consist- ence of a confection. AL'LAH, the Arabian name of God. ALLEGIANCE, in law, the faithful obedience which every subject owes to his prince; being the tie or bond of fidelity alkalies and acids may be CONSIDERED AS ANTAGONIST SUBSTANCES. TIVE ALLOTS ARE THOSE JIKTALS FOUND COMI5IJJED WITH OTKER METALS. all] Scientific antJ XiUravD ^rcasunj ; [a lm wliicli binds the governed to the governor. Tlie oath of allegiance is that which every person is required to take before he enters on any otfice. ALLEMAN'NIC, in a general sense, de- notes any thing belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus we meet with Allemannic history, Allemannic language, Allemannic law, &c. AL'LEGORY, a scries or chain of meta- phors continued through a whole discourse. The great source of allegory, or allegorical interpretations, is some difficulty, or ab- surdity, in the literal and obvious sense. AL'LEGRO, an Italian word used in music, to denote that the part is to be played in a brisk and sprightly manner. The usual distinctions succeed each other in the following order: grave, adagio, largo, vivace, allegro, presto. Allegro time may be heightened, as allegro assai and al- legrissimo, very lively; or lessened, as alle- gretto or poco allegro, a little lively. Piu allegro is a direction to play or sing a little quicker. ALL-HAL'LOWS, or ALL-SAINTS, a festival observed by many denominations of Christians, in commemoration of the saints in general. It is kept on the first of No- vember, Gregory IV. having in 835 appoint- ed that day for its celebration. ALLI'ANCE, in the civil and canon law, the relation contracted between two per- sons or two families by marriage. Al- liance is also used for a treaty entered into by sovereign princes and states, for their mutual safety and defence. Alli- ance, in a figurative sense, is applied to any kind of union or connection : thus we say, there is an alliance between the church and the state. ALLIGATION, a rule in arithmetic, teaching how to compound several ingre- dients for any design proposed. It is either medial or alternate. The former shows the rate or price of any mixture, when its several quantities and their rates are known. The latter is the method of find- ing the quantities of ingredients necessary to form a compound of a given rate. AL'LI GATOR, an amphibious animal, so nearly resembling the crocodile of the Nile as to be considered a mere variety. It abounds in the torrid zone, will sometimes grow to the length of IS or 20 feet, and is covered by a dense hardness of horny scales, impenetrable iu most parts to a musket-ball. ALLITERATION, a figure or embel- lishment of speech, which consists in the repetition of the same consonants, or of syllables of the same sound, in one sen- tence. The Greek and Roman literature afford many instances of this ; and in Eng- lish poetry there are also many beautiful specimens of alliterations ; though it must be confessed that it is too often used with- out the requisite skill, and carried too far. In burlesque poetry it is frequently used with excellent effect ; though even there the sense should never be sacrificed to the sound. Tastefully used, it is a most en- chanting ornament, and will equally con- triljute to softness, to energy, and to so- lemnity. ALLO'DIAL LANDS, are those which, under the feudal system, were free. Their owners owed no service to a superior lord. AL'LOPHANE, a mineral, or aluminous earth, of a blue, and sometimes of a green or brown colour, which occurs massive, or in imitative shapes. It gelatinizes in acids. ALLOY', a proportion of any baser metal mixed with one that is finer ; thus the gold coin has an alloy of silver and copper, as silver has of copper alone. Alloy also means any compound of any two or more metals whatever ; thus, bronze is an alloy of cop- per and tin ; brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, &c. One metal however, does not al- loy indifferently with every other metal, but it is governed in this respect by peculiar affinities. ALL'SPICE, so called from its flavour, which unites that of the cinnamon, of the nutmeg, and of the clove, is the pimenta, or Jamaica pepper. ALLU'VIAL, a term used by mineralo- gical and geological writers. By alluvial depositions is meant the soil which has been formed by the destruction of moun- tains, and the washing down of their par- ticles by torrents of water. The alluvial formations constitute the great mass of the earth's surface. ALLU'VION, in lav.% a gradual increase of land along the sea-shore, or on the banks of rivers. This, when slow and impercep- tible, is deemed a lawful means of acquisi- tion; but when a considerable portion of land is torn away at once, by the violence of the current, and joined to a neighbour- ing estate, it may be claimed again by the former owner. ALMACANTAR, in astronomy, a name for the parallels of altitude on the celestial globe, whose zenith is the pole or vertical point. Almacantau's Staff is an in- strument for observing at sea the sun's amplitude rising and setting. Ali'MADIE, a kind of canoe, or small vessel, about four fathoms long, usually made of bark, and used by the negroes of Africa. AL MAGEST, the name of a celebrated book, composed by I'tolemy ; being a col- lection of many of the observations and problems of the ancients, relating both to geometry and astronomy. AL'MAGRA, a tine deep-red ochre, with a faint admixture of purple, used both in painting and medicine. AL'MA MATER, a title given to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge by their several members who have passed their degrees in either of these universities. AL'MANAC, a calendar or table, con- taining a list of the months, weeks, and days of the year, with an account of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, the most remarkable phenomena of the hea- venly bodies, the several festivals and fasts, and other incidental matters. The Nau- tical Almanac, a most valuable work for alloy in gold and silveb makes tkose metals wear better. TUB EARLIEST ENGLISH ALMANACS WERE PRINTED IN HOLLAND. ALr] % 'Kcto Bictionarii of \\)z IBcHes Xcttves. [alt mariners, is published in England two or three years in advance. It was commenced in 1767. by Dr. Maskelyne, the astronomer royal, and has been regularly continued ever since. AL MONER, an ecclesiastical officer of the king, appointed to distribute the king's alms to the poor every day. ALMS, a general term for what is given out of charity to the poor. In the early ages of Christianity, the alms of the chari- table were divided into four parts, one of which was allotted to the bishop, another to the priests, and a third to the deacons and sub-deacons, which made their whole subsistence ; the fourth part was employed in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches. ALMS'-HOUSE, a building erected for the maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or disabled persons. Of these there are a great number in London, West- minster, and other towns of note in Eng- land ; some endowed by public companies, and others by charitable individuals. ALMU'TEN, in astrology, the lord of a figure, or strongest planet in a nativity. A'LOA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival kept in honour of Ceres, by the husband- men, and supposed to resemble our har- vest-home. AL'OE, a tree which originally came from India, remarkable for a bitter juice, called aloes, wliich is extracted from its leaves, and is very useful in medicine as a purgative. The Socotrine aloe, the leaves of which afford a beautiful violet colour, is an European species much cultivated in Spain. Aloes are an extensive tribe of plants ; and while some of them are not more than a few inches in height, others occasionally exceed thirty feet. All the leaves are fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges or extremity. The great American aloe (agave Americana), when in full flower, pre- sents a most splendid appearance. The stem, which bears the blossoms, rises from the centre of the leaves, branching out on all sides in such a manner as to form a kind of pyramid, composed of greenish-yellow flowers, which stand erect, and are seen in thick clusters at every joint. It is an er- roneous notion, though a very generally received one, to suppose that the American aloe does not bloom till it is 100 years old; the fact is, in hot countries it will flower in a few years ; but in colder climates, the growth being slower, it is necessarily longer in arriving at maturity. ALOET'ICS, a general term for all me- dicines, the basis or principal ingredient of which is aloes. ALOGOTIIO'PHIA, in medicine, unequal growth or nutrition in diiferent parts of the body. ALOPE'CIA, in medicine, a falling off of the hair, occasioned either by a defect of nourishment, or by a bad state of the hu- mours. AL'PHAEET, the natural or customary series of the several letters of a language. The word is formed from alpha and beta, the first and second letters of the Greek alphabet. It is undoubtedly the most im- portant of all inventions, for by means of it sounds are represented, and language made visible to the eye by a few simple characters. The five books of INIoses are universally acknowledged to be the most ancient compositions, as well as the most early specimens of alphabetical writing ex- tant ; and it appears that all the languages in use amongst men w hich have been con- veyed in alphabetical characters, have been the languages of people connected, ulti- mately or immediately, with the Hebrews. Hence a most extensive controversy has existed amongst learned men, whether the method of expressing our ideas by visible symbols, called letters, be really a human invention; or whether we ought to attri- bute an art so exceedingly useful, to an im- mediate intimation of the Deity. An opi- nion upon such a subject would necessarily be mere conjecture, and therefore useless ; but we feel that we could not properly pass over in silence a matter which has so often engaged the attention of the most erudite controversialists. ALPHON'SINE TABLES, astronomical tables made in the reign of Alphonsus X., king of Arragon, who was a great lover of science, and a prince of rare attainments ; but though these tables bear his name, they were chiefly drawn up by Isaac Ila- zan, a learned Jewish rabbi. ALT, in music, that part of the groat scale lying between F above the treble cliff note, and G in altissimo. AL'TAR, a place upon which sacrifices were anciently offered to the Almighty, or some heathen deity. Before temples were in use, altars were erected sometimes in groves, sometimes in the highways, and sometimes on the tops of mountains ; and it M-as a custom to engrave upon them the name, proper ensign, or character of the deity to whom they were consecrated. Thus St. Paul observed an altar at Athens, with an inscription, To the unknown God. In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were ordinarily three altars ; the first was placed in the sanctuary, at the foot of the statue of the divinity, upon which in- cense was burnt and libations offered ; the second was before the gate of the temple, and upon it they sacrificed the victims; and the third was a portable altar, upon which were placed the offerings and the sacred vessels. The principal altars of the Jews were those of incense, of burnt-offer- ings, and the altar, or table, for the shew- bread. Altar is also used among Chris- tians, for the communion-table. AL'TARAGE, the profits arising to a priest on account of the altar, as well aa the offerings themselves made upon it. ALTERATIVES, such medicines as in- duce a ftvourable change in the system, without any manifest operation or evacua- tion. ALTERNATION, a rule in arithmetic, by which the changes in any number of things may be determined, it consists of CHRIST, THE ATONING SACRIFICE FOR SIN, IS CALLED THE ALTAR OP CHRISTIANS. ALUM, IN ITS PURE STATE, APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN UNKNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. ALU] [ama multiplying the numbers one into another, and the product is the number of possible changes. ALTILE'A, a plant, the root of which abounds with a mild mucilage, and is of great efficacy in medicine as an emollient. It is well known by its English name, the Marsh-mallow. AL'TIMETRY, the art of taking heights by means of a quadrant, and founded on the principle that the sides of triangles having equal angles, are in exact propor- tion to one another. ALTIS'SIMO, in music, an Italian epi- thet for notes above F in alt. ALTIS'TA, in music, an Italian name for the vocal performer who takes the alt-o primo part. AL'TITUDE, the height of an object, or its elevation above that plane to which the base is referred ; thus in mathematics, the altitude of a figure is the perpendicular or nearest distance of its vertex from the base. The altitude of an object is the elevation of an object above the plane of the horizon, or a perpendicular let fall to that plane. Accessible Altitude of an object, is that to whose base there is access, to mea- sure the nearest distance to it on the ground, from any place. Inaccessible Altitude of an object, is that to whose base there is not free access, by which a distance may be measured to it, by reason of some impediment, such as water, wood, or the like. The instruments mostly used in measuring altitudes, are the quadrant, theodolite, geometrical square line of sha- dows, &c. Altitude of the E\e, in perspective, the perpendicular height of the eye above the geometrical plane. Alti- tude OF A Stab, &c., in astronomy, the height of any star, &c. above the horizon, or an arc of a vertical circle, intercepted between the star and the horizon. This altitude is either true or apparent, accor- ding as it is reckoned from the rational or sensible horizon, and the difterence be- tween these two is termed, by astronomers, the parallax of altitude. Altitudes of MountaixxS may be determined either by trigonometry or by the barometer ; for as the weight and elasticity of the atmosphere diminish as we rise, so the fall of the ba- rometer determines the elevation of any place. If very great accuracy is not re- quired, their altitude may be ascertained by the length of shadows, moveable staves, &c. AL'TO, or AL'TO TENO'RE, in music, is the term applied to that part of the great vocal scale which lies between the viezzo soprano and the tenor, and which is as- signed to the highest natural adult male voice. In scores, it always signifies the counter-tenor part. AL'TO RELIEVO, in sculpture, a rep- resentation of figures and other objects against a flat surface ; diflfering from basso relievo only in the work being much more brought forward. AL'UM, a fossil, salt, and mineral, of an acid taste, which leaves in the mouth a sweetness, accompanied by considerable astringency. There are two sorts of alum, the natural and the artificial. In a natural state, it is said to be met with in Egypt, Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, and other places, and the counties of York and Lancaster, in England. On account of its astringent qualities, it is used in several mechanic arts, and in medicine. Alum Slate, a slaty rock, found abundantly in most Eu- ropean countries, and from it is obtained, by a complicated process, the largest part of the alum of commerce. Alum Stone, a mineral, of a greyish or yellowish-white colour. It is found at Tolfa, in Italy, and from it is obtained a very pure alum, by simply subjecting it to roasting and lixivi- ation. ALU'MINA, an earth which is the basis of clay, basalt, slate, &c. It is of the great- est importance to mankind, for it enters largely into the composition of the best arable land, and is the base of all earthen- ware and porcelain. ALU'MINITE, a mineral, of a snow- white colour, dull, and opaque; found chiefly near Halle, in Saxony. ALU'MINOUS, an appellation given to such things as partake of the nature and properties of alum. ALVEA'RIUM properly signifies a bee- hive, from alveus, a channel, or cavity. Hence, Alvearium, among anatomists, denotes the hollow of the auricle, or outer ear. AL'VEOLATE, in botany, an epithet applied to the receptacle when it is divided into open cells, like a honey-comb, with a seed lodged in each. AL'VEOLUS, in natural history, pro- perly denotes one of those waxen cells, whereof the combs in bee-hives consist. ^Alveolus, in anatomy, is the socket- like cavity in the jaws, wherein each of the teeth is fixed. Alveolus is also the name given to a marine fossil. The alveoli are of a conic shape, and composed of a number of cells, like so many bee-hives, jointed into one another, with a siphuncu- lus, or pipe of communication, like that of the nautilus. ALTEUS, a boat formed from the trunk of a tree hollowed out, which was in use among the ancients, and in one of which, according to Ovid, Romulus and Remus were exposed. ALYS'MOS, a term frequently used by Hippoci'ates to express the restless uneasi- ness attendant on sickness. ALYS'SUM, the plant madwort; so called because it was supposed to cure the bite of a mad dog. AMAL GAM, or AMAL'GAMA, the mix- ture of mercury with some other metal. Amalgams are used either to render a me- tal fit to be spread on some works, as in gilding, or else to reduce it to powder. There are two methods generally used in the making of amalgams. The first is merely by trituration in a mortar, and without heat : the second is by fusing the metal which is to be amalgamated, and by alum clears foul water bt a kind op depuration or filtration. TRINKETS MADE OF AMBER ARE MOSTLY PRIZED BY ORIENTAL NATIONS. ajia] % l^m Kctionar?) of t!)e IScIles Xcttres. [amb adding to it, when fused, the intended quantity of mercury. An amalgam of tin and mercury is used for looking-glasses. AMALGAMATION, the operation of mixing quicksilver with some other metal. AM'ARANTH, a plant cultivated in the Indies and South America, and famed for the beauty with which the colours are ele- gantly mixed in its leaves. By ancient poets the amaranth was made the emblem of immortality, in consequence of its flowers retaining their colours after they were plucked and dried. Amahanthus, in the Linuaean system, is a genus of plants, of which there are many varieties. AMA'RUM, in mineralogy, sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts ; a genus of mi- neral substances, class salts, of a bitter taste, easily soluble in water, and meltinj in heat. AMA'RUS, in mineralogy, a genus of earths, of the class silices, consisting of silica, with a small proportion of magnesia, alumina, and carbonate of hme. AMARYL'LIS, Lily Asphodel ; a genus of perennial plants, of which there are se- veral species, mostly natives of the East and West Indies. AMARYN'THIA, festivals anciently ce- lebrated in honour of Diana at Amaryn- thusa, a village of Eubcoa. AM'ATEUR, a person having a taste for a particular art, yet not professing, nor being dependent on it. AMATO'RII MuscuLi, in anatomy, a term sometimes used for those muscles of the eyes that di'aw them sideways, and as- sist in ogling. The amatorii musculi are generally called the obliquus superior, or trochlearis, and the obliquus inferior. AMAURO'SIS, among physicians, a dis- ease of the eye, otherwise called gutta Serena. AM'AZONS, a nation of female warriors, who are said to have founded an empire in Asia Minor. According to tradition, sup- ported by the authority of the most ancient Greek writers, they permitted no males to reside among them, but had intercourse with the men of the neighbouring nations merely for the sake of preserving their community. Their male children they either killed or sent back to their fathers, but they brought up the females to war, and burned off the right breast, that this part of the body might not impede them in the use of the bow. It was from this prac- tice that they derived the name of Ama- zons, i. e. wanting a breast. Their exist- ence, however, has not only been contro- verted, but ridiculed and treated as fabu- lous, by Dr. Bryant, in his Analysis of An- cient Mythology, and even by some ancient writers. But still there are too many con- current testimonies in their favour for us to suppose that they were altogether crea- tions of the fancy. The last account we have of them is about 330 years before Christ, when their queen, Thalestris, made a visit to Alexander of Macedon, at the head of 300 of her Amazons, having left the rest of her troops behind. The old geo- graphers gave the name of Amazonia to a large tract of country in the interior of South America, because Orellana, the first discoverer of the country, relates, that as he sailed up the stupendous river Maranon, or Amazon, which inundates and fertilizes the land as the Nile does Egypt, he found on its banks a nation of armed women, who made war on the neighbouring people. AMBARVA'LIA, a festival among the Romans, celebrated annually in honour of Ceres, in order to procure a plenteous har- vest. AMBAS'SADOR, the representative of one sovereign power to another, to which he is sent properly accredited. Ambassa- dors are either ordinary or extraordinary. The chief duties of an ordinary ambassador consist in the signing and countersigning of passports, the general protection of trade, and the transmission of such intelli- gence as can interest his court. Ambassa- dors extraordinary are sent on some im- portant occasion, and are generally sur- rounded with superior pomp and splen- dour ; but they quit the country as soon as the affair is despatched. The persons of ambassadors are sacred, both in peace and war : so that according to the law of na- tions, if hostilities break out between two nations, the respective ambassadors are permitted to depart without molestation. AM'BER, a hard, brittle, tasteless sub- stance, mostly semitransparent, or opaque, and of a glossy surface. This curious pro- duction of nature is inflammable, and, when heated, yields a strong and bitumi- nous odour. Its most extraordinary pro- perties are those of attracting, after it has been exposed to a slight friction, straws, and other surrounding objects ; and of pro- ducing sparks of fire, visible in the dark. Many thousand years before the science of electricity had entered the mind of man, these surprising qualities were known to exist in amber, and hence the Greeks called it electrum. The Romans, supposing it to be a vegetable juice, named it succinum; by the Arabs it is denominated ambra, whence the French write it ambre, and the English amber. Several hypotheses have been set up, respecting the nature of amber. By some, it is supposed to be resinous gum, oozing from pines, and falling on the earth, or into the sea ; by others, a fossUe formed in the earth, and washed ashore by the sea ; and, by Dr. Girtanner, an animal product, nearly resembling wax. He relates, that the old pine-forests are inhabited by a large species of ants which form hills of about six feet in diameter, and that it is generally in these ancient forests, or in places where they have been, that fossil amber is found. This substance is not hard, like that taken up on the shores of Prussia: it has the consistence of honey, or of half-melted wax : but it is of a yeUow colour, like com- mon amber : it gives the same produce by chemical analysis ; and it hardens, like the other, when it is suffered to remain for some time in a solution of common salt. Insects are found in amber ; among these. the oil of amber was much used in making eau de luck. AN AMBIDEXTER, IN A LUDICROUS SENSE, MEANS A DOUBLE-DEALING FELLOW. amb] ^Ije Scicntiftc anU 3Ihcrari> treasure ; [a ME ants are always tlie most |?eneral ; circum- stances that undoubtedly support Dr. Gir- tanner's opinion. AM'BERGRIS, a solid, opaque, ash-co- loured intlaramabie substance, variegated like marble, remarkably light, and when heated emitting a fragrant odour. It is found floating in the sea, near the coast of various tropical countries ; and is supposed to be the excrement of the spermatic whale, having frequently been met with in the in- testines of that tish. It is very much ad- mired in Asia and Africa, where it is made use of to flavour luxurious dishes : in Eu- rope, it is highly valued as an article of perfumery. AM BIDEXTER, a person who can use both hands with equal facility, and for the same purposes that the generality of people do their right hands. In law, a juror who takes money for giving his verdict. AMBIEG'N.^ OvEs, in the heathen sa- crifices, an appellation given to such ewes as, having brought forth twins, were sacri- ficed together with their two lambs, one on each side. "We find them mentioned among other sacrifices to Juno. AM'BIENT, a term used for such bodies, especially fluids, as encompass others on all sides : thus, the air is frequently called an ambient fluid, in consequence of being diflfused round all terrestrial bodies. AMBI 'GENAL Hyperbola, in mathe- matics, a name given by Sir Isaac Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the second order. AM'BIT OP A Figure, in mathematics, the perimeter, or the sum of the lines by which the figure is bounded. AM'BITUS, in Roman antiquity, the act of setting up for some magistracy, or office, and formally going round the city to solicit the interest and votes of the people. Ambitus, in music, signifies the particular extent of each tone, or modification of grave and sharp. AMBLIG'ONAL, in geometry, an epithet for a figure that contains an obtuse angle. AMBLYG'ONITE, a pale-green mineral, marked superficially with reddish and dark yellow spots. AM'BLYGON, in geometry, an obtuse- angled triangle. AMBLYO'PIA, in medicine, a term for dimness of sight. AMBRO SIA, in heathen antiquity, de- notes the food of the gods. Hence, w-hat- ever is very gratifying to the taste or smell has been termed ambrosial. Also, the name of a small shrub, which has a grateful smell and a very astringent taste. AM'BRY, a place in which are deposited all utensils necessary for house-keeping. In the ancient abbeys and priories there was an office under this denomination, wherein were laid up all charities for the poor. AMBUBA'I^j, in Roman antiquity. M ere immodest women, who came from Syria to Rome, where they appeared as minstrels, and lived by prostitution. AM'BULON, a tree, the fi-iiit of which is very email and sweet. AMBUR'BIUM, or AMBUR'VIA, in Roman antiquity, a solemn procession made by the Romans round the city, in which they led a victim, and afterwards sacrificed it, in order to avert some calamity that threatened the city. A.MBUSCA'DE, or AM'BUSH, in the military art, properly denotes a place where soldiers may lie concealed, till they find an opportunity to surprise the enemy. These words are also applied literally and meta- phorically to any mode of concealment adopted for the purpose of stratagem. AMEN', in Scripture language, a solemn formula, or conclusion to all prayer, signi- fying verily, or so be it. AMENDE HONORABLE, (French), an infamous kind of punishment formerly in- flicted in France on traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious persons, who were to go naked to the shirt, with a torch in their hand, and a rope aljout their neck, into a church or a court, to beg pardon of God, the court, and the injured party. The modern ac- ceptation of the term indicates that an open apology is made for an oflFence or injury done. AMENTA'CE^, a natural order of plants, bearing catkins; as the poplar, ha- zel, beech, &c. AMER'CEMENT, a pecuniary punish- ment imposed on offenders at the mercy of the court. Amercements diflfer from fines, inasmuch as the latter are defined, and the former are proportioned to the fault, or more properly at the discretion of the court. The statute of Magna Charta or- dains, that a freeman is not to be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence, by his peers and equals. AMER'ICANISM, any word or phrase in general use among the inhabitants of the United States, which deviates from the English standard. Of these, a great pro- portion are mere vulgarisms and technical words of local character, originally taken from different counties in England, by the first emigTants — to whom also that drawl- ing nasal pronunciation may be attributed ; others are words formerly used by the Eng- lish writers, but which have become obso- lete; while many are of modern coinage, and owe their origin to the caprice or affec- tation of their transatlantic inventors, who seem to delight in the use of extravagant and far-fetched terms and metaphors. But every living language is subject to continual changes ; and it is not to be expected that a large community, in a state of social and political activity, who are daily developing new and characteristic features, will fail to exercise their share of influence upon that which they naturally consider as a part of their inheritance. Indeed, although these idiomatic infringements on the purity of our language deserve, and have incurred, severe reprehension, both from English and American critics, and the lash of ridi- cule has been unsparingly applied ; we find, as children say, that "mocking is catching ;" and the colloquial use of Americanisms is gro^^^lng almost as common in Great Bri- 28 AMBROSIA WAS SUPPOSED TO RENDER THOSE IMMORTAL WHO FED ON IT. AMMONITES, OR FOSSIL SNAKE-STONES, ARE FOUND IN LIMESTONE AND CLAY. [ami' tain, as it is to attribute to "brother Jona- than " every marvellous story or monstrous fiction of the press. We will conclude our brief observations in the words of Dr. Web- ster of New York, who, in alluding to the prevalence of certain ungrammatical forms of speech, says, "Barbarous nations may indeed form languages ; but it should be the business of civihzed men to purify their language from barbarisms." AM ETHYST, a precious stone, gene- rally of a violet or purple-violet colour, and of a transparent and shining nature. The hues of different amethysts are as various as the tints of purple ; that is, as all the mixtures of blue and red. It is also found colourless, and may easily be made so by putting it into the fire ; in which state it so resembles the diamond, that its want of hardness seems the only way of distin- guishing it. Amethysts are found in the East and West Indies, and in several parts of Europe ; the oriental ones, at least some of the finer specimens, being so hard and bright, as to equal any of the coloured gems in value. AMETHYS'TEA, in botany, a genus of plants of the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria class. AMETHYS'TINA, ancient garments of a purple or violet colour. AMETHYS'TINUS, in conchology, a species of Venus, of an ovate shape and violet colour, with perpendicular striae. It is about two inches in length and breadth. Amethystinus, in ornithology, a beau- tiful species of trochilus, or humming-bird, of Cayenne. Amethystinus, in ento- mology, an insect of the apis genus, with black body and violet wings. AMIANTHUS, an incombustible mine- ral flax, which may be drawn into threads and wove into cloth. It is mostly found among rocks. AM ICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper garment worn over the tunica. AMID'-SHIPS, a naval term, signifying, in the middle of the ship, applied either to length or breadth. AM'MON, the title under which Jupiter was worshiped in Libya, where a temple was erected to him, from which oracles were delivered for many ages. AMMO' N I A, a volatile alkali, which, when in its purest state, exists only in the form of a gas. It forms a liquid when cooled, and is known in medicine by the name of spirits of hartshorn, the effect of which on the nervous system, in fainting- fits, is well known. Nitrate of Am- monia is formed by diluting nitric acid with carbonate of ammonia ; and from it is obtained the nitrous oxyde, or exhilarating "^AMMO'NIAC, or GUM AMMO'NIAC, is a resinous substance brought from the East Indies in drops or granules. The best kind is of a yellowish colour without, and white within. Sal Ammoniac, a volatile salt, of which vast quantities are thrown out by Mount Etna. The sal-am- moniac used in the shops is artificial, being composed of a volatile alkaline and the acid of sea-salt, and is therefore called Mu' riate of Ammonia. When pure, this salt promotes perspiration. AMMONI'TiE, in natural history, the cornua ammonis, or snake-stones, which are found in considerable quantities in the alum works in Yorkshire, and other parts of England. They are made up of circles, like the rings of a snake rolled up. AMMUNI"TION, all warUke stores, and especially powder, ball, bombs, guns, and other weapons necessary for an army. AM NESTY, an act by which two parties at variance promise to pardon and bury in oblivion aU that is past. It is more espe- cially used for a pardon granted by a prince to his rebellious subjects. AMO'MUM, one of the aromatic herbs formerly used for the preservation of dead bodies ; whence is derived the word mummy. In the Linnsean system, it is the name of a genus of plants of the monandria class. AMORTIZATION, in law, an alienation of lands or tenements in mortmain. AMPELI'TES, called also Pharma- ciTis, or Canal Coal, is a hard, opaque fossil, inflammable substance, of a black colour. It is dug in many parts of Eng- land, but the finest is in Lancashire and Cheshire. In the fire it flames violently at first, continues red and glowing hot a long time, and finally is reduced into a small portion of gray ashes. It is capable of a very high polish ; and is manufactured into toys, snuff-boxes, &c., which are made to pass for jet. AMPHIARTHRO'SIS, in anatomy, a term for such junctures of bones as have motion similar to that of the articulation of the ribs with the vertebrae. AMPHIB'IA, a class of animals which live equally well in air or water, such as the phocae or seal tribe, frogs, lizards, cro- codiles, eels, water serpents, and snakes. They are remarkable for their tenacity of life. Cuvier and other zoologists of the present day have superseded this term by that of Reptilia. AMPHIBIOL'ITHUS, a genus of petri- factions in the Linnaean system, so called from its being the part of an amphibious animal petrified. AMPHIC TYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an assembly composed of deputies from the different states of Greece. The amphic- tyons at first met regularly at Delphi, twice a year, viz. in spring and autumn; but in later times they assembled at the village of Anthela, near Thermopylae ; and decided all differences between any of the Grecian states, their determinations being held sacred and inviolable. AMPHIP'PI, in Grecian antiquity, sol- diers who, in war, used two horses without saddles, and were dextrous enough to leap from one to the other. AMPHIBO'LIA, or AMPHIBOL'OGY, in rhetoric, ambiguity of expression, when a sentence conveys a double meaning. It is distinguished from an equivocation, which lies in a single word. TRUE AMOMUM IS A FRUIT, GROWING IN CLUSTERS SOMEWHAT LIKE THE GRAPE. [D 3 JULIUS C^SAR ERECTED THE FIRST I/ARGE AMPUITHEATUE AT ROME. Sdcntific nrCa ICiterari) ^rcasuni ; [ana ] AMPHIDRO'MIA, an Athenian festiral celebrated on the fifth day after the birth of a child, when it was carried round the fire, and presented to the household gods. AMPHIMAS'CIIALI, in antiquity, a name given to coats with two sleeves, worn only by freemen. AMPHISBiE'NA, a serpent which moves with either end forward, a power produced by an arrangement of 20U or 300 rings, through its length. AMPHIS'CII, the name applied to the inhabitants of the torrid zone. Amphiscii, as the word imports, have their shadows one part of the year towards the north, and at the otker towards the south, accord- ing to the sun's place in the ecliptic. "When the sun is in its zenith they have no shadow, wherefore Pliny calls them Jscii. AMPHITHE ATRE, in antiquity, a spa- cious edifice, built either round or oval, with a number of rising seats, upon which the people used to sit and behold the com- bats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other sports. Some of them, as the Coliseum at Rome, were capable of containing from 50,000 to 80,000 spectators. The principal parts of the amphitheatre were the arena, or place where the gladiators fought ; cavea, or hollow place where the beasts were kept ; podium, or projection at the top of the wall which surrounded the arena, and was assigned to the senators ; gradus, or benches, rising all round above the podium ; aditus, or entrances ; and vomitoria, or gates which terminated the aditus. AMPHITRI'TE, in zoology, the name of a small naked sea insect, of an oblong fi- gure, with only one tentaculum, resem- bling a piece of thread. AM'PIIORA, in antiquity, a liquid mea- sure in use among the Greeks and Ro- mans. The Roman amphora contained forty-eight sextaries, and was equal to about seven gallons one pint, English wine- measure; and the Grecian, or Attic am- phora, contained one third more. Amphora was also a dry measure in use among the Romans, and contained three bushels. AMPHORI'TES, in antiquity, a sort of literary contest in the island of ^gina, where the poet who made the best dithy- rambic verses in honour of Bacchus was rewarded with an ox. AMPHOTI'DES, in antiquity, a kind of armour or covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles, to prevent their ad- versaries from laving hold of this part. AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric, part of a discourse or speech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a praise or commendation heightened, or a narration enlarged, by an enumeration of circumstances, so as to ex- cite the proper emotions in the minds of the auditors. AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, an arc of the horizon intercepted between the east or west point and the centre of the sun, or a planet, at its rising or setting. Am- plitude Magnetical, is an aic of the ho- rizon contained between the centre of the celestial body when rising or sotting, and the east or west point of tlie compass. It is always equal to the dilftrcnce between the true amplitude and the variation of the compass. a5IPUL'LA, an ancient drinking vessel ; and among ecclesiastical writers it denotes one of the sacred vessels used at the altar. The ampulla is still a distinguished vessel in the coronation of the kings of England and France. The vessel now in use in England is of the purest chased gold, and represents an eagle with expanding Avings standing on a pedestal, near seven inches in height, and weighing about ten ounces. It was deposited in the Tower by the gal- lant Edward, surnamed the Black Prince. AM'PYX, in antiquity, a kind of golden chain, which served to bind the hair of horses, and sometimes of men and women, on the forehead. A M ' U L E T, a superstitious charm or preservative against mischief, witchcraft, or diseases. They were made of stone, metal, animals, and, in fact, of every thing which fancy or caprice suggested. Some- times they consisted of words, characters, and sentences, ranged in a particular order, and engraved upon wood, &c., and worn about the neck, or some other part of the body. At other times they were neither written nor engraved ; but prepared with many superstitious ceremonies, great re- gard being usually paid to the influence of the stars. AMUSETT'E, a small one-pound can- non, employed in war, in mountainous re- gions ; and which for lightness and facility of movement, possesses great advantages. AMYG'DALOID, a compound mineral, composed of spheroidal particles or vesi- cles of lithomarge, green earth, calc spar, and steatite, imbedded in a basis of fine- grained green-stone, or wacke. AMYGDALO'IDES Lapis, in natural history, a stone which resembles the kernel of an almond. It is the petrified spine of the sea-urchin. AM'ZEL, in ornithology, the Eng'ish name of two species of inerulse, or black- birds. A'NA, a name given to amusing miscel- lanies, consisting of anecdotes, traits of character, and incidents relating to any person or subject. Ana, among physi- cians, denotes an equal quantity of the in- gredients which immediately precede it iu prescriptions ; as syrup and water, ana, aa or a ^ii. that is, of syrup and water each two ounces. ANABAPTISTS, a name given to a Christian sect, because they objected to infant baptism, and baptized again those who joined them. They appeared in Ger- many in 1521, immediately after the rise of Lutheranism. At first they preached up an entire freedom from all subjection to the civil as well as ecclesiastical power ; but the tenet from whence they take their name, and which they still maintain, is their re-baptizing all new converts to their sect. The Baptists of England form a dis- THE SCALIGERIANA WAS THE FIRST BOOK EVER PUBLISHED OF THE ANA CLASS. ANAGRAM (lEGAL), FOB " LAWYERS," READ " SLY WARE." ana] ^ ISTcto ©utionari) of t\)z %z\h» ICcttres. [ana tinct sect, without any connexion with the ancient Anabaptists here spoken of. ANABA'SIS, the title of Xenophon's description of the younger Cyrus's expedi- tion against his brother, in which the writer bore a principal part. Anabasis, among physicians, denotes either the in- crease or augmentation of a fever in gene- ral, or of any particular paroxysm. ANABRO'SIS, in medicine, a corrosion of the solid parts by acrid humours. ANACALYPTE'illA, in antiquity, festi- vals among the Greeks on the third day after marriage, when the bride was allowed, to take off her veU, which she had till that time worn. AN AC AR'DIUM, or Cashew-nut TREE, a native of the West Indies, where it grows to the height of 20 feet. The fruit is as large as an orange, and full of an acid juice, which is frequently used in making punch ; and at the apex grows a kidney-shaped nut, the kernel of which is sweet and pleasant; but between it and the shell is a thick liquid, of such a caustic nature in the fresh nuts, that if the lips touch it they will be immediately blistered. ANACATHAR'SIS, in medicine, a cleans- ing of the lungs by expectoration. This term is likewise apphed by divines to the clearing up of obscure passages of Scrip- ture, by a spiritual intei'pretation. ANACAMPTE'RIA, in ecclesiastical an- tiquity, editices adjacent to churches, de- signed for the entertainment of strangers and the poor. ANACAMP'TICS, the term formerly used to denote that branch of the science of optics which is now called catoptrics. ANACHRONISM, in literature, an error with respect to chronology, whereby an event is placed earlier than it really happened ; in which sense it stands oppo- site to parachronism. ANACLAS'TICS, that part of optics which considers tne refraction of light. ANACLETE'RIA, a solemn festival ce- lebrated by the ancients, when their kings or princes came of age, and assumed the reins of government. ANACLINOP'ALE, among the ancient athletre, a kind of wi'estling, performed on the ground; the combatants voluntarily throwing themselves down for that purpose. ANACREON'TIC Verse, in ancient poetry, a kind of verse, so called from its being much used by the poet Anacreon. It consisted of three feet, generally spondees and iambics, sometimes anapaests, and was peculiarly distinguished for softness and tenderness. ANACLINTE'RIA, in antiquity, a kind of pillows on the dining-bed, whereon the guests leaned. ANACOLU'THON, in grammar or rhe- toric, a want of coherency, generally aris- ing from inattention on the part of the writer or orator. ANACOLYP'PA, an Indian plant, the juice of which is a preservative against the bite of the cobra capella. ANADE'MA, in antiquity, an ornament of the head, wherewith victors at the sa- cred games had their temples bound, and also worn bv the Grecian women. ANADIPLO'SIS, a figure in rhetoric and poetry, in which the last word or words of a sentence are repeated at the beginning of the next. ANAGNOS'TA, or ANAGNOS'TES, in antiquity, a servant kept by families of dis- tinction, whose office was to read to them at meals, or whenever they had leisure to listen to him. AN'AGRAM, the change of one word or phrase into another, by the transposition of its letters. They were very common among the ancients, and occasionally con- tained some happy allusion ; but, perhaps, none were more appropriate than the ana- gram made by Dr. Burney on the name of the hero of the Nile, just after that import- ant victory took place: Horatio Nelson, "Honor est a Nilo." They are frequently employed satirically, or jestingly, with little aim beyond that of exercising the ingenuity of their authors. Thus, if the reader were to transpose the letters contained in the title of our youthful Queen, Her most GRACIOUS Majesty Alexandrina Vic- toria ! he would find that the following anagTam might be formed of them: "Jh! my extravagant joco-serious radical Minis- ter." Now it may be difficult to imagine any thing more ridiculous or inapplicable than such an exclamation, yet one half of the anagrams in existence are not a whit less absurd; and it is therefore surprising that pastime so puerile and trifling should have been treated seriously by the literati of any age. [A few more anagTammatical specimens are inserted between the mar- ginal rules, but the only ones for which we claim the merit of originality are those on the Queen and the Duke of Wellington : in the latter the redundant letter k may well be allowed to stand for his numerous orders of knighthood, and his long career of suc- cessful valour entitles him to the appel- lation of a Knight par excellence.] ANALEC'TA, a collection of extracts from different works. With the an- cients, Analecta signified a servant whose business it was to gather up what fell from the table at meals. ANALEM'MA, in geometry, a projec- tion of the sphere on the plane of the me- ridian, orthographically made by straight lines and ellipses, the eye being supposed at an infinite distance, and in the east or west points of the horizon. ^Analemma is also a kind of astrolabe. ANALEPTICS, in medicine, restora- tives which serve to repair the strength, and to raise the depressed spirits ANAL'OGY, a certain relation and agree- ment between two or more things, which in other respects are entirely different. Or it may be defined, an important process of reasoning, by which we infer similar ef- fects and phenomena from similar causes and events. A great part of our philosophy has no other foundation than analogy. ANAL'YSIS, in chemistry, is the sepa- ANAGRAM (astronomical), for " ASTRONOMERS," READ " NO MORE STARS." "to cast anchor" is to let go the anchor, to keep the ship at best. ana] ^f)e Scientific antr Xitcratp ^reasur^ ; [anc ration of any substance into its constituent parts, to ascertain their nature, relative proportions, and their mode of union. Analysis, among mathematicians, is the art of discovering the truth or falsehood of a proposition, or its possibihty and impos- sibiUty. This is done by supposing the proposition, such as it is, true; and exa- mining what follows from thence, until we arrive at some evident truth, or some im- possibility, of which the first proposition is a necessary consequence ; and from thence establish the truth or impossibility of that proposition. Analysis, among gram- marians, is the explaining the etymology, construction, and other properties of words. The analysis of finite quantities is pro- perly called specious arithmetic, or algebra ; the analysis of infinite quantities is the method of fluxions or differential calculus. Analysis is also used for a brief, but methodical, illustration of the principles of a science ; in which sense it is nearly syno- nymous with what is termed a synopsis. ANAMNE'SIS, in rhetoric, an enume- ration of the things treated of before; which is a sort of recapitulation. ANAMORPHO'SIS, in perspective and painting, the representation of some image, either on a plane or curved surface, de- formed, or distorted ; which in a certain point of view appears regular and in just proportion. ANA'NAS, in botany, a species of bro- melia, commonly called pine-apple, from the similarity of its shape to the cones of firs and pines. ANAPH ORA, a rhetorical figure, which consists in the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several suc- cessive sentences. Anaphora, iu astro- nomy, an ascension or rising of the twelve signs of the zodiac from the east to the west, by the daily course of the heavens. ANAPLEROT'ICS, in pharmacy, such medicines as promote the growth of flesh in wounds and ulcers. ANAR'CHI, in antiqviity, an epithet ap- plied by the Athenians to the four super- numerary days in their year, in which they had no magistrates. AN'ARCHY, a society without a go- vernment, or where there is no supreme governor. A'NAS, in ornithology, a species of birds belonging to the order of anaeres, of which there are about 100 species. ANASTAL'TICS, in pharmacy, astringent or styptic medicines. ANASTAT'ICA, in botany, the rose of Jericho. ANAS'TROPHE, in rhetoric, the inver- sion of words m a sentence, or the placing them out of their natural order. ANATH'EMA, among ecclesiastical wri- ters, imports whatever is set apart, sepa- rated, or divided; but the word is most usually intended to express the cutting oflf a person from the privileges of society, and from communion with the faithful. The anathema differs from simple excommuni- cation, inasmuch as the former is attended with curses and execrations. Anathemas are judiciary and abjuratory: the former can only be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bishop ; the latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the convert being obliged to anathematize the heresy he abjures. ANAT'OMT, the act of dissecting bodies for the purpose of examining their struc- ture, and the nature, uses, and functions of their several parts ; also the knowledge of the human body derived from such dis- sections and examinations. Anatomy is divided into human and comparative. Hu- man anatomy is that which is employed on the human body; comparative anatomy, that which is employed upon the bodies of other animals, these serving for the more accurate distinctions of several parts, and supplying the defects of human subjects. As a philosophic inquiry, it may be ob- served, that it is impossible not to be in- terested in the conformation of our own bodies : as a religious one, it wiU not fail to impress us with the most becoming ideas of our Creator. AN'CESTORS, those from whom a per- son is descended in a direct line, the father and mother not included. The law makes a difference between ancestors and prede- cessors, the first being applied to a natural person, as a man and his ancestors, and the latter to a body politic, as a bishop and his predecessors. "We say likewise, a prince and his predecessors, to signify the kings that have reigned before ; but we never say a king and his ancestors, unless he is by birth descended of his predecessors. AN'CESTRY, the line of ancestors or forefathers from which any person is de- scended. AN'CHOR, a heavy, strong, crooked in- strument of iron, cast or dropped from a ship into the water to retain her in a con- venient station in a harbour, road, or river. Anchors were originally mere weights : at present they are intended to fasten in the ground as hooks. They are contrived so as to sink into the earth as soon as they reach it, and to hold a great strain before they can be loosened or dislodged. Every ship has, or ought to have, three principal an- chors, with a cable to each, viz. the sheet, the best lower, and the small bower, so called from their usual situation on the ship's bows. There are besides small an- chors for moving a ship from place to place in a harbour or river, where there may not be room or wind for sailing ; these are the stream-sxiclcior, the hedge, and the grapnel. The last, however, is chiefly designed for boats. AN'CHORAGE, the ground that is fit for holding the anchor ; also the duty taken of ships for the use of the haveii where they cast anchor. AN CHORET, AN'CHORITE, or AN- ACH'ORET, in a general sense, means a hermit, or one who voluntarily lives apart from the world. In all ages and in all coun- tries, retirement from the world has been considered as facilitating the attainment of * TO WEIGH ANCHOR IS TO HEAVE OK RAISE THE ANCHOR OUT OF THE GROUND. A>'CHOKETS CALL SOLITUDE TUB DELIGHT AND SCHOOL 03? GUKAT MINDS. AND 'Mm 5}ictionai-» of i\)z 53eUcs Xetircg. a virtuous life. In Egypt and Syria, -wKere Christianity became blended with the Gre- cian philosophy, and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the an- chorets were most numerous ; and from those who lived in cells, in the vicinity of a church, the convents of a later period sprung, which were filled with inmates anxious to escape from the tumult and bloodshed which marked the beginning of the middle ages. ANCHO'VY, a small sea-fish much used in sauce ; it is so like the common sprat, that the latter is often pickled and sold under its name. ANCHYLO'SIS, in medicine, a stiflfness or immobility of the joints, arising from various causes, and often connected with deformities of the limbs. For the most part it is the result of inflammation in the membrane lining the joints. ANCO'NY, in the iron works, a piece of half-wrought iron, of about three quarters of a hundred weight, of the shape of a bar at the middle, but rude and unwrought at the ends. It is afterwards sent to a forge called a chafery, where the ends are wrought into the shape of the middle, and the whole is made into a bar, ANC'TER, in surgery, the fibula or but- ton by which the lips of wounds are held together. ANCU'BITUS, in medicine,that affection of the eyes iu which they seem to contain sand. ANCY'LE, or ANCI'LE, in antiquity, a small brazen shield which fell, as was pre- tended, from heaven in the reign of Nunia Pompilius, when a voice was heard, de- claring that Rome should be mistress of the world as long as she should preserve this holy buckler. ANCYLOBLEPH'ARON, in medicine, a disease of the eye which closes the eyelids. ANCY'LOGLOSSUM, in medicine, a contraction of the ligaments of the tongue, so as to hinder the speech. ANDA'BATiE, in antiquity, gladiators, who, mounted on horseback, or in chariots, fought blindfold, the helmet covering their eyes. ANDAN'TE, in music, the Italian term for exact and just time in playing, so as to keep the notes distinct from each other. -— Andantb largo, signifies that the music must be slow, the time exactly ob- served, and each note distinct. ANDANTI'NOjin music, an Italian word for gentle, tender ; somewhat slower than andante. ANDRAPODIS'TES, in antiquity, dea- lers in slaves, being in general kidnappers that stole children for the purpose of selling them. ANDRO'IDES, in mechanics, a term used to denote an automaton in the figure of a man, which, by means of certain springs and other mechanical contrivances, is en- abled to walk, and perform other actions of a man. The construction of an an- droides is justly supposed to indicate great skill in mechanics, and, with that of various other autom.ata,has frequently engaged the attention of ingenious minds. ANDRO "GYNOUS, in botany, an epithet for plants bearing male and female fiowers on the same root, without any mixture of hermaphrodites. ANDROM'EDA, in astronomy, a small northern constellation consisting of nu- merous stars. It is represented by the figure of a woman chained, and is situated behind Pegasus, Cassiopeia, and Perseus. Andromeda, in botany, is the marsh cystus. In entomology, a species oipapilio, found in Italy. ANEMOM'ETER, an instrument used for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. Various instruments have been in- vented for this purpose ; the first of which is attributed to Woltius, who described it in 1709 ; but considerable improvements have been since made upon its construc- tion. In the experiments made by Dr. Lind with his anemometer, he found, in one instance, that the force of the wind was such as to be equal to upwards of 34 lbs. on a square foot, answering to a velocity of 93 miles per hour ! ANEM'ONE, a beautiful flower, origi- nally brought ft'om the East, but now much cultivated in our gardens. Tlie word sig- nifies properly wind-flower, because it was supposed that it opened only when the wind blew. AlVEM'OSCOPE, a machine showing from what point of the compass the wind blows. This is done by means of an index moving about an upright circular plate, the index being turned by an horizontal axis, and the axis by an upright staff, at the top of which is the fane moved about by the wind. Some are so made as, even in the absence of the observer, to note down the changes of the wind ! But any contrivance, however simple, which indi- cates the direction of the wind, is properly an anemoscope. AN'EURISM, in surgery, a diseased swelling of an artery, attended with a con- tinued pulsation. Though aneurisms most frequently happen in the brachial artery, yet the disorder is not restrained to that part alone ; for they may arise from an in- finite number of cases, both external and internal, in all parts, where there are any arterial trunks or considerable branches distributed. AN'GARI, or ANGA'RII, in antiquity, pubhc couriers appointed for the carrying of messages, and stationed at certain dis- tances from each other on the public roads. ANGA'RIA, in Roman antiquity, was a kind of public service imposed on tlie provincials, which consisted in providing horses and carriages for the conveyance of military stores, &c. AN'GEL, the name given to those spi- ritual, intelligent beings, who are supposed to execute the will of God, in the govern- ment of the world. It is sometimes used in a figurative, and at others in a literal sense. The number of angels is no where TENUS IS SAID TO HAVE CHANGED ADONIS INTO AN ANEMONE. THE DOCTRINE OF ANGELIC BEINGS IS TERMED " ANGELOLOGY. ' ang] W)z Scientific antJ Xiterarp treasure ; [ani mentioned in scripture ; but it is always represented as immensely great, and also that there is a subordination among them. Hence ecclesjastical ^v^iters make an hier- archy of nine orders of angels. But be- sides these, we read of evil angels, the ministers of God's wi'ath ; as the destroying angel, the angel of death, the angel of Satan, the angel of the bottomless pit, and the fallen angels, or those who kept not their first estate, but fell from their obe- dience into sin, and were expelled the re- gions of light. In general, good and bad angels are distinguished by the opposite terms of angels of light, and angels of darkness. Angel, the name of an an- cient gold coin in England, so called from the figure of an angel upon it. It weighed four pennyweights. ANGEL'ICA, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and pentandria class of plants. All the parts of angelica, especially the root, have a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant bitterish taste. It is highly valuable in medicine. Angelica, in Grecian antiquity, a celebrated dance per- formed at their feasts ; so called, because the dancers were dressed in the habit of messengers. AN'GINA, the quinsy; an inflammatory disease of the throat. Angina Gangre- nosa, or Aquosa, the ulcerated, malignant, putrid sore throat. ANGIOSPER'MIA, a term for such plants of the class didynamia as have their seeds enclosed in a capsule or seed-vessel. AN'GLE, in geometry, the opening, or mutual inclination, of two lines, or of two or more planes, meeting in a point called the vertex, or angular point. Angles are of great use in almost every branch of mathe- matics. They make one half the subject of trigonometry, and have much to do in geography, astronomy, &c. When they meet perpendicularly, it is called a right angle, and is 90 degrees ; when less than a right angle, it is called an acute angle ; and when larger than a right angle, an obtuse angle ; w^hen two circles cross each other, it is called a spherical angle ; or two curves, a curvilinear angle ; and the angles made by solids, are called solid angles. An- gles in Mechanics. I. Angle of direction, is that comprehended between the lines of direction of two conspiring forces. 2. Angle of elevation, is that which is comprehended between the line of direction, and any plane upon which the projection is made, whether horizontal or oblique. Angle of Inci- dence, in optics, the angle which a ray of light makes with a perpendicular to that point of the surface of any medium on which it falls. ^Angle op Longitude, in astronomy, the angle which a circle of a star's longitude makes with the meridian at the pole of the ecUptic. Angle of Parallax, the angle made by two lines supposed to be drawn from the centre of a planet to the surface of the earth. An- gles, in Fortification, are understood of those formed by the several lines used in fortifying, or making a place defensible. AN'GLE R, in ichthyology, the Lophius Piscatorius of Linnaeus ; a singular fish, which is also known by the name of the fishing-frog, from the resemblance it bears to that animal in the tadpole state. Its head is much bigger than its whole body, and its mouth is prodigiously wide. AN'GLICISM, an idiom of speech, or manner peculiar to the English. AN'GLING, the art of ensnaring fish with a hook, which has been previously baited with a small fish, a worm, or a fly, &c. The best season for angling is from April to Oc- tober : the cooler the weather, in the hot- test months, the better ; but in winter, on the contrary, the warmest day is the most promising. A cloudy day, after a moon- light night, is always favourable; as the fish avoid feeding by moonlight, and are therefore hungry. Warm, lowering days are always coveted by anglers. ANGLO-SAX'ON, the name of the people called Angles, who with the Saxons and some other German tribes, flourished in England after it was abandoned by the Romans, about the year 400 ; and who in- troduced their language, government, and customs. Anglo-Saxon Language. Af- ter the conquest of England by the Angles and Saxons, the Saxon became the pre- valent tongue of that country ; and after the Norman co nquest, the Enghsh language exhibits the peculiar case, where languages of two different stocks are blended into one idiom, which by the cultivation of a free and active nation and highly-gifted minds, has grown to a powerful, organized whole. ANGUIN'EAL, denotes something be- longing to or resembling a snake, unguis. Hence we say, anguineal curve, hyperbola, verse, &c. AN'GUIS, or Snake, in zoology, a genus belonging to the class amphibia, order onal to the squares of their distances. \ "artes had sought the cause of the motion of tne plan- ets around the sun, and of the satellites around the planets, in the rotatory motion of a subtile matter. But Newton and Kepler have rescued the laws of the material uni- verse from the thraldom of a false philoso- phy, and left to later times merely the de- velopement of the truths which they esta- blished. By the application of their prin- ciples, as well as by new discoveries, several succeeding astronomers have gained a high reputation ; namely, Halley, by his theory of comets; Bouguer and Maupertuis, by their exertions to determine the form of the earth ; Mayer, by his lunar tables ; Bradley, by the discovery of the aberration of light ; also Euler, d'Alember, Lalande, Lagrange, Laplace, Sir W. Herschel, Olbers, Piazzi, Encke, &c. ; besides many who arc now liv- HERSCHEL MEASURED A SPOT IN THE SUN 50,000 MILES IN DIAMETETv. ATHEISM LEAVES ITS NOTHIKG TO EXCITE AWE OU AWAKEN TENDERNESS. ATC JDuttonari) of tl;c belles lEettres. [ath ing, among whom Sir John Herschel and Sir William South deserve especial men- tion. In conclusion, it may be observed, that this science unites the strictness of mathematical reasoning with an exalted feeling for the sublime and beautiful, and fills the mind both M'ith confidence in itself, from its ability to calculate with certainty the career of distant worlds, and with be- coming humility in reflecting how small a part of the universe is our earth, and how brief its known duration, compared with the immense periods which enter into the calculations of astronomy. ASTROSCOPE, an astronomical instru- ment, composed of two cones, on whose surface the constellations are delineated, by means of which the situation of the stars may easily be known. ASTROSCO'PIA, in astronomy, the art of examining the stars by telescopes. AS'TRUM, in astronomy, a constellation or assemblage of stars. In alchemy, AsTRUM denotes the power imparted by chemical mixture. ASY'LUM, in antiquity, a place of refuge for offenders, where they were screened from the hands of justice. The asyla of altars and temples were very ancient. The Jews had their asyla ; the most remarkable of which were, the temple, the altar of burnt offerings, and the six cities of refuge. A similar custom prevailed both among the Greeks and Romans, where temples, altars, and statues, were places of refuge for cri- minals of every description. They had an idea, that a criminal who fied to the temple or altar, submitted his crime to the punish- ment of the gods, and that it would be im- piety in man to take vengeance out of their hands. In former times the like immuni- ties were granted by the pope to churches, convents, &c. ; and so well did the eccle- siastics improve their privileges, that con- vents in a little time became a kind of for- tresses, where the most notorious offenders were in safety ; nor could they be removed without a legal assurance of life, and an entire remission of the crime. A'SYMPTOTE, in mathematics, a line which approaches nearer to another con- tinually, and never meets it. It is properly appUed to straight lines approaching a curve. ASYN'DETON, in rhetoric or composi- tion, the omission of conjunctions, or other connecting particles of speech, in order to render the sentence more lively and im- pressive. AT' ARAL, a kind of tabor used among the Moors. ATARAX'! A, or AT'ARAXY, a term used to denote that calmness of mind which secures us from all emotions arising from vanity or self-conceit. In this consisted the summum bonum, or sovereign good, of the Stoics. AT AXY, in a general sense, the want of order : with physicians it signifies the irre- gularity of crises and paroxysms of fevers. ATCHIE'VEMENT, or ACHIEVE- MENT, in heraldry, means the arms of any family, with all the ornaments appendant thereto, painted on canvas, and fixed to the dwelling house of a person decer.sed, to denote his death. Hatchjient is the usual, though not the correct word. A-TEM'PO, in music, Italian for ' in time,' employed when the regular measure has been interrupted. ATHANA'SIA, in ancient medicine, an epithet given to a kind of antidote, sup- posed to have the power of prolonging life, even to immortality. ATHANA'SIAN CREED, a formula of faith ascribed to St. Athanasius, which has been adopted into the liturgy of the Church of England. A'THEIST, one who denies the existence of God or Providence. Some distinguish speculative atheists, or those who are so from principle and theory, from practical athiests, whose wicked lives incline them to believe, or rather to wish, that there were no God. Perhaps it is not to be won- dered at, that among the smatterers in that philosophy which describes matter as act- ing upon matter by necessary laws, and thus producing necessary effects, some should be tempted to reject tlae existence of a primi- tive and preserving cause : especially, as in the pursuit of that philosophy the mind is accustomed to find every thing explained upon mechanical and comprehensible prin- ciples, while a distinct conception of a God exceeds the intellectual capacity of man. Lord Bacon observes, that though a smat- tering of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God and Providence. We may have analyzed the component parts of matter, and reduced those parts into atoms ; but, after all, what have we found that will supply the place of a Creator ? It were more rational to be- lieve that the majestic oak produces, of its own power and intelligence, its foliage and its fruit, than that atoms, of their power and intelligence, produced the majestic oak. Matter, then, must have had a Creator ; and it is of little consequence to the fact, whe- ther it acts upon instinctive endov^Tuents, or is senseless, and obeys controlling laws : in either case, a superior power and intelli- gence are indispensable. This power and intelligence must have existed from all eternity; since, if it ever began to be, it must have had a cause capable of produc- ing it ; and thus, to whatever distance we push the perspective, a deity closes up the scene : it must exist eternally, unless that which produced all matter, can itself be annihilated, and the source of life expire. ATH'ELING, the title given to the king's eldest son among the Saxons, as the Prince of Wales is in our time. ATHEN^'UM, in antiquity, a public school wherein the professors of the liberal arts held their assemblies, the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets rehearsed their performances. These places, of which there were a great number at Athens, were built in the manner of amphitheatres, encom- passed with scats called cunei. The three HOPE DIES IN THE BREAST OF AN ATHEIST, AND HE LIVES A MONSTER, THE COLD AND HEAT OF CLIMATES MUCH DEPEND ON THE VICINITY OF SEAS. atm] "iltljz Scientific anl? Xiterar^ Crcasitry ; [atm most celebrated Atlicnsea were those at Athens, at Borne, and at Lyons, the second of v. liich was built by the emperor Adrian. ATHENIPTUM, in medicine, an affu- sion for the eyes. A'THER, the prickly part or beard of barley. ATIIE'RA, in inedicine, a kind of pap for children ; also a kind of liniment. ATHER'OMA, in surgery, a soft unin- flamed tumour, generally contained within a cyst or bag, and often found under the arm- pits, the finger-joints, &c. ATHLE'TiE, in antiquity, men of re- markable strength and agility, disciplined to perform in the public games. This was a general term, under which were compre- hended wrestlers, boxers, runners, leapers, throwers of the disk, and those who prac- tised in other exercises exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other solemn sports, wherein there were prizes jiUotted for the conquerors. ATHLOTHE TiE, in antiquity, the judges who presided at the athletic games. ATHWART', a sea term, signifying across the line of a ship's course. ATHYM'IA, in medicine, dejection of spirits attendant upon some diseases. AT'IBAR, in commerce, gold dust on the coast of Africa. ATLAN'TES, in architecture, images of men, as pillars, supporting the buildings like the Caryatides. ATLAN'TIDES, in astronomy, another name for the Pleiades. AT'LAS, in geography, a collection of maps ; more properly, a book containing maps of the v, hole world ; so called from Atlas, who was fabled to have borne the world on his shoulders. It is also the name of a chain of high mountains in Africa, ex- tending from the coast of the Atlantic to the border of Egypt. Atlas, a rich kind of satin, manufactured in the East-Indies, plain, striped, or flowered, and inter- worked with gold. They are manufactured with an excellence beyond the reach of European art, and were formerly in great repute, though but little used now. AT'MOSPHERE,is that invisible elastic fluid, or vast collection of air, which sur- rounds the earth to an unknown height, and encloses it on all sides ; a fluid essential to the existence of all animal and vegetable life, and even to the constitution of all kinds of matter whatever. This aerial fluid, or atmosphere, is not only admirably fitted for the respiration and nourishment of animals, for the growth of vegetables, the production and propagation of sounds, &c. but great- ly contributes also to make our habitable earth that beautiful scene of variety which it now is. The numberless small parti- cles of various kinds, which float in the air, receive the light from the sun, and hke so many small specula or looking-glasses, re- flect and scatter it through the air, and this occasions that light which we see in the , daytime, by which our eyes are affected so | strongly, as to render the fainter liglit of ] the stars insensible. By this means the ' stars are illuminated all round us by the sun, not only whilst he is above our hori- zon, but also for some time before his ris- ing, and after his setting, so long as any of his rays can either directly, or by refrac- tion, reach any part of the atmosphere within our visilole horizon ; for the air, as well as all other mediums which transmit liglit, refracts or bends the rays of it, if they come into it from a different medium. Height, Weight, and Pressure of the Jt- mosphere. Though it is impossible to as- sign the real height of the atmosphere, it nevertheless appears certain from experi- ments, that 45 or 50 miles is the utmost height where the density is sufficient to re- fract a ray of light ; and, therefore, that may be accounted the altitvide of the atmos- phere, to the least sensible degree of den- sity. If the air v/ere of an equal density throughout, the height of the atmosphere might be determined : for it appears from experiments, that a column of air 72 feet high is equal in weight to one inch of water of the same base ; so that the density of air is to that of water as 1 to 864. It has also been found by experiment, that the weight of a column of air, reaching to the height of the atmosphere, will be equal to the weight of a column of water of the same base, and 32 feet, or 384 inches high. Hence 864 X 384 gives 331776 inches, or somewhat more than five miles for the height of the atmosphere, were the density of the air every M'here the same as at the earth. But since its density decreases with the pres- sure, it will be more rarefied and expanded the higher we go; by which means the height of the atmosphere becomes indefi- nite, and terminates in pure aether. The pressure of the atmosphere on the whole surface of the earth is said to be equivalent to that of a globe of lead of sixty miles in diameter. Admitting therefore the surface of a man's body to be about 15 square feet, and the pressure about 15lb. on a square inch, it is computed that a man must sus- tain 32,4001b,, or nearly 14 tons and a half weight; but the difference in the weight sustained in different states of the atmos- phere may be as much as a ton and a half. Taking this calculation as a philosophical fact, and that every animal supports so many fifteen pounds as the surface of the body contains square inches, it may natural- ly be asked, why men and beasts are not crushed to pieces by such a prodigious weight of air ? To this we reply that the re- peated experiments which have been made, by means of the air-pump, fully demonstrate that it is owing to the equilibrium of the internal air, or the air included in all bo- dies, which, though it be small, can, by its reaction, counterpoise and resist the pres- sure of the external air, how gTeat soever it be. But there are many other atmospheric phenomena, equally extraordinary, and still more difficult to explain, than those which have been here noticed. Among the prin- cipal ones are heat and electricity. The first raises and suspends the evaporated waters invisibly in the air, xmtil some more IN OUR HEMISPHERE, NORTII-EAST SITUATIONS ARE ALWAYS THE COLDEST. MELTED SNOW PRODUCES ABOUT ONE-EIGUTH OF ITS BULK IN WATER. atm] j^^£to Buttonarp of ii)z Mies ICcttres. I ATR powerful attraction dissolves the union, and the moisture again revisits the earth in tlie various forms of clouds, mist, rain, dew, snow, hail, sleet, or hoar-frost ; while to electricity may be principally attributed the lightning, the aurora-borealis, and other igneous meteors. The constituent parts of the earth's atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen, v/hich are found every where, and at all times, nearly in the proportion of 79 to 21. Besides these, there is a small por- tion of carbonic acid, a variable portion of aqueous vapour, and a very small quantity of hydrogen. It also contains, in the form of vapour, a multitude of adventitious sub- stances, in those injurious mixtures known under the name of miasmata, the nature of which can hardly be investigated. By means, however, of the currents of air, which we term winds, the whole of the in- gredients of the atmosphere are continually amalgamated together; for we find that though the atmosphere may diminish in lightness as we ascend, there is precisely the same general character pervading it throughout. By gradual, but almost insen- sible expansions, the equipoised currents of the atmosphere are disturbed, the stormy winds arise, and the waves of the sea are Lifted up ; and that stagnation of air and water is prevented which would be fatal to animal existence. We wUl conclude this article by quoting a few of Professor Leslie's plain and sim- ple facts on this interesting subject. 1 . The mean height of the barometer (that is, the mean weight or pressure of the atmosphere) at the level of the sea, is the same at every part of the globe. 2. The mean tempera- ture of the earth's surface increases gradu- ally from the poles to the equator. 3. The mean temperature of the atmosphere de- creases from below u.pwards in a regular gradation. 4, The heating and cooling of the atmosphere, by the changes of day and night, take place equally throughout its mass. 5. A wind generally sets from the sea to the land during the day, and from the land to the sea during the night, espe- cially in hot climates. 6. As we advance towards the polar regions, we find the ir- regularities of the wind increased; and storms and calms repeatedly alternate, v/ithout warning or progression. 7. More than two currents may often be traced in the atmosphere at one time, by the mo- tion of clouds, &c. 8. The force of the winds does not always decrease as the ele- vation increases, but, on the contrary, is often found to augment rapidly. 9. Nor- therly winds almost invariably raise the barometer, while southerly winds as con- stantly depress it. The same authority also states, that the British islands are situate in such a manner as to be subject to all the circumstances which can pos- sibly be svipposed to render a climate irre- gular and variable. Placed nearly in the centre of the temperate zone, where the range of temperature is very great, their atmosphere is subject, on the one side, to the impressions of the largest continent in the world ; and, on the other, to the vast Atlantic Ocean. Upon their coasts the great stream of aqueous vapour perpetually arising from the western waters, first re- ceives the influence of the land, whence emanate those condensations and expan- sions which deflect and reverse the grand system of equipoised currents. They are also within the frigorific effects of the im- mense barriers and fields of ice, which, when the shifting position of the sun ad- vances the tropical climate towards the northern pole, counteract its energy, and present a condensing surface of enormous extent to the increasing elasticity of the aqueous atmosphere. ATMOSPHER'IC TIDES, are certain periodical changes in the atmosphere, simi- lar to those of the ocean, and produced from nearly the same causes ; of this description are the equinoctial winds. AT'OM, in philosophy, a particle of mat- ter, so minute as to admit of no division. Atoms are the minima natures, and are con- ceived as the first principal or component parts of all physical magnitude. From the earliest times of antiquity, down to the pre- sent day, two opinions directly opposed to each other, have divided the world on this subject; the one, that matter is composed of an assemblage of minute particles, or atoms, incapable of farther division; the other, that there is no limit to its divisi- bility, the smallest conceivable portion still consisting of an infinity of parts. The first of these theories, which is commonly dis- tinguished by the name of the Atomic Philosophy, was originated in Greece by Leucippus ; it was supported by Demo- critus, and subsequently improved by Epi- curus and his disciples. The Epicureans professed to account for the origin and formation of all things by supposing that these atoms were endued with gravity and motion, and thus came together into the different organized bodies we now see. ATOM'IC THE'ORY, a phrase expres- sive of a species of philosophy recently in- troduced into chemistry, and grounded on the axiom that "chemical union consists in the combination of the atoms of bodies with each other ;" so that when two bodies chemically unite and form a third body, the two substances united are dispersed every where through the new compound. AT'ONY, a defect of tone or tension, or a relaxation of the solids of the body. A'TRA BI'LIS, a disposition to a dark biliary secretion, usually visible throughout the whole frame. ATRAC'TYLIS, a plant called distaff- thistle, the leaves of which are aperitive and sudorific. ATRIEN'SES, in Roman antiquity, ser- vants entrusted with the care of the most valuable description of property. ATRIP', in nautical language, is applied either to the anchor or sails. The anchor is atrip when it is just drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular dii-ection. The top-sails are afry) when they are just started from the cap. A CONSTANT DRAUGHT OF AIR IS NECESSARY TO SUPPORT A FIRE. XHK BEFINED STYLB AND IDIOM OF THE ATHENIANS IS CALLED "ATTICISM. att] [att A'TROPA, or Deadly Nightshade, a genus of plants, one species of which, name- ly the Atropa Belladonna, is remi;rkable for bearing berries of a fine black colour, which are highly poisonous. The flowers are bell-shaped, dusky on the outside and purplish within. The fruit has a nauseous sweet taste, and is full of small kidney- slwwed seeds. AT'ROPIIY, a disease wherein the body, or some of its parts, not receiving neces- sary nutriment, insensibly waste away, and decay. ATTACH'MENT, in law, the taking or apprehending a person, by \irtue of a writ or precept. It differs from an arrest, in- asmuch as it lays hold of the goods, as well as the person; and also from a distress, which seizes on lands, tenements, and goods; but an attachment on the goods and body. Attachment of Privilege, is by virtue of a man's privilege to call another to that court whereto he himself belongs, and in respect whereof he is pri- vileged to answer some action. Foreigw Attachment, is an attachment of money or goods, found within a liberty or city, to satisfy some creditor within such liberty or city. By the custom of London, and se- veral other places, a man can attach money or goods in the hands of a stranger, to satisfy himself. ATTACK', in the military art, a general assault, or onset, made to gain a post, or any particular point. Every combat con- sists of attack and defence: the first is generally the most advantageous; and an experienced general chooses it, if possible, even in a defensive war. Those attacks are considered the best, where all the forces can be di-rected in concert towards that point of the enemy on which his position depends. ATTAIN'DEB-, the name of a law by which the estate and life of a traitor are forfeited. A Bill of Attainder is a bill brought into parliament for attainting per- sons convicted of high treason. A person attainted of high treason forfeits all his lands, tenements, and hereditaments ; his blood is corrupted, and he and his posterity rendered base ; and this corruption of blood cannot be taken off but by act of parlia- ment. Attainders may be reversed or falsified (i. e, proven to be false) by writ of error, or by plea. If by writ of error, it must be by the king's leave, &c. and when by plea, it may be by denying the treason, pleading a pardon by act of parliament, &c. ATTAINT', in law, a writ that lies after judgment against a jury of twelve men that are charged with having given a false verdict. Attaint, in the veterinary art, is a diseased limb proceeding from a blow. ATTEL'ABUS, in entomology, a genus of insects of the beetle kind ; the species of which are distinguished into those which have the jaws bifid, those which have the jaw one-toothed, and those which have the feelers clavate. The Attelabus Cory- Li, found chiefly on hazel-trees, &c, is of the first kind. ATTEN'TION, the applying the ear or the mind assiduously to any thing said or done. Attention ! the word of com- mand given in the British army prepa- ratory to any particular exercise or direc- tion. ATTEN'UANTS, medicines which pro- mote the circulation as well as the discharge of all noxious and excrementitious matter. Of the vegetable kingdom, the whole tribe of acrid and bitter plants, are at tenuants ; of the animal kingdom, the volatile salts, as sal ammoniac, and saltpetre ; and of the mineral kingdom, the mineral acid salts. AT'TIC, in architecture, a sort of build- ing, in which there is no roof or covering to be seen, as was usual in the houses of the Athenians. The Attic, or Attic STORY, is the upper story of a house.-— The Attic base is a peculiar kind of co- lumn, or support, employed both in the Doric and Ionic orders. ATTI'RE, in botany, a name formerly used to denote the third part or division of the flower of a plant, the other two being the empalement and the foliation. In heraldry, the term Attire designates the horns of stags and similar animals in blazoning coats of arms. ATTITUDE, in painting and sculpture, the position and gesture of a figure or statue ; or such a disposition of their parts, as shall best display some grace or beauty, or serve to express the action and senti- ments of the person represented. ATTOL'LENS, in anatomy, an epithet applied to some muscles, otherwise called levatores and elevatores. ATTOR'NEY, one who is appointed by another to do a thing in his absence. A public attorney is one who acts in the courts of law, and is a la^^7er by pro- fession. No attorney can practise in any court, unless he has been admitted and sworn an attorney of that particular court. As an oflicer of the court in which he is admitted, an attorney enjoys several privileges, and is liable, on the other hand, to the censure and correction of the judges. ——A private attorney acts upon particu- lar occasions, and is authorized by a letter of attorney, which gives one full power to act for another. ATTOR'NEY-GEN'ERAL, a great law officer, appointed by the king to manage all affairs of the crown, either in criminal prosecutions or otherwise. ATTRACTION, the power or principle by which bodies mutually tend towards each other ; which varies according to the nature of the bodies attracted, and the cir- cumstances under which this attraction takes place. Hence attraction is scien- tifically distinguished into the Attraction of Cohesion, Attraction of Gravitation, At- traction of Electricity, Attraction of Mag- netism, and Chemical Attraction. At- traction OF Cohesion is peculiar to the component particles of bodies, by virtue of whicn they are firmly connected and held together. As the attraction of cohesion is the cause of the solidity of small bodies. attraction is exhibited, in its SIMPLEST FORM, BY FALLING BODIES. "elective attraction" is otherwise called affinitt. Aim] % IsTefco JBictionar^ of tijc ^eUes ICettres. [aug so is the Attraction of Gravitation that chain which, being diffused over the solar system, presen'es the planets in their orbits, and makes them revolve about the centre of the system. That which in com- mon language is called weight, is by philo- sophers explained to be gravitation; that is, a tendency to the centre of gravity. By gravitation a stone and all heavy bodies, if let fall from a height, are supposed to drop to the earth. All celestial bodies are sup- posed to have not only an attraction or gra- vitation towards their proper centres, but that they mutually attract each other within their sphere. The planets tend towards the sun and towards each other, as the sun does towards them. The earth and moon tend likewise reciprocally towards each. By this same principle of gravity heavenly bodies are kept in their orbits, and terrestrial bo- dies tend, as is supposed, towards the centre of the earth. And it is from this attraction that aU the motion, and consequently all the changes in the universe, are supposed to arise. Attraction of Magnetism is the particular tendency of certain bodies to each other, as that of the magnet, which attracts iron, of which we shall speak more particularly in its proper place ; as well also of the Attraction of Electricity. ATTRAC'TIVES, in medicine, a peculiar species of remedies which act by promoting external discharge. AT TRIBUTES, in theology, the several qualities or perfections of the divine nature, or such as we conceive to constitute the proper essence of God; as his wisdom, power, justice, goodness, &c. ^Attri- butes, in logic, are the predicates of any subject, or what may be affirmed or denied of any thing. ^Attributes, in painting and sculpture, are symbols added to a fi- gure or group, which are characteristic of the principal subject. Thus the eagle is an attribute of Jupiter ; a peacock,of Juno ; a ca- duceus, of Mercurv ; a club, of Hercules, &c. ATTRI"TION, 'the rubbing or striking of bodies one against another, so as to throw off some of their superficial particles. Attrition is also often used for the friction of such simple bodies as do not wear from rubbing one against another, but whose fluids are, by that motion, sub- jected to some particular determination ; as the various sensations of hunger, pain, and pleasure, are said to be occasioned by the attrition of the organs formed for buch impressions. AUCUPA'TION, fowling, or the art of bird-catching. AUCTION, a public sale of goods to the highest bidder. It is not generally known that a bidder at an auction under the usual conditions, may retract his bidding any time before the hammer is down. A mock auc- tion is that which is conducted by unli- censed persons for fraudulent purposes. AU DIENCE, the persons assembled at a theatre, or other public place to see and hear the performances. Audience, a cerciuony used in courts at the admission of aviibassadors or other public ministers to a hearing. In England audience is given to ambassadors in the presence chamber ; and to envoys and residents in a gallery, closet, or any place where the king happens to be. Audience is also the name of an ecclesiastical court, held by the archbishop of Canterbury, wherein differences upon elections, consecrations, institutions, mar- riages, &c., are heard. AU'DIT, a regular examination of ac- counts by ofiicers appointed for that pur- pose. AU'DITOR, an officer of the king, or any corporate body, appointed annually to exa- mine accounts. AUDITO'RIUS MEATUS, the passage or entrance into the ear, that conveys the air to the auditory nerve. AU'DITORY NERVES, a pair of nerves arising from the medulla oblongata, with two trunks, one of which is called thejpor^ia dura; the other, portia mollis. AUGMENTATION, in heraldry, a par- ticular mark of honour generally borne ei- tlier on the escutcheon or a canton, as ar- gent, a hand, gules, borne by every baronet who cannot claim higher honour. AU'GES, two points in a planet's orbit; the one denominated the apogee, the other the perigee. AUGETT'E,in fortification, the wooden pipe which contains the powder by which a mine is fired. AU'GITE, a species of mineral, of which many varieties are found differing both in form and colour. Different names have been applied to some of its most remark- able varieties ; as diopside, to greenish- white transparent crystals ; sahlite, when it is in imperfectly prismatic and foliated masses ; and coccolite,\\hen in small, slight- ly-cohering grains. It is one of those few mineral substances, the composition of which may be imitated by the artificial mixture of its constituents, and subjecting them to fusion. Its component parts are silex, lime, magnesia, and oxyde of iron. AU'GUR, an officer among the Romans appointed to foretell future events, by the chattering and feeding of birds. The au- gurs bore an augural staff or wand, as the ensign of their authority, and their dignity was so much respected, that they were never deposed, nor any substituted in their place, though convicted of the most enor- mous crimes. AU'GURY, a species of divination, or the art of foretelling future events, practised by the ancients. It was distinguished into five sorts, viz., augury from appearances in the heavens ; from birds : from chickens : from quadrupeds: and from portentous events. This, like other human errors, ap- pears to have arisen from ideas tolerably rational at first. The regular appearance and disappearance of the birds, and the pre- cision that is observable in almost their whole proceedings, might naturally impress an ignorant race of men with a belief that they either inherently possessed, or from time to time received, supernatural informa- tion. Accustomed to regidate by these mo- tue change of. aliment is effected by th 'attrition" op the stomach. THE PRIMITIVE ROMANS BEGAN THEIR YEAR WITH SEXTILIS, OR AUGUST. aun] ©f)e Sdentift'c antr Xittxax^ treasure ; [aur niters their rural occupations, the shepherd and the husbandman were led, by the most excusable association of ideas, to consult the same advisers in the few other concerns of life that fell to their lot; and on the foundation laid by superstition, imposture subsequently raised a fantastic structure. AU'GUST, the eighth month of our year, containing 31 days. August was dedicated to the honour of Augustus Caesar, because in the same month (before called Sextilis, or the sixth fi*om March) he was created consul, thrice triumphed in Rome, subju- gated Egypt to the Roman sway, and put an end to the civil wars. AUGUSTA'LES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given to the flamens or priests ap- pointed to sacrifice to Augustus, after his deification, and also to the games celebrated in honour of him on the fourth of the ides of October. AUGUSTA'LIA, a festival instituted by the Romans in honour of Augustus. AUGUSTA'LIS PR^FEC'TUS, a title peculiar to a Roman magistrate who go- verned Egypt, with a power much like that of a proconsul in other provinces. AUGUSTAN denotes something relating to the emperor Augustus ; as Augustan age, Augustan era, &c. AUGUS'TINES, a religious order, so called from St. Augustine, their founder, and vxilgarly called Austin friars, or Chris- tian hermits. Before the Reformation they had 32 houses in England. Among other things, this rule enjoins to have all things in common, to receive nothing without the leave of the superior ; and several other precepts relating to charity, modesty, and chastity. There are likewise nuns of this order. The Augustines are clothed in black, and at Paris are known under the name of the religious of St. Genevieve, that abbey being the chief of the order. AUGUSTIN'IANS, a religious sect of the 16th century, who maintained that the gates of heaven would not be opened till the general resurrection. AUK, a bird of the Arctic seas, known as the Penguin or Razor-bill, but called by Linnaeus Alca. This bird is observed by seamen never to wander beyond soundings, and accordingly they conclude, on its ap- pearance, that land is not far off. AU'LIC, an epithet given to certain of- ficers in the ci-devant German empire, who composed a court which decided, without appeal, in all judicial processes entered in it. This court, which was proverbial for the slow administration of justice, had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the court of the imperial chamber, but, in many cases, exclusive jurisdiction. The right of appeal, possessed by the estates, existed also in regard to the judicial decisions of the aulic court. AU'LOS, a Grecian measure of length equal to the stadium. AUME, a measure of capacity, employed on the continent, equal to thirty-five Eng- lish gallons. AUN'CEL-WEIGHT, an ancient kind of hand-weighing. The auncel v/as a ba- lance, with several scale-pans; and as it was supposed to give an advantage to the seller, its use was prohibited by statute. AUNE, a measure of length employed on the continent, but varying considerably in different parts of Europe. It is generally about the length of an EngUsh ell. AU'RA, an exhalation or vapour. Ancient chemists defined it to be a certain fine and pure spirit, found in every animal or vege- table body; but so subtile, as only to be perceptible by its smell. AURE'LIA, that intermediate state in which many insects remain for some time, between the caterpiUar form and the pe- riod in which they are furnished with wings, antennae, and other organs appertaining to the perfect insect. AURE'OLA, in its original signification, denotes a jewel, which is proposed as a re- ward of victory in some public dispute. Hence, the Roman schoolmen applied it to the reward bestowed on martyrs, virgins, &c., on account of their works of superero- gation; and painters use it to signify the crov\Ti of glory mth which they adorn the heads of saints, confessors, &c. AU'RES MARI'N^, Ear-shells, in na- tural history, a name given to different spe- cies of the haliotis, v/hich is an univalve shell-fish of a flatted shape, somewhat re- sembling the human ear. AURE'US, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to twenty-five denarii. AU'RICLE, in anatomy, that part of the ear which is prominent from the head, called by many authors auris externa. There are also Auricula Cordis, or auricles of the heart, which are appendages at the base of the heart, and are distinguished into right and left, the former of which is placed in the anterior, the latter in the hinder part. These are muscular bags, which move regularly with the heart, but in an in- verted order. AURICULA, in botany, that species of primrose, called from the form of its leaves, bear's ear. AURIC ULAR CONFES'SION, a mode of confession among Roman Catholics, by whispering in the ears of their fathers, con- fessors, or priests. AURI'GA, or the Waggoner, in astro- nomy, a constellation of the northern he- misphere, containing about 46 stars of the first six magnitudes. AU'RIS, the term by which anatomists express the ear. AURISCAL'PUM, a surgical instrument employed to operate on the ear. AURO'RA, the morning twilight, or that faint light which appears in the morning when the sun is within 18 degrees of the horizon. AURO'RA-BOREA'LIS, or Northern Lights, a kind of meteor appearing in the northern part of the heavens, most frequent and most brilliant during the winter sol- stice. V/ e often see in the north, near the horizon, usually a short time after sunset, a dark segment of a circle, surrounded by a WHATEVER IS HEARD, OR RECOGNIZED BY THE EAR, IS CALLED "AURICULAR.'' AUSTSALIA IS SO CALLED FROM ITS "AUSTKAL" OR SOUTHERN SITUATION. aur] IsTcto Biclionarp of t\)z belles Ulcttres. [aut brilliant arch of white or fiery light ; and this arch is often separated into several concentric arches, leaving the dark segment visible between them. From these arches, and from the dark segment itself, in high latitudes, columns of light, of the most va- riegated and beautiful colours, shoot up to- wards the zenith, and, sometimes, masses like sheaves of light are scattered in all di- rections. In the Shetland islands, the merry dancers, as they are there called, are the constant attendants of clear evenings, and cheerers of the long winter nights. In still more northern countries, as Norway, Lapland, and Siberia, they greatly enliven the snowy landscapes. They commonly ap- pear at twihght, near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; sometimes continuing in that state for several hours, without any sensible motion ; after which they break out into streams of stronger light, spreading into columns, and altering slowly into a thousand different shapes, va- rying their colours fi-om aU the tints of yel- low to the obscurest russet. They often cover the whole hemisphere, and then make the most splendid appearance. Their mo- tions, at all these times are amazingly quick ; and they astonish the spectator with the rapid change of their form. They break out in places where none were seen before, skimming briskly along the heavens, and are suddenly extinguished, leaving be- hind them a uniform dusky track. This is again iUumined in the same manner, and as suddenly left a dull blank. In certain nights, they assume the appearance of vast columns, on one side of the deepest yellow, on the other declining away till it becomes undistinguished from the sky. They have generally a strong tremulous motion from the end, which continues tUl the whole va- nishes. During the winters of 1837 and 1838 the aurora-borealis was several times witnessed in England ; but we, who only see the extremities of this northern pheno- menon, have but a faint idea of its grandeur or its motions. Various theories have ex- isted respecting the cavise of this phenome- non, but little doubt is now entertained of its being occasioned by the passage of elec- tricity through the upper regions of the at- mosphere ; its appearance, in fact, exactly resembling the effects of artificial electri- city when passing through rarefied air. There is the same variety of colour and in- tensity; the same undulating motion and corruscations ; the streams exhibit the same diversity of character, at one moment minutely divided in ramifications, and at another beaming forth in one body of light, or passing in distinct broad flashes ; and when the rarefication is considerable, vari- ous parts of the stream assume that pecu- liar glowing colour which occasionally ap- pears in the atmosphere, and is regarded by the uninformed observer with astonish- ment and fear. AU'RUM MOSA'ICUM, a combination of tin and sulphur, used by statuaries and painters, for giving a gold colour to their figures. AU'RUM POTAB'ILE, tincture of gold a cordial liquor with leaf gold in it. AU'RUM FUL'MINANS, a precipitate of gold, so caUed, because of the explosion which it makes by a gentle attrition. AUS'PICES, a kind of soothsaying a- mong the Romans, by the flight or singing of birds. AUS'TRAL, relating to the south : thus the six signs on the south side of the equi- noctial are called austral signs. AUS'TER, the south wind. AUSTRA'LIO PIS'CES, a consteUation of the southern hemisphere, consisting of 24 stars, according to the Britannic catalogue. AU'TOGRAPH, an epithet applied to whatever is written in a person's own hand- writing, as an autograph letter, a letter of one's ow^n writing. AUTOM'ATON (see Androides). Every mechanical construction, which, by virtue of a latent intrinsic force not obvious to the sight, can carry on for a certain length of time such movements as resemble the re- svdts of human execution, is an automaton. But the term is generally applied to the fi- gure of an animal, to which motion is given by wheels, springs, and weights, internally placed, and causing apparent animation ; as the mechanical chess-player and flute- player. The practice of making these au- tomata is much less frequent at present than formerly ; ingenious mechanicians now-a-days finding themselves better re- warded by directing their talents to the self-acting machinery of modern manufac- tures. As Dr. Ure observes, "it is in our roodern cotton and flax-mills that automa- tic operations are displayed to most advan- tage ; for there the elemental powers have been made to animate millions of complex organs, infusing into forms of wood, iron, and brass, an intelligent agency." And, pursuing the subject with his character- istic zeal, while comparing the commercial greatness of Britain with the boasted mo- numents of Asiatic and Roman despotism, he says, " Such is the automatic system, re- plete with prodigies in mechanics and po- litical economy, which promises, in its fu- ture growth, to become the great minister of civilization to the terraqueous globe, en- abling this country, as its heart, to diffuse, along with its commerce, the life-blood of knowledge and religion, to myriads of peo- ple still lying in the region and shadow of death." AU'TUMN, the third season in the year, which begins, in the northern hemisphere, on the day when the sun enters Libra, that is, on the 22d of September. It terminates about the same day in December, when the winter commences. Autumn is represent- ed, in painting, by a man of mature age, clothed and girt with a starry girdle ; hold- ing in one hand a pair of scales equally poised, with a globe in each ; and in the other a bunch of grapes and other fruit. His age denotes the perfection of this sea- son ; and the halance, that sig-n of the zo- diac which the sun enters w-hen our au- tumn begins. A PERSON WHO is SEL'F-TAUGHT IS TERMED AN " AUTOM.VTH." 63 "AVASTI" 13 THE NAVAL TJERM OP COMMAND FOK " STOP !" OR "hOLDJ" AXl] ^f)e Scientific antJ ILiterar^ ^rcasur^} ; [aza AUTU1\I'NAL SIGNS, the three signs. Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, through which the sun passes during the season of autumn. AUXILIARY VERBS, in grammar, are such verbs as help to form or conjugate others ; as, in English, the verbs " to have," and " to be." AVA'TAR, a term used by the Hindoos to express an incarnation or descent of Vishnu, their deity: nine of which are be- lieved to be passed, and the tenth yet to come. A'VE MARI'A, the name given to the angel Gabriel's salutation to the Virgin Mary. Also, the chaplets and rosaries of the Romish church, which are divided into ave-marias and pater-nosters. AVENUE, in ornamentEil gardening, a walk planted on each side with trees, and leading to a house, garden-gate, wood, &c., and generally terminated by some distant object. AvBNUK, in fortification, an opening or inlet into a fort, bastion, or the like. In architecture, it means an ap- proach to a palace or mansion, by a long walk of columns, arcades, statues, &c. AVERAGE, the results from equal di\I- sion of several sums added together. It is also a term used in commerce, among mer- chants and ship-owners, to denote the quota or proportion which each merchant or pro- prietor in the ship or lading is adjudged, upon a reasonable estimate, to contribute towards the expenses of the voyage, &c. A'VIARY, a place set apart for feeding and propagating birds. AVOIRDUPOIS', a weight used in Eng- land, the pound being 16 ounces. AWARD', in law, the judgment of an ar- bitrator, or of one who is not appointed by the law a judge, but chosen by the parties themselves for terminating their difference. AWL'WORT, the popular name of the subularia aquatica ; so called from its awl- shaped leaves, which grow in clusters round the root. AWEIGH', a sea term, denoting that the anchor is just drawn out of the ground, and hangs perpendicular. AWN, a slender sharp process issuing from the glume or chaflf in corn and grasses : the beard. AWN'ING, a canopy, usually a piece of tarpaulin or a sail, extended over the decks or any other part of the ship, to afford shel- ter from the sun, rain, &c. AXAYA'CAT, a Mexican fly, whose eggs, deposited on rushes and flags, in large quantities, are sold and used as a sort of caviare. AX'E STONE, a mineral, a sub-species of nephrite, of an olive or grass-green colour. It is found chiefly in New Zealand and the South Sea Isles, where it is used by the na- tives for axes and other instruments. AXIL'LA, in anatomy, the arm-pit, or the cavity under the upper part of the arm. Axilla, in botany, the space or angle form- ed by a branch with the stem, or by a leaf with a branch. AX'INITE, a mineral which sometimes occurs in lamellar masses, but commonly in crystals. Its edges are thin and sharp, like an axe, whence its name. AXINOM'ANCY, a species of divination, among the ancients, performed by laying an agate stone on a red-hot hatchet, or by fixing a hatchet on a round stake so as to be poised ; then the names of those sus- pected were repeated, and he at whose name the hatchet moved, was declared guilty. AX'IOM, in philosophy, is such a plain, self-evident proposition, that it cannot be made more plain and evident by demon- stration ; because it is itself better knovra than anything that can be brought to prove it. By axioms, called also maxims, are un- derstood all common notions of the mind, whose evidence is so clear and forcible, that a man cannot deny them without renounc- ing common sense and natural reason. AX'IS, in astronomy, an imaginary right line supposed to pass through the earth, sun, planets, satellites, &c., and about which they perform their respective diurnal rota- tions. The earth and planets, in their pro- gress through the annual orbit, move in such a manner that the axis of each always keeps parallel to itself, or points to the same part of the heavens. The axis of the earth is inclined to the ecliptic, in an angle of nearly sixty-six and a half degrees, a po- sition which is well adapted for promoting the fertility of the earth and rendering it habitable. Axis, in geometry, a right line conceived to be drawn from the vertex of a figure to the middle of the base. It is so called because the figure, by revolving round this line, is conceived to generate a solid. The axis of the circle is the same as the diameter. Axis, in mechanics, a certain line about which a body may move, as the axis of a balance, &c. ^Axis, in optics, is that ray, among all others that are sent to the eye, which falls perpendicu- larly upon it, and which consequently passes through the centre of the eye. lAxis, in anatomy, the second vertebra of the neck, so called from the head's turning on it like an axis. Axis, in botany, is a taper co- lumn in the centre of some flowers, about which the other parts are disposed. Axis in Peritrochio, or, wheel and axle ; one of the five mechanical powers or simple ma- chines, which is principally used in the raising of water. The power is applied at the circumference of the wheel, and the weight is raised by a rope that is gathered up on the axis while the wheel turns round. ——Jxis of Oscillation, is a line parallel to the horizon, passing through the cen- tre, about which a pendulum vibrates, and perpendicular to the plane in which it os- cillates. Jxis of a Vessel, is an imaginary line passing through the middle of it, per- pendicular to its base, and equally distant irom its sides. AX'OLATE, a black water lizard found in Mexico. AZA'LEA, in botany, a genus of plants, the chief species of which are flowering shrubs. THE "axillary VEIN " AND "AXILLARY NERVE PASS BENEATH THE ARM-PIT. bab] THE LAZULITE IS SOMETIMES CALLED "AZUKITE, OR " AZUKE-STONE." [bac AZEN'SALI, in botany, a sort of moss that grows on rocks ; also a kind of black stone found among gold. AZ'IMUTH, in astronomy, an arc of the horizon, intercepted between the me- ridian of the place, and the vertical circle passing through the centre of an object. Magnetical Azimuth, is an arc of the horizon contained between the sun's azimuth circle and the magnetical meridian. Azimuth circles, or vertical cir- cles ; imaginary great circles passing through the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. The altitudes of the heavenly bodies are measured on these circles, which circles may be represented by screwing the quadrant of altitude on the zenith of any place, and making the other end move along the wooden horizon of the globe. Azimuth compass, an instni- ment for finding in a more accurate man- ner than by the common sea compass, the magnetical amplitude of the sun or stars. AZO'TE, or Nitrogen, the radical prin- ciple of atmospheric air ; a species of gas of which the atmosphere contains nearly 4-5ths in bulk, and 3-4ths in weight ; the other fifth and fourth being oxygen, with- out which the air will support neither life nor combustion. In its nature it is inrisi- ble and elastic, and capable of condensa- tion and expansion. It immediately extin- guishes animal life, and the flame of a can- dle. It has no taste ; some plants live and flourish in it. It is not absorbed by water, but is capable of combining with oxygen ; and with different proportions of this sub- stance it forms atmospheric air, gaseous ox- yde of azote, or nitrous oxyde, nitrous gas, nitrous acid, and nitric acid. Combined with hydrogen, it forms volatile alkali ; and it enters into the composition of most ani- mal substances. AZ'OTITE, a kind of salt formed from the combination of the protoxyde of azote, or nitrous oxyde, with alkalies. AZ'URE, the blue colour of the sky. Among painters, this word originally signi- fied lapis-lazuli, and the blue colour pre- pared from it. At present it is called ultra- marine ; and the blue glass made from the earth of cobalt and other vitrifiable mat- ters, which, when in masses, is called smalt, is, in the state of fine powder, known by the name of azure. Azure being employed to colour starch, is also called starch-blue. Azure, in heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of any person below the rank of a baron. In the escutcheon of a nobleman it is called sapphire ; and in that of a sove- reign prince, Jupiter. In engraving, this colour is expressed by lines or strokes drawn horizontally. AZ'YMA, in theology, the feast of un- leavened bread among the Jews. AZ'YMITES, in church history, Chris- tians who administer the eucharist with un- leavened bread. This appellation was given to the Latin by the Greek church, and also to the Armenians and Maronites. B. B, the second letter, and first conso- nant, in the alphabet, is formed in the voice by a strong and quick expression of the breath, and a sudden opening of the lips ; it is therefore called a labial, and its i pronunciation differs but slightly from j; and V. It is often used as an abbreviation for Bachelor, as 15. A. Bachelor of Arts, B.D. Bachelor of Divinity, &c., and for be- fore, as B.C., Before Christ. B, as a nume- ral among the RoKians, stood for 300, and with a dash over it for 3000. B, in chrono- logy, stands for one of the dominical let- ters, and in music for the seventh note in the gamut. BA'AL, an idol among the ancient Chal- deans and Syrians ; supposed to represent the sun, and to be the same as the Bel or Belus of the Greeks. The word signi- fies also lord or commander ; and the cha- racter of the idol was varied by different na- tions, at different times. Of the manner in which Baal was worshipped, we have but imperfect and contradictory statements; but we are informed in Scripture that hu- man victims were among the sacrifices of- fered to him. BABOON', a large kind of ape with a short tail, which forms one division of the genus Simia in the Linnaean system. They are the most disgustingly lascivious of all the monkey tribe ; and such is their natu- ral ferocity, that they can never be said to be properly tamed into obedience : they ought not therefore to be admitted into zoological exhibitions for the public. BABYLON'ICS, in literary history, a fragment of the ancient histoiy of the world, ending at 267 years before Christ ; and composed by Berosus, a priest of Ba- bylon, about the time of Alexander. BABYLON'ICA, in antiquity, a species of rich weaving so called from the city of Babylon, where the art of weaving hangings with a varietv of colours was first invented. BABYROUS'SA, in zoology, the Indian hog. This quadruped belongs to the genus sus, in the class mammalia ; and its'most distinguishing characteristic is, that from the outside of the upper jaw spring two teeth twelve inches long, bending like horns, and almost touching the forehead. BAC'CHiE, the priestesses of Bacchus, who, crowned with vine and ivy leaves, and clad in the skins of wild beasts, celebrated the orgies of their god with frantic cries and gestures. They were also called Ma>- nades, Bassarides, and Thyades. 'babooxs" are found only on the eastern continent, or old world. [G 3 REVKLLIMG AlfD DRUIfKENNESS HAVE THE EPITHET OF " BACCHANALIAN.*' BAC] [bai BACCHANALIA, feasts celebrated in honour of Bacchus by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Their times of celebration w ere spring and aatumn : the former in the city, and the latter in the fields. The com- pany personified SUenus, Pan, Fauns, Sa- tyrs, &c. ; and in this manner appeared in public, night and day, counterfeiting drunk- enness, dancing obscenely, committing all kinds of licentiousness and debauchery ; and running over the mountains and forests, with horrible shrieks and bowlings, crying out, Evoe Bacche, or lo Bacche. Livy in- forms us, that during the Bacchanalian feasts at Rome, such shocking disorders were practised under the cover of the night, and those who were initiated were bound to conceal them by an oath attended with horrid imprecations, that the senate sup- pressed them first in Rome, and afterwards throvighout all Italy. BAC'CHARIS, a sweet-scented medicinal plant, growing mostly in rough and dry grounds. The roots smell like cinnamon, and are a powerful stimulant. BACCIF'ER^, the term applied to all berry-bearing plants. Hence the English adjective bacci/erous. BACH'ELOR, in its primitive sense, means a man who has not been married: and in all its various sennes it seems to in- clude the idea of youth of immaturity, ex- cept when it has the word old prefixed. ■ Bachelor, in universities, is one who has attained the first degree in the liberal arts and sciences, or the first degree in the par- ticular study to which he devotes himself. This degree or honour is called the bacca- laureate. At Oxford and at Cambridge, to attain the degree of bachelor of arts, a per- son must have stvidied there four years: after three more, he may become master of arts ; and at the end of another series of seven, bachelor of divinity. Bachelor, an ancient denomination of knighthood, given to such as had not a suflScient num- ber of vassals to carry their banner; or to such knights-bannerets as were not of age to display their own banner; or, to young cavaliers, little more than initiated to arms ; or, in a very honourable sense, to him who had overcome his antagonist in his tourna- ment. Knights-Bachelors, the lowest rank of knights, whose title was not heredi- tary. These are the knights of modem days. BACK, a word used in various nautical phrases ; as to " back an anchor ;" to " back the sails ;" to " back astern," &c. ; meaning thereby, to carry out a small anchor to support the larger one ; to arrange the sails for the ship to retreat, or move back, in consequence of the tide favouring her ; to manage the oars in rowing in a contrary direction to the usual method, to move a boat stern foremost. The word back has also various figurative as well as technical applications. BACKGAM'MON, an ingenious game played by two persons with the help of dice, on a board or table divided into parts, whereon are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. BACK'PAINTING the method of paint- ing mezzotinto prints pasted on glass with oil colours. BACK'STAFF, an instrument formerly used for taking the sun's altitude at sea : it had its name because the back of the ob- server was turned towards the sun. This quadrant is now superseded by more accu- rate instruments. BACK'STAYS, the ropes or stays which extend from the topmast heads to both sides of a ship, to assist the shrouds in support- ing the masts, when strained by a weight of sail, and to prevent them from giving way and falling overboard. BAC'ULE, in ancient fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gate, made like a pit-fedl with a counterpoise, and supported by two great stakes. BAC'ULITE, a genus of fossil shells of a straight form, in their cellular structure resembling the ammonites. BACULOiM'ETRY, the art of measuring accessible heights, by bacculi, or staves. BADGE, an exterior ornament of a coat of arms, originally worn by the retainers or attendants of the nobility. It fell into dis- use in the reign of queen Elizabeth. In naval architecture, an ornament placed on the outside of ships near the stern, con- taining either a window, or the representa- tion of one. BADGER, a quadruped of the genus ursv.s. It inhabits the north of Europe and Asia, and is found in many parts of England. It is of a clumsy make, with short, thick legs, and long claws on the fore-feet ; very indo- lent and sleepy ; feeds on insects or berries, burrows during winter, hunts by night, and lies concealed by day. BADIA'GA, a plant resembling sponge, which grov/s in Russia, and is said to take away the livid marks from bruises. BAG, in commerce, a determinate quan- tity of goods contained in a bag, varj-ing in size, according to the article, as a bag of hops, a bag of pepper, &c. BAG'GAGE, in miUtary affairs, denotes the clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, provisions, and other necessaries belonging to an army. BAG'NIO, (pron. ban'yo) a house with conveniences for bathing, cupping, sweat- ing, and otherwise cleansing the body. It also means a brothel. In Turkey, it is the name of prisons where slaves are kept. BAGTIPE, a musical wind instrument used chiefly in Scotland and Ireland. It is of high antiquity, and consists of two parts : namely, a leathern bag, and pipes for ad- mitting and ejecting the air. One of the pipes called the drone, with which the bass part is played, never varies its tone. The third pipe is played on by compressing the bag under the arm. BAIL, in law, sureties given for the ap- pearance, when required, of a person in cus- tody. Common Bail is in common cases, where any sureties may be taken ; but Spe- cial Bail is necessary in matters of greater importance, where special surety of two or more persons must be taken according to THE WORD "backgammon IS OP WELSH ORIGIN, SI6NIPTING "LITTLE BATTLE.' bal] THE WORD "bail" IS KBVEB USED WITH A PLURAL TERMINATION. % TSTctD JBictionatB of tl)e ISelles ICcttres. AL the value of the cause.— To admit to bail, is to release upon security given by bonds- men. To justify bail, is to prove by the oath of the person that he is worth the sum for which he is surety beyond his debts. BAILEE', in law, the person to whom the goods of the one that is bailed are delivered. The party who delivers the goods is termed the Baillor. BAI'LIFF, a subordinate magistrate or officer appointed within a particular pro- vince or district, as bailiffs of hundreds, li- berties, courts, barons, &c. Sheriffs' bailiffs are officers appointed by the sheriff to exe- cute writs. These, being bound in bond to the sheriff for the due execution of their office, are called bound bailiflfs, vulgarly bum-bailiffs. Water-bailiff, an officer who searclies ships, gathers toll for anchor- age, and arrests persons for debt upon the water. BAIL'IWICK, a liberty exempt from the power of the sheriff, in which district the lord exercises the office of sheriff, and ap- points his own bailiff. A bailiwick is also the hundred, or district, through which the authority of a bailiff extends. BAIO'CO, a small coin in the papal states, one hundred of which make a Ro- man crown. BAI'RAIM, a festival among the Turks, celebrated after the fast of Ramazan, when it is customary to send presents from one to another, and otherwise to express the joy they feel on the occasion. BAIZE, a coarse, woollen stuff, with a long nap, sometimes frized on one side, without wale, being manufactured on a loom, V, ith two treddles, like flannel. BAL^'NA, or the Whale species, a genus of animals in the Linnrean system, class Mammalia, order Cete. There are several kinds ; the generic character being horny lamincB in the upper jaw in place of teeth, and a S2nracle with a double external orifice on the top of the head. BAL'ANCE, an instrument for weighing commodities, consisting of a beam or le- ver suspended exactly in the middle, with a scale hung to each extremity, of precisely equal weight. Hence the term balance, in mechanics, is defined as a peculiar applica- tion of that simple mechanical power called the lever, by which it is rendered useful in determining the difference or equality of weights in heavy bodies, and consequently their masses or quantities of matter. The characteristic difference between a balance and a lever is, that the former is suspended from something which is above it, the lat- ter supported by a prop or fulcrum below it. The difference between the use of the scales and the steelyard, consists in this, that as in the former you make use of a larger power, or more weight, to estimate the weight of a heavier body ; in the latter you use the same power, but give it a greater velocity with re- spect to that of the weight, by applying it further from the fixed point, which produces the same effect. The hydrostatic balance is an instrument to determine the specific gravity of fluid and solid bodies. The assay balance is used to ascertain the exact weight of the different metallic bodies of which the ore is composed. In accounts, balance is the difference of two sums ; hence, to pay a balance, is to pay the difference, and make the two accounts equal. In astronomy. Libra, or the balance, is a sign in the zodiac, which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox. BALANCE OF TRADE, in commerce, the equality between the value of the com- modities bought of foreigners, and the va- lue of the native productions exported. When a nation imports to a greater extent than it exports, the balance of trade is said to be against it ; that is, it loses by its trade ; and vice versa. The native commodities of a nation are its income, its property; and it is apparent that wherever purchases ex- ceed the income, there is a tendency to bankruptcy. BALANCE OF POWER, in politics, that just equipoise or equal state of power be- tween nations, which may be consistent with their general security and prosperity. BAL'ASS RUBY, in mineralogy, a species of ruby, with crystals of a regular octahe- dral form. BALBITO'DES, in anatomy, the cavity at the extremity of the humerus to which the ulna is articulated. BALBUTIES, in medicine, a stammer- ing and precipitate speech. BAL'CONY, in architecture, a projection from the front of a house, surrounded by a balustrade or open gallery. In large build- ings they are susceptible of considerable elegance of decoration, and may be made highly ornamental to the edifices to which they are attached. BALD ACHIN, in architecture, a kind of canopy erected over an altar. BALE-GOODS, in commerce, such goods as are exported or imported in bales. BAL'ISTES, or File-fish, a genus of animals, so called from the resemblance of their back-bone to a file : they are remark- able for the brUliancy of their colours. BALL, in military affairs, comprehends all sorts of bullets for fire arms, from the cannon to the pistol ; those for pistols and small arms are made of lead, but cannon- balls are formed of cast iron. In farriery, any medicine given to a horse in the shape of a ball. Fire-ball, a meteor, or lumi- nous globe darting through the atmosphere. Also, a bag of canvas filled with gunpow- der, sulphur, pitch, &c., to be thrown by the hand, or from mortars. BAL'LAD, a short lyric composition, or tale in verse, of a simple and popular cha- racter ; set to music, and generally in most esteem by the lower classes. It originally meant a solemn song of praise. BAL'LAST, heavy matter, as stone, gra- vel, iron, &c. thrown into the hold of a ship, to sink her to a proper depth in the water, that she may be capable of carrying a suffi- cient quantity of sail without over-setting. BALLATOON' a heavy luggage boat em- ployed on the rivers about the Caspian lake. BAL'LET, a dramatic entertainment. AN impartial state OF THE MIND IS CALLED A " MORAL BALANCE " 67 GARNERIN WAS ONCE CARRIED BY A GALE OF WIND 260 MILES IN BIGHT HOURS. BAL VLi)z Scientific antr Xitcrarii treasury ; [ban consisting of action and dancing only, in- vented by the Italions. BALLIS'TICS, the art of using projec- tiles.--^^ — The ballistic pendulum is a ma- cliine for ascertaining the velocity of mili- tary projectiles. BALLIS'TA, or BALIS'T^E, a military engine used by the ancients, in battle, to throw stones, darts, and javelins. BALLOON', in a general sense, means any spherical hollow body ; but it more par- ticularly designates a globe made of silk, and rendered air-tight by gum, which, when tilled with hydrogen gas, from ten to thir- teen times lighter than atmospherical air, ascends into the atmosphere, and will con- vey heavy bodies suspended to it. [See the article Pneumatics.] In fireworks, a balloon is a ball of pasteboard, or kind of bomb, filled with combustibles, which, bursting in the aii*, exhibits sparks of fire like stars. In chemistry, it means a round vessel with a short neck ; or, a glass receiver of a spherical form. B A L ' L O T, the method of determining an election by means of small balls, black or white, put privately into a box. BALLO'TA, in botany, the plant called stinking or black hoarhound. In the Lin- nsean system, a genus of plants, class 14 Bidynamia, order 1 Gymnospermia ; the species of which are mostly perennials, but the sweet-smelling hoarhound is an annual. BALLOTA'DE, in horsemanship, the leap of a horse between two pillars, or upon a straight line, so that when his fore feet are in the air, he shows nothing but the shoes of his hind feet, without jerking out; dif- fering in that respect from the capriole. BALLS, in electricity, are two pieces of cork, or pith of elder, nicely turned in a lathe to the size of a small pea, and sus- pended by linen or silken thread, intended as electrometers, to discover small quan titles of electricity. Balls, in meteorology, luminous bodies, generally appearing at a great height above the earth, with much splendour. Their tract is usually from north to south, and their velocity is very great. BALM, in botany, the name of several aromatic plants. The Balm of Gilead, or balsam of Mecca, is the dried juice of a small tree or shrub growing in Syria : it has a warm aromatic taste, and an exquisitely fragrant smell. It i^ highly esteemed by the Turks as an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic ; but its scarcity is such, that the genuine balsam is seldom exported as an article of commerce. We are informed by Josephus, the Jewish historian, that the balsam of Gilead was one of the trees given by the queen of Sheba to Solomon ; and it appears from the Scriptures that it was in high repute among the nations of the East. BAL'NEUIM, in antiquity, a private bath or bathing place, in distinction from the balnea, which were public baths. In che- mistry, a contiivance to modify and regu- late the heat in various chemical processes, particularly distillations, by the use of dif- ferent intermedia. Wlien the degree of heat required is below that of boiling water. a vessel containing that fluid is interposed between the fire and the substance to be acted upon; and when a superiors degree of heat is necessary, sand, or some other mat- ter of a similar nature is employed. BAL'SAM, an oily aromatic, resinous, or liquid substance, flowing either spontane- ously, or by means of incision from certain plants, and used in the cure of several kinds of wounds, diseases, &c. Thus we have the balsam of Copaiva ; the balsam of Tolu ; the balsam of Peru. Factitious or artifi- cial balsams, are certain compositions chiefly of balsamic and healing ingredients, made by apothecaries in imitation of the native balsams. BALSAM'ICS, in pharmacy, softening, restoring, healing and cleansing medicines; of gentle attenuating principles ; warm, sti- mulating, and demulcent. BAL'USTER, (often improperly wiitten bannister), in architecture, a small turned column usually introduced between piers, on the upper parts of large buildings under windows, and on balconies, &c. BALUSTRA'DE, a series or row of balus- ters, joined by a rail: serving as well for rest to the elbows, as for a fence or inclo- sure to balconies, altars, staircases, &c. BAMBOO', a very large species of the arundo, or cane ; it grows about the tropical regions, and was a native of Asia, but it has long since been introduced into the "West- India Islands. It is used in building, in making bridges, vessels, boxes, caps, bas- kets, mats, and other utensils and furni- ture. Paper is likewise manufactured from it : it is the common fence for gardens and fields, and is used for pipes to convey water wherever it is wanted. The leaves are ge- nerally put round the chests of tea which are sent to Europe from China, to form a kind of mat. BANA'NA, the tree and fruit of the plan- tain, a species of palm. Dampier compares it when stripped of its integuments, to a large sausage, in size and shape ; and to fresh butter in winter, as to substance and colour. Its taste resembles that of a ripe and luscious pear. BAND, in architecture, any flat, low member or moulding, which is broad but not deep. The word band is applied to denote a company of persons engaged in one common design ; as, a band of music, viz., the collective body of instrumental per- formers in a regiment, popularly termed the band. A band of soldiers designates a troop or company, who fight under the same standard. The hand of pensioners, in England, is a company of 120 gentlemen, who receive a yearly allowance of 'oody fibres, interwoven in the manner of a net, and vin'apping over each other like the coats of an onion. 2 : of a number of small blad- ders or vesicles, sometimes of an oval, and sometimes of an angular figure, which fill up the spaces betv/een the said fibres, and are placed in lines horizontally towards the wood. And 3 : of its own peculiar ves- sels, which contain the proper and specific juice of the plant. It is observed that trees stripped of their bark in the time of the sap, and suiTered to die, afford heavier tim- ber, more uniformly dense, stronger, and fitter for service, than if the trees had been cut down in their healthy state. BARK, (PERUVIAN), a most valuable medicine, is the produce of various species of the Cinchona, which is the spontaneous growth of many parts of South America, but more particularly of Peru. The tree somewhat resembles a cherry-tree in ap- pearance, and bears clusters oif red flowers. It was formerly called Jesuit's bark, from its having been introduced into Europe by the members of that fraternity who resided in South America, and who for many years derived from it a source of great profit. Its medicinal uses have long been well knov.Ti ; but it was not tiU lately that its medicinal properties were discovered to depend upon the presence of a substance called quinine, which exists, more or less, in all kinds of Peruvian bark. This discovery was made by Messrs. PeUetier and Cavatou, who also ascertained that the most useful and per- manent form of the substance was that of a neutral salt, in which it was combined with sulphuric acid, constituting the cele- brated sulphate of quinine. BAR'LEY, a valuable kind of grain prin- cipally used in England in the state of malt for brewing. Pearl Barley and French Barley, the grain freed from the husk by a mill ; the distinction between the two being, that the pearl barley is reduced to the size of small shot, all but the very heart of the barley being ground away. • Barley-corn, the least of our long mea- sures, being the third part of an inch. BARM, or YEAST, the head, or working 'bark" separates from the trunk. KOBTHERLT WINDS UAISE BAROMETEUS ; SOUTUEKLT WINDS DEPRESS TliEM. bar] [bar out of beer, which, is used as a ferment to lighten bread. EAR'NACLES, a species of shell-fish which sticks to the bottom of ships, rocks, &c. In farriery, an instrument composed of two branches joined at one end with a hiiig:e, to put upon a horse's nose, to con- fine him for shoeing, bleeding, or dressing. BAR'NACLE-GOOSE, a large water-fowl with a broad flat bill. BAR'OLITE, a stone of the ponderous order, called also the carbonate of barytes. It usually occurs in small masses, which have a fibrous structure ; and it is generally of a light yellowish gray colour. BAllOM'ETER, an instrument for mea- suring the weight of the atmosphere, and of use in ascertaining and anticipating the changes of the weather. For this purpose, the tube is fixed to a graduated scale, so that the smallest variation in the column is visible. In dry weather, the air being free from vapours, is consequently heavy, and presses up the quicksilver ; but in moist rainy weather,the atmosphere being charged with clouds and fogs, the air is lighte]*, and presses with less force on the quicksilver. From the best observations that have been made on the barometer, it appears, however, that it is not so much the height of the mer- cury in the tube that indicates the wea- ther, as the motion of it up and down ; wherefore, in order to know whether the mercury is actually rising or falling, the fol- lowing rules are of use : 1, If the surface of the mercury is convex, it is a sign that the mercury is then rising ; 2, If the surface is concave, it is sinking ; 3, If the surface is plain, or rather a little convex, the mercury is stationary ; 4, If the glass is small, shake the tube, and if the air is groAvn heavier, the mercury will rise about half the tenth of an inch ; if it is growing lighter, it will sink as much. BAR'ON, a degree of nobility next below a viscount, and above a baronet. Originally, the barons being the feudatories of princes, were the proprietors of land held by honour- able service : hence, in ancient records, the word barons comprehends all the nobility. It is probable that formerly all those were barons who had lordships with courts-ba- ron, and soon after the Conquest, all such sat in the house of peers ; but they being very numerous, it was ordered that none should sit but such as the king thought fit to call up by writ, which ran pro hac vice tan- turn. This state of nobility being very pre- carious, they at length obtained of the king letters patent, and these were called barons by patent, or creation. Carot^s of tue Exchequer, the four judges to whom the administration of justice is committed, in causes between the king and his subjects, relating to matters concerning the revenue. They were formerly barons of the realm, but of late are generally persons learned in the laws. BARON AND FEMME, a term in law for Imsband and wife, who are deemed but one person ; so that a wife cannot be wit- ness for or against her husband ; nor he for or against his wife, except in cases of high treason. BAR'ONET, the lowest degree of honour that is hereditary, being the next below a baron, and above a knight. The order was founded by King James I. at the suggestion of Sir Robert Cotton, when 200 baronets were created at once : to which number it was intended that they should be always re- strained : but it is now enlarged at the royal pleasure, without limitation. On their in- stitution, they were allowed to cliarge their coat with the arms of Ulster, in Ireland, which province they were to defend against the rebels, who then harassed it extremely : to which end they were each to raise and keep up 30 soldiers at their own expense for three years together, or to pay into the ex- chequer a sum sufficient to do it ; which, at Sd. per day per head, was .£1095 : so that including fees, the expence of this dignity may be about <£1200 sterling. The baronet- cies of Scotland, or of Nova Scotia in Ame- rica, and of Ireland, were instituted with si- milar views to the advantage of the state. BAR'RACAN, a kind of thick, strong stuff, something like camlet, but of a coarser grain. It is used to make cloaks, surtouts, and other outer garments. BAR' RACKS, large buildings erected for the security and accommodation of soldiers, whether infantry or cavalry. BARRACU'DA, a species of fish of the pike kind, found in the West Indian seas. It is about ten feet long, and very vora- cious. BAR'RATOR, in law, a common mover, or maintainer of suits and quarrels, either in courts or elsewhere ; an encourager of li- tigation. BARRICA'DE, or BARRICA'DO, a for- tification made in haste, of trees, earth, pa- lisades, wagons, or any thing that will ob- struct the progress of an enemy, or serve for defence or security against his attack. BAR RISTER, a counsellor lear^d in the law, admitted to plead at the l^, and there to take upon him the protection and defence of clients. They are termed juris consulti ; in some countries licentiate jure ; and anciently, barristers were called appren- tices of the law : in Latin, ajiprenticiis juris nobiliores. In Scotland, they are called ad- vocates. An inner barrister is one who is a Serjeant, or king's counsel, and is admit- ted to plead within the bar : an outer bar- rister is one who pleads without the bar ; but at the Rolls, and other inferior courts, all barristers are admitted within the bar. BAR'ROW, a large hillock or mound of earth. They are met with in many parts of the world, and on being opened, are found to be repositories of the dead. 'SVhen these mounds are composed of stones, they are usually distinguished by the name oicairns. By the Romans they were called tumuli, and are stUl to be seen in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in several other countries. BAR'RY, in heraldry, is when an escut- cheon is divided bar-wise, that is, across from side to side, into an even number of THE BAROMETER WAS ORIGINALLY CALLED A "BAROSCOPE." "muiuate of bahytks" is obTEr^ us] 1 FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES BAS] [bA! partitions, consisting of two oi' more tinc- tures interchangeably disposed. BAR'-SHOT, double-headed shot, consist- ing of a bar with a half ball or round head at each end ; used for destroying the masts and rigging in naval combat. BAll'TER, the exchanging of one com. modity for another, the trucking of wares for wares, among merchants. Barter was the original and natural way of commerce, there being no buying till money was in- vented. iUso the rule in Arithmetic by which the proportionate value of commo- dities is found. BARY'TA, or BARY'TES, in mineralogy, a very ponderous kind of earth, very brittle, and perfectly soluble in boiling sulphuric acid. It is compounded of oxygen and barium. BARYSTRON'TIANITE, a mineral call- ed also Stromnite, from Stromness, in Ork- ney. It is of a yellowish white colour exter- nally, but ofagrevish white within, BARYTO-CAL'CITE, in mineralogy, a mixture of carbonate of lime with sulphate of barytes, of various forms and of a grey colour. BAR'YTONE, in music, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of the common base and the tenor, being lower than the one and higher than the other. BASALT'ES, or BASALT', a stone sup- posed to be of volcanic origin, black or green in colour, and found in pillars in the prismatic form. Columns of basalt form the Giant's Causeway, the Isle of Staifa, and Fingal's Cave, and are always found near great volcanoes, as Hecla, &c. It is remark- ably hard and heavy, will not strike tire with steel, and is a fine touch-stone. BASALT'INE, in mineralogy, a variety of common hornblende, often found in basalt and volcanic scoriae. BAS ANITE, in mineralogy, Lydian stone, or black jasper; a variety of siliceous or flinty slate ; of a bluish black colour, inter- spersed with veins of quartz. It is employed to test the purity of gold. BASE, in geometry, the lowest side of the perimeter of a figure ; thus, the base of a tri- angle may be said of any of its sides, but more properly of the lowest, or that which is parallel to the horizon. Base, in ar- chitecture, is used for any body which bears another, but particularly for the lower part of a column and pedestal. The base of co- lumns is differently formed in different or- ders : thus, the Tuscan base consists only of a single torus, besides the plinth: the Doric has an astagral more than the Tus- can : the Ionic has a large torus over two slender scotias, separated by two astragals : the Corinthian has two toruses, two scotias, and two astragals : the Composite has an astragal less than the Corinthian : the Attic base has two toruses and a scotia, and is proper for either the Ionic or Composite co- lumns. Base, in fortification, the exte- rior side of the polygon, or that imaginary line which is drawn from the flanked angle of a bastion, to the angle opposite to it. Base, in chemistry, a term used to de- note the eartli, the alkali, or the metal of which a salt is formed in union with oxygen thus, in the oxyde of iron or copper, the iron or copper is the base. Base, in bo- tany, that part on which the whole flower stands, and the fruit too when the flower has faded. Base Line, in perspective, the common section of a picture, and the geometrical plane. Base Tenure, in law, the holding by villeinage or otli* cus- tomary services, as distinguished from the higher tenures in cai)ite, or by military ser- vice. Base Fee is to hold in fee at the will of the lord, as distinguished from soc- cage tenure. Base Court, any court not of record. BASHAW, Pasha', or Pacha', a dignity under the Turkish government. Bashaw, used absolutely, denotes the prime vizier ; other bashaws, which are generally go- vernors of provinces or cities, being distin- guished by the name of the place under their command. The appellation is given by way of courtesy to almost every person of any figure at the Grand Signior's court. Their degrees of dignity were marked by their bearing one, two, or three horses' tails. BAS'IL, in botany, an aromatic plant of the genus Ocymum, of which there are many species, all natives of warm climates. The sweet basil is much used by the French in cookery. Basil, in carpentry, the slope or angle of a chisel, plane, or other tool. BASIL'ICiE, anciently, public halls or courts of judicature, where princes and ma- gistrates sat to administer justice. They were at first the palaces of princes, but were finally converted into churches. Hence basilic now means a church, chapel, cathe- dral, or royal palace. BASILICA, or BAS'ILIC, in anatomy, the interior branch of the axillary vein, run- ning the whole length of the arm. BASIL'ICI, a denomination given in the Greek empire to those who carried the em- peror's orders and commands. BASIL'ICON, in medicine, an ointment consisting of resin, oil, wax, &c. ; a sove- reign kind of plaster. The word is also used as an epithet for many compositions. BA'SIS, in medicine, the principal in- gredient in a composition. Basis cor- dis, in anatomy, the superior part of the heart, to distinguish it fi-om its apex or small point. Basis cerebri, the lower and posterior part of the brain, BASIL'ICUS, in astronomj'^. Cor Leonis, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constellation Leo, BASILID'IANS, in cliurcli history, a branch of gnostics, who maintained that Christ's body was only a phantom, and that Simon the Cyrenean suffered in his stead, BAS'ILISK, a fabulous kind of serpent, called a cockatrice, said to be produced from a cock's egg, hatched by a serpent, and supposed to kill by its breath or sight only. A harmless species of lizard, with piercing eyes, and a white spot on its head, of remarkable brilliancy. A large piece of ordnance. BA'SIN, a hollow vessel for holding li- WHEN applied TO PERSONS, MEANS LOW, ABJECT, OR ILLIBERAL. HOMER MENTIONa THE USE OP THE "BATH" AS AN OLD CUSTOM. BAs] ^]^c SdcntlSc antJ liliterari) treasury ; [bat quids. In hydraulics, any reservoir of water. Basm of a dock, a place where the water is confined by double flood-gates. The basin of a haven is that part which opens from a narrow passage into a spacious receptacle. In Jewish antiquities, the laver of the tabernacle. BAS'SO, in music, the Italian for bass. Thus, Basso concertante, is the bass of the little chorus : basso repieno, the bass of the grand chorus; and basso continue, that part of a composition which is set for the organ, &c. BASK'ING-SHARK, a species of squa- lus or shark, from three to twelve yards in length. It is also called the sun-fish, from its lying on the surface of the water, and basking in the sun. It produces a great quantity of oil. BASK'ET FISH, a species of sea-star, or star-fish, of the genus asterias, having five rays issuing from an angular body, and di- viding into innumerable branches. BASS (sometimes written base, which is the correct English word for basso, low) : the lowest or fundamental part in music, and important as the foundation of har- mony. Thorough bass is that which in- cludes the fundamental rules of composi- tion. Ground bass is that which commences with some subject of its own, that is conti- nually repeated throughout the movement, whilst the upper parts pursue a separate air. Counter bass is a second or double bass, where there are several in the same concert. Bass, among gardeners, a soft kind of sedge or rush used in binding plants, &c. BASS VIOL, a stringed musical instru- ment of the same shape as a violin, but much larger. BAS'SETING, the risi-ng of ,a vein of coal or other stratum, towards the surface of the earth. BASSOON', a musical wind instrument, consisting of a very long tube, with a reed for the mouthpiece. BAS'SO RELIE'VO, or BASS RELIEF, sculpture in which the figures are repre- sented as projecting not far above the plane on which they are formed. Figures cut are said to be done in relief, and when the work is low or flat it is called bass relief, or basso relievo, in distinction from alto relievo and mezzo relievo. BASTI'LE, a noted fortress in Paris, which was used as a state prison, and in which many persons who had incurred the resentment of the French monarchs, or their ministers, had been immured for life. It was built at the latter part of the 14th centuiy ; and was demolished by the en- raged populace at the commencement of the revolution in 1789. BASTINA'DO, a mode of punishment used among the Turks, of beating the of- fender on the soles of the feet. BASTION, in modern fortification, a huge mass of earth, usually faced with sods, but sometimes with brick, and, in a few in- stances, with stone, standing out from a rampart, whereof it is a principal part, and what in ancient fortification, was called a bulwark. The bastion consists of tv,o faces, and an opening towards the centre called the gorge. Bastions are solid or hollow. A flat bastion is made in the middle of the curtain, when it is too long to be defended by the bastions in its extremes. A demi bastion is composed of one face only, with one flank and a demi-gorge. A double bas- tion is one raised on the plane of another. BAT, in zoology, the Vespertilio of Lin- naeus, an animal resembling both a bird and a mouse. It has wings, not of feathers but of a skin distended, and flies only by night, and has an unknown power of dis- tinguishing distant objects without light. It lays no eggs, but brings forth its young alive, and suckles them. They feed upon moths, flies, flesh, and oily svibstances, and are torpid during the winter. The species ai-e numerous, and among them is the vam- pire or Ternate bat of Africa and the Ori- ental isles : their wings when extended measure five or six feet ; they live on fruits, but they are said to suck the blood of per- sons when asleep. BATH, a sufficient quantity of water col- lected in some convenient receptacle, for persons to plunge or wash their bodies in, either for health or pleasure. They are distinguished into natural and artificial, and natu.ral again into warm and cold. Na- tural warm baths are formed of the water of hot springs, of which there are many in different parts of the world ; especi- ally in countries vhere there are, or evi- dently have been, volcanoes. The artificial warm baths consist of either water or some other fluid heated by art. The cold bath consists of water, either fresh or salt, in its natural degree of heat ; or it may be made colder by art, as by a mixture of nitre, sal- ammoniac, &c. The chief natural warm baths in Great Britain are those of Bath and Bristol, in Somersetshire ; and those of Buxton and Matlock in Derbyshire ; which latter are merely tepid. Some are impregnated with, iron, and called chaly- beate ; others with sulphur, carbonic acid, and other mineral qualities. They are often very efficacious in scorbutic, bilious, and dyspeptic complaints, as well as for the re- moval of various chronic diseases. The word bath also signifies any artificial con- trivance which is to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for applying water to the body in the form of a shower ; a vapour bath, or a mode of con- veying moisture to the body by means of steam. Among the ancients, the most mag- nificent edifices were erected for bathing in; such were the baths of Titus, Paulus Emilius, and Dioclesian, whose ruins are still remaining. At the present day, baths are in general use in the East. BATH, (KNIGHTS OF THE), a mill, tary order of knighthood in England, sup- posed to have been instituted by Richard II., who limited the number of knights to four : but his successor, Henry IV., on the day of his coronation increased them to forty-six. This order received its denomi- 74 IN TURKEY, THERE IS A PUBLIC BATH CONNECTED WITH EVERY MOSQUE. IN BATTLE, VICTOKY OR DEFEAT OFTEN DEPENDS UPON ONE HAPPY IDEA. bat] ^ IsTcto Bictionaii) of t\)z miU^ lEcttrcs. [liDE nation from a custom of bathing before the knights received the golden spur. The badge or symbol of the order is a sceptre, rose, this- tle, and three imperial crowns conjoined within a circle, upon which is the motto, " Tria juncta in uno," alluding to the three cardinal virtues— faith, hope, and charity. The order of the bath, after remaining many years extinct, was revived under George I., by a solemn creation of a great number of knights. BAT'ON, the staff or truncheon given as a symbol of authority to field-marshals. BATOON', in architecture, a moulding in the base of a column. BAT'RACHUS, in ichthyology, the sea- devil, a froglike fish. In medicine, an inflammatory tumour under the tongue. BATRA'CIAN, an epithet designating an order of animals, including frogs, toads, &c. BAT'TA, allowances made to troops in India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of rations ; ivet batta what is given in kind. BATTA'LIA, an army drawn up in order of battle. BATTALION, a body of foot soldiers, consisting of from 600 to 1000 men. BATTEL, an ancient mode of trial by single combat, which was introduced into England by William the Conqueror. The contest was had before the judges, on a piece of ground enclosed, and the combat- ants were bound to fight until the stars ap- peared, unless the death of one peirty or victory sooner decided the contest. It is but of late years that this barbarous law has been abolished. An account of the expenses, for provisions and liquor, of a student at Oxford. BAT'TEN, a scantling or piece of wooden stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one inch thick. BAT'TERING-RAM, a military machine, with which the ancients effected breaches in fortifications. These engines were vari- ously constructed and of different sizes ; but in general the battering-ram consisted of a vast beam suspended to a frame, and armed at one end with a head of iron, re- sembling that of a ram ; from the butting of which animal the idea was doubtless de- rived. This being equally balanced, and furnished with a number of ropes, at the extremity opposite to the ram's head, a great number of men threw it forward with violence, and thus, by a repetition of the strokes, demolished the wall against which it was directed. BATTERY, in the military art, a para- pet thrown up to cover the gunners and men employed about the guns from the enemy's shot. This parapet is cut into em- brasures for the cannon to fire through. A battery of mortars is sunk in the ground, and has no embrasures. Cross-batteries are two batteries which play athwart one another upon the same object, thus form- ing an angle, and beating with great effect, because, what one ball shakes, the other beats down. Battery d'evfilade, is one that scours or sweeps the whole length of a straight hne. Battery en echarpe, is that which plays obliquely. Battery de revers, that which plays on the enemy's back Camerade battery, is when several guns play at the same time upon one place. Bat • TEUY, in electricity, is a combination of coated surfaces of glass, commonly jars, so connected together that they may be charged at once, and discharged by a com- mon conductor. Galvanic Battery, or Pile, an apparatus employed tor accumu- lating the electricity of galvanism, which is produced by the mutual agencies of certain metallic and carbonaceous substances, and peculiar fluids. It was invented by the ce- lebrated Volta, and is often called the Vol- taic battery. Battery, in law, the strik- ing, beating, or offering any violence to another person, for which damages may be recovered. It is distinguished from an assault, inasmuch as the latter does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow. There may be an assault without battery, but battery always implies an assault. BAT'TLE-AXE, a kind of halberd, first introduced into England by the Danes, and much used in the early part of the middle ages. BAT'TLEMENTS, in architecture, are indentures or notches in the top of a wall, or other building, in the form of embra- sures. BATTOL'OGY, in grammar, a superflu- ous repetition of some words or things. BAY, in geography, an arm of the sea, extending into the land, and terminating in a nook. It is larger than a creek, and less than a gulf. It is also often applied to large tracts of water, as the bay of Biscay. Bay, one of the colours of a horse, of which there are various shades. Bay, or Bay Tree, the female laurel tree, an ever- green which gTows wild in Italy and France. Bays, in the plural, an honorary gar- land or crown, bestowed as a prize for vic- tory or excellence, anciently made of laurel branches. BAY-SALT, a salt which crystallizes or receives its consistence from the heat of the sun or action of the aii*. BAY'ONET, a short pointed instrument or triangular dagger, made to fix on the muzzle of a firelock or musket. BAZAR', or BAZAAR', a kind of ex- change or market-place among the Turks and Persians. Some of these buildings are remarkable, not only for their extent, but for their magnificence.' This name has of late years been in use with us to denote certain large buildings containing a collec- tion of shops or stalls, let to different per- sons, and in which a great variety of " fancy goods " are exposed for sale. BDEL'LIUM, a gummy resinous juice, produced by a tree in the East Indies, of which we have no satisfactory account. It is brought into Europe from the East In- dies, and from Arabia. As a medicine, in which quality it is brought to market, it is better in its simple state, than when form- ed into any preparation. It is one of the weakest of the deobstruent gums, has a fragrant odour, and a pungent flavour. IN a naval battle, the total destruction of THE ENEMY IS THE OBJECT. THE BROWN BEAR IS REMARKABLE BOTH FOR SAGACITY AND i?EBOClTY. bea] ^iij^e Sclent ific BxiH ILiuxnx^ ^rcasuri) ; [be a BEA'CON, a signal erected on a long pole, upon an eminence, consisting of a pitch-barrel or other combustible matter, to be fired at night, to notify the approach of an enemy. Also, any object serving as an occasional signal, or as a constant sea- mark, by means of which ships may be warned of danger, or assured of tlieir port. BEAD, in architecture, a round mould- ing, commonly made upon the edge of a piece of stuff, in the Corinthian and Roman orders, cut or carved in short embossments, like beads in necklaces. Bead, in me- tallurgy, the small ball or mass of pure naetal separated from the scoria, and seen distinct while in the five. Bead-proof, a term among distillers for that proof of the strength of spirituous liquors denoted by the bubbles called beads, which rise and remain on the surface of the liquid for some time after it has been shaken. BEAD'-TREE, in botany, a shrub grow- ing in Spain and Portugal ; so called, be- cause the nut which it bears is bored through, and strung as beads by the Ro- man catholics of those countries. It is the Melia of Linna;us. A beadsman is one who recites beads or prayers for liis patron, &c. BEAK, in a general sense, the upper end or point, as the upper part of the bill of a bird. Beak-head, in a ship, a small platform at the fore-part of the upper deck. Beaked, in heraldry, an epithet in blazoning for birds whose beaks are of a different tincture from the bodies. And in botany, an epithet for the fruit when it is terminated by a process in the shape of a bird's beak. BEAK'ER, a drinking cup; so called from its having a spout like a bird's beak. BEA'DLE, a messenger, or apparitor of a court, Vv'ho cites persons to appear, and answer in the court what is alleged against them. A Beadle is also an officer at an university, whose chief business it is to walk before the masters with a mace, at all public processions, &c. BEA'GIiE, the name of a particvilar kind of hound or hunting-dog, of which there are several sorts. BEAM, the largest piece of timber in a building, laid across the walls, and which serves to support the principal rafters. In ships, beams are the large main tim- bers that stretch across a ship to support a deck. The part of a balance, from the ends of which the scales are suspended. Beam, among hunters, the main stem of a deei-'s head, or that part which bears the antlers, royals, and tops. Beam- ends. A vessel is said to be on her beam ends, when she inclines so much on one side that her beams approach a vertical po- sition. Beam-comfass, an instrument consisting of a square wooden or brass beam, having sliding sockets, used for de- scribing large circles.— Before the Beam, is an arch of the horizon between a line that crosses the ship at right angles, and that point of the compass which she steers. BEAM' -TREE, a species of wild service. This tree grows to the height of thirty or forty feet, and is particularly fitted for making axle-trees and the like. BEAR, a wild quadruped, of the genus ursus. Its limbs are large and heavy, the head large, terminating in a prolonged snout, the body covered with shaggy hair, and having hooked claws for climbing trees. It feeds on honey, insects, and carcasses, and lies torpid during the winter. There are ten species, three of which are well known. 1. The Brown bear, which sub- sists chiefly on fruit, vegetables, and honey. 2. The American bear, which is smaller than the other, and feeds in like manner. 3. The Polar or maritime bear, which is only found in high northern latitudes : it is from eight to twelve feet long; of great strength and ferocity, devouring fish, seals, and whales at sea ; and on land, any animals which it can seize. Bear, in astronomy, a name given to two constellations called the greater and the lesser bear, or ursa major and ursa minor. BEARD'ED, fbarbatusj in botany, having parallel hairs or tufts; in opposition to Beardless (imberbis) without parallel hairs or tufts ; epithets applied to the co- rollas of certain plants. BEAR'ER, in architecture, a post or brick wall between the ends of a piece of timber, to support it. In heraldry, a figure in an achievement, placed by the side of the shield, and seeming to support it. BEAR'ING, in navigation and geography, the situation of one place from another, with regard to the points of the compass, or the angle which a line, drawn through two places, makes with the meridian of each. Also a sea term in several phrases ; thus, when a ship sails towards the shore, before the wind, she is said to bear in %vitk the land or harbour. To let the ship sail more before the wind, is to bear up. To pvit her right before the wind, is to bear round. A ship that keeps off from the land, is said to bear off. When a ship that was to windward comes under another ship's stern, and so gives her the wind, she is said to bear under her lee, &c. In heraldry, bearings are the coats of arms or figures of armouries, by which the nobility and gentry are distinguished from common persons. BEAT. In military phraseology, " to beat" has various significations, expres- sive of giving a signal by beat of drum. " To beat an alarm," to give notice of dan- ger. " To beat a charge," a signal for charging the enemy. " To beat the general," to give notice to the troops to march. " To beat the reveille," to give notice for leaving quarters. "To beat the tattoo," to give notice for retiring to quarters, as at bed- time. " To beat the troop," a signal for repairing to their colours. " To beat to arms," to give a signal for the troops to arm themselves. " To beat a parley," a signal for a cessation of hostilities, to hold a conference with the enemy. BEATiriCA'TION, an act of the Pope, by which he declares a person beatified or THE bazaar of ISPAHAN IS ONE OF THE FINEST PLACES IN PERSIA. BEES EXTRACT SWEETS EVEN FROM THE MOST POISONOUS PLANTS. BEI blessed after death, and is the first step towards canonization, or the raising of one to the dignity of a saint; but no person can be beatified till fifty years after his death. BEAT'INGS, in music, the regular pul- sative swellings of sound, produced in an organ by pipes of the same key, when not in unison, and their vibrations not simul- taneous or coincident. BEAT'ING TIME, in music, that motion of the hand or foot by which some person marks and regulates the movements of the performers. BEAU'TY, a general term for whatever excites in us pleasing sensations or causes our admiration. Or it may be defined to be an assemblage of graces or properties which please the eye and interest the mind. The proportion and symmetry of parts, the regularity and symmetry of features, the expression of the eye, and the complexion, are among the principal properties which constitute personal beauty. This kind is said to be intrinsic, and immediately per- ceptible ; but when reflection is requisite to comprehend the utility of an object, it is said to be relative : for instance, the beauty of a machir e is not perceived till we under- stand its uses and adaptation to its pur- pose. Thus, an object may please the un- derstanding without interesting the sense; and on the other hand, we perceive agree- able sensations, excited by some objects, whose ideas are not related to anything that is praiseworthy. Beauty, in archi- tecture, painting, and other arts, is the harmony and justness of the whole compo- sition taken together. BE'AVER, an amphibious quadruped that lives on the banks of rivers and unfre- quented lakes, and is remarkable for its ingenuity in buUding its habitation. It has short ears, a blunt nose, small fore- feet, large hind feet, and a flat ovate tail. It walks slowly, swims dexterously, eats sitting on its haunches, and conveys its food to its mouth with its fore paws. This animal is valued both for its fur and for the oil which it yields. Bkavek, that part of the helmet which defends the sight, and opens in front. BEAU MONDE, a French term, imply. Ing the gay fashionable world. BED, an article of furniture for stretch- ing and composing the body on, fdr rest, or sleep, consisting generally of feathers inclosed in a case of tick. The ancient Romans had various sorts of beds, for va- rious purposes; they had their chamber- bed, whereon they slept; their table-bed, whereon they eat, in a recumbent posture ; there being usually three persons to one bed, whereof the middle place, as well as the middle bed, was accounted the most honourable : they had also the bed whereon they studied, and that whereon the dead were carried to the funeral pile. Bed, a plat or level piece of ground in a garden, raised a little above the level of the ad- joining ground. A hollow place in which any thing rests: as, the bed of a mortar. 'A stratum, or extended mass of any thing, whether upon the earth or within it ; as, a bed of sulphur, a bed of sand, &c. • The bed of a river is the bottom of a chan- nel in which the stream or current usually flows. From bed and board, in law, a se- paration of man and wife without being divorced, the wife having a suitable main- tenance, called alimony, allotted to her out of the husband's estate. BEE, an insect of the genus apis, of which there are numerous species, but the most interesting and useful to man is the honey-bee: it is justly celebrated for its singular instincts, and highly prized for the valuable products of its industry. The honey-bees live in swarms or societies of from 10,000 to 40,000, and contain three sorts of individuals ; the female, or, as she is commonly called, the queen bee ; the males, or drones ; and the neuters, or work- ing bees ; though by some naturalists these latter are call imperfect females. A hive usually consists of one mother, or queen, from six to eight hundred males, and from 15 to 20,000 working bees. The office of the queen bee is to propagate the species ; that of the neuters to collect the honey, form the cells, and feed the young. They are furnished with a proboscis by which they suck the honey from flowers ; this they swallow, and when it has undergone a pe- culiar process in the stomach, they disgorge it into the cells. The pollen of flowers settles on the hairs with which their body is covered, whence it is collected into pellets, by a brush on their second pair of legs, and deposited in a hollow in the third pair. It is called bee-bread, and is the food of the larvae or young. The females and neuters have a barbed sting, attached to a bag of poison, which flows into the wound inflicted by the sting. The season of fe- cundation occurs about the beginning of summer. It is said that the female, in the spring, lays as many as 12,000 eggs in the lapse of twenty- four days. When a hive is overstocked, a new colony is sent out under the direction of a queen bee ; this is called swarming; and three or four swarms some- times leave a hive in one season. BEER, a drink made of malt and hops by the process of brewing ; it is of three kinds, namely, strong beer, ale, and table beer, or small beer. BEE'TLE, or Scarab^eus, a genus of insects furnished with shelly wing-cases, and of which there are several species, all perfectly harmless, but differing greatly in size. The largest sort is the elephant beetle, found in South America, which is four inches long. BE'HEMOTH, an animal mentioned in the book of Job, which some naturalists suppose to be the same as the river-horse. BEL'LIS, in botany, the Daisy, a genus of plants, class 19 Syngenesia, order 2 Poly- gamia superflua. BEI'ZA, in Hebrew antiquity, a word signifying an egg, was a certain measure in use among the Jews. The beiza was like- wise a gold coin of the Persians, who as- serted that Philip of Macedon owed their UNTII, THE FIFTEENTH CENTUBIt HONET WAS USBD INSTEAD OF SUGAR. [HZ THE MOKE ZINC THERE IS IN BELL-METAL, THE SHRILLER THE TONE. BEL [ben king Darius a tliousaiicl beizas or golden eggs for tribute money; but Alexander the Great refused to pay them, saying that the bird which laid these eggs had iiown into the other world. BELEM'NITE, in mineralogy, a kind of stone resembling an arrow in shape, and vulgarly called thunder-stone: a genus of fossil shells, common in chaDi and lime- stone. BELL, a hollow body of metal, ranked by mu.sicians among the musical instruments of percussion. The constituent parts of a bell are the body or barrel, the clapper on the inside, and the ear or cannon by which it hangs to a large beam of wood. The matter of which it is usually made is a com- position called bell-metal, which consists of three parts of copper and one of tin. The sound of a bell consists in a vibratory motion of its parts, much like that of a musical chord; and as the external sur- face of the bell undergoes alternate changes of figure, it gives that tremulous motion to the air, in which the sound consists. Bells are of high antiquity. The blue tunic of the Jewish high priest was adorn- ed with golden bells ; and the kings of Persia are said to have the hem of their robe adorned with them. They were in- troduced into English churches about the year 700, and used to be baptized before they were hung. The number of changes may be found by multiplying the digits in the number into one another ; thus four bells will give 24 changes, and six bells 720, and ten changes may be rung in a minute. To bear the bell, is to be the first, or leader, in allusion to the bell- wether of a flock, or the leading horse of a team that wears bells on his collar. Or may it not be synonymous with to bear away the hell? which is thus explained: Race- courses were formerly called bell-courses, the prize given being a silver bell : there- fore, to Avin the race was "to bear away the bell." In naval language the word bells is used to denote half hours of the watch, which are marked hy striking the bell at the end of each. BELLOC'ULUS, in mineralogy, a pre- cious stone resembling the eye, and for- merly on that account supposed to be use- ful i!i diseases of that organ. BELLONA'RII, in Roman antiquity, the priests of Bellona, who, in honour of that goddess, used to make incisions in their body; and after having gathered the blood in the palm of their hand, give it to those who were partakers of their mysteries. BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Lite- rature, iu its most obvious sense, is that description of literature which has a pecu- liar reference to matters of taste : but accord- ing to many writers, the term has a much more extensive signification, and is made to comprehend not merely every elegant ac- quirement, but nearly every branch of know^- iedge. BELLO'NIAi in botany, a genus of the pentandrla monogynia class of plants, whose flower, consisting of a single petal, is of the rotated kind ; the fruit is a capsule of a turbinato-oval figure, surrounded by the cup, and containing only one cell, in which are numerous very small roundish seeds. BEL'LOWS, an instrument or machine for blowing fire, so contrived as to exhale and inhale air by turns, by enlarging and contracting its capacity. It serves also for organs and other pneumatic instruments, to give them a proper supply of air. The air which enters the bellows is compressed when they are closed, and flows with a ve- locity proportioned to the force by which it is compressed. Bellows of very great power are generally called blowing machines. One of the largest known is erected at the smithy in the royal dockyard at Woolwich : it is adequate to the supply of air for forty forge fires, amongst which are several for the forging of anchors, &c. BEL-META'LO DI VOCE, in music, an Italian expression for a clear and bril- liant toned sojnano voice. BEL'OMANCY, a kind of divination practised by the ancient Scythians, Ara- bians, &c. A uu.mber of arrows, being marked, were put into a bag or quiver, and drawn out at random ; and the marks or words on the arrows drawn, determined what was to happen. BELTS, or Fascia, in astronomy, two zones or girdles round the planet Jupiter, more lu cid than the other parts of his body, and terminated by parallel straight lines, sometimes broader, and sometimes nar- rower, varying both in magnitude and po- sition. BELL'EVXJE (French), a name given in France to small country-seats, or to arched bowers at the end of a garden or park, in- tended for the enjoyment of fresh air in the shade. BEL'LUiE, the sixth order of the ani- mals of the class mammalia, with cutting teeth in both jaws, feet hoofed, and living on vegetables ; including the genera of the horse, hippopotamus, and swine. BELU'GA, a large fish of the cetaceous order, found in the arctic seas, and mea- s\iring from twelve to eighteen feet in length. In swimming, this fish bends its tail under its body like a lobster, and thrusts itself along with the rapidity of an arrow.- BEL'VEDERE, (Ital.) a name given in Italy to the cupolas on palaces or large houses, which are ascended for the enjoy- ment of a fine prospect and the advantage of a pure air. This is tlie name also of a part of the Vatican, where the famous sta- tue of Apollo is placed, and w hich, on this account, is called the Apollo Belvedere. BENCH, in law, a seat of justice, as the Queen's Bench at Westminster. Also, the persons sitting on a bench, as a bench of magistrates. BENCH'ER, alawyer of theoldest stand- ing in the inns of court. BEND, in heraldry, one of the ten ho- nourable ordinaries, drawn from the dexter or right corner, at the top of the escutcheon, SEVEN BELLS AT PEKIN WEIGH 120,000 POUNDS EACH. BENBDICTIKE MONASTERIES WERE OFTEN TUE ASYLUMS OF SCIENCE. BEN Lb ES to the sinister base, or left corner, at the bottom. It is supposed to represent a shoulder belt, or scari", and to show the bearer to be valiant in war. It is sometimes called a bend-dexter, to distinguish it from the bend-sinister, wliich is drawn from the left side of the shield to the right. Bends of a ship are the strongest and thickest planks in her sides, and are rekon- ed from the water, first, second, or third bend. They have the beams, knees, and foot-hooks bolted to them, and are the chief strength of the ship's sides. BEND'ING, in seamanship, the tying of two ropes or cables together: thus they say bend tlie cable, that is, make it fast to the ring of the anchor ; bend the sail, make it fast to the yard. BEND'LET, in heraldry, a little bend which occupies a sixth part of a shield. BENEDICTINES, a celebrated order of monks, who profess to follow the rules of St. Benedict. They wear a loose black gown with large wliite sleeves, and a cowl on the head, ending in a point. They are the same that are called Black-friars. BE'NE PLA'CITO, in music, an Italian term, denoting that the performer is to eX' ercise his own taste. BEN'EFICE, an ecclesiastical living, particularly a rectory and a vicarage. Bi- shoprics, deaneries, and prebendaries are usually styled dignities. BENEFIT Of^ CLERGY, a privilege, originating in a superstitious regard for the church, whereby the clergy were either partially or wholly exempted from the ju- risdiction of the lay tribunals. It extended in England only to the case of felony ; and though it was intended to apply only to clerical felons or clerks, yet as every one who could read was, by the laws of Eng- land, considered to be a clerk, when the rudiments of learning came to be diffused almost every person became entitled to this privilege. A variety of provisions and ex- ceptions were from time to time enacted ; till at length by the statue of 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 28,"it was decreed that " benefit of clergy, with respect to persons convicted of felony, shall be abolished." BEN'ZOIN, or BEN'JAMIN, a dry solid vegetable substance, or resin, of a fragrant smell, produced by an incision from the styrax, an Indian tree. It is brought to us from the East Indies, particularly from Siam and the islands of Java and Sumatra, in masses of various sizes, composed of small granules of a whitish or yellowish co- lour, with a purple cast on the surface. It is very inflammable, and diffuses a fra- grant smell while burning, or when rub- bed in the hand. "When the benzoin tree is six years old, the natives cut it in several places in an oblique direction, and the ben- zoin flows out in the form of a balsamic juice, having a pungent taste and an agree- able odour. Benzoin was formerly very much esteemed as an expectorant ; and is still often employed in medicine. A cosmetic is also prepared from it, which is much used in France, under the name of lait virginal ; and the gum is a principal ingredient of court plaster. BER'BERIS, or Barbary-tree, in bo- tany, is a shrub rising to eight or ten feet high, well known as an ornamental shrub in our gardens. The leaves have a grateful acid taste, the flowers at a distance yield a pleasant smell, but very near they are rather offensive. The berries are so very acid that the birds seldom touch them ; they are used in this country as pickles and pre- serves. The roots, of the shrub boiled in lye give a fine yellow, which is used in Po- land for dying leather; the bark, with the aid of alum, is used for the same purpose. BERGAMOT', or BERGAMOTTE, in chemistry, a fragrant essence, extracted from a fruit which is produced by grafting a branch of a citron tree upon the stock of a bergamot pear. This essence is obtained by cutting the external rind of the fruit into small pieces, and squeezing them into a glass vessel, in the same manner as the juice of a lemon is squeezed out, by which means an etherial oil is produced, of a very fragrant smell. BER'LIN, a kind of chariot, supposed to have its name from the Prussian capital, where it was first made. BERME, in fortification, a space of ground left between the rampart and the moat or foss, designed to receive the ruins of the rampart, and prevent the earth from filling the foss. BER'NARDINES, an order of monks, founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, and reiormed by St. Bernard. 'Ihey wear a white robe with ablack scapulavj', and wlien they officiate they are clad in a large white gown, with great sleeves, and a hood of the same colour. BER RY, the popular term for a succu- lent pulpy fruit, containing several seeds or granules, as the gooseberry, &c. BERTH, any situation or place wlicre a vessel lies, either at anchor or in a wharf. An apartment in a ship where a num- ber of officers or men mess or reside. Also, the box or place for sleeping at the sides of a cabin ; or the place for a ham- mock. BER'YL, in mineralogy, a pellucid gem of a light green colour, found in the East In- dies, Brazil, Peru, Siberia, &c. Beryl is consi- dered by Cleaveland as a subspecies of eme- rald. It is crystallized in six-sided prisms, which are perfect or truncated on the edges and angles. It is nearly as hard as the topaz, and can scarcely be melted without the ad- dition of some other sulastance. "With borax, it melts easilj'. It becomes electrical by rubbing, and is found in primitive rocks, accompanied v.ith quartz, felspar, garnet, mica, and topaz. A beautiful sea-green colour for the use of artists, is also prepared under this name. BER'YL-CRYSTAL, a species of imper- fect crystal, of a very pure, clear, and equal texture. Its colour is a fine transparent pale brown. BESTIA'RII, an appellation given by the Romans to such as engaged with wild beasts benzoic acid is rr.ocrp.ED from benzoin TTBLir.IATION. THE BIBLE OP THE JEWS WAS STYI/ED THE WRITINGS OF THE OLD COVENANT. EEZ] Scientific antl Xiterartj treasure ; [big at their pviblic games ; whether they fought by compulsion, as criminals, or, as gladia- tors, made a trade of it. BE'TA, the second letter in the Greek alphabet. BE'TEL, or BETEL NUT, a species of pepper plant, the leaf of which is univer- sally chewed by the southern Asiatics, to sweeten the breath and strengthen the stomach. It is a slender-stemmed, climbing plant. In India there is an almost incredi ble consumption of the betel-nut. It is taken by the natives after meals ; during a visit it is offered to friends when they meet and when they part ; and, in short, nothing appears to be done without betel. To cor- rect the bitterness of the leaves, a little areca is wrapped in them with the chunam, which is a kind of burnt lime made of shells. BET'ONY, or BETON'ICA, in botfany, a genus of the didynamia gymnospermia class of plants, whose flower, consisting of a single labiated petal, is of a bright red coloui', and disposed in short spikes. It is reckoned vulnerary, aperient, and diuretic. BETULA, the Birch-tree. The trees of this genus, most commonly known, are the birch and the alder. The birch is applied to an infinity of uses. A wine is drawn, by tapping, from the trunk, by the natives of Canada ; and, in Europe, wine is made from the fruit of the alder. The birch, though the worst of timber, is manu- factured into vessels of various domestic uses. Broom makers are constant custo- mers for the twigs, and hoop benders for the larger branches ; and for the trunks, the turners and manufacturers of instruments of husbandry have a constant demand. It is aJso used in certain processes of dyeing, and for tanning leather. BEVEL, an instrument to mark parti- cular angles on wood or stone; much used by joiners and masons. In architecture, any angle that is not a right angle or square, or is more or less than 90 degrees, is termed a bevel; but if it has an angle of 4a degrees, it is called a mitr?. BEY, among the Turks, signifies a gover- nor of a country or town. The Tarks write it begh, or beg, but pronounce it bey. The word is particularly applied to a lord of a banner, whom they call sangiac-beg or bey. Every province in Turkey is divided into seven sangiacs, or banners, each of which qualifies a bey, and these are all commanded by the governor of the province, whom they also call begler-beg, that is, lord of all the beys of the province. BEZ'ANT, around flat piece of pure gold, \vithout any impression, supposed to have been the current coin of Byzantium. BEZO'AR, a medicinal stone, brought from the East and "West Indies, which was formerly reckoned a sovereign antidote a- gainst poisons. It is found to be a calcu- lus, or morbid concretion, contained in the stomachs of certain animals, and consists, for the most part, of bile and resin. The great value of the bezoar at one time gave birth to many imitations of it ; nor can it be wondered at, when we read of its being eagerly bought for ten times its weight in gold. Hence, other medicines, supposed to possess similar virtues, obtained the name of bezoardics. Bezoar is also the name of some medicinal preparations, as the Bezoar animale, made of calcined hartshorn and vitriol; and Bezoar mine- rale, a preparation of antimony, made by adding nitrous acid to antimony. Be- zoar'uic acid, a name given to the acid extracted from the urinary calculi formed in the kidneys or gall-bladder. The word bezoartic is also used in various medical compositions. BI'BLE, (the Book,) a name given by way of eminence to the Sacred Writings. The Old Testament consists of the five books called the Pentateuch ; the Histori- cal, Poetical, and Prophetic books : the New Testament, of the four Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistles. The earliest version of the Bible is a Greek translation called the Septuagint, and from this other transla- tions have been made. It was first printed in English in 1535. The present authorized version of the Holy Scriptures was com- pleted in the reign of James the First, about the year 1603. BIBLIOG'RAPHY, the knowledge of books as to their several editions, time of being printed, and ether information tend- ing to illustrate the history of literature. BIBLIOM'ANCY, a kind of divination, performed by means of the Bible, by select- ing passages of Scripture at hazard, and drawing from them indications concerning future events. BIBLIOTHE'CA, in its original and pro- per sense, denotes a library, or place for depositing books. In matters of literature, it means a treatise giving an account of all the waiters on a certain subject ; thus, we have bibliothecas of theology, law, philoso- phy, &c. There are likewise universal bib- liothecas, which treat indifferently of books of all kinds. BICAP'SULAR, in botany, having two capsules containing seeds, to each flower. BICE, a blue colour, prepared from the Lapis Armenixis. Bice bears the best body of all the bright blues used in common work, as house-painting, &c. but it is the palest in colour. It works tolerably M'ell ; but inclines a little to sandy, and therefore requires good grinding. Next to ultra-ma- rine, which is too dear for general use, it is the best of all the blues. BICIP ITAL, or BICIP'ITOUS, in ana- tomy, denotes that a muscle has two heads or origins ; and such muscle is denominated biceps. BIEN'NIALS, in botany, plants that flourish for two years and then perish ; their root and leaves being formed the first year, and their fruit the second. BIFA'RIOUS, in botany, denotes that the leaves grow only on opposite sides of a branch. BIF'IDATE, in botany, an epithet for opening with a cleft. BIG'AMY, double marriage, or the mar- rying of two wives or two husbands while the bible was translated into SAXON BY BEDE, IN THE EIGHTH CENTURY. USURIOUS INTEREST ON ' IS THE FRECUKSOR OF BANK RUPTC )f. IX Isicto JBictionari) of \\)z %z\\t% Xcttm. BIO tlie first is alive, which is felony by sta- tute. BIGA'RIUS, in antiquity, the charioteer of a Mga, or two-wheeled chariot. Money or medals stamped with this emblem were called biga'ti. BIGEM'INATE, in botany, twin.fork- ed ; used of a decompound leaf having a forked petiole, with several leaflets at the end of each division. BIG'OT, a person who is obstinately and unreasonably wedded to a particular reli- gious creed, practice, or opinion ; or one who is illiberally attached to any opinion or system of belief. BIL'ANDER, a small merchant vessel with two masts, rigged in a peculiar man- ner, bat now rarely used. EILAT'ERAL, in a general sense, de- notes something with two sides. Hence, bilateral cognation is kinship both by the father's and mother's side. BIL'BOES, a punishment at sea answer- ing to the stocks on land. The offender is laid in irons, or stocks, which are more or less ponderous, according to the quality of the offence of which he is guilty. BILE, a yellowish green fluid secreted by the liver, accumulated in the gall-blad- der, and thence conveyed through a canal into the duodenum, where it converts the chyme into chyle and excrement. The bile is properly of two kinds, and is distinguish- ed under them by the names of cystic and hepatic. The hepatic bile is thin, almost insipid, and scarcely coloured ; the cystic bile is thicker, more coloured, and very bitter. The use of the bile is to attenuate the chyle, to mix the oleaginous parts of the blood with the aqueou.s, to stimulate the intestines, and in part to change the acid of the chyle. All these effects the cys- tic bile produces in a greater, and the he- patic in a less degree. BIJU'GOUS, in botany, yoked or cou- ple(J side by side ; an epithet for a leaf. BILA'BIATE, in botany, two lipped; an epithet for the corolla and perianth. BIL'IARY DUCTS, in anatomy, small canals which convey the bile out of the hver into the hepatic duct, which is formed of these canals, into one trunk. BILL, in trade, both wholesale and re- tail, as also among workmen, signifies an account of merchandize or goods delivered to a person, or of work done for one. Bill, in law and commerce, an obligation or security given for money under the hand of the debtor, without a condition or for- feiture for non-payment. This is also called a note of hand. A bill of exchange is an order drawn on a person, in a distant place, requesting or directing him to pay money to some person assigned by the drawer, or to his order, in consideration of value re- ceived. The person who draws the bill is called the drawer; the person to whom the request or demand is made, is called the dratvee ; and the person to whom the money is directed to be paid, is called the payee. Such a bill is frequently called a draught ; but bill of exchange is the more legal, as well as more mercantile, expression. A bill of entry is a written account of goods entered at the custom house, whether im- ported or intended for exportation. A bill of lading is a written account of goods shipped by any person, on board of a vessel, signed by the master of the vessel, who ac- knowledges the receipt of the goods, and promises to deliver them safe at the place directed. A bill of parcels is an account given by the seller to the buyer, of the se- veral articles i^urchascd, with the price of each. A bill of sale is when a person borrows money and delivers goods to the lender as security, and at the same time gives him a bill, empowering him to sell the goods if the money is not repaid at the appointed time with interest. A bill in parliament, is an instrument drawn up by any member, and presented to parliament for its approbation or rejection. Should it be passed into a law, it then becomes an act of parliament. BIL'LIARDS, an interesting game, af- fording a very healthful exercise and an agreeable recreation. It is played on an oblong table, covered with green cloth, with ivory balls, which are struck or driven with sticks, called the mace and cue, so as to drive the antagonist's ball into holes, called hazai'd-nets or pockets, at the corners or by the sides of the table. The art of the game lies in pocketing your antagonist's ball Mdthout putting in your own. BILLS OF MORTALITY, annual regis- ters of the deaths and burials which take place in and near London. These bills were first commenced in 1592, during the period of a great pestilence, when they included 109 parishes. The number has since been greatly increased. BI'NARY ARITHMETIC, that in which two figures or characters, viz. 1 and 0, only, are used : the cipher multiplying every thing by 2, as in the common arithmetic by ten : thus, 1 is one, 10 is 2, 11 is 3, 100 is 4, 101 is 5, 110 is 6, 111 is 7, 1000 is 8, 1001 is 9, 1010 is 10 ; being founded on the same principles as common arithm.etic. This sort of arithmetic was invented by Leibnitz, who asserts that it is more expeditious than common arithmetic in discovering the pro- perties of numbers, and in extensive tabular calculations. BIN'NACLE, a wooden case, containing the compasses, log glasses, watch glasses, &c. on board a ship. BIN'OCLE, or BINOCULAR TEL'E- SCOPE, a kind of dioptric telescope fitted with two tubes joined in such a manner, that one may see a distant object with both eyes, at the same time. BINO'MIAL, a term in algebra for any quantity consisting of two names, or terms, connected together by the sign -f , or — . Thus a + b and 8 — 3 are binomials, con- sisting of the sums and differences of these quantities. BIOG'RAPHY, the Hfe of one or more in- dividuals whose actions are deemed v/orthy of record. No species of history can be more entertaining or instructive than the WHERE THERE IS A DEFICIENCY OF " BILE," THERE MUST BE COSTIVENESS. bis] BIRDS LUBRICATE THEIR FEATHERS WITH OIL TAKEN FROM THE RUMP W)z %timiifit autj Xitcrarp treasury ; [bit lives of eminent men, wlio by their private virtues or public deeds, by the efforts of genius or the impulses of philanthrophy, excite our admiration, and afford examples for posterity to emulate. BIO'TA, in zoology, a genus of sea-in sects, of a cylindric, but variable figure, with the tentacula arranged in a single scries round the aperture of the mouth, at the extremity of the body. Among the several other species of this genus is the liolype. BIPARTITE, in botany, an epithet for the corolla, the leaf, and the perianth, when they are divided into two parts at the base. BIPEN'NIS, in Roman antiquity, an axe with a double edge, one of which was used in stabbing, and the other in cutting. BIQUAD'RATE, in algebra, an obsolete term for the square of the square ; as, 16 is the biquadratic power of 2 ; for 2 + 2 is 4, and 4 X 4 is equal to 16. Biquadratic ROOT of a number, is the square root of its square root : thus the biquadratic root of 81 is 3; for the square root of 81 is 9, and the square root of 9 is 3. Biquadratic EQUATION, an equation where the unknown quantity of one of the terms has fou.r di- mensions. Biquadratic parabola, in geometry, is a curve line of the third order, having two infinite legs tending the same way. BIQUIN'TILE, in astronomy, an aspect of the planets, when they are distant from each other by twice the fifth part of a great circle, that is, 144 degrees. BIRD -BOLT, a small arrow with three heads, which was discharged at birds from a cross-bov/. The bird-bolt is still used as a bearing in coat armour. BIRD-CATCHING, the art of taking birds or wild fowl by birdlime, nets, and decoys, which, as respects the more artful modes of catching birds, is called fowling, BIRD'LIME, a glutinous substance, made of the bark of holly, which is spread on the twigs of trees to catch birds. BIRDS'-NESTS, in cookery, the nest of the hirundo esculenta or Indian swallow, very delicately tasted, and frequently mixed among soups. On the sea-coasts of China, at certain seasons of the year, there are seen vast numbers of these birds : they leave the inland country at their breeding time, and come to build in the rocks, and fashion their ^nests out of a matter which they find on the shore, washed thither by the waves. The nests are of an hemi- spheric figure, of the size of a goose's egg, and in substance much resemble the ich- thyocoUa or isinglass. They are esteemed a great luxury, and sell at a high price. 15ISH'0P, a prelate, or person conse- crated for the spiritual government of a diocese. In Great Britain, bishops are no- minated by the sovereign, who, upon re- quest of the dean and chapter for leave to elect a bishop, sends a conge d'elirc, or license to elect, with a letter missive, nomi- nating the person whom he Avould have chosen. The election by the chapter must be made within twelve days, or the king has a right to appoint whom he pleases. The jurisdiction of a bishop of the church of England consists in collating benefices, granting institutions, commanding induc- tions, taking care of the profits of vacant benefices for the use of the successors, con- secrating churches and chapels, ordaining priests and deacons, confirming after bap- tism, granting administrations, and taking probates of wills ; these parts of his func- tion depend upon the ecclesiastical law. A bishop is also a peer of the realm. BISHOP'S COURT, an ecclesiastical court, held in the cathedral of each diocese, the judge whereof is the bishop's chan- cellor, who judges by the civil and canon law; and if the diocese be large, he has his commissaries in distant parts, who hold what they caU consistory courts, for mat- ters hmited to them by their commission. BISIL'IQUOUS, in botany, an epithet for plants contained in two distinct pods, BIS'MUTH, one of the brittle metals, of a reddish or yellowish-white colour and a lamellated texture, and moderately hard and brittle : so that it not only breaks into jjieces under the strokes of the hammer, but may even be beat into powder. Bismuth is more commonly found in a native state than any other semi-metal. Most metallic substances unite with bismuth, and are thereby rendered more fusible than before ; hence it is used in making solder, printer's types, pewter, &c. BIS'ON, or Wild Ox, a quadruped of the bovine genus. It has short, black horns, very wide at the base ; and on the shoulders is a large hunch, consisting of a fleshy sub- stance, which, with the head, is covered with a long undulated fleece, divided into locks. In winter, the whole body is covered in this manner ; but in summer, the hind part of the body is naked. The tail is about a foot long, with a tuft of hairs at the end. The fore parts of the body are very thick and strong; but the hind parts are slender and weak. These animals inhabit the inte- rior of North America, and some of the mountainous parts of Europe and Asia. BISSEX TILE, or LEAP-YEAR, a year consisting of 366 days, and happening every fourth year, by the addition of a day in the month of Eebruaiy, which that year con sists of 29 days. And this is done to recover the six hours which the sun takes up nearly in his course, more than the 365 days commonly allowed for it in other years. BIS'TRE, or BIS'TER, the burnt oil ex- tracted from the soot 8f beech-wood, which is used as a brown pigment bv painters. BIS'TORT, or Snake-weed, a species of Polygonum, the roots of which, when medicinally applied, are powerfully astrin- gent and antiseptic. BIS'TOURY, a small surgical knife, of various forms, according to the purpose for which it is intended. BISUL'PHURET, in chemistry, a sul- phuret with a double proportion of sul- phur. BIT, in carpentry, a boring instrument BIRDS AND INSECTS ARE GREAT AGENTS IN THE DISSEMINATION OF SEEDS. ' BLACK," WHEN USED FIGUU ATI VELY, SIGNIFIES ATROCIOUS, OR WICKED. ela] % TsTctu 59ict(onavr) of tTje IBelles 3i:etlrcs. 1 BLA so constructed as to be taken out of tlie handle. BITT, a sea term for the two pieces of timber to wliich the anchor cables are at- tached. The iron attached to the bridle, which is put into the horse's mouth. BITTER, an epithet given to all bodies of a sharp, acrid, biting taste. Bitters are accounted stomachic and cleansing, and are said to resist putrefaction, correct acidi- ties, and assist digestion. Artificial hit- ter, is any bitter formed by the action of nitric acid on vegetable and other sub- BITTERN, in ornithology, the English name of the ardea stellaris : it is about the size of the common heron. Bittern, in the salt-works, the brine remaining after the salt is concreted. It is used in the preparation of Epsom salt, the sulphate of magnesia, and of Glauber's salt, the sul- phate of soda. BITU'MEN, a combustible mineral, which is greasy to the tou^ch, and v/hen ig- nited emits a strong odour. When most fluid, it is called naptha ; when viscid, pe- troleum; and when hard, asphalt. Coals are supposed to be of vegetable origin, and bitumen a compound of vegetable and ani- mal substances. BI'VALVES, one of the three general classes of shell-fish, comprehending all those, the shells of which are composed of two pieces, joined together by a hinge. Bivalve is also an appellation given to such pods, or capsules, as consist of two valves inclosing the seeds. BIVOUAC, in military affairs, a night- guard, performed by the whole army, when there is any apprehension of danger from the enemy; or an encampment in the open air. BIX'A, in botany, a genus of plants, class 13 Pohjandria, order 1 Monogynia. From the red pulp which covers the seeds of the BiXA Oreli.ana, arnotto is made. BLACK, a well-known colom% supposed to be owing to the absence of light, most of the rays falling upon black substances being not reflected but absorbed. There are several species of blacks used in paint- ing ; as Frankfort black, of which there are two sorts, one a natural earth inclining to blue ; and the other made from the lees of wine burnt, washed, and ground with ivory, bones, &c. ; lamp black, the smoke of resin, prepared by melting it in iron vessels ; ivory black, made of burnt ivory, and used in miniatures ; Spanish black, made of burnt cork, and first used by the Spaniards. BLACK'-BOOK, a book kept in the ex- chequer of England, containing a descrip- tion of that court, its offices, ranks, privi- leges, perquisites, and jurisdiction, with the revenues of the crown, in money, grain, and cattle. It is said to have been composed in 1175, by Gervais of Tilbury. BLACK'-CAP, in ornithology, the Mota- cilla atricaj)illa, or mock-nightingale ; so called from its black crown. BLACK-LEAD, otherwise called Plum- bago and Graphite, is a mineral substance used in the making of pencils, in forming a composition for crucibles, and in covering the surface of iron utensils to preserve them from rust and give them a good appear- ance. It has a dark iron- black colovir, a metallic lustre, and a thin slaty fracture : it is found in separate loose pieces of a fine grain, which are very soft, and leave, as is well known, strongly-coloured traces on paper by friction. It is found chiefly in Cumberland, and forms a very valuable ar- ticle of commerce. BLACK'-MAIL, a certain rate of money, corn, or cattle, anciently paid, in the north of England, to certain persons connected with the moss-troopers, or robbers, to be by them protected from pillage. BLACK'-THORN, a species of prunes, called also sloe. It is much used for hedges, its branches being armed with sharp, strong spines. BLAD'DER, a thin membraneous bag in animals, serving as a receptacle of some juice, or of some liquid excrement, as the urinary bladder, gall bladder, &c. BLANC II'ING, the art of making any thing white, as (in cookery) the blanching or peeling of almonds, or as (in horticul- ture) the method of whitening salads. Blanching money, is the annealing, boiling, and cleansing it when it is coined. Blanch- ing copper is done in various ways, so as to make it resemble silver. Blanching is also the opei'ation of covering iron plates with a thin coat or crust of tin. BLANCHIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the bleaching power of chloride of lime, and potash. BLANC-MANGER, (Fr.pron. blo-mongej a preparation of dissolved isinglass, milk, sugar, &c. boiled into a thick consistence, and garnished with blanched almonds. BLANK, a void space in any writing or pi'inting. The word is ai^plied to various objects, usually in the sense of destitution, or emptiness. BLANK-VERSE, in poetry, that which is composed of a certain number of sylla- bles, without the assistance, of rhyme. BLAN'KET, a warm, woollen stuff, light and loose woven; chiefly used in bedding. Blankets, a sea term, for combus- tibles made of coarse brown paper steeped in nitre, dried, and then steeped again in tallow, resin, and sulphur; they are used in fire ships. BLAST, in its literal sense, signifies to wither by some pernicious influence ; to prevent coming to maturity, or to affect with some sudden calamity. The figurative senses of the word are taken from the blasting of plants, and all express the idea of preventing maturity, destroying, or dis- appointing of the intended effect; as to blast credit or reputation, to blast some cherished design, &c. BLASTING, among miners the splitting and tearing up of rocks by the force of gun powder. BLAST'-FURNACE, a large conical or quadrangular building, used at iron works for smelting iron-stones and ores. THK SHOT OF A GUN, LEVELLED HORIZONTALLY, IS CALLED " POINT-BLANK.' BLEACHING LIQUID IS MERELY WATER ADDED TO CHLORIDE OF LIME. ELi] '^i)z Scientific anti ICiteran) ^E^reasury ; [bl BLASriNG-BELLOWS, instruments used when greater heat is wanted than could be obtained hv the common accession of the air. Sometimes they have a wheel turned by water or steam, and the shaft, being provided with projecting pieces, raises and lowers the vipper sides of these enor- mous bellows which discharge their volumes of air into the furnace. BLA'ZONRY, or BLA'ZONING, that branch of heraldry which consists in ex- pressing in proper terms all that belongs to coats of arms. The word is from the German hlasen, to blow, because the herald blev/ a trumpet, and called out the arms of a knight, when he entered the lists at a tournament. BLEACH'ING, the process of whitening linen by exposure to the svm and air ; or, as is now more commonly in use, by the application of chemical preparations ; svich, for instance, as oxyrauriatic acid, or sul- phuric acid combined with chloride of lime. BLEIME, in the veterinary art, an in- flammation arising from bruised blood be- tween the horse's sole and the bone of the foot towards the heels. BLENDE, the ore of zinc. BLIGHT, a general name for various distempers incident to plants, corn, fruit- trees, &c. ; the whole plant sometimes perishing by it, and sometimes only the leaves and blossoms, which wiU be scorched and shrivelled up, the rest remaining green and flourishing. The chief cause of blights seems to be a continued dry easterly wind for several days together, without the inter- vention of showers, or any morning dew, by v/hich the circulation of the vegetable juices is stopped. Another cause of blights in the spring is sharp hoar frosts, which are often succeeded by hot sun -shine in the day-time: this is the most sudden and cer- tain destroyer of fruits that is known. A third kind originates in fungi, which attack the leaves or stem of herbaceous and woody plants, and more particularly the most use- ful kinds of grain. These are variously known to farmers by the name of red rust, red gum, &c. BLINDS, in the military art, a sort of defence made of oziers or branches inter- v/oven, and laid across two rows of stakes, about the height of a man, and four or five feet asunder, used particularly at the heads of trenches, when they are extended in front towards the glacis ; serving to shelter the workmen, and prevent their being over- looked by the enemy. The word blinds is, in fact, used to denote all preparations which are intended to intercept the view of the enemy ; and they are of course variously constructed, according to the situation or means of providing them. BLI'NDNESS, a total privation of sight, arising from an obstruction of the functions of the organs of sight, or from an entire deprivation of them. The causes of blind- ness are various, proceeding from cataracts, gutta serena, &c. There are also kinds of periodical blindness, as a defect of sight in some towards night, in others only in the day ; the former of which is termed nycta- lopia, the latter hemeralojfia. BLI'NDWORM, a small reptile, called also a slow-worm, from the smallness of its eyes and the slowness of its motion. BLISTER, a pustule in the skin, Ailed with serum ; in general, any swelling caused by the separation of the outer integument of any substance from that which is under- neath. In medicine, the plaster or ap- plication that raises a blister, mostly made of the cantharides, or Spanish flies. BLOCK, a sea term for a pvilley, or series of pulleys, mounted in a frame, or shell, which serves to facilitate the passage of the ropes. The blocks now used in the navy are made in Portsmouth by means of cir- cular saws and other machinery, of most ingenious construction, by which the seve- ral operations from the rough timber to the perfect block are performed in the com- pletest manner possible ; the whole being v/orked by means of a steam engine. Vv^e have lately seen it asserted, with an air of authoritative veracity, that "the machinery for supplying the royal navy with blocks (which is characterised as 'one of the won- ders of the world') is the invention of Mr. Brunei." We have no wish to detract from the rea inventions of this gentleman, whose scientific acqviiremcnts are too numerous, and too important, for him to require the aid of borrowed plumage. But we feel ourselves bound to contradict the state- ment in express terms. Great, and even wonderful, as Mr. Brunei's improvements may have been, the merit of inventing the block machinery is due to the late Mr. Walter Taylor, of Woodmill, in the parish of South Stoneham, Hants, where his ori- ginal manufactory of blocks and pumps for the navy for many years existed. And we observe that in an able local work, entitled " Sketches of Hampshire," lately published, the circumstance is thus noticed: — "To the ingenuity of that gentleman (Mr. Tay- lor) this country is lastingly indebted ; for, when the government took into their own hands the manufacture of blocks, and erected the celebrated machinery in Ports- mouth dock-yard for that purpose, they availed themselves most advantageously of Mr. Taylor's prior inventions. As the sole credit of the conception, as well as of the perfection of that machinery, is very gene- rally, though erroneously, attributed to the fertile genius of Mr. Brunei, it is but just in this place to assert the claim of a late inhabitant of South Stoneham to his fair share of that meed of applause which is too often exclusively olFered to the successful engineer who had the good fortune to per- fect the design which Mr. Taylor com- menced." The block-making machine, as it now exists at Portsmouth dock-yard, unites the action of sixteen different ma- chines in one steam-engine — seven for the shell, and nine for the sheave. Ten men do the v>'ork of 110. It makes about 200 sorts and sizes of blocks ; viz., 72 sizes of thick blocks, 48 of thin blocks, 10 of clue-line ditto, 20 sister blocks, 20 topsail ditto, 24 SCHOOLS FOR INSTRUCTING THE BLIND ARE REAL TEMPLES OF PHILANTHROPY. IN THE UUMAN SPECIES THE TEMPEKATURE OF THE BLOOD IS i BLO 91 l<£to ©icttonavij of tl)e "^BcHcs llettKS. [boa fiddle ditto, 20 jack ditto; and of these various kinds, tlie machines make 1420 blocks per day ! Yet w hen we add that every 7-1- gun ship requires about 1300 blocks, and there are 200 different sizes, varying from 4 to 24 inches in length, no one need be surprised at the importance which is attached to this beautiful machi- nerv. BLOCKA'DE, in military affairs, the blocking- up a place, by posting troops at all the avenues leading to it, to keep sup- plies of men and pro\dsions from getting into it ; and by these means proposing to starve it out, without making any regular attacks. To raise a blockade, is to force the troops that blockade to retire. BLOOD, a red fluid circulating through the arteries, veins, and other vessels of animal bodies : serving for the support of life, and the nourishment of all their parts. It is found in the mammalia, in birds, in reptiles, and in fishes ; but in the last two classes of animals the temperature of the blood is much lower than in the former, for which reason they are cold-blooded. In the human body the formation of blood de- pends principally upon the efficacy of the cir- culation, by which the vessels act upon their contained fluids. Hence in the most robust persons the blood is of a deep red colour, and is concreted almost the very moment it is left in a state of rest. But in weak persons, in whom the circulation is far less vigorous, all the parts are pale and languid, whilst the blood is thin and hardly capable of concretion. Yet, even in such persons, when with due exercise and proper reme- dies the circulation is augmented, the red colour and due cohesion of the blood re- turn. All the blood takes its origin from the chyle, and deposits, by degrees, the nourishing particles requisite to the pre- servation and growth of the body. Its due circulation is, as it were, the principle and first condition of life ; and such is the ra- pidity of the circulation, that if it flowed at an equal rate in a straight line, it would run through one hundred and fifty feet in the space of a minute. BLOOD, in law, is regarded in descent of lands; for a person must be next and most worthy of blood in order to inherit his ancestor's estate. A kinsman of the whole blo&d is one who descends from the same couple of ancestors; of the half blood, one who descends from either of them singly, by a second mai'riage. BLOOD-HORSE, a breed of horses ori- ginally from the Arabian stock, the excel- lence of which consists in the compactness of his fibre, that adds to his strength with- out increasing his bulk. BLOOD'HOUND, a hunting dog, of such exquisite scent, that he will follow the track of men as well as of animals. It is the canis sagax of Linnaeus. BLOOM, a mass of iron after having undergone the first hammering, called hlomary. BLOWPIPE, in chemistry and mine- ralogy, a wind instrument or apparatus for the purpose of increasing the heat of a candle or lamp, in the same manner as a pair of bellows is employed for raising the temperature of a common fire or furnace. It is made of brass or white iron: and its most simple form is that of a tapering tube, about eight inches in length, and curved nearly at right angles, within two inches of its smaller extremity, which is as fine as a wire. The use of the blow-pipe, both to the artist for the purpose of enamel- ling, and of softening and soldering small pieces of metal; to the glass-blower in making thermometers and other glass in- struments; to the chemist and mineralo- gist in the examination of substances ; and, indeed, wherever it is required to subject a small body to a strong heat, is very im. portant. BLUB'BER, the fat of whales and other large sea animals, of which is made train oil. Sea-Blubbek, a name used for the urf ica marina. BLUE, one of the seven primitive colours into which they are divided when refracted through a glass prism. Blue, as a colour in painting, is distinguished into ultra- marine, from the azure stone, called lapis lazuli; Prussian blue, a colour next to ultramarine for beauty; blue ashes, used in limning, fresco, and miniature ; blueverditer, a blue somewhat inclining to a green ; and bice, which is the palest of all the bright blues. Indyeingjthe principal ingredients for giving a blue colour are indigo and wo ad. BO'A CONSTRICTOR, the largest of the genus of serpents, twenty-five or thirty feet long, very ferocious, and so strong, that by twisting itself round the bodies of oxen and other animals, it breaks their bones and swallows them whole. BO'A CANI'NA, a snake of South Ame- rica, of a beautiful make, about four feet long: the head is large and resembles that of a dog ; and the colour of the animal is an elegant green with white stripes. There are many other of the boa genus, the greater part of which are also natives of Sovith America. BOARD, in politics, an office under the control of the executive government : thus we say the Board of Trade, the Board of Works, the Board of Admiralty, the Board of Ordnance, &c., the business of those departments being there conducted by officers specially appointed for the purpose. The word board has also numerous sig- nifications in nautical language. BOAT, a small open vessel, usually moved by oars, or rowing. The form.s, and even the names of boats, are different, according to the various uses they are designed for, and the places where they are to be used. BOAT'SWAIN, the officer who has the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors, and cables committed to his charge. It is par- ticularly the duty of the boatswain to direct whatever relates to the rigging of a ship, after she is equipped from a royal dock- vard. It is likewise his office to summon TUB HEART DISTRIBUTES TWO OUNCES OF BLOOD FROM 70 TO 80 TIMES A MINUTE. IN IRELAND ARE THE llESIAINS OF FORESTS, COVERED WITH FEAT. bod] W)z Scumific nnts Xitcrart) treasury ; [bol the crew to tlieir duty ; to assist with his mates in the necessary business of the ship, and to relieve the wavch when it expires. BOD'Y, in physics, an extended solid substance, of itself utterly passive and in- active, indiflerent either to motion or rest ; but capable of any sort of motion, and of all figures and forms. It is a hard body when its parts do not easily yield to any stroke or percussion ; a soft body when it yields to every stroke, and thereby under- goes a change ; and an elastic body, that changes its form with every stroke, but recovers it again when the impelling force is removed. Body, with regard to ani- mals, is used in opposition to soul, in which sense it makes the subject of anatomy, and is that part of the animal composed of bones, muscles, canals, juices, nerves, &c., which, if considered with regard to the various voluntary motions it is capable of performing, is an assemblage of an infinite number of levers, drawn by cords : if con- sidered with regard to the motions of the fluids it contains, it is another assemblage of an infinity of tubes and hydraulic ma- chines; and if considered with regard to the generation of those fluids, it is another infinite assemblage of chemical instruments and vessels, the principal apparatus where- of, in the whole body, is the brain. In hydrostatics, body is distinguished into solid, fluid, dense, rare, specifically heavy, and light. A solid body is that whose par- ticles are kept by a certain continuity which preserves them in the same form. A fluid body is that in which the particles are not so bound together as to preserve a constant cohesion. A dense body is that which within the same space contains a greater mass than another. A rare body is that which contains a less mass within the space than others, A body specifically heavier is that which with the same volume of matter contains a greater weight. A body specifi- cally lighter is that which with the same volume of matter contains a less weight. In optics, a luminous body is that which diffuses a borrowed light. A pellucid or diaphanous body is that through which the rays of light easily pass. An opaqxie body intercepts the passage of the rays. ■ Body, in matters of literature, denotes much the same with system, being a col- lection of every thing belonging to a parti- cular science or art, disposed in proper order : thus we say, a body of divinity, law, physic, &c. Body, in the art of war, a number of forces, horse and foot, united under one commander. The main body is that part of an army which occupies the centre between the two "wings. The reserve is a select body of troops posted by a gene- ral out of the first line of action, to answer some especial purpose. BODIES, REGULAR, the name of five solids, as the tetrahedron, or pyramid, with four triangular faces; the hexahedron, or cube, with six square faces; the octahe- dron, with eight faces ; the dodecahedron, with twelve ; and the icosahedron, with twenty faces. BOIL'ING, or EBULLITION, the bub- bling up of any fluid. The term is most commonly applied to that bubbling which happens by the application of caloric, though that which ensues on the mixture of an acid and alkali is sometimes also dis- tinguished by the same name. Boiling, in general, is occasioned by the discharge of an elastic fluid through that which is said to boil; and the appearance is the same, whether it is common air, fixed air, or steam, that makes its way through the fluid. The boiling of water is occasioned by the lowermost particles being rarefied into vapour by reason of the vicinity of the bottom of the containing vessel to fire. In consequence of this, being greatly inferior in specific gravity to the surrounding fluid, they ascend with great velocity, and, agitat- ing the body of water in their ascent, give it the tumultuous motion called boiling. Every liquid has a fixed point at which boiling commences, and this is called the boiling point. Thus water begins to boil at the temperature of 212''. After a liquid has begun to boil, it will not become hotter, for although a stronger heat makes all liquids boil more rapidly, yet it does not increase their temperature. BOG, a quagmire covered with grass, but not solid enough to support the weight of the body; in which sense it differs only from marshes or fens, as a part from the whole. BOLES, are viscid earths, less coherent and more friable than clay, more readily uniting with water, and more freely sub- siding from it. They are soft and unctuous to the touch; adhere to the tongue, and by degrees melt in the mouth, impressing a slight sense of astringency. There are a great variety of these earths ; and they are sometimes used medicinally. BOLE TUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fungi class of plants, gro^ving horizontally, and porous underneath. Bole'tic Acid is an acid made from mush- rooms. BOL'LARDS, large posts set in the ground, on each side of a dock : on docking or undocking ships, large blocks are lashed to them; and through these blocks are reeved the transporting hawsers to be brought to the capstans. BOLO'GNA STONE is a phosphoric stone, first found at Bologna in Italy. It is a gray soft sulphureous stone, about the size of a large walnut, which shines in the dark after calcination. It is the native sul- phate of barytes. BO'LSTER, a soft pillow for a broken limb. In farriery, it is the name of those parts of a saddle which are raised upon the bows to receive the rider's thighs. Bolster is also a sea term, for a piece of timber cut and placed for the easement of the cable. BOLT, among builders, a strong cylin- drical iron or other metal pin, used as a fastening for doors and windows. They are generally distinguished into three kinds, viz., plate, round, and spring bolts. In MOVING BOGS ARE SLIPS OP HILLS CARRIED DOWN BY ACCUMULATED WATER. BY THE DISTILLATION OP BONES, AMMONIA IS GENERALLY PROCURED. bon] % TsTctD JBictionartt of t^c IBelles ^ettrcs. [b gunnery, there are prise-bolts, transom- bolts, traverse bolts, and bracket-bolts. In ships, bolts are used in the sides and decks, and have different names, as eye- bolts, ring-bolts, chain-bolts, &c. BO'LT-HEAD, in chemistry, a long straight-necked glass vessel for distilla- tions, which being fitted to the alembic or still, is called a receiver. BO'LUS, a soft mass of any thing medi- cinal, made a little thicker than honey, and smaller in quantity, so that it may be swal- lowed like a pill. BOMB, a large shell or ball of cast iron, round and hollow, with a vent to receive a fusee, which is made of wood, and filled with combustible materials of all kinds. This being done, and the fusee driven into the vent, the fusee is set on fire, and the bomb is thrown from a mortar, in such a direction as to fail into a fort, city, or enemy's camp, when it bursts with great violence, and often with terrible effect, blowing into pieces whatever may be in its way. Bomb chkst, a chest filled with bombs, or gunpowder only, and placed under ground, in order to effect great destruction when it bursts. Bomb-ketch, a small vessel, constructed for throwing bombs into a for- tress from the sea. BOMBASIN', a name given to two sorts of stuff; the one of silk, and the other crossed with fine worsted. BOIMBAS'F, in literary composition, an inflated style, by which, in attempting to raise a low or familiar subject beyond its rank, the wi'iter seldom fails to be ridicu- lous. BOM'BIC ACID, in chemistry, an acid liquor contained in a reservoir near the anus of the silkworm. BOMBYL'IUS, an ancient drinking- cup, with a long narrow neck ; and which de- rived its name from the bubbling noise it made in drinking. In entomology, bom- byliti.s is the name of the humble-bee. BOM'BYX, in entomology, the silk- worm. BONA'SUS, or BONAS'SUS, the wild ox, with a long mane ; a native of Asia and Africa. It much resembles the bison, which see. BOND, a legal obligation to perform a certain condition under forfeiture. Bond, in carpentry, the binding of any two pieces together by tenoning, morticing. &c. In masonry, it is the disposition of stones or bricks in a building, so that they most aptly fit together. Bond-timbers are the hoiizontal timbers bedded in stone or brick walls fur strengthening the masonry. BONDS'MAN, one bound or giving se- curity for another. BONE, a t rm hard substance, of a dull whitish colour, composing some part of the frame of an animal body, and serving as a prop or support to it. The bones are covered with a thin, strong membrane, called the periosteum, which has very little sensibility in a sound state, but whcii inflamed is ex- tremely sensible. Their cells and cavities are occupied by a fatty substance, called the marrow, or medulla. From the analysis of bones we learn that, although the pro- portion of ingredients varies in different ani- mals, the general constituents of bone are as follows : 1. Gelatin, soluble by boiling rasped or bruised bones in water, and giving a tine clear jelly; 2. Oil or fat separable during the boiling, by rising to the top of the water, and when cold concreting into a suet ; 3. Phosphate of lime, soluble in di- lute nitrous, muriatic, or acetous acid, and precipitable thence by pure ammonia ; 4. Some sulphate of lime; 5. A little carbon- ate of lime ; and, G. A membraneous or cartilaginous substance, retaining the form of the bone after every thing else has been extracted by water and an acid. Of these ingredients the phosphate of lime exists in far the greatest abundance, and it is this which gives them their solidity. Man has 2-16 bones. The head and face 63, the trunk 59, the arms 64, and the lower extremities CO. That part of anatomy which treats of the bones is called osteology. BONITO', a fish of the tunny kind, grow- ing to the length of three feet, and found on the American coast, and in the tropical cUmates. BON'NET, in fortification, a small work composed of two faces, usually raised before the sahant angle of the counterscarp. BONZE, an Indian priest, who wears a chaplet of beads about his neck, and carries a staff, having a wooden bird at one end. The bonzes of China are the priests of the Fohists, or sects of Fohi ; and it is one of their established tenets, that there are rewards allotted for the righteous, and punishments for the wicked, in the other world ; and that there are various mansions, in which the souls of men will reside, ac- cording to their different degrees of merit. The number of bonzes in China is estimated at fifty thousand, and they are represented as idle, dissolute men. BOO'BY, a fowl of the pelican genus. BOOK, a literary composition, designed to communicate something which the au- thor has invented, experienced, or collect- ed, to the public, and thence to posterity ; being pi-inted, loound in a volume, and published for that purpose.' The five books of Moses are doubtless the oldest books now extant ; and there are none in profane history extant anterior to Homer's poems. A great variety of materials were formerly used in making books : plates of lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, stone, and wood, were among the first ma- terials employed to engrave such things upon, as men were desirous to transmit to posterity. Josephus speaks of two columns, the one of stone, the other of brick, on which the children of Seth wrote their inventions and astronomical discoveries : Porphyry makes mention of some pillars, preserved in Crete, on which the ceremonies practised by the Corybantes in their sacri- fices, were recorded : Hesiod's works were originally written upon tables of lead, and deposited in the temple of the Muses, in BcEotia : the ten commandments, dcliver- TUE BONES OF A MAMMOTH WERE DUG UP AT NORTH CLIFF, YORKSHIRE IN THE CONFLAGRATIOIS' OF THE BASILICAN LIBRARY, 36,000 BOOKS V/EBE LOST. bor] VL\)z Scientific m\ls Xiterarw ^rcasuri) ; [bor ed to Moses, were written upon stone; and Solon's laws upon wooden planks. Tables of wood, box, and ivory, were com- mon among the anoients : when of wood, they were frequently covered with wax, that people might write on them with more ease, or blot out what they had written. The leaves of the palm-tree were afterwards used instead of wooden planks, and the finest and thinnest part of the bark of such trees, as the lime, the ash, the maple, and the elm ; from hence comes the word liber, which signifies the inner bark of the trees : and as these barks were rolled vip, in order to be removed with greater ease, these rolls were called volumen, a volume ; a name af- terwards given to the like rolls of paper or parchment. With regard to the use of books, it is indisputable that they make one of the chief instruments of acquiring knowledge ; they are the repositories of the law, and vehicles of learning of every kind ; our religion itself is founded on books, and " without them, (says Bartholin) God is silent, justice dormant, physic at a stand, philosophy lame, letters dumb, and all things involved in Cimmerian darkness." Yet, with all the well-merited eulogies that have been bestowed on them, we cannot overlook the fact that many are frivolous, and some pernicious. It will therefore be well to bear in mind the opinion of the learned Selden, who says that the charac- teristics of a good book are solidity, per- spicuity, and brevity. BOOK'BINDING, a very ingenious art, by which printed sheets are folded, gather- ed, pressed, sewn together, shielded with mill boards, and covered with leather, which is lettered, and ornamented by the use of leaf gold and gilding tools. BOOK'-KEEPING, the art of registering mercantile transactions for reference, state- ment and balance ; all of which must be so clearly done, that the true state of every part, and of the whole, may be easily and distinctly known. BOOM, a sea term, for along pole to ex- tend the bottoms of particular sails, as the jib-boom, and studding-sail-boom. The boom of a harbour is a strong iron chain thrown across a harbour, to prevent the entrance of an enemy; and a fire-boom is a strong pole thrown out from a ship to pre- vent the approach of fire-ships, &c. BOOR, a term applied to the uncivilized peasants of Russia and other countries. BOOTES, a northern constellation con- taining Arcturus, and .50 other stars. It is also known as Charles's Wain. BORA'CIC ACID, in its native state, ex- ists in several small lakes in Italy, and in certain hot springs, from whose waters it is deposited by natural evaporation. It is also obtained from the mineral called borax, which consists of this acid in conjunction with soda. The acid, when separated, ap- pears in the form of a white, scaly, glitter- ing salt, with hexahedral scales; soft and unctuous to the touch. Its taste is bitter- ish, with a slight degree of acidity. It is soluble in alcohol, which it causes to burn. when set on fire, with a green flame sur- rounded with a white one. Boracic acid was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy to be a compound of a peculiar base, which he called boron, and oxygen, in the proportion of 8 parts of the former to 16 of the latter. The most important combinations formed by boracic acid is that with soda, commonly called borax. BO'RAX, a native salt found in a fluid form, suspended in certain waters, and dis- covered in them by its brackish and bitter taste ; readily separable from them by eva- poration, and appearing, on a nice solution and evaporation, in transparent crystals. It is chiefly found in Thibet, and is import- ed into England from India. Borax makes no effervescence either with acids or alka- lies, and yields nothing by distillation but an insipid phlegm. Its use in soldering gold and other metals, is well known ; also in metallurgy, as a flux, in the remelting the small masses of gold and silver that are the produce of assays ; for by rubbing it over the vessels these are to be melted in, it fills up all their little cavities, and leaves not the least roughness on the surface, to detain any of the melted metal. It is used by the dyers to give a gloss to silks ; and it is also in request both as a cosmetic and a medicine. BO'RACITE, or Borate of Magnesia. in chemistry, magnesian earth combinea with boracic acid. It is generally of a cubic fomi, and remarkable for its electrical properties when heated. BOR'DURE, in heraldry, a cutting off from within the escutcheon all round it about l-5th of the field, serving as a diffe- rence in a coat of arms, to distinguish fami- lies of the same name, or persons bearing the same coat. BO'RING, in mineralogy, a kind of cir- cular cutting, or a method of piercing the earth with scooping irons, which, when drawn out, bring with them samples of the different strata through which they have passed. By this means the veins of ore or coal maybe discovered without opening a mine. Boring for water has of late been verv successfully practised. [See Artesian Wells.] BORING MACHINE, in mechanics, an engine used for boring or perfecting the bores of cannon, cylinders for steam-en- gines, pipes, &c. It is a machine of great power and complexity. BOR'OUGH.. This word originally de- noted a fortified city or town; but at pre- sent it is given to such town or village as sends burgesses or representatives to parlia- ment. Boroughs are equally such whether they be incorporate or not; there being several boroughs that are not incorporated, and, on the contrary, several coi-porations that are not boroughs. Borough Eng- lish, is a customary descent of lands or tenements, in certain parts of England, by which they descend to the youngest instead of the eldest son ; or if the owner leaves no son, to the youngest brother. The custom goes with the land, although there be a THE BASILICAN LIBRARY AT CONSTANTINOPLE WAS BURNT IN THE 8TH CENTURY. BOTANISTS DESCRIBE NEARLY FIFTY THOUSAND SPECIES OF PLANTS. box] IsTcfio JBictionart) of tf)e ^cUcs ICcttres. [bot devise at the common law to tlie contrary. The reason of this custom is, because the p youngest is presu.mecl in law to be the least w able to provide for himself, w BOS, in zoology, the generic name in the " Linnsean system for all animals of the ox % tribe, as the bison, bufifalo, common ox, y musk ox, &c. The characters of this genus « are, that the horns are hollow and turned forward, bent like crescents, and smooth on g the surface : the fore teeth are eight in ^ number, and there are no canine teeth. t« BORSEL'LA, in mechanics, an instru- ^ ment with which glass makers contract or g extend their glasses at pleasure. BOR'RELISTS, in church history, a sect o of Christians in Holland, (so called from a Borrel, their founder), who reject the use ^ of the sacraments, public prayer, and all ^ external worship ; yet they lead a very aus- « tere life. g BORS'HOLDER, among the Anglo- « Saxons, one of the lowest magistrates, H whose authority extended only over one 2 tithing consisting of ten families. Each ^ tithing formed a little state of itself, and g chose one of its most respectable members for its head, who was called a borsholder, a a termed derived from two words signifying 2 a " surety" and a " head." ^ BOS'SAGE, in architecture, a term used « for any stone that has a projecture, and is ^ laid rough in a building, to be afterwards carved into mouldings, capitals, coats of ^ arms, &c. Bossage is also the name for u what is otherwise called rustic work, con- 2 sisting of stones that seem to project be- ^ yond the level of the building, "Iby reason of > indentures or channels left in the joinings. H These are chiefly in the corners of edifices, § and are there called rustic quoins. y BOTANOMA'NCY, an ancient species e< of divination by means of plants, especially % sage and fig leaves. Questions were wi'itten P on leaves, which were then exposed to the w wind, and as many of the letters as re- ^ mained in their places were taken up, and 5 being joined together, contained an answer g to the question. o BOT'ANY, that branch of natural history, which treats of plants, their classes, sub- 2 divisions, genera, and species. Various „ systems, or plans of arrangement, have « been from time to time proposed ; but the ^ sexual system of Linnaeus is at present ge- S nerally received. This naturalist has drawn ►I a continued analogy between the vegetable § economy and that of the animal ; and has g derived all his classes, orders, and genera, a from the numbei', situation, and proportion % of the parts of fructification. We shall, however, first speak of the natural orders w into which plants are distinguished ; viz. « ! into trees, the stems of which send forth ^ branches from the middle and top ; shrubs, w the stems of which send forth branches from fn the bottom ; and herbs, which bear flowers ^ and seeds, and then die ; if they die at the end of one year they are called annuals, if I at the end of two years biennials, if they j last three or more years they are perennials. i The parts of plants are distinguished ge- nerally inte the root, the stem, the bud, the leaf, the inflorescence, and the fructitica- w tion. The 7-oot is the part through which % the plant derives nourishment from the w earth. The stem is the prolongation of the plant above the soil, proceeding from the S root. The bud is that part of the plant § which contains the embryo of the leaves, ^ flowers, &c., and serves as their hyber- ^ naculum, or winter receptacle. The leaf is ° the herbaceous production from the as- ^ cending stem ; when the stalk and leaf are p so intimately connected that they cannot ^ be distinguished, this is called a frond, as g in the palms and the algre. The inflores- > cence is the mode of flowering, which differs ^ very much in different plants. The various 2 parts of a flower are arranged under dis- tinct heads, consisting of the calyx or em- « palement; the blossom or corolla; stamens g or chives ; pistils or pointals ; seed vessel or ^ pericarp ; the seeds, the nectary, and recep- © tacle. The calyx is formed of one or more S green or yellowish green leaves placed at a % small distance from, or close to the blossom. I « There are different kinds of calyxes, as the g perianthiuni or cup near the flower, in the rose : — the involucrum, remote from the § flower, in umbelliferous plants, as is seen ^ in the hemlock and carrot : — the catkin, or ^ amentum, as in the willow or hazel : — the ch sheath, or spatha, in the snow-drop :— the w husk, or giuma, in wheat, oats, and different ^ kinds of grasses : — the veil, or calyptra, < covering the fructification of some of the 2 mosses, and resembling an extinguisher : — m the curtain or volva, surrounding the ^ stems, and attached to the pileus or cap, that spreading part which forms the top of h several fungi, and covers the fructification, ^ and which in the common mushroom covers the gills. The blossom is that beau • g tifully coloured i^art of a flower, which ?* principally attracts tlie attention. It is © composed of one or more petals, or blossom ^ leaves. "When it is united in one, as in the w polyanthus or auricula, it is termed a bios- § som of one petal, but if it be composed of g many parts, it is then said to be a blossom p? of one, two, three, or many petals. The sta- p^- mens are slender thread-like substances, a generally placed within the blossom, and 3 surrounding the pistils. They are composed ^ of two parts, the filament or thread, and the i= anther or tip, but the latter is the essential part. A pistil consists of three divisions, S the germen or seed-bud, the style or shaft, c and the summit or stigma ; but the second ^ is often wanting. Some flowers have only ? one pistil: others have two, three, four, &c. < or more than can easUy be counted. Tlie seed-vessel, in the newly opening flower, ^ is called the germen; "but when it en- o larges it is termed the seed-vessel. Some g plants have no appendage of the kind, and « then the seeds are uncovered, as in the ^ dead nettle ; the cup, however, generally % incloses and retains the seeds till they ^ ripen : and in the tribe of grasses, this friendly office is generally performed by what was previously called the blossom. The part to which the seeds are affixed [13 VEGETABLES HAVE SPONTANEOUS, THOUGH NOT VOLUNTARY MOTION. THE SAP OF riiANTS IS EXTRACTED FROM THE SOIL BY THE ROOTS. ©l)c Scientific axits %ittxax)) ^rcasur^ ; [bot Avithin the seed-vessel, is termed the recep- tacle of the seeds. Nectaries are those parts in a flower which are designed to pre- pare a sweet nectareous liquor. The tube of the blossom, as in the honey-suckle, frequently answers the purpose ; but in many other flowers, there is a peculiar or- ganization for tlie purpose. The receptacle is the seat or base to which the various divisions of a flower are affixed. Thus, if you pull off the calyx, the blossoms, the stamens, the pistils, and the seeds or seed- vessels, the substance remaining on the top of the stalk is the receptacle. It will be our business now to describe the ARTIFICIAL classiflcation of plants, or sexual system of Linnceus ; and dif^cult as it may be to give a clear view of it in such a summary as the limits of our work afford, it is om* intention not to lose sight of its scientiflc character, while we attempt to render it more intelligible to those who have never made its study an object of their attention. Linnaeus has laid it down as a fundamental law of botany, that the sexual parts of plants are most intimately related to the growth of the fruit, and that they are therefore of the greatest importance ; in short, that no other system of classifi- cation could possibly introduce order into a branch of natural history, teeming, as this does, with almost endless diversities. He accordingly di\aded all known plants into twenty-four classes, distinguishing them accordS^g to the number or situation of the stamens, filaments, anthers, or male and female flowers in each plant, as follows : — 1. Monavdria, plants having one stamen. 2. Biandria two stamens. 3. Triandria three stamens. 4. Tetrandria four stamens. 5. Pentandria five stamens. 6. Hexandria six stamens. 7. Heptandria .... seven stamens. 8. Octandria eight stamens. 9. Enneandria .... nine stamens. 10. Dccandria ten stamens. 11. Dodecandrin,{vom eleven to seventeen stamens. 12. Icoscnidria, many stamens inserted in the c.-vlyx. [v/ards. 13. Tolyandria, twenty stamens and up- 14. Bidynamia, four stamens in one flower, two longer than the rest. 15. Tetradynamia, six stamens, tv.'O shorter than the rest. 16. Monodelphia, the filaments connected in the form of a tube. [tubes. 17. Biadcljihia, the filaments forming two 18. Polyadelphia, the filaments forming se- veral parcels. [tube. 19. Syngenesia, the anthers formed into a 20. Gynandria, the stamens standing in the style. 21. Moncecia, stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but in one plant. [plants. 22. Bicecia, stamens and pistils in separate 23. Polygnmia, stamens and pistils separate in some flowers, and united in others. 24. Cryptoganiia, flowers inconspicuous, or invisible to the naked eye. In this last class are comprehended the ferns (Jilices) ; mosses (musci) ; sea-weeds (algm) ; and the different kinds of fungi. The Orders, or subdivisions of the classes, from class 1 to 13 inclusive, are marked by the number of styles or pistils in each plant; as monogynia, where there is but one pistil; and digynia, trigynia, tetragy- nia, &c. for two, three, four, or more pis- tils. When the seeds are naked, the term gymnospermia denotes the order : when con- tained in a pericarp, angiosperniia ; when the seeds are contained in a silique of dif- ferent sizes, they are termed siliculosa and siliquosa. In most of the other classes the orders are marked by the number of stamens in each plant, except syngenesia, in which the orders polygamia eequalis, po- ly gamia superfiua, polygamia frustanea, po- lygamia necessaria, andpolygamia segregata mark the connexion of the flower. The next division is into Genera or families, each genus uniting together all those plants which bear so strong an affinity as to be considered members of the same family. The name given to the genus is the name by which all the plants of that family are known : thus, the genus rosa includes all the different kinds of roses ; salix (which is the scientific name for willow), every kind of willow; convolvulus, every kind of bind- weed; and erica, all the heaths. The dis- tinctive or characteristic marks upon which the genera are founded, are always taken from the shape, position, number, or some other property of the different parts of the flower, as the calyx, petals, seeds, seed- vessels, &c., whether they be round or heart-shaped ; whole or divided ; rough or smooth ; single or many : and the like. There is only one more division, viz. the Species. Each genus is divided into spe- cies, the characteristic marks of which are formed upon the leaves, stems, roots, or any other parts of the plant except the flower ; and some name, called the specific or trivial name, is given to each species, thus characterized, winch, added to the name of the genus, sufficiently distinguishes each particular plant. To elucidate this we will quote the words of a botanical es- sayist — " Suppose that you have found, and brought home from your v. aik, a delicate, blue, bell-shapcd flower, called by some bell-flower, by others Canterbury-bell, and by others again blue-bell. You naturally wish to know by what name this plant is distinguished by the botanist, what name all scientific men in every country have agreed to give it, that you may be at no loss under what name to look for a descrip- tion of it, or how to communicate to others any observations you may have made upon this plant yourself. In the first place, then, examine how many stamina, or how many of those small bodies called its an- thcrae, are to be found in the bell-shaped corolla, or blossom ; you discover five ; now run over the classes of Linnaeus, till you come to that, which is distinguished by its five stamina: this is called pentandria, and you therefore know your flower to be in this class. Next look for the pistillum or THE riTH OF PLANTS RESEMBLES THE SPINAL MARROW^ IN ANIMALS. EOT THE SAP IN TREES IS AT FIRST MERELY A TASTELESS FLUID. n ^Mm Bictionary of tlje belles ITettrcs. [b pistilla, of which, in this plant, you will find only one ; this characterises the first order, called monngynia, and therefore your plant is in the class pentandria, and order monogynia. You have now done with the stamina and pistilla, and must attend to the other parts of the flower, comparing them, as you go on, with the characters of all the genera in this first order of the fifth class. The calyx you find to have five di- visions, sharp, and not quite upright ; the corolla of one petal, bell-shaped, with five clefts, close at the base ; shrivelling ; seg- ments, broad, sharp, open ; seed-vessels roundish, of three or four cells ; all which tallies exactly with the generic character of campanula ; this therefore is the genus, and you have now only to find out to what species yours belongs. The leaves nearest to the roots, and which are generally so close to the ground as to require care not to leave them behind in gathering the plant, you will find to be round, or rather heart-shaped, or sometimes kidney- shaped, whilst the leaves on the stem are narrow and strap-shaped; this determines the spe- cies, and in this your flower agrees with the character of that called rotundifolia. Tou have therefore now determined your plant to be the campanula rotundifolia, and you may read all the descriptions of this plant without a dou.bt as to its being the same, and may describe to others, where you found it, when you found it, and what else you know of it, without any fear of confounding it with any other blue, bell- shaped flower, of which there are many, both of this and other genera." BOTAR'GO, a kind of sausage, made of the roes of the mullet, much used on the Mediterranean coast as an incentive to drink. EO'TRYOLITE, in mineralogj% is a va- riety of siliceous borate of lime, and occura in botryoidal concretions in a bed of mag- netic iron in gneiss, near Arundel, in Nor- way. Its colours are gray, reddish white, and pale rose-red : and form concentric stripes. BOTRYOI'DAL, ha\dng the form of a bunch of grapes ; as a mineral, presenting an aggregation of small globes. BOTS, a species of small worms found in the intestines of horses, and are the larvce of a kind of gad-fly, which deposits its eggs on the tips of the hairs, generally of the fore-legs and mane, whence they are taken into the mouth and swallowed. BOTTOM, in navigation, is used to de- note as well the channel of rivers and har- bours, as the body or hull of a ship ; thus, in the former sense, we say, a gravelly bot- tom, clayey bottom, sandy bottom, &c., and in the latter a British bottom, a Dutch bottom, &c. Goods imported in foreign bottoms pay a higher duty than those im- ported in our own. Hence, a state of ha- zard, chance, or risk ; thus we say, do not venture too much in one bottom; meaning, do not hazard too much at a single risk. BOT'TOMRY, in commerce, the act of borrowing money upon the keel or bottom of a ship ; that is, the ship itself is pledged as security for the repayment of the money. If the ship is lost, the lender loses the money : but if the ship arrives safe, he is to receive the money lent, with the inte- rest premium stipulated, although it may exceed the legal rate of interest. BOUL'TINE, in architecture, a convex moulding, placed next below the plinth in the Tuscan and Doric capital. BOUND, a sea-term, expressive of being confined to a particular spot or direction ; as wind-bound, ice-bound, &c., confined by the wind or ice to a place from which you were sailing. BOURGEOIS', a small kind of printing type, between longprimer and brevier. The type used in this work is fou^r sizes smallel than bourgeois. BOUTS-RIMES (Fr., pron. hoo-re-ma), a term for certain rhymes disposed in or- der, and given to a poet, together with a subject, to be filled up with verses ending in the same word and same order. BOW, an instrument of v.'ar and hunting, made of wood, or other elastic material, which, after being bent by means of a string fastened to its two ends, throws out an ar- row with great force and velocity. The bow is still used as a weapon of offence by m.any of the inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and Ame- rica ; and in Europe, before the invention of fire-arms, a part of the infantry was armed with bows, which were made of the yew-tree or ash, and were of the height of the archer. For several centuries the long-bow vvas the favourite national weapon in Eng- land, and many laws were made to encou- rage the use of it ; the parliament under Henry VIII. complained of the disuse of long bows, " heretofore the safeguard and defence of this kingdom, and the dread and terror of its enemies." The cross bow, or arbalist, v/as a common weapon with the Italians, and was introduced into England in the 13th century: the arrows shot from it were called quarrels. Of the power of the bow, and the distance to which it will carry, many remarkable anecdotes are re- lated. Lord Bacon speaks of a Turkish bow which has been known to pierce a steel target, or a piece of brass, two inches thick ; while other authorities declare they have seen an arrow shot from a bow to the dis- tance of GOO yards. [For further remarks see Archery.'] Bow, in mechanics, is the name of several things so called from their curved figure ; as, the turner's bow, a pole fixed to the ceiling to v/hich the cord is fastened that wheels round the piece to be turned; the bow of a saddle, the piece of wood on each side, laid archwise to receive the upper part of a horse's back. A bote is also the name of an instrument formerly used at sea for taking the sun's altitude ; consisting of a large arch of ninety degrees graduated, a shank or staff, a shade vane, a sight vane, and an horizon vane. And in music, bow is the name of that well-known implement (consisting of a round stick furnished with hair) by the means of which the tone is produced from violins, &c. THE SAP ACQUIRES ITS CHARACTERISTIC FLAVOUR ON ENTERING THE LEAVES. 91 THE HUMAN BKAIN GENERALLY WEIGHS BETWEEN TWO AND THREE POUNDS. Bli A] Vli)z Scientific anU Xitcrarp ^rcasurn ; [bra BO WLDER, or BO'WLDER-STONE, a inniidish stone found on the sea-shore, or i)! '.he channels of rivers, &c., worn smooth by the action of water. In geology, the term bowlder is used for rounded masses of any rock, transported from their original bed by water. Large bowlders of granite are very common on the surface of the most recent formations. BO WLDER WALL, a waU, generally on the sea-coast, constructed of large pebbles or bowlders of fiint, which have been rounded by the action of water. BOWLS, a game played upon a fine smooth grassy surface, used solely for the purpose, and denominated a bowling-green. BOX'ERS, a kind of athletse, who com- bat or contend for ^ctory with their fists. Among the Romans they were called pu- giles; hence the appellation of pugilists to the boxers of the present day. BRACE, in architecture, a piece of tim- ber framed in with bevel joints, to keep the building from swerving either way. When the brace is framed into the principal raf- ters, it is sometimes called a strut. Braces, in marine language, are ropes be- longing to all the yards of a ship, except themizen, two to each yard, reeved through blocks that are fastened to pennants at- tached to the yard arms. To brace about, is to turn the yards round for the contrary tack. To brace to, is to check or case off the lee braces, and round-in the weather ones, to assist in tacking. BRA'CHI A.L, in a general sense, denotes something belonging to the arm ; as, the brachial artery. Brachia'lis is particu- larly used for a thick and broad muscle of the arm, lying between the shoulder-bone and the elbow. BRA'CHIATE, an epithet for having branches in pairs, all nearly horizontal, and each pair at right angles with the next. BRACHYG'RAPHY, stenography, or the art of writing in short hand. BRACHYL'OGY, in rhetoric, the method of expressing anything in the most concise manner. BRACHYPN^'A, in medicine, short re- spiration at small intervals. BRAC'TEA, or BRACTE, in botany, a floral leaf, one of the seven fulcrums or props of plants. It differs from other leaves in shape and colour, and is generally situ- ated on the peduncle, so near the corolla, as easily to be mistaken for the calyx. BRAC'TEOLATE, in botany, an epithet for plants which are furnished with brac- teoles, or little bractes. BRAH'MINS, or BRAM'INS, the caste or hereditary division of Hindoos peculiarly devoted to religion and religious science, in the same manner as, among the Jews, the priesthood was ordained to continue in the tribe of Levi. The families of this caste claim peculiar veneration from the rest, and seem, in their name of bramins, to claim the merit of being the more immediate fol- lowers of Brahma, their incarnate deity. Some of them, however, are described as very corrupt in their morals ; while others live sequestered from the world, devoted to superstition and indolence. To the bra- mins we are indebted for whatever we know of the Sanscrit, or ancient language of the country, in which their sacred books are written. BRAIN, in anatomy, that soft white mass enclosed in the cranium or skull, in which all the organs of sense terminate, and the intelligent principle of man is sup- posed to reside. It consists of two princi- pal parts, connected by delicate veins and fibres; and is di\ided above into a right and left hemisphere, and below into six lobes. The external portion of the brain is soft and vascular, and is called the corti- cal substance; the internal is called the medullary. Between the skull and the brain there are three membranes; the outer one called the dura mater, which is strong, dense, and elastic ; the next is the tunica arachnoidea, which is thin and nearly transparent ; and an inner one, called the pia mater, which is very vascular, and covers the whole surface of the brain. It is wor- thy of observation, that every part of the brain is exactly symmetrical with the part opposite, and that irregularities in its structure are far more uncommon than in the other parts of the human body. BRAN, the skins or husks of grain, espe- cially wheat ground, separated from the flour by a sieve or boulter. BRANCH, a shoot from the main bough of a tree. Also several things similar in figure, as the antlers or shoots of a stag's horn ; the branches of veins, branches of a river, &c. BRANCH'IiE, in ichthyology, are the gills, or organs of respiration answering to the lungs in other animals, with which all fishes are provided, except the cetaceous tribe and the lamprey. They are eight in number, and serve the fish to take in and throw out water with the air. BRANCHIOSTE'GIOUS, an epithet for an order of fishes in the Linnaean system, including such as have gills without bony rays, as the pipe fish, sucker, frog fish, &c. BRAN'DY, a spirituous and inflammable liquor, extracted from wine and other li- quors by distillation. The wine-brandy, made in France, is esteemed the best in Europe. It is made wherever wine is made, and pricked wine is used for this purpose, rather than good wine. The chief brandies for foreign trade, and those accounted best, are the brandies of Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cognac, Blasois, Poictou, Touraine, Anjou, Nantes, Burgundy, and Champagne. As we hear so much of the good qualities of British brandy, and have never been so for- tunate as to discover them, perhaps it may not be amiss to give a recipe from Dr, Ure. He says, "the following formula may be proposed for converting a silent or flavour- less corn spirit, into a factitious brandy. Dilute the pure alcohol to the proof pitch, add to every hundred pounds weight of it from half a pound to a pound of argol (crude winestone) dissolved in water, a little acetic ether, and French-wine vinegar. 92 THE PROPORTION OP THE BRAIN TO THE BODY IN AN ADULT, IS AS 1 TO 35. bra] BKEAD IS MADB IN EVERY CIVILIZED COUlNTnY IN THE "VVOKLD. % ISTcto Bictionarp of tl;c IBelles XEtircs. [BKE some bruised French plums, and flavour- stuff from Cognac; then distil the mixture with a gentle fire, in an alembic furnished with an agitator. The spirit which comes over may be coloured with nicely burnt sugar (caramel) to the desired tint, and roughened in taste with a few drops of tincture of catechu or oak-bark. The above recipe, he observes, will afford a spirit free from the deleterious drugs too often used to disguise and increase the intoxicating power of British brandies ; one which may be reckoned as wholesome as alcohol, in any shape, can ever be !" BRASS, in metallurgj% a factitious com- pound metal, of a yellow colour, consisting of copper and about one third of its weight of zinc. It is more fusible than copper, and not so apt to tarnish : it is malleable when cold, but not when heated. In order to combine copper most intimately with zinc, and yet to preserve its malleability, the ingenious process of cementation has been resorted to in the manufacture of brass, which is performed by heating in a covered pot alternate layers of copper in small pieces, with zinc and charcoal, and continuing the fire till the copper is tho- roughly impregnated with the zinc. The mode has been thus described: — Melt the mixture in a crucible till the blue flame is seen no longer on the lid of the crucible, and when cold a fine button of brass is found beneath the scoria, weighing rather more than the copper alone, obtainable from its oxyde without the calamine. Brass is so ductile that sieves of extreme fineness are wove v.ith the wire, after ti e manner of cambric weaving. Corinthian Brass has been famous in antiquity, and is a mix- ture of gold, silver, and copper. L. J.Ium- mius having sacked and burnt the city of Corinth, b.c. 146, it is said this metal was formed from the immense quantities of' gold, silver, and copper, with which that city abounded, and which by the violence of the conflagration were thus melted and run together. BRAS'SICA, Cabbage, in botany, a ge- nus of the tetradynamia-siliquosa class of plants. This well-known vegetable was as much used by the ancients as it is by the moderns. The principal species are the brasstca oleracea, or common cabbage ; brassica napus, wild cabbage or rape ; raj)a rotunda, or turnip, &c. BRAURO'NIA, an Athenian festival cele- brated every five years in honour of Diana, who was surnamed Brauronia. BRAVU'RA, in music, an air so com- posed as to enable the performer to show his skill in the execution of difficult pas- sages. It is also sometimes used for the style of execution. BRA'ZING, the soldering or joining two pieces of iron together by means of thin plates of brass, melted between the pieces that are to be joined. If the work be very fine, as when two leaves of a broken saw are to be brazed together, they cover it with pulverized borax, melted with water, that it may incorporate with the brass powder, which is added to it. The piece is then exposed to the fire without touching the coals, and heated till the brass is seen to run. BRA'ZING, the soldering together of edges of iron, copper, brass, &c., with an alloy consisting of brass and zinc, some- times with a little tin or silver. BRAZIL'-WOOD, the Linnsean name of which is casalpinia crista, is found in the greatest abundance in the province of Per- nambuco, in Brazil; but it is also met with in many other parts of the western hemi- sphere, and in the East Indies. The tree is large, crooked, and knotty ; it is very hard, and susceptible of a fine polish; is pale when newly cut, but on exposure to the air;is of a red colour. The juice of the Brazil-wood is made use of for dyeing silk of a crimson colour, but it is inferior and less permanent than the crimson obtained from cochineal. It is also used, in combi- nation with certain mordants and alkalies, for various shades of red, purple, and violet, in cotton and woollen cloths. The word brazil is of Portuguese origin (from braza, a live coal, or glowing fire). This name was given to the wood for its colour, and it is said that king Emanuel of Portugal so named the country in America on account of its producing this wood. BREACH, in fortification, a gap or open- ing made in any part of the works of a town by the besiegers, in order to facilitate an attack upon the place. The breach is called 2}racficable, if it is large enough to afford a reasonable hope of success, in case of an assault. To repair a b: each, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fas- cines, &e., so as to prevent an assault. In law, a breach is the violation of a con- tract. Breach of pound, is the breaking any place where cattle are distrained. Breach of prison, an escape by breaking out of prison. BREAD, a preparation of flour mixed with water, fermented with yeast, and baked in an oven ; water gives flour consis- tency, but yeast separates the parts, and renders it light and wholesome. In the earliest antiquity, we find the flour or meal of grain used as food ; and by degrees the artificial preparation of bread by proper fermentation was discovered ; but, from all we read, it would appear, that for many ages the meal derived from the bruised grain was merely mixed with milk and water, and a tough paste was made into balls. The superiority of wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the manufacture of bread is so very great, that wherever it is successfully cultivated, v/heaten bread is now used to the nearly total exclusion of most others. But in the sixteenth cen- tury, rye bread and oatmeal formed the chief part of the diet of servants even in great families ; and in the reign of Charles I. barley bread was the iisu.al food of the middle classes; nay, so lately as a century ago, not more than half the people of Eng- land fed on wheaten bread. Thanks to the improved state of agriculture, the produce TWO POUNDS OP WHEAT MAKE ABOUT THREE POUNDS OF BREAD. IN FRANCE, THE DAILY CONSUMPTION OF BREAD IS 2J LBS. PEE MAN. ere] [bre of tlie wheat crops in England has since that time been more than trebled ; barley is no longer used, except in the distilleries and in brewing ; the use of oats as bread is limited even in Scotland and Ireland; and the consumption of rye bread is very incon- siderable. The process of making bread is nearly the same throughout Europe, though the materials of which it is composed vary with the farinaceous productions of dif- ferent climates and soils. The French, who particularly excel in the art of baking, have a great many different kinds of bread, from the pain bis, which is the coarsest of all, to the 2>ciin mollef, or soft bread, made of the purest flour, without any admixture. In this country we have fewer varieties of bread, and these differ chiefly in their degrees of purity. Our white or fine bread is made of the purest flour; our wheaten bread of flour, with a mixture of the finest bran ; and our household bread, of the whole sub' stance of the grain, without the separation either of the fine flour or coarse bran. Like the French, we have also many sorts of small bread, in which butter, milk, and eggs are incorporated; but our Gallic neighbours have a greater variety. "The object of baking is to combine the gluten and starch of the flour into one homoge- neous substance, and to excite such a vi- nous fermentative action, by means of its saccharine matter, as shall disengage abun- dance of carbonic acid gas in it for making an agreeable, soft, succulent, spongy, and easily digestible bread. The two evils to be avoided in baking are, hardness on the one hand, and pastiness on the other." The Adulteration of Bread, by means of alum, has long been a prolific source of evil, inasmuch as the health of the public, and of children especially, is often seriously injured by it. It is, however, fortunate, that to discover this pernicious practice no chemical skill is required: on macerating a small piece of the crumb of new-baked bread in cold water, sufficient to dissolve it, the taste of j the latter, if alum has been used by the baker, will acquire a sweetish astringency. Another method of detecting this adultera- tion consists in thrusting a heated knife into a loaf before it has grown cold; and if it be free from that ingredient, scarce any alteration will be visible on the blade ; but, in the contrary case, its surface, after being allowed to cool, wiU appear slightly co- vered with an aluminous incrustation. Dr. lire's directions for discovering the pre- sence of alum in bread are given in the following words : — " When alum is present in bread it may be detected by treating the bread with distilled water, filtering the water first through calico, and next through filtering paper, till it becomes clear; then dividing it into two portions, and into the one pouring a few drops of nitrate or mu- riate of barytes, and into the other a few drops of water of ammonia. In the former a heavy white precipitate indicating sul- phuric acid will appear, and in the latter a light precipitate of alumina, redissoluble by a few drops of solution of caustic potash." He further says, "Wlicn chalk or Paris plaster is used to sophisticate flour, they may be best detected by incinerating the bread made of it, and examining the ashes with nitric acid, which will dissolve the chalk with effervescence, and the Paris plaster without. In both cases the calca- reous matter may be demonstrated in the solution, by oxalic acid, or better by oxa- late of ammonia." That there has been much reason to complain of the adulter.? • tion of bread, particularly in times of scar- city, or whenever the high price of this grand necessary of life has stimulated the cupidity of fraudulent dealers, there can be no doubt; but we are inclined to believe that the practice, to any injurious extent, is much less prevalent than the pubUc suspect. The subject, however, is too im- portant to be overlooked, and the foregoing tests are at least worthy of insertion. BREAD'-FllUIT-TREE (artocarims in- cisa). It appears to have been first disco- vered to Europeans by the great navigator Dampier, and is indigenous in Otaheiteand other islands of the South Sea. The tree is said to be of the size of a large apple tree ; the leaves broad, and of a dark green. The fruit is appended to the boughs in the manner of apples, and of about the size of a pound of bread, inclosed with a tough rind, which, when ripe, turns of a yellow colour. The internal part is yellow, soft, and sweet. The natives bake it in an oven till the rind is black; and this being scraped off, they eat the inside, which is then white, resembling new-baked bread, liaving nei- ther seed nor stone. Some of the trees have been planted in Jamaica, and other West India islands, M'here it is used as a delicacy; and w.. ether employed as bread, or in the form of pudding, it is considered highly palatable. But in Otaheite the bread-fruit-tree not only supplies food, but clothing, and numerous other conveniences of life. The inner bark, consisting of a white fibrous substance, is formed into a kind of cloth ; and the wood is used for the building of boats and houses. BREAK'ERS, billows which break vio- lently over rocks lying under the surface of the sea, exliibiting a white foam, and being distinguished by a peculiar hoarse roaring, very different from that of waves in deep water. BREAKING GROUND, a military term, for opening the trenches and beginning the works for a siege. BREAK-WATER, the hull of a vessel sunk at the entrance of a harbour, or any erection of wood or stone placed there to break the force of the water, such as the Breakv.ater erected in Plvmouth Sound. BREAST'PLATE, a piece of defensive armour worn on the breast, which foi-nierly was deemed of great importance, but in modern warfare has fallen much into dis- use. In horsemanship, a leathern strap running from one side of the saddle, across the horse's breast, to the other, to keep it in its place. BREAST'-PLOUGH, a sort of plough IN ENGLAND, THE AVERAGE CONSUMPTION OF BREAD PER MAN IS NOT A POUND. IN SPEAKING OF CATTLE WE SAY THE " BKEED ;" BUT OF MAN THE "RACE." bre] iN^cto IBictionavB of i^z 13elUs ICettns. wliich is driven forward by the breast, and is used in paring off turf from the land. BREASr -WHEEL, awater-wheel, which receives the water at about half its height, or at the level of its axis. BREAST'-WORK, a military term, for works thrown up as high as the breast of the besieged. Also a sea term, for the balustrade of the quarter deck. BREATH, the air inhaled and expelled in the respiration of animals. A bad breath is often caused by local affections in the mouth or windpipe, but more frequently by carious teeth, and by many kinds of food, as onions, &c. The disagreeableness of a bad breath is too evident to require com- ment ; but we have not yet arrived at that refinement in moral legislation which they have reached in Prussia, where a bad breath furnishes ground for a divorce ! BRECCIA, or Pud'ding-stone, a sort of aggregate earth, consisting of fragments of stones united by some common cement. BREECH or BRITCH, the hinder part of a gun, from the cascabel to the bore. Also a sea term, for the angle of knee-timber in a ship. BREECH'ING, or BRITCH'ING, a rope used to secure the cannon of ships of war, and prevent them from recoiling too much in the time of battle. BREED'ING, in a moral sense, denotes a person's deportment or behaviour in the external offices and decorums of social life. In this sense, we say, well-bred, ill-bred, a man of breeding, &c. Lord Shaftesbury compares the well-bred man M ith the real philosopher ; the conduct and manners of the one is formed according to the most perfect ease and good entertainment of company ; of the other, according to the strictest interest of mankind ; the one ac • cording to his rank and quality in his private station ; the other, according to his rank and dignity in nature. In short, good- breeding is politeness, or the union of those qualifications which constitute genteel de- portment. In husbandry, breeding is that part which consists in the rearing of cattle or live stock of different kinds, par- ticularly by crossing or mingling one spe- cies or variety with another, so as to im- prove the breed. BREEZE, a shifting wind, that blows from sea or land for some certain hours in the day or night ; common in Africa, and some parts of the East and "West Indies. The sea breeze is only sensible near the coasts ; it commonly rises in the morning, about nine, proceeding slowly in a fine small black curl on the water, towards the shore ; it increases gradually till twelve, and dies, about five. Upon its ceasing, the land-breeze commences, which increases till twelve at night, and is succeeded in the morning by the sea-breeze again. Breeze, in brick -making, small ashes and cinders, sometimes made use of instead of coals, for the burning of bricks. BREVE, in music, a note of the third de- gree of length. It is equal to two semi- breves, or when dotted, to three : the former is called an imperfect, the latter, a perfect breve. BREVET', a military term, expressive of nominal promotion without additional pay : thus, a brevet major serves a captain, and draws pay as such. The word is borrowed from the French, signifying a royal act granting some favour or privilege ; as brevet d'invention. BRE'VIA VA'SA, in anatomy, small ve- nous vessels passing from the stomach to the splenetic veins. BRE VIARY, the book containing the daily service of the church of Rome. Ori- ginally every body was obliged to read the breviary ; but by degrees the obligation was reduced to the beneficiary clergy only, Avho are enjoined under penalty of mortal sin and ecclesiastical censures, to recite it at home, when they cannot attend in public. In the 14th century there was a parti- cular reserve granted in favour of bishops, who were allowed, on extraordinary occa- sions, to pass three days without rehearsing the bre\iary. BREVIA'RIUM, in Roman antiquity, a book first introduced by Augustus, contain- ing an account of the application of the public money. BRE'VIATOR, an officer under the east- em empire, whose business it was to write and translate briefs. BREVIER', in printing, a small kind of type, or letter, between nonpareil and bour- geois. BRE'VIS, in anatomy, an appellation given to several muscles, on account of their shortness. BREXAN'TES, a small kind of frog, to the blood of which was falsely ascribed, according to Galen, the virtue of restoring the lost hair. BRl'BERY, the act of prevailing upon any individual to do a legal or illegal act for the sake of reward. BRICK, a composition of argillaceous earth, first moistened and made fine by treading and grinding, then formed into long squares, four inches and a half broad and nine long, and baked or burnt in a kiln, or in a clamp, to serve as stones in build- ing. The different kinds of bricks made in England are principally place bricks, gi'ey and red stocks, marl facing bricks, and cut- ting bricks. The place bricks and stocks are used in common walling; the marls, which are of a fine yellow colour, hard, and well burnt, are used in the outside of build- ings ; and the finest kind of marl and red bricks, called cutting bricks, are used in the arches over windows and doors, being rubbed to a centre, and guaged to a height. An able workman will make, by hand, 5000 common bricks in a day. The use of un- burnt bricks is of great antiquity ; they are found in the Roman and Grecian monu- ments, and even in the ruins of Egypt and Babylon. They were dried in the sun, in- stead of being burned, and mixed with chopped straw to give them tenacity ; and owing to the extreme heat and di'yness of the climate they acquired such hardness TOO MUCH HEAT VITRIFIES BRICKS; TOO LITTLE RENDERS THEM POROUS. blackfriak's bridge is 995 feet long; Westminster bridge is 1220. BRi] ^i)c Scientific antJ lEitcrar^ Exmmx^ ; [biu as to have lasted for several thousand years. BRI'DEGROOM, and BRIDE, the names given to a newly married man and woman. But these terms are applied to them at the marriage festival, before they are married, as well as after the ceremony ; and the true meaning is, a man and woman espoused or contracted to be married. The word bridegroom was formerly written bridegoom, the last syllable being derived from the Saxon guma, a man. Groom is a Persian word, signifying one who has the care of horses : hence it appears, that by an error of pronunciation we have been led into this ridiculous corruption of the ori- ginal word ! Among the Greeks it was customary for the bride to be conducted from her father's house to her husband's in a chariot, the evening being chosen for that purpose, to conceal her blushes : she was placed in the middle, her husband sitting on one side, and one of her most intimate friends on the other : torches were carried before her, and she was entertained in the passage wdth a song suitable to the occa- sion. Wlien they arrived at their journey's end, the axle-tree of the chariot they rode in was burnt, to signify that the bride v\^as never to return to her father's house. Among the Romans, when a bride was car- ried home to her husband's house, she was not to touch the threshold at her first entrance, but was to leap over it. BRIDGE, any structure of wood, stone, brick, or iron, raised over a river, or canal ; its strength depending on its own form, its unyielding materials, and the permanence of the abutments. Among the bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan over the Danube is allowed to be the most magnifi- cent ; it was composed of twenty arches, of a hundred and fifty feet in height, and their opening from one pier to another was a hundred and sixty feet : the piers of this fine bridge are still to be seen on the Danube, being erected between Servia and Moldavia, a little above Nicopolis. In Great Britain, the art of building bridges appears to have been diligently studied from early times. The most ancient bridge in England is the Gothic triangular bridge at Croyland in Lincolnshire, said to have been built in 860 ; but the ascent is so steep that none but foot-passengers can go over it. The longest bridge in England is that over the Trent, at Burton in Stafford- shire, built in the 12th century. It con- sists of thirty-four arches, and is 1545 feet long. Old London Bridge was commenced in 1176, and was encumbered with houses for a long period: they were, however, re- moved in 1/58. Among the great architec- tui*al works of our own times are Waterloo and New London bridges. The former con- sists of nine elliptical arches of 120 feet span each, is 1250 feet long, and has a flat sur- face in its whole course. The latter, which was commenced in 1824, and finished in 1831, consists of five elliptical arches, the centre one being 152 feet span, and the least of them being larger than any stone arch of this description ever before erected. This magnificent structure, which was built after a design of the late John Rennie, contains about 120,000 tons of granite, mea- sures 982 feet from the extremities of the abutments, with 53 feet of roadway between the parapets, and cost about two millions sterling. There are several cast-ii-on bridges in England, the chief of which is South- wark-bridge, over the Thames : it consists of three arches, and is the finest iron bridge in the world. Suspension Bridges. Al- though pendent or hanging bridges have by some persons been deemed a modern inven- tion, M e find that the use of them is of great antiquity in mountainous countries; though the scientific principles which dis- tinguish those of recent construction may perhaps be sought in vain among them. The most remarkable bridge of suspension in existence is allowed to be that built by Mr. Telford over the Menai strait, between tlie isle of Anglesea and Caernarvonshire in Wales, which was finished in 1825. Others also, most elegant in their design, and fully answering all that can possibly be expected from them, have been recently erected ; viz, over the Thames at Hammersmith, at Shorehara, and at various other places. In these the flooring or main body of the bridge is supported on strong iron chains or rods, hanging in the form of an inverted arch, fi'om one point of support to another. The points of support arc the tops of strong pillars or small towers, erected for the pur- pose. Over these pillars the chain passes, and is attached, at each extremity of the bridge, to rocks or massive frames of iron, firmly secured under ground. The great advantage of suspension bridges consists in their stability of equilibrium, in conse- quence of which a smaller amount of mate- rials is necessary for their construction than for any other bridge. If a suspension bridge be shaken, or thrown out of equi- hbrium, it returns by its weight to its proper place, whereas the reverse happens in bridges which are built above the level of their supporters. A draw-bridge, is one that is fastened with hinges at one end only, so that the other may be drawn up ; in which case, the bridge stands upright, to pre- vent an enemy from passing the moat. • A bridge of communication is that made over a river, by which two armies, or forts, which are separated by that river, have a free communication with one another. A floating bridge is a sort of redoubt, con- sisting of two boats, covered with planks, which are solidly framed, so as to bear either horse or cannon. A bridge of boats consists of a number of common boats joined parallel to each other at the distance of six feet, till they reach across a river. They are then covered with planks, so as to serve as a passage for men and horses. We may here observe, in conclusion, that in military operations, temporary bridges are often formed in this and various other ways, by laying planks upon boats, pon- toons, or such other buoyant supporters as readily present themselves. THE FIRST CAST-IRON BRIDGE EVER ERECTED IS THAT NEAR COLEEROOK-DALE. ERO] BRICKS SOFTEN WATEK, AND GIVE IT AN ALUMINOUS IMPEEGNATION. % IsTctu JBicttonary of ii)z belles ITcttrcs. RO BRIDOON' the snaffle and rein of a mill- tary bridle, which acts independently of the bitt and curb at the pleasure of tlie rider, BRIEF, in law, an abridgment of the client's case, made out for the instruction of counsel on a trial at law; wherein the case of the plaintiff, &c. is to be briefly, but completely, stated. Brief, in music, a measure of quantity, which contains two strokes down in beating time, and two up. Briefs, apostolical, letters or written messages of the pope, addressed to princes or magistrates, respecting matters of public concern. BRIGA'DE, a party or division of sol- diers, either horse or foot. An army is divided into brigades of horse and brigades of foot: a brigade of horse is a body of eight or ten squadrons ; a brigade of foot consists of four, live, or six battalions. BRIG'/VNDINE, a kind of ancient de- fensive armour, consisting of thin jointed scales of plate, so arranged as to be pliant and easy to the body. BRIG'ANTINE, a small light vessel, which can both row and sail well, being adapted either for fighting or for chase. BRIM'STONE, the vulgar name for Sul- phur, [which see.] BRINE, is either native, as sea-water, or the water flowing from salt springs; or artificial, being formed by the dissolution of salt in water. BRIS'TLE, the hair of swine, which is much used by brushmakers, particularly that imported from Russia. Bristle- shaped, in botany, an epithet for a leaf in the shape of a bristle ; that is, shorter than a capillary leaf. BRISTOL-WATERS, mineral waters of the lowest temperature of any in England, being the fourth in degree amongst the waters which are esteemed warm. The waters of Bath are the first, Buxton the second, and Matlock the third. The con- stituent parts of Bristol water are carbonic acid gas, lime, and magnesia, besides the muriatic and vitriohc acids. BRITAN'NIA, the name given by the Romans to the island of Britain, which is represented on their medals under the figure of a female resting her left arm on a shield. ERITIN'IANS, a body of Augustine monks who received their name from Brit- ini, in Ancona. They were distinguished by their austerities in living. BRl'ZA, or Quaking-Grass, in botany, a genus of plants, class triandria. There are several species, some of which are an- nuals. BRIZE, in agriculture, a term for ground that has lain long un tilled. BRIZEVENT', in horticulture, shelters on the north side of melon-beds where walls are M anting. BROAD SIDE, a sea term, for a dis- charge of all the guns on one side of a ship. In pri"nting, one full page printed on one side of a whole sheet of paper ; of which a posting-bill is an example. BROAD'SWORD, a sword with a broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting. BROCA'DE, a stuffof gold, silver, or silk, raised and enriched with flowers, foliages, and other ornaments, according to the fancy of the merchants or manufacturers. BROCHET'TE, in cookery, a particular mode of frying chickens. BRO'DIUM, in medicine, the liquor in which some solid medicine is preserved. BROGUE, a defective pronunciation of a language, particularly applied to the Irish manner of speaking English. BRO'KER, a name applied to persons of several and very diff'erent professions, the chief of which are exchange-brokers, stock- brokers, pawn-brokers, and brokers who sell household furniture. BROME, in chemistry, a peculiar sub- stance obtained from the bittern of sea- water, or the washings of the ashes of sea- weed. It possesses the bleaching powers of chloi'ine, and, like that substance, is eminently hostile to life; a single drop of it placed upon the bill of a biid being sufli- cient to kill it. BROME GRASS, a sort of grass much resembling oats in the stalk, leaf, &c. ; whence it has also been called oat grass. BRON'CHIA, in anatomy, the ramifica- tions of the trachea, or windpipe, whicli convey the air to the lungs. Bronchial Glands, absorbent glands situated at the root of the lungs. Bronchial Arteries and Veins, those which accompany the bronchia; into the lungs. BRON'CHOCELE, in surgery, a tumour arising in the anterior part of the neck, arising from some violence, as straining in labour, lifting of weights, &c. BRONCHOT'OMY, in surgery, an inci- sion made in the aspera arteria, or wind- pipe, which is necessary in many cases, and especially in a violent quinsey, to pre- vent suffocation from the great inflamma- tion or tumour of the parts. It is also sometimes called laryngotomy and trache- otomy. BRON'TIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place underneath the floor of the theatres, in which v>'ere kept brazen vessels full of stones and other materials, with which they imitated the noise of thunder. BRONTOL'OGY, the doctrine of thun- der, or an explanation of its causes, pheno- mena, &c. together with the presages drawn from it. BRONZE, a mixed metal, composed prin- cipally of copper, with a small portion of tin and other metals. The ancients used bronze for a great variety of purposes ; hence, arms and other instruments, medals and statues of this metal, are to be found in all cabinets of antiquities. The moderns have also made much use of bronze, parti- cularly for statues exposed to accidents, or the influence of the atmosphere, and for casts of celebrated antiques. Bronze of a good quality acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tint, called patina antiqua, or arugo ; which appearance is imitated by an artifi- cial process, called bronzing. BROOM, a shrub of which there are se- veral kinds, having a papilionaceous flower, BRITAIN WAS DIVIDED INTO "BRITANNIA ROMANA AND "BRITANNIA BARBARA. BIIU] THE BEST WATER EXHIBITS THE GREATEST NUMBER OF AIR-BUBBLES, ^f)c Scientific nnU ICitcrari) treasury ; [buc which becomes a short roundish swelling pod, containing a kidney-shaped seed in each. It is used by dyers to give a yellow colour. BROWN'ISTS, in church history, a reli- gious sect, which sprung up in England towards the end of the 16th century, and long known under the denomination of In- dependents. Their leader was one Robert Brown, born at Northampton, yet his name was not adopted by them, but rather given to them by their adversaries as a nickname. They equally disliked episcopacy and presby- terianism. They condemned the solemn ce- lebration of marriages in churches, main- taining, that matrimony being a political contract, the confirmation of it ought to proceed from the civil magistrate ; an opi- nion in which they are by no means singu- lar, as may be adduced from the late enact- ments of our legislature on this subject. They also rejected all forms of prayer, and held, that the Lord's prayer was not to be recited as a prayer ; being given only as a model upon which to found our supplica- tions. Any lay brother was allowed the li- berty of giving a word of exhortation to the people, and after the sermon to reason upon the doctrines that had been preached. In a word, every church on their model is a body corporate, being accountable to no class, synod, convocation, or other jurisdic- tion whatever. During Elizabeth's reign the laws were enforced against them with great severity, and accordingly many re- tired and settled at Amsterdam, where their church flourished nearly a century. BRU'MAL, the winter quarter of the year, beginning at the shortest day. BRU'TiE, the second order of animals of the Mammalia class, who have no fore-teeth in either jaw ; consisting of nine genera, the principal of which are the sloth, rhi- noceros, elephant, &c. BRUMA'LIA, in antiquity, a festival ce- lebrated by the Romans in honour of Bac- chus twice a-year ; viz., on the twelfth of the calends of March, and the eighth of the calends of December. BRUNFEL'SIA, in botany, a genus of shrubby plants, natives of the East Indies, named by Plumier after Brunfelsius, a Ger- man monk and physician: class 14 Bidyna- mia, order 2 Jngiospermia, BRU'NIA, in botany, a genus of plants named after Cornelius Brun, a traveller, class 5 Pentandria, order 1 Monogynia. There are various species which are all shrubs, and natives of Ethiopia. BRUXANEL'LI, a Malabar tree, the bark of which is diuretic. BRUTE, an animal without the use of reason, or that acts by mere instinct, in which sense it denotes much the same with beast, and comprehends all animals except- ing mankind. Philosophers, howevei*, are far from being agreed on this subject ; some making brutes mere machines, whilst others allow them not only reason, but immor- tality. Others take a middle course, and allow brutes to have imagination, memory, and passion ; but deny that they have un- derstanding or reason, at least, in any de- gree comparable to that of mankind. The sagacity of many brutes is indeed admira- ble ; yet what a prodigious difiference is there between that sagacity and the reason of mankind ! BRY'ONY,in botany, a genus of the mo- ncecia-syngenesia class of plants ; the flower of which consists of a single petal, divided into five deep segments ; and the fruit is a roundish berry, containing a few seeds. The root of the rough or white bryony is a strong irritating cathartic. BUB'BLE, a bladder in water, or a vesicle filled with air. Bubble, in commerce, a term given to any delusive scheme or pro- ject for raising money on imaginary or false pretences ; as the famous " South Seabub- ble," [which see] and hundreds since. BU'BO, in medicine, the name of any tumour in the lymphatic glands, particu- larly in the groin or axilla. BU'BONOCELE, in medicine, the ingui- nal hernia, or rupture of the groin, formed by a prolapsus of the intestines or omen- tum. BUCANIER', or BUCCANEER', a name given to those piratical adventurers, chiefly English and French, who, in the seven- teenth century, committed the most exces- cessive depredations on the Spaniards in America. The name had been given to the first French settlers on the island of St. Domingo, whose sole employment consisted in hunting bulls or wild boars, in order to sell their" hides and flesh ; and as they smoked and dried the flesh of the animals according to the manner of the Indians, which was called buccaneering, they thus obtained the name of buccaneers. BUCA'O, in ornithology, a species of owl, in the Phillipine isles, of a beautiful plum- age, and size of a peacock, but remarkable for its hideous scream. BUCAR'DIA, in mineralogy, a stone shaped like the heart of an ox. BUC'CANAL-GLANDS, in anatomy, the small glands of the mouth under the cheek, which assist in secreting the saliva. BUCCELA'TION, in medicine, a method of stopping an heemorrage, by applying pieces of lint to the vein or artery. BUCCELLA'RII, an order of soldiery under the Greek emperors, appointed to guard and distribute the rations of bread. BUCCI'NA, an ancient musical and mi- litary instrument, somewhat similar to the modern trumpet. Hence Buccinator, or trumpeter. BUC'CINITE, fossil remains or petrifac- tions of the shells called buccinum. BUCCINATOR, in anatomy, a muscle of the cheek, so called from its office of forcing out the breath. BUC'CULA, in antiquity, that part of the helmet which protected the cheeks. BUCEN'TAUR, the name of the large vessel which the Venetians formerly used in the ceremony of espousing the sea. BU'CEROS, thehornbUl or Indian raven ; a genus of birds of the order Pica; of wliich there are several species. the piracies of THE BUCCANEERS CEASED EARLY IN THE 18tH CENTURY. FBUIT-BUDS ON VERY YOUNG TBEE8 ARE INDICATIVE OF EARLY DECAY. bud] % TsTcto IBictionarp of tlfz H^zWzs lEettrcs. [bul BUCK, the male of the fallow-deer. In 0 his first year, a buck is called a fawn ; the E second, a pricket; the third a sorel; the g fourth, a sore ; the fifth, a buck of the first head; and the sixth, a great buck. The H word is also used to denote the male of the § hare and rabbit tribes. S BUCH'OLZITE, a recently discovered p mineral, marked with black and white spots. BUCK'LER, a piece of defensive armour PS used by the ancients, commonly composed of hides, fortified with plates of metal.— 2 Bucklers, votive, were those consecrated to H the gods, and hung up in their temples, in 1 commemoration of some hero, or as a thanksgiving for a victory obtained over an » enemy, whose bucklers, taken in war, were o offered as a trophy. Buckler, in naval w language, are two pieces of wood fitted together to stop the hawser-holes, so as to ^ prevent the ship taking in too much water a in a heavy sea. ^ BUCK'RAM, a sort of coarse cloth made S5 of hemp, gummed, calendered, and dyed of S several colours. It is used in drapery, gar- ^ ments, &c., required to be kept stiff to their w form. f« BUCOL'IC, in ancient poetry, a poem ^ relating to shepherds and rural affairs. ^ The most celebrated of the ancient buco- J5 Ucs are those of Virgil. 5 BUD, that part of a plant which con- ^ tains the embryo of the leaves, flowers, &c. ^ It is called by botanists the hybernacle, or « winter receptacle of the leaves or flowers S of plants, and is an epitome of a flower, or o of a shoot, which is to be unfolded the succeeding summer. ^ BUD'DING, a method of propagating H fruit trees. The stocks are raised from > seed; and in these, buds of other trees are b5 inserted, which invariably produce the same H kind of tree, fruit, and flower, as those from g which the buds are taken. ^ BUDD'HISTS, the followers orworship- o pers of Buddha, the founder of a very to ancient religion in India, which afterwards 2 spread to Japan, Thibet, and China, where ° it exists at the present day. According to p3 an article in the " Journal des Savans" of S 1821, which cites the Japan Encyclopaedia, w Buddha, whose historical name was Tsha- kia-muni, was born under the reign of a Tshao wang, of the dynasty of Tsheu, 1029 ^ B.C., and died under the reign of Mouwang, w 950 B.C. His disciple Mahakaya succeeded ^ him, and is the first saint or patriarch of „ Buddhism; but a regular dynasty of suc- g cessors fiUedthis important station tillA.n. < 713. Their history is mixed with the gross- S est fables ; but it is clear that they devoted ^ themselves to religious exercises and con- o stant contemplation, and condemned them- « selves to the severest abstkieiice. Besides ►5 many other monuments of the ancient p worship of Buddha, there are two particu- ^ larly remarkable — the ruins of the gigantic a temple Boro-Budor, in Java, and the five ^ large subterranean halls, called Pantsh- Pandu, on the way from Guzerat to Malwa* Tradition ascribes these astonishing works of ancient Indian architecture and sculp- ture, which far surpass the skill of the modern Hindoos, to the Pandus, the heroes of Indian mythology. BUDG'ET, the name given to the annual statement made to the House of Commons, g of the public finances. < BUFF, in commerce, a sort of leather ^ prepared from the skin of the buffalo; which, when dressed with oil after the g manner of chamois, makes what we call o buff-skin. This is a very considerable ar- w tide in the French, English, and Dutch commerce at Constantinople, Smyrna, and « along the coast of Africa. The skins of a elks, oxen, and some other animals, when ^ prepared after the same manner as that of of the buffalo, are likewise called buffs. « BUF'FALO, in zoology, the Bos bubalus | of Linnaeus, an animal of the ox-kind, with o very large, crooked, and resupinated horns, jr; It came originally from India, but is now " found in most of the warmer countries of § the eastern hemisphere. It is larger and < less docile than the common ox, and is ^ fond of marshy places and rivers. The ^ name is also applied to the bison of North a America, and to wild oxen in general. ^ BUF'FO, the Italian for a singer, or g actor, when he takes the humorous part in g comic operas, &c. BUFFO'NIA, in botany, a genus of plants o of the tetandria-digynia class, called after ^ the naturalist Buffon. ^ BUFFET' was anciently a little apart- >^ ment separated from the rest of the room es by slender wooden columns, for the dispos- ^ ing of cliina, glass, &c. w BUTONITES, or Bufonius Lapis, in mineralogy, a sort of stone said to have ^ been found in the head of a toad, and hence ^ vulgarly called foadstone. BUG, a troublesome and disgusting in- | sect that infests beds, &c. It is the cimex p lectularius of Linnaeus. The destruction g of bugs may be effected by a solution of ^ corrosive sublimate in water, or in water ^ and alcohol. This solution should be ap- ^ plied with a brush to every crevice where it ^ is possible the insects can lodge. o BU' GLOSS, in botany, a name given to « several very distinct genera of plants, as ^ the anchusa, lycopsis, and asperugo. BUHR'STONE, or BURR'STONE, a « sub-species of silex or quartz, occurring in m amorphous masses, partly compact, but ^ containing many irregular cavities. It is ^ used for millstones. ^ BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronology, f the eighth month of the ecclesiastical, and g the second of the civil year; it has since o been called Marshevan, and answers to our ^ October. ^ BULB, or Bulbous Root, in the ana- & tomy of plants, expresses a root of a round « or roundish figure, and usually furnished g with fibres at its base. The bulb under « ground is what the bud is upon the stem or branches, anhybernacle or winter recep- tacle of a future plant, containing the plant in embryo, protected by a rind of scales, &c. Bulbous roots are said to be solid, when composed of one uniform lump of matter. THE "budget" is BROUGHT FORWARD BY THE CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. 99 A BULL, A BUFFALO, AND A VIPER DKEAD THE COLOUU OF SCARLET. bul"! Vtljt Scientific mts Xitcrarp ^rcasurp ; [bur as in the tulip ; tunicated, when formed of multitudes of coats, surrounding one ano- ther, as in the onion; squamose, or scalp, when composed of lesser flakes, as in the lily; duplicate, when there are only two to each plant ; and aggregate, when there is a congeries of such roots to each plant. BULIM'IA, or BU LIMY, a disease in which the patient is affected with an insa- tiable and perpetual appetite for food. BULK'- HEADS, partitions made athwart a ship, by which one part is divided from another; as the great cabin, gun-room, bread-room, &c. BULL, in zoology, the male of the bovine genus of quadrupeds, of which cow is the female. In astronomy, the constellation Taurus. Also, an edict or mandate issued by the Pope, and sealed with the bulla, a leaden or gold seal. BUL'LA, in antiquity, a small round ornament of gold or silver, worn about the neck or breast of the children of the nobi- lity till the age of fourteen. In concho- logy, a genus of testaceous animals, class vermes, order testacea. BUL'LATE, in botany, an epithet for a leaf ; folium bullatum, a leaf having protu- berances on its surface resembling blisters. BULL'-DOG, a dog of English breed, so called from his property of attacking the bull, whence he was formerly used in the cruel sport of bull-baiting. BULL'ET, a leaden ball \\ith which small fire arms are loaded, BULL'ETIN, an official account of pub- lic transactions or matters of general inte- rest. BULL'-FIGHT, an entertainment for- merly frequent in Spain and Portugal, at which wild bulls are encountered by men on horseback, armed with lances. BULL'-FROG, a remarkable species of the frog in North America, so called be- cause its voice resembles the distant lowing of an ox. BULL'ITE, in conchology, a petrified shell, or the fossU remains of shells, of the genus bulla. BULI/ION, uncoined gold or silver in the mass. Those metals are called so, either when smelted from the native ore, and not perfectly refined; or when they are perfectly refined, but melted down in bars or ingots, or in any unwrought body, of any degree of fineness. BULL 'S-EYE, a mark in the centre of a target, in the shape of a bull's eye, at which archers shoot by way of exercise. In astronomy, Aldebaran, a star of the first magnitude in the constellation Taurus. Among seamen, a small obscure cloud, ruddy in the middle, generally the imme- diate forerunner of a great storm at sea. It is also the name given to the patent reflectors set into the posts or decks. BUL'WARK, in fortification, a mound of earth capable of resisting cannon shot, and formed with bastions, curtains, &c. The word is also used figuratively, as " the Bri- tish na^7 is the nation's bvilwark." BUM'-BOAT, a sort of wherry used about harbours, to carry provisions, i&c, for sale to ships lying at a distance. BUNGALOW, an Indian name for a house with a thatched roof such as is pecu- liar to the country. BUNT, a sea term, the middle part of a sail formed into a sort of bag, or hollow, that the sail may gather more wind. BUN'TINE, or BUNT ING, the thin woollen stuff of which the colours, or flags and signals, of ships are made. BUNT'ING, in ornithology, a bird of the genus emberiza, remarkable for the shape of its bill, the sides of the upper mandible forming a sharp angle bending inwards towards the lower. BUNT'LINES, small ropes fastened to cringles, which serve to force up the bunt of the sail for the better furling it up. BUOY, a short piece of wood or close hooped barrel fastened by a rope to the anchor, to point out its situation. It is also a piece of wood or cork fastened by a chain, serving to point out dangerous places. A Life-buoy is intended to keep a per- son afloat till he can be taken from the water. It should be suspended from the stern of the ship, and let go as soon as anybody falls overboard, and a light may be attached to it if the accident happens by night. It consists of two hollow copper vessels connected together, each about as large as an ordinary sized pillow, and of buoyancy and capacity sufficient to support one man standing upon them. BU'PHAGA, or Beef-eater, in orni- thology, a bird of the order pica, found in Africa. It is so called, because it alights on the backs of cattle, and picks holes in them to get at the larvae of the gad-fly, on which it lives. BUPHTHAL'MUM, or Ox-eye, in bota- ny, a genus of plants, class 19 Syngencsia, order 2 Polygamia superfina. There are many species, and are all either annuals or shrubs. It takes its name from the resem- blance which its flowers have to the eye of an ox. BUPHTHAL'MUS, in medicine, a dis- eased enlargement of the eye. BUPRES'TIS, in entomology, an insect of the coleopterous order, remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours, which emulate the polish of the finest metals ; but it bites severely and has a nauseous scent. BUR'DEN, the contents of a ship; or the number of tons which a vessel will carry. The burden of a song is that part which is repeated at every verse or stanza. BUREAU', in its primary sense is a cloth covering a table ; next a writing-table ; and afterwards used to signify the chamber of an officer of government, and the body of subordinate officers who labour under the direction of a chief. According to the parliamentary usage of France, the cham- ber of deputies is divided into nine bureaus, composed of an equal number of deputies designated by lot : and each bureau dis- cusses all matters referred to it by the chamber sr;paratelj'. BUR'GAGE, an ancient tenure in bo- A COLLECTION OF PAPAL BULLS IS TERMED A " BULLARY.' BUKNING-MIRRORS ARE USEFUIiLT EMPLOYED AS REFLECTORS IN LIGHT-HOUSES. bur] % l^^■c^33 dictionary of tl)t l^eUes 3i:ettr£S. [but roughs, whereby the inhabitants, by cus- tom, hold their lands, &c. of the king, or other superior lord of the borough, at a certain yearly rent. A dwelling house in a borough, was also formerly called a bur- gage. BUR'GESS, an inhabitant of a borough, or one who possesses a tenement therein. In other countries, burgess and citizen are used synonymously ; but with us they are distinguished, burgess being ordinarily used for the representative of a borougU-town in parliament. BUR GLARY, in law, the breaking and entering the dwelling of another in the night, with the intent to commit some felony, whether the felonious intent be put in execution or not. The like offence com- mitted by day, is called house-breaking. BUR'GOMASTER, the chief magistrate of the great towns in Flanders, Holland, and Germany. The authority of a burgo- master resembles that of the Lord Mayor in London. BURLET'TA, a light, comic species of musical drama, which derives its name from the Italian ftwrtere, to jest. BURN'ING, the action of fire on some pabulum, or fuel, by which the minute parts thereof are put into a violent motion, and some of them assuming the nature of fire themselves, fly off in orbem, while the rest are dissipated in form of vapour, or reduced to ashes. BURN ING-GLASS, a lens which unites the rays of light that fall upon it, in so narrow a space as to cause them to kindle any combustible matter coming in their way. The lenses used for this purpose are generally convex on both sides, by which the rays are brought upoia a point with the greatest force, in consequence of the short- ness of their focal distance. Burning Mirrors, or Specula, are concave reflecting surfaces, which carry the rays of light by reflection to the common centre. Among the ancients, the burning mirrors of Archi- medes and Proclus are famous. By the former, the Roman navy was set on fire and consumed, at the distance of a bow- shot ; and by the latter, according to Zo- naras, the navy of Vitellius, while besieging Byzantium, was burnt to ashes. By means of a mirror made by Villette, a French artist of Lyons, a sixpence was melted in seven minutes and a half: and a halfpenny in sixteen minutes. This mirror was 47 inches wide, and ground to a sphere of 76 inches radius ; so that its focus was about 38 inches from the vertex. Its substance was a composition of tin, copper, and glass. BU'RIN, an instrument used for engrav- ing on copper or steel plates. BURREL-SHOT, smaUshot, nails, pieces of old iron, &c. put into cases, to be dis- charged out of ordnance. BUR'S^ MUCO'SiE, in anatomy, bags which secrete a mucous fat that serves to lubricate tendons, muscles, and bones, in order to render their motion easy. BURSA'RII, in archaeology, stipendiary scholars who lived upon the burse, or joint- stock of the college. BURSE, BURSA, or BASIL'ICA, an exchange, or place of meeting for mer- chants to consult on matters of trade, and to negotiate bills of exchange. BUSH-HARROW, an implement of hus- bandry for harrowing grass lands, and covering grass or clover seeds. It consists of a frame with three or more bars, in which bushes are interwoven. BUSH'MEN, a name given by the Dutch to the wild and ferocious inhabitants of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope. BUS'KIN, a kind of high shoe, anciently worn by tragedians : also a sort of leather stocking sei-ving the purpose of a boot. BUST, or BUS'TO, in sculpture, denotes the figure or portrait of a person in relievo, showing only the head, shoulders, and stomach, the arms being lopped off. The stomach and shoulders are, strictly speak- ing, the bust. The term is also used by the Italians, for the torso or trunk of the body, from the neck to the hips. BUSTARD, a large species of fowl of the Grallic order. It runs fast, and takes flight with difficulty. It inhabits England, but the breed is nearly extirpated. BUS'TUM, in antiquity, a funeral pile on which the dead bodies of the Romans used to be burnt. Hence Bustua'bii were gladiators who fought about the bustum of any person in the celebration of liis obsequies. B U T C H ' E R-B I R D, a species of the shrike, remarkable for its ferocity towards the little birds which it kills. BUT'TER, a fat unctuous substance, procured froip. the cream of milk by churn- ing. This kind of oil, in its natural state, is distributed through all the substance of the milk in very small particles, which are interposed between the caseous and serous parts, among which it is suspended by a slight adherence, but without being dis- solved. It is in the same state as that of oil in emulsions ; hence the same whiteness in milk and in emulsions; and hence, by rest, the oily parts separate from both these liquors to the surface, and form a cream. It was late before the Greeks appear to have had any notion of butter ; their poets make no mention of it, and yet are fre- quently speaking of milk and cheese. The Romans used butter no otherwise than as a medicine, never as a food. Butter is a name given in old books of chemistry to several metallic muriates, on account of their texture when newly prepared. Hence there are the butters of antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and tin. Thus, butter of anti- mony is a compound of antimony and oxy- genized muriatic acid, and is a muriate of antimony, and so of the rest. BUTTERBUR, a plant with a floscular flower, consisting of many florets. BUT'TERFLY, or PAPIL'IO, a genus of insects, of which there are many hundi-ed species. Curious and elegant as they are, this is the last state of the varied existence of the same creature ; first in the grub, or IN WARM COUNTRIES THE PLACE OF BUTTER IS SUPPLIED BY OIL. IK 3 CAA GILT BUTTONS AKE STAMPED OUT FROM COPPEB, ALLOYED AVITU ZINC- W)t Scientific anU 3£iterart) Z!Ireasuri) ; [caa caterpillar form, in wliich it emerges from the eggs laid by a former generation : the grub then passes into an insensible state, called the chrysalis or aurelia, in which it continues some weeks or months, having neither legs, wings, nor motion : at length the case is burst, and moths and butterflies emerge, which pass a short and fluttering existence, during which they lay eggs for future successions of the same kind. BUT TER-MILK, a kind of serum that remains behind, after the butter is made. BUT TER-WORT, in botany, the Eng- lish name of a distinct genus of plants, called pivduicula. BUTTERY, a room in the houses of noblemen and gentlemen, belonging to the butler, where he keeps the utensils belong- ing to his office. BUT TOCK of a ship, is that part of her, which is her breadth right a-stern, from the tack upwards ; and a ship is said to have a broad or a narrow buttock, accord- ing as she is built, broad or narrow at the transom. BUT'TONS. The manufacture of but- tons is an art which gives employment to numerous persons, and constitutes many distinct trades. The most durable and or- namental buttons are made of various metals, generally polished, or covered with an exceedingly thin Avash of some more valviable metal, as gold, silver, or tin. Horn, leather, bone, and wood are also used for buttons, which are sometimes plain, but more frequently covered with silk, mohair, thread, or other ornamental materials. It is impossible, consistent with our limits, to describe the processes by which the various kinds of buttons are made: and it must suffice to state that there is no kind of manufacture whatever in which greater in- genuity is exercised, nor in which the la bours of the artisan have been crowned with more complete success. BUX'US, the box-tree, of which there are three species : 1. the arboresce.is, with oval leaves ; 2. the angustifoUo, M-ith narrow leaves ; 3. the svjfruticosa, commonly used for bordering of flower-beds. The two flrst sorts, when suffered to grow in a natural manner, are deciduous shrubs of a very elegant figure. There were formerly large trees of these kinds upon Boxhill, near Dor- king in Surry. Boxwood is extremely hard and smooth, and therefore capable of being wrought with great neatness by the turner. It is used for the same reasons by engravers on wood. BU'ZE, a wooden or leaden pipe to con- vey the air into mines. BY'-LAWS, or BY'E-LAWS, private and peculiar laws for the good government of a city, court, or other community, made by the general consent of the members. All by-laws are to be reasonable, and for the common benefit, not private advan- tage of any particular persons, and must be agreeable to the public laws in being. BUZ'ZARD, a rapacious, but sluggish bird, of the hawk kind. BYS'SOLITE, a scarce mineral, occuring in very delicate filaments, short, flexible, and elastic. The colour is olive green, and their lustre rather silky. BYS'SUS, in botany, a genus of mosses, consisting of plaiii, simple, capillary fila- ments. The byssi are nearly allied to the confervse ; from which, however, they diff'er, as consisting of finer, shorter, and more tender filaments, and not growing in water, as the conferva; do. Byssus, a fine linen among the ancients, procured from India. Also, that fine Egyptian linen, whereof the tunics of the Jewish priests were made. BYZAN'TINE, a gold coin of the value of 151. so called from being coined at Byzan- tium. Also an epithet for any thing pertain- ing to Byzantium, an ancient city of Thrace, situated on the Bosphorus. C, the third letter, and second co«sonant of the alphabet, is pronounced like k before the vowels a, o, and u, and like s before e, i, and y. Before h it has a peculiar sound, as in chance, chalk ; in chord and some other words, it is hard like k; but in many French words it is soft before h, like s, as in chaise, chagrin, &c. As a numeral C stands for 100, and CC for 200, &c. ; as an abbreviation it stands for Christ, as A.C. Anno Christi, or Ante Christum ; also for Companion, as C.B. Companion of the Bath. And in music, C after the cliff, is the mark of common time. CAA'BA, or CAA'BAII, properly signifies a square building; but is particularly ap- plied by the Mahometans to the temple of Mecca, built, as they pretend, by Abraham, and Ishmael liis son. It is towards this temple they always turn their faces when they pray, in whatever part of the world they happen to be. This temple enjoys the privilege of an asylum for all sorts of crimi- nals; but it is most remarkable foi* the pilgrimages made to it by the devout Mus- sulmans, who pay so great a veneration to it, that they believe a single sight of its sacred walls, without any particular act of devotion, is as meritorious, in the sight of God, as the most careful discharge of one's duty, for the space of a v.hole year, in any other temple. CAA-A'PIA, in botany, the Indian name for the Borstenia Braziliensis of Linnaeus, with Avhich the natives cure the wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. PLATED BUTTONS ARE STAMPED BY THE FLY-PllESS, OUT OP COPPER-PLATE. CAPTAIN EROWN WAS THE FIRST WHO EMPLOYED CHAIN CABLES, IN 1311. CAC] l^m JBictionarp of H)c IBclIcs ^Cettres. [cjE CAA-O'PIxV, in botany, the Hypericum bacci/erum, a Brazilian tree, the bark of which emits a juice which when dried re- sembles gamboge. CAB, an oriental dry measure, equal to nearly three English pints corn measure. CABAL', denotes a number of persons united in some close design, and is some- times used synonymously with faction. This term was applied to the ministry of Charles II., from the initial letters of their respective names, viz. Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. CAB'ALA, a mysterious kind of science pretended to have been delivered by reve- lation to the ancient Jews, and transmitted by oral tradition to those of our times ; serving for the interpretation of the books both of nature and scripture. CAB'ALLINE, (from caballus) pertain- ing to a horse ; as, caballine aloes, so called from its being a medicine given to horses. CAB'BAGE-TREE, the cabbage-palm, a species of Areca, which grows with a straight stem to the height of 180 or 200 feet. Its branches grow in a circular manner, and on the top grows a snow-white substance, called cabbage, which is eaten with meat, like other vegetables. The fibres of the leaves are used for making nets and cordage. CABIN, the apartment in a vessel for the officers and superior passengers. Cabin passengers are those who pay for ac- commodations in the cabin, in distinction from deck or steerage passengers. CAIVINET, a select apartment sfit apart for writing, studying, or pr.;serving any thing that is precious. Hence we say, a cabinet of paintings, curiosities, ^'c. Also, the closet or private room in the royal palace, where councils are held; Likewise the ministers of state who are summoned to attend such councils. CABI'RI, certain deities greatly venerated by the ancient Pagans in Greece and Phoe- nicia, who were supposed to have a par- ticular influence over maritime affairs. CA'BLE, a large strong rope or chain, used to retain a vessel at anchor. In the use of the cable there are many sea phrases. CABO'CHED, or CABO'SSE, in he- raldry, having the head cut close, so as to have no neck left. CABOO'SE, the cook-room or kitchen of a ship. It also signifies the box that covers the chimney of a ship. CAB'URE, a Brazilian bird of the owl kind, of a beautiful brown colour spotted with white. CACA'DE, a French military term for an unlucky enterprise in war, which has been ill-concerted and ill-conducted. CACA'LIA, a genus of plants in the Linnsean system, class 19 Syngenesia, order 1 Polypamia cequalis. CACH'ALOT, in ichthyology, the Physe- ter, or spermaceti whale. CACH'OLONG, in mineralogy, a sub- species of quartz, which often envelopes common chalcedony, the two minerals being united by insensible shades. CACOCHYL'IA, in medicine, a bad chylification ; when the humour called chyle is not duly made. CAC'OCHYMY, a vicious state of the vital humours, especially of the blood, arising from a disorder of the secretions or excretions, or from contagion. CACOE'THES, an ill habit or propen- sity ; as the cacoethes scribendi, an itch fot authorship. CAC'OPHONG, in rhetoric, an uncouth, bad tone of the voice, proceeding from the ill disposition of the organs. CACOSYN'THETON, in grammar, an improper selection and arrangement of words in a sentence. CACOT'ROPHY, in medicine, any sort of vicious nutrition. CACTUS, in botany, a genus of succulent plants, permanent in duration and singular in structure, which are all natives of South America. Most of this genus are now to be met with in the choice collections of exotics reared in this country. CAD'DIS, a kind of worm or grub found in its case of straw. CA'DENCE, in grammar, the fall of the voice; also the flow of verses or periods. In music, it is a pause or suspension at the end of an air, or at the termination of a proper chord. In dancing, cadence is used when the steps follow the notes and measures of the music. In horseman- ship, the cadence is the measure or pro- portion observed by a horse in all his motions. CA'DENT, in astrology, an epithet for a planet when it is in a sign opposite to its exaltation. CADEN'ZA, in music, the fall or modu- lation of the voice in singing ; or the close of an air. CADET', one who is trained up for the army by a course of military discipline ; such as the cadets at the military colleges of Woolwich, Addiscombe, &c. Cadet- ship, the commission given to a cadet to enter the East India Company's service. CA'DI, a civil judge or magistrate in the Turkish empire. C AD'MIA, an oxyde of zinc which collects on the sides of furnaces where zinc is sub- limed. CADMI'TES, in mineralogy, a precious stone having blue specks in it. CAD'MIUM, a ductile and malleable metal, chiefly found in Silesia, in ores of zinc. It has the colour and lustre of tin, and is susceptible of a fine polish. CADU'CEUS, the wand or sceptre of Mercury, being a rod entwisted by two serpents, and tipped with Avings ; borne by that deity as the ensign of his office. When used on medals, &c. it is an emblem of peace, and was carried by the Roman heralds when they went to proclaim peace. The rod signified power ; the serpents, wisdom ; and the wings, diligence and activity. CADU'COUS, in botany, denotes falling early ; as, caducous leaves, which fall before the end of summer. C^'CIAS, a northerly -wind, which is CA?TAIN brown's vessel was the BENELOPE, a WEST-INDIA MERCHANTMA SOME "cairns" are EVIDENTLY SEPULCHRAL, AS THEY CONTAIN TJBNS, BONES, &C. cal] VLi)z Scicntift'c axCU XiteratB treasure ; [cal said to be distinguished from the other ■winds by its drawing the clouds to itself. Cj'ECIL'IA, in zoology, a genus of ani- mals, class Amphibia, order Serpentes. C ^ R I'T E S T A B'U L JE, in antiquity, tables or registers in which the censors entered the names of those citizens, who for any misdemeanour were deprived of their right of voting at an election. C-iE'SAR, in Roman antiquity, the family name of the first five Roman emperors, and afterwards adopted as a title by their suc- cessors. It was also used, by way of dis- tinction, for the intended or presumptive heir of the empire. C^SA'RIANS, in Roman antiquity, officers or ministers of the Roman emperors, who kept an account of their revenues, and took possession in their name of such things as devolved or were confiscated to them. C-iESU'RA, a figure in prosody, by which a division or separation takes place in a foot that is composed of syllables belonging to different words. CiET'ERIS PARIBUS, a term often used by mathematical and physical writers ; the words literally signifying tfie rest, or other things, being alike or equal. Thus of a bullet, it may be said, ceteris paribus, the heavier it is the greater the range, supposing the length and diameter of the piece and the quantity and strength of the powder be the same. CAG'UI, a Brazilian monkey, the small- est species of which is not more than six inches long. CAIRNS, heaps of stones in a conical form, which are frequently to be met with in Scotland and Wales. CA'ISSON, or CAISSOON', a wooden chest fiUed with bombs or jjowder, and laid in the way of an enemy, or buried under some work to blow it up. Also, the frame used in laying the foundations of a bridge. CA'JEPUT OIL, in medicine, an aro- matic oil extracted from an Indian tree; the Maleleuca Leucadendron of Linnaeus, which grows in the Molucca islands. CAL'AB ASH-TREE, in botany, the Crescentia of Linnaeus, the fruit of which is enclosed in a cell that serves the natives of the Caribbee islands for a drinking cup, a pot for boiling, and for various other do- mestic purposes. CALAMAN'CO, a fine sort of w9ollen stuff of a fine gloss, and chequered in the warp, so that the checks are seen only upon one side. CALAMA'RIiE, the third natural order of plants in the Linnaean system, containing the reeds resembling grasses. CAL'AMAR, a name of the cuttle-fish. CAL'AMBAC, aloes-wood, a drug, the produce of a tree growing in China and some of the Indian isles. CAL'AMBOUR, a species of the aloes- wood, used by cabinet-makers and inlayers. CALAMIF'EROUS, a botanic term for plants having a long, hollow, knotted stem. CAL' AMINE, or LA'PIS CALAMINA'- RIS, the calamine stone, or oxyde of zinc; a kind of bituminous fossU earth, which, when mixed with copper, produces brass. CAL'AMUS, arush or reed used anciently as a pen to write on parchments or papyrus. The generic name of an Indian cane, otherwise called rotang. Also, a kind of reed, or sweet-scented cane, used by the Jews as a perfume. CALAN'DRA, in ornithology, a species of lark of a reddish brown colour. CALASH', a light open chariot. CAL'ATHUS, in antiquity, a basket or hamper, made of osiers or reeds, used to put needle-work in, or to hold flowers. Ca- lathus was also a pan for cheese-curds and milk ; also the name of a cup for wine used in sacrifices. CALA'TOR, in antiquity, was a public servant and a freeman, such as a bailiff or crier, to summon courts, synods, and other public assemblies. He also attended on the priests in the sacrifices. CAL'CAR, a kind of furnace, used in glass works for the calcination of sand and salt of potash. CALCA'REOUS EARTH, or Lime ; as marble, limestone, and gypsum, forming ranges of mountains, and containing marine shells and bones of animals, of which it is supposed to be the concentrated ruins. CALCA'REOUS SPAR, crystallized na- tive carbonate of Jime. CALCAVEL'LA, a sweet kind of Portu- guese wine. CAL'CEUS, in antiquity, a shoe, or whatever served as a covering for the foot. There were two sorts, the calcei lunati, which were worn by the patricians, so called from an ivory crescent with which they were ornamented, and the calcei mulli, or red shoes. They came up to the middle of the leg, but only covered the sole of the foot. They at first graced the feet of royalty, but on the abolition of the mo- narchy they were appropriated to those who had borne a curule office. CALCIF'EROUS, producing calx or lime. CALCINA'TION is the chemical process for the reduction of bodies to a pulverizable state, by the action of fire ; or, the solution of a mixed body by the means of heat or any corroding substance, as mercury, aqua- fortis, &c., whereby it is reduced to powder. CAL'CIUM, the metallic basis of lime. CALCOG'RAPHY, an engraving after the manner of a drawing in chalk. CALC'-SINTER, the incrustations of carbonate of lime upon the ground ; also, the stalactites attached to the roofs of caverns. CALC'-TUFF, an aUuvial formation of carbonate of lime. CAL'CULARY, a congeries of stony secretions found in the pulp of a pear and other fruits. CALCULA'TION, the act of computing several sums by means of addition, sub- traction, multiplication, division, &c., or an estimate formed in the mind by comparing the various circumstances which influence its determination. CALCULATO'RES, accountants among 104 "cairns" are generally of a conical form, covered with a FLAT STONE. THE PATTERNS FOB CALICO-PRINTING ARE ENGRAVED ON METAL CYLINDERS. cal] ^ 'Nm Bictionarp of il)z 13elUs lEettrcs. CAL the Romans, who used to reckon by means of little stones or pebbles. CAL'CULUS, fa stone), a name generally given to all hard concretions, not bony, which are formed in the bodies of animals. Calculi may be divided into two classes, according as they are found in the gall- bladder or in the urinary bladder : the first are called biliary calculi; the second, uri- nary calculi. The calculus in the bladder is called litkiasis; in the kidneys, nephritis. In mathematics, the differential cal- culus is the finding an infinitely small quan- tity, which, being taken infinite times, shall be equal to a given quantity. CALDA'RIUM, in antiquity, a bath heat- ed by means of steam. CALEFA'CIENTS, in medicine, such preparations as have a tendency to stimu- late the action of the blood. CALEFAC'TION, a way of preparing simple or compound medicines by a mode- rate heat of the sun. CAL'ENDAR, a register of time divided into months, weeks, and days throughout the year ; together with an account of the festivals and other such matters as serve for the daily purposes of life. The Roman and Julian Calendars M^ere used by the Ro- mans ; the Gregorian and Reformed Calen- dars among the moderns. It received its name from the Roman calends, which the first day of each month was called. CAL'ENDER, a machine used in manu- factories, to press stuffs, silks, linens, &c., to give them a fine gloss and wavy appear- ance. It consists of two thick rollers or cylinders, revolving so nearly in contact with each other that cloth passed through between them is not only smoothed, but glazed by their powerful pressure, and waved or watered, according to the pattern en- graved on the revolving cylinders. CALEN'DULA, the Marigold, a genus of plants in the Linnaean system, class 19 Syngenesia, order 4 Folygamia necessaria. The species are perennials, annuals, and shrnbs. C'AL'ENTURE, a violent ardent fever, incident to sailors in hot climates ; the principal symptom of which is, their desire to rush into the sea, which, it is said, they imagine to be a green field. CAL'IBER, the interior diameter of the bore of any piece of ordnance, or the dia- meter of a shot or shell. CAL'IBER COMPASSES, a particular instrument used by gunners for measuring the diameters of shot, shells, &c. They re- semble other compasses, except in their legs, which are arched, so that the points may touch the extremities of the arch. CAL'ICO, cloth made of cotton. It is called calico, because originally brought from Calicut, a kingdom of India on this side of the Ganges, on the coast of Mala- bar. These cloths, whether plain, printed, dyed, stained, or painted, chintz, or mus- lins, are all included under one general de- nomination. CAL'ICO-PRINTING, is the art of im- pressing cotton cloth with topical dyes. It has been for many centuries practised by the oriental methods in Asia and the Levant, but it was unknown in this country till the end of the 17th century. In speak- ing of the superiority of our present im- proved cylindrical machinery for calico- printing, Dr. Ure says, " the economy of labour introduced by these machines is truly marvellous ; one of them, under the guidance of a man to regulate the rollers, and the service of a boy, to supply the co- lour troughs, being capable of printing as many pieces as nearly 200 men and boys could do with blocks. The perfection of the engraving is most honourable to our artisans. The French, with all their in- genuity and neat-handedness, can produce nothing approaching in excellence to the engraved cylinders of Manchester, — a pain- ful admission, universally made to mc by every eminent manufacturer in Alsace, whom I visited in my late tour." CAL'IDUCT, in antiquity, a pipe or ca- nal disposed along the walls of a house for conveying heat from a furnace to the va- rious apartments. CAL'IGA, in antiquity, a sort of sandal worn by the Roman soldiers, whence Ca- ligula derived his name. These caligeB were sometimes adorned with gold and silver nails. CALIGA'TION, dimness of sight, caused by an opacity of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens ; or incipient cataract. CA'LIN, a compound metal of lead and tin, of which the Chinese make tea-canis- ters, &c. CA'LIPH, the chief sacerdotal dignity among the Saracens or Mahometans, vested with absolute authority in all matters, re- lating both to religion and policy. It is at tliis day one of the Grand Signior's titles, as successor of the Prophet ; and of the Sophi of Persia, as successor of Ali. The government of the original Caliphs conti- nued from the death of Mahomet till the 655th year of the hegira. ^ CALKING, or CAULK'ING, the driving oakum or old ropes untwisted into the seams of a ship, to prevent their leaking or admitting water : after which they are co- vered with hot melted pitch or resin. In painting, the covering of the back side of a design with red chalk, and tracing lines through on a waxed plate or wall, so as to leave an impression of the colour there. CALK'INS, in farriery, the prominent parts at the extremities of a horse-shoe, bent downwards and forged to a sort of point. CALL OF THE HOUSE, a parliament- ary term implying an imperative call or summons, sent to every member on some particular occasion. CALLION'YMUS, in the Linnsean sys- tern of fishes, the various species of Dra- gonet. CALLI'STIA, in Grecian antiquity, a Lesbian festival, at which the women pre- sented themselves in Juno's temple, in or- der that the prize might be assigned to the fairest. There was a similar festival of CYLINDER-PRINTING WAS INVENTED IN SCOTLAND, AND PERFECTED IN ENGLAND. 105 TUE "calumet dance IS THE LEAST UNGRACEFUL OF THE INDIAN DANCES. cal] ^fjc ^dentific nxCts %iizxdLt]) treasure ; [cam Ceres Eleusinia, among the Parrliasians ; and another among the Eleans, where the most beautiful man was presented with a complete suit of armour, which he conse- crated to Minerva ; to whose temple he walked in procession, being accompanied by his friends, who adorned him with rib- bons, and crowned him with a garland of myrtle. CALLO'SUM CORTUS, in anatomy, a medullary prominence in the brain, seen when separating the two lateral parts of the cerebrum. CAL'LUS, the new growth of osseous matter between the extremities of fractured bones; or any dense, insensible knob or horny substance on the skin. CALODEN'DRUM, a fine shrub, native of the Cape of Good Hope. CAL'OMEL, in medicine, the submuriate of mercury, a preparation of mercury by sublimation or precipitation. CALOR'IC, the principle or cause of heat, as distinguished from the sensation. CALORIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the heat given out by a body in cooling. CAL'ORIMOTOR, a galvanic instru- ment, in which the calorific effects are at- tended by scarcely any electrical power. CALO'TE, a sort of skull cap worn by the French cavalry under their caps, as a guard against the blov/s of the sabre. CAL'VINISM, the theological tenets of John Calvin, who, in the 16th century, flou- rished at Geneva, where his doctrines still subsist. The doctrinal parts of this system differ from that of other reformers of Cal- vin's period, chiefly in what regards the absolute decrees of God, by which, accord- ing to this teacher, the future and eternal condition of the human race was predeter- mined : in other words, Calvin denied the free agency of man, and maintained pre- destination. CAL'UMET, a symbolical instrument of great importance among the Indians of America. Ix is a smoking- pipe, the bowl of which is generally made of a soft red marble, and the tube of a very long reed, ornamented with feathers. This instru- ment, the use of which bears a great re- semblance to the caduceus of the Greeks, is a pledge of peace and good faith. The calumet of war, differently made, is used to proclaim war. CALX, a kind of fine friable powder which remains of metals, minerals, &c., after they have undergone the violence of fire, and have lost all their humid parts. From be- ing combined with oxygen, metalhc calxes are heavier than the metal from which they are produced. CALYCAN'THEMA, the 17th practical Linneean order of plants, the corolla and stamina inserted in the calyx. CALYCIF'LOR^, the 16th Linnsean na- tural order of plants ; the stamina inserted in the calyx, as the wild olive, &c. CALY'CIFORM, in botany, an epithet for the involucrum when it has the appear- ance of a calyx. CALYCIS'T^, an appellation given by Linnaeus to those botanists who have class- ed plants according to the different struc- ture of the calyx or flower-cup- CAL'YCLE, in botany, a diminutive of calyx, a row of small leaflets placed at the base of the calyx on the outside. CALYP'TRA, in botany, a thin membra- naceous involucrum, or cowl, usually of a conic figure, which covers the parts of fructification. The capsules of most of the mosses have calyptrae. CALYPTRAN'THES, a genus of plants, class 12 Icosandria, order 1 Monogynia. The species are shrubs, natives of the East and West Indies. CA'LYX, in botany, a term for the em- palement or flower-cup, or that part of a plant which surrounds and supports the other parts of the flower. CA'MBRIC, a species of fine white linen, made of flax, said to be named from Cam- bray, in Flanders, where it was first manu- factured. CAMBER-BEAM, in architecture, a beam cut hollow or archwise in the middle, commonly used in platforms. CAM'BERED, an epithet for the deck of a ship, the flooring of which is highest in the middle : also when it is defectively so, or what is sometimes called broken- backed. CAM'EL, in zoology, a genus of quadru- peds, of the order of j)^cora; distinguished from the rest by having no horns. The dromedary or Arabian camel has one hunch on the back, four callous protuberances on the fore legs, and two on the hind legs. The Bactrian camel has two hunches on the back. By the camel's power of sus- taining abstinence from drink for many days, and of subsisting on a few coarse shrubs, he is peculiarly fitted for the parch- ed and barren lands of Asia and Africa. The Arabians chiefly subsist on the milk of their camels ; and without them they could neither carry on trade, nor travel over their sandy .deserts. CAMEL'LIA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia-pohjandria class of plants: the flower consists of five ovated petals, connected vertically at the base ; the fruit is a turbinated, lignose, and furrowed cap- sule ; the seeds are numerous and small. CAM'ELOPARD, or GIRA'FFE. This animal, whose existence was at one time disputed, is a native of several parts of Africa, living in forests, and feeding on the leaves. This animal has two straight horns, without branches, six inches long, covered with hair, truncated at the end and tufted. The shoulders are of such a vast length, as to render the fore-part of the animal much higher than the hind part. The neck is very long, the head slender and elegant, and the colour of the body a dusky white, M'ith large rusty spots. It is mild and inoffensive, and, in cases of danger, has recourse to flight for safety ; but when obliged to stand on self- defence, it kicks its adversary. CAMELOPAR'DALIS, in astronomy, a constellation, consisting of 32 stars, situ- CARPETS AND CLOTH ARE MADE OF CAMELS HAIR IN PERSIA AND ARABIA. THE "camera I-UCIDA" WAS INVENTED BY DB. WOLLASTON, IN 180/. cam] % JBictionari) of tf)e belles ITettres. [can ated between Cepheus, Perseus, Cassiopeia. Ursa Major and Minor, and Draco. CAM'EO, or CAMA'IEU, a peculiar sort of onyx ; also, a stone on which are formed various figures and representations of laud- scapes. The word is also applied to any gem on which figures may be engraved. The name of camaieu is likewise given to such paintings as have but one colour, where the lights and shades are made on a ground of gold or azure. CAMERALIS'TICS, the science of fi- nance or public revenue, comprehending the means of raising and disposing of it. CAM'ERA LU'CIDA, an optical instru- ment, for the purpose of making the image of any object appear on the wall in a light room, either by day or night. ^Also, an instrument for drawing objects in true perspective. CAM'EllA-OBSCU'RA, or dark chamber, an optical machine or apparatus, in which the light being collected, and thrown through a single aperture, external objects are exhibited distinctly, and in their native colours, on any white surface placed within the machine. CAMISA'DE, a French term for attack- ing or surprising an enemy by night. It obtained the name from the soldiers wear- ing their shirts over their other clothes, that they might be known to each other. CAM'LET, a sort of stuff originally made of camel's hair and silk mixed, but now of wool and silk. CAMP, the residence of an army resting in tents ; or, the place and order of tents for soldiers in the field. On the continent of Europe tents are abolished, and the armies bivouac in the open air, or, if the time will allow it, lodge in huts built of branches, &c. In short, in the progress of the military art, camps have become more slight and simple, even with those who still continue to make use of them. CAMPA'IGN, the space of time during which an army is kept in the field. A cam- paign is usually from spring to autumn; but sometimes armies make a winter cam- paign. CAMPANA'CEiE, one of Linnseus's na- tural order of flowers, including those that are bell-shaped, as the campanula, convol- vulus, &c. CAMPANOL'OGY, the art of casting bells, or of ringing them. CAMPAN'ULA, or Bell Flower, a ge- nus of plants, mostly perennials, andbearing a bell-shaped flower. Several sorts of the campanula are natives of Britain. CAMPAN'ULATE, or Campan'i- FORM, in botanv, an epithet for the corolla, calvx, &c., when either is bell-shaped. CAM'PHOli, a white concrete crystal- line substance, of an acrid bitter taste and a penetrating smell. It is extracted from the laurus camphora, a large tree growing wild in Borneo, Sumatra, &c. To obtain camphor, the tree is cut down, and divided into pieces, and the camphor is taken out ; it being found in small whitish flakes in and near the centre of the tree. It is then repeatedly soaked, washed, and separated from all exti*aneous matter. Camphor is altogether volatile and inflammable, soluble in vinous spirits, oils, and mineral acids, but not in water, alkalies, or vegetable acids. Oil of Camphor, an oil which is procured by the solution of camphor in nitric acid. CAM'PHORATED, an epithet for any liquid mixed or impregnated with camphor. CAMPHOROS'MA, a genus of plants, class 4 Tetandria, order 1 Monogynia; the species of which are mostly shrubs. CAM'PION, in botany, the Agrostemma of Linnaeus. The rose campion, or Agro- stemma Coronaria, is a well-knovv'n garden flower. CAM'PUS MAII, an anniversary assem- bly of our ancestors, held on May-day, when they confederated together for defence of the kingdom against all its enemies. CAM PUS MAR'TIUS, among the Ro- mans, a field, by the side of the Tiber, where the youth exercised themselves in warUke exercises. It was so called, on account of a temple that stood on it, con- secrated to the god Mars. The consuls, Brutus and Collatinus, made it the place for holding the comitia or assemblies of people, and, in after times, it was adorned with a great quantity of fine statues. CAN'ADA BAL'SAM, a medici^ial sub- stance which is obtained from the Finus balsamea. CANAL', an artificial river, provided with locks and sluices, and sustained by banks and mounds. In anatomy, a duct or passage in the body of an animal, through which any of the juices flow, or other sub- stances pass. CANA'RIUM AUGU'RIUM, in anti- quity, a sacrifice among the Romans, of a red dog, for the purpose of appeasing the fury of the dog-star on the approach of harvest. CANA'RY-BIRD, an elegant yellow sing- ing bird much bred in England, brought originally from the Canary Islands, where it is of a white colour. CANCELLA'RIA CU'RIA, in archae- ology, the court of Chancery. CANCEL'LI, in architecture, trellis, or lattice-work, made of cross bars of wood or iron. Also, the balusters or rails en- compassing the bar of a court of justice. CAN'CER, in medicine, a hard ulcerous and exceedingly painful swelling, and ge- nerally seated in the glandulous parts of the body. In astronomy, a constella- tion, and the fourth sign in the zodiac, which the sun enters on the twenty-first of June, thence called the summer solstice. Cancer, tropic of, a small circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and passing through the beginning of Cancer. CAN'CRITE, a fossil or petrified crab. CANDELA'BRA. Numerous domestic utensils intended for the purpose of hold- ing lights, received this name by the an- cients ; while every variety of form and the most costly materials were occasionally put in requisition to produce candelabra of ex- CAMI-HOR HAS BEEN SAID TO DESTROY MOTHS; BUT HEAT IS THE ONLY THING. 107 A HUKBaBD CANDLES GIVE NO MORE LIGUT THAN A GAS PIPE OF AN INCH DIAMiiTEIl. can] VLl}z Scientific nnts Hitcrar^ ^reasurp ; [can quisite workmanship. But, with all their skill and labour, modern artists have greatly excelled them in lightness, grace, and utility. CAN'DIDATE,^ a person who seeks or aspires to some public office. In the Ro- man commonwealth, the Candidati were obliged to wear a white robe, during the two years of their soliciting for a place. This garment, according to Plutarch, they wore without any other clothes, that the people might not suspect they concealed money for purchasing votes ; and also, that they might the more easily show to the people, the scars of those wounds they had received in fighting for the defence of the commonwealth. CANDIDATI MIL'ITES, an order of soldiers, among the Romans, who served as the emperor's body-guards, to defend him in battle. They were the tallest and strongest of the whole troops ; and were called candidati, in consequence of being clothed in white. CAN'DIIL, a measvire of capacity in India, by which a ship's burden is esti- mated as it is by tons in Europe. A candiil is 500 cwt. CAN'DLE-BERRY-TREE, the Myr'ica Cerif'era, or wax-bearing myrtle ; a shrub common in North America, from the ber- ries of which a kind of v,'ax or oil is pro- duced of which candles are made. CAN'»LEMAS DAY, the festival ob- served on the second of February, in com- memoration of the purification of the Vir- gin Mary. It is borrowed from the prac- tice of the ancient Christians, who on that day used an abundance of lights both in their churches and processions, in memory, as is supposed, of our Saviour's being on that day declared by Simeon " to be a light to lighten the Gentiles." In imitation of this custom, the Roman Catholics on this day consecrate aU the tapers and candles which they use in their churches during the whole year. CAN'DY, a preparation of sugar made by melting and crystallizing it several times. CAN'DYTUFT, in botany, the Iberis, an annual that is cultivated in gardens, bear- ing a white or purple flower. CANEPH'ORiE, the noble Athenian vir- gins who carried the baskets at the festival of the Panathenwa of Minerva, CANEPIIO'RIA, in Grecian antiquity, a ceremony which made part of a feast cele- brated by the Athenian virgins, on the eve of their marriage day.^ Canephoria is also the name of a festival of Bacchus, ce- lebrated particularly by the Athenians, on which the young virgins carried jfolden baskets full of fruit. The baskets were covered, to conceal the mystery from the uninitiated. CANTARA, a sort of ordeal by fire, as it once existed in this kingdom. The ac- cused carried hot irons in liis hands ; and if he came off unhurt, he was deemed in- nocent. CAN'ICA, a kind of wild cinnamon, re- sembling the clove in flavour. CANICULAR DAYS, commonly called dog-days, a certain number of days pre- ceding and ensu.ing the heliacal rising of the canicula, or the dog star, in the morn- ing. The Ethiopians and Egyptians began their year at the rising of the dog star, reckoning to its rise again the next year, which is called the annus canarius. CANINA'NA, in zoology, a species of serpent in America; so called because it may be treated as familiarly as a dog. CA'NIS, a genus of quadrupeds, class Mammalia, order Fera. This genus compre- hends animals that differ very essentially fi'om each other in their habits, as the dog, the wolf, the fox, and the jackall. Our obser- vations wiU only extend to the chief pecu- liarities of the dog, or Canis familiaris. They cultivate the society of men, and are but rarely found wild : they feed on flesh and farinaceous vegetables ; they digest bones : they are extremely docile, affec- tionate, and vigilant in their intercourse with men : they have an aversion to strangers generally, and particularly beg- gars. They are capable of imitation and instruction, and in many instances seem endowed with a degree of intelligence more allied to human reason than to animal in- stinct. Ca'nis, in astronomy, the name of two constellations in the southern hemi- sphere; namely, Canis Major and Canis Minor. CAN'KER, a corroding disease which occurs frequently in fruit trees. Also, a fungous excrescence in the feet of horses. CAN'NEL-COAL,or CAN AL-COAL, in mineralogy, the Bitumen ampelites of Lin- naeus ; a hard, opaque, inflammable jet- black fossil coal, which burns with a bright white flame, like a candle. It is sufficiently solid to be cut and polished, and is often, like jet, made into trinkets. In the fire it decrepitates and breaks into angular frag- ments, leaving a strong or sooty residuum. CAN'NEQUIN, white cotton cloth brought from the East Indies, made in pieces of about eight ells long. CAN'NON, a piece of ordnance, or a heavy metallic gun for a battery, mounted on a carriage. Guns of this kind are made of iron or brass, and of different sizes, car- rying balls from three or four to forty-eight pounds' weight. The explosion being di- rected by the tube, balls and missiles are carried to great distances with destructive force. In a field of battle they are often drawn by horses on light carriages, and are called field pieces, or flying artillery. CANOE, (pron. ca-noo') a small boat, made of the trunk of a tree, hollowed out by cutting or burning ; and sometimes also of pieces of bark joined together. It is im- pelled by a paddle instead of an oar ; and is used by the uncivilized nations in both he- mispheres. C A N O N, a law or ordinance of the church. The Canon Law consists of rules drawn from Scripture, from the v. ritiiigs of the ancient fathers, from the ordinances of councils, and the decrees of the pope • Also a dignitary of the church. Originally, CANNON WERE USED AT THE BATTLE OF CRESSY, AND CALLED BOMBARDS. . CANON IN MUSIC MAY CONSIST OF TWO, THREE, FOUR, OR MORE VOICES. can] m 'Nm IBicttonari) of tfjc 33£lks BCcttrcs. [CAO canons were only priests, or inferior eccle- siastics, who lived iu community, residing near the cathedral church to assist the bishop, depending- entirely on his will, sup- ported by the revenues of his bishopric, and living in the same house as his domes- tics or covmsellors, &c. By degrees, these communities of priests, shaking otF their dependence, formed separate bodies ; in time they freed themselves from their rules, and at length ceased to live in a commu- nity. Canon of Scripture, is that body of books of the Holy Scripture which serves for a rule of faith and practice. In mo- dern music, a canon is a kind of perpetual fugue, in which the different parts, begin- ning one after another, repeat incessantly the same air. In mathematics, it is used for a general rule for resolving all cases of a like "nature in geometry, algebra, &c. CANON'ICAL, in ecclesiastical polity, signifies, agreeable to the canons of the church ; as, canonical hours, or hours pre- scribed bv the canons for prayers. CANONIZA'TION, an act of the Romish churcli, by which it takes upon itself to rank a deceased person among the cata- logue of its saints ; but the act is preceded by beatitication, and by an examination into the hfe and " miracles" of the de- ceased. CAN'ONRY,or CAN'ONSHIP, the bene- fice filled by a canon. It differs from a prebend, inasmuch as a prebend may subsist without the canonicate ; whereas a canon- icate is inseparable from a prebend : again, the rights of suffrages, and other privileges, are annexed to the canonicatf-, and not to the prebend. CANOTUS, in astronomy, a star of the first magnitude in the rudder of Argo, a constellation of the southern hemisphere. CAN'OPY, a magnificent covering raised over an altar, throne, chair of state, pulpit, &c. In figurative language the sky is called a canopy. CANT, quaint or vulgar language, af- fected by particular persons or professions, and not authorized by established usage. In architecture, a term expressing the position of any piece of timber not standing square. Cant moulding, a moulding with a bevelled surface applied to the capitals of columns. Cant-timbers, in ship-building, those timbers which are situated at the two ends of a ship, and canted or raised o^iliquely from the keel. CANTAB' ILE, in music, a term applied to movements intended to be in a graceful and melodious style. CANTAN'TE, in music, a term to denote the vocal part of the composition. CANTA'TA, a song, or composition, in- termixed with recitatives, airs, and different movements, chiefly intended for a single voice, with a thorough bass, though some- times with other instruments. CANTEEN', a public-house licensed in every barrack or fort to sell liquors. Also, a semi-cylindrical tin-case, carried over a soldier's knapsack, to carry his cooked victuals in. CANTHAE'IDES, in medicine, (the Can- tharis Vesicatoria, or Spanish fly), are in- sects of the scarabseu^s, or beetle-kind: they are usually about half an inch in length, of a fine shining gold and green colour, but of a fetid smell. When bruised, they are universally used as a vesicatory, or blister- ing plaster. Taken internally, they act as the most energetic acrid poison ; and though in some disorders this medicine is taken in small doses, as a powerful stimulant, its use requires the greatest caution on the part of the physician. CANTHAR'IDIN, that peculiar sub- stance existing in the cantharides, which causes vesication. CAN'TIIARUS, in antiquity, a tankard sacred to Bacchus. CAN'THI, in anatomy, cavities at the extremities of the eye-lids, commonly called the corners of the eye : the internal or greater canthus is next the nose ; the ex- ternal or lesser canthus near the temple. CAN'TICiE, ancient dramatic soliloquies, supposed to have been introduced as inter- ludes. CAN'TICLES, the Song of Songs, in the Bible, supposed to be a marriage song written by Solomon; to be explained by compositions of a similar nature in East- ern countries. By other writers it is sup- posed to be a series of sacred idyls, each distinct and independent of the other. CANTILE'ENA, in music, the treble melody, or upper part of any composition. CAN'TO, a part or division of a poem, answering to what in prose is called a book. In Italian, canto is a song; and it signifies also the first treble, or highest vocal part. CAN'TON, a small division: hence, in heraldry, a small square, separated from the rest of the coat, is called a canton. In military affairs, ti-oops billeted into diffe- rent quarters or divisions, are said to go into cantonments. In geography, a small district of territory, constituting a distinct state or government, as the cantons in Switzerland. CAN'TONED, in architecture, is when the corner of a building is adorned with a pilaster, an angular column, rustic quoins, or anything that projects beyond the level of a wall. CAN'VAS, a coarse sort of cloth, of which there are several kinds. Among others, are 1. That worked regularly in little squares as a basis for tapestry : 2. That which is called buckram : 3. The cloth used for pic- tures: And, 4. That employed for sails of ships, tents, &c. CAN'ZONE, or CANZO'NA, in music, a song or air in two or three parts, with passages of fugue and imitation ; but it is sometimes used for a kind of lyric poem, iu Italian, to which music may be composed in the style of a cantata. CANZONET', in music, a short song, in one or two parts. CAOPO'IBA, in botany, a Brazilian tree, growing to the height and shape of a beech. THE TERM CANTO FERMO WAS GIVEN TO TUB ANCIENT ROMAN CATHOLIC CHANTS. ON MEDALS, AND IN TAINTING, A CAP IS TUB SYMBOL OF LIBEKTY. cap] VLlfZ '^dzniiHt uvlU Xiterari) treasury ; [cap CAOUCHOUC, or CAOUTCHOUC, (pron. coo-chookj improperly called elastic gum, and more commonly India 'rubber, is obtained from the milky juice of several plants and trees, particularly from the syringe tree of Cayenne. Its elasticity is such that it can be stretched to a great extent, and its pliancy is increased by heat. From its softness, elasticity, and imperme- ability to M'ater, it is used in the manufac- ture of many articles ; and since it is easily dissolved by the purified naptha from coal tar, which forms a cheap and effectual solvent, and does not change its properties, the solution has been most extensively em- ployed to give a thin covering to cloth, so as to render it impervious to moisture. It is also used for over-shoes, and when dis- solved in oils forms a flexible varnish. Caouchouc is principally obtained from South America, and usually brought to Europe in the form of pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by spreading the juice over a mould of clay, then drying by expo- sure to the sun, or to the smoke of burning fuel : after which it is ornamented on the outside, and the clay in the inside is moist- ened with water, and picked out. CAP, a part of dress made to cover the head. The use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449, the first seen in Europe, being at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that time they began to take place of hoods or chaperons. Cap, in architecture, the uppermost part of any assemblage of principal or subordinate parts. In ship-building, cap is a square piece of timber, placed over the head or upper end of a mast. In botany, the pileus, or top of the fungus, generally shaped like a plate or bonnet. Cap of mainte- nance, one of the ornaments of state, car- ried before the kings of England at the coronation. It is of crimson velvet, faced with ermine. It is also frequently met with above the helmet, instead of wreaths, under gentlemen's crests. Cap-a-pie, (French) from head to foot. CAPA"CITY, in a general sense, means the power of containing or holding. In geometry, the solid contents of a body. In chemistry, that state, quality, or consti- tution of bodies, by which they absorb and contain, or render latent, any fluid ; as the capacity of water for caloric. CAPE, in geography, a promontory or headland projecting into the sea farther than the rest of the coast, as the Cape of Good Hope, Cape St. Vincent, &c. CA'PER, the bud of the caper-bush, much used for pickling. It grows in many parts of the south of Europe. CA'PET, the name of the French race of kings, which has given 118 sovereigns to Europe, viz., 36 kings of France, 22 kings of Portugal, 5 of Spain, 11 of Naples and Sicily, 3 of Hungary, 3 emperors of Con- stantinople, 3 kings of Navarre, 17 dukes of Burgundy, 12 dukes of Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes of Parma. CA'PIAS, in law, a vrrit of two sorts; one before judgment, to take the defendant ; the other after, which is called the WTit of executioi). CAP'ILLARY, in a general sense, an epithet given to things on account of their extreme fineness, or resemblance to hair. Capillary Ores, in mineralogy, the same with those otherwise denominated arbore- scent, or striated. Capillary Plants are such plants as have no main stem, but whose leaves arise from the root, upon pedicles, and produce their seeds on the back of their leaves, as the fern, maiden- hair, &c. Capillary Tubes, tubes of hair- like fineness, in which fluids ascend, owing to the pressure of the atmosphere being intercepted within the tube, by its sides, and being complete and unintercepted on the outside of the tube. Capillary Ves- sels, in anatomy, the smallest and extreme parts of the minutest ramifications of the veins and arteries. CAPILLA'IRE, akind of syrup, extracted from maiden-hair. CAPIL'LAMENT, in botany, a fine fila- ment, like a hair, that grows in the middle of a flower, with a little knob at the top. CAP'ITAL, in commerce, the fund or stock, in money and goods, of a merchant, manufacturer, &c., or of a trading company. J floating capital is that which remains after payment is made for all the apparatus and implements of the business. Ficti- tious capital generally means nothing more or less than excessive credits, which throw the management and disposition of a great deal of property into the hands of persons who are not able to answer for the risks of loss from its bad management, or other causes. Capital, in architecture, the uppermost part of a column or pilaster, serving as the head or crowning, and placed immediately over the shaft, and under the entablature. Capital, in geography, the metropolis, or chief city or town of an empire, kingdom, state, or province. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. No subject has been more discussed, particularly of late years, than that by which the right and the expediency, assumed by govern- ments, to inflict the penalty of death for offences against the safety and good order of society, is questioned ; nor is there any subject whatever, perhaps, more deserving of the calm and dispassionate examination of philosophers and jurists. It has been ably, and, as we think, justly argued, that when the right of society is once admitted to punish for off'ences, it seems difficult to assign any limits to the exercise of that right, short of what the exigencies of so- ciety require. No government has the right to punish cruelly and wantonly : but still the discretion must be vested somewhere, to say what shall be the degree of punish- ment to be assigned to a particular oflFence. That discretion must be, from its nature, justly a part of the legislative power, and to be exercised according to the actual state of society. The very frequency of a crime must often furnish a very strong ground for severe punishment, not only as it furnishes proof that the present punish- 110 CAPERS ARE ANTISCORBUTIC AND APERIENT; THEY ARE TUEBEFORE WHOLESOME. TUE CAPITOL OF KOMB COMMANDS A MOST SPLENDID AND INTERESTING VIEW. cap] ISTeb) IBictionarw of tl^e ISelles ICettrcs. [c mcnt is insufficient to deter men from com- mitting it, but from the increased neces- sity of protecting society against danger- ous crimes. The right of government to inflict the punishment of death has been doubted by some distinguished persons ; and the doubt is often the accompaniment of a highly cultivated mind, inclined to the indulgence of a romantic sensibility, and believing in human perfectibility. It is often said, that as life is the gift of God, it cannot be justly taken away, by human laws. True; life is the gift of God; but are not our personal endowments also the gift of God ? has He not given man a right to personal liberty and locomotion — a right to eat and drink and breathe at large, as well as to exist ?— yet no one doubts that, by way of punishment, he may be confined in a solitary cell ; that he may be perpetu- ally imprisoned or deprived of free air, or compelled to live on bread and water. But the expediency of capital punishment offers indeed a wide field for discussion. What may be strictly just, may not always be ex- pedient ; and a wise legislature will be slow in visiting with capital punishment any crimes but such as are in a high degree atrocious and dangerous to society, and which cannot otherwise be effectually guarded against. The bloodiest codes are not those which have most effectually sup- pressed offences ; nay, men sometimes are hardened by the frequent spectacles of ca- pital punishments, and in some degree grow indifferent to them; besides, no so- ciety can lawfully exercise the power of punishing, beyond what the just exigencies of that society require. On the other hand, a total abolition of capital punishments would, iu some cases at least, expose so- ciety to the chances of deep and vital in- juries. On a deliberate consideration of the subject, and on reference to the expe- rience of most nations, it will probably be found, that capital punishment ought not wholly to be dispensed with ; but that for any offences which are not of enormous magnitude, there exists no necessity or ex- pediency for applying so great a severity. Much, however, must still depend upon the opinion and character of the age, the pre- vailing habits of the people, and upon the sound exercise of legislative discretion. In former times every species of torture was occasionally resorted to ; burning the cri- minal at the stake, quartering him alive, breaking his limbs upon the wheel, cruci- fixion, exposure to the fury of wild beasts, and other savage punishments, were com- mon in offences of an atrocious character, and more especially for those of a treason- able kind ; but it is now allowed in nearly every civilized country, that the simple in- fliction of death is sufficient for the ven- geance of the law, be the crime what it may. But upon the question whether exe- cutions ought to be in public or in private, a great diversity of opinion still exists. That public spectacles of this sort have a ten- dency to brutalize and harden the people— and that the courage and firmness with which the criminal often meets death, have a tendency to awaken feelings of sympathy, and to take away much of the horror of the offence, as well as of the punishment — toay certainly be true. Yet, that such specta- cles are the only means to bring home to the mass of the people a salutary dread and warning, may be true likewise. To which we ought to add, that if punishments were inflicted in private, it could never be known whether they were justly and pro- perly inflicted upon the persons condemn- ed; neither, indeed, could we be sure that innocent persons might not become the victims. Be this however as it may, we cannot but feel gratified that the dictates of humanity have lately triumphed over the barbarous relics of an undue severity : and that, to the credit of the age we live in, executions are far less frequent than they were ; capital punishment for many kinds of felony, which a few years ago dis- graced our criminal code, has at length been obliterated, and punishments of a milder nature substituted for it. CAP'ITALIST, a man of large property, which either is or may be employed in trade. CAP'ITATE, in botany, an epithet for a stigma which grows in the form of a hemi- sphere ; and for a whorl, when the flowers stand so thick as to form a hemisphere. CAPITATION, a tax or imposition raised on each person in consideration of his la- bour, industry, office, rank, &c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute, and answers to what the Latins called tributum, by which taxes on persons are distinguished from taxes on merchandise, called vectigalia. CAP'ITE, in law, a sort of ancient te- nure, whereby a man held lands of the crown, by knight's service or in socage. CAP'ITO ANADRO'MUS, in ichthyo* logy, a fish of the cod kind, living both in rivers and seas ; so called on account of its great head. CAP'ITOL, a castle, in ancient Rome, on the Mons Capitolinus, where there was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, in which the senate assembled ; and on the same spot is still the city-haU or town-house, where the conservators of the Roman people hold their meetings. The foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin the elder, in the year of Rome 139 : his successor Servius raised the walls, and Tarquin the Proud finished it in 221 ; but it was not conse- crated till the third year after the expulsion of the kings, and establishment of the con- sulate. The capitol consisted of three parts, a nave, sacred to Jupiter; and two wings, the one consecrated to Juno, and the other to Minerva : it was ascended by stairs ; the frontispiece and sides were surrounded with galleries, in which those who were honoured with triumphs entertained the senate at a magnificent banquet, after the sacrifices had been offered to the gods. Both the inside and outside were enriched with nu- merous ornaments, the most distinguished of which was the statue of Jupiter, with his golden thunder-bolt, sceptre, and crown. THE GILDING ALONE OF THE CAPITOL COST 12,000 TALENTS, OR 2,000,000Z. THE CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL LAWS OF CHARLEMAGNE WERE CALLED CAPITULARIES. cap] [cap In the cai)itol also were a temple to Jupiter the guardian, and another to Juno ; with the mint ; and on the descent of the hill was the temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice contained the most sacred deposits of religion, such as the ancylia, the books of the sybils, &c. CAP'ITOLINE GAMES. These were annual games instituted by Camillus, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in com- memoration of the preservation of the ca- pitol from the Gauls. There was also another kind of Capitoline games, instituted by Domitian, and celebrated every live years, at which rewards and crowns Avere bestowed on the poets, champions, orators, histo- rians, &c. CAPIT'ULA RURA'LIA, assemblies or chapters held by rural deans and parochial clergy within the precinct of every distinct deanery. CAPIT'ULARY, the body of laws or sta- tutes of a chapter, or of an ecclesiastical council. CAPITULA'TION, in military affairs, a treaty made between the garrison of a place besieged and the besiegers, for sur- rendering on certain conditions. The term is also applicable to troops in any situation in which they are compelled to submit to a victorious enemy. CAPIT'ULUM, in antiquity, a transverse beam in the military engines of the an- cients, wherein were holes for the strings with which they were set in motion. In botany, Catitulum denotes a mode of in- florescence, when several flovvcrs form a kind of head or ball. In anatomy, it means a small head, or protuberance of a bone received into the concavity of another. CAPI'VI, a tree of Brazil, the flower of which resembles a rose. It grows to a great height, and yields the balsam of capivi. CAP'NIAS, in mineralogy, a kind of jasper, of a smoky colour. In botany, a vine which produces part white and part black grapes. CAPON NIE'RE, in fortification, a covered lodgment placed in the glacis, at the extremity of the counterscarp ; and in dry moats, with embrasures or loop-holes through which the soldiers may fire. CAPO'TE, a large great coat, Avith a hood or cowl, which is sometimes worn by sentinels in bad weather. CAP'PARIS, the Caper-bush, a shrub, the trunk and fruit of which, when pickled, are eaten. It is also used in medicine. CA'PRA, the Goat, in zoology, consti- tutes a genus of quadrupeds, of the order pecora, distinguished from the other genera of this order, by their hollow, rough, and erect horns, which bend a little backwards. Of this genus authors enumerate a great many species, as the common goat ; the rupicapra, or chamois-goat; the ibex; the gazelle ; and several others. CA'PRyE SALTAN'TES, in meteorology, exhalations or fiery meteors which some- times appear in the atmosphere, assuming various irregular shapes. CAP'REOLATE, in botany, having ten- drils, or filiform spiral claspers, by which plants fasten themselves to other bodies, as in vines, peas, &c. CAPREO'LUS, in anatomy, the helix of the ear. In botany, the clasp or tendril of a vine or other plant. CAPRIC'CIO, in music, the term for that irregular kind of composition in which the composer, without any restraint, follows the bent of his humour. Capriccio'so denotes that the movement before which it is written, is to be played in a free and fantastic style. CA'PRICORN, in astronomy, a southern constellation, and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters on the 21st of December. Tropic of Capricorn, ». small circle of the sphere, parallel to the equinoctial, passing through the beginning of Capricorn or the winter solstice, which is the sun's greatest southern declination, namely 23 degrees and a half. CAPRIFICA'TION, a method used in the Levant for ripening the fruit of the domestic fig tree, by means of insects bred in that of the wild fig tree. The capri- fication of the ancient Greeks and Romans corresponds in every circumstance with what is practised at this day in the Archi- pelago, and in Italy. These all agree in declaring that the wild fig tree, caprif cus, never ripened its fruit ; but was absolutely necessary for ripening that of the garden or domestic fig tree, over which husbandmen suspend its branches. C A P'R I O L E S, in horsemanship, are those leaps which a horse makes in the same place without advancing, in such a manner that when he is at the height of the leap, he jerks out with his hind legs. CAP'SICUM, a plant, native of South America, the fruit of which is a pod, and the strongest kind of pepper, known by the name of Cayenne Pepper. CAP'STAN, in a ship, a strong massy column of timber, of the nature of a wind- lass, placed behind the mainmast, used for weighing, or raising up anchors, or any other purpose in which great power is re- quired. CAP'SULA, in chemistry, a sort of earthen pan, in which things are put that are to undergo a violent operation by fire. CAPSULA'RES ARTERI^, in anatomy, the arteries of the renal glands ; so called because they are enclosed by a capsule. CAP'SULATED, in botany, enclosed in anything, as a walnut in its green husk. CAP'SULE, the seed-vessel of a plant ; it is composed of several elastic valves, which usually burst open at the points when the seeds are ripe ; it differs from a pod, in being roundish and short. CAP'TAIN, in the army, the commander of a company of foot or a troop of horse ; and in the naval or merchant service, the commander of a vessel. A CajJtain-Ueu- tenant is an officer, who, with the rank of captain and pay of lieutenant, commands a company or troop. A Post-captain in the British navy, is an officer commanding any 112 THE MASTER OF THE SMALLEST CRAFT IS NOW-A-DAYS CALLED A CAPTAIN. "carbonic acid gas" has power to decompose the hardest rocks. CA ^1 ■a Neto JBtttwnarn of tf)t Relics ICeftics. [c man of -war, from a ship of the line down to a ship-rig-ged sloop. man eminently skilled in war or military affairs is styled a "great captain," as the Duke of "Wellington. CAP TION, in law, the act of taking any person by any judiciiil process. CAPUCHIN'S, an order of Franciscan friars in the Romish church, so called from their capuche or hood sewed to their habits, and hanging down their backs. CAP'ULA, in antiquity, a wooden utensil with two handles for taking oil out of one vessel into another. The person who did this office was called the capulator. CA'PUT, in anatomy, the Head, which is divided into the skull, cranium, and the face, fades. The skull consists of the crown, or vertex; the posterior part, or occiput; the anterior part or M'ndpwf ; and the temples, or tempora. Caput Obsti- PUM, a wry neck, which is generally a spas- mpdic disorder. CA'PUT MOR'TUUM, in chemistry, the inert residuum of any body, remaining after all the volatile and humid parts have been extracted. CAR'ABINE, or CAR'BINE, a short gun used by the cavalry. CARACA'RA, in ornithology, a Brazilian species of falco, the back of which is of a pale brown colour, variegated with spots of white and yellow. It is one of the most beautiful of the hawk kind, and about the size of a tame pigeon. CAR'ACOLE, the half wheel which a horseman makes, either to the right or left. The cavalry make a caracole after each dis- charge, in order to pass to the rear of the squadron. CAR'ACOLY, a mixture of gold, silver, and copper, of which are made rings and other ornaments, for bartering with savage tribes. CAR'AGROUGH, a Turkish silver coin, weighing nine drachms. CARAHUA'TA, in botany, the Bromelia acana, or aloe of Brazil, the concreted juice of which is supposed to be ambergris. CA'RAITES, a sect among the Jews who adhere closely to the text and letter of the scriptures, rejecting the rabbinical inter- pretations and the cabbala. CARAM'BOLA, in botany, Mahis Indica, a tree growing in the East Indies which bears fruit thrice a year. CAR'AMEL, sugar refined by repeated boiling. Also, ornaments made of sugar. CARAN'NA, the gum or resin of the ca- ranna tree, growing in South America. CARAPA'CE, the shell of the turtle or tortoise. CARAT, or C A R'A C T, the standard weight by which the fineness of gold is distingjuished. If the gold be so fine that, in purifying, it loses nothing, or but very little, it is said to be gold of 24 carats ; if it lose one carat, it is said to be gold of 23 carats. Carat, in weighing diamonds, &c., a weight of four grains. CARAVAN', in the East, a company of travellers, and more particularly of mer- chants, who for their greater security, pro- ceed in a body through the deserts of Arabia, or other region infested with rob- bers. Such a company often have more than a thousand camels to carry their bag- gage and goods ; and as they walk in single file, the line is often a mile long. Proper officers are appointed to regulate every thing during their march, the chief of whom has the title of Caravan-Bachi. CARAVAN'SERA, or CARAVAN'SERY, a large building or inn for the reception of travellers and the caravans. The building commonly forms a square, in the middle of which is a spacious court, and under the arches or piazzas that surround it, there runs a bank, raised some feet above the ground, where the merchants and travellers take up their lodgings, the beasts of burden being tied to the foot of the bank. In the upper part, there are generally private apartments, the use of which is costly. In many of them, however, the hospitaUty is gratuitous, it being by no means uncom- mon for a pious Mussulman to establish, during his hfe or by will, one or more of these caravanseries. CAR' AW AY, a plant of the genus Canm, the seeds of which have an aromatic smell and a warm pungent taste. They are used in cakes, &c., and distilled with spirituous liquors. CAR'BON, the pure or essential part of charcoal. Though this substance abounds throughout the vegetable kingdom, and is also contained in animal and even mineral bodies, yet it is very rarely to be met with in a state of absolute purity. It is indeed remarkable, and would be almost incredible if the results of modern chemistry did not render it indisputable, that the most valu- able of all the gems, the diamond, is nothing but pure crystallized carbon. For many ages the diamond was considered as in- combustible; and Newton was the first person who conjectured, from its great re- fractive power, that it was capable of com- bustion. By the union of carbon with oxygen, it produces two gaseous substances, the first of which was formerly called fixed air, now called carbonic acid; and the second, containing less oxygen, the oxyde of carbon. CAR'BONATE, in chemistry, a com- pound formed by the combination of car- bonic acid with different bases, as carbon- ate of copper, carbonate of lime, &c. CARBON'IC ACID, in chemistry, a co- lourless, inodorous, elastic fluid, being a compound of carbon and oxygen in its ga- seous state, called fixed air, or carbonic acid gas. It is one and a half times heavier than atmospheric air, and will, therefore, neither support animal life nor combustion. It is the gas which is generated by fermen- tative processes, and which so often proves destructive to persons who inhale it in mines, wells, or very confined apartments. All kinds of spring and well-water contain carbonic acid, which they absorb from the atmos]^ere, and to which they are partly indebted for their agreeable flavour; but the water which contains carbonic acid is CHOKE-DAMP IS THE TERM WHICH MINERS GIVE TO CARBONIC ACID. [i3 THE HISTORICAL TRACES OF THE USE OF CARDS ARE FOUND EARLIEST IN ITALY. W)z Scientific anH ILiUxax^i treasure ; [car wholly deprived of it by boiling. Car- bonous acid, is carbon not fuJly saturated with oxygen. CAR'liUNCLE, in surgery, an inflam- matory tumour, or painful gangrenous boil, which being seated deeply, in parts pro- vided with cellular membrane, does not soon discover its whole dimensions, nor the ill-digested matter it contains It is also the name of a very beautiful gem, of a deep red or scarlet colour, known to tlie ancients as the anthrax. "When held up against the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and be- comes exactly of the colour of bvxrning charcoal, whence the propriety of the name they gave it. It has, however, been sup- posed by some modern mineralogists that the carbuncle of the ancients was garnet. Carbuncle, in heraldry, a charge or bearing, consisting of eight radii, four of which make a common cross, and the other four a saltier. CARBUNCULA'TION, the blasting of the young buds of trees or plants, by ex- cessive heat or cold. CAR'BURET, in chemistry, a substance formed by the combination of carbon with metals, earth, or alkali. CAR'BURETTED HY'DROGEN GAS, a s\ib stance formed of hydrogen and car- bon, which on being duly excited, fires oxygon, and radiates light and heat, as in gas liglits, and all other lights. The gas which is known by the name of the fire- damp among miners is pure carburetted hydrogen. CAR CANET, in archseology, a chain for the neck. CAR'CASS, the body of a dead animal, especially a brute; that of the human spe- cies being railed a corpse. Carcass, in building, the shell or timber work of a house before it is lathed and plastered or the floors laid. In gunnery, an iron case or hollow vessel, of an oval figure, filled with combustible and other substances, to be thrown from a mortar into a town, to set fire to buildings. It has two or three apertures from which the fire blazes, and the light sometimes serves as a direction in throwing shells. It is furnished with pistol barrels, loaded with powder to the muzzle, which explode as the composition burns down to them. CARCE'RES, in the ancient Circensian games, were inclosures in the circus, where- in the horses were restrained till the signal was given for starting, when, by an inge- nious contrivance they all at once fi^ew open. CARCINO'MA, in medicine, a cancer; also, a turgesconce of the veins of the eye. CAR'DAMINE, in botany, a genus of plants in the Linnaan system, class 1 Te- tradynamia, order 2 Siliqnosa. C AR'DAMOM, a perennial plant growing in the East Indies. The seeds are of an aromatic and pungent flavour, and are used as a stimulant. CAR'DIALGY, sometimes called the cardiac passion, is the heart burn, a vio- lent sensation of heat and acrimony in the left orifice of the stomach, seemingly at the heart, but rising into the sesophagus, CAR'DINAL, which in a general sense signifies principal or pre-eminent, is formed of the Latin word cardo, a hinge, agreeably with the common expression, in which it is said of an important matter that every thing turns upon it : thus Justice, Prudence, Temperance, and Fortitude are called the four cardinal virtues. The cardinal si(/ns, in astronomy, are Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn. The cardinal points of the compass, north, south, east, and west. Cardinal numbers, in grammar, arc the num- bers, one, two, three, &c., which are inde- clinable, in opposition to the ordinal num- bers, first, second, third, &c. CAR'DINAL, in the Roman hierarchy, an ecclesiastical prince and subordinate magistrate, who has a voice in the conclave at the election of a pope, and who may be advanced to that dignity himself. The dress of a cardinal is a red soutannc, a rochet, a short purple mantle, and a red hat ; and his title of address, " His emi- nence." CAR'DINAL-FLOWER, a plant of the genus Lobelia, of many species. They are fibrous-rooted perennials, from two to five or six feet high, with erect stalks, ornamented with spear-shaped leaves, and spikes of beautiful monopetalous flowers of scarlet, blue, and violet colours. CARDING -MACHINE, an instrument of modern invention for combing, breaking, and cleansing wool and cotton. It consists of cylinders, thick set with teeth, and put in motion by the force of water, steam, &c. CAR'DIOID, in mathematics, an alge- braic curve, so called from its resemblance to a heart. CAR'DITE, a fossil or petrified shell, of the genus cardium. CARDS, pieces of pasteboard, of an oblong shape, painted or, rather, printed, of various figures, made into packs of 52 in number, and used by way of amusement in different games. They are divided into four kinds, viz. diamonds, hearts, clubs, and spades, and thirteen of each kind, so that an infi- nite variety of combinations may be formed with them, and games of chance thereby rendered highly interesting. CAREEN'ING, in sea language, the bringing a ship to lie down on one side, in order to trim and caulk the other. CAR'GO, the goods, merchandize, and effects which are laden on board a ship, exclusive of the crew, rigging, ammunition, provisions, guns. Sec. The lading within tlie hold is called the inboard cargo, in distinction from horses, cattle, &c., carried on deck. CAR'GOOSE, a fowl belonging to the genus Colymbus, called the Crested Diver. CAR'IBOO, in zoology, a quadruped of the stag kind. CAR I C A, in botany, the Papan, a tree bearing a fleshy fruit of the size of a small melon. CAR'ICOUS, in medicine, an epithet given to tumours resembling a fig. TUR AUT OP PRINTING CARDS WAS DISCOVERED BY THE GERJIANS IN 1350. THE CARNIVAL AT ROME CONTINUES EIGHT DAIS, WHICH ABE DEVOTED TO SPORTS. va] % IsTelx) Bictionaii) of tl)c ^cUcs Xettrcs. [car CAR'ILLONS, a species of cliiracs fre- quent in the Low Countries, particularly at Ghent and Antwerp, and played on a number of bells in a belfry, forming a com- plete scries or scale of tones or semitones, like those of the harpsichord and organ. CAR'INATED, in botany, shaped like the keel of a ship ; applied to a calyx, leaf, or nectary. CAR'LINE, a piece of timber in a ship, ranging fore and aft, from one deck beam to another, directly over the keel, and serv- ing as a foundation for the body of the ship. Carline Knees are timbers lying across from the sides to the hatchway, and serving to sustain the deck. CAR'LOCK, a kind of isinglass obtained from Russia, made of the sturgeon's blad- der, and used in clarifying wine. CAR'MELITES, an order of mendicant friars, very numerous in Italy and Spain. They wear a scapulary, or small woollen habit, of a brown colour, thrown over the shoulders. CAR'MEN, a Latin term, used, in a gene- ral sense, to signify a verse ; but in a more peculiar sense, to signify a spell, charm, form of expiation, execration, &c., couched in few words, placed in a mystic order, on which its efficacy was supposed to depend. CARMIN'ATIVES, medicines which ex- pel wind, promote perspiration, and are anti- spasmodic. CAll'MINE, a pigment or powder of a deep red or crimson colour, procured from cochineal, and used for painting in minia- ture. CARNA'TION, a beautiful sort of clove pink, having its bright colours equally marked all over the flowers. In painting, flesh colour. CARNE'LIAN, a precious stone, either red, flesh-colour, or white. The finest car- nelians are those of the East Indies : there are some beautiful ones in the rivers of Silesia and Bohemia ; and some of a quality not to be despised in Britain. The use to which they are most generally applied is that of seals. CAR'NIVAL, the feast or season of re- joicing previous to Lent, celebrated with great spirit throughout Italy, when feasts, balls, operas, concerts, masquerades, &c., abound. The churches are filled with cho- risters, and the streets with masks. This festival flourishes more particularly at Ve- nice, where it begins on the second holiday in Christmas, and Vv'herc it boasts to have had at one time seven sovereign princes and thirty thousand foreigners among its votaries. CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to animals that feed on flesh. CAR'OB-TREE, the Cerotonia Siliqua, a native of Spain, Italy, and the Levant. It is an evergreen, growing in the hedges, and produces long, flat, brown-coloured pods, filled with a mealy succulent pulp, of a sweetish taste. Though not accounted very v.'holesome, these pods are often eaten by the poorer classes in times of scarcity. CAROLIT'IC COLUMNS, in architec- ture, columns with foliated shafts, deco- rated with leaves and branches winding spirally around them, or forming crowns and festoons. CARO'LUS, a gold coin struck in the reign of Charles I. at that time valued at twenty shillings, but afterwards current at twenty-three. CAROT ID ARTERIES, in anatomy, two arteries in the neck, which convey the blood from the aorta to the brain. CARP, in ichthyology, a species of Cy- prinus, an excellent fish for ponds. These fishes breed rapidly, grow to a large size, and live to a great age. CARTASUS, in botany, a higlily poison- ous herb, resembling myrrh. CARPATH'ICUM, in medicine, a name for the fine essential oil distilled from the fresh cones of firs, c&c, CAR'PENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and joining timber, in the con- struction of buildings : it is subservient to architecture, and is divided into house-car- pentry and shi}i-cariientry. CAR'PENTER'S RULE, a tool generally used in taking dimensions, and casting up the contents of timber and the artificer's work. CARPE'SIUM, a genus of plants in the Linnaian system, class 19 Syngenesia, or- der 2 Folygamia supcrflua; one of the spe- cies of which is the well-known chry- santhemum. CAR'PET, a sort of stuff wrought either with the needle or the loom, and used as a covering for the floor. Persian and Turkish carpets are the most costly; but a variety of other kinds are used, many of which are both elegant and durable. CAR'POLITE, petrified fruits, the most remarkable of vihich are nuts converted into silex. CAR'PUS, in anatomy, the wrist. CAR'RACK, a large armed vessel em- ployed by the Portuguese in the East In- dia and IJrazilian trade. CARRA'GO, in the military art of the ancients, a barricade, made by carts and wagons, which the Gauls and other bar- barous nations put in the way to impede the progress of an enemy. CARRA'RA, a hard white kind of marble, somewhat resembling the Parian ; so called from the town of Carrara, where it was found. CAR'RICK-BITTS, in a ship, the bitts which support the windlass. Caruick- BEND, a particular kind of knot. CARRONA'DE, a short piece of ord- nance, having a large caliber, and a cham- ber for the powder, like a mortar. CARRU'CA, in antiquity, a splendid kind of chariot, or car on four wheels, ' which were made of brass, ivory, silver, and sometimes of gold. CARTE-BLANCIIE, a blank paper, sign- ed at the bottom with a person's name, and given to another person with permission to fill it up as he pleases ; applied gene- rally in the sense of unlimited terms being granted. THE ANCIENTS SUPPOSED DROWSINESS TO BE SEATED IN TUB CAROTID ARTERIES. THE YOUNGER SCIPIO DESTROTED CARTUAGB ; AUGUSTUS RBFEOPLED IT. car] '^i)z Scientific antr Xttcrar^ ^rcasunj ; L^^s CARTE, in fencing, a thrust with a sword at the inside of the upper part of the body. CARTEL, an agreement between two states for the exchange of their prisoners of war. A cartel-ship, a ship commis- sioned in time of war to exchange the pri- soners of any two hostile powers ; also to carry any particvilar request from one power to another. The officer who commands her is ordered to carry no cargo, ammunition, or implements of war, except a gun for the purpose of firing signals. CARTE'SIANS, those who adhere to the opinions of Des-Cartes. This philosopher has laid down two principles, the one me- taphysical, the other physical. The meta- physical proposition is this ; " I think, therefore I am:" the physical one, "No- thing exists but substance." Substance he makes of two kinds ; the one a substance that thinks, the other a substance extend- ed ; whence actual thought and actual ex- tension are the essence of substance. CARTHAGIN'IAN, a native of ancient Carthage, or something pertaining to that celebrated city, which was situated on the northern coast of Africa, about twelve miles from the modern Tunis. It was founded by the Phoenicians, and destroyed by the Ro- mans. CAR'THAMUS, in botany. Wild or Bas- tard Safiiron, a genus of plants, class 19 Syvgenesia, order 1 Polygamia aqualis. CARTHU'SIANS, a religious order, founded in the year 1080, by one Bruno. They received their name from Chartreuse, the place of their institution. They are so remarkable for their austerity, that they never leave their cells except to go to church, nor speak to any person without leave. CARTILAGE, or in common language gristle, a part of the animal body, harder and drier than a ligament, and softer than a bone ; its use is to render the articulation of the bones more easy. Of the cartilages that unite the bones togethei*, some join them so firmly, as to allow no sensible mo- tion ; and others, in such a manner, as to allow of different motions, as in those by which the bodies of the vertebrae are con- nected. The first grow easily hard, the other appear, in some measure, viscid, and retain their flexibility. C ARTILA'GINOUS FISHER, those hav- ing cartilaginous instead of bony skele- tons. Many of these are viviparous, as the ray and shark ; others oviparous, as the sturgeon. They are now subdivided into Branchiostegiscadi Chondropterygii. Car- tilaginous leaf, in botany, a leaf surrounded with a margin, thicker than the rest, but composed of the same substance CARTOON', a design drawn upon large sheets of paper for the purpose of being traced upon any other substance, where the subject is to be finished. The most celebrated cartoons in existence are those of Raphael, seven of which are at Hampton- Court, and were originally designed for tapestry. CARTOUCH', a case of wood holding about four hundred musket balls, besides iron balls, from six to ten, to be fired out of a howitzer. Also, a portable box for charges. In architecture, cartouches are blocks or modillions used in the cornices of wains- coted apartments: also ornaments repre- senting a scroll of paper. CARTRIDGE, a case of paper or parch- ment filled with gunpowder, and used in the charging of guns. The cartridges for small arms, prepared for battle, contain the powder and ball: those for cannon and mortars are made of pasteboard or tin. Cartridges without balls are called blank- cartridges. The cartridge-box is a case of wood covered with leather, with cells for cartridges, and worn upon a belt thrown over the left shoulder. CARTULARY, or CHARTULARY, a register-book, or record, as of a monastery. CAR'UCATE, in old deeds, as much land as one team can plough in a year. CAR'UNCLE, in surgery, a small fleshy excrescence, either natural or morbid. CARVING, the art of cutting wood into various forms and figures. CARYAT IDES, in architecture, columns or pillars shaped like the bodies of women, and in the dress of the Caryan people. They were erected as trophies, and intend- ed to represent the Carian women who were taken captives by the Athenians. Other female figures were afterwards used in the same manner, but they were called by the same name. CARYOPHYL'LEiE, the 22nd Linnsean natural order of plants, containing the pink, carnation, &c. CARYOPHYL'LEOUS, in botany, an epithet given to such flowers as have five petals with long claws, in a tubular calyx. CASAR'CA, in ornithology, a fowl of the genus anas, called also Ruddygoose, met with in Russia and Siberia. CASCA'DE, a small waterfall, either na- tural or artificial. The word is applied to such as are less than a cataract. CASCAI/HO, a deposit of gravel, sand, and pebbles, in which the diamond is found, CASCARIL'LA, in medicine, the word originally used to signify Peruvian bark, but which is now applied to the bark of the croton cascarilla, a very excellent tonic. CASE, the particular state, condition, or circumstances that befal a person, or in which he is placed. Also, any outside co- vering which serves to enclose a thing en- tirely, as packing-cases, or knife-cases. In carpentry, the case of a door is the wooden frame in which it is liung. laprinting, it is a frame of wood, with numerous small par- titions for the letters. Case, in grammar, implies the different inflections or termina- tions of nouns, serving to express the dif- ferent relations they bear to each other and the things they represent. Action on the case, in law, is an action in which the whole cause of complaint is set out in the writ. CA SE-HARDENING, a method of pre- paring iron, so as to render its outer sur- 116 THE SPLENDID CARTOONS OF RAPHAEL HAVE OFTEN BEEN ENGRAVED. CAs] THE CASSOWABTC CAN BUN SWIFTER THAN THE FLEETEST GREYHOUND. % iNetD ©ictionart) of tl)e IBellcs lllcttres. 1 CAS i face hard, and capable of resisting any edited tool. CA'SEIC-ACID, the acid of cheese, or a substance so called, extracted from cheese. CA'SEMATE, in fortification, a vault of mason's work in the flank of a bastion, next to the curtain, serving as a battery to defend the opposite bastion, and the moat. CA'SEMENT, a window that opens on hinges. Also, a hollow moulding. CASE-SHOT, musket balls, stones, old iron, &c., put into cases and discharged from cannon. CASH, money in hand, or ready money, distinguished from bills. CASH'EW-NUT, the Jnacardium, a West Indian tree, bearing a kidney- shaped nut. The fruit is as large as an orange, and full of an acid juice. To the apex of this fruit grows this nut, the shell of which is hard, and the kernel sweet. CASHIER', a person who is entrusted with the cash of some public company. In a banking estabhshment the cashier su- perintends the books, payments, and re- ceipts of the bank : he also signs or coun- tersigns the notes, and superintends all the transactions, under the order of the di- rectors. CASK'ET, the diminutive of cas^, a small chest or box, for jewels, &c. In seaman's language, it signifies a small rope, used to fasten the sail to the yard in furling. CASQUE, a piece of defensive armour, to cover and protect the head and neck in battle. CASS'ADA, or CASS'AVA, in botany, a plant of the genus jatropha, of diilerent species. The roots of the manihot, or bit- ter cassada, and of the janiitpa, are either made into a kind of bread, or roasted and eaten like potatoes by the natives of Africa and the West Indies. They yield also a great quantity of nutritive starch, which we know as the article called tapioca. CASSATION, Court op, one of the most important institutions of modern France, which gives to the whole jurisdiction of that country coherency and uniformity, without endangering the necessary independence of the courts. It was established by the first national assembly, and has been preserved, in every essential respect, under all the changes of the revolution and restoration. It properly signifies the annulling of any act or decision, if the forms prescribed by law have been neglected or justice has been perverted. CAS'SIA, (pron. cashia), in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia class of plants. It is divided into three species; the cassia fistula, the cassia lignea, and the cassia caryojihyllata. The first is the cassia of the shops, the soft fresh pulp of which is an excellent mild cathartic : it is given, with success, in inflammatory fevers, and in disorders of the breast, kidneys, and bladder. The cassia lignea, or cassia bark, much resembles the cinnamon : it is a sto- machic and cordial, but possesses these vir- tues in a less degree than cinnamon ; it is also used in the venice-treacle, mitliridate, &c. The cassia caryophyllata, or clove bark, is a stomachic, carminative, and alexi- pharmic. CAS'SIDA, a genus of insects, of the order of the CO- copter a. CAS'SIOBURY, in botany, a plant of the genus cassine, of which the most remarkable species is the Yapon of South America, whose berries are of a beautiful red colour. CASSIOPE'IA, a constellation in the northern hemisphere, situated opposite the Great Bear, on the other side the pole. In the year 15/2, a remarkable new star ap- peared in this constellation, surpassing Syrius or Lyra in brightness. It ajtpearcd larger than Jupiter, but after a few months it declined ; and in a year and a half entirely disappeared. CASSITE'RIA, a genus of crystals which appear to have an admixture of some par- ticles of tin. CAS'SOCK, the vestment worn by clergy- men under their gowns. CAS SOWARY, in ornithology, a large bird of the genus Strut hio, nearly the size of an ostrich, but with legs thicker and stronger. The wings are so small as not to appear, being hid under the feathers, and on the head is a kind of horny helmet. It runs with most surprising swiftness. CAST, among artists, any statue or part of a statue, of bronze, or of plaster-of-Paris. A cast is that which owes its figure to the mould into which the matter of it has been poured or cast while in a fluid state ; and thus differs from a model, which is made by repeated efforts with a ductile substance, as any adhesive earth ; and from a piece of sculpture, which is the work of the chissel. CASTANET'S, instruments formed of small concave shells of ivory or hard wood, fastened to the thumb and beat with the middle finger. The Spaniards and Moors use them as an accompaniment to their saraband dances and guitars. CASTA'NEA, in botany, the fruit of the chesnut-tree. CASTE, the general name for the tribes of various employment, into which the Hindoos are divided in successive gene- rations, and generations of families. The first caste is religious ; the second warlike ; the third commercial; and the fovirth la- bourers. Persons of the religious caste arc universally denominated bramins ; the sol- diers or princes are styled cattery or rajahs ; the traders, ckoutres or shuddery ; the loAvcst order, parias. CAS'TELLAIN, in feudal times, the owner, lord, or governor of a castle or for- tified place. CAS'TELLANY, the lordship belonging to a castle ; or the extent of its land and jurisdiction. CA'STING, with founders, the running of metal into a mould : among sculptors, it is the taking casts or impressions of figures, &c. riaster-of-Paris is the most usual material employed for this purpose. In natural history, the M ord casting is used for that process by which some animals throw the buds as well as the bark of the cassia tree ARE USED IN COOKERY. CATACOMBS STILL BXIST IN SYRIA, PEKSIA, AND OTHER PARTS OF THE EAST. cat] Scientific antJ ILiterart) ^rcasurt) ; [cat oflf their skins, horns, &c. when the old fall ofif to make room for the new. CAS TLE, a fortress or place rendered defenceable, either by nature or art. En- glish castles, waUed with stone, and de- signed for residence as well as defence, are for the most part of no higher date than the Conquest. Those previously erected had been suffered to fall into ruin; and many writers have assigned this circum- stance as a reason for the facility with which William the Norman made himself master of the country. It was the policy of this able general to build a considerable number ; and in process of time the mar- tial tenants of the crown erected them for themselves ; bo that toward* the end of Stephen's reign, we are told that there existed upwards of eleven hundred. At this period castles were an evil of the greatest magnitude to both the sovereign and the subject; considerable struggles appear to have taken place with regard to their continuance ; several were demolish- ed ; and their general decline commenced. A complete castle consisted of a ditch or moat, an outwork, called a barbican, which guarded the gate and drawbridge ; an arti- ficial mount; an outer and inner ballium or inclosure ; and the keep, or lofty tower, in which the owner or governor resided, and under which were the dungeons. Castle-guard, a feudal tenure, or knight service, which obliged the tenant to per- form service within the realm, without limitation of time. Castle-ward, an im- position laid upon subjects dwelling within a certain distance of a castle, for the pur- pose of maintaining watch and ward in the castle. CASTOR, in zoology, the Beaver. Also, a reddish-brown substance, of a strong pe- netrating smell, taken from bags in the groin of the beaver : it is a powerful anti- spasmodic. CAS'TORIN, or CAS'TORINE, in che- mistry, an animal principle discovered in castor when boUed in alcohol. CASTOR-OIL, in medicine, the oil of the Ricinus, or Falma Christi, a West Indian plant, and which is obtained from the nuts or seeds by expression or decoction. It is a mild and safe cathartic. CASTRATION, in botany, the cutting off of the anthers, or the tops of the sta- mens of flowers, before the ripening of the pollen. CAS'UISTRY, the science of resolving cases of doubtful propriety, or of deter- mining the lawfulness or unlawfulness of any act, by rules and principles drawn from the Scriptures, from the laws of society, or from reason. CA SUS FCED'ERIS, the case stipulated by treaty, or which comes witliin the terms of compact. CA'SUS OMIS'SUS, in law, where any particular thing is omitted, and not pro- vided for by the statute. CAT, a well known domestic animal, of the feline genus, but sometimes wild in the woods, and large and ferocious. Cat, a term for a ship usually employed in the coal trade. Also a sort of strong tackle for drawing up the anchor. It is also a military term for a kind of shed under which soldiers conceal themselves while filling up a ditch or mining a wall. CATABAPTIST, one who is averse to the Christian rite or ceremony of baptism. CATACHRE'SIS, in rhetoric, a trope which borrows the name of one thing to express another. Thus Milton, in de- scribing Raphael's descent from the em- pyreal heaven, says, " Down thither prone in flight He speeds, and thro' the vast ethereal sky Sails between worlds and worlds." So in Scripture we read of the " blood of the grape." A catechresis, in fact, is the abuse of a trope, or when a word is too far wrested from its original signification. CAT'ACOMB, a grotto or subterraneous place for the burial of the dead. It is ge- nerally applied to a vsist number of sub- terraneous sepulchres, in the Appian Way, near Rome; supposed to be the cells in which were deposited the bodies of the primitive Christian martyrs. But there are now many other catacombs, as at Paris, &c. CAT'AMOUNT, in zoology, the wild cat, or cat of the mountain, of North America. CATACLA'SIS, in medicine, a breaking or distortion in general; but particularly that of the eye. CATACOUSTICS, an appellation given to the doctrine of reflected sounds, called also cataphonics. CATADRO'MUS, in antiquity, the sta- dium, or place where races were run. CATAGMAnC, in anatomy, an epithet for that which has the quahty of promoting the union of fractured bones. CATALEP'SIS, or CATALEPSY, a kind of apoplexy, in which the patient is speech- less, senseless, and fixed in one posture, with his eyes open, though v/ithout seeing or understanding. C ATAL'PA, in botany, a South American tree, of the genus bignonia, or trumpet- flower, remarkable for its beautiful appear- ance when in blossom. CATAMARAN', a sort of floating raft, originally used in China as a fishing boat. CAT'APHRACT, in the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defensive armour, formed of cloth or leather, strengthened with scales or links, and used to defend the breast, or whole body, or even the horse as well as the rider. CAT'APLASM, a poultice applied to some part of the body, to excite or repel heat, or to relax the skin, &c. When mus- tard is an ingredient, it is called a sinapism. CATAPULTA, or CAT'APULT, in an- tiquity, a military engine used for throwing arrows, darts, and stones upon the enemy. Some of these engines would throw stones of a hundred weight. Josephus takes notice of the surprising effects of these engines, and says, that the stones thrown out of them beat down the battlements, knocked off the angles of the towers, and would level THK BONES OP TEN GENERATIONS ARE DEPOSITED IN THE CATACOMBS OF PARIS. A CATERPILLAR WILL IN ONE DAT CONSUME THREE TIMES ITS OWN WEIGHT. CA' T] 91 isTcfio Butionarw of i^z belles ICettus. CAT a whole file of men, from one end to the other. The catapulta differed from the balista, inasmuch as the latter threw stones only, whereas the former threw chief.y darts and javelins. CAT'ARACT, a great fall of water over a precipice in the channel of a river, caused by rocks or other obstacles stopping the course of the stream; as that of Niagara, the Nile, the Danube, and the Rhine. Cataract, in medicine, an affec- tion of the crystaline humour of the eye, or its capsule, which becomes so opaque as to prevent the rays of light from passing to the optic nerve. Incipient cataract, is only suf- fusion of sight when little clouds seem to float before the eye. Confirmed cataract, is when the apple of the eye is either wholly, or in part covered, so that the rays of light cannot pass to the retina. [For further information on this dreadful affliction, see " Stevenson on Cataract " : and for an effec- tual cure, consult the author of that work.] CATARRH', commonly denominated a Cold, is an increased secretion of mucus from the nose, fauces, and bronchise, with fever, cough, lassitude, &c. When a catarrh is epidemic, it is called the influenza. CATAS'TASIS, in poetry, the third part of the ancient drama, being that wherein the intrigue, or action, is supported and carried on, and heightened, till it be ripe for unravelling iu the catastrophe. CATAS'TROPHE, in dramatic poetry, the fourth and last part in the ancient drama, or that immediately succeeding the catastatis; and which consists in the un- folding and winding up of the plot, clearing up difficulties, and closing the play. CATCH, in music, is defined to be "a piece for three or four voices, one of which leads, and the others follow in the same notes." But perhaps it may be more cor- rectly described as a fugue in the unison, wherein to humour some conceit in the words, or to give them a different meaning, the melody is broken, and the sense is in- terrupted in one part, and caught and sup- ported by another. CATCH'-FLY, a well-known plant, having grass-like leaves, and a long stalk termi- nated bv a cluster of crimson flowers. CATECHISM, a form of instruction in religion, conveyed in questions and answers. The catechism of the Church of England originally consisted of no more than a repe- tition ol the baptismal vow, the creed, and the Lord's prayer ; but King James I. or- dered the bishops to add to it a short and plain explication of the sacraments. CAT'ECHIST, an officer in the primitive Christian church, whose business it was to instruct the catechumens in the first prin- ciples of religion, and thereby prepare them for the reception of baptism. CAT'ECHU,or Terra JAPONicA,a gum of a very astringent quality, obtained by decoction and evaporation from a spacies of Mimosa in India. It consists chiefly of tannin. CATECHU'MENS,anameformerlygiven in the Christian church, to such as were prepared to receive the ordinance of bap- tism. These were anciently the children of believing pai'ents, or pagans not fully ini- tiated in the principles of the Christian re- ligion ; and were admitted to this state by the imposition of hands and the sign of the cross. CAT'EGORY, in logic, a series or order of all the predicates or attributes contained under a genus. The school philosophers distributed all the objects of our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or classes, which classes the Greeks called categories, and the Latins predicaments. Aristotle made ten categories, viz., substance, quan- tity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, and habit. CATE'NA, in a general sense, denotes a chain. In anatomy, a name used by some for the muscle, more commonly called tibialis anticus. Catena Patrum, in matters of literature, a book containing the sentiments of the ancient Christian fathers, with respect to their doctrines. CATENA'RIA, or CAT'ENARY, in geo- metry, the curve which an extended rope forms by its own weight. CATERPILLAR, in entomology, the larva produced from the egg, which is transformed first into the chrysalis or nymph, and afterwards into the butterfly. Caterpillars generally feed on leaves or succulent vegetables, and are sometimes very destructive: they are furnished with several pairs of feet, and have the shape and appearance of a worm, variously co- loured, and often hairy. It is well known, that all winged insects pass through a rep- tile state before they arrive at perfection : this great change from a worm to a but- terfly was formerly esteemed a real meta- morphosis of one animal to another; but later discoveries have put it beyond all doubt, that the embryo butterfly, with all the lineaments of its parent, is contained within the external cases or coverings of the caterpillar, CAT'GUT, the name for the strings made of the intestines of sheep or lambs, used in musical instruments, &c. Great quantities are imported from Lyons and Italy. CATHARTICS, medicines which cleanse the stomach and bowels by acting as pur- gatives. CAT'- HEAD, in marine language, a strong beam projecting horizontally over a ship's bows. Cat-harpings, ropes serv- ing to brace in the shrouds of the lower masts behind their respective yards. Cafs paw, a light air perceived in a calm, by a rippling on the surface of the water. CATHEADS, two strong beams of tim- ber in a vessel, which serve to suspend the anchor clear of the bow. CATHEDRA, in archaeology, a term used to denote the pulpit, or the professor's chair. It originally signified any chair. Among ecclesiastical writers it denotes a bishop's see, or throne. Hence, ex cathe- dra is a phrase much used among the clergy of the Romish church, in relation to the solemn decrees of the pope. SCHOOLS FOR THE EDUCATION OV CHRISTIAN TEACHERS ARE CALLED CATECHETICAL. 119 THE CATHOLIC BELIEF BILL WAS CARRIED IN THE COMMONS: MAJORITY 178. cat] ^!)e Scientific anU XiterarB treasury ; [CAU CATHE'DRAL, the episcopal church, or a church where there is a bishop's seat or see. A cathedral was originally different from what it is now, the Christians, till the time of Constantinc, having no liberty to build any temple. By their churches they only meant their assemblies ; and by their cathedrals, nothing more than consisto- ries. CATHERINE-WHEEL, -n architecture, a large circular ornament in Gothic win- dow s. Also, a sort i f fire-works constructed in the form of > wheel, which is made to turn rour.d when it is let otF. CATH'ETER, in surgery, a tubular in- strument, usually made of silver, to be introduced into the bladder, in order to search for the stone, or discharge the urine when suppressed; also a bougie made of silver or caoutchouc. CATH'ETUS, in geometry, a line or ra- dius falling perpendicularly on another line or surface; as the two sides of a right- angled triangle. Catketus of incidence, in catoptrics, a right line di'awn from a point of the object, perpendicular to the reflect- ing line. Cathetus of reflection, or of the eye, a right line drawn from the eye, perpen- dicular to the reflecting line. Cathetus of ohliquation, a right line drawn perpendi- cular to the speculum, in the point of incidence or reflection. In architecture, a cathetus is a perpendicular line, supposed to pass through the middle of a cylindrical body, as a baluster, column, &c. CATH'OLIC, an epithet properly signi- fying universal. Originally this appellation was given to the Christian church in gene- ral, but now the Romish church assumes it exclusively to itself; whence the name of Roman Catholics has been applied, since the Reformation, to the followers of the Romish doctrine and discipline. In the strict sense of the word, there is no catholic church in being, that is, no universal Christian communion. Catholic Majesty, the title given to the king or queen of Spain. Catholic Priest, a clergyman or priest ordained to say mass and administer the sacraments, &c., according to the rites of the Romish church. Catholic Einanci- pafion, is the abolition of those civil and ecclesiastical restraints to which the Ca- tholics of Great Britain and Ireland were formerly subjected. The first step towards this took place in 1/93, when an act of par- liament was passed, which conferred the elective franchise on the Catholics, threw open to them all employments in the army in Ireland, and all offices in the navy. In 1801 the legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland took place; but though full emancipation had been promised, it was said, as a consequence of this union, it was not fulfilled; and many unsuccessful at- tempts were afterwards made to effect it. At length, in 1829 (April 10), a relief bill, abolishing the civil disabilities of Roman Catholics, by repealing the oaths of supre- macy, &c., was carried by the Wellington administration. By this bill, Catholics are eligible to all offices of state, excepting the lord-chancellorships of England and Ire- land, the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office of regent or guardian of the united kingdom, and that of high commissioner to the church of Scotland. CATHOL'ICON, a remedy for aU dis- eases ; a soft purgative electuary, so called, as being supposed an universal and effica- cious purge of all humours. CAT'KIN, in botany, a species of calyx, or rather of inflorescence, consisting of a long stem thickly covered with scales, under which are the flowers and the essential parts of the fruit ; so called from its resem- blance to a cat's tail. Catkins are to be found on the hazel, willow, birch, oak, poplar, &c. CATO'CHE, or CATO'CHUS, in medi- cine, a tetanus or spasmodic affection, by which the patient is rendered, in an in- stant, as immoveable as a statue, without either sense or motion, and continues in the same posture he was in at the moment he was seized. The proximate cause of this disease is the immobility of the common sensory, from the time of the first attack, and therefore is an absolute rest of the blood in the brain, of the glands of the brain, and of all its emissories. It seldom changes to any other disease, and some- times it has been succeeded by an epilepsy, convulsions, madness, or an atrophy, which has ended in death. CATO'DON, in ichthyology, a genus of cetaceous fishes ; the characters of which are these : they have no teeth in the upper jaw, nor any fin on the back. CATOP'SIS, in medicine, an acute and quick perception; particularly that acute- ness of the faculties which accompanies the latter stages of a consumption. CATOPTRIC S, that part of optics which explains the properties of reflected light, and particularly that which is reflected from mirrors. CAT'SILVER, a fossil, a species of mica. It is of three sorts, the yellow or golden, white or silverv, and the black. CATOP'TROMANCY, a species of divi- nation among the ancients, which was per- formed for the sick, by letting dow n a mir- ror, fastened by a thread, into a fountain before the temple of Ceres, to look at his face in it. If it appeared distorted and ghastly, it was a sign of death ; if fresh and healthy, it denoted a speedy recovery. CAT'S EYE, in mineralogy, a stone, or sub-species of quartz, very hard and trans- parent, of a glistening gray, with a tinge of green, yellow, or white. CAT'S-TAIL GRASS, a kind of reed, of the genus typha, bearing a spike, like the ^CATTLE, horned beasts, that feed in pasture, or generally all four-footed beasts that serve for domestic purposes. CAU'DEX, in botany, the stem of a tree. CAUK, a name given by miners to cer- tain specimens of the compact sulphate of barytes. The same word is sometimes given to masses composed of concentric lamellar concretions. THE CATHOLIC BELIEF BILL WAS CARRIED IN THE LORDS : MAJORITY 104. THE USB OP CAVALRY 13 OFTETf LIMITED BY THE NATURE OF THE GHOUJfD. CAU] [CAV CAU'DA, in astronomy, the Latin name for tail, wliich is prefixed to the names of several constellations, to denote certain stars in their tails; as Cauda Capricorni, Cauda Leonis, &c. CAUL, in anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen, covering the greatest part of the lower intestines, and usually furnished with a large quantity of fat. It is more pro- perly termed the omentum, or from its net- like structure, reticulum. The word caul is also used for a membrane which encom- passes the head of many new-born chil- dren, to which vulgar superstition ab- surdly annexes the charm of preservation from drowning. CAULES'CENT, in botany, having a stem different from that which produces the flower. Linnaeus applies this term to the root also, as in the turnip. CAULIFEROUS, an epithet given to such plants as have a perfect caulis or stem. CAUI/IFLOWERS, a much esteemed species of brassica, or cabbage. CAUL'INE, in botany, gi-owing imme- diately on the stem, without the interven- tion of branches; as a cauUne leaf, bulb, pedui;de, &c. CAU'LIS, in botany, the stalk of her- baceous plants : this in trees is called cau- dex, or the trunk ; and in grasses culmus, or the stem. CAUS'ALTY, among miners, the light earthy parts of ore, carried off by washing. CAUSAL'ITY, or CAUSA'TION, among metaphysicians, the action or power of a cause in producing its effect. CAUSE, that from whence anything proceeds, or by virtue of which anything is done : it stands opposed to effect. We get the ideas of cause and efltect from our ob- servation of the vicissitude of things, while we perceive some qualities or substances begin to exist, and that they receive their existence from the due application and ope- ration of other beings. That which pro- duces is the cause ; that which is produced, the effect. Causes are distinguished, by the schools, into efficient, material, final, and formal. Efficient Causes are the agents employed in the production of anything. Material Causes, the subjects whereon the agents work ; or the materials whereof the thing is produced. Final Causes are the motives inducing an agent to act: or the design and purpose for which the thing was done. Causes are again distinguished into physical and moral ; universal, or par- ticular ; principal, or instrumental : total, or partial ; univocal, equivocal, &c. Cause, among civilians, is the same ^vith action; denoting any legal process which a party institutes to obtain his demand, or by which he seeks his supposed ria-ht. CAU'SEWAT, or CAU'SEY, a way raised above the natural level of the ground, by stones, stakes, earth, or fascines; serving either as a road in wet marshy places, or to prevent a river from overflowing the lower grounds. It is also very generally used for a raised w^ay or path in any ordi- nary road. CAUS'TIC, in medicine, any substance of so hot a nature, that, being' applied, it corrodes and burns the texture of the parts. Caustics differ from cauteries in perform- ing their eflfccts slower, and with less force and pain. Lunar Caustic, a preparation of crystals of silver, obtained by solution in nitric acid, and afterwards fused in a cruci- ble. It is a nitrate of silver. Caustic Curve, in geometry, a curve formed by a coincidence of the rays of light, reflected from some other curve. CAUSTI"CITY, the quaUty of acting like fire on animal matter ; or of combining with the principles of organized substances, and destroying their texture — a quality be- longing to concentrated acids, pure alka- lies, and some metallic salts. CAU'TEllY, in surgerj', a medicine for burning, eating, or corroding any solid part of the body. The act of burning or searing- some morbid part is termed cauterization. CAUTIO'NE ADMITTEN'DA, inlaw, a writ which lies against a bishop that holds an excommunicated person in prison for contempt, after he has offered sufficient caution or security to obey the orders of the church. On receipt of this writ, the sheriff warns the bishop to take caution. CAVALCA'DE, a pompous procession of horsemen, equipages, &c., by way of parade to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like. CAVALIER', a gallant armed horseman. It was also an appellation given to the party of Charles I. to distinguish them from the parliamentarians, who were called Round-heads. In fortification, a w^ork raised within the body of a place, above the other works. CAVALRY, a body of soldiers on horse- back ; a general term for light-horse, dra- goons, lancers, and all other troops who are armed and mounted. Their chief use is to make frequent excursions to the dis- turbance of the enemy, and intercept his convoys; in battle, to support and cover the infantry, and to break through and dis- order the enemy. The use of cavalry is probably nearly as ancient as war itself. At the present day the cavalry is divided into light and heavy horse, which are em- ployed for different purposes. The heavy cavalry, with defensive armour (cuirassiers), is generally employed where force is requi- site ; the lighter troops are used in small detachments, where swiftness and conti- nued effort are required. CA'VA VE'NA, in anatomy, the largest vein in the body, descending from the heart. CA'VExiT, an entry in the spiritual courts, by which the probate of a will, let- ters of administration, licence of marriage, &c., may be prevented from being issued witliout the knowledge, and, if the reason be just, the consent of the party entering the caveat. CAVERN, a natural cavity, or deep hol- low place in the earth, arising either from arches accidentally made, or from streams of water flowing under ground. One of the grandest natural caverns known is Fingal's cave, in Staffa, one of the western islands TUa CAVES OF GYPSUM VERY OFTEN CONTAIN FOUL AIR. [M THE ALLIGATOR OF TUB WEST INDIES IS CALLED A " CATC MAN." ced] ^f)c Stkntific anti ILitcrarw ^reasurw ; Lcem of Scotland. The grotto of Antiparos, in the Archipelago, is celebrated for its mag- nificence. In some parts, immense co- lumns descend to the floor ; others present the appearance of trees and brooks turned to marble. The Peak Cavern, in Derby- shire is also a celebrated curiosity of this kind. It is nearly half a mile in length, and, at its lowest part, GOO feet below the surface. Many caves are formed by the lava of volcanoes. In the Cevennes moun- tains, in France, are caverns and grottoes of great extent, and which abound in objects of curiosity. But the largest we read of is the cavern of Guacharo, in South America, which is said to extend for leagues. CAVIARE, (pron. caveer'J the spawn or hard roes of sturgeon, made into cakes, salted and dried in the sun, much used in Russia, and other parts of the continent. CAVET'TO, in architecture, a hollow member, or round concave moulding, con- taining the quadrant of a circle ; and used as an ornament in cornices. CAV'EZON, a sort of nose-band, either of iron, leather, or wood, sometimes flat, and at other times hollow or twisted, which is put on the nose of a horse, to wring it, and thus to forward the suppling and breaking of him. CAV'IN, in military affairs, a natural hollow sufiiciently capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their ap- proach to a place. CAV'OLINITE, a newly- discovered mi- neral, occurring in the interior of calcareous balls, &c. CAY'ENNE PEPPER, a pungent ingre- dient in soups and highly-seasoned dishes, made from the fruit of diflferent species of capsicum, which when ripe, is gathered, dried in the sun, and then pounded. It is eaten both with animal and vegetable food, and is mixed, in gi*eater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of sauces. It is used also in medicine as a stimulant, and is said to have been found efficacious in many gouty and paralytic affections. CE'DRAT, in botany, a species of citron- tree. CE'DRIA, or CE'DRIUM, a resinous liquor, issuing from the great cedar tree, or cedar of Lebanon. It yields a strong smell, is transparent, and of a thick unctuous consistence. It is possessed of two oppo- site qualities, viz. to preserve dead bodies, by its drying and consuming superfluous moisture, without damaging the solid parts ; and to putrify the soft and tender parts of living bodies, without exciting pain. CE'DRUS, the CE'DAR, in botany, is an evergreen tree, growing to a great size, and remarkable for its durability. Cedar- wood, which is of a fragrant smell and fine grain, is almost incorruptible by reason of its bitterness, which renders it distasteful to worms. Historians tell us, that some of this timber was found in the temple of Apollo at Utica, two thousand years old. The cedars of Lebanon are famous, as having been used by Solomon in building the temple of Jerusalem. CEIL'ING, in architecture, the upper part or roof of a room, being a lay or cover- ing of plaster over laths, nailed on the bot- tom of the joists which bear the floor of the upper room, or on joists put up for that purpose where there is no upper room, hence called ceiling joists. CEL'ARENT, in logic, a mode of syllo- gism, wherein the major and conclusion are universal negative propositions, and the minor an universal affirmative ; as " No man that is a hypocrite can be saved: Every man who with his lips only cries Lord, Lord, is a hypocrite: Therefore, no man, who with his lips only cries Lord, Lord, can be saved." CEL'ERES, in Roman antiquity, a regi- ment of body guards belonging to the Ro- man kings, established by Romulus, and composed of 300 young men chosen out of the most illustrious Roman families, and approved by the suffrages of the curiae of the people, each of which furnished ten. CELESTIAL, in its first and obvious sense, denotes something pertaining to, or dwelling in heaven. In mythology, the term is applied to the residence of the gods, supposed to be in the clouds or stars ; and hence the space in which the stars are situ- ated are commonly called the celestial spaces. CEL'ESTINE, in mineralogy, native sul- phate of strontian ; it receives its name from its occasionally being of a delicate blue colour. CEL'ESTINS, a religious order of Chris- tians, reformed from the Bernardins by Pope Celestin V. The Celestins rise two hours after midnight to say matins ; they eat no flesh at any time, except when sick, and fast often. Their habit is a white gown, a capuche, and a black scapulary. CELEUS'MA, in antiquity, a naval shout serving as a signal for the mariners to ply their oars, or to cease from rowing. It was also made use of to signify the joyful accla- mation of vintagers, and the shouts of the conquerors over the vanquished. CELIB'ACY, an unmarried or single state of bfe, to which, according to the doctrine, or at least the discipline of the church of Rome, the clergy are obliged to conform. CELL, in its first and obvious sense, a small, close apartment, as in a prison ; and in a less restricted sense, it denotes any small cavity or hollow place ; as the cells of the brain, the cells of a honeycomb, &c. -—In anatomy, a little bag or bladder, con- taining fluid or other matter ; as the adi- pose cells, containing fat. In botany, a hollow place in a capsule, in which seeds are lodged. CEL'LULAR MEMBRANE, a net-work of fine threads, the masses of which are filled with thin plates of fat or fluid, and which membrane surrounds every muscle, artery, vein, nerve, and organ of the body. CELTIC, pertaining to the Celts, or pri- mitive inhabitants of Britain, Gaul, Spain. Thus we say Celtic cuttoms, Celtic origin, Celtic remains, &c. CEM'ENT, any glutinous or other sub- SEVKRAL AMERICAN INDIAN CHIEFS ABB CALLED " CAZIQUES. WHITE PAINT, MASTIC AND SHEIL-LAC ABB USED AS CEMENTS FOB CHINA. cem] [c stance having the quality of uniting bodies in close cohesion, as mortar, glue, &c. Fi- guratively, a bond of union between per- sons. CEMENTA'TION, in chemistry, the act of applying cements to substances so as to corrode or change them ; which is done by surrounding them with the powder of an- other body, and exposing them, in a close vessel, to a heat not sufficient to fuse them. Cementation, in the arts, is a general method of forming steel from iron, by means of the application of charcoal. In a pro- per furnace layers of bars of malleable iron and layers of charcoal are placed one upon another, the air excluded, the tire is raised to a great height, and kept up for eight or ten days. If after this the conversion of the iron into steel be complete, the fire is extinguished, and the whole is left to cool for six or eiglxt days longer. Iron prepared in this manner is named blistered steel, from the blisters which appear on its sur- face. Copper is converted into brass by ce- mentation with the powder of calamine and charcoal. CEM'ETERY, a repository for the dead. Among modern improvements, perhaps few are more deserving of commendation than the custom, recently introduced, of appro- priating an eligible spot of ground, at a convenient distance from populous towns, for the purpose of human interment. Who is there, for instance, that has observed the neatness, order, and quietude which cha- racterise the cemetery at Kensall Green (a few miles to the north-west of London), and does not rejoice that the indecent prac- tice of piling coffin upon coffin in the noi- some churchyards of a crowded city, is likely in a few years more to be remem- bered only as a relic of barbarism. There is, indeed, a suitable solemnity about the hallowed precincts of a country church — the unaspiring fane, the aged yew-trees, and the artless tributes to departed worth. There undisturbed the ashes of our fathers rest, — there no other cemetery is needed : but amid the crowded haunts of man, where the population is dense, and all around teems with the noise and bustle of com- mercial enterprize, the sensitive mind re- coils, almost with horror, at the idea of swe/t a spot being made a receptacle for the mouldering remains of frail mortality. Although the idea of public cemeteries did not originate with us, it is pleasing to know that the example set in the metropolis is rapidly extending to other large places, and that the feeling which at first existed against them is fast subsiding. Reason has in this instance triumphed over prejudice : and though we are not very anxious to see the generality of Parisian customs followed, we are not the less disposed to adopt any which come so powerfully recommended as that of their interesting cemetery, Pere La- chaise. This city of the dead is situated on a rising ground in the north-west part of Paris, and from it you look down on the gayest scene in the world ! It contains a great variety of tombs, and funereal monu- ments of every style; some simple and un- affected; others elaborate both in work- manship and in the praise of those for whom they were erected ; while many re- cord not even the names of those whose bones repose beneath. CEN'OTAPH, in antiquity, an empty tomb, erected in honour of the deceased, and differing from a sepulchre, in which the body was actually deposited. CEN'SER, in the religious rites of the ancients, was a vase, containing incense to ibe used in sacrificing to the gods. Censers were likewise in use among the Jews, as we find in the 1 Kings vii. 50. " Solomon, when he prepared furniture for the temple of the Lord, among other things made cen- sers of pure gold." CEN'SOR, an officer in ancient Rome, whose business it was to reform the man- ners and to value the estates of the people. At first they were chosen out of the senate, but after the plebeians had got the consu- late open to them, they soon arrived at the censorship. Cicero reduces their functions to the numbering of the people, the cor- rection and reformation of manners, the es- timating the effects of each citizen, the pro- portioning of taxes, the superintendence of tribute, the exclusion from the temples, and the care of the public places. The office was so considerable, that none as- pired to it till they had passed all the rest. CEN'SURE, a judgment which con- demns some book, person, or action, or more particularly a reprimand from a supe- rior. Ecclesiastical Censures are penal- ties by which, for some striking mal-con- duct, a member of a church is deprived of the communion of the church, or prohi- .bited from executing the sacerdotal office. CEN'SUS, in Roman antiquity, an au- thentic declaration made before the cen- sors, by the several subjects of the empire, of their respective names and places of abode. This declaration was registered by the censors, and contained an enumeration of all their estates, lands, and inherit- ances, their quantity and quality, with the wives, children, domestics, tenants, and slaves of each citizen. The census was in- stituted by Servius Tullius, and was held every five years. The word Census is still used to signify an enumeration of the inha- bitants of any kingdom or state, taken by order of its legislature. CENT, from centum, " a hundred," is used in commercial concerns to signify a hundred pounds. A profit of 10 per cent. is the gain of \0l. by the use of IQOl. CEN'TAUR, in classic antiquity, a mon- ster, half man and half horse. It is inti- mated by Virgil, and generally believed, that the Centaurs were a tribe of Lapithse, who inhabited the city of Pelethronium, adjoining to Mount Pelion, and who first broke and rode upon horses. Nations to whom the sight of a man on horseback was new, believed, as did the Americans of the Spaniards, the horse and his rider made but one animal. CEN'TAURY, the name of a plant, and THE THINNEB THE STRATUM OF CEMENT, THE FIBMEB IT WILIi HOLD. cen] THE BITE OF SOME "CENTIPEDES IN WAKM CLIMATES IS POISONOUS. Vll)z Scientific antf lEiteraii) Crcasury ; [cer a genus of plants, of numerous species ; the lesser centaury is a species of pen- tiana. CENTENARY, the number of a hun- dred, or pertaining thereto. Hence the epithet centennial for what regularly occurs once in a century. CENTESIMA'TION, a militaiy punish- ment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, &c., when every hundredth man is selected for execution. CENTIFO'LIOUS, in botany, an epithet for having a hundred leaves. CENTINO'PIA, in botany, a herb so called from its having many knobs or joints : the Tolygonum of Linnseus. CEN TIPEDE, an insect having a hun- dred feet. In entomology, insects of the genus Scolopendra, all of which have nu- merous feet. CEN'TO, in poetry, a work wholly com- posed of verses or passages, promiscuously taken from other authors, and disposed in a new order. CENTRAL FIRE, a supposed perpetual fire, which, according to the theory of some philosophers, exists in the centre of the earth, and to which, in ancient times, vol- canoes and other similar phenomena were attributed. CENTRE, or CENTER, a point equally distant from the extremties of a line, fi- gure, or body. Centre of gravity, that point about which all the points of a body, in any situation, exactly balance each other. Centre of motion, the point which remains at rest, while all the other parts of a body move round it. CENTRIF'UGAL FORCE, the tendency with which bodies restrained in circular motion, endeavour to fly in a tangent to the periphery of the curve. CENTRIP'ETAL FORCE, the tendency with which bodies move, or endeavour to move, towards the centre of a system of bodies. Such is gravity, or that force whereby bodies tend towards the centre of the earth ; magnetical attraction, whereby the load-stone draws iron ; and that force, whatever it be, v.hereby the planets are continually drawn back from right-lined motions, and made to move in curves. CENTUM'VIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges appointed to decide common causes among the people. Three were chosen out of each tribe ; and though there were five more than ahundi'cd, they were nevertheless called centumviri, from the round number centum. CENTU'RION, among the Romans, an officer in the infantry, M'ho commanded a century, or a hundred men. The Roman legions were, in fact, divided into centuries. CENTURY, in ageneral sense, denotes a hundred ; or anything divided into or con- sisting of a hundred parts. The Roman people, when they v. ere assembled for the electing of magistrates, enacting of laws, or deliberating upon any public affair, were always divided into centuries ; and voted by centuries, in order that their suffrages might be the more easily collected ; whence these assemblies were called comitia centuriata. This mode of dividing the Roman people was introduced by Servius Tullius : the first class contained eighty, to which were added the eighteen centuries of the knights ; the three following classes had each twenty centuries, the fifth thirty, and the sixth only one century. In chronology, it means the space of one hundred years ; and this is the most common signification of the word. As we begin our common com- putation of time from the incarnation of Christ, the word is generally applied to some term of a hundred years subsequent to it. CEPHAL IC, an epithet for medicines which are good for the head- ache. CEPH'EUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere. CE'PHUS, a fowl of the duck kind; also the Mona, a species of monkey. CERAM'BYX, in entomology, a genus of beetles, whose antennee are long and setaceous, and the thorax oblong and rounded. Under this genus is compre- hended the capricorn-bcetle, and a number of other species. CERASTIUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria-2Jentagyitia class of plants, the flower of which consists of five bifid petals ; and its fruit is a long unilocular pod, containing rramerous roundish seeds. CER'ASIN, any gummy substance which swells in cold water, but does not readily dissolve in it. CER'ASITE, a petrifaction resembling a cherry. CERASTES, in zoology, the name of a serpent, of the genus Coluber, which the ancients supposed to have horns. CE'RATE, in medicine, a composition made of oil, wax, and ether ingredients; used externally in several diseases, where plasters ai'e necessary. CERATITES, the fossil unicorn; a stone in the shape of a horn. CERATOGLOS'SUS, in anatomy, the name of a pair of muscles, serving to draw the tongue directly into the mouth; but if only one of them acts, it draws the tongue to one side of the mou.th. CERATO'IDES, in anatomy, a name for the tunica cornea of the eye. CERATOPHYL'LUM, in botany, a genus of perennial plants, of the moncccia-polyan- dria class. CERAU'NIA, in mineralogy, thunder- stones ; a variety of the helintholithus nau- antes of Linnaeus. CERAU'NIUM, in botany, a kind of fungus which, according to l?iiny, grov/s plentifully after thunder. CER'BERA, in botany, a genus of the iyentandria-monogynia class of plants, the corolla of which consists of a single funnel- shaped petal; the fruit is a large, round, fleshy drupe, marked with a longitudinal furrow on the side, and containing two cells, in each of which is a single seed, or nut. The species are all shrubs. CER'CHNOS, in medicine, a wheezing noise made in respiration, owing to some disorder in the larynx, &c. THE IDEA OP A "CENTRAL FIRE" HAS LONG BEEN EXPLODED. THE "CEKEBBUM" MAT BB PRESSED OR CUT WITHOUT PAIN. cer] 'U'Nm ©utionarp of tf)c belles lEcttres. [CES CERE A'L I A, in antiquity, feasts of Ceres, instituted by Triptolemus of Eleusis, in Attica. These feasts were celebrated with religious purity; but the votaries of the goddess ran about with lighted torches, in commemoration of her search after her daughter Proserpine. The word also was used to denote all sorts of corn of which bread is made. CEREBEL'LUM, the part of the brain in the back of the skull, divided into two lobes ; and the part which, when taken away or injured, deprives the animal of the power of volition. CER'EBRUM, that part of the brain which occupies the front and top of the skull ; and which, when removed or injured, deprives the animal of sensation. CER'EMONY, an assemblage of several actions, forms, and circumstances, serving to render a thing more magnificent and solemn ; particularly used to denote the external rites of religious worship, the formality of introducing ambassadors to audiences, &c. Master of the Ceremonies, an officer instituted by James I. for the more honourable reception of ambassadors and strangers of quality, and for the regu- lation of all matters of etiquette in the as- semblies over which they preside. CER'EOLITE, in chemistry, a substance which in appearance and softness resembles wax ; sometimes mistaken for steatite. CE'RES, a small planet, which revolves round the sun in four years, seven months, and ten days, at the distance of 260,000,000 of miles. CE REUS, or Creeping Cbreus, aplant classed by Linnaeus under the genus Cactus. There are several kinds remarkable for the sweetness and beauty of their flowers. CE'RIN, in chemistry, a peculiar sub- stance which precipitates on evaporation from alcohol, which has been digested on grated cork. CERIN'THIANS, the followers of Ce- rinthus, one of the first heresiarchs in the church. They denied the divinity of Christ, but they held that a celestial virtue de- scended on him at his baptism in the form of a dove, by which he was consecrated and made Christ. CE'RITE, the siliceous oxyde of cerium; a rare mineral, of a pale rose red colour, with a tinge of yellow. CE'RIUM, a recently discovered metal, of a flesh-red colour, semi-transparent, and which becomes friable from heat, but does not melt. Cerium combines with several acids, and forms salts, as the nitrate of cerium, ^c. CERO'MA, an ointment made of oil and wax, with which the ancient wTestlers rubbed themselves to render their limbs more pliant. CER'THIA, the Creeper, in ornithology, a species of ispida, a bird, with a yellowish brown back, variegated with white, and a white breast. CERTIFICATE, in a general sense, a tes- timony given in writing to declare or certify the truth of anything. Of these there are many which are requisite in almost every profession, but more particularly in the law and in the army. CERTIORA'RI, a writ issuing out of some superior court, to call up the records of an inferior court, or remove a cause there depending, that it may be tried in a superior court. CER'OMANCY, an ancient mode of divi- nation, by means of dropping melted M-^ax in water, and observing the shapes, &c. it assumed. CERU'MEN, the wax, or viscid yellow liquid which flows from the ear, and hardens on exposure to the air. CER'USE, CE'RUSS, or White Lead, a carbonate or calx of lead, made by exposing plates of that metal to the vapour of vinegar. Ceruse of antimony is a white oxyde of antimony, which separates from the wacer in which diaphoretic antimony has been washed. CER'VUS, the Stag or Deer, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds of the order pecora. They have deciduous horns, at first hairy, afterwards naked and smooth ; and there is only one dog-tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which is placed at a distance from the other teeth. Under this genus are comprehended the camelopard, the elk, the rein-deer, the goat, the stag, and the fallow-deer. CER'VUS VO'LANS, in entomology, the name of the stag-horned beetle, a remark- ably large species of beetle, with its horns deeply jagged or ramified, somewhat like those of a stag. CESSATION OF ARMS, an armistice or occasional truce, agreed to by the com- manders of armies, to give time for a ca- pitulation, or for other purposes. CESSA'VIT, in law, a writ to recover lands, when the tenant or occupier has ceased for two years to perform the service which constitvites the condition of his tenure, and has not sufficient goods or chattels to be distrained. CES'SION, in a general sense, a sur- render ; but particularly a surrender of conquered territory to its former proprietor or sovereign by treaty. Cession, in the civil law, is a voluntary surrender of a person's effects to his creditors, to avoid imprisonment. In the ecclesiastical law, when an ecclesiastical person is created a bishop, or when a parson of a parish takes another benefit without dispensation, their first benefices become void by cession, without resignation. A cessionary bank- rupt is one who has given up his estate to be divided among his creditors. CES'TRUM, in botany, a genus of plants, class 5 Pentandria, order 1 Monogynia, of which there are many species, all of them shrubs, and nearly all natives of South America and the West India Islands. CES'TUS, a girdle said to be worn by Venus, to which Homer ascribes the power of exciting love towards the wearer. It was also a marriage girdle, richly studded, with which the husband girded his wife at the wedding, and loosed again at night. LEAD 13 SOMETIMES FOUND NATIVE IN THE FORM OP " CERUSE." IMS THE CHALDEANS FOUNDED THE BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN EMPIRES. cha] '^Ijz Scientific antf Xitcraru ^Urcasury ; CE'TATE, in chemistry, a compound of cetic acid, with a base. CE'TE, an order of animals in the Lin- na;an system, including such as have breathing apertures on the head, tail hori- zontal, and pectoral tins instead of feet; as the dolphin, porpoise, and grampus, &c. Cetaceous fish suckle their young like land animals. CE'TIC ACID, in chemistry, a white solid substance, tasteless and inodorous, formed from spermaceti. CETOL'OGIST, one who is versed in the natural history of the whale and its kindred animals. CE'TUS, in astronomy, the Whale, a large constellation of the southern hemisphere, containing 97 stars. CEY'LANITE, in mineralogy, an argilla- ceous kind of stone, found in the island of Ceylon. Its colour is a dark blue. CHAB'ASITE, in mineralogy, a precious stone, white and sometimes transparent : a kind of zeolite. CIIA'FERY, aforge in an iron mill, where the iron is hammered into bars, and brought to perfection.. CHA'1'"E-WAX, an officer of the chancery court, who fits the wax for sealing Mrits, &c. CHAFF, in husbandry, the dry calyx of corn, that is separated from it by screening or Avinnowing. The word is sometimejj used to denote straw or hay cut small for the food of cattle. CIIAF'FIKCH, in ornithology, the Eng- lish name of the fringilla, a well-known bird, with an iron-coloured breast, and black wings spotted with white. CHAIN, a series of connected rings, or links fitted into one another. Chains are made of various metals, sizes, and forms, suited to different purposes. In suney- ing, a chain is a measure of length, made of a certain number of links of iron wire, serving to measure a certain quantity of ground. Gunter's chain consists of a hun- dred such links, each measuring 7-92 inches, and consequently equal to 66 feet or 4 poles. In nautical language, chaiva are strong links or plaits of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through a ship's sides to the timbers. Chain-boat, a large boat fitted for getting up mooring chains, an- chors, &c. Chain-shot, two balls con- nected by a chain : they are used at sea for cutting the shrouds and rigging of a ship. A chain-pumjJ consists of a long chain, equipped with a sufficient number of valves, moving on two wheels ; and is managed by a long winch, on which several men may be employed at the same time. Chain-v>ales of a ship, are broad and thick planks pro- jecting from a ship's side, abreast of and behind the masts. A top-chain, onboard a ship, is a chain to sling the sail-yards in time of battle, to prevent their falling, when the ropes that support them are shot away. Chain-work, work consisting of threads, cords, and the like, linked together in the form of a chain, as tambour or net-work, &c. CHAIR, (cathedra), was anciently the suggcstum, or pulpit, whence the priest or public orator spoke to the people. [See Cathedra.] It is still applied to the place whence professors in universities deliver their lectures ; thus we say, the professor's chair. It is commonly used for a speaker or president of a public council or assembly, as the speaker's chair; and by a metonymy, the speaker himself; as, to address the chair. Chair, among the Roman Catholics, certain feasts held anciently in commemo- ration of the translation of the see or seat of the vicarage of Christ by St. Peter. Curule Chair, in Roman antiquity, an ivory seat placed on a car, Avherein were seated the chief magistrates of Rome, and those to whom the honour of a triumph was granted. CIIALA'ZA, among naturalists, a white knotty string at each end of an egg, whereby the yolk and white are connected together. In medicine, it is a disorder in the eye- lids, well known by the name of a sti/e. CHALCAN'THA, in natural history, a kind of compound salts, of a coarse and irregular structure, hard, and naturally im- pure and opaque. CIIAL'CEDONY, or CAL'CEDONY, in mineralogy, a genus of semipellucid gems, of an even and regular texture, of a semi- opaque crystaline basis, and variegated with different coloured cloudy spots. It occurs in small veins, or in cavities of other minerals, and appears to have been formed by the filtration of siliceous matter. Under it may be grouped common chalcedony, heliotrope, cameiian, chrysoprase, onyx, sardonyx, and sard. CIIAL'CEDONYX, a variety of agate, in which white and gray layers alternate. CIIAL'CITE, in chemistry, sulphate of iron, of a red colour, so far calcined as to have lost a considerable part of its acid. CHAL'CIS, in ichthyology, a fish of the turbot kind. In entomology, a class of insects, order hipnenoptera. CHALCID'ICUM, in ancient architec- ture, a magnificent hall belonging to a tribunal or court of iustice. CHALDEE', or CHALDA'IC, the lan- guage spoken by the Chaldeans, or people of Chaldea: it is a dialect of the Hebrew. C HAL 'ICE, the communion cup, or vessel used to administer the wine in the sacrament of the eucharist. CHALI'ZA, in Hebrew antiquity, the ceremony whereby a woman, left a widow, pulled off her brother-in-law's shoes, who should have espoused her after which she was at liberty to marry whom she pleased. CHALK, in natural history, a well known calcareous earth, of an opaque white colour, found in hard masses, and called creta and terra creta. Chalk thrown into water, raises a great number of bubbles, with a hissing noise, and slowly diffuses itself into an im- palpable powder. It contains a large por- tion of carbonic acid, and is a subspecies of carbonate of lime. Black chalk, is a kind of ochreous earth, of a close structure. 126 THE CHALDEANS TAUGHT THAT THE DEITY IS PURE ETHEREAL FIRE, OR LIGHT. THK CREAMING OR SLIGHTLY-SPARKLING CHAMPAGNE WINES ARB THE BEST. cha] 'Nm JBictionar^ of tl)z ISeUcs Xcttrcs. [cha and fine black colour, used in drawing upon blue paper. Red Chalk, an indurated clayey ochre, used by painters and arti- ficers. CIIAL'LENGE, in a general sense, a summons to fight, whether in a duel or in a pugilistic coutcst. In law, an exception to jurors, made by the party put on his trial ; or the claim of a party that certain jurors shall not sit in trial upon him or his cause. The right of challenge is given both in civil and criminal trials, and extends either to the whole panel, or only to particular jurors. In criminal cases, a prisoner may challenge twenty jurors, without assigning a cause ; which is called a peremi^tory challenge. CHALYB'EATE, an epithet for waters in which iron forms the principal ingredient, as the waters of Tonbridge Wells. Chaly- beates act chiefly as absorbents and deob- struents. The action of the particles of a chalybeate, by their elasticity, together with the momentum they give the blood by their ponderosity, makes it not only pre- ferable to most other deobstruents, but also proper in other cases ; especially where there is a viscidity of the juices, the blood impoverished, or the circulation languid. CHAM, or KHAM, the title of the sove- reign prince of Tartary. It is likewise ap- plied to the p)incipal noblemen of Persia. CHA'MA, a bivalve shell, inhabited by a polype, sometimes weighing 600 pounds. Among a great many elegant species of this genus, we may reckon the concha veneris, or Venus's shell, v>'ith a spinose edge; the agate-chama; and the ziczak chnma. In zoology, a sort of wolf in Ethic pia, spotted like a panther. CHAMA'DE, in war, a signal made by beat of drum or sound of trumpet, for a con • ference with the enemy, either to invite to a truce, or to propose a capitulation. CHAM'BER, in building, any room sitvi- ated between the lowermost and uppermost rooms. Chamber, in polity, the place where certain assemblies are held ; also the as- semblies themselves. Of these some are established for the administration of jus- tice, others for commercial affairs. In many languages, chamber is used to desig- nate a branch of government whose mem- bers assemble in a common apartment. ' Privy -chamber. Gentlemen of the privy- chamber are servants of the king, who are to wait and attend on him and the queen at court. In gunnery, that part of a mor- tar or great gun, as far as the powder and shot reach when it is loaded. A i^owder- chamber is a place under-ground for holding powder, &c., that it maybe secure from the rain or damp. The chamber of a mine, is a place generally of a cubical form, where the powder is confined. The chamber of a lock, is the space between the gates of a lock in a canal, in which the barge rises and sinks, so as to pass the lock. CHAM'BERLAIN, in a general sense, is a person who has the management and di- rection of a chamber, or chambers.' The Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain is the siith high officer of the crown, to whom belongs various duties on the coronation day ; and to whom also appertains many privileges, lie has to provide all things in the House of Lords during the sitting of Parliament, and the government of the pa- lace of Westminster ; and under him are the gentlemen usher of the black rod and other officers. The office is hereditary. • The Lord Chamberlain of the Household is an officer who has the oversight and direction of all officers belonging to the king's cham- bers, except the precinct of the king's bed- chamber. The Chamberlain of London is the officer who keeps the city money, pre- sides over the affairs of citizens and their apprentices, and presents the freedom of the city to those who have faithfully served their apprenticeships. CHAM'BERS, rooms or apartments be- longing to tlie inns of court. In anatomy, two spaces between the crystaline lens and the cornea of the eye, divided off by the iris. CHAMBRE ARDENTE, (French, bnm- iny chamber), a chamber hung with black cloth, in which state prisoners in France, if of high rank, were tried by torch-light. When Francis II., in the IGth century, es- tablished a court to try the Protestants, who were u^sually condemned to be biirned, the people called this court by the same name, in allusion to its awful sentences. CHAME'LEON, a reptile of the lizard tribe, about twelve inches long, including the tail. It feeds on insects, and from the capacity of its lungs, is enabled to expand its skin, and thereby varying the angle of reflected light, changes its colour to a spec- tator. Its natural colour in the shade, and at rest, is said to be a bluish gray. It is a native of Asia and Africa. Various poets and fabulists have, at diff'erent periods, con- tributed to its celebrity, and, by inaccurate or fanciful representations, have rendered it far more of a prodigy than nature ever intended it to be. Chameleons are all ex- ceedingly slow, dull, and almost torpid. The only part they move with celerity is their long tongue, which is covered at its extremity with a viscid mucus, and is darted out for the purpose of capturing insects, upon which the animal subsists. CIIAM'OIS, or, the Wild Goat, an ani- mal which inhabits the Alpine mountains, having horns erect, round and smooth. Its skin is made into soft leather, called shammy. CIIAM'OMILE, an odoriferous plant, which has a very bitter taste, but many medicinal virtues. CIIAMPA'GNE, a fine brisk kind of French wine, so called from Champagne, a former province of France. CHAM'PERTY, in law, a bargain made with either plaintiff or defendant in any suit, for giving part of the land, debt, &c., sued for, to the party who undertakes the process at his own expense. CHAM'PION, a person who undertakes a combat in the place of another: some- times the word is used for him wlio fights in his own cause. In ancient times, when tvvo champions were chosen to maintain a PVELL-MADE CHAMPAGNE WILL KEEP FROM TEN TO TAVENTY YEARS. THE CHANCELLOR OF THE BXCHEQUEB IS THE CHIEF MINISTER OF FINANCE. cha] ^i)e Scientific anU HCitcrarp ^rcasurp ; [CHA cause, it was always required that there should be a decree of the judge to authorise the combat: when the judge had pro- nounced sentence, the accused threw a gage or pledge, originally a glove or gant- let, which being taken up by the accuser, they were both taken into safe custody, till the day of battle appointed by the jvtdge. Before the champions took the field, their heads were shaved to a kind of crown or round, which was left at the top: they then made oath that they believed the per- son who retained them to be in the right, &c. They always engaged on foot, and with no other weapon than a club and a shield; and they always made an offering to the church, that God might assist them in the battle. Champion of the Kino (or Queen), an officer who rides armed into Westminster Hall on the coronation, while the sovereign is at dinner, and by herald makes proclamation, " That if any man shall deny the king's (or queen's) title to the crown, he is there ready to defend it in single combat:" which being done, the sovereign drinks to him, and then presents him with the cup for his fee. CHAN'CEL, that part of the choir of a church between the altar and the balus- trade that incloses it, where the minister is placed at the celebration of the commu- nion. The Chancel is also the rector's free- hold and part of his glebe, and therefore he is obliged to repair it; but where the rectory is impropriate, the impropriator must do it. CHA N'C E L L O R. Under the Roman emperors, a chancellor signified a chief no- tary or scribe ; but in England it means an officer invested with high judicial powers. The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain is one of the principal officers of the civil government, created without v/rit or patent, by the mere delivery of the king's great seal into his custody. He is a privy- counsellor by his office, and pro locutor of the House of Lords by prescription. He also appoints all the justices of the peace throughout the kingdom. Persons exer- cising this office in former times having been ecclesiastics, and superintendants of the royal chapel, the Lord Chancellor is still styled keeper of the king's conscience ; and for the same reason he is visitor, in right of the king, of all hospitals and col- leges of the king's foundation ; and patron of all the king's livings under the value of 201. per annum in the king's books. He is the general guardian of all infants, idiots, and lunatics; has a controul over all pub- lic charities ; and a jurisdiction of vast ex- tent, as the head of the law, in his Court of Chancery; where he decides without the assistance of a jury, but from which there is an appeal to the House of Lords. Chancellor of a Diocese, a lay officer under a bishop, versed in the canon and civil law, who is judge of his court. Chancellor of a Cathedral, an officer who hears lessons in the church, inspects schools, hears causes, writes letters, and applies the seal of the chapter, keeps the books, &c. Chancellor of a University, an officer who seals the diplomas, or letters of degree, &c. The chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge are selected from among the prime nobility : the former holds his office for life ; the lat- ter is elected every three years. Chan- cellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, an officer appointed chiefly to determine controver- sies between the king and his tenants of the ducliy land, and otherwise to direct all the king's affairs belonging to that court. Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who presides in that court, and takes care of the interests of the crown. Lie has power with the lord treasurer, to lease the crown lands, and with others, to compound for forfeiture of lands, on penal statutes : he has also great authority in managing the royal revenues, and in all matters re- lating to the finances of the state. Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, and other military orders, is an officer who seals the commissions and mandates of the chap- ter and assembly of the knights, keeps the register of their proceedings, and delivers their acts under the seal of their order. CHAN'CE-MEDLEY, in law, the acci- dental killing of a person, not altogether without the killer's fault, though without any evil intention. CHAN'CERY, the grand court of equity and conscience, instituted to moderate the rigour of the other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. In this court all patents, the generality of com- missions, deeds between parties respecting lands and estates, treaties with foreign princes, &c., are sealed and enrolled. Out of it are issued writs to convene the par- liament and convocation, proclamations and charters, &c. And from this court is- sue all original writs that pass under the great seal, commissions of charitable uses, bankruptcy, idiocy, lunacy, &c. CHAN'CES, a'branch of mathematics, which estimates ratios of probability. CHA'NGEABLE ROSE, or Martinico Rose, the Hibiscus mutabilis of Linnaeus. The flowers of this plant are white at their first opening, then change to a blush-rose colour, and as they decay turn to a purple. CHA'NGES, in mathematics, the permu- tations or variations which any number of things may undergo in regard to position or order, &c. : as, how many different ways letters may be transposed so as to form words ; or how many changes may be rung on a given number of bells, &c. CHAN'NEL, the deeper part of a strait, bay, or harbour, where the principal cur- rent flows, either of tide or fresh water, or which is most convenient for the track of a ship. Also, a narrow sea between two con- tinents, or a continent and an island; as the British or Irish channel. CHAN'TRY, a place to say mass for souls, or sing in divine worship. CHA'OS, that confusion in which matter is supposed to have existed before the world was produced by the creative power of Omnipotence; or, in other words, the unformed primeval matter of which every 128 THE VICE-CHANCELLOR IS ADDRESSED BY THE STYLE OF " HIS HONOUR." TUB INCORRUPTIBILITY OF CHARCOAL WAS KNOWN IN THE EARLIEST AGES. cha] '?t ISFcto ©ictionarp of ll^e belles ICcttres. [cha thing was made. The ancient poets, and Ovid in particular, represent chaos thus: that there was neither sun to make the day, nor moon to enlighten the night ; that the earth M^as not yet hung in the circum- ambient air, nor the sea bounded by any shore ; but that earth, air, and water, were one undigested mass. CHAP'EAU, (Fr.) in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity worn by dukes, made of scarlet velvet and lined with fur. CHAP'EL, a place of divine worship, served by an incumbent under the denomi- nation of a chaplain. There are various kinds of chapels; Sl^ parochial chaj>cJs, dis- tinct from the mother church ; chai^els of ease, built in large parishes for the accom- modation of the inhabitants ; free chapels, v/hich were founded by different kings; chapels belonging to particular colleges; domestic chapels, built by noblemen or gen - tlemen for the use of their families ; and dissenting meeting-houses, which are some- times, though improperly, denominated chapels. CHAP'ELRY, the precinct belonging to a chapel, in distinction from a parish, or that belonging to a church. CHAP'LAIN, an ecclesiastic who per- forms divine service in a chapel; but it more commonly means one who attends upon a king, prince, or other person of quality, for the performance of his clerical duties in the private chapel. CHAP'LET, in a general sense, a garland or wreath to be M orn on the head. In ar- chitecture, a little moulding, carved into roundheads, pearls, &c. Chciplet, a string of beads used by the Roman Catholics, by which they count the number of their prayers, and are called paternosters. This practice is believed to have been introduced by Peter the Hermit into the church on his return from the Holy Land, the Orientals using a kind of chaplet called a chain, and rehearsing one of the perfections of God on each link or bead. CPIAP'TER, in ecclesiastical polity, is an assembly for the transaction of such business as comes under its cognizance. Every cathedral is under the superinten- dance of the dean and chapter of its canons. A meeting of the members of an order of knighthood is also called a chapter. CHAR'ACTER, in its most obvious sense, denotes a mark or sign made by writing, engraving, .I'c. ; these are literal, a.^ the let- ters of an alphabet ; numeral, as the arith- metical figures; and emblematical, when they represent things or ideas. In a more extended sense it signifies, the pceuhar qualities impressed by nature or habit on a person, which distinguish him from others ; hence we say, this person is an exalted charnc'ter; that man's character is unim- peachable ; or, his caaracier is not formed, when the person alluded to has not ac- quired stable and distinctive qualities. We also say, in speaking of persons, "eminent characters," or " vicious characters," &c. In natural history, the peculiar dis- criminating qualities or properties of ani- mals, plants, and minerals, are called their characters. CHARACTERIS'TIC, in a general sense, a peculiar mark or character, whereby a person or thing is distinguished from all others. CHARA'DE, a syllabic enigma, so named from its inventor, made upon a word the two syllables of which, when separately taken, are themselves words. It consists of three parts ; the two first describing the syllables separately ; the second alluding to the entire word; and may be considered complete if the whole unite in an epigram- matic point. CHAR'COAL, an artificial fuel, consist- ing of wood half burnt, or charred, which is performed in the following manner : the wood is cut into proper lengths, and duly arranged in piles or stacks ; and these being coated over with turf, and the surface co- vered with plaster made of earth and char- coal-dust well tempered together, are set on fire. In about tv.o or three days, when the woodisknowntobesufiiciently charred, the apertures, which had been left to give vent to the flames, are closed up ; and all access of the external air being excluded, the fire goes out of itself. The vapour of burning charcoal is found to be highly noxious, and is, in reality, absolute fixed air. In the experiments and discoveries of modern chemistry, charcoal is frequently mcittioned; and found to possess many ex- traordinary properties. It is black, brittle, light, and inodorous ; is incapable of putri- fying, or rotting like wood ; and will endure for ages without alteration. CHARGE, in a general sense, is that which is enjoined, committed, intrusted or delivered to another, implying care, cus- tody, oversight, or duty to be performed by the party intrusted. Charge, in civil law, the insti'uctions given by the judge to the grand jury. In ecclesiastical law, the in- structions given by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In gunnery, the quantity of powder and ball, or shot, with which a gun is loaded. In electricity, the accu- mulation of electric matter on one surface of an electric machine. In heraldry, whatever is borne on coats of arms. In military affairs, a signal to attack; as, to sound the charge ; or the attack itself, by rushing on an enemy with fixed bayonets : but it is used for an onset of cavalry as well as of infantry. CHAR'IOT, in antiquity, a car or vehicle used formerly in war, and called by the several names of biga, triga, quadriga, Ike, according to the number of horses which drew them. "When the warriors came to encounter in close tight, they alighted and fought on foot ; but when they were M cary they retired into their chariot, and thence annoyed their enemies with darts and mis- sive weapons, 'besides this sort, we find frequent mention of the currus falcati, or chariots armed with hooks or scythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were cut off together: these were not only used by the Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c. but we CHARCOAL EXTRACTS THE ODOUR AND COLOUR FROM MOST SUBSTANCES. NERO DROVE A CHARIOT AT THE OLTMPIC GAMES WITH TEN HORSES ABREAST. cha] ^i)e Scientific anti 3£itcrar]3 ^rcasur^ ; [cHE find them among our British ancestors. ——The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made of i 'ory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindiical figure ; sometimes gilt at the top and ornamented with crowns ; and, to represent a victory more naturally, they used to stain it with blood. It was usually drawn by four white horses, but oftentimes by lions, elephants, tigers, bears, leopards, &c. CHARIS'IA, a Roman nocturnal festival and dance kept in honour of the Graces, when sweet-meats called charisia were dis- tributed among the guests. CHARIS'TIA, a solemn festival among the Romans kept in the month of February. It was well worthy the imitation of Chris- tians ; for at this time the relations of each family compromised any differences that had arisen between them, and renewed their former friendships upon the principles of pure benevolence and good-will. CHAR'ITY, in a general sense, that dis- position of heart which inclines men to think favourably of their fellow-men, and to do them good ; or liberality and benevolence, either in alms-giving or in contributing to- wards pubUc charitable institutions. In a theological sense, supreme love to God, and universal good- will to men. CHA R'L A T A N, one who makes un- warrantable pretensions to skill, and prates much in his own favour. The original im- port of the word was an empiric, or quack, who retailed his medicines on a public stage, and drew the people about him by his buflfooneries, CHARLES'S WAIN, in astronomy, seven stars in the constellation called Ursa Major, or the Great Bear. CHAR'LOCK, the English name of a plant called by botanists rapistrum. It is a very pernicious weed among grain. CHARM, some magioal words, characters, verses, &c. imagined to possess some occult and unintelligible power: by which, with the supposed assistance of the devil, witches and sorcerers have pretended to do wonder- ful things. The word, in its more modem acceptation, is used to describe that which delights and attracts the heart. CHART, a hydrographical map, drawn for the use of navigators, and showing the situation of coasts, rocks, sand-banks, and sea-marks ; the course of currents ; the depth of soundings; and the direction of regular winds. Mercator't Chart is one on which the meridians are straight lines, parallel and equidistaint ; the parallels are also straight lines, and parallel to each other, but the distance between them in- creases from the equinoctial towards either pole, in the ratio of the secant of the lati- tude to the T&dms.-— Globular Chart, is a meridional projection, in which the distance of the eye from the plane of the meridian, upon which the projection is made, is sup- posed to be equal to the sine of the angle of 45 degrees. Heliographic Charts, de- scriptions of the body of the sun, and of the maculae or spots observed on its disk. Selenographic Charts, are draughts of particular places, or smaU parts of the earth. CHAR'TER, in law, a written instru- ment, executed with usual forms, whereby the king grants privileges to towns, corpo- rations, &c. ; whence the name of Magna Charta, or the Great Charter of Liberties granted to the people of the whole realm. CHARTER-PARTY, in commerce, an agreement respecting the hire of a vessel and the freight ; which must contain the name and burden of the vessel, the names of the master and freighter, the price or rate of the freight, the time of loading and unloading, and other stipulated condi- tions. CHARYB'DIS, a much-dreaded vortex at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, cele- brated for its engulfing perils, by the an- cient writers. It is, however, no longer dreadful to navigators, who, in a quiet sea, and particularly with a south wind, cross it without danger. CHASE, in law, a part of a forest for game, which maybe possessed by a subject : though a forest cannot. The word chase has also several meanings in maritime lan- guage ; as, chase-guns, that lie at the head, to fire on a vessel that is pursued, in dis- tinction to stern-chasers, which fire on the pursuer. ^With huntsmen, the chase is a figurative expression for their sport in general. CHA'SING, in sculpture, the art of em- bossing on metals, or representing figures thereon by a kind of basso-relievo, punched out from behind, and carved on the front with small gravers. CHASSEURS, a French term for a se- lect body of light infantry, formed on the left of a battalion, and who are required to be particularly light, active, and courage- ous. Chasseurs d, cheval, a kind of light horse in the French service. CHAT'EAU, a French word, formerly used for a castle or baronial seat in France ; but now simply for a country seat. CHATOY'ANT, in mineralogy, a hard semi-transparent stone, generally very small, which being cut smooth, presents an un- dulating or wavy light, and is of a yellowish grey or green colour. The word chatoyant is also used to express a changing undu- lating lustre, hke that of a cat's eye in the dark. CHATTELS, in law, personal goods, movable, or immovable. CHECK-MATE, the movement in a game of chess that hinders the opposite men from moving, so that the game is finished, and the party who is checkmated has lost. CHECK'Y, in heraldry, a term for tlie shield, or any part of it, when it is divided into checks, or squares. CHEEKS, a general name among me- chanics for those pieces of timber, &c., in any machine, which form corresponding sides, or which are double and alike. CHEESE, the curd of milk coagulated by rennet, and separated from the whey, then pressed or hardened in a vat, hoop, or mould. Cheese-press, an engine for press- NO NATION IS so JEALOUS OF ITS CHARTERS AS THE ENGLISH. CHEMICAL COMBINATIOKS CHANGE THE RELATIVE PKOrERTIES OP BODIES. e] IsTcto IJictionari) of t\)t Relics ICettrcs. [c HE ing cvird in the making of cheese. Cheese-vat, the case in which curds are pressed into the form of a cheese. CHEF-D'(EUVRE (French), a master- piece, or superior performance of any artist. CHEG'OE. or CHIG'OE, a tropical in- sect that enters the skin of the feet, and multiplies incredibly, causing an itching. CHEL'IDON, in entomology, a brown fly, with silvery wings. CHELIDO'NIUM, in botany, a genus of plants, class 13 Polyundria, order 1 Mo- noyynia. CIIELO'NIAN, an epithet to designate animals of the tortoise kind. CHEM ISTRY, or CHYM'ISTRY, the science which investigates the nature of bodies, and teaches the composition and properties of material substances, together with the changes they undergo. There is no science more extensive, nor is it scarcely possible for one person to embrace it in its whole extent. To chemistry, more or less scientifically pursued, numerous arts owe their birth and progress ; and to chemistry the naturalist must resort for the explana- tion of phenomena that, without its aid, can only be spoken of by conjecture, and on a true knowledge of which our happi- ness, as thinking beings, eminently de- pends. To facilitate the study of this im- portant science, it is considered in different points of view, and thrown into divisions and subdivisions, so that a person may de- vote himself to one department of it, al- though the method of observing, analyzing, and combining, is the same in all, and al- though all the phenomena must be ex- plained by the general theory, and refer to certain laws, of which a previous knowledge is requisite. These laws constitute what is called philosophical chemistry, which ex- plains what is meant by the affinity of ag- gregation or cohesion, and by the affinity of composition or chemical affinity. It also considers the effects of light, heat, and electricity ; the nature of the simple and compound inflammable bodies ; of air and water ; the composition and decomposition of acids ; the nature and properties of the salts ; their relations to the acids ; the cal- cination, solution, and alloying of metals ; the composition and nature of plants ; the characteristics of the immediate elements of vegetable substances ; the phenomena of aiiimalization ; the properties of animal compounds, and the decay of organic sub- stances. These are its general views ; but, as we have before observed, in order to facilitate the study of chemistry, it is di- vided into several separate branches. There is a meteorological chemistry, by which the great phenomena observed in the atmo- sphere are explained ; and a geological che- mistry, which seeks to account for the va- rious combinations of nature beneath the earth's surface, which produce volcanoes, veins of metals, coal, basalt, &c. There is also a chemistry of the mineral kingdom, comprising the examination of all inorganic substances; a chemistry of the vegetable kingdom, which analyzes plants and their immediate products ; a chemistry of the animal kingdom, which studies all sub- stances derived from living or dead ani- mals ; a pathological and pharmaceutic che- mistry, which traces the changes produced by disease, with the nature and prepara- tion of medicines; and agricultural che- mistry, which treats of the nature of plants and soils, and the laws of production. The practical chemist distinguishes bodies into simple and compound substances. Simple substances comprehend such as have hither- to not been decompounded. Of these some are denominated combustibles, because they can undergo combustion, or, in other words, can burn, as hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and borax, besides the alkalies, earths, and metals. Some are supporters of combustion, which, though not of them- selves capable of undergoing combustion, are necessary to produce this effect in other bodies, of which there are three, namely, the three gaseous bodies, oxygen, chloride, and iodine. Compound substances are form- ed by the union of simple substances with each other, or by that of compound sub- stances with others. They result, 1. from the combination of oxygen, or one of the other simple supporters of combustion, with one of the simple combustibles ; such are the acids : 2. from that of a simple body combined with oxygen, with another simi- lar compound ; such are the salts : 3. from that of two or three simple combustibles with one another : 4. from that of oxygen with hydrogen and carbon, forming vege- table matter: 5. from that of oxygen with hydrogen, carbon, and azote, forixiing ani- mal matter. "When the constituent parts of bodies are separated from each other, the bodies are said to be decomposed, and the act of separating them is called decom- position ; on the other hand, when oodies are so intimately united as to form new and distinct substances, this chemical union is distinguished by the name of com- bination. The chemical investigation of bodies therefore proceeds in two ways ; namely by analysis, that is, the separation of bodies by a series of decompositions and combinations, to come at the knowledge of the constituent parts ; and synthesis, by a series of processes to form new com- pounds ; and these two forms of investiga- tion may accompany and assist each other. The commencement of the 19th century forms a brilliant era in the progress of che- mistry ; but great as have been the disco- veries, and persevering as are the re- searches of the most profound inquirers, every step that is taken confirms more strongly the fact, that chemistry is a pro- gressive science, and that the discoveries of to-day may be eclipsed by the discoveries of to-morrow. And therefore truly has it been said, that " its analysis is indefinite ;" its termination will have been attained only when the real elements of bodies shall have been detected, and all their modifications traced : but how remote this may be from its present state we cannot judge. Nor can we, from our present knowledge, form THE SOLUTION OP SOLIDS ABSORBS HEAT, AND THEIR RESOLIDIFICATION EMITS IT. 131 FREDERICK THE GREAT WAS PASSIONATELY FOND OP THE GAME OF CHESS. che] ®]^e Scientific antJ ICitcrarD treasury ; [c any just conception of the stages of disco- very tlirouarh which it has yet to pass. CHER'llY, the Pru'nus Ceua'sus, a fruit, the original stock of which is tlie wild cherry. The gradual effect of cultivation has been tlie production of several pleasant varieties, all superior to the fruits of the parent stock. The wood of the cherry-tree, which is hard and tough, is much used by turners, cabinet-makers, &c. The gum that exudes from the bark is said to be, in many respects, equal to gum arabic, and is con- sidered very nutritive. CHER RY-LAUREL, the Pku'no-lau'- Rus Cera'sus, which produces laurel- water, a most powerful poison, the strength of which (like that of peach-kernels, &c.), depends on the presence of prussic acid. CHER'SONESE, a tract of land, of any indelinite extent, which is nearly sur- rounded by water, but united to a larger tract by a neck of land or isthmus. CHERT, in mineralogy, a stibspecies of rhomboidal quartz : which occurs often in metallic veins in primitive mountains. It is somewhat translucent, and of various co- lours. CHER'UBIM, the plural of Cherub, an order of angels, two of which, by the com- mand of God, were represented as over- shadowing the propitiatory or mercy-seat. They are usually represented by painters and sculptors by a child's head between wings ; and in the celestial hierarchy they arc placed next in order to the seraphim. CHER'VIL, a genus of umbelliferous plants whose leaves are divided into many segments. Two species are called Coiv- weed. CHES'LIP, a small vermin that lies un- der stones and tiles. CHESS, a game played by two persons sitting vis-a-vis, and having between them a checkered board, containing sixty-four squares, alternately white and black. The game affords so much variety, so much scope for calculation, so many opportuni- ties to exhibit foresight and penetration, that it has been held in great estimation by ail persons acquainted with it, and all who have conquered the difficulties of learn- ing it. Whilst it affords enjoyment worthy of mature minds, it is an excellent exercise for the young, as it teaches patience and circumspection, strengthens the judgment, and encourages perseverance in a plan af- fording a prospect of eventual success, though, at the moment, the situation of things may appear very critical. It is a game of Asiatic origin. The Chinese pre- tend to have known it 200 years before the Christian era. In the sixth century it was brought from India to Persia, whence it was spread by the Arabians and the Cru- saders all over the civilized world. Al- though it may trespass a little on our limits we deem it necessary to insert the laws of this unrivalled game. — The board must be so placed, that each player has a white square at his right hand. Each side has eight men, consisting of a king, queen, two k'iiights, two bishops, and two I rooks or castles, besides eight pawns or foot-soldiers which are aU moved accord- ing to the following rules. 1 : If the board, or pieces, be improperly placed, the mistake cannot be rectified after four moves on each side are made. 2 : When a player has touched a piece, he must move it, un- less it was only to replace it ; when he must say, J'adoube, or I replace. 3 : When a player has quitted a piece he cannot recall the move. 4 : If a player touch one of his adversary's pieces without saying J'adoube, he may be compelled to take it, or, if it cannot be taken, to move his king. 5 : When a pawn has moved two steps, it may be taken by any adversary's pawn which it passes, and the capturing pawn must be placed in that square over which the other leaps. 6 : The king eannot castle if he has before moved, if he is in check, if in castling he passes a check, or if the rook has moved. 7: Whenever a player checks his adversary's king, he must say check, otherwise the adversary need not notice the check. If the player should, on the next move, attack the queen, or any other piece, and then say check, his adversary may re- place his last move, and defend his king. 8 : When a pawn reaches the tirst row of the adversary's side, it may be made a queen, or any other piece the player chooses. 9 : If a false move is made, and is not dis- covered until the next move is completed, it cannot be recalled. 10: The king can- not be moved into check, nor within one square of the adverse king, nor can any player move a piece or pawn that leaves his king in check. — The object of the game is, to bring the adversary's king into such a situation that he cannot move, which is called check-mating. The king can never be taken ; and the play ends with a check- mate. CHEST, which in anatomical language is called the thorax, is the cavity of the body between the neck and the belly, con- taining the pleura, the lungs, heart, ceso- phagus, thoracic duct, part of the vena cava, the vena azygos, &c. CHEST'NUT,'or CHES'NUT, the nut of a tree belonging to the genus Fag us. It is en- closed in a prickly pericarp, which contains two or more seeds. The tree grows to a great size, and produces very valuable timber. H\\QHorse-chestnut\s, a tree of the genus ^sculus. The common tree of this sort is a native of the north of Asia, and admired for the beauty of its flowers. The Scarlet- flowering horse-chest ant is a native of Caro- lina, Brazil, and the East. There is also another, called the Indian Rose-chestnut, of the genus Mesua. CHEVAL-DE-FRISE (generally used in the plural, Chevaux-de-fuise, (Fr. pron. shev'o de free'z), spikes of wood, pointed with iron, five or six feet long, fixed in a strong beam of v. ocd, and used as a fence against cavalry, or to stop a breach, &c. CHEVALIE'R, a gallant young man. In heraldry, a horseman armed at all points. CHEVRETT'E, a military term for a CH-EVAUX-DE-FRISE were FIRST 1 ED AT THE SIEGE OF GRONINGEN, IN 1658. THE GREATEST IMPBOVKR OP ENGLISH CHINA WAS MB. JOSIAII WEDGWOOD. CHl] % *Me£o Bictionarn of x\)z IBclIes Xettves. [CHI kind of gin, or machine, for raising guns or mortars into their carriages. CHEVRON (in heraldry), an honour- able ordinary, representing two rafters of a house joined together, or meeting at the top. Per Chevron, is when the field is di- vided only by two single lines, rising from the two base points, and meeting in the point above, as the chevron does. CHEVROTA'IN,in zoology, a small kind of antelope. C 11 FAN EARTH, a medicinal, compact, dense kind of earth, from Chios, used an- ciently as an astringent, and also as a cos- metic. CHIARO SCURO (an Italian phrase, meaning clear-obscure) , is the art of distri- buting lights and shadows in painting. This is of the highest importance, and one of the most difficult branches of an artist's study, because of the want of precise rules for its execution. CHIAS'TOLITE, a curious kindof chrys- talized mineral, sometimes called made. CHICA'NERY, mean or unfair artifices to pei'plex a cause or obscure the truth ; applied either in a legal sense, by which justice is somehow intended to be perverted ; or to disputatious sophistry. CHIEF, a term signifying the head, or principal part of a thing or person. Thus we say, the chief of a party, the chief of a family, &c. Chief (in heraldry), one of the honourable ordinaries, which occupies the head or upper part of the escutcheon. As the head is the chief part of a man, so is the chief the principal part of the escut- cheon, and contains a third part of the field. CHIETTAIN, a captain or commander of any class, family, or body of men : thus, the Highland chieftains, or chiefs, were the principal noblemen or gentlemen of their respective clans. CHIL'BLAIN, a tumour occasioned by suddenly warming a cold part, or suddenly cooling a heated part : hence the parts of the body most subject to chilblains, are the toes, fingers, ears, &,c. CHIL'IAD, the sum or number of one thousand. Hence Chil'iarch denotes the military commander or chief of a thousand men; ChiViarchy, a body consisting of 1000 men: Chiliahe'dron, a figure of 1000 equal sides : and Chil'iagou, a figure of 1000 angles and sides. CHIL'TERN-HU'NDREDS, a range of chalky hills on the borders of Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, belonging to the crown, and having the office of Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds attached to it. It being an established rule that a member of parliament receiving a place under the crown cannot sit, unless re-elected, the ac- ceptance of a stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds is a formal manner of resigning a srat, Chiltern is from the Saxon word chiit, and gencrrJly applied to the hundreds that he in tlie hilly part of a county. CHIME RA, in modern acceptation, means a vain or idle fancy ; a creature of the imagination, full of contradictions and absurdities. In fabulous history, it denoted a monster with three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a di'agon, vomiting flames. The foreparts of the body were those of a lion, the middle was that of a goat, and the hinder parts were those of a dragon. CHIMES, the musiczd sounds of bells struck with hammers, arranged and set in motion by clock-work. In a clock, a kind of periodical music, produced at certain hours by a particular apparatus. CHIMNEY, in architecture, a body of brick or stone erected in a building, con- taining a funnel to convey smoke and other volatile matter through the roof from the grate or hea.rth. How far the Greek and Roman architects were acquainted with the construction of chimneys is a matter of dis- pute. No traces of them have been disco- vered in the ruins of Pompeii, and Vitruvius gives no rules for erecting them. The first certain notice of chimneys, as we now build them, is believed to be that contained in an inscription of Venice, over the gate of an edifice, which states that in 1347 a great many chimneys were thrown down by an earthquake. CHI'NA-WARE, the most beautiful of all kinds of earthenware, takes its name from China, whence the Dutch and English merchants first brought it into Europe. It is also called Porcelain, from the Portu- guese porcellana, a cup or vessel. The Japan china is considered superior to all other of oriental manufacture, in its close and compact granular texture, its sono- rosity when struck, its extreme hardness, its smooth and shining appearance, and its capability of being used to boil liquids in. With the Chinese potters, the preparation of the clay is constantly in operation ; and usually remains in the pits from ten to twenty years prior to being used; for the longer it remains there, the greater is its value. The Dresden China has some qua- lities which render it decidedly superior to th& oriental. Its texture exhibits a com- pact, shining, uniform mass, resembling- white enamel, while it possesses firmness, solidity, and infusibility by heat. The re- quisite materials for the components of the best hard china are sparingly supplied by nature ; but modern chemistry has thrown much light on the art, not only in enabling the manvifacturer to analyze more perfectly the bodies which constitute these wares, but also in determining the exact propor- tions in which they combine ; and when proper attention is paid to the proportions of the several components, there is seldom any failure. Silica obtained {romjlints, and alumine, are the grand ingredients ; and when these substances are properly com- bined in water, their reciprocal tenden- cies cause strong adhesion, so that, when hardened merely by evaporation into a paste, they resist decomposition by the atmo- sphere. It is not our intention to advert to the various processes and manipulations which the clay undergoes previous to its being baked, the ingenuity with which the printer takes his impressions from the cop- Tun LONGER A CHIMNEY IS, THE MORE PERFECT IS ITS DRAUGHT. FROM CHIVALRY SPRUNG THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. ©f)e Scientific anti Xiterari) treasury ; [chl per-plates, nor the still more ingenious process of transferring and adapting the print to the ware. We will merely add, that the colours, or enamels with which de- signs are executed on the glazed surface of ware, with colours so \itritiable as readily to acquire lustre at a moderate heat, has not yet been practised quite a century in our potteries ; but such have been the improve- ments in every branch of the art during late years, and with such laudable rivalry have the abilities of first-rate artists been displayed, that if absolute perfection could be attained by human labour, we might fairly expect to find it here. CHINTZ, a fine kind of Indian painted calico. CHIRA'GRA, in medicine, a name for the gout in the hands. CHI'ROGRAPH, among the Anglo- Saxons, signified any public instrument of gift or conveyance, attested by the subscrip- tion and crosses of witnesses. Any deed requiring a counterpart was engrossed twice on the same piece of parchment, with a space between, on which was written chiro- graph, through which the parchment was cut, and one part given to each party. It was also anciently used for a fine : the man- ner of engrossing the fines, and cutting the parchment in two pieces, is still retained in the chirographer'8 office, in the Court of Common Pleas. CHIROL'OGY, the art or practice of communicating thoughts by signs made by the hands and fingers ; as a substitute for language. CHIR'OMANCY, a species of divination, drawn from the different lines and linea- ments of a person's hand ; by which means, it is pretended the inclinations may be dis- covered. The modern word is palmistry. CHIRON'OMY, in antiquity, the art of representing any past transaction by the gestures of the body, more especially by the motions of the hands : this made a part of liberal education ; it had the approbation of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the political virtues. CHIS'LEU, the ninth month of the Jew- ish year, answering to the latter part of No- vember and the beginning of December. CHIVALRY, the name anciently given to knighthood, a military dignity ; sdso the martial exploits and qualifications of a knight. Chivalry, as a military dignity, is supposed by some to have taken its rise soon after the death of Charlemagne, and by others as arising out of the crusades, because in these expeditions many chival- rous exploits were performed, and a proud feeling of heroism was engendered. In de- scribing the origin, object, and character of this military institution, Gibbon the his- torian thus alludes to a successful candi- date for the honour of knighthood, and eulogises the institution : " He was created a knight in the name of God, of St. George, and of St. Michael the Archangel. He swore to accomplish the duties of his pro- fession; and education, example, and the public opinion, were the inviolable guard- ians of his oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, he devoted himself to speak the truth ; to maintain the right ; to pro- tect the distressed ; to practise courtesy, a virtue less familiar to the infidels; to de- spise the allurements of ease and safety ; and to vindicate in every perilous adventure the honour of his character. The abuse of the same spirit provoked the illiterate knight to disdain the arts of luxury and peace ; to esteem himself the sole judge and avenger of his own injuries ; and proudly to neglect the laws of civil society and military disci- pline. .Yet the benefits of this institution, to refine the temper of barbarians, and to in- fuse some principles of faith, justice, and humanity, were strongly felt, and have been often observed. The asperity of national prejudice was softened ; and the community of religion and arms spread a similar colour and generous emulation over the face of Christendom. Abroad in enterprize and pilgrimage, at home in martial exercise, the warriors of every country were perpetually associated ; and impartial taste must prefer a Gothic tournament to the Olympic games of classic antiquity. Instead of the naked spectacles which corrupted the manners of the Greeks, and banished from the stadium the virgins and matrons, the pompous deco- ration of the lists was crowned with the presence of chaste and high born beauty, from whose hands the conqueror received the prize of his dexterity and courage." CHIVES, in botany, slender threads or filaments in the blossoms of plants. CHLiE'NA, in antiquity, a winter gar- ment worn over the tunica. It was like- wise used as a covering for a bed. CHLA'MYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn over the tunica. It belonged to the patricians, and was the same in the time of war, that the toga wai in the time of peace. CHLO'RATE, in chemistry, a compound of chloric acid with a salifiable base. CHLO'RIDE, in chemistry, a compound of chlorine with a combustible substance, as the chloride of azote, manganese, lime, &c. CHLO'RINE, or CHLO'RIC GAS, for- merly known as Oxtmukiatic acid Gas, is by some considered as a compound, and by others as a simple substance. It com- bines with carburetted hydrogen, and there- by exhibits the mechanical phenomena of combustion; but will not support animal life. It discharges colours, and is used as a bleaching liquid. CHLO'RITE, a mineral of a grass green colour, opaque, and composed of small shining grains. There are four subspecies : chlorite earth, common chlorite, chlorite slate, and foliated chlorite. CHLORO-CAR'BONOUS ACID, in che- mistry, a compound of chlorine and car- bonic oxyde, formed by exposing a mixture of the two gases to the direct solar rays. CHLORO'PAL, a recently discovered mi- neral, of two varieties, the conchoidal and the earthy; both possessing magnetic pro- perties. 134 CHLORINE HAS TB-S PROFERTT OF NEUTRALIZING CONTAGIOUS MATTER. NO SPECIFIC AS TO THE TREATMENT OP CHOLERA HAS TtET BEEN DISCOVERED. CHO] % "Nm ©ictionarw of tl^e MIcs Xettres. [cHO CHLO'ROPHANE, in mineralogy, a va- riety of fluor spar, found in Siberia. When placed on a heated iron, it gives a beautiful emerald green light. CHLO'ROPHYL, the green matter of the leaves of vegetables. CHLORO'SIS, a disease incident to fe- males, characterised by a pale or greenish hue of the skin. CHOCOLATE, a cake or paste, made from the kernel of cocoa, mixed with sugar and cinnamon ; of which a nutritious beve- rage is made. CHOIR, that part of a cathedral where the service is performed. Also, the body of singers there assembled. Hence the word chorister is used for a singer whose vocal powers are exercised in divine service. CHO'KE-DAMP, in mining, the noxious air occasionally found at the bottom of mines. — [See Damps.] CHOL'ERA, a disease of which there are two species : Cholera spontanea, which hap- pens in hot seasons without any manifest cause ; and Cholera accidentalis, which oc- curs after the use of food that digests slowly and irritates. In warm climates it is met with at all seasons of the year, and its occurrence is very frequent : but in England and other cold climates, it is prevalent in the middle of summer, particularly in the month of August ; and the violence of the disease has usually been greater in propor- tion to the intenseness of the heat. It is characterised by an evacuation of bile, at- tended with anxiety, painful gripings, vomit- ings, spasms of the aodominal muscles, and those of the calves of the legs. The disease sometimes proceeds with violence, and if unchecked in its early stages, great depres- sion of strength ensues, and it may quickly terminate in death. But it must not be confovinded with the CHOL'ERA MOR'BUS, or Cholera EriDEMicA, or, as it is sometimes termed. Cholera Maligna. In Hindostan, spas- modic cholera has probably always existed as a comparatively mild climatic disease; but there is no evidence to show that the Indian Cholera ever bore the epidemic cha- racter, or was entitled to rank with pesti- lential scourges of the worst description, till August, 1817, when it suddenly Ibroke out with unprecedented malignity, attack- ing the natives first, and manifesting itself among the Europeans in the following month. From January to May, 1818, the pestilence raged with great violence, ex- tending its destructive influence across the country from" the mouth of the Ganges to its confluence with the Jumna. In its most mahgnant form it appeared at Benares, where in two months 15,000 persons perish- ed. In the district of Gorrakpore 30,000 were carried off in a month. By November the epidemic had reached the grand army, commanded by the marquis of Hastings, consisting of 10,000 troops and 80,000 fol- lowers. In twelve days nearly 9,000 men had fallen victims to it. Previous to the 14th, it had overspread the camp, sparing neither age nor sex ; from the 14th to the 20th, the mortality had become so extensive that the stoutest hearts were yielding to despair, and the camp wore the aspect of a general hospital. The noise and bustle almost inseparable from the presence of a multitude of human beings, had nearly sub- sided into stillness. Nothing was to be heard but the groans of the dying, or the wailing for the dead. In 1819 it reached the kingdom of Arracan : it then extended itself into Siam, and after destroying 40,000 in Baku, the capital of that kingdom, it passed into the peninsula of Malacca. From thence it travelled to China. Canton was attacked in 1820 ; and at Pekin its mortaUty was so frightful, that the government were obliged to have the dead interred at their own expense. From China it passed to the Phillippine and Spice Islands. Thus, in little more than two years, did it traverse a space in Eastern Asia, of 1300 leagues from north to south, and about 1000 leagues from west to east. During the next two years, Arabia, Persia, Mesopotamia and Syria were overrun by the dreadful pestilence. In September, 1823, it entered Astracan, a large and populous town on the northern shore of the Caspian. As soon as this be- came known to the Russian government, they dispatched a medical commission, composed of six physicians, to investigate its character, and every preventive measure was resorted to : how far they were con- nected with the result it may be diflicult to decide ; but certain it is, the disease got no farther in that direction that year than As- tracan, and did not again appear in Russia until towards the close of 1828, when it un- expectedly appeared at Orenburg, and in 1830 it again made its insidious entrance at Astracan. It at length reached Moscow, where a cordon sanitaire was speedily esta- blished, temporary hospitals erected, and the emperor himself visited the town when the disease was at its height. At first the mortality was as great as nine-tenths of all who were attacked, but the number who were infected gradually decreased, and the mortality proportionally diminished. Po- land, Prussia, and other parts of Germany, soon after felt its devastating effects ; in November, 1831, it reached England ; in March, 1832, it broke out at Paris, where 20,000 fell a sacrifice to it in a short time ; and in June, 1832, it appeared at Quebec, in Canada, and subsequently spread over the whole American continent. It is not our purpose, nor consistent with the nature of this work, to enter into a description of the symptoms, character, and treatment of this justly dreaded disease ; but We thought it material to condense a history of its pro- gress, from its origin in the East to its en- trance in our own land; and we will con- clude the article, by giving a brief definition of its distinctive features, as they appeared in Britain : — After watery diarrhoea, or other generally slight indisposition, vomiting or purging of a white or colourless fluid, vio- lent cramps, great prostration and collapse, the last occurring simultaneously with the vomiting and cramps, or shortly after them. BLEEDING, CALOMEL, OPIUM, AND WARMTH, ARE GENERALLY RESORTED TO. ALI, HISTORICAI, CURONOIiOGY IS GROUNDED ON ASTRONOMICAL. chr] W)z Scientific anti TOcrarg treasury ; [chr Should the patient stirvive the last train of symptoms, a state of excitement and fever supervenes. — For a considerable time, the medical world was much divided in opinion as to its contagious or non-contagious na- ture : the disputes on this subject, however, have now nearly subsided, and the great majority of medical men are persuaded that the disease is epidemic, and not contagious in its character. CHOL'OGOGUES, medicines which ex- pel or evacuate bilious faeces. CHOP'IN, a liquid measure: in France, about a pint ; in Scotland, a quart. CHORD, in music, the union of two or more sounds uttered at the same time, forming an entire harmony; as a third, fifth, and eighth. In geometry, a right line drawn from one part of an arc of a circle to another. CHOREG'RAPHY, the art of represent- ing dancing by signs, as singing is by notes. CHORE'US, in ancient poetry, a foot of two syllables ; the first long, and the second short ; the trochee. CHORIAM'BUS, in ancient poetry, a foot compounded of a trochee and an iambus. CHOROG'RAPHY, the art of dehneat- ing or describing some particular country or province : it differs from gcograph'j as a description of a particular country differs from that of the whole earth; and from to- pography as the description of a country from that of a town or district. CHO'ROID, in anatomy, denotes the coat of the eye immediately under the scler- otica ; or the inner membrane investing the brain, or the pia mater, &c. CIIO'RUS, in ancient dramatic poetry, one or more persons present on the stage during the representation, uttering an occa- sional commentary on the piece, preparing the audience for events that are to follow, or explaining circumstances that cannot be distinctly represented. Several examples may be referred to by the English reader, in the plays of Shakspeare. In tragedy, the chorus was at first the sole performer ; at present it is wholly discontinued on the stage. CiiORus, in music, is when, at certain periods of a song, the whole com- pany are to join the singer in repeating cer- tain couplets or verses. CHOUGH, (pron. c^m^), in ornithology, a fowl of the genus Corvus, nearly of the size of the crow, and mischievous, like the mag- pie. It is black, except the bill, legs, and feet, which are red, and is a native of the west of England, more especially the county of Cornwall, whence it is commonly called the Cornish chour/h. CHRISM, or CHRIS'OM, in the Romish and Greek churches, an unction or annoint- ing of children, which was formerly prac- tised as soon as they were born. CHRISTIAN'ITY, the religion of Chris- tians, who derive their name from the founder Christ, (The Anointed), and were first so designated at Antioch. The fovin- dation of a Christian's faith and practice, his ultimate, and, in ti'uth, only appeal, must be to the facts, the doctrines, and the precepts of the Scriptures, especially to those of the New Testament. CHRISTENING, a term particularly ap- plied to infant baptism, denoting the cere- mony of admitting a person into the com- munion of the Christian church by means of baptism, or sprinkling with water. CHRISTMAS, the festival observed in the Christian church on the 25th of Decem- ber, in commemoration of our Saviour's na- tivity ; and celebrated in the church of Eng- land by a particular service set apart for that holy day. CHRIST MAS-ROSE, in botany, a plant of the genus Helleborus, producing beauti- ful white flowers about Christmas. CHRISTOMACHI, an appellation given to all heretics who deny Christ's divinity, or maintain hetorodox opinions concerning his incarnation. CHRIST'S-THORN, in botany, the Rham- nus paliurus, a deciduous shrub, having two thorns at each joint. It grows in Pales- tine and the south of Europe, and is sup- posed to have been the sort of which the crown of thorns for our Saviour was made. CHROAS'TACES, a genus of pellucid gems, comprehending all those of variable colours, as viewed in different lights. CHRO'MATE, in chemistry, a salt or com pound formed by the chromic acid with a base. CHROMATIC, in music, an epithet de- scriptive of that which proceeds by several consecutive semitones. CHROMATICS, that part of optics which explains the several properties of light and colour. CHROME, in mineralogy, a metal which in its highest degree of oxydation passes into the state of an acid of a iniby red co- lour. It takes its name from the various and beautiful colours which its oxyde and acid communicate to minerals into whose composition they enter. Chrome gives a fine deep green to the enamel of porcelain, &c. Chromic yellow, the artificial chro- mate of lead, is a beautiful pigment. CHRON'IC, an epithet for inveterate diseases, or those of long duration. CHRON'OGRAM, an inscription in which a certain date or epoch is expressed by nu- meral letters. CHRONOL'OGY, the science which de- termines the dates of events, and the civil distinctions of time. The divisions of time are either natural or artificial ; the natural divisions of time are the year, month, v»'eek, day, and hour, deduced from the motions of the heavenly bodies and suited to the purposes of civil life ; the artificial divisions of time are the cycle or period, the epoch, and the a;ra or epoch, which have been framed for the purposes of history. Truly has it been said, " if history without chro- nology is dark and confused ; chronology without history is dry and insipid." CHRONOM'ETER, a time-piece of a pe- culiar construction, or any instrument that measures time with great exactness. They are at present much employed by naviga- tors in determining the longitude at sea. 136 THE BEAUTIFUL COLOUR OF THE RUBY IS CAUSED BY ITS CHROMIC ACID. THB FIRST HISTORY OF THB CHRISTIAIf CHURCH WAS WRITTBN BT EUSEBIUS. chy] ^ l^m ©ictionars of t^c 13elks Xettres. [c CHROSTAS'IMA, in mineralogy, a name for pellucid gems which appear of one sim- ple and permanent colour in all shades of light. CHRYS'ALIS, or AURELTA, the second state of an insect, which it passes into from the caterpillar or reptile form, previous to its becoming a butterfly or a moth, &c. CHRYSAN THEMUM, in botany, a ge- nus of plants, class 19 Syngenesia, order 2 Polygamia superflua. There are many well- known species ; annuals, perennials, and shrubs. CHRYS'OBERYL, a yellowish gem usually found in small round pieces, or crystalized in eight-sided prisms. It is used in jewel- lery, and is next to sapphire in hardness. CHRYS'OLITE, a mineral, or stone of a greenish hue, often transparent. It is some- times granular, and at other times occurs in small crystals. CHRYSOM'ELA.agenus of insects with bracelet-like antonnae, thickest towards the extremities; the body of an oval form, and the thorax rounded. Of tliis genus, which belongs to the order Coleoptera, there are different species, denominated from the tree on wliich they feed, as the chrysomela of tanzy, beech, alder, willow, &c., some being of one colour, some of another, with a tinge of gold colour diffused through it. CHRYS'OPHRASE, in mineralogy, a sub- species of quartz, often of an extremely beau- tiful green colour, and translucent or semi- transparent. In hardness it is scarcely in- ferior to flint. CHRYSOPHYL'LUM, in botany, a ge- nus of plants ; class 5 Pentandria, order 1 Monogynia. The species are all shrubs. CHRYSOPOE'IA, in alchemy, that part of the art which teaches the making of gold out of more imperfect metals. CHRYSOSPLE'NIUM, Golden-saxifrage, in botany, a genus of the octandria-digynia class of plants, without flower petals : the fruit is an unilocular, two-horned capsule, containing a number of very minute seeds. CHURCH, in religious affairs, is a word which is used in several senses : 1. The col- lective body of persons professing one and the same religion; or that religion itself: thus, we say, the Church of Christ. 2. Any particular congregation of Christians asso- ciating together, as the Church of Antioch. 3. A particular sect of Christians, as the Greek Church or the Church of England. 4. The body of ecclesiastics, in contradis- tinction to the laity. 5. The building in which a congregation of Christians assem- bles. CHURCHWAR'DENS, officers annually chosen by the ministers and vestry, to su- perintend 'the church, its property and con- cerns. CHYLE, a white or milky fluid in the stomach, consisting of the finer and more nutritious parts of the food, which is re- ceived into the lacteal vessels, assimilated into blood, and converted into nutriment. CHYLIFAC'TION, the process of diges- tion by which the aliment is converted into chyle. CHYLOPOIETIC, having the power to convert into chyle. CHYME, the humour which is immedi- ately drawn from the aliment, and after- wards by a farther process is converted into chyle. CIBA'RIiE LE'GES, in Roman history, were sumptuary laws, the intention of which was to limit the expense of feasts, and in- troduce frugality amongst the people, whose extravagance at table was notorious and al- most incredible. CICA'DA, the Baum-crickkt, in ento- mology, a genus of four-winged insects, of the order Hemiptera. CICATRIC'ULA, a small whitish speck in the yolk of an egg, supposed to be the germinating point or first rudiments of the future chick. CICATRIX, or CICATRICE, in surgery, a scar, or elevation of callous flesh rising on the skin, and remaining there after a wound or ulcer. CICATRIZANT, a medicine or applica- tion that promotes the formation of a cica- trix ; called also an escharotic, agglutinant, &c. CICERO'NIANS, epithets given by Mu- retus, Erasmus, &c. to those moderns who were so ridiculously fond of Cicero, as to reject every Latin word, as obsolete or im- pure, that could not be found in some one or other of his works. The word Ciceronian is also used as an epithet for a diffuse and flowing style and a vehement manner. CICISBE'O, an Italian word signifying one who dangles about females. CICU'TA;in botany, Water-hemlock. This term was used by the ancients and by me- dical writers for the Corium macculatum, or common hemlock, the juice of which was given as a poison. Both Socrates and Pho- cion perished by it. It is now often used medicinally with good effect. CI'DARIS, in antiquitj', the mitre used by the Jewish high priests. CIL'IA, the EYE-LASKES, in anatomy, are certain rigid hairs situated on the arch or tarsus of the eyelids, and bent in a very singular manner : they are destined for keep- ing external bodies out of the eye, and for moderating the influx of light. CIL'IARY, in anatomy, an epithet for several parts belonging to the cilia, or eye- lashes ; as the ciliary glands, &c. CIL'IATED, in botany, furnished or sur- rou-nded with parallel filaments somewhat like the hairs of the eyelids ; whence its name. CILI 'CIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a sort of habit made of coarse stuff, formerly in use among the Jews in times of mourning and distress. It is the same with what the Septuagint and Hebrew versions call sack- cloth. CIM'BRIC, pertaining to the Cimbri, the inhabitants of the Cimbric Cheronese, now Jutland. CIMME'RIAN, pertaining to Cimmeriiim, a town at the mouth of the Palus Majotis, which the ancients pretended was involved in darkness ; whence the phrase "Cimmerian CONSTANTINK, THEODOSIUS, AND JUSTINIAN ERECTED MANY CHURCHES. INS THE SUPREME COURT OF THE CINQUE-FORTS WAS THE COURT OF SUEPWAY. cin] ^fje Scientific an"D ILiUxax^ treasury ; [cin darkness " to denote a deep or continual obscurity. The country is now called the Crimea. CllM'OLITE, a species of earth, of which there are several varieties; one, of a purple colour, is the steatite, or soap rock ; and from another sort, found in the Isle of Wight, tobacco-pipes are made. CliNXHO'NA, the Peruvian bark, ob- tained from certain trees growing to the height of fifteen or twenty feet, and natives of Peru. Linnaeus describes two species, the white and the coloured ; and a third has been found in the West Indies, particularly in Jamaica and St. Lucia. The two latter are used in medicine. It was first intro- duced for the cure of intermittent fevers ; and in these, when properly exhibited, it rarely fails of success. Cl"NC'TUUE,in architecture, a ring, list, or orlo, at the top and bottom of a column, separating the shaft at one cud from the base, and at the other from the capital. CINERI'TIOUS, an appellation given to different substances, on account of their resembling ashes, either in colour or con- sistence. CIN NABAR, in natural history, is either native or factitious. Native cinnabar is an ore of quicksilver, moderately compact, very heavy, and of an elegant striated red colour. It is called native vermillion, and when used by painters is rendered more beautiful by grinding it with gum-water and a little saffron. It is found amorphous, or under some imitative form, and crystalized. Fac- titious cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and sulphur sublimed, and thus rendered into a fine red colour. CIN'NAMON, a fragrant spice, obtained from the bark of a low tree, (the laurus ciniiamomum) growing on the island of Ceylon. The true cinnamon is a most grateful aromatic, and one of the best cordial, carminative spices. Its leaves re- semble those of the olive, and the fruit re- sembles the acorn or olive, having neither the smell nor taste of the bark; both yield an essential oil. C I N Q U E r O I L, or Five-Leaved Clover, a perennial. This plant is some- times borne in coats of arms. CINQUE-PORTS, the five ancient ports on the east coast of England, opposite to France, namely, Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, to which were afterwards added, as appendages, Win- cheisea and Rye. As places where strength and vigilance were necessary, and whence ships might put to sea in cases of sudden emergency, they formerly received con- siderable attention from government. They have several privileges, and are within the jurisdiction of the Constable of Dover Castle, who, by his office, is called Warden of the Cinque-Ports. Until the time of Henry VIII. the Crown seems to have had no per- manent navy; the Cinque-ports having al- ways furnished nearly the whole of the ship- jnng required for the purposes of the state. In consideration of this service, many pri- vileges and franchises were granted to them by diflferent sovereigns, valuable at the time, but which have now become in a great measure nominal, in consequence of tlie va- rious exactions and restrictions to which they refer having long since been abolished. The freedom from toll and dues, still recog- nized at several ports, seems to be the most valuable right remaining to the freemen; the exemption from serving on county ju- ries and from sei-vice in the militia are also understood as belonging to them. The ju- risdiction of the Cinque-ports extends along the coast continuously from Birchington, which is to the north-east of Margate, to Seaford in Sussex; and each has one or more ports or towns members of it, some of which are corporate, and others not. 1 1 ancient times there were several courts of jurisdiction, extending over all the ports and members, and intended either as courts of appeal for persons who considered them- selves injured by any of the separate and local tribunals of the different ports, or for regulating the general affairs of the whole association; but these may now be considered as obsolete, their functions hav- ing dwindled to mere matters of form. [We had scarcely penned the foregoing paragraph when we saw an account of the splendid banquet, given at Dover, August 30, 1839, in honour of that illustrious warrior the Duke of Wellington, as Warden of the Cinque-Ports. Participating, in common with the rest of our countrymen, in those feelings which gave birth to this patriotic tribute, we hope to be excused (though we may step a little out of the usual track) for thus endeavouring to perpetuate the remembrance of so proud a day. Dover was thronged with visitors of rank fro"m all parts of the kingdom: the moniing was ushered in by the ringing of bells and the firing of cannon; and every countenance beamed with delight. The pavilion in which the banquet was given was erected on the Priory meadow, directly opposite the large hall, called the Maison Dieu. It was of immense size, (standing on 20,420 feet of ground,' including its covered ways and entrance lobbies), and was intended for the accommodation of 2,250 persons. It was gorgeously and appropriately decorated with military emblems, &c. In all parts of the hall floated a profusion offiags; and the effect of this picturesque scene, when filled with the company, was brilliant in the extreme. Party feeling and factious hostility were nobly laid aside ; and many members of the British senate, peers as well as commoners, were there assembled to do homage to " the great captain of the age." Among them was Lord Brougham — the bold politician, the astute reasoner, the great forensic orator — a man who had ever taken a prominent station among the political opponents of the Duke, but who on that day poured forth a torrent of panegyric, which was heard with grateful delight, and of which the following detached passages will at least convey some slight idea: " On this day, and on this occasion," said his lordship, " all personal, all political feelings are quelled — all strife of party is TUE CINQUE-PORTS HAVE AN ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION UNDER THE WARDEN. cin] SEVERAL or THE CIR'aUE-PORT COnrOBATB TOWNS ARE QUITE INLAND. 'U >T£6o IBictlanarp of t\)z ^BclUs Xettrcs. [CIR huslied ; and we are incapable, whatever our oijinions may be, of refusing to acknow- ledge trausccndant merits, and denying that we feel the imesistible impulse of un- bounded gratitude. No long cou»se of op- position, however contrasted on public principle— no political hostility (for any other than political never could be felt) — not even long inveterate habits of public opposition — are able so far to pervert the nature, so far to stitle the natural feelings of our hearts, so far to obscure our reason, as to prevent us from feeling, as we ought, boundless gratitude for boundless merits — to pluck from our minds an admiration pro- portioned to the transcendent genius in peace and war, of him who is our guest ; or to lighten and alleviate that painful feeUng, that deep sense which the mind never can get rid of when it is overwhelmed by a load of gratitude— a debt too boundless to be repaid." * * * « What else have I to do if I had all the eloquence of all the tongues that ever were attuned to speak ? wiiat else can I do, and how would a thousand words, and all the names that can be named, speak so powerfully, or even the tongue of an angel speak so powerfully, as that very one word — Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington — the hero of a hundred fields, in all of which his banner has waved in triumph ; who never — I invoke both hemispheres — bear witness Europe, bear A\'itness Asia — v/ho never advanced hnt to cover his arms with glory ! mighty captain, who never advanced but to be victorious — mightier captain, who never retreated but to eclipse the glory of his advance ; per- forming the yet harder task of unwearied patience, of indomitable fortitude, of ex- haustless resources, of transcendant skill ; the wonders, the miracles of moral courage never yet subdued ; despising all that thwarted him with ill-considered advice ; neglecting all hostility, so he knew it to be groundless ; leaving to scorn reviling ene- mies, jealous competitors, lukewarm friends ; ay, hardest of all to neglect — despising even a fickle public — casting his eye foinvard to the time when that momentaiy fickleness of the people would pass away, well-know- ing that in the end the public is always just to merit." His lordship then took a brief review of the Duke's matchless achievements in the field, his inexhaustible fertihty in difficulties, his high moral cour- age, and his inflexible devotion to his country ; beautifully contrasting all with the actions of the greatest heroes of ancient and modern times, from Caesar to Napoleon, and acknowledging that he, whose deeds they were met to celebrate, infinitely ex- celled them. Alluding to the scenes of rapine which had marked the career of former conquerors, and the guilty ambition vvhich led them to enslave their fellow- creatures, he exclaimed, " Onr chief has never drawn his sv. ord but in that defensive war, which alone of all warfare is not a great crime. He has never drawn his sword against the liberty of any people, but he has constantly unsheathed it, and, blessed be God, he has triumphantly unsheathed it, to secure the liberty of all. The servant of his prince to command his troops, but the soldier and defender of his country; the enemy of her enemies, be they foreign or be they domestic ; but the fast friend of the rights of his fellow-subjects, and the champion of their lawful constitution. The tempest which resounded all over the world is now, thanks to him, hushed ; the shock which made the thrones of Europe to quake, and the horns of the altar themselves to tremble, has, thanks to him, expended its force. We may, thanks to him, expect to pass the residue of our days without that turmoil of war in which our youth was brought up ; but if ever the materials of some fell explosion should once more be collected by human wickedness in any quarter of the globe — if the hushed tempest should again break loose from its cave — if the shock which is felt not now should once more make our institutions to quiver, happy this nation that knows to what wise counsel to look ; happy the sovereign that has at his command the right arm that has carried in triumph the English standard all over the globe ; happy the people who may yet again confide, not their liberties indeed, for that is a trust he would spurn from him with indignation — but who would confide in his matchless valour for their safety against all the perils which Providence may yet have in store for them."] CITHER, or CY'PHER, one of the Arabic characters, or figures, used in com- putation, formed thus 0. A cipher standing by itself signifies nothing; but when placed at the right hand of a figure, it increases its value tenfold. By Cijyher is also denoted a secret or disguised manner of writing ; in which certain characters arbitrarily in- vented and agreed on by two or more persons, ai'e made to stand for letters or words. CIP'OLIN, a green marble from Rome, containing white zones. CIP'PUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an inscription, erected on the high roads, or other places, to show the way to travellers, to serve as a boundary, to mark the grave of a deceased person, &c. CIRCE'AN, pertaining to Circe, th.e fabled daughter of Sol and Perseus, who was supposed to possess great knowledge of magic and venomous herbs, by which she was able to charm and fascinate. CIRCEN'SIAN GAMES f Cir censes LudiJ, a general term, under which was compre- hended all combats exhibited in the Roman circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece. Most of the feasts of the Romans were accompanied with Circensian games ; and the magistrates, and other officers of the republic, frequently presented the people with them, in order to gain their favour ; but the grand games were held for five days, commencing on the 15th of September. CIR'CINAL, in botany, an epithet ap- plied to plants whose leaves are rolled in spirally downwards, the tip occupying the centre. IN TUB REIGX OF EDWARD I. THE CINQUE-rORTS EQUIPTED 57 SUIPS. 139 MONET IS THE BASIS OP ALIi COMMEBCIAL TBANSACTI0N8. cir] 'iJtljz Scientific mts ICitcrart) treasure ; [cir CIR'CLE, in geometry, a plane figure, bounded by a curve line, called its circum- ference, and which is everywhere equally distant from a point within, called its centre. The circumference or periphery itself is called the circle, though improperly, as that name denotes the space contained within the circumference. A circle is de- scribed with a pair of compasses, fixing one foot in the centre and turning the other round to trace out the circumference. The circumference of every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees and marked ° ; and each degree into 60 mi- nutes, marked'. The word Circle is also used to describe an assembly, or set of persons ; as a political circle ; our circle of friends, &c. Circles of latitude, are great circles perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, passing through its poles and through every star and planet. Circles of longitude are lesser circles parallel to the ecliptic, diminishing as they recede from it. Diurnal circles, are immovable circles supposed to be described by the several stars and other points in the heavens, in the ro- tation of the earth round its axis. Horary circles, in dialling, are the lines which show the hours on dials. CIR'COCELE, in anatomy, a varix, or dilatation of the spermatic vein ; hernia varicosa. CIR CUITS, certain districts or divisions of the kingdom, through which the judges pass once a year, or oftener, to hold courts and administer justice. The six jurisdictions into which England is divided by the twelve judges, are called the Home, Norfolk, Mid- land, Oxford, Western, and Northern cir- cuits. Wales is also divided into North and South circuits; and Scotland, into South, West, and North. CIRCULATING ME'DIUM, a term in commerce, signifying the medium of ex- changes, or purchases and sales, whether this medium be gold or silver coin, paper, or any other article ; and it is therefore of a more comprehensive nature than the term money. All people have a circulating me- dium of some description, and, accordingly, we find all the tribes of savages hitherto discovered referring to some article in esti- mating the value of the various commo- dities which compose their capital. But from the earliest times, the precious metals, where they could be had, have been prefer- red for this purpose, because they com- prised a sufficient value in a small compass and weight to be a convenient medium. A well- contrived, skilfully-conducted system of banking, connected with one of circula- tion, is one of the greatest triumphs of na- tional economy; for the interest, as well as the reputation of individuals, is thus pledged in support of the system, and in furtherance of the general industry and prosperity. CIRCULATION, in anatomy, the na- tural motion of the blood in a living ani- mal, whereby it proceeds from the heart to all parts of the body by the arteries, and re- turns to the heart by the veins. The circu- lation of the blood is performed in the fol- lowing manner: the blood is returned to the right auricle of the heart, by the de- scending and ascending vena cava, which, when dlltended, contracts and sends its blood into the right ventricle ; from the right ventricle it is propelled through the pulmonary artery, to circulate through, and undergo a change in the lungs, being pre- vented from returning into the right auricle by the closing of the valves, which are si- tuated for that purpose. Having undergone this change in the lungs, it is brought to the left auricle of the heart by the four pul- monary veins, and thence is evacuated into the left ventricle. The left ventricle when distended contracts, and throws the blood through the aorta to every part of the body, by the arteries, to be returned by the veins into the vena cava. It is prevented from passing back from the left ventricle into the auricle by a valvular apparatus ; and the beginning of the pulmonary artery and aorta is also furnished with similar organs to prevent its returning into the ventricles. CIR'CULUS, in anatomy, any round or annular part of the body, as the circulus oculi, the orb of the eye. CIRCUMAM'BIENT, an epithet given to anything that surrounds or encompasses another on all sides ; chiefly used in speak- ing of the air. CIRCUMCIS'ION, a ceremony in the Jewish and Mahometan religions, perform- ed by cutting off the prepuce, or foreskin. This was a federal rite annexed by God, as a seal to the covenant which he made with Abraham and his posterity, and was ac- cordingly renewed, and taken into the body of the Mosaical constitutions. The time for performing this rite was the eighth day, that is, six full days after the child was born. The Jews distinguished their pro- selytes into two sorts, according as they became circumcised, or not: those who submitted to this rite were looked upon as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the laws of Moses : the uncircumcised were only bound to observe the precepts of Noah, and were called Noachida. CIRCUMTERENTOR, a mathematical instrument used by land surveyors for taking angles by the magnetic needle. It is an instrument {where great accuracy is not desired) much used in surveying in and about woodlands, commons, harbours, sea- coasts, in the working of coal-mines, &c. CIR'CUMFLEX, in grammar, an accent serving to note or distinguish a syllable of an intermediate sound between acute and grave : generally somewhat long. CIRCUMFORA'NEOUS, an epithet for wandering about. Circumforaneous mu- sicians, male and female, ,are daily seen at the doors of hotels, in France ; and some- times they enter the room, expecting a few sous for their reward. Nor are characters of a similar description by any means rare in London. CIRCUMGYRATION, in anatomy, the turning a limb round in the socket. CIRCUMLOCU'TION, a paraphrastical "WITH CREDIT, EVEBT 51. IN MONEY SUSTAINS TRANSACTIONS FOR 100?. THE LENGTH OF THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS WAS 9331 FEET ; ITS BREADTH, 2187 FEET. err] ^ "^^cfco Bictionarw of t]f)e Mies Ulettres. [civ method of expressing one's thoughts, or saying in many words that which might have been said in few. CIRCUMPO'LAR, an appellation given to those stars which, from their vicinity to the pole, revolve round it without setting. CIRCUMPOTA'TION, in antiquity, a funeral entertainment which was given in honour of the deceased to the friends that at- tended. It was afterwards abolished by law. CIRCUMROTA'TION, the act of rolling or revolving round, as a wheel. CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE, in law, is that kind of evidence obtained from circumstances which necessarily or usually attend facts of a particular nature. It is used to corroborate personal evidence. CIRCUMVALLA'TION, or Line of Cir- cumvallntion, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a parapet, thrown up round the besieger's camp, by way of security against any army that may attempt to re- lieve the piace besieged, or to prevent de- sertion. CIR CUS, in antiquity, a round or oval edifice, used for the exhibition of games and shows to the people : one of these, the Circus Maximus, at Rome, was nearly a mile in circumference. In modern times, the word is applied to designate a circular enclosure for the exhibition of feats of horsemanship. CIR'RI, in botany, fine strings or thread- like filaments, by which some plants fasten themselves to walls, trees, &c., such as those of the ivy. Cirri, in ichthyology, certain oblong and soft appendages, not unlike little worms, hanging fi om the un- der jaws or mouths of some fishes : these cirri, commonly translated beards, afford marks to distinguish the different species of the fisli on which thev are found. CIRRIF'EROUS, in botany, an epithet for a leaf or a peduncle bearing tendrils. CISAL'PINE, on this side the Alps, as regards Rome. It must be observed, how- ever, that what was Cisalpine with regard to the Romans, is Transalpine with regard to us. CIS'PADANE, on this side the river Po, with regard to Rome ; that is, on the south side. CISTER'CIANS, in church history, a religious order founded in the 11th century by St. Robert, a Benedictine. CIS'TUS, in botany, the Rock-rose ; a genus of the polyandria-mrmogynia class of plants, many of which are beautiful ever- green flowering shrubs, and most of them natives of the southern parts of Europe. CITA'TION, in ecclesiastical courts, is the same with summons in civil courts. A Citation is also a quotation of some law, authority, or passage from a book. CITH'ARA, in antiquity, a musical in- strument, the precise structure of which is not known. CITIIARIS'TIC, an epithet for anything pertaining to or adapted for the harp. CITH'ERN, an ancient "stringed instru- ment, supposed to bear a resemblance to the guitar. CIT'RATE, in chemistry, a neutral salt formed by a union of the citric acid with a base. CIT'RIC ACID, in chemistry, that pro- perty found in the juice of lemons and limes, which gives it the sour taste. This acid by chemical preparation may be converted into crystals, and in that state it can be kept any length of time. CIT'RINE, a species of very fine sprig crystal, of a beautiful yellow colour, found in columns, and terminatinginanhexangu- lar pyramid. CIT'RON, the fruit of the citron-tree, a large species of lemon. The tree has an upright smooth stem, with a branching head, rising from five to fifteen feet, adorned with large oval spear-shaped leaves. The citron, lime, and lemon, are different va- rieties of the citrus medica, a native of Upper Asia, from whence it ^^as brought into Greece, and afterwards transplanted into Italy. Lemon-juice, which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in cookery, confectionery, and various other ways, particularly in medicine, as one of the best remedies for the scurvy with which we are acquainted. Sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt ; but what is sold in the shops under the name of essential salt of lemons, for taking out ink-stains and iron-moulds from linen, is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel. CITY, a large town, incorporated and go- verned by particular officers. In Great Bri- tain, it means a town ha^^ng a bishop's see, and a cathedral; but this distinction is not always observed in common discourse, for we say the town of Ely, which is a bishop's see, and the city of Westminster, which at present has no see. War having rendered it requisite that cities should be defensible posts, the smallness of the space they oc- cupied became a consideration of import- ance. Tlieir inhabitants were taught to crowd themselves together as much as pos- sible; and among the expedients resorted to was that of building apartments over one another, thereby mviltiplying the number of dwellings without increasing the super- ficial magnitude of the place. Trade, too, by requiring a multitude of persons upon one spot, has always been the foundation of what we now call cities. Cities usually pos- sess, by charter, a variety of peculiar privi- leges ; and these charters, though they now sometimes appear to be the supporters of a narrow policy, were, in their institution, grants of freedom at that time nowhere else possessed ; and by these the spell that main- tained the feudal tyranny was broken. City, fcivitasj, among the ancients, was used in synonymous sense with what we now call an imperial city ; or, rather, answered to those of the Swiss cantons, the republics of Venice, Genoa, &c., as being an inde - pendent state, with territories belonging to it. CIVET, (zibethum), a soft unctuous sub- stance, like musk, the smell of which it re- sembles, is contained in a bag, growing from the lower part of the belly of the civet-cat. citrons ARE IMPORTED, PRESERVED AND CANDIED, FROM MADEIRA. THE BRITISH LAWS WKKE TBANSLATED INTO SAXON IN 590. cla] ^f)c Scientific anU Xiterar^ ^rcasur^ ; [cla Civet was formerly in high repute for its medicinal quaUties, but is now used only as a perfume. CIVET-CAT, an animal of the fox or weasel species, a native of the Indies and South America, CIVIC CROWN, (corona civicaj, in an- tiquity, a crown, or garland composed of oak-leaves, given by the Romans to any sol- dier who had saved the life of a citizen. Va- rious marks of honour were connected with it : the person who received the crown wore it at the theatre ; and when he entered, the audience rose up as a mark of respect. CIVIL, an epithet applicable to whatever relates to the community as a body, or to the policy and the government of the citizens and subjects of a state. It is opposed to criminal : as a civil suit, a suit between ci- tizens alone, and not between the state and a citizen. It is also distinguished from ec- clesiastical, -which respects the church; and from military, which includes only matters relating to the army and navy. — The popu- lar and colloquial use of the word civil, means complaisant, polite. Civil Law, is properly the peculiar law of each state, country, or city; but as a general and ap- propriate term, it means a body of laws composed out of the best Roman and Gre- cian laws, comprised in the Institutes, Code and Digest of Justinian, &c., and, for the most part, received and observed throughout all the Roman dominions for above 1200 years. , This law is used under certain re- strictions in our ecclesiastical courts, as also in the university courts and the court of admiralty. Civil List, the revenue appropriated to support the civil govern- ment ; also the officers of civil government who are paid from the public treasury. As used in England, it signifies the sum which is granted to every king, at the beginning of his reign, for the support of his court and household, of ambassadors, and of the civil government in general. Civil Death, in law, that which cuts off a man from civil society, or its rights and benefits, as ba- nishment, outlawry, &c.; as distinguished from natural death. Civil War, a war between people of the same state, or the citizens of the same city. Civil Fear, the legal year, or that form of the year which each nation has adopted for computing their time by. The civil year in England and other countries of Europe consists of 365 days for the common year, and 366 days for leap year.— Civii Architecture, the ar- chitecture which is applied to buildings constructed for the purposes of civil life, m distinction from military and naval archi- tecture. CIVILIAN, a doctor or professor of the civil law ; or in a more extended sense, one who is versed in law and government. CLAMP, in general, something that fas- tens or binds ; as a piece of iron screwed on the corners where boards meet, &c. In brick-making, a clamp is a pile of bricks laid up for burning, in which the end of one brick is laid over another, and a space is left between the bricks for the fire to ascend. In ship-buUding, a thick plank on the inner part of a ship's side, used to sustain the ends of the beams. In joiners' work, to fit a piece of board with the grain, to the end of another piece of board across the grain, is called clamping it. CLAN, a family or tribe, living under one chief. This appears to have been the original condition of the savages of northern Europe; and from this we ought to trace the germ of the feudal system. All the members of a clan held their lands of the chief, followed him to war, and were ex- pected to obey him in peace. The word clan is adso sometimes used in contempt, for a sect or society of persons united by some common interest or pursuit. CLANG, a sharp, shrill sound, implying a degree of harshness in the sound; as, the clang of arms. The words clank and clink denote a more acute and less harsh sound than clang. CLAR'ENCIEUX, the second king at arms, so called from the duke of Clarence, to whom he first belonged; (for Lionel third son to Edward III. having by his wife the honour of Clare, in the county of Tho- mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence; which dukedom afterwards es- cheating to Edward IV. he made this duke king at arms). His office is to marshal and dispose of the funerals of all baronets, knights, and esquires, on the south side of the Trent. CLAR'ENDON. The " constitutions of Clarendon," are certain ecclesiastical laws drawn up at Clarendon, near Salisbury. They were sixteen in number, all tending to restrain the power of the clergy, and readily assented to by all the bishops and barons, the archbishop Becket excepted, who opposed them at first, but was after- wards prevailed upon to sign them. The pope Alexander III. declared against and annulled most of them. CLAR'ICHORD, or CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument sometimes called a ma- nichord. It has fifty stops or keys, and seventy strings; and is in the form of a spinnet. The tone is soft and sweet ; hence it is a favourite instrument with nuns. CLARE -OBSCURE, Claro-Obscuko, Latin ; Chiaro-oscuro, Italian ; and Clair-obscur, French ; a phrase in paint- ing, signifying light and shade. In pic- tural criticism, it means the relief that is produced by light and shade, independently of colour. In the art itself, it denotes that species of painting or design, in which no attempt is made to give colours to the ob- jects represented, and where, consequently, light and shade are everything. CLARIFICATION, the process of clear- ing or fining any fluid from all heteroge- neous matter or feculence, and is distin- guished from filtration by the employment of chemical raeans^ whereas the latter is only a mechanical operation. CLAR'ION, a kind of trumpet, whose tube is narrower, and its tone more acute and shrill, than that of the common trum- pet. ALFRED COMPILED THE ANGLO-SAXON COMMON LAW IN 855. WUILE I/IBEKTY FLOURISHED, THE GREEK WRITERS WEBB CLASSIC MODELS. CLE iHlefco IBictioTTars of t\)z H^ziU^ Xettrcs. [CLI CLA'RY-WATER, a composition of bran- dy, sugar, clary flowers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergris dissolved in it. It is a cardiac, aud assists digestion. CLASS, a term applied to the scientific division or arrangement of any subject ; as in the Linnaean system, wherein animals, plants, and minerals are divided into class- es, each of which is to be subdivided by a regular downward progression, into orders, genera, and species, with occasional inter- mediate subdivisions, all subordinate to the division which stands immediately above them. Classes are natural or artificial, ac- cording as they are founded on natural re- lations or resemblances, or when formed arbitrarily. Class also denotes a number of students in a college or school, of the same standing, or pursuing the same stu- dies. CLASSICAL, a term signifying excel- lent, or of the first class. It is said to owe its origin to the division of the Roman people into classes, the first of which was called, by way of eminence, the classic. The word classical is also applied to au- thors of standard authority, particularly the writers among the Greeks and the Romans, whose works ar© comprehended under the name of the Classics. CLAUSE, in law, an article in a contract or other writing ; a distinct part of a con- tract, will, agjreement, charter, &c. In language, a subdivision of a sentence, in which the words are inseparably connected with each other in sense, and cannot with propriety be separated by a point. CLAUS'TRAL, relating Co a cloister or religious house ; as, a claustral prior. CLAV'ATED, in botany, an epithet for plants which are club-shaped, or grow grad- ually thicker towards the top. CLAVICLES, in anatomy, two bones situated transversely and a little obliquely opposite to each other, at the superior and anterior part of the thorax, between the scapula or thoulder-bone, and the sternum or breast-bone. CLAY, a species of earths which are firmly coherent, weighty, compact, and hard when dry, but stiff, viscid, and ductile to a great degree, when moist; smooth to the touch, not readily diffusible in water, and when mixed, not readily subsiding from it. They become soft by absorbing water, but are so tenacious as to be moulded into any shape, and hence they are the materials of bricks, pottery-ware, &c. CLE'AVAGE, in mineralogy, a term used in relation to the fracture of minerals which have natural joints and possess a regular structure. CLECHE, in heraldry, a kind of cross, charged with another cross of the same figure, but of the colour of the field. C LEDGE, among miners, the upper stratum of fuller's earth. CLEF, or CLIFF, (derived, through the French, from the Latin clavis, "& key,") a character in music, placed in the beginning of a stave, to determine the degree of eleva- tion occupied by that stave, in the general claviary or system, and to point out the names of the notes which it contains in the ine of that clef. CLEMA'TIS. a climbing shrub, otherwise called Virgin's Bower. The common sort, bearing a bluish flower, is a native of the south of Europe. CLEPSAM'MIA, an ancient instrument for measuring time by sand, like an hour- glass. CLEP'SYDRA, a Roman and Grecian time-piece, or water-clock; an instrument to measure time by the fall of a certain quantity of water. CLER'GY, a general name given to the body of ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in distinction from the laity. The revenues of the clergy were anciently more consi- derable than at present. Ethelwulf, in 855, gave them a tithe of all goods, and a tenth of all the lands in England, free from all secular services, taxes, &c. The charter whereby this was granted them, was con- firmed by several of his successors ; and William the Conqueror, finding the bishop- rics so rich, created them into baronies, each barony containing at least thirteen knight's fees. CLERK, a word originally used to denote a learned man, or man of letters ; whence the term is appropriated to churchmen, who were called clerks or clergymen : the nobility and gentry being bred to the exer- cise of arms, and none left to cultivate the sciences but ecclesiastics. In modern usage, the word clerk means a writer ; one who is employed in the use of the pen, in an office, public or private, either for keeping ac- counts, or entering minutes. In some cases clerk is synonymous with secretary, but not always. A clerk is always an officer subordinate to a higher officer, board, cor- poration, or private individual ; whereas, a secretary may either be a subordinate of- ficer, or the head of an office or department. CLEW-LINES, and CLEW- GARNETS, in marine language, a sort of tackle fasten- ed to the clews of the sails to truss them up to the yard. CLI'ENT, a person who seeks advice of a lawyer, or commits his cause to the ma- nagement of one, either in prosecuting a claim, or defending a suit in a court of jus- tice.— — Among the Romans, a clien t meant a citizen who put himself under the protec- tion of a man of distinction and influence, who was accordingly called his patron, CLIMACTERIC, according to astrolo- gers, is a critical year or period in a person's Hfe, According to some, this is every se- venth year, but others allow only those years produced by multiplying 7 by the odd numbers 3, 6, 7, 9, to be climacteral ; which years, they say. bring with them some remarkable change with respect to health, life or fortune. The grand climacteric is the 63d year. CLI'MATE, in a geographical sense, a space upon the surface of the terrestrial globe, contained between two parallels, and so far distant from each other, that the longest day in the parallel nearest the pole THK ROMAN WRITERS EXCELLED IN HISTORY, RHETORIC, LAW, AND WAR. ■inv. tOM) AND HEAT OF CLIMATES DEPENI) MUCH ON THE VICINAGE OF SEAS. CL o] [CLO is half an hour longer than that nearest the equator. In a popular sense, the term climate is given to any country or region differing from another in the temperature of the air; or with respect to the seasons, the quality of the soil, or even the man- ners of the inhabitants, without any regard to the length of the days, or to geographical position. Thus we say, a warm or cold cli- mate, a genial climate, &c. CLl'MAX, a figure in rhetoric, consisting of an assemblage of particulars, rising, as it were, step by step, and forming a whole in such a manner that the last idea in the former member becomes the first in the latter, till the climax, or gradation, is com- pleted. Its strength and beauty consist in the logical connection of the ideas, and the pleasure the mind receives from perfect conviction ; as may be perceived in the fol- lowing example: "There is no enjoyment of property without government ; no go- vernment without a magistrate ; no magis- trate without obedience; and no obedience where every one acts as he pleases." CLINICAL, in its literal sense, means anything pertaining to a bed. Thus, a clinical lecture is a discourse from notes taken at the bed-side by a physician, with a view to practical instruction in the healing art. Clinical medicine is the practice of medicine on patients in hospitals, or in bed. And the term clinic was also applied by the ancient church historians, to one who re- ceived baptism on his death bed, CLOA'CA, an ancient common sewer. CLOCK, a machine for measuring time, called, when first invented, a nocturnal dial, to distinguish it from the sun-dial. This machine consists of wheels moved by weights, so constructed that by a uniform vibration of a pendulum, the hours, mi- nutes, and seconds are measured with great exactness ; and it indicates the hour by the stroke of a small hammer on a bell. The invention of clocks has been ascribed to Boethius, about the year 510; but clocks, like those now used, were either first in- vented, or revived, between two and three centuries ago. The clock measures even 24 hours, but the solar day is unequal, ac- cording to the situation of the earth in its orbit, and to the declination of the sun. Hence the clock is sometimes a few minutes faster or slower than the sun. CLOIS'TER, the principal part of a re- gular monastery, consisting of a square, erected between the church, the chapter- house, and the refectory, and over which is the dormitory. In a general sense, cloisters mean covered passages, such as were for- merly attached to religious houses. CLOTH, any kind of stulf that is woven or manufactured in the loom, whether it be made of wool, hemp, fiax, or cotton. CLOTHING. Under this head we shall take the liberty of extracting and abridging from the Glasgow edition of the " Conver- sations Lexicon," a few paragraphs which strike us as being founded on careful obser- vation, and given with a just notion of the importance of the subject. Nothing is more necessary to a comfortable state of existence, than that the body should be kept in nearly a uniform temperature. The chief end proposed by clothing ought to be protection from the cold; and it never can be too deeply impressed on the mind (especially of those who have the care of children), that a degree of cold amounting to shivering cannot be felt, under any cir- cumstances, without injury to the health, and that the strongest constitution cannot resist the benumbing influence of a sensa- tion of cold constantly present, even though it be so moderate as not to occasion imme- diate complaint, or to induce the sufferer to seek protection from it. This degree of cold often lays the foundation of the whole host of chronic diseases, foremost amongst which are found scrophula and consump- tion. Persons engaged in sedentary em- ployments must be almost constantly under the influ^ence of this degree of cold, unless the apartment in which they work is heated to a degree that subjects them, on leaving it, to all the dangers of a sudden transi- tion, as it were, from summer to winter. The inactivity to which such persons are condemned, by weakening the body, ren- ders it incapable of maintaining the degree of warmth necessary to comfort, without additional clothing or fire. To heat the air of an apartment much above the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, we must shut out the external air; the air also be- comes extremely rarefied and dry; which circumstances make it doubly dangerous to pass from it to the cold, raw, external air. But in leaving a moderately well-warmed room, if properly clothed, the change is not felt; and the full advantage of exercise is derived from any opportunity of taking it that may occur. The only kind of dress that can afford the protection required by the changes of temperature to which high northern climates are liable, is woollen ; and those who would receive the advantage which the wearing of woollen is capable of affording, must wear it next the skin ; for it is in this situation only that its health- preserving power can be felt. The great advantages of woollen cloth are briefly these : — the readiness with which it allows the escape of the matter of perspiration through its texture ; its power of preserving the sensation of warmth to the skin under all circumstances ; the slowness with which it conducts heat ; and the softness, lights ness, and pliancy of its texture. Cotton cloth must be esteemed the next best sub- stance of which clothing can be made ; but linen is the ivorst of all the substances in use." CLOUD, a collection of vapours suspend- ed in the atmosphere; being a congeries chiefly of watery particles, drawn up from the sea and land by the solar or subterra neous heat, cr both, in vapour. CloviJs are of various kinds according to the prevalence of any one of their component parts, and par- ticularly according to the quantity of elec- tric fluid they contain. Massive round clouds are called cumulus; flat long clouds THE COLLISION OF ELECTRIC CLOUDS PRODUCES LIGHTNING. coa] IN A THUNDER-STORM THE CLOUDS ARE MERE CONDUCTING SURFACES. V^ ^t^m ©ictionanj of t\)z "BeHcs ^ettm. [coc are called stratus ; feathery or hairy clouds, cirrhus; and when the stratus intersects the cumulus, the combination is called nim- bus, from its producing rain. The uses of clouds are evident to the commonest ob- server. From them proceeds the rain which refreshes the earth : and without which its whole surface must be one desert. Clouds are likewise screens interposed between the earth and the scorching rays of the sun, which are often so powerful as to destroy the more tender vegetables. In the less discoverable operations of nature, where the electric fluid is concerned, clouds have a principal share ; and they particularly serve as a medium for conveying that sub- tile matter from the atmosphere to the earth, and from the earth into the atmo- sphere. CLOVE, a very pungent aromatic Indian spice ; the fruit, or rather the flower, of the clove tree, which grows in the Molucca isles. The tree is of the size of the laurel, and its bark resembles the olive. CLO'VER-GRASS, a genus of plants called Trifolium, trefoil, or three-leaved ; of which the species are numerous. The red clover is generally cultivated for fodder and for enriching land. The white clover is also an excellent food for cattle ; and from its flowers the bee collects no small portion of its honeyed stores. CLYS'TER, in medicine, a liquid sub- stance injected into the lower intestines, for the purpose of promoting aMne dis- charges ; and at other times for the sup- port and nourishment of patients who can- not swallow aliment. COACH, a vehicle of pleasure, distin- guished from others chiefly from, being a covered box hung on leathers. The oldest carriages used by the ladies in England were called whirlicotes ; and we find that the mother of Richard II., who, in 1360, accompanied him in his flight, rode in a carriage of this sort. But coaches, pro- perly so called, were introduced into Eng- land from Germany, or France, in 15S0, in the reign of Elizabeth. In IGOl, the year before the queen's death, an act was passed to prevent men from riding in coaches, as being effeminate ; but in twenty-five years af- terwards hackney-coaches were introduced. COAD'UNATE, in botany, an epithet for several leaves united at the base. COAL, in mineralogy, a solid inflamma- ble substance, supposed to be of a bitu- minous nature, and commonly used for fuel. By way of distinction it is called fossil coal ; and is divided by recent mineralogists into three species, anthracite, or glance coal, black or bituminous coal, and lignite, or brown coal ; under which are included many varieties. There is scarcely any sub- stance so useful to mankind as this; and it is dealt out to us with an uiisparing hand. It is always found in masses, some- times in a heap, most frequently in beds, which are usually separated by layers of stones. The principal mines of this useful mineral are those of Newcastle and White- haven. Tlie town of Newcastle absolutely stands on beds of coals, which extend to a considerable distance romid the place. The principal opening for men and horses 1o the mines at Whitehaven is by an opening at the bottom of the hill, through a long passage hewn in a rock, which by a steep descent leads down to the lowest vein of coal. The greatest descent is through spa- cious galleries, which continually intersect each other ; all the coal being cut away except large pillars, which, in deep parts of the mine, are three yards high, and twelve square at the base. The mines are sunk to a depth of seven or eight hundred feet, and are extended under the sea to places where, above them, the water is sufficient for ships of very large burden. COAST, the edge or margin of the land next to the sea ; or the country near the sea-shore. It is applicable only to the sea- coast, being never used for the borders or banks of a river. COAT, a garment worn commonly up- permost. Also, a thin covering laid or done over anything, as a coat of paint, &c. In anatomy, the membraneous cover of any part of the body, as the coats of the eye, the stomach, &c. Coat of Arms, in the modern acceptation, is a device, or assem- blage of devices, supposed to be painted on a shield ; which shield, in the language of heraldry, is called the field. Coat of Mail, a piece of armour made in the form of a shirt, and wrought over with a kind of net- work of iron rings. COAT'ING, in chemistry, is used princi- pally for the purpose of defending certain vessels from the immediate action of fire : thus, glass retorts, and the inside of some furnaces, are coated, or securely covered, with various compositions. In electri- city, it means the covering of electric bodies with conductors, or the latter with the for- mer, or, lastly, electrics with other electrics. Electrics are coated with conductors for the purpose of communicating to, or remov- ing from their surfaces, the electric fluid in an easy and expeditious manner ; othei'wise an electric body, on account of its non- conducting property, cannot be electrified or deprived of the electric fluid without touching almost every point of its surface with an electrified or other body. CO'BALT, a mineral of a grayish white, or reddish gray colour, very brittle, and easily reducible to powder. It is never found in a pure state, but usually as a me- tallic oxyde, combined with arsenic, which is obtained from it in great quantities. The impure oxyde of cobalt is called zaffer; but when fused with three parts of siliceous sand and an alkaline flux, it is converted into a blue glass, called smalt. Cobalt is used principally to give a permanent blue colour to glass and enamels upon metals, porcelain, and earthenv/ares. Co'balt' bloom, acicular arscniate of cobalt. Co'- bait-crust, earthy arseniatc of cobalt. COC'COLITE, in mineralogy, a variety of auffite or pyroxene. It is of a greenish hue, and is composed of granular concre- tions. IN HEAVY WEATHER, THE CLOUDS ARE SELDOM MORE THAN HALF A MILE UIGir. THE WOODY SHELLS OF THE COCOA-NUT ARE FORMED INTO DRINKING CUPS, coc] Scientific m\ts ICitcrari) treasury ; [cod COC'CULUS IN'DICUS, an Indian ber- ry, growing on the Menispermum Cocculus. It is often unlawfully used as a deleterious ingredient in making malt liquors. COC'CUS,in entomology, a genus of two- winged insects, the wings of which stand erect, and are only to be found in the males ; the rostrum, or trunk, arises from the breast, and the body is setose behind. COCHINEAL', the Coccus Cacti, an in- sect which infests different plants, but par- ticularly the Nopal or Indian fig-tree. At a suitable time, these insects are taken and put in a pot, where they are confined for some time, and then killed by the applica- tion of heat. When formed into a mass, or drug, they become the cochineal of the shops, which is used in dyeing crimson and scarlet colours, and for making carmine. COCH'LEA, the snail-shell, a genus of univalve shell-fish, of a spiral figure, and containing only one cell. This is a very comprehensive genus, and therefore sub- divided into three series. Cochlea, in ana- tomy, the internal cavity of the ear ; so call- ed from its resemblance to the spiral shape of a snail's shell. COCHLEA'RIA, in botany, a genus of plants, class 15 Tetradynamia, order 1 Si- liculosa. The species chiefly consist of the various kinds of scurvy- grass. COCK, (gallus), in ornithology, the male of gallinaceous or domestic fowls, but more especially used for the common dunghill- cock. An instrument to draw out liquor from a cask, &c. The part of a musket to which a flint is attached, and by which fire IS struck. COCK-CHA'FER, known also by the name oi May-bug, door-beetle, Sic, a species of coleopterous insect, the Scarabeus me- lonthela of Linnaeus, is remarkable for the length of its life in the grvib or larva state, and for the injury it does to vegetation. The grub remains in the earth for three years before it is transformed into the per- fect insect, and is very destructive to the roots of plants. COCK'ET, a seal belonging to the cus- tom-house : likewise a scroll of parchment, sealed and delivered by the officers of the custom-hou^se to merchants, as a warrant that their merchandize is entered. COCKLE, the Cardium of Linnaeus, a genus of shells the characteristics of which are : shells nearly equilateral andequivalvu- lar ; hinge with two small teeth ; and promi- nent ribs running from the hinge to the edge of the valve. COCK'-PIT, in ships of war, an apart- ment situated near the after-hatchway, under the lower gun-deck, in which the wounded men are dressed. The fore-cock- pit is a place leading to the magazine pas- sage and the store-room of the boatswain, gunner, and carpenter. COCK'-ROACH, in entomology, the Blatta of Linnseus, a disagreeable and an- noying insect, which haunts houses, and is very active by night, when it devours what- ever food may lie in its way, and is also very destructive to woollen cloths, &c. COCK'SWAIN, (contracted into Coxen) an officer who has charge of the boat and the boat's crew. CO'COA, a tree belonging to the genus Cocos, of the order of Falmce. It grows in both the East and West Indies, is about sixty feet in height, and produces the fruit called the cocoa-nut, the shell of which is of a woody substance, containing a white fleshy kernel and a sweet refreshing liquor. The nuts, which are from three to seven inches long, hang in clusters on the top of the tree. If the body of the tree be bored, there exudes from the wound a white liquor called palm wine or toddy ; the kernels yield a considerable quantity of oil, which is now made available in the manufacture of candles and soap ; the leaves are wrought into sacks, hammocks, &c.; and the fila- ments of the outer coat of the nut are made into cables. CO'COA, as it is generally called, but more properly CACA'O, or the Chocolate- tree, is a species of the Theobroma, grow- ing in the West Indies and many parts of South America. The nuts or seeds, which are numerous, are contained in pods, much resembling a cucumber, that proceed from all parts of the body and larger branches ; each pod containing from 20 to 30 nuts, about the size of an almond, and very com- pactly set. They yield by expression a great deal of oil ; but they are cultivated only that they may be employed in the preparation of that excellent beverage cacao, and the manufacture of chocolate, of which they form the principal ingre- dient. COCOON', the fibrous or silken cone which caterpillars weave around them- selves when they assume the pupa or chry- salis form. CO'COS, a genus of plants, class 20 Mo- ncEcia, order 6 Hexandria. The species are shrubs and trees bearing large nuts, as the cocos nucifera, &c. COC'TION, in medicine, the reducing aliments to chyle. In surgery, the re- ducing morbific matter to a healthy state. COC'ULA, in archseology, a small drink- ing-cup in the shape of a boat. COD, or COD-FISH, in ichthyology, the English name of the variegated gadus, with three fins on the back, a cirrated mouth, and the upper jaw longest. It inhabits the northern seas, particularly the banks of Newfoundland. CODE, (from codex, a roll or volume), a collection or system of laws. The collec- tion of laws and constitutions made by order of the emperor Justinian is distin- guished by the appellation of code by way of eminence. The Code Napoleon, or civil code of France, proceeding from the French revolution, and the administration of Napoleon while consul, effected great changes in the laws of France. It was a work of great magnitude, and will remain a perpetual monument of the state of things as they then existed in that country. COD'ICIL, a supplement to a will, con- taining anything which the testator wishes 146 the liquor of the cocoa-nut tree, when distilled, forms arrack. cog] OUR GOLD COIN HAS ELEVEN PARTS OF GOLD TO ONE Off ALLOY. '^'Mm 59ictionarB of tf)c l^dUs Hiettres. [CO I to add ; or any explanation, alteration, or revocation, of what his will contains. COEFFI'TIENTS, in algebra, such num- bers, or given quantities, as are put before letters, or unknown quantities, into which letters they are supposed to be ni\xltiplied : thus, in 3 a, or b x, or c x x; 3 is the coeffi- cient of 3 a, 6 of 6 X, and c of c a; x. In fluxions, the coefficient of any generating term is the quantity which arises from the division of that term from the generated quantity. CCE'LA, in anatomy, the cavities or hol- lows, as they are called, of the eyes. CCE'LIAC, an epithet for what pertains to the belly, or the intestinal canal. Thus, coeliac artery is the artery which issues from the aorta just below the diaphragm ; the coeliac vein, a vein of the intestinum rec- tum; and coeliac passion, a flux or diarrhoea of indigested food. COE'NA, the principal meal among the Greeks and Romans, The time of the ccena, or supper, was the ninth hour, an- swering to three o'clock in the afternoon with us, and it consisted of three courses. They made a libation both before and after supper, and concluded the evening with much festivity. COETA'NEOUS, an epithet denoting, of the same age, or beginning with another. The word coeval is synonymous with it; cotemporary implies, existing at the same time. COFFEE, an evergreen shrub, growing in Arabia and the West Indies. It is sel- dom more than 16 or 18 feet high: the flowers are of a pure white, and the berries grow in clusters. The use of coffee is said to have been introduced into England in 1652. That which is called Mocha coffee, from Arabia Felix, is accounted the best ; but the coffee of Java, Bourbon, and the West Indies, is what we usually obtain, and constitutes an important article of com- merce. COFFER, a chest or trunk. In mine- ralogy, a trough in which tin ore is broken to pieces. In fortification, a trench cut in the bottom of a dry ditch. In archi- tecture, a square depression or sinking in each interval between the modillions of the Corinthian cornice. COF'FER-DAM, in bridge-building, a circular double range of piles rammed with clay, within which the foundations of bridges are laid. COF'FIN, a case or chest for the recep- tion of a dead body that is to be buried. In the veterinary art, the whole hoof of a horse's foot above the coronet. COGNA'TION, in civil law, natural rela- tionship, or that line of consanguinity be- tween males and females, both descended from the same father ; as agnation is for the line of parentage between males only de- scended from the same stock. COGNIZANCE, (pron. con'izance), in law, the hearing of a thing judicially. Also, the acknowledgment of a fine. Cogni- zance of Pleas, a privilege granted by the king to a city or town to hold pleas of all contracts, &c. within the liberty of the fran- chise. COGNIZEE', (pron conizee'), inlaw, one to whom a fine is acknowledged, or the plaintiff in an action for the assurance of land by fine. COGNIZOR', (pron. conizor'), one who acknowledges the right of the plaintiff or cognizee, in a fine. COGNO'MEN, the surname, or family name among the Romans. Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, the name of an eminent Roman, Publivis is the prcenomen, Cornelius the nomen, and Scipio the cognomen or family name. COGNOTIT, in law, a writ by which the defendant admits the judgment against him. COHESIBIL'ITY, a term opposed to di- visibility, and denoting the tendency which one part of matter evinces to unite with another part of matter, so as to form, out of different bodies, one common mass. COHE'SION, in natural philosophy, is distinguished from adhesion, as that species of attraction which, uniting particle to par- ticle, retains together the component parts of the same mass. COHOBA'TION, in chemistry, the ope- ration of repeatedly distilling the same liquor, or returning the liquor back again upon the same substance, and re-distilling it. COHORT', a military body among the Ro- mans, consisting of the tenth of a legion, or from five to six hundred men. COIF, the oadge of seijeants of law, who are called serjeants of the coif, from the lawn coif they wear under their caps when they are created serjeants. COIN, a piece of metal stamped with certain marks, and made current at a cer- tain value. Strictly speaking, coin differs from money as the species differs from the genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, or paper, or beads, or sheUs, &c. which have currency as a medium in com- merce. Coin is a particular species always made of metal, and struck according to a certain process called coining. The British coinage is wholly performed at the Tower of London, where there is a corporation for the purpose, under the title of the Mint. The coining engine is now worked by means of complicated machinery, placed in an apartment over the coining room, and con- nected with the steam engine. To this is attached a contrivance by which it feeds itself with the blanks to be impressed, and removes them the instant they have receiv- ed the impression ; and such is the excel- lence of the machinery, that one workman may stamp 20,000 pieces in a single day. ——Current coin, is coin legally stamped and circulating in trade.' Counterfeit coin, that which is forged or stamped with- out authority. COINDICA'TION, in medicine, a sign or symptom, which, with other signs, as- sists to show the nature of the disease, and the proper remedy. COIR, a species of yarn, manufactured from the husk of cocoa-nuts. ATHELSTAN WAS THE FIRST WHO ESTABLISHED UNIFORM COIN IN ENGLAND. 147 AS WE ASCEND, THE COLD INCREASES IN VERY RAPID PROGRESSION. col"! ^!)c Scientific antJ Xitcrari) ^reasutB ; [col COL'CHICUM, or Meadow Saffron, is a bulbous-rooted plant, which grows in va- rious parts of Europe, and which of late years has become quite noted as a remedy for the gout. It should, however, be used with great cau.tion. COL'COTHAR, called also crocus martis, an impure brownish-red oxyde of iron, which remains after the distillation of the acid from the sulphate of iron. It is used in polishing glass and metals. The best sort of polishing powder, called jewellers' red rouge or plate powder, is the precipitated oxyde of iron prepared by adding solution of soda to solution of copperas, washing, drying, and calcining the powder in shallow vessels with a gentle heat, tUI it assumes a deep brown-red colour. COLD, the sensation produced in animal bodies by the escape of heat, or that which accompanies a transition of the fine vessels of the human body from an expanded to a more contracted state. Great degrees of cold are produced by mixing together sub' stances which dissolve rapidly. The reason of this will appear when it is recollected that in the conversion of solid bodies into fluids caloric is always absorbed. Mixtures to produce artificial cold are generally made of neutral salts and of snow : or of neutral salts, diluted acids, and powdered ice. • The word cold is also in common use, to express that indisposition occasioned by a sudden transition from heat to cold ; viz., catarrh. COLEOP'TERA, the first order of insects in Linnaeus' zoological system, which in- cludes all those whose wings are guarded by a pair of strong, horny, exterior cases or coverings, under which the wings are folded up when at rest. In common language these insects are called beetles ; and the order contains an immense number. CO'LEWORT, a well-known variety of the cabbage, or brassica of Linnaeus, which grows throvigh the winter. COL'IC, an appellation given to almost all pains in the abdomen indiscriminately ; but it is chiefly known as that disease which is characterised by a spasmodic sen- sation in the intestines, bilious vomiting, and obstinate costiveness. COLIPH'IUM, in antiquity, a sort of coarse bread which ^^Testlers used to eat in order to make them strong and mus- cular. COLISE'UM, an elUptical amphitheatre, at Rome, built by Vespasian, in which were statues representing all the provinces of the empire, and in the middle stood that of Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. This immense structure was 1612 feet in circumference, contained eighty arcades, and would hold 100,000 spectators. Down to the 13th century, this unrivalled monu- ment of ancient grandeur remained almost uninjured; aftemvards pope Paul II. took all the stones from it which were used for the construction of the palace of St. Mark, and in later times some other palaces were erected from its fragments. At present, care is taken not to touch the ruins of the Coliseum, but it is gradually crumbling away of itself, and in a few centuries, perhaps, nothing more may be seen of its upper part ; the lower part, however, may safely bid de- fiance to the ravages of time. I3enedict XVI. caused a cross to be erected in the centre of the arena, where every Sunday af- ternoon. Catholic worship is performed. The great object of this magnificent building was to exhibit the brutal spectacles of the gladiators contending with wild beasts. We accordingly read, that on the triumph of Tra- jan over the Dacians, 11,000 animals were killed in the amphitheatres at Rome ; and 1000 gladiators fought during 123 days. The gladiators at first were malefactors, who fought for victory and life; or captives and slaves, who were made to fight for their free- dom ; but after a time many lived by it as a profession ; and these exhibitions continued, with modifications, for above 500 years. A very large and most ingeniously con- structed building, erected in the Regent's Park, London , is called the Coliseum, or Colosseum. It is divided into three parts, viz. a grand panorama of London, suites of rooms for various kinds of entertainments, and a handsome conservatory. The grand panorama affords many points of view of the vast metropolis, by the ascent of a winding staircase ; but for people who would enjoy the sight without the trouble of walking up, an ascending room is pro- vided. It is altogether a wonderful per- formance, and for extent and accuracy is unrivalled. CO'HUS, in ornithology, the Coly, a ge- nus of birds, order Passeres. They inhabit the Cape of Good Hope and Senegal. COLLAP'SE, to close by falling together; as, the fine canals or vessels of the body collapse in old age; or, as a balloon col- lapses when the gas escapes from it. COL'LAR, in Roman antiquity, a chain put round the neck of slaves that had run away, after they were taken. In a mo- dern sense, it denotes an ornament con- sisting of a chain of gold, enamelled, &c., frequently set with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the order hanging at the bottom, and worn by the knights of several military orders over their shoulders. COLLATERAL, in genealogy, signifies descending from the same stock or ances- tor, but not in a direct line ; and is there- fore distinguished from lineal. Colla- teral security, in law, is security for the performance of covenants on the pay- ment of money, besides the principal secu- rity. COLLA'TION, in the canon law, the presentation to a benefice, by a bishop, who has it in his own gift or patronage. When the patron of a church is not a bishop, he presents his clerk for admission, and the bishop institutes him ; but collation in- cludes both presentation and institution. Collation, in law, the comparison of a copy with its original, to ascertain its conformity ; or the report of the officer who made the comparison. Hence, a Colla- tor means one who compares copies or THK COLISEUM RECEIVED ITS NAME FROM A COLOSSAL STATUE OF NERO. IK THE ENGLISH COLLEGES, THE PERIODS OP MEETING ARE CALLED '* TERMS." COL % 'Nm JBtctionarg of tT)c IBclles ITcttres. [c manuscripts. And from the same is de- rived the term Collating among printers, by wliich is meant the examining the whole number of sheets belonging to a book, in order to see if they are all gathered pro- perly. COL'LECT, a short and comprehensive prayer, particularly such prayers as are ap- pointed with the epistles and gospels in the public service of the Church of England. COLLECTA'NEA, in literature, notes, observations, or any matter collected from a variety of works. COLLECTIVE, in grammar, an epithet for any noun which comprehends many persons or things; as a multitude, a com,' pany, a congregation, an army, &c. COL'LEGE, in its usual, though some- what limited sense, is a public place en- dowed with certain revenues, where the several parts of learning are taught, and where the students reside, under a regular discipline. An assemblage of several of these colleges is called a university. The establishment of colleges or universities forms a remarkable period in literary his- tory ; for the schools in cathedrals and mon- asteries were confined chiefly to the teach- ing of grammar ; and there were only one or two masters employed in that charge; but in colleges, professors are appointed to teach all the branches of science. There are colleges of physicians and surgeons, a college of philosophy, a college of he- ralds, a college of civilians, &c. COLLE'GIATE CHURCHES, are those that, without a bishop's see, have the an- cient retinue of a bishop ; such as the church of St. Peter's, Westminster. This was anciently a cathedral; but the reve- nues of the monastery being vested in the dean and chapter by act of parliament (1 Elizabeth), it became a collegiate church. COL'LIER, a coasting-vessel employed in carrying coals from one port to another. Also, one who works in a coal mine. COLLIMA'TION, Une of, in a telescope, is that which passes through the tube, and cuts both the focus of the eye-glass and the centre of the object-glass. COLLIQ'UAMENT, in natural history, an extreme transparent fluid in an egg, ob- servable after two or three days incubation, containing the first rudiments of the chick. It is included in one of its own proper membranes, distinct from the albumen. COLLIQUA'TION, in physic, a term appUed to the blood, when it loses its crasis or balsamic texture ; and to the solid parts, when they waste away, by means of the animal fluids flowing off through the several glands, &c. to an excessive degree, occasioning fluxes and clammy sweats. COLLIQ'UATIVE, an epithet indicating a morbid discharge of the animal fluids ; as a colliquative fever, which is accompanied with profuse sweating, &c. COLLI S'lON, in mechanics, is the meet- ing or mutual striking of two or more bodies, one of which, at least, is in motion. COLLOBO'MA, in medicine, the growing together, or gluey adhesion, of the eyelids. COLLOCA'TIO, in antiquity, a ceremony ' at the funerals of the Greeks and Romans, j which consisted of placing the corpse, laid 1 on a bier, near the threshold of the house, I that all might see whether he had met his death by violence or not. COLLU'SION, in law, a deceitful agree- ment or compact between two persons to bring an action one against the other for some fraudulent or unlawful purpose. COLLYR'IUM, in medicine, any fluid application for the eyes. COLOGNE-EARTH, a substance used in painting, much approaching to umber in its structure, and of a deep brown. It is supposed to be the rem'ains of wood long buried in the earth. CO'LON, in anatomy, the greater or up- per portion of the large intestine. In grammar, a point marked thus (:) to divide a sentence. COLONEL, (pron. cur'nelj, the chief com- mander of a regiment, whether infantry or cavalry. Lieutenant-Colonel, the se- cond officer in a regiment, who commands in the absence of the colonel. COLONNA'DE, a range of pillars run- ning quite round a building. COL'ONY, a company or body of people removed from their mother- country to a re- mote province or country, where they form a settlement under the sanction of the go- vernment. Also, the place where such a settlement is formed, as the colonies be- longing to Great Britain in the East and West Indies, North America, &c. COL'OPHONITE, in mineralogy, a vari- ety of garnet, of a reddish yellow or brown colour, occurring in small amorphous gran- ular masses. COL'OPHANY, in pharmacy, black re- sin, or turpentine boiled in water and dried ; or the residuum, after distillation of the ethereal oil of turpentine, after more in- tense and long continued action of the fire. COLOQUIN'TIDA, CoLOCYNTH,or Bit- ter Apple, is the fruit of a wild gourd, the pulp of which is light, spongy, and white ; and is remarkable for its intense bit- terness. Coloquintida has been known in medicine from the earliest times as one of the most powerful cathartics with which we are acquaianted: it is sent us from Syria, particularly from Aleppo. COL'OCTNTH,theCoLOQTjiNTiDA,above described. COL'ORATURE, in music, all kinds of variations, trills, &c. intended to make a song agreeable. COLOS'SUS, a statue of enormous or gigantic proportions. That particularly spo- ken of under this name, was an Apollo, of the height of 126 feet, erected at Rhodes ; the workmanship of Chares, who devoted himself to this object during twelve years. It was placed at the entrance of the har- bour, with the right foot standing on one side the land and the left on the other. It was of brass, and is said to have existed nearly fourteen centuries, before the period in which it fell by the shock of an earth- IN THE SCOTTISH COLLEGES, THE TIME OF MEETING IS CALLED A "SESSION." [0 3 col] AMONG METALS, TUB BEST CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AKE SILVER AND GOLD. W)z ScientiSc anti lEiterari) ^rcaguro ; [com quake. ■\Mien tlie Saracens became pos- sessed of Rhodes, they found the statue in a prostrate state, and sokl it to a Jew, by whom 900 cauiels were laden v/ith the ma- terials. COL'OUR, in physics, a property inhe- rent in light, (formerly supposed to be in- herent in the coloured su.bstance), which by a difference in the rays and the laws of refraction, gives to bodies particular ap- pearances to the eye. The principal colours are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. White is not properly a colour; as a white body reflects the rays of light without separating them. Black bodies, on the contrary, absorb nearly all the rays, and therefore black is no distinct colour. But in common discourse, white and black are denominated colours ; and all the colours admit of many shades of difference. Co- lours, in painting, the various tints which are produced by the different mixture and application of certain colouring substances. Colours, in heraldry, the tinctures M'ith which the field or any part of the escutch- eon is distinguished: they are red, blue, black, green, and purple ; which the heralds call gules, azure, sable, vert, and jmrpure. Tenue or tawny, and sanguine, are not so common. The yellow and white, called or and argent, are metals, not colours. The metals and colours are sometimes express- ed in blazon by the names of precious stones, and sometimes by those of planets or stars. Colours in military affairs, in- clude the banners, flags, ensigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or fleet. COL'UBER, in zoology, the Viper, a very numerous genus of serpents, distinguished by the belly being covered with a number of scuta, or hard crusts, and the tail with scales. The Coluber ferus is found in most parts of Europe; it lives in woods and thickets, and, in breeding time, in the open fields : it is poisonous, but not deadly ; it grows to a foot and a half long. The flesh was formerly used in medicine as a restora- tive. The poisonous matter discharged is a real gum, and perhaps the only gum ac- tually produced and secreted by animals of any kind. Olive oil is the most successful application to the bite of a viper. COLUM'BIAN, an epithet for anything pertaining to America, from its having been discovered by Columbus. COL'UMBINE, in botany, a genus of plants of several species. Also the name of the heroine in a pantomine. COLUM'BIUM, the name of a metal first discovered in an ore or oxyde, in Connec- ticut. COL'UMN, in architecture, a cylindrical pillai', or long round body of wood, stone, or iron, which serves either for the support or ornament of a building. It consists of a capital, which is the top or head ; the shaft, which is the cylindrical part ; and the base, or that on which it rests. Columns are distinguished as to their form into the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Com- posite. The Tuscan is characterized by being rude, simple and massy ; the Doric is next in strength and massiveness to the Tuscan ; the Ionic is more slender than the Tuscan and Doric ; the Corinthian is more delicate in its form and proportions, and enriched with ornaments ; and the Compo- site is a species of the Corinthian. In strictness, the shaft of a column consists of one entire piece ; but it is often composed of different pieces, so united as to have the appearance of one entire piece. The word COLUMN has also many other mean- ings ; as, a division of a page, which may contain two or more columns. A large body of troops drawn up in order; as, a solid column. Any body pressing on its base, and of the same diameter as its base ; as, a co- lumn of water, air, or mercury. COLUMEL'LA, in botany, the central pillar in a capsule, which connects the in- side with the seeds, and has the seeds fixed to it all round. In conchology, the upright pillar in most of the univalve shells. COLUM'NA, in anatomy, a term applied to different parts : thus the columna nasi, is the lowest and fleshy part of the nose which forms a part of the septum ; and the columna oris, is the same with the uvula. COLUMNIF'ER^, the 37th Linnaeau natural order of plants, whose stamens and pistil resemble a pillar in the centre of a flower. COLU'RES, in astronomy, two great circles supposed to intersect each other at right angles in the poles of the world, and to pass through the solstitial and equinoc- tial points of the ecliptic. They are hence called the solstitial and equinoctial co- lures. CO'MA, or CoMA-viGiL, a preternatural propensity to sleep, or lethargic drowsiness. It is a symptom which often attends acute, burning, and mahgnant fevers. Coma somnolentum, is when the patient continues in a profound sleep, and when awaked, im- mediately relapses, without being able to keep open his eyes. Coma Berenicis, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere composed of stars near the tail of Leo. The word Coma also denotes the hairy appearance that surroiinds a comet, when the earth is between the comet and the sun. COMA'TA, in medicine, an order of dis- eases in the class Neuroses in CuUen's sys- tem, consisting of those disorders in which the power of voluntary motion is sus- pended. COMBINA'TION, in chemistry, denotes the intimate union of two or more bodies of different natures, from which a new com- pound results, differing in its nature from either of the constituents. Thus, an acid united with an alkali, gives a neutral salt, and furnishes a good instance of combi- nation. Combination, in mathematics, is the variation or alteration of any number of quantities, letters, sounds, or the like, in all the different manners possible. The word combination in its general and most popvdar sense, is equivalent to league or to conspiracy ; and may accordingly be used 150 OP ALL THE METALS, ZINC IS THE MOST COMBUSTIBLE. com] AS A COJIET ArrKOACHES ITS FERIUEHON, IT BECOMES VISIBLE. 1 COM either in a laudable sense or in an iniquit- ous one. COMBUS'TION, in chemistry, a term which denotes the decomposition of cer- tain substances, accompanied by light and heat. It is an important effect of caloric, but only particular bodies are subject to combustion. In popular language, com- bustion is the process of fire in consuming a body, attended with heat. — —Combustible bodies, when inflamed, are sources of light and heat : thus sulphur, coal, &c. are com- bustible bodies, and being raised to a certain degree of temperature, they give out light and heat. COM'EDY, a dramatic representation of the light, humorous, and pleasant kind, particularly intended tc ridicule the follies of men. Scaliger defines comedy to be a dramatic poem, representing the business of life, whose event is fortunate and style familiar. According to Bossu, comedy differs from tragedy in this, that comic writers in- vent both the names of the persons and the actions which they represent ; whereas the tragic writers invent only the latter, taking the former from history. Among us, comedy is distinguished from farce, as the former represents nature as she is, the other dis- torts and overcharges her ; but whether it be to recommend virtue, or to render folly ridiculous, the real intention and effect are amusement. COM'ET, in astronomy, an opaque, sphe- rical, and solid body, like a planet, but accompanied with a train of light, and per- forming revolutions about the sun in ellip- tical orbits, which have the sun in one of the foci. It is divided into the nucleus or dense part; the head; the coma, a faint light surrounding the head ; and the tail, which is the long train of light by which these bodies are distinguished. When a comet is west- ward of the sun, and rises or sets before it, the light appears in the morning like a train beginning at the body of the comet, and extending westward and diverging in proportion to its extent; and when the sun and the comet are exactly opposite each other, the earth being between them, the vapour appears to surround it like a fringe or border of hair. COMETA'RIUM, a machine constructed to represent the revolution of a comet about the sun. COMETOG'RAPHY, a description of, or discourse upon, comets. COM'FREY, in botany, a herb whose root abounds in a pure, tasteless mucilage, and is therefore useful as an emollient and demulcent. COMI"TIA, in Roman antiquity, an as- sembly of the people, either in the Comi- tium or Campus Murtius, for the election of magistrates, or consulting on the important affairs of the repubhc. The people ori- ginally gave their votes viva voce, but in process of time this was superseded by the use of tablets. COM'MA, in grammar, a point or cha- racter marked thus ( , ) denoting the short- est pause in reading, and separating a sen- tence into divisions or members. 1a theoretic music, it is a term to show the exact proportions between concords. COMMANDANT', the commanding offi- cer of a place or of a body of forces. COMMAND'ER, the chief officer of an army, or one who has the command of a body of men. The Commander-in-Chief in the British army is he who has the supreme command over all the land forces in Great Britain. In the naval service the chief ad- miral in any port or station is so called. The Commander of a Ship, otherwise called the Master, is an officer next in rank to a post captain, who has the command of a ship of war under 18 guns, a sloop, &c. COMMEN'CEMENT, an annual public assembly of the university of Cambridge ; or the day on which degrees are publicly conferred on students who have finished a collegiate education. COMMEND'AM, in ecclesiastical law, the trust or administration of the revenues of a benefice, given to a layman to hold as a deposit for six months, in order to repairs, &c., or to an ecclesiastic to perform the pastoral duties till the benefice is provided with a regular incumbent. In England, the right of granting benefices in commendam is vested in the crown by a statute of Henry VIII. One who holds a living in com- mendam is called a commendatory. Com- mendatory letters, are letters sent from one bishop to another in behalf of any of the clergy, &c. COMMEN'SURABLE, among geometri- cians, an appellation given to such quan- tities as are measured by one and the same common measure : thus a yard and a foot are commensurable, as both may be mea- sured by inches. COM'MENTARY, an explanation of the obscure passages in an author; or an his- torical narrative, as, the Commentaries of Ca:sar. COMMENTAC'ULUM, in antiquity, a wand which those who were going to sacri- fice held in their hand, to make people stand out of the way. COM'MERCE, in a general sense, is the intercourse of nations in each other's pro- duce or manufactures, in which the super- fluities of one are given for those of another, and then re- exchanged with other nations for mutual wants. Commerce is both foreign and inland. Foreign commerce is the trade which one nation carries on with another ; inland commerce, or inland trade, is the trade in the exchange of commodities be- tween citizens of the same nation. The benefits of commercial intercourse have been felt and admitted from the earliest times ; but they have never been so highly appre- ciated, or carried to such an extent as at present. It gives a stimulus to industry ; supplies mankind with enjoyments to which they would otherwise be strangers, tends greatly to obliterate unfounded prejudices between nations ; excites a spirit of laud- able competition among all classes; enables one country to profit by the inventions of another; diffuses the blessings of civiliza- AFTER PASSING ITS PERIHELION, A COMET DISAPPEARS. COMMON EIGHTS AKE DETERMINED BY PRESCRIPTION OK CUSTOM. com] ^]^c Scientific antt Xitcrar^ ^reasurg ; [com tion to the most remote corners of the earth: enlarges the powers and faculties of the mind ; and advances human knowledge by the improvements which it carries into every art and science. On the other hand, it can- not be denied that it has contributed to un- just aggressions, and that the peace and welfare of man have often been made sub- servient to commercial avarice. Yet much as the evils attributed to commerce have been deplored by some moral writers, we cannot but adopt the sentiments of one who says, " To commerce, with all its mis- chiefs, with all its crimes, committed upon every shore, its depopulation of fields, and con-uption of cities, to commerce we must attribute that growing intimacy between the members of the human race from which great benefits have redounded, and greater still may spring." COM'MISSARY, in a general sense, one who is sent or delegated to execute some office or duty, as the representative of his superior. In military affairs, an offi- cer, who has the charge of furnishing pro- visions, clothing, &c. for an army. There are various separate duties devolving on commissaries, and they have names ac- cordingly : as, the commissary -general, who is at the head of the department ; deputy- commissaries, &c. In ecclesiastical law, an officer of the bishop who exercises spi- ritual jurisdiction in distant parts of the diocese. COMMISSA'RIATE, the whole body of officers in the commissary's department. COMMIS'SION, in law, the warrant, or letters patent by which one is authorized to exercise jurisdiction. In military affairs, the warrant or authority by which one holds any post in the army : in distinction to the inferior or non^ commissioned officers. In commerce, the order by which any one traffics or negotiates for another ; also the per centage given to factors and agents for transacting the business of others. COMMIS'SIONER, a person authorised by commission, letters-patent, or other lawful warrant, to examine any matters, or execute any public office, &c. COM'MISSURE, in anatomy, any suture or juncture, particularly the corners of the lips where they meet together; and also certain parts of the brain. COMMIT MENT, is the sending a per- son to prison by warrant or order, either for a crime or contumacy. COMMITTEE, certain persons elected or appointed, to whom any matter or busi- ness is referred, either by a legislative body, or by any corporation or society. A Committee of Parliament, signifies a cer- tain number of members appointed by the house to proceed on some specific busi- ness. The whole house frequently resolves itself into a committee, in which case, each member has a right to speak as often as he pleases. Wlien the house is not in com- mittee, each gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to speak once, unless to explain himself. Standing committees are such as continue during the existence of the legislature. Special committees are appointed to consider and report on parti- cular subjects. COMMODITY, in commerce, any mer- chandize which a person deals in. Staple commodities, such wares and merchandizes as are the proper produce or manufacture of the country. COM'MODORE, an officer in the Bi-itish navy, invested with the command of a de- tachment of ships of war destined for a particular purpose. The Commodore of a convoy is the leading ship in a fleet of mer- chantmen, and carries a light in her top to conduct the other ships. COM'MOIS, a tract of ground, or open space, the use of which is not appropriated to an individual, but belongs to the public, or to a number. The right which a person has to pasture bis cattle on land of another, or to dig turf, or catch fish, or cut wood, or the like, is called common of pasture, of tur- bary, of piscary, and of estovers. COMMON PRAY'ER, the liturgy, or public form of prayer prescribed by the church of England to be used in all churches and chapels, and which the clergy are en- joined to use, under a penalty. COMMON COUN'CIL, the council of a city or corporate town, empowered to make by-laws for the government of the citizens. It is generally used in speaking of a court in the city of London, composed of the lord mayor, aldei-men, and a certain num- ber of citizens called common councilmen. The city of London is divided into 24 wards ; the chief magistrate of each ward has the title of alderman ; the 24 aldermen, with the lord mayor, form the court of aldermen ; and certain inhabitants chosen out of each ward, for the purpose ot assisting the alder- men with their advice in pubhc affairs, form the court of common council. COMMON-HALL', a court in the city of London, at which all the citizens, or such as are free of the city, have a right to attend. COMMON LAW, the law that receives its binding force fi*om immemorial usage and universal reception, in distinction from the written or statute law ; and which chiefly originated in judicial decisions found- ed on natural justice and equity, or on local customs. COMMON-PLACE-BOOK, a register of such thoughts and observations as occur to a person of reading or reflection. COMMON-PLEAS', one of the superior courts at Westminster-hall, where pleas or causes are heard between subject and subject. A writ of error, in the nature of an appeal, lies from this court to the court of Queen's Bench. COM'MONS, the lower house of Parlia- ment, consisting of the representatives of cities, boroughs, and counties, chosen by men possessed of the property or qualifica- tions required by law. This body is called the House of Commons ; and may be regarded as the basis of the British constitution. The origin of this assembly ought, perhaps, to be attributed to the necessity under which the TUB ORIGIN OF COMMON LAW IS NOW LOST IN REMOTE ANTIQUITY. THB SYSTEM OF "COMMUNITIES" IS THE BASIS OF A POLITICAL CONSTITUTION. COM [com first Edward perceived himself of counter- acting a powerful aristocracy. The feudal system had erected a band of petty monarchs from whom the crown was in perpetual dan- ger. It is to the struggles of these men with regal authority, in the course of which, in order to strengthen their opposition, they were obliged to make a common cause with the people, that the existence of English liberty may be attributed. In a word, the House of Commons arose on the ruins of the feudal fabric, gained ground as that decayed, pressed on its w'eaker parts, and, finally, levelled it with, the dust. Though each member is elected by a distinct body of people, he is, from the moment of his election, the representative not of those particular persons only, but of the kingdom at large ; and is to consider himself not merely as the organ through which his constituents may speak, but as one who havingbeen intrusted with a general charge, is to perform it to the best of his judgment. In performance of this great function, his liberty of speech is bounded only by those rules of decency of which the house itself is the judge ; and while, on the one hand, he is free to propose what laws he pleases, on the other, he is exposed, as a private man, to the operation of the laws he makes. This assembly is composed of six hundred and fifty-eight members ; and though many small boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform Bill, the elective franchise was given to several places of rising importance, and a variety of alterations took place by adding to the number of representatives of counties, &c., so that the total number of members remains the same. COMMONWEALTPF, in a general sense, applies to the social state of a country, without regarding its form of government. In the usual, though more restricted sense, a republic, or that form of govern- ment in which the administration of public affairs is open to all with few, if any, excep- tions. COMMU'NION, the act of communi- cating in the sacrament of the eucharist, or the Lord's supper. Communion Service, the office for the administration of the holy sacrament in the church of England. Comynunion Table, the table erected at the east end of a church, round which the com- municants kneel to partake of the Lord's supper. COMMU'NITY, a society of people living in the same place, under the same laws and regulations, and who have common rights and privileges. History shows that the es- tablishment of communities has been one of the greatest advances in human improve- ment; and they have proved, in different ages, the cradle and the support of freedom. COMMUTATION, in law, the change of a penalty or punishment from a greater to a less ; as when death is commuted for transportation or imprisonment. COM'PxiNY, in a commercial sense, a society of merchants, mechanics, or other traders, joined together in a common inte- rest. The mechanics of incorporated towns are thus erected into companies. The term is also applied to large associations set on foot for the purposes of commerce ; as, the East India Company ; a banking or insurance company, &c. When companies do not trade upon a joint stock, but are obliged to admit any person properly qualified, upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to the regulations of the company, each member trading upon his own stock, and at his own risk, they are called regulated companies ; when they trade upon a joint stock, each member sharing in the common profit or loss, in proportion to his share in the stock, they are called joint-stock companies. In military affairs, a small body of foot, consist- ing usually of a number from 60 to 100 men, commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieutenant and ensign. ^Also, the whole crew of a ship, including the officers. COMTACT, a word denoting an agree- ment or contract, but generally applied in a political sense ; as, a compact or agree- ment entered into between nations and states for any particular object. COMPAR'ATIVE ANAT'OMY, is that branch of anatomy, or extension of the art of dissection, which anatomists have prac- tised for the purpose of comparing the structure of all organized bodies with one another. It is otherwise called the anato- my of beasts, and sometimes zootomy, and named comparative in relation to that of the human body. The number of its dis- coveries is highly curious and instructive. COMPARTMENT, in architecture, a proportionable division in a building; or some device marked in an ornamental part of the building. In horticulture, a de- sign composed of several different figures, disposed with symmetry to adorn a par- terre. Compartments, in heraldry, are partitions and quarterings of the escutch- eon, when the arms of several families are borne in one and the same coat, in conse- quence of marriages, &c. COMPARISON, in a general sense, the consideration of the relation between two persons or things, when opposed and set against each other, by which we judge of their agreement or difference. Comjyari- son of ideas, among logicians, that opera- tion of the mind whereby it compares its ideas one with another, in regard of extent, degree, time, place, or any other circum- stance, and is the ground of relations. Comj>arison, in rhetoric, a figure by which two things are considered with regard to a third, which is common to them both ; as, a hero is like a lion in courage. Here cou- rage is common to hero and lion, and con- stitutes the point of resemblance. COM'PASS, or the Mariner's Compass, an instrument used by mariners to point out the course at sea. It consists of a cir- cular box, containing a card or fly, on which are drawn the several points of the compass ; and the magnetic needle, which has the property of turning one of its ends to the north pole. The box is covered with glass, to prevent the motion of the card from being disturbed by the wind. The CCMPAKATIVE ANATOMY IS OF THE HIGHEST IMPORTANCE TO PHYSIOLOGY. "composition" of sand and clay is used for luting chemical vessels. com] [con vitility of this instrument results from the magnetic virtue of the needle, through which it constantly places itself in a direct line from pole to pole ; a small declination peculiar to various parts of the world ex- cepted. A J} air of compasses, an instru - ment used in describing circles, measuring figures, &c., consisting of two pointed legs or branches, made of iron, steel, or brass, joined at the top by a rivet, on which they move. There are also compasses of three legs, cylindrical, spherical, compasses, &c. COMPENSA'TION, in civil law, a sort of right, whereby a person, who has been sued for a debt, demands that the debt may be compensated vvdth what is owing him by the creditor, which, in that case, is equiva- lent to payment. Comjiensation balance, in a watch, is a contrivance by means of which the errors occasioned by the varia- tion of temperature may be corrected by varying the diameter of the balances. COMPERTO'RIUM, a judicial inquest in the civil law, made by delegates or com- missioners, to find out and relate the truth of a cause. COMTLEMENT, in astronomy, the dis- tance of a star from the zenith ; or the arch comprehended between the place of the star above the horizon, and the zenith. Complement of an Arc, in geometry, what an arc wants of 90 degrees, or the quadrant of a cii-cle ; thus the complement of forty degrees is fifty. The word is also used to denote the full or complete number ; as, a company has its complement of men. COMTLEX TERMS, and COMPLEX IDEAS, in logic, are such as are compound- ed of several simple ones. COMPLEX'ION, among physicians, the temperament, habitude, and natural dispo- sition of the body ; but, in general use, the word means the colour of the skin. COMPO'SING, that branch of the art of printing which consists in taking the types or letters from the cases, and arranging them in such an order as to fit them for the press. The instrument in which they are adjusted to the length of the lines is called a composing-stick. COMPOSTT^, the 21st natural order in the Linnsean botanic system, comprehend- ing the plants with compound flowers, as the dandelion, sun-flower, &c. COMPOS'ITE ORDER, in architecture, the last of the five orders of columns; so called because its capital is composed out of those of the other columns. It is also called the Roman or Italic order, from having been invented by the Romans. It is generally ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next richest, or the last invented. COMPOS'ITE NUMBERS, such num- bers as can be measured exactly by a num- ber exceeding unity, as 6 by 2 or 3 ; so that 4 is the lowest composite number. Com- posite numbers between themselves, are those which have a common measure be- sides unity ; as 12 and 15, both which are measured by 3. COMPOSF'TION, in a general sense, the putting together, and uniting of several things, so as to form of the whole one mass or compound. Composition of ideas, an act of the mind, whereby it unites several simple ideas into one conception, or com- plex idea. In literature, the act of in- venting or combining ideas, furnishing them with words, arranging them in order, and committing them to writing. In logic, a method of reasoning, whereby we proceed from some general self-evident truth, to other particular and singular ones. This method of reasoning is opposed to analysis, which begins with first principles, and, by a train of reasoning from them, deduces the propositions or truths sought ; but composition or synthesis collects the scattered parts of knowledge, and combines them into a system, so that the understand- ing is enabled distinctly to follow truth through its diff'erent stages of gradations. In music, the art or act of forming tunes, either to be performed vocally or instrumentally. In painting, the putting together the several parts of a picture, so as to set off the whole to the best advantage. In commerce, an agreement entered into between an insolvent debtor and his creditor, by which the latter accepts a part of the debt in compensation for the whole. In chemistry, the combination of dif- ferent substances, from which results a com- pound substance differing in properties from either of its component parts. Thus water is a composition of hydrogen and oxygen, which are invisible gases. Composition of motion, is an assemblage of several direc- tions of motion, resulting from several powers acting in different though not oppo- site directions. COM'POST, in husbandry, several sorts of soils or earths and other matters mixed together, in order to make a particularly fine kind of mould for fertilizing land. C OM'P O UN D, a ter m in b otany , variously applied. Thus, a compound floiver consists of several distinct florets, inclosed in a common receptacle : a compound stem is one that divides into branches ; a compound leaf connects several leaflets in one petiole; a compound umbel is one which has all its rays or peduncles bearing small umbels at the top. In computation, compound in- terest is interest upon interest ; when the interest of a sum is added to the principal, and then bears interest. In algebra, com- pound quantities, are such as are joined by the signs -f and — , plus and minus, and expressed by more letters than one, or by the same letters unequally repeated : thus a+b — e, and 66 — 6, are compound quan- tities. COMPRESSIBILITY, in physics, that property in a solid or fluid of yielding to the pressure of another body or force, so as to be brought into a smaller compass. COMPRESSION, in surgery, a diseased state of the system, arising from the pres- sure of something on the brain. CONCATENATION, a term chiefly used in speaking of the mutual dependence of second causes upon each other. TO "compound" with a felon, is to aguee not to prosecute him. THE SURFACE OF A TRUE CONCAVE MIRROK IS A PARABAIOID. con] % TSTcto IBlctionari) of tl)t ISelks Xcttrcs. [con CON, in language, a Latin inseparable preposition or prefix to other words. Ains- wortli remarks that con and cum have the same signification, but that cum is used se- parately, and con in composition. In the phrase pro and con, for and against, con de- notes the negative side of a question. CON'CAVE GLASSES, in optics, such as are ground hollow, and are usually spherical, though they may be of any other figure. The apparent place of objects seen through concaves is always brought nearer to the eye, which is the reason they are used by short-sighted persons. CONCA'VO-CON'CAVE, hoUow or con- cave on both surfaces. CONCA'VO-CON'VEX, concave on one side, and convex on the other. CONCENTER, to meet in a point, or common centre; used of converging lines, or other things that meet in a point. CON'CENTRATE, to bring nearer to each other ; as, to concentrate particles of salt by evaporating the water that holds them in solution ; or to concentrate rays of light into a focus. CONCEP'TACLE, in botany, a pericarp of one valve, opening longitudinally on one side and having the seeds loose in it. CONCENTRIC, an epithet for figures having one common centre. CONCEPTION, in logic, the simple ap- prehension or perception which we have of anything, without proceeding to affirm or deny any thing about it. CONCERTO, apiece of music consisting of several parts that are all to be performed at the same time. Concerto-grossi, the grand chorus of a concert, or those places where all the several parts perform or play toge- ther. CONCES'SION, in rhetoric or debate, the yielding, granting, or allowing to the opposite party some point or fact that may bear dispute, in order to show that even ad- miting the point conceded, the cause can be maintained on other grounds. CON'CHA, a genus of bivalve shells, com- prising the oyster, chama, mussel, heart- shell, pecten, &c. Concha, in anatomy, the larger cavity of the external ear, situ- ated before the meatus auditorius, or pas- sage into the internal ear. CON'CHITE, a petrified shell, or conch. CON'CHOID, in geometry, the name of a curve, used by Archimedes and other an- cients in the construction of solid problems. Sir Isaac Newton observes that he prefers it before other curves, or even the conic sec- tions, in the construction of cubic and bi- quadratic equations, on account of its sim- plicity. CONCHOID'AL, in mineralogy, having convex elevations and concave depressions like shells ; as a conchoidal fracture. CONCHOL'OGY, the study or science of shells, or that branch of natural history which treats of testaceous animals, or such animals as have a permanently testaceous covering, which are comprehended under the testacea in the Linnsean system. Shells consisting of a single piece are called uni- valves, those of two parts bivalves, and those of many parts multivalves. Between bivalve and multivalve no distinction is drawn, shells consisting of not more than two such parts being called multivalve, without any regard to the number. Linnajus begins with the multivalves and the most complex structure, and ends with those of the simplest form. CONCHOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring shells. CON'CIATOR, in glass works, the per- son who weighs and proportions the salt or ashes and sand, and who works and tempers them. CONCIN'NOUS, in music, an epithet for a performance in concerts, which is executed with delicacy, grace, and spirit. CONCIONATO'RES, in law, the common- councilmen of the city of London. CONCLAMATIO, in antiquity, the fune- ral cry over the body of a deceased person previous to its being biu'nt ; by which it w as expected to recall, as it were, the soul of the deceased from everlasting sleep. CON'CLAVE, the place in which the car- dinals of the Romish church meet for the election of a pope. It consists of a range of small cells or apartments standing in a line along the halls or galleries of the Vati- can. Conclave is also used • for the as- sembly or meeting of the cardinals when shut up for the election of a pope. CONCOCTION, in medicine, the process by which food is turned into chyle, or other- wise prepared to nourish the body. CON'CORD, in music, the union of two or more sounds in such a manner as to ren- der them agreeable to the ear. Concord and harmony are, in fact, the same thing, though custom has applied them differently ; for as concord expresses the agreeable efi"ects of two sounds in consonance, so harmony expresses the agreement of a greater number of sounds in consonance. In grammar, that part of syntax which treats of the agreement of words in a sentence. In law, an agreement between the parties in a fine, made by leave of the court. CONCORD'ANCE, a dictionary of the Bible, in which every word is given with re- ferences to the book, chapter, and verse, in which it occurs. CONCORD'AT, a treaty or public act of agreement between the pope and any prince, relative to some collation of benefices. CON'CRETE, in natural philosophy, sig- nifies a body made up of different principles, or any mixed body : thus, soap is a factiti- ous concrete, or a body mixed together by art ; and antimony is a natural concrete, or a mixed body, compounded in the bowels of the earth. Concrete, in logic, is used in contradistinction to abstract. CONCRETIONS, (Morbid), in animal economy, hard substances that occasionally make their appearance in different parts of the body, as well in the solids as in those cavities destined to contain fluids : in the first place they are denominated concre- tions or ossifications; in the other, calculi. In chemistry, the condensation of any fluid substance into a solid state. CONCHOLOGISTS HAVE ARRIVED AT LITTLE BETOND THE ARKANOEMENT OF SHELLS. 155 AIR MAY BE SO "CONDENSED BY PRESSURE, AS TO SET TINDER ON FIRE* con] W)z Sdcntific antf %iuxux^ treasury ; [con CONDENSATION, the act whereby a body is rendered more deuse, compact, and heavy. Hence condensation stands opposed to dilatation or rarefaction. CONDENS'ER, a pneumatic machine by which a volume of air may be reduced into a much smaller space. CONDI"TION, in law, a clause in a bond or other contract containing terms or a sti- pulation that it is to be performed, and in case of failure, the penalty of the bond is to be incurred. We speak of a good con- dition in reference to wealth and poverty, or to health and sickness, &c. Or, we say, — a nation with an exhausted treasury is not in a condition to make war ; religion affords consolation to man in every condi- tion of life. Conditional propositions, in logic, such as consist of two parts con- nected together by a conditional particle. Conditional syllogism, a syUogism where the major is a conditional proposition. CON'DOR, an extremely large kind of vulture, measuring with the wings extended from twelve to sixteen feet. It preys on birds, lambs, or kids, and has strength to bear off a calf. It is a native of South Ame- rica. CONDUCTOR in electrical experiments, a term used to denote those substances which are capable of receiving and trans- mitting electricity, in opposition to elec- trics, in which the electric fluid may be ex- cited or accumulated; If a conductor re- ceived or imbibed the electrical action, it would be like a water-pipe made of absorb- ing material ; but every surface is a conduc- tor, exactly in the proportion in which its parts do not receive and exhaust the elec- trical action. Bodies which repel it, or into wliich it will not pass, are called non- conductors. Conductor of Lightning, a pointed metallic rod fixed to the upper parts of buildings to secure them from the effects of lightning. CON'DUIT, a subterraneous or con- cealed aqueduct. The ancient Romans ex- celled in them, and formed the lower parts, whereon the water ran, with cement of such an excellent quality, that it has be- come as hard as the stone itself which it was employed to join. Conduits, in mo- dern times, are generally pipes of wood, iron, or pottery, for conveying the water from the main spring, or reservoirs, to the different places where it is required. CONDUTLICATE, in botany, an epi- thet for that which is doubled or folded over or together ; as the leaves of a bud. CON'DYL, in surgery, a protuberance on the end of a bone ; a knuckle. CON'DYLOID, in anatomy, the project- ing soft end, or process of a bone. The condyloid process is the posterior protube- rance at the extremities of the under jaw ; an oblong rounded head, which is received into the fossa of the temporal bone, form- ing a moveable articulation. The anterior is called the cor onoid process. CONE, in geometry, a solid figure having a circle for its base, and its top terminating in a point or vertex, like a sugar-loaf. A right cone, is when its axis is perpendicu- lar to its base, and its sides equal. It is formed by the revolution of a right-angled plane triangle about one of its sides. Cone, in botany, the fruit of several ever- green trees, as of the fir, cedar, cypress ; so called from its conical shape. It is com- posed of woody scales that are usually open, each of which has a seed at the end. In conchology, a beautiful sort of shell inha- bited by the limax. Shells of this sort mostly bear the highest price of any, one species being valued as high as a hundred pounds. CONFARREA'TION, in antiquity, a ce- remony observed by the Romans in their nuptial solemnities. It consisted in the offering up some pure wheaten bread, and rehearsing at the same time a certain for- mula in presence of the high-priest and at least ten witnesses. CONFECTION, a sweetmeat or any- thing prepared with sugar: it also signifies a liquid or soft electuary, of which there are various sorts. CONFECTOR, an officer in the Roman games, whose business was to kill any beast that was dangerous. CONFED'ERACY, in law, a combination of two or more persons to do some damage or injury to another, or to commit some unlawful act. CONFEDERATION, a league, or com- pact, for mutual support, particularly of princes, nations, or states. CONFER'VA, in botany, a genus of plants of the cryptogamia class ; consisting of oblong, capillary filaments, divided into joints of a globular figure. CONFES'SION, in a legal sense, the ac- knowledgment of something prejudicial to the person making the declaration. A con- fession, according to law, must never be divided, but always taken entire ; nor must a criminal be condemned upon his own con- fession, without other concurring proofs. In theology, a public declaration of one's faith, or the faith of a public body. Also a part of the Liturgy, in which an ac- knowledgment of guilt is made by the whole congregation. Auricular confession, a pri- vate confession or acknowledgment of one's sins made by each individual in the Romish church to the priest or father confessor. It is so called because it is made by whis- pering in his ear. Among the Jews, it was a custom, on the annual feast of expiation, for the high priest to make confession of sins to God in the name of the whole people. CONFES'SOR, a Roman catholic priest, who hears confessions, and is empowered to grant absolution to those who confess. The seat, or cell, wherein the priest or con- fessor sits to hear confessions, is called the confessional. CONFIGURATION, in astrology, the aspects of the planets at a certain time, by which they are pretended to aid or oppose each other. CONFIRMATION, the act or ceremony in the Christian church of laying on of hands, by which baptized persons are con- firmed in their baptismal vows. This cere- THE PRIESTS ARE BOUND NOT TO REVEAL WHAT THEY HEAR IN CONFESSION. con] CONGELATION, IN ALL CASES, DEPENDS UPON THE EMISSION OF HEAT. ^ TSTeto JBtctionare of tl)e 33dles Xettrcs. [con mony is performed by the bishop ; and the antiquity of it is, by all ancient writers, carried as high as the apostles, upon whose example and practice it is founded. Confirmation, in law, an assurance of title, by the conveyance of an estate or right in esse, from one person to another, by which a possession is made perfect, &c. Confir- mation, in rhetoric, the third part of an oration, wherein the orator undertakes to prove the truth of the proposition advanced in his narration. CONFISCATION, in law, the condemn- ation and adjudication of goods or effects to the public treasury, as the bodies and effects of criminals, traitors, &c. CON'FLUENCE, the meeting or junction of two or more streams of water ; also, the place of their meetinc:. CON'FLUENT, in botany, united at the base ; or gi'owing in tufts, as confiuent leaves. In medical science, running to- gether, and spreading over a large surface of the body, as the confluent small-pox. CONFORMATION, the particular tex- ture or structure of a body, or disposition of the parts which compose it. Mal-con- formation, in anatomy, denotes some defect in the first rudiments, whereby a person is born either crooked, or with some viscera unduly proportioned, &c. CONFORMIST, in ecclesiastical con- cerns, one that conforms to the established clxurch ; the seceders or dissenters from which are called Non-conformists. CON'GE, in architecture, a mould in form of a quarter round, or a cavetto, which serves to separate two membersi from one another; such as that which joins the shaft of the column to the cincture ; called also apophyge. CONGE D'ELIRE, (French), in ecclesi- astical affairs, the king's permission to a dean and chapter in the time of a vacancy, to choose a bishop. CONGELATION, such a change pro- duced by cold in a fluid body, that it quits its former state, and becomes congealed. It differs from crystalization in this: in congelation the whole substance of a fluid may become solid; in crystalization, when a salt is formed, a portion of liquid is left. CON'GER, an eel of an extraordinary size, and extremely voracious, which preys on carcases, and other fish. It is common on the Cornish coast, sometimes growing to the length of ten feet, and weighing a hundred pounds. CONGE'RIES, a coUection of several particles or bodies united into one mass or aggregate. CONGESTION, a collection of humours in an animal body, hardened into a tumour ; or an accumulation of blood in a particular part. CON'GIARY, in Roman antiquity, a E resent of wine or oil, given to the' people y their emperors, and so called from the congius, wherewith it was measured out to them. Sometimes, however, the congiary was made in money or corn. CON'GIUS, a liquid measure of the an- cient Romans, containing the eighth part of the amphora, or rather more than a gallon. CONGLO'BATE GLAND, in anatomy, a single or lymphatic gland wrapt up in a fine skin, admitting only an artery and a lym- phatic vessel to pass in, and a vein and ex- cretory canal to come out. CONGLOM'ERATE, in botany, an epi- thet for flowers growing on a branching peduncle or foot-stalk, on short pedicles, closely compacted together. In minera- logy, a sort of pudding-stone, composed of pebbles of quartz, flint, siliceous slate, &c. In anatomy, a conglomerate gland is composed of many smaller glands, whose excretory ducts unite in a common one, as the liver, pancreas, kidneys, &c. CONGLUTINATION, the act of gluing or fastening together by means of some tenacious substance. CONGREGAT^IONALISTS, in church history, a sect of Protestants who reject all church government, except that of a single congregation, which, they maintain, has the right to choose its own pastor and govern itself. CON'GRESS, an assembly of envoys, commissioners, deputies, &c. from different courts, who meet to concert measures for their common good, or to adjust their mutual concerns. Having exchanged their credentials, the envoys of the different powers carry on their negotiations directly with each other, or by the intervention of a mediator, either in a common hall, or in their own residences by turns, or, if there is a mediator, in his residence. These ne- gotiations are continued either by writing or by verbal communication, until the com- missioners can agree upon a treaty, or until one of the powers dissolves the congress by recalling its minister. Congress of the United States of America. The assembly of senators and representatives of the several states of North America, forming the legis- lature of the United States, is designated, in the constitution of the general government, by this title. It consists of a senate and a house of representatives, each constituting a distinct and independent branch.— The house of representatives is chosen every second year, by the people of the several states ; and the voters and electors are re- quired to have the same qualifications as are requisite for choosing the members of the most numerous branch of the state legislature of the state in which they vote. Each state, however small its population, is entitled to at least one representative ; but upon the whole population there cannot be more than one for every 30,000 persons. No person can be a representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. No other qualifications are required. — The senate is composed of two senators from each state, who are chosen by the legislature of the state for six years. They are divided into CONGLUTINATIVE MEDICINES ARE USED TO EFFECT A KE-UNION OP PARTS. SIR WILLIAM CONGREVE WAS BORN IN 1/72, AND DIED IN 1828. con] VLljt SctentiSc anU IClterary ^veasurg ; CON three classes, so that one-third thereof is, or may be, changed by a new election every second year. No person can be a senator who is not thirty years of age, and has not been nine years a citizen of the United States, and is not, when elected, an in- habitant of the state for which he is chosen. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, are appointed by the state legislatures. Each house determines the rules of its own proceedings, and has power to punish its members for disorderly conduct. Neither house, during the session of congress, can, without the consent of the other, adjourn more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. The senators and representatives are entitled to receive a compensation, pro- vided by law, for their services, from the treasury. They are also privileged from arrests, except in cases of treason, felony, or breaches of the peace, during their at- tendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning there- from. The foregoing outline of their duties and privileges maybe sufficient for the gene- ral reader, if to it we add, that the rules and practice of the British House of Com- mons form the basis of their proceedings, modified from time to time, as each house deems fit. CON'GREVE ROCK'ET, so named from its inventor, the late Sir W. Congreve, is a formidable weapon of destruction, consist- ing of a tubular case of copper or iron, filled with combustibles, which are impelled with resistless force against the hostile ranks of an army, or the walls of a fortress. The Congreve rockets were first used in the attack of Boulogne in 1806. The carcass rockets, as those for bombardment are called, are armed with strong iron conical heads, pierced with holes, and containing a substance as hard and solid as iron itself", which, when once inflamed, is inextinguish- able, and scatters its burning particles in every direction. "When this substance is consumed, the ball explodes like a gre- nade. The rocket is projected horizon- tally, and whizzes loudly as it flies through the air. They were at first considered a most important invention, but experience has shewn that in the field they are much less efficient than the common artillery, and in sieges do less injury than red-hot shot and bombs. CON'IC SECTIONS, in geometry, such curve lines as are produced by the mutual intersections of a plane and the surface of a solid cone. In different positions of the plane there arise five different figures or sections, viz. the triangle ; the circle ; the ellipse ; the parabola ; and the hyperbola : the last three are peculiarly called Conic Sections ; to investigate the properties of which is the business of Conies, and this depends on a knowledge of geometry plane and solid. CONIF'ER^, the 51st Linnsean natural order of plants, with cone-shaped flowers, as the fir, juniper, &c. Hence the term co- niferous is applied to all trees bearing cones. CONISSA'L^, an old term for a class of fossils, naturally and essentially compound- ed, not inflammable, nor soluble in water, found in detached masses, and formed of crystaline matter debased by earth. CO'NITE, a mineral of an ash or gi-een- ish gray colour, which becomes brown by exposure to the air. It occurs massive or stalactitic ; and is found in Saxony and Ice- land. CO'NIUM, Hemlock, in botany, a genus of plants, class 5 Fentandria, order 2 Digy- nia ; the flower of which is compound ; the particular ones consisting of five unequal and cordated petals. CON'JUGATE, in botany, an epithet for a pinnate leaf, which has only one pair of leaflets. In geometry, a Conjugate axis is that which crosses another axis. Con- jugate diameter, the shortest axis of an el- lipsis. Conjugate hyperbolas, hyperbolas having the same axis, but in contrary order. CONJUGATION, in anatomy, is ap- plied to a pair of nerves arising together, and serving the same operation, sensation, and motion. Conjugation, in grammar, the distribution of the several inflections or variations of a verb, in their different voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and per- sons. CON'JUGAL RIGHTS. The restitution of conjugal right is a species of matrimonial suit, which may be brought either by the wife or husband against the party who is living in a state of separation. CONJUNCTION, in astronomy, the meeting of two or more stars or planets, in the same degree of the zodiac. Conjunc- tion is either true or apparent. True con- junction is when a right line, drawn from the eye through the centre of one of the bodies, would pass through that of the other. Apparent conjunction, is when the two bodies do not meet precisely in the same point, but are joined with some lati- tude. The moon is in conjunction with the sun, when they meet in the same point of the ecliptic, which happens every month; and eclipses of the sun are always occa- sioned by the conjunction of the sun and moon in or near the nodes of the ecliptic. Conjunction, in grammar, an unde- clinable word, or particle, which serves to join words and sentences together. CON'NATE, in botany, an epithet for leaves, filaments, and anthers : thus folium connatum, two leaves so united at their bases as to have the appearance of one leaf, as in the garden honeysuckle. CONNI'VENT, in botany, an epithet de- noting closely united or converging toge- ther. Connivent valves, in anatomy, those wrrinkles, cellules, and vascules, which are found in the inside of the two intestines, ilium aind jejunum. CO'NOID, in geometry, a solid formed by the revolution of a conic section about its axis. In anatomy, a gland found in the third ventricle of the brain called pin- CONGREVE ROCKETS WERE USED AT THE SIEGB OF COPENHAGEN. TUB "consequences" OP INTEMPERANCE ARE POVERTY, DISEASE, AND DEATH. con] [con ealis, or the pineal gland, from its resem- blance to a cone or pine-apple. CONNOISSEU'R, a critical judge or mas- ter of any art, particularly of painting, sculpture, and the beUes lettres. CONOPE'A, in botany, a genus of plants, class 14 Didynamia, order 2 Angiospermia. Of this there is only one species, the co- nopea aquatica, a native of Guiana. CON'QUEST, the right over property or territory acquired in war. It presup- poses a just war, and is generally admitted as a part of the law of nations. Conquest may respect either persons or things : it may apply to a whole nation, or to a single town or province : and it may be temporary or permanent. "Where persons are not found in arms, but are included as in- habitants of a town or province which has surrendered, they are treated generally as subjects. The original allegiance to their own government is suspended, and they come under the implied obligation to tlie conqueroi', to submit to his orders, and to demean themselves, for the time, as faith- ful subjects. Under such circumstances, the conqueror generally leaves them in possession of their property, and punishes tliem only for rebellious or traitorous con- duct. It is not usual, in modern times, to change the fundamental laws of a conquered country ; but the sovereign povrer of the conqueror so to do is conceded by the law of nations. CONSANGUINITY, the relation which subsists between persons who are sprung from the same stock or common ancestor, in distinction ,from affinity or relation by marriage. It terminates in the sixth or seventh degree, except in the succession to the crovm, in which case it is continued to infinity. Marriage is prohibited by the church to the fourth degree of consan- guinitv inclusive. CON'SCIENCE, in ethics, a secret tes- timony of the soul, whereby it gives its approbation to things that are naturally good, and condemns those that are evil. Some lATiters term conscience the " moral sense," and consider it as an original facvilty of our nature; others allege that our no- tions of right and wrong are not to be deduced from a single principle or faculty, but from various poAvers of the understand- ing and will. CON'SCIOUSNESS, the knowledge of sensations and mental operations, or of what passes in one's own mind. CON'SCRIPT, in Eoman antiquity, an appellation given to the senators of Rome, who were called conscript-fathers, on ac- count of their names being entered in the register of the senate. In the French armies, an enrolled soldier, or recruit, CONSCRIPTION, the enlisting the in- habitants of a country capable of bearing ai-ms, by a compulsory levy, at the pleasure of the government. The name is derived from the military constitution of ancient Rome. Under the consulship, all persons capable of bearing arms were obliged, under jjenalty of losing their fortune and liberty, to assemble in the Campus Mar- tins, or near the capitol, where the consuls, seated in their curule chairs, made the levy by the assistance of the legionary tri- bunes. The consuls ordered such as they pleased to be cited out of each tribe, and every one was obliged to answer to his name, after which as many were chosen as were wanted. France, in the beginning of the revolution, declared it the duty and honour of every citizen to serve in the army of his country. Every French citizen was born a soldier, and obliged to serve in the army from sixteen to forty years of age: from forty to sixty he belonged to the na- tional guard. Every year the young men of the military age were assembled, and distributed in the different military divi- sions ; and it was decided by lot who, among the able-bodied men of suitable age should take arms. Thus it was that those prodigious masses M ere so quickly raised, and sent to the field of slaughter. CONSECRATION, the act of devoting and dedicating anything to the service and worship of God. Among the ancient Chris- tians, the consecration of churches was per- formed with a great deal of pious solemnity. In England, churches have been always consecrated with particular ceremonies, the form of which was left to the discretion of the bishop. Consecration was also a reli- gious rite among the Romans, by which they set any person or thing apart for sacred purposes, as their high-priests ; or made it sacred, or a fit object of divine worship ; as the emperors, their wives, or children, who were in this manner enrolled among the number of their gods. Tliis was sometimes called apotheosis, but on medals it is distin- guished by the word cansecratio, mth an altar or some other sacred symbol. CONSENT, in the animal economy, an agreement or sympathy by which one af- fected part of the system affects some dis- tant part. This consent of imrts is sup- posed to exist in, or be produced by the nerves ; and the affections to be communi- cated from one part to another by means of their ramifications and distribution through the body. CONSECTARY, in geometry, some con- sequent truth obtained from a demonstra- tion. CON'SEQUENCE, that which follows as an inference of truth and reason, from ad- mitted premises or arguments. Thus "every rational being is accountable to his Maker ;" man is a rational being; the consequence then must be, that man is accountable to CONSERVATOR, an officer appointed for the security and preservation of the pri- vileges of some cities, corporations, and communities. The ancient office of conser- vator of the peace is now performed by all judges and magistrates, but particularly by what we now term justices of the jjeace. CONSERVATORY, a term sometimes used for a green-house. It is, properly, a large green-house for exotics, in which the plants are planted in beds and borders, and A COURT OP "conscience" IS A COURT FOR THE RECOVERY OP SMALL DEBTS. 159 BODT, SOUL, AND KBASON, ARE THE TUREE "CONSTITUENT" PARTS OF MAN. con] W)t Scientific antJ Xitcrarp C^rcasuri) ; I CON not in tubs or pots, as in the common green- house. In various parts of Italy and France there are musical schools, called conservatories, which are expressly intended for the scientific cultivation of musical talents, and from which many first-rate composers, as well as vocalists, have attain- ed their proficiency. CON'SERVE, in pharmacy, a form of medicine contrived to save the flowers, herbs, roots, fruits, or simples, as nearly as possible in their natural fresh state. CONSIDERATION, in law, the mate- rial cause or ground of a contract, without which the party contracting would not be bound. A consideration is either express or implied ; express, when the thing to be given or done is specified ; implied, when no specific consideration is agreed upon, but justice requires it, and the law implies it : as when a man labours for another, without stipulatinsf for wages, the law infers that he shall receive a reasonable consideration. CONSI'GNMENT of goods, in com- merce, is the delivering or making them over to another : thus, goods are said to be consigned to a factor, when they are sent to him for sale, &c. He who consigns the goods is called the Consi'gnor ; and the person to whom they are sent is the Consignee' . CONSIST'ENCE, or CONSIST'ENCY, that state of a body in which its component parts remain fixed. Also, congruity and uniformity in opinions and actions. CONSISTO'RIUM, in antiquity, a coun- cil-house, or place of audience. CONSIST'ORY COURT, the place or court in which the session or assembly of ecclesiastical persons is held by the bishop or his chancellor. CON SOLID A'TION, in the civil law, signifies the uniting the possession or profit of land with the property, and vice versa. In the ecclesiastical law, it is the uniting two benefices into one by assent of the ordinary, patron, and incumbent. Conso- lidation, in surgery, the action of uniting broken bones, or the lips of a wound, by means of applications. CON'SOLS, in commerce, funds formed by the consolidation (of which word it is an abbreviation) of diflferent annuities, which had been severally formed into a capital. [See Funds.] CON'SOLE, in architecture, a bracket or shoulder-piece : or an ornament cut upon the key of an arch, which has a projecture, and on occasion serves to support little cor- nices, figures, busts, and vases. CON'SONANT, aletter so named because it is considered as being sounded only in connection with a vowel. But some con- sonants have no sound, even when united with a vowel, and others have a very imper- fect sound : hence some are called mutes, and others semi-vowels. CONSONAN'TE, in music, an Italian epi- thet for all agreeable intervals. CONSPIR'ACY, a combination of men for an evil purpose; or an agreement be- tween them to commit some crime in con- cert ; as, a conspiracy against the govern- ment. In law, it signifies an agreement between two or more, falsely to indict, or procure to be indicted, an innocent person of felonv. CON' SPIR'ITO, in music, an Italian phrase, denoting that the part is to be play- ed with spirit. CON'STABLE, a civil officer, anciently of great dignity, as the Lord High Consta- ble of England, and also the constables or keepers of castles, &e. It is now the title of an officer under the magistrates for the preservation of the peace, whose duty prin- cipally consists in seizing and securing per- sons guilty of tumultuary offences. There are high constables and petty constables ; the former are chosen at the court leets of the hundred over which they reside, or in de- fault of that, by the justices of the quarter- sessions, and are removable by the same au- thority that appoints them. The petty con- stables are chosen by the jury of the court- leet, or if no court is held, they are appoint- ed by two justices of the peace. The Lord High Constable of England had the care of the common peace, in deeds of arms, and matters of war. His power was so great and so improperly used, that it was abridged by Richard II., and was afterwards forfeited in the person of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, in 1521. CON'STAT, a certificate given out of the exchequer to a person who intends to plead or move for a discharge of anything in that court. The effect of it is to show what ap- pears upon the record, respecting the mat- ter in question. CONSTELLATION, an assemblage or system of several stars, expressed or repre- sented under the name and figvire of some animal or other object, as a bear, a ship, and the like ; whence they have derived those appellations which are convenient in de- scribing the stars. The division of the hea- vens into constellations is very ancient, probably coeval with astronomy itself. Mo- dern astronomers divide the whole starry firmament intp three parts, viz. 1. The con- stellations in the zodiac ; 2. Constellations north of the zodiac; and 3. Constellations south of the zodiac. The constellations in the zodiac are Aries ; Taurus ; Gemini ; Cancer ; Leo, Virgo ; Libra ; Scorpio ; Sa- gittarius ; Capricornus ; Aquarius ; Pisces. Many young persons have found an easy mode of remembering the names and order of the twelve signs by the aid of the follow- ing lines ; and therefore, although they have neither novelty nor elegance to recommend them, their insertion here may not be al- together useless : The ram, the bull, the heavenly twins. And next the crab the lion shines. The virgin and the scales, The scorpion, archer, and sea-goat, The man that holds the watering-pot, And yish with glittering tails. CONSTIT'UENT, in politics, one who by his vote constitutes or elects a member of parliament. Constituents, in physics, the elementary or essential parts of any sub- stance. 160 THE "constituent ASSEMBLY," OR CONVENTION OF FRANCE, WAS FORMED IN 1/89. FROM THE BEVOLUTIOJr, 1/91, THE FRENCH HAVE HAD TEN "CONSTITUTIONS." con] [con CONSTITUTION, in politics, any form or principle of government, regularly con- stituted. Constitutions are either demo- cratic, ai-istocratic, or of a mixed character. They are, 1. Democratic, when the funda- mental law guarantees to every citizen equal rights, protection, and participation, direct or indirect, in the government, such as the constitutions of the United States of Ame- rica, and of some cantons of Switzerland. 2. Aristocratic, when the constitution esta- blishes privileged classes, as the nobility and clergy, and entrusts the government entirely to them, or allows them a very dis- proportioiiate share of it : such a constitu- tion was that of Venice. 3. Q/" a mixed cha- racter ; to which latter division belong some monarchial constitutions, which recognize the existence of a sovereign whose power is moditied by other branches of govern- ment, of a more or less popular cast. Of this kind is the British Constitution. It assigns the making of laws to the sove- reign, and the Houses of Lords and Com- mons, the sovereign being at the same time the executive power and personal represen- tative of the nation : the House of Lords being a court of appeal from the Courts of Law; and the House of Commons, the ori- ginator of all taxes and financial grants, for the use of the executive. It has been truly said, that " it is not absolutely essen- tial to the existence of a constitution, that it should be producible in a visible form. The period of time when the foundations of the present English government were laid by the association of the people in their original character cannot, indeed, be ascertained. Many of the laws which are in use to this day in Great Britain, may be traced back to the remotest period of anti- quity ; and the origin even of the institution of juries, an institution so congenial to the genuine spirit of freedom, is lost in the ob- scurity of the fabulous ages. The consti- tution of Great Britain is a constitution of X^rinciples, not of articles; and however fre- quently it may have been violated by ty- rants, monarchical, aristocratical, or demo- cratical, the people have always found it expedient to restore the original foundation, while, from time to time, they have been successful in improving and ornamenting the building." By the word Constitu- tion, is also meant, a particular law, ordi- nance, or regulation made by the autho- rity of any superior ; as, the novel consti- tutions of Justinian and his successors ; the constitutions of Clarendon, &c. Constitution, in medicine, the temperament of the whole body, arising from the quality and proportion of the parts. In this sense we speak of a robust or feeble constitution, a cold, phlegmatic, or sanguine constitu- tion, &C. CONSTRICTOR, in anatomy, an appel- lation given to several muscles on account of their contracting or closing some of the orifices of the body ; as the Constrictor la- biorum, a muscle which constitutes the very substance of the lips and draws them up as in kissing; or the Constrictor nasi, a muscle arising above the dentes incisores of the upper jaw, and terminating in the al(e of the nose. CONSTRUCTION, in a general sense, the manner of putting together the parts of a building, or of a machine, &c. In grammar, syntax, or the proper arrange- ments of words in a sentence. Also, the manner of understanding the arrangement of words, or of understanding facts : thus we say, " let us give the author's words a rational and consistent construction. CONSUA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, a festival instituted by Romulus, and dedi- cated by him to Neptune, whom he termed Consus, or the god of counsel, in conse- quence of his successful scheme on the Sa- bine virgins. CONSUBSTANTIAL, in theology, an epithet signifying of the same substance: thus, in the articles of the Church of Eng- land, Christ is declared consubstantial, or of one substance with the Father. CON SUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lutheran church, the members of which maintain that after consecration of the sa- cramental elements, the body and blood of our Saviour are substantially present, to- gether with the substance of the bread and wine, which is called consubstantiation, or impanation. CON'SUL, in the Roman commonwealth, the title of the two chief magistrates^ whose power was, in a certain degree, absolute, but who were chosen only for one year. The authority of the two consuls was equal ; yet the Valerian law gave the right of prio- rity to the elder, and the Julian law to him who had the greater number of children ; and this was generally called consul major, or prior. In the first ages of Rome they were elected from patrician families; but in the year of Rome 388, the people ob- tained the privilege of electing one of the consuls from their own body, and some- times both were plebeians. In modern usage, the name consul is given to an officer appointed to reside in a foreign country, to protect the interests of trade, and to aid his government in any commercial trans- actions with such country. CONSULTATION, a council for delibe- ration ; as a consultation of physicians was called. CONSUMPTION, in medicine, a word of very extensive signification, implying all disorders that bring decay or waste tipon the constitution. But it is more particu- larly the disease called phthisis pulmonalis, a disorder seated in the lungs, attended with hectic fever, cough, &c. Hence the word consumptive is used to denote the in- cipient state of that disease, or to a consti- tution predisposed to it. CONTA'GION, that subtile matter which proceeds from one cliseapcd perso;\ and com- municates the disease to another; a3 in cases of small-pox, malignant fevers, &C., which are often communicated without contact. CONT'ENTS, any thing or things held, included, or comprehended v/ithin a limit A consul appointed for SEVERAL PLACES IS CALLED A " CONSUL-GENERAL." A CONTRACT, TO BK VALID, MUST BE FOB SOME LEGAL OBJECT OR rURPOSE. con] [con or line ; as, the contents of a cask or bale, the contents of a book, &c. In geometry, the area or quantity of matter or space in- cluded in certain lines. CO N'T EXT, the parts of a discourse which precede or follow the sentence quoted; for instance, the sense of a pas- sage of Scripture is often illustrated by tlie context. CONTINENT, in geography, a great ex- tent of land, not disjoined or interrupted by a sea; or a connected tract of land of great extent, as the Eastern or Western continent. The continental^ovi^n, those whose territories are situated on the conti- nent of Europe. CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, a term given to a plan devised by Napoleon to ex- clude this country from all intercourse with the continent of Europe ; thereby to prevent the importation of British manu- factures and commerce, and thus to com- pel the English government to make peace upon the terms prescribed by the French riiler. The history of Napoleon's conti- nental svstem begins with the decree of Berlin of Nov. 21, 1806, by which the Bri- tish islands were declared to be in a sta<^e of blockade; all commerce, intercourse, and correspondence were prohibited ; every Englishman found in France, or in any country occupied by French troops, M'as declared a prisoner of war; all property belonging to Englishmen, fair prize, and all trade in English goods entirely prohi- bited. Great Britain immediately directed reprisals against the Berlin decree ; pro- hibiting all neutral vessels from sailing from one port to another belonging to France, or one of her allies, &c. This was met by counter-reprisals; and for a long time a tierce and most annoying system was carried on for the annihilation of Bri- tish commerce ; the effects of which are still felt, from the rival products and ma- nufactures on the continent to which the svstem gave rise. ' CONTORTiE, one of Linna;us' natural orders, including plants with a single twisted petal. Thus we say, a contorted corolla when the edge of one petal lies over the next in an oblique direction. CONTORTION, in medicine, a twisting or wresting of a limb or member of the body out of its natural situation ; partial dislocation. CONTOUR', in painting, sculpture, &c., the outline, or that line which defines or terminates a figure. CONTOURNE', in heraldry, an epithet for a beast, standing or running with his face to the sinister side, being always sup- posed to look to the right. CONTRA, a Latin preposition signifying against, which is used as a prefix to many English words. CONTRABAND, in commerce, is a term applied to such goods as are prohibited to be imported or exported, either by the laws of a particular state, or by special treaties. 'By the ancient law of Europe, a ship conveying any contraband article was lia- ble to confiscation as well as the article. But in the modern practice of the courts of admiralty of this and other countries, a milder rule has been adopted, and the car- riage of contraband articles is attended only with the loss of freight and expenses, unless when the ship belongs to the owner of the contraband cargo, or when the simple misconduct of conveying such a cargo has been connected with other ag- gravating circumstances. CON'TRA-BAS'SO, in music, Italian for thorough-bass. Also, the name of the in- strument called a double bass. CONTRACT, a covenant or agreement between two or more persons with a lawful consideration or cause which binds the par- ties to aperformance. Usurious Contract, is an agreement to pay more interest for money than the law allows. CONTRACT ILE FORCE, that property or power inherent in certain elastic bodies, whereby, when extended, they are enabled to draw themselves up again to their former dimensions. CONTRACTION, in a general sense, the diminishing the extent or dimensions of a body. In surgery, the shrinking up of the muscles or arteries. In grammar, the reducing two syllables into one, by the omission of a letter or syllable. CONTRAINDICATION, in medicine, an indication, from some peculiar symptom or fact, that forbids the method of cure which the general tenor of the disease re- quires. CONTRAPUNTIST, in music, one skUl- ed in counterpoint. CONTRAST, in painting, the due placing of the different parts and objects of a figure, that they may be suitably opposed to each other. CONTRAVALLATION. line of, in for- titication, a trench guarded with a para- pet thrown round a place by the besiegers, to defend themselves against the sallies of the garrison. CONTRAYER'VA, the genus of plants Borstenia; all low herbaceous plants, na- tives of the warm climates of America, and useful as diaphoretics. CONTRE, in heraldry, an epithet given to several bearings, on account of their cut- ting the shield contrary and opposite ways : thus we meet with contre-bend, contre-chev- ron, contre-jmle, &c. CONTRIBU TION, in a general sense, the act of giving to a common stock. In a military sense, impositions upon a country in the power of an enemy, whicl^re levied under various pretences, and for various purposes, usually for the support of the army. CONTRO'LLER, in law, an overseer or ofiiccr appointed to control or verify the ac- counts of other officers. CONTUMACY, in law, a refusal to ap- pear in court when legally summoned, or disobedience to its rules and orders. CONVALESCENCE, the insensible re- covery of health and strength after disease. CONVALLA'RIA, in botany, a genus of 1C2 THE PRACTICE OF CONFISC ATI?) G CONTRABAND ARTICLES IS UNIVERSAL. FOKMERLT TBEUB WEBB SEVERAL STATUTES FOU THE SUPPRESSION OF CONVENTICLES. con] [cor the kexandria-monogynia class of plants ; comprehending the lily of the vaUey, and a few other similar plants. CONVENTICLE, a private assembly or meeting, for the exercise of religion ; the word was at first an appellation of reproach to the religious assemblies of Wickliflfe, in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and is now usually applied to a meeting of dissenters from the established church. » As the word conventicle, in strict propriety, denotes an unlawful assembly, it cannot be justly applied to the assembling of persons in places of worship, which are licensed ac- cording to the requisitions of law. CONVEN'TION, inlaw, an extraordinary assembly of the estates of the realm. In military affairs, an agreement entered into between two bodies of troops opposed to each other ; or an agreement previous to a definitive treaty. National convention, the name of the assembly by which the government of France was conducted du- ring a period of the revolution. CONVER'GING, tending to one point. Converging lines, in geometry, lines which occasionally approximate. Con- verging rays, in optics, those rays that pro- ceed from different points of an object, and incline towards one another until they meet. Converging series, in mathematics, is that in which the magnitude of the several terms gradvially diminishes. CON' VERSE, in mathematics, an oppo- site proposition: thus, after drawing a con- clusion from something supposed, we invert the order, making the conclusion the sup- position or premises, and draw from it what was first supposed. CONVER'SION, in a theological sense, that change in man by which the enmity of the heart to the laws of God, and the ob- stinacy of the will are subdued, and are succeeded by svipreme love to God and his moral government ; and a reformation of life. Conversion of equations, in algebra, the reducing of a fractional equation into an integral one. Conversion of a propo- sition, in logic, is a changing of the sub- ject into the place of the predicate, and still retaining the quality of the proposi- tion. CON'VEX, anything rising or swelling on the exterior surface into a spherical or round form ; as, a convex lens or mirror. CONVEY'ANCE, in law^ a deed or in- strument by which lands, &c., are conveyed or made over to another. CONVEY'ANCER, one who professes to draw deeds, mortgages, and conveyances of estates. This profession requires great knowledge of the law, and a solid and clear understanding; for on conveyancing the security of property greatly depends. CONVIV'IUM, in antiquity, a banquet or entertainment given to a friendly party. CON'VICT,in law, a person found guilty of a crime alleged against him, either by the verdict of a jury, or other legal decision. CONVICTION, the act of proving guilty of an offence charged against a person by a legal tribunal. Also, the state of being sensible of guilt ; as, by conviction a sinner is brought to repentance. CONVOCATION, an assembly of the clergy of England, which at present is mere- ly nominal. Its province is stated to be the enactment of canon-law, subject to the li- cence of the king; and the examination and censuring of all heretical and schismatical books and persons ; but from its judicial proceedings lies an appeal to the king in chancery, or his delegates. It is held during the session of parliament, and con- sists of an upper and a lower house : in the upper sit the bishops, and in the lower the inferior clergy, who are represented by their proctors, and all the deans and arch- deacons ; in all, 143 divines. CON'VOLUTED, in botany, an epithet denoting that one part is rolled on another ; as the sides or margins of nascent leaves in plants. CONVOLTULUS, Bindweed; a genus of plants of many species. Class 3 Pentan- dria, order 1 Monogynia. CON'VOY, ships of war which accom- pany merchantmen in time of war, to pro- tect them from the attacks of the enemy. By land, any body of troops which ac- company provision, ammunition, or other property for protection. CONVUL'SION, (spasmus), in medicine, a preternatural and violent contraction of the membraneovis and muscular parts, arising from a spasmodic stricture of the membranes surrounding the spinal marrow, and the nerves distributed from it. CO'NUS, in conchology, a genus of ani- mals, class Vermes, order Testacea. These cones inhabit the ocean, and are generally found on rocky shores : many of the shells arc extremely beautiful. COOM, a term applied to the soot that gathers over an oven's mouth ; also for that black, greasy substance, which works out of the wheels of carriages. COOT, in ornithology, a fowl of the genus Fulica, frequenting lakes and other still waters. It makes its nest among rushes, with grasses and reeds, floating on the water. COPA'IBA, BALSAM OF, a liquid re- sinous juice flowing from incisions made in the stem of a tree called Copaifcra officinalis, growing in South America. It is of the consistence of oil, and as a medicine is cor- roborating and detergent. COTAL, improperly called gum copal, a gum of the resinous kind, the concrete juice of a tree, called rhus coimllinum, v. hich grows in South America. Copal greatly re- sembles amber in appearance : it is hard, transparent, and odoriferous, and makes an excellent varnish. COTECK, a small Russian coin, eqtial to about one farthing English. COPER'NICAN SYSTEM, that system of the universe which was anciently taught by Pythagoras, and afterwards revived by Copernicus, a Polish astronomer. Accord- ing to this system, the sun is supposed to be placed in the centre, and all tlie other bodies to revolve round it in a particular A CONVOLVULUS ENTWINES TO THE RIGHT ; HOPS ENTWI^'E TO THE LEFT. MINERALOGISTS DIVIDE COPPER INTO THIRTEEN DIFFERENT SPECIES. cop] ^f)e Sctentiuc anU XiitxeLX^ treasure ; order ; which theory is now universally adopted, under the name of the Solar Sys- tem. CO'PING, in masonry, the stone covering on the top of a wall, COPTER, one of the six primitive metals, of a pale red colour tinged with yellow. Copper is not unfrequently found native, sometimes in small and slender fibres, and sometimes in little globular and irregu- lar masses ; but it is most frequently found in the state of ore. Next to gold, silver, and platina, it is the most ductUe and mal- leable of the metals, and it is more elastic than any metal except steel, and the most sonorous of all the metals. Copper in sheets is much used for covering the bottoms of ships, for boilers and other utensils : mixed with tin it forms bell-metal ; with a smaller proportion, bronze ; and with zinc, it forms brass, pinchbeck, &c. Great Britain has various copper-mines, in Cornwall, Devon- shire, Wales, &c., but particularly in the first. Though known long before, the Cor- nish copper-mines were not wrought with much spirit till last century. From 1726 to 1735, they produced, at an average, about 700 tons per year of pure copper; during the ten years from 177fi to 1785> they produced at an average 2,650 tons. In 1798, the produce exceeded 5000 ; and it now amounts to about 12,000 tons, worth, at 100?. a ton, no less than 1,200,000?. sterling ! In 1708, the famous mines in the Paris mountain, near Amlwch, in Anglesea, were discovered. The sup- plies of ore furnished by them were for a long time abundant beyond all precedent ; but for many years past the productiveness of the mine has been declining ; and it now yields comparatively little copper. At jjresent, the entire produce of the cop- per mines of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, may be estimated at about 15,000 tons ; and Great Britain, instead of being, as formerly, dependent on foreigners for the grearter part of her supplies of this valuable metal, has for many years past been one of the principal markets for the supply of others. COFPERAS, sulphate of iron, commonly called green vitriol ; a salt of a peculiar as- tringent taste, and of various colours, though most usually green. If sulphuric acid be diluted with water, and poured upon iron, much effervescence will be perceptible ; the metal will be dissolved, and the solution, when evaporated, will exhibit the sulphate of iron, or common copperas, which is a neutral salt in a very impure state. Copperas is the basis of many dyes : it gives a fine black, though it rather subjects the material to decay, unless used with extreme caution, the least excess occasioning the cloth, &c. to rot very soon. COPPER-PLATE, a plate of copper on which figures are engraven; also the im- pression taken from that plate. Copper- plate Printing is performed by moans of what is called a rollmg-press. The engraved plate is covered with ink, made of oil and Frankfort black, then cleanly wiped on the smooth parts, and laid on wet soft paper ; and on being passed between two cylinders \^-ith great force, the impression of the en- graved part is perfectly transferred to the paper. COP'PICE, or COPSE, a wood of small growth, cut at certain times, and used prin- cipally for fuel. COP'PLE-DUST, powder used in purify- ing metals. COP'PLE-STONES, lumps and fragments of stone brought from adjacent chifs, and rounded by the continual action of the waves. COP TIC, the language of the Copts, or any thing pertaining to those people, who are the descendants of the ancient Egyp- tians, and called Copthi or, Copts, as dis- tinct from the Arabians and other inhabit- ants of modern Egypt. COP'ULA, the word that connects any two terms in an affirmative or negative pro- position ; as " God made man ;" " Religion ts indispensable to happiness." COP ULATIVE PROPOSITIONS, in lo- gic, those where the subject and predicate are so linked together, by copulative con- junctions, that they may be all severally af- firmed or denied one of another. " Science and literature enlighten the mind, anrf greatly increase our intellectual enjoy- ments." COPT, in law, signifies the transcript of any original writing, as the copy of a patent, charter, deed, &c. A common deed can- not be proved by a copy or counterpart, where the original may be p»ocured. But if the deed be enrolled, certifying an at- tested copy is proof of the enrolment, such copy may be given in evidence. Copy is also used for the imitation of an original work, more particularly in paintings, and other works of art. Copy, among print- ers, denotes the manuscript or original of a book, given to be printed. Also, when we speak of a book, or a set of books, we say a copy ; as, a copy of the Scriptures ; a cdpy of Sir Walter Scott's works, &c. C'OP'YHOLD, a tenure of landed pro- perty, by which the tenant holds his land by copy of court roll of the manor at the will of the lord, or rather, according to the cus- tom of the manor by which such estate is discernible. COP'YRIGHT, the exclusive right of printing and publishing copies of any lite- rary performance, either by an author in his own right, or vested in the hands of those to whom he may have assigned that right. COQUETTE, a light, trifling girl, who endeavours to attract admiration by making a display of her amatory arts, from a desire to gratify vanity, rather than to secure a lover. The species is very numercms, and by no means confined to the fair sex. In France, the males are easily designated by the masculine termination, as coquet ; but in England, we have to use male as a prefix to the word, when we speak of one of these silly flutterers. COR, in anatomy, the heart. Cor Ca- roli, in astronomy, a constellation in the A COMPOUND OF COPPER, ZINC, AND NICKEL, FORMS "GERMAN SILVER." COR THE PACIFIC OCEAN MAY TBULT BK CALLED TUB SJLA OF CORALS, % iN^ett) ©ictionart) of tf)c ^clks ^cttrcs. [con northern hemisphere, situated between the Coma Berenicis and Ursa Major, so called by Dr. Halley in honour of King Charles. — — Cor Hydra, a fixed star of the first mag- nitude, in the constellation Hydra. Cor Leonis, or Regulus, a fixed star of the first magnitude, in the constellation Leo. Cor Veneris, the name of a beautiful kind of heart-shells. CORACOBRACHIA'LIS, in anatomy, a muscle that has its origin at the caracoid process of the scapula, and its termination about the middle part of the arm. Its use is to raise the arm upward and forward. CORACOHYOID/E'US, in anatomy, a muscle which arises from the upper edge of the scapula, and inserted in the os hyoides, which it serves to pull obhquely down- wards. COR'ACOID, in anatomy, a small sharp process of the scapula, shaped like a crow's beak. COR'AL, in zoology, a genus of zoophyta; found in the sea, attached to stones, bones, shells, &c. Coral is red, white, and black ; and was formerly believed to be a vegetable substance, but is now ascertained to be composed of a congeries of animals. The islands in the South Seas are principally coral rocks covered with earth, which have been formed by them from the bottom of the ocean. The coral fishery is particularly followed in the Mediterranean, on the coast of France, where the red coral most abounds. The coral is attached to the sub-marine rocks, as a tree is by its roots, but the branches, instead of growing upwards, shoot downwards towards the bottom of the sea ; a conformation favourable to breaking them off, and bringing them up. For this kind of fishing, eight men, who are excellent divers, equip a felucca or small boat, called commonly a coralline ; carrying with them a large wooden cross, with strong, equal, and long arms, each bearing a stout bag-net. They attach a strong rope to the middle of the cross, and let it down horizontally into the sea, having loaded its centre with a weight suf- ficient to sink it. The diver follows the cross, pushes one arm of it after another into the hollows of the rocks, so as to en- tangle the coral in the nets ; when his com- rades in the boats pull up the cross and its accompaniments. COR'AL-TREE, or Erythrina, a genus of plants, of several species, natives of Africa and America. They are all shrubby flower- ing plants, adorned chiefly with trifoliate or three-lobed leaves, and scarlet spikes of papilionaceous flowers. COR'ALLIFORM, forked, crooked, and irregular, like coral. COR'ALLINE, a submarine plant-like body, consisting of many slender jointed branches, resembling some species of moss. In the Linnsean system, corallines are classed with the zoophytes. Coralline is also a small boat, used in the coral fisheries. COR'ALLITE, a mineral substance or petrifaction, in the form of coral. COR'ALLOID, a species of coralline, re- sembling woven cloth in texture, consisting of arrangements of very small cells. COR'BEIL, in fortification, a little basket, to be filled with earth, and set upon a para- pet, to shelter men fi-om the fire of be- siegers. COR'BEL, in building, a short piece of timber in a wall, jutting six or eight inches, in the manner of a shoulder-piece ; some- times placed for strength under the semi- girder of a platform. COR'CULUM, or COR'CULE, in botany, the embryo of the seed, or rudiment of a future plant, attached to and involved in the cotyledons. CORD'AGE, every description of ropes and lines used on shipboard, but more par- ticularly that used in the running rigging of a ship. CORD'ATE, a term used by naturalists for heart-shaped ; thus, in botany, a cordate leaf means one which resembles the longi- tudinal section of the heart ; cordate-lan- ceolate, shaped like a heart, but gradually tapering towards each extremity; cordate- sagittate, heart-shaped, but resembling the head of an arrow. CORDELIE R, in church history, a grey friar or monk of the order of St. Francis. The cordeliers wear a white girdle or rope, tied with three knots, and called the cord of St. Francis; but the design of it, they say, is to commemorate the bands where- with Christ was bound, CORDELIE RS. This word, as we have seen above, originally signified an order of Franciscan monks ; but it was afterwards given to a society of Jacobins in France from 1/92 to 1794, who were so called from their place of meeting. They were distinguished by the violence of their speeches and con- duct, and contributed not a little to the exe- crable crimes which disgraced the French name and nation during the early periods of revolutionary anarchy. COR'DIA, in botany, a genus of plants, class 5 Pentandria, order I Monogynia. The species are all trees. COR'DIAL, in medicine, whatever ex- cites the system, raises the spirits, and quickly produces strength and cheerfulness. COR'DON, in fortification, a row of stones jutting before the rampart, and the basis of the parapet. The word cordon is still more used to denote a line or series of military posts ; as, a cordon of troops. Cordon also signifies a ribbon, as the cordon bleu, the badge of the order of the Holy Ghost. CORD'OVAN, leather made of goat skin, and named from Cordova in Spain. CORE'IA, in antiquity, a festival in ho- nour of Proserpine. COREOP'SIS, in botany, a genus of plants, class 19 Syngenesia, order 3 Poly- gamia frustanea. The species are mostly perennials. « CORIA'CEOUS, stiff, like leather : a bo- tanic term for leaves, capsules, &c. when in that state. CORIAN'DER, the Coriandrum sativum of Linnaeus, an annual plant, the seed of which when dry is an agreeable aromatic. MANT ANCIENT AUTHORS ATTRIBUTE SUPERSTITIOUS QUALITIES TO CORAL. THE GBEEKS AND ROMANS WERE WELL ACQUAINTED WITH THE USES OF CORK. cor] W)z Scientific anU XitzxdLt^ VLxtn^ux^ ; [cor It is occasioually employed as a sudorific, and as a corrective of certain purgatives. CORIA'RIA, in botany, a genus of plants, class 22 Dioecia, order 10 Decandria. The species are lihrubs, as Coriaria niyrtifolia, nivrtle-leavcd sumach, &c. CORINTHIAN, pertaining to Corinth, a celebrated city of Greece. The Corin- thian Order, in arcliitecture, is the noblest and richest of the five orders. Its capital is adorned with two rows of leaves, between which arise little stalks or caulicoles, form- ing sixteen volutes. CO'RIUM, in anatomy, any thing which serves as an integument or covering; as the skin or hide of an animal, the shell of an egg, «&c. CORK, the bark of the cork-tree, a spe- cies of qucrcus, or oak, growing, in great abundance, in Spain, Italy, and France. The bark is taken from the tree by making an incision down the whole height of the trunk, and, at each extremity, another round the girth. The tree is supplied with this coat in a degree so peculiarly abundant, that it not only continues to flourish unin- jured by the act of barking, but, in its natural state, regularly sheds the whole, and acquires a new covering. Cork is light, porous, nearly impervious to most liquors, and wonderfully elastic; qualities which render it superior to all other substances for stoppers for bottles, in the manufacture of which it is principally made use of. It is also employed as buoys to float nets, in the construction of life-boats, the making of water-proof shoes, and in various other ways. There are two sorts of cork, the white and the black ; the former grows in France, and the latter in Spain. The cakes of the white are usually more beau- tiful, more smooth, lighter, and of a finer grain than the black ; and when this kind is burned in close vessels it forms the pig- ment called Spanish black. The uses of cork were well known to the ancients, and were nearly the same to which it is ap- plied by us. CORMORANT, or COR'VORANT, an exceedingly voracious bird of the pelican tribe. It builds on the highest cliff's hang- ing over the sea, and feeds on fish. CORN, farinaceous seed, as that of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and maize. In short, it comprehends all the kinds of grain which constitute the food of men and horses. "We also use the word for grain growing in the fields, the plants or stalks, being included in the word corn, until separated from the ears. Corn, in surgery, an excrescence or hard tubercle like a flat wart, growing in the feet, especially upon the joints of the toes. Corns are justly attributed to the pressure of tight or narrow-toed shoes, es- pecially if a person is obliged to stand or walk much. CORN'EA, in anatomy, the transparent membrane in the fore -part of the eye, through which the rays of hght pass. COR'NEL-TREE, or CORNE'LIAN- TREE, the dog-wood, or cornelian cherry- tree, a genus of plants of several species. The mascula, or cornelian cherry-tree, has a stem twenty feet high, and produces a small, red, acid fruit. COR'NET, an instrument very similar to a trumpet, which is used in the army. ——Also a commissioned officer in a trooo of cavalry. He bears the colours, and com- mands in the absence of the lieutenant. His rank or commission is called a cornctcy. CORN'FLAG, in botany, the Gladiolus, a genus of plants, having a double tuberose root, with leaves like the fleur-de-lis, and a flower consisting of one petal, shaped like the lily. COR'NICE, in architecture, the upper- most member of the entablature of a co- lumn ; or any moulded projection that crowns or finishes the part to which it is affixed, as the cornice of a room, a door, &c. CORNIC'ULATE, in botany, bearing a little spur or horn. CORNUCO'PIA, or the Horn of Plenty, a source whence, according to the ancient poets, every production of the earth was lavished; a gift from Jupiter to his nurse, the goat Amalthea. In elucidation of this fable, it has been said that in Lybia, the ancient name of a part of Africa, there was a little territory, in shape not ill re- sembling a bullock's horn, which Ammon, the king, gave to his daughter Amalthea, the nurse of Jupiter. Upon medals the cor- nucopia is given to all deities, genii, and heroes, to mark the felicity and abundance of all the wealth procured by the goodness of the former, or the care and valour of the latter. CORNUCOTIiE, in botany, a genus of plants, class 3 Triandria, order 2 Biyynia, It is so called from the resemblance of the flowers in the involucre to a horn of plenty. COR'NUS, in botany, a genus of plants, class 4 Tetandria, order 2 Digynia. The species are trees or shrubs, as cornus mas- cula, the cornelian cherry, cornus fiorida, and manv others. COR'NU AMMO'NIS, a sheU, in shape resembling a ram's horn. COROL'LA or COR'OL, m botany, the leafy parts of a flower, which is marked with divers colours, and which surrounds the parts of fructification. Each leaf or division of the corolla is called a petal ; and accord- ing as there is one, two, or three of these petals, the corolla is said to be mono- petalous, dipetalous, tripetalous, &c. COR'OLLARY, a conclusion or conse- quences drawn fi'om premises, or from what is advanced or demonstrated. COR'OLLULE, or COR'OLLET, a term used by botanists for one of the little partied flowers, which together make up the com- pound ones ; the floret is an aggregate flower. CORO'NA, in architecture, a large flat member of a cornice, crowning the entab- lature and the whole order. In anatomy, the upper surface of the molar teeth or grinders. In optics, a halo or luminous circle round the sun or moon. In botany, the circumference or margin of a radiated compound flower. COROKA'LIS SUTU'RA, in anatomy, WHATEVER RAISES THE AVERAGE PRICES OF CORN, ALSO RAISES KENT. THE COKrORATION AND TEST ACTS WERE BOTH RETEALED IN 1828. cor] % l^m IDutionari) of t^z IScHcs lEcttres^ [c the coi'onal suture, or first suture of the skull, Nvhich reaches transversely from one temple to the other, and joins the osfrontis with the ossa j^arietalia. CORONARY VESSELS, certain ves- sels which furnish the substance of the heart with blood. Coronary arteries, two arteries springing out of the aorta, before it leaves the pericardium. ■ Coronary vein, a vein diffused over the exterior sur- face of the heart. It is formed of several branches arising from all parts of the viscus, and terminates in the vena cava, whither it conveys the remains of the blood brought by the coronary arteries. CORONA'RIiE, the tenth Linnsean na- tural order of plants, containing hyacinths, lilies, and other herbaceous and perennial plants. CORONATION, the public and solemn ceremony of crowning, or investing a prince with the insignia of royalty, in acknow- ledgment of his right to govern the king- dom ; at which time the prince swears re- ciprocally to the people, to observe the laws, customs, and privileges of the kingdom, and to act and do all things conformable thereto. The form of the coronation oath of a British monarch is as follows : " I solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- land, and the dominions thereto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same ; to the utmost of my power to main- tain the laws of God, the true profession of the gospel, and the Protestant reformed religion established by the law ; to preserve unto the bishops and the clergy of this realm, and the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges as by law do or shall appertain unto them or any of them." After this, the king or queen, laying his or her hand upon the holy Gospels, shall say, "The things which I have before promised, I will perform and keep ; so help me God." COR'ONER, the presiding officer in a jury convened to inquire into the cause of sudden deaths. COR'ONET, in heraldry, a small crown worn by the nobility. The coronet of a duke is adorned with strawberry leaves; that of a marquis has leaves with pearls in- terspersed ; that of an earl has the pearls raised on the tops of the leaves ; that of a viscount is surrounded with pearls only ; that of a baron has only four pearls. COR'ONET, or COR'NET, in farriery, the upper part of a horse's hoof. CORTORAL, the lowest military officer in a company of foot, who has charge over one of the divisions, places and replaces sentinels, &c, Corporal, in law, an epi- thet for any thing that belongs to the body, as corporal punishment. Also, a corporal oath, so called because the party taking it is obliged to lay his hand on the Bible. CORPORA'TION, a body politic or cor- porate, so called because the persons or members are joined into one body, and au- thorized by law to transact business as an individual. Corporations are either spi- ritual or temporal : spiritual, as bishops, deans, archdeacons. &c., temporal, as the mayor, and aldermen of cities. And some are of a mixed nature, being composed of spiritual and temporal persons ; such as heads of colleges and hospitals, &c. Cor- porations may be established either by pre- scription, letters patent, or act of parlia- ment ; but they are most commonly esta- blished by patent or charter. It has been truly said, that the whole political system is made up of a concatenation of various corporations, political, civil, religious, social, and economical. A nation itself is the great corporation, comprehending all the others, the powers of which are exerted in legisla- tive, executive, and judicial acts. CORPS, (French, pron. korej a body of troops ; any division of an army ; as, acorps de reserve, the troops in reserve ; corps de bataille, the whole line of battle, &c. COR'PUS, in anatomy, a name given to several substances, or parts in the human body. COR'PUSCULE, a minute particle or physical atom. Corpuscules are not the elementary principles of matter, but such small particles, simple or compound, as are not dissolved or dissipated by ordinaiyheat. CORPUS CHRISTI DAY, a festival ap- pointed by the church of Rome in honour of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. CORPUS'CULAR PHILOS'OPHY, that method of philosophising which endeavours to explain things, and to account for the phenomena of nature, by the motion, figure, rest, position, &c. of the minute particles of matter. CORREL'ATIVE, an epithet denoting the having a reciprocal relation, so that the existence of one in a certain state depends on the existence of another; as, father and son ; light and darkness ; motion and rest ; all of which are correlative terms. COR'RIDOR, in architecture, a gallery or long aisle round a building, leading to several chambers at a distance from each other. In fortification, the covered way lying round the whole compass of the forti- fications of a place. CORROB'ORANT, of a strengthening nature ; as, a corroborant medicine. CORRO'SION, the action of eating or wearing away by slow degrees, as by the action of acids or metals. CORRO'SIVE SUBLIMATE, oxymu- riate of mercury ; an extremely acrid and poisonous preparation. COR'RUGATOR, a muscle which con- tracts the skin of the forehead into wrinkles. COR'SAIR, a pirate or cruiser ; a name commonly given to the piratical cruising- vessels of Bai-bary, which, from the begin- ning of the sixteenth century to a recent period, infested the Mediterranean. CORS'ELET, in natural history, that part of winged insects which answers to the breast in other animals. Also, a small cuirass. COR'SET, an article of dress, especially intended to preserve the beauties of the EVERY STATE, COUNTY, TOTVN, OR PARISH, IS A LOCAL " CORPORATION." 167 NEARLY ALL THE COSSACKS BELONG TO THE GRECO-RUSSIAN CHURCH. cor] VLlit Scientific anU "iCitcrary treasury ; [cot female form. To display the general con- tour of the figure, without impeding the gracefulness of itr motions ; and to guard it from slight inelegancies, resulting from improper position, or the character of exte- rior drapery, are the legitimate objects of the corset. But it often happens that fe- males, naturally endowed with fine forms, wear corsets which are only fit for those who are disproportionately shaped, and de- stroy the graceful ease of their movements, by encasing themselves in barriers of steel and whalebone. Ladies of a certain age, who, from luxurious living or indolent habits, have grown corpulent, may be per- mitted to adopt any mode of dress they please ; their experience ought to be suffi- cient to direct them ; but for young persons, in whom the organs of the body are in a state of development, the corset should be of the simplest character, so that the lungs should have their full play, and no undue compression of the muscles be allowed to take place, whatever the capricious dictates of fashion may urge to the contrary. CORTE GE, a French word, signifying the train or retinue that accompanies a person of distinction. CORT'ES, the assembly of the states of Spain and Portugal; answering, in some measure, to the parliament of Great Britain. COR'TEX, the outer bark of a plant. COR'TICAL, consisting of bark or rind ; belonging to the external covering, as the cortical part of the brain. CORUN'DUM, a mineral of the sapphire kind, which is found in the East Indies. CORUSCA'TION, a sudden flash of Ught in the atmosphere; or the light produced by the combustion of inflammable gas in the earth. Artificial coruscations may be produced by phosphorus and sulphuric acid, or by sulphuric acid and iron filings. CORVET'TE, a French word for any vessel of war carrying less than twenty guns. CORVI'NUS LA'PIS, in mineralogy, a stonCj found in India, remarkable for its making a noise like thunder when heated. COR'VUS, the Raven or Crow kind, in ornithology, a genus of birds, of the order ofpica. In astronomy a constellation of the southern hemisphere. Corvus, in an- tiquity, a military engine invented by the Romans at the time of their wars in Sicily, when they first engaged the Carthaginian fleet. It consisted of a strong platform of boards at the prow, moveable as on a spin- dle, and thrown over the side of an enemy's vessel when grappled. CORYBxiN'TES, in antiquity, priests of the goddess Cybele, celebrated for their wild and extravagant attitudes in danc- ing, &c. CORYDA'LES, the twenty-fourth Lin- nrean natural order of plants, with helmet- shaped flowers. COR'YMB, in botany, a species of inflo- rescence, in which the lesser flower stalks are produced along the common stalk on both sides, rising to the same height, so as to form an even surface. CORYM'BIATED, in botany, garnished with corvmbs. CORYMBIF'EROUS, bearing fruit or berries in clusters, or producing flowers in clusters. CORYPH^E'US, a leader of a chorus. COR'YPHENE, in ichthyology, a fish with a sloping truncated head, and dorsal fin extending the whole length of the back. COSCIN'OMANCY, the ancient art of divination by means of a sieve. The sieve was suspended, and if it trembled or turned when the name of a suspected person was mentioned, the party was deemed guilty. CO-SE'CANT, in geometry, the secant to an arc which is the complement of another to ninety degrees. CO'-SINE, in geometry, the sine of an arc which is the complement of another to ninety degrees. COSMET'IC, any preparation that ren- ders the skin soft and white, or helps to beautify and improve the complexion. COS'MICAL, relating to the whole system of visible bodies, including the earth and stars. COSMOG'ONY, in physics, the science or theory of the formation of the world, COSMOG'RAPHY, a descriprion of the world or universe; or the science of de- scribing the several parts of the visible world. COS'MOLABE, an ancient instrument, very similar to the astrolabe, for measuring distances in the heavens or on earth. COSMOL'OGY, a treatise relating to the structure and parts of creation, the elements of bodies, the laws of motion, and the order and course of nature. COSMOP OLITE, a citizen of the world; one who makes himself at home everywhere. COS'SACKS, the tribes who inhabit the southern and eastern parts of Russia, Po- land, the Ukraine, &c., paying no taxes, but performing, instead, the duty of soldiers. They form a kind of military democracy; and have proved highly serviceable, as irre- gular cavalry, in the Russian campaigns. Their principal weapon is a lance from ten to twelve feet in length ; they have also a sabre, a gun, and a pair of pistols, as well asabowand arrows. The lances, in riding, are carried upright by means of a strap fastened to the foot, the arm, or pommel of the saddle. Those who use bows carry a quiver over the shoulder. Though little adapted for regular movements, they are very serviceable in attacking baggage, ma- gazines, and in the pursuit of troops scat- tered in flight. They fight principally in small bodies, with which they attack the enemy on all sides, but mostly on the flanks and in the rear, rushing upon them at full speed, with a dreadful hurrah, and with leveled lances. COS'TUME, m painting and the fine arts generally, the observance of that rule or precept by which an artist is enjoined to make any person or thing sustain its proper character; the scene, dress, arms, manners, &c. all corresponding. CO-TAN'GENT, in geometry, the tan- THE COSSACKS OF LITTLE RUSSIA ARE DISCIPLINED LIKE REGULAR TROOPS. cot] TUE SEA ISLAND COTTON FROM AMERICA IS THE MOST VALUABLE OF ANT. H ISTcto IButionarw of tl)e IBcHcs ICcttrcs. [cot gent of an arc which is the complement of another to ninety degrees. COTERIE', a fashionable association; or a knot of persons forming a particular cir- cle. The origin of the term was purely commercial, signifying an association in which each member furnished his part, and bore his share in the profit and loss. COTHUR'NUS, in antiquity, a kind of high shoes, laced high, such as Diana and her nymphs are represented as wearing. The tragic actors also wore them, in order to give additional height to those who per- sonated heroes ; the cothurnus used for this {mrpose differing from the one used in lunting by its having a sole of cork, at least four lingers thick. COT'TON, a soft downy substance, re- sembling fine wool, growing in the capsules or pods of a shrub, called the cotton-plant ; and is the material of which an immense quantity of cloth is made. The Cotton- plant or siiRUB belongs to the genus Gos- syjnum, of several species, all growing in warm climates. In the southern states of America, the cotton cultivated is distin- guished into three kinds ; the nankeen cot- ton, so called from its colour ; the green seed cotton, producing white cotton with green seeds; and the black seed cotton. The latter produces cotton of a tine, white, silky appearance, very strong, and of along staple. It appears that the manufacture of cotton has been carried on in Hindostan from the remotest antiquity; and tnere it is still continued, by hand labovir, in all its primi- tive simplicity. In England, however, during the last half century, H has become of immense importance; an4 as we can- not allow it to pass unnoticed, we take the liberty of quoting from Mr. McCuU loch's excellent Dictionary of Commerce the following appropriate remarks : — " The rapid growth and prodigious magnitude of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain, are, beyond all question, the most extraordi- nary phenomena in the history of industry. Our command of the finest wool naturally attracted our attention to the woollen ma- nufacture, and paved the way for that su- periority in it to which we have long since attained : but when we undertook the cotton manufacture, we had comparatively few facilities for its prosecution, and had to struggle with the greatest difficulties. The raw material was produced at an immense distance from our shores ; and in Hindo- stan and China the inhabitants had ar- rived at such perfection in the arts of spin- ning and weaving, that the lightness and the delicacy of their finest cloths emulated the web of the gossamer, and seemed to set it at defiance. Such, however, has been the influence of the stupendous discoveries and inventions of Hargraves, ArkwTight, Crompton, Cartwright, and others, that we have overcome all these difficulties — that neither the extreme cheapness of labour in Hindostan, nor the excellence to which the natives had attained, has enabled them to withstand the competition of those who buy their cotton ; and who, after carrying it 5000 miles to be manufactured, carry back the goods to them. This is the greatest triumph of mechanical genius : and what perhaps is most extraordinary, our superiority is not the late result of a long series of successive discoveries and inventions ; on the contrary, it has been accomplished in a very few years. Little more than half a century has elapsed since the Bi-itish cotton manufacture was in its infancy ; and it now forms the principal business carried on in this country, afford- ing an advantageous field for the accumu- lation and employment of millions upon millions of capital, and thousands upon thousands of workmen ! The skill and genius by which these astonishing results have been achieved, have been one of the main sources of our power : they have con- tributed in no common degree to raise the British nation to the high and conspicuous place she now occupies. Nor is it too much to say, that it was the wealth and energy derived from the cotton manufacture that bore us triumphantly through the late dreadful contest, at the same time that it gives us strength to sustain burdens that could not be supported by any other people!' -—The following progress of a pound of cotton may not be uninteresting to our readers. It appeared originally in the Monthly Magazine. " There was sent to London lately, from Paisley, a small piece ot muslin, about one pound weight, the history of which is as follows: — The wool came from the East Indies to London; from London it went to Lancashire, where it was manufactured into yarn; from Man- chester it was sent to Paisley, where it was woven ; it was sent to Ayrshire next, where it was tamboured ; it M'as then conveyed to Dumbarton, where it was hand-sewed, and again returned to Paisley, whence it was sent to Glasgow and finished, and then sent up per coach to London. It may be reckoned about three years that it took to bring this article to market, from the time when it was packed in India, till it arrived complete in the merchant's warehouse in London ; whither it must have been con- veyed 5000 miles by sea, nearly 1000 by land, and contributed to reward the labour of nearly 150 persons, whose services were necessary in the carriage and manufacture ot" this small quantity of cotton, and by which the value has been advanced more than 2000 per cent."- — Cotton-mill, a mill or building, with machinery for carding, ronng, and spinning cotton, either by means of water or steam. Cotton-gin, a machine to separate the seeds from cotton. COTTON-GRASS, the Eriophorum, a perennial of the grass tribe ; so called be- cause its seeds have a downy substance at- tached to them which resembles cotton. C O T'T O N-T H I S T L E, an herbaceou s plant, with a biennial root ; so called be- cause it has downy leaves. CO'TYLA, in anatomy, any deep cavity in a bone, in which another bone is articulated ; but it is generally used to express the ace- CUR COTTON MACHINERY IS ONE OP THE WONDERS OF MODERN GENIUS. SHERIFFS IN ENGLAND WERE ORIGINALLY DEPUTIES OF THE ENGLISH COURTS. 3U] '^\)t ScientiCic antJ ILiterart) treasure ; [cou tabulum, or cavity which receives the head of the thigh-bone. COTYL'EDON, inbotany, the perishable lobe or placenta of the seeds of plants, of which there are mostly two. They are des- tined to nourish the embryo plant, and then perish. COUCH, in painting, a term used for each lay or impression of colour, either in oil or water, covering the canvas, wall, or other matter to be painted. Gilders use the term couch, for gold or silver leaf leiid on metals in gilding or silvering. COUCH'ANT, in heraldry, lying down, but with the head raised; which distin- guishes the posture of couckant from dor- mant, or asleep. Levant and couchant, in law. rising up and lying down, applied to beasts ; and indicating that they have been at least one night on the land. COUCH-GEASS, a weed, which spreads very fast in arable land, and chokes every thing else. COUCH'ING, one of the modes of ope- rating in cases of cataract, by which the opaque lens is removed out of the axis of vision. COUGH, a convulsive motion of the diaphragm, muscles of the larynx, thorax, &c. ; expelling the air that wa§ drawn into the lungs by inspiration, and carrying along with it the phlegm or irritating matter which causes the convulsive effort of the muscles. This disease is generally con- sidered unimportant, particularly if there be no fever connnected with it ; but every cough of a fortnight's duration is suspicious, and ought to be medically treated. COUN'CIL, in national affairs, an as- sembly of persons for the purpose of con- certing measures of state. In England, that is called the Privy Council, wherein the sovereign and privy counsellors meet in the palace to deliberate on affairs of state. When the council is composed only of cabinet ministers, it is called a Cabinet Council. Council of war, an assembly of the principal officers of a fleet or army, called by the admiral or general to concert measures for requisite operations. COUN'SEL, in law, any covmsellor or advocate, or any number of counsellors, bar- risters, or Serjeants; as, the plaintiff's or defendant's counsel. COUNT, a title of foreign nobihty, equi- valent to an EngUsh earl. In law, a par- ticular charge in an indictment, or narra- tion in pleading, setting forth the cause of complaint. There may be different counts in the same declaration. COUNTENANCE, the whole form of the face, or system of features. This word has many figurative applications : thus, by the light of God's countenance, we mean grace and favour: so the rebuke of his countenance indicates his anger. To keep the countenance, is to preserve a calm, na- tural, and composed look. To keep in countenance, to give assurance to one, or protect him from shame. To put out of countenance, to intimidate and disconcert. COUN'TER, a term which enters into the composition of many w^ords of our lan- guage, and generally implies opposition. COUN'TER-APPROACH'ES, in fortifi- cation, lines and trenches made by the be- sieged in order to attack the works of the besiegers, or to hinder their approaches. G O U N' T E R-D E E D, a secret writing either before a notary or under a private seal, which destroys, invalidates, or iilters a public one. COUN'TERDRAWING, in painting, co- pying a design or painting by means of lines drawn on oiled paper, or other transparent substance. COUNTERFEIT, that which is made in imitation of something, but without lawful authority, and with a view to defraud by passing the false for the true. Thus we say, counterfeit coin, a counterfeit bond, deed, &c. COUN'TERGUARD, in fortification, a small rampart or work raised before the point of a bastion, consisting of two long faces parallel to the faces of the bastion, making a salient angle, to preserve the bastion. COUNTERMARK, a mark put upon goods that have been marked before. It is also used for the several marks put upon goods belonging to several persons, to show that they must not be opened but in the presence of all the owners or their agents. The mark of the goldsmith's company, to show the metal to be standard, added to that of the artificer. COUNTERMINE, in military affairs, a weU and gallery sunk in the earth and running underground, to meet and defeat the effect of the enemy's mine ; or, in other words, a mine made by the besieged, in order to blow up the mine of the besiegers. COUNTER? ALED, in heraldry, is when the escutcheon is divided into twelve pales parted perfesse, the two colours being coun- terchanged; so that the upper and lower are of different colours. COUNTERPART, the correspondent part or duplicate. Also, the part which fits another, as the key of a cipher. In music, the part to be applied to another; as, the base is the counterpart to the treble. COUNTERPAS'SANT, in heraldry, is when two lions in a coat of arms are repre- sented as going contrary ways. COUNTERPOINT, in music, the art of combining and modulating consonant sounds; or of disposing several parts in such a manner as to make an agreeable whole of a concept* COUNTERPROOF, an engraving taken off from another fresh printed, which by being passed through the rolling press gives an inverted figure ot the former. COUNTER-REVOLUTION, a revolu- tion opposed to a forme'r one, and restoring a former state of things. COUNTERSCARP, in fortification, that side of the ditch which is next the camp, and faces the body of the place; but it often signifies tlie whole covered way, with its parapet and glacis. COUNTER-SECU'RITY, security given A HORSE IS SAID TO BE " COUNTERMARKED " WHEN HIS TEETH ARE MADE HOLLOW. NONE BUT COURTS OF RECORD HAVE AUTHORITY TO FINE AND IMPRISON. cou] ^ TsTcto JBictionary of tf)c l^zlU^ %tnxm. [cou to one who has entered into a bond or become surety for another. COUN'TERSIGN, a military watch- word ; or a private signal given to soldiers on guard, with orders to let no man pass unless he first names that sign. Also, to sign, as secretary or other subordinate offi- cer, any writing signed by a principal or superior, to attest the authenticity of his signature. COUNTER-TEN'OR, in music, one of the middle parts, between the treble and the tenor. COUNT'ING-HOUSE, the house orroom appropriated by merchants, traders, and manufacturers, to the business of keeping their books, &c. COUN'TRY, any tract of inhabited land or any region as distinguished from other regions; any state or territory; and also any district in the vicinity of a city or town. Thus we say. This gentleman has a seat in the country ; England is my native country ; the countries of Europe, Asia, &c. COUN'TY, originally, the district or ter- ritory of a count or earl : one of the an- cient divisions of England, which by the Saxons were called shires. England is di- vided into forty counties or shires, Wales into twelve, Scotland into thirty. Each county has its sherifif and its court, with other officers employed in the adminis- tration of justice and the execution of the laws ; and each lord-lieutenant of a county has the command of its militia. County- corporate, a title given to several cities or ancient boroughs (as Southampton and Bristol), on which certain kings of England have thought proper to bestow peculiar pri- vileges ; annexing territory, land, or juris- diction, and making them counties within themselves, with their own sheriffs and other officers. County Palatine, a county distinguished by particular privileges, and named from palatio, the palace, because the owner had originally royal powers in the administration of justice; these are now, however, greatly abridged. The counties palatine in England are Lancaster, Chester, and Durham. COUP, a French term for a stroke or sudden blow. Coup de Grace, the finish- ing blow. Coup de Main, a sudden unpre- meditated attack. Coup d'CEil, the first glance of the eye, with which it surveys any object at large. Coup de Soleil, any dis- order suddenly produced by the violent scorching of the sun. COUFED, or COUPE', in heraldry, is used to express the head, or any limb, of an animal, cut off from the trunk smooth; distinguishing it from that which is called erased, or forcibly torn off. Couped is also used to signify such crosses, bends, bars, chevrons, &c. as do not touch the sides of the escutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them. COUPEE', a motion in dancing, when one leg is a little bent and suspended from the ground, and with the other a motion is made forward. COUP'LE, two of the same species or kind; as, a couple of men, a couple of apples, &c. A pair is a couple, and a brace is a couple; but a couple may or may not be a pair or a brace. COUP'LE-CLOSE, in heraldry, an ordi- nary, so termed from its enclosing the chevron by couples, being always borne in pairs, one on each side a chevron. COUP'LET, the division of a hymn, ode, or song, wherein an equal number or an equal measure of verses is found in each part, called a strophe. COUR'AGE, firmness of mind, inspired by a sense of what is just and honourable ; that which, amidst all the dangers and trials to which human life is incident, en^ ables a man steadily to pursue the dictates of conscience and prudence. It includes valour, boldness, and resolution ; and is a constituent part of fortitude. COURANT', in heraldry, an epithet for any beast represented in a running attitude. COURAN'TO, a piece of music in triple time ; also, a kind of dance. COURSE, in its general sense, a motion forward, either in a direct or curving line ; and may be applied to animals, and to solid or fluid bodies. Course, in navigation, that point of the compass on which a ship steers. Course, in masonry, a continued range of bricks or stones of the same height. ^Applied to the arts and sciences, course denotes a methodical series ; as, the author has completed his course of lectures; or the medical student has completed his course in anatomy. Of course, in natural and regular order ; as, this effect will follow of course. In a ship, the principal sails are called courses. The Course of Ex- change, in commerce, the current price or rate at which the coin of one country is exchanged for that of another ; which, as it depends upon the balance of trade and the political relations which subsist be- tween the two countries, is always fluctu- ating. COURSING, the act or sport of pursu- ing any beast of chase, as the hare, &c. with greyhounds. COURT, a palace ; a place where justice is administered ; also the persons or judges assembled for hearing and deciding causes, civil, criminal, &c. Thus we have a court of law ; a court of eqviity ; a court martial ; an ecclesiastical court, 8ic. COURT-BAR'ON, a court incident to manorial rights. COURT-LEET', a court of record held once a year, in a particular hundred, lord- ship, or manor, before the steward of the leet. COURT-MAR'TIAL, a court consisting of military or naval officers, for the trial of offences within its jurisdiction. COURT'-ROLL, a roll containing an ac- count of the number, &c. of lands which depend on the jurisdiction of the manor, &c. COURTESY, elegance or politeness of manners, combined with kindness. A respectful inclination of the body, performed by a woman, corresponding in design to the IN ALL THE SUPERIOR COURTS IT IS USUAL TO HAVE ATTORNEYS AND COUNSEL. 171 CBANIOLOGISTS ASSERT THAT OUR PROPK>"SITIES ARE DEVELOPED OK THE SKULL. cra] VL^z Snentific mts ICUerarn treasure ; [cra bow of a gentleman. Tenure by courtesy, in law, is where a man mrxrries a woman seized of an estate of inheritance, and has by her issue born alive, which was capable of inheriting her estate : in this case, on the death of his wife, he holds the lands for his life, as tenant by courtesy. COUS'IN, the son or daughter of an uncle or aunt ; the children of brothers and sisters being usually denominated cousins, or cousin-germans. In the second generation they are called second cousins. COVENANT, in law, a writing contain- ing the terms of agreement or contract between parties ; or the clause of agree- ment in a deed containing the covenant. In theology, the promise of God to man, that man's perfect obedience should entitle him to happiness. The covenant of grace, is that by which God engages to be- stow salvation on man, u^pon the condition that man shall believe in Christ, and yield obedience to the terms of the Gospel. COW-POX, the vaccine disease ; a pus- tule transferred from the udder of a cow to the human body, where it exhausts or neu- tralizes some morbid action of the refe mucosum, which prevents a disease of the same membrane, called variola, or small- pox. The following paragraph having appeared in the public papers at the mo- ment we were going to press with tliis sheet, we are glad to give it insertion. Much has been before written on the sub- ject ; but nothing that we have seen ap- pears so conclusive and satisfactory : " Mr, Ceely, surgeon, of Aylesbury, has demon- strated the important fact, that small-pox and cow-pox have the same origin, the latter being small pox communicated to the cow. Mr. C. inoculated cows with small- pox matter; the vesicle produced in the animal had every appearance of the vaccine pock. To ascertain the point, children were inoculated with matter taken from the cow thus artificially infected ; the re- sult was, a fine, genuine vaccine vesicle. To establish the fact satisfactorily, these children were submitted to small-pox in- oculation, and found to be protected from the disease. Twenty-five successive inocula- tions have now been performed with this new virus, which may truly be named variola vaccina, and it continues to pro- duce the most satisfactory vesicles ; the matter has been employed in Bristol with perfect success." COWRY, shell-money. The eyprea mo- neta is vised for this purpose ; and of which 100 in the East Indies pass for a penny. CRAB, or Cancer, a genus of crustace- ous fish, of which there are numerous spe- cies, having in general eight legs, besides two large claws. The habits of crabs are various ; some are exclusively aquatic, and remain on the sands or rocks, at great depths in the sea ; others inhabit excava- tions formed in the soft coral reefs or bars on certain coasts ; »ome spend their days altogether on shore, living in burrows or dens ; others live on rocky beaches, bask- ing in the sun, and only retiring into the sea when alarmed; while some species are completely terrestrial, inhabiting holes upon the highest hills and mountains of the West Indies. The most remarkable are the violet crabs of the Bahamas, which live in the mountains, but once a year pro- ceed to the sea in a body of many millions, a journey which employs them some weeks. Here they cast their spawn, and soon after millions of young crabs travel into the mountains. The crabs which abound on our coasts, are the locusta and manas species. CRAB'S CLAWS, in the materia medica, are the tips of the claws of the common crab broken off at the verge of the black part. They are used as an alkaline ab- sorbent, and form the base of many of the compound sudorific powders. CRAB'S EYES, concretions in the head of the cray-fish. They are accounted not only absorbent and drying, but also discus- sive and diuretic. CRAMP, a convulsive contraction of a muscular part of the body, with pain. CRAN'BERRY, in botany, a species of vaccinium, growing only on peat bogs or swampy land, and bearing small bright red berries, which have a pleasant acid fla- vour, and are much used in tarts. CRANE, a migratory fowl of the genus Ardea. The common crane, or ardea grus, has black wing-feathers, with an ash-co- loured body, and flies in great flocks in many countries. There are a great many species, but the characteristics of all con- sist in a straight long bill, with a furrow from the nostrils towards the point, long legs, and a long neck. The Siberian crane is noted for its sagacity, and the flocks keep a sentinel to warn them of danger. Crane, a machine for raising great weights, consisting of a horizontal arm, or piece of timber, projecting from a post, and furnished with a pulley. They are also made of cast iron, on the principle of the wheel and pinion ; by which they are ren- dered very commodious, and capable of raising immense weights. CRA'NE-LINES, in a ship, are lines going from the upper end of the sprit- sail top-mast, to the middle of the fore- slays. They serve to keep the sprit-sail- top-mast upright and steady in its place, and to strengthen it. CRA'NE'S-BILL, in botany, the plant Geranium, of many species ; so named from an appendage of the seed-vessel, which resembles the beak of a crane. CRA NE- FLY, an insect of the genus Tipula, of many species. CRANIOL'OGY, the science which in- vestigates the structure and uses of the skulls in various animals, particularly in relation to their specific character and in- tellectual powers. One who is versed in this science is termed a Craniologist. CRANIOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the skulls of animals. The art of measuring them for the purpose of dis- covering their specific diflferences, is called Craniometry, THE TERM "CEANIOLOGT" IS IN SOME MEASURE SUPERSEDED BT PHRBNOLOGT. PUBLIC CREDIT IS FOUNDED UPON A CONFIDENCE IN THE PUBLIC RESOURCES. :ra] TSTcfcD JBictionar^ of t!)c belles ICctms. [c CRANIOS'COPY, the science of dis- covering, by the eminences produced by the brain on the cranium, the particular parts in which reside the organs that influence certain passions or faculties. CRA'NIUM, the skull; the assemblage of bones which enclose the brain. CRANK, an iron axis with the end bent like an elbow, for moving a piston, &c,, and causing it to rise and fall at every turn. Also a piece of brass work of a si- milar shape, on which the bell wire is fix- ed, so as to move the bell. A ship is said to be crank-sided when she can bear but little sail, for fear of over-setting; and when a ship cannot be brought on the ground without danger, she is said to be crank by the ground. CRAPE, a light transparent stuff, re- sembling gauze. It is made of raw silk, gummed and twisted on the miU, and much used in mourning. CRA'SIS, the healthy constitution of the blood in an animal body. CRASPEDA'RIA, in zoology, a genus of animalcules, without any tail or limbs, but with an apparent mouth, and a series of fimbria round it in the manner of a fringe. Some species are roundish, others oval, and others cylindrical. CRASSAME N'T U M, in physic, the thick red, or fibrous part of the blood, as distinct from the serum or aqueous part. CRATCH'ES, in farriery, a swelling on the pastern, under the fetlock, and some- times under the hoof of a horse. CRATE, a large case made of open bars, in which earthenware is packed. CRA'TER, the aperture or mouth of a Tolcano, from which the fire issues, In antiquity, a very large wine-cup or goblet, out of which the ancients poured their liba- tions at feasts. CRAY'FISH, or CRAWFISH, a small sort of lobster, found in fresh-water streams. There is also a large kind peculiar to salt water. CRAY'ON, a general name for all co- loured mineral substances, used in design- ing or painting in pastil ; whether they have been beaten and reduced to a paste, or are used in their primitive consistence, after sawing or cutting them into long narrow slips. CREAM, the oily part of milk, which rises to the surface and forms a scum. By a species of agitation, called churning, it forms butter. Cream of lime, that part of lime which, after being dissolved in its caustic state, separates from the water in the mild state of chalk or limestone. Cream of tartar, the common white tartar freed from its impurities : the crystalized supertartrate of potash. CRE'ANCE, in falconry, a fine small line, fastened to a hawk's leash when she is first lured. CREATION, the act of causing to exist, or of shaping and organizing matter so as to form new beings ; as the creation of man and other animals, of plants, minerals, &c. Also, the act of investing with a new character ; as, the creation of peers by the sovereign. CREDEN'DA, in theology, things to be believed ; articles of faith ; distinguished from agenda, or practical duties. CREDENTIALS, that which gives a title or claim to confidence ; as the letters of commendation and power given to an ambassador, or public minister, by the prince that sends him to a foreign court. CRED'IT, a reliance or resting of the mind on the truth of something said or done. In a commercial sense, the trans- fer of goods on trust in confidence of fu- ture payment. The seller believes in the solvency and probity of the purchaser, and delivers his goods to him in confidence of it; or he delivers them on the credit or reputation of his customer. It has been said, and, we believe, with much truth, that credit with shopkeepers has become so universal, that seven-tenths of the commu- nity are in the constant practice of antici- pating their incomes : and there is hardly one so bankrupt in character and fortune as to be unable to find grocers, bakers, but- chers, tailors, &c., ready to furnish him upon credit with supplies of the articles in which they respectively deal. This facility of ob- taining credit is productive of very perni- cious results. The system tempts very many, and sometimes even the most con- siderate individuals, to indulge in expenses beyond their means ; and thus becomes the most fruitful source of bankruptcy, insol- vency, and bad faith. To guarantee them- selves from the extraordinary risk to which such proceedings expose them, tradesmen are obliged to advance the price of their goods to a most exorbitant height ; so that those who are able and who really mean to pay the debts they contract, are, in fact, obliged to pay those of the hosts of insolvents and swindlers maintained by the present system. Credit, in book- keeping, the side of an account in which payment is entered: opposed to debit; thus we say, the credit or debit side ; or put that sum to his credit. The confi- dence which men entertain in the ability and disposition of a nation, to make good its engagements with its creditors, is called public credit. Letters of credit, letters given by merchants to persons whom they can trust to draw money from their corres- pondents. CREED, a summary of belief, (from credo, I believe) ; the principal articles of the Christian faith ; as the Apostles' Creed, the Athanasian Creed, &c. CREEK, that part of a haven or small channel running from the sea, where goods are landed. CRE'NATE, in botany, an epithet for leaves, the edges of which are furnished with continuous indentings, neither in- clining towards the point nor base. When the edge of a leaf is cut into very minute notches, the word cremdate is used. CRE'MOR, in chemistry, the cream, or that which flostts on. the top of a liquid, and is skimmed off. CREDIT NATURALLY INCREASES AS COMMERCE AND CIVILIZATION EXTEND. [Q 3 THE EMBLEM OF THE CRESCENT IS rOUND ON MEDALS OP GREAT ANTIQUITY. cre] [cm CREMO'NA, in music, an appellation for the superior sort of violins, which were originally made at Cremona. CRENOPH'YJ/AX, in antiquity, a ma- gistrate at Athens, who had the inspection of fountains. CREPUN'DIA in antiquity, a term used to express such things as were worn as or- naments by children, as rings, jewels, &c., which might serve as tokens whereby they afterwards might be recognized, or as an inducement for others to take charge of them. CREPITA'TION, the crackling noise made by some salts during the process of calcinatioii. CREPUS'CULUM or Ckepuscle, the twilight, which begins and ends when the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon. It is occasioned by the refraction of the sun's rays. CRESCEN'DO, in music, an Italian term for the gradual swelling of the notes over which it is placed. CRES'CENT, the increasing or new moon, which, when receding from the sun, shows a curving rim of light, termi- nating in points or horns. The Turkish standard, on which a crescent is depicted; and, figuratively, the Turkish power or em- pire of the crescent. In heraldry, it is an honourable ordinary, or a mark of dis- tinction for the second sons of families, or those descended from them. CRESCEN'TIA, in botany, a genus of plants, class 14 Bidynamia, order 2 Angios' 2)erniia, The species are the Crescentia cnjete, or narrow-leaved calabash-tree, and the Crescentia cucurbitina, or broad-leaved calabash-tree. CRESS, the name of several species of plants; of which the most useful are water-cresses, which are eaten as a salad, and are valued in medicine for their anti- scorbutic qualities. They grow on the banks of rivulets and other moist places. CREST, the plume of feathers or other material on the top of the ancient helmet. The crest is considered a greater criterion of nobility than the armou" generally, and therefore forms an important subject in the science of heraldry. CRE'TA, a genus of earths, of the calca- reous order, which, by a chemical analysis, is found to consist of carbonate of lime, carbonic acid, &c. It is soluble in acids, and calcines in the fire. CRETA'CEOUS, partaking of the quali- ties of, or abounding in chalk. CREUX, a French term used in sculp- ture, where the lines and figures are cut below the surface of the substances en- graved, and thus stands opposed to relievo, wliich latter term intimates the prominence of the lines and figures which appear above the surface. CREW, the company of seamen belong- ing to a ship or boat. CRIB RIFORM, in anatomy, a terra ap- plied to the laminae of the ethmoid bone, through which the fibres of the olfactory nerve pass to the nose. CRIBRO'SUM OS, in anatomy, called also OS ethmoides, a bone situated internally in the fore part of the basis of the skull. The uses of it are to be a principal part of the organ of smelling, and to give a very great extent to the pituitary membrane in a small compass. CRICK'ET, an active, manly game, play- ed with bats and a ball, and which is almost peculiar to this country. The number of the party on each side is eleven, who alter- nately take the innings, and alternately the bowhng and watching. Cricket, the Gryl- lus, in zoology, a harmless insect of the grasshopper species, common near ovens, and fire-places. Their noise, called chirp- ing, is produced merely by the friction of the bases of their elytra, or wing-cases, against each other. CRICOI'DES, in anatomy, a cartilage of the larynx, called also the annular car- tilage. CRIM'INAL, in the sense usually ap- plied, signifies, a person indicted or charg- ed with a public offence, and one who is found guilty. CRIME, the transgression of a law, either natural or divine, civil or ecclesiastic. In the general sense of the word, crimes are understood to be oflFences against so- ciety or morals, as far as they are amenable to the laws. To this we may add, in order more clearly to distinguish between words often esteemed synonymous, that actions contrary to the precepts of religion are called sins; actions contrary to the prin- ciples of morals are called vices ; and ac- tions, contrary to the laws of the state, arc called crimes. CRITCH'TONITE, a mineral, occurring in primitive rocks with octahedrite. It is of a velvet black colour, and crystalizes in very acute small rhomboids. CRIN'GLE, in marine language, a hole in the bolt-rope of a sail, to receive the ends of the ropes by which the sail is drawn up to its yard, or to extend the leech by the bow-line-bridles. Iron cringles, or hanks, are open rings running on the stays, to which the heads of the stay-sails are made fast. CRI'SIS, in medicine, according to Galen, is a sudden change, either for the better or the worse, indicative of recovery or death. In its more general sense, it de- notes that stage of a disorder from which some judgment may be formed of its termi- nation. At the approach of a crisis, the disease appears to take a more violent cha- racter. If the change is for the better, the violent symptoms cease with a copious per- spiration, or some other discharge from the system. After a salutary crisis, the patient feels himself relieved, and the dangerous symptoms cease. By a crisis is also meant the point of time when an affair is arrived at its height, and must soon termi- nate or suffer a material change. CRISP, in botany, an epithet for a leaf folded over and over, at the edges, which are always serrated, dentated, or lacerated. Crispature is the state of its being curled. PUNISHMENT SHOULD ALWAYS BTI ITf PROPORTION TO THE INJURY SUSTAINED. MANT ANCIENT CROSSES STILL EXIST IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. cRo] iSTcit) 59ictlonarB of tlje HBelUs Xettres. [cro CRIS TATE, or CRIS'TATED, a bota- nical epithet for having an appendage like a tuft or crest, as some anthers and flowers. CRITE'RION, any established rule, prin- ciple, or fact, which may be taken as a standard to judge by, and by which a cor- rect judgment may be formed. CRITII OMANCY, a kind of divination by means of the dough of cakes, and the meal strewed over the victims, in ancient sacrifices. CRIT'IC, a person who, according to the estabhshed rules of his art, is capable of judging with propriety of any literary com- position, or work of art, particularly of such as are denominated the Fine Arts. To which may be added, as within the province of a critic, that he should be able to explain what is obscure, to supply what is defec- tive, to amend what is erroneous, and to reconcile the discrepancies he may meet with between different authors who have treated on the subject under review. CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety concerning any work of litera- ture or art, and of giving the result of that judgment to the public with candour. CRITI'QUE, a skilful examination of the merits of a performance, with remarks on its beauties and faults. CRO'CEOUS, resembling saffron. CROCODILE, in zoology, a large and ferocious animal of the genus Lacerta. It is amphibious, has a naked body, with four feet and a tail, and grows to the length of sixteen or eighteen feet. It inhabits the large rivers in Africa and Asia, and lays its eggs in the sand to be hatched by the sun. CRO'CUS, in chemistry, a metal calcin- ed to a red or deep yellow colour.— ^ — In botany, a genus of plants, class 3 Triandria, order 1 Monogyyiia. CROIS'ES, in English antiquity, pilgrims bound for the Holy Land, or such as had been there; so called from a badge they wore in imitation of a cross. The knights of St. John of Jerusalem, created for the defence and protection of pilgrims, were particularly called croises ; and so were all those of the English nobility and gentry, who, in the reigns of Henry II. Richard I. Henry III. and Edward I. were cruce siff- nati, that is, devoted for the recovery of Pa- lestine. CROM'LECH, in British antiquity, large, broad, flat stones raised upon other stones set up to support them. They are common in Anglesea, and are supposed to be remains of druidical altars. CROSS, in antiquity, an instrument of ancient vengeance, consisting of two pieces of timber, crossing each other, either in the form of a T or an X. That on which our Saviour suffered, is represented on coins and other monuments to have been of the former kind. This punishment was only inflicted on malefactors and slaves, and w'as thence called servile supplicium. The most usual method was to nail the criminal's hands and feet to this gibbet, in an erect posture; though there are instances of criminals so nailed with their head down- ward. Cross, the ensign of the Chris- tian religion; and hence, flguratively, the religion itself. Also, a monument with a cross upon it to excite devotion, such as were anciently set up in market places. In theology, the doctrine of Christ's suffer- ings and of the atonement. Cross, in he- raldry, the most ancient and the noblest of all the honourable ordinaries, formed by the meeting of two perpendicular with two ho- rizontal lines, so as to make four right angles in the figure of a cross. CROSS'-BILL, in ornithology, the eloxia curvirostra, a bird so called because the mandibles of its beak cross each other. CROSS'-BOW, a missive weapon formerly much used, which was strung and set in a shaft of wood, with a trigger, &c. CROSS'LET, in heraldry, a little or dimi- nutive cross : the shield is frequently seen covered with crosslets. Also, fesses and other honourable ordinaries, charged or ac- companied with crosslets. CROSS'-EXAMINATION, in law, a close and rigid examination of a witness by the counsel of the adverse party, consisting of cross questions, in order to elicit the truth. CROSS-BAR-SHOT, a bullet with an iron bar passing through it, and standing out a few inches on each side ; used in naval actions for cutting the enemy's rig- ging- CROSS-CUT-SAW, a saw for cutting timber crosswise, CROSS'-STAFF, an instrument to take the altitude of the sun or stars. CROSS'-STONE, a mineral of a grayish white colour, called also harmostone, occur- ing in double and single crystals. CROSS'-TREES, pieces of timber in a ship, supported by the cheeks and trestle- trees, at the upper ends of the lower masts, to sustain that which is above, and to ex- tend the top-gallant shrouds. CR0TCH;ET, in music, half a minim. In printing, this mark, [ ], to separate what is not the necessary part of a sen- tence. CRO'TON OIL, one of the most valuable of the late additions to the materia medica, is expressed from the seeds of an East In- dian plant. It is so strongly purgative, that one drop is a fuU dose, and half a drop will sometimes produce a powerful effect. In the hands of an experienced physician it is of great value, but it is so extremely active that it should never be used without the greatest caution. CROUP, in medicine, the disease called cynanche trachealis, an affection of the throat, accompanied with a hoarse, difficult respiration. It mostly attacks young chil- dren, who are suddenly seised with a diffi- culty of breathing and a Grouping noise. The appUcation of cold seems to be the general cause of the disease, and it is con- sequently more prevalent in winter and spring than in the summer. CROUPA'DE, in the manege, a leap in which the horse pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to his belly. CRO'TALUS, the rattle-snake, a genus of CROSSES HAVE BEEN THE BADGE OF NUMBERLESS ORDERS, MILITARY AND CIVIL. 1^5 THE WORD "crown" IS USED rlGUBATIVEI.T FOR THE REGAL POWER. CRO] ^f)c Scientific anlj lEiterary ^reasur^ ; [CRU serpents, furnished with poisonous fangs. The serpents of this family seldom bite ex- cept when irritated, or for the purpose of securing their prey. The rattle consists of hollow, hard, dry, and semi-transparent bones, resembling, in some measure, the shape of the human os sacrum : the tip of every uppermost bone runs within two of the bones below it ; by which contrivance they have not only a moveable coherence, but also are enabled to make a more multi- plied sound, each bone hitting against the other two at the same time. The number of joints in the rattle of each reptile is various, from five to forty. The poisonous secretion is discharged from the fangs of the dog teeth, or tusks placed without the upper jaws, after the manner of the viper; and after the first time the animal seems progressively to lose its power of poisoning, till it has had time to recruit itself by a re- spite of some hours. CROUT, KROUT, or SOUR-CROUT, is cabbage chopped tine, and pickled. It is made by placing chopped cabbage in layers in a barrel, with salt and carraway seeds sprinkled between the layers, then pressing it down, and suffering it to remain till it has undergone fermentation. It is considered an efficacious preservative against the scur- vy, and is used at sea, particularly in the Russian navy. CROW, in ornithology, a species of Cor- vus, about the size of the largest tame pigeon, and of a fine deep black colour. The crow is a voracious fowl, feeding on carrion, grain, &c. Scare-crow, the black Lams, with grey wings and red legs. CROW BAR, in mechanics, an iron lever with a claw at one end, and a sharp point at the other : used for raising and moving weights. C ROW-FOOT, a complication of small cords, spreading out from a long block : used on board of ships, for suspending the awnings, or keeping the top-sails from striking against the tops. CROW'"^S'-BILL, in surgery, a kind of forceps, for extracting bullets and other thimrs from wounds. CROW'S'-FEET, in the art of war, an iron instrument with four points, thrown upon breaches, or in passes where the ene- my's cavalry are expected. [See Caltrop.'] CROWN, an ornamental badge of regal power, worn on the head by sovereign princes. The top of the head; also the top of any elevated object. In architec- ture, the uppermost member of a cornice. Among jewellers, the upper work of the rose diamond. An Enghsh silver coin, of the value of five shillings. In botany, an appendage to the top of a seed, which serves to bear it in the wind. Among the vari- ous crowns and wreaths in use among the Greeks and Romans were the following: Corona aurea (the golden crown) ; the re- ward of remarkable bravery. Corona cas- trensis; given to him who first entered the camp of an enemy. Corona civica; one of the highest military rewards : it was given to him who saved the life of a citizen. Corona convivialis ; the wreath worn at feasts. Corona muralis ; given by the ge- neral to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's wall. Corona navalis; given to him who first boarded and took an enemy^s vessel: it was next in rank to the civic crown. Corona nuptialis ; a crown or wreath worn by brides. Corona obsidionalis ; a reward given to him who delivered a be- sieged town, or a blockaded army. It was one of the highest military honours, and very seldom obtained. Corona triumjihalis ; a wreath of laurel which was given by the army to the imperator, who wore it on his head at the celebration of his triumph. CROWN-GLASS, the finest sort of win- dow-glass. CROWN-IMPE'RIAL, a plant of the genus Fritillaria, having a beautiful flower. CROWN-IMPERIAL-SHELL, a beauti- ful species of Voluta, the head of which is surrounded with a series of sharp-pointed tubercles, so as to resemble an open crown: it has also two broad and very beautiful zones running round it. CROWN'-OFFICE, an office belonging to the court of Queen's Bench, in which the attorney-general exhibits informations for crimes and misdemeanors. C R O W N' - F O S T, in building, a post which stands upright in the middle, be- tween two principal rafters. CROWN -WHEEL, the upper wheel next the balance in a watch, and which drives the balance. CROWN'-WORK,in fortification, an out- work running into the field, consisting of two demi-bastions at the extremes, and an entire bastion in the middle, with curtains. It is designed to gain some advantageous post, and cover the other works. CROYL'STONE, in mineralogy, crys- talized cauk. CRU'CIAL, in surgery, an epithet for transverse, or in the form of a cross; as, a crucial incision. CRU CIBLE, a vessel or melting-pot, made of clay, and so tempered and baked as to endure the greatest fire. It is used in chemical operations, and by workers in gold and silver. Silver, platina, and iron are also used occasionally as crucibles. CRUCIFIX'ION, the act or punish- ment of putting to death by nailing or fas- tening a person to a crucifix, or cross. CRU'CIFORM, in botany, an epithet for flowers consisting of four petals disposed in the form of a cross. CRU'DITY, among physicians, is ap- plied to undigested substances in the sto- mach ; to humours in the body which are unconcocted, and not prepared for expul- sion ; and to the excrements. CRU ISER, a small armed vessel that sails to and fro in quest of the enemy, to protect the commerce of its own nation, or for plunder. CllUPELLA'RII, in antiquity, nobility among the Gauls, who were armed with a complete harness of steel. CRU'OR, sometimes signifies the blood in general ; sometimes only the venous CRUCXriXION WAS A FREQUENT PUNISHMENT AMONG THE ANCIENTS. METALS, OR GLASS, KENDEBED FLUID BY HEAT, CRTSTALIZE BY COOLING. CRU] % 'Nm IButionari) of tijc ^cUcs Xcttres. blood ; aud at others, extravasated or coagu- lated blood; but the word is most fre- quently used for the red globules of blood, in distinction from the limpid or serou s part. CRUSA'DES, the name by which the wars or military expeditions were distin- guished, that were carried on by the Chris- tian nations of the West, from the end of the 11th to the end of the 13th century, for the conquest of Palestine. They were called crusades, because all the varriors fought under the banner of the cross, and wore that emblem on their clothes. The Chris- tians had long grieved that the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived, taught, and died for mankind, where pious pilgrims resorted to pour out their sorrows, and ask for aid from above at the tomb of their Saviour, should be in the power of unbelievers. The dawn of civilization and mental cultivation had just commenced. They were at that pe- riod in a state to receive a strong religious excitement ; the spirit of adventure burned within them; and their imaginations were also easily roused by the reports of the riches of the East. The Pope considered the invasion of Asia as the means of pro- moting Christianity amongst the infidels, and of winning whole nations to the bosom of the church ; monarchs expected victory and increase of dominion ; and their sub- jects were easily persuaded to engage in the glorious cause ! Yet army after army was destroyed ; and though some brilliant vic- tories served to exhibit the soldiers of Christendom as heroes of a valorous age, and Ihe holy city of Jerusalem was more than once under their dominion, the Chris- tian empire on the continent of Asia was eventually overthrown, and the dominion of the Mamelukes and Sultans established. But by means of these joint enterprizes, the European nations became more con- nected with each other ; feudal tyranny was weakened ; a commercial intercourse took place throughout Europe, which greatly augmented the wealth of the cities; the human mind expanded ; and a number of arts and sciences, till then unknown by the western nations, was introduced. CRU'RAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the artery which conveys the blood to the crura, or le»s, and to the vein by which this blood returns towards the heart. CRUSTA'CEA, or Critsta'ceous Fish, are those covered with shells, consisting of several jointed pieces or scales, as crabs, lobsters, &c. These are generally softer than the shells of the testaceous fish, which consist of a single piece, and com- monly thicker and stronger than the former, such as those of the oyster, scallop, cockle, &c. The Crustacea consist almost entirely of the three tribes, viz. cancer, oniscus, and tnonoculus. CRUSTAL'OGY, that part of zoology which treats of crustaceous animals, ar- ranging them in orders, tribes, and families, and describing their forms and habits. CRU'YSHAGE, a fish of the shark kind, having a triangular head and mouth. CRY'OLITE, in mineralogy, a fluate of soda and alumine, of a while or yellowish j gray colour, occurring in masses of a foli- ated structure. It is found in Greenland. CRYOPH'ORUS, an instrument for showing the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. CRYPT, a subterranean chapel or ora- tory ; or a vault under a church for the interment of bodies. CRYPTOGA'MIA, the 24th class of Slants in the Linna:an system ; compre- ending those whose fructification is con- cealed or inconspicuous, as ferns, mosses, liverworts, and mushrooms. CRYPTOG RAPHY, the art ofviTiting in cipher, or secret characters. CRYPTOL'OGY, secret or enigmatical CRYSTAL, a species of stone of the quartz kind, belonging to the siliceous class. When no accidental circumstance has interrupted the crystalizatiou (for it must once have l)een in' a soft state), it is always of an hexagonal or six-sided angular form, pointed at both ends. This descrip- tion of crystal is commonly termed rock crystal. Crystal, in chemistry and mi- neralogy, an inorganic body, which has assumed the form of a regular solid, ter- minated by a certain number of plane and smooth surfaces ; or a salt which assumes a regular and solid form, on the gradual cooling of the solution. Crystal Glass, a factitious crystal, more perfect in its com- position and manufacture than common glass. It is frequently cut : and vases, lustres, and other ornaments are made of it. Iceland Crystal, a variety of calca- reous spar, or crystalized carbonate of lime, brought from Iceland, which is re- markable for its double refraction. CRYS'TALINE, transparent and pure, resembling crystal. Crystaline Heavens, in ancient astronomy, two spheres imagined between the primum mobile and the firma- ment, in the Ptolemaic system. Crys- taline Humour, (of the eye), a very white, transparent, firm substance, adapted like a glass lens, to converge rays of light si- tuated behind the iris, in the vitreous hu- mour of the eye. CRYS'TALITE, in mineralogy, a name given to whinstone, cooled slowly after fusion. CRYSTALIZA'TION, the act or process of reducing any salt into a regular form by dissolving it in a menstruum, and allowing it to cool until it shoots into the bodies called crystals. This process is the effect of re- frigeration, or evaporation. CRYSTALOG'RAPHY, the doctrine or science of crystalization, teaching the prin- ciples of the process, the forms which crys- tals assume, &c. CU'BATURE, in geometry, the finding exactly the solid or cubic contents of a body. CUBE, in geometry, a regular solid body, consisting of six square and equal sides, and containing equal angles. The solidity of ALL crystalization IS ACCOMPANIED WITH FLASHES OF LIGHT. 177 CUIKA.SSES CAME INTO USB ABOUT THE BEGINNING OP THE 14th CENTURY. cue] ^!)c Scientific anU 3£it£rar|) l^reasur^ ; [CUL any cube is found by multiplying the su- perficial area of one of the sides by the height. Cubic Number, in arithmetic, that which is produced by the multiplica- tion of a square number by its root ; thus, G4 is a cube number, and arises by multi- plying 16, the square of 4, by the root 4. Cube Root, the side of a cube number; thus 3 is the cube root or side of 27. CU'BEB, in botany, the fruit of the Pi2^er Scubebcc. It is less than pepper, good for strengthening the stomach, and aro- matic. CU'BIC, or CU'BICAL, having the form of a cube, or that may be contained within a cube. Thus, a cubic foot of water is the water that may be contained within six equal sides, each a foot squai-e. CU'BIT, an ancient measure, equal to the length of a man's arm, from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. Among diffe- rent nations the length of the cubit diflfered. The Enghsh was 18 inches, the Roman rather less, and the cubit of the Scriptures is supposed to have been 22 inches. CU'BITANS, in anatomy, an epithet for two muscles of the wmst, one of which, called the externus, serves to extend the wrist; and the other, the internus, to bend it. CU'BITUS, in anatomy, a bone of the arm, reaching from the elbow to the vrrist. The cubitus, for the sake of the more easy and varied motion, is composed of a binary number of bones, called the cubitus, or itlna, and the radius. The situation of the ulna is interior, its length is greater than that of the radius, and has a motion of flexion and extension. The epithet cubital is ac- cordingly used; as, the cubital nerve, ar- tery, or muscle. CUCK'OO-SPITTLE, a white froth or spume very common on many plants in the spring, which forms the nidus of a sort of CUCU'BALUS, a genus of plants, class 10 Decandria, order 3 Trigynia. The spe- cies are mostly perennicds, and consist of the various campions. CU'CULUS, or CucKOOja genus of birds belonging to the order Fic