/U^ 
 
 -^ ■ ■•" ^^Ms Y . iWR OE t**' 
 

 .'i '3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^' 
 
AN 
 
 Archaological Di&ionary ; 
 
 O R, 
 
 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 JEWS, GREEKS, and ROMANS, 
 
 Alphabetically Arranged : 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 An Account of their MANNERS, CUSTOMS, DIVERSIONS, RELIGIOUS RITES, 
 PHILOSOPHY, FESTIVALS, ORACLES, LAWS, ARTS, ENGINES of 
 WAR, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, MONEY, MEDALS, COMPUTATION 
 and DIVISION of TIME, CHRONOLOGICAL TERMS, HERESIES in the 
 PRIMITIVE CHURCH, &c. &c. 
 
 By the Rev. T. WILSON, 
 
 Of CLITHEROE. 
 THE SECOND EDITION, 
 
 With' Confiderable Additions. 
 
 Hantion : 
 
 Printed for D. Ogilvv, and J.Speare, J.Johnson, J.Wallis> 
 
 J. Deighton, H. Gardner, B. White and Son, 
 
 T. Vernor and J. Hood, S, Hayes, 
 
 and J. BiNNs, at Leeds. 
 
 M.DCCXCIIL 
 
A N 
 
 Arch^ological Di6lionary ; 
 
 O R, 
 
 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 JETFSy GREEKS, and ROMANS, 
 
 ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. 
 
( vii ) 
 
 Dr. JOHNSON, on receiving a copy of the Didi- 
 onary, addrefied the following letter to the 
 Author, the infertion of which it is prefumed 
 will need no apology, fince it exprefles the 
 Doftor's opinion of the work, and becaufe what- 
 ever has fallen from his pen, it is fuppofcd, will 
 be acceptable to the public in general : 
 
 Reverend Sir, 
 
 'Tr^HAT Ihzive Jo long omitted tc return you thanks for the 
 honour conferred upon me by your Dedication, T entreat you 
 with great earnefinejs not to confider as more faulty than it is, 
 Avery importunate and opprejfive dif order has, for Jome time, 
 debarred me from the pleajures, and obJiruEled me in the duties 
 of life » Tihe efleem and kindnejs of wife and good men is one of 
 the laft pleajures which I can be content to loje-, and gratitude 
 to thofe, from whom this pleafure is received, is a duty, of 
 •which I hope never to reproach myf elf with the final negle^, 
 
 I therefore now return you thanks for the notice which I 
 have received from you, and which I confider as giving to my 
 name, not only more bulk, but more weight ; not only as ex^ 
 tending itsjuperficies^ hut as ^ncreafing its value * 
 
 Tour 
 
( viii ) 
 
 2''our hook was evidently wanted, and will, I hope, find its 
 way into the Jchools, to which, however, I do not mean to 
 confine it ; for no man has Jo much Jkill in ancient rites and 
 pra5iices as not to want it. 
 
 As IJuppoJe myjelf to owe part of your kindnefs to my excel- 
 lent friend Dr. Fatten, he has, likewije, a ju§l claim to my 
 acknowledgments, which I hope you. Sir, will tranjmit . 
 
 1'here will foon appear a new edition of my Poetical Bio- 
 graphy. If you will accept of a copy to keep me in your mind, 
 le p leafed to let me know, how it may he conveniently conveyed 
 to you. The prefent is f mall, hut it is given with good zvill, hy 
 
 Reverend Sir^ 
 
 Tour mofi obliged and mofi humble Servant, 
 
 Bolt Court, Fleet -Street, London,} 
 December 31, 1782. ) 
 
 To the Rev, Thomas Wiljon, 
 
 Clitheroe, 
 
 Lancafhin, 
 
SAMUEL JOHNSON, L. L. D. 
 
 SIR, 
 ^Y^ HOUGH Flattery is the common language of Dedication, it 
 
 is a kind ofincenje which Tou are by no means dijpofed to 
 receive, nor I to offer. My intention is to injcrihe to You the 
 following Work, which has engaged Juch -portions of my time 
 as could befparedfrom a laborious employment . 1 could think 
 of no name Jo proper to he prefixed to it, as that of Dr. JOHN- 
 SON, to whom the world is Jo much indebted for a variety of 
 inflru£lion. Indeed, the Juccejs of Tour Philological Labours 
 gives Tou a right of patronage, to whatever has a tendency to 
 Jmooth the paths oj Science, or remove the impediments 
 to Claffical Erudition. My utmofi ambition is to he con- 
 ftdered as an ujeful Pioneer in that Jervice, wherein Tok 
 have dejervedly rijen to the higheji rank. Theje Sheets, 
 I flatter myjelf will meet with a more favourable reception 
 under theJan5iion of a name, which is paffmg topojierity with 
 the merited approbation of the prejent age, 
 
 I cannot 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 I cannot conclude, without exprejfing my acknowledgments for 
 the many hours of elegant entertainment , and ujeful inJlru5fiony 
 which I have enjoyed from Tour IVorks ; in which we have a 
 Jlr iking example of the great effe5is of refinement oftafie, foli- 
 dity of judgment, purity of precept, and energy of di^fion^ 
 when happily united, 
 
 ^hat the eve of Your life may he attended with comforts 
 equal to your moral worth, and produ^ive of new honours to 
 the Literature of thefe kingdoms, is the warm prayer of 
 
 SIR, 
 
 7'our mofl obedient. 
 And very humble Servant, 
 
 S//iomad friMon, 
 
 Clitheroe, 
 Sept. 2,0th, 1782. 
 
 Dr. JOHNSON, 
 
»^oQe:0!«^«<S^O»<^'S>«©»'0''0''0'»©»'0'-«<3>'0'<0=«©='0''0«*3« 
 
 THE 
 
 E F A C E, 
 
 THE particular direftion of my ftudies, both from inclliiatldri 
 and profefFxon, has given me frequent opportunities of obferv- 
 ing that a Book of eafy accefs was wanting, to explain the Man- 
 ners and Cufloms of the Ancients, fo far elpecially as the Greek and 
 Roman Claffics are concerned. For ^oy\^Yo'VT^Vi^s Archceohglay 
 and Kennett'j- y^;;//^;<7/zVj, aie delervedly held in high efteem, 
 yet the former feems rather calculated for the Man of Erudition, 
 than for the Student •, and the latter, concerning many ufeful arti- 
 cles, is entirely filent. 
 
 As both thefe Authors are generally confulted by means of In- 
 dexes, I concluded, that an Alphabetical Arrangement of Claffical 
 Antiquities would have an advantage over any other form. And, as 
 Biblical Learning is but too much neglefted, I conceived that it 
 would not be amifs to mix, with the general defign, an account of 
 Hebrew Antiquities, fo far as to illuflrate many paiTages ef Scrip- 
 ture, in which allufions are made to particular cuftoms and inftitu- 
 tions of the Jeivijh nation. 
 
 B 1 had 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I had hopes of feeing fome perfon undertake a work of this kind, 
 who had both more leifure and gre:,ter abilities for the tafic j but as 
 this has not been the cafe, I have (perhaps raflily) made the 
 attempt. 
 
 Many Gentlemen, however, of great Erudition have been pleaf- 
 ed to exprefs their good opinion of the defign, and to approve the 
 execution j and furely the approbation of able Claffics and polite 
 Scholars may be allowed to give the Author A'ery flattering hopes 
 that his time has not been ufelefsiy employed. 
 
 My materials were culled from Writers of credit on the different 
 fubjecls-, though, it mufl: be confeffed, there are manyfources of infor- 
 mation tOj which, fromm.y rural fituation, I could not have acceis. 
 
 To quote my Authorities, would anfwer no material purpofe ; 
 and to mention the Writers whom I haveconfulted would have the 
 appearance of pedantry and needlefs parade : But gratitude calls up- 
 on me to acknowledge the liberal encouragement given by Mr. 
 Serjeant Aspinall, in offering me the unrefcrved ufe of his 
 Library. 
 
 The different articles, as may be fuppofcd from the fize of the 
 Book, are very concifely handled ; but it was my intention to bring 
 every thing into as fmall a fpace as poffible, without omitting any 
 thing of confequence. I have fometimes condenfed, into the com- 
 pafs of a couple of pages, what has been expanded into volumes : 
 ]3ecaufe what others have proved by deep inveffigation, laboured 
 ur<Tuments, and multiplied quotations, I have (fated as fimple fafts v 
 For, what has once been proved, there is no occafion to prove 
 agaiui 
 
 The Work, I truft, will be found a ready Oracle to the Student 
 ?.nd Gentleman of Claffical Talte, and an ufeful Remembrancer 
 to the Man of Erudition. The time that was fpent upon it was, as 
 it were, the gleanmgs of a more laborious employment ; and the 
 Work itfelf was confidered as a relaxation from feverer ftudies. 
 
 The Author's didance from the prefs, it is hoped, will apologize 
 for typog'aphical errors, which he flatters himfelf v/ill not be found 
 very numerous. 
 
 P. S. la 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 3P. S. In this fecond edition many new articles arc infcrtcd, ibmc 
 of" the old ones enlarged, and a few corredled. That the additions 
 are numerous the encreai'ed fize of the hook will evince. But the 
 account which is given of the principal fects of ancient Philosophers, 
 I conceive, will be confidered as a necelTary and valuable addition ; 
 and the i!luflration of chronological terms, it is prellimed, will not 
 be without its ule. In fhort, 1 have availed mj'lelf of every hint, 
 whether communicated by public criticifm, fuggefted by private 
 friendfliip, or infuiuated by lecret malignity : And as I have hitherto 
 experienced the candour of the public, I prefume to hope for a con- 
 tinuance of it ; as I have endeavoured to render the work iliil more 
 deferving of public approbation. 
 
 B ^ AN 
 

 A N 
 
 A R C H jE O L O G I C A L 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 A 
 
 ABB 
 
 A 
 
 Was by the Romans ufed on 
 j| public occafionb for Jnti- 
 / quo, to antiquate or rejed 
 a propofed law. ---The judges of 
 the fame people alfo ufed ic for 
 abfol'vo, I abfol-ue, or, acquit ; 
 ■whence it received the name of 
 Lit era falutaris . 
 
 Abacus, among the Gr^^ij and 
 
 ABB 
 
 Romans, was a counting board, of 
 an oblong figure, divided by feve- 
 ral lines or wires, and mounted 
 with an equal numberof littleivory 
 balls or pegs, by the arrangement 
 of which they expreffed units, tens, 
 hundreds, thoufands, &c. The 
 annexed figure will give a compe- 
 tent idea of it. 
 
 I ooooj *— # — #. 
 
 I * 
 
 1000 # — #-- 
 
 lOO 
 10 
 
 * 
 
 ■#- 
 
 The value of each peg or ball on 
 the loweft line is i, on the fecond 
 10, on the third lOO, on the fourth 
 looo, on the fifth io,ooo; and 
 the balls in the middle fpaces 
 fignify half as much as each of 
 thofe in the lines above ihem : The 
 amount of all the balls, repre- 
 fented in the above figure, will 
 therefore be 37,391 . 
 
 Abba is a Sjriac word, fignify- 
 
 ing Father. The learned Mr. Sel- 
 den, from the Babylonian Gemara., 
 has proved that flaves were not al- 
 lowed to ufe the title of Abba in 
 addreffing the mafter of the family 
 to which they belonged : This, be- 
 ing remembered, will beautifully 
 illuftrate feveral pafiages in the. 
 New feftament, particularly Rom. 
 viii, 15, and Gal, iv. 6, 
 
 Abdi- 
 
ABS 
 
 A C A 
 
 Abdication, amongft the Ro- 
 f.'!a/2S fignifies a voluntary refigna- 
 tion of liberty, and iinking iponta- 
 neoufly into the condition of a 
 f!ave---It alio fignifies the renoun- 
 cing or refignation of an office. 
 
 Ablecti, a name given by the 
 Romar.s to one divifion of their fo- 
 reign troops, chofen out of that 
 body of them called Exiraordinarii . 
 Sec the article Extraordinarii. 
 
 Aelegmina among the Rornans 
 were choice pieces of the fscrifices, 
 cut off from the entrails of the vic- 
 tim, then fprinkled with flour and 
 ofrered toth^Gods. The Ablegmina 
 were aUo called Prcjicia, Porrici^, 
 Pr':feJia and Prcfegmina. See 5^- 
 crij: e. 
 
 Ablutior fee Purif cation, Ex- 
 piation, Lvjiration, PvIIuuotj. 
 
 Abomination of Defolation. 
 We meet with this exprefTion in 
 St. Mark^s Gofpel Chapter xiii. 
 14. which we are to undcrftand 
 as pointing out the Roman army, 
 bccaufe the ibldiers were idola- 
 ters, and had the image of Cafar, 
 with an eagle for their eniign ; 
 for the Jcnjjs, we know, abomi- 
 nated zW Images. See Aquila. 
 
 Abstinence, a religious duty 
 amongit the Je^s. — Their laiv or- 
 dained that the priefts fhould ab- 
 iUin from the ufe of wine during 
 the whole time of their being em- 
 ployed in the fervice of the temple. 
 See Priejls, Fojling. 
 
 The fame abflinence was enjoin- 
 ed the Naz.arites during the time of 
 their NazaritejMp, or feparation. 
 The 'Je-j-'s were commanded to 
 abftain from feveral forts of animals, 
 by the exprefs words oi the law. 
 The fat of all forts of animals that 
 were facriliced was forbidden : and 
 the blood of every animal was for- 
 bidden under pain of death — nei- 
 ther diil they eat the finew which is 
 upon the h How of the thigh, be- 
 caufe the Angel touched it when 
 
 he wreftled with Jacob, and made 
 it fhrink. They abftained likewife 
 from animals which had been taken 
 and touched by impure beaft*, fuch 
 as dogs, wolves, boars, &c. and 
 from thofe that died of themlelves ; 
 from fifh alfo that have neither fins 
 nor fcales ; and from birds which 
 walk upon the grouii.d with four 
 feet, fuch as bats, &c. For the 
 other inilances of abflinence in the 
 Nariarites, fee the article Nazarite. 
 Academics, a name given to 
 fuch philofophers as adopted the 
 doftrines of Plato. They were fo 
 called from the Jcademia, a grove 
 near Athens, where they frequently 
 indulged themfelves in contempla- 
 tion : and Acadeinia is faid to de- 
 rive its name from one Academus, 
 a God or Hero fo called. Thus 
 Horace, alluding to the place where 
 the philofophers held their difpu- 
 tations, fays, 
 
 Atque inter Syl--jas Acadetni qtutrere 
 <verum. 
 
 The academics are divided into 
 thofe of the frjl academy, who 
 taught the doftrines of Plato in 
 their original purity — thofe of the 
 fecond ox middle academy, who dif- 
 fered materially from the firfl, and 
 inclined a little \ow&xdi% fcepttcifm, 
 or at leaft ceafed to exprefs them- 
 felves too dogmatically — all thofe 
 of this middle fchool laid it down 
 as a principle, that Vv'e could know 
 nothing, not even the certainty of 
 this leading pojition ; and that nei- 
 ther our fenf'es, norour rcafon, are 
 to be trufted ; but that in common 
 aifnirs we are to conform to receiv- 
 ed opinions^ — laftly, thole of the 
 new academy, w"ho maintained thac 
 we have no means of diflinguifliing 
 truth, and that the moil: evident 
 appearances may lead us into error: 
 They granted the wife man, opi- 
 nion. 
 
AC C 
 
 ACC 
 
 f>ion, but denied him certainty. 
 They held however that it was hell 
 to follow the grealeil probability, 
 which was fufficient for all the ule- 
 ful purpofes of life, and laid down 
 rules for the attainment of felicity. 
 The difference betwixt the riidJ.Ie 
 acadcn:y and the 7iev: feems to have 
 been this, though they agreed in the 
 imbecility ot human nat'.:re, yet 
 the firfl denied thar probabilities 
 were of any ufe in the purfuit of 
 happinefs ; and the latter held 
 them to be of fervice in fach a 
 defien : the for.mer recommend- 
 ed aconfor.mity with received opi- 
 nions, and ihe latter allowed m.en 
 an opinion of their own. See Pia- 
 i^Ktcs, Pbilcfopby. 
 
 In \\i<i firji academy, SpenJippuSy 
 filled the chair : m \.\\cfcco7:d, Ar- 
 iefdaus ; and in the //c-tc- or third 
 c.cadefiy Carneades. 
 
 Ace ENS I, amongfl the Romans 
 werecertainfupernumerarv foldiers 
 on the field of battle, intended ro 
 iupply the places cf thofe who 
 fnould be killed, wounded or dif- 
 ^bled in the engagement. 
 
 AccENsr, in Roman antiquity, 
 rlgnifics a fore of public criers, 
 vvliofe bufinefs fccins to have been. 
 the calling and fignifyirg the ad- 
 journment of the court and the 
 like. They fcem to have been 
 fbmething like the Piaecona, with 
 this difference however, that the 
 Praecones had more bulincfs align- 
 ed theiT), as proclaiming things in 
 tJie Ibcet, ailifting at fales, &.c. 
 I whercasthe^cf^r/7more nearly at- 
 I tended or» the Magifirate, and ac 
 the Bench of Jullice gave notice 
 every three hours what o'clock it 
 was. They generally belonged to 
 the body of the Lihcrtim, but 
 fometirnes to the Liherti. See 
 'Prneco, Liherti and Likertini^ 
 \ Accept! & Expensi Codex, 
 
 I a Roman account-book, fDmethi.ig 
 lik« the ledger in modern bocl> 
 
 keeping, giving an account cf re- 
 ceipts and di/burfements — with 
 proper fpaccs for debtor and cre- 
 ditor. Horace feems to have allud- 
 ed to this Lib. 1. Od. 9. 14. 
 
 Sl^em fors dierum cut! que dalil, 
 lucro appone. 
 
 AccLAM ATio, theloud c.vprcf- 
 fionofjoy and applaufe given to 
 perfons and things, ufual amongit 
 the Romans on Icveral occafions. — 
 It was the manner in which they 
 teilified their approbation of the 
 conduct oi Princes, Commandcj; 
 and Emperors. The forms of ac 
 clamaticn were different upon dif- 
 ferent occafions, but always in- 
 cluded their prayers and good 
 wifhes for the welfare of theperfon 
 that was the objeft of the noify 
 compliment ; and was often ex- 
 prefled by one word fcUcite;-. 
 
 Someti.Ties the acclamation was 
 ufed to teftifyi their abhorrence 
 and indignation, and was made' 
 the vehicle of imprecations, as wa^ 
 the cafe upon the death of the Em- 
 peror Comviodus . 
 
 AccuEATio, the pcllure ufed 
 by the ancients at table. The old 
 Romans i'at :it meat as we do, till 
 the Gri?a'/J« luxury and foftnefs had 
 corrupted them. The fi^.mecuitom, 
 of lying upon couches at their en- 
 tertainments, prevailed amongil 
 tlie "je^vs alfo, in our Sa-jiout\ 
 time; for having been latcly.con- 
 quered hy Pojjipcy ihcy conformed 
 in this, and many other refpetts, 
 to the example cf their mafters. 
 ■ — The manner of lying at meat 
 amongil the Romans, Greeks, and 
 more modern yfif.f, was the fame 
 in all refpects. It was this. The 
 table was placed in the middle, 
 round which ilood three beds co- 
 vered WMth cloth or tapcftry, ac- 
 cording to the quality of the mafter 
 of the houfe j upon thei'e they lay, 
 inclining the feperior part of their 
 bodies upon their left arms, ihe 
 
 lower 
 
AC C 
 
 AC C 
 
 lower part being ftretched out at 
 full length, or a little bent. Their 
 heads were fupported and railed up 
 with pillows. The firlt man lay 
 at the head ot" the bed; the next 
 man lay with his head towards the 
 feet oi' the other, from which he 
 was defended by the bolrfler that 
 fupportedhisown back, commonly 
 reaching over to the middle of the 
 firil man ; and the reft after the 
 fame manner. The moft honour- 
 able place was i\\.& middle bed — and 
 x\\Z7niddle o{ ibat. 
 
 It is difncult to determine which 
 was the moil honourable place a- 
 mongll the Greeks, as few of the 
 learned agree on this head. 
 
 Favouiites commonly lay in the 
 bofom of their friends, that is, they 
 were placed next below them. See 
 jchn xiii. 23. where 5/. John is 
 faid to have lain in oar Saviour's 
 bofom. So yt'.^j. Sat. ii. 120. 
 
 Cccnafcdet, grernio jacuit no'va 
 7!'.ipta mariti. 
 
 After the men, amongft the F^o- 
 ■inans, had adopted this reclining 
 pofture at meat, the women, for 
 fome time, continued to fit, as 
 more confiilent with female deli- 
 cacy and the rules of decency: — 
 but in after tim.es they reconciled 
 themfelves to the fame pofition. — 
 The children of princes and no- 
 blemen ufed to fit at the backs of 
 the couches, that they might, after 
 adifn or two, withdraw without 
 diilurbing the reftof the company. 
 Each table was furnifiied with three 
 beds, agreeably to the number of 
 the Graces, and each bed accommo- 
 dated three guefts, fo that nine 
 xvere acompl.-teparty, correfpond- 
 ing with the number ot the Mufes; 
 but it is not to be conceived that 
 they fcrupuloufly adhered to this 
 punftilio. The three beds were 
 at lafl exchanged for the Stibadiuru, 
 which was a fin glc large couch of 
 the fhape of a half-sioon. For 
 
 further particulars on this head fce 
 the articles Bed, Si'ibadiuin, Enter- 
 tainment, Cana, Eating. 
 
 AccusATio. An accufation, 
 in :he Roman courts, cenfilted of 
 three parts, Pcy9«/c//(?, Delatio, and 
 Acciifatio. Pojiulatio was the plain- 
 tiff's afking leave of the Prastor to 
 profecute the defendant in kich an 
 action: Leave being obtained, he, 
 againll whom the a(5lion was 
 brought, was called before the 
 fudge : This was termed Delatio, 
 and nominis Delatio. Lailly the 
 charge was drawn up againft the 
 delinquent, which was called Ac- 
 ciifatio . 
 
 The accufation confifted, not 
 only in giving a narrative of plain 
 matter of faft, and confirming it 
 by witnefles, and other kinds of 
 evidence;— but in bringing othet"' 
 arguments too, drawn from the 
 nature of the thing, the charadler 
 of the accufcd party, his former 
 courfe of life, the circumftances of 
 the t'"acl, and feveral other topics. 
 Nor was the accufer limited in 
 point of time, being allowed, com- 
 monly, as many dajsas he pleafed, 
 to make good the charge. 
 
 The accufer was obliged to fign 
 his accufation, and by way of date, 
 to annex the names ot the Confuls. 
 He fetdown alfotheday, the hour, 
 and the Judge before whom he in- 
 tended to profecute his accufation. 
 From the very moment that any 
 perfon was accufed of a capital 
 crime, he was ftrippcd nf all his 
 badges of honourable cilltindion, 
 and appeared in mourning. He 
 was obliged to give fureties for his 
 appearance, or was laid in prifon. 
 When fummoned, he came into 
 court with his friends and neigh- 
 bours about him, who threw them- 
 felves at the feet of the magifirates, 
 to excite the'r compaflion. It the 
 accufed refufed W appear, he was 
 fummcn- 
 
ACL 
 
 AC t 
 
 riimmoned before his houfe by 
 found of trumpet, and, after the 
 time allowed him was expired, if 
 lie did not appear, he was con- 
 demned for conrumac}. Sec De- 
 fenjio. Trials, Adio. 
 
 Sometimes both the accufer and 
 accufcd were limited as to the time 
 of making out the charge, and urg- 
 ing the defence; and the timeip- 
 pointed to each was meafured by 
 a ClepfyArn. See Clefjydra< 
 
 Ac ERR. A in Roman antiquity, 
 u-as a fmall altar eredled near the 
 bed on which a dead perfon was 
 laid cut. Incenfe and perfumes 
 were burnt upon it, till the time 
 . of the funeral. The real intention 
 probably was to prevent or over- 
 come any ollenfive fmellj that might 
 arlfe about the corpfe. 
 
 AcLRRA was alfo a little pot 
 which held the incenfe and per- 
 fumes ibr facrihcc, I'uch as are ufed 
 in the church of Rome at this day, 
 made in the form of a little boat. 
 
 AciNACES, a P£-rJtan weapon 
 either in the form of a fpear or 
 fword, fo called from oHYt a point, 
 being a fharp pointed inllrument. 
 This weapon was peculiar to the 
 Meties and Per/tans, zs the Pilu>n was 
 to the Romans, the Gefum to theG^t'/f, 
 the Gladius to the Lacsde^nonians, 
 the Sarijfa to the Macedonians, the 
 Lancca to the Spaniards, the Fala- 
 rica to the »^aguntines, the Romphaea 
 to tke Thracians, the Framea to the 
 
 Germans, Sec. The reafon for 
 
 making mention of the Acinaces 
 here, is, becaufeitoccurs in Horace 
 and other claiTic authors both Greek 
 ^nd Roman. 
 
 AcLiDES, a miffive weapon, in 
 -ufe amongll the /!2OT«/7i; it was of 
 the form of a fpear with a thong 
 tied to it, by which, c.fter the dif- 
 charge, it was drawn back. Scali- 
 ^er contends that it was not like a 
 ipear or javelin, but round or glo- 
 bular, with a wooden item to poife 
 it by. C 
 
 AcR.ociiis.!SMus, among the 
 Greeks, was a fort of gymnaftic ex- 
 ercife, in which the two combat- 
 ants contended with their hands 
 and feet only, without clofing or 
 engaging the other parts of the 
 bodv. It was in faft a fpecies of 
 wrcllling. See IVreJiling. 
 
 AcROPOListhecitadelof Athens. 
 It was formerly the whole city, and 
 at hrft called Afcropia, froTi Acreps 
 the founder ; but, after the Inha- 
 bitants were greatly increafed in 
 number, the whole plain around it 
 wasililed with buildings, and the 
 original city became the centre, 
 under the denomination oi Acropo- 
 lis or the upper city, in contra- 
 difliniftlon to the lower part, which 
 was called ti xaJu) TroXii or the 
 lower city. In procefs of time, 
 the furrounding buildings were 
 confidered as the city, under the 
 name of Athens, and Acropolis was 
 regarded as the citadel. It was 
 ^\xiy Jladia in circumference, and 
 furrounded wi-.h wooden pales, or, 
 as fome fay, with olive trees. It 
 wai fortified alfo with a ftrong wall, 
 and an execration was pronounced 
 againrt any one that fliould build 
 houfes beneath this wall, becaufe 
 the Pelafgi, while they refided 
 there, entered into a confplracy 
 againft the Athenians. All perfons 
 were prohibited from making 
 ditches, or fowing corn here, and 
 three drachmas was the fine, in cafe 
 of difobedience. 
 
 The Acropolis was beautified 
 with nine gates, and within were 
 innumerable edihces, flatues, mo- 
 numents, and teir.pjes, the prin- 
 cipal of which will be found under 
 the article Temple. 
 
 Act, thename of certain divi- 
 fions in dramatic poetry, intended 
 to give refpite both to the ictora 
 and fpeclators. See Drama, The 
 number of acls required botli in 
 corocdy and tragedy was five, r.c. 
 cording 
 
Act 
 
 ACT 
 
 cording to the rule laid down In 
 Herace's art ot poetry : 
 
 Keu br'evior CJjJiNTt), neu Jit 
 produ Slier a c T u . 
 
 ActaPuelica, the journal of 
 the Senate. It fcems to have rc- 
 fernbledvcry much the votes of the 
 Houfe of Commons amongll us, 
 ■wherein a /hort account was given 
 to the public of whatpailed in the 
 Senate -Houfe. 
 
 Acta Diurna, was a fort of 
 Ronw.n gazette, containing an au - 
 thorifea narrative of the tranfac- 
 tions worthy of notice, which hap- 
 pened at Rome. Fefro7iiiis)\'&.% given 
 i:s a fpecimen of the aSiadi'urnay 
 in his account of T^rimalchisy and 
 r.f it may not perhaps be unenter- 
 tainihgto feehow exactly a Roman 
 news- paper runs in the ftyle of an 
 Evgli/h one, the following is an 
 article or two out of it. 
 
 " On the 26th of July, thirty 
 boys and forty girls were born at 
 1>-imalchis^s ellate at Cuma. 
 
 " At the fame time a flave was 
 put to death for uttering difrefpcct- 
 ful words againli his Lord." 
 
 " The iamc day a fire broke out 
 in Prnipeyi gardens, which began 
 in the night, in the iteward's apart- 
 ment." 
 
 Acta Consistorii, the edids 
 Or declarations of the council of 
 ftate of the Emperors. Thefe ediifls 
 were generally expreffed in fuch 
 terms as thefe, "The Augult Em- 
 perors, Dioclejian and Maximian, 
 in council declared, That the 
 children oi Decuricm fhould not be 
 expofed to wild bcafts in the Am- 
 ■phiti:eatrey 
 
 The Senate and foldiers often 
 fwore, either thro' abjefl flattery 
 or by compulfion, upon the edids 
 of the Emperors, as we do upon 
 the hihle. And the name oi Api di- 
 ns Merida was erafed by Nero^ out 
 of the regiftcr of Senators, becaufe 
 1^ rcfufed ts? Avear upon the gdifts 
 
 of the Emperor Augujlu-. 
 
 ActuT: were meadows of re- 
 markable verdure and luxuriancy 
 near the fca fhore, where the Ro- 
 mans ufed to indulge themfelves to 
 a great degree in foftnefs and deli- 
 cacy of living. The word is ufed 
 in this fenfe by Cicero and Virgil : 
 But VoJJius thinks it can only be 
 ufed in fpeakingof Sicily, as theie 
 two authors did. 
 
 A c t I A N G A M E s or Ludi Atliaci, 
 were inftituted in commem'oration 
 ol Augujius^i vidlory over Anthony 
 at Adium. They returned every 
 fifth year, according to the general 
 opinion, and v.'cre facred to Apolloy 
 who was thence called A8ius Apol- 
 lo. Ailian years became an aera, 
 commencing from the battle of 
 ASiium, called alfo the jcra of Au- 
 gi'Jius. The Aciian gam^es confifted 
 of fhows of Gladiatirs, '^hz'i^lfiri, 
 and other excrcifes, and were kept 
 generally at Nicopolis, a city buih 
 by Augvjliis near Aclium for that 
 purpofe, with a view to render his 
 viclory famotis to fucceeding ages. 
 Sometimes thefe games were kept: 
 at Royne. The proper overlookers 
 of them were the four colleges of 
 priclts, the Po;itifces, the Augurs, 
 the Scptem-jiri and ^ir.decim-viri. 
 The Asian games were frequently 
 called Ludi qiiinsuennales, from the 
 periods of their celebration. 
 
 Actio, an a<flion at law in a 
 court of jullice. The formalities 
 ufed by the Rcma-ns, in judicial 
 aftions, were thefe : If the differ- 
 ence failed to be made up by 
 friends, the injured pcrfon pro- 
 ceeded in jus reum ^oocare, to lum- 
 mon the offending party to the 
 court, who was obliged to go, or 
 give bond for his appearance. 
 
 The offending party might be 
 fummoned into court ^viiid njoce^ 
 by the plaintiff himfelf meeting 
 the defendant, declaring his inten- 
 tion'tohim, and commanding him 
 
 t9 
 
ACT 
 
 ACT 
 
 to go before the magiftratc ar,d 
 make his defence. If he would not 
 go willingly, he might drag and 
 farce him along, unlefs he gave 
 fecurity for his appearance on ionic 
 appointed day. If he failed to ap- 
 pear on the day agreed on, then 
 the plaintitF, whenfoever he met 
 liim, might take him along with 
 him by force, calling any by-iland- 
 ers to bear witnefs, by afking them 
 'vi/ne antejiar't, the by-lt«nders up- 
 on this turned their ear towams 
 him in token of their confent : 
 To this Horace alludes in his Satire 
 againtl the impertinent, Lib. i. 
 Sat. g. See this further explained 
 under the article JnteJJari. 
 
 Both parties being met before the 
 Praetor, or othcrfupreme mrigiitrate 
 prefiding in the court, the plain tiil:' 
 propofed the aftion to the defen- 
 dant ; in which he defigned to 
 profecute him — this they termed 
 {d-ere aSltonemy and was commonly 
 performed by writing it in a tablet, 
 and oftering it to the defendant, 
 that he might fee whether he had 
 better (land the fuit or compound. 
 In the next place came the pojiu- 
 latio adionis, or the plaintiff's pe- 
 tition to the Pralor, for leave to 
 prolecute the defendant in fuch an 
 adion. The petition was granted 
 by writing at the bottom of it «<,?/- 
 unetn do, or refufed by writing in 
 the fame manner ailiojicm non do. 
 
 The petition beiqg granted, the 
 ■<^\^vc\.K\'S n)adahatur reum, i. e. ob- 
 liged him to give furetles for his 
 appearance on fuch a day in the 
 court ; and this was all that was 
 done in public, before the day fix- 
 ed upon for the trial. 
 
 In the mean time, the difference 
 was often made up, either tranfac- 
 tione, by letting the caufe fall as 
 dubious; or padione by compofi- 
 tion for damages amongft friends. 
 
 On the day appointed for hear- 
 ing — the frcr/cr ordered the fevc- 
 C2 
 
 ral bills to be read, and the parties 
 fummoncdbyan accenJ'us,oxhczo\c. 
 See Accenfi, 
 
 Upon the non-appearance of ci- 
 ther party, the defaulter loft his 
 caufe i— if they both appeared they 
 \\z\(i 'iM J'e JietiJ]'e ; and then the 
 plaintiff proceeded litem, fi^ve ^^^\-' 
 OHcm inlendere, \. e. to prefer his 
 fuit, which was done in a fct form 
 of words, varying according to the 
 difference of the adions. After 
 this the plaintiff defircd judgment 
 of the Prator, that is, to be allow- 
 ed a judex or arbiter, or elle the 
 recuptratores, or centur,i'viri. Sec 
 Judex, Arbiter, &c. Thefe he ^e~ 
 quxfted for the hearing and decid- 
 ing the bufinefs ; but none of thefe 
 could be defircd but by theconfcnt 
 of both parties. 
 
 The Praetor having affigned 
 them their judges, defined and de- 
 termined the number ot witneffes 
 to be admitted, to hinder the pro- 
 trading of the fuit. And then the 
 parties proceeded to give their cau- 
 tion, that the judgment whatever 
 it was, ffiould Hand and be per- 
 formed on both fides. The judges 
 took a folemn oath to be impartial ; 
 and the parties tool \}A<i juramevtum 
 calumniic. Then the trial began 
 with the affillance of witnefles, 
 writings, &c. which was caljed 
 difccptatio caufrt. See 'Jtirarncnit'm 
 calujnnia, Dijceptatio caufje '1 rial. 
 
 Actor in the Roman \a.\v ftands 
 oppofed to reus, and iignifics the 
 plaintiff, or him who has an adion 
 againft another, or that profecutes 
 another in a court of judicature. 
 
 Actor, (upon tic theatre) one 
 who ads a part and reprefents fome 
 perfon in a tragedy or comedy.— 
 Many regulations were made for- 
 merly about the falary of adors, 
 and for puniihing fuch as took im- 
 proper liberties. Senators were not 
 allowed to vifit them at their houlcs, 
 nor a Roman Knight to walk with 
 
 them 
 
ACT 
 
 ADM 
 
 them in the ftreets. They could 
 not aft but upon a public theatre. 
 The Senatt once endeavoured to 
 deprive them fo far of the privilege 
 of Roman citizens, as to give the 
 Frestor a power of punifhing them 
 with rods ; but Haterius Jgrippa 
 oppoJi^d this attempt, and by his 
 oppofition gained his point, when 
 tribune of the people, becaufe, Ju- 
 gujlus had formerly declared the 
 aftors exempt from whipping, and 
 Tiberius ; in vvhofe reign this at- 
 .tcijipt was made, did not chufe to 
 violate his orders. 
 
 Profclled Aftors could not be 
 incorporated in any tribe, had no 
 right of fuftrage, were incapable oi 
 ferving in the legions, or of bear- 
 ing any military or civil employ- 
 ment. .\ fen at or, if he afted but 
 owff, was digraded, and a Knight 
 forfeited all his privileges. Aiv 
 aftrefs too was held infamous, ahd 
 Hood in the fame predicament as a 
 common proftitute. Thefe feve- 
 rities, hcivever, did not extend to 
 the actors of the atellanas, who were 
 generally fome of the nobility. 
 Sec Atellanee. 
 
 The hrft players amongft the 
 Romans were brought from Hctru- 
 ria, in the language of which 
 country HiJIer fignified a player; 
 hence we have the origin of the 
 J a tin word Hif^-io, 
 
 The profe<lion of an a6lor was 
 not difgraceful among the Greeks; 
 j^fchines, the rival of Detnojlhenes, 
 pla; ed on tiie flage -aX Athens; and 
 Arifiodenius, ih.0M^ an aclor,wasfent 
 on an cmbafl'y to P/ji Up o^ Macedon. 
 JJninjerfal anciens Hijlory Danet. 
 See Drama, Comedy, T^ragedy. Sec. 
 
 AcTUARi^ Naves were a fort 
 of ihips ufed amongft the Roma?is, 
 chiefly for expedition. 
 
 AciuaRius, i notary or fcribe 
 appointed to take down the pro- 
 ceedings of a court, fuch as the 
 pleaaings of the advocate?, &c. 
 
 ThcaJIuarii ufed cyphers, fingle 
 letters or certain abbreviations to 
 fignify whole words. See Notariui 
 and Scriba. 
 
 Jduarii were alfo certain officers 
 who kept the military accounts, 
 and diftributed corn to the fol- 
 diers. 
 
 Actus. See JSi, Meafure. 
 Ad Bestias is ufed to exprefs a 
 fpecies of punifhment amongft the 
 Romans, in which the criminal was 
 condemned to fight wild beafts. — 
 They whofe unhappy lot it was to 
 be th;is miferably expofed, were 
 called Bejliarii. See Bejiiarii. 
 
 Aduictio, in Iht Roman courts 
 of judicature, was, when the party, 
 who had been caftin a certain fum, 
 which he refufed to pay or give fe- 
 curity for the payment of, in a rea- 
 fonable time, was brought by the 
 plaintiff before the Prater, who 
 delivered him into his difpofal, to 
 be committed to prifon, or other- 
 wife fecured till fatisfaftion was 
 made. 
 
 AoDtcTio figiiifies alfo the 
 aft of the Praetor in delivering up 
 fuch perl'ons as were fo deeply in- 
 volved in debt that they could not 
 fatisfv their creditors. The per- 
 fons fo delivered up,though freemen, 
 became flaves to theircreditors, till 
 they had recovered their libeny 
 again by working out the debt. — 
 See the article Debtor. 
 
 Ad Ludos is ufed to exprefs a 
 fpecies of punifhment amongft the 
 Romans, wherein the malefaftor 
 was either delivered up to, and 
 obliged to fight with wildbeaib in 
 the amphitheatre ; orelfe he was to 
 perform the partof a^/<2^/(2/i?r with 
 other criminals, and fatisfy juftice 
 in that manner.— The firft of thele 
 was commonly inflifted upon flaves, 
 and was called Ludus Venaton-.ts — 
 the fecond was called Ludus Gladia- 
 tor tus. 
 
 Ad MgTALLA, another punifli- 
 
ADO 
 
 ADO 
 
 nient in ufe amongft the Romans; 
 which coniiiied in condemning the 
 unhappy perfon to work in the 
 mines. We find this mode of pu- 
 nifhment frequently mentioned in 
 the hiflories of the later Emperors, 
 and it was generally inflided upon 
 the chriltians. Daring the perfc- 
 cutions, great numbers were fent 
 to this laborious and flavilh em- 
 ployment. 
 
 Admonitio Fujiium was both a 
 civil and military punifliment a- 
 mongft the i?(/«a;7j; as a civil pu- 
 nifliment it was fomething like 
 whipping amongft us, and did not 
 afFed the life of the delinquent ; — 
 but as a military punifhment it was 
 generally capital, and refembled 
 the Baflinado. 
 
 The manner of it amongft the 
 foldicrswas this. The conviflcd 
 perfon was brought before the Tri- 
 httr.e, who gently ftruck him over 
 the flioulders with a ftaft"; the cri- 
 minal then had liberty to run, and 
 the foldiers were allowed to kill 
 him if they could, with fwords, 
 darts, ftones, or whatever weapons 
 were in their reach, fo that they 
 prcfently difpatched him. It was 
 infiidled upon fuch pcrfons as had 
 ftolen any thing out of the camp ; 
 givenfalfe evidence; deferred their 
 pcfts; falfely pretended to have 
 done fome great exploitout ofhopes 
 of a reward; fought, though fuccefs- 
 fully, without the General's order ; 
 loft their weapons; or aggravated 
 a i'maller mifdemeanor than any of 
 thefe, by repeating it three tim.es. 
 
 A D N o M E N . See /Jgnoffien . 
 
 Adolescence, the flower of a 
 man's youth, commencing from in- 
 fancy, and terminating at his full 
 ftature or manhood. Amongft the 
 Romans it was reckoned from twelve 
 to twenty-five in boys — and from 
 twelve to twenty-one in girls. 
 
 Ado MA, folemn feafts in honor 
 of Venus, inftituiedin memory yf 
 
 her beloved Adonis, and cbfcrved 
 with great lolcmnity by ^.VzQreeh, 
 Phcenicians, Lycians, Syrians, Egyp- 
 tians, iffc. They lafted two days, 
 during which time, the women 
 carried about images of P'enus and 
 Adonis, weeping, tearing their hair, 
 beating their brealls, and ufing 
 every token of grief. Ezekiel is 
 fuppofcd to allude to this tcftival, 
 chap. viii. v. 4. 
 
 Adoption, a folemn aft where- 
 by one man makes another his heir, 
 invefting him with all the rights 
 and privileges of a fon. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans had fc- 
 veral regulations concerning adop- 
 tion. The Lacedemonian law re- 
 quired that adoptions fhould be 
 performed, or at Icaft ratified, ia 
 prefence of their Kings, hx Athens ^ 
 neither ilaves, madmen, norperfons 
 under age could adopt. And at 
 Rome, when a man had a mind to 
 adopt any perfon, he was to draw 
 up his reafons and exhibit them to 
 the college of Pontijices, for their 
 approbation; this approbation be- 
 ing obtained, the Pontifices, Conful, 
 or fome otlier prime magiiirate, 
 brought in a bill at the ccmitia cu- 
 riata, to make the adoption, valid. 
 The private ceremony which pre- 
 ceded the public adopiion amongft 
 the i?o,v;a/;j, confiiledin baying the 
 perfon to be adapted, ofhis parents, 
 for a certain fum, formally given 
 and taken; in this manner we arc 
 informed Augujlus purchafed Caius 
 and Lucius of their htharAg-rippa. 
 
 Adopted perfons affumed ail the 
 three names of the peiibn into 
 whofe family this ceremony ad- 
 mitted them; but, as a mark of 
 their proper deicent, they iubjoined 
 at the end of the names their tor- 
 mer KOKenor crgn'^-men, the cogrcmeK 
 being fometimes llightly altered. 
 
 Young men were not allowed to 
 adopt their elders ; and rhe adopter 
 was required to be at leaft^eightccn 
 
 years 
 
ADO 
 
 ADO 
 
 years older than the adopted fon-r- 
 tiiat there might be an appearance 
 of probability in the new relation 
 of father and fon. 
 
 Children being by adoption pro- 
 vided for in another family, had 
 no claim of inheritance or kindred 
 in the family they had left, unlefs 
 they renounced their adoption, 
 which, by the laws of Scion, they 
 were prohibited from doing, till 
 they had begotten children to bear 
 the name of tiieir adopted father. 
 And the perfon who had once 
 adopted children, could not marry 
 afterwards, without leave from the 
 magillrate, which leave could not 
 be obtained unlefs the adopted 
 children had been guilty of ingra- 
 titude. If the adopted children 
 died without iilue, the inheritance 
 returned to the relations of the 
 adopter. This and the foregoing 
 paragraph apply in fome refpefts 
 to both Greeks and Romans, but 
 more particularly to the Greeks. 
 The adoption of a perfon who had 
 the right of difpufmg of himfelf, 
 was called Adrogation. 
 
 It does not appear that adoption 
 properly fo called was formerly in 
 ufe amongfl the ye^.vs. Mofes does 
 not mention it in his laws; and 
 JacsFs adoption of his two grand- 
 ions G;?;?. xlviii. 14, fecms rather 
 to be a fiibftitution. The cere- 
 mony of adoption among the Ma- 
 hometans is performed by requiring 
 the perfon adopted to pafs through 
 the llirt of the man who adopts him, 
 and fomething fimilar tothis is ob- 
 fervable amongil the jfe'-jjs. 
 
 When adoption occurs in Scrip- 
 ture, it implies a favour vouchfafed 
 by the Deitv, in confcquence of 
 which we are accounted the chil- 
 dren of God through grace, though 
 before we were the children of (or 
 fubjefl to) wrath, Collier s Sacred 
 Interpreter. 
 
 Adoration denotes the a£l of 
 worfhipping God, or a being fup- 
 
 pofed to be a God. It is derived 
 from ad, to, and os, the mouth, 
 and imports kiffing the hands, in 
 token of refpefl or reverence. 
 
 Among the Jei-vs, adoration 
 confilted in kifling the hands, bow- 
 ing, kneeling, and even proilira- 
 tion ; and in tbeir language the 
 word kiffing is ufed for adora- 
 tion ; as is ahb the Greek word 
 •TTpocrxuniv, 
 
 The ceremony of adoration a- 
 mong the Romans was pertornied 
 with the head veiled or covered, 
 the devotee applying the right 
 hand to his lips, the fore-finger, 
 refting upon the thumb, which 
 was ered ; and then bowing he 
 turned himfelf round from left to 
 right. 
 
 The Grecians paid their adora- 
 tion with green boughs of laurel 
 or olive in their hands, chaplcts 
 upon their heads, and their necks 
 adorned with wreaths of flowers. 
 With the boughs, which were al- 
 ways wrapped round with wool, 
 they touched the knees of theilatuc 
 of the God whom they addrcfied; 
 then they touched the right hand 
 of the ftatue, or fome part of its 
 head. They touched the knees 
 that the deity might bend to their 
 requeft; the right-hand as being 
 the inilrument of difpenfing blcf- 
 fings, and the head to induce the 
 Gods to fignify their aflcnt by a 
 nod of compliance. They fome- 
 times touched the knees with one 
 hand, and the head or hands with 
 the other, and now and then em- 
 braced the feet. It was not un- 
 ufual tokifs their hands, or to fa- 
 lute the Gods by putting their fore 
 finger acrofs the thumb, and then 
 turning to the right. Their drefs 
 on thefe occafions was cttentimcs 
 mean. Their pofture was fitting, 
 {landing or kneeling, but nioftly 
 kneeling. In adoration of the Gods 
 they looked to the Eall, in adora- 
 tion of Demi-Gods to the Weft. 
 
ADU 
 
 AD U 
 
 The Romans carried :heIrfoolii'h 
 iervility to fuch a pitch as to pay a 
 kind ot" adoration to their Empe- 
 rors, and treat as GoJs, perfons 
 who did not delerve the name of 
 mm. See Prayer. 
 
 AuOREA is ufed by x\\tRoman 
 writers in various Icnles; — fome- 
 times for all manner of grain ; — 
 fomctimestor akind of cakes made 
 of line flour and oficred in facriiice ; 
 — and fomctimes for a dole of 
 coal, or diltribution of grain nvade 
 to the foldicrs after a vidory ; 
 whence by Metonymy it is put for 
 praife, reward, or viftory. 
 
 Adrogateo, adroguion, figni- 
 iics the adoption of perlons grown 
 up, and who had the right of dif- 
 pofmg of themfelves. It is by Ju- 
 lusQellius fuppofed to differ from 
 adoption, which according to him 
 belonged onlv to the care of the 
 Prator, and had for its objcft none 
 but perfons under age; but this 
 dillindion feems not to be well 
 founded, See Adopion. 
 
 Adversar I A vva.» a 'Roman book 
 of accounts, not unlike our jour- 
 nals or day-books. They were 
 called Ad-verfiiria becaufe ad-verfa 
 parte fcrijtis imphrentre, Thcv 
 diiiercd from the accepti et exfenji 
 codex, becaufe they were monthly 
 accounrs; whereas the other con- 
 tained a perpetual account, and 
 was a tranlcript of the former. See 
 Accepti et expenji codex. 
 
 Adversator, a fcrvant who 
 attended the rich Romar.s at their 
 return from entertainments, to give 
 them noticccf anyobflacics in their 
 way, at which they might be in 
 danger of ftiimbling. 
 
 Adultery, the violation of 
 the marr'age bed. — The law of 
 Afc/f^panifhed with death both the 
 man and the woman who were 
 guilty of this crime, Le-v'it. xx. lo. 
 If a woman was betrothed to a 
 man, and was guilty cf this infa- 
 
 mous crime before the marriage- 
 was compleated, llic Avas, in this 
 cafe, along with her paramour, to 
 hcjioned; Deut. xxii. zz — 24. 
 Tho' the law does not in the paf- 
 fage before referred to, require 
 Jloning'; yet it was in later times 
 generally executed in that manner ; 
 contrary to the ufual mode of inter- 
 preting amongft the Je^.-s \ for 
 where death was in general terms 
 denounced, it was ufually inllided 
 \iY J} r angling . 
 
 When any man amongft the 
 Jeivs, prompted by jealoufy, fuf- 
 pected his wife of this crime of a- 
 dultery, he brought her firil before 
 the Judges, and informed them 
 that in confequcnce of his fufpici- 
 ons he had privately admonillied 
 her, but that ihe was regardlefs of 
 his admonitions. If before the 
 Judges fhc afferted her innocencv, 
 he required that fhe fhould drink 
 the ivaters cf jealouf)-, that God 
 might by this means difcoverwhat 
 fhe was willing to conceal, Nii?;ib. 
 V. 12, Sec. The man then pro- 
 duced his witnclfcs, and had them 
 heard. After this, both the man 
 and woman were carri^^d to Je u 
 falem, and brought before the Sau' 
 hedrzm-., the Judges of which, by 
 threats and other means, endea- 
 voured to confound the woman and 
 make herconfefs. If fiiepcrfiited 
 in denying the fad, flie was led 
 to the callern gate of the court of 
 Ij'racl, ftrippcd of her own cioaths, 
 and drcffed in black, before great 
 numbers of her own fcx. The 
 prieii; then told her that if fhe was 
 really innocent, ine had nothing 
 to fear, but if guilty, fhe might 
 exped to fufier all that the law had 
 denounced againit her, to which 
 fhe anfwered " Amen, Amen."— 
 1 he priclt then wrote the terms of 
 the law, in this form.--" If aftrange 
 " man hath not come near you, 
 <= and you are not polluted hv for- 
 " fakins 
 
ADU 
 
 AD U 
 
 «' faking the bed of your huibnnd, 
 «' thcfe bitter waters, which I have 
 ** curfed, will not hurt you : But 
 •* if you have polluted yourfelf by 
 " coming near to another man, 
 *' and gone aftray from your huf- 
 *' band, — may you be accurfed of 
 ** the Lord, and become an exam- 
 " pie for all his people; may your 
 *' thighs rot, and your belly fwell 
 " till it burft, may thcle curfed 
 " waters enter into your belly, 
 " and being fwclled therewith, 
 *' may your thighs putrify," 
 
 After this the pricll filled a pitch- 
 er out of the brazen veffel near the 
 altar of burnt oftering?, call fome 
 dull of the pavement into it, ming- 
 led fomething with it as bitter as 
 wormwood, and then read the 
 curfcs, and received her anfvver of 
 ** Amen." Another prieft in the 
 mean time tore off her cloaths as 
 low as her bofom— made her head 
 bare — untied the trefies of her hair 
 •'— faftened her cloaths which v/ere 
 thus torn, with a girdle under her 
 breaib, and then prcfcnrcd her 
 Tvith the tenth part of an Epha, or 
 about three pints of barley meal. 
 The other piieft then gave her the 
 *ifjaters ofjealoufy or bitterncls to 
 drirk, and as ioon as the woman 
 had got them fwallowed, he gave 
 her the meal in a veilel like a fry- 
 ing-pan into her hand. This was 
 Itirrcd before the Lord, and part 
 of it thrown into the fire of the 
 altar. If the wife was innocent, 
 ftie returned with her hufband, and 
 the water?, fo far from injuring 
 her, encreafed her health and made 
 her more fruitful, but it flic was 
 guilty, Ihegrevv pale immediately, 
 her eves fwe.led and ftarlcd, and 
 lell fhe fliould pollute tlv temple, 
 fhc v.-as carried out of v. imnicdi- 
 ately, with thefe fymntoms upon' 
 her, and died inftantly with all 
 the ignominious circumrtances re- 
 lated in the curfcs. Such is the 
 
 account given of this mode of trici^ 
 with rcfpedl to the woman,- and 
 the Rabbins affcrt that the man 
 with whom fhe had tranfgrcfied, 
 tho' abfcnt, was affcdled in a fimi- 
 lar m.anner, — and that if the hul- 
 band had been guilty, the bitter 
 waters had no bad etfecl upon her. 
 See VFaters of 'Jealov.fy. 
 
 The ancient Romans had no for- 
 mal law again ft adultery. Augufius 
 was the firll who made it punilh 
 able by banifhment, and in fome 
 caics by death. Anton'mtis pub- 
 lifhcd an edict, by which hufoand-, 
 unlcfs innocent themfslvcs, v/eie 
 prohibited from prcfccutin'g their 
 wives for adultery. 
 
 The Greeks feem to have looked 
 upon this crime with a remarkable 
 degree of abhorrence.- Hefic^r,' in 
 Homer, tells Paris, that ftcming is 
 liis dei'ert. Rich adulterers were 
 allowed to redeem themfelves with 
 money, from the penal confcquen- 
 ces of the crime. Sometim.cs the 
 offender was puniflaed with the 
 lofs of his eyes. At Gortyn in Crete ^ 
 the adulterer was covered with 
 wool as a mark of his eifeminacyand . 
 fofrnefs, and in this manner carried 
 before the magiftrate, who depriv- 
 ed him of all fhare irt the manage- 
 ment of public bufincfs. T\\& Athe- 
 nians left the offenders to the mercy 
 of thofe whom they inj ured, whence 
 a variety of cruelties were exer- 
 ercifed, agreeably to the temper of 
 the perfons into whofe hands they 
 fell. Sometimes the punifiimen; 
 was left to ih-e difcretion of the 
 magiftrate. By the laws of Sclorif 
 adulterers might be killed with 
 impunity by the hufband; and by 
 the fame laws adultereifes might 
 have their cloaths ftrtpped ofl'thei.'' 
 backs, and any perfon had liberty 
 of beating them, provided he ^id. 
 not kill them. The IhefmothctexdX 
 A:he7!s, if the crime was proved a- 
 gainil a man gave the Judges power 
 
ADt 
 
 ^DI 
 
 to inflift what penalty they chofc, 
 fhort of death. There was another 
 remarkable punilhment amongft 
 them called paratilmu, or raphani- 
 dSJis, which confided in plucking 
 the hair fmm their privities, throw- 
 ing hot afhes upon the part, and 
 thrufting a radilh, mullet, or fome 
 fuch thing up their fundament. — 
 Juvenal alludes to this in thefe 
 lines, 
 
 . quofdam machos et 
 
 mugilis intrat. 
 But this was the punilhment of 
 poor men ; the rich generally were 
 allowed to commute, as is the cul- 
 tom in our ecclehallical courts, 
 
 Advocatus, among the Ro- 
 mans, a perfon who undertook the 
 defence of caufes, which he plead- 
 ed much in the fame manner that 
 our Barrifters do at prefent. The 
 ad--uocate differed from the procura- 
 tores ; for it v/as the buiinefs of 
 thefe to afliit the plaintiff in prov- 
 ing, or the defendant in clearing 
 himfelf from the matter of fafl ; 
 but the advocati, who were alfo 
 called patroni were to defend their 
 client in matter of law. 
 
 The advocates were chofen out 
 of the ableft lawyers, and their li- 
 berty of pleading depended upon 
 thefe two conditions, firil, that 
 their names were entered in the 
 matriculation book of the /arum, 
 and fecondly, that they were re- 
 tained by one party, or received a 
 fee, which they called mandatum. 
 
 Advocates were held in great ho- 
 nourduring the firil ages of the com- 
 mon wealth, being ftyled ccmites, 
 honoratiy clarijfimi, and even pU' 
 troni, as was but juii now obferv- 
 cd; but their reputation fell to a 
 low ebb indeed in the later ages of 
 the republic, and under the Em- 
 perors. See Patroni, Trial. 
 
 Adytum is a Greek word fig- 
 t»ifying inacceffible, by which is 
 undcrftood the moft retired and 
 
 fecret place of the heathen temples, 
 into which none but the priefts 
 were allowed to enter. The ady- 
 tum of the Greeks and Romans anf- 
 wered to the fandum fandorum of 
 the Je-iusy and was the place from 
 whence oracles were delivered. 
 
 >Eacea inGrfaa«anciquuy, (O'' 
 lemn feftivalsand games in honour 
 of j£acus, who on account of his 
 juftice upon earth was thought to 
 have been appointed one of the 
 judges in hell. At the end of the 
 lolcmnity the viclors in the games 
 ufed to prefent a garland of flowers, 
 
 iEcHMALOTARCH,a titlc givCQ 
 
 by the Je'ius to the principal leader 
 and governor of the Hebrew cap- 
 tives refiding in Chaldaa, AJfyria^ 
 and the neighbouring countries.— 
 The Je^s themfelves call this ma- 
 giftrate Ro/ch-Galuth, that is, chief 
 of the captivity. Bafnage afl'ures 
 us that there was no JEchmalotarcht 
 before the end of the fecond cen- 
 tury; and Prideaux fays, that the 
 J^chmalotarchj at prefent, is only 
 the head of their religion, like the 
 Epifcopus Judteorum in England, the 
 Altarch at Alexandriuy and ihe Eth' 
 narch at Antioch. 
 
 .<Edes facra, differed in no re- 
 fpcd from temples, excepting the 
 want of confecration, which if they 
 ever received, they afterv/ard 
 changed, their names, and were 
 called Templa. See Templum., and 
 Confecration. 
 
 .^DicuLA was the fame as cr/i?/, 
 differing only in lize. 
 
 -^DiLEs were at firft two offi- 
 cers, chol'en out of the body of the 
 commons to afiift ihe tribunes of the 
 people in the difcharge of fome 
 particular parts of their office; the 
 chief of their duty was the taking 
 care of public edifices, whence 
 they derived their name. Their 
 bufinefs was alfo to attend the tri- 
 bunes, and to judge, by their de- 
 puutJon, fome inferior caufes. — 
 D Their 
 
JEI^ A 
 
 ^R A 
 
 T-heir duty likewife confined in 
 rcftifving weights and mealnre?, 
 prohibiting uniawtnl games and 
 paniihing lewd women. 
 
 Two more were clecled an. u. 
 c. 389, out of the nobility, to in- 
 f pert the public games. Thefe 
 were called,'S'^///^j Curutes^ becaule 
 thcv had the honour of afing the 
 Jllla cu'rulis. See Sella Cundis. 
 
 The Cm-uk Mdiles befidcs their 
 proper oilke juft mentioned, were 
 to inlpcd. and take care of the 
 building and re[j«irsof iV;x//ifJ, thea- 
 tj-is, baths; aquedk8s., and other 
 noble ilruflures, and were appoint- 
 . ed Judges in all cafes relating tcs 
 the felling or exchanging of eiiites. 
 
 Julius Ciffa7-di. u. c. 710. added 
 t\To more tothenumber a'i JEdiles., 
 nnder the name of ^^diles Cereales, 
 from Ceresi, becaufe they were ap- 
 pointed to infpecfi: the public llores 
 of corn, and other proviiions, to 
 examine all the commodities ex- 
 pofed in the marhets, and punifh 
 delinquents in all matters relating 
 to baying and felling in themarkets. 
 
 ^■^iUJMTiuM EdiSlum was the 
 JEdiles fcntence^ allowing redrefs 
 to the purchafer of a bcall, flave, 
 &c. thst had been impofed upon. 
 SsiJe the former article. 
 
 ^'SiTuOs, an officer' amongft 
 the Romans who had the charge of 
 the offerings, trealurc, and facfed 
 \itenfils belonging to the temples of 
 the Gods. 
 
 ^D I TUA was a female officer of 
 the fume kind with the adit::us, be- 
 langi-Dg to the temples ot the God- 
 dciies. 
 
 M^Ay a numbcf ftampt upon 
 ntoncy, tofignify the current value 
 of it according to I.uciiices; it is 
 derived in this fenfc of ^j. 
 
 It fignifies alfo the fame almoft 
 with Epocba, that is, the point of 
 time from which the computation 
 ofaferiesofyearscommenv.es: bo 
 wc may fay the ivra oi NahnaJJar^ 
 
 the chriftian evra, the ^ra of tile 
 Hcgh-a, &c. 
 
 The word is thought by {omz to 
 be derived b) corruption from the- 
 cuftom ot the Spaniards, who reck- 
 oned their years from the reign of 
 Augupus, and for fhortnefs wrote 
 AER.A ior an72!is, erat, rsgni, augujli. 
 
 ./Erarium, the treafury or place 
 where the public money was de- 
 pofitcd amongil the Romans. 
 
 ■j^T arium fanctius contained the 
 monies arifmg from the twentieth 
 part of all legacies : this was kept 
 lor the extreme necelTities of the 
 Hate. 
 
 jSrariiim prvvntiim was the Em- 
 peror's privy purfe, or the ph'.ce 
 where the money arifing from his 
 private patrimony was depofitcd. 
 
 ^rnrium •-jiccj/imarum, the place 
 where the money ariiing from the 
 taxes, levied from conq^uered coun- 
 tries, was laid up, fo called be- 
 caufe it moft commonly confiiled 
 of a twentieth part of the produce. 
 
 ^rai-ium llithy/c or juncnis Lit- 
 cii2ic, was where the monies were 
 depofited which parents paid for 
 the birth of each child. 
 
 There arc feveral other treafu- 
 ries mentioned in hiflory as tiie 
 esrarium ju-uentittis. Veneris, is'c. 
 but it is needlefs to dwell longer 
 upon this article. I fhull therefore 
 difpatch it with mentioning that 
 the Temple of Saturn wastke pub- 
 lie treafury ai Rotne, either becaufe 
 Saturn firll taught the Italians to 
 coin money, or, n-hich is moll 
 likely, becaufe this temple was the 
 ilrongell, and moft fecure, and 
 therefore the fitteil: place for that 
 purpofs. For the Jeivijh and Gre- 
 cian treafury. See Treafury. 
 
 vErarius, was a name given 
 by the Roma-fis to a degraded citi-- 
 zen, who had been fcruck ofF the 
 1 ill of his century. The name of 
 ^■Erarii was given to fuch pcrfon? • 
 becaufe they vvers liable to all the 
 
, ^ST 
 
 AGE 
 
 trties and burthens of tlie ftate, 
 ■without enjoying any of its privi- 
 leges. Hence i/.tcr eerarios rcferri 
 was much more fevcre than trlku 
 
 Ai^ROMANCY, a kind oi divina- 
 tion amongit the Greeks, and from 
 them adopted by the Roma7is, 
 u'hereby future events were lore- 
 told from certain phenomena cr 
 noifes in the air. Sometimes it 
 was performed thus: They folded 
 their lieads in a naplcin, and hav- 
 ing placed a bowl full of water in 
 the open air, they propofed their 
 q.uell:ion in a fmall vvhifpering 
 voice, at which time, if the water 
 bubbled or was in agitation, they 
 thought what they had aflccd was 
 unfwered in the affirmative. 
 
 yERUSCATORESjamong the Ro- 
 mans, were certain llrol'crs, iharp- 
 crs, pick-pccLets, fortune-tellers, 
 lire, much like them.odern gypfies. 
 'The gain or prieils of C)hele were 
 alfo called by thisnameon account 
 of their begging alms in the Itrcets. 
 Tlic fame appellation is given to 
 griping cxaiTtors, or colleftors of 
 the revenue. See Galli. 
 
 -■Es properly figniiies copper, cr 
 money coined of that metal. See 
 Money. _ ^ 
 
 We meet in authors with as 
 rude, as gra'uc, and as Jignatum. 
 Some fuppof^ tnat the two former 
 fignify money paid by weight, and 
 x\\iX.hy xs fignatum'xi meant coin 
 which was paid by tale. Others 
 imagine that as grwve and rude 
 were large pieces of coined cop- 
 per, containing a whole as, cr 
 pound weight; on the other hand, 
 feme writer? infift that as grai;e 
 was ufed to fignify copper money 
 in general, as dillinguilhed from 
 that of gold and filver, which was 
 light compared with the former. 
 
 zEscoRiNTHlVM. See Corin- 
 thian Brafs. 
 
 >^5.t;:.:.\tio /////; in the Ro7nan 
 
 law was the r.uingof damigcs. It 
 was in ufe on'y in cafes ot oribery 
 and abufe of the public money. 
 
 Afflatus denotes ip the iatin 
 poets the a6lu.ll iufpiraiion oi feme 
 divinity. The ancients having 
 fuch a multiplicity of gods, and 
 their imagination-s being continu-- 
 ally deranged by fuperi'iition, it is 
 no wonder that they nttriourcd 
 every great aftion to the divine 
 ajjlatiis. That this was the cafe 
 we have abundantproof from Tully, 
 who, though one of the foberell of 
 the heathens, fuppofes every conil- 
 dcrable event, and every noble. 
 tranf^ftion to have been brough'. 
 about by the immediate operariou 
 and infpiration ofa God. And i in- 
 deed this notion a little qualified 1$ 
 ilriiflly true. 
 
 A.GAP.'E, love-fcafts, kept by the 
 ^rxc'icnt cbrijlians asa token of mu- 
 tual love and benevolence. Theii- 
 original was innocent, and the 
 meeting laudable, but corruptions 
 foon appeared, and rendered it ne- 
 ceiTHry to abolifh the cuitom, and 
 prohibit it in every degree. The 
 kifs of charity was forbidden b-:- 
 tween the different fexes, and beds 
 and couches were not permitted Ih 
 the place where they aficmbled. 
 Ailufions to the love feaih arc 
 found more than once in the epif- 
 tles of 5/. P<7a/, and the abufes of 
 them are complained of by him. 
 
 Age among ancient poets is ufed 
 for a fpace of thirty years. Thus 
 Nejlor at the age of ninety is faid 
 to have lived three ages. 
 
 1 he golden, filver, brazen aid 
 iron ages of the poets are too wc!i 
 known to be inlilled upon. The 
 Sibylline oracles on v/hich Firgzi 
 founded his fourth eclogue divide 
 the duration of the world into ten 
 ages, of rt'hich the age of //ugr/Jit/t 
 was reckoned the laft, winch cnn- 
 fequcntly was to terminate the 
 world's duration. 
 
 D :: Agger. 
 
AGN 
 
 AGO 
 
 Agger, in the Roman art of 
 war, figniSes a bench or rampart, 
 compoicd, of various materials, as 
 earth, boughs of trees, &c. The 
 agger of the ancients was the fame 
 with what the moderns in the mi- 
 litary language call their lines. 
 
 In a military fenfeit feldom fig- 
 nifies more than the earth call up 
 iioTCixhe. -vallum of a camp. See 
 Valium and Cajira. 
 
 Agger is alfo ufedfora bankor 
 bulwark to keep off the fea ; — the 
 middle of a military road, which 
 was generally raifed into a ridge, 
 and the heaps of earth raifed over 
 graves, more commonly called Tu- 
 muli ; luhich fee. 
 
 Agitatores, among the Ro^ 
 mans, was a name given to chario- 
 teers in general ; but it was more 
 particularly given to fuch as drove 
 in the public curule games, in the 
 circus. For an account of the fac- 
 tions and parties into which chari- 
 oteers were diftinguifhed fee Cha- 
 rioteers, Races, Fa fi ions, iffc. 
 
 Agmen, in the Roman art of 
 war denoted an army or rather part 
 of one in the march : thus we meet 
 with primum agmen or van-guarJ ; 
 medium agmen or main body ; and 
 po fire mum agmen or rear -guard. 
 
 We alfo meet with agmen pila- 
 tum fignifying a part of the army 
 drawn up in an oblong parallelo- 
 gram, and anfwering to what we 
 call a column ; but the agmen qua- 
 ilratum or fqaare form was the moft 
 ufual in the Roman armies. 
 
 Agnomen*, in ^o/w^w antiquity, 
 was the fourth or honorary name 
 bellowed on account of fomc ex- 
 traordinary aflion, virtue or ac- 
 complifhment. Thwi x.\\t agnomen 
 Jlfricanus was given to Publtus Cor- 
 nelius Scipio, on account of his ex- 
 ploits, in Africa. In cafes of adop- 
 tion the Cognomen or family name 
 became the agnomen ; thus Mar- 
 cus Junius Brutus, when adopted 
 
 by S^uintus, Ser-vilius Capio, called 
 himfelf^</;:/»j Ser^ilius Capio Bru- 
 tus. See the articles Adoption and 
 Naine. 
 
 AoON was one of the inferior 
 miniilers employed in the Roman 
 facrificcs, whofe bufinefs was to 
 ftrike the victim. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Agon among the Greeks was a 
 conteft or difpute of any kind, 
 whether for fuperiority in bodily 
 ftrength, and agility, or for viclory 
 in trials of mental endowments, 
 fuch as poetry, mufic, &c. Con- 
 tefls of this kind were encouraged 
 at moit of the feilivals both of the 
 Greeks and Remans ; fomecimes 
 they were held by themfelves ei • 
 ther annually, or at the conclufion 
 of a certain period ; of this fort 
 were the agones gymnici at Athens, 
 Agon Nemeus, Agon Neronianus, Agon 
 Solis, and Agones Capitolini. Sec 
 Capittlini. 
 
 AcoNALES, the fame with the 
 falii. See Salii. 
 
 Agonalia, Roman feftivals in 
 honour of Janus or the God Ago- 
 nius, whom the Romans invoked 
 previous to any great undertaking. 
 They are faid to have been kept 
 three times in the fpace of a year, 
 viz. on the 5th of the ides o{ Janu- 
 ary, on the 1 2th of the calevds of 
 June, and on the 3d of the ides of 
 December. 
 
 Agonistarcha, in Greciamn.- 
 tiquity, an officer who dirededthe 
 exercifes of fuch as intended to 
 offer themfelves as athlet/r at the 
 Olympic games. Stt Olympic Games . 
 
 Agonothet^ were officers ap- 
 pointed at the Grecian games to 
 take care that all things were per- 
 formed according to cuftom, to de- 
 cide controverfies amongft the an- 
 tagonifts, and adjudge the prizes to 
 thofe that won them. Their bufi- 
 nefs was, alfo, to defray the ex- 
 pences of the games, and to infpedl 
 the manners and difcipline of the 
 athlttx 
 
AG Y 
 
 Gthkta. Th.-fe feveral duties were 
 at firll performed by one perlbn ; 
 but they were afterward divided 
 amongll many colleagues, three ot 
 whom fuperintended the horie- 
 races, three the pntathlon^ and the 
 reft had the direftion of the other 
 exercifes. 
 
 Agoranomus, a niagiftrate of 
 Athens, fomcthing like the Roman 
 ,^dile, having the fupcrintendency 
 and dircAion of weights and niea- 
 fures, and the regulation oi the 
 prices of provifions. f he magil- 
 trates of this name were five in 
 number for the city, and five for 
 the Piraus ; but fome make their 
 number in all amount to fifteen. 
 
 Agrari^ jlatlones in the Ro- 
 man art of war, were a kind of ad- 
 vanced guards, polled in the fields. 
 
 Agrari/e legesy were certain 
 laws amongfl: the Romans, relating 
 to the divifion and diitribution of 
 ]ands, of which there wag a great 
 number ; but that called the agra- 
 rian laiv by way of eminence, was 
 publifhed by Spmius Cajjjus about 
 the year oi Rome z68, for dividing 
 the conquered lands equally among 
 all the citizens, and limiting the 
 number of acres which each might 
 enjoy. Th.e argument made ufc 
 of upon this occafion was certainly 
 very plaufible; for what could ap- 
 pear more reafonable, than to make 
 a divifion of the Lands taken from 
 the enemy, amongll thofe who had 
 expofed their lives to enlarge the 
 bounds of the republic ? The agra- 
 rian laws at different periods of 
 the Roman hiitory occafioned great 
 feuds and animofities amongft the 
 people. See Laixjs. 
 
 Agyrt^, among the ancients 
 were certain ftroUing impoilors, 
 who pretended to tell fortunes, 
 curedifeafes, expiate the crimes of 
 deceafed anceftors, &c. by means 
 of charms, facrifices and other re- 
 Hgious ipyftfries. They pretend- 
 
 ALE 
 
 ed a!f"o to the power of punifKing 
 and tormenting enemies, and were 
 often very well paid for their im- 
 pofition. Their name is derived 
 from ayupeco, to congregate becaufe 
 they drew crouds about them. 
 
 Al/e, wings in the Roman ar- 
 mies. They were made up of the 
 cavalry and infantry of the con- 
 federates and foreign troops, and 
 covered the body of the Roman 
 army as the wings cover the body 
 of a bird. The alee, which were 
 alfo called cornua, were divided 
 into companies of the lame kind as 
 the Roman foldiers. 
 
 Alauda was the name of one 
 of the Roman Legions railed by '7*- 
 lius drfar in GauL It was fo nam- 
 ed, becaule the foldiers that com- 
 pofed it carried a Lark's tuft upon 
 the top of their lielmcts. See 
 Legion. 
 
 Aleo-calerus was a cap made 
 of the fltin of a white animal of- 
 fered in facrifice, with the addition 
 of fometwigf of die wild olive-tree, 
 and tufted on the top. This cap 
 was worn only by the Flamen Dia- 
 lis, or prielt of Jutiter. See Fla- 
 fntn. 
 
 A LEA was ufed amongH the Re- 
 mans to fignify all games of chance, 
 but in a more limited fenfe it de- 
 notes a particular game played 
 with dice and tables, fomething 
 like our back-2ammon. The /udus 
 alea included both the Indus talo- 
 rum, and ludus tejferarum. See Ta- 
 lus and TeJJera. 
 
 Alectryomantia, was a very 
 myftcrious divination amongft the 
 Greeks, in which a cock was the 
 principal performer.' The manner 
 of it was this; having wrote in the 
 duil the twenty -f,ur letters ot the 
 alphabet, and laid a grain of wheat 
 or barley upon every one of them, 
 the cock magically prepared, was 
 let loole among them ; and thofe 
 letter* 
 
ALL 
 
 ALT 
 
 letters out of which he picked the 
 corns, being put together, were 
 thought to unfold the fccrcts of 
 fate. . It is to be noted that to give 
 this proceeding a more folemn air 
 o' magic, the letters were difpofed 
 in a circle. 
 
 Aleuromancy, a fpecies cf 
 divination performed by means of 
 meal or flour. It is fometimcs 
 call ed aiphito?:icncy and crjthomancy. 
 
 Alicata Chlamys, was a fort of 
 vcft with fleeves, worn by the Ho- 
 vzan boys till the age of tlurtccn, at 
 which time they pat on the pns- 
 texta. See Prcstexta. 
 
 Alipta, amongil the Romans, 
 was a flave, whofe province icwas 
 to anoint his matter when he bath- 
 ed. Thus Sifieca Epijl : 56 fays, 
 iit?n in AUptam inertemy et kac 
 pleheia unfiictie contentum incidi. 
 But the ^//^/rtT did not, according 
 to the original iinport of the word, 
 confine themfelves to the imilion ; 
 they prefcribed fuch means of pre- 
 ferving health, vigour and com- 
 plexion as appeared moft condu- 
 cive ; Their office was therefore 
 tantamount to that of the Gyvmcjia, 
 as appears from Cicer : Fam. Ep : 
 1 . 9. Sed-jellem JionfoIuK/aluti: mc^, 
 quernadmodum medici, fed etiam, ut 
 Mipta, <^jirh'.viet coloris habere ra- 
 ticr.em 'voluijfent. So likeui'ife Ce/j : 
 J.I. Sarins komo, qui C5' lene ^alei, 
 CSf fuee fpoiztis eji, nullis fe ohligare 
 legibus debet, ac ncque 7::edl:o, ncque 
 Alipta egere. Pitifc. 
 
 Allocutio, an oration or 
 fpeech of a general addrefi'ed to 
 his foldiers, to animate them to 
 fight, to appeafe fedition, or to 
 keep them to their duty ; a mount 
 of earth was raifed upon the occa- 
 fion, as it were a kind of tribunal 
 of turf. From this the General 
 pronounced his harangue to the 
 army, which was ranged in feveral 
 fquadrons round him, witii their 
 Cantains at Lhcir head. V/hen the 
 
 time and circumftances R'ould net- 
 admit of a formal harangue, the 
 General went through the ranks, 
 and called each by his name, put- 
 ting them in mind of their courage 
 upon former occalions, mentioning 
 the victories thev had won, and 
 making promifes of plunder. 
 
 Alt A R. Altars were oftwo kinds, 
 the higher and the lower; the 
 higher were intended for the cclcf- 
 tial Gods, and were called altaria 
 from altus ; the lower were for the 
 terrejirial and infernal Gods, and 
 were called ara. Tkofe dedicated 
 to the heavenly Gods were raifed 
 a great height above the furfacc of 
 the earth; Thofe of the tcrrellrial 
 Gods were almoft even with the 
 furface, and thofe for the infernal 
 deities were only holes dug in tlu," 
 ground calledyfrff^/c-/;/,-. 
 
 The altars at firft were formed 
 of turf, but afterwards confiiled of 
 ftone, marble, wood, and even, 
 fometlmes of horn, as that 0^ Apollo 
 at Delos. Some were round, fom.e 
 fquare, and fome oval. All of 
 them turned towards the call, were 
 placed lower than the images of 
 the Gods, and were ornamented 
 with branches and leaves of fucit 
 trees as were facred to the deities to 
 whom the altars were confccrated. 
 Sec Trees. 
 
 Before temples were in ufe the 
 altars were placed in the groves, 
 highways, or tops of mountains, 
 infcribed with the names, eniigns 
 cr characters of the rcfpedtivcGods 
 to whom they belonged. 
 
 The great temples at Rokc ge- 
 nerally contained three altars— the 
 lirftinthe fanetuary, at the foot 
 of the ilatue, for incenfe and liba- 
 tions — the fecond before the gate 
 of the temple, for the facrifices of 
 victim:; and the third was a portr 
 able one for the offerings and fa- 
 cred vcftraer.ts or vcffeis to lie 
 uDon. 
 
Alt 
 
 AMB 
 
 The ancients ufed tor.vcarupon 
 tke altars upon folcmn occallons, 
 fuch as confirming alliances, tfea- 
 tles of peace, &c. They were alfo 
 places of refuge, and ferved as an 
 tijylum and fan-fluary tw all who 
 lied to them, whatever their crimes 
 were. 
 
 The principal altars amongfithc 
 Je^dos were thofe of ir.cenfc, of 
 burnt-offering, an«i the altar or ta- 
 ble for the ihew-bread. 
 
 The altar of incenfe was a fmall 
 table oijhittlm wood covered with 
 plates of gold. It was a cubit 
 long, a cubit broad, and two cubits 
 high. At the four corners were 
 tour horns. 
 
 The pricl^, whofe turn it was to 
 Oilciate, burnt incenfe on this al- 
 tir, at the time of morning facri- 
 iice between the fprinkling of the 
 blood and the laying of the pieces 
 of the vidim on the altar of burnt 
 offering. He did the fame alfo in 
 the evening, between the laying of 
 the pieces on the altar, and the 
 drink offering. At the fame time 
 the people prayed in fiiencc, and 
 their pravers were offered up by 
 die priefts. Coll.faa-. intcrp. 
 
 The altnr of burnt-offering was 
 c( Jhitiim wood alfo, and .carried 
 upon the fhouldcrs of the priefls, 
 by ftaves of the fame wood over- 
 laid with brafs. In M(5/?j'jdays it 
 was five cubits fquare and three 
 high, but it was greatly enlarged 
 in the days oi Solomon, being twenty 
 cubits fquare, and ten in height. 
 It was covered with brafs, and had 
 a horn at each corner to which the 
 facriiice was tied. 7 his altar v/as 
 placed in the open air, that the 
 fmoke might not fully the infide of 
 the tabernacle or temple. 
 
 On this altar the holy fire was 
 renewed from time to time, and 
 kept conltantly burning. Hereon, 
 likewifc, thefacrifices of lambsand 
 bullocks were burnt, efpecially a 
 
 l7.rr.b every morning at the third 
 hour, or nine of the clock, and a 
 lamb every afternoon, at three, 
 Exod. XX. 24, 25. xxvii. 1,2,4. 
 xxxviii. I. The altar of burnt 
 offering had the privilege of being 
 a fanftuary or place of refuge. The 
 wilful murderer, indeed, fought 
 proteclion there in vain, for by the 
 cxprefs command of God he might 
 be dragged to jufdce, even Irom 
 the altar. See J/jlum. 
 
 The altar or tabic of facw- 
 bread was of fhittim wood alfo, co- 
 vered with plates of gold, and had 
 a border round it, adorned with 
 fculpture. It was two cubits long, 
 one wide, and one and an half in 
 height. This table Hood in the 
 Sandum Sanfiorum, and upon it were 
 placed the loaves of fliew-bread. 
 See She^.v -bread. 
 
 After the return of the Jc^jcs 
 from their captivity and the build- 
 ing of the fecond temple, the form 
 and fize of the altars were fomc- 
 vvhat changed. 
 
 Ambarvalia, was a ceremony 
 amongll the Ro7rM7is, performed 
 with a view to procure from the 
 Gods a plentiful harvcft. 
 
 The a;nbar-unlia were fometimes 
 of a private nature, and managed 
 by the mafter of a family — fome- . 
 times they v/ere public, and per- 
 formed by the priefts called Tratres 
 Ar-vales. See Arm ales Fr aires. 
 
 The ceremony was performed 
 by leading the viflims, amidlt a 
 concourfc of peafen's, three times 
 round the corn fields in proccffion, 
 before the facrificc. 
 
 The viclims were a fov/, a lliecp 
 and a bull, whence the whole was 
 caUsd Suo-vetauri/ia, and the facri- 
 ficc was to Ceres. 
 
 This feftival was held twice in 
 the year, at the end of January or 
 in April, as fome fay ; and the fe- 
 cond time in the month of July, 
 but there is no certainty as to the 
 day. 
 
A MB 
 
 A MB 
 
 *rhcy had different forms of 
 jsrayer upon this occafion, addref- 
 fed trt differenc Gods two of which 
 are given us in Ca/o de re rujitca, 
 chap. 142. 
 
 Ambassadors, re«e 'EmhaJJ'aJors. 
 Ambitus, an earnellfohcitation 
 to get into fome magiftracy or of- 
 fice of ftatc. It properly fignifies 
 what we mean by canvalHng, that 
 is, going formally round the city 
 to folicit the votes and interefl of 
 the people againft the eleclion.— 
 The candidates did not only apply 
 to their acquaintance and friends, 
 but took aling with them certain 
 perfons called Nomenclatores or In- 
 terpretes, who were remarkable for 
 their extenfive acquaintance; thefe 
 were to fugg-lt the names of the 
 citizens, that they might make, by 
 this mean's, a perfonal application 
 to all they met. 
 
 The Romans made it- a crime to 
 folicit with fo much eagernefs as 
 to offer extraordinary gifts, to make 
 ufe of threats, or to have recourfe 
 to violence. Several laws were 
 made to prevent undue influence, 
 and to punifh thole who were 
 guilty in this refpecl. The Tullian 
 law, for inftance, fo called from 
 Tully^ in whofe confullliip it was 
 made, forbad the canoiJates to 
 bellow any comOati of gladiators 
 on the people, to make any public 
 feaft, or to cauie thcmlelves to be 
 followed by a crowd of rherts for 
 two years before itiey offered them- 
 felves for a place of public truft. — 
 Senators who tranigreffed this law 
 weie punifned with ten vears ba- 
 nilhment, and others were fined 
 and forever rendered incapable of 
 any dignity. But, no-withltand- 
 ing thefe precautions, bribery nnd 
 corruption encreafed to a moft 
 enormous degree, as is evident 
 from feveral of the orations of 
 Cicero. 
 
 Ambrosia, the food which the 
 
 poets both Greek and Roman fup- 
 pole the Gods to regale themrclv'e5 
 with in heaven. But after all the 
 fine things faid by the poets in 
 praife of l^eclar and Ambrofia^ it 
 does not appear that they were in 
 faft fo excellent as they reprefent 
 them, iince the Gods ufed often 
 to leave them for the blood and fat 
 of victims, which they were fup- 
 pofed to fuck froin the altars with 
 all the greedincfs of thirfly flies. 
 See Neciar. 
 
 AmbroJiaviM fo called becaufe it 
 was fuppoied to render th^fe im- 
 mortal v/ho fed upon it, and to 
 aniwer the double end of food and 
 phvfic. 
 
 Ambubai..^, immodell women, 
 who came from Syria to RomCy 
 mentioned by Horace, and fo de- 
 nominated frsm the Syriac word 
 abbuh, which fignifies a flute : But 
 authors are not agreed as to the de- 
 rivation oi the word. However 
 they lived by proftitution and play- 
 ing on the flute. They likewife 
 fold paint for the faces of the fair 
 fex, who chofe to purchafe fuch 
 dctellable '.vare from fuch infamous 
 wretches. 
 
 A M B u L A T I o, is ufed by Pliny to 
 fignify a walk in a garden, or other 
 convenient place for taking exer- 
 cife. It differed a little from the 
 Xyjii, which were raifed abave the 
 walk or ambulatio, and are pro- 
 perly tranflated terraces. It dif- 
 fered alio from the Gejiatio, which 
 was appropriated to taking of ex- 
 ercife in their vehicles. See Xyjii 
 and Gejiatio. 
 
 Ambulatoria Coenais when 
 one difh as it were walks from one 
 end of the table to the other ; it is 
 a phrafe expreffive of frugality and 
 fimplicity, and is ufed in contra- 
 diftinftion to dubia ca;na, in which 
 there is fuch variety of difhes thar 
 the choice is fufpended and the 
 guefts, are doubtful what the^ 
 fhould eat, See Ccena. 
 
AMP 
 
 AMI* 
 
 Amburbium, aprocciTion made 
 by the Rqjkctis round the city and 
 Pornccrium. See Pomcsrium. 
 
 In this proceilion they led a vic- 
 llm, and afterwards iacrificed it, 
 to avert fome impending calamity 
 troiR the city. . 
 
 Scaliger infifts that the ambuc- 
 hium was the fame as the amba»-=vix- 
 ila ; but Sei-'viuj makes a difference, 
 iSce Amhar'valia. 
 
 Amentum was the thong which 
 che Rojnans tied about the middle 
 •of their darts orjavelins, faflening 
 it to the fore-fingej- that they might 
 ^raw back the weapon after the 
 difcharge. They thought too that 
 it fcrved to enforce the blow. See 
 Darts. 
 
 Amentum is alfo the name of the 
 latchet by which their fandals 
 were faftened. See Sandals. 
 
 Am ICTUS wis any upper gar- 
 ment worn by the Romans over the 
 tunica. See 'Tunica and Habit. 
 
 Amiculum, an upper garment 
 worn by the Roman ladies, fome- 
 thing different from the palla, as 
 we are informed by Li'vy ; but in 
 what refpeft it differed from it is 
 hot certain. It isfuppofed to have 
 been Ihorter thaii the palla. Sec 
 Pal/a and Habit. 
 
 The Amiculum was indifferently 
 XVorn by matrons and courtezans. 
 
 When it is ufed to fignify a part 
 of the drefs of men, We are to fup- 
 pofe it different from the amiStus, 
 and hearly refembling the chlamys 
 ox paluddmentum. See Chlamys and 
 Paludamentum. 
 
 AM?nictyONS, an afTemblf 
 compofed of deputies from the dif- 
 ferent ftates of Greece^ and refem- 
 bling in fome meafuJ-e the diet of 
 the German empire. 
 
 -Authors give different accounts 
 of the number of the Amphiciyonst 
 ^s well as of the ftates who were 
 entitled to fend reprefentatives to 
 this council. They appear from 
 
 good authority, to have been twelve 
 at their firft inlVitution, and feilt 
 by the following cities and llatct, 
 the lonians, Dorians, Perheebiafltf 
 Barotians, Magnejians, Achisaks, 
 Phihianst Melia?ts, Dolcpians, JBni- 
 anians, Dtlphi-ans arid Phocaans.'^ 
 Biit in proccfs of time, man/ 
 changes took place, fome cities 
 were excluded and others taken in 
 their Head. 
 
 According to Antoninus Pius, the 
 council of x\\& AmphiSlyons remain- 
 ed entire in his time, and wasithen 
 augmented to thirty. 
 
 It was ufual for each city to fend 
 two members, under different de- 
 nominations. One was called Hie- 
 romnenion, and was t(> take care to 
 infpecl; what related to facrifices 
 and religious ceremoiiies. He was 
 choicn by lot. The other was 
 called Pylagoras, and chofcn by a 
 majority of voices. His office was 
 to hear and decide caufes and dif- 
 putes between private perfons.-— 
 Both of tkefe members had a right 
 to deliberate and vote in matters 
 that concerned the common ih- 
 tererts of Greece. 
 
 The Amphidyoiis hiet regular!}' 
 at Delphi, twice a year, viz. in 
 fprihg and autumn, and determined 
 all matters of difference betv/cen 
 any of the Grecian Hates, their de- 
 cifions being regarded as faered 
 and inviolable. 
 
 AMPHiDROMiA,coiiftituted fart 
 of the laftration of infants. It was 
 performed by the raidvvivcSjOn the: 
 Hfth day after the birth, and con- 
 fifted in running with the infants 
 in their arms round the hearth, and 
 by this means entering them, as it 
 were into the family. See Infants. 
 
 AmphipfiI, Grecian foldiers 
 who made ufc of two horfes with- 
 out laddies, and had fo much agi- 
 lity as to be capable of vaulting 
 and leaping from one to the other. 
 
 AMPHiPR.oR.fE, veffels with a 
 £ , prow 
 
AMP 
 
 ANit 
 
 |irow at each end, which moved 
 lilce the fabled Amphijlana. They 
 were ufcd moft commonly in con 
 fined or rapid rivers and narrsw 
 channels, where there was a diffi- 
 culty of turning or lacking about. 
 
 Amphitheatre, a large build- 
 ing amongil the Romans, where the 
 . people uled to fit and behold the 
 combats of Gladiators, of wild 
 beafts, and other exhibitions. 
 
 Amphitheatres VJQxe either round 
 or oval; they were fo called be- 
 <*aufe they are equal to two theatres' 
 {which were femi-clrdular build- 
 'ingi) joined together. They were 
 at hrft'oniy of wood, but Siatilius 
 "Taurusy in the reign of Jugujtus, 
 l)uilt one for the firft time of ilone. 
 They contained a number of feats 
 jifmg one above ano,ther. The 
 principal parts of an' Amphitheatre 
 were the arer.a the cwvea, and the 
 <podium. Sec Arer.a Podium, and 
 Cai'ca. 
 
 The rows of benches were above 
 x\iQ podium. Their figure was cir- 
 cular, and they- were entered by 
 iivenues, at the end of which were 
 gates called Fcmitorii-c. 
 
 Amphora was both a Grecian 
 and Reman meafure. As a liquid 
 ^eafure it contained torty-eight 
 Jextarii, i. e. about fevcn gallons 
 one pint of our wine meafure. 
 
 As a dry meafure amongH:- the 
 . Pjimans it contained three buJhels. 
 See Meafure. 
 
 Ampliation amongft the R.o- 
 mans was the deferring to pafs fen- 
 tcncc in certain caufes. This tlte 
 judge did by pronouncing the word, 
 ^wiflit'-s; or by writing N. L. for 
 4ion liquet, fignifying that the caufc 
 was not clear, and therefore far- 
 ther evidence was required. 
 
 Ampulla, a velTel ufcd in the 
 Ro7Tw.n baths. Its ufe was to con- 
 tain oil for anointing the body — it 
 •was big-bellied, like a bottle. — A 
 cup of the fame name for drinking 
 
 but of at table, was likewifc in 
 ufc, madcfqmetimcs of lcather,but 
 moftly of glafs. 
 
 Amulet, a charm or fuppofed 
 prefervative againildifeafes, witch- 
 craft, or any other mifchief. 1 hey 
 were very frequent amongil the 
 jfeivs,^ the Greeks, and the Remans, 
 and were made of ftone, metal, 
 fimples, anidial fubftances, or, in 
 fhort, any thing which a weak 
 imagination faggefled. The Je^vs 
 were very fupcrilitious in the ufe 
 of amulets, and the Mifna forbids 
 them, unlefs received from fome 
 perfon of whofe cures, at leaft, 
 three irrftances could be produced. 
 The PhylaSteriss iw^Y be confidercd 
 in this light, as worn by the Pha- 
 rifees and others of the Jevjifi 
 nation. 
 
 Amulets amongft t\it.Greeh\vtxt. 
 called ^v}\ai{lyjcia, TTt^iaTrla, utto- 
 l^heafxcila, Trspia/x^ioP^a, ^^r.^ia^ arid 
 £i;«oA7r(a. The Latins called them 
 Amuleta, Appenfa, Pentacula, l^c. 
 
 Amystis, a large cup, ufed 
 both amongft the Greehs andRomans' 
 at their entertainments, which was 
 to be drank without any interme- 
 diate refpiration. When a perfon- 
 had performed this beaftly exploit, 
 the company ufed to applaud him 
 with much zeal in this form- 
 Z^jtrna; long may you live. Ho- 
 race makes mention of this cup in 
 one of bis odes, with the epithet 
 Threici a, which marks itj origin }. 
 and indeed it was a mode <?: drink- 
 ing much better fuitcd to barbarous ' 
 nations fuch as 1hrr.ce or Scy'hic, 
 than the polite Romans ^t ftill pO' 
 liter Greeks. Sec Dritdi!.g. 
 
 Anabathra, amongft the an- 
 cicnts, were a kind of ftone blocks 
 raifed by the highway fides to affift 
 travellers in mounting their horfes 
 or difmounting, before the ufe ot 
 ftirrups. The firft author of this 
 contrivance among the Rsfnans was 
 C, Gracclfus. the brother of Tiberiuv. 
 
 Atta^ 
 
ANA 
 
 Anaiathra is alio ufed to fignifv 
 the ranges of feats in the theatres 
 and other publick buifeiiQgs, rifing 
 gradually one above another. 
 
 An ABASH were expeditiouscou- 
 Ticrs, mc-iTengers or pofts that tra- 
 velled upon errands of importance, 
 and were the carriers of difpatches 
 cf confcquence. They were con- 
 vcvcd from place to place on horfe- 
 back, or in carriages. Sec Pojl. 
 
 Anaboleus was an equery or 
 groom of the flablcs, whofe office 
 was to aiTill his niafter in getting 
 upon horfeback ; for as the An- 
 cieats ufed no Stirrups as we do, 
 •they either took advantage of a ri- 
 iing ground, or jumped upon the 
 backs of their horfes, or were afitft- 
 ed by one of the Anaholci. 
 
 Anacalypteria, Feflivals a- 
 lEongll the Greeks, held on the day 
 "that the bride was allowed to take 
 oft"and lay afide her veil : The third 
 •day after the marriage was the time 
 ■wlien the bride firft appeared un- 
 veiled. See Marriage. 
 
 It was cultomary, on the third 
 -day of the marriage, to make pre- 
 ients to the new married lady, which 
 were alfo called Jnacalspteria. 
 
 Anacea, an Athenian feftival 
 in honour oi t\\cDiofairiy or Cajior 
 and Pollux, who were called Ana- 
 ct: or avaKii. The facriiices on this 
 cccafion were called Heyjcr^oi, be- 
 caufe thcfe deities were ftrangers, 
 or Hfvcj : They conlirted of three 
 offerings named T^iTuzj. Plays were 
 frequently acled during the So- 
 lemnity. 
 
 Anacleteria was a feftival a- 
 mongft the ancients, celebrated 
 Avhcn their Kings or Princes came 
 of age, a©^ took upon therafelves 
 the cares cf government. It v/as 
 fo named bccaufe notice was ufually 
 given of this event to tbe people, 
 by proclamation, that they might 
 •go and falutc them, and pay the 
 compliments fuitablc :o the ccca- 
 
 AN A 
 
 fiqn. This was obfefvcdin aVl tht 
 regal ftates of Gr«fc^. ^ 
 
 An'aclinopale, a kind ot 
 wreltling amongll the Athkt^ ot 
 Greece, in which the combatant:; 
 threw thcmfclvci down on purpoie- 
 and continued the fight upon the 
 .ground by pinching biting, fcratca- 
 ing, and any other method of de- 
 ftroying the enemy. See Wrfpir.g. 
 
 Anacf.isis, am'orgft the Ather.i- 
 ,atn, was an examination of the new 
 eleftsd Archcns, i^ the foruviy 
 with refpeft to fcveral ^particulars 
 relative to their qualifications : Af- 
 ter which each of the Archjins 
 took an oath in thefe words ;' I 
 will b,e pur.aual in the obfervance 
 of the laws; and, if I am deiicient 
 in this refped, I will, for every 
 fuch default, confccrate a ftatue of 
 gold, as big as myfclf, .to the Del- 
 phiav. Apollor This Examination 
 was part of the Docimajia. See 
 Docimafia, Archcn. 
 
 Anagkosta was a fervant kept 
 by families of diftiRflion, whole 
 office was to read to them at meals, 
 or whenever they had leifure t» 
 liuen to him. The qualifications 
 of this fervant were a confiderable 
 fliare xif learning, clearnefs ot voice, 
 propriety of pronunciation, anc\ 
 good accent. 
 
 The Anagnofiee were in great cre- 
 dit under tlie ILm^crov Cla'jdiut. 
 
 Analecta was a fervant a- 
 mongft the Romans^ who took ap 
 the fragments and gathered the ofF- 
 falls of the table, after an enter- 
 tainment. 
 
 Anathema in the fcriptures, 
 iigniiies fomething fet apart as la- 
 cred, feparated for holy ufes, de- 
 voted to the Lord. It is generally 
 underftood to denote the cutting oft 
 or feparating any one from the com- 
 munion of the faith, the numberot 
 the living, or the privileges of fo- 
 ciety ; or the devoting any animal, 
 city, or athcr thing to deftru'^ion- 
 E 2 Ar.adema 
 
ANC 
 
 ANG 
 
 Anathema was a fpecies of ^.v- 
 Commnmcaiiqn amonglt the Jeixs, 
 ■and often praclifed after tl>ey had 
 lo'^ the power of life and death, 
 againft thofe perfons who, accord- 
 ing to the Mofaic law, ought to 
 have been executed. A criminal, 
 after the (tnzznccoi excommunication 
 was pronounced, became anathema : 
 And they had a full pcriuafion that 
 the fentence would not be in vain ; 
 but that God woyld interfere to 
 punilh the offender in a manner 
 iimilar to the penalty of the law of 
 Mvfes: A man for initance whom 
 the law condemned to be floned, 
 would be killed, they believed, by 
 the falling of a flonc upon him ; a 
 man to be hangCfJ, would be choak- 
 cd : and one whom the law fcn- 
 tenced to the flames, would be 
 burnt in his houfe, ^-c. Maran- 
 iitha, a Syriac word fignifying the 
 Lord Cometh, was added to the fen- 
 tfnce, to exprefs their perfuafion 
 that the Lord would come to take 
 vengeance upon that guilt v/hich 
 they, circumftanced as they were, 
 liad not the power to punilh. — Se- 
 veral pathetic allufions are found 
 in St. Paul's cpilllcs, both to the 
 laft fenfe of the word, and to the 
 others aifo. See Maran-atba and 
 Bxccmmunication. 
 
 Ancyle is the name of a fhield, 
 that was fuppofed to have fallen 
 down from heaven in the reign of 
 Numa Pompilius, and dropt into his 
 hands, a voice at the fame time 
 declaring that the fafety and prof- 
 perity of the city depended upon 
 their preferving this Ihield. This 
 waspublicly reported and the whole 
 country of Italy, which at that 
 . time was wafted by a peftilence, 
 received comlort from the report, 
 and recovered from their drooping 
 ftate of defpondency. The better 
 to preferve this target, Numa Pom- 
 tjlias was advifed by his female 
 Ifriendjthc goddefs .C'^fr/^, lo nuke 
 
 eleven others like it, to prevent the 
 difcovery oC-the true one. Eleven 
 others were accordingly made by 
 Veturius Mainwius, fo like the di- 
 vine original, that I^iuma himfclt 
 could not make the dillinclion. 
 They were of an oval form, with 
 fevcral folds or plaits clofing one 
 over another, and fitted the elbow 
 exadly. To preferve theic pre- 
 cious fhields, Numa inftituted an 
 order of prielts, czW^ASalii, con- 
 fifting of twelve, which was equal 
 to the number of the Ancylia they 
 were appointed to take care of. See 
 Salii. 
 
 The5^/r7 carried t\\zA):cyIia every 
 year in proceffion round the city, 
 on the firll of March, which was a 
 folenin feftival called by the name 
 of Mamuralia, Ludi Saliares, Ancy 
 liorujn Fejium, fjfc. See Ludi Sa- 
 liares. 
 
 ANDABATiE 3 foTt o{ Gladiators 
 who fought hoodwinked, with an 
 helmet that covered their eyes ; 
 they engaged on horfeback or in 
 chariots. Hence Andabatarummon 
 fugnare, among the Latins, figni- 
 fics to fight blindfold. See Gladi-r 
 ators. 
 
 Androlepsy, an aflion at lav/ 
 allowed by the Athenians againft 
 fnch as protccled perfons guilty of 
 murder. The relations of the dc- 
 ccafed were allowed by this to fcizc 
 three men in the city or houfe to 
 which the malefaftor had fled, till 
 he were either furrcndered, or fa- 
 tisfaftion made fome other way for 
 the murther. See Murther. 
 
 Angel nfually figniiies a fpiric *' 
 employed by God to execute his 
 commiffions. Angels arc fuppofed 
 to be the Agents that the Deity 
 niakes ufe of in the government of 
 the world. The word Angel de- 
 notes, in its proper fenfe, a mcf- 
 fenger, and probably ought to be 
 fo tranllated in two or three places 
 in, ths New Tcftament ; where it 
 
 ^ocs 
 
ANG 
 
 ANN 
 
 docs not appear that any celeftiar 
 meil'cngcr, (which the word An- 
 gel is generally undcrftood to 
 mean,) is intended. 
 
 The priciU of the Je^jiifi church 
 are fomer.iines called Angels, bc- 
 caufe they bring the commands of 
 God to the people, and carry or 
 otFer up their prayers to the Deity. 
 Malachin. y. The bifhops of the 
 churches of -(^a arc lilxwile called 
 Angels Rcu. i. 20. ii. 8. iii. I . The 
 term Angel, as lignifying Rlcffcn- 
 ger, is alio applied tomen, Janes 
 ii, 25. Lukew'x, 24. ix, 52. Some 
 alio think we may add Afts xii. 15. 
 /\nd the pafTage in i. Cor. xi. 10, 
 is fuppofed, on no inconfiderable 
 authority, to refer to the fpies fent 
 into chrillian allemblies, to e.xpofe 
 to their enemies any indecencies 
 obfervablc amongil them, in order 
 to cxpofe and diilrefs them. 
 
 The Jti.<:ijh Rabl'uis have fcveral 
 whimfical conceits concerning .:/>;- 
 gch, and divide them into manv 
 different orders or clafles, without 
 any ether foundation than a wild 
 imagination, and a prcpofterouslove 
 of hypothefis. There arc various 
 opinions concerning the time when 
 the Angels were created ; each per- 
 fon fupporting his ou'n opinion 
 with the moil ridiculous and far- 
 fetched arguments. 
 
 As to their office and employ- 
 ment, fome are faid to prefidc over 
 empires, nations, provinces, cities, 
 anu paiticular perfons — theie laii 
 jirc i\iled guardian angels. Though 
 Mofes gives us no account of i3wg-t'/.f, 
 yet in other parts of the holy fcrip- 
 tares, we learn, ihatthey were part 
 of God's Creation; that thev are his 
 minifters which Hand before him, 
 to adore and honor him, and to do 
 his pleafiire; that they are fent 
 forth to mini iter to the niernbcrs 
 of the church of God, to affift and 
 refcue them in times of danger, and, 
 at their deaili, gond^uCl their foy.ls 
 
 to Paradife. Pfalm clxviii. 2, 5, 
 Ifa. vi. 2, 3. Dan. vii. 10.' Pfalm^ 
 ciii. 21. Heb. i. 4. Dctn. v\ 22. 
 A^sx'n.n^ Lukex\\. 22. We arc 
 informed alfo, that many of thefe 
 w!gcls fell from their happy flute, 
 by finning againil God, and be- 
 came the enemies and tempters of 
 mankind, 2 Pet. ii. 4. Jude 6. Epbes. 
 ii. 2. v, 12. Sec Dc^il, Daemon. ' * 
 
 We read o[ the Angel of death, ' 
 the deflroying Angel, Sic. which 
 being literally taken by the fupcr- 
 flitious, help to defend the wildcfl 
 hypothefis ; whereas if we tranfiare 
 the phrafes, mclfenger of death, 
 meficnger of dcfi.ru rtion, they will 
 fignity only fome fevere difordcr, 
 or alarming iniljftion. V 
 
 Animauviirsio in the Roman 
 judicature, was the putting in exe- 
 cution the fcntencc pronounced by 
 tl'.e court. This vras left always to 
 the care and mnnagement of'thc,'' 
 Pr.ttor. See Judgment and Procter. 
 
 AxNALEswere a chronological' 
 account of the remarkable cventr. 
 
 of a ilate from year to year r 1 
 
 whereas hiilor^ dcfcants'upon tliofc 
 events, and upon the caufes v.hich 
 produced them. It was allowed- 
 to none but the prieil?, in the in- 
 fancy cf Rome, to write the annals 
 of that Hate, from which circum- . 
 fiance they v.'cre called Aiu-.rda 
 Iyla::imi becaufe they Were- confe- 
 cratcd^ by the Poutifcx Mn.vimus, \» 
 and thus obtained their authen- ' ^ 
 ticity. 
 
 Annalis J.EX. The law a- 
 mongll the Romans, which pre- 
 fcribcd the age at which perfons 
 might be promoted to ofiiccs cf 
 flate. No man could be made a 
 Knight under eighteen, nor.cbtaiii 
 the Canfuijhip under twenty-five. 
 The Rotna7is borrowed this lawfrom 
 the Athenians. 
 
 Annalis C/rfi;;.'i. The nail which 
 
 th^ Prater, ' Conful, or Ditlatar, 
 
 drove into the wall cf J-.-.piter: 
 
 ' :en:u:^ 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 temple annually upon the He: of 
 September., to fhew the number of 
 \ vears. But this cuftam was fupcr- 
 <V fcded by reckoning years by Cc?/- 
 Jvljhipi, — The ceremony was Ibme- 
 tinies performed to avert the 
 plague, &c. See Dictators, NaiL, Ig- 
 norance. 
 Annulus. Sec the article 7?/;/g-j. 
 An Nils. So-cTear. 
 Anser. Sec the article Gocfe. 
 • Antecoenium amonglt the 
 ,.< Greek! and Romans, was the firft 
 courfe, or rather a preparation for 
 iupper, eonfifting of herbs of the 
 iharpeft taftc, eggs, oylters. Sec. 
 The Greeks called it WpotuTrvov .— 
 *■ ^ See Ccena. 
 
 ' Antecursores aparty ofhorfe 
 aetached from the main body to 
 get intelligence, provifions, &c. or 
 £o chufc a proper place for the 
 camp. They were fometiraes called 
 Antecejfores, and by the Greeks, Pra- 
 Jromi. 
 
 Antes I GN AN I, according to 
 
 Lipf^iis, were foldiers in the Roman 
 
 ^rinics placed before the ftandards, 
 
 *"• * whofe duty it was to defend them. 
 
 The word is ufcd in Ctcfar and 
 
 Li-jy to fignify the firft line or .%ft 
 
 body of heavy-armed troops. The 
 
 Velites are alfo called by" this name, 
 
 ^ wh'cn they ufed to fkirmilh before 
 
 " the army. See Velites. 
 
 Antestari, fignifies to bear 
 ivitnefs againft any one who re- 
 "X^fufed to make his appearance in the 
 "Roman courts of judicature, on th« 
 day appointed and according to the 
 tenor of his bail. The plaintifr", 
 hnding the defendant after fuch a 
 breach of his engagement, was al- 
 lowed to carry him into court by 
 force, having tiril aiked any of the 
 perfons prefent to bear witnefs. — 
 The pcrfon afked to bear witncfs in 
 this cafe, exprcfied his confent by 
 turning his right ear, which was in- 
 ftantly taken hold of by the plaintifl;", 
 *'*aud this was to anfvver the end of a 
 
 fabpcena. The car was touchtd 
 upon this cccaiion, fays Pliny, as 
 being the feat of memory, and there- 
 fore the ceremony was a fort ot cau- 
 tion to the party to reir.or.ber his 
 engagement. See Ailio, Trial. 
 
 A N T 11 E ST E R I A was an Athenian 
 fcltival in honor of Bacchus, kept 
 on the eleventh, twelfth, and thir- 
 teenth days of the month Anthejle- 
 rion. The firft day ofthcfcallwas 
 called Pithoigia, becaufc on that 
 day they tapped their barrels ; the 
 fccond was named Chces, from the 
 liquid mcafurc Choa, becaufc on 
 that day each man drank out of his 
 oxvn veffel, as much as he pleafed i 
 on this day they ufually rode in 
 chariots; being, I fuppofe, through 
 drunker.ncfs, unable to walk; in 
 the mean time they fported with, 
 abufed, and jefted upon all that 
 paffed by them. The third day 
 they termed Chytri, from ^vloa^^oi 
 ot;, kettle, becaufe now they brought 
 out and oiFered to ^lercury a large 
 pot or kettle full of all forts of 
 pulfe and feeds, which, by the by, 
 they did nDt eat, on account of 
 their being facrcd to Mercury the 
 Infernal. During this feillval, ther 
 flaves were allowed by their m af- 
 ters to make merry and indulge 
 themfelves in the fame manner a^ 
 the Roma7i flaves at the Saturnalia, 
 See Saturnalia. 
 
 Anxhesterion was the fixth 
 month of the Athenian year, con- 
 fiding of twenty-nine days, and 
 anfvvcring to the latter part of our 
 November and beginning of De- 
 cember. This month was fo call- 
 ed from the feaft Anthejleria above 
 defcribed. 
 
 Antigrai-he, amongft the Athe- 
 nians, was an action at law about re- 
 lations, whereby a perfon claimed 
 kindred to fuch or fach a family. 
 
 Antipelargia, a law among 
 the ancients, whereby children 
 \yers obliged to furnifh ncccfiarics 
 
 X'i 
 
AV-Ct 
 
 APO 
 
 tt» tKeir aged parents, in imitation 
 of the Stork ; hence, in fomc l;uin 
 writers, it is tranflatcd Lex dcona)-ia, 
 or the Stork's law. 
 
 Antiqjjo, fignifies to forbid a 
 livv to paf^, and is ufed in allufion 
 to the cuftom of giving to each pcr- 
 ibn, at the Roman Coinitia, two 
 tablets, one marked U. R. tor uti 
 rogas, ke it as ycu ^^dll, the other 
 h . for atittquo, or antiquum lolo, I 
 forbid it, or more properly, I am 
 for the old laiv. See CcKitia.^ Ro- 
 gatio, lanjo. 
 
 Apaturia, an Athenian fcuival 
 celebrated in Odlober, in lionourof 
 Bacchus, Jupiter, and Minerva, on 
 •which occaiion young men and wo- 
 men indulged themfelves in various 
 fports and paftimcs, which were of 
 fcvcral days continuance. 
 
 Apex, was a ditched cap forae- 
 what reiembling an helmet with 
 the addition of a little flick fixed 
 on the top, and wound about with 
 white wool, properly belonging to 
 the F I amine s. See Flamen. 
 
 ApHRACTi, in the maritime af- 
 fairs of the Greeks and Romam,\szxt 
 open vefTels without decks. 
 
 Aphhodisia, the name cffeve- 
 ral fefrivals in honour of Veins, the 
 moH remarkable of which was that 
 at Cyprus. At this folcmnity feve- 
 ral myftericus rites were performed 
 All who were initiated oiiered a 
 piece of money to the Goddels as 
 an Harlot, and received, in re- 
 turn, a meafure of Salt, and a 
 ^«^>i05 J the fair, hecaufe fhe was 
 bora of the fea j and the ^a?.M)j, 
 becaufe (he was the Goddcfs of 
 v/antorinefs. 
 
 Apodvtep.ium, a ftripping- 
 room where- peopl-e drelfed and 
 undrciTed at the entrance of the 
 ancient baths. 
 
 AfollinaresLW/', wercgames 
 celebrated annually by the Roynans 
 in honour ol Apollo. They were 
 inllitutcd bj^ commaad of aa opa- 
 
 CiC contained in a poem cafaaljy 
 tound, which required -them, if 
 they widied to drive out their ene- 
 mies, who then infefted their bor- 
 ders, to celebrate yearly games in , , 
 honour oi Apollo, and make a col- 
 Icftion for the God, out of the 
 public and private ilock. They 
 were firft held in the year of Ramr. 
 54a. The Pr^/fi;- had the dircclion 
 oi them, and ten men were appoint- 
 ed to fee that the ficriiices upon 
 the occafioa were performed after 
 \\\t Grecian manner. The fupcr- 
 flicious fears of the Regans and the 
 preyalcnceofa dellroying pcftilence 
 juft after the fatal battle of Carnui: 
 very probably fir:1: gave birth to , 
 thefe games. 
 
 The day for the celebration of 
 thcfc games w-as fi,xcd at the difcrc- 
 tion of the Prcstor till the year of 
 the city 545, when a law palfed to 
 fettle them for ever on a conitant' 
 day, which was near the nones ci" 
 of July. 
 
 Apollonia, a feiiival facred to 
 Apollo at ^'Egialea, in-wliich certaia 
 bfflys and girls marched in procef- 
 fion, entreating Appollo and Diana 
 to come to their city. 
 
 Apophoreta, among the an- 
 cients, were prefcnts made to the ■ 
 guefts at entertainments, which 
 they carried away with them. — 
 Vefpafan ['?.vc Apophoreta to the 
 ir.=n ;it tiic Saturuelia, and to the 
 women on tiie caUjids cf IVIarch. ■., 
 
 Apostle in the nev/ telta- 
 ment fignifies one cominifTioned' 
 by Jcfus Chrif: himfelf to preach 
 hisgoipcl, and propagate his re- 
 ligion in the world. Our Lora- 
 invciled twelve of hi^ difciplcs- 
 with the apolllefliip, in allufion- 
 perhaps to the twelve Patriarchs^ 
 They were endowed with the gift 
 of languages, and a pov/er of 
 working miracles, both of which 
 were abfolutely neceffary for the 
 eilabliflimcnt of chriltisnity in the 
 world. . 
 
APO 
 
 APP 
 
 world. It may be proper here to ob- 
 fcrvc, that there \vere two miifions 
 of Apoftlcs. Thc^rJiWastothcJews 
 onlyy as cliildren of the kingdom^ 
 the peculiar people, to whom the 
 •A*^ prumifes belonged. Their com- 
 •' , ir.iffion, at this time, did not extend 
 to the (jentiles or Samaritans; but 
 to publifh among the Jen^vs oily, 
 that the kingdom of Heaven, or 
 ., the time of the Mcjjiah. was at hand. 
 «^m Sec Mat. x. 5. Mark vi. 7. &c. Luke 
 ix. i. &c. When this miffion was 
 completed they gave their Lord an 
 accodnt of it. Theiry^foW miflion 
 ■was after Chrifi's refurreflion, and 
 in this Ko?;f were excluded, but they 
 were to go and teach all nations, 
 Jen-vs and Gentiles, without excep- 
 tion. M.^/. xxviii. 19. znA. JSis'i.B. 
 I Ihall here fet down the names and 
 badges of the Apojlles. 
 
 Peter, is painted with the keys ; 
 Paul, with a fwcrd ; Andre^jj with 
 a crofs ; 'James the greater with a 
 pilgrim's ftafF, and gourd -bottle ; 
 James the lefs with a fuller's pole ; 
 John, with a cup and winged ler- 
 pcnt flying oat of it ; Bartholome'i.v 
 with a knife ; Philip with a long 
 ilaff, the upper end of which is 
 , formed into a cfofs ; Thomas with 
 a lance ; Mattheiiv with a hatchet ; 
 Matthias with a battle-ax ; Sitncn 
 •with a faw ; zn^Juds with a club. 
 Apotheosis, a ceremony by 
 which the ancient Romans compli- 
 mented their Emperors and great 
 A mcnj aftcrtheir death, with a place 
 amongft the Gods. It is dcfcribed 
 by Herodian, and was as follows: 
 the real body being burnt accord- 
 ing to cuftom, an image of wax 
 was prepared, exaftly refcmbling 
 the deceafed. This image was 
 placed on an ivory couch, where 
 it lay for fevcn days, and was 
 made to look pale as if dangeroufly 
 ill. The Senate in mourning, and 
 the honourable matrons, in clofe 
 white veils to indicate their for- 
 
 row, fat in the mean time on each 
 fide the couch. The pfeyficiaiis 
 were every day adm.itted to fee the 
 waxen patient, and declared him, 
 every vifit, worfe and worfe^ At 
 ]aft when they fuppofed him dead, 
 a feleft company of young men, of 
 the Scnatorian order, carried the 
 couch with the image on their 
 fhouldcrs, through the 'via facra 
 to thcformn, and from thence to the 
 campus ?nartius, Vv-here it was de- 
 pofited upon an edifice in the form 
 of a pyramid. The couch being 
 thus placed, amidll a quantity of 
 fpices and other combuilibles, 
 which were contributed in great 
 profution by all who attended, the 
 Knights made a folemn proceflion 
 round the pile, in a meafure re- 
 fcmbling the Pyrrhic dance. Cha- 
 riots alio containing the images of 
 the mofl. illuftrious Romans of for- 
 mer ages, were driven round the 
 pile, by coach-men dreiTed in pur- 
 ple. This pomp being over, the 
 new Emperor with a torch fet fire 
 to the fabric, and the whole coh- 
 courfe of people aiTifted in lighting 
 it in feveral places. An eagle in 
 the mean time was let fly from tFte 
 top of the building, which mount- 
 ing in the airwith a fire-brand was 
 fuppofed to convey the foul of the 
 deceafed to heavenj arid thence- 
 forth he was ranked amongfl: the 
 Gods — This is the old Roman re- 
 ceipt for making Gods ! 
 
 Something like i\i.t Jpotheojis was 
 obfervcd amongft the Greeks alio. 
 The dead were complimented two 
 v/ays by them, for they vvere either 
 railed to the rank of heroes, or to 
 the higherorder of immortal Gods, 
 as their fefvices among mankind 
 deferved. 
 
 Apparel. SeeHaiit. 
 
 Apparitores, a general terrii, 
 comprehending all the attendants 
 and public fcrvants of the Roman 
 magillrates, fo called from the 
 
 word 
 
APP 
 
 AQU 
 
 vvord Jppa-reOf bccaafe they always 
 Hood ready to execute their infiflcr's 
 orders. The moll remarkable cf 
 thefe were the Scrila, Accerft, Frx- 
 cones Liclores, Viatcrcs, and the 
 Carnlfex', all which fee in their 
 proper places. 
 
 Applllatio, an appeal. The 
 Sempron'ian law fccured this privi- 
 lege to the Roman citizens, that 
 ihcy could not be capitally con- 
 
 poets, aiflors, &c. See Acclamatio. 
 April, the fecond month of 
 Romulus?, year, which confilled 
 only of ten months, and began in 
 March ; but it is the fourth ot" 
 hiitKa% year, which began in Ja- 
 nuary, and confilled of twelve 
 months. See the article Year. 
 
 Aqu^ et Ignis InterdiSiio. See 
 Exilium. 
 
 Aqueduct, certain channels. 
 
 I'ldedy but by the fuftrage of the formed at an amazing expence, for 
 
 people ; and in whatever province 
 
 they happened to refide, if the 
 
 Governor fhewed a difpofition to 
 
 condemn them to death, lofconrge, or 
 
 deprive them of their property, 
 
 they fad liberty to appeal from his 
 
 jurifdiction to the judgment of 
 
 the people. This law, which 
 
 was enaded under the republi- courfe of the channel, in many of 
 
 can form of government, conti- them, was fo wide that a man oit 
 
 tinned in force under the Empe- horfeback might ride through them, 
 
 rors; fo that if any freeman of and their vaults and arches were ia 
 
 7?oz^f thought himfelf ill ufed, and fome places log feet high. Some 
 
 aggrieved by the prefidents, in any make the ■nxxmhzToiaquednds four- 
 
 ot the provinces, he could by ap- teen, and fome reckon twenty; 
 
 conveying water to Rome. The 
 Romans were truly magnificent in 
 thefe works. Jppiiis Claudius is 
 iaid to have been the firft inventor 
 of them in the year of the city 441 . 
 The aqucdii&s were fometimes 
 cut through mountains for above 
 tortv miles together. Theconllant 
 
 peal remove his caufe to Rome, to 
 the determination of the Emperor. 
 A number of perfofts we are told 
 were delegated by Augufius, all of 
 confiilar rank, to receive the appeals 
 of the people in the provinces 
 
 but Frontinus, who was the over- 
 feer of thefe works, in the reign of 
 ISewa, fays there were only nine 
 in his time. The firft of thefe nine 
 was called Apfia Aqua, the fecond 
 Anio Vet us, the third Aqua Martia, 
 
 Thefe obiervations will explain the the fourth Tepula, the fifth Aqua 
 nature of St. Paul's appeal in the Julia, the fixth Aqua Virginis, the 
 
 afts of the apoftles 
 
 Applause was an artificial, 
 mufical kind of noifc, made by the 
 audience or fpeftators of plays or 
 other entertainments. It was per- 
 formed by the hands, in which 
 circumftance it diifered from the 
 Acclamatio. It was of three kinds, 
 viz. BombuSy Imbrices, and TeJ}^. 
 The firft was made by clapping 
 
 fcventh Alfetina, the eighth Aqua 
 Claudia, and the ninth Anio No'vus^ 
 Aqjjila, the Eagle, which waa 
 chofen by the Romans for their de- 
 vice in their ftandards. It was 
 generally of filver, fometimes o£ 
 gold. The eagle, Vegetius informs 
 us, was the proper enfign of the 
 Romans, but we meet with many 
 others in various authors. Every- 
 
 their hands, or fmacking their lips, legion, amongft the Romans, was 
 
 the fecond and third by beating 
 •founding veffels placed in the thea- 
 tres for that purpofe. Pcrfonswere 
 inftrufted to give applaufe with 
 ikill, and hired by vainglgrigus 
 
 divided into ten cohorts, and the 
 firft cohort of each legion always 
 had the eagle for its enfign. We 
 have a beautiful allufion to the 
 ^agky as the Roman enfign, in our 
 f Saviour's 
 
ARE 
 
 ARC 
 
 Saviour's Prophecy, of the Dcf- 
 triidtion oi Jenifalcm Ma/f. xxW. 
 zS. " For vvherefoevcr the Car- 
 cafe is, there fhall the Er.oles be ga- 
 thered together." By the carcafe 
 are meant the jews who were devot- 
 ed to Dcilrudion, and the Roiiuvi 
 .Army, by rcafon of their Enfign, 
 were the Eagles gathered to devour 
 them. The i?5OTfi?; Eagle was not 
 reprefented on a cloth or flag, but 
 was a figure in relievo of gold or 
 iilver borne on the top of a pike,hav-- 
 Ing a thunderbolt in its talan^. 
 This figure was fometimes wor- 
 Ihipped. See ^igndi 
 
 Ara. See Altar. 
 
 Arbiter, a kind ofjudgewhom 
 t.]\Q.PriStor appointed, in conjunc- 
 tion with others of the fame deno- 
 mination, to determine in fome 
 private caufes of no gre"t confe- 
 quence, and of eafy decifion. See 
 'judices . 
 
 Arbiter Vini, or Arhiter hi- 
 iendi, at the i^swiS?/ entertainments, 
 •^vas the toalt-maller. He was 
 jometimes called Rex 'vini, and 
 amongfl the Greeks <Tuix7:o<rta^x'^it 
 0aaiXsus, i^ahyog. He was cho- 
 len by the teili or tej/ereu; when 
 ihey made ufe of the /<r?/.', thatper- 
 jfon was elected who threw with 
 four tali four different faces or 
 numbers ; and when they ufed the 
 /f;j^f;-^ the three fi.\-es were the for- 
 tunate call. See Tali and Tejfer.v. 
 
 It was tlio buHnefs of the Arbiisr 
 lihendi to prefcribe to the company 
 the rules to be obferved in drink- 
 ino', and punifh at difcretion fuch 
 as did not conform to them. 
 
 lApfius mentions fifteen rules or 
 laws which were always in force, 
 the principal of which areas follow, 
 
 Vlv.ujn pur Urn, ■put urn, puer, infundlto. 
 A Su7::!!io ad itnian more viajonim 
 
 bihunto. 
 Decern Cyathi ft'.mma poiio funto. 
 Mufti nomtm, dicumum Apollini li' 
 
 ban to. 
 
 Tiami'iium Jt quis hahsjjit, i/idicium 
 
 facito. 
 Rixx, clamor, conientio and Tbracai 
 Ablrgantor : Eorum njicem carmen, 
 ylliud'ijc q^uid :iiufit'ufn prcferuvto, ijc, 
 
 Whr.t has been here obferved, 
 wii:h rcfpeft to the Arbiter biher.di 
 of the Romans, may be underftood 
 as applicable tor "the mofl purr, 
 to the l.-jij.'iTocnaoy^Qg amongtl tlie 
 Greeks. 
 
 Arbores. See Trees., 
 
 Archer. See Bokjo. 
 
 Arches triumphal, were creel- 
 ed by the Romans in honour of 
 thofe who had deferved a triumph, 
 and defigned as a reward and en- 
 couragement of noble enterprizes. 
 Atfirll they were rude flrurtures, 
 or fimple unadorned arches; but 
 afterwards they were built of a 
 Iquare form,- with afpacious arched 
 gate in the middle, and little ones 
 on e.ich fide. The whole was or- 
 namented with fculpture, repre- 
 fenting the atchieveraent whofe me- 
 mory it was intended to perpetu- 
 ate; from the middle arch were 
 fufpendcd little images of victory, 
 with crowns in their hands, whicii 
 they let down and put upon the 
 Conqueror's head as he palFcd in 
 the triumphal procefTion. The 
 arches of Rcmiihis were of brick — 
 that of Camillus of plrdn fquare 
 ftonc: but thofe of Cerfar, DrufuSf 
 Titus, Gordiar., Trajan, CfTV. were 
 of marble entirely. 
 
 Archisynagogus, among the 
 Je^vs, was the chief or ruler of the 
 Anagogue. The bufinefs of the 
 Archif^nagogi was to invite thofe to- 
 fpeak in tlicfynagogue, whom they 
 judged capable of it, and to decide 
 conrroverfics and dilputes about 
 money matters. They had power 
 to whip or e:;com.municate fuch 
 offenders as were found to have 
 merited thcfe punifhments. Their 
 number differed according to the 
 
 extent 
 
ARC 
 
 ARC 
 
 extent cf the city. In Come Jyna- 
 _g-.-^_§-<7rj there were feventy, in iome 
 eight or ten, in others not more 
 than one. They are fonietimes 
 called the Angels or Princes cf the 
 Sy;i,2goguc, and the yVxt'^ gave them 
 tuc appellation of Cl:acam:m, i. c. 
 ^vi^'e. Sec Sytiagogue. 
 
 Architriclinus amongfl the 
 Gneks and Romans, was the niaftcr 
 or direclor of a feaih His ofiice 
 was to rake care o{ the order, oeco- 
 iiomy, and etiquette of the table, 
 the covering and uncovering it, the 
 command of the fcrvants, and re- 
 gulating formalitiei. The Jrcbi- 
 tnciiniii diflercd frorn the Arbiter 
 hibei:di or Modimpcrator, the Arhi- 
 Ur being elefted oythe gucils, but 
 tlie Architriclimis by the niafter of 
 the houfe, or perfon who gave the 
 treat. Sec Arbiter hibcndi. 
 
 Architucture is the art of 
 dciigning a building; of fo difpof- 
 ing the plan and elevation, that' the 
 cditice may anfwer the intention cf 
 the builder. That an edilice may 
 anfwer the intention of the builder, 
 it fliould be fclid and durable; 
 adapted to the ufe for which it is 
 intended; of a pleaung appear- 
 ance, and of an afpccl and charac- 
 ter which mav declare the ufe and 
 dcftination of it. But all that uti- 
 ] ity and neceEity rendered indifpen- 
 iable in the firll fimple and natural 
 inethod of building, has been turned 
 in courfe of time into ornament. 
 Grace and elegance h^v-e been 
 fouglit after in the feveral propor- 
 tions; and to the arrangement and 
 fymmctry of building ha? been given 
 the name of Order. This name 
 relates not only to the different 
 columns and their proportions, but 
 alfo to the pilafters and all other 
 ornaments, with which a grand 
 building is decorated, and the moft 
 celebrated architcfts to this day 
 have never been able to difcovcr 
 any one of a more foiid, firm, ufc- 
 
 ful and pleafing form, than is to be 
 found in the ji'vc Orders tranfm it- 
 ted to us by antiquity, viz. — > 
 the Tiifcc.n, the Doric, the Ionic 
 the Corinihio.n, and the Conipofitc. 
 The Tufcan and Compofite are Ro- 
 man^ the three others are Greciany 
 and reprefcnt the three difl'crent 
 manners of building. The Doric, 
 ihcfjlid; the Corinthian, the beaw. 
 tijid, and the lorac, the ijitcr mediate 
 manner. The two Italian are im- 
 perfect produclions from the othcv 
 three orders. Every column iaa 
 each order is compofed of three 
 parts, the Bafe or Redejial to raife 
 it from the ground; "iXxt F ajl or i haft 
 of the cokunn; and the tJttablc' 
 ture, which crowns this grand piece 
 oi architedsv^re, and re pre fen ts by; 
 an ornamental projeclion, what the 
 column fuilains. Each of thefe 
 three parts is again divided into 
 thrceothers: The Pedejia/ coriwns 
 the Plinth or Zocle; the Die; the 
 Ccrr.ice or C\i;uitiu7n of the Bcfe: 
 1 he 5'^.?r/ is compofed of the PLrjby 
 th.e Shaft oCth.t column itfelf, and 
 the Capital: The Entablature con- 
 fifts of the Architra-ve \. the Frieze; 
 and the Cornice. In the Tufcan or- 
 der, which received its origin from 
 the people of Tifcavy, and is the 
 leaft ornamented, the column has 
 feven modules: In the Doric, 
 which was invented by theDt^riar.f, 
 it has feven : In the Ionic, which 
 takes its name 'from Ionia, it has 
 nine: In the Cvrinthian, invented 
 by Calli?Kachus of Corinth, and in 
 the compofite, added by the Ro- 
 mans after Augujtus had reflorcd 
 peace to the world, the column 
 had ten Modules. Now s Module is 
 an arbitrary meafure ufed in regu- 
 lating the proportions of a column, 
 or. other dimenfions of a building. 
 Some Architcds mike it the lowelt 
 diameter of a column, and others 
 only half that diameter: Hence 
 the term becomes equivccal. The 
 F 2 Module 
 
ARO 
 
 ARI 
 
 Moi/ule is fubdivided into Minnies. 
 Thus much I thought proper to fay 
 on Architcclure, the reil is to be 
 learned from books written profef- 
 fedly on the fubject, aided witli 
 figures and defigns. 
 
 Archon, the chief magiftrate of 
 Athens. The nine roagillrates 
 who took upon themfelves the go- 
 vernment of the city after the 
 death of Codrus tlieir laft King, 
 were each of them called by this 
 name. At firft their office was for 
 life, but it was afterwards limited 
 to ten years, and lall of all, to one, 
 •—Of thcfe nine Archons fix 
 were called T/-^«o//^/rfr, the other 
 three were the Baflcus, the Pole- 
 march, and the Archon fo called by 
 way of eminence, as being fupcrior 
 to all the reft. See T he/mot hetec, 
 Bafileus, and Polemarch. 
 
 The Archovi decidpd with fo- 
 vercgn authority all religious and 
 civil matters. They were chofen 
 by lot, and sfterward examined as 
 to their qualifications by the people. 
 
 Arena was the middle part of 
 the Roman amphitheatres, where 
 the Gladiators. &c. ufed to engage. 
 It was fo called becaufe it was 
 itrewed with fand, both to prevent 
 the pertormers from falling, and to 
 foak up the blood which was fhed. 
 Sec Gladiators and Amphitheatre. 
 
 Arenari I, among the Romatis, 
 were Gladiators who combated 
 with wild beafts in the Arena. — 
 They were flaves of the lowelt 
 irank, fo that, if manumitted, they 
 were incapable of becoming 72o»/«« 
 citizens. They were fometimes 
 called Bejliarii. See Bejiiarii. 
 
 Areopagus, a fovereign court 
 at Athens, fo famous for its juftice 
 and impartiality, that the gods 
 are faid to have fubmitted their 
 (quarrels to its determination. The 
 time of the inititution of it is un- 
 certain, as is alfo the realon of its 
 being called Jreo/a^uj; th« num- 
 
 ber of the perfons that compofed 
 this venerable court is likcwife un- 
 determined. Thofe however who 
 had faithfully diichargcd the office 
 o( Archon, it feei-ns, were adm.itted 
 into it. This court met three 
 times every month, on the 27th, 
 2Sth, and 29th days : They fat in 
 the open air, and determined all 
 caufesin the night and in the dark. 
 They took cognizance of murther, 
 and moft other capital offences.— 
 Sentence was given by cafting the 
 votes of acquittal or condemnation 
 into two urns provided for the pur- 
 pofe. Before the trial began, the 
 plaintiff and defendant took a fo- 
 lemn oath by the Furies, upon the 
 tefticles of a goat, a ram, and a 
 bull. Then the accufer was placed 
 upon the ftool of T(?fj? or injury, 
 and the delinquent upon that of 
 avaCna or innocence, (theie 
 were two Godeffes whofe temples 
 were ereded in thf Areopagus) and 
 afterwards they proceeded to the 
 examination. The prifoner was 
 allowed to make his defence in two 
 orations, and if, after the firft was 
 ended, he fufpedled the goodnefs 
 of his caufe, he was allowed to fe- 
 cure himfelf by flight and volun- 
 tary banifliment. The members 
 of the court were ufually called 
 Senators, and their power extended 
 to matters of the higheft confe- 
 quence. See 7rial. 
 
 Argei or Argea, were certain 
 places at Ro7}ie confecrated by Nuvia 
 in memory of fome Greek princes 
 buried there. A facrifice was of- 
 fered at them, on the 15th of May 
 annually, to the max:es uf the de- 
 ceafed Greeks, and certain images, 
 jn number thirty, were thrown by 
 the r-jejial virgins into the Tihcr 
 from t\\c fublician bridge. Thefe 
 images were called A'-gei, and were 
 made of ruflies. 
 
 Aries, the battering ram, a mi- 
 Jiiary eng'^e ufed by the Romans 
 
 and 
 
ARK 
 
 A R M 
 
 and Grecians. It was of three 
 kinds : The firft was plain and un- 
 ariificial, being nothing but a long 
 beam with an iron head, which 
 the ibldiers bore on their arms and 
 flioiildcrs, and pufiied with main 
 force againll the walls : The fccond 
 was Jiung in ropes to another beam, 
 by the help of which they thruft it 
 forward with much greater force. 
 The third diftered from the former 
 cnly as being covered with a 
 %EAwr<i or iliroud, to guard the 
 foldiers, whence it was called Tcf- 
 iudo arietaria. The beam was co- 
 \ered with iron plates, that it 
 might not be fet on fire, and was 
 fometimes no lefs than 120 feet in 
 length. The head was armed 
 with as many horns as they pleafed. 
 Vef^afiaii s rams, according to 'Jofc- 
 fhu;, which were but of moderate 
 length, had heads as thick as ten 
 men, and cwcnty-five horns, each 
 of which was as thick as one man, 
 and placed a cubit's diflance from 
 the reih Fliny afcribes the inven- 
 ticn of the battering ram to Epcus 
 at the fiege of Troy. Vitriii>ius 
 and Tertullian afcribe it to the Car- 
 ihagannvs, But be this as it may 
 Ezekielh the iirll authorwho men- 
 tions it, and it was ufed by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar at the fiegc of Jerufa- 
 falej/i. Ezek. iv. 12. xxi..22. 
 
 Aristotelians. See Peri^a- 
 iet'ic, Philofo^hy. 
 
 Arithmetic. See Numhers . 
 
 Ark of the covenant amongft 
 the Jeivs was a fmall cheft or cDf- 
 fer, three feet nine inches long, 
 two feet three inches high, and the 
 fame in breadth. It was made of 
 fhittim wood, and covered over 
 with beaten gold. The Mercy- 
 feat was a fort of cover or lid to it ; 
 it was called the Mercy -Seat, i>e- 
 caufe God is faid from thence to 
 have heard their prayers, and deli- 
 vered oracles, and to have dwelt 
 between the cherubim which co- 
 
 vered it. In fhoit, it was looked 
 upon as the place of God's imme- 
 diate prefcnce ; for which rcafon 
 fcvcre judgments were ii.flidlcd up- 
 on thofe who prcfumed to approach 
 it; See I Sam. vi. ly.— 2 Sam.vi. 
 6. kc. In this ark were con- 
 tained the golden pot that had 
 manna in it, Aaron'srod, and tJ'.c 
 tables of the covenant. The ark 
 was lodged in the temple, and the 
 Skecf.iira, or divine prcfence ho- 
 vered' over it in the vilible appear- 
 ance of a cloud. It was called the 
 yirk of the Covenant becaufe it v»as 
 a lymbol of the covenant between 
 God and his people. It was alfo 
 named the Jrk cfthe Tefhnofiy, be- 
 caufe the two table?, the ir.ai.n.i^ 
 and Aaroiis miraculous rod, which 
 were depcfited w^ere in it, were 
 fo many witncfles againil every 
 deviation of theirs. The Rahbins 
 are not agreed what became of 
 it, after the deltruclion of the tem- 
 ple, by Nchiickadiiczzar. The part 
 of the temple where the ark of the 
 covenant was lodged, was ihtScnc- 
 tum SarSlcrv.m, See Sanaujn Sanc- 
 torum. 
 
 A R M A . See Armour . 
 Armatura, amortJii the Ro- 
 mans, was the military cxercifa 
 performed by the Tyrcnes or new- 
 lifted men, who were trained with 
 the grcatefl care, and kept under 
 the feversit difcipline. The ar- 
 matura confilled chiefly in the ex- 
 crcifes performed with the mifiivs 
 v/eapons, as throwing the fpear or 
 javelin, fnooting of arrows, 5;c. 
 Nor did the common foldiers only 
 practife in this manner to render 
 themfelves pcrfeft, but the officers 
 alfo let the example of induitry, 
 and endeavoured Hill further to 
 encreafe their dexterity. 
 
 Armill^ w-ere a fort of brace- 
 lets worn by the Roman foldiers, as 
 badges of honor ; they were given 
 upon account of feme eminent fef- 
 viccs cnly, and were never be- 
 
AR M 
 
 ARR 
 
 ftowcd but upon fucli as were born 
 Romans. Effeininate foldiers were 
 fometimes called Aivnllatl. 
 
 Armilustrum, a fcaft held a- 
 mongft the Romans, in which they 
 facriftccd in armour to the found of 
 the trumpet. 
 
 Armorum concujjio, the clafliing 
 of armour pradlifed by the Roman 
 armies previous to an engagement, 
 and intended to ftrike a panic into 
 their enemies: It always followed 
 tlic Clejjicum and the Barritus. See 
 Clajfjcum and Barritus. 
 
 Ar\:our, may be confidered as 
 oitenfive or defenfive, and a gene- 
 ral defcription of thofij ufed by the 
 Romans will in a great meafure fuf- 
 fice for thofc of the Grecians alfo. 
 The oiFenfive weapons of the Ro- 
 '/nans were the bo-^v and arro--u;s, the 
 hajla 07 javelin, the pi him or dart, 
 lYitpi'jord and the Jing. Their de- 
 feniive armour were the parma, 
 Jcu^um, and clypens, which were 
 "difierent kinds of bucklersor fhiclds 
 — the galea or galcrus caiques or 
 helmets, the hrica and / ilorak, 
 breaft-platcs and coats of mail, to 
 which we may add the ocreiS or 
 }lvY:ixhi of the Greeks ; for a 
 more particular account of all thefe 
 fee the different articles, Bonv, Ar- 
 rc-vcs, ^c. Where it appears that 
 a difference really exiiled betwixt 
 the Reman and Grecian armour de- 
 fcribed under the fame name, it 
 fliall be pointed out : The fame 
 attention vvill be paid alfo to thofe 
 of the Jeivs. 
 
 Having now difpatched this 
 head fo far as it relates to perfonal 
 armour, if we may be allowed fo 
 to call that which was borne by the 
 individuals in an army, it remains 
 that we enumerate thefeveral kinds 
 of offcnfivearms or eagines ufed by 
 the Greeks, Romans, and Jezvs, in 
 attacking places of ftrength. Thefe 
 were the ArfaleJJra, the Balijia, 
 Aries, Catapuha, Qorn^us ■ i-verfcr. 
 
 Sajnbuca, Sccrpiones, Helepclis, Tef~ 
 tudo. Malleoli or Pyroboli. See a 
 further account of all thefe under 
 their proper heads. 
 
 Army. Withrefpeft to theyV'-'-'i- 
 it may not be amifs in this place 
 to obferve, that their armies \strQ. 
 not compofed of regular troops 
 kept in pay, but that the whole 
 nation connfted of fighting men, 
 ready to march againll an enemy 
 as nccciTity, or the orders of God 
 required ; and they expefled no 
 other reward for their fervices, be- 
 fides the glory of conquering- they 
 fought on foot alfo, and had no 
 horfe amongll them till the reign 
 of Solomon. Da'vid is the firlc who 
 had regular troops ; his fuccefibrs, 
 excepting their«body guards, which 
 were not very numerous, had no 
 other forces but a miliiia. The 
 priclls always w^ent with the Jews 
 to war, founded the trumpet and 
 gave the fignal for battle ; and the 
 ark of God was generally borne'in 
 the army. 
 
 For an account of the armies of 
 the Rorr.ans and Grecians, iee the 
 artic]e3 Soldiers, Ca-falry, Infantry, 
 and heads referred to from thence, 
 
 Arrogatio. See Adrogatio. 
 
 Arrow, a miffive weapon of 
 offence, flcnder, pointed and barb- 
 ed, made to be fhot out of a bow. 
 Arrows were generally made of 
 light wood, and had an iron head, 
 which was comm.only hooked. — 
 The arrow-heads were fometimes 
 fmeared with poiibn. Feathers 
 were generally made ufe of to .in- 
 creafe the fpeed and confsquently 
 the force of this weapon. See 
 Bon.<j. 
 
 Arrows were made ufe of by ths 
 ancients in divination. — The me- 
 thod was this ; when any pe.-fon 
 had an affair of moment in con- 
 templation, he put three arrows 
 into a velTel. — On the firfl was 
 written, w/ God hath commanded ; 
 
 on 
 
Aru 
 
 ARU 
 
 brt the fecond, my God h.iih forhid- 
 ■den ; and on the third, nothing. 
 Jf the firll arrow was drawn, the 
 defign waspurluedj if the iocond, 
 it was abandoned; — if the third, 
 the perfon drew again till one of the 
 former fell to his lot. This may 
 explain the King of Babylon s divi- 
 nation, E::ck;. xxi. 21. This rne- 
 thod of divination was pradifed 
 aniongft the ancient Arahiaiu. 
 
 Arvales Fratres, were twelve 
 pricfts amongit the Ro?/iaus «ho 
 were formed into a company or 
 college by Roti'.uIus, who himfclf 
 made one of the body. This order 
 'vas in great repute at Rome, and 
 j'cld their dignity lor life, not 
 lofing it by imprifonment, banifh- 
 ment or any other accident. Ac- 
 cording to feme writers, all dif- 
 putcs relative to boundaries were 
 left to their decinon. They af- 
 fiited and prcfided in the facrifices 
 ^nd proceiiions called AjnharnjaUa, 
 and wore crowns made of cars of 
 corn. See Amhar-xaUa. 
 
 ARUiPEX, among the Remans, 
 vras one that pretended to foretell 
 future events by infpefting the en- 
 trails of bealb facrihced upon the 
 altar. The Amfpices were alfo 
 called ExtifpUes, and were an or- 
 der of prielihood. If nothing e\'- 
 traordinary took place with refpc£l 
 •to the viclim, they drew favour- 
 able conjectures ; but looked upon 
 it as an unfavourable omen, if any 
 thing unufual appeared in the ani- 
 mals before they were cut up, or 
 in the entrails afterwards, or from 
 the flames whiill they were burn- 
 ing, or from the flour, bran, frank- 
 incenfe, wine or water that were 
 ufed in facrificing. It appears that 
 women were foraetiracs admitted 
 into the order of Arufpices. 
 
 The Arufpices conllituted a col- 
 lege which owed its inftitution to 
 Romulus, who- borrowed it from 
 the Tufcaru. At firft none but the 
 
 natives of Tufcany were allowed td 
 exercife this office, but in a fhort 
 time it became more open and ad- 
 mitted Remans, provided they had 
 learnt the myrteries of their profef- 
 fion amongft the Tufcans. They 
 kept particular rcgilters, fuch as 
 memorials of thunder and light- 
 ning, the Tu/ian hiftories, &c.— 
 They were fomctimes called upon 
 to explain other portents and mon- 
 llers beiides fuch as occurred at the 
 altars. 
 
 Aruspicina is the art of divi - 
 nation by the entrails of bcaih ilain 
 at the altar — an account of which 
 is given under the aracle Anifpcx, 
 which fee. 
 
 AS amongil the Ro7nans was the 
 fame with libra, and figniiies their 
 pound, which v."as divided into 
 twelve parts, diftinguiihed by the 
 name of unci.s or ounces. See 
 Weights. 
 
 As was likewife a Roman celn 
 which in the differen" ages of the 
 common-wealth was of different 
 materials and different weight, and 
 confequently of different value 
 alfo. It was called as from as, 
 becaufe i: was firil made of cop- 
 per, and weighed a pound. See 
 Money, 
 
 As is alfo ufed to denote any 
 thing v.'hole and entire which was 
 divifible into twelve parts. In 
 this lall fenfe ic is ufed to fignify a 
 whole inheritance or eilate — the 
 twelve parts of v/hich were called 
 
 and valued as follow As is the 
 
 integer or whole fubllance oi 
 
 which Deiinx was eleven parts, 
 quia deejl imcia, being one 'uncia or 
 tv/elfth part fhort of the whole. De- 
 cunx was ten parts — or dccan uncix. 
 —Dodrans was nine parts — quia 
 deeft quadrans, being one fourth 
 fliort of the whole. — BeJJls was 
 eight parts — Sejituna was feven 
 parts, Qxfeptem uncite. — SemiJ/is was 
 fix parts out of the twelve, or half 
 
 th» 
 
ASH 
 
 ASS 
 
 the as. — ^incu!2x was five parts, 
 or quinque iinci^. — Triens was lour 
 part?, or one third of the whcle as. 
 — Sluadrans was three parts, or 
 or\z fourth of the whole. — Sextans 
 was two parts, or a fixth of the 
 \\h.d\&. — Sefcuf7x, or Sefjuitaicia, 
 one part and a half, or one eighth 
 of the as. — Uncia, was one part, 
 or a twelfth of the whole. Having 
 a clear conception of thefe divifi- 
 "■cns of the as, we fhall not be at a 
 lofs to undcrftand the cxprefTions 
 Hrcrcs ex ajfe, which figniiies an 
 ]icir to the nxihole eftate, — H^res ex 
 hejje, an heir to /-xto thirds, — Uteres 
 ex fcml£'e, an heir to one half, — 
 Hares ex dodrante, an heir to three 
 fourths, or 7iine pares out cf the 
 t^vel've, i^c. 
 
 AscOLiA, afeflival kepfby the 
 Athenian hutbandmen, in honour of 
 BacJjus. An he-goat was lacrihced 
 to him, bccaufe that animal is an 
 enemy to vines. Out of the vic- 
 tim's ikin they made a bottle and 
 filled it with wine or oil, at the 
 common expence, which bottle was 
 afterwards given as a reward to 
 thnt pcrfon who could iirft fixhim- 
 fclf upon it with one foor. The 
 fall cfthofc who attempted, afibrd- 
 ed divcrfion to the crowd. 
 
 Ashes, fevcr.il religious cere- 
 monies amongit the Jc-ws depend- 
 ed upon the ufe of aflies ; they fat 
 in fackcloth and were covered with 
 alA-^-cs, in token of repentance and 
 mortification ; they rolled in allies, 
 and threw them upon their heads 
 to indicate their afiHftion : a lye 
 or luftral water w-as made of the 
 aflies of an heifer facrificed upon 
 the great day of atonement, with 
 which the people were purified af- 
 tc: touching a dead body. This 
 waterthcprieil' dillributedaniongfl 
 them to be ufed as occafion re- 
 quired. 
 
 The Greeks and Rcn:ai.'s ufed to 
 carry home the aftes of tjneir de- 
 
 ceafed friends, from the luneral^^ 
 and prcfcrve them in urns for feme 
 time before they were depofited in 
 the ground. See Urn. 
 
 Afncs were made ufe of by way 
 of punifliment among the Perfians. 
 It v/as firft inRidled by Ochiis upon 
 Sogdiav.us, and afterwards became 
 common. It is dcfcribed in the 
 fecond book of Maccabees, chap, 
 xiii. thus : an high tower was fil- 
 led to a certain height with afhes, 
 and tiie criminal being thrown 
 head long into them, they were, 
 by a wheel, perpetually turned 
 round him, till he was futfocated. 
 Univerf. anc. hill. 
 
 As I ARCH us, AcTja^x^'j chiefs 
 of jlfia, arc mentioned A£ls xix, 
 23, &c. and appear to have been 
 Pagan PontiiTs of Afia, chofen to 
 fuperintend and have the care of 
 the public games j which they did, 
 at their own expence j for which 
 reafon they were always the richeft 
 and moil confiderable perfons of 
 the places, where they had their 
 refidence. Poll Synop. Critic in 
 A-a.f. 1564. 
 
 AssiDEANs, were thofe y^-a-s 
 who flocked to the llandard of Mal- 
 tathias, to fight for God and their 
 country ,voluntarily devoting them- 
 fclves to a more llrift obfcrvance 
 of the law than other men. Their 
 name is derived from the Hclrc-vj 
 word chafidim, i. e. the pious, be- 
 caufe they fuperadded to the per- 
 formance of their legal duties, manv 
 voluntary obfcrvances and leveri- 
 ties of will-worfliip. T\\q AJJide- 
 ans are oppofed to the Zadikim, i.e. 
 the righteous, who contented them- 
 fclves with obferving the law of 
 Mofcs only. From the Ajfideajis or 
 CLaftdim, fprang the Pharifecs and 
 EJfenes ; and from the Zadikim a role 
 the Saddiicees and Caraites. Both 
 the Cbadiji7!i ^.nd.Zadiki?n took their 
 rife after the return of the Jexvs 
 from the ^«^/<7/?//3 captivity. See 
 Phari/eeSf 
 
ASY 
 
 ATfi 
 
 PharifeeSy Ejjef.es, Saddtitees, Cd" 
 raites. 
 
 Ass, is an animal fit fordomeilic 
 ufes. l.e Clerc obferves with re- 
 fpcftto the Je~Ms, that having but 
 lew chariots, they were not allowed 
 to keep many horfes ; but that the 
 moft honourable among them were 
 wont to ride upon aiTes, which in 
 the eartein countries were much 
 bigger, far more beautiful, and 
 more reipedable than amongll us. 
 The ais was reckoned by the 'Je-a;- 
 ijh law amongil the unclean crea- 
 tures, becaufe it did not chew the 
 cud : And to yoke an ox and an 
 afs together was prohibited. 
 
 AssARiuM, a i?c/v^:;z coin equal 
 to a farthing and a half of our mo- 
 ney. See Mouey. 
 
 AsTYNOMi, the name given to 
 certain oiScers at Athens, ten in 
 number, whofc bufinefs it was to 
 take care of the ilrects, and fuch 
 other things as concerned the flreets, 
 as minftrels, fcavengers. Sec, 
 
 Asylum, a place oi refuge ; a 
 fanftuary where criminals were 
 fcreened from the hands of juftice. 
 The AJjla of the fe^s were the 
 temple, the altar of burnt oiFering, 
 and (which weie peculiar to the 
 Ifraelites) the cities of refuge, 
 which were in number fix : For 
 an account of them, fee Ejcod. xxi. 
 33. and Numb. xxxv. 11. 
 
 It is pretended that th e Hrft^/^^j 
 at Athens was built by the HeraclidiX 
 for the proteflion ©f thofe who fled 
 from the tyranny and opprefiion of 
 their fathers. The Jfyla, however, 
 of altars, temples, tombs, llatues, 
 and other monuments of refpefta- 
 ble perfons, were very ancient ; 
 thus the temple of Diana at Ephe- 
 Jusy was a place of refuge for deb- 
 tors ; the tomb oilhcfeiis for flaves ; 
 and Romulus when he built Rome, 
 left a certain fpace as an afylum to 
 all perfons, flaves as well as free- 
 »ien, with ^ view no <lo«bt of cel- 
 
 Iccling a number of perfons to peo- 
 ple his new city. Temples, altars, 
 and ilatues, were places of refuge 
 as well amongft the Romans as the 
 Cfeehs. 
 
 Atellan^, were afpeciesoffa- 
 tyrical comedy amongll latRomans. 
 It was fo called from Atcila, a town 
 of the Ofci in Campania. Thefe 
 comic pieces, though in after times 
 they <^ytfi extravagantly obfccne 
 and fcurrilouSj were originally in 
 high repute, and the performers 
 did not rank with the common 
 ftage players; but kept the benefit 
 of their tribe, and were not prohi- 
 bited, like other comedians, from 
 going to war. The Atellanee were, 
 at lall, for their lewdnefs, fuppref- 
 icd by order of the Senate. 
 
 Athen^ea, the fame as Po.na- 
 thenaa, which fee. 
 
 ATHEN^UM,was akind ofpub- 
 lic fchcol amongft the Athenians, 
 where philofophers, poets, and 
 rhetoricians argued, recited and 
 declaimed ; it was open to all the 
 profefforsofthe liberal arts. There 
 were many buildings of this name, 
 and devoted to the fame purpofes 
 at Athens. They had one at Rome^ 
 which was erected by the Emperor 
 Adrian. As to their form, they 
 refembled the aKiphitheatrcs, and 
 like them were encompaiTed with 
 feats called Ciinei. 
 
 Athens, the capital city of an- 
 cient Greece, was firft called AdicUy 
 frcun A8a;us ; then Cecropia, from 
 Cecrcps its firil king, 1582. B. C* 
 The twelve provinces were fori;, d. 
 into one community, and the re- 
 publican government was inftitutcd 
 by Tlefeus 1259. ^- ^- But the 
 monarchical ftiU remained, for 
 ^hefeus is Ityled, in all ancient hif- 
 tories, king of Athens: and they 
 had a fucceffion of kings till the 
 year 1070. B. C. when Archcns 
 were chofen. Sec Archon. 
 
 Anarchy prevailed from 687 ta 
 G 684. B, C, 
 
AT Y 
 
 AUG 
 
 ^.^4. B. C. at which time the Ar- 
 cho?u who had before been eledled 
 ior life, were rendered annual- — 
 Pifillratus, having ufurped the go- 
 vernment, becomes tyrannical ; his 
 ion Hipparchus fwcceeds him, but 
 -s llain by Harmodius z.w6.J-iJlogiton 
 516. B, C, The PeloponvpJian\v3.x 
 between the Jltheniaj-.s and Lace- 
 demofiians, which commenced 431. 
 B. C, ended in the ruin of the 
 Jthenian republic 403. B. C. Af- 
 ter this it was governed by thirty 
 tyrants. It fell into the hands of 
 the RofTiAHs S7. B. C. The Vene- 
 tians got poffeffion of it A.D. 1 204, 
 and the Turks in the year 1687. 
 
 Athlete, in Gz-^ir/^^ antiqui- 
 ty, is a general name which com- 
 prehends wrcftlcrs, boxers, runners, 
 icapers, throwers of the difk, and 
 ether performers who ufually e."-' 
 hibited in the Olympic, and other 
 lolemn games. See a mere parti- 
 cular account of them under their 
 proper articles. From the live ufual 
 exercife? jufl now mentioned, the 
 Athlera; were called by the Greeks 
 Pentathloi, and by the Latins Quin- 
 quertiones. See FsKtcthlum. 
 
 Athlotheta, an officer ap- 
 pointed to fapcrintend the public 
 games oi Greece ^ and adjudge the 
 prizes. He was fometiraes diftin- 
 guifhed by the names ^.fymneta, 
 Braheuta, Ago7iarcha, Agoaothela. 
 
 Atonement. See Expiatic7j. 
 
 Atrati, a name given in Ro^ 
 man authors to fuch pcrions as were 
 in mourning; they were fo called 
 from the Togapv.lla, or black gown 
 which tliey wore upon the death 
 of friends. See Toga. 
 
 Atri Dies. Sec the article 
 Day. 
 
 Attrog, the fruit of a fpecies 
 of the Citron tree, which the Jews 
 ul'ed to carry in their hands, toge- 
 ther with palm and other branches, 
 when they went to the temple at 
 the Fealc of Tabernacles. With 
 
 this fruit they pelted Alexander, 
 the fon of llyrcmnis, the titular 
 king of the je-j.-s. U7:i-v. Anc. Hijl. 
 See Tabernacles. 
 
 AucTio,wasa method of felling 
 gcods made ufe of bv the Romans, 
 and from them derived down to us. 
 In this kind of file the higheftbid- 
 der was always the buyer. It was 
 performed by the public cryer, 
 fub hajla, i. c. under a fpear lluck 
 up for that purpcfe. A magiflrate 
 uicd to attend, to make good the 
 fale by delivering the goods in 
 form. 
 
 AucTORATi, amongil the Ro^ 
 mans, fuch freemen were fo called 
 as let themfelves out for hire to be 
 killed for the entertainment of the 
 fpeclators, in the capacity of gla- 
 diators. The gladiators in general 
 confii^ied of flaves or captiv'cs ; for 
 it was cuftomary to fell difobcdient 
 Haves to the Lanifia ; and, ftrangc 
 as it may appear, freemen often- 
 times oflered their lives to fale fo? 
 the amphitheatre, to be hacked 
 and cut to pieces for the diver lion 
 of the people. See Gladiators. 
 
 A u a u F. A L E . See Prcetorium. 
 
 ArcuRS, were certain officers 
 amongil x.\izRo?:icns, whofe bufinefs 
 it was to foretell future events. The 
 college of Augurs, as cftablilhed 
 by Romulus, confified of three 
 members aniv/cring to the number 
 of tribes, a fourth was added by 
 Scr-jlus Tuilus, who encrcafed the 
 tribes to that number. They were 
 cncrt:;fed to nine by the Tribunes 
 A. U. C. 454, afterwards Sylla 
 made them up to fifteen. They 
 were all perfons ofthefirit dillinc- 
 tion, their ci; ration was for life, 
 and their offic-.. was of a character 
 indelible, which no crime or for- 
 feit':ro could efface, and in fhort, 
 was elteemed as a fpecies of priell • 
 hood. For an account of their bu- 
 finefs, fee the following article. 
 Augury. 
 
 AuCURYj 
 
AUQ 
 
 AUR 
 
 Augury, was a fpccies of di- 
 ^'ination praCtifcd by the Jug-in-s, 
 aniongil x.\ic Romar.s. Sec Ji<gu7-s. 
 
 This art or'tbrctclling future e- 
 vents was or live kinds. The firit 
 was Augury from the heavenly 
 pha;nomena, fuch as thunder, 
 lightening, comets, meteors, &c. 
 Jf for inftance, there happened a 
 clap of thunder it was looked upon 
 as favourable or unfavourable as it 
 )vas obfcrved to proceed frx)m the 
 right or left, as the number of re. 
 petitions was even or odd, &c. 
 The fecoaid was from birds, and 
 r-efpcdSled either their chattering or 
 their flight. The birds whofe 
 chattering or finging they took oe- 
 tice of they called 0/cines; thofc 
 whofe flight they remarked were 
 denominated Prcvpetes. This dif- 
 tinction is further taken notice of 
 under the articles Ofcines and Prte^ 
 petes. The third waj from ihe lacied 
 chickens, and was reckoned lucky 
 or unlucky, as they eat oc drank 
 freely or indifferently the meat and 
 water which was given them. Tlie 
 fourth was from quadrupeds, fuch 
 as w'olvef, foxes, goats, heifers, 
 afles, rams, hares, wcefels, and 
 mice. The pmcn was bad if they 
 were obferved in unufual places, 
 crolled the road, or ran to the left. 
 The lail fort of Augury was from 
 what they called Dir^r, or unufual 
 accidents to perfons o}- places, 
 fncezing, Humbling, apparitions, 
 ilrange voices, fpilling ia|t upon 
 the table, or wine upon ones 
 cloaths ; meeting a wolf, fox, hare 
 or pregnant bitch, &c. For the 
 Grecian faperllitions of this na- 
 ture, fee iy'i'vinatton. What has 
 been here faid will notwithlland- 
 ing generally apply 1:9 thq Greeks, 
 Ken. Dane!. Pitifc. 
 
 When an Augury was to be ta- 
 •ken, the Augur divided the hea- 
 vens into four parts called 'Templa, 
 m\h. his Htms or augural ftaft', fa- 
 
 crificcd tothc Gods, and covcrcdhi$ 
 head with his Lc}ia or augural vcfl.- 
 ment. See Lituus and Lana. 
 
 Loth the Greeks and RoT/ians de- 
 rived the happinefs of their omens 
 from the caftern quarter; but the 
 Greeks turning to the north, had 
 tlie ealt on their right hand, and 
 the Romans turning towards the 
 fouth, had the eaft on their left. 
 Hence D^xtra and Siniftra applied 
 to auguries fignify differently a- 
 mcnglt the Greek and Roman au-. 
 tkors ; and the Romans often ex- 
 prefs themfclves with allufion to 
 Grecian cuftoms in this particular. 
 But this obfcrvation v/ill folve any 
 difiiculty that may arife from the 
 promifcuous application of thefc 
 terms. 
 
 I iLall only farther obfcrve that 
 any Augur might take an omen ; 
 but to decide upon it was left t<5 
 the whole college; and thpir de- 
 cifion was generally fach as favour- 
 ed the intention of thofc at the 
 helm. Vmnj. anc. Hiji. v. ii, 
 
 AuousT, was the fixth month 
 in the Roman year, originally call- 
 ed Scxtilis upon that account ; but 
 its name was afterwards chang- 
 ed to Auguft, in honour of Augvjiti^ 
 Caefar. 
 
 AvGUSTALEs,or Sodales Auguf' 
 W^'/, were an order of prieits ap- 
 pointed to perform facriiicc to Ju- 
 gujiiis, after the Roman flattery had 
 "made a God of him. They owe 
 both their origin and their falaries 
 to the Emperor Tiherivs, 
 
 AuGUSTALiA, a feftival in ho- 
 nour of Auguftui Ca/ai; for fettling 
 peace iq iiicily, Greece, Syria, 
 Afia, and Parthia. 
 
 Aureus, a, certain gold coin a- 
 mong the Roj?ia7is, equal to ^5 Da- 
 jiarii. See Denarius and Money. 
 The Aurci were prefented to thoie 
 who came offviftorious in tlie cha^ 
 riot races. Their weight, and con- 
 lequcntly their value, was dimi- 
 G 2 ' niflKd 
 
AUT 
 
 AXI 
 
 r/iflxcd in the time of the lower 
 Empire. 
 
 AxJRlGARii. See Charioteers. 
 
 AuRUM Corofiarium, was a name 
 given by the Romafis to thofe fums 
 of money, which the difterent cities 
 of the Empire ufed to fend, to fach 
 perfon as the Emperor chofe to a- 
 dopt for his fucceffor. The com- 
 pliment was paid in money inftead 
 of crowns, hence the name aunan 
 toronarium. Sto. adoption. 
 
 AusPiciUM, that part of Au- 
 gury which related to the flight of 
 birds. Secj^ugury. 
 " Auspices, were fuch Augurs 
 as took notice of the flights of birds, 
 in order to foretel future events.— 
 See Augur. 
 
 Autochthones, an appellation 
 afl'umed by fome nations, import- 
 ing that they fprung or were pro- 
 duced from the very foil which they 
 itill inhabited. The word proper- 
 ly fignities perfons who had no 
 other parents but the earth. The 
 Greeks valued thcmfelves, the Athe- 
 niafis in particular, on account of 
 their being Autochthones ', and as 
 a badge of their origin wore a gol- 
 den grafshopper in their hair, be- 
 caufe that infeft was fuppofed to 
 be produced in the fame manner. 
 See Nobiles. 
 
 AuTOCRATOR, a name given 
 
 by the Athejtians to their generals 
 when veiled with abfolute power, 
 fo as to be accountable for none of 
 their aftions; which upon extra- 
 ordinary occafions was fcmetimes 
 the cafe. 
 
 AxAMENTA, a namcgivxn tothe 
 fongs of the Salii, which were faid 
 to becompofed hy Nujr.a PompUius. 
 The ftyle, in procefs of time, grew 
 fo obfcure, that the Salii thcm- 
 felves did not underftand them, 
 and no alteration was allowed. See 
 Salii. 
 
 Auxi LI A, in the military affairs 
 of Rome, fignified fuch troops as 
 were fentby foreign Hates and prin- 
 ces, at the defire of the Roman 
 Senate, or Generals, and were al- 
 lowed a fet pay from the republic. 
 In the perufal of roman hiftorians, 
 the Auxilia fliould be carefully dif- 
 tinguifhed from the Socii. See Socii. 
 AxtNOMANCY, a fpeciesof G;v- 
 f/^H, divination pejformed by fixing 
 an hatchet in equipoife upon a 
 round flake, and obferving towards 
 which of the company it moved, 
 for that was regarded as the guilty 
 perfon. When any were fufpefled 
 who were not prefent, they re- 
 peated their names; and at the 
 mention of whofe name fo-ever 
 the hatchet moved, that perfon's 
 guilt was looked upon as certain. 
 
 B 
 
 BAC 
 
 lACCH^, were prieftefl'cs 
 of Bacchus, who celebrated 
 hr Orgia, or myfterious rites. See 
 Or^ia. 
 
 They were alfo called Manades, 
 Baj;a}-ides,an6.T^hyades. Their be- 
 haviour had all the aooearance of 
 jnadneff, for they were gloathed 
 
 BAC 
 
 in the flcins of tygers and panthers, 
 their hair was ailhevelled, and they 
 toflTed their heads backward with 
 an air of phrenzy. They were 
 crowned with ivy, and bore in their 
 left hands a Thyrfus or fpear, made 
 of pine, and wound about with 
 vine twigs, Ssc Th^rjus, 
 
BAL 
 
 BAL 
 
 The drums, vociferation and 
 frequent repetition of E-voe Bacchc, 
 added to their wild geiticulations, 
 excite in an P)ngli(hman tlie ideaot 
 Bcdhini broke loofe. 
 
 Bacchanalia amongfc both the 
 Greeks and Remans, were feafts in- 
 ilituted in honor of Bacchus. They 
 were of two kinds, the greater or 
 Dionyf^a, and the lefs called Lemta ; 
 the Dionyfa were celebrated in 
 the fpring, the Lenxa in autumn, 
 being a preparation for the greater. 
 During the continuation of thele 
 feaib all was afcene of the wildcft 
 confufion. Of the initiated, fome 
 afliimed the charadler of Sileiius, 
 others of Pan, and others ot the 
 Satyrs; nothing but drunkennels, 
 real or counterfeited, was to be 
 feen, and the molt abominable in- 
 decencies were praftifed, even by 
 the women. They ran howling 
 and fliricking over the mountains, 
 through tangled woods, and track- 
 lefs foreftswith every appearance of 
 madnefs — games, fpcclacles, and 
 theatrical reprefentations were ex- 
 hibited, and poets at this time con- 
 tended for the prize of poetry. A 
 goat was dragged to the altar and 
 facrihced, with bafkets of figs and 
 grapes, the Bacchx attended and 
 B'Z'oe Bacc/.'e was the general cry. 
 Thefe feafts, upon account of the 
 ]iorrid indecencies and abominable 
 crimes committed at their yearly 
 returns, were at laft fupprefled in 
 the Roman empire by order of the 
 Senate. 
 
 Balista, a military engine in 
 ufe both amongil the Greeks and 
 Romans. It refembled a crofs-bow, 
 but was much larger, and greatly 
 lupcriorin force; for we are in- 
 formed thatftones no lefs than mill- 
 ilones were thrown from it, with 
 fuch violence as to deni.olifh whole 
 lioufes. But by mill-ftones we are 
 not to underftand our modern mill- 
 ilojxes, buc fuch as the ancieots 
 
 ufed, wh© knew not the ufe of any 
 but fmall hand-mills. The Balijia 
 and Catapulta have, by authors, been 
 confounded; but certainly there 
 wai a cohfiderable difference ; the 
 Balifa'w3.5 a machine of much 
 greater force than the Catapulta^ 
 though according to Lipftus iha Ba- 
 lijia was both Major and Minor. 
 See Armour. 
 
 Balnea baths, were much ufed 
 amongil the Greeks as well as Ro- 
 7nans, fo that one account fhall 
 ferv'e for both. The Grecian baths 
 were handfome buildings, and well 
 adapted to the purpcle for which 
 they were intended; but thofe of 
 the Romans were in a flyle of mag- 
 nificence, confifting of a prodigious 
 number of fpacious apartments, 
 and decorated to a degree of ex- 
 travagance. None of the antiqui- 
 ties of ancient Rome are more link- 
 ing to the curious traveller, than 
 the remains of its baths. Themoft 
 famous were thofe oi Jgrippa, Nero, 
 T)ovntian, Se-verus, Vefpaf.an, Titus, 
 Gerdian, Aiirelian, Trajan, and 
 Dioclrfian. Thermo; was the name 
 given to the hot or v/arm baths. 
 
 The ancients made frequent ufe 
 of the bath for their health, con- 
 veniency and plcafure. As they 
 had not the ufe of linen, dail/ 
 ablutions were neceffary. The 
 ufual time of bathing was juil be- 
 fore fupper, after the moll importr 
 ant bufinefs of the day was over, 
 Wh-;n they had been in the bath 
 as long as they thought proper, 
 their Ikin was rubbed, and the hair 
 pulled off their bodies with filver 
 tweezers, after which the fridlion 
 of the pumice ftone was ufed, and 
 then they were anointed with per- 
 fumed oil, which they poured upon 
 their bodies from a fmall velTcl 
 mentioned under the feveral names 
 of Guttus, Glans, Ampulla, and Le- 
 cythus, Whilft they were in the 
 .bath they had foiaetimcs collation? 
 
 of 
 
BAP 
 
 BAR 
 
 of fruit, and always endeavoured to 
 promote good humour by chear- 
 iul converiacicn, diverting ftorie?, 
 every Ipecies of plcufuiury, the 
 news of the day, and ionictimes an 
 anecdote of fcanda!. The water 
 was carried into the baths from the 
 iiquedu^s of the city, through pipes 
 contrived 'tor that puri'oie, and 
 fell into large ciilerns called Bap- 
 t-Jtena, Lu'vacra, Laiabra, and 
 Mvei. Each of the Balnea were 
 furnifhed with three forts of cif- 
 terns, one tor hot water, another 
 for cold, and another for warm. — 
 Lipfius fays that the bath oi^ Jnto- 
 ninus Carcxalla was fo large that 
 1 800 perfons might bathe together 
 without inconvenience. 
 
 Balnearii were fervants be- 
 longing to the Roman baths, who 
 }iad different names according to 
 their ditlerent employments ; hence 
 Fornacatores were rhofe who were 
 appointed to heat the water j the 
 Capfarii kept the cloaths of thofe 
 who were bathing ; the jilipta: 
 called alio Uv^uarii, anointed and 
 perfumed the body, and pulled off 
 the hairs. 
 
 Banishment was not in ufe 
 amongft the Romans as an imme- 
 diate puniftiment inflicted upon 
 criminals, but they were forbidden 
 the ufe of lire and water, which in 
 the language of their law was aquiS 
 et ignis ijitcrjiclio ; therefore the 
 condemned penman being prohi- 
 bited from enjoying the neccilaries 
 of life cxprelfed by the terms fire 
 and water, was obliged to quit his 
 country. In after times banifh- 
 ment was prefcribed by the laws, 
 and was of three forts Relegatio, 
 Deport atio, and Profcriptio. See 
 Relegatio, Deportatio, and Prc- 
 J':riptio. 
 
 Baptje, Atheniaqprieftsof the 
 Goddefs Cotytto who prefided over 
 lafcivioufnefs, and whofe feafts 
 and facrifices. which were held in 
 
 the night, Avere notorious for the 
 moft fliaiiiclefs proftitution, the 
 moft prepollerons indulgencies, 
 and the moft beaftly, obfcene, and 
 
 abominable intercourfe. They 
 
 were called Bapta: from BaTrloJ, 
 to plunge, becaufe they uled to 
 plunge themfelves into luke-warra 
 water. 
 
 Baptism is the facramcntal inr 
 ftitution by which a perfon is ini- 
 tiated into the chriftian church.— 
 It is generally agreed that the 
 Je^':s practiied this ceremony on 
 their profelytes after circuracifion, 
 long before Cbriji. — Grotius is oi 
 opinion that baptifm derived its 
 origin from the time of the deluge, 
 in memory of the world's having 
 been purged bv water. Some 
 think the Jc^j:s adopted it by way 
 of dillinguifhing themfelves as or- 
 thodox, ixiidr xhz Satna7-itan fchifm. 
 It v/as performed in the primitive 
 times by immerfion. The u-ord is 
 ufed in the original to fignify any 
 common wafhings or ablutions. 
 
 Baptifm was at firft performed 
 by going into the water, or by dip- 
 ping or plunging into it. This was 
 the praclice of the Eaft ; but pour- 
 ing or fprinkling water on the per- 
 fon to be baptized, was the me- 
 thod adopted in our colder cli- 
 mates. And the word ^uTrli^Uy 
 is applicable to any of thefe ways 
 of adminiftering this rite. The 
 grace of God, in this facrament, 
 is not confined to the quantity of 
 water, any more dian it is limited 
 to the quantity of wine in thcEu- 
 charift. In the early ages they 
 plunged the perfons under water, 
 in token of their burial with Chriil:, 
 and they were raifed out of it again 
 in imitation of his refsrreclion. See 
 Col. ii. 12. Their garments alfo 
 were put off, and put on again, in 
 allufion to their putting oft' the oU 
 7na7i, and patting on the »fT.y.— 
 Eph. iv. ??♦ 
 
 Bara« 
 
BAR 
 
 B AS 
 
 Bar-athTvON, or Barathrum, 
 among the Athenians, was a dun- 
 geon dark, diunal and noiiome, 
 with fliarp Ipikes at the top to pre- 
 vent the efcapc of the criminals, 
 and others at the bottom to pierce 
 and lacerate their bodies. Its 
 depth and capacioufnels made an 
 apt emblem ot a craving glutton, or 
 infatiabie niifer. Hence it is pro- 
 verbially ufed for one or the other. 
 In this fenfe alfo the word Bara- 
 thro is ufed in latin. 
 
 Barbers. See Beards, Shad- 
 ing, iffc. 
 
 BAn.BiTON, an inftrument of 
 mufie ufed by Sappho and Alc^tus, 
 and therefore called Lcjhoum by 
 Horace. Some fay it had three 
 ilrings, others feven. How it dif- 
 fered from the Lyra and Cithara is 
 notprecifely known. Strabo makes 
 It the fame with the Samlv.ca. Sec 
 Cithara, Lyra, Sambuca. 
 
 Bar.renness was loo!:ed upon 
 as reproachful amongll the Greeks 
 and Romans, but particularly fo 
 amongll: the 'Jetvs. Several rea- 
 fons may be affigned for annexing 
 the idea of difgrace to flerility in 
 the yf-iv//^ Vv^omen ; hut the prin- 
 cipal are thcfe ; ift, they took the 
 command of God, " be fruitful and 
 multiply," in itspofitivc fenfe, and 
 thought they had not done their 
 duty till it was literally fulhlled — 
 zdly, the difgrace of barrenuefs 
 operated as a ilrong encouragement 
 to matrimony, and anfwered both 
 a political and mo:-i purpofe, in 
 promoting population, r.r.d con- 
 reifling in the bond of marriage a 
 people who from coniHtution and 
 climate were prone to fornication 
 and wanton indulgencies--3dly, 
 the expcftation of the McJJiab 
 ftrongly prevailed, and every wo- 
 man entertained a hope, that fhc 
 might be the mother of the pro- 
 miled leed ; — a Ilrong defire to 
 have childreji confequcntly was 
 
 excited amongll them-— and tlic 
 reproach of fterility would be in 
 proportion to their willaes, after 
 the wilhes had become general. -^ 
 For a Jen>.i//y prophet to v/rite a 
 man childlrfs, was looked upon as 
 the grcatell curfc that could be de- 
 nounced againft him. See "Jus 
 trium Libcron'.vi, 
 
 BARRiTUsisa word of Grrtr.an 
 original, adopted by the Romavs^ 
 to lignify the general fhout ufuallr 
 given by the fcldiers of tiieir ar- 
 mies on the firll encounter after 
 the clajjtcum or alarm. This cuf- 
 tom, however, of fctting up a ge- 
 neral fhout was not peculiar to the 
 Romans, but prevailed amongit the 
 Trojans according to Ho:ner, a- 
 mongll the Germans, the Gauls, 
 MccedoKJans, and Pcrf.c.ns. See 
 ClaJ/2c:u;i. 
 
 BasiLevs was the fecond in 
 em.incnce of the nine Archons a- 
 mongit the Athenians; his ofiice 
 was to bear a certain part in the 
 celebration of divine woriliip, to 
 take cognizance of impiety, to 
 jirelidc at the Eleufinian and Le- 
 ncean feftivals, and all thofe where 
 races were run with lighted torches, 
 and to determine difputes about 
 inanimate things. He took ac- 
 count alfo of accufations for mur- 
 thcr, prepared the indidlmcnt, and 
 brought it before the Arccpagites, 
 amongil whom he had a faffrage, 
 but laid afide his crown (the badge 
 of his office) during the trial. See 
 Archon. 
 
 Basilica, were very large and 
 handfome buildings at Rome, in 
 fhape exaftly like our churclics. 
 1 hey were defigned for the Cen- 
 tumfiri to hear caufes, and the 
 counfehors to receive clients in. 
 The bankers refided in one part of 
 ihefe buildings. This name was 
 originally appropriated with much 
 propriety to great and fpacious 
 buildings, in which kings admi- 
 niltcred 
 
BAT 
 
 BAT 
 
 niftered juftlce to the'r fabje£ls.— 
 They were great halls with, two 
 ranges of pillars, and two wings 
 with galleries over them. In 
 Chrijiian times they were many of 
 them converted into churches. — 
 Univ. Anc. Hiil. Cic.Ep. Ad Alt. 
 L. 4. Ep. 17. 
 
 Basilicus in the i?o7/i^;i clafiics 
 is ufcd to fignifv the belt throw 
 with the Tali or 'TeJ/era-. The belt 
 caft was alfo diftinguifhed by the 
 name of Vciius, See Tali and 
 Tcjfera:. 
 
 BATCHELORS,in the 72c?;.';i?;; laws 
 for the encouragement of matri- 
 mony, are declared incapable of 
 receiving any legacy by vvill. To 
 this y«'zf;7^/ alludes Sat. 92. — 85. 
 
 Bath. See Balnea. 
 
 Bath, a Je-.vijh mcafure of ca- 
 pacity for things liquid, being the 
 fame with the Epbah. See Meafure. 
 
 Bath-Kol or Bath-Col, the 
 slaughter of the 'voice, a new kind 
 cf revelation which, the Je--ws fay, 
 v/as granted to them after the gift 
 cf prophecy had ceafed in Ifrael: 
 It was fo called bccaufeit fucceed- 
 ed the oracular voice, delivered 
 from the mercy feat when they 
 conlulted God by Urim and Thum- 
 mim. The Je'u.s pretend it was a 
 voice from heaven, attended fome- 
 times vrith a clap of thunder. Buc 
 in facl it was a filly kind of divi- 
 nation, not unlike the Sortes Vir- 
 gillana; for when they appealed 
 to Bath-Kol, the firR words they 
 heard from anyone's mouth were 
 looked upon asa voice from heaven, 
 direiling them in the matter they 
 enquired about. SceScrtes. 
 
 The Talmud furnillies a number 
 of incredible ftories on this, as on 
 every other fubjeft. 
 
 Battering Ram ; See Aries. 
 
 Battle. The Je^K:s, Greeks, 
 and Romans, were very fuperlliti- 
 cus with reipeiSl to their days of 
 iighting. The Jei':i would not 
 
 even fight in their own defence 01: 
 x\it fahbath-day , and Pcmpey taking 
 advantage of this circurallancetook 
 Jer-afalein in an attack on that day. 
 The Athenians were not to fight 
 till the fevenih day of the month 
 was pall, nor the Lacedemonians till 
 after the full moon: The Romam 
 had their dies pra-liares en v/iiich 
 they were permittedto join battle, 
 and their dies atri on which it was 
 unlawful to fight except in their 
 own defence, ^ye find frequen: 
 infcances of battles in the night, 
 by moon-light. An engagement 
 was never begun without mucli 
 ceremony, and preparation, as tak- 
 ing Auguries, offering facrificc, 
 haranguing the foldiers, giving the 
 watchword, ovTcfh-a Thefignals 
 of battle were ibundingthcC//7^7<:«/«, 
 and Barritus, attended with the 
 Concujp.o Artr.orum, and difplaying 
 the purple flag ; to which v/e may 
 add thefinging of P^ans. 
 
 A Roman legion ranged in order 
 of battle, confifled of the Hajlati 
 in front, the Principe: behind thefc, 
 and Triarli behind the Principes. 
 The ranks of the Hajiati were 
 clofe, thofe of the Principes much 
 opener, and the ranks of the Triarii 
 the openell of all ; thus if the Haf- 
 tati could not itand the enemy's 
 charge, thev could retire within 
 the Principes; and if both the 
 Hajiati and Principes, thui-joined, 
 wore unable to fuilain the fhock, 
 they were received together, by 
 the Triarii. The Velites ftood ei- 
 ther before the Hajiati, or were 
 incerfperfed in the void fpaccs, and 
 fometimes were placed in ihe wings. 
 They always began the engage- 
 ment by fliirmifhing. The cava! ry 
 formed the als^ and the auxilia- 
 ries the two points of the battle. 
 Other forms of battle lefs ufual 
 amongfl the Remans were the 
 Cuneus, Ghhiis, Forfex, Turris, and 
 Scrra.- The Greckshd^^L three forms 
 
 of 
 
BE A 
 
 BEA 
 
 cf battle for tlic Iicrlc, the fqunrc, 
 the wedge and Rhombus, Tlicy 
 "generally drew up their whole ar- 
 my in a tVonc, and trufted the fuc- 
 cefs of the day to a finglc force. 
 
 The ancients had different forms 
 .offca engagements; as the" half- 
 moon, circle, and Forceps. In all 
 thefe the faips engaged with their 
 beaks, prows and item?, cnde-.x- 
 vouring to dafli in pieces, ovcrfet 
 or fink each other, the foidiers in 
 the mean time fighting with darts, 
 ilings, and even fwords, hoarding 
 each other by laving bridges be- 
 tween the fiiips. Thcv prepared 
 ■for battle by taking down the malis 
 or fails, and removing whatever 
 might expofc them to the wind, 
 choofing to be governed by their 
 oars. Sec Ann^, War, ScL'.icrs, 
 
 Beaks of Ihips, See liojlrunts. 
 
 Beans were made ufc of by the 
 Greeks in giving fcncencc. Elr.ck 
 and white fca-lhells were firft ufed 
 for this purpofe, the floncs or peb- 
 bles called -^Yiipoi, after them fm-all 
 pellets of brafs called fTrovJi/Aci. 
 Thefe being laid afide, beans were 
 introduced. They were of two 
 forts, white and black; the white 
 v/crc whole and made ufc of for 
 abfolution, the black v/cre bored 
 throv.gh,and were the inftruments of 
 condemnation. Thefe beans were, 
 by way cf adding to the fo]emnit\' 
 of trials, taken from the altar, and 
 cafl into two urns called Kaflbi, or 
 Kccdtajcoiy through a funnel called 
 Kyifxcg. That all might be affured 
 that no more than one was thrown 
 in at once, they held the bean 
 with the fore -finger, m.iddle finger 
 and thumb. Votes for magiilratcs 
 were al fo given by bean:. Thus 
 the Prytancs were chofen: The 
 namcsof the ten tribes vrerc thrown 
 into one vefTel, and nine black 
 Beans and a white one intoanother. 
 The names of the tribes were then 
 drawn with the ^f-^w, Ths ;rib; 
 
 to which the white bean anfwered, 
 was the firli to prefide ; and the 
 reft according to thecrder of draw- 
 ing. Trials concerning property 
 ■sverc determined in the fame way. 
 judges v/ho lived upon gifts receiv- 
 ed for doing jufdce were called 
 Kux;Ml^uy-;g bean- eaters.— —Th(i 
 Egyptians in general abflainedfrom 
 beans, but their prieib even ab- 
 horred the iight of them, account- 
 ing them impure and abominable. 
 
 Pythagoras forbad the eating of 
 beans probably becaufe they were 
 ufed in the courts of law as abov-^: 
 mentioned, and as all his precept.:,- 
 had a myftical fenfe as well as the 
 obvious one, the prohibition a- 
 mounted to this, touch no llatc 
 matters: Other interpretations 
 taken from fuppofed rcfemblanccs 
 to certain parts of the human body 
 fee. are ridiculous. 
 
 Beard, nothing has been more 
 fiuiStuating in the different ages and 
 countries of the world than the 
 fafaion of the beard. Some have 
 cultivated and entertained one pa;t 
 of it, and ibme another; fome 
 have endeavoured to extirpate it 
 entirely, whilll others have almofh 
 idolized it; the revolutions of 
 countries have fcarcely been more 
 famous than the revolutions of 
 beards. The Jcn.vs were forbidden 
 by Mofes to cut ofl' entirely the an- 
 gles or extremities of their beards. 
 They wear them to this day on the 
 chin only, having their upper lins 
 and cheeks clean Ihaved ; butthe\' 
 fhave themfelvcs in fuch a manncj- 
 as to leave a fillet of hair from the 
 lower lappet of each ear, to their 
 chins. When they mourned they 
 cut off what was otherwife fuffered 
 to grow; and allowed that tr> 
 grow which in other cafes ufed 
 to be cutoff. Sometimes thcwholc- 
 beard was fhaved by way of infult, 
 and fometimes to make a perfon 
 ridiculous they cut off half of his 
 beard, half of his hair, and half 
 H gf 
 
B E A 
 
 EEH 
 
 of his cloaihs; in tins manner 
 lianuv King ot- the Armnoritcs Icrv- 
 eJ the Ambufiadors ot Dan:id. 
 
 The Romans did not begin to 
 ilxavc till they were twenty or 
 twenty-one years of age; and the 
 day of lliaving was a day of rejoic- 
 ing. The hair of their beards waS' 
 put in a filvcr or gold box, and de- 
 dicated to their puardian God. 
 See Hiiir. 
 
 Tlie Greel.swoxQ their beards till 
 ^he time of ^/c'A-fl;;</^/- the Great; 
 but that prince ordered the Mace- 
 iloniavs to be fliavcd, for fear of 
 giving a handle to their enemies. 
 The Romajis did not begin to fliave 
 till the year of Rome 4j.|;. See 
 Z halving. 
 
 Beasts. Sh c.vs of b calls aniongil 
 the Romans, were very common ; 
 fhey received their origin from 
 tlicir fiiperllirious veneration of 
 Diana, in honour of whom wild 
 l--eafts were firil publicly exhibited ; 
 but what was thus begun for devo- 
 tion was c.iiatinued for diverhoii. 
 
 And In thefe fncvvs no expence 
 v.-as fparod, but wild animals were 
 I'rought from the moftdiilant re- 
 givns. The Emperor GcrJia7!:cs, 
 during the year of his Edi/f/bip, 
 can led an incredible number of 
 wild beafts to be brought to Ro//je 
 from the moll dillant parts j In one 
 dav looo bears were hunted and 
 tilled. TA-i-x>. Jkc. Hi]}. 
 
 The Ihcws of wild beads were 
 
 of four kinds. Firll when a- 
 
 liimals of extraordinary fize were 
 exhibited, or the people treued 
 with a fight offuch aswerebi-ought 
 irom abroad, as crocodiles &c. — 
 Secondly, when the people were 
 allowed to purfue the bealls, and 
 catch w'hat they could for their 
 own ufe, this was called Venatio di, 
 rcptionis. See for a further account 
 ot it in x\\Q.^x\.\z\d FctiaUo. Thirdlv, 
 beaits wei^e fonictimes matched wiih 
 beaiis, as tyger^ with lic^ns ; lions 
 
 with bulls, bulls with elephant- , 
 and rhinocerofc's with bears ; un- 
 der this head we may alfo rackon 
 dter hunted on the area by a pack 
 of dogs. — Fourthly, wild beaiis 
 were fomctimcs brought out to 
 fight with men for the entertain- 
 ment of the people ! The men who 
 appeared upon thefe occafions, and 
 entered the lills againll the animals, 
 whether voluntarily or by compul- 
 fion, were called Befiiarii. — For a 
 further account of whom, fee the 
 article Bef.iarit. The fliews of 
 wildbeaits were not peculiar to 
 Rome, but prevailed in all thofc 
 cGuntries wheie the Romans had 
 been victorious, and where Roniatt 
 provinces wci;e formed. 
 
 Beds. The beds on which the 
 Greeks and Romans reclined at 
 meat were of the fame nature witii 
 thofc on which they ilcpt, and dif- 
 tinguifned from them only by their 
 name, — the firll being called Leai 
 Triclinloruat or Triclimares, and 
 the fecond Lecii Ciilicularcs. The 
 LeSti Tricliniares were of fiveral 
 forms ; fometimes they held three 
 or four people, lomctimcs two, 
 and fometimes only one; yet in 
 the fame entertaining room, the 
 couches were always of the fame 
 Ihape and fize. After round ta. 
 bles of citron-wood were intro- 
 duced, they changed the three 
 beds for the Ztibadimn. See Zti- 
 badiiiin. 
 
 Low beds were elleemed very 
 mean, and lofty ones were confe- 
 quently affeded. On the beds 
 they laid a fort of tick or quih 
 Ituffed with feathers, hay or tow ; 
 thefe they called Culc'itrx. Their 
 covering formerly was goat-ikins, 
 which were afterwards changed for 
 fine coverlids or carpets, loraetimes 
 called Stragula, and fometimes 
 ^1 cralia. 
 
 Bekeadikc was a punifliment 
 apnointcd amongil the Jews, oi.lv 
 
 for 
 
BEL 
 
 B I D 
 
 •ftr rrurlhcrers, and for towns 
 \viiic;i were fallen into idolatry. 
 This the Je^vijh dr.ftors fay ; we 
 ■find, however, nothing like it to 
 have been pradifcd before the cap- 
 tivity, in a jud-icial way. It is 
 true, indeed, that ylLi/nc/ech caufcd 
 fevcnty of his brethren to be be- 
 headed, en one ilore at OpLrai 
 that the men of Sa»:arm fcnc the 
 heads of Jlhab's fons to the i:e\v 
 ting o'i Ifracl : and that forty two 
 -of AhaxiaUs brethren were put to 
 Jcath, probably in the fame wcy^ 
 by Jehus orders : But it is plain 
 ■none of thcfe cafes happened in a 
 judicial wav. Vni-T. /inc. Hij<. 
 See Punipiticiit, 
 
 Bekak, a je^ij7o coin, worth 
 IS. id. ii-i6ths of our money. 
 Sec Money, 
 
 Bells, v/cre in ufe an-.ong the 
 yrri/, Greeks, and Romar^s. The 
 high-pricft had a number of little 
 bells of gold hung to the border of 
 hh garment, th::t the tin-lclings 
 might fave him the trouble of 
 knocking, when he entered into, 
 
 or came out of, the fanftuary. 
 
 Copper bells vverealfo ufed in the 
 7fa<.//S temple. A bellman walk- 
 ed araong the Greeks and Ronians, 
 before funeral proce'ilions, that ma- 
 ■giilrates and ethers, who would 
 have been polluted by the fight, 
 might keep out of the way. The 
 Hierophant, or prieil of Proferpine 
 :it Athcn:, called the people to the 
 Sacrifice, by ringing a bell. Thofc, 
 •among the Greeks, who went the 
 nightly rounds, in *he camps or 
 garrifons, rung a little bell at each 
 fentiy box, to awaken the fuldicrs. 
 Bells were put on the necks of cri- 
 •minals going to execution. Bells 
 were alfo hung, with whip', on 
 the chariots of triumphant gene- 
 rals. They were alfo ufed in^rcat 
 men's houfes, to call up fervant^. 
 They were frequently put on the 
 ■necks of bs?,ft2 of burthen, ,Fcc, 
 
 Br.NDiDiA. Certain fetiva!*; 
 rcfeni olmg the Bacchr. uuia, though 
 held by the Athenians, in honour 
 of Diana, called ^tvh;. They 
 were folemnizcd in the Piraue, on 
 the twenty-ilfih day of the month 
 ThargelioJ!. 
 
 BENEnciAf.ii, a name given 
 by the Rcnians to tlic E-Joccti. Sec 
 E'-Jocati.. 
 
 Bestiarii, the common name 
 given by the RoK2ans to'fuch as en- 
 gaged with wild bcalls. There were 
 feveral kinds of BejUarii , lil, 
 fuch as were condemned to fight 
 with them, thefe were fixpofed 
 naked and defcncelefs, and con- 
 fiftcd of prifoncrs taken in war, or 
 flitves wlio had been guilty of c- 
 normoas crimes. The facoiad fort 
 were thofc that made a trade of ii-, 
 and fought for monev. Thefe like 
 the Gk-Jiators, had their fchools 
 where they were trained up for tl^jc 
 
 fanguinary employment. Tlie 
 
 third were fuch young noblemen «r 
 gentlemen as were ambit! ras t;) 
 flicw their dcxtcritv in mnnaelag 
 thefc encounters. "Ju^-jenalxviiow-ri^ 
 us that even women, forgetting 
 tlieir fex, and abandoning their 
 modeftv, fometimes fiiewcd thctr 
 courage on the^e ' ccafions. The 
 hiitfort, was where feveral B<'fliarii 
 were let Ipofe at once, well arme^', 
 againit a -number of bealls. Some- 
 times thefc eiigagements were car- 
 ried on upon lev»cl ground, i^^ v>hich 
 cafe the bcaics were generally vic- 
 torious, and fometimes the Brjliarii 
 attacked their brother brutes fror.i 
 the hi.'hcll part of the amphithea- 
 tre fee re from danger. See the 
 article Beaf.s. 
 
 BiDENTAL, amongil the Re- 
 mans was a place blalled with light- 
 ning, and conl'ccrtited by an Ua- 
 rufpe::, wkh thefacrihce of k Bi- 
 dens or fliecp two years old. They 
 thought that wherever a thunder- 
 bolt fcl'-j tlie Gads had a particular 
 
 dcfire 
 
BI R 
 
 BIS 
 
 dcfiie to have the place fet apart 
 for 'hi;ir worlhip. It\vas accord- 
 ingly accounted facred, and it 
 •was unlawful to enter or tread up- 
 on it J for which realon it was 
 commonly' furroiinded with a ditch, 
 awr.ll, a hedge, or ropes. Priclis 
 called Bidentalcs were appointed 
 to offer facrifices within the hclv 
 iiiclofure, and conuituted a college 
 or decurv. 
 
 Biciz, chariots drawn by two 
 horfes a-breafl, and both in the 
 Grecian and Roman games. The 
 invention was very ancient, as the 
 Bigre were ufed as war-chariots by 
 the heroes of the Iliad; but thc:y 
 ■were firft introduced into the Olym- 
 pic games in the 93d Olympiad. 
 
 Bigamy, the poireifion of two 
 wives at the fame time. Perfans 
 convlcled of bigamy amongll the 
 'Romans, were branded with a note 
 of infamy. 
 
 BiGATus, a name given to the 
 Tivman Dciiarius when fcampt with 
 th? figures of the 5z^<2 or chariot 
 with two horfes abreali. See Bi^a-. 
 
 BiRUs were fiippofed, by the 
 ancients, to be endued with the 
 faculty of prcfcience, on account 
 perhaps of their nearer intercourfe 
 with heaven, or becaufe they 
 breathed a purer air in their ;ethe- 
 rial flights. Divination by birds 
 among the ancient Greeks and Ro- 
 7nans was performed by cblcrving 
 and interpreting their flight, 
 chirping, feeding, &c. This art 
 of divination by birds was called 
 Augury, zvA Aufpcimn. See Augur, 
 Augury. 
 
 BiaEMEs in the naval affairs of 
 the Romans, figniiies fliips of tlie 
 fmaller fize ufed in war, having 
 two rows of oars, concerning the 
 uifpofition of which, aarhors are 
 not agreed. They were fometimes 
 called J.iburnrt; or Liburnica, from 
 the Liburni, a people of Dabnatia, 
 
 who arc faid to have invented an.i 
 
 ufed tkem in their piratical cxc- 
 ditions. 
 
 Birth-Day. Sec Xatalis. 
 
 Bishops v/cre the chief ofiiccrs 
 in the government of the primitive 
 chriliian church, and held the 
 liigheft rank in the three difierent 
 orders of the Hierarchy, which 
 confided of Bijhops, Prefiyisrs or 
 Prirjfs, and Deacons. The word 
 Epijlopus, which we tranflate Bi- 
 Jhop, iigniiics an ovcrfecr or fupcr - 
 if/tendr.nt, and is called in the Rs- 
 njelaticns the Angel oi the Church. 
 Originally the BiJ/.^ops,hzMz^. their 
 parcicular funiUons, performed 
 every ofHce of a prieii,in the church 
 where they prcfided ; but as the 
 number of chriftians encreafed, 
 they left the ordinary duties to the 
 priefts, being fully occupied in the 
 Epifcopal trufc, which confuted in 
 taking care of the poor, ordaining 
 minifters, governing the £ock, ex- 
 communicating ofi-'endcrs, abfolv- 
 ing penitents, adminiflering the 
 twofacE2ments,confirming,preach- 
 ing the word, and praying with 
 the people. Ic may be proper here 
 to obferve that the government of 
 the Chrifaan church, which is the 
 7nyfiical Ifrael, feems to have been 
 tynified in the literal Ifrael : For 
 tlie CbirfPrieJl of the Jeucs, with 
 Friefs and Lcvites, exactly repre- 
 fentcd the Chr-Jiian Apofiles or Bi- 
 jhops, Prejhxters and Deacons. See 
 Prejl^;ters, Deacons. 
 
 BissEXTUS Dies, in the Ro- 
 man calendar, is the fupernumcrary 
 dav added to the 365, in leap- 
 year. It was fo called becaufc in 
 leap-year they counted the_//.v/Z» of 
 the calends of March twice ever. 
 This additional day was inferted 
 evcrv four vears, and was made up 
 of the fix odd hours which remain- 
 ed unaccounted for in every com- 
 mon year. This was the Julian 
 reo-ulation of the calendar, which 
 with a fc'.v ncceflrtry alccration.s 
 
 m 
 
BLE 
 
 B LO 
 
 Hill continues. The leap-year on 
 account of the dies li/fextui was 
 called A!:7zi:s Lijfextilis. 
 
 Blasphemy is an offence com- 
 mitted immediately againfl: God, 
 by afcribing to him any thing 
 wnbecoming liis divine nature and 
 attrihute5, — by fpeaking evil and 
 reproachful words of the deity, — 
 or afcribing to the creature what is 
 due to the creator alone. The 
 "Ji^s punidied the blafphemer by 
 lloning him to death. Lev. xxiv. 
 1 6. After conviftion he was led 
 to execution without the camp, and 
 the witncifes were firil to lay their 
 hands upon his head, in tcllimony 
 of the truth of their evidence, and 
 fa)', " let thy blood be upon thy 
 own head, <ie." then he wasfloned 
 by the whole congregation till he 
 died. 
 
 Blessing. Among the "Je-j^s 
 we meet witlt many inflances of 
 folemn bleffings pronounced upon 
 the people at large, or upon indi- 
 viduals. The patriarch 'Jacob 
 bleflbd his children, and the form 
 of beucdidlion was prophetic of 
 their future fortunes, Gen. xlix. 
 25. God ordained that when the 
 children of Ifrael arrived in the 
 promifed land, they fhould all af- 
 femble in the vale betwixt mount 
 Ebal and mount Gmx/zw— -and that 
 bleiTmgs Ihould be pronounced 
 from Gerizir:, on thofe who kept 
 the law — and curfes from Ebal on 
 thofe who difobeyed it. Which 
 was accordingly performed by Jo- 
 J}:i'.a, upon his arrival in the land 
 of Carman. 
 
 As to the bleffings which the pa- 
 triarchs conferred ontheirchildren, 
 they were fupernaturally diredled 
 in fo doing. It was a method of 
 conveying God's grace, and concili. 
 ating the kind attentions of provi- 
 dence. See Gen. xxvii. xxviii. 
 ^Iviii. and xlix. Coll. facv. Interp. 
 ^t feafts it was uiual amongil 
 
 the Jc-Ji-s, for the mafler of the 
 houfe, (unlefs there was a flran^er, 
 or fomc perfon of fupcrior rank to 
 perform the ofHcc) to crave a blef- 
 fing on the victuals, and alfoon the 
 cnp. This appears to have been 
 the conltantpradtice of our Saviour. 
 See Grace. 
 
 Solemn forms of bencdiftion 
 are frequently met with alfo a- 
 mongft the Greeks and Romans, and. 
 ejaculatory bleffings were con- 
 flantly pronounced upon any fur- 
 prize ; or the fight of any thing 
 unuiual upon hearing a perfon 
 fneeze, &c. 
 
 Boats. Sec Scaphifm, Ships, &c. 
 
 Blood was from the creation, 
 of the world forbidden by the 
 Deity to be ufed as food, either by 
 itfclt, or when mixed with the 
 flcfh ; that is when the animals 
 had been flrangled or fufrbcatcd, 
 fo that the blood could not be 
 drawn from them. The reafon of 
 the prohibition was becaufe the 
 blood of the animal is the life 
 thereof. Probably the intention 
 was to inflill tendernefs, mercy, 
 and an abhorrence of fanguinarv 
 proceedings into the minds of the 
 Jei.is: For the law againll eating 
 blood being guarded by the fanc- 
 tion of the fevereft thrcatnings, 
 blood would undoubtedly be look, 
 ed upon with a kind of facred hor- 
 ror, which might have a confider- 
 able influence in repreffing any 
 cruel intentions. 
 
 This prohibition given to Noab 
 and in forced by the law of Mofes, 
 was alf^5 adopted and retained by 
 the gofpel, as we fee in Aclsxv. zS. 
 This law we are informed is itill 
 flridlly obferved by fome eailern 
 churches, not by virtue of the pro- 
 hibition of Mofes, butqf the Apof- 
 tolic Canon which has been kept 
 ever fince by the eaftern churches, 
 and for feveral ages by the wellern, 
 and received confinuauon frona 
 
 liras 
 
BOO 
 
 BOO 
 
 t^me to time in fevcral councils.— 
 AVhetherthc prohibition be ftill in 
 force or not, has been the fubjedt 
 of much controverfy : for a view 
 of the arguments on both fides. 
 Sec Ztackhoufes Body ofDi-v. 
 
 Llond amongrt the Greeks was 
 oftercd to the manes of the dead, 
 and we meet with the famecuftom 
 prevailing amongit the Romans, 
 vvhofe facrcd cercinonies were 
 
 chiefly borrowed from Greece. 
 
 The blood of doves was ufed as a 
 philtre, either to create a ne\v 
 flame or recover loft aftedion. 
 
 Blood-letting was a punifliment 
 inj4i(fl:ed hy x.\\z Ro7nans on foldiers 
 who fhewed figns of cowardice ; 
 that they might lofe with fliamc 
 that blood which they durll not 
 cobjy fpend in their country's 
 caufe. 
 
 BoEDROMiON was the third 
 month in the" Grecian year; it con- 
 fifled of thirty days, and received 
 its name from the fcllival called 
 Boedromia^ inRituted in memory 
 of the alTiltance received from Jon 
 the fon oiXuihus, by the Athenians, 
 when invited by EumoJ^us. See 
 Month. 
 
 'Bonnet was a covering for the 
 liead, worn by the Jenxiijh pricfts. 
 yofephus fays that the bonnet worn 
 by the private priefts was compofed 
 cf feveral rounds of linen cloth, 
 turned in and fewed together, fo as 
 to appear like a thick linen crown. 
 The whole was entirely covered 
 with another piece of linen, which 
 came down as low as their fore- 
 head, and concealed the deformity 
 of the feams. See Exod. xxviii. 
 4c. The high-priell*s bonnet was 
 not much different from that which 
 has been defcribed. 
 
 Books are probably of earlier 
 origin than the time of Mofes; but 
 the books of M';;/^/ are undoubtedly 
 .the mofl ancient of any now ex- 
 jtanj:. Several forts of materials 
 
 were formerly ufed for writing 
 upon, as plates of lead and tJop- 
 per, ftonc. bricks, boards, tJie 
 bark and leaves cf trees. The ten 
 commandments were written by 
 the fingerof God on tables of ftonc, 
 and Hcfiod's works upon tablets of 
 wood. The reed Papyrus or Biblus 
 furnifhed, from its leaves, the 
 molt convenient fubitance for wri- 
 ting upon, of any yet mentioned. 
 Afterwards parchment was invent- 
 ed, by a King of Pergamus. From 
 the cullom of writing on wood a 
 book was called Ccdex, from the 
 bark of trees it was called Liber, 
 from the Egyptian reed Biblus 
 came the Greek word ^i^\io\\ and 
 from i*i7^7-ajtheEnglifh word paper. 
 Books were generally rolled up 
 round a ftick which they called 
 ViiihiUciLs. Hence the word Vc- 
 lumen and Volu7nc. When the boo'c 
 was rolled up the two ends of the 
 Umbilicus ftuck out, which they 
 called Cornua, and ornamented 
 with ivory, gold, filvcr or other 
 valuable materials. The Je^i^.s in 
 their fynagogucs Itill make wfc of 
 the bible in roll?. The ancient 
 books fomctimes were made up of 
 many leaves fattened to each other, 
 like our books. See Umbi/ictcs, Vo- 
 Jumen, Writing, Papyrus. 
 
 Booty, fpoils taken in war.— 
 According to the law of Mofcs the 
 booty was to be divided equally 
 betwixt thofe who were in the bat- 
 tle, and thofe who were in the 
 camp, whatever difparity there 
 might be in the number of eacfi 
 party. The law further requires 
 that out of that part of the fpoils 
 which was affigned to the fighting 
 men, the Lord's fhare fliould be 
 feparated ; and for every five hun- 
 dred men, oxen, affes, fheep, i:zz. 
 they were to take one for the high- 
 prieil, as being the Lord's firit- 
 fruits. And out of the ether moi- 
 ety belonging to the children of 
 Ifrael^ 
 
BOR 
 
 BOW 
 
 Jfrad, they were to give for every 
 lifty men, oxen alks, fheep, &c. 
 one to the Le-vitc;. 
 
 Amonglt the Greeks and Romans 
 the plunder was bro'.ighc together 
 into one common llock, and divi- 
 ded afterwards amongll theofUcers 
 and foldiers, paying fome refped 
 to their ran!: in the diilribution. — 
 Sometimes the foldiers made a rc- 
 fcrvc of the chief part of the booty 
 to prefent by way of compliment 
 to their refpeftive Generals. The 
 Gods were always remembered — 
 and the prlefts had fuflicient in- 
 fluence to procure them an hand, 
 fome offering and other acceptable 
 prefents. See Deciwje. 
 
 BoRROV7i\"G of wives has by 
 I'ertHllian been charged upon both 
 Greeks and Romans. Speaking of 
 the Cbriflians, and making their 
 defence, he fays — that they admit 
 no partnerfliip of wives, but aiferts 
 lilac the Greeks and Remans pati- 
 ently expofe their wives to new 
 ejnbraces; and to llrengthen the 
 charge he fays that e\'en Socrates 
 and Cato freely lent out theirs to 
 their friends, and v.'erc pimps co 
 their own wives. 
 
 The laws of Athens permitted 
 hcireifes IQ make ufe of the huf- 
 band's ncareil: relations when they 
 found him deficient. And the 
 Spartans thought the loan of wives a 
 very commendable fpecies of libe- 
 rality. The chief end of marriage 
 amongft them was to ferve the 
 ilate by begetting children, and 
 ifthev found thenuelves incapable 
 of anfwering that great end, they 
 thought it a duty to call in the af- 
 iillance of their friends. The 
 children in this cafe belonged to 
 the huihand — bccaufe ^uodfadt pr 
 iiliiim f'acit perfe. 
 
 With refpecl to the Romans, 
 Kennet denies that the cuflom of 
 borrowing and lending wives pre- 
 vailed amorgil them. See Wife^ 
 
 BoT.\NOMANCY, a fpecies of 
 divination by herbs, pradlifed by 
 the Greeks. I'hey wrote their own 
 names and their qucrtion upon 
 leaves, and expofcd thcin to the 
 winds— -as many of the letters as 
 remained in their proper places 
 being joined together contained an 
 anfwer to their queftion. 
 
 Bottle, amongil the ancient 
 Hebre-vcsy was a cag, generally 
 made of goats &in with the hair on 
 the iniide, well pitched and fcwed 
 together. The mouth of it was 
 for the, moll partthroughoncof the 
 animals paws. This kind of bot- 
 tle in Latin was called Uter, and 
 in Greek ao-Koj, and was in ufe both 
 amongft Gr^if/\f and Rc7nans, through 
 perhaps with fome difference. — • 
 This account of bottles will ex- 
 plain Mc.tth. ix. I 7. ^Ncw w ine 
 
 put into old bottles, where the lea- 
 ther is much weakened by ufe, 
 would, by its fermentation, burll 
 them . Caltnet. 
 
 Bow, a weapon of offence made 
 of wood, horn or other claltic mat- 
 ter. The bow is the molt ancient 
 and univerfal of all weapons, it 
 obtained not only amongft the 
 Jev:Sy Greeks y and Romans, Dat a- 
 mongll the moll barbarous and re- 
 mote people v/ho had not the leaft 
 communication v/ith the reft of 
 mankind. The Grecian bow was 
 in the form of a 2 or capita! Slgma^ 
 and adorned with gold and filvcr. 
 The Romans did not ufe bov/s in 
 the infancy of their ftate, but they 
 afterwards admitted them, and em- 
 ployed auxiliary archers in all their 
 wars. The Grecians in drawing 
 the bow did not, like the moderns, 
 or the ancient Perjians^ pull back 
 their hand towards their right 
 ear, but placed their bow before 
 them, and returned their hand to 
 their right breaft. This was alfo 
 the cuitom of the, Amazons, and 
 accounts for [heir gutting off the 
 
 right 
 
BRA 
 
 BRI 
 
 right breaft. Bow-ftrings were 
 leathern thongs or fmall cords of 
 horfe-hair. The invention of the 
 bow is given by author^ to differ- 
 ent pcrfons, but generally attri- 
 buted to the Scythians. 
 
 Boxing was fometimes pro- 
 pofcd as one of the exercifes-in the 
 Grecian games. Sometimes the 
 combatants while they fought held 
 in their hands balls of lead or 
 itone, called Sphsrae, and then it 
 ■was called Sphccroniachia. In the 
 moll early times they expofcd their 
 arms and hands naked and un- 
 guarded. Afterwards they fur- 
 rounded them with thongs for de- 
 fence, but in procefs of time this 
 covering was ijnproved into the 
 Crjlus, which was ufed both offen- 
 sively and dcfenfively. See C/rfms. 
 Boxing was one of the exercifes in 
 the Roman games — and was per- 
 formed as aniongll: the Greeh with 
 the CtffiUs. 
 
 In boxing the great art was to 
 elude blows of the adverfary by 
 Hooping, and to avoid Itriking 
 iheir own bodies with the C^Jius.-^' 
 The combatants generally aimed at 
 each others faces. The conquered 
 party acknowledged his defeat by 
 letting fall his wearied arms, or by 
 finking to the ground. 
 
 Brabeutes. The ofHccr who 
 determined and decreed the prizes 
 at the Grecian games. 
 
 Brachmans or Bramim^ was a 
 name given to a certain feftcfphi' 
 lofophers in India, near the Ga?iges. 
 They were in faft the priefts and 
 principal counfellcrs of the princes 
 of that country, and are fuppofed 
 to have derived their name from 
 Abraham. They held a tranfmi- 
 gration of fouls, and from them 
 Pythagoras is fuppoi'ed to have bor- 
 rowed this doftrine. Their ac- 
 count of the creation and deluge 
 is built upon that of Mofcs, but 
 mingled with whijniical fables of 
 
 their own. They praiftifed great 
 aufteritics, and fubfilled chiefly on 
 herbs and pulfc, tailing nothing 
 that ever had life. They be- 
 lieved in a future Hate of rewards 
 and punifhments, which they fup- 
 pofed would confill in a happy or 
 mifcrablc tranfmigration. Life, 
 they held, was a fccne of fuffering, 
 and ardently wiihed for death, in 
 hopes of a comfortable change. 
 Alexander caufed a great number of 
 the BrachK'ans to be crucified, to- 
 gether with Mvficavus, an India-,! 
 prince, whom, he fuppofed, they 
 had encouraged to revolt. The 
 Brachmans v/ere the fame as the 
 GymnofophiJIs ; or, perhaps^ the 
 former may, with more propriety, 
 be confidered as a branch of tlu; 
 latter. — Theprefent Banians o[ the 
 Eajl Indies retain many of their te- 
 nets, and arc, in fa6l, the fame 
 fe(fl, under a different name. The 
 Brachmans lived in folitudc and 
 without m.atrimony. They gave 
 public leflurcs, but required the 
 pupils neither to fpeak nor fpit, on 
 pain of cxpulfion for that da> . In 
 this they agreed with the EJJ'encs. 
 Some fuppofe the wife-men of the 
 eafl, who came to worlliip our Sa- 
 viour, to have been of this feft. — 
 Porphyr : Strahc. 
 
 Branchid^, priefls of the 
 temple of .^/(?//o at Didymiis \n lo- 
 nia. They impioully opened their 
 temple to Xerxes, who plundered 
 it of all its riches. After this they 
 fled to Sogdiana, where they built 
 a city called by their own name. 
 Alexander, after he had conquered 
 Darius, dellroyed their city, and 
 put them all to the fword, vifiting 
 the fins of the fathers upon the 
 children. In the temple of ^o/Zo 
 at DidyiKus, oracles were given.— 
 See Oracle. 
 
 Bride. See Maniage. 
 
 Bridges over the Tihcr %verc 
 
 eight in number— the PoiisMil'-jius, 
 
 ^liust 
 
B U L 
 
 BUR 
 
 ^lius, VaticavMS, yaniculenjis , Cef' 
 tius, Fabriciusy Palatir.uSy and Sub- 
 licius. 
 
 Bron'tium, in the Grecian 
 theatres, was a place beneath the 
 floorwhcre they kept brazen veiTels 
 full of ftones and other materials, 
 with which they imitated the found 
 of thunder upon the llage. The 
 Roman Theatre had a fimilar con- 
 venience, where thsy kept their 
 thundering machines, and the ma- 
 terials of v/hich their lightening 
 wascompofed. 
 
 Bk-UMalia, were Reman fefti- 
 vals in honour of Bacchusy intti- 
 tuted by Romulus, and celebrated 
 twice a year, on the twelfth of the 
 Calends of March, and the eigh- 
 teenth of the Ca/fM^j of November. 
 During the celebration of thefe 
 feftivals, Romulus ufed to entertain 
 the Senate. 
 
 BucciNA was an inllrument of 
 martial mufic, ufed in the Roman 
 armies. It is difficult to point out 
 the difference betwixt the Bucdna 
 and the Cornuoy yet a difference 
 there certainly was, for wc never 
 read of the Ccrnua in ufc with the 
 watch or centinels, but the Buccinee 
 only. See Comu, Trumpet, Mujic. 
 Buckler. S>tz Shield. 
 BuLEUTERiA werepublicbuild- 
 ings at Athens, wherein each com- 
 pany of tradefmen met, and con- 
 fulted about their commonintercfts, 
 for trades were much encouraged 
 by the Atheniar.s. And an aftion 
 of flander laid againft any man who 
 upbraided another with the mean- 
 Tizii of living by a trade. 
 Building. See Houfet. 
 Bull. Among the /Jow««j tjiis 
 animal was facrificed by thofe who 
 triumphed, after they arrived at 
 the Capitol. Bulls were offered to 
 Jpollo and Neptune. It was held a 
 crime to facrifice them to Jupiter ; 
 yet we find it was fometimes prac- 
 tifed< Bulls were ranked by th? 
 
 Roman: among the military re- 
 wards.— See Reiuards, Triumph^ 
 Sacrifice, i^c. 
 
 Brazen bulls, heated to an in- 
 tenfe degree, were ufed among the 
 ancients as engines of punifhment. 
 The criminals were ihut up in 
 them, and their cries from their 
 hollow prifon rcfembled the roar- 
 ing of a bull. The bull ofPhala- 
 ris, and tlvatcf Perillits, are damned 
 to everlafUng infamy. See Punijh* 
 ment. 
 
 Bull's blood was adminiftered 
 among the ancients as a fure poi- 
 fon. Midas, the ivth king of 
 Pbrygia, put an end to his unhappy- 
 life by drinking off a large cup- 
 full of it. Hi? example was fol- 
 lowed by Pfammenitus king of 
 Egypt, and by Themijlocks the Athc" 
 nian. 
 
 Bull^ Aure^ were hollow 
 balls of gold vvorn by way of orna- 
 m:nt. They were firft given by 7tfr« 
 quifiias along with the Pratexta to 
 his Ton, after he had, when only 
 fourteen years of age, killed aa 
 enemy with his own hand. See 
 Prcetexta. 
 
 In the firfl ages the Bulla was 
 worn by the noblcmens fons only 
 But, when the children of freed 
 men were indulged with the Pree- 
 texta, they alfumed the Bulla alfo, 
 but theirs was made of leather. la 
 the cavity of the Bulla were en- 
 clofed amulets againft envy, &c.— 
 See Amulet. 
 
 When youth arrived at fifteen 
 years of age, they hung their 
 Bulla about the necks of cheir 
 pods Lares. The necks of horfes 
 as well as thofe of Gods and men, 
 were fometimes decorated with 
 thefe ornaments. 
 
 Burial, the laft office perform- 
 ed by the living to the dead; ai» 
 ofEce held fo facred that they who 
 ncglefted it have in all nations 
 been held in abhcrrence. The 
 
BUR 
 
 BUS 
 
 y^nvs,- Greeks and Romans held the 
 tkad as facred, and thought that 
 jhe want of burial would afFcd 
 the happinefsof the foul. With- 
 out burial the Greeks and Rovians 
 imagined there was no entrance 
 into Elyfuim for a thoufand years. 
 The remains both of freemen and 
 Have; were treated with pious care. 
 Such as died abroad had their 
 bodies or afhes brought home for 
 interment. With regard to the 
 place of interment nothing parti- 
 cular was.prelcribed. But Jcnvs, 
 Creeks and Romans buried their 
 dead in the city or country, by the 
 road fide, or upon mountains j 
 ibmetimes they were depofited in 
 caverns, and iometimss in public 
 burial places. The great men of 
 Rome were ufually buried in th^ 
 Ciimpus Mr.rtiy.s. See Campus 
 Marti us. 
 
 The rites of burial were denied 
 by the 'Jeivs to none. But the 
 Greeks exempted from thefe lall 
 offices, public or private enemies ; 
 traitors to their country, and ty- 
 irants. . The common forms of in- 
 terment were refufcd to fuicidesj 
 perfons who had been guilty of fa 
 crilcge; and men who had been 
 llruc!: dead with lightning ; noto- 
 rious fpcndthrifts, and perfons 
 who died in debt, for their bodies, 
 till f:uisfa.£lion was made, belonged 
 totheir creditors; to thefe we may 
 add fuch malefactors as died upon 
 thecrofb. 
 
 The ufual time of interment 
 ■'.vas the morning. For furtjier 
 particulars re! r;t!ng to burial?, fee 
 the articles Burtiijig, Cenotaph, Fu- 
 Jieral, Pile, Urn, He/u/c/jre, Monn- 
 -acnt, 
 
 BuRNiTiG ali've, a punifhment 
 which tlie, Rov:ars fometin.es in- 
 Hifted on defcrters, betrayers of 
 the public councils, incendiaries, 
 and even coiners. J: was called 
 Crematio. The 'Jc^^vs had two forts 
 
 of penal burning. One calkd 
 lurning of the body, performed by 
 faggots and other conibaitlble ma- 
 terials: The other, called burning 
 of the foul. Ccmhufuo Ai:i;na:, was 
 performed by fixing the criminals 
 up to the knees in the ground, and 
 pouring melted lead down the:r 
 throats. Thepriell's daughter who 
 committed whoredom, and he tha-. 
 lay with his ov/n daughter, or 
 grand-daughter, or mother in lav.r 
 v/ere ^«r«/ alive. See. P unijhjnejit . 
 
 Burning the, lead, and interring, 
 were promilcuouHy ufed both by 
 ih.(iGreekszr\A RoTnaas: Thoughthj 
 molt ancient cuilom of both nations 
 was to inter the dead. Burning: 
 was at laft adopted in preference 
 to interment, that the foal, being 
 perfectly feparated from grcfj mat- 
 ter might not be impeded, by iti 
 bodily impurities, in its flight to- 
 wards heaven. For the manner oi" 
 burning the dead, fee P//^, Funeral. 
 
 Buskin v/asakindof flioe fome- 
 what refemhling a boot, fuited to 
 either foot, and worn by either fex. 
 It was principally ufed upon the 
 llage in tragedy. It covered the 
 foot and mid-leg, was tied under 
 the knee, was very rich and fine, 
 and of a purpk colour when ufed 
 on the llage. Its form was quad- 
 rangular, the folc was fo thick as 
 to elevate the aftors tp the fup- 
 pofed fize and elevation of the he- 
 roes they pcrfonatcd.- Girls fome- 
 times wore the bufkin to raife their 
 height, and hunters to keep them 
 from the mire. It is fometimes 
 uicd in the clafTics to iignify Tra- 
 gedy or a; Tragic and elevated ftyle. 
 It is oppofed to Soccus, which was 
 the flioe worn by comedians. See 
 Soccus. 
 
 BusTUARil, were Gladiators 
 who fought about the funeral pile 
 of a decealed perlbn of note. This 
 cuilom lucceeded themore barbar- 
 ous one of lacrificing captives upoc- 
 
 the 
 
BUT 
 
 B YS 
 
 the occalion. Infcances of wliich 
 we meet both amongit the Roman 
 and Greek writers. I'he blood fpilt 
 ■in this inhuman butchery was fup- 
 polcd to render the infernal Gods 
 (alias Devils) more propitious to 
 the fouls ot the dead. The word 
 derives its origin from Bujium.— 
 S--e the article Gladiators. 
 
 •BusTUM, a pyramid or pile of 
 wood, as fome will have it, on 
 whicli the Romans placed their 
 dead bodies, in order to be burnt. 
 Others fay it was not called Bujlujn 
 till the burning was over, quafi Icie 
 vjium; before the burning it was 
 called Pyra, and after the burning 
 began, Rcgts, See Pyra and 
 Rogtis. 
 
 Butchers were held in high 
 efteem amongfl x.\itjei.i:s; and they 
 who performed the buiincfs of their 
 profeflion were in higher reputa- 
 tion than thofe who were critically 
 acquainted with arts and fclences. 
 Wo man could pradHfe the art 
 without a licenfe in form ; which 
 gave the batcher a power to kill 
 meat, and others to eat it, provided 
 he read carefully the book called 
 the Shamble Conjlitution cvzry week 
 the firll year, every month the fe- 
 cond, and once a quarter during 
 his life afterwards. In cafes of 
 difficulty a learned Rabbi was ap- 
 plied to. This continues to be the 
 cultom of the Je'ws to this day. 
 
 The Greeks had their butchers 
 alfo, but nothing concerning them 
 
 occurs'to mo which it is worth my 
 while to infcrt. 
 
 The Ro!na7is had three kinds of 
 eftabliffted butchers, whofe office 
 ■was to furnilh the city v.'ith the 
 neceflary cutle, and to prepare and 
 vend the flcflu Tht Snarii pro- 
 vided hogs — the Pecuarii or Bcarit 
 other cattle, particularly oxen, and 
 the Lanii and Caniijiccs, a fubor- 
 dinatc clafs, were employed iij.' 
 killing. 
 
 Byssus was afortofcxccedingly 
 fine ^gyptianWnzn, of which the 
 tunics of the Jev:ijh priefts were 
 made. Jt was pot, indeed, Uriclly 
 Ipcaking, Lingn, but a fine foit of 
 tliready mattcrof which the ficheit 
 apparel was made. Some fuppofe 
 tile Bylfus to have been a fpecies cf 
 filk, others imagine it to haye.oeen 
 the fame with our cotton; others 
 take it to be the Limim afiefiima}!^ 
 and others again will have it to be 
 the lock or bunch of filkyhair ad- 
 hering to the Pinna Marina, by 
 which it fallens itfelf to othc'r 
 bodies. 
 
 The i'^cjte: Byjftn^ v/hith we are 
 told fome of the /Jewfl« ladies wore, 
 were of luch an extravagant price as 
 no ftufJ" in our cge can equal. The 
 Byjfiis of which thefe garments were 
 made was rec1:oned to be wortii 
 49!. I2S. the pound avoirdupois 
 weight, and confequently a gai-- 
 ment weighing 20 pound would 
 coil 992I. exclufivc of the manur 
 fact u re. 
 
 I .3 
 
 C. This 
 
CAD 
 
 CAD 
 
 C 
 
 CThis letter was reckoned a 
 fad and fatal one amongft 
 the Romans, becaufe it ftooc? for 
 tonJemnc, and was vvritten upon 
 their tickets or ballots to exprefs 
 the fentence of criminals. 
 
 Cab, an Hebrenu meafure of ca- 
 pacity. The cab of wine contained 
 two Englijh pints, and the cab of 
 corn two pints and 5-6ths, corn- 
 meafure. 
 
 Cabbala is the name of a myf- 
 terious kind of fcience among the 
 Jeijus, thought to have been deli- 
 vered by revelation to their fore- 
 fathers, and tra.nfmitted by oral 
 tradition to the prefent times, and 
 ierring for the interpretation of the 
 books both of nature and fcripture. 
 It is to thefe interpretaiions of the 
 written law, that our Saviour's 
 cenfure is to be applied, when he 
 reproves the 'Je^jos for '• making 
 the commands ot God of none efFcft 
 through their traditions." Mark 
 vii. 13. When God delivered the 
 law to Mofes, he is faid to have 
 delivered the explanation alio, 
 which explanation was not com- 
 initted to writing, but tranfmitted 
 by word of mouth from father to 
 fon : Such idle tales require no fe- 
 rious refutation ! 
 
 Cabiri were certain deities 
 worfhipped by the Samothracians, 
 an ; in the Ifle of Imbros, and other 
 parts of Greece. It is difputed who 
 the deities were whom they wor- 
 Jhipped under this name; fomefay 
 Cajior and Pollux only were in- 
 t' <:ied -lut others include many 
 more under this title. 
 
 Caduca Bona, amongft the 
 Unmans, were efcheats or goods 
 
 forfeited to the treafury, according 
 to certain laws made in the time of 
 Augufim. The firii of which en- 
 acted that all perfons who lived a 
 fingle life inould enjoy no legacy, 
 unlefs they married within the time 
 prefcribed ; but that whatever was 
 bequeathed to them by teftament 
 fhould be paid into the treafury.— 
 Secondly, thofe who had no chil- 
 dren loft one moiety of what was 
 left them by will, this the civil 
 \iwcz\h PcrnaOrbttatis. — ^Thirdly, 
 all that was given by will to any 
 perfon who died befare the Tejfntor, 
 or before the opening of the will, 
 was alfo an efcheat, and belonged 
 to the treafury. — Fourthly, every 
 heir who was negligent in reveng- 
 ing the death of him whofe eftatc 
 he inherited, forfeited the inherit- 
 ance to the treafury. [n Ihort, ra- 
 duca bona were any lapfed legacies, 
 or gifts of inheritance which were 
 void. 
 
 Caduceus properly fignifies 
 Mercury's rod or fceptre, which 
 had two ferpents twifting round it, 
 and had a pair of wings alfo,— 
 This rod is faid by the poets to 
 have many wonderful qoalities, 
 fuch as laying men afleep, raifing 
 the dead, compofing differences, 
 &c. When found upon medals it 
 is a common emblem of peace, 
 profperity, and good conduft.-— 
 The Amballadors of Rome, when 
 fent to treat of peace, carried ia 
 their hands a golden CaduceuSr 
 whence they were called Caducea- 
 tores ; as thofe who were fent to 
 declare war were called FeciaUs. 
 
 Cad us, amongft the RomatiSf 
 was a wine veiici of certain capa- 
 city, 
 
CAL 
 
 C AL 
 
 City, whofe contents will be fccn 
 under the article Meafure. 
 
 C^AUAS, among the Lacedeemo- 
 fitans, was a dark dungeon into 
 which they put criminals. It 
 was of the fame nature with the 
 Athenian Barathron and Orygina. 
 
 C^ RITES were a people ot 'Tuf- 
 eaKy, who preferved the facred re- 
 licks of the Romans, when the 
 Gauls had taken the city, and were 
 afterwards dignified with the name 
 of Roman citizens, but not admit- 
 ted, into any part of the public ad- 
 niiniftration. Hence when any 
 Roman citizen, of the Plebeian order, 
 was degraded by the Cenfor, for any 
 mifcondudl, his name was inferted 
 in the regifter of the Carites, in 
 Tabulis Ciserttum, that is, he was 
 fubjed to all taxes, but incapable 
 of giving a vote, or enjoying any 
 public office. See Ce7ifor. 
 
 C^SA et porreda. See Porrkere. 
 
 Calamus properly fignifics a 
 reed or ruih : But as the materials 
 are oftentimes ufed to fignify the 
 inftruments made of them, fo we 
 iind Calamus put for a pen ; for in 
 writing upon parchment, or Egyp- 
 tian paper, they made ufe of pens 
 made of reeds or ruflies ; but, in 
 writing upon tablets covered with 
 wax, they ufed the Stylus. See 
 Stylus, Writing, ijc. 
 
 Calata Comitia. See Co- 
 mitia. 
 
 Calator, among the Romans, 
 was a cryer or officer appointed to 
 publifh things. Calatores preceded 
 ■ the Pontifices when they went to 
 offer facrifice, to advertife the peo- 
 ple to leave off work. They alfo 
 attended the magiftrates, and were 
 employed by them to call the peo- 
 ple to the Comitia. Calatores were 
 ufed by officers in the army, and 
 private families employed them to 
 invite their guefts to entertain- 
 ments. 
 
 Calc£am£ntvm, a general 
 
 term including the feveral forts of 
 fhoes, flippers, &c. worn by the 
 Romans, an enumeration of which 
 will be found under the article 
 Shoes, and each particular kind 
 under their proper articles, will be 
 more fully defcribed. 
 
 Calceus amongil the Romans 
 differed from our common fhoe in 
 this, that it covered half the leg, 
 was open in the fore-part, and tied 
 with thongs or ftraps. They wifh- 
 cd to have them fit the foot very 
 exaclly, and for this purpofe fome- 
 times ftufted them with locks of 
 wool. The toe of the fhoe ended 
 in a point, and was bent a little 
 upwards. The common citizens 
 wore black fhoes, but thofe of the 
 ordinary women were white. The 
 flaves wore no fhoes, and we arc 
 informed tnat freemen fometimej, 
 as Cato Uticenjis, went barefoot. So 
 much for the Calceus in general ; I 
 fhall now defcribe the Calcei Lu- 
 naii, and the Calcei Mullei. Sec 
 Shoes. 
 
 Calcei Lunati, were flioes 
 worn by the Patriciaiis to dilHn- 
 guifh them from the vulgar, lb 
 called from an ivory crefcenr, with 
 which they were ornamented about 
 the ancle. Some fay it anfwered 
 the end of a buckle, but this fcems 
 to be a miitake. The more gene- 
 ral opinion is, that as it refembled. 
 the letter C. italluded to the num- 
 ber of 5^«^7/(7>v, which at their firft 
 inftitution was loo, which was 
 fignified by the numerical C. The 
 young Patricians before they were 
 ©f Senatorian age, and before they 
 put on the Prastextawtrc indulged 
 with the Crefcent. This Crefcent, 
 it appears, was not always of ivory, 
 but fometimes of gold or filver, a- 
 dorned with diamonds and other 
 precious ftones. See Senate, Pa-^ 
 tricians, Pratexta. 
 
 C'.LCEi Mullei, were red 
 
 fhoes, fo called from their refcm- 
 
 blance 
 
Hancc to the MuIIi'l m co\jv>\ .— 
 They came up to the middle oi the 
 icg,, but covered no more ot the 
 fuot than the Tole. They were lirft 
 \vorn by the Aibian Kings, after- 
 wards by the Kings of Rome, and 
 when the kingly government was 
 abolilhed they acre appropriated 
 only to thofewhohad born a Curule 
 office. : They were uf«d only upon 
 days of ceremony and triumph, 
 but Julius Cafar, to fliew his dc- 
 fcent from the AUar. Kings, wore 
 ihcm on ordinary days. After the 
 Emperors had adopted them, the 
 Cunde magiilrates changed them 
 for embroidered fhoes. 
 
 Calculus was a fmall flint, 
 {lone, ufed both by the Greeks and 
 Romans by way of counter. A col- 
 leftion of calculi were ufed in 
 reckoning up fums whether multi- 
 plied or divided, in their compu- 
 tations botli allronomical and geo- 
 metrical. Votes were given fre- 
 <juently by throwing into an urn a 
 black or white Calculus, and the 
 natter in debate was determined 
 by the plurality of black or white. 
 
 The chefs-men, in the game of 
 chefs, were denominated Calculi 
 or Latrunculi indifferently. For 
 the origin and manner ot playing 
 the game of chefs, fee the article 
 Latrunculi . 
 
 Calendar, a diftrlbution of 
 time fuitcd to the various purpofcs 
 of life, little differing from a mo- 
 dern almanack. It contained the 
 order of days, weeks and months, 
 and fliewed the feftivals which 
 happened in the courfeof the year. 
 
 Rojnulus made the firfl: calendar, 
 and divided the year into ten 
 months only, beginning on the 
 firfi; day of March- His year con- 
 fifted of 304 days, becaufe in this 
 time he fuppofcd the-',fun per- 
 formed his annual courfe. 
 
 This calendar was reformed by 
 2\u?na Pompiliits, who added Janu- 
 
 C AL 
 
 ary and February to the number of 
 months, placing them before 
 March; for the firfl of January 
 was the hrit day of his year, which, 
 conlilled of 355 days. 
 
 'Julius 6'^arafterwards reformed 
 the calendar of Nu7)w, and en- 
 creafed the year to 365 days, £:; 
 hours. The Julia?: year was di- 
 vided into quadriennial fpaccs or 
 periods, of wiiich the three firll 
 confillcd of 56^ days, and the 4tk 
 of. 366, The fapcrnumerary day. 
 added co the. fourth year was caU 
 led Dies Bijfe::tus. See Bijjexlus 
 Dies. 
 
 The days of each month were 
 divided into Calends^ Noj2es, and. 
 Lies. Sec Calends, Nones and Ides. 
 
 Calends was the name given by 
 the Roma7is to theiirll day of each 
 month. The word is derived from 
 the Greek word Ka'Kia to call, be- 
 caufe on the calends the prieits cal- 
 led over the number of holidays in 
 e;Jch month. The calends were 
 confccrated to Juno, whence flie 
 was called Juno Ccdendaris. The 
 calends of January were particu- 
 larly regarded, as being the firil 
 day of the new-year, and facred. 
 both to Juno and Janus. On this 
 day there v.as great rejoicing, the 
 magiftrates entered on their oftices, 
 and the people made a flight be- 
 ginning of any new work. This 
 day was a day of feftivity to all, 
 except debtors, who were now ob- 
 liged £0 pay their intereil and 
 arrears. 
 
 The Calends, like the Notus and 
 Ides, were always reckoned back- 
 ward, thus January the firft, was 
 the Calends of January, but Decem- 
 ber the 3ifl was the fecond of the 
 Calends of January, and fo on. It 
 will not be amifs to obferve that 
 Prid. Kal. or Pridie Kalendorum 
 figniiies the fecond of the Calends i 
 and that where the accufative caie 
 is ufed, as tertio Kalendas Januariii 
 the prcpoJition ant: isunderllood. 
 
C A {. 
 
 C A M 
 
 'I he rule to find ilie day of our 
 :-noiith anfweiin;-; to that of the 
 iUileiuls is this : To the number of 
 days in the preceding munrh add 
 vwo — from tliis fum fubtract the 
 ■uimbcr of CrJaids given, and tlie 
 remainder will be the day of the 
 jnonth. — Thus for c.\d!nple, let the 
 fonrili of the C<?/ev/^jof Juiiebspro- 
 nofcd— j added to tlic number of 
 Jays in May makes 33, and 4 fub- 
 Itradcd from 33 leaves zo. 
 
 The Greeks had not Calends as 
 '.he RcirMns had, and thence came 
 I lie expreilica ad Gr^ccas Caleudas, 
 ])roverbially ufed to fignify never. 
 Inllead of the name of Calend, the 
 Greeks ufed Nro/zrvja, i. e. the day 
 ot the new-moon. See Month., 
 Tear, Ides, Irenes, iffc- 
 
 Calf, when the children of 
 Jfrac! fuppofcd that Mofes was loft, 
 ■when he flayed on the mountain 
 forty days, and obferving the pil- 
 lar which was wont to conducl 
 thera not to move forward as be- 
 fore ; they contrived a fymbol or 
 reprefentation ef God's prefence to 
 go before them. They therefore 
 fee up a Mvlten Calf, to reprefent 
 God in a viiibie manner, and 
 brought their offerings to it. They 
 made choice of the figure of a Calf, 
 becaufe it v/asfuch as they had feen 
 in Egypt, for golden bulls were the 
 iymbol of the Egyptian God Ofyris 
 or Jpis, which was worfhipped un- 
 der that form, and fbmetimes re- 
 preferited by a living bull. Exod. 
 xxxii. In imitation of this Egypti- 
 ail God, feroboam afterwards let 
 ap golden calves in Dan and Bethel. 
 
 Caliga wasafortof flioe worn 
 by the common foldiers in the ^0- 
 «iix«army; hence the word Cali- 
 gc.tiis iignifies a common foidier, 
 and hence was derived the name 
 of Caligula the Emperor who v/as 
 born in the army and brought up as 
 a common foidier. The Caliga 
 was made i.n the fandal fafhion. tor 
 
 it covered only the under part ch 
 the foot; but it reached to tlie 
 middle of the leg. I'he fole was 
 of wood, and fluck full of nails.— 
 The nails were i'o \ery long ia 
 the fiiocs of cen'.incls and Icouti, 
 that they confjderablv raifcd the 
 ^vearer, that he nMght fee much, 
 farther; Hence their flioes arr 
 fbmetimes called Caliga Spcculatcr 
 riec. There was a fund fet apart 
 for providing naiis for the fbldieri 
 fhoes called CldiariuK. The lo! - 
 diers of ylt: t: och.-a' s arniy, accord- x 
 ing to Jufin, adorned tlicir flacci: 
 with nails of gold. 
 
 Cam,isti.'\, a Lflian fclliva! 
 in which women preientcd tliem- 
 felves in the temple of J.ivo, and 
 flood in competition with' each 
 other for the prize of beuvTty,— 
 What the prize was which the 
 fairefl was entitled to does not ap- 
 pear. Athciueas, Dcipr.os. Lib. 13. 
 
 Calumnia. See yurc7P.c?i:u:;i. 
 
 Camp is the ground on w!)ich 
 an arm.y pitch their tent;-. The 
 diipofition of the Hchrri'j encamp- 
 ments was laid oat by God hirr.fclf. 
 Their camp was qur-drangular, fur- 
 rounded with an inclcfiirc of the 
 hcighth of ten hand's breadth, h 
 made a fquare of twelve miles in 
 compafs about the tabernacle; and 
 within this was another called the 
 Lcvites camp. The whole bodv 
 of the people were difpofed round 
 the tabernacle under four large 
 Battalions, and each Baitalioji un- 
 der one genera! flandard. For the 
 Jewifh camp ccnfult ISv.rr.l. ch. 
 i. and ii. 
 
 The Grfcij had alfo their Can.'K!, 
 the difpt-'iition of which was in all- 
 probability borrowed from the 
 fe'vjs. The Grecian camps were 
 fortified with gates and ditches ; 
 but the form of them varied accord- 
 ing to the nature of the ground, or 
 other circumflances. The moit 
 valiant C'fth^ foldiers were ^laccd 
 
CAM 
 
 CAM 
 
 at the extremities, the reft in the 
 iniddlc. The Lacedteinonians made 
 their camps of a round figure, as 
 being, in their eftimation, the moft 
 perfecl, and the moft dcfenfible.— 
 If the Greeks meant to continue 
 long encamped, altars were creft- 
 ed, and a place contrived for per- 
 lorming divine fcrvicc. 
 
 Tiie Roman camps were of two 
 kinds, Capra JB.jli'va., and Cajira 
 Hiberua. The Ctrjlra j^Jii--ja were 
 eitherfolightand moveable as to be 
 loon taken down, and then called 
 only Cajireior they wci e dcfigned to 
 continue for fomc time, and form- 
 ed with more pains and greater re- 
 gularity, in which cafe they were 
 called Caf.rn Sta^via. Tlie Ccjira 
 Hlhema were commonly in fome 
 city or town — or elle io built as to 
 make almoft a town of thcmfelves. 
 Modern towns whofe names end in 
 crjler or cajicr, or chejlcr, as Wor- 
 cejler, Lancajler, RibcheJIer, Man- 
 chc/Ier, is'c. were formerly Cajlra 
 Hibcrna of the Romans. 
 
 The Reman camps were exa£lly 
 fquare, and divided into two chief 
 jjartiticns, the upper and the low- 
 er. In the upper partition was the 
 General's pavilion, called Prasto- 
 rium, and the lodgments of the 
 chief officers. See Pratcrium. 
 
 In the lower partition were dif- 
 pofed the tents of the common fol- 
 diers, horfe and foot.- — On the 
 right fide of the Prcstcrium ftood 
 X\\<1 S>ua:J}orium, or ^crf.ors^Y^XX.- 
 jnent. Hard by was the Forum, 
 for the faic of commodities, the 
 meeting of councils, and giving 
 audience to AmbafTadors. See 
 ^uafiorimn ^x\^ Forimi. 
 
 On the other fide the Pr^tormm^ 
 were the Lege.ti or Lieutenr.n:- Ge- 
 nerals; and ociow the Prt:?tcrium 
 were the 'Inhunei by fix and nx, 
 oppofitc their nro-^er legions. See 
 t,eguti a.id frihimi. 
 
 The Pr^fe^i of foreign troops 
 
 were lodged by the fide of the '■Tri- 
 bunes ; behind thefe Vi^ere the E^vo- 
 cati, then the Extraordirari:, and 
 Abltcli Equites. See Prafefii, E^jo- 
 catiy Extraordinarii, and Ablefii 
 Equites. 
 
 Between the two partitions were 
 the Prificipia. See Principia. 
 
 In the middle of the lower par- 
 tition, as being moft honourable, 
 were the Roman Horfe, then the 
 Triarii, next were the Principes, 
 then the Haflati, then the foreign 
 Horfe, and laftly the foreign foot. 
 See Triarii, Haflaii, Principes, 
 
 Foreigners, it appears, were fo 
 interfperfed with the Roman trjops 
 in their encampments, that their 
 power was divided, and had the 
 Roma7ts for a check upon their con- 
 dudt, and to urge them to a full 
 exertion. 
 
 The Romans fortified their camp 
 with a ditch and parapet, called 
 Fojfa and Vallum. 
 
 Campagi were a fort offummcr 
 fhoes worn by the Roman Seimtors. 
 They had nothing but a fole at the 
 bottom, but were made with 
 leathern ftraps, which eroded each 
 other many times about the leg. 
 
 Campestre was a fort of apron 
 worn by the i?o«««foldiersin their 
 field-exercifes, to hide their privi- 
 ties. It was girt under the navel, 
 and hung down to their knees. 
 
 Campidoctores were makers 
 by whofe inftruclions the Rotnan 
 foldiers learned to aim their blows 
 right, in the exercifc of the Pala- 
 ria. See Palaria. 
 
 Campus Martius was a large 
 plain field where the young noble- 
 men of Rome performed every kind 
 of manly exercife, as throwing the 
 Difcus, hurling the Javelin, wreft- 
 ling, boxing, SiC. Here they 
 learnt the ufe of all forts of arms, 
 and here were held the diverfions 
 of horfe -races, chariot races, &c. 
 The Campus Mariiuiv/VLS tlie place 
 where 
 
CAN 
 
 CAP 
 
 v.here A:nbailadors were received 
 from foreign ftaies, for they were 
 not perinicced to enter tiie city. — 
 The palace in whicli they received 
 them was called Filia Publica. In 
 this field likewife the Cc;,',vV/^werc 
 held, and Septa or O'vilia were 
 jpade for the purpofe. It was ele- 
 gantly decorated with flatues, arch • 
 es, column?, porticos, and other 
 magnificent llruflures. It was de- 
 dicated to Mars, and was therefore 
 CiWcdi Ca^nfus Martins. Sometimes 
 the name oi T:beri?ius was given it, 
 becaufe it laid near the Tiber. The 
 lituatlon was pleafant, and it was 
 much frequented on account of the 
 coatinualfport? and exercifes per- 
 formed in it. See Comitia, Septa, 
 O-jilicz. 
 
 Campus Sceleratus was a 
 place at a little diilance from the 
 city of Rome, where the veftal vir- 
 gins who broke their vows of vir- 
 ginity were buried alive. See 
 Fejldl. 
 
 Candida Toga. ^zzToga. 
 
 Candidates among the Ro- 
 mans, were thofe who afpired to 
 anv public office or magillrp.cy. — 
 Tiiey were fo called from the Toga 
 Candida, or white gown, which 
 they were obliged to wear durin?^ 
 the two years that they foiicited 
 for a place. This gown they wore 
 loofe and ungirdcd, without any 
 under garment, that they miglit 
 not be fufpeclcd of carrying money 
 for purchafing votes, or that tliey 
 might mors cafily fhevv their ho- 
 nourable wounds, or to exprcfs 
 their humility by the plainnefs of 
 their drefs. For the method of 
 canvafing, fee Ambitus. 
 
 Candidati MiLiTEs, foldiers 
 who ferved as body guards to the 
 Roman Emperors. They were the 
 talleft, ftrongeft and bravell men 
 they coald pick out of the army, 
 and dreft in white to render them- 
 mere confpicuou 
 
 Candidatus PttiNCiPis was 
 the fame as ^ajior Principis : 
 His office under the Roman Em- 
 perors refembled that of Secretary 
 ot State anion gil us. 
 
 Candlestick of gold made by 
 Mofes, for the tabernacle, was puc 
 in the holy place oppofite to the 
 table of fhew-brcad on the fouth. 
 Its bafis was of pure gold, with fe- 
 ven branches, three on each fide, 
 and one in the middle. The 
 branches were adorned with the 
 refcmblance of flower?, apples,' 
 and half almond fhells rdternately 
 placed. On each branch was a 
 lamp, which was lighted every 
 evening, and extinguiihcd every 
 morning, Solomon had ten candle- 
 Hicks of the fame form and metal 
 placed in his temple. This facred 
 utenfil of Mcfes, above defcribed, 
 was lodged at i?<?v/f, in the temple 
 of peace, built by Vefpafian, after 
 the dcftrudlion of the tcmplq at: 
 yeru/hhm. 
 
 Canephoria, an Ather.ian fef- 
 tival, in which the marriageable 
 virgins prefented Mi}:er-va, or, as 
 others will have, Diatia, with cer- 
 tain bafkets full of little 9urioritics 
 and facred trinkets to engage the 
 Goddefs to make their mcirrisgc 
 hrppy. A fimilar feflival cele- 
 b!a:eJ by virgins, in honour of 
 Bacchus, vvas alfo called by the 
 fame name. The virgins who per- 
 formed the ceremoryof offcraigthe 
 bailcets were called Ca-iuphcrte. 
 
 Canis and Canicula are nam-CJ 
 given by the Romans to tfie worft 
 cait either with the Tali or TeJJcr^y 
 a for: of dice. See Talus and 
 Tel/cr.^. 
 
 Caph, v.'l-.s a Jen.vij^ meafuVc of 
 capacity for liquids, containing 
 5-8thsofa pint and 177 decimal 
 parts of an inch. See Meafurc. 
 
 Capite Cenjl, the loweft rank 
 of Roman citizens, being fuch as 
 were not worth above 36c affes. — 
 
CAP 
 
 CAR 
 
 In public taxes they were rated the 
 jcail ot'all. They m:'.dcpartof the 
 fixth clafs, and were thus denomi- 
 irated becaufe they were rather 
 counted and marfhalled by their 
 heads than by their cltates. They 
 xvere not enrolled in the army, be- 
 ing judged incapable of bearing 
 the expences of war. C. Marius 
 vvas the i'irll who enlilled the C^.^ite 
 Ccnfi. 
 
 Capitol INI Ludi werccerLiin 
 Roman games, ini'tituted in honour 
 ot 'Jupiter Capitoliuus, tor prelerv^- 
 iag his temple from the Gauls. — 
 Dcmitian had them performed cx- 
 iidlly in imitation of the Jlgones,-^ 
 See Agon. 
 
 Capitomum was a temple built 
 upon the Motis Capitolbms at Rome. 
 ic was founded by Tarquinius Prlf- 
 cus, ccntinucd hyTarquin tie Proud, 
 v?nd confecrated by lioratius the 
 Covful, to Jii^iter, who from thence 
 had the name of Capiiolinus. This 
 lirudlure Hood upon four acres of 
 ground, was adorned with three 
 rows of pillars in front, and two 
 ci\ the other fides. The afccnt 
 from the ground was by an hun- 
 dred rteps. It was enriched both 
 \vithin ana without with ornaments 
 Incredibly magnificent, but th-i 
 moll: remarkable was the ilatue of 
 Jupiter with his golden thunder- 
 bolt, fceptre and crown. In the 
 ■«;apital was a temple oi Jupiter, 
 another of ^.vw,and the mint, and 
 the temple of concord was built on 
 the dcfcent of the hill. This 
 Beautiful edilice contained the A?i- 
 tylia, the Sibflliuc books, and other 
 lacrcd dcpofits of religion. The 
 capitol ccnfiltcd of a nave, which 
 was iacred to Jupiter ; and two 
 ■wings, one of which was confe- 
 crated to yuno, the other to Mi- 
 v^r~ca. The front and fides were 
 furrounded with galleries, in which 
 thofe who were honoured with a 
 triumph, entertained the ^e7iate 
 
 after the Gods had received llie 
 ufual iacrifices. The Senate anci- 
 ently alfembled here. The capitol 
 was three times deifroyed, and re- 
 built firft by Siylla, tlien by Vefpa.' 
 fian, and laltly by Do?nitia7i. 1 he 
 very gilding of this lall amounted 
 to I 2,000 talents. 
 
 C.APROTiN^ NoN.^. Sec Fcp- 
 lifugiiim. 
 
 Caps were not ufed ordinarily 
 by thci?i;w/z//j,but they commonly, 
 like the Greeks, went with their 
 heads uncovered, except upon par- 
 ticular occafions, as at Iacrifices, 
 public games, the feaft of Saturn, 
 or on. a military expedition, orjuil 
 after the head had been fhaved in 
 token of freedom from fervitude', or 
 in cafe of anv indifpofition. The 
 fcvcral forts of coverings defigned 
 for thefe purpofcs were chiefly the 
 IvPtra, the Pileiis, the Ciicullus, the 
 Galerus, and the Pallidum. See 
 Mitra, i^e. 
 
 In cafe cf rain the Rofr.mis co- 
 vered their heads with the lappet 
 of their gown, and always unco- 
 vered to perfonsof refpecl and dig- 
 nity. The fame ufage with regard 
 to the head prevailed anaongil the 
 Jenvs. 
 
 Caput PoRCiNUM. SceCuaeus. 
 
 C A R A I T E s. See Karaites. 
 
 Caravan, In the Eaftern 
 countries it was ufual to travel in 
 caravans, or large companies, with 
 camels or other beails of burthen. 
 This it feems was the cuftom in 
 jfacoh's time, when he was in the 
 land of CanauTi. His fans lift up 
 their eyes and looked, and behold a 
 company of Ijhinaelites (a car.ivan) 
 came fro7n Gilead --vcith their camels f 
 bearing fpiccry and balm, and myrrh, 
 going to carry it do^jcn to Egypt. — • 
 Gen. xxxvii. 25. The way of tra- 
 velling for merchants and others in 
 the Eail, at this day, is i.i great 
 companies, to fecure themfelves 
 againit robbers, with a vail num- 
 ber 
 
CAT 
 
 C AV 
 
 jj'Cr cf leaden camels and afTcs, fre- 
 quently many hundreds together, 
 which they call Caravans. 
 
 Carceres in x.h.& Romati circus, 
 ^vcre ce^/tain barriers which con- 
 fined the liorfcs, before the fignal 
 was given fjr ilarting. They were 
 at firil of wood or coarfe Itone ; but 
 the Emperor Claudius made them 
 of marble. They were built at the 
 entrance of the circus. The carcc- 
 rcs in the Grecian Stadia were called 
 a:p£5-;j, ^a?^oi;, y^a/zuYi, 
 
 CAr>.MENTALiA were fcafts ce- 
 lebrated by the Roman women on 
 the iith and I5t;h cf January, in 
 honour oi Cm-Kenfa, the mother cf 
 E-va!:der. They were cfiabliflied 
 on account of a general pregnancy 
 which prevailed among the Roman 
 dames, after a quarrel was made up 
 betwixt them and their hufbands, 
 relative to the ufc of coaches, which 
 had been prohibited them by the 
 Senate . 
 
 Carn'ifex among the Rcvians, 
 was the common executioner. — • 
 This office was fo odious, that he 
 was forbidden by the laws to ha\-e 
 Jiis houfe in the city. Carnifcx is 
 Irrquently ufed as a term of x-z- 
 proach. 
 
 Castra. See Cafnp. 
 
 Catapulta, an ancient mili- 
 tary engine made ufe of in throw- 
 ing darts, arrows, and fometimes 
 ftoncs upon the enemy. It was 
 diftcrent from the Balifa, for the 
 Balifta threw iiones only. See 
 Balijia. 
 
 Some of the Catapults would 
 throwflones of an hundred weight, 
 and, if we may credit Jofefhus, 
 would beat down battlements, 
 break off the angles of towers, and 
 level a whole file of men from end 
 to end. The Ca/«/i«//^7, according 
 to fome authors, was invented by 
 the5)T/^w; but not of equal effi- 
 jcocy with the Balijia. 
 
 Catasta, a rack invented to 
 
 extort confcflicns from perfcns (\:,C- 
 pecled of Climes; and made ufc of 
 by the Rjn-.ans as a punifliment, 
 particularly againft Chrifians. Its 
 form has not been accurately de- 
 fcribcd, but it fecms to have been 
 like the Eculeus. See Eculeus. 
 
 Catastasis was the third part 
 of the ■3,nc\tulDra7na, acccrdingto 
 the Greek and i?o;«/2« models. I'iie 
 catajlafis fupports, carries on and 
 heightens the intrigue or aflion lee 
 forth in x.\\cEpitaf:s, till it he n'po 
 for the Calajh-op.be. See Epitufis 
 and Catajlropbe. 
 
 CAT/.sTRoniE isthe fourth and 
 lafl part of the ancient Dia;ita,\\\\- 
 mcdiately fuccceding the Cafajiajis. 
 It clears up everything, and is no- 
 thing elie but the difcovcry, or 
 winding up of the plot, in order 
 to conclude the Drama. See 
 J)ran:a, 
 
 Catervarii, a kind of Gladi, 
 ators amongft the Rv/nans, who did 
 not, as was mofl ufual, fight in 
 pairs, but in fmall companies, or 
 cater--jcc. Sec Gladiators. 
 
 Catharma, amongfl: the anci- 
 ents, was fome miferable or flagi- 
 cious wretch, facrificcd to the Gods 
 as an expiation for the plague or 
 other calamity. Such was the 
 Prophet Joiias^ when call into the 
 fea ; and fuch St. F^/^/wiihcs him- 
 felf to be. 
 
 Cato?tromancy, a foccicscf 
 divination amongil: the Greeks, in 
 which a mirror was let down by j. 
 thread into a fountain, before the 
 temple of Ceres in Jchaia, if thej" 
 law a ghaftly figure in the glafs it 
 was looked upon as a furc fign that 
 the fick pcrion, on whofe account 
 the ceremony was performed, 
 would not recover; if the image 
 looked frefii they concluded favour- 
 ably. 
 
 Cavalry was not ufed in the 
 
 armies of the Ifraelitcs; firft, be- 
 
 catifc the country was not fuirable 
 
 K 3 ' for 
 
CAY 
 
 CEL 
 
 for breeding horfcs, and fecor.dly 
 becaufe Mo/cs forbad the King of 
 the Hebre^vs to keep any horles, 
 Jeft he fhould ever be inclined fo 
 carry the people back into Egypt-: 
 Tjic judges and princes of Jfrael 
 therefore ufed to ride upon mules 
 and afTes. See^'^i. 
 
 Dc-vid having taken lyoohorfcs 
 in war, from the King of Shohab, 
 Jamcd all that belonged to the war- 
 chariots. And God commanded 
 Jcjhua to hamftring the horfes of 
 the Canaatntes taken in battle. — 
 But in So!omo7is days,thefe animals 
 became more common, though they 
 v/cre kept rather for pomp than tor 
 military ufes. 
 
 ThzGrcLtan cavalry, in the ear- 
 liell ages, vas very rude, confift- 
 ing of men mounted onhorfes with- 
 out bridles, governed by a rope 
 una a fwitch, or by the voice alone ; 
 •afterward bridles were invented; 
 but wc find no account of faddles 
 or ilirrups, but the riders leaped 
 upon horfcback by means of their 
 fpears, or had different methods of 
 mounting according to their age 
 and agility. But wc are informed, 
 by ainhors of credit, that chariots 
 were ul'cd in war, before men at- 
 tempted to ride. The chariots 
 nere moft commonly drawn by 
 TWO horfes though fo'metimes we 
 have mention offour. Every chariot 
 carried two men, one to fight and 
 one to drive j but the Hero always 
 alighted to come to clofe a6tion. — 
 They annoyed the enemy from 
 their chariots with darts and other 
 iniffive weapons, and fometimes 
 armed them with hooks or fcythes, 
 which mowed down whole ranks 
 of foldiers together. See Chariot. 
 
 In procefs of time they formed 
 a regular cavalry, and admitted 
 none to ferve on horfeback, but 
 fuch as had undergone a ftrift pro- 
 bation. In the dii.yso^. Jlexandsry 
 but not earlier, camels and ele- 
 
 phants were ufed in v.ar. See 
 Elephant. 
 
 The Roman cavalry was fupplicd 
 out of that order of men called 
 Equites, who had each of them a 
 ring and a horfe given them at the 
 public charge, ^ze. Equites. 
 
 Thefe Equites were obliged to 
 appear on horieback, as often as 
 the llatc would have occafion for 
 them. 
 
 This order of men was fuffici- 
 ently numerous tofupply the army, 
 And there needed only a review to 
 fit them for fervice. The review 
 w as of three kinds, Prohatic, Tranf- 
 '•jediot and Jleccnfto. See Proha- 
 tio, &c. 
 
 The horfe required to every le- 
 gion was 3C0, divided into tea 
 Turma:, and every Tu"j:ia into three 
 Decurire. See Turma and Deciiria. 
 
 Qh\v.h was the middle part or 
 jlyca of the Amphitheatre ; it was 
 called Ca^cea, as being confidcr- 
 ably lower than the other parts; 
 hence perhaps the name of Pit in 
 our play-houfes is borrowed. It 
 was the fpace in v/hich the fpedla- 
 tors fat. See jimphi theatre. 
 
 The KOi'Kov in the Grecian thea- 
 tres, anfwers exadlly to the Roman 
 Ca'vea. 
 
 Celeres were 300 young men 
 chofen by Pomtdus, to attend his 
 perfon, as his life-guard; to be 
 always at hand for his defence, 
 and ready to execute his commands. 
 Ten of thefe Celeres were chofen 
 out of each Curia, and the name 
 was given them on account of the 
 adlivily and expedition, with 
 which they executed the orders 
 they received. They were all 
 horfemen ; but fought on foot, or 
 on horfeback as occafion required. 
 'Numa difmifled this royal guard, 
 faying it ill became him to reign 
 over a people he diftrufted ; and as 
 ill to dillruft a people who had 
 compelled him to reign over them. 
 
 The 
 
CEN 
 
 CEN 
 
 The captain of this guard was cal- 
 led '7';vi^«,v7:i CcUrum. ScaTiibiarus 
 Cclerum. 
 
 Celevctes, in the fliips of the 
 ancients, was the boatfvvain, or 
 ofter cfiicer appointed to give the 
 fignal to the, rowers, when to pull, 
 and when to ilop their hands. — 
 'I'he ftrokes of the oar were di- 
 rected by a fong or Fonr.uld, called 
 Ccleupna. The Cehujh's was alio 
 called Efofe-us, and by the RoTfians, 
 Porttfculus, or funply Koriatcr.—^ 
 0-vid. Met. L. 3 . V. 6l 8, &c. 
 
 Cenotaphia were nionuments 
 erefled in honour of the dead, but 
 not containing any of their remains. 
 They were ufual both amonglt the 
 Greeks and Romans, and v. ere of two 
 forts. One was ercftcd to fuch 
 perfons as had been honoured with 
 iuneral rites inanother place. The 
 fecond fort was ereded when the 
 perfons had not obtained a jull: fu- 
 neral, as when the bodies could 
 not be found. For the ancients 
 believed that the jgiiofb of men un- 
 buried could have no admittance 
 into the regions of blifs, but wan- 
 dered ICO years in mifery. After 
 the Cenotaphia were ercdlcd, the 
 fouls of the deceafcd, for whom 
 they u ere intended, v\ere three 
 times called upon by name to the 
 habitations thus prepared ibr them. 
 See Funeral. 
 
 Censer was a facred vafe made 
 life of in facriiices for burning in- 
 cenfe. It was in ufe both amongit 
 ye-Tvs, Greeks, and Romans, but of 
 different forms, and different names. 
 See Acerra. 
 
 Censors. Roman magi Urates 
 two in number, whofe bufinefs it 
 was to reform the manners — num- 
 ber the people — ellimate the efiedis 
 of each citizen — proportion the 
 taxes — fuperintend the tribute — 
 exclude from the temples — and 
 take care of public places. They 
 •could degrade Svtaton upon occa- 
 
 fion, appoint the Princeps Senatus-— 
 inlpcifl the management of private 
 fannlies, as to education and ex- 
 pence — reprimand and corre<fl any 
 irregularity — and punifli the mif- 
 conduA of perfons both in a public 
 and private capacity. Two Cen- 
 fors were hril created in the 31 ith 
 year of Rome, out of the Senate; 
 but the people of Plebeian rank, 
 having got the Ccnfulate opened to 
 them arrived at the CenfGrJJ:ip alfo. 
 Still however the office was fo con- 
 fidcrable that none afpired to it till 
 they had pafied through all therell, 
 excepting in extraordinary in- 
 Ilances. It was at firil held for five 
 years, but Mamercus JE7nllius 
 iliortened the term to eighteen 
 months. The Cerfcrs, after their 
 elcdion in the Cofnitia Ccnturiata, 
 proceeded to the capitol and took 
 an oath to perform their office im- 
 partially. They were accountable 
 to the T'ribimes, and ALdiles Curules 
 for their conduft. If one Cenfor 
 died or refigned, his colleague was 
 obliged to lay down his office alfo. 
 See Cenfits. 
 
 The Cenfors every five years, 
 which fpace of time was called a 
 Lujlrum, made a luftration of the 
 people. See Lvfirum and LuJIra- 
 tion. 
 
 Censura figniiies the office of 
 Cenfor explained above. See the 
 article Cenfor s. 
 
 Census was a declaration made 
 before, and regiftered by, the Ccn- 
 fors containing an enumeration, 
 in writing, given in by the feveral 
 fubjefts of the Roman Empire, of 
 their refpeftive names, places of 
 abode, eftates, quality, wives, chil- 
 dren, domeftics, tenants, flaves, S;c. 
 It was inftituted and performed by 
 Serijius Tullius, and was held every 
 five years by the Cenfor s, after that 
 office was appointed. It was of 
 great fervice, becaufe it ilie.ved 
 
 the number gf citizens; capable of 
 bearing 
 
CEN 
 
 CEN 
 
 bearing arms, and the funis they 
 could afford to raifc for the expence 
 of a war. The Cenfus of the com- 
 mon people was called Cc-nfus^\m- 
 ply; thac of ihc Knights Cerfus, 
 Recenjtn, Recognition that of the 
 fenr.tors Letiio, Rdcilio, See Re- 
 cenf:o, Rcccgmlio, ijc. 
 
 The cenfus of a Knight was 
 400,000, that of a fcnator 800,000 
 icficrces. Sec Sc/ierce. See alfo 
 Eques, and Senate. 
 
 CtNTEsiMATio was 3 Hiildcr 
 kind of military punifhmcnt, in 
 cafes of defcrtion, mutiny, and the 
 like, where only each hundredth 
 manvvas executed. See Decimatio, 
 Viccfuaalio. 
 
 Centonauii were fuch as pro- 
 vided tents and other military equi- 
 page amongil the Romans', f r this 
 iand of furniture was called Cen- 
 to'mes. It is fometimes ufed to fig- 
 nity thofe whofe buiinefs it was to 
 fraothcr with raw hides and Cen- 
 tc-nesy the fires kindled by the en- 
 gines of the enemy, in the Roman 
 camp. 
 
 Centumviri were judges ap- 
 pointed by the Praetor to decide 
 common caufcs amongft the Ro- 
 man people. They were made up 
 of the iTLoil learned in the laws, 
 and elected out of the 35 tribes of 
 the people, three out of each tribe, 
 Wihich made the number 1 05, though 
 for the fake of the round number 
 c«^lled Ceritiim-viri . They were in 
 procefs ot time encreafed to 180, 
 yet Hill kept their iirll name.- — — 
 Their dccilions were called Judi- 
 lia centuminralia. 
 
 Centuri.^ figniEes a divifion 
 con fi fli ng ol: an hundred. Sewius 
 Iz'.Uius, finding that the number of 
 men able to bear arms were 80,000, 
 divided all his people into fix 
 elajjes, each claj/is containing feve- 
 ral centuries or hundreds of men, 
 with different arms and liveries, 
 accordirg to the valvK pf their 
 
 eftates. The firfi: clafs comprc- 
 hended 80 centuries; one half of 
 thefe confilled of men who were 45 
 years of age and upwards, ap- 
 pointed to guard the city ; the other 
 half were young men from 16 to 
 45. Their arms were all alike, 
 viz. a buckler, a helmet, a cuirafs, 
 and cuiftes of brafs j a javelin, a 
 lance and afvvord. This clafs took 
 in the fcnators, and all thoie whofe 
 fortunes amounted to i,ico.ooo 
 ajjes. Sec ^Jfes and Money. 
 
 The fecond, third and fourth 
 clajjes contained each 20 centuries 
 ot which ten were more aged, and 
 ten of the younger fort. Their 
 arms and armour were a large tar- 
 get, a fpear and Javelin. The 
 eilates of the fecond clafs were to 
 be 75,000 p.Jfes, of the third 50,000, 
 and of the fourth 25,000. The fifth 
 clafs contained 30 centuries, three 
 of which were artificers as carpen- 
 ters, &;c. the reil were {lingers — 
 their cftates were to be ii,ooo 
 ajfes. In the lall clafs there was 
 but one century. Thcle were called 
 frohtarii, bccaufe they were of no 
 other ufe ;o the ftatc but to ftockit 
 with children ; they were alfo 
 called Cafite Cenfi, as being mar- 
 fhalled by their heads and not their 
 eliates. 
 
 It will not be improper to ob- 
 ferve that all who were of the firll 
 clafs were called ClaJJici by way of 
 eminence ; hence writers of the 
 firil rank are metaphorically called 
 by the fame name. All who were 
 cf the other claJJes were faid to be 
 infra claffem. 
 
 The people ufed to affcmble in 
 the Campus Martius for the election 
 of Confuls, Cenfors, and Fro: tors — 
 and gave their votes upon thefe 
 occafions by centuries. Hence this 
 allembly was called Comitia Centu- 
 riata. The Comitia Centuriata met 
 alfo to try fuch perfonsas had been 
 aCQufed cf the cri^ncn ^crduelUonis, 
 
 i. « 
 
C EN 
 
 C E R 
 
 i.e. ©f-trcafon to the flatc. ihcv 
 confirmed likcwilc all inch new 
 laws as had been propoled by the 
 chief magiflratcs. See Canitia and 
 Comitiur.':. 
 
 CeNTURI A PRiCROGATIVA WaS 
 
 the century to whom the privikge 
 ct giving their votes before the 
 reit had fallen by lot. For, in the 
 buiinefs of the Comilla, the lower 
 cla[Tes were rendered infignificant, 
 bccaufe the firft clafs contained 
 three more centuries than all the 
 reft put together, and confequently 
 if they were unanimous ir: giving 
 their votes they would have an evi- 
 dent majority, and render all fur- 
 ther proceedings ncedlefs ; but to 
 remedy this inconvenience and in- 
 equality, the commons in the free 
 Itate appointed the Ceniuria Prcero- 
 g-ati-va. to be deteniiined by let. 
 
 Centuria alfo figwifies one of 
 the fubdivifions of the Roman le- 
 gion, conliftingof an hundred men, 
 commanded by a Centunon. The 
 centuria was half a manipuliis, the 
 lixth part of a cohort, and the 6oth 
 oialegicfj. S&c ManipuLs, ^c. 
 
 Centurion was an cflicer in 
 the Roman army who had the com- 
 mand of a centuria or an hundred 
 men. ThcTriarii oi PUani, being 
 cfieemed the moll honourable of all 
 the grand divifions of the Roman 
 foot, had their Centurions elected 
 firft, next to them the Princibes, 
 and afterwards ih.c Hajiuti ; whence 
 they were called /rm/^i zni Jecu?i- 
 dus Piliis, primus ■dwdi fecundus Prin- 
 ceps, primus and Jecundtts Hcjlatns. 
 The Centurions ftood each at the 
 headof his<-f;j/:/ry, to lead them up, 
 and the common foldicrs were 
 placed ax his difcretion . The badge 
 of the Centurions office was the litis 
 or rod of the vine, which he car- 
 ried in his hand. For the centuria 
 prtmipilusy fee the article Primi- 
 ^ilus. 
 
 Centvssis, a Roman coin con- 
 
 taining an hundred ^i'. ■ Sec 
 Mo;:ey. 
 
 CEPHALONOiMANC Y, a fpccics 
 
 of divimuion fom'ctimes prailifei 
 amongft the Greeks, with an aiFs 
 head, which they broiled upon 
 coals, and after muttering a few 
 prayers, mcnrioned the perfon'.-? 
 nam.e whom they fufpeclcd of ths; 
 crime in quellion ; if the iaw<i 
 moved, and the teeth chattered, 
 they thought the guilt was fuffici- 
 entlv difcovered. 
 
 Ceramicus, a place in the citv 
 of Atheiis, furrounded by a waJi 
 adorned with ftatues, temple;, 
 theatres, porticos, much uied for 
 walking in. There was another 
 place, fo called, in the fuburbs, in 
 which were tombs and monuments 
 of Grecian patriots. It contained 
 alfo the Academy and many other 
 edifices. 
 
 Cereales Lupi, were Rotr.an 
 games in honour of Ceres, borrowed 
 from the celebrated Eleufii?iev^ 
 games. The matrons on this occa- 
 fion rcprefented the grief of Ceres 
 for the \oii. c^l Prcfcrpine, and her 
 travels to find her again. Thev 
 bcgan on the day before the ides of 
 April, and continued eight davs 
 together in the Circus. Combats 
 of horfemen and other divcrfiors 
 graced thefolemnicy. The Pompa. 
 Cerealis or Circenjis was exhibited. 
 It confilled of a procc.Tion of the 
 combatants, accompanied by the 
 magiftrates and Indies of quality. — 
 The ftatues of the Gods and famous 
 men were alfo carried in ftate, en 
 
 waggons caUcd Then/t^. See 
 
 Then/a. 
 
 CerEaLIa fealb oi Ceres, I:ept 
 hy ^^c Romans on the i9ih of April. 
 Women alone were concerned ia 
 the celebration. No perfon that 
 was in mourning was allowed to 
 bear a part in this folemnityj 
 therefore upon the defeat at Canna 
 thi? annivcrfary was omitted.— ~ 
 Bacchui 
 
CES 
 
 CHA 
 
 Bacchus hid a fhare in this feiiival 
 33 well as Ceres. The victims were 
 hogs, becaufe of the walle thzy 
 made in the produce of the earth. 
 Thefe feafts owed their inftitution 
 to Mcftimius, and were borrowed 
 from thofe of the Athenians, called 
 Tbefmophoria, and Eleujinic. See 
 Thcfmcphoria and Ekiijinia. 
 
 Cerintiiians, an Heretical 
 fcfl, who publiflied their dodlrines 
 even in the time of the apoillcs. 
 Their notions were chiefly thefe j 
 that the world was made by an in- 
 ferior being ; that Jefus and Chrijl 
 were diltincl perfons ; that yrfus 
 was tlie fon q{ Mary and Jrfeph by 
 natural generation ; that Chriji 
 came down to dwell in Jefus, at the 
 time of his baptifm ; that Cbriji 
 left jefus at the time of his pallion ; 
 that Chriji did not fuffer, but the 
 man Jefus only. The Cerinthians 
 admitted no gofpel but that of St. 
 Matthew; they alfo rejefted the 
 Jds of the Apofiks, and the Epif- 
 iles of St. Paul, becaufe Paul was 
 an enemy to the law. St. Joh7i is 
 fuppofed to have written his gofpel 
 on purpofe to refute the herefy of 
 Cerinthus, for fo was the founder 
 called. 
 
 CEROiiANTiA was a fpecies of 
 divination praftifed amongll the 
 Grecimis by wax, which they melt- 
 ed and let drop into water within 
 three dinnite fpaces. and by ob- 
 fcrving the figure, diilance, fitua- 
 tion, and connexion of the drops, 
 foretold future events, or the an- 
 fvver to thequcftion propofed. 
 
 Cestus amongil the Greeks and 
 Rofnr.ns, was a large gauntlet made 
 ufc of by the boxers in the games. 
 It was made of raw hide and lined. 
 with lead or iron to give force to 
 the blows. It encompaffed the 
 hand, the arm, and the wrifl:, and 
 was of fervice as a defenfive wea- 
 pon. Some fay it was nothing but 
 a bludgeon oi wood with lead at 
 
 one end : But this fuppof.tlcn very 
 ill agrees with the Cejius as de- 
 fcribcd by Firgilln the hfth^Ewc/V. 
 Sec Boxing. 
 
 Chalcos was a Grecian coin 
 worth about 3i-40ths of a farthing 
 of cur money. S>qc Money. 
 
 Chariots amongll the Greeks, 
 v.'cre chiefly ufed in war, and were 
 called Bigce, Trig^, i^adrig^e, l5\. 
 according to the number or Imrfcs 
 applied to draw them. The cha- 
 riots were both contrived for fer- 
 vice and for ornament, being richlv 
 adorned, and fometimcs embofied 
 with gold or other precious metals. 
 They generally held two men, the 
 warrior and the charioteer, — and 
 were fometimes armed with hook* 
 or fcythcs, which cu: down whole 
 ranks of foldiers. The driver was 
 armed all over, and covered with 
 iron. See the article Cwvalry. 
 
 Bolojnon, we are told, fent for a 
 coniidcrable number of horfes from 
 Egypt, with a proportionable num- 
 ber of chariots ; but fome think he 
 did it rather for grandeur than ufe, 
 and the expence, it is probable, 
 outweighed their fervice. i Kings, 
 X. 26. 2 Chron. i. 14. The Ca- 
 iiaanites brought incredible num- 
 bers of chariots into the field.— 
 Si/era had 900 of them in his army, 
 and thofe which the Philijiines ufed. 
 againll $aul, amounted, we are 
 told to .ibcut 30,000. Judg- iv, 
 3. 13. l^.Sam. xiii. 5. The Per- 
 Jtans, according to Xenopho:i, were 
 the firft who introduced, into the 
 army chariots armed with fey thes. 
 
 The chariots ufed by the Creeks 
 and Romans in their games, were 
 of a lighter conftruftion, and better 
 calculated for expedition than thofe 
 which were brought into the field 
 of battle. No diveriiqn was be- 
 held with more zeal, or gave greater 
 animation to the whole concourfe 
 of fpeclators than the chariot-races; 
 cay the Romans were divided iato 
 
 dan« 
 
CHA 
 
 CHI 
 
 tkngercus parties on nccovir.t; of 
 them, as will be i'een under the 
 following article. 
 
 Ch A R 10 T E E Rs were divided ir.to 
 feveral companies at Rome, the 
 chiei^of wh'icli were the Prajina or 
 green, the RuJJaiaov rcA, the JIba 
 or white, and the Vetieta or blue. 
 The fpetftators generally favoured 
 one or other of thcfe colours, as 
 humour and caprice inclined them, 
 and were fo warm and ftrenuous in 
 the behalf" of their particular co- 
 lours, r.s oftentimes to form them- 
 felves into alarming faclions. In 
 the reign of Jiijiinian, a tumult 
 arofe in Co:ifiantir.ople, wherein no 
 lefs than 30,000 men loft their 
 lives, occafioned merely by a con- 
 tention among the iVicklers and 
 partizans of thefc fcveral colours. 
 To the four companies above men- 
 tioned Domitian the Emperor 
 added two new ones, the purple 
 and the golden, bat ,-they were 
 difcontinued by the following Em- 
 perors. See Rac£s, Fa.^ions. 
 
 Ckarista, a Roman feftival 
 kept in the night, in honour of the 
 graces; ic was celebrated by danc- 
 ing and making a diftribution of 
 fwcet-meatsamongft the company. 
 
 Charistia, was a feftival ce- 
 lebrated by the ancient Romar.s in 
 February. This folemnity was of 
 a moft refpeftable nature, and wor- 
 thy the imitation of Chrijlians \ for 
 at this time the relations of each 
 family compromifed difierences, 
 renewed their friendfhips, and fet- 
 tled a good correfpondence upon 
 the principles of benevolence and 
 charity. 
 
 Charms were magical verfes, 
 made ufe of by Magicians and Sor- 
 cerers, to effeft different purpofes, 
 but they were chiefly drawn up to 
 excite or allay the paffion of love, 
 to conquer indifference, and excite 
 hatred. They were feldom ufed 
 without other magical applications, 
 
 the ufe of pjtent drugs, and many 
 folcmn trifles to give them efficacy. 
 The number thrc^ was upon all 
 thcfe occaftons heii .is facrcd. See 
 Three., Magic, Incantaiion, <3c. 
 
 CiiEME, x^'M"? ^ Grecian m.ea- 
 fure of capacity, containing two 
 Cocblearia and equal to i -60th of a 
 pint, 0712 5-icth of a folid inch 
 Englijk. See Meafure. 
 
 Cherubim, a particular order 
 of angels, two of which by the 
 command of God were reprelented 
 as overfiiadowing the propitiatory 
 or mercy feat, one on the one end 
 and the other on the other, with, 
 their faces one towards the other, 
 and wings ftretched forth on high. 
 Mcfes his left us in the dark as to 
 the form of them. Some fuppofe 
 them to have been in the ihape of 
 an ox, others imagine them to have 
 had the f?cc cf a man, the wings 
 of an eagle, ihc back and mane of 
 a lion, and the feet of a calf. See 
 Propitiatory. 
 
 Chickens. Sec Pullarius, Tri* 
 pudiiun. 
 
 Children vrere by the j'ci'.-ijh 
 law lool:ed upon as the proper 
 goods of their parents. They had 
 power to fell them to their creditors 
 for feven years, by way of com- 
 pofition for debts. When a father 
 died infclvent, fuch perfon? as he 
 was indebted to, took away as nr.any 
 of his children as were, by the 
 ufualmodeof cftimation, equiva- 
 lent to the money owing. 
 
 Amongft tiic Gr^e^s if a man had 
 more children than he could conve- 
 niently maintain, he was allowed by 
 the laws to expofe them as foon as 
 they were born, efpecially daugh- 
 ters, to the chance of famine, to be 
 devoured by wild beafts, or to the 
 very diftant probability of being 
 taken up by fome kind ftrangers.— 
 See Infants. 
 
 Both Greeks and Romans, as well 
 
 as the Jt'u.s, had a power of felling 
 
 L their 
 
CHI 
 
 cna 
 
 rheir chiklren. Bat tlic Rc:>:a?:s 
 had the moll abfoKue command 
 and controul over their offspring ; 
 i-jv they could imprifon, beat, Iciil, 
 or fell' them for ilaves, according 
 tj a decree of RovmIus. The an* 
 cient Aibcinans luid the fame jurif- 
 diclion over their children. 
 
 A numerous offspring v/as lio- 
 nourable amongil the Romans — • 
 riaoiilrate'3 took precedence accord- 
 ing to the nutnber of their children : 
 Thofe candidates were preferred 
 Avho had the- great eft faow of chil- 
 dren, and a perfon- might be ad- 
 mitted earlier into office than ordi- 
 nary, if he had as many children as 
 he wanted years of the proper age. 
 Citizens of Rome who had three 
 ..-hildren, wcr^'cxcufed from fcrving 
 l?oub!efome cilices, — this privilege 
 cf exemption was called Jus trium 
 libercrnm. See Jus trii'.m, bjc. 
 
 Children amongft the Greeks 
 were obliged to vindicate, defend, 
 and maintain their parents, and 
 Vy'0re never excufedfrom providing 
 ior them, uniefs the parents had 
 ncglciflcd to bri'ngthem np to fome 
 profeffion, whereby they might 
 procure a fubilftence in life. 
 
 . Chimney. — ■ — Neither Je^xs, 
 Cj.ceh, nor Remans, had chimneys 
 like ours. The Jc-lvs fcldom made 
 life of fire for warming thcmfelves, 
 becaufe the climate was hct enough 
 ■ — if however they found afire ne- 
 celfary, they laid coals upon the 
 hearth or in a foot ftove, and the 
 Imoke was difcharged through an 
 opening in the roox oi .the houle. 
 Amongft the Greeks and Rorr.ans 
 there was no fireplace in their 
 fummer apartments, and in their 
 winter rooms the .^.re, when they 
 had one, was made in the niiddle, 
 . and chefiTioke emitted through an 
 tipcrture called by the Greeks Cr}- 
 vodoche, and by the Romans Fur 
 ■msiriian. 
 
 CiiiROMANCY, a fpecies of di- 
 
 vination in which they pretended" 
 to predirt the future fortune of a 
 perfon, or find out his difpofition 
 by examining thclines of his liand. 
 It was in life amongft the Greeks, 
 .ind pafled from them to the Ro- 
 mans, and from the Roinar.s to us ; 
 for it is pradti fed amongft the lower 
 ranks of Dcople under the name of 
 Pal mi ft ry. 
 
 Chirokomy, was a part of li- 
 beral education amongft the Greci- 
 ans, recommended by Socrates and 
 Plato. It confifted of tke ufe of 
 certain gefturcs and motions of the 
 body, but chiefly of the hands, a- 
 greed upon to reprefent paft trani"- 
 avftions, being a fort of artificial 
 memory. 
 
 Chi us in the Rotr.r.n game of tho 
 TuU, anfwers to a:c at dice. Ccus 
 is ufcd for ihc Jice ; hence the 
 Greek proverb K&'o; 'zpc, %!01',- 
 implying an unequal match, a giant 
 v/ith a pigmxy. See Talus. 
 
 Ch iRODOTTE, tunics with ficevcs 
 worn by the Romans n the declin- 
 ing ftate of the Empire. See Tu- 
 i:Tca. 
 
 Chl.\n:vs was a military gar- 
 ment worn over the Tunica. It 
 was ufed by the Patricia?7s. The 
 Chlamys differed but little fromtlie 
 Tcga PiiTta, Purpurea, Palmata, 
 confular Trabea and PaludaKcntv.?::. 
 All thefe are promifcuoully ufed 
 one lor another, and v/ere worn as 
 robes of ftat-e. The chlarnydcs of 
 the Emperors were all purple, with 
 a richly ornamented border, The 
 chlamys alicata had ileeves, and 
 was worn by boys. See Alicata, 
 Habit, i^c. 
 
 Clio EN IX was a'drymcafure a- 
 mongft thcGrt'f/'i, containing about' 
 fix bufnels. -See Meafure. 
 
 CkO-Mep.. •See Corc?i, Meafure. 
 Choragus was the principal 
 perfon, or leader in the Grecian 
 Chorus. He anfwers to our mana- 
 ger alfo, for he had tne chief direc- 
 tion 
 
GHG 
 
 CI R 
 
 t;cn in the plays, hired actors, 
 .fingers, dancers, iS.c. at the cele- 
 bration of public feiVivals. Sec 
 Cvcrus. 
 
 Chorus in the ancient dramatic 
 exhibitions, was a company of 
 aclors, rcprcfenting ihc allembly 
 or body ct mtn or women, who 
 eitiicr were prcfent, or might be 
 ^o, upon the very fpot or i'ccne 
 where the bulincfs was fuppcfcd to 
 be tranfactcd. Tliis is exaftly ob- 
 ierved by the C;y^/- poets ^iijchylus 
 Cofboclc'Sy Euripides and Arijlophanes, 
 but Seneca deviates from this idea 
 o^ the Chorus, in many refpefls. 
 The ancient tragedy was never 
 ^vithout the Chorus, which was in 
 facljt partoftheplay at firlt, though 
 in proceis of time it dwindled into 
 a troop of muficians and dancers, 
 w ho merely marked the intervals 
 of the ads. The bufinefs of the 
 Chorus was to recommend virtue, 
 cenfurc vice, end make a moral 
 application ot what had been ex- 
 hibited in the play. See Fior. Art. 
 Poet. V. 195. 
 
 Chous, ^^agwas a Grccia?! mea- 
 ture of capacity, containing 12 Co- 
 t;;l(e,or i gallon 4 foHd inches 283 
 decimal parts. See Mcafure. 
 
 QiBhv.iM Leges were fumptuary 
 laws, the intention ai' which was 
 to limit the cxpcnce of fea'fts, and 
 introduce frugality amcngft the 
 Roma?is, whofe extravagance at 
 their tables was almoll incredible. 
 See the article Luxury. 
 
 The chief of the cibar'ia Leges 
 were the Lex Orchia, which limited 
 
 the number of guells the Lex 
 
 Famiia which confined them to 
 ten cjfes in their ordinary feall<;, 
 allowing an hundred at the feafts of 
 Saturn — the Z.^;f Didla, which put 
 the fu m.pt uary 1 a vvs in force through - 
 cut Italy- — the Lex Licinia, which 
 revived and conf rmed the LexFan- 
 ?.v'^— the Lex Conulia, which regu- 
 krtcd the pr-ice of meats— and -the 
 
 Lex Anila, which moderated the cx'7 
 picnccs of entertainments. ZzeLav:. 
 
 CiNEREs. See Ajhes. 
 
 CiNCTUs, the giidlc by 'which 
 the Ro?nniu faftcncd their gowns 
 about their bodies. It v.:as not a 
 loofc belt as feme have fancied, but 
 i-Ik: lappet of the gown itfelf, which, 
 coming under the right arm, was 
 drawn over to the left fliouldcr^, 
 end covering the umlo or knot of 
 plaits which relied there, kept the 
 gown tight. 
 
 CiNCTUs Gabtnus W5S when 
 the lappet of the gown which ufcd 
 to be drawn up to the Icftflioulder, 
 was call off from thence, in fuch a 
 manner, upon the back, as to ccme 
 round fliort to the brcalt, and there 
 fallen in a knot, which knot tucked 
 lip the gown, and made it both 
 fhcrtcr and clofcr. This drift's 
 was proper to Ccnfuls ox Generals 
 upon extcaordinary and folemn oc- 
 cafions. it was borrowcdi-'rom the 
 Qabii, who beingattacked faddenhr 
 by their enemies, at the time of a 
 public facrifice, haftily gathered up 
 their gowns in this manner, and 
 marched out to oppofe them. 
 
 Ci-rci;nses Ludi,\\Qre thegames 
 exhibited in the Ro.viaK Circus, in 
 imitation of the Olyynpic games of 
 Greece. They were dedicated to 
 C<7w/^j the God of coumei. Molt 
 of the Roma?! fealts were accompa- 
 nied with Circenfiati games; and 
 the great ofiicersof ilacc frsquentir 
 treated the people with them, by- 
 way of procuring their favor. The 
 grand games lalled for five davs, 
 commencing on the i 5th of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 There were five kinds of games 
 exhibited — running, which inclu- 
 ded both foot and chariot races — 
 wrcilling — leaping— throwing the 
 quoit and javelin — and laftly box- 
 ing Sec the articles Race, IVrejl- 
 Ung, Leafing, Difcus and Boxing. 
 
 Tiefe five exercifes were called 
 L .2 Per.. 
 
CI R 
 
 CI R 
 
 Fentathhwi or ^tinqitertium, and 
 were borrowed from the Grecian 
 games. See Pentathlum and S>ubi- 
 querthim. 
 
 rhe Circenjicn games were in- 
 vented by Romulusy to favour his 
 defign of carrying off the Sahlne 
 virgins. The horfe and chariot 
 racc'3 were the moft admired. 
 
 The CircE7ifia7i games is a gene- 
 ral term including all the diverfions 
 exhibited in the Roman Clrass, viz. 
 tJie Pcntaihluni or ^luinquertium 
 above mentioned, chariot-races, 
 Trojuy Pyrrhica, Sallatio, She-ivs of 
 wild hcz^s—Naumachia, Gladia- 
 tors. See Chariot, t^c. 
 
 Circumcision- was a rite or 
 ceremony amongft^ tlie ye-ivs, per- 
 ibrmed by cutting off the pr/rpu- 
 tium or fore-lkin. Circumcifion 
 was a federal rite, annexed by 
 God, as a feal, to the covenant 
 which he made with Abraham in^ 
 3iis poltcrity, and was accordingly 
 renewed and taken into the body 
 of the Mofaical conilitutions. The 
 ceremony was to be performed on 
 the eighth day, that is, fix full 
 days after the birth of the child. 
 Nothing is ordained in the law 
 with relpedl to the operator by 
 whom, the inftrument with which, 
 the place where, or the manner 
 how it was to be performed. It 
 was often performed by the father 
 in his own houfe or the Synagogue, 
 The initrument was generally a 
 ]<M'e )r fh'.rp ftone. The god- 
 father took the child in his arms, 
 while the operator taking hold of 
 the prepuce with one hand, cut it 
 off with the other- this done, the 
 operator fucked the wound, fpit- 
 ting the blood into a dilh of fand 
 or afhes, held by a third perfon 
 for that purpofe — part of the blood 
 was received into a bowl of wine, 
 which the operator ufed to blefs at 
 the fame time he pronounced liis 
 bencdidion on the child. Styptiq 
 
 was applied to the wound to 
 Haunch the bleeding. The infanc 
 always received its name at the 
 performance of this ceremony. — 
 Previous to the operation two fcati 
 with filk cuihions were provided, 
 one tor the godfather — the other 
 tor Elias, who was fuppofed to be 
 invifibly prefcnt, and to occupy 
 the chair during the whole time. 
 Many demonikations oi joy were 
 exhibited on this oecaiion, and 
 many very fuperftitious curtoms 
 were obferved, both before and 
 after the ceremony. The 'Jeics, 
 bccaufe they were, without ex- 
 ception, circumciied, are often 
 called by the name of the Circumci- 
 fion, and the geiitiles are termed the 
 uncircumcifion. Some of the Je^vs, 
 after they had embraced chrilliuni- 
 ty, entertained luch an abhorrence 
 of circumcifion, that, by arts of 
 furgery, they endeavoured to re- 
 move all the marks of it : Tothcfe 
 St. Paul alluded in his prohibition 
 to the Corinthians, " is any man 
 called being circumcifed? let him 
 
 not become uncircumcifcd." 
 
 fin tTTc-iTraa^co.' 
 
 The yexvs admitted P/'o/t'^'/^; by 
 circumcifion. See Profelyte. 
 
 Circus was a place fet apart by 
 the Romans for the celebration of 
 feveral forts of games called Ludi 
 Circenjes. See Circenjes. 
 
 There were feveral of thefe Circi 
 at Rome. They were generally 
 oblong or almofl in the fhape of a 
 bow, encompaffed with a wall, 
 and provided with rows of feats for 
 ihe convenience of the fpcftators. 
 In the middle was a bank or emi- 
 nence with obeliflts, ftatnes, and 
 polls at each end. This fcrvcd 
 them for the courfes of their Biga: 
 and ^ndrigce. See Big^^- 
 
 The principal parts of the Circus 
 were the Cat'ea, Arcr.a, Evripusy 
 Ccirceres, Metce, Spina, i^c. 
 
 T^ie woft remarkable place of 
 this 
 
CIV 
 
 CL A 
 
 this kind was the Circus Maxi?irus, 
 buil: by Tarquinius Prifcus, its 
 length was 2187 feet, the breadth 
 960. Son;e fay it would contain 
 300,000 people. It was much 
 beautified by fuccceding Emperors, 
 particularly 'JuUusCsJar^ Auguflusy 
 Ca!ig:ila, Domitiarty Trojan, and 
 Heliogabnlus. "Julius Cacfcir adorn- 
 ed it with magnificent buildings, 
 which he furroundcd with large 
 canals of water called Eur-ipi, for 
 thcpurpofe of exhibiting fea-fights. 
 See ^aianacbits. 
 
 Some fay there was eight Cir- 
 cufes at Rome, thofc of Flaininiiis, 
 ^ero, Caracalla, ^evertis, Anioiii- 
 nus, Aurelian, l^c. That of Fla- 
 minius was famous for plays, and 
 noted for a glafs-houfe where they 
 hardened chryilal, fo as to refill 
 iire, a fecret fuppofed to be lolt, 
 though by many it is thought ne- 
 ver to have exifted. 
 
 Civ is, amongfr the Romans, \V2.% 
 
 one who was free of the city. 
 
 This freedom was obtained three 
 ways; by birth, both, or at leaft 
 one of the parents being free, this 
 conftituted Ci-ves originarii ; — by 
 gift, as when freedom was bellow- 
 ed on a perfon, who was hence 
 termed ci-vifafe donatus, in this 
 manner whole nations were made 
 free. By ManumiJJiov. , which was 
 , when a mafter gave liberty to his 
 ilave. See ManumiJJion. 
 
 Amongll the Athenians, the free- 
 dom of the city was obtained in a 
 fimilar manner. 
 
 The Romans v.'erc anciently fo 
 particularly careful of preferving 
 even their common citizens, from 
 all mixture of fcrvile blood, that 
 they prohibited all marriages be- 
 tween them, and freed flaves, or 
 their children. But this law began 
 to be difregarded towards the end 
 ©f the commonwealth. The num- 
 ber of citizens was found, by 
 Auguflus, to amount to upwards of 
 four millions. 
 
 CLARiGATiowas a loud denun- 
 ciation of war, pronounced by the 
 Feciaies or Heralds, againfl any 
 confederate nation who had offered 
 injury to the Romans, and rcfufcd 
 to make fatisfadtion, or lillen to 
 their remonilrances. It was fo 
 called bccaule it was pronounced 
 clard I'oce. 
 
 Classis was a divifion of the 
 Remans made by Ser-cius Tullius, 
 that he might more eafily make aa 
 eftimate of every perfon's ellate. — 
 The number of clajj'cs was fir, 
 which he fubdivided into 193 cen- 
 turies. The iirll clafs confifccd of 
 the Equites and richell citizens, and 
 contained 9S centuries ; the fecond 
 clafs took in the tradefmen and me- 
 chanics, and made up 22 centuries ; 
 the third contained the fame num- 
 ber o^ centuries; the fourth 20; the 
 fifth 30 ; and the fixth was filled 
 up with the poorefl of the people, 
 and made but one century. Gen- 
 tlemen of the firft clafs by way of 
 eminence were called Clafp.ci ; 
 hence authors of the firftrank were 
 called C/fl/?7a— all the relt were 
 faid to be infra clajfem. The laft 
 clafs was divided into proletarii, 
 who were defigncd purely to flock 
 the commonwealth with children ; 
 and capite cenft, who, paying the 
 lowcft taxes, were reckoned rather 
 by \.)\c\x heads than l\\f:\x ejiates. 
 
 The eflates and eiFeds ot every 
 perfon of the firfl clais were re- 
 quired to amount to \o,ooo drach- 
 ma", or 100,000 afes of brafs — of 
 the fecond to 7,500 drachma, or 
 75,000 ajfes — oi t\\Q third to 5000 
 drachma, or 50,000 afj'es — of the 
 fourth to 2,500 drachmx, or 25,000 
 alfei — of the fifth to 1250 drachma, 
 or 12,500 afj'es. Lhu'v. Anc. Hifi. 
 Kennet. Liv. 
 
 Class I CUM was the alarm for 
 battle, given by the Roman Gene- 
 rals ; and founded by trumpets aad 
 other martial mufic throughout the 
 army, 
 
CLE 
 
 C LO 
 
 Clavus Aknalis, StcA;:nalis 
 Cla-jus. 
 
 Clavus Latus. Sec Laiida- 
 <viufr.. 
 
 Clepsydra, an hour - glafs 
 made with water. The ul'e of 
 Clepfydns was very ancient among 
 the Romans, and there were feveral 
 forts of them; but this v/as com- 
 mon to them all, that water ran by 
 gentle degrees, through a narrow 
 parage, from one vcflel to another, 
 •and rifmg by little and little lifted 
 upon its farface a piece of cork, 
 which according to its different al- 
 titudes, fhewed the different hours. 
 The orators in their pleadings were 
 limited to a certain mcafureoftime, 
 and had one of tiicfe clepf/dra; 
 ftanding by them to prevent them 
 iromrunningbeyond theprefcribcd 
 length ; the invention of the Cle'^- 
 jjdra is attributed to Sicipio Isafica, 
 to fupply the impcrfeclion of dials, 
 which were of no \xi^, he obferved, 
 in the night, or upon a cloudy day. 
 See Dial. 
 
 Cleromancy, a method of di- 
 vination by Jots, in pr^iflicc both 
 amongfc the Greeks and Romans — 
 Ir was generally performed by caft- 
 ing black and white beans, fmall 
 clods of earth, pebbles, dice, &c. 
 into an urn or other vefl'el ; after 
 making fnpplication to the Gods 
 they drew them out, and accord- 
 ing to the charadlers or marks, by 
 which they v.-ere previoufly diilin- 
 guilhed, conjectures were formed 
 of what fhould happen. All lots 
 were facred to Mercury, hence 
 suE^/xici fignifies good luck. There 
 were various other ways of ufing 
 the lots in divination, which it 
 would be ncedlefs to infift on. See 
 Series, Di-viiiaticn. 
 
 Client was, amongft the Ro- 
 luans, a citizen under the protec- 
 tion of fome great man, who in 
 that refpecl was called Patron.—' 
 The right of Patronage was ap- 
 
 pointed by Romulus to unite the 
 Plebeians and Patriciai:s, oxm other 
 words the poor and the rich. The 
 Patron was to affill the clier.t with 
 his protection, interefl:,and goods ; 
 he was to be his counfellor in dif- 
 ficult cafes, his advocate in judg- 
 ments, his advifer in emergencies, 
 and his ovcrfeer in all affairs what- 
 ever ; the client on the other hand 
 was faithfully to ferve his Patron, 
 by paying him refpcft and dcrer- 
 ence, ailiiling him with money to 
 defray extraordinary charges, and 
 giving him his vote and intcrell 
 when he fought an office for him- 
 felf or fi-iends. See Patron. 
 
 Climacteric was a critical 
 year, according to the ancients, in. 
 which a perfon was fuppofed to 
 Hand in great danger of death. 
 The Bum.bers 7 and g have always 
 been looked upon as of great effi- 
 cacy and magical operation. Hciice 
 7 multiplied bv 9, or6';, is efteem- 
 cd the great climaclcric of life; 
 and 7 times 7, or 49, and 9 times 
 Q, or 8i, are conceived to carry 
 with them confiderable fatality. 
 Some allowed, as climacleric. only 
 thofe years produced by m.ultiply- 
 ing 7 by the odd numbers,. 3, 5, 7, 
 9; viz. the 2ifl, 55th, 49:h, and 
 56th. But the grand climacleric 
 was the 63d, but fome, making 
 
 two, add the 81 ft. Pythagoras, 
 
 v.'ho was fend of numerical luper- 
 ftitions, and built a great deal of 
 bis philofophy upon arithmetical 
 myfticifm, appears to have bee.i 
 the inventor of this puerile trafh : 
 Plato too, and the Platonijls in ge- 
 neral, with Philo the learned ye-tv, 
 feeing the great efficacy of num- 
 bers in many refpecls, attributed 
 to them more than was their due. 
 See Bro^vns Vulgar Err. b. 4. 
 c. 12. 
 
 Cloaca were l;nks or fubter- 
 raneous gutters, by which the filth 
 of the city was conveyed awav. 
 
 Tlvs 
 
COE 
 
 C OE 
 
 The great r/V/T.-i?, wl.ich FUny calls 
 Qbus Omnlv.tr. Maximmr., was begun 
 by Tarquiriius PriJ}:is, and finiincd 
 by Tarquinius Suferhiu, and emp- 
 tied itfelt" into the Tiber. The 
 channel was very wide, was dug 
 through mountains, and vaulted 
 over in ieveral parts of the city. It 
 was bailt oi"great llones in the form 
 of an avch, and fo ilrongly cement- 
 ed together as to remain unhurt by 
 the filth and water which ran con- 
 cinaally th.rough it, for the fpace 
 ol 7C0 vears. The other fmks ot 
 the city fell into this as a common 
 drain. The ofiicers who took care 
 of this work were called Curatores 
 Clone arum Urhis. 
 
 Cloaths. See Habit. 
 Clypeus. See Shield, 
 Clypeus VoTivus, a conic- 
 crated ,f]iield, hung up after a vic- 
 tory in feme temple, to tranfmit to 
 polterity the memory of the con- 
 queft. The devoted fiiiclds re- 
 fembled thofe ufed in Vv'ar, and 
 fometimes were the fame. They 
 were frequently made of gold, fil- 
 vcr, or other precious and durable 
 metal, with engi-avings or infcrip- 
 tions fuitable to the occaJion. 
 
 Cockle ARioN, Koyj^sapicv, a 
 Grecian meafure of capacity, equal 
 to i-i20th of a pint, and 03,i;6 
 5-i2ths decimal parts of a fulid 
 inch Engli/h. See Meafure. 
 Cock-Crowing. SscNig/jt. 
 CoDON among the Greeks was a 
 cymbal or little brafs bell, refem- 
 bling the head of a poppy. Such 
 bells were ufed in the Jtbenian 
 camp by the watch. They were 
 alfo fafiened to the bridles and 
 trappings of horfes. See IFatcht 
 ' Bell. 
 
 CoEMPTio, one of the methods 
 of contracling marriages amongit 
 the Romans, wherein the parties 
 folemnly bound themfelves to each 
 other, hy the ceremony of giving 
 and receiving apiece of money.'—* 
 Sec Marriage. 
 
 CoENA was the principal meal 
 amongll the yft'.-j, Greeks andRo- 
 }>:a::s. And as both the Je^ws and 
 Rcriatis borrowed their culfjms 
 from the Greeks wilhrefpcft to their 
 cntertninmiCnts, one account will 
 fuliice for all. 
 
 This principal meal was called 
 C a:na from KOiVi) fignifying cc,y;;;;:r.v, 
 beeaufe the family cat it together, 
 or in company, whereas the Prari- 
 dium and Jentaculum were only 
 Tnacks, which each perfon took 
 when he thought proper, without 
 formality. The time ot the Ca:na 
 or fupper was the ninth Jiour, ncna 
 hora, anfwering to three in the af- 
 ternoon ; hence our word ?;;c/7 qa. 
 ■nt,na. 
 
 The fupper con filled of threer 
 courfes ; the firil was called 
 AsiTTvs Upooi/xio'v, JiiteciSfzium, CV- 
 na: Prxfntio, or Gujlatio, and con- 
 filled of mulberries, eggs, oyilej-sv 
 coleworts, and fuch other herbs as; 
 were of the moll pungent tafte ; the 
 fccond was called Afirvcv, C.<^ra 
 or KE^inAj] AEc^n'x Caput Ca;f;x, and 
 w'as more plentifully fnpplicd with 
 dainties of various lorts; the third 
 coiirfe Vv^as called ^evIs^c::. tfX'Mt^ay 
 by the Latins, Merfa Jecuiiaa, menja 
 potncrum, and hellaria. This courfe 
 was furuifhed with the utrnofl: 
 iplendor, and confifted of fvvect- 
 mcats of every kind, fruit, &:c. be- 
 ing in faft the defert. As they 
 began with eggs, and concluded, 
 with apples, they gave rife to the 
 provtrbi-al phrale ah cvo ufque ad 
 mala, from heginiiing to the end. 
 
 At the beginning of the feall, 
 they drank a glafs of G:cek wine, 
 and made libations to their Gods 
 both before and after fupper, look- 
 ing uponitasan high degree of im- 
 piety to feed on the b:;unties of 
 providence, without paying their 
 grateful acknowledgements for 
 them. See Libation. 
 
 After thclibation was made thev 
 
 ail 
 
COG 
 
 COL 
 
 all dran!: oTa large bowl by way 
 of grace-cup, and concluded the 
 evening with much feftivity. It 
 v/as held very difgraceful to drink 
 before fupper, and indicated a fot- 
 tifli difpclition. See Entcrtaln- 
 jiient. 
 
 For the polture obfcrved by the 
 ancients in eating, fee Accuhatio. 
 
 During the entertainment the 
 giieils generally wore white gar- 
 ments or cloaths of a chearful co- 
 lour, and had garlands upon their 
 heads, and the odoar of precious 
 jicrfumcs was aided by variety of 
 rofes and other fragrant flowers. 
 
 It was cuitomary amongft the 
 "Jen-i^s to falute their guells by bow- 
 ing to the ground to them, if fu- 
 periors of high rank, or kifling 
 them, if familiar friends. They 
 then wafhed their feet and anoint- 
 ed their heads with cil. The next 
 thing was to pronounce the grace 
 or bleffing of the cup, and perform 
 the folcmn oSce of breaking the 
 bread. The rcpaft being over, 
 thanks were given to the author of 
 all good things, and the com- 
 pany was difmilicd in form. Al- 
 lufions to all thefe cuftoms may be 
 found I Sara. iv. 21. Gen. xviii. 2. 
 xix. I. itliii. 24. I Sara. xxv. 41. 
 Pfalm cviii. Q. Matt. xxvi. 7. 
 Jjuke vii. 46. Pfalm xxiii. 5. See 
 Grace, Saint alio. 
 
 CoE■rIACULu^! was the room in 
 which the Romans fupped. It was 
 furnifhcd with a table, and three 
 beds or couches, for the gucfts to 
 recline upon whilil they cat. See 
 Table and Bed. 
 
 Cognomen was the third or f.t- 
 mily name amongft the Romans. — 
 It %vas ufed for the fake of dillinc- 
 tion, to prevent confafion of fami- 
 lies, and was afiumcd for no certain 
 caufc, but ^;er.erally from fome par- 
 ticular occurrence. Thus Pub. 
 Cornelius Sdpio was the name cf an 
 eminent Romany wherein Publius 
 
 is the Pnenvne-n, Corndli.s the l\0' 
 men, and Scipio the Ccgno':ncn or 
 family name. Sometimes a fourtii 
 name w^as given on account of fome 
 remarkable atchievement ; thus to 
 Pf.b. Cornelius Scipio was added tlic 
 Agnomen Africaniis, from his vido- 
 rics in Africa. See Agi:o:nen, Name,. 
 i5c. 
 
 CoHORs was a body of men, 
 confining of about 600. It was 
 the tenth part of the Roman legion, 
 which at different times contained 
 different numbers, the number 
 which conftituted a cohort, there- 
 fore, muft have been equally fluc- 
 tuating. The firft cohort e.>:cecded 
 all the reft in dignity and number 
 of men. It was chofen out of the 
 cvocati, and obliged only to attend 
 on the Pr^tor or General ; hence 
 it was called Pr.-etoria Cohors. Its 
 place in theorder of battle was the 
 right of the firil line — the reft fol- 
 lowing in their order. 
 
 CoiLON in the Grecian theatres 
 was tlie fame as the Cai'ea of the 
 Roma/.s. See Ca^jea. 
 
 Coin. Sec Mo-nc-,-. 
 
 CoLis^.uM, an elliptical am- 
 phitheatre at Rome built by Vcfpa- 
 iian. It would hold 100,000 fpec- 
 tators, and contained emblematical 
 ftatues of all the Roman provinces. 
 Rome flood in the middle with a 
 golden apple in her hand. At the 
 dedication of this building 4000 
 bcailiwere facrif.ced. 
 
 CoLLARE was a collar put round 
 the recks of Roman Haves who had 
 deferred their fervlce — with an in- 
 fcription intimating the fame, and 
 requiring their rciloration to their 
 raaitcrs, in cafe they fhould a fe- 
 cond time elope. 
 
 Co L L E G I u M, a name given to the 
 afterably of fome focieties and 
 corporations at i?c/;^^. The prin- 
 cipal colleges of the Romans were 
 the Collegium Auf-ignrum, Collegium 
 /lugurum, tfc. See Charioteers, 
 Augur, is'i. 
 
COL 
 
 COL 
 
 CoM,ocATio, a ceiemoi-jy at 
 the funerals of the Greeks and 
 Rovians. It confiilcd iu laying out 
 die dead cither upon a bier or on 
 the ground. The place where the 
 corple was thus laid out was at the 
 entrance oi the houie, near the 
 rhrcfhold. The feet were towards 
 ihcgatc. The reafon ot this poii- 
 tion was to fliew all perfons that 
 chofe to examine, whether violence 
 had been the cauie of the party's 
 death, which might be difcovercd 
 by outward figns. The feet were 
 turned towards the gate to jncimate 
 that the deccafed was going from 
 home never to return. Sec Funcra/. 
 
 Colon V, a companv ot people 
 tranfplantcd into a remote province 
 or coiio^ucrcd country to cultivate 
 and inhabit it, Roi/y.u colonies 
 confiiled of a great number of in- 
 iiabitaurs of Rome, mingled with 
 the natives who had been kit in 
 dieconfe|uercd place. The tranf- 
 plar.ted inhabitants however had 
 tiie v/hcle power and authority in 
 die adminilcration of affairs. Coh- 
 Tiies were oi great ufc in providing 
 for the veteran foldiers, who cer- 
 t-iin!v dcfcrved for their f-srvicej to 
 be fent out to fome place of eaic 
 and affluence. Colonies were cal- 
 led after the names of the Emperors 
 under whom they were founded, 
 retaining their former appellations 
 alfo— thus Patras was called Ners- 
 Tiimia Pc.trevfis. 
 
 Colossus, a ftatue of gigantic 
 iize. The moft renowned Colojfai 
 ftatue that we have any account of, 
 was that oiuipollo 3.x. Rhodes. Chares 
 a difcjple of Leiijippus was 1 2 years 
 in finifliing it. When this llatue 
 was thrown down, 900 camels were 
 loaded with tlve brafs of which it 
 was formed. A winding Itaircafe 
 ran to the top, and Ihips paffed be- 
 twixt its legs in full fail. The 
 thumb was as much as a man could- 
 facJiom. I; wa'? eighty -fix feet 
 
 high, and ftood acrofi the mouth 
 of the hai ojur at RhJes. 
 
 Columns were erected at Ro/ne 
 fcr the honourable memorials of 
 viclories or noble exploit-:. The 
 pillars oi Trajan and Antoninus are 
 mod admired for their beauty and 
 curious woricmanfhip. Trojans 
 pillar was let up by the Senate ia 
 honour of that Emperor. It con- 
 fiilcd of 24 large pieces cf marble, 
 was 128 feet high, was afcendcd. 
 by a Ibiircale of 185 ileps, and had. 
 45 windows. Round the columti 
 were reprcfented in Bas Rfliei'tt 
 the noble afts of that Emperor. 
 After his death his aihes were 
 brought in a golden urn from Seleu- 
 c'a, and pLiced on the top of thcr 
 globe, which the coloffal ftatuc of 
 the prince, upon the column, held 
 in its right hand. This coIuhtr 
 was in the midil of Trajan'' s Foruv:. 
 
 The column of Antcninus flood 
 in the eaj/ipns martins, had 56 win- 
 dows, a iUircafe of 106 ifeps, was 
 176 feet high, and had at the top 
 a colojfai ftame of Antoninus to 
 whofc honour it \Vas erected.— —- 
 Both thefe columns are fUiI to bs 
 feen at Rome — but the flatue of St. 
 Peter has taken place oi Trajan, and 
 Paul of Antonitms by the order of 
 Pope Sixtus the finl. 
 
 Other pillars are deferving 06 
 notice, fuch as the calumva milli- 
 c/is, or rnilliariufn aureum-'-the co- 
 lurnna rcjlrataox rojira, but thefe 
 v/ill be found under the articles 
 Milliariujn and Rojlia. 
 
 I /hall conclude with the columns, 
 hellica, which was a fmall pillar 
 behind the circus, from whence the 
 Herald ufed to throw a fpesr, as an 
 adft of defiance to the enemies cf 
 Rome, and as a prelude to v»^ar, af- 
 ter the commencement of holli- 
 lities. 
 
 Columns were in ancient times 
 eredled as monuments of the dead, 
 according to Homer II. 16. 
 
 M Com: 
 
COM 
 
 CO M 
 
 CoMr.Dv is a dramatic poem or 
 compoli'.ion in the i'oim cA a dia- 
 logue, calculated to reprcfcnt Ibme 
 aclion or ordinary event in life, 
 which is capable of being rendered 
 intereiling by ridiculing the vices 
 or follies of mankind. The end 
 of comedy therefore is to corredl 
 the manners, bv diverting the 
 mind. 
 
 [n comedy there arc four parts— 
 Protajts, Ejiitinjis, CatoftnfiSy and 
 Catajlrophe, See Frotalh, tfff. 
 
 Comedy has undergone leveral 
 tcvolutions, and is accordingly 
 termed- ancient, middle, and new. 
 The ancient comedy was fevere 
 r.nd perfoual, expoiing individuals 
 by name. Thefe liberties were 
 taken by the chorus in p.avticular. 
 The jiiiddU fuccecded the ancient 
 vornedv. The character of the 
 ?)iiddlc was lefs fevere — but ftill 
 pointed its fatire at particular pcr- 
 fenlS' under borrovv'ed names. In 
 the reign of Ale:ca-i:4er the great, 
 this licence was reftrained, and 
 t^Iiis rci'ormation gave rife to the 
 ise.w.X9medy which brought upon 
 the iv^ge, feigned adventures and 
 imaginary names. Thcfe revolu- 
 tions are to be undcritood as hav- 
 ing taken place upon ^\?: Grecian 
 ftagc. The Ro?nans however make 
 the fame fubdiviiion of their co- 
 medy. — and divided it moreover 
 i;ito to<^/it/e, prxlextato', traheati?, 
 and tabernaritf, according to the 
 c|aal!ty ef the perlous rcprefented. 
 Sec 'T Ogata, i^c. 
 
 Comes, was ufed at firft to ilg- 
 nify any of thofe perlons who wait- 
 ed on the magiitrates in province?, 
 as treafurers, lieutenants, fccre- 
 taries, and other ii:ifcrior officers. 
 Jn the times ot the Em.perors, it 
 figniiied thofe who were of :he fa- 
 mily or attendants of the Prince.: 
 hence we have Comes Ct^f.Jioi-iani 
 l:)r counfellor of Ihte ; Comes 
 Oihntis for gcvernor of the e.'.ft ; 
 
 Comes SlabuU, for mtflcr of tl?e' 
 horlc ; and Coi/ies har^itionum fii- 
 crariim, for almoner to the Prince, 
 v,-ith many other fmiilar applica- 
 tions of the word. 
 
 CoMiTiA, was a legal aflembly 
 of the Roman people for the pur- 
 pofes of cleclingmagiftratcs, enabl- 
 ing laws, or cofifulting on the im- 
 portant affairs of the republic— 
 We meet with comtia confuiariaj 
 pratoria, quxftoria, tribiaiitia, fcdi- 
 litia, for the cledlion of coniuls, 
 praetors, Szc. 
 
 The comi.'ia were of three kinds, 
 the coviitia curiata, centuriata, and 
 tribida. 
 
 The comitia cur'iaia were {o cal- 
 led bccaufe the people gave their 
 votes by curia; or parifhes ; in the 
 comitia centuriata, the people voted 
 by centuries , and in the ccrniiia 
 tribtita, thev voted in tribes. See" 
 curitT, ce/Hiiri^, and tribe. 
 
 The power of calling thefe af- 
 fcmblies was at firll veltcd in the' 
 king?, but after the democracy was 
 eilablifned, that privilege was gi- 
 ven to the chief magiib-ates, and 
 fometimes x.oA\vt -pontifices. 
 
 No fet time was appointed for 
 the comitia, but they were held 39 
 bullncfs required ; but the confiils 
 were generally cleftcd at the endof 
 July, or beginning of Auguft, af- 
 ter the year of the city 601 . 
 
 Originally the curl^e gave their 
 V'otos man by man, K.n--va I'oce, but 
 afterwards by tnbell^, tablets, ot 
 tickets. 
 
 For the place where the comitia 
 were held. See Co7nit:u?n. 
 
 Com iTi ALES Dies, were days 
 amongft the Ro?nans on which the 
 coviitia or meetings of the people 
 were held. Thefe days were mark- 
 ed in the calendar with a C. When 
 the aflembly of the people did noC 
 continue the whole day, the re- 
 mainder, if occaiion required, was 
 employed in tine admiaiilration of 
 juftice 
 
CON 
 
 COM 
 
 iuilice by the prtctor. See Z>^'. 
 Co.MiTiUM was the place where 
 the coniitia were held. It was one 
 fide of the forum romanum. This 
 was a large hall, for a long time 
 open at top, but covered i:i the 
 times of ths fccond P::?2ic war. — 
 The c'jiifuls and tribunes however, 
 were not elected here, but in the 
 campus martins. 
 
 Companies. See Colkgiu^n. 
 
 CoMPERENDiNi Dies, in the 
 Roman coMxts were days of a.'ijourn- 
 7:ient, when perfons that had been 
 filed, might give bail. The prx- 
 tor allowed time for the parties, af- 
 ter hearing both fides, to inform 
 themfclvcs more fully, or clear 
 
 thcmfclvcs. This adjournment 
 
 wasonly granted to Roman citizens, 
 and to fummon a foreigner at Rome ; 
 and lafted twenty days, according 
 to ]\Incrolnus. 
 
 CoMPiTALiA, were feafts kept 
 by the Romans on the i zth of Ja- 
 raary,, and 6ih of March, in ho- 
 nour of the Lares. They were in- 
 ibtutcd by Tarquinius Superbus, 
 Avho having confulted the oracle to 
 knov/ what facrifices fliouid be of- 
 fered on the occafion, was com- 
 manded to offer heads to the Lares. 
 The Romans therefore facrificing 
 humanity to faperftition offered up 
 young children to thefe deities. 
 But Junius Brutus wad^ their god- 
 iliips content thenifelves with pop- 
 py heads and men of ftraw. Some 
 iay Scr-vius Tullius was the foun- 
 der. 
 
 CoMPiTALiTii Ludi, were Ro- 
 man games celebrated during the 
 ieall of Compicalia. 
 
 Concha, %70%>i was a Grecian 
 meafure of capacity, equal to five 
 cochlearia, or i-24th of a pint, 
 178 1 1- 24ths decimal parts of an 
 inch. See Meafure. 
 
 CoNCLAMATio, the general 
 outcry made by the Romans before 
 their dead, for eight dap together. 
 
 at certain intervals of time. This 
 was done either to recall ti-.e de- 
 parted foul, or to av.-aken it, fup- 
 pofing it to be aflecp, or its powers 
 iufpended bv a fit. If all this hi- 
 deous howling had no efiecl:, the 
 deceai'ed was given up as loft, and 
 was faid to bs conclamatus. Plence 
 concla7r.atu}n efl is proverbially ufe.d 
 to exprefs a hopudcfs condition. — 
 See Fui:e-ral. 
 
 Concubine amongu the Jc-jcsj 
 Greeks, and Romans, often figni- 
 fies a legitimate but inferior wife, 
 A concubine amongft the Jev.-s was 
 indeed, upon a level with the wife, 
 and had fometimesthe fame appel- 
 lation. No difrerence fccms to 
 have been, made between the Tons 
 of a wife, and the fons of a con- 
 cubine. The Greeks generalh^ 
 bouo;ht their concubines, or rook 
 them captive in war. The wive?, 
 therefore, on account of dowry and! 
 parentage, had the pre-em'nence. 
 Amongft the Romans inheritance 
 delcended to the children of con- 
 cubines. Wives, in fliort, were 
 married for ftrengthening family 
 intercft's, and concubines were ta- 
 ken to anfwer the real purpofes oe'^ 
 matrimonv. 
 
 CoNcussio Jrmorum, theclafli- 
 ing of armour praclifed by the Ro- 
 vian foldiers at the iirft encounter. 
 It attended the bar r it us, or gene- 
 ral fhout of the army, and was cal- 
 culated to fill their enemies with 
 terror, and throw them into a panic. 
 See Bar r it us. 
 
 Condemnation, amongft the 
 Romans ",as thus iigniiied. The 
 jury >.vithdre',v and threw their ta- 
 blets, containing their fcntiments 
 of the culprit, into urns or boxes. 
 The accuied perfon in the mean 
 time was proilrated at their feet, 
 to move companion. The tablets 
 were taken out and numbered; 
 and when the praetor knew the ma- 
 jority, he pronounced accordingly 
 M 2 'vtdeU'.r^ 
 
CON 
 
 CON 
 
 'vidctiir fedjfe ; or non jure I'lJelur 
 fecijje, as the prifoncr was found 
 guilty or not guilty. 
 
 CoNFARREATio, at Rome, was 
 a method of contradting marriage, 
 in which fnlemn facrifices were of- 
 fered with burnt cakes. The chief 
 part of the ceremony was the bride 
 •and bridegroom's eating together 
 a wheaten cake. A divorce after 
 this had been performed was called 
 (tiffarreatio. The ceremony of 
 ccnferrratio containing many trou- 
 blcfome rites and ohfervances, was 
 at laft laid totally afidc. See Mar- 
 riage. 
 
 CoNFECTOR, a kind oi Gladia- 
 txir amongil the Romans hired to 
 iight againil the wild beafls, ano- 
 ther name for BeJIiarius. See 
 Bejitarii. 
 
 Some think the covfeSlor was a 
 perfon hired to deftroy fuch beafts 
 as grew too wild tor the purpofe of 
 exhibiting to the people ; and that 
 he was not paid for lighting as a 
 Gladiator, but rather as a butcher 
 or dcftroyer. 
 
 CoNGiARiuM, was a donative 
 or largefs of wine or oil given by 
 tYit Roman Emperoi's to the people. 
 Sometimes they dillributcd money, 
 or corn, under the fame name.— 
 This diftrlbution was called ro»- 
 Qtartum from the cof:gius, in which 
 It was meafurcd out. See Co>7gius. 
 
 CoNGius, a 7?^;;;«« liquid raea- 
 fure, containing fix fextarii. It 
 was die eighth part of the amphora, 
 or the fourth of the urna, and e- 
 quul to about feven pints Englilh, 
 See Meafure. 
 
 CoNisTERjuM, was a place in 
 the Grecian Gymnajia, where duft 
 was kept for the wrcfllers, who 
 ufed to throw it upon each other, 
 that they might take better hold of 
 the anointed bodies of their anta- 
 gonifts. See Gywiajia. 
 
 CoNju RATIO, Was a method of 
 cnliiiyvg men amongil the Romans, 
 
 which took place only on great and 
 fuddcn emergencies. That no 
 time might be loll, the foldiers 
 were excufed from the ufual for- 
 malities. The general only went 
 to the Capital and eredlcd a red 
 ftandard for the foot, and a blue 
 one for the horfe, pronouncing 
 thefe words, " let thofe who love 
 the fafety of the republic, make 
 halle and follow me." 
 
 CoNQjJisiTORES, Roman im- 
 prefs mailers who were upon fome 
 urgent occafions, commillioned to 
 go about and compel men to the 
 fervice of the ftate. Sec Soldiers. 
 
 CoNSECRATiOTJ. For the ce- 
 remony of the confccration of the 
 Roman Emperors. Sec Jpotheojis. 
 
 The confccration of the Pontifcx 
 maximus amongft the Remans \vas 
 performed by letting him down in - 
 to a hole, in his priellly vcftments, ^ 
 and letting the blood of a vidini 
 flow down upon him through a 
 bored plank. With this blood he 
 rubbed his eyes, nofe, ears and 
 tongue, and came out fully quali- 
 fied for the holy funflions of his 
 office. The ceremony concluded 
 with great feftivity, for the priefts 
 amongft the Romansw^vc notorious 
 for their tafte in good eating and 
 drinking. 
 
 Confccration of pcrfons and 
 things to the Lord was ufual a- 
 mongft the Je^vs, and being {o 
 frequently met with in the holy 
 fcriptures requires no particular 
 mention here,Confult. Exod.xiii. 
 2. 12. 15. Num.b. i.9. — xiii. 12. 
 Jofhoaix. 17. Ezra viii. 20 and 
 ii. 58. Sam. i, 2. Lev. xxvii. 28.29. 
 
 CoNSUALiA, were feafts infti- 
 tuted by Romulus when he ftole the 
 Sabine virgins. They were held in 
 memory of an altar which he is 
 faid to have found below the fur- 
 face of the earth. This altar was 
 ncveruncovered till the feaft,which 
 was celebrated with horfe-races in 
 hono'j| 
 
CON 
 
 COR 
 
 honour af N'clfune, when a mule 
 was iacnficed. Authors difterwith 
 rcfpjd to the time v/hen the t'eait 
 ^vns obfcrved, fomc fix it to the 
 13th, others to the 18th, and o- 
 thcrs again to the 21ft of Auguft. 
 Horfes, during the celebration, 
 were exempt from labour, and led 
 through the ftrccts in fplendid 
 capnrifons. 
 
 Consul, was the chief magi- 
 ftrate in the rovian commonwealth. 
 There v/ere two in number chofen 
 annually in the can:pus martius by 
 the people, in the comitia centu- 
 r'lata. See corr.itia. 
 
 Their office began upon the ex- 
 p'.iliion of the Tarquim, in the year 
 of the city 244. They were called 
 confuh, a coiifulendo. Their power 
 was regal for the year. They af- 
 feniblcd and difmilFcd the fcnate at 
 pleafure, and were invclledin time 
 of war with the chief command 
 over citizens and afibciatcs ; but 
 their authority was fomcwhat im- 
 paired by the cleftion of Tr;'^«;;ifj 
 of the people. The honour of the 
 confulfiiip was at nrll confined to 
 the nobility only ; but, in the 
 year 387 thepeople obtained that 
 one of the conj'uls fhculd be chofcn 
 from ?.mongft r/rw, and fometimes 
 both were of their order. 
 
 The qualifications for this office 
 were thefe, the candidates were to 
 be 42 years of age : tvere to have 
 gone through the other offices of 
 <-]ua;ilor, adile, and prartor ; and 
 were to appear perfonally at the 
 cleflion. But thefe qualifications 
 in the relaxed ilate o't the common 
 wealth were often difpenfed with. 
 From the year of Rome 244, to 
 the year 1 294, the years were 
 reckoned by the cor.fuljhips. 
 
 The chief badges of their autho- 
 rity were the prxtcxta, afterwards 
 changed for the toga pi3a, or pal- 
 TnatOy — the liBcrs and x\\tfaj'c€s and 
 feciiris which they carried before 
 
 The authority of the confith was 
 equal, except"ng that the Valerian 
 law gave precedency to the older, 
 and the Julian law to him who 
 had the greater number of chil- 
 dren. See Children. 
 
 In the times of the Emperors 
 the cotifulJJ:ip was nothing but a 
 name, and v^x\^^x Jvftinian was to- 
 tcdly laid afide. 
 
 In the times of tumult and pub- 
 lic danger, the Senate ufed formal- 
 ly to require the cojifuh to take care 
 that the commonwealth received 
 no harm. 
 
 Co RE AN is a word which fio-nj- 
 fies a gift, offering or prefent made 
 to God or his temple. y^/I'^ Chriji 
 reproaches the 'jc^iks with their 
 cruelty to their parents in excufing 
 thcmfelves from giving to them 
 any part of their fubftance, by tel- 
 ling them " may what you afk of 
 me be corhan ;" or " may all that I 
 am able to give you be corhan^^ 
 and devoted to God fo that neither 
 you, nor I, may be able to ufe it ; 
 or "I fwear to you by ctrhan, or 
 the gift which is made to God, 
 that I will not afiift you :" Thus 
 may we explain Mark vii. 11. 
 The Jews indeed liad a tradition 
 concerning the i-o^j: cf prcbiiiticn 
 cr interdiB, to this purpofe, 
 " That if a mri rafhly vowed not 
 to do fuch a thing for another, he 
 was bound by his vow, thcugh 
 contrary to the laws of God. Thus 
 if a fonoutof raflmefs orcovetouf- 
 nL'fs, vowed that whatever part of 
 his lubilance his parents mipiit 
 ftand in need of, fhould be as a 
 gift to God, i. c. Ccrban, the fon, 
 left he Ihould become guilty of a 
 violation of his v^w, m.ight rei'ufe 
 to fuccour the indigence of his 
 parents." Tiius did they " make 
 the commandment of God cf no 
 effeft through their tradition." — 
 Mark XV. 6. This obfervacion fur- 
 ther explains Mark vii. 1 1 . 
 
 It 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 It was very \ifual amongfi: the 
 Je^^s to Twear by corban, or the 
 gift upon the altar, for which they 
 are reprimanded by our Sa~jicuf, 
 Matth. xxiii. i8. 
 
 Corban alio fignifies the trcafury 
 of the temple where the offerings 
 which were received in money 
 were depofited by the 'Jenjcijh 
 pricfts : Matth. xxvii. 6, Wliur- 
 ever had been legally confecraled 
 and laid up in this trcafury, could 
 never afterwards be applied to pro- 
 fane ufes. 
 
 CoRDAX was a merry dancc,full 
 of ridiculous geilures and extrava- 
 gant poftures, not unlike our 
 country dances. 
 
 CoRicEUM, a part of the an- 
 cient Greek fal^ejlr^s or gytnnafa, 
 where the women put off their 
 cloaths ; or rather the undreffuig 
 room for the wreftlers. 
 
 Corinthian Brafs, a compo- 
 fition of various metals found at 
 Corinth after that city was i-educed 
 to aflies. ]t confiiled of gold, filver, 
 brafs &c. which were all meltedinto 
 one mafs during the conflagration. 
 It was a mixture made by chance 
 which art could never imitate, and 
 was greatly cllccmedin the follow- 
 ing ages. Pliny fays there were three 
 forts of Corinthian Brafs, viz. the 
 red, the white, and that which 
 had the colour of money according 
 to the different proportions of gold, 
 lllver and copper. 
 
 Corn I c EN was that perfon who 
 in the Roman armies played upon 
 the corntt. See Cornu. 
 
 CoRNicuLARius was an officer 
 in the Roman army, who affiftcd. 
 the military tribune as Lieutenant, 
 %vent the rounds inftead ofthe/?/- 
 bune, and vifited the watch. In giv- 
 ing orders to the foldiers, he made 
 ufcof a little horn ; hence thename, 
 Corniculariiis is alfo the name of an 
 officer that flood at the corner of 
 the bar, where juiU^e was ad.Tii- 
 
 niftcred, to hinder the people from 
 diflurbing the magiftraie. 
 
 CoRNU, a military inftrument 
 of mufic amongfi the Ro?nans. It 
 was bent almoll round, and owes 
 its name to the horns of beafts, 
 which in rude ages were applied 
 to the fame ufe. 
 
 When the coritu founded alone, 
 the Enfigns were to march alone 
 without the foldiers. The cornu 
 and buccina founded the charge and 
 retreat, and the cortm and trumpet 
 founded during the aclion. See 
 Buccina, 
 
 CoRNU in the Roman art of war 
 was a divinon of the yif// or auxili- 
 aries, much H.ke the ala. See 
 
 CoRON or Chomer, wasa Jewifli 
 meaiure of capacity for liquid 
 tilings and dry, as a dry meafurcit 
 contained 32 pecks, i pint, xSfolid 
 inches, and 969 decimal parts j and 
 as a liquid meafurc it held 75 gal- 
 lons, 5 pints, 7 inches, and 62c 
 decimal parts. See Meafure. 
 
 Corona, a crown or cap of 
 ftate, worn as a badge of regal 
 dignity, or a mark of honorary 
 diflindlion. The croivn was ori- 
 ginally a religious rather than a 
 civil ornament, and as Kings were 
 in early ages priefls as well as 
 princes, hence came their right to 
 the croivn, and m.odern Kings are 
 entitled to it rather in their eccle- 
 fiaflical than temporal capacity. 
 The Jc^vijh high-pricfl wore a 
 cro^vn upon bis mitre with this in- 
 fcription " holinefs to the Lord." 
 
 J>iew-married men and women 
 wore cro^w7is upon their wedding 
 day amongll the yavs. The f;-o-T.f« 
 originally v.'as no more than a ban- 
 delet or head-band tied behind, 
 but in procefs of time it was im- 
 proved to two bandelets, then, by 
 degrees they added to it branches 
 of trees, &c. 
 
 Tlie ccnc^r.erors in the public 
 game* 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 games of Greece were honoured 
 with cro-zvrts. Jn the 0/}';/;/i/V games 
 tjie croons vjere. of wild-oIive; in 
 the Pythian of laurel j in the Ijlb- 
 mian of pine, and in the l^emaran 
 of final 1 age. 
 
 It was cullomary both amongft 
 the Greeks and Romans, in public 
 feailings and rejoicings, to crown 
 rhemfclvcs with ivy, rofes, parflcy, 
 
 ■vvas given bv the cit\- to be '.vorn 
 by the general on the day of tri- 
 umph. Sec T^rlumfb. 
 
 Tlie corona o-jalis was of revrtlc 
 and given to the generals who were 
 entitled to the iefler kind of tri- 
 liniph called cvalion. See Ova- 
 lion. 
 
 To thcfe we might add the laurel 
 cr:iv7:s given by the Greeks to the 
 
 ^<:c. I'liis cuftom at laft was laid athlctx, and by the ^o;,?^;^ to thofc 
 
 afide, and little woollen bands wlio had negociated a peace, 
 
 were tied round the head at all The crown of Gramen, fu ch as 
 
 iuerry meetings. was given to tiie brave Cedltir.s, 
 
 Croivns were prefented to the who fought under RegJtlus, was in 
 
 Valiant, and fuch as remarkably thofe happier days of Rome a' 
 
 d i Hi ngui filed themfclves in battle, greater encouragement to ferVe 
 
 both bv the Greeks and Rotnatis. — 
 The cro-Lvns that were bclloacd up- 
 on military merit amongil the Ro- 
 /Avjwi were thele, the ccroaa ci^vi:.^, 
 objjdioaalis, murnlis, nw-jalis, r:al' 
 laris, cvaUs and triuir.phalis. 
 
 The ccrojia ci-jica was of the 
 green branches of oak, and given 
 to him who had faved the life of 
 a citizen in batile. 
 
 The corona ohf.dicnalh was glvc'A 
 to aim who had forced the enemy 
 to raife tlie ficgc, and was made of 
 grafs growing upon the fpot. 
 
 their country, than the hopes of 
 more fubllantial rewards. 
 
 CoRvus EverfoTy was ^n en- 
 gine which tl-:e Rs?r.aKs made a {•c.z'- 
 ceGful ufe of in tlieir wars in 'SkV.y • 
 for by means of the demolifhihg 
 crc^.x: they obtained a victory, o\er 
 the Carthaginians in a naval en- 
 gagement, at a time when the ene- 
 my tiicy had to cope with, was well 
 fkilled in naval affairs and thc^j- 
 mmis rude and ignorant. Polyhias' 
 dcfcribcs it as a moveable gallery' 
 which they could raife or deprefs 
 
 The corona nniralis, certified of at pleafure, and with the alhllance 
 
 gold indented all around, with the of which they coald ijiore' ealily 
 
 form of battlements, and was be- board theencinies' fiiips. 
 
 flowed upon hi nuvho had nrRfcaled Corvbantes were prieflsof the 
 
 the wall of a beiieged place, and Goddef? Cv^./i!', famous for dancing 
 
 lodged allandard there. up and down, tolling their heads in 
 
 The coror.a --jallaris, which v/as a frantic manner, and aifuming the 
 
 likewife called c^?/?;t;?/;V, vvas given attittrdes of mad-men. Their firil 
 
 to him who firil torccdtliC enemies rcfidcnce was mount Ida near Troy-, ' 
 
 entrenchments. I: was a circle of from whence they removed to C;v/f 
 
 gold with palifades, like rays, a- and inhabited a mountain which 
 
 bout it. they called Ida ahb. Here they 
 
 The corona tta'vaUs, was given rendered fin gul ar fer vice to y //^/Ve- 
 to him who firft boarded the cnc- by beating their drums, tinkling- 
 jnies' ihips. Itwasacircle ©f gold their cymbals and making fuch aa 
 reprefenting the beaks of fhips, and horrid uproar, that old Saturn 
 for that reafon called fometimes who had determined to breakfalt 
 rojlralis. upon his fon, could cot hear Jiis 
 
 The corona trintr.phalis, was firft cries, and confcquently fought for 
 
 of laurel, afterwards of gold, .It Jbiwinvaifl. 
 
 **f'* '*»',/" •C0RVBANTIC4 
 
COT 
 
 CO V 
 
 CORYEANTICA WCTC feafts ob- 
 
 ferved in honour of the Corybajites, 
 to prciervc the memory of their 
 fervices performed to Jicfiter in 
 fiving him from the old cannibal 
 Saturn, his father. 
 
 CoRVCOMACHiA, was an exer- 
 cifc amonglt the ancients pcri'orm- 
 ed with a ball fufpended from the 
 ceiling by a firing. I^he bull was 
 forcibly puflicd forward, and at its 
 return either caught in the hands, 
 or fuffcred to Aung againll the 
 breall. 
 
 CoRYPH^TJS Was the leader of 
 the Grecian chorus, who fpoke lor 
 all the reft, whenever the chorus 
 took part in the action as a pcrfon 
 of the drama. Hence corypherus is 
 ufed to fignify the chief, or the 
 principal of any company what- 
 foever. The word is derived Irom 
 xopvcp-n the top of the head. 
 ■ Cothurnus was a high fhoe 
 which the Roman ladies wore to 
 make them appear taller. It was 
 ufed alio by the tragedians with 
 the fame intention, that they might 
 the better rcprefent heroes. See 
 Bujkin. 
 
 CoTTABUs, a paftime invented 
 by the Sicilians, and by them com- 
 municated to other parts of Greece, 
 efpccially Athens. It was praclifed 
 at entertainments, thus: a piece 
 of wood was erecled, and another 
 placed over the top at right angles, 
 on the extremities of which were 
 hung two dilhes in the manner of 
 fcales. Beneath each dilh was 
 placed a veflcl of water, in which 
 was placed a brazen Ilatue, called 
 M«vwf. They who played at Cat- 
 tabus flood at fome diftance, hold- 
 ing a cup of water or wine, which 
 they endeavoured to throw into one 
 of the difhes, that the dilh by that 
 wei'^ht might defcend and llrike 
 a^ainll the head of the Ilatue under 
 It. The perfon who threw fo as 
 to fpill the lead water, and ftxike 
 
 the difli with the grcatcll force 
 againft the ftatuc, was pronounced 
 vicloriou?, and fuppofed to re.ign 
 in the afFections of his miiu-efs. — 
 The found made by throwing the 
 liquor was called Aarafj and the 
 liquor hoCtayn- The prizes on 
 this occafion Vv-crc kiUcs, fweet- 
 meats, &c. Sometimes a large 
 vcflel with vials fwimming in it, 
 was made ufe of for this diverfion ; 
 and fomctimes dice were proj cited 
 into the cups, We meet with 
 another cattahus, which was only ir 
 contention who could longeft refill: 
 the power of llcep. The vidlor 
 was rewarded with a cake made of- 
 honey, or fefame, or wheat. 
 
 CoTYLE %c7j/>>i, was a Grecian 
 meafurc, containing i-8th oi a 
 pint, and 535 3-8Lhs decimal parts 
 of an inch Englilli. ^tt Meafure.. 
 
 CbTVTTiA, a fcftival in honour 
 of Cotytto the Goddcfs of V/an- 
 tonnefs kept with every kind of 
 debauchery, and unnatural obfce- 
 nity, which modelly forbids me to 
 dcfcribe. 
 
 Couch. See Beds. 
 
 CovENANTSwereancicntly con- 
 firmed by eating and drinking to- 
 gether, and chiefly by feaitlng en 
 a fiicrifice. In this manner Ahi- 
 T.nelech the Philijline confirmed the 
 covenant with Ifaac; and Jacob 
 with his father Labau. Gen. xxvi. 
 26 — 31. and Gen. xxxi. 4^, 45, 
 46 — 54. Sometimes they divided 
 the parts of the vidtim, and palled 
 between them, by which aft the 
 parties fignificd their lefolution of 
 fulfilling all the terms of the en- 
 gagement, on pain of being di- 
 vided or eut afunder, as the fa- 
 crifice had been, if they fhouLl 
 violate the covenant. Gen. xv. 9, 
 10 — 17, 18. Jer. xxxiv. 18.— 
 Hence the Hebre^w word charat^ 
 which properly fignifies to di'vide, 
 is applied allufivcly in fcripture to 
 the making a covenant. 
 
 Whe^ 
 
CRE 
 
 ckl 
 
 When the law of Mofes was eRa- 
 bliflicd, the people fealled (in their 
 peace-ofterings) on a part of the 
 iacrificc, in token of their recon- 
 ciliation with God. Deut, xii, 
 o, 7. Thus in the Lord's Supper 
 we renew our covenant with God, 
 being at his table feaflcd with the 
 bread and wine, us reprefsntatives 
 of Chrift's body and blood, which 
 he offered for us on the crofs. See 
 Leagues. 
 
 Courses of priefts. ?>&& Priejt, 
 
 Court is often ufed to fignify 
 the entrance of the Jenx:ijh temple. 
 The great courts belonging to the 
 temple of y^rtt/Jj/^w were three. --^ 
 The firft was the court of the Gen- 
 tiles, fo called becaufe the Gen- 
 tiles were not allowed to go further. 
 In this court they allowed Iheep 
 and oxen and doves to be fold for 
 offerings, and the tables of money 
 changers to Hand, which our Lord 
 overthrew. John ii. 14. Matth. 
 xxi. 12. Thefc money changers 
 changed other money into half 
 Ihekels, for the offerings enjoined. 
 Exod. XXX. 15. and returned money 
 for thofe that lived remote. The 
 'iecond was the court of Ifi-ael^ be- 
 caufe the Ifraelites, if purified, had 
 a right to be admitted. The third 
 was the court of the priefts, where 
 the altar of burnt offering ftood, 
 and where the priefts artd Le^ites 
 performed their miniftry. See 
 Itmple. 
 
 Creditor. See Dehor. 
 
 Crepida, a ihoe without an 
 heel, confifting of three foles fewed 
 together. The crepidee were fome- 
 thing like our flippers, and were 
 worn by philofophers and fuch as 
 lived in aufterity and retirement 
 from the world. They are fup- 
 pofed to derive their name a ere' 
 fitu, becaufe they made a fmall 
 Koife in walking. Some fuppofe 
 they have their name from fCfn'^rif, 
 a kind «f ftioc w»rn by Xhe Grt- 
 
 C R E T A ch al k . The Thratiani 
 ufed to mark the fortunate days 
 with chalk, and the unfortunate 
 with charcoal, to this cuftom the 
 poets frequently allude. See Hor, 
 Car. Lib. i. 36. 10. Sat. L. 2. 
 S. 5. 346. and Perfius Sat. 5. 108. 
 
 The Romans marked with chalk 
 the feet of the flaves who were 
 brought to market for fale. The 
 gowns of candidates were not of a 
 natural white, but were whitened 
 with chalk ; hence Perjiuss phrafe 
 Cretata AmbitiO. 
 
 Crimes, the tranfgreiHons of 
 laws. They are of a public or 
 private nature ; public crimes af- 
 fect: the ftate j private crimes affecl 
 Individuals. In public crimes any 
 man might profccute the offenders; 
 in private crimes none but the in- 
 jured party, or fome of his relati- 
 ons. This doftrine holds good 
 with relpect to both Greeks and 
 Rcmc.Hs. The crimes of a public 
 nature being what we are more im-- 
 mcdiately concerned to take no- 
 tice of in the profecution of this 
 work, I have here fet down foma 
 of the principal of this clafs which 
 amongft the Greeks were murther, 
 malicious wounds, firing the cit}', 
 poifon, confpiracy againft one's 
 life, facrilege, impiety, treafon, 
 fornication, adultery, celibacy, 
 refufing to ferve in the wars, de- 
 fertion of the army or one's poft, 
 cowardice, barretry, bribery, dig- 
 ging a mine without notice, &c. 
 
 The principal crimes of a public 
 nature amongft the Komanst were 
 the crimina majejiatis, peculatus^ 
 ambitus, repetu^idarum and '•jis pub- 
 llca — the crimina inter ficarios^ 've- 
 nefcii, parricidiiy falfi, adulteriiy 
 plagii. — Thefe were a derogation 
 from the honour and majefty of the 
 commonwealth; embezzling pub* 
 lie or confccrated money 5 bribery 
 ateleftions; extorting contributi* 
 onsfioia the allies; rec€ivJ&g mo- 
 
cko 
 
 C RU 
 
 iicy in judgment ; ufing violent 
 compulfion to a member of the 
 common wealth; killing a perlbn 
 with a weapon ; cft^fting a man's 
 death with poifon ; laying vir.lent 
 hands on parents; forgery ot wills, 
 and counterfeiting the public coin; 
 iidultcry; buying, binding, or con- 
 cealing another perfon's fervant, 
 wichoat his mailer's knowledge, 
 
 Crista, a crell, was an orna- 
 jnent on the top of the helmet. It 
 was invented by the Carians, and 
 in general ufe amongft the Greeks 
 and Romans. The crells were for 
 the mail part of feathers or horfc- 
 hair, dyed of various colours to 
 excite admiration in their friends 
 and terror in their enemies. Thofe 
 of the officers were very fplendid, 
 being worked in gold or filver, and 
 jeaching quite acrofs the helmet 
 by way of diftincUon. The creft 
 of P;rrhtis we are told was made of 
 two goat's horns. Some will have 
 the <pa%oi amongft the Greeks to 
 have differed from the 7^o(po;, 
 the firft fignifying the cone to 
 v.'hich the creft was fixed, and the 
 fecond the plume itfelf. Commoa 
 foldiers wore fmall crefts only. 
 
 Crithoi.iancy, a kind of di- 
 vination in v.'hich conjeftures were 
 formed by confidering the pafte of 
 which the cakes were made, which 
 tliey ufed in facrifice, and by tak- 
 ing notice of the meal ftrevvedover 
 the viftims, before they were 
 iilled. 
 
 Crotalum wasa (oxtoi cajtag- 
 ■neiti^ or mufical inftrument ufed by 
 the pricfts of Cybek. The crotalum 
 confiftcd of two fmall brafs plates, 
 which were fhakcn in the hand, 
 and made a noife by ftriklng a- 
 gainft each other. It was fome- 
 what diferent from theyf/?r;/»».— - 
 See Sifiri:r,i. 
 
 The found of the crctahim was 
 fomerhirg like the noifc which a 
 fLcrk Kiakos wi"h its bill, from 
 
 whence the ftork has the epithet 
 crotalijlria given it. 
 Cross. See Crux. 
 Crown. See Corona. 
 Crumata and crupezia were 
 cajiagnettas — the former of which 
 were made of bones or fhells, and 
 played upon with the fingers ; the 
 latter were played upon by the 
 feet, as the name imports being 
 derived from h^hsiv to ftrike and 
 Tti^a the fole of the foot. 
 
 Crupellarii,. a name given- 
 to certain Gladiators who fought m 
 heavy armour. See Gladiator. 
 
 Crux, a crofs or gibbet whereon 
 the Romans hanged their flaves and 
 malefaftors. This punifhment of 
 crucifixion was in ufe amongft the 
 Perfians, j^gyptiavs, Greeks, and 
 Roma?is ; but feldom or never a- 
 mongft the Je~j:s. Hence we may 
 obferve the urovidence of God in 
 ordering it fo that Chrift fhouVd 
 fufFer under a Roman governor,, 
 otherwife he had not been cruci- 
 fied according to the prophecies ; 
 for crucifixion was a kind of death 
 fcarce ever infiidled upon any by 
 the Jews. The criminals were 
 either tied to the crofs with ropes, 
 or fattened with cords, or fixed 
 with nails. Scourging generally 
 preceded crucifixion, after whicli 
 they were hung up alive. Some- 
 times the malefaftor was hung 
 upon the crofs in an ereft pofture, 
 fometimes with his head down- 
 wards. The pain of crucifixion 
 was (o great, that the Romans in 
 their language called the moft vio- 
 lent tortures cruciatusy or fuftcring 
 the crofs. It may not be improper 
 here to obferve that a titulus, or 
 label, fignifying the crime of rh-e 
 fufl'srer, was generally placed over 
 his head : Thus we find an infcrip- 
 tion was put over the head of our 
 Saviour on the crofs. The erofles 
 diftered in IViapevery much. Con- 
 fuk Pear/on QVi ;hc Creed. 
 
 CRYFTIAa 
 
CUL 
 
 CUP 
 
 Crypt I A, the ambiifcadc ; a 
 horrid and inliuman expedient a- 
 dopted hy the Spartans, for reduc- 
 ing the number of their flaves. — 
 The piadice was to pick out the 
 Itoutclt of their young men, arm 
 them with daggers, and fend them 
 to deflroy the unhappy flaves, ei- 
 ther by furpriiing them in the 
 night, or falling upon them when 
 at work in the day; without af- 
 ■figning a caufe, or alledging a 
 crime againft theOT. See S/a-ve-s, 
 Udots. 
 
 Crystali^omatjcy, a method 
 of divination performed by a mir- 
 ror or enchanted glafs, in which 
 future events were faid to be repre- 
 fented or lignified by certain marks 
 and figures. It was in ufc princi- 
 pally amongft the Greeks. 
 
 Cubit in the menfuration of 
 the ancients, is the <liftance from 
 the elbow to the end of the middle 
 finger ; this is the ancient cubit. 
 The facred cubit was a full yard. 
 According to fome writers there 
 were three forts oi cubits ; the great 
 cne which was nine feet long, the 
 middle which was two feet ten 
 inches, and the fmall one which 
 was about ten inches and an half. 
 
 Dr. Arhuthr.ot makes the Roman 
 cubit one foot 5,406 inches, and 
 the cubit of the fcriptures one foot 
 9, 8S8 inches. Sqq Mea/ure. 
 
 CucuLLus was a cowl, hood, 
 or cap, worn by the Hoynans, It 
 was fewed to the penulce like the 
 cape of a great coat, but worn 
 with the lacernee as a dillinft and 
 feparate article of drcfs. See Fe^ 
 nida and Lacerna. 
 
 CuLCiTR^werea kind of ticks 
 or quilts laid upon the Roman beds 
 or couches, on which they reclined 
 at entertainments, thefc cdlcitra: 
 were ftuft'ed with feathers, tow, 
 hay, &:c. See Be^s. 
 
 CuLEus was a punifliment in- 
 flicled upon Parricides by the B,o- 
 
 mavs. — The perfons convifled of 
 this unnatural crime were hood^ 
 winked, whipped with rods, fewed 
 up in a fack called culeus, and then 
 thrown into the fea, or, in inland 
 countries, into the nearcit la!:e or 
 rii'er. An addition was made to 
 the punishment in the later times 
 oi the common wealth i by putting 
 a ferpent into the fack with the 
 malefatlor. An ape, a dog, and 
 a cock were afterwa'/ds added t^ 
 heighten th-e horrors of this fevere 
 execution. This punifiiment was 
 called proje5lio in J{uentei:i. Sec 
 Pur.ij'hj)icnt and Vnrricide. 
 
 CuLEUs was alfo a Roman mea- 
 fure of capacity for things liquiii. • 
 It contained 20 amphora, or 40 
 urna-, equal to about 143 gallons 
 3 pints Englifh wine meafure, or 
 11,095 folid inches. The culeus 
 was the largeft meafure which the 
 Romans had, hence culeria vafu 
 %nifies vcflsis of the largell fize. 
 See Meafure. 
 
 CuLTRARii, inferior officers 
 amongil the Romans, whofebu fin el's 
 it was to flay the viiTtim at facri- 
 iices,and perform the part of but- 
 chers. See Sacrifice. 
 
 CuNEus, was a name given b/ 
 the Romans to a company ofinfan- 
 try when drawn up in the form 01 
 a wedge. They fometimes afTum- 
 ed this form the better to force their 
 way through the ranks of the ene- 
 my. They likewifc called the 
 Cuncus, Caput Porcinum. 
 
 Cuneiis, was alfo a name given to 
 a feries of feats or benches in the 
 Roman and Grecian theatres, bc- 
 caufe they were like wedges, being 
 narrower near the centre of the 
 theatre and broader behind. 
 
 Cups amongft the ancient G/vf/x 
 were made of the horns of animal:, 
 which people of quality tipped 
 with filver or gold. Afterwards 
 cups were conipofed of wood or 
 ear:h. In proccfsof time they were 
 !"{ 2 forn::;i 
 
CUR 
 
 CUR 
 
 formed of filver and gold, or other 
 coltly materials, richly ornamented. 
 Jiojne>-''s heroes feem to have drank 
 £ach out of his own cup ; and Nef- 
 tors is faid to have been lb large 
 and weighty, that a young man 
 could fcarce carry it. The cups at 
 all convivial meetings were crown- 
 ed with garlands, and filled to the 
 brim ; hence the exprelhoHS, fff e»v 
 St^alv^oiiy ^nd'V!Kum coronare. The 
 Romans in the times of luxury bor- 
 rowed tlie Grecian cuftoms. See 
 Drinking, ^rojiinatio — Arbiter bi- 
 ienJi, Sc. 
 
 CuRETES, a fort of pricfts, in- 
 Ihabitants of dete, to v/hom Rhea 
 committed the education of her 
 3nfant fon, Jupiter. They v/ere 
 in faffl priefls of Cyhele, and the 
 fame with the Coryhantes. See 
 Klor^haniei. 
 
 Curia was a public edifice 
 amongft the Romans, where thofe 
 nfedto affemble who were entrufled 
 with the care of public affairs.- — 
 The Curia was of two forts, 
 d'acred and civil. The priefts and 
 Tcligious orders met in the former 
 'for che regulation of rites andcere- 
 •anonies belonging to the worfhip 
 of the Gods ; and in the latter, the 
 Senate ufed to meet to deliberate 
 and confult about affairs of flate. 
 It was effential to a Curia, that the 
 Augurs confecratcd and fanftified 
 3t like a temple. The mofl cele- 
 "brated Curiae, were, Curia Hofiiiia, 
 "built by TuUus Hojiilius, Curia 
 JPomfeii, where the Icnate efiedled 
 the death of Julius Cafar, and 
 iluria Augujli the court of Augujlus. 
 CuRiiK, were divifions or por- 
 tions of the Roman tribes. For 
 Romulus divided the people into 
 three /r/^fj, and each tribe into ten 
 turite or wards, fomething flmilar 
 to our parifhes. Each curia kept 
 the ceremonies of their feafls and 
 fr.crifices in the temple or holy 
 place appointed for them j and the 
 
 priefl of the curia was called Curio. 
 See Curio, 
 
 Curio was the prieft of any 
 curia, ward, or parifh amongft the 
 Romans. He was chofen by his 
 curia or parifh, affembled for the 
 purpofe. His duty was to officiate 
 at the facrifices of the curia, which 
 were called Curicnia, and to pro- 
 vide for them, out of the money 
 allowed him, by the people of his 
 own divifion, for that purpofe. 
 
 This Curio was fubjecl to the 
 Curio Maxirnus, whofe authority 
 extended over all the curing. The 
 Curio Maximus was chofen by the 
 aflembly of all the Curior.es, and 
 confirmed by the i'^/iz/f and people. 
 His ofhce was to fuperintend the 
 Curiones give direclions concern- 
 ing feftivals, and fettle the cere- 
 monies of facrificing, &c. The 
 Curiones, it appears, when eleft- 
 ed by the Curia, were prefented 
 to the Curio Maximus for confirma- 
 tion ; lb that in faft the relation 
 fubfiiling between the Curiones 
 and the Curio Maximus, was the 
 fame as that betwixt the clergy and 
 bifhop of a diocefe ; and probably 
 the hint was taken from them when 
 the plan of cur eftablifhment was 
 formed. 
 
 Curse, properly fignifies an 
 imprecation, calling down mif- 
 chief upon, or wifhing evil to any 
 one: — But in the old Teflament 
 the word curfe does not only fig- 
 nify an imprecation, but fometimcs 
 implies a prophecy couched in the 
 form of an imprecation, thus Noah 
 curfed Canaan. Curies amongft 
 the Jevjs were regarded in the moft 
 folenm manner, as what would 
 not fail of being followed with 
 fuitable vengeance. The curfes 
 of parents againfl their children 
 were looked upon by the Greeks as 
 fatally ominous j for the Furies 
 were always fuppofed to be ready 
 to execute the parents imprecations 
 
 en 
 
CYC 
 
 CYC 
 
 on their offspring. When a city 
 was deniolilhed in war, it was cuf- 
 ternary to pronounce direful curfes 
 upon the perfon who fhould at- 
 tempt to rebuild it. This was the 
 reafon why Troy was never rebuilt; 
 for the curfes it was feared would 
 have their effeft. The curfes of 
 Jolkua at the deilrudion of Jericho 
 were accomplilTied in Hiel the Be- 
 thelitey many ages after. "What 
 has been faid of the Greeks on this 
 head, will apply to the Romans 
 alfo. See Blejjingt Dc-votingy Ex- 
 ecration, tffc. 
 
 CvKVLt chair, was a ftate chair 
 amongll the Remans, in which the 
 great magillrates of Rome had a 
 right to fit, and be carried. The 
 magiftrates who had a right to ufe 
 this chair were jEdiles, prators, cen- 
 fors and confuls, who were therefore 
 called curule magillrates. This 
 chair was adorned with ivory, and 
 was fitted to a fort of chariot, from 
 whence it received its name. Se- 
 nators who had palled through the 
 offices above mentioned, were car- 
 ried to the Senate houfe in this 
 chair. It was ufed alfo by Gene- 
 rals in triumph, and by fuch as 
 went to adminifter juftice, &c. See 
 ^diles. 
 
 Cyathus was a Roman liquid 
 ineafure, containing half an Eng- 
 lifli pint, wine meafure. See 
 Meafure. 
 
 It is frequently ufed to fignify a 
 fmall veifel, of no certain dimen- 
 fiens, with which they took their 
 wine out of a larger vefTel, and 
 which they made ufe of as a glafs 
 to drink out of. 
 
 Cycle, is a term ufed in chro- 
 rology, and is derived from the 
 Greek word hvk'K^ a circle. It 
 iignifiesa circle therefore or revolu- 
 tion of time. We underftand the 
 fame thing by a cycle as by a period, 
 only the latterterm is generally ap- 
 plied to a larger interval or more 
 
 ample round of time. Of cycle f 
 the following are of famous and 
 frequent ufe, viz. the cycle of the 
 fun, the cycle of the jnoon, and the 
 cycle of indiSiion. Thcfe cycles 1 
 ihall endeavour to explain. 
 
 The f>'f/? of the fun confifts of 
 28 years, in which time all ths 
 varieties, andpofiible combinations 
 of the Sunday, or dominical letters 
 will have taken place, with rcfpeft 
 to their fuccefTive order, as pointing 
 out common years and leap years : 
 So that on the 29th year the cycle 
 begins again, and the fame days of 
 the month return to the fame 
 days of the week, and the Sunday 
 letters will have the fame variations 
 as in the former cycle ; except that 
 upon every centefimal year, which 
 is not a leap year, the letters mult 
 be removed one place forward, to 
 make them anfwer the years of the 
 cycle. To find the year of the folar 
 cycle, or cycle of the fun, add g to 
 the given vear of our Lord, becaufe 
 at the birth of Chriil 9 years of this 
 cycle had palled, then divide the 
 fura by 28, the remainder will be 
 the year of the cycle, and the 
 quotient will /hew how many 
 cycles have revolved fmce that in 
 which the chriftian ^ra commenc- 
 ed . See Dominical letter. 
 
 The cycle of the moon or limar> 
 cycle, is a circle of 19 years, after 
 the revolution of which, the new 
 and full moons will return on the 
 fame days of the months as in the 
 former cycle, only they will hap- 
 pen I hour, 20 minutes fooner. But 
 when a centefimal year falls in the 
 cycle, according to the new ft/le, 
 the new and full moons will happen 
 a day later than otherwife they 
 would. The number of years 
 elapfed in this cycle is called the 
 prime, becaufe it points out the day 
 of the new moon, primum ImieCt 
 and it is called lh.Q golden number y 
 as deferving tg be written in letters 
 
 of 
 
CYN 
 
 CYK 
 
 of gcld. The birth of Chr'H hap- 
 pensd in the 2nd year of this cycle. 
 'Therefore to f.nd ik^ golden niunhers 
 or rear of this cycle, add i to the 
 year of our Lord, and divide by 
 ig, the quotient will Ihew the num- 
 ber of cycles which have revolved 
 iiVizz the: in which the .^ra of 
 Chrirc began, arid the remainder 
 will point out the year of the 
 -cycle Qx golden number. If nothing 
 remains, it is the laft year of the 
 cycle ; andcoafequently the golden 
 number is 19. ^qz golden number, 
 Julian Period, 
 
 The cycle of indicllon, is a circle 
 of 1 5 years. It is faid to have been 
 inflicuted by Conjiantine, who, re- 
 ducing the time which the Ronuins 
 were to ferve to 15 years, was 
 'obliged, every 15 years, indicere, 
 2. e. to impofe an extraordinary tax 
 for the payment of thofc who were 
 difchargcd. This cycle commenced 
 from the third year before Chriji. 
 To find the year of this cycle ; 
 f iierefore add 3 to the given year of 
 our Lord, and divide by 15 the re- 
 -Kiaiuder will be the year of the cycle, 
 if nothing remains it is the 15th or 
 lail year of indiftion. The quotient 
 will fliew how many cycles have 
 revolved fince that in which the 
 ihriftinn ,Era commenced. 
 
 Thefe three cycles multiplied 
 into one another conftitute the 
 Julian Period, which confiits of 
 7980 years ; for 2^x19x15 — 7980. 
 bee Julian Period. 
 
 CvMBAL, a mufical inftrument 
 in ufe amongft the Jeivs, Greeks 
 snd Romans. The cymbals were 
 round and confuled of two feveral. 
 parts, which they founded by 
 uriking one againfl: another, hence 
 thev are compared to the human 
 ]ips. O^id czWs xhcm. genialia, be- 
 taufe they were frequently ufed at 
 jnirriages. They were made of 
 brafs, and v.'ere not unlike our !:et- 
 tle drum.s. What was the forni of 
 the Jcv-'ijh inf:rume:at which we 
 
 tranfiate cymhal is uncertain. 
 
 Cynics, a fed of philofophers 
 amongft the Greeks. The name is 
 derived according to fome from 
 KV'jiv a dog, from their curri/h, mo- 
 rofenefs ; or according to others 
 from Cynofc'.rge, the place where 
 their firft lefture was given. The 
 Cymes, at firft, were rcfpeclable for 
 the purity of their morals, and the 
 aufterity of their lives. They were 
 cloathed only in a coarfe cloak, fed 
 chiefly upon fruits, drank nature's 
 beverage, pure water, and laid it 
 down as a maxim " that man was 
 only made to be virtuous, that vir- 
 tue led to happinefs, and that hap- 
 pinefs was in every one's power, 
 by a careful infpeftion into himfelf." 
 All things, which were neither 
 virtuous nor vicious, they regarded 
 as indifterent ; drefs, therefore, and 
 even decenc-^ of apparel they utterly 
 defpifed : But, by fuch means. In- 
 ftead of riling into reputation, they 
 became the objefts of contempt. 
 Anttflhenes was the chief of the fed. 
 He was an Athenian, and had been 
 a pupil of the divine Socra/es : By 
 hif/: he was perfuaded to the prac- 
 tice of frugality, temperance and 
 m.oderation; but thought himfclf 
 authorifed, roundly to attack vice, 
 wherever he found it ; and his {c- 
 vcrity created him more enemies 
 than friends. He permitted his 
 beard to grow, and v/ent about the 
 ftreets in a thread-bare coat, preach ^ 
 ing contentment in every fiation, 
 and allerting that happinefs con- 
 fiftcd only in the confcioufnefs of 
 one's own virtue. ■" Dioger:es lurly 
 and proud" is another character of 
 this fed, with whofe name few 
 are unacquainted. He laid 
 ailde all external ornament, lived 
 wherever hecould, and upon what- 
 ever he could find. He fatin pub- 
 lic places, declaiming againft vice 
 and the vicious, with pointed fe- 
 verity. He wore a tattered coat, 
 lived in a tub, and carried with. 
 
C Y R 
 
 C YZ 
 
 him notliing but his fraiFand his 
 wallet ; and was, truly, more mad- 
 jnan than philofopher. 
 
 Cyphonism, a punifhment in- 
 flidled by the Gneh upon certain 
 criminals, by fixing round tneir 
 necks a collar of wood. Some fay 
 that it had holes for the neck, hands 
 and feet. It feems to have been a 
 portable pillory. 
 
 Cyrenaic Sect, was a feft of 
 philofophers amongfl; the Greeks, 
 fo called becaufe Jrijiippus of Cy- 
 rere was their founder. Arillippas 
 had been a difciplc of Socrates but 
 did not follow his inftruftions hav- 
 ing a natural inclination for pomp 
 and a talle for pleafure. He re- 
 jeded, like his mafter Socrates, the 
 fciences as then taught, and held 
 logic alone to be fufiicient to find 
 out truth and fix its bounds. Plea- 
 fure and pain he afferted were the 
 criterions by which v;e were to be 
 determined, andthefe alone made 
 up all ourpafiions. Yet permanent 
 pleafure he faid ought to be dif- 
 tinguifhed from that which is tran- 
 fient and decaying : And that, al- 
 though bodily pleafure is the trne 
 end of man, yet the foul ihould 
 always prefide over corporeal appe- 
 tite. The afiemblage of all plea- 
 fures, he faid, conftituted true hap- 
 pinefs, and the beft way to obtain 
 this was to enjoy the prefent mo- 
 ments. The pleafuresof the body 
 he held to be preferable to thofe of 
 the mind, but wifhed to mix \er\- 
 timent with fenfation to refine his 
 enjoyments. He maintained that 
 pain was the greateft evil, which 
 nature tellified by her abhorenceof 
 it; and that virtue is the fource of 
 pleaiure. Aniceris refined the doc- 
 trines o{ JriJIJppus. He preferred 
 mental plcafures, to thofe which 
 are fenfual, and perfuaded his au- 
 ditors to feekfor permanent happi- 
 nefs, and rejedl what was tranfient 
 snd terminated in fatiety, difguft 
 and pain. Chearfulnefs he re- 
 
 garded as the great fwcetener o? 
 life, and confiucred it as a mark of 
 a good heart and a well cultivated 
 underftanding. Theodorus v.'asof 
 this (cci. He attempted to give 2 
 phyfical explanation of the pagan 
 myileries and divinities, for which 
 he was branded with the odious 
 name of atheill. He loved to 
 raife doubts and multiply uncer- 
 tainties, for which he was baniflied 
 from Cyrene and Atl:e?:s as an infi- 
 del. He was condemned by Pto- 
 lomvatwhofe court he fought an 
 afylum, and died by poifon wlucli 
 was the punifnment prelcribed by 
 the laws for atheifm. So danger- 
 ous was it to ridicule ellablilhed 
 fuperftitions. 
 
 Cythara, a mufical inflni- 
 ment among the Greeks and Re- 
 fnans, concerning the figure ana 
 precife llrudture of v.-hich, authors 
 are not agreed. Some attribute 
 to it the form of an halt- moon, 
 and others contend that it refem.- 
 bled the Greek delta A- It was 
 played upon with "a" pleBrum or 
 quill like the lyre. See Lyre^ 
 Pie Sir urn. 
 
 The cyth-.rn had but three firings 
 in its original ftate, but thev were' 
 by degrees increafed to eight, nine, 
 ScQ. till at lall their number was 
 tvventy-four. The cythara is fre- 
 quently confounded with the lyre, 
 and indeed the difference was not 
 very great. The cytharadus or 
 mufician that played upon the 
 cythara, was diflinguifiied from 
 other muficians, by an embroi- 
 dered cloak. 
 
 Cyzicena, magnificent build- 
 ings amongfl the Greeks intended 
 for banquetting-houfes, much like 
 the triclinia and coenacula of the 
 Romans. They always locked to 
 the North, and opened into plea- 
 fant gardens. Their name is de- 
 rived from Cyzicifs, a city abound- 
 ing v/ith magnificent buildings.— « 
 
DAD 
 
 D^M 
 
 D. 
 
 I A c T y L nvere priefts oiCyhele, 
 Avho were alio cdWtADaSIyli 
 Idcei, becaufe fhe was principally 
 honoured on mount IJa'm Phrygia, 
 and a mountain of the lame name 
 in Crete. They were called rf'a^T;'/;, 
 becaufe when Jnpier was com- 
 mitted to their care, they fung to 
 him a kind of verfes called daSlyli, 
 to prevent Saturn from hearing his 
 cries. Sophocles fays they were 
 named daSlyli becaufe they were 
 iive in number, equal to the num- 
 ber of the fingers. They feem to 
 have been the fame with the Cory- 
 hantes and Curefes, though fome 
 affert the contrary. See Cory- 
 banies, i^c. 
 
 Dactyliomancy or daclylo- 
 niancy^ a fort of divination amongft 
 the Greeks and adopted by the Ro- 
 mans. It was performed by a ring 
 fufpended from a fine thread, over 
 a round table, whofe edge was mark- 
 ed with the letters of the alphabet. 
 As the ring, after its vibration 
 ceafed, happened to hang over 
 certain letters, thefe joined toge- 
 ther gave the anfwer. 
 
 We read alfo of another kind of 
 divination by enchanted rings, 
 fuch as Gyges had, which, when he 
 turned it to the palm of his hand, 
 rendered him invifible. 
 
 Daduchi, priefts oi Ceres, who 
 at the feafts and facrifices of that 
 Goddefs, ran about the temple 
 ■with lighted torches, delivering 
 them from hand to hand, till the 
 fame torches had pafl'ed through the 
 whcle company ; this they did in 
 memory of Ceres, who is iaio to 
 have lighted a torch at the fire of 
 mount ALtna to fearch tor her 
 daughter Proferpim. The word 
 
 daiuchus fignifies a torch -carrier.— 
 The dadu-.hi were afliftants to the 
 hierophantes at the great Eleiifmian 
 myttcries. See Hierophantes. 
 
 D.iDALA, two feftivals in Boeo- 
 tia. One was obfcrved by the 
 Plateeans at Alalcomenus, the largelc 
 grove in that country. Here, 
 when allembled, they expofed to 
 the air pieces of boiled fiefli ; and 
 obferving on what trees the crows 
 alighted, that came to feed upon 
 them, they cut them down and 
 formed them into ftatues called 
 Dttdala. 
 
 The other folemnity was far 
 more remarkable, and far more 
 frequented, being performed but 
 once in fixty years. Not only 
 Plataa and the cities of Bceoiia, 
 but other cities alfo attended. An 
 altar of fquare pieces of timber was 
 built upon mount Cith/ercn, whi- 
 ther a llatue dreffed out like a wo- 
 man was preceded by a female, at- 
 tired like a bride-maid, and fol- 
 lowed by a long irzixi oi Bsotians 
 in folemn proceffion. Upon their 
 arrival each city, and tvcry man 
 of fortune ofiered a bull to Jupiter, 
 and an ox or an heifer to Juno ; 
 the poorer people providing Iheep. 
 Thefe with various combuftiblcs, 
 wine and inccnfe, were laid upon 
 the altar, and twelve ftatues called 
 Dadala were thrown into the fame 
 common heap; then the whole 
 was fet on fire and not extinguifh- 
 ed till the fabric, of which the altar 
 made a part, was totally confumed. 
 No good account has been given 
 of the origin and reafon of thefe 
 feftivals. 
 
 D^Mofj amongft the Jev:s and 
 
 ChriJiianSi figr.ifics an evil fpirit or 
 
 dcvU,. 
 
DJEM 
 
 DJEM 
 
 devil. Djemons by the Hchrei.vs 
 were whimfically fuppoled to have 
 been begot by Ada7n, on the bo- 
 dies of certain Succubus's, and 
 v^ere imagined not to be abfolutely 
 i"piritual and incorporeal. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans under- 
 ftood by the\vord Damon any fpi- 
 rit or genius good or evil ; and the 
 Flatcnijis made a dittindlion be- 
 tween Gods, Daemons, and Heroes. 
 Every man was fuppoled to, have 
 his tutelar Davion, good Genius, or 
 guardian Ar'.gel,^stVL from hia birth ; 
 and it was thought a crime to neg- 
 le(fl the admonitions of fo divine a 
 guide. Socrates publicly confefled 
 himfelftobe under the dircclion 
 oi inch. 2i Damon, as feveral others 
 have fince done, particularly Plo- 
 tinus, vvhofe Daemon is faid to have 
 appeared in the temple of Ifis at 
 Rome, when called by an Egyptian 
 prielt. A firm belief and tradi- 
 tion of the fame kind prevailed a- 
 mongfl the "je-ixs alfo; and our 
 Saviour feems to have given coun- 
 tenance to the opinion. Matt. 
 xviii. 10. But it is tobe obferved,- 
 that Damon, in the ne-z'j tejiament, 
 is never ufed in a good fenfe ; but 
 always implies a malignant fpirit : 
 whereas in heathen writers it fig- 
 nifics z fpirit of health, good genius 
 or angel. See Angtl, 
 
 Dxmons were imagined by the 
 ■ Jenxis to pofTefs and torment both 
 the bodies and minds of men. See 
 Dtsmo7iiac, De-vil, Difeafe. 
 
 DjEMOniac, a word applied 
 to a perfon fuppofed to be poffefled 
 with an evil fpirit, damon or deiiil. 
 Frenzy, epilepfy, apoplexy, con- 
 vulfions, &c. were fuppofed to ori- 
 ginate from Damoniacal polTeffion ; 
 the defcription of the cafes of Da- 
 moniacs, at leaft, feem to indicate 
 a» much. The reality oi Dxmo- 
 »;<7ra/pofieirion is denied by many; 
 and the E--jangelifis, in their rela- 
 uqh gf the cures perfprmed on 
 
 Damoyiiacs, are fuppofed to have 
 fpokcn in conformity only with the 
 prevailing notions and opinions of 
 the people, amongft whom they 
 lived. \t is fcarce reconcileable, 
 iay they, to the goodncfs of God, 
 that he Ihould allow at that parti- 
 cular time, myriads of devils to 
 torment and plague mankind.— 
 V/hat good end could it anfwer ? 
 Was it that our Saviour might 
 fliew his power over them ? Why 
 then were they fuft'ered to poffefs 
 the bodies and fouls of men after 
 his afcenlion, as related in the 
 afls ?- It could not be, that they 
 were allowed to infult mankind 
 that our Saviour might ihew his 
 divine authority by ejedingthem; 
 for his divine power was mani- 
 fefted no lefs by curing in an in- 
 ftant thofe difeafes attributed to 
 Damons, than it would have been 
 
 by calling out devils themfeh'es 
 
 D.tmology in our Saviour's time 
 was no inconfiderable part of phi- 
 lofophy. Thus the Greeks imputed 
 imdncl's fome/imes to the agitation, 
 ."^nd agency of Furies, ar\dfometimes 
 to the influence of Diana or the 
 moon. The Romans thought infa- 
 nity was caufed by Ceres or the 
 Lar'va ; and amonglt the Jenus, ia 
 ha'ue a de'vil and to he mad, were 
 fynonymous terms. Every thing, 
 in fhort, which afi'eded either the 
 body or the mind, in an extraor- 
 dinary manner, every difagreeable 
 pharnomenon, which they could not 
 otherwife account for, was by the 
 fe^vs fuppofed to be the v/ork of 
 the devil. 'What gives ftill more 
 ftrength to the opinion is, that 
 what one Enjangelifi calls dxmoni' 
 acal polTeffion, is by another menti- 
 oned fimply as a difeafe. Befides, 
 mofl, if not all the diforders which 
 are afcribed to in-dwelling Dcemons 
 in the gofpel hiftory, are, fo far as 
 we are enabled to judge from the 
 defcription of them there, difor- 
 O ders 
 
D JEM 
 
 DAN 
 
 dcrs which exifted in the world 
 long before, which are found in 
 our modern catalogues, and ac- 
 counted for upon natural princi- 
 ples. The difciples and apoftles 
 thcmfelves might perhaps believe 
 thcfe diforders to be real d^tmonia- 
 cal pofleffions, and our Saviour 
 might fufter tkem to remain Hi fo 
 harmlef? an error ; for he came not 
 to teach fpeculatinje philofophy, he 
 came to make men holy and happy. 
 Indeed to have endeavoured to rec- 
 tify their miil:akes on this head, 
 snight have had ill confequences, 
 and by needlefsly expofing fuch in- 
 nocent opinions, he might have 
 raifed fuch prejudices againft him- 
 Iclf and his dodirines, as would, in 
 fome degree at leaft, have impeded 
 the propagation oix\\t go/pel. Such 
 are the arguments produced againft 
 dicmoniacal poirelilons ; — it muft 
 not however be denied, that there 
 af-e many texts of fcripture, which, 
 if interpreted by the common rules 
 of conftruftion and criticifm, very 
 ilrongly fapport their reality. 
 
 It hath been acknowledged both 
 by Jnvs and Gentiles, that devils 
 have often poffeffed the bodies of 
 mankind, and have been calt out ; 
 but they feem to have had the 
 greateft power in our Saviour's 
 time, who by calling them out, 
 and counteracting their operations, 
 jnore fully evinced his divine au- 
 thority. The devils we find af- 
 fefted men with difeafes, which 
 exhibit-ed the ufual fymptoms of 
 natural diforders ; fuch was the 
 cafe o^ Jijh, chap. ii. 6, 7. Such 
 was the' cafe alfo of the lunatic, 
 Mafth. xvii. Luke ix. There was 
 all the appearance of an cpilepfy 
 in the laft inilance, though the dif- 
 cafe was the infiic^liou of the devil. 
 V/e cannot therefore confidently 
 infill that fuch diforders were na- 
 ■ toral, bccaufc thcv were attended 
 with rxatural fymptoms i fxuc« tlic 
 
 letter of the gofpel is decidedly a- 
 gainft us. 
 
 Dagger, called by the Greeks 
 'Traf^aiJ.vpLov, was a fmall Iharp in- 
 ftrument which hung clofe by the 
 fcabbard of their fword. It was 
 feldom ufed in fight, but on all oc- 
 cafions, like the fword of Hudibraa, 
 fupplied the place of a knife. This 
 dagger had a variety of names, as 
 /xaxatpa, -napotli^i^ioVi to Trccpa 
 ixripov^ &C. 
 
 Damnum, amongft the Ro^nans^ 
 was a pecuniary muldl or fine fet 
 upon an offender, by wayofpu- 
 nifhment, according to the quality 
 of the crime. See Punipment. 
 
 Dan ACE Aav«KJ? was a fmall 
 coin put into the mouth of the dead 
 fome time before interment, to pay 
 their paffage in Charo?i's boat. — ■ 
 This was the cuftom amongft the ■ 
 Greeks. This piece of money was 
 only a fing^le o/'o/2<i,and was called ^.^ 
 ^avoiHYi^ becaufe it was given icig M 
 d'avoii to the dead, fo called from ^ 
 ^ava dryficks ; or the name may 
 be derived from Savoj a price.— 
 The inhabitants of Hermione, a 
 town of Morea, did not put any 
 money into the mouths of their 
 dead, becaufe their town was con- 
 fecrated to Proferpine ; and Charon^ . 
 in compliment to his miftrefs, fer- 
 ryed them over jr^/ii. 
 
 Dancing, in the early ages of 
 the world was accounted an exer- 
 cife highly becoming perfons of 
 honour and wifdom. It has often 
 been made an. aft of religion ; thus. g| 
 the fcripture informs us that DavitL '* 
 danced before the ark to honour 
 God, and at Rome the Salii, who. 
 were priefts of Mars, danced thro* 
 the ftreets in honour of their God» 
 Dancing, as a diverfion, was in 
 great efteem amongft the Greeks^, 
 efpecially at entertainments ; but 
 the Romans difcountenanced it as. 
 inexcufable levity. Citero fays^ 
 
 *' na. 
 
D AR 
 
 DAY 
 
 ■" no man dances unlefs he is mad 
 -or drunk." 
 
 Homer compliments Merlon by 
 calling him a fine dancer, and 
 fpeaks ot" the Gods as dancing 
 fometimes^ nay even the Lacede- 
 jncnians were fond of a dance. But 
 Cicero reproaches Gahinius with 
 having danced, as if it was a crime ; 
 nndD^w/z/tTw expelled fcveral mem- 
 bers from the Senate, for the fame 
 offence. 
 
 The ancients divided dancing 
 into three kinds, the cubijiic, the 
 fphcerifiic, and the orchefiic ; the 
 cubijiic was performed with certain 
 wrelllings and contortions of the 
 body^ the fpk^rijiic with a fort of 
 ball or bowl play; the orchefiic 
 was dancing properly fo called.-— 
 We read of the ^J•r;■^•V dance, in- 
 vented by Pyrrhus, and performed 
 in armour, fomething like the mor- 
 rice dance ; mention is alfo made 
 of dances called cordax ox cordacif- 
 771US, fyncinnis and em?ncelia, which 
 , took their names from Satyrs. 
 
 For rope-dancers, fee Schccno- 
 hates. 
 
 D APLS Saliares. Sec Sa/ii.. 
 Daric, w^as a gold coin, cur- 
 irent amongft the Medes znd Ferfiam. 
 According to Dr. Bernard, it 
 weighed two grains more than our 
 guinea ; but, as it had very little 
 alloy, it may be reckoned equal to 
 twenty-live lliillings. The Darics 
 are fuppofed to have been coined 
 out of the gold of the conquered 
 Lydians, about the time when Da- 
 niel was call into the den of lions. 
 Vni-j. Anc. H'lji. 
 
 Darts, were ufed amongft the 
 ancients of feveral kiads. Some 
 were thrown by the 4iand alone, 
 and others were projefted by the 
 lielp of a ftrap tied round the mid- 
 dle, by the Greeks called ayKuhrty 
 and by the latins amentum; for 
 this cullom is mentioned both by 
 Greek and Roman writers. See 
 Amentutn. 
 
 D A uc H T E R s , amongft the Gnsls 
 were very expenfive to their fathers 
 on account of their drefs, but prin- 
 cipally by reafon of the portions 
 they were obliged to pay with 
 them at marriage. Por the Grc- 
 cians, it is obfervcd. Were very 
 avaricious, and would not marrv a 
 woman without a portion. It was 
 this that made all hulhands pray for 
 fons rather than daughters ; and it 
 was this expenfivenefs of daughters 
 which induced thcni, r.gainlt the 
 remonftrances of nature, to expo(c 
 them in infancy. 
 
 Thofe who had no legitimatfi 
 fons were obliged by trte Athenian 
 laws to leave their cftates to their 
 daughters, and the daughters were 
 compelled to marry their ncareir 
 relation, or forfeit their inherit- 
 ance. This was the pradlice a- 
 mongfl: the Je-xvs, and feems to 
 have been adopted by Solon from 
 that people. If an heirefswas mar- 
 ried before her lather's death, the 
 neareft relation might ftill claim the 
 inheritance, and even force the 
 \yoman from her huftjand. 
 
 Day is that fpace of time during 
 which it continues to be light, in 
 contradiftinftion to night, which 
 is that portion of time wherein it is 
 dark. But this being a vague de- 
 finition, we may with more pro- 
 priety call that time which panes 
 betwixt fun-rifmg and fun-fetting, 
 ^-9' — and the time which lapl'es 
 betwixt his fettingand riling again, 
 night. The word day is oftentimes 
 ta';en in a larger fenfe, to fignif/ 
 the time of a whole revolution of 
 the earth upon its axis, including 
 both the hours of light and dark- 
 ncfs. This fpace of time was ufu- 
 ally called a nychthemeron. See 
 Nychthemeron. 
 
 The day, which begins with tlie 
 rifing and ends with the fetting 
 fun, is called an artificial day, and 
 differs in length at different feafo.ns 
 
 O 2 of 
 
DAY 
 
 DEA 
 
 of the year. The day, wKen con- 
 iidered as including the time of a 
 whole revolution, is called a na- 
 tural day, and is pretty nearly of the 
 fame length throughout the year. 
 
 The JeiKis and Romans divided 
 the natural diZj ox nychlhemeronmX.o 
 twice twelve hours; twelve for the 
 day and twelve for the night; So 
 that for one half year the hours of 
 the day were longer than thofe of 
 the night, and the contrary for the 
 other ; but at the equinoxes they 
 were equal. 
 
 The Jenus and Athenians began 
 their day at fun-fet. For the me- 
 thod of reckoning hours, fee the 
 article Hours. 
 
 When Ntima divided the year 
 into twelve months, he made a 
 diftinftion of days, ranking them 
 in thefe three orders, dies fejii, pro- 
 fejii, zni iniercijf, SetFeJii, ts'c. 
 
 The diet feJii were confecrated 
 to the Gods, and fet apart for the 
 celebration of thefe folemnities, 
 y'lZ.facr fcesy epiilcs, liidi zndiferia. 
 Sec SacriJicBy iffc. 
 
 The dies profefA were divided 
 \nt.ofaJii, comitiales, comperendini, 
 Jlati, and praliares. See Fafi, tffc. 
 
 The dies intercifi were days that 
 were partly holidays, and partly 
 days of bufinefs, i.e. one half of 
 the day was employed in facrifice, 
 and the other in the adminillration 
 of juftice. Some of thefe days 
 iverey^?/?/ in the morning, and ne- 
 fafii in the afternoon ; others were 
 nefajli in the morning and fajli ia 
 the afternoon. 
 
 The Roman days were alfo di- 
 vided into fortunate and unfortu- 
 nate. The dies fofiriduani, or the 
 days next after the calejids, nones 
 and ides were reckoned unlucky, 
 and therefore called atri dies. The 
 reafon why they were efteemed 
 tinlackyv/asbecaufe they had taken 
 porice that thofe days had proved 
 jdifaftrous, by the loffes of battles, 
 
 towns, S:c. for many ages. 
 
 The days preceding the calendi, 
 nones or ides, for a fimilar reafon, 
 were held to be unfortunate. Sec 
 Calends, tlfc. 
 
 It will be proper here to remark, 
 that the phrafe in the lajl days, and 
 in the latter times, in the New 
 Teltament conllantly refers to the 
 time of the gofpel, particularly to 
 Chrijl's firft appearance ; or the 
 commencementof chriftianity. See 
 Aas ii. 1 6. 17. 1 Tim. iv. i. Hehr. 
 i. I. 2. 'Jam. V. 3. See alfo 2 
 Pet. iii. 3 
 
 The manner of fpending the day 
 amongft the Roman gentlemen is 
 thus cx'prc&Ahy Martial Lib. 2. 
 Ep. 45. 
 
 Prima falutantes, atqi:e altera contmct Jura ; 
 
 Exercet raucos tenia caufidlcos ; 
 In quintam I'arios exterdit Roma labores j 
 
 Sexta qina lajfis, fcptimafnis eiit. 
 Stifflcit in nonam nitidis oSla-ua Palcjiris j 
 
 Imperat extrv.Boi frangerc 7icra tons: 
 Hora lihellorum dccima cfl, Euphcme, weonim 
 
 Temperat amhrofias cum tua cura dapes. 
 
 Deacons, Aiao«vci, were one 
 of the three orders in the chrijlia?i 
 church. Their firft inflitution is 
 recorded in ^^jvi. 3. Their office 
 feems to bear a refemblance to that 
 of the Lerites amongft the Jen.vs.—' 
 They attended on the Bifhop and 
 Prefbyters in the fervice of the 
 altar, had the care of the holy table 
 with its ornaments and furniture, 
 received theoflerings of the people, 
 took an account of thofe whoofFered, 
 and handed the whole to the prieft. 
 They likewife attended to the wants 
 of the poor, and, in fome cafes, 
 performed the office of baptifm, 
 and diftributed the confecrated ele- 
 ments to the people in theadmini- 
 ftration of the Eucharift. Sep Le-» 
 vites, Widonvs, 
 
 Deaconesses. Sec indonvs. 
 
 Dead Men, were always treated 
 and talked of amongft the Je^s, 
 Creeh, and Rmans, with reverence 
 
 ^r4 
 
DEB 
 
 DEC 
 
 and rcfpcfl; hatred and envy were 
 put to iilence. Hence the proverb 
 " de mortuis nil nifi bonum." — 
 Yet we find, that dead enemies were 
 often dirmembered by infu'ting 
 conquerors, ftabbed, and uled in 
 a brutilh and barbarous manner : 
 Witnels the condudt of Achilles to 
 the body of Heilor. Ail dead per- 
 sons were fuppofed to be under the 
 jurifdidlion of tlie /^/yOr/Zi?/ deities, 
 and it was imagined that no man 
 could rcfign his life till fome of his 
 hairs were cut off, as lirll-fruits ; 
 for this act was thought to conle- 
 crate him to the Stygian Gods. It 
 was alfo thought that the fouls 
 could not be admitted to Elyjiinn, 
 before interment; hence to be un- 
 buried was the greatell evil that 
 could befal them. Amongll the 
 Jsivs, all who touched a dead 
 body were held unclean, tillfprink- 
 led with the water in which the 
 aflies of a red heifer were put, 
 which had been offered on the day 
 of expiation. See /IJJpes, and ^x- 
 Jiiaiion. 
 
 Death, if fnddcn, was fup- 
 pofed to be the infliclion of Jpollo 
 in men, and of Diana in women. 
 The ground of tliis opinion, which 
 prevailed both amcngft the Greeks 
 and Romans, was Apollo's being 
 ufually taken for the fun, and Diana 
 . for the moon, which planets were 
 believed to have a great infiuence 
 on human lile. 
 
 It may not be amifs under thi* 
 head to mention that death, and 
 all tiling-, concerning it, being omi- 
 nous and ill-boding, were therefore 
 frequently expreffed in fottcning 
 terms : Thus the Greeks would fay 
 ^sQiaxe,, i. c. l;e once li-ved, and the 
 Roinans iiixit or fuit — words ex- 
 preffing fleep were frequently ufed 
 to foften the idea. 
 
 Debtors, if they died in debt, 
 at Athens, remained unburied till 
 fatisfaftion was made to the cre- 
 ditors. Their bcdici at icsft be- 
 
 longed to the pcrfons to whom they 
 fcMod indebted, and the right of 
 human burial could not be claim- 
 ed. Cimon had no other m;thod 
 to redeem the body of his father 
 Mihiades, but by taking his debt 
 and fetters upon himfclf. 
 
 The manner of fulng for debts 
 amongll; the Rcrnans was this, the 
 debt being acknowledged, the 
 debtor had 50 days allowed him for 
 paymentof thcmoney; if he failed, 
 he was delivered up as a Have to 
 the creditor, till his labour had fa- 
 tisfiedfor the moneyowing. Some- 
 times he was call into prifon, and, 
 unlefs the creditor was in the mean 
 time compounded with, he le- 
 mained in confinement 60 days, 
 and, on three market days fuccef- 
 fively, he was brought before tlic 
 judge, and the debt was folcmnl/ 
 proclaimed : On the third market 
 day, he was eitiier fold for a flaveto 
 foreigners, or punified with death ; 
 eacii creditor being allov/cd to cut 
 a piece of his dead body by way of 
 payment. 
 
 December was the tenth month 
 of Romulus^ s yi^dr, zs its name im- 
 ports, and was facred to Sufum. — ■ 
 On the 1 7th day of this monilh were 
 
 the Saturnalia, 
 
 'iatLinalia., 
 
 Month, T':-r. 
 
 Cofn!::cdui tiie Emperor in honour 
 of a courtezan, whom he paCion- 
 ately admired and caufed to be 
 painted iike an Amartoti, called this 
 nionlli ama^onius. Numas regu- 
 lation m'-^e this the twelfth month. 
 
 Decemjv^'s was a chariot 
 drawn, as the name implies, by ten 
 horfes. A chariof drav/n bv tliis 
 number of horfes was very unufual, 
 efpecially at the c/c/a^.V games; but 
 Suetonius informs us that i\^cro in- 
 troduced a decemjugis there, and 
 Nero is a name which will account 
 for any extravagance. 
 
 Decemphda was a rule or rod 
 
 made wfe Q'i^)' the Ro^nans in mea- 
 
 furing 
 
DEC 
 
 DEC 
 
 furlng land, and fixing proportions 
 in architcdlaic. It was ten feet 
 long, and each foot was diftinitly 
 marked and fu'odivided into inches, 
 and each inch into digi:s. It was 
 the fame as the Grecian Aenix'Tnig. 
 
 Decemviri were ten magif- 
 trates chofen at R'j»:e in the year 
 of the city 302. They were ap- 
 pointed to govern the common- 
 \yealth inflead oi cot.fuls; and were 
 invefted with abfolute power. 
 
 The caufe of their creation was 
 this. The Trihuties of the people, 
 obfcrving that the magiilrates, hav- 
 ing no ftanding laws to regulate 
 their condufl, always favoured the 
 nobility, demanded an equality of 
 laws for boch the nobility and peo- 
 ple. Three commifhoners were 
 therefore chofen and fent abroad to 
 collect the laws of So/of!, and the 
 beft laws and conllitutions, not 
 only of Jithcns, but other Grecian 
 cities. A colleftion was accord- 
 ingly made. The Tribunes now 
 required of the Senate, a new ma- 
 giitracy, to put in execution their 
 public fpirited projeft. Ten men 
 were therefore elected out of the 
 Senate, called the decemviri, with 
 the powers above defcribed. The 
 dece-m'viri ,h.z\'\ng thus got the power 
 of Kings or confuls, all other of- 
 fices ceafed. One at a time en- 
 jojed th-tfafces, aflemblcd the Se- 
 nate, and c '.nhrmed decrees. Out 
 of the laws brought from Greece 
 they drew up the tujelve tables, 
 which were approved and ratified 
 in a folemn manner. The decem- 
 'viri at firit governed with fuch mo- 
 deration, that the people thought 
 themfelvcs bleft with a return of 
 the golden age. But thefe halcyon 
 days were of Ihort duration, for 
 inebriated with their power, they 
 foon began to abufe it, and were 
 juflly branded with the name of the 
 ten Tarqiiins. The people groaned 
 under this tyranny, till the abo- 
 
 minable condufl of Jpfiius Claudius 
 roufed the ^oM««jtoridthemfelves 
 of fuch acomplicatednuifance, and 
 reftore the confular go<-csrnme}it— 
 The dccemiiirate lafted but two 
 years. The laws of the twelve 
 tables v.'cre called Leges Decemvira- 
 les. See Tmuelve Tables. 
 
 Decemviri was alfo a name 
 given to ten judges appointed to 
 adminifter jullice in the praetors 
 abfence. When thefe judges aftcd, 
 a fpearwas fet up in the forum, as 
 the (ign of their authority. From 
 this ceremony of fetting up a fpear, 
 is derived perhaps the cuftom in 
 England of placing halberts at the 
 door of the mayor of a corporation. 
 Thefe decemviri had the title of 
 Decemviri litibus judicandis . 
 
 Decemviri were likewife an 
 order of priefts appointed to pre- 
 ferve the Sibylline books. Thefe 
 keepers of the Sibylline books, till 
 the year of the city 388, were two 
 in number. Then a law was paf- 
 fed to encreafe the number to ten ; 
 five of whom we ye to be chofen out 
 of the nobility, and five out of the 
 commons. Sjlla the dilator after- 
 wards augmented the number to 
 fifteen, called the quindecimviri. 
 There were other ofiicers a- 
 mongft the Romans diflinguifhed 
 by the name of decemviri, whofe 
 duties it would be needlefs to en- 
 large upon. 
 
 Decennalia were feftivals ob- 
 ferved by the Roman Emperors 
 every tenth year of their reigns. 
 They were inftituted by Augttjlusy 
 to ftupify the people into an infen- 
 fibiliry of their lofs of liberty. 
 
 They were celebrated with 
 games, largelfes to the populace, 
 lacrifices, vows for the Emperor, 
 and prayers for the perpetuity of 
 the Empire. 
 
 DECiMi^, the tenth part of the 
 booty taken from the enemy. This 
 
 was 
 
D E C 
 
 DEI> 
 
 was both by the Greeks and Ro7!:ans 
 devoted to the Gods. The Je-ivs 
 alio let apart a certain portion of 
 their plunder for the Lord. See 
 Booty. 
 
 Decimatio was a punilhmcnt 
 inflided on the Rovian foldiers for 
 -deferring their poll, raifing a mu- 
 tiny in the camp, or behaving in a 
 cowardly manner during an en- 
 gagement. It was performed thus. 
 The culprits were impeached be- 
 fore the General, and, if found 
 guilty, their names were put into 
 an urn or helmet, and as many 
 drawn out as made up a tenth part 
 of the whole : Thele were put to 
 the fword, and the reft pardoned. 
 
 Declamatio was the art of 
 fpcaking on both fides of a queftion 
 indifferently, and managing every 
 lubjeft with addrefs. This was 
 much valued, ftudied and prac- 
 tiled both by the Greeks and Ro- 
 ;nans, efpecially thofe who were 
 ambitious of appearing with eclat 
 at the bar. 
 
 Decuma was the quantity of 
 corn which the farmers were ob- 
 liged to pay as a tax to the Roinan 
 ftate, commonly the tenth part of 
 theij" crop. This was often called 
 frujKintitm decumamim . See Tru- 
 nuntum. 
 
 Decumana Pc/-/«, was the back 
 gate in a Roman camp. See Camp. 
 
 Decumani were a fort of pub- 
 licans, whofe office it was to col- 
 led; the tax called decuma. See 
 Dicuma. 
 
 Decunx. See As. 
 
 Decuria was a company of ten 
 men under one officer or leader, 
 who was called decurio ; for the Ro' 
 Tnans divided their cavalry into cen- 
 turies, and-Xubdivided the centuries 
 into ten decuria each. 
 
 Decurio, an officer amongft 
 the Romans, who had the command 
 of a decuria or ten troopers. 
 
 DeGVRiOiifES Muntci^ak(.y wcrs 
 
 a court of judges or counfcllors re- 
 prefcnting the Reman fenate in the 
 free towns, and provinces. Thev 
 were called decurioncs, becaufe, at 
 the time when Roman colorAds were 
 lent into the conquered towns, they 
 ufually chofe/t« men to compofe a 
 Senate. Their court was called 
 curia decurionum and jjiincr j'cnatus. 
 
 Their duty was to confult the 
 intereft of the town, and the re- 
 venues of the commonwealth. — 
 Their fentences were called dccreta 
 decuriotiu?/!, and were marked at 
 the top with D.D. — Pliny calls 
 thefe municipal Senators, Decurii. 
 
 Decursio, called by the Greeks 
 '^e.pid'^o/xYi^ was a ceremony per- 
 formed by the Greeks and Ro^Mafjs 
 at the funexals of Generals, great 
 Oflicers ai.d Emperors, wherein 
 the foldiers and all the company- 
 made a folcmn proceffion three 
 times round the pile, as foon as it 
 was lighted, to exprefs their rcfped 
 for the deceafed. In this decurf.cn 
 the motion was to the left, to indi- 
 cate forrow : for motion to the 
 right was a fign of joy. This ce- 
 remony is alluded to Ho7n. ja. 4,. 
 194. and Stat. Thcbaid. Lib. 6,213 
 and 221 . Thefe motions were al- 
 ways accompanied with fhouts and. 
 the found of trumpets. 
 
 Decussis, a brafs coin- of the 
 Romans, equal to ten ajjes or one^ 
 denarius. See Money, Denarius, iffc. 
 
 Dedicatio, a religious cere- 
 mony whereby any perfon or thing 
 is let apart to the fervice of Gcd, 
 and the purpofes of religion. Sec 
 Confecraiior.. 
 
 Dedication of perfons, temples, 
 and houfes, was frequent amonglt 
 the Je%ijs. The dedication of 
 houfes was performed by pronounc- 
 ing a certain benediction, while 
 fome particular words of the law, 
 written on parchment and rolled 
 up in a cane or hollow ftick, ware 
 fa.ftcntd Qn the door polls. Hence 
 
 was 
 
DED 
 
 DEL 
 
 was derived the cuftom of dedicat- 
 ing churches, chapels, altars, &c. 
 amo;ig Chrifiians. 
 
 Dedication of temples was per- 
 formed by the Romans as folloft's : 
 Early in the morning the college 
 of Pontiffs and other orders of 
 Prirjlbood met, attended by a great 
 concourfc of people, and furround- 
 cd the temple with garlands of 
 flowers. The <vejial virgins with 
 olive - branches in their hands, 
 fprinkled the outfide of the temple 
 -with liiflral water. Then the per- 
 fon who was to confecrate the 
 building drew near the gate, at- 
 tended by a Pontiff, who fnowcd 
 him the ceremony, and with one 
 hand taking hold of the fide poft of 
 the gate, he called upon the Pontff 
 thus, " ades, ades, dum dedico hoc 
 tcfiiplim, ut 7nihi -praeatis ■pofiemqiie 
 teneatls." Then the Pontff, with 
 the ceremonial in his hand, pro- 
 nounced the form of confecration, 
 which the confecrating pcrfon re- 
 peated after him. i'^-fter this they 
 confccrated the court of the temple 
 by facrilicing a beaft, and laying 
 the entrails on an altar of green 
 turf. Then they anointed with 
 oil, and laid upon an oiled pillow, 
 the ftatue of the deity to whom the 
 temple was dedicated. The cere- 
 monies being over, an infcription 
 was fet upon the temple, contain- 
 ing the name of the confecrating 
 perfon, his quality and the year. 
 This dedication was to be autho- 
 rized by the fenate, and people, 
 and college oi Pontffs. The con- 
 fecrating perfon was always fome 
 great magillrute as Prator, Cenf^r, 
 
 Dedication, y>izy? of, was kept 
 amongif the Je^ivs in memory of 
 "Judas Mu.ccaha;ns, who repaired 
 and dedicated anew the temple and 
 altar which had been profaned and 
 plundered by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 This feait continued eight days, 
 
 beginning on the z^th of Cijieu. 
 Jefus Chriji honoured this feall 
 with his piefence, as we read in 
 John X. 22. See Month, and Fer.Jl. 
 
 Deductor, a client amongil 
 the Romans, who called upon his 
 patron at his lodgings in the morn- 
 ing, waited upon him from thence 
 to the forum, and attended him 
 upon all public occafions. The 
 dcduilorcs chiefly performed thefe 
 civilities to the patrons when they 
 offered themfelves candidates for 
 ofHces. 
 
 Defensio was a part of the tri- 
 als in the Roman courts ; and was 
 properly the bufmefs of the ad-vo- 
 cates or lawyers retained by the ac- 
 cufed party. To cle^r their client 
 tlicy might fpcak as many days as 
 they would. The ufual modes of 
 defence were to deny the fact, which 
 was generally done when a perlon 
 was indicted of crimen repetnnda- 
 rum, l^c. — to ncknoivledge thefaEl, 
 but deny that it fell under the f pedes 
 of crimes alledged ; this mode was 
 adopted in the crlmeii lafar najefa- 
 tis: — the iaft was to proi'e thefa£t 
 In-offul \ which was attempted in 
 cafes of murther. See Trial. 
 
 Defossio, among the Romans, 
 was the punifhraent of burying 
 alive, inflicted on fuchi;£/?/2/virgins 
 as were guilty of incontinency.— 
 See Vejiah. 
 
 Delatio in the courts of law at 
 Rome, was the entering of the name 
 of an- offender, with the crime of 
 which he wasaccufed. It was per- 
 formed ^i'vd nioce, in a form of 
 words, which differed according to 
 the nature of the crime, and then 
 offered to the Pr<^/j;- in writing; 
 if approved by the Preetor, the 
 name of the accufed party was in- 
 ferred in the lift of criminals ; and 
 both parties took the juramentum 
 ca'ummae. See furatnentum and 
 Trial. 
 
 Delator, was a perfon who 
 lodged 
 
DEN 
 
 DES 
 
 lodged an information \vith the 
 magi Urate, of a capital crime or 
 onfpiracy. For the mode ofpro- 
 cecding, lee Delatio. Delator was 
 an infamous character, 
 
 Delia was a feilival held every 
 five years in the ifland Dclos in 
 honour of Venusy iniUtuted by 'The- 
 feus, in memory of his elcape from 
 the Labyrinth at Crete, and cele- 
 brated with dances reprefenting the 
 windings and intricacies of the La- 
 byrinth. 
 
 Delia, Athcnian^di^s in honour 
 of Jpo/Io, who was furnamed Z>f- 
 /L".s. The principal ceremony was 
 an embafly or pilgrimage to Apollo, 
 performed by a facrcd number of 
 citizens called £>£"//«/?,<■. The whole 
 deputation fet out tor Delos in five 
 vefTels, carrying with them every 
 thing neceliary for the feaft and 
 lacrinces. 
 
 Delpkic Oracle. See Oracle 
 
 Delubrum was a facred build-, 
 ing, fomcthing like a temple, but 
 comprehending feveral deities un- 
 der the fame roof, whereas a tem- 
 ple had but one. S&tTemple. 
 
 De MARCH us v\-as a magiftrate 
 who had the government of one of 
 thediftriclsof Attica. His po^ver 
 was fomethlng fimilar to that of 
 our Sheriffs of counties. 
 
 Demetria, a feilival in honour 
 of Ceres, in which the v.'orfhippers 
 ufcd to laPa thcmfelvcs with whips 
 called /xuPOTrfoiy made ot the bark 
 of trees. 
 
 There was alfo another fpftival, 
 of the fame name, in honour of 
 Dc^mtrius Poliorcetcs . 
 
 Denarius was the chief filver 
 coin amongll the Romans. During 
 the commonwealth it weighed the 
 7th of an ounce, and was worth 
 about 8|:d. of our money; but in 
 the reign of Claudius its weight and 
 value were reduced to 7|d. The 
 der.arius was fometimes {lamped 
 with the hg(e or qiiadrigie, and then 
 
 it was called accordingly higatus o\ 
 quar'rigatus. Sec Money. 
 
 Denarius was fometimes ufed to 
 fignify a weight equal to the 7th 
 part of a Roman ounce. See Weight,. 
 
 Dendrophoria, a religious 
 ceremony, which confifted in car- , 
 rying in proceflion branches et 
 trees, in honour of fome God as 
 Bacchus, Cyhele, Syl<vanus, (jfc — 
 Ancient m^Lrbles, iaj'o rclic'vos, feV. 
 make frequent meniion of, and al- 
 lufions to, the dazdrophori. Per- 
 fons under the name ot dendrophori 
 attended the Roman array, buX 
 whether thev were carpenters, or 
 the fam-e with the dendrophori otthe 
 fcalls and facriftces, authors are no: 
 agreed. 
 
 Depontani were perfons who 
 amongft the Romar.s were denied 
 the privilege of voting at the co- 
 mitia. They were fo called from 
 the pontes or narrow boards over 
 which the people pafied into the 
 feptaox o'-jilia, when they went to 
 give their votes j fo that perfons 
 who were difqualified were laid to 
 be de pcnte dejecli, or depontaiii. 
 
 Deportatio wa^ a lort cf ba- 
 nifhment or tranfportation amongic 
 the Romans. The criminal had 
 fome iiland or diftant place ap- 
 pointed for his refidence, where he 
 remained for ever, lofing his eilate 
 and privileges, and being counted 
 dead in law. 
 
 Deserters were very feverely 
 handled both amongil the Greeks 
 and Romans. The Lacedemonians 
 deprived them of all honours, held 
 it a difgrace to intermarry with 
 them, gave every perfonthat fliculd 
 meet them, liberty to beat them 
 with impunity ; made them wear 
 a nafty habit ; patched their cloaths 
 with divers colours ; and halt 
 ftiavcd their beards. The Athe- 
 nians were no lefs fevere. And the 
 Romans inflided upon them the 
 punilhment of fuf.es ox bojiinado. — 
 P We 
 
DEV 
 
 DE V 
 
 We find that the Romans foniathnas 
 puniihcd them by cutting oft their 
 hands, by crucifixion, by burning 
 alive, by throwing them from the 
 ^arpeian rock, and by expoflng 
 them to wild beafts at public 
 Ihews. 
 
 Designator was amongft the 
 Romans the fame as an undertaker 
 amongil us. He marfhailed the 
 iliews at the funerals of perfons of 
 dillindion; was the principal mi- 
 nifter of the Goddefs Lihitina ; 
 fiunifhed all the necelTaries on 
 thefc folemn occafions, and was 
 attended, when he went to raife 
 ihe corpSj by a gloomy train of 
 JAbitiiiarii or funertd officers, who 
 were habited in black, and walked 
 ■with fe--' 'US faces and folemn Heps 
 before therr!. 
 
 DESiG:JATO?>. wasalfothe name 
 of a malter of the ceremonies who 
 alfigned each man his proper feat 
 at theatres and other public places. 
 
 Detersor was a fervant a- 
 mongfl the Romans whofe bulinefs 
 it was to attend at dinner and wipe 
 the table. 
 
 Detersorium wasawafh made 
 ofbc2.n-meal, forcleanfing thefkin, 
 which the Romans ufed in bathing. 
 
 Devil, an evil angc!, fjppoled 
 Ly his pride to have provoked God 
 to calt him down from heaven. — 
 Evil thoughts and vicious pro- 
 pcnfities are imagined to be in- 
 spired by him. Knowledge of fu- 
 ture events is attributed to him, 
 and he is accufed of communicat- 
 ing to certain of his fervants the 
 gift of prophecy. By the word 
 Devil'in its common acceptation we 
 are f > unaerftand not one being, 
 but many evil fpirits united under 
 one head, called ^^/^w and actuated 
 by the fame infernal malignity a- 
 gainft us; whence we are concern- 
 € lo look upon them as one e- 
 nemy. 
 
 liX exiftence ©f evil fpirits is 
 
 probable frcin reafcn and annlogy. 
 For as in the vifible corporeal world 
 we lee no gaps or chafms, but a 
 continued feries of things defcenJ- 
 ing in the fcalc of being dovvn- 
 Vi^ards from man, by eafy fteps ; fo 
 we have reafon to think it fuitable 
 to the magnifcent defign of the 
 great architedl, that the fpecies of 
 creatures fhould afcend by the fame 
 gentle gradations upwards and be- 
 yond us. And as we are much 
 more remote from God than we 
 are from the loweil ilate of corpo- 
 real exiilence ; fo it is not impro- 
 bable that there are far more fpe- 
 cies of fpiritual creatures above us, 
 than of embodied beings beneath 
 us. Hence we may conceive there 
 may be various orders of angelic 
 natures. And thofe exalted be- 
 ings, having freedom of will, migh t 
 or might not, continue in their 
 obedience. Thofe who continued 
 lledfall in their obedience we call 
 good angels ; and thofe who rebel- 
 led, and forfeited their happy ftate, 
 became deinh or fallen angels. So 
 confonant indeed is the belief of 
 Demons or De-vils to the apprehen- 
 fions and reafon of mankind, that 
 moil part of the heathen world en- 
 tertained it. — We may add fur- 
 ther, that as microfcopcs have dif« 
 covered to us vafl; tribes of infeft;, 
 in various parts of nature, which 
 before were totally unknown to us ; 
 fo Revelation may difcover to us 
 myriads of fpirits, which without 
 fuch aid would have cfcapcd our 
 notice. And we may certainly 
 fuppofe Revelation to be as proper 
 a mean of difcovcring invifible fpi- 
 ritual beings in one cafe as optical 
 inventions are for the dilcovery of 
 minute corporeal ones in the other. 
 But that there are wicked and ma- 
 lignant fpirits appears from fcrip- 
 ture, 2 Pet. ii. 4, Jude 6. Matt. 
 XXV. 4 1. Rev. XX. 10. 15. and many 
 other texts. 
 
DEV 
 
 BIM 
 
 It muft not however be denied 
 that the words Satan and AiaS'oAo;, 
 t/je De-jil, have ambiguous mean- 
 ino-s. Satan for inltance lignifies 
 an adverfary among men and good 
 angels, as well ^.s amonge-vi/ /pints. 
 Sec in the Hebrew text, Num. xxii. 
 32. 2 Sam. xix. 22. i Kings, v. 4. 
 xi. 14. 23. 25. Pfalm Ixxi. 13. 
 cix. 20. 29. So Peter was Satan 
 to oar Lord Matt. xvi. 23. And 
 the unbelieving jfextjs were the S.i- 
 tan who hindered St. PauVs 
 return to TheJJhloidca, The fal. ii. 
 1 S. AiiiS'cAcs devil figniiies an ac- 
 rufer or llanderer, Job. vi. 70. 
 i 'T/w. iii. ii. Titus ii. 3. But 
 though we find an ambiguity in 
 the words Sata?: and Afa'ooAc;; yet 
 it would be a raih concluficn to de- 
 ny the exiftence of e--vil fpirits. — 
 And though we know not what 
 means they ufe to tempt us, it 
 would be great folly to deny the 
 faft. Fa6t3 are often certain, when 
 the mody.s operandi is unknown : 
 And it is no lefs folly on the other 
 hand to entertain groundlefs ima- 
 ginations, or believe idle llories 
 about them, afcribing more to their 
 operation than we ha\'e caufe for. 
 There is certainly no religion in 
 giving countenance tofuch fancies, 
 or crediting fuch tales ; but they 
 have often given birth to much 
 hurtful fuperftition. The power 
 oi Sata?: is under the controul of 
 the Almighty ; fo that he can nei- 
 'Cas.x force us into fm, nor hinder our 
 repentance, v/ithout our own con- 
 fenc, nor do us the leaft harm with- 
 out the permilHon of God ; who, 
 ..perhaps, may, fometimes, make 
 him the inllrument of our punifh- 
 inent, in particular cafes, and to 
 anfwer particular wife purpofes : 
 Otherwife the Devil has no power 
 over us but what we chufe to give 
 him ; and we may give him, indeed, 
 as much as wc pleafe. Butif we re- 
 fill him he will flee from us. His 
 
 power of afHiifling the bodies of 
 men is enquired into under the ar- 
 ticle Damor.iac. See A-r.gel, Damon, 
 Damoniac, Difeafes. 
 
 Devoting was fometimes made 
 ufe of as a kind of punifhment, 
 confifting of dreadful curfes, hor- 
 rid execrations and prayers forven- 
 geance on any perfjn's head. See 
 Curfes and Execratio'i. 
 
 Devoting was alfo a ceremony 
 amongft the Romans, whereby they 
 confecrated themfelves to the fer- 
 vice of the Emperor, &-c. 
 
 Devolt a name given by ths 
 Jei<:s to the Profelytes cf the Gate-, 
 and under this delignation they are 
 mentioned ^:?j x. 2. and xvii. 14. 
 See Profelyte. 
 
 Deuteropotmi was a name 
 given by the Athenians to fuch as had 
 been thought dead, but recovered 
 after the funeral rites. The Deu- 
 teropotmi were not allovv'ed to enter 
 the temple of the Eumenides, nor any 
 facreif place, till they had been em- 
 blematically born again by being let 
 through the lap of a woman. 
 
 Diadem was an head-band worn 
 by the Kings of Rome, and other 
 Princes of antiquity. It was made 
 of filk, thread or wool, furrounded 
 the temples and was tied benind, 
 the two ends falling backwards. P/a- 
 tarch tells us of a princefs who 
 made ufe of a diadem to hang her- 
 felf. This is a confirmation of the 
 account now given. They wore 
 their diadems as the Turks do their 
 turbans. They were often orna- 
 mented with gold, jewels, &c. ;:nd 
 in proccfs of time were twifted round 
 crowns, laurels, &c. See Corona. 
 
 Diadems feem to have been worn 
 on different parts of the body. 
 
 Di.STET^ were a kind of 
 judges amongft the Athe?2iam; of 
 which there were tv/o forts, the 
 cleroti, who were public arbitra- 
 tors, annually chofen to determine 
 all caufes in their own tribe ex- 
 P 2 ceeding 
 
tflA 
 
 Die 
 
 <?ecJ.ing ten drachuas ; and the 
 d'allecteril^ who were private ar- 
 bitrators fworn to decide imparti- 
 ally, and from whole I'entcnce there 
 was no appeal: But an appeal laid 
 from the ientence of the cleroti to 
 the higher courts. 
 
 DfALiTHA were elegant orna- 
 ments ufed both by the Greeks and 
 Rommu, coniifiing of gold and pre- 
 cious itones, particularly the topaz, 
 and emerald. Their bracelets and 
 ether ornaments about their per- 
 lbn£, their cups and table furni- 
 ture for magnificent treats were of 
 this kind. 
 
 Dials, inftruments fcrving to 
 jneafure time, by means of the fun 
 and a fhadcw. There is no men- 
 tion of dials in fcripture till the 
 reign oiAhaz.; but of what kind 
 jihaz's dial was is diiEcult to de- 
 termine. The Je-.i-s, however, 
 fecm not to have divided their time 
 by hours till the Bahjlofiijh capti- 
 vity. The Greeks confefs Anaxi 
 v:a?ider to have been the ^vit who 
 fet up A fun-dial among them, in 
 the reign of C)7-.vi; ^ndT/.^a/es lirft 
 taught the ule of them to the La- ' 
 (edemcnians. Papyrius Curfor ict . 
 lip a fun-dial zx.Ro7nc, in the tern 
 pie of ^i;-n:us, and M. Valerius 
 MeJJ'a I a, - s.hQ\M thirty years after, 
 faftened one to a pillar near the 
 Rcjlra, but both of thcfe were in- 
 accurate, this laft however w-as 
 nfcd for eleven years, then Lucius 
 Paulus fet up another more true. 
 Papyrius Curfor lived about 320 
 years B. C. 
 
 Sun-dials being found ufelefs in 
 the' night, Scipio Najlca invented 
 the ckp/ydra. See CiepJyJra, Hourj 
 
 DiAHARTVRiA amongll the 
 Greeks, was a proteftation that the 
 deceafed had left an heir. It was 
 made to prevent the relations from 
 entering upsn the eitate. 
 
 DiAMASTiGOSis vvas. a fparian 
 
 folemnlty in honour of Diana Or- 
 thia, in which the children of tlie 
 bell families aiTembled before the 
 altar, and in the prefence of their 
 parents v/hipped, cut and flafhed 
 each other in a molt cruel manner, 
 their parents in the mean time en- 
 couraging them to bear it out with- 
 out betraying the leaii figns of pain ; 
 and hiiiory informs us that a cry 
 or a groan was heard but f:ldom. 
 The intent of this cuitom was to 
 fortify and harden their youth for 
 war. 
 
 Di ATRAiTA, cups and veflcls of 
 great value amongft the Romans, 
 and only fe-en at the tables of the 
 great and rich. They were of rock 
 cryftal cut into various forms, and 
 varioufly engraved with emblema- 
 tical figures expreflive of the fa- 
 mily's noble deeds, not unlike our 
 coats of arms. 
 
 DiATJLODRO.'ti were racers in- 
 the Grecian games, who alwavs 
 turned round the 7neta or goal, 
 relied themfelves there, then pro- 
 ceeding again, finifhed their courfe 
 at the place of ftarting. 
 
 Dice. ^ztAlea, Tali, Tejera. 
 DiCHALCUs, a Grecian coin, 
 worth about f ^ of our mo- 
 ney. See Money, 
 
 Dictator was a Roman ma- 
 glftrate invefled with fovereign and 
 conlular authority. He was always 
 chofen by the conful, in the night, 
 and upon the territories of the com- 
 monwealth. His office continued 
 for fix months. He had lidon 
 going before him and was regard- 
 ed with the utmoll veneration. A 
 dictator was never chofen but upon 
 lome emergency, when the com- 
 monwealth was reduced to the 
 greatell extremity. At firft none 
 hwt patricians could be chofen, but 
 in procefs of time the people were 
 admitted to thehonour. His power 
 was abiolutej he could proclaim 
 war, levy forces, lead them out or 
 dilband 
 
D IF 
 
 DIR 
 
 <Blband them at his own difcrction. 
 He cculd punilh as he pleafed, 
 and, ti!l later times, there was no 
 appeal trom his iudgmejits. Dar- 
 ing his adminiftration all other 
 magiftrates, except the tribunes of 
 
 the people, w^rc fufpended. ■ 
 
 Large however as his power was, 
 he was neverthelefs under fome re- 
 ilridlions: He could not, for in- 
 ilance, ftir out oi Italy, and he was 
 obliged to march on/cc/, unlcfs he 
 had a formal leave from the people 
 to ride. A didator was fometimes 
 named for holding the comitia for 
 the eleftion of cotijuh, for the ce- 
 lebration of public games, and for 
 drivino' the nail called ar.Kalis da- 
 1'iiS. See Anna lis Cla'Viis. 
 
 The diJIafors loft much of their 
 veneration and form.cr dignity after 
 Siila and dr/ay had converted the 
 ofHce into an inftrument of tyranny 
 The diSntors firft bufinefs was 
 the clcclion of a magijler eqnitum. 
 See Magijler Equition, 
 
 The firll diaator was Titus Lar- 
 giui Flai/tis, in the year of the city 
 253 or 255. 
 
 DiCTATURA. The ©ffice and 
 dignity oi dilator. See Dictator. 
 
 DiuRACHMON was a tax which 
 each of the Jckk^s ufed to pay yearly 
 to God, into the temple of "Jerufa- 
 lem. Mcfes ordered it to be paid 
 by every Ifraelite, whenever the 
 people were muftered. Exod. z<xx. 
 I 3. In the reign of Joajh the fame 
 tax was levied for the repairs of 
 the Temple. 2 Cbron. xxiv. 6 — 9. 
 It appears afterwards to have be- 
 come a voluntary tribute, yearly 
 paid with the fam.e intention.^ 
 Matth. xvii. 24. See Shekel. 
 Dies. ^ctDay. 
 DiFFARREATio was a rcligious 
 ceremony made ule of amongft the 
 Roiians upon obtaining a divorce ; 
 or, in other words, v/hen marriage 
 had been contracted by Confarre- 
 atioy the divorce was called diffar- 
 
 rcatto, the one term being direcliy 
 the reverfe of the other. See Cor:- 
 farreatio, Dinjorce, 
 
 DioBOLUM, a Grecian coin, e- 
 qual to 2d. 2-qrs. i -3d of our mo- 
 nev. See Money. 
 
 Dyonysia, amongft the Gmks, 
 were feafts in honour of the God 
 Bacchus. There were many dio?iyf:a 
 obferved in Greece, bur thcfe of 
 Athens were the moft famous for 
 fpleudor and ceremony, and the 
 years were numbered by them.— 
 The Roman Bacchanalia being the 
 fame in fubftance. For an account 
 of the extravagances and frenzy of 
 thcfe fclemnicies, fee Bacchanalia. 
 
 DiONYSiACA, a name given by 
 the Grecians to all theatrical en- 
 tertainments or diverHons of the 
 ftage, becaufe play-houfes were fa- 
 cred to Bacchus and J'cmts, the dei- 
 ties of fport and pleafure. 
 
 Dioscuria, a Grecian feflival 
 in honour of the Diofcuri, i. e. 
 Cajior and Pollux:. The chief 
 thing which the amftants regarded 
 at thisfolemnity was drinking about 
 and fupplyingthe table plentifully 
 with wine. The bottles were fit 
 emblems of the heroes they cele- 
 brated, as one fet another rcfe. 
 
 DioTA, a Sabine velTel in ufe a- 
 mongft the Rovi.^.ns. It had two 
 handles, and ferved to draw wine 
 into out of the cafk. Some fay ic 
 was of a certain capacity, and held 
 ^Sfe.xtarii. See Sextarius. 
 
 DiPTYCHA were regifters in 
 which were kept the names of the 
 confuls and other magiftrates a- 
 mongft the Romans. 
 
 DiR^, in the Ranan divination, 
 fignifies any unufual accidents or 
 uncommon appearances, as fneez- 
 ing, ftumbling, ftrange voices, ap- 
 parition?, fpilling fait or wine upon 
 the table or ones cloaths, meeting 
 wolves, bitches with whelp, hares, 
 or foxes, &c. See Di^jinatiotiy 
 Av.gtr, Augury, ^'c. 
 
 DiR- 
 
DIS 
 
 DIV 
 
 DiRiEiTORcs, officers appoint- 
 ed amongil the Rcmr.ns to attend at 
 the coviitia, a:id dittribate tablets 
 to the people, containing the names 
 ox the candidates. Sec Comitia. 
 
 DiscEPTATio Cmifa, in the 
 'Roman courts ot judicature, \Yas 
 the entering into the merits and 
 difputing the cafe in hand. This 
 ■was managed by the lawyers en 
 both lides ; with the afliftance of 
 vvitneifcs, writings, and other ad- 
 miffible evidence. 
 
 Disciple. Amongft the Jc'>vs 
 the difciples or fcholars fat at the 
 feet of their teachers, while they 
 were inftrudted in the laws and 
 principles of their religion. Hence 
 arofe the proverbial faying amongft 
 them, that a diligent dilciple or 
 fcholar mull be Jinived nviih the 
 duft ofhis 7nafiet^s feet. In allufion 
 to this cuUom, we are told that the 
 man out of whom Chrifk had call 
 devils, was in his right mind, and 
 fttiJig at Jcf::s'sfcet, as an atten- 
 tive hearer of his dodrine. Luke 
 viii. 35. Mary is likewife faid to 
 fit at Jefui s feet a7id hear his nxiord. 
 Luke X. 39. and Vaiil is declared 
 to have been brought up at the feet 
 cf Gamaliel. See Rabbi. 
 
 Discoboli was a name given 
 to thofe Vv'ho gained the victory in 
 playing at the difcus amongft the 
 Greeks. See Difcus. 
 
 Discus the qucit, was an inllru- 
 mcnt made ufe of in the public 
 games both of the G^-edans and the 
 Romans. It waj made of Hone, 
 iron or copper. It wa:. of different 
 iizes and forms, but generally of 
 £n oval fhape. It was thrown, or 
 rather hurled like a bowl, by means 
 ct a ibing through an hole in the 
 middle. It diitercd from the uofiog, 
 which was fpherical, whereas this 
 was broad and oblong. The difcus 
 appears moll commonly to have 
 been made in the form of a lentil. 
 In playing v»'ith the dfcus they 
 
 fecm not to have thrown at a msrr:^ 
 the conteil was, who fliould throw 
 it to the greateft diltancc. 
 
 Diseases, by the Hehrc^jos, who 
 were very poor philofophers, and 
 confequently no: very Ikilful phy- 
 ficians, were generally imputed to 
 evil fpirits, as the executioners of 
 divine vengeance. If their iniir- 
 mities were of an unufual kind, 
 and the caufes of them unknown, 
 they did not fail to fay that it was 
 a blow^ from the avcngisg hand of 
 God. Recoarfe v/as conJlantly 
 had to the prieil therefore, and in- 
 ftead of taking phyfic they ofrercd 
 facrifices • — This was the cafe par- 
 ticularly jn leprofies ; but this was 
 not luperftition, but compliance 
 with the divine command. Their 
 frugal and laborious lives however 
 exempted the fe-jjs from many 
 difeafes: — They had therefore lit- 
 tle occafion for phyficians, butfur- 
 gcons they applied to in cafes 
 which required their afTiftance.— • 
 The law of Mofes condemned the 
 man who wounded another, to pay, 
 amongft other things, the fees of 
 phyfician or furgeon. hc^LeproJjy 
 Deetnotiia :, Phyfician . 
 
 DiyEP.sioNs. See Games. 
 
 Divination is the knowledge 
 or p-elended knowledge of things 
 obfcure cr future, which cannot be 
 obtained by ordinary or natural 
 means. The Ifraelites were always 
 very fond of divination, magic and 
 interpretation of dreams. It was 
 to cure them of this foolifti propen- 
 fity that Mofes promifcd them from 
 God, that the fpirit of real pro- 
 phecy fhould not depart from a- 
 inongfi: them, forbad them to con- 
 fult diviners, aftro!ogers,&c. under 
 very fevere penalties, and ordered 
 thofe to be ftoned who pretended to 
 have familiar fpirits, or the fpirit of 
 divination. Len)it. xx. 27. 
 
 There were feveral forts of divi- 
 nation alluded to in fcripture, the 
 principal 
 
DIV 
 
 DI V 
 
 principal of which arc thoi'e of the 
 cap, the wand, and the arrow ; 
 but liow they were performed is 
 not fufficientlv explained. 
 
 The difierent kinds of divina- 
 tion, as praclifcd amongtt the Greeks 
 and R.o>::o.7is, will be found under 
 their proper heads. See Augury, 
 Oracles, Dreams, l^c. 
 
 Divorce, the diffohuion of 
 marriage, or the feparation ofhuf- 
 band and wife. The law o^Mofes 
 vith refpetl to divorces, will be 
 found Deut. xxiv. i —4. but dif- 
 ferent feils amongft the Jev:s gave 
 different interpretations of it. The 
 fchool o'lShammah thought nothing 
 could juftify a divorce, but fome 
 infamous art, or conducl that was 
 contrary to virtue. But the fchool 
 of Hi //el taught that a man might 
 put away his wife for the flightelt 
 reafons, for example if fhe did not 
 drcfs his meat to his mind, or if he 
 found a woman who was more to 
 his liking. The Je^MiJh hufbands, 
 if they did not approve the wife 
 they had married, were apt to be- 
 have tyrannically and cruelly ; in 
 compalfion therefore to the wom.en, 
 our Saviour obferves, divorces were 
 allowed upon flender grounds. — 
 Mattb. xix. 8. Mark x. 5. 
 
 The books of the old tellament, 
 written fince the time of Llofes, af- 
 ford us no examples of divorce. — 
 The fubllance of what we learn 
 concerning divorces amongft the 
 ye--ws is this. Divorce was in- 
 tended f:)r the advantage of the 
 wife. That fhe might not be dif- 
 charged or turned adrift at plea- 
 fure, it was ncceilary that a bill of 
 divorce fhould be executed in form 
 by the hufoand. The wife was 
 obliged to remain 90 days after the 
 divorce, before Ihe married again, 
 that if Ihe proved with child, it 
 might be known to whom it be- 
 longed. The firll hufoand was ne- 
 ver allowed to marry her again, af- 
 
 ter he was contracted or married to 
 another; otherwife he might. — 
 The women in the latter times of 
 the 'Jeijoijh government took the 
 fame liberty as the men, and di- 
 vorced their jealous and difagree- 
 able hufoands. The form of di- 
 vorce amonglt the Je-^:s ot the pre- 
 fent day is this, " on fuch a day, 
 " month, year and place, J. N. 
 " divorce you voluntarily, put yoa 
 " away, and reftore you to your 
 " liberty, even you N. who were 
 " before my wife, and I permit 
 " you to marry whonj you pieale." 
 This is fent with much formality 
 to the wife. 
 
 Th^chrifiian law concerning di- 
 vorce is this, " whofoever putteth 
 away his wife except it be for for- 
 nication, and marrleth another, 
 comrnitteth adultery ;" but thefe 
 words have been diflerently inter- 
 preted by different writers ; the 
 fathers, hov.'ever, took them in 
 their ftrift and moil obvious fenle. 
 
 ^''if was bone o{ Adams bone, 
 and flefh of Adams flefla : — There- 
 fore Jk all a man leai:e his father and 
 mother, ard cleave to his 'n;ife, and 
 they tnfjoffjallbe one fcjh. Gen. ii. 
 23, 24. Hence both hufband and 
 wife fhould elleem themfelves to 
 be made fb much one fleln by mar- 
 riage, as not to feparate during 
 life, any more than Adam and E-x^e 
 could be faid to feparate whilil fhe 
 continued a part of him. This 
 mode of reafoning our Saviour 
 makes ufe of againft divorces. Mat. 
 xix. 5, 6. 
 
 The Grecian laws concerning 
 divorces were different in the dif- 
 ferent flates. The Cretan laws al- 
 lowed men to put away their wives, 
 even if they were afraid of having 
 too many children. The Atheni- 
 ans were permitted to put away 
 their wives upon very flight 
 grounds, but not without giving 
 their reafons in the bill, which 
 reafoa 
 
DO 
 
 POD 
 
 reafons, in cafe of an appeal, were 
 to be approved by the chief ma- 
 gillrate. The hufbands were ob- 
 liged alfo to return their wives 
 their portions, or allow alimony. 
 A woman might alfo fue for a di- 
 vorce. The Spartans, though they 
 were fcrupulouily exaft in the 
 choice of wives, feldom divorced 
 them. 
 
 Amongil the Romans we meet 
 with two kindsof divorce, repudium 
 and di^ortium, the firft fignities the 
 diffolation of a marriage contraft; 
 and the laft was a feparation after 
 aclual marriage. By the laws of 
 R37nului a man was at liberty to 
 leave his wife, but not the wite to 
 Jeave her hufband. The law of 
 Romulus at lall however failed, and 
 women as well as men might fue 
 for a divorce. By the laws of Ro- 
 n:ulus a man might divorce his wife, 
 either for poifoning her children, 
 procuring abortion, putting upon 
 liim another's children initead of 
 his own, counterfeiting his private 
 Jceys, and for adultery. The com- 
 mon cikblifhed caufes of divorce 
 were thefe, but if a man put away 
 his wife upon any other occafion, 
 his wife might claim one moiety of 
 his eftate, and the other fell to the 
 Goddefs Ceres. The ufual way of 
 divorcing was to fend a bill to the 
 woman, containing the reafons ot 
 the feparation, and a tender of all 
 her goods again ; this they termed 
 repudium mittere —or elfe it was per- 
 formed in her prefence, before 
 witneflcs, with the formalities of 
 tearing the writings, refunding the 
 portion, taking away the keys, and 
 turning the woman out of doors. — 
 See Dijforreatio. 
 
 Do, Dice, Addico, were three 
 folemn words fpoken by the Roman 
 Frxtor when he fat in judgment, 
 fignifving as much as I fit here to 
 give laws, declare right, adjudge 
 damages. See Prc^tor, 
 
 The elliplis in thefe three words 
 may be thus fupplied, do aiiionem, 
 dico jus, addico homines et res. 
 
 ■ Doc H ME, ^^xi^n, was a Greci- 
 an meafure of length, equal to 3 
 inches, 0218 3-4ths decimal parts 
 Englifli. See Meafure. 
 
 Do CI MAS I A amongft the Atbf- 
 jiians, was a fcrutinv held in the 
 forum on fuch perfons as had been 
 elcfted archons or magiftrates, pre- 
 vious to their entering on their of- 
 fice. The queftions were propoled 
 by the Senate, and were as follows, 
 " areyou defcended from anceftors 
 " who have for three generations 
 " been citizens of Athens? — of 
 " what tribe or hundred arc you ? 
 *' — are you a relation to Apolh 
 " Patrius and Jupiter Herceus? — 
 " have you been dutiful to your 
 *' parents ?— have yoa ferved in 
 
 " the wars ? have you a conipe- 
 
 " tent ellate? — are you perfedl in 
 " all your limbs?" If they could 
 not give fatisfactory anfwcrs to all 
 thefe particulars, they could not 
 aft as archons. Some think the 
 fame queftions were put to all their 
 magiftrates. See Archon. 
 
 Doctor. See Rabbin. 
 
 DoDECATHEON, an infamous 
 feall celebrated by Augujlus, at 
 which he himielf prefided, drelTed 
 like Apollo; while the other guelb, 
 male and female, appeared as Gods 
 andGoddell'es, and pafled the night 
 in the moil fliamcful debaucheries. 
 The feall was called Dodecatheon, 
 bccaufe thegueflsperfcnatcd tn.vcli-e 
 Gods and GoddeiTes; It however 
 gave great offence at Rotke. Uni-v. 
 Anc. Hiji. 
 
 DoDRA, a drink amongft the 
 Romans, brewed from nine differ- 
 ent ingredients, which are fummcd 
 up in the following line, 
 
 Ju'is, (rqiia, mel, niinnm, pafiis, piper ^ 
 herba, oieum,fal. 
 
 Jjfott. Epigram ^6. 
 
 DODRANS. 
 
DOM 
 
 DO V 
 
 DooRANs. See Js. 
 
 DoGsvveie declared unclean by 
 the law of Mofes, and reckoned a 
 dcfpicable animal by the 'Jenvs.—' 
 Hence dog is metaphorically ufed 
 for one who has lolt all modefty. 
 And whenever men are compared 
 to dogs in Icripture, or have that 
 dcfignatlon given them, the utmoft 
 tontempt and reproach is intended. 
 Confult I Sam. xxiv. i.j.. 2 Sam. 
 ix. 8. Job. XXX. I. Deut. xxiii. 
 
 1 8. Rev. xxii. i ^ 
 
 Philippians 
 
 iii. 2. Pro. xxvi. 3. 2 Pet. ii, 
 22. Pfalm xxii. 16. Levit. 
 xvii. 15. Dogs were held in 
 dcteltation at Rcme, becaufe they 
 did not bark to iave the Capital, 
 tvhcnthe Gauls made their attempt. 
 The Romans, for this neglecl of 
 dutv, impaled one ali\'e, on an elder 
 branch, every year; but they paid 
 particular reipecl to the goofe. See 
 Gocfc 
 
 Dogs were worfhipped by the 
 Egyptir.jis, hated by the Rcttm}::, and 
 eaten by the Carthaginians. 
 
 DoLABRA was the pick-ax ufed 
 by the Rcma-n pioneers. It figni- 
 fies alfo the pontifical ax. with 
 which the viflims v.-ere knocked 
 down in facrifice. 
 
 Dot AB RUM was a knife ufed in 
 facrifice amongftthe/fo»i<3?//. 
 
 Dominical Letter is one of 
 thefe letters, A. B. C. D. E. F. G ; 
 which points to the Sunday through 
 the whole revolution of the Solar 
 Cycle: But, in a iljfextile or leab- 
 ycar, there are two daminical letters, 
 the firft of which ferves from the 
 beginning of the year, till the 24th 
 or 25th day of February, and the 
 other takes place during theremain- 
 der of the year. As the year does 
 not confilt of exaft weeks, but ct 
 52 weeks and czf day; therefore if 
 this year have G. for its dominical 
 letter, F. will anfwer to the next. 
 The dominical letters confequently 
 move in a retrograde order, as ex- 
 
 prefled in the initials of the words 
 of th-e following verficle of Bedf, 
 Grandia,Frendet , j^qtius, Dum Cemit 
 Beliigsr' Anr.a. But bcfides this 
 annual retrograde motion of the do- 
 minical letter, there is an additional 
 fhift every leap-year. In 7 years 
 the Sunday letters would have run 
 their courfe ; but, being dillurbeJ 
 ewexy fourth year, a fpace of 4 times 
 7 or 28 years is necefiary for their 
 complete revolution, hence the ori- 
 gin of the Cycle of the Sun, But 
 after the completion of the Cycle ^ 
 the days of the month will corref- 
 pond v/ith the days of the week and 
 the dominical letters throughout 
 the next Cycle ; except that, in cen- 
 tefitnal yevc&\ the letters muft be 
 removed one place forward; be- 
 caufe in the Grecian account cen- 
 tefimal years are common years, 
 whereas in the fuliari reckoning 
 they are leap years. See Cycle of 
 iheSun. 
 
 Do RON. See Meafure Dochme. 
 D0R.YPHORI, the life-guard 
 men of the Roman Emperors, fa 
 highly elleemed as to have had the 
 command of armies, fometimes 
 given them. The commanders ia 
 chief had their doryphori alfo. 
 
 Dove, was declared a clean bird 
 by the law of Mofes. Women after 
 l/ing-in, when they went to the 
 temple, were obliged to offer a 
 lamb, and a dove, turtle or pigeon. 
 Lei'it. xii. 6 — 8. The lamb was 
 offered as a burnt offering, the pi- 
 geon as afin-oftering. If the per- 
 Ibn could not afford a Iamb, Die 
 offered inflead of it two turtles or 
 two pigeons. The Virgin Mary^ 
 upon account of her poverty, offer- 
 ed two pigeons only. L::k. ii. 24. 
 Thofe who lived very diftant from 
 the temple, could not conveniently 
 bring with them doves for their of- 
 ferings ; in order that they might 
 furnifh themfelves upon the fpot 
 tiierefore, the prieft permitted the 
 <^ fais 
 
DRA 
 
 DR E 
 
 fele of them in the courts of the 
 temple, which our Saviour could 
 not endure, Mark xi. 15. The 
 dove was a fymbol of limplicity, 
 innocence and peace. 
 
 The blood of doves was ufed hy 
 the Greeks and Ro?nav.s as a power- 
 ful ingredient in their philtres and 
 love potions. 
 
 Dowry is properly the money 
 or fortune which the wife brings 
 the huiband. But in the primitive 
 jTges women were married without 
 portions, nay, were purchafed by 
 their hufoands, and the money given 
 for them was celled their dowry : 
 Thus Shcchem bargained with Jacob 
 and his fons for Dinah. Gen. xxxiv. 
 .?,. The ancient Gi-ecians alfo we 
 are informed bought their wives. 
 The purchafing of wives is in faft 
 the cultom of all barbarous coun- 
 tries. No fooncr did the Grscia-Ks 
 lay aude their favage manners but 
 the prafticc of buying wives was 
 iaidafide; the tables were entirely 
 turned, and women in politer times 
 were obliged ta purchafe hufbands 
 by their portions or die old maids. 
 'I'he difference betwixt a wife and 
 concubine fecms partly to have 
 ccniifled in this, that the wife 
 brought a fortune and the concu- 
 bine was unportioned. The ex- 
 pectations of men were raifed fo 
 high athill that parents could fcarce 
 fatisfy their mercenary demands 
 with their daughters, and were in- 
 duced to get rid .of the expcncc of 
 daughters by expofing their femrde 
 children. The wives however who 
 brought a portion could oblige their 
 hufbands to be with them three 
 Times in a month. Heircfies were 
 conftrained to marry their neareft 
 kinfman, and, in cafe of impo- 
 tence, had a right to call in the af- 
 fiftance of the hufljand's nearefl: re- 
 lation. See Daughter, Borrotvi?ig, 
 is'c. 
 
 Drachm.'^, drachm gr dram, 
 
 Wis a piece of money in ufe 3- 
 mongil the Athenia-ns worth aboi-t 
 7;Jd. The Hehreiv drachm -was 
 about the fame value as mentioned 
 I Chrcn. xxix. 7. &n6.Ez,ra ii. Lq. 
 viii. 27. See Money. 
 
 Drama, a poem, containing 
 fome certain aftion, and reprefcnt- 
 ing a true pidure of human life, 
 whofe end is to delight, andinftruft 
 mankind. The drama is of two 
 kinds, co?nedy and tragedy, and con- 
 fiils of four primary parts, the pro- 
 taJis,epiiaFis, cataf.afis and catajh-o- 
 phe, its acceflary parts are the pro- 
 loguCy chorus, mimvs, and epilogue. 
 See Tragedy, Comedy, Prctafis, Epi- 
 tajis, U'c. 
 
 Dreams were much attended to 
 amongft the yeivs, G?-eeAs and Re- 
 n:a!:s. God very exrefsly forbad 
 his people to obferve dreams, left 
 it fhould draw them away into ido- 
 la:ry, and iheperibn, who, with a 
 view to feduce the people, pre- 
 tended to have prophetic dreamr, 
 was put to death, though the dreams 
 fhould come to pafs. When they 
 thought they had afigniiicantdreani 
 they were direfted to addrefs them- 
 felves to the orophet of the Lord, 
 or the high prieft. 
 
 Amongft the Grecians divine 
 dreams were of three kinds — ift, 
 when God-s converfed with men in 
 their f:eep, thefe were called. 
 X§woi}i(rfA.oi : zd, when the imago 
 of things which were to happen 
 were exhibited in tneir proper 
 forms ; thefe they called O^a/^aliz. 
 ^d, when future events were re- 
 vealed by types and figures, this 
 fpecles cf dreams wascalledOvej^cf, 
 Jupiter was looked upon to be the 
 firft author of all dreams. The 
 interpretation of dreams was an 
 adl v/hich was held in high efti- 
 m.ation by the Rcma^is, no lefs than 
 the Greeks. It would be needlels 
 to produce inftances of the regard 
 paid to dreams by the ancients, be- 
 
 caufc 
 
DRI 
 
 D US 
 
 caufe all hiilory, facreJ arid pro- 
 fane, abounds with them. 
 
 D R E P A N u M or do}"idrcpanoii, a - 
 mong the Gr-eAs, was an engine of 
 iron crooked like a iickle, and nxed 
 to the end of a Icng pole, intended 
 to cut alunder the cords of the fail- 
 yards, and by this means difabl-e 
 the enemies' fhips. 
 
 Dress. See Habit. 
 
 Drinkino, both ainongft the 
 Greeks znd Romans, was frequently 
 carried to cxcefs at entertainments. 
 In drinking the Greeks always 
 flicwed '•heir refpeft to the moll 
 honourable perfon ; the mailer of 
 the feaft drank to him firll in this 
 manner : He filled a cup and drank 
 it ofF, then ordered it to be iillcd 
 again and taken to his honourable 
 friend, with goad wifhes and ex- 
 ureffions of rcfpeft, who always 
 paid the compliment of drinking 
 the whole. Sometimes the mailer 
 drank a part of the cup only, and 
 fent his guell the remainder. The 
 Greeks and Romans obferved pretty, 
 nearly the fame formalities in 
 drinking. The cup was handed 
 from left to right, and always pre- 
 fented with the right hand. At 
 Lacedetmon every man had his own 
 cup, which a iervant iilled up as 
 loon as it was emptied. The cups 
 were often crowned with garland?, 
 and filled up to the very brim. Jt 
 was cuflomary to drink abfent 
 friends, toall their millreiles, and 
 always toTemembcr the Gods. — . 
 Three cups or nine were ufually 
 drank, three for the graces, and nine 
 in honour of the mufes. But lovers 
 when toailing their miftrefles were 
 not confined to any number, they 
 often drank a number of cups equal 
 to -the letters in the names of their 
 fair ones. The Romans, as well as 
 xht Greeks, were addiAed to drink- 
 ing, and adhered to no riilcs, but 
 indulged themfelves to excefs, of- 
 ■tea contending who c^uld drink 
 
 moH. See Propinalio, Arliterb'.- 
 bendi. 
 
 Druids were priells of the 
 ancient 2) r//(?;/v, Gauls and Celt a;. 
 
 They had their name from 
 
 A^yf, an oak, bccaufe they 
 held the oak in great veneration. 
 They had themanagemeut of what- 
 ever related to religion, the punifii- 
 ment of crimes, a«d fettling dif 
 putes about property ; and every 
 perfon was held infamous and im- 
 pious who would not ab'de by their 
 derifions. They inllruclcd tlie 
 youth in the principles of religion, 
 politics and law. Their precepts 
 were delivered verbally, and com- 
 mitted CO memory, for they would 
 not allow them to be commitred 
 to writing. They were exempted 
 from the public burthens, and 
 taxes for the fupport of govern- 
 ment. They held the foul's im- 
 mortality and tranfmigration, and 
 fometimes offered human facrinces. 
 They had a high piieil amongti: 
 them, who preitded during life. — 
 Nothing, with them, was more 
 facred than the mifletoe, and the 
 oak thst produced k. Cass. Cora. 
 Lib. 6. Beli G. 
 
 Dust, hyxhtjeius, wasfprink- 
 led on the head as a fign of mourn- 
 ing ; they fat amongft it in token 
 of deep aiHiflion ; and fhook it off 
 their feet as a tellimony of their 
 detellation of any perfon. The 
 "Je-iK's efteemed the Gentiles fo vile 
 that they accounted the very ground 
 •on which they lived to be unclean. 
 They conceived that the dull of the 
 ftreets of their cities would pollute 
 them, and took care when they car- 
 ried away any pot-herbs from the 
 land of a Gentile, that none of the 
 mould fhould adhere to them, left 
 it fliould defile the pure Ifraelitcs. 
 Whenour^'rt'L'/aw;-, therefore, order- 
 ed his apollles to Ihake off theduft 
 of their feet for a tellimony againil 
 the ye^Jis, who fhould rejeft the 
 0^2 gofpel. 
 
DUU 
 
 D W A 
 
 gofpel.heintimated that they fhould'" 
 be no more concerned with them, 
 but fnoLild for the future eftcem 
 them as a Heathen or Gentile people, 
 to whom God's covenant did not 
 belong. See Jjhes. 
 
 Duumviri Municipales, were 
 the fame in the free towns of Italy 
 that the confuh were at Rome. — 
 They were chofen out of the body 
 ot the decurions. See Conful. 
 
 Duumviri C«/'//<7/fj, were judges 
 in criminal caufes, but an appeal 
 laid from their lentence to the peo- 
 ple, who only had the power of 
 condemning citizens to death. They 
 were chofen out of the decurio7:s^ 
 had great power, and had two lic- 
 tors to walk before them. 
 
 Duumviri Nwvales, werecom- 
 mifiaries of the fleet, whofe duty 
 confilkd in giving orders for the 
 £ttiog out fliips, and giving com- 
 milfions to the marine oilicers.— 
 The Duum-viriNa-vales were created 
 at the time of the Savmite war at 
 the requeft of Decius, tribune of 
 the people. 
 
 Duumviri Sacrorum, were two 
 magiltrates created by Tarnttinius 
 Siiperbus. Their office was a fort 
 of priell-hood, and confiiled in 
 taking care of the Sibylline books, 
 and occafionally performing facri- 
 fice. They were generally of P^- 
 irician rank, and held their office 
 for life. They were exempted 
 from many incumbrances which 
 fell upon their fellow citizsns, 
 
 from fejving in the wars, &c. The 
 5i^_)7//«^ oracles could not be con- 
 fulted without them. Their num- 
 ber was encrcafed at different 
 times, as will be feen under the 
 article Decemi-iri. 
 
 Dux Legionis \vas the fame as 
 the primipilus. See Primipilus. 
 
 Dynasty from the Greek 
 Avva^eia properly fignifies a go- 
 vernment, feigniory, or lordflnip. 
 The term frequently occurs ir.i an- 
 cient hiilory, particularly in that of 
 Egypt, where it implies a race or 
 fucceffion of Kings. The Egyptians 
 reckon 30 J)ynajiies which take up 
 the fpace 3^525 years, which far 
 exceeds the age of the world itfelf, 
 and his given much trouble to chro- 
 nologcrs. Some accx)unt for this 
 excefiive computation by fuppoling 
 the reckoning to be made by 
 Months or t,unar Tears ; of this opi- 
 nion is Diodorus Siculus, who lived 
 amongft the Egyptians. Others 
 folve the difficulty by fuppofing that 
 collateral reigns are put down as 
 fuccejjj-ve. See Stillijigf. Or. Sac. 
 
 Dwarfs, called ««;;/ and nante^ 
 amonglt the Romans, were held in 
 fuch requelt, that artificial means 
 were made ufe of to prevent the 
 growth of boys and girls defigned 
 for dwarfs, by enclofmg them in 
 fmall boxes, or binding them with 
 bandages. Aiigupuss niece yzdia 
 was mighty fond of one of thefe 
 male dwarfs called Sonopas, who 
 was only two feet and a baad-r 
 breadth high. 
 
 pAGLE, 
 
EAS 
 
 EAS 
 
 E. 
 
 E 
 
 A G L E . Sqq /quila. 
 
 Kar. Amongft the Jetus the 
 fervant or (lave who renounced the 
 privilege of beinp freed from fer- 
 vitudc in the fabbatical-year, had 
 his ear pierced through with an awJj 
 this was done in the prefence of 
 the judges, that it might appear to 
 be his own free choice, and that 
 he was not overawed or compelled 
 by his maftcr. His ear was bored 
 at his mailer's door, which was a 
 mark of fervitude or bondage, and 
 reprefented his fettled and perpe- 
 tual obligation to remain in that 
 houfe, and there to hear and obey 
 his mailer's commands. 
 
 East. This region or point of 
 the Heavens has by moil nations 
 been preferred to the weft, as being 
 the quarter where God was fup- 
 pofed to have his peculiar refidence 
 of glory. Thus a particular refpefl 
 was paid to the eail in taking 
 Omens, &c. But in fad there is 
 no eall and welt in nature : they 
 are mere relative terms. For to 
 SpaiTt, Italy, lies eaftward; to Italy, 
 Greece ; to Greece, Pcrfta ; to Perjta, 
 C/v««, and vice verfa to Italy, Spavz 
 lies wellward ; to Greece, Italy ; to 
 Perjia, Greece; toCI:ir.a,Perfta. On 
 a parallel fphere there is neither 
 Eaji nor IVeJ}, and the Antipodes 
 of any place may regard that place 
 as either Eafi or Wejl. The Jevjs 
 and Mahometans, in this and the 
 neighbouring countries ufe, indeed, 
 many geilwres towards the eail at 
 their benedidlior.s, and in killing 
 their meat. But this they do with 
 an eye towards Jerufalem and Mec- 
 ca. Bat Daniel, when he prayed 
 with his windows open towards J<- 
 
 rvfalem, had his face to the Weji^ 
 and Solomon, in this prayer, fays, 
 " if thy people go out to battle, 
 " and Ihall pray unto the Lord to- 
 " wards the city, &c. and towards 
 " the houfe, which 1 have chofen 
 •' to build for thy name, then hear 
 thou, &:c." In Chrijlian churches, 
 which are generally built EaJi and 
 Wefi, the chancel ftands at the eail 
 end, with an emblematic reference 
 to Chrift who is called the Sun of 
 Right eoiifnefs and the Day-fpring, 
 When, in the creed, we profefs our 
 faith in the blejj'ed Trinity, we turn 
 towards the Eaji, as the peculiar 
 refidence of God. The dead too 
 are laid in their graves with their 
 feet to the Eaji, and the face up- 
 wards that at the relurredlion they 
 may be ready to meet Chriji from 
 the Eaji, and be in a poilure of 
 prayer as foon as they arife. The 
 Athenians before Solon, and, ac- 
 cording to the icholiaft on Thucy- 
 dides, all the Greeks buried their 
 dead in the famepofition. 
 
 Easter a Chrijlian Fejiifal i r\ 
 memory of our Saviour's refurrcc- 
 tion. It is called Eajter from the 
 Saxon Eajire, a Goddcfs who was 
 worlliipped by the Saxons in the 
 month oi April, vj'ixh great feftivity 
 and ceremony. Th-t Fea ft of Eajier, 
 correfponding with the Jewifh 
 pafl'over, is by the latins and others 
 cdWtA Pajc ha. Different churches 
 entertained different opinions with 
 reipecl to the time of celebrating 
 Ea/ier, but all agreed in honouring 
 the feltival, calling it the !^een of 
 Fejlivals, the Sunday of Joy, &c. 
 The Emperors ufed to grant a ge- 
 neral releafetoprifoners en this day, 
 with an exception of fuch as •• ere 
 conhncd 
 
E C L 
 
 ECM 
 
 confined for the highcll; crimes. I 
 choiighc proper to i'ay thus much on 
 this article, becaufc theword^i?/?^^ 
 occurs in our5«_g-/^^teilament, Ads 
 xii. 4. ^cz Fallo'vcr. 
 
 Eating. The y^'^-^s never 
 would eat with perions of a 
 different religion, or of a profef- 
 iion that was odious to them, as 
 publicans, &c. The ancient He- 
 c^reivs had each a feparate table 
 when they eat ; this appears to 
 have been the cafe when Jofeph en- 
 tertained his brethren. Homer al- 
 ludes to the fame cuftom Odsfs. 14. 
 which obtains yet in China and fe- 
 veral other places in the eail. The 
 chief refpedl and honour which 
 tkey paid their gueils confilled in 
 Serving them in a moil plentiful 
 manner: thus Benja7mns mefs was 
 the largeft. Their feafonings were 
 fait, honey, oil and cream; the 
 fpices ufed amongft us were un- 
 known to them. Singing, danc- 
 ing and perfumes, were admitted 
 sx their entertainments. The rh- 
 hre-ws of old fat at table as we do, 
 but in proccfs of time they adopted 
 the faihion of the Perfans, Chal- 
 4ea7:s, Greeks and Remans, and had 
 table couches to lie upon, — though 
 accuhaion never became general. 
 See Accuhatio. 
 
 The Greeks we are informed had 
 three mzAi in a day; the firll was 
 about fun-rife and called A«fa7icr,aaj 
 the fecond was about mid-day, and 
 called AfiTTi/cv ; the third was in 
 the evening, and called Aoctto^. — 
 1 he Ad^tto; wrs frequently called 
 AzLTTVov. Thisaccountof the times 
 ct eating amonglt the Greeks an- 
 Twers to the Jenfacu/um, prar.diuj/i, 
 and cana or the Romans. See Citna. 
 . The 'Je^jus feldom cat till after- 
 noon. 
 
 Eclectics, were a fct of phi- 
 lofophers which took its origin 
 torn Fgypt, The EcU^7ics endea- 
 
 voured to mould the doclrines of 
 Pythagoras and Plato, and blend 
 them with the theology of the Egyp- 
 tians, and the tenets of Zoroafrer. 
 They borrcvv-cd m.any of the pri"- 
 cipai trr.rhs of chrijiir.nlty from the 
 clateciiecic fchool of Alexandr'ic.y 
 and fhamefully mixing thcfe with 
 the myiticifm of Pythagoras, the 
 errors of Plato, and the fuperftiticn 
 of Egypt, they hoped to reconcile 
 the Chrijlians and Pagaiis to the 
 fame opinions. When both Chrijli- 
 ans and Pagans began to lee the 
 folly of philofophical difputation, 
 and to be tired of the endlefs 
 fquabbles of Sophijis, this feft arofe, 
 and triumphed over all the reil, 
 about the end of the fecond cen- 
 tury. Pota?!:on and Plotinus iven 
 the jncji rcnonx'ned leaders among jl the 
 Eilenics. 
 
 Eclipse, a privation of the light 
 of one of the luminaries, by the 
 interpolition of fome opake body, 
 either between it and the eye, or 
 between it and the fun. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans 
 had frightful ideas of eclipfes, fup- 
 pofing them prefages of the moll 
 difmal events. At Rc7Ke it was not 
 allowed to fpeak publicly of any 
 natur-il c3.'aCcs of eclip/cs. 
 
 During the eclipfe of the moon, 
 both Greeks and Rofnans made a 
 great noife with brazen inflru- 
 ments, and raifed loud fnouts to 
 eafe her in her diftrefs, thinking 
 that fhe was in great perplexity and 
 trouble; for they attributed eclipfes 
 of the moon to the arts of ;,.y?j?V/- 
 afis, who by their inchantmenis 
 plucked her from the fl;y, and 
 made her fkim over the grafs. — 
 This notion is no lefs abfurd than 
 that of the Mexicans, who in an 
 cciipfe imagine the moon has been 
 wounded by the fun, in fome quar- 
 rel between thena. 
 
 EcMARTYRiA,a kind of fecond 
 
 hand evidence sdmitted in the 
 
 courts 
 
EDI 
 
 EGG 
 
 courts of Athens, Tt was liear-fay 
 feilimony, and never allovved but 
 vv'icre the eyc-witnefs was either 
 cca(J, or fo circumilanced that he 
 could notpollibly attend. 
 
 EcsTATici, a fort of dividers 
 amongft the Greeks, who for a con- 
 fidcrable time lay in trances, de- 
 prived of ail fenfe and motion, but 
 when they returned to themfelves, 
 gave flrange accounts of what they 
 had fecn and heard daring their 
 abfcncc from the body. 
 
 EcuLEUS ox Equulcus, a diaboli- 
 cal engine contrived to torment the 
 ^uiltv or fufocftcd perfons into a 
 confellion of their crimes. It con- 
 tained fcrcws or pullies, by means 
 of which the members of the un- 
 happy wretches were dillended 
 wich the utmoll violence, even to 
 a luxation of the joints. Wh::t ics 
 particular form was feems net to 
 be agreed upon. AmongH: the Ro- 
 7i:an:, in the times of their Em- 
 perors, it was ufed againll chrjfii- 
 cns. The eculeus feems to have 
 beer of a iimilar nature with the 
 iatnjla. Sec Catnjia. 
 
 Edict was an order ifTued from 
 the Emperor in the nature of a pro- 
 clamation, figncd and fealed in 
 form, and fcrving as a law to the 
 people. Wc frequently meet with 
 the edirts of the Pi-^tors, contain- 
 ing notice to the people in what 
 manner they intended to execute 
 the laws. 
 
 EJiSlujn ferpetaum was a col lee - 
 leclion of all the laWj which had 
 been yearly publifhed by ihc/'/-^- 
 tors in their edicls. It was called 
 Ediclum ferftluum, becaule it was 
 intended to continue in force for 
 ever, and ferve as a body of Hand- 
 ing laws; to prevent the great con- 
 faiion occafioned by the new ediils, 
 and to ferve as a guide and rule 
 in the adminirtratioa of jufiice 
 throughout the empire. This col- 
 lection v/a; niadc by Sahiut Jidi- ' 
 
 a,:i'S, in the reign q( JJriafi, in tlie 
 confulfhip of 6Vi.7«j OJla-vius L^- 
 r.as PaUeauus, and Irl. /Intoninus 
 Kufmiis. XJni'v. illjl. 
 
 Education of youth wasftrift- 
 ly attended to both amongll the 
 Greeks and Romans. Their minds 
 and bodies were improved at the 
 fame time ; their minds by every 
 ncccllkry branch of knov/ledge and 
 learning, and their bodies by the 
 manly c::erciies of the campus mar- 
 tins, cr private contcfts and trials 
 ofikill, agility, and ilrength. Ic 
 was the chief aim of the Rc7nanSf 
 as well as Grecians, to make them 
 fhine in the Se/ude and in t\\Q. field, 
 at "Cut forum and ^X\.Q. public games. — . 
 Oratory was an objcd which they 
 kept conitantly in view, and what- 
 ever was their delli nation they en- 
 deavoured to acquire the arts of e- 
 locution and a habit of fluent rca- 
 foning. Laccd.cnoii trained her 
 hardy fons to dcfpife danger, en- 
 dure fatigue, and feem infenfible of 
 pain — to maintain their honour 
 unftained, to love their country,, 
 and Iioid in contempt riches, and. 
 all that train of enervating plea- 
 fu res which are the companions of 
 afRucnce. The Spartans difdained 
 all nicritricious colouring of ora- 
 tory, and e'cprelled themfclvco v/ith 
 a digniiicd fimpiicity, m.anly em- 
 phafis, and charadcriftic brevity. 
 
 We do not find tliat the Jeixt 
 had any fchools or colleges for the 
 inftrudion of youth, if we except 
 thofe of the Prophets which were 
 of a different nature. They have 
 not fo much as a word to exprefs a 
 fcminary of learning. Their fons 
 were brought up to war or huf- 
 bandry, and their daughters to 
 haufhoJd occupations, and both 
 were inllruded in their religion 
 and laws by theij- parents, cliiefiy 
 on the fabbath. See Children. 
 
 Eggs were eaten by the Romans 
 at die bcglsning cf drcir fcalb, as 
 , ' apples 
 
EL A 
 
 ELE 
 
 Sp'ples were the laft things that 
 were ferved up, hence the phrafe, 
 ab on:o nfque ad mala. See Cana. 
 
 An egg, in the Egyptian clolmo- 
 gony, was an emblem or fymbol 
 of the world. It was confidered 
 as bearing the fame analogy, by the 
 Chaldeans and the Chincfe. The firll 
 egg, from which all things were 
 hatched, was faid to have been 
 layed in tlie bofom of Erebus : 
 This egg was evidently Chaos. — 
 The egg, with its yolk in the midft 
 of a fluid, of different denfities at 
 different dillances, and furrounded 
 by a (hell, is no bad reprcfentation 
 of the concave fphcre cf the hea- 
 vens, including the air and the itx- 
 reftrial ball in its bcfom. The 
 Phanidans are faid to have wor- 
 fliipped an egg.— Eggs were made 
 ufe of in lultrations both by the 
 Greeks and Romans. Thus hud an 
 reprefents the Cynic philofophcr 
 as carrying in his wallet, by way of 
 provificn,- woi/ EXKu^apa-ri: To 
 this ufe of the egg O'v^d aljudes in 
 his Art am : Et ^oeniat qua: hfiret 
 anus leHumque locumque, Prafcrat et 
 tremuld fitlfur et c-va manu. So 
 Ju'V. Sat. 6. — Niji/e centum lufira- 
 "jerit o^Jis. 
 
 EiresionE was an olive-branch 
 bound about with wool and crown- 
 ed with firft-fruts. It was carried 
 in proceflion at the Athenian feftival 
 called pya7:epfia. Sec Pyanepfia. 
 
 EiEETERiA was a name given 
 to the day on which the Athenian 
 magiftrates entered upon their offi- 
 ces, when it was cuitomary to offer 
 facrifices and pray for the prcfpe- 
 rit/ of the ftatc, in the tejnples of 
 Jupiter BaAaJOf, and llinern^a 
 
 BaAaia. 
 
 Elteothesium, the room in 
 the Gymnafium where thole who 
 had bf.thcd, or intended towi-eille, 
 anointed themfelves. This apart- 
 ment was alfo called AUpteiium. 
 
 Elaphebolia, a Gredan fefti- 
 
 val in honour of Diana Exa^n^o>.o(i 
 i. e. the huntrefs. A cake called 
 Exapoj, made in the form of a deer 
 was offered to her. 
 
 ELAPHEDOLiuM,the 9th morith 
 of the Athenian year, confiding of 
 30 days, and anfvvcring to the zvA 
 of February and beginning cf 
 March. It was fo called becaufe 
 the feftival oi Elaphebolia happened 
 in this month. Szc Elaphebolia ^nd. 
 Month. 
 
 El AT 10 was the ceremony ol' 
 carrying out the corpfe on the day 
 of burial, v^ith the feet towards 
 the gate, to intimate that the de- 
 ceafed WuS taking his departure 
 from his former home. The Greeks 
 and Romans ufed the fame ceremo- 
 ny. See Funeral. 
 
 Eleatic fed, borrowed its 
 name ftom Elea, a city of Magna 
 Grade, where the laws o^ Pytha- 
 goras were adopted. This feci 
 took- its rife from that of Pythago- 
 ras. The Eleatic philofophers af- 
 ferted that all things were but one. 
 That God, the world and all the 
 changes cf nature, were only dif- 
 ferent appearances of one and the 
 fame being. They held, that, as 
 nothing can produce nothing, there^ 
 fore all that cxifts muft have exited 
 from all eternity. They affirmed 
 that the univerfe was partly a pie- 
 7ium, partly a niticuum ; of which 
 God was the informing principle, 
 a fire, which, in the Pythagorean 
 fenfe informs all, and animates all. 
 Thev held God to ht one infinite, 
 eternal and immutable, and thac 
 place and motion exifted no where : 
 That corpvfdes, or atoms, were the 
 elements of things, and that there 
 were many worlds. The chief 
 philofophers of this fe£l were Xeno- 
 pha-ws, Parmenides McliffuSy Xeno^ 
 Leudvpiis, Democritus, FrotagorttSy 
 Diagoras. See Philcfophy^ Pytha- 
 goreans. 
 
 Elephantiki Lihri, were books 
 amonglt 
 
E L K. 
 
 ELE 
 
 liiiionf^fl: the Rcma7!s, v.'here'n the 
 tninradions of the Sc;;/:fe zni ma- 
 gi Urates of Rone, t,ie tranfaclior.s 
 of the miigiflrates of provinces, and 
 rhofe of the Emperors and Generals 
 f)f armies were regiftered. In thefe 
 books were pat down likewife the 
 births andclafi'es ot the people, and 
 other matters relating to the Ccn- 
 fas. Some lay they were called 
 Ekpba}:thii, bccaufe they were made 
 of ivory, others will have it tliat 
 tliey were made of a fort of parch- 
 ment prepiJired from the inteilines 
 of the Elephant. 
 
 Eli.phants were firll nfed In 
 war by xhz Greeks in the time of 
 Alexander the Great; at leaft there 
 is no mention of them before. — 
 They carried upon their backs into 
 the battle large towers, containing 
 from ten to thirty foldiers,- who 
 threw miffive weapons from thence 
 upon the enemy, being themfelvcs 
 fccurcd within their wooden walls. 
 The elephants did great execution 
 :hc:nfclvc3, by terrifying, tearing 
 and trampling down both horfes 
 and men. Eiit this danger attend- 
 ed the ufe of them, that they feme- 
 times, when encouraged, indlf- 
 criminately dellroyed all that came 
 in theij way, whether friends or 
 foes. Hcrfcs would not come near 
 the elephants upon account of their 
 difagreeable fmell. 
 
 Eleusinia, a Grecian feflival 
 in honour of Ceres, kept every 
 fourth year by the Celear.s and Phi - 
 liafians, and every fifth year by the 
 Athe72inr.s, Lacedemornans, Parrha r 
 fians and Cretans, at Eleufis, a bo- 
 rough of Attica. It was transfer- 
 red from thence to Rome by the 
 Emperor Adrian. The Eleujinia 
 was the moft celebrated and myf- 
 terious fclemnity of any in Greece, 
 and often called by v/ay of emi- 
 nence myfieria. Every thing con- 
 tained a myitery. All was meta- 
 phor, allegory, and enigma, J: 
 
 was, in fiiort, a fomething like frce- 
 mafonry. People of both fexes, 
 and all ages, were initiated into the 
 myf.eries ; to neglecl this was cri- 
 minal ; a neglect of this was one 
 article of the accufation on which 
 Socrates was executed. For a perfon 
 not initiated to be accidentrdly pre- 
 fent at the folemnity, was death. 
 The benefits of initiation were fup- 
 pofed to extend beyond the grave; 
 The rayilerics were of two kinds, 
 the greater and the Icfs j the lefs 
 were preparatory to the greater. — 
 They confified of a folemn repre- 
 fentation of what was fappofed to 
 pafs in the regions of Elyjlum and 
 'Tartarus, The fccrets of the Eleu" 
 finian myfleries are, with great ap- 
 pearance of truth, fuppofed to be 
 divnlged in the 6th ^^neid o^: Vir- 
 gil. To reveal the fecrets of this 
 Grecian free mafonry, was looked 
 upon as a crime that would not fail 
 to draw down the vengeance of 
 heaven. The perfon who attend- 
 ed al initiation was called Hiero- 
 phantes, i. e. the revealer of holy 
 truths. The Hiercphantes had three 
 afhllants, the firil was the torch- 
 bearer, the fccond the crier or he- 
 rald, and the third miniltred at the 
 altar. Sec Hiercphantes, Daduchus. 
 
 La5lavtiia luppofes thofe nivf- 
 teries to have been abominable and 
 obfcene, and therefore not fit to be 
 mentioned : But his chrijliaii zeal 
 might probably draw him afide 
 from truth. 
 
 Eleutkeria was a feflival kept 
 at Plattra from almoft all the cities 
 of Greece, in memory of the defeat 
 o^ MardcTiius the General oi Xcr.-^es i 
 and in honour of thcl'e who gal- 
 lantly facrificed their lives for the 
 liberty of their country. It was 
 held every fifth year, and prizes 
 were appointed to be contended 
 for. 
 
 T)\tSaniia}is had a feflival of this 
 
 name alfo in honour of the God of 
 
 R love. 
 
EiMB 
 
 EMB 
 
 love. And flaves when fet free 
 kept a holiday of this name too, in 
 gf;ititude for the blcfTmg of liberty. 
 E L t A c or Ereirlac i^tX, was a fcft 
 oFphilofonhefs who confined thcm- 
 lelves to teaching the doftriiles of 
 Socrates. It was called the Eliac 
 f^flfroin Vheedo of Ells, its found- 
 er ; and it had the name or Eretrtac 
 from Mcmdeynus the Eretrian, who 
 transferred the fchool to the city of 
 2reiria. Eh.tdo P 11 J} anus and Me- 
 fiiJcmtis were fucceffively in the 
 c'hair. See Sccratic Scil, Philofo- 
 phy, i^c. 
 
 Hllychnium, a name given by 
 the ancients to that fort of matter 
 of which the wicks of their lamps 
 were made, but what it was authors 
 are not agreed. Some fuppsfc it 
 to have been the xylc7i of cotton of 
 the ancients, and others with more 
 probability will have it to have 
 been a light fpungy fungus, like 
 that which the people of fome 
 countries call: fpunk, and ufe in- 
 itead of tinder. 
 
 EiVlBALMir^G was praflifed by 
 the JeXvs, in imitation of the Egyp- 
 iiaiis, upon dead bodies. I'he 
 method was this. The body, as 
 loon as a perfon was dead, was 
 taken to the coffin -makers, mea- 
 iiired and fitted exactly with a cof- 
 fin, which was differently orna- 
 mented according to the quality of 
 the dcccafcd ; the upper part of it 
 reprefented the perfon for whom it 
 was intended. This done, the 
 body was brought home, and the 
 embaLmers were agreed with, for 
 the prices of embalming diflercd 
 much, the highelt being about 500I. 
 01" our money, and the loweil a 
 very fmall matter. A dellgnerwas 
 now employed, who marked the 
 body, v^here it lay, for cutting, 
 and the diJjeSlor followed, cutt'ng 
 it according to the direclion with x 
 fiiarp Ethicpicn ftonc. 
 
 The diiicCtcr was held in tkie 
 
 fame contempt and dctefl^tlon ;;? 
 an hang-man among us, and v. as 
 forced to make the be'l of his way 
 as foon as he had |5erfornied i:is of- 
 iirc, ctherwife he ran a great rifquc 
 of being Honed to death. TIte 
 embalmcrs, v.hofe pcrfons were 
 facred, next began their operation. 
 They drew, ^vith a hooked iron, 
 inftrument, the brains through tlie 
 nofe, and extrafted all the bowel r:, 
 except the heart and kidney.-, 
 through the inciilon which the dif- 
 feclor had made in the fide. The 
 inteftines were wafhcd in flrong 
 aflringent drugs and wine from the 
 palm-tree ; and ailringent drugs 
 were alio put into the ikull. The 
 body for about thirty days was 
 anointed witli oil of cedar, 
 myrrh, cinnamon, and other fpices, 
 to preferve it from putrefaclion. It 
 was then put into fait for forty 
 days, fo that feventy days, acccrd- 
 inh to Mofes's account of embalm- 
 ing, were taken up in the procefs. 
 When the body was taken out of 
 the fait, it was wafhed, fwaddled, 
 dipt in gum, and anointed with 
 myrrh, then given to the relations, 
 who kept it in their houfes in its 
 coiKn. 
 
 Thepoor who were incapable of 
 bearing this expence, inje6ted into 
 the body a liquor drawn from ce- 
 dar, and then wrapt it up in nitre. 
 
 Embassadors, public mini- 
 ftcrs fent from fovereign princes or 
 ilates, as their reprelentativcs to 
 other princes or Hates. 
 
 The na.me of embafladors is fa- 
 cred and inviolable, and has ac- 
 cordingly been treated with refpedl 
 and confideration in every coun- 
 try : Every violation of the law of 
 nations, by injuries done to em- 
 bafliidors, has generally been re- 
 fen ted with great warmth. Daniid 
 for an injury of this kind made 
 war upon the ^'»;»?5K//fj. 2 Kings, 
 X. Alexander put to the Avord the 
 inhabitants 
 
ENC 
 
 EN T 
 
 iMhabitants of Tyre, for infultir,? 
 iiis cmbalfadors ; and the youth of 
 Rome for aflVonting the embafia- 
 dors oi Vallono.y were delivered up 
 into their hands to be punilhcd at 
 {^ifcretion. 
 
 Ac Athens the foreign enibair^- 
 dors mounted the trihunol and de- 
 clared their commilhon, and the 
 nature of tb.eir buiinefs to the 
 people. 
 
 At Rome they were introduced :o 
 the Senate, and delivered their com- 
 miffions to them, at the 'v'lila ^uh- 
 iica. See filla Pubiiea. 
 
 Nothing delighted Athens and 
 Sparta more, when in their meri- 
 dian fplendor, than to fee and hear 
 a numter of embaffadors iuing, in 
 their alTemblies, for their pro.ec- 
 tion or alliance. 
 
 Emeriti, a name given to the 
 e-vocati. See E-voeati. 
 
 Emmelia, a tragic dance, in. 
 which the performers i'upported all 
 the gravity and dignity of the part 
 under rcprcfentation ; it was cal- 
 culated to excite compaffion tcr the 
 diftrefled, indignation againft the 
 guilty, love for virtue, and detef- 
 tatioR of vice. This and the mili- 
 tarv dances were the only ones that 
 met with the approbation o'i Plato, 
 See Dancing. 
 
 E^:pEROR. Imperator, a title of 
 honour conferred by the ancient 
 'Remans on their viftorious Gene- 
 rals only. In proccfs of time it 
 became the dcfignalion of the ruler 
 of the empire. When we confider 
 the horrid abufcs, debauchery, and 
 villainy of many of the Reman Era- 
 perois, the term Emperor like the 
 %vord tyrant excites our abhorrence. 
 See Imperator. 
 
 Enc^nia, a name given to the 
 three feafls kept by the 'Je-a-s, in 
 memory of the purilication and de- 
 dication of their temple by Judas 
 ^lacabeus, Solomo7i and Zorobahcl. 
 
 Suidas, in iiis Lexicon, fays that 
 
 the ancients by the wo-d Enc.tntk 
 underilaod a public folcmnity on 
 fome new occurrence. Among the 
 Latins, Encecria were called Dedi- 
 caiions and Confecraticns, and, o;i 
 fuch days, they gave thanks to God. 
 for the haopv conclufion cf fomc 
 matter of moment, and implored 
 him for the contintiance ot liii 
 m-rcies. See Dedication, Ccnfe- 
 rraticn. 
 
 ESdixis, ivosi^ig amongft the 
 Grecians, was an adion brciigb' 
 againll any perfon for afteifling any 
 place or thing for which he v/as 
 by law difqualified. 
 
 Ei'GASTRiMYTHi,a namc gi\'C^- 
 by the Greeks to the Pyfhia's or 
 pricfteilbs oi Apollo„\\h.o delivered, 
 craclcs by fpeaking from within, 
 without moving their lips, or cvcri 
 therr tongues. They had alfo the 
 power of giving that particubr 
 tone to the voice which induced 
 the hearers to conclude, that it was 
 uttered either from above or below, 
 from a greater or Icfs dillance, as 
 they had a mind, in order to carry 
 on the deception. This voire was 
 fuppofed to proceed ffom a fpirit 
 •within ; but it v/as only the fpirit 
 of impofture. 
 
 Enolmi. a name given to the 
 pricftefs of Apcllo at Delphi, be- 
 caufc ilic fat en the tripod called 
 
 0?.,W3J 
 
 Eksicns. Sec Signa. 
 
 Entertainments among t>;e 
 ancients, were of various kinds ; 
 funeral entertainments called epvl.s 
 y;/;7t'Z?Yj— entertainments given br 
 the hufband on bringing home his 
 wife epulic gcniales, entertainments 
 bellowed on the foldiers, which 
 was done before or after an en- 
 gagement, or on occafion of pro- 
 claiming the general hnpcrafor, 
 thefe were called epula militarcs-^ 
 birth-day entertainments epula na- 
 talitia. There were many other 
 kinds which received their names 
 R z from 
 
£ PA 
 
 KPH 
 
 from the place where, the pcrlbns 
 by whom, or the occafionon which 
 they were given. See the articles 
 'Epuium and Cccna. 
 
 £pACT,in chronology, cxprefies 
 the number of days by which the 
 Iblaryear exceeds the lunar, through 
 the whole revolution or' the lunar 
 cycle. The excefs of the iblar year 
 over the lunar iv 1 1 days. Confe- 
 quently, in the nrllyear of the cycle 
 of the moon the Epai^ is o. bc- 
 caufe the lunar and iblar years be- 
 gir; together. Oa the fecond year 
 of the cycle, the lunar year begins 
 1 1 days f ef ^re the folar ; the El^aFc 
 therefore is ii. On the third it 
 has began twice 1 1 days before the 
 folar, the Epatl confequently is 22. 
 In the fourth it begins three times 
 1 1 days before the folar year, the 
 ii'pi^c^ therefore would be 33; but 
 30 davs, being an entire fynodical 
 month, mull that year be intercala- 
 ted, 1. e. tnat y^ar muft be confi- 
 dered as coniiuing of 13 fynodical 
 mcnrhs, and 3 will remain, the 
 truGf/,3^5 of the year. Thus by 
 adding Ji to the Epaci of the lall 
 year, and always rejedling 30, we 
 ihall exprefs the EpaJ of the cur- 
 rent years throughout the cycle. 
 The u'ord Epaa is of Greek original, 
 and fignihes added, becaufe the 
 Epciii were added to equate the 
 lunar with the folar year. The 
 Greeks called thein z'Tro^yoixtvcci. 
 Jn modern chronology the Epad till 
 the year 1900 may be found thus: 
 iv'j'uitiply the golden number for 
 7 l-.e given year by 11, divide the 
 - roducl by 30, and from the re- 
 airnnder take 1 1 , then what remains 
 i^■ ;iie E^<aSl. Ii the remainder be 
 lersthatii, add 19 to it, and the 
 ^um.V'ill be the Epaci i^ught.— 
 'lAyL number and day of the month 
 LH;:ig added to the EpaB; their fum 
 ;i c;nder 30 is the moons age. But 
 :. liie fum is above 30, the excefs 
 -a rncnths qI 3 \ days, or the excefs 
 
 above 29 in mcnths of _ 3c cav 
 fhews the moons age or number oS 
 days fmce the lall conjunftion. — 
 The numbers of the months, di- 
 rcclcd to be added in the foregoing 
 procefs, areas follows; for jeji. o; 
 Feb. 2 ; March \ ; /ipr. 2 j May 3 ; 
 'Juite 4; 'July 5 ; y^^'g- 6; '6ept. 7, 
 Oil. 8; A^j-J. 9; Dec. 10. Sec 
 Golden Number, Cycle. 
 
 Efha or Ephah was a Je-vvijh 
 meafure both for liquid things and 
 dryj as a liquid meafure it con- 
 tained the faaie quantity as the 
 bath ; as a dry m.eafure it was equal 
 to three pecks and three pints. 
 See Meafure, Baih. 
 
 Epheb^.um was a place at 
 Athens where the ephehi or young 
 men allembled to exercife. 
 
 Epiieei, a name given by the 
 Athenians to their young men when 
 they reached the age of iS, at 
 which age their names were enter- 
 ed in the public regifter. 
 
 Ephod was an ornament crup- 
 per garment worn by the 'Jen.vijh 
 priells. It was a fort of girdle, 
 which being brought from behind 
 the neck and over the two fliould- 
 ers, and hanging down before, was 
 put crofs wife upon the ftomach, 
 then carried round the waifl and 
 
 ufed as a girdle to the Tunic. 
 
 There were two forts of ephods, 
 one of plain linen for the priefts, 
 and the other embroidered for the 
 highprieil. This lall was com- 
 poied of gold, blue, purple, crini- 
 fon and twilled cotton. On that 
 part of it which paffed over the 
 fhoulders, were two large precious 
 Jlones, one on each fhculder, upon 
 which were engraved the names of 
 the twelve Tribes, fix on each 
 ilone. The ephod was peculiar to 
 the priefthood, and the 'je'vjs ima- 
 gined that no religion, true or 
 falfe, could fubfiil without a priefl- 
 hood and an ephod. 
 
 Ephorji wer? magiilrates sp- 
 pointc4 
 
EPI 
 
 EPI 
 
 pointed in S/nrta, like the tyihu7tcs 
 among the Rojr.cns. They were a 
 kind cf overfcers of the ftate, whofe 
 ofiice was to rellrain and curb the 
 authority of the Kings, and ba- 
 lance the regal power. As an in- 
 llance cf the confeq^ucnce of theie 
 magiftratcs, we may produce thcfe 
 two facis, viz. that they punifhcd 
 with a he;ivy fine their King Jr- 
 chhlamus for marrying a little wife 
 — and prcfumed to imprifon -^gis, 
 another of their PCings. They 
 were live in number, prefided over 
 ihews and fellivals, had the care of 
 the public money, and v/cre the 
 arbiUrs of v. ar and peace. 
 
 Ephydor, an officer in the 
 Athenian courts of jufdce, who fur- 
 niflied the plaintiil" and defendant 
 with equal hour-glafl'es called Clcp- 
 fydr^e; during the running of which 
 they might fpeak, but no longer. 
 While the laws were quoted, or 
 foreign bufinefs intervened, the 
 glaifeswere Hopped. '^zzClehfydra. 
 
 Efichirotonia, an annual 
 revifion oi x\^^ Atkeinan laws, initi- 
 tuted by 6*0/0/7, v/herein fuch as 
 were found unfuitable to the prc- 
 fcnt ilate of aifairs were repealed. 
 It had its name from the cuftom of 
 giving their fufiVages by holding 
 up of hands. 
 
 Epicurlans, a lect ox philo- 
 fophcrs greatly prevailing in Greece 
 and Rome: Epicurus was their 
 founder, who flouriihed about 3C0 
 years before Chrijl. They main- 
 tained that fenfual pleafure was 
 man's chief felicity : that the world 
 was formed by a concourfe of 
 atoms, and not governed by pro- 
 vidence ; that the Gods refided in 
 the extramundane fpaces in foft, 
 inaclive eafe; that future rewards 
 and punilhments were idle chima;- 
 ras ; and that the foul was extin- 
 guifnea with the body. They are 
 mentioned in the xvii:h chapter 
 of the Ads of the ApxJillcs. Epi- 
 
 curus himfclf, the founder of the 
 (cCt maintained a mere manly phi- 
 lofophy than the generality of his 
 followers; he held indeed thac 
 pleafure was the chief end ot hu- 
 man pwrfuit; and this pleafure he 
 placed in an exemption from pain, 
 and pertccl tranquillity of body and 
 mind : But the means which he 
 pointed out as conducive to this end 
 were prudence, temperance, forti- 
 tude and jullice, in the union of 
 which perrcft happineis confiils. — 
 He purfucd pleafure, therefore, in 
 its moft rational acceptation, and 
 his life feems to have been Itained 
 with few vices. The precepts, 
 however, and practices of the Epicu- 
 reans have loaded his memory with 
 unmerited infamy. See Rhilcf'.phy. 
 
 Epidemia were private feltivals 
 kept by the Jihei:ia::sy upon a 
 friend's returning from a journey. 
 
 Episcexium v/as a place on 
 the top of the theatres, where all 
 the machines for moving thefccnes 
 were kept. 
 
 EpiSCEPSis, vi/as an afbicn 
 brought in the Atheniayi courts to 
 prove that the dirifnartyria or pro- 
 teiVatlon that the deceafed had left 
 an heir, was falfe and groundlefs. 
 See Diav'.arijria. 
 
 Episcopi. See Bijhops. 
 
 Epistates in the Athenian go- 
 vernment, was the prclident of the 
 prcedri. See Proedri. 
 
 His ofEce was to keep the public 
 fcal, the keys of the citadel, and 
 thofe of the public exchequer. It 
 was an ofiice of fo great truft that 
 no man was allowed to continue in 
 it more than one day, or to be e- 
 lecled into it a fecond time. The 
 epijiates was choftn thus. Each of 
 the ten Tribes chofe fifty Senators, 
 which made the fenate of 500. — 
 Each fifty had the precedence by 
 turns; the fifty in cihce were cal- 
 led prytams i during the term cf 
 their cfEcc, which was thirty-five 
 
 days. 
 
E PI 
 
 EPU 
 
 days, ten of the fifty p-ytci-es pre- 
 fided weekly under the name of 
 proedri. And one cf thcie proedri 
 prcildcd each day under the name 
 oi Efijiates. 
 
 Epf.o.tes was alfo the prefident 
 of the aflembly, chofen by lot ouc 
 of the Proedri. The chief of his 
 office feems to have conlilled in 
 giving the people the fignai for 
 voting, compelling them to attend 
 the alfemblies, and taking out of 
 the way whatever might divert 
 ihcm from coming. 
 
 Epitaph, a monumental in- 
 fcriptlon in memory of a perfon 
 deceafed. It has been difputed whe- 
 ihej the ancient Jetvs infcribcd 
 epitaphs on the monuments of the 
 dead ; but be this as it v/ill, epi- 
 taphs, it is certain, of very ancient 
 date, are found amongil them. — 
 The Athenians, by way of epitaph, 
 put only the name of the dead, 
 with the epithet jcpjsj, fini;ying 
 good or >i3&,'j hero, and the word 
 p^aifE, fignifying their good wiflies: 
 The name of the deceafed's father 
 and his tribe were frequently 
 added. The Lncedimonians allow- 
 ed epitaph^ to none but thofe who 
 had died in battle. The Romans 
 jnfcribed their epitaphs to the 
 Tuanc:^ diis mnrdbus, and frequently 
 introduced the dead as fpeaking to 
 the living. Sometimes they were 
 full of moral fentirnents, and a- 
 dorned with carved vvork. The 
 epitaphs of theprefcnt day are ge- 
 r.eraily crammed with fulfome 
 compliments, which were never 
 merited, charaflers v;hich human 
 natuie, in its belt ftate, could fcarce 
 lay claim to, and cxpreffions of 
 refps'ft which were never paid in 
 the l'.r-:-time of the deceafed : — 
 Hence the proverb with great pro- 
 priety took its rife, " he lies like 
 an epitaph." 
 
 Ep IT AS IS is the fecond part of 
 the drama in which the plot, which 
 ■was entered upon in tlie -protafu o!: 
 
 firit part, is carried on, heightened 
 and worked up till it comes to its 
 ftatcor height called catnf.ojis. In 
 the fpitajis all thing'-' were in con- 
 fofion, doubt' ard diflkuUy. See 
 Drama, Catojiafis, Protrjis, ts'c. 
 
 Epithalamium, a nuptial 
 fong or poetical compofition in 
 praifc of the married pair, con- 
 taining wifiies for prolperity and 
 pofteriry. Ep:thala?nia were fung 
 amongfl. the j'e-Tvs, at the door of 
 the bride, by her friends and com- 
 panions, the evening before the 
 marriage. Pfalmxlv. is ^n ebitba- 
 lamiv.jH. Among the Greeks the 
 epithalaifiiipn was lung as foon as 
 the married couple were gone to 
 bed, and attended with Ihouts and 
 ftamping of the feet to drown the 
 cries of the bride. They returned 
 in the morning, and with the fame 
 fong, a little altered, faluted them 
 again. The evening fong was called 
 i7:i^x7:aaisi aoi/y-rfincci, the morning 
 ialuccwascalleQHTn^a^a/vtiasyE^TiKat 
 This was the praftice amonglt tlie 
 Romavs alfo, but their epithdlamia 
 were often obfcene. See Marriare. 
 
 liPULONEs were an oraer ct 
 prielfs or minifters, whofe office it 
 was to furnilh banquets for Jiifitcr 
 and the Gods and Goddefles of his 
 retinue, at the public fports, or on 
 the birth-day of an Emperor, and 
 to aflift at the facrifice?. The in- 
 ftitution of this priell-hood is very 
 ancient. Cicero favs the epnlones 
 were appointed to relieve the/5/?- 
 /Ajf} v^ixo were not able to go 
 through all the duties in the nu- 
 merous facrifices. They were at 
 firll three in number, but were af- 
 terwards increafed to feven, and at 
 laft to ten. They had the privil- 
 ege of wearing their gowns edged 
 with purple like xhz pontijj's . The 
 feaft of the Gods at which they 
 miniftered was called epulutn. See 
 Epul:i7:i. 
 
 Jii'u%-UM was anholv feaft made 
 
 by 
 
KQ^U 
 
 ESP 
 
 hy the Romr.Ks in the templ-^s of 
 the Gods, in times of public dan- 
 ger. The feafc was fumptuous 
 ar.d the Gods wereforiTially iiiviied 
 and attended : For the llatucs were 
 brought on ricli beds furniflied 
 with foft pillows, called pul-ji;:a- 
 ria , Thus accommodated, their 
 wooden godfhips were placed on 
 their couches, at the moll honour- 
 able part of the table. The care 
 of the t/a/tf belonged to the epii- 
 /c::€s, £nd the Gods were plenti- 
 fully fcrvcd with richeft dainties, 
 as if they were able to cat ; but the 
 efiu/ofies performed that function 
 for them, snd doubtlefs were com- 
 petent proxies! — No wonder that 
 P/i/ij folicited Tr^jjcn to be admit- 
 ted of their order. Epulum is alfo 
 iifcd to fignify any iolcmn fealt, 
 f(j we meet svith epulum fercls, a fu- 
 neral entertainment. See Enter- 
 tain)nc'i:t . 
 
 Equestria, a pbce in \.\\zRo- 
 vmn theatres where the Knights or 
 equites fat. Sec Equitcs. 
 
 E <:>u E s T r. I A N games, ludl equcf- 
 trcs, among the Roma>:s, horfe 
 races of which tliere were five 
 hinds, \.\\& proarcmus or ■c\a\r). horfe 
 race, the chariot race, the decnr- 
 lory race about funeral pile?, the 
 judi fe-vi rales, and the ludi nepiu- 
 7icihs. See Prcdrcmts, ^c. 
 
 Equitatus. See Ca~ja!ry. 
 
 Equites. amongft the R.niaas, 
 Were pcrfcns of the fecond degree 
 of nobility, immediately fucceed- 
 ing the Senators in point of rank. 
 The equites or Ivnights were re- 
 quired to be pcfTcired ot a.qo fejier- 
 :ia before they could be admitted 
 into that order; and when the 
 Knights were fo reduced as to fall 
 fhor: cf the prefcribed revenue, 
 they were expunged out of the 
 equcjirian liil. The equejlrian re- 
 venue jail mentioned, amounted 
 toabout 10,000 crowns. 
 
 Part of the ceremony whereby tlie 
 
 Iioncur cf knighthood was con-* 
 fcrred amcngil the RoKians, was 
 the giving of a horfe j for every 
 cques or Knight had a horfe kept ac 
 the public charge, he received alio 
 the iiipcnd of an horieman, to 
 fervc in the wars, and wore a ring, 
 which was given him by the flate. 
 The equites compofed a large body 
 of men, and conlHcutcd the R^ma:: 
 cavalry ; for there was always a 
 funicient number of them in the 
 city, and nothing but a review was 
 rcquifue to fit them for fervice. 
 The review was of three kinds, 
 prohatlo, tranf-ceHio^ recevfio. See 
 Cos^jalry, ProLatio, <S'c. 
 
 The Knights at la ft grew tco 
 powerful, were a balance for the 
 fenate and people, neglected the. 
 e::crc:fes cf war, and betook them- 
 fclves to civil employments. The 
 equites were liable to be punifiied 
 by the ce^fcrs and to fuffer degra- 
 dation. They u-erc degraded hy 
 taking from them the horfe which, 
 was kept for each of them at the 
 public charge ; this was called 
 equum o.dimere. 
 
 Eretriac Sccl. Sse Eliac. 
 
 Ergastulum, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a prifon, \vork-houfc» 
 or houfe of correflion where flavcs 
 bv the private authority of their 
 m.afters were confined and kept 
 for their ofrences to hard labour. — 
 The Greeks had a place of confine- 
 ment of this iortcalledSojpccvjruf or. 
 
 Er I ST I c Sefl. See Mcgari:. 
 
 Espousals, a formal contradl 
 or promife of mirriage between a 
 man and a woman. The cfpoufals 
 amongH the Jc-j:; were either by- 
 writing, or by a piece of filvcr 
 given and received, or by coha- 
 bitation. The woman was tifually 
 efpoufed or betrothed to the man, 
 aconfidcrable time before the mar- 
 riage took place; during which 
 time he might vifit her, but not 
 lodge wifh her. Thus I',lary kxic^ 
 tf^oufed 
 
ESS 
 
 ESS 
 
 efpoufcd to Jofrph before tley ccjr.e 
 together . Matt, i . 18. Dctti.x^.']- 
 Amongll the Greeks, after the pa- 
 rents and friends of the young cou- 
 ple had nniflied rheir ncgociation, 
 the couple themfelvcs pledged their 
 faith to each other, the man f-.vear- 
 ing that he would be conftant and 
 true, the woman that flie would, 
 marry him, and make him mailer 
 of all fhe had. Then ihcy rati lied 
 their agreement by aid's and join- 
 ing right hands. 
 
 Amongft the i?5»jrt;?j the efpou- 
 fals confilled in an engagement of 
 friends on both fides, whether ab- 
 fentor prelent, in public or with- 
 out witnefTes. Bat the common 
 way was by writings drawn up by 
 common confcnt, and fealed by 
 both parties ; befidws this the man 
 fentaringto the woman, confut- 
 ing oFiron and without a llone. 
 
 See Marriage, Ri?!g. 
 
 EssEDARii, a lort of gladiators, 
 intntioned by Seneca Suetonius, 
 and TuUy, who on fome occafions 
 engaged one another out of chari- 
 ots called e£'eda. The EJJ'edum was 
 a fort of heavy chariot from which 
 the Gauls and Britons engaged the 
 Jiomans. See G/adiafor. 
 
 EssENEs, one of the three an- 
 cient feds of the Je-^s, of which 
 Jofephus gives a very particular ac- 
 count. They held abfolute pre- 
 deitination, allowing no free-will 
 at all, nor any liberty of choice.— 
 They allowed a future ftate, but 
 denied a refurre£lion. They lived 
 in retirement, fcldom making their 
 appearance in cities or public af- 
 fcmblies. They did not marry, 
 but adopted the children ol otliers, 
 and bred them up according to 
 their own principles. They dcf- 
 pifed riches, and had all things in 
 common. They abflained from 
 the ufe of oils and perfumes, as 
 luxurious and cfxerainate. They 
 hcfpitably received all travellers 
 
 cl- their own fcfl'. They never 
 changed their cloath.';, till they 
 were cjuite worn out. They oh- 
 ferved a mofc religious ftlcnce till 
 fun-rife, excepting that they pray- 
 ed the fun migh: rife upon them. 
 They laboured till eleven, then 
 batlieJ in cold water, being thus 
 purified, tliey refrelhed themfelvcs 
 with eating, and began and ended 
 tlieir meal withpraife and thankf- 
 giving to God. No noife or tu- 
 mult ever difordcred their houfes. 
 When any ten cf them fat toge- 
 ther, no one of them fpoke but 
 with the confent cf the other nine. 
 No one was admitted into their feft 
 till he had given proofs of his con- 
 tinence, and temperance ; and 
 when admitted he was flriftly 
 bound not to divulge the myllerics 
 of the left to any other. They 
 were ftricl in the adminiftration of 
 juilice, and expelled from their fo- 
 ciety fuch as had been guilty of 
 any enormous crime. Theyftriftly 
 obforved \\\z fubbath, not moving 
 on that day a fingle veifcl out of 
 its place, or eafing nature : On 
 other days when they did that of- 
 fice, they dug a hole a foot deep 
 with a pick ax, and fat over it, 
 covering their, lower parts with 
 their garments. Their word Vva'5 
 binding as an oath, and their ftudy 
 was the writings of the ancients, 
 the nature of medicinal herbs and 
 roots, and the cure of difeafes.— 
 Thev drank no wine, and held 
 war unlawful, but carried a wea- 
 pon for defence. Wherever they 
 fat they took care never to fpit into 
 the middle, or on the right hand. 
 They feem to refemblc the Pytha-~ 
 goreans. They are not once men- 
 tioned in the new tellament, be- 
 caufe from their love of folitude, 
 thev were little known, and from 
 their inoffenfive way of life our Sa- 
 rjiour had no occafion to cenfure 
 them as he frequently does the Pla- 
 
 rifee 
 
EUN 
 
 EVO 
 
 rifeei and Sadducces. Sec the articles 
 Pharlfeesy Sadducees. 
 
 Etesian winds, in ancient hif- 
 lory, are fuch winds as blow at 
 fcated times of the year, from 
 •what part of the compafs focver 
 they come. They are fo called 
 from ETOf ««/?«-', "nyear, being an- 
 nivcrlary or yearly winds, like the 
 monfoons or trade winds. 
 
 EuMOLPiD/E, priefts of Ceres 
 at Eletijis, a city of Attica, who 
 enjoyed the priefthood by inherit- 
 ance, as defcended from Eumolpus, 
 or inilituted in memory of him.- — 
 Eumolpus was made pontiff to cele- 
 brate the Eleujinian myfteries, by 
 EreSlheus King of Athens, and be- 
 came (o powerful in confequence 
 of the appointment, that he made 
 ■war againft ErcBheus — they were 
 both killed, and their children 
 made peace, this being amongft 
 the conditions of it, that the fa- 
 mily of Eumolpus fhould enjoy the 
 priefthood, and the family of 
 EreSlheus the regal power. See 
 Eleufinia. 
 
 Eunuchs, were anciently em- 
 ployed (and the cuftom ftill conti» 
 nues) in the Eaft, to execute 
 the offices of chief trtilt and com- 
 mand, efpecially by Empreffes or 
 Queens, to avoid fufpicion. The 
 jealoufy of the Eaftern Princes like- 
 wife, amidft the general deprava- 
 tion of manners, fuggefted the pro- 
 priety of fetting none but flaves, 
 ivho were made Eunuchs, to attend 
 the Queens ; by whofe intereft 
 they were often preferred to great 
 offices. Another reafon may be 
 affigned for the promotion of Eu- 
 nuchs to offices of flate, which is, 
 that having no obligation or in- 
 cumbrance of wives or children, 
 they may be fuppofed to be more 
 fteady, and to iludy more the in- 
 tereft of their prince than their 
 own private advantage, or fetting 
 up a family i^x themfelves, W* 
 
 read of the Eunuch who was chief 
 treafurer to the Queen oi Ethiopia, 
 Ads viii. 27. 
 
 EuPATRiD^, a name given by 
 Thefeus to the nobility of Athens, as 
 diftinguifned from the Geoviori and 
 Demiurgi. The Ev.patridte hyThe- 
 feus's ellablilhment, had the right 
 of choofing magiftrates, teaching 
 and difpeniing the laws, and in- 
 terpreting holy and religious myf- 
 teries. The whole city, in all 
 other matters, was reduced to aa 
 equality. The Geomori were huf- 
 bandmen, and inferior to the Eu- 
 patrid/e in point of fortune ; th^ 
 Demiurgi were artificers, and fell 
 fhort of the Eupatrida in number. 
 See Nobiles. 
 
 Evangelists, a terra applied 
 principally to the writers of the foui" 
 Go/pels or E'vangelia, viz. Matthew i 
 Mark, Luke, aind yohn. The word 
 alio denotes certain minifters in the 
 primitive church, who affifted the 
 Apojlles in diffufing the knowledge 
 of the gofpel, and travelled about 
 to execute fuch commiffions as ther 
 were entrufted with, for the ad'- 
 vancement of chriftianity. See 
 A8s xxi. 8. Ephef. iv. 11. 2 T/w. 
 iv. 5. A^s xix. 22. AnaniaSf 
 Apollos and Timothy, with others^ 
 were diftinguiihed by this name* 
 Evangelijls were ranked next after 
 ApoJUes and Prophets. 
 
 EvocATi, foldiers among the 
 Ro7nans, who having ferved their 
 full time in the army, went after- 
 wards volunteers at the requeft of 
 fome favourite General ; on which 
 account they were called by the 
 honourable names of Emeriti and 
 Benejiciarii. 
 
 EvocAFio, a religious cere- 
 mony always obferved by the Ro* 
 mans at the fiege of a town, where- 
 in they folemnly called upon the 
 Gods and Goddeffes of the place 
 to forfake it, and come over x.o 
 them, "Without this ceremony 
 S ihey 
 
EXC 
 
 E XC 
 
 tnev thought that the place could 
 not be taken, or that it would be 
 lacrilege to take the Gods prifon- 
 crs. They generally attempted to 
 brilie the deities, by promifing 
 them temples and games. If the 
 place was taken they imagined that 
 the Gods had liftened to their pray- 
 ers, and defertedit. bee the form 
 of evocation ufed at the taking of 
 Carthage Macrch. Sat. iii. 9. 
 
 ExAUCTORATio, I'd 'CtiZ Roman 
 military, differed from the 7niJ}jo, 
 which was a full difcharge, and 
 t;ook place after they had ferved in 
 the army twenty years. Whereas 
 the Excucioratio was only a partial 
 difcharge, they loft their pay in- 
 deed, but ftill kept under their 
 colours or 'vexilla,. though not un- 
 der the nquHa, or eagle which was 
 the Itandard of the legion : whence 
 jnftead on-egionarii they werecalled 
 Rubftgnani, and were retained till 
 they had either ferved their full 
 time, or had lands afligned them. 
 The Exaii8<yratio took place after 
 they had ferved 17 years. 
 
 ExcALCEATiON vvas a particu- 
 lar punifhment amongft the Jevjs, 
 in which a widow whom her huf- 
 band's brother refufed to marry, 
 according to the law called Le-'oi- 
 ra'e, fummoned the man before a 
 court of juflice, and made him an 
 offer of her perfon , in cafe of re- 
 lufal, fhe might exccilceate him, 
 that is pull off one of his fhoes, 
 and fpit in his face, by way of ig- 
 nominy. See Le^irate. 
 
 Excision, in fcripture, figni- 
 lics the cutting off" a perfon from 
 liis people, by way of punifhment 
 for fome fin. The Jenxs reckon 
 36 crimes which they pretend are 
 punifliable by excijion : and the 
 Rabbins reckoned three kinds of 
 excijion, one which deftroys the 
 body only, one which deftroys the 
 foul only, and one that deftroys 
 both body and foul : Thus making 
 
 the foul mortal, cr immortal, ac- 
 cord!. g to the degrees of guilt. 
 
 Excommunication, a folemn 
 cenfare or penalty whereby the 
 delinquent is cut off from all par- 
 ticipation in religious duties, or 
 fpiritual advantages. Excommu- 
 nication, amongit the yeivs, was 
 of three kinds or degrees. The 
 firft was called Niddui, and was a- 
 feparation for a few days — the fe- 
 cond was Chcrcm, and was a fepa- 
 ration attended with execration 
 and malediction — the third Vv'as 
 Shammatha, and was the laft and 
 greater excommunication. Not 
 only the judges, but each particu- 
 lar perfon, in converfation, had a 
 power to excommunicate another; 
 and, if the grounds v/erc allowable,- 
 the excommunication v/as good, if 
 not, the perfon who excommuni- 
 cated another, was himfelf excom- 
 municated. Dreams being fup- 
 pofed to come from God, if a marr 
 dreamed that he was excommuni- 
 cated, he was held to be fo mfaii. 
 Every perfon having a power of 
 excommunicating, excommunica- 
 tion appears to have been a civil 
 rather than an ecclciiaftical cen- 
 fure. A marf might be excommu- 
 nicated univerfally, with regard to 
 all men, or partially with regard 
 to z particular city, or fome parti- 
 cular perfons, this was left to the 
 mercy of the perfon excommuni-- 
 eating. If a man was excommu- 
 nicated partially and refufed to ap- 
 ply for abfolution, within proper 
 time, which was ©ne month, the 
 partial excommunication was con- 
 tinued for a month longer; if he 
 ftill vvas obftinate, he was excom- 
 municated univerfally. When they 
 excommunicated a perfon with the 
 greater excommunication, a trum- 
 pet was founded ; when they {o- 
 icmnly excommunicated the Sama- 
 ritans, they founded three. If a 
 perfon died without abfolution 
 
 from 
 
I 
 
 EXC 
 
 from the fontcncc of exconnnuni- 
 cation, they laid a ftone upon his 
 tomb, to fhew that he deCerved 
 ftoning for his final impenitence. 
 The form of the leller excommu- 
 nication was fhort and eafy, viz. 
 ** let fuch a one be excommuni- 
 cated." But that of the greater 
 was long and charged with dread- 
 ful maledidions by the name of 
 God, by heaven, by earth, by the 
 figns of the zodiac. T+ie yev:s 
 excommunicated not only men, 
 but bealls likevvife: This calls to 
 one's remembrance the conduct of 
 a Bifliop of ^ebec, who excom- 
 municated all the turtles of his 
 diocefe for their diforderly beha- 
 viour. A Spaniih Bifliop, too, ex- 
 communicated all the rats under 
 his jurifdidlion, but this was only 
 a partial excommunication, for he 
 appointed them an ifland for their 
 letreat. The chrijiian excommu- 
 nication feems to be copied from 
 the Jewifla. 
 
 Excommunication amongft the 
 Greeks and Remans excluded the 
 perlon, on whom it was pronounc- 
 ed, from the facrifices and tem- 
 ples, and delivered him over to the 
 Furies, which by the Romans v/as 
 called Exfecrare and Diris De^vo. 
 I'ere, Marcus CraJ/iis was excom- 
 municated by Attcius the trihui:e of 
 the people. When Aiteius found 
 he could not prevent his expedition 
 againft the Parthians, he v/ent to 
 the gate, through which Crajfus 
 was to pafs, fet a chafing difh in 
 the middle of the way, and, when 
 Cra/fus came, threw into the fire 
 fome perfumes, and pronounced 
 curfes againft him with great em- 
 phafis, and loud exclamation j and 
 thus excommunicated him. 
 
 ExcuBi^, the watches and 
 guards kept in the day, by the 
 Roman foldiers. They are contra- 
 d'fiinguiflied from the oigr'h'ce 
 which were kept in the night. The 
 
 EXE 
 
 exatlla were placed either at the 
 gates, and entrenchments, or in. 
 tli,e cam.p ; for the latter there was 
 allowed a whole manipuhus to attend 
 before the ^rir/c?7«/«, and four fol- 
 diers to the tent of every tribune. 
 The excubia at the gates of the 
 camp, and at the entrenchments, 
 were properly calledy?^//c«a. One 
 company of foot and one troop of 
 horfc were afligned to each ef the 
 four gates every day. To defert 
 tlieir poft or abandon their corps 
 oi guards, was an unpardonable 
 crime. 
 
 The tiiarii, as the moft honour- 
 able order of foldiers, were excufed 
 from the ordinary watches ; yet be- 
 ing placed oppofite to the equiiesy 
 they were obliged to have an e) e 
 over them. See Vigiiice '■'lii- 
 arii, I^lanupulus, Pnctorium, i^c. 
 
 ExECRATio, was a kind of pu- 
 nifhment amongll the ancients, 
 confiiling of direful curfes, and. 
 horrid imprecations. It was in- 
 flifted, according to Liiy, on Phi- 
 lip King of Macedan by the Athe- 
 nians. A decree was made in a 
 general alfembly, that all ftatues 
 of that King, and his anceftors 
 male and female, fhould be pulled 
 down, and their names erafed ; all 
 his feftivals, and facred rites pro- 
 faned, his priefts treated with in- 
 fulc, and every thing belonging to 
 hiin, or his honor, held in ab- 
 horrence : That the public pricflsj, 
 as often as they prayed for the prof- 
 perity of Athens, fhould deteil and 
 execrate Philip., his children, king- 
 dom, armies, fleets, allies, and the 
 whole race and name of the Mace- 
 donians. Cornelius Nepos calls this 
 de'voting. See De-voting. 
 
 At the taking and dcmolifhing 
 of cities, it was ufual amongft the 
 ye-TAJS, Greeks, and Romans, to pro- 
 nounce curfes upon, and load with 
 direful execrations the rebuilders 
 of thctn. See Curfes. 
 
 S z Ex- 
 
EXO 
 
 EXP 
 
 ExEDR^, halls with many feats 
 where the philofophers, rhetorici- 
 .ans, and men of learning met for 
 difcourfe and difputation. 
 
 ExEKcniAokfalum. SeeP«- 
 (Uiria. 
 
 ExiLlUM. See Banijhment. 
 
 ExODiA, amongft the Romans, 
 were a fort of farces, or after-pieces, 
 performed by young gentlemen, 
 when the play was concluded. — 
 They bore no relation to the buli- 
 ncfs before exliibited ; but were 
 intended to revive, or rather im- 
 prove the Fefcennine verfes, which 
 had fallen into difufe. Profeiiional 
 aftors never performed any part in 
 the Exodia. The word is derived 
 from £| and u^y) cantilena. The 
 .derivation implies that they had no 
 connexion with the preceding per- 
 formance. See AdoTy Comedy, 
 Tragedy. 
 
 Exorcism was the power or ce- 
 remony of calling out devjls. The 
 "Je^s made great pretences to this 
 power. Jofephus tells feveral won- 
 derful tales of the great fuccefs of 
 feveral exorcifts. One Eleazer, a 
 yeiju, cured many Damoniacs, he 
 fays, by means of a root let in a 
 ring. This rootj with the ring, 
 was held under the patient's nofe, 
 and the devil was forthwith eva- 
 cuated. The 'moft part of con- 
 jurors, of this clafs, were impoft- 
 ors, each pretending to a fecret 
 aioftrum or charm, which was an 
 over-match for the de-vil. Our Sa- 
 viour communicated to his difci- 
 ples a real power over d/emons, or 
 perhaps over the difeafes faid to 
 be occafioned by dtrmons. 
 
 From many pafi'ages in Irenaus, 
 Origen, Epiphaneius, and 'Jofephus , 
 it is evident that the fg^js about 
 our Saviour's time, pretended to a 
 power of calling oat devils, by 
 fome arts or charms derived from 
 Solomon. For a further proof of 
 itteir pretences in this refpcft, fee 
 
 JSlsyiXx. I'i,. Markix.7,S. Luke 
 ix. 59. Exorcifs in the ancient 
 chriftian church, were employed 
 in calling out demons, and were 
 ordained for that exprefs purpofe. 
 See Demoniac. 
 
 Exorcist. See Exorci/m. 
 
 Expiation, a religious cere- 
 mony, by which fatisfa(5lion is 
 made for fins of omiffion or com- 
 miffion, accidental or intentional. 
 The chief mode of expiation was 
 facrifice. The Je^js had feveral 
 kinds of expiatory facrifices for fins 
 of igoorance, as may be feen Lev. 
 iv. For the expiations after legal 
 pollutions, fee Le'v. xii. For the 
 lepers, Lev. xiv. See Sacrijice, 
 Lujiration, Pollution. 
 
 Expiation amongft the Greeks 
 and Romans, confifted in ablutions 
 and facrifices, but diflered accord- 
 ing to the cafes in which it was 
 ufed. Nothing is more common 
 amongft the poets than religious 
 wafhings and purifications : Thus 
 JEn.eas could not touch the houfe- 
 hold Gods, till he was waflied 
 from the pollution of blood and 
 flaughter. See Ablution. 
 
 Expiation, day of, was the 
 tenth of the month Tifri, which 
 anfwers to our September. On this 
 great day the high-priefi laid afide 
 his breaft-plate, and embroidered 
 ephod, as being a day of humilia- 
 tion. He firfl offered a bullock 
 for his own fins and thofe of the 
 priefts : Then he received, from 
 the hands of the elders of the peo- 
 ple, two goats, for a fin-offering, 
 and a ram, for a burnt offering, to 
 be offered in the name of all the 
 people. It was determined by lot 
 which of the goats fhould be facri- 
 ficed, and which fet at liberty. — 
 After this he perfumed the faniiu- 
 ary with incenfe, and fprinkled it 
 with the blood of the goat and the 
 bullock ; then the goat which was 
 to be fet at liberty was brought to 
 
 him; 
 
EXP 
 
 EXT 
 
 him ; he laid his hands upon its 
 head, confefi'ed his own fins, and 
 the fins of the people, then fent 
 him away into Ibme deiart, with all 
 the fins o^ pricjis znA. people upon its 
 head, where it was turned loole, 
 as fome lay, or as others fay thrown 
 down fome precipice. This was 
 called the icape-goat, or az.azcl. 
 Sec Sceipe-Coat, Ajhes. 
 
 The day of expiation was a day 
 of relt, of falling and of prayer. — 
 The people confefi'ed thcmfelves 
 ten times, and ten times repeated 
 the name of God. On this day 
 they put an end to all differences, 
 when the ceremony was over the 
 high-priefl: read the law, and dii- 
 mifl"ed the congregation with a fo- 
 Icmn bencciclion. 
 
 Exposing of infants, a bar- 
 barous cullom pradifed amongft 
 moil of the Grecian dates ; the 
 Thebans fecm to be the only excep- 
 tion, whofe laws puniflicd it as a 
 capital crime. The poor amongft 
 them brought their children to 
 the magillrate, who made an or- 
 der, if the parents were not of 
 ability to educate them, to iiave 
 them brought up at the public 
 expence. Among the other Creeks, 
 when a child was born, it was 
 laid upon the ground, and, if the 
 father defigned to educate it, he 
 took it up ; if lie forbore to do 
 this, the child was carried away 
 and expofed. The Lacedxmcnia::s, 
 indeed, had a diiFerent cuflom ; 
 all new-born children amongtl 
 them were brought before certain 
 trycrs, by whom the infants were 
 carefully viewed ; if they were 
 foundlully and well favoured, they 
 gave orders for their education ; 
 and a certain portion of land was 
 appointed tor their maintenance : 
 But if they were found weakly and 
 deformed, they ordered them to be 
 call into a deep cavern near the 
 mountain TiK^'p-f^w; as they thought 
 
 it neither good for the infants 
 themfclves, nor for the llatc, that 
 they ftiould be brought up, if dclec- 
 tivc. Many people expofed their 
 children only bccaufe they were 
 poor, and could not maintain ilicm, 
 not having the Icall intention that 
 they fliould perifli. This was the 
 milerablc fate of daughters cfpeci- 
 ally, becaufc of the expcnccs of 
 their education and fettlement in 
 the world. See Daughters and 
 Dc-wry. 
 
 The parents frequently tied jew- 
 els and rings to the children they 
 expofed, that if Drovidence "pro- 
 tefled them they might afterwards 
 be difcovcredj or that thofc that 
 found them might be induced to 
 educate them, if alive; or give 
 them decent burial, if dead; or it 
 might be the fupcrltitious tendeniels 
 of the mother, who would not fend 
 away her child without fome por- 
 tion of its parent's fortune. The 
 places where they ufualiy cxj)ored 
 their children were fuch as were 
 moll frequented, that they might 
 have a better chance of being 
 found and taken care of by the 
 compaihonate and humane, who 
 were able to bring them up. The- 
 Egyptians and Rorrums chofe the 
 banks of rivers — and the Greeks 
 the highways. This barbarous 
 cullom was feldom praftifcdby the 
 Roniav.s, and met with little en- 
 couragement. 
 
 ExTispiCES, a name given ta 
 the Arifpices, bccaufe they drew 
 prefages from viewing the entrail;, 
 of vitftims in facrificc. See Anf- 
 pex, Sacrifce. 
 
 ExTRAORDiNAP-ii, amongft the 
 Romans, was a body of men con- 
 fifling of a third part of the fo- 
 reign horfe, and a fifth of the foot, 
 which v;as leparated from the reft 
 of the forces borrowed from the 
 confederate Hates, with great po- 
 licy and caution ; to prevent any 
 defi?u 
 
FA N' 
 
 FAN 
 
 deugn that they might polTiblv en. drawn from amongll: the extraordi. 
 tertain againft the natural forces. 7/^jr:V, under the lidimc oi abledi. — 
 A more choice bosiv of men were See Ahkf:i. 
 
 F. 
 
 ABA. S;c Beans. 
 
 Fabari.t: Calendar, the calends 
 ^? June, fo called by the Romans, 
 becaufe the beans being then firil 
 ripe, lomc of them were offered 
 to the Goddefs Carna, the wife of 
 "Jarais. 
 
 Factions the moftwarm, and 
 j.t the iamt time tlie moft ridicu- 
 lous, were thofe into which the 
 people were divided with refpetl 
 to the charioteers, in the Chxen- 
 Jian games. Each perfon was at- 
 tached to his favourite colour, and 
 fo eager was the zeal of the people 
 iox the fuccefs of the particular 
 company of charioteers they efpou- 
 fed, as fometimes, in the warmth 
 of their partialities, to occafion 
 unwarrantable tumults. See Cha- 
 rioteer, 
 
 False ^vitncfs. Sec Perjury, 
 Witf-.efs. 
 
 Fan was an inflrument ufed by 
 the ancients, Greeks as well as Ro- 
 w;<3/'/.f, as is e\iJentfrom thefe lines. 
 
 Cape hoc Jiabcllujn, et "jeKtulum 
 h:dc ficfacito. Ter. Euii. 
 
 Frsfuit et tenucs ^'entos 7non.'iJ)'e 
 fabello, Ov. Art. Amand. i. i6i. 
 Thcfe fans of the ancients were 
 made of different m.aterials, but 
 the moil: elegant were compofed of 
 peacock's fcathcrs,or were fo paint- 
 ed 33 to rcprefenta peacock's tail. 
 
 F'an, a machine for winnowing 
 corn, was made .ufe of by the an- 
 cients, and feems to have been a 
 form fimilar to ours. The fan, 
 which Virgil caljs jtiyfika n.-annns 
 
 Iizcchi, was ufed at initiations into 
 the myllcries of the ancients ; For 
 as the perfons who were initiated 
 into any of the myfleries, were to 
 be particularly good, this inilru- 
 mcnt, which feparates the wheat 
 from the chaff, was the fitteil em- 
 blem that could be, of fctting apart 
 the good and virtuous, from the 
 vicious and ufelefs part of man- 
 kind. It is figuratively applied in 
 a fimilar manner in Luke'iVi. 17. 
 
 FANAwere temples confecratcd 
 by the Pontiff'' s pronouncing cer- 
 tain folemn words — fo called from 
 fari to pronounce, in allufion to 
 the ceremony. 
 
 F\\NATics, perfons of a fcrious 
 and melancholy caft amongll: the 
 ancients, {o called becaufe they 
 fpent mucK time, in fanis, in the 
 temples. They pretended to reve- 
 lations and infpirations, and being 
 often fcized with a kind of enthufi- 
 afm, as if Qnder the influence of 
 fome divinity, they flicwcd many 
 wild ridiculous and antic geflures. 
 They cut and flafhed tliemfelves 
 with knives, and fhook their heads 
 like the quakers in the infancy of 
 that fed. tience appears the pro- 
 priety of applying the term fanatic 
 to the modern 7nethcdijh, mugglcto- 
 72ia?is, and pretended prophets, or 
 any fet of vifionary enihufiajiics.^ 
 Similar to the fanatici among the 
 P.07nr.ns were the zv^iitjiix<;M iv^iaqiKOi 
 and GicTrvsugxi amongll the Greeks. 
 
 Fasces ^vere axes bound up to- 
 gether with a bundle of rods, and 
 falt?r-cd t9 a pole, which \.\\tlidors 
 carried 
 
F A S 
 
 F A S 
 
 carried before the great magiflrates 
 ol' Rof::e, as a badge of their autho- 
 rity. The fc/ccs were twelve in 
 number, equal to the number of 
 the lUtors, each of whom carried 
 one. Tu'-quin firil introduced them 
 as a mark of fovereign authority ; 
 but in after times they were borne 
 before the ccnfiJs, IJut by turns 
 only, each his month. Alter the 
 ccnfiih, l\\zfofces were affumed by 
 \\\z prators 2.\io, and thz decem'viri 
 had each of them twelve carried 
 before them, in the manner of 
 Kings ; though at ilrft two only were 
 
 allowed to have this honour. 
 
 When the magiftrates v/ho byriglit 
 had the axes carried before them, 
 had a mind to fhcw feme deference 
 to the people, or fome perfon of 
 iingular merit, thcv cither fent 
 away the liters or coinm?nded 
 them to lower the faj'ces before 
 tlicm which was called fubnittere 
 fafccs. Many inilances of this oc- 
 cur in Rcnc.n hiilory. See Liflors, 
 Pr/etor, Ciff. 
 
 In the J'ajles the ax implied the 
 power to punifh, and the bundle 
 of rods was an emblem of the great 
 force of unanimity in the uate. Or 
 the bundle of rods might reprefcnt 
 the body of the people coUcRi-veh 
 eoniidered, and the axes in the 
 middle, the exeatti've pov.'er; the 
 Hiain branch of which is junifihig 
 the guilty. 
 
 F-^sciA was a thin falh which 
 the Rcrac.n women wrapped round 
 their bodies, next to the f]:in, in 
 order to make thcmflender. Some- 
 thing of this fcrt feems to have 
 been in ufc amongft the Grecian 
 iadies, if we can depend upon the 
 reprefentation given by Terence^ 
 Eun. Acl. 2. Sc. A. 
 
 Haud f.milis eft 'virgir.um nojirarutn^ 
 
 quas matr-es Jludent 
 DemiJ/is hn7neris ejfe — NINCTO COR* 
 
 PO R E, 'y.tgractksfiunf. 
 
 Tercr.ce, though a Let::: poet, dc- 
 fcribes Grecian manners and cul- 
 toms. 
 
 F .\ s c I N A T I o N, in Greek 
 BaTxayja, a fort of witchcraft fup- 
 poled to be performed by the eyes 
 or the tongue. It was alfo em- 
 ployed for mifchievous purpofes, 
 as they imagined. Some malig- 
 nant influence was believed to pafs 
 from the eyes or tongues of envi- 
 ous or angry perfons, which in- 
 fcfted the ambient air, and through 
 that medium penetrated and cor- 
 rupted the bodies of animals and 
 other things. The younger the 
 animals were, the more liable thty 
 were, as being more tender, to re- 
 ceive the mifchievous impreiTion. 
 P'irgil ^WAacs to the fafcinaticn of 
 tlie eye in this line, 
 
 Nefiio nids te>:eros oculcs tnihi f^fii- 
 nat agnos. 
 
 Ed. 3. 
 
 To the fafcination or pernicious 
 influence of an evil tongue, he al- 
 ludes in thcfe lines, 
 
 j^iit, fi ultra plaaturK hudarit, hac- 
 
 carefroKtem 
 Cifigite, ne 'uati 'noccat mala lingua, 
 
 future. 
 
 The baneful influence of an evU 
 tongue was fuppofcd to be conveyed, 
 by the vehicle of e::ceiTive praife, 
 and that a bandage of the hert> 
 ir.ccar \\3.s an cflcclual antidctc. 
 
 Fascikum was the figure of a 
 man's privities hung round chil- 
 dren's necks, as an amulet againll 
 falcination. Brides fut upon one 
 for the fame purpofe of prevent- 
 ing witchcraft. Such was the fu- 
 perfiition oF Greece and Rcme, and 
 indeed velljges of it remain even, 
 wnongfl us. 
 
 Fasti 
 
FAS 
 
 FAT 
 
 Fasti were table books amongft 
 the Rcfuans, on which were written 
 the names of the cctifuh, and the 
 luoft memorable tranfadions of the 
 commonwealth. The confuls often 
 gave fmall pocket-books of ivory or 
 iilver, v^ith their names inferted, 
 called fafii Magijlrmes. 
 
 Fafti fignifies alf.^ the P^oma-n ca- 
 lendar, wherein were marked all 
 days of fealb, games and ceremo- 
 nies, this was called Fs.Jli Cakn- 
 tlares. 
 
 Fajli is likewife ufed to fignify 
 annals in general. 
 
 Fasti Dies were the fam.e a- 
 inongll the Romans as our court- 
 days. On thefe days it was lawful 
 for the praior to fit in judgment 
 and' fari tria ^jerba, to pronounce 
 thofe dirce folemn words, do, dico, 
 cddico. See Da, i^c. 
 
 Fasting, as a religious abfti- 
 nenccfrom food, has beenobfcrved 
 in all nations. Mofes appointed a 
 folema fall before the feaft of ex- 
 piation. In the day") o^ Zacharias, 
 the Jen^js had four regular fafis, 
 viz. in the months of June, July, 
 September and December ; to thefe 
 they have added three more. Fafts 
 were fomctimes enjoined occafion- 
 ally, in the time of any public ca- 
 lamity. They were obferved upon 
 the fecond and fifth days of the 
 week, beginning an hour before 
 fun-fct, and continuing till mid- 
 night on the following day. On 
 thefe occafions they ahvays wore 
 fackcloth next their Ikins, rent their 
 cloaths which wereofcoarfe white 
 ftufF; fprinkled afhes on their 
 heads; went barefoot, and neither 
 wafhed their hands, nor anointed 
 their bodies as ufual. Tncy throng- 
 ed the temple, made long and 
 mournful prayers, and had zxtry 
 external appearance of hurailiatron 
 and dejeflicn. In order to com- 
 plete their abftinence, at night 
 they ware allovred to er.t nothing, 
 
 but a little bread dipped in water, 
 with fome fait for feafoning, ex- 
 cept they chofe fome bitter herbs 
 and pulfe. Our Saviour, by con- 
 demning fome abufes committed in 
 facing, plainly intimates that it is 
 a duty, though he does not enjoin 
 it. The time and manner and 
 other circumftances of private fall- 
 ing, are left to ourfclvcs: but 
 whenever it may tend to humble 
 and afflict us, in deteftation of fin ; 
 whenever it may tend to rellrain 
 our fmful appetites, and make us 
 more devout, it is certainly a neccf- 
 iary and religious duty. 
 
 The Athenians obferved thef/^w • 
 Jlv.ian and Fhefmophoria7i fafts very 
 ilridly, in which the women fat 
 for a Vihole day upon the ground 
 in deep mourning. The Lacede- 
 monians having rcfolvcd to fuccour 
 a certain city, ordained a general 
 faft throughout their dominions, 
 without excepting the domeftic 
 animals. 
 
 Jupiier had ftated fails at V^ome, 
 and falling was held very facred 
 there, net even the Kings and Em- 
 perors excufed themfelves ; nay 
 Ntima, Julius Cafar, Angupus, Vef-' 
 pajlan and others we are told had 
 their ftated fall days; and even 
 yulian the apollate out-did the ex- 
 acleft prielb, and moft rigid philo- 
 fophers. in the performance of this- 
 duty. A general faft was proclaim- 
 ed in honour of Ceres, to be ob- 
 ferved every fifth year, in confe- 
 qucncc, as Li<vy informs us, of a 
 fcries of prodigies having happen-ed 
 one after another. To their ab- 
 ftinence from meat, both y^zfjand 
 Pj7r/j;;j frequently added abftinence 
 from fleep. Sec Abfiiiuncc. 
 
 Fat. God forbad the Hebreiuf 
 to eat the fat of beafts. Le^jit. iii. 
 17. The Jenx-s dilfer much how- 
 ever in their interpretation of this 
 law, fome fuppofe the fat, like the 
 blcod of animals, to he abfolutel/ 
 forbidden. 
 
F AU 
 
 FEB 
 
 forbidden. Others afisrt that this 
 prohibition extends only to the fat 
 of oxen, goats and fiiecp, and de- 
 fend theinfclves with Lev. vii. 23. 
 ihis is the opinion of the modern 
 "Jcuos ; others again aliert tliat no 
 fat is forbidden, but fnch as is ac- 
 tually ofrcred in* facrince ; and are 
 fupportcd in their aflTcrtion by Le-v. 
 \\. 2^. In the fiicrifices of the 
 Greeks and P^omans, the fat was 
 ipread upon the thighs of the vic- 
 tim, and in this manner offered to 
 the Gods. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Father, beHdes its proper ac- 
 ceptation, is ufed in fcripture for 
 grandfather, great grandfather, or 
 the founder of a faniily. 
 
 The LaCL'detnoiunns exempted 
 every man who was the father of 
 three ciiildren from the dutv of 
 mounting the city guard ; and a 
 father of four children was excufcd 
 from every public burthen. Fa- 
 thers of three children aniongft the 
 Rcnio.-i'.s hud many valuable privi- 
 leges, acd were cxcufedfrom civil 
 ofiices. See 'Jus triurr.y ^j'c. and 
 C/M/dre!:. 
 
 For the authority which fathers 
 had over their children, i'zc the ar- 
 ticle ChiLh-ai. 
 
 Faviss^, large vaults under 
 ground in the area of the Rcma?i 
 Capitol, where the Romans carefully 
 lodged and depofited with a degree 
 of religious care the old llatucs, 
 and other facred utenfils when they 
 happened to be broken. Such a 
 fuperllitious veneration did they 
 pay to every thing belonging to the 
 Capitol. See Capitoliu.11. 
 
 Faun ALIA, three Roman fefli- 
 vals annually obfcrved in honour 
 of the God Farmits. The firll ^vas 
 kept on the ides of February, the 
 fecond on the 16th of the calends 
 of march, and the third on the 
 «o«a of December. Thefacrificcs 
 on thefe occafions were lambs and 
 iciJ^,. 
 
 Fax. See Torch. 
 
 Feasts were inllituted by the 
 deity amongft the Jc^j.-s for feveral 
 reafons. i. To perpetuate the me- 
 mory of his mercies and miracles. 
 2. To keep them firm to their re- 
 ligion by the view of ceremonies 
 and the magnificence of divine fcr- 
 vice. 3. I'o procure them certain 
 olcafures, diverfions and feafons of 
 reft. ^.. To give them inilruftion, 
 for on feflivals the law was read 
 and explained. 5. To k'^ep alive 
 their acquaintance, and renew the 
 Iriendfiiip betwixt tribe and tribe, 
 family and family, by bringing 
 them together three times a year» 
 from different parts of the country 
 to the holy city. The chief feafti 
 of the yex'.s were the paJjo"jer, pen- 
 tcccji, feaft of tabernacles, expiatiot:^ 
 trumpets, purim, and dedication'.— 
 which v/ill be taken notice of un- 
 der their proper articles. We might 
 have added ihc ?:ci-j'moo7n , fablaths , 
 frhhatical year, and yubilec. See 
 Moor., Sab bat b, 7~ear of jubilee. 
 
 The feftivals of the Greeks and 
 Ro.nans were inftituted for reafcns 
 limilar to thofe given above, and 
 the principal of them will be found 
 under their proper heads. Vid. 
 Bof. no. 
 
 Both the Greeks and Romans had 
 feails in lionour of the dead. See' 
 Feralia, Silicernia, Funeral, Enter- 
 tainmevt. 
 
 For the manner of fcafling a- 
 mongit the ancients, fee Cana^ Jc~ 
 cubatio. 
 
 Feeruaca, a name given tr» 
 the day on which tiie Liipcrcalia 
 were kept. 
 
 February was the 2d month 
 o^Numa^s year, and under the pro- 
 teclion of the God Neptune. This 
 month is not found in the calendar 
 of R.om:dus, but was added to the 
 year by N::ma. It had its name 
 from Fcbrua, Februaca, or Febru- 
 alisy all names of Jinio, •,^■ho pre- 
 T fKled 
 
FEM 
 
 FER 
 
 l!Jcd over the purifications of wo- 
 men : and in this month the Luper- 
 ccJra were held in honour oi "Juiio, 
 and women were purified by the 
 priefts oi Pan Lyceus at that fcllival. 
 oee Liipercalicir 
 
 Fecialls, a college of priefts 
 inttJtuted by Nutna Poinpilius, con- 
 lilling of twenty perfons of quality. 
 Their duty was to n^iake peace or 
 proclaim war. They did not fuf- 
 fcr the P^omaizs to take up arms till 
 uU hopes of agreement were at an 
 end. They went therafelves to the 
 nations who had injured the Ro- 
 ?r.ans, and endeavoured by cool 
 difpaffionate arguments to prevail 
 upon them to make reafonable ix- 
 tisfaclion. If they refufed, they 
 called the Gods to vvitnefs the juf- 
 tice of their demands,and declared 
 war, throwing upon the ground a 
 half-burnt javelin, and an handful 
 of grafs, in the prefence of three 
 aged men ; at the fame time utter- 
 ing dreadful imprecations againil 
 the injurious nations. If the enemy 
 Yielded to their den:and?, a peace 
 \vas granted and ratihed by the Fe- 
 dr.lci, by killing a hog for facrifice. 
 The hog was firft fcruck by the 
 rcaalcs v/ith a itone, who in a fo- 
 lemn form of words prayed at the 
 performance of that ceremony, that 
 the partv, who violated the peace, 
 might bs iiruck by the hand of 
 jfupittr in the fame manner as they 
 llruck the hog. The Feciales were 
 held in high veneration, and were 
 the guardians of the public faith. 
 See lFar. 
 
 Femorali.'v were no more than 
 ill ken fcarfs. bound round the legs 
 and thighs of the P^cmans ; though 
 janoralin indeed is applicable only 
 10 this kind of bandage round the 
 thighs -y that round the legs was cal- 
 ItdTibialia. Neich.er of thofe were 
 'n common ufe : So that they had 
 nothing which cxaftly anfvvered to 
 treechca and fLGcking-s. See llabii. 
 
 FiiRALiA was a fcflival in ho- 
 nour of the dead, obferved by the 
 Pcfiians en the 21ft of February, or 
 as Olid tells us, on the iTth. — 
 During the continuance of this K^i- 
 tival, which lalled eleven davs, 
 preients were made at the graves 
 of the dcccafcd, marriages were 
 forbidden, and the temples of the 
 Gods fiiut up. While the cere- 
 monies continued they imagined 
 that the glioils fuffered no punifli- 
 mcnts in hell, but that their tor- 
 mentors allowed them to wander 
 round their tombs, and fcail upon 
 the meats which their furviving 
 friends had prepared for them. — 
 For a more particular account of 
 the ofierings and facrifices and 
 feafts for the dead, fee hferiee and 
 Silicerniujj:. 
 
 Sometimes at the fcralia public 
 feafts were given to the people at 
 the tombs of the rich and great by 
 their heirs or particular friends,— 
 See Tuner al. 
 
 F L R E N T A R 1 1 i n the Roman arm y 
 were the fame with the Rorarii. — 
 See Rorarii. 
 
 Ferine were holidays amongft 
 the Rcmafis, upon which no work 
 was allowed to be done. Procla- 
 mation was generally made by the 
 Heraldy by command of the Rex 
 Sacro!-um or Fla??:i7ies, that all fhould 
 abftain from bufincfs, and whoever 
 tranfgrefled the order was fevercly 
 lined. The ferite were of two 
 kinds, public and private. The 
 public ferine were of four forts, 1 , 
 Stati^j-'Cy which were kept as pub- 
 lic feafts by the whole city upon 
 certain immoveable days, appoint- 
 ed in the calendar ; fuch were the 
 Agoualia., Carmc7italia, Lupercalia, 
 t5c. 2. Feria Co?icepti'va, which 
 were moveable feaftj, the days for 
 the celebration of which were fixed 
 by the magiftrates or prieits ; of 
 this ibrt were the Ferine Latin^r, 
 P.tga/Uh'ia. Co^fipitfiiia, Uc which 
 happcKed 
 
FKS 
 
 FIR 
 
 happ-»ncd every year, but die days 
 lor kerping tliem were Icfc to the 
 difcretion of the magillrates cr 
 pricftj. 3. Fcria: Impcrati-x'cc, which 
 were fixed and inltitiited by tlie 
 mere command oi covj'ils, prictcrs, 
 •dilators, upon the gaining ol lome 
 \i<5tory or other fortunate event. 
 4. Isiaid'ina;. See the article Nun- 
 ^'//*r, Ag07!alia, Car:;ier.talia, Isfc-, 
 
 The FerLs Pri-jaicc were holy 
 days oblervcd by particular pericns 
 or lamilies, on icveral accounts, as 
 birth-days, funerals, &c. The 
 FeriiS belonged to, and were one 
 divifion of the dies fefil. See Day^ 
 and TeJlL 
 
 Feri^ Latinae, a fcftival at 
 ■which a white bull was facriliccd, 
 and the Latin and Roman towns 
 provided each a fet quantity of 
 meat, wine and fruits, and during 
 the celebration, the Romans and 
 Latii:s f'.vore eternal friendihip to 
 eacJi other, taking home a piece of 
 the vidim to every town. The 
 feUival was imiitiited by Tarqiiinius 
 Su(>crl'us when he overcame the 
 Tufca>is and made a league with the 
 Latins, propoling to build a com- 
 mon temple to "Jupiter Latiali:, at 
 which both nations might meet 
 and offer facrilices for their com- 
 mon fafety. Atiirfl thcfolemnity 
 lafted but one day, but it was at 
 dirferent times extended to ten. It 
 was held on the Alban mount, and 
 celebrated with chariot races at the 
 capital, where the viftor was treated 
 with a large draught of wormwood 
 drink. 
 
 Fescenine I'erfes, were a fort 
 of extempore dialogue, in which 
 the performers with a grofs and 
 railic kind of raillery reproached 
 one another, and their audience 
 too, with their failings and their 
 foibles. They received their name 
 from Ftfcciuna, a town in Tufcpj:y, 
 where this fpecies of rude poetry 
 was Jirll ufcd, to divert the con- 
 
 pany at merry-meetings. 
 
 Festi dies, amongll the Rcfr.am^ 
 were holidays of which they had, 
 in ancient Ronie, almolt as many 
 as modern Rome can boall of. They 
 were fpcnt in facrilices, luilratioiis 
 ot their fields, and expiations, and 
 ^vcre flridly obiervcd, no work be- 
 ing allowed oi, except works of 
 ncreility, and works that could not 
 be dcierred without inconvenience 
 cr danger, as appear^ from Virgil, 
 Georg. i. 270. For the feveral di- 
 vifions of the dies fc/ii, fee the arti- 
 dcD^y. 
 
 Festivals. SctFeaJIs. 
 FiBUL^ff: wexe a fort of buttons^ 
 buckles or clafpsmade ufe of by (he 
 Greeks and Rofr.am ior'ktQ-^iu? clofe 
 or tying up fome part of their 
 cloaths. They were of various 
 forms, and often adorned with pre-, 
 cious ftoncs. Men and women 
 wore them in their hair and at their 
 ihces. Players and muficians, hv 
 way of preferving the voices of 
 children, put under their care 
 to learn their arts, ufed to keep 
 clofe the prepuce with a fibula, IcH 
 rhey fliould have commerce wit'i 
 women. 
 
 Fire was kept continually burn 
 ing in the temple of the y."-xyj, zn^ 
 watched day and night by the 
 prieils. This fire which firll fell 
 dovv'n from heaven, upon the altar 
 of the tabernacle, was transferred 
 from thence to the temple, and pre- 
 ferved unextinguiflicd till the dc- 
 ftruclion of the temple. 
 
 The Pagans alfo had their il'cred 
 fires, which they kept carefully in 
 the temples, never to be c.xtiii- 
 guiflied. AW.2 was the firlt who 
 built a temple toVclia at Rome, I.e. 
 to fire; he alio inllituted an order 
 of prieitefies for the prefervation of 
 it. See V eft ah. 
 
 The Greeks and Roma::s alwavs 
 
 ufed the facred fire to burn the fa- 
 
 criiiccs on the altars. Coinmori 
 
 T 2 fire 
 
FIR 
 
 FLA 
 
 fire on fuch cccafions being unal- 
 lowable. The G/ve,{'j2rc ruppofcd 
 to have made ufe of wild-fire, fire- 
 balls or hand-granadoes, in their 
 engagements by lea and land. 
 Firkin. Stz Mctrsios. 
 F I R s T - B o R N . See Pr'nr.ogeni - 
 ture. 
 
 First-Fruits, ofFerings made 
 to God by the Hebreivs, of part of 
 the fruit of their harveft, as an ac- 
 knowledgment of his fovereign do- 
 minion. They were called iirft- 
 fruits becaufe they were offered in 
 the temple before any part of the 
 crop was touched. There were . 
 two forts of firft-fruits; the firft 
 was offered in the name of the whole 
 people, and confiiled either of two 
 leaves of bread or of a fiieaf of bar- 
 ley, gathered en the evening of the 
 15th oC N:/aii, and threlhed in the 
 court of the temple. This was 
 cleanfed and winnowed, then three 
 pints of it were roafted and pounded 
 rvith incenfe and oil, and waved 
 "by the prieft before the Lord to- 
 wards the four winds; the pricfi: 
 then threw a handful into the fire, 
 and kept the remainder for himfelf. 
 This done, every man had liberty 
 to reap and get in his harveft. The 
 other ^kind of iirft fruits confifted 
 as the Rabbins fay, cf a 60th part 
 of each man's harveft, v/hich every 
 private perion brought to the tem- 
 ple. Thefe firil-fruits confided of 
 ■wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apri- 
 cots, olives and dates. They were 
 carried in proceffion by 24 perfons, 
 preceded by an ox for facrifice, 
 -\vith gilt horns and crowned with 
 olive. Another fort of firft-fruits 
 ■was a portion of whatever was 
 kneaded in a family for bread ; this 
 was fet apart, and given to the prieft 
 cr Lcviie of the place ; if there was 
 110 prieft or Letnte, it was confumed 
 in the oven. Thefe offerings made 
 a confiderable part of the revenues 
 cf the Je^':ijh prisfl-hood. See 
 
 PrhKiti^e, Booty, TytJse. 
 
 Fiscus was amongft the Rctnatis 
 the private coffers crtreafury of the 
 Ef!:perors, and conlcquentiy difler- 
 ed from the ^rarium, which was 
 the public treafury belonging to 
 the people. The goods of con-' 
 demned perfons, if appropriated to 
 the ufe of the public, were faid 
 publicari — if to the fupport of the 
 Emperor or Prince they were faid 
 cotififcari . 
 
 Fistula, a mufical inftrument 
 refembling our flute. The tibia 
 zn^ fjiula vitTQihz principal v\ind 
 inftruments amongll the Romans, 
 but how they were conftrudled, 
 how they were plaved upon, and 
 how they differed, has not been 
 determined. SesTibia. 
 
 Flamen, a prieft of a certain 
 order inftituted by K','.?:ia. At firft 
 they were only three in number, 
 viz. Flamen Diaiis, lifayiialisy and 
 ^irinalis. Th.tFiamenDia!is was 
 facrcd to "jiipiter^ and a perfon of 
 the highcft confequence and au- 
 thority in the ftate. He difcharged 
 feveral religious duties which pro- 
 perly belonged to the Kings, 
 and was honoured with many emi- 
 nent privileges beyond all other 
 cfiicers, but was obliged to obferve 
 feveral fuperftitious rcftraints. The 
 Flamen Martialis was facred to 
 Mars, and was ordained to infpefl 
 the rites of that God. The Flamen 
 ^irinalis was facred to, and fupcr- 
 intendedthe rites oi ^irinuscr Ro- 
 viuhis. The Flamines laft mention- 
 ed, though of high authority, were 
 much inferior to the F/a/nen Dialis. 
 All three were chosen by the peo- 
 ple out of the nobility, and confe- 
 crated by the Porfifex Maxi/nus.—- 
 In latter times feveral priefts of the 
 fame order and name were added to 
 them, but inferior in power. The 
 whole number at laft amounted to 
 fifteen. Some authors tell us the 
 Remans had a Flamen for every 
 
 deity 
 
FLO 
 
 FOO 
 
 tkiry they worniipped. The great- 
 er Flavt'ines wore the robe edged 
 with purple, like the great magif- 
 trates, had an ivory chair, and a 
 feat in the Senate, They wore a 
 little band ot thread about their 
 heads, whence their name is faid 
 to be derived, Quafi Filajiunes. — 
 The wife ohhtFlamenDialis was cal - 
 Id Flamhiica, and wore a flame 
 coloured habit, on which was 
 painted a thunder-bolt, and above 
 her hcad-drefs flie had green oak 
 boughs, to indicate that ihe be- 
 longed to Jupiter the Thunderer, to 
 whom the oak was Tacred. The 
 Flami?:es wore each of them a hat 
 or cap called Fiammcum ot yipex.—' 
 See Jpex. 
 
 Flammeum was a Flamens hat 
 with a crown ViVc 2. pine-apple, and 
 a woollen tuit on the top. See 
 Jpex. 
 
 Flnmvieuvi was alfo the veil worn 
 by the bride on her wedding-day. 
 
 Floor for threjking corn. Sec 
 Thrcjhing Floor. 
 
 Flcrales Liuii, were games 
 celebrated^ in the Campus Marti:is, 
 in honour of the Godick Flora, in 
 which a number of common fcrum- 
 pets danced naked, playing all man- 
 ner of lafcivious tricks. Lafiantius 
 has aflerted that thefe games were 
 not in honourof the Goddefsf/o^-a, 
 but of oneF/(5r«, a profiitutc, w^ho 
 left her fortune to the itatc, but 
 this is a fiftion of his own. They 
 were held during the Floralia. — 
 See Floralia. 
 
 Floralia, a feall kept by the 
 Romans, in honour of the Goddefs 
 Flora: This fcaft began April the 
 25th, and continued till the firil 
 of May, during which time the 
 Ludi Florales were celebrated. See 
 Flcrales Ludi. 
 
 Flour. The law of /kf^j/e-j per- 
 mitted the poorcft of the I/raelifes, 
 who could not afford to offer large 
 cattle, nor even birds, nor pigeons 
 
 for burnt-Oiferings, or offerings for 
 fin, to ofier at leail fine flour. — 
 Le'vit. \ii. 12, 13.. Part of this 
 flour the priell threv/ into the fire 
 as a facrifice, the refl he kept for 
 himfclf; and of this none but the 
 pricils might eat — nor could thev 
 cat of it any where, but in the 
 holy place, that is, during the 
 time of their fervice in the taber- 
 nacle. Le'vit. vi. 14 — 16 and ii. 
 I — 3 and V. 4.5. Flour was alfo 
 ufed thus, in the way of fubltitute 
 for animals, by the Greeks in their 
 hecatombs. Sec Hecatomb. 
 FoECiALES. Sqq Feci ales. 
 FoeueraTjC Ci--vitates, \\-tii. 
 fuch cities or ftates as were joined 
 in confederacy with the Rowans ^ 
 upon terms adjufled and fettled be- 
 tween them, enjoying entirely 
 their own cufloms and forms of 
 government: In this they differed 
 from the other cities and ftates of 
 Italy, which were either colonies, 
 viunicipia or prafeSJurtc. Sec Co- 
 lonies, tSc. 
 
 FoEDus, a league. For the 
 manner of making a league or 
 peace, fee Fsciaks. 
 
 Folus was a fort of ball or bal- 
 loon ufed by the Romans for exer- 
 cife and diverfion. It was ftruck 
 about by the arm, guarded, for 
 that purpofe, with ;i wooden bra- 
 cer. See Pila. 
 
 Food. We are told that in the 
 firft ages men lived upon acornp, 
 berries, and fuch fruits as the earth 
 fpontaneoufly produces; then they 
 proceeded to eat the ^t^a of wild 
 animals taken in hunting : But ' 
 their numbers dccreafing, and man- 
 kind multiplying, necelhty taught 
 them the art of cultivating the 
 ground, to fowcorn, &c. By and 
 by they began to aiiign to each 
 other by general conlent, portions 
 of land to produce them their fup- 
 ply of vegetables ; after this, rea- 
 fon fuggelled the expedient of do- 
 meilicating 
 
FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 :r.efticatiiig certain animals, both 
 TO alTiil them in their labours, and 
 iupply them v.ith food. Hogs 
 n-ere the iirll animals of the do- 
 mcftic kind that appeared upon 
 their tables ; they held it to be un- 
 grateful to devour the beafts that 
 allifted them in tJieir labours. — 
 When they began to make a free 
 iife oi'domeftic animals, they roafl- 
 ed them only; boiling was a re- 
 nnement in cookery which for ages 
 ihev wcr^ ftrangers to; and fi'h 
 iivi'n? in an element men were un- 
 x-.fed to, were not eaten till they 
 grew fomewhat civilized. Mer.e- 
 iaus complains in the Odyjfey, that 
 they had been conftrained to feed 
 upon them. See Meat. 
 
 Foot. It was caftomary, in 
 old times, to wafh the feet of 
 ftrangers coming offa journey, be- 
 caufc generally they were bare- 
 footed, or wore iandalsonly, which 
 did not fecure them from duft or 
 dirt. This is often alluded to both 
 jn the old and ve-^.v tcjia?nejit, and 
 chffic authors Greek and Latin. — • 
 To put oft" the ihoes, was, amongli 
 the Je-ii-s, a fign of mourning, and 
 fometimes a token of profound re- 
 ipeft and reverence for a perion or 
 place. The Je^vAjh women wore 
 rings of great val'je en their feet. 
 Ifa. iii. 20. To co'vcr the feet, is, 
 a fcripture phrafefor eafing nature; 
 and the n.:-ater of the feet fignifics 
 urine. We meet alfo with the hnir 
 ef the feet in a fimilar fenfc. Jfa. 
 vii. 20. 
 
 i^ooT Soldiers. Sec Infantry. 
 
 FoRFEXwas away of drawing 
 up an army in the form of a pair of 
 fneers. It was intended to receive 
 the Cuneus-, if the enemy fliould 
 make ufe of that figure. For when 
 the forfx opened ta admit the 
 'ix.-edge, they had an opportunity of 
 defeating their defign, and cutting 
 them in pieces. Sec Cui:eus. 
 
 fot^nACALiA, i':c feaf cf O-vens, 
 
 inilit'.itcd bv Numa, in honour of 
 Fornax y the Goddefs of Ovens. — 
 Offerings of cakes were prefcnted 
 at the mouth of the oven. 
 
 Fornication is ufed in fcrip- 
 ture to fignify all forts of carnal 
 impurity, adultery, and idolatry 
 or infidelity towards God. All 
 forts of unchaility were forbidden, 
 both in the old and new teltament. 
 The Greeks and Ro^-nans, though not 
 Itriftin their notions of the immora- 
 lity oi fornication, were, neverthe- 
 Icfs, laudably fevere in their treat- 
 ment of adulterers. Sec Adultery ^ 
 Harlots, l^c. 
 
 Fortification, among the 
 Greeks and Romans, was in a very 
 rude and fimple ftate, if compared 
 v.ith the improvements of modern 
 times. The manner of fortifying 
 placcsconliitedinfurrounding them 
 with walls with battlcm.ents at top, 
 and flanked with towers, about an 
 hundred feet afunder, and Ibme- 
 times without foffes round them : 
 But the befl fortified had broad an d 
 deep ones, with draw-bridges at 
 the g^tes, defended by towers. — 
 They had no occahon for any other 
 defence for advanced works, there 
 being no machines which produced 
 fuch terrible efleiSls as thofc of 
 chowder. 
 
 FoauM, a public place in Rome, 
 wliere caufes were tried and orati- 
 ons delivered to the people. It is 
 alfo ufed for a place of traffic. So 
 that \ve may properly diflinguifli 
 the Roman fhra into two forts, fora 
 ci-Z'ilia, and fora 'venalia. The 
 fhra civilia were public courts of 
 juftice, very magnificent in thcm- 
 felves, and furrounded with por- 
 ticos, andltately edifices ; of thefe 
 there were fix very remarkable : 
 I . Forum Romanu7n, 2 . yiilianumf 
 3. Astgujlum, 4, Palladium, ^.Fo- 
 rum 'Jrajani, 6. Forum Salufii.'— 
 The Forum Ronianum was the moil 
 noted, and is often called fimply 
 Forun^ 
 
F RO 
 
 FUN 
 
 forum, bv wav of eminence. Here 
 was the pleading place called Rof- 
 tra, the Comithirn, the ianfluary 
 cS Sr.t::r}:, temple of CaJ}or, i^'c. — 
 See Rrjha, Comitiun:, i^c. 
 
 The j'ora <venalia, or places of 
 traffic, anfwcr to our market places. 
 The chief of them were xkz fcriim 
 {^oiiariu7!:,ior o\^\\ or hetf ; fuarium 
 for fwine; pijlcriian for bread ; cu- 
 pedirarium ior dainties ; olitorium 
 for garden Ihiff. 
 
 The Grecian A^cfai exactly cor- 
 refpond with the Ro/?ian fora, being 
 places where courts and maricets 
 were held. At Alhem they had 
 many_/or«, but the chief of them 
 were the o/^and ne-M. 
 
 Fossa was a ditch furrounding 
 the Roman camps. See Camp. 
 
 Fountains were generally e- 
 fteemedas facred amongllthe Greeks 
 »nA Romans ; but fome were held 
 to be fo in a more particular man- 
 ner. The good effects received 
 from cold baths gave fprings and 
 rivers this high reputation ; for the 
 ialutary influence was fuppofcd to 
 proceed from fome prcfiding deitw 
 Particular reafons might occafion 
 lomc to be held in greater venera- 
 tion than others. It v.-as cuftomary 
 to throw little pieces of money 
 into thole fprings, lakes or rivers, 
 which were elteemed facred, to 
 render the prefidingdivir.iiics pro- 
 pitious. Tlie touch of a naked 
 body was fuppofcd to pollute thcfe 
 hallowed waters. 
 
 F R A T R H s ari'alcs . See Ar-uaks. 
 
 Freedom. Sec Ci-cis. 
 
 F R 1 T I L L u M , See Pyrgus. 
 
 Front IS ini/jhj. See InuJIio. 
 
 Frontlet, amongll the Je'zvs, 
 was a fquare piece of calf's Ciin, 
 dry and hard, including tour pieces 
 of parchment, upon which were 
 written four paflages cf the law, 
 one on each piece. Thefe, with 
 the calf's leather, were tied upon 
 the forehead with thangs by vvay of 
 
 amulet. Exod. xiii, 
 
 Fru.mentatio, amoTigH the 
 Rcmavs, was a largefs of corn be- 
 llowed on tiie pcopleto Iboth their 
 turbulent fpirits. It was an anci- 
 ent cuftom, and the number to 
 which the largefs was to extend at 
 firlt was unlimited, till Augujius 
 fixed it at 200,coo pcrfons. Sec 
 Largitio. 
 
 Frumentum decumamim., v/as a 
 quantity of corn which the farmers 
 who were under the Roman go- 
 vernmenr, were obliged to pay by 
 way of tax ; i*" was generally a 
 tenth of their crop. 
 
 Fritmcntiaii impcrattun, v.'as a 
 quantity of corn exafted ofthe far- 
 mers in the province?, at fuch a 
 price, as the chief magillrateschole 
 to give. 
 
 Frvmentum aftimaf:an was a corn 
 tax for the private ule and occali- 
 ons of the chief magiftrate of the 
 province. This was commonly 
 compounded for in money, at i 
 certain rate, and therefore called 
 
 FuMARiUM. See Chimney. 
 
 FuNAMBULi. See SchcEvobates . 
 
 Funditores, fiingers, a part; 
 of the Roman military, who ufed 
 to go before the main body and 
 ikirmilh v.ich the enemy. See 
 hlin'ys. 
 
 Funeral rites, were the cere- 
 monies attending the interment or 
 burial of the dead. In thefe rites 
 the Je-^is, Greeks and Romans feem 
 to have differed little; as little as 
 the different genius oi the religion 
 
 of each nation would allow. 
 
 Amongft the Jev.s, as foon as a 
 perfou was dead, his relations 
 clofed his eyes, wafhed the body, 
 bent the thum.bs into the hands 
 and tied them in that pofture; be- 
 caufe the thumbs then having the. 
 figure of the name of God, the 
 de'-jil they thought durft not come 
 near. Sometinic^ they embalmed 
 
 the 
 
FUN 
 
 FUN 
 
 the body, and fomctimes anointed 
 it, making uie of various fpices. — 
 IVJ'inftrcls were font for, who ccn- 
 tinuaily played folemn mufic, fuit- 
 ablc to the occafton. Thus we read 
 of Minllrels, Sec. at the death of the 
 rulers daughter. Matt. ix. 23.—* 
 Sometimes they burntthe body, but 
 oftener interred it wichoutburning. 
 "When they came to the burial 
 ground thev made a fpecchorfuneral 
 oration, being anelogium on thedc- 
 ceafed, and concluded with apray- 
 er. While the dead continues in 
 the houfe a wax taper continues 
 burning at his feet — and befjre he 
 is fhut up in his cofiin they put 
 him on a ihirt, and a garment of 
 fine linen, and lail of all his tnlci/, 
 which is a fquare piece of cloth 
 with tufcs. Whoever attended 
 upon |he dying or tiie dead, or 
 touched the ccrpfe, or dwelt in the 
 lame houfe, were unclean for feven 
 days ; and the manner ot expiating 
 v/as byfprinkling themfelves with 
 \vater mixed with the afhes of the 
 red heifer killed on the day of ex- 
 piation. This was dens with a 
 bunch of hyfibp. The houfe and 
 furniture were fprinkicd in like 
 manner. Sec Jj^es, Ex^iatioK. 
 
 The funeral rites of the Gn-eh 
 and Romiv:s were fo nearly alike 
 that one account may fuirice. It 
 was cullomary for the neareft rela- 
 tions to kifs the lips of their dying 
 friend, in hopes that they might 
 catch the departing foul ; they aifo 
 took off his rings, but reitorcd them 
 again before he was carried to the 
 pile. When he was dead they 
 clofed his eyes. Then they wadied 
 his body with warm water, that if 
 any vital fpark remained it might 
 be difcovercd and excited by the 
 warmth: This done, it ivas a- 
 nointedw'ith perfumes by the Pc/-, 
 liSIcres, and wrapped in a gar- 
 ment, which amongft the Greeks 
 was commonly white, amcngil the 
 
 Ror.icns it was fome robe of office, 
 if the perfon deceafed had enjoyed 
 an/ poft of honour. Chaplets or" 
 flowers were alio put upon his 
 head, or fuch crowns as his con- 
 duct in war had merited. We 
 come next to the coliocatio or lay- 
 ing out the body, which by the 
 Greeks was called <7r^:li5ta5ai. See 
 Colhcatio . 
 
 Tlie next ceremony was the con- 
 cla?;ic.tio ox owt-zxy raifed before the 
 corpfe relembling the hijT? hcn-vl. 
 This was performed by certain wo- 
 men hired for the parpofe, called 
 p!-/rfctr^, in order if poifible to re- 
 call the fleeting foul, or leftify their 
 grief. See Praeficce and Concla- 
 matio. 
 
 Cyprefs, yew, and pitch - tree 
 branches were ftack up at the door, 
 and ftre^vcd around the houfe as 
 indications of mourning: The 
 Greeks for the fame purpofe hung 
 hair upon the door, and placed a 
 vcfl'el full of water at the entrance, 
 that thofe who had touched the 
 body might purify by wafning. 
 
 Some time before the corpfe was 
 carried out, the G/wi/ ufed to put 
 into his mouth a cake, to appeafe 
 the fury of Cerhcrus, confifcing of 
 flour, honey. Sec. His mouth was 
 alfo furniflied with a piece of mo- 
 ney for Charo7is fare ; this they 
 called ^of.vaKv\, See Danace. 
 
 As to the time of carrying fqrth 
 the dead, it {zcvnz gc7ierally to have 
 been the ninth day, but there are 
 many infcances both amongft the 
 Gredar.s and the Remans of its be- 
 ing earlier. The aft of carrying 
 forth the body was called by the 
 Romans elatio ; by the Grctksy 
 sx^opa, SccE/atio. 
 
 The night was generally chofen 
 for this ceremony by the Romans^ 
 the day by xht Greeks. The body 
 being placed upon a feretrum or 
 bier, was carried, along with the 
 funeral bed, by the nearelt relati- 
 ons, 
 
FUN 
 
 FUR 
 
 a-lies and bones of tlie deceafed 
 were colleded and put into an urn. 
 The fire was extingaifhed with 
 wine, and the Grecians wafhed the 
 bones and afhcs with wine. No- 
 thing now remained but to put the 
 ar/? into the fcpulchre, and purify 
 the company with holy water three 
 times : The water was rendered 
 holy by quenching a burning brand 
 in it. Then 'z;i3/^ being three times 
 pronounced, as an eternal farewell, 
 the people were difmiflcd by pro- 
 
 ons, or heirs, upon their fiiouldcrs. 
 Sometimes the deceafed was ex- 
 pofed to view, as they marched in 
 procefiion. Trumpeters, mulici- 
 ans, mimicks and players lung and 
 danced before. The flaves, alfo, 
 
 with their caps on, preceded the 
 
 corpfe ; and at the funerals of great 
 
 men, couches containing the waxen 
 
 images, &c. of the deceafed, led 
 
 the proccffion, while relations, and 
 
 great numbers whom curiofity had 
 
 drawn together ufuallv followed. 
 
 The fons of the deceafed were CO- nouncing the folemn word ilicet, 
 
 vercd, daughters uncovered. In i. t. ire licet. 
 
 z\\ funerals of noteamongil the TJij- For the cuiloms obferved in the 
 
 tnavs, the corpfe was taken to the time of mourning, fee Mournivg. 
 
 forum, while fome relation pro- See alfo the articles Buricl, Burn- 
 
 nounced an oration in praife of the ing. Sepulchre, Urn, ^c. 
 
 deceafed. Frcm hence it was con- What has been here faid o'ifuiie- 
 
 vcyed to tlie pile, which was al- ral rites cannot be underilood as 
 
 ways cut of the city. Sec Pile. applicable to all the funerals oi' 
 
 The body was now fet down, Greece or Rome; for the funerals 
 
 prepared, and then, with the bed, differed amongft them in magniii- 
 
 placed upon the pile, which was cence and fhew, as much as a- 
 iimmediately lighted by the neareft mongft us. What has been dc- 
 [relation with a flaming torch ; but fcribed in this place is the outlines 
 
 that he might appear to do this of- of a /plendicl i'unera.1. There wers 
 riice with reluctance, he looked a amongft the Rotncuis feveral kinds 
 fdiffcrent way. Frankincenfe, oil, of funerals, as the /}<;^;i^j /?/^;V7/--jz/w 
 |fat, and other combuftibles were when a general invitation was 
 
 thrown into the Hre to quicken the given, //<«.vj taciturn a private fune- 
 |confuniption, and increafe the ral, &c. For funeral games, fee 
 
 lames. His armour, cloaths, and Games. 
 
 whatever was noil pleafing to him Funeraticum, funeral, ex- 
 Iwhen alive were burnt along v/ith penccs, which fometimes, as mav 
 him. While the pile was burning, reafonably be fuppoied, amounted 
 if the deceafed had been a General to a vaft fum. Nero fpent at the 
 or otTier great cfEcer^ a ceremony funeral of Pcpp^n more cinnamon 
 was performed by the foldiers and and caffia than Arabia produced in 
 others of the company, called by a whole year. This is the account 
 the Greeks 7r£fiJ^0|«r?j ai^d by the which, Pliny fays, was given by 
 Romans, dccurjio. See Decurfio. certain perlons who were ifr/// re- 
 In the barbarous agec, from an ruin, but who might, notwithlland- 
 opinion that ghofts delighted in ing, esprefs themfelves hyperboli- 
 blood, they ufed to murder men, cally. The funeral of Nej-o, a.c- 
 and throw them into the flames ; cording to Suetonius, amounted to 
 afterwards they were content with zoo,ooo fefterces, which of our 
 ihews of gladiators, and the burn- money is about 1614!. i is. 8d, 
 ing of bealls upon the pile. When Furca was an inftrument of 
 Ihe whole w«is burnt dovvn^ the puniihrn^ji^t amongft the Romam^ 
 
 U being 
 
GAL 
 
 GAL 
 
 being a large and heavy piece ot 
 ^vood refcmbling a fork, or, ab Vlu- 
 zarchi^y^, the thill of a waggon. — • 
 The punilhment of the furca was 
 fjf three kinds: l. Furca ignomini- 
 ftj'a, when a m after for feme fmall 
 oiFcnce forced his fervants by way 
 of difgrace, to carry the furca on 
 their ihouldcrs about the city .- 2. 
 Furca paralis, when the party was 
 led and whipped round the circus 
 nr other public place, with the 
 Jv.rcd about his neck: 3. Furca ca- 
 pitalis, when the rnalefaftor, hav- 
 ing his head faftencd to the ft:rca 
 
 wasv/hipped to death. Frcni this 
 account of x\ic furca, the meaning 
 of the term furcifer will be fj.l!y 
 underftood. 
 
 Furcifer. Set Furca. 
 
 FusciNA, a trident which the 
 gladiators called refiarii, carried in 
 their left hand to difpatch their ad- 
 verfary, when with the net they 
 had thrown him down. See Gla- 
 diatcrs, Retiarii. 
 
 FusTES, or admcu'itlo fnJliiirA. a 
 civil and military punifliment a- 
 mong r^i^tRomatis. For an account 
 of which, {zzAdmonitio. 
 
 G. 
 
 GACHAL was a Jcvifn d-y 
 meafure of capacity contain- 
 ing ,-^- of a pint and 31 decimal 
 parts of a folid inch Hnglifh. See 
 Meafure. 
 
 Gale A was a light cafque, head- 
 piece or mcrrion, coming down to 
 the faonlders, and commonly of 
 I.rafs, though Camillus, according to 
 Phdarch, ordered thofc of his army 
 to be of iron, as being the ftron^er 
 metal. The lower part of it was 
 called bitcculay and on the top was a 
 creft. See Crifa. 
 
 The Vclztes wore a light galea, 
 made of the fkin of feme wild beail 
 to m.ike it m.ore terrible. See Ve- 
 iites Helmet^ l^c. 
 
 GALERicuLUMjWasa cap worn 
 both by men and women amongil 
 the Romans. It conlifted of fkin, 
 which was io neatly drcfled with 
 human hair, that the artinciil co- 
 vering could fcarccly be diftin- 
 gaiflied from the natural. It vias 
 nfcd-bv thofe whofe hair was thin, 
 and by wreftlers, to keep their own 
 liair from receivingany injury frQin 
 
 the nafty oils with which they were 
 rubbed all over, before they exer- 
 cifed. It feems to have refembled 
 our wigs. 
 
 Galerus, was the fame as the 
 galea. See Galea and Helmet. 
 
 Galileans, a fed: amongft the 
 "Je-jcs, which owed its origin to one 
 fudas the Gaulotiite, or Galilean i 
 fuiias pretended that the tax, cfta- 
 blifhed by the Romans, and regu- 
 lated by ^irinius, was an ad; of 
 tyranny which all t:-ue Ifraelites, 
 who difdained the nam.e of fervi- 
 tude, ought tooppofe with all their 
 power. His dodrinemade an im- 
 prefiion upon the minds of many, 
 who joined fudas, took up arms, 
 and began a kind of civil war, 
 which in fome degree continued 
 till the deftrudion of Jenfalem. — 
 The difciples ot Judas were called 
 Galileans, becaufe "Judas himfelr, 
 and moft of h;s followers, were of 
 upper Galilee. They were like- 
 wife called ihrcdians, becaufe the 
 kingdom of tierod the Tctrarch, in- 
 cluded Galike, Thsir tenets a- 
 
 grccd 
 
GAL 
 
 GAM 
 
 greed, in general, with thoTe of 
 the Pbarifccs. An excefTive love 
 of liberty «as their prevailing prin- 
 ciple; and their diftingaiiliing 
 doiflrinc was, " that God alone is 
 the head and prince, whom we arc 
 bound to obey ;" confequenily they 
 refufed to pay any taxes or tribute 
 wliatfoever. The 'Jeivs, when our 
 Saviour was brought before Por.tius 
 Fitate, endeavoured to render him 
 fufpecled of thisherefy. LukexxiW. 
 2. Sec Htrcdinns. 
 
 Gall, was generally given, a- 
 mongrt the Je^vs, to perfons fufter- 
 ing death under the execution of 
 tlie law, to make them lefs fenfible 
 of their pain; but gall and myrrh 
 are fappofed to have been the fame 
 thing; becaufe at our Saviour's 
 crucifixion, St. Ulafihew fa_vs, they 
 gave him vinegar to drink mingled 
 with gall ; whereas St. Mark calls 
 it wine mingled with myrrh : The 
 truth of the matter perhaps is that 
 they diftinguifhed every thing bit- 
 ter b) the name of gall. The 
 Greeks and Romans alfo gave fuch a 
 mixture to perfons fuftering a death 
 of torture. 
 
 Gall ANTES, among i\\e Romans, 
 was a furname given to the priells 
 of Cyhclc, whence the modern terms 
 oi gallatit and gallantry have been 
 formed. 
 
 Galley. See Ship. 
 
 Gall I, a name given to the 
 priefts of Cybele, from the river 
 Callus in Phrygia; but of the ety- 
 mology of the name we have no 
 certain account. All that we learn 
 with certainty about them is, that 
 they were Eunucks and Phr'igians, 
 and that in their folemn proceffions 
 they danced, bawled, drummed, 
 cut and flafhed themfelves, play- 
 ing upon timbrels, pipes, cymbals, 
 &c. and driving about an ais load- 
 ed with the fdcred rites and trum- 
 pery ot their Goddefs. When a 
 YQung man was to be iniuatcd, he 
 
 uus to throw off his cloaths, ran 
 crying aloud into the midlt of their 
 troop, and there draw a fword and 
 caftrate himfeif ; after this he was 
 to run into the llreet with the part^ 
 cutoff, in his hand, throw them 
 into fome houfe, and in the fame 
 houfe put on a woman's drefs — a 
 very folemn ordination trulv ! — 
 Thefe prieib had the names alfo of 
 Curetes, Coryhantcs and DaSyli.~^ 
 The chief prieil was called Ar:lA- 
 Gallus. This order of prierthood 
 is found both amongft Greeks and 
 Romans. See an account of thera 
 in Lucret.Lib. 2. and "Ju^j. Sa* . 6. 
 
 G A l l I c 1 N I u M . Sec Night. 
 
 Gamelia, aniongft the Greeks, 
 was a name given to tlie day next 
 preceding marriage, on which it 
 was cuftomary to offer facrinces to 
 the Gods and Goddeffes, to make 
 them propitious. On this day th« 
 parties alfo fhaved themfelves, and 
 confecrated their hair to fome of 
 the deities, whence it was called 
 
 Gamelion, the eighth month 
 of the Athenian year, containing 
 29 days, and anfwering to the lat- 
 ter part of our January, and the 
 beginning of February. It had itj 
 name from funo Gauielia, to whom 
 it was facred. This was looked 
 upon as the propereft month in the 
 year for marriages. 
 
 Games, amongft the Greeks and 
 Romans, were public diveriions ex- 
 hibited on folemn occalions, and 
 united with their religion fo as to 
 make a part of it. 
 
 The principal games amongft 
 the Greeks were the Olymypic, Py- 
 thian, Ijihmian, and Nem^an. See 
 Olympic, &c. 
 
 Amongft the Remans there were 
 two forts of games, facred and ho- 
 norary. The facred games were 
 the ludi auguflales, apollinares, ca- 
 pitolini, compicalitii, conjuales, cerc- 
 aleSf Jlorales, mart tales, megalenfcs, 
 U 2 pc.latmi^ 
 
GAR 
 
 GEH 
 
 palatini, Romani, faculares. Thefe 
 were infiitated on feveral occafions 
 to the honour of feveral deities. — 
 See Aiigujicles, i^c. 
 
 The honorary games were either 
 'voti've or CQ7npU7nentary. Fhe vo- 
 tive were in confequence of feme 
 vow made by Magillrates or Gene- 
 rals, when going upon any expe- 
 dition. Of this kind were the ludi 
 magni, quinquennalcs, deceanales, tri- 
 umphals, nataUtii, juuenalcs, and 
 nifcelli. The co m d1 i m en tary games 
 were exhibited by private perfons 
 at their own eiipence, confilling of 
 combats oi glaJzators, fcenic games, 
 and other cj.^phitheairical i^ons. — 
 See Magni, Slninqucnnaks, iffc. 
 
 To thefe we might zAd, funeral 
 games, confining of all the exercifcs 
 of i\\c pentathhim. Thefe were in 
 life both amongit the Greeks and 
 Romans. 
 
 The diverfions of the Jenjos feem 
 to have confifted chiefly in eating, 
 drinking, dancing, and mufic ; 2 
 Zam. ::ix. 35. 7/2?/. v. 1 1, 12. Ames 
 'vi.,5. Thefe pleafurcs they en- 
 joyed at their fhecp-fhearing, har- 
 veft, and vintage. We find in the 
 fcriptures frequent mention of nets, 
 gins, traps, fowlers, hunters, &c, 
 whence we may conclude they 
 fometim.es applied themfelves to 
 hunting, fowling, frilling, &c. 
 
 The pri-vate games or a7i:ufements 
 of the Romans, were the latruneidi, 
 tali, tcjfene, pila, par impar, and 
 trochj'.s. -ee Lairuneuli. Tali, i^c. 
 
 Garlands were worn at feafts 
 both by the Greeks and Romans, not 
 only on their heads, but on their 
 necks, hands, and brealls. They 
 are fuppofed at iirft to have been 
 ufed only at the feafts which were 
 held in honour of the Gods, and 
 to ^lave confifted of fuch flowers 
 as the particular Gods, in honour 
 of vvhjm the entertainment was 
 held, principally delighted in. 
 
 Garments. See Ua^if. 
 
 Gastromancv, a fpecies of 
 divination amongft the Greeks, in 
 which they filled certain round 
 glafles with pure water, placing 
 lighted torches around them ; then 
 they prayed to the deity in a low, 
 muttering voice, and propofed their 
 queftion : A chafte and unpolluted 
 boy, or a woman big with child, 
 obferved every alteration in the 
 glaffes, begging and requiring an 
 anfwer, which at laft, they fay, 
 was given by certain images in the 
 glafles, reprefenting what fliould 
 come to pafs. 
 
 Gates. The Gates of cities 
 were anciently the places of judi- 
 cature, and common refort. Hither 
 the people came for the admini- 
 llration of juftice, and the fettling 
 of afiairs. Here were alfo markets 
 for all forts of provifions. The 
 gates for the tranfaflion of bufinefs 
 are frequently mentioned in fcrip- 
 ture, and we may reafonably fup- 
 pofe there v/ere large and commo- 
 dious buildings over them to ac- 
 commodate the magiftrate- and 
 people aflembled. 
 
 Gaulonites, a fc6l amongft 
 the 'Jeivs, the fame with Galileans. 
 See the article Galileans. 
 
 Gazophylacium, amongft the 
 Je<n.vijh writers, fignilies fometimes 
 the cheft in which the rich prefents 
 confecrated to God were kept in 
 the temple of Jervfalem ; and fome- 
 times the rooms in the temple 
 where the provifions for facrifice, 
 and the maintenance of the priefts 
 were laid up. In the gofpels it 
 fignifies the cheft at the entrance 
 of the temple, into which people 
 caft their offerings upon their go- 
 ing in. 
 
 Gehenna, was a valley near 
 "Jerufaletn, terrible on account of 
 two forts of fire, ift, that v/herein 
 men burnt their children to Maioch; 
 and 2d, that wherein the filth of 
 Jerufahm and dead csicafes were 
 
 kept 
 
GEN 
 
 GER 
 
 kept continually burning. 
 
 Becaufe of the tortures of the 
 firft, and the ofienfivenefs of the 
 fecond fire, it was a type of 
 hell, and, by a figure, is ufed fre- 
 quently in the new teflamcnt to 
 fignify'/W/'/rc-. This valley lay 
 to the fouth of Jcrvfalejn, and was 
 known by the two names ollUnnoin 
 anc Jojhct. 
 
 Gemoni^e Scahs. See Scala: 
 
 GiVlOnirC. 
 
 Getjealogy, an enumeration 
 of a fcrics of anceftors. No nation 
 was ever more careful to prefervc 
 their genealogies, than the 'Jen.us. 
 The facred writings contain gene- 
 alogies extended 3500 years back- 
 ward. The genealogy of our Sa 
 viour is deduced by the Evangelilb 
 from Jdam to Jofeph and Mary, 
 through a fpace of 4000 years, and 
 upwards. The Je^jcijh priells were 
 obliged to produce an exa£l genea- 
 logy of their families, before they 
 were admitted to exercife their 
 function. Wherever they were the 
 Je^vs were particularly careful not 
 to marry below themfclves; and to 
 prevent this they kept tables of ge- 
 nealogy in their fevcral families, 
 the original of which were lodged 
 at Jerufalem, to be occafionally 
 confulted. Thefe authentic mo- 
 n'jimcnts, during all their wars and 
 perfecutions, were taken great care 
 of, and from time to time renewed. 
 But fince the dellruclion of their 
 city, and the difperfion of the peo- 
 ple, their ancient genealogiej. are 
 loft. The Greeks and Ro7nars were 
 not without their genealogical ta- 
 bles, which were kept for the pur- 
 pofes of gratifying their vanity and 
 oftentation, they were called fiem- 
 Tfiata. 
 
 General, the commander in 
 chief of an army, Th.c J c-ivs, as 
 living in a theocracy, elleemed 
 God as their General, confequently 
 thepriefts, as being imjnediately 
 
 under him, founded the trumpet, 
 and gave the ugnal for battle ; io 
 that the priefts v.-ere the vifible 
 Generals under the invilible com- 
 mander, God. 
 
 The Athenians, in the firft ages 
 of their republic, chofe ten Gene- 
 rals, who were accountable for 
 their conduft; but finding this 
 number very inconvenient, becaufe 
 the vvanted a cafting vote, they 
 added another. The original ten 
 were called Xrpalnyoi.^ and the 
 eleventh 7roy^ef/.a^x°i'» ^^ whom the 
 command of the left wing of the 
 army belonged. But this number 
 of Generals being found, on fevc- 
 ral accounts, inconvenient, they 
 afterwards out of the eleven juft 
 now mentioned, chofe one, two, 
 three or more according to the na- 
 ture of the fcrvice, or as occafion 
 required. The Lacedc.'nonia}:s were 
 taught by experience to lodge the 
 chief com.mand in one perfon ; for, 
 though they had two Kings, they 
 would allow of no more than one 
 commander, becaufe, when the 
 Kings bore equal authority in the 
 army, a quarrel having taken place, 
 divided the army, and proved in- 
 jurious to the ilate. The Reman 
 General had the name oiimperator, 
 had the honour of taking 07nens by 
 tlie afiillance of the diviners, and 
 was treated with the grcateft refpecl 
 and moft fuperftitious veneration. 
 His fetting out upon an expedition 
 was attended with much formality 
 and religious ceremony. He had 
 a number pf led horfes, richly ca- 
 parifoned, and ornamented with 
 purple, and cloth of gold. The Ge- 
 neral was often devoted to Ju-- 
 piter, by means of which ceremony 
 they fuppofed all the misfortunes 
 that might othervvife have fallen 
 upon his head, were transferred to 
 the enemies oi Rome. 
 
 Gerah, a Jewifh coin, worth 
 id. { 6, of our money. Stt Money. 
 
G I A 
 
 GIR 
 
 Gerrha, Tsppa amongft die 
 Qreeks^ were wicker hurdles which 
 the foldiers held over their heads, 
 to flielter themfelves from the fall 
 of Uunes from houfes, .I'c. They 
 r^fembled the --jineiz of the Roviavs. 
 Sec Vi/iees 
 
 Gestatxo, amongft the /i(jw«/w, 
 was a piece of ground fct apart ior 
 rhc purpofe of exercifc, either on 
 horfebackor in their vehicles : It 
 was generally contiguous to their 
 gardens^ and laid out in the form 
 of a circus. The Gejiatio differed 
 from the Amhulatio and Xyjfus, as 
 may be feen ur-dsrthofe articles. 
 
 Ghosts. The ancients fup- 
 pofed every man to be poffelTed of 
 $hrce different ghoits, which after 
 
 the diffolutlon of the hnmr.n body 
 weredifiercntly difpofedof. Theie 
 three ghoits are diftinguifhed by 
 the names of Manes, Spiritus, U;::- 
 bra. The Manes, they fa:icied, 
 v/ent down into the infernal regi- 
 ons } the Spiritifs afcended to the 
 flvies, and tlicUmhra hovered about 
 the tomb, as being unwilling to 
 quit its old connexions. Thus 
 Diclfj (Virg. JLn. iv. 384) threatens 
 j^neas after death that Ihe will 
 haunt him with her Umbra, whiift 
 her Manes rejoice in his torments 
 below. This idea of a three-fold 
 foul is very clearly exprelled in 
 thefe lines, which have been attri- 
 buted to O-vid. 
 
 Bis duo funt hcmifii: Manes, Card, Spiritus, Umbra: 
 
 ^luatuor ijia loci bis duo fufcipiin:t. 
 Terra tegii Car^.'em, tmnulum circum.'volat Umera, 
 
 Orcus habet Manes, Spiritus ajlra petii. 
 
 ■GiATJTS, make a very confidcr- 
 able figure in the fabulous hiftory 
 of every nation ; like ghofls and 
 fairies, they have always vanifhed 
 at the approach of fcience and civi- 
 lization. The foflil bones which 
 gave currency to the belief of their 
 cxiflence, have upon minute en- 
 quiry been found generally to be- 
 long to elephants, whales, .ic. 
 
 The giants fpoken of in fcrip- 
 ture might be men ofextraorcinary 
 ilature ; but not fo much above 
 the ordinary meafure as they have 
 fancied, who defcribethem as three 
 or four rimes larger than men are 
 at prefent. The giants of holy 
 icripture were rather giants in 
 Tvickednefs and violence than in 
 ftrength and ilature. When ;the 
 Ifraelites defcribe the Anakitns, we 
 are to call to mind that the eaftern 
 nations deal much in Hyperbole, 
 and exprefs things that exceed the 
 common bounds^ as prodigious and 
 •©.-iccliive. 
 
 GiGANTOMACHIA WaS 3 public 
 
 edifice at Athens, wherein the battle 
 of the Gods, with the giants, was 
 reprefentcd in painting. 
 
 Girdle, ^ona or cingiilnm, a 
 fort of belt or bond, tied about the 
 loins to keep up the loofc garments 
 which were in ufe amongft the 
 Jeivs, Greeks and Romans. The 
 Je^vs wore no girdles unlci's they 
 were travelling or at work ; but 
 when they were employed in any 
 bufinefs, that required a free and 
 unencumbered exertions of their 
 limbs, they tucked themfelves up, 
 and girt their cloaths about them. 
 This was the conllant cuftom alfo 
 of the Greeks and Romans. Girdles 
 where often made of very precious 
 fluff. Thofe who made profeffion 
 of repentance, aufterity of man- 
 ners, and contempt of the world, 
 wore leathern girdles. Soldiers 
 conftantly wore girdles or belts iu 
 which thev hung their fwords.— 
 ■ Thofe 
 
GL A 
 
 GL A 
 
 Thole of the Greeks and Rovwns 
 came down over the ihouldcrs ; but 
 the Jen.<:s girt theirs about their 
 loins; fo that they wore their iwords 
 by their iides. The purfe was ge- 
 nerally fLnpendcd.asafmall pouch 
 or pociiet, from the girdle, hence 
 Zaiia fignifies the purfe. Some- 
 times the giidle itfelf was ufed as 
 a purfe, being large and hollow, 
 like the iKin of an eel or ferpent. 
 For the caftom cf loofmg the Zora 
 or virgin girdle, at marriages, fee 
 the article Zcf:a. 
 
 Gladiators, perfons at Rome 
 who were fighters by profelhon, 
 and were frequently exhibited to 
 the populace, to kill each other for 
 their amufcment. They were firft 
 employed to dellroy each other ut 
 the funerals of the rich and great, 
 to gratify thcblood-thirfty fouls of 
 the deceafcd. It had been cuflo- 
 ir.ary to murder llavcs, at the fu- 
 neral pile, in cold blood; but it 
 was confulcred a^ lefs cruel to make 
 them kill each orherlike men, than 
 to butcher them like brutes. Af:er- 
 wards the combats of Ghidic.tcrs be- 
 gan to be lool'.ed upon as fhows of 
 pleafiire, and were frequently ex- 
 hibited by way of procuring ix- 
 vour and popularity among the peo- 
 ple The Emperor Gordianus d^xxx- 
 ing his cdilcfhip foraetimes exhi- 
 bited 500 hairs of gladiators at 
 once, to pkafe tiic people with this 
 fanguinary fport, and never enter- 
 tained them with \zii than 153. 
 Vnl-v. Arx. HijL 
 
 Th.&Glail!rJoysv:tXQ ufuaily fiaves 
 who fought from nccefiity, though 
 fometimes free men engaged in the 
 profefTion for gain, like our prize- 
 fighters : From flaves and freemen 
 this brutal fport extended to perfons 
 of rank, as find in Nero's time, 
 and Demit ian exhibited combats of 
 women in the nighttime. We read 
 alfoof the dwarfs encountering each 
 other. All ranks of men delightsd 
 
 in thefe bloody fhows, and even 
 tlic very priefts had their Ludi Pen- 
 tificahs, and Ludi Sacerdotales. — 
 Gladiators were all fwoni to fight 
 till death, or fuffer death by fire, 
 fwords clubs, whips, &^c. Hand- 
 bills were circulated when any 
 perfon had a mind to treat the peo- 
 ple with a fliew 01 gladiators, and 
 auvertifements were put up, figni- 
 fying the time, place, number, 
 badge, c^:c. Uoon the day ap- 
 pointed, x\\Q. gladiators were brought 
 out, and made to walk round the 
 Arena; then they were matched 
 in equal pairs. Then they fought 
 with wooden foils called rudts, 
 which were denominated ar}na lu- 
 foria, afterwards they had the cf- 
 fedive weapons given them, called 
 annadecrctoria, becaufe fixed upon 
 by iht praetor, or perfon who gave 
 the fpcftacle; thcfe arms were 
 fwords, poniards, &:c. When any 
 one received a remarkable wound, 
 the peopIe'cVied out Hahet. If the 
 vanqui/hed furrendered his arm?, 
 the viftcr could not grant him his 
 hfe, without the people's leave, 
 which they fignified by clenching 
 the fingers of both hands between 
 each other, and holding the thumbs 
 upright, ciofe together; the con- 
 trary^was fignified by bending back 
 their thumbs. The firft cf thefe 
 fignah was called pollieem pranere, 
 the fecond poUicem r.ertere. The 
 viftors were honoured with a palm 
 branch and other marks of the peo- 
 ple's favour ;but the moli common 
 rewards were the pileus and rudis. 
 See Pileus and Rudis. 
 
 There were difterent forts of 
 gladiators, Vvho were differently 
 armed ; the principal were the 5"^- 
 cutores, Retiari', T braces, Myrmil- 
 hr.cs, Hoplornachi, Samnitet, EJJi- 
 darii, Audabatx, DimacbtCri, Ale- 
 ridiar.t Fifcales, Pcjiulatitii. See 
 Secutores, ^c. 
 
 Shev-'J cr glc.tiators were firft ex- 
 hibited 
 
GOD 
 
 GOL 
 
 hibittd A. U. C. 490 — and were 
 not laid afice till A.D. 500. 
 Glass. See WindG->jjs. 
 Globus, in the military aSairs 
 oi the Rotnnns, was a firm round 
 body wliich the foldiers threw 
 themfelves into, in cafes of extre- 
 mity. 
 
 Gnostics were chrijiian heretics 
 of tlie firfl and fecond centuries. — 
 Like the Mm:! c beans, and fome of 
 the ChcJdaic philofopherSj they held 
 two principles, the one good, the 
 other evil ; the firll they regarded 
 as the author of every blelTmg, die 
 other as the caufe of whatever is 
 bad. They fuppofed the foul to 
 be the fubllance oi God, and denied 
 the divinity of Chrijl, faying that 
 . God only dvv-elt and acled vvithin 
 him. They indulged taemfelves 
 in the moft unlawful plealurcs of 
 the body, and held them to be 
 good; and theirnodlurncd meetings 
 were defiled with theatmoil impu- 
 rity. Dr. Hammond fuppo!es this 
 here/y to havearifenin thcx^poltles 
 days, and that the G?iG/iics are al- 
 luded to I. Tim. 6. £0, , and in o- 
 ther places of fcripture,. — A full 
 account of thefe heretics and their 
 opinions may be found -n Irenteiis. 
 Goat. See Scape-gaat. 
 God, amongft the Je-cvs, was 
 diftinguilhed by the name Jehovah 
 as his proper name but this name 
 they never pronounced, but uled 
 inftead of it the words Adcr.ai and 
 Eiohim. 
 
 The wifeft of the Pagans ac- 
 knowledged but one God ; thus 
 Pythagoras taught the unity of God, 
 and P/^/o calls him the being that 
 '/f, and mentions him always in the 
 fingular number. Tlie many dif- 
 ferent divinities worfliipped by the 
 Heathens, were in fact the attri- 
 butes and actions of one and the 
 fame God ; but by an abufe of 
 ideas natural to the ignorant, what 
 was at liril regarded as a c^aality 
 
 was {"oon exalted into a fubflance. 
 When they magnified the power of 
 Goa as exerted in the heavens, 
 they called him yitpiter, when they 
 praifed him for his power in t!;e 
 lea, they called him Neptune, when 
 they extolled him for his influence 
 in the fubtcrraneous regions they 
 called him Pluto, tffc. hence the 
 origin of Polytheifm. 
 
 The Gods of the ancient Greeks 
 and P^.omans, were either Dii Ma- 
 
 joruin Gentium — I)ii Minorum Gen- 
 tium—ox Dii Seleai. The DiiMa 
 
 jsrum Gentium, who were alfo cal- 
 led Dii Co7ifentes, are enumerated 
 in tHefe verfes of Ennius. 
 
 Ju7io, VrJ*a, Wiir.erva, Ceres, Di- 
 ana, Venus, Mars. 
 
 Mercurius, jfonjis, Neptiinus, Vul- 
 camis Apcllo. 
 
 The Dii Minorum Gentium, who 
 are frequently c-A\qA Adfcriptii, in- 
 cluded all the reft, except the Se- 
 Iccli, which were ^ol. Luna, Tellus, 
 Genius. Janus, Scturnvs, Liber, 
 Pluto. The Gods may perhaps 
 moft naturally be divided into ce- 
 lellial, terreftrial, marine, infernal ; 
 and moeal, the iaft of which were 
 fuppofed to prelide over or to repre- 
 fent certain qualities, as Virtue, 
 Febris, Fortune, iffc. 
 
 Golden AW^^r, in chronology, 
 is that numher which indicates the 
 year of the Lunar cycle, for any 
 given time. [t was called the 
 Gclden Number, becaufe in the an- 
 cient calendar it was written in 
 letters of gold, on account of its 
 great ufefulncfs in ecclefiaftical 
 computations, efpecially in fixing 
 the time of Eafter. It was like- 
 wife called the Prime, becaufe it 
 pointed out the firft day of the 
 new moon, primum lunte. The 
 Golden Nhmber did not exadly an- 
 fwer the intended purpofes in the 
 Julian calendar, and is ftill lefs a- 
 daptect 
 
GR A 
 
 GR A 
 
 daptcd to the Gregorir.n ; tlie epr.Ji 
 311 the new llvlc affords a more 
 certain rule ; and to find the <•/«<? 
 the GoL'en Kumher is of ufc. To 
 rind the Golden Nuvioer add i to the 
 year of our Lord, divide the Turn 
 by 19, and the remainder is the 
 Golden Number, the quotient at 
 ihe lame time exprefiing the num- 
 ber of cycles which have revolved 
 from the beginning of the rear pre- 
 ceding the birth of Chrifi. Thus 
 for the year 1787 I uroceed thus ; 
 
 1787 
 add I 
 
 19' 1788(94 Revolutions of the 
 171 Lunar Cycle. 
 
 78 
 
 76 
 
 2 Golden Number. 
 See Cjde, EpaSi. 
 GoA!E8.. See Homer. 
 Goose, a domeftic bird held in 
 »reat efteem amongll the Romans — 
 ibr having faved the capitol from 
 the invafion of tne Gciiih by cack- 
 ling and clapping its wing?. Geefe 
 V.'ere kept in the temple of Juno, 
 [»ndthe Cer.fors, when rhey entered 
 apon their oftice provided meat for 
 ihem. There was aJfo an annual 
 feait at Rome, at which they car- 
 ried a filver image of a goofe in 
 ftate ; and hanged a dog, to puniih 
 that animal becaufe he did not 
 Ibark at the arrival of the Gca/;. — 
 [See T>ogs. 
 
 GoRGONEUM", a kind ofmafque, 
 ufed on the ancient theatre, to re- 
 prefent hideous and frightful fi- 
 gures in imitation oi Gorgo'tis. 
 
 Grace at meals, was ufually 
 "faid amon^ft the HeatJ^ens in fome 
 Ihcr: ejaculatory form, the Je^^s 
 never omitted it, our Saviour alfo 
 hath left us an example, for looking 
 *p to hea'-jen he hlejjed, ga^je, isfc. 
 lyiattb. xiv. 9. And St. Faul in- 
 
 forms us, that " e-very creature cf 
 God is gocd, — if it he recel-ved nvith 
 thai:kj~gi'vi7:g. l Tim. iv. /}., 5."^ 
 We likev.-ife meet with a com.- 
 mandment to this purpofe, Dent. 
 viii. 10. IVhenthouhaJi eateit, ai:i 
 art full, thoujkalt blefs the Lord thy 
 God : And in obedience to this in- 
 junflicn the fcv-s alivays fay grace 
 to this day. The contrary prac- 
 tice cf too manv amongft us, who 
 devour God's creatures, without 
 once aiking a bleifing, or calling a 
 grateful eve towards heaven, is vcrv 
 indecent, unchriilian, and atheif- 
 tical. Tertullian fays of the ancient 
 Chrifians, noii prins difcttnibitur 
 quam oraiio ad dznm pra-gnjieiur ; 
 they no fconer fat down, tha'.i 
 prayer to God conftituted the firft 
 part 'of the entertainment. See 
 Bleftng. 
 
 Grappling Iron, called by 
 the Greeks ^Bip cn^n^a, by the 
 Ro!nans, ffiamis fcrrca, were hook*- 
 of iron call out of an engine into 
 the enemies fajps. The grappling, 
 irons were iirit ufed in Greece by 
 Pericles the Athenian, at ^ojne, by 
 Duilius. The name fufHcientlv 
 fliews the ufe of them, which v.as 
 to bring to the enemies fh;ps to 
 give an opportunity of lighting. — 
 They were fomcwhat different to- 
 the Harpagir.cs. See Harpagines. 
 
 Grasshoppers. See Nobilesj 
 Tettrges, Autochthones. 
 
 Graves, among the fen-KS, were 
 generally out of the city, thougb 
 we meet v/ith inftances of their in- 
 terring the dead in towns. Fre- 
 quent mention is made of graves 
 upon mountains, in highways, in 
 gardens, and private houfes. So 
 that nothing on this head feems to 
 have been determined. The fame 
 may be obferved with refpedl to 
 the Greeks. The Ihehans had a 
 law that every perlbn who built an 
 houfe fhould provide a burial- 
 ground. Men who had dillin- 
 W guiihsd. 
 
GRE 
 
 GYM 
 
 gaifhed themfelves were frequerrtly 
 buried in the public _/fr.v/«. The 
 inoft general caftom was, however, 
 to bury out of the city, chiefly by 
 the highway fide. The Romans 
 were forbidden by the law of the 
 t'.velvc tables to bury or burn the 
 dead in the city, but fome we find 
 had their fepulchres in Rome ; 
 though they paid a fine for the in- 
 dulgence. See Burial, Sepulchre. 
 
 Gr.EAVEs, in Greek, called 
 kv>!/x(5ej, in latin, Ocreec, were worn 
 both by the Grecian and Reman 
 foldiers ; the latter having adopted 
 them from the former. They were 
 made of brafs, copper, tin or other 
 metals, to defend the legs. The 
 iides were clofed about the ankles 
 \vith buttons of g^ld, filver, &c. 
 Tliis kind of dcfenfivc armour was 
 at hrft peculiar to the Greciavs, and 
 Homer perpetually calls them 
 suKVYifi'^si A%a(0[. See Ocre^. 
 
 Grecians or Greeks. Thefc 
 words often occur in the new tefta- 
 inent, but boar difierent fignifica- 
 tions in different texts. Thus the 
 term Ew.»v£>- which in the Englifh 
 tcliament is tranflaied, Greeks, in 
 :S.om. 1. 14. I Cor. i. 22, 23,^fi2- 
 Jiifies nati-ves of Greece. ^^ In joh?! 
 vii. 35. y/Axiv. i. xviii. 4. xix. 
 10. Gc-l.ni. z^. Col. n\.\i,kc. 
 it figniRes Geniilfs who accommo- 
 dated themfelves to the Grecian re- 
 ligion and manners, and ftands op- 
 pofcd to Je--vi-s. In John xii. 20. 
 Jds xvii. 4. it fignifies Je~ujh pro- 
 felytes, defcended from Grecian fa- 
 milies. The word EAA>iwir7ai, 
 
 which in the Englilli trsnflati&n is 
 rendered Grecians, occurs .Ads vi. 
 I. ix. 29. xi. 20. at:d fignifies 
 Hellenijls, Grecian prcfeljUSt iuch 
 as had been converted from Hea- 
 ihenifm to judaifm. Some, r.niorgft 
 whom is Doddridge, c-rroneoully 
 fuppofe it to mean foreign 'Je-jcs, 
 who ufed the Greek langu :ge in 
 their lynagues and ccnvcrfation.--- 
 
 It is vvoithy of obfervation, that 
 Ex?.-^:£j is rendered Greeks ^ ^nd 
 Y.KKnvi'jlct.i G re dans, o.\mc^ invari- 
 ably, in our Englifit verfion of tlic 
 ne^i tejl anient. 
 
 Groves, on account ofa gloomy 
 folemnity with which they arc cal- 
 culated to ir.fpire the mind, were 
 originally looked upon as facred by 
 all the Heathens. Their fclituds; 
 was apt to beget ferious fentimcnts, 
 and fill the foul with religious awe. 
 Plence they have been, in the ru- 
 der periods of nations, frequented 
 for the purpofcs of i-eligious wor- 
 fhip, and made ufe of with the 
 fame facred intention as temples. 
 They were confecrated to the Gods, 
 had altars erected in them, and in 
 fhort, were in the primitive times 
 the only temples of the ancients ; 
 if they were upon a mountain they 
 were regarded as more lacred ftilJ, 
 as from thence they might contem- 
 plate the heavens, and have a fair 
 view of the fappofed manfions of 
 their Gods, Men did not begin 
 to build temples to the deities tiil 
 they had begun to exert their tafte 
 and fancy in erefling houfes for 
 themfelves. But temples did not,, 
 when built, dellroy the veneration 
 in which grcvcs had originally been 
 held. Beeaufe the Gentile world, 
 profaned their groves by idols, fa- 
 crifices to demons, and many im- 
 pure praAices ; therefore the Ifra- 
 elites were forbidden to plant a 
 
 grove near God's altar. Deut. 
 
 xvi. 21. Szc Temple. 
 
 GuBERNATOR, an officer in the 
 Roman navy, anfwering to our 
 Captain or mailer of a Ihip. See 
 Ship-OJicers. 
 
 Gymnas 1 ARCKs, amongfl the 
 Greeks, were officers who were at 
 the charge of oil, and fuch like ne- 
 ceiiaries, lor the wreillers and other 
 combatants in the Gy7nnaf.a. 
 
 Gymnasium, amo'.:gil the Greeks, 
 
 was a place in which the athletic 
 
 ex:rcifes= 
 
G Y M 
 
 G YN 
 
 eAcrcifes -.vere pcrformeJ, and 
 wlicre ihe pliilofoplicrs lac to read 
 their lc£tures. T\\q. gymvafia were 
 firft ill ule amongft the Lacedemoni- 
 ans, and afterwards be-canic com- 
 mon to all the Greeks, and were at 
 laft imitated, augmented and im- 
 proved at /Jo/w^. They were. not 
 iingle edifices but a large range of 
 buildings capable of containing 
 many thoufands of people at once. 
 The moft renowned gymnafia at 
 Atheyis were the Lyceum, Acadeinia^ 
 and Cynofarges. 
 
 Gymnastes, an officer in the 
 znz\Q.ViX. gyjiitiafium who was next in 
 authority to the Gymna/iarch and 
 X\ftarch. See GyaiKafiarcb, and 
 ^jjhirch. 
 
 Gymnasterium. The fame 
 as the Cariceum. See Conceum. 
 
 GvMNici LudJ were the exer- 
 cifes ufually performed in the 
 gymnafia. They confifted chiefly 
 of running, leaping, the difcuf, 
 wrettling, and boxing : Thefe five 
 excrcifcs were by the Greeks called 
 'j:i''i\a^>^<i'iy by the Romans, quinquer- 
 tium. See Feniathlum, ShiiKquer- 
 tium, &c. 
 
 Thefe fports were called gymnici, 
 from yu/MO^ fiudus, becaule they 
 were performed naked. The oc- 
 
 cafionson which the Greeks princi - 
 pally exerted thcmfelves in ihcfc 
 cxercifes were at the returns of the 
 great games, namely the 0/y;npic, 
 Jfihmian, Nemean, and Pythian.' — 
 See Olympic, i^c, 
 
 Gymnosophists. Sec Brach- 
 n.ans. 
 
 G Y N'iE c E UM, amongft the Greeks 
 was a room fet apart for the women 
 where they were employed in fpin^ 
 ning, weaving, needle -work, &:c. 
 
 Gyn^'ecocosmi, were certain 
 magifirates amongft the Greeksy 
 whofe cfiice it was to regulate th, 
 womens apparel, according to the 
 rules of decency, and to fine them 
 for any devicition from modeily in 
 their drefs. 
 
 Gyn^conomi, certain m.agif- 
 trates among'l the Athenians, who 
 had an eye upon the condndcf the 
 women, and puniihed fuch as for- 
 fook the line of propriety and mo- 
 defty. A lift of fuch as had been 
 fined was put up by them upon a 
 palm tree in the Ceramicus. The 
 gyjicccanonii were ten in number, 
 and differed from the gyvxc-cofmi; 
 for the former were infpeilcrs of 
 manners, the latter of drefs. Sec 
 Gynacocofmi. 
 
 \Y z 
 
 HABET, 
 
H AB 
 
 HAI 
 
 H. 
 
 "ABET, or hoc habei, was an 
 cxpreffion ufcd by the Ronmii 
 gladiatcm., when they had given 
 a wound to their antagonifts. Al- 
 lufions to this are tVeqaently met 
 with in the latin claffics : thus 
 TVr^aff makes oM^Siino uie the very 
 iame exprefiion concerning his Ion, 
 when he fulpefted he was Imitten 
 with the love ot Glycerium. Andr. 
 Aa. I. Sc. Sceallo Virg. iEn. 12. 
 Thif exprcflicn was ufed not only 
 by the gladiators thcmielves, but 
 frequently by the ipedtatcrs when 
 they luppofcd that a wound was 
 given. '^Q.z Gladiators. 
 
 Habit, the drefs or garb with 
 which the pcrion is covered. The 
 principal psrt ot the drefs worn by 
 ihe Jenfcs and Greeks, was the 
 i/xaliov and the Xtluv. The l/jtdliov 
 was an upper garment, confiftingof 
 a looi'e fquare piece of cloth wrap- 
 ped round the body; the Xirccv 
 was an under garment, or tu77ic, 
 which was failened round the body 
 and embraced it clofely, falling 
 down tothc mid-thigh. It is pro- 
 per in this place to obferve that a 
 perfon diverted of this upper gar- 
 mentor I|aa7icy, in the eaicern lan- 
 guage is ftiled Kahd, and in this 
 Icnfe David danced raked befere 
 the ?.rk. 
 
 1 he je-u.s\\evQ wont, when un- 
 der any violent perturbation of 
 mind, toexprcfs their agitation by 
 tearing their garments. See Gen. 
 :cxxvii. 34. xliv. 13. and Matt. 
 ?:xvi.65. thiscuftom alfo prevailed 
 anio'-gft the Perfmns. 
 
 1 he Lacedemcnian boys wore a 
 tunic till they were twelve years 
 
 old. They had then a cloke given 
 them, which was to ferve them a 
 year. They wore no fhoes till 
 they were grown up; and were al- 
 ways required to run and climb 
 with bare feet, Uni'v. Hiji. 
 
 The feveral forts of garments in 
 ufe with both {iS-ts, araor.gil the 
 Rof/ians, were the tcca, tunica, pe- 
 Inna, lacerna, chlainys, paludamen- 
 ttini, Irsna, J}ola, pallium or palla. 
 Sec Toga, k3c. 
 
 For the habits of the prieits a- 
 mongft the Je^uos, Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, fee the article Prisjis. 
 
 Hades is ufed in the fcriptures 
 in various fenfes. Sometimes it 
 fignihes the invilible regions of the 
 dead, fometimes the place cf the 
 damned, and fometimes the grave. 
 It is ufed in Greek authors to lig- 
 nify in general the regions of the 
 dead. See Hell. 
 
 FIj^res. In reading the latin 
 clafucs the word hares, on account 
 of its ditFerent adjuncts, is with 
 difficulty underftcod. Thus we 
 meet with hares in totum ajjem in- 
 Jii tutus ; hares ex dcuncc ; htcres ex 
 decuKce; hares ex dodrante, i^c. but 
 all this will receive an cafy expla- 
 nation, if we call to mind that as 
 lignifies the whole of an eftate, 
 which by the Remans was divided 
 into twelve parts called uncia, ele- 
 ven of which parts were called 
 deunx ; ten were called dccunx,\\inz 
 dodrans, i^c. Hares in totum ajfeniy 
 therefore, is heir to the whole 
 eftate; hares ex decunce'isTLXi heir to 
 eleven parts, &c. For a further 
 illuftration, fee the article Js. 
 
 Hagiographa, holy writings, 
 is a name given to a particular d;» 
 
H At 
 
 H At 
 
 vifion of the old teftament, as con- 
 taining hymns to God, and moral 
 precepts tor the conduft of lite. — 
 The books diilinguiiacd by this 
 Hume vscre the Pfalms, Prot'erbs, 
 .Ecdefajics, and Solomoris Soiig. 
 
 Hair, by the _7f-u)-s was worn 
 natuiMllv long, juil as it grew ; but 
 the --ricits had theirs cut every 
 fortnight, while they were in wait- 
 ing at the temple . they r.iade ufe 
 cf no razors however, bat IcilTars 
 only. The Na-zarites, while their 
 vow continued, were forbidden to 
 touch their heads with a razor. — 
 Sec Nazariie. 
 
 The falling of the hair, or a 
 change of its colour, na? rc^^arded 
 amoiigfl: the Hebrenj.-s as a fign of 
 the 1 epr ')fy. Black hair was 
 efteemed by them as •.he moft beau- 
 tiful. Abfalom's hair was cut 
 once a year, and is faid to have 
 ■\veighed zco fliekcls, by the King's 
 weight, which is about 31 ounces. 
 The law of God hath left no par- 
 ticular ordinances with refpetl to 
 the hair. 
 
 The hair of both Je-xlfi and 
 Grecian women engaged a principal 
 fhare of their attention, and the 
 Roman ladies feem to have been no 
 lefs curious with refpe6l to theirs. 
 Thev generally wore it long and 
 dreli'ed it in a variety of ways, or- 
 namenting it with gold, filver, 
 pearls, &c. On the contrary, the 
 men amongft the Greeh and Ro- 
 mans, and amongll: the later 'Jc^vs, 
 wore their hair fliort, as may be 
 collected from books, medals, fla- 
 tues, &c. This formed a principal 
 diflinclion in drefs betwixt tlie 
 fexes. This obfervation happilv 
 illuilrates a paflage in Sai?:t PaySs 
 epiille to the Corinthians. See 
 J Cor. xi. 14 15. 
 
 Saint P^/./foroids the Corinthian 
 women, when praying by divine 
 infpiration, to have their hair 
 dilhcvelled j probably becaufe this 
 
 made them refemble the Heathen 
 priefteifes, when actuated by the 
 pretended influence of their Gods. 
 Amongll the Greeks, both fexes, 
 a few days before marriage,, 
 cut off and tonfecraVed their hair 
 as ah offering to their favourite 
 deities. It was alfo cuftomary a- 
 mopg^thcm to hang the hair of the 
 dead on the doors of their houfes 
 previous to interment. They like- 
 wife tore, cut off, and fometimcs 
 fliaved their hair, when mourning 
 lor their deceafed relations or 
 friends, which they laid upon the 
 ccrpfe, or threw into the pile, to 
 be confum.ed together with the 
 body. The ancients imngired that 
 no perfon could die, till a lock of 
 hair was cut off; and this act they 
 fuppofed was perform.ed by the in- 
 vifi'ole hand of death, or //•/.:, or 
 fome other mefienger of the Gods. 
 This hair thus cut ofF, they fancied 
 confecrated the pcnon to the in- 
 fernal deities, under whofe jurif- 
 didlion the dead were fuppofed to 
 be. It was a fort of firit-iruits 
 which fanclified the whole. See 
 Firg. JEn. 4. 694. 
 
 Whatever whs the faffiicn, with 
 refpecl to the hair, in the Grecian 
 ftaces, Haves were forbidden to imi- 
 tate the freemen. Tlie hair of the 
 flaves was always; cur in n narticular 
 manner, called 6^i| av^^aTtc^cnh,^, 
 which they no longer retained aficr 
 they procured their freedom. Boys 
 among the Lacedemonians were 
 not allowed to wear their hair^ but 
 after they were grown up, they ne- 
 ver cut it. 
 
 The Roman youth before the age 
 of puberty wore their hair in ring- 
 lets upon their fhoulders; butabout 
 the time of putting on the Toga 
 Virilis, they cut it fliort, fuch of 
 them at leail, as wifhed to diflin- 
 guifh themfelves from the macca- 
 ronies and effeminate coxcombs. 
 The hair thus cut off was confe- 
 crated 
 
n AR 
 
 H AR 
 
 crated to JpoIIc, who is always re- 
 prcfented with flowing hair, or to 
 Ibme other God, under whole pro- 
 teftion they iuppofed themlclvcsto 
 be more immediately placed. To 
 this cuilom of cutting the hair 
 Horace is Iuppofed to allude in his 
 
 loth Ode, Lib. 4. v. 3. Et qux 
 
 nunc hiimcris in-voliUmt deciderint 
 comee. Sec alfo Phccdrus, Fab. 8. 
 Lib. 3. y. 26. Sec Head. 
 
 Hallelujah, a word fignify- 
 m^praife the Loi d. It is met with 
 in the beginning of forne Pfalms, 
 aad the end of others. It is a word 
 of ftich liquid fluency and harmo- 
 niou-s foftnefs, that it is retained in 
 our hymns without tranflation. 
 
 Hand. In fcripturc, to pour 
 water en any one's h.and, fignifies 
 tofcrve him To wafli the hands 
 was a ceremony made ufe of to de- 
 note innocency from murder or 
 nia-n-flaughter. To kifs the hand 
 was an act of adoration. To iill the 
 hand fignified taking poflciTion of 
 the prieilhood, and performing its 
 .funftions. To lean upon any one's 
 kand was a mark of familiarity and 
 fuperiority. To give the hand fig - 
 aiiies to grant peace, fwear friend- 
 iliip, promife fecurity, or make al- 
 liance. The right hand was the 
 place of honour and refpedl. — 
 Amongft the Greeks and Rojfmtis, it 
 wascultomary for inferiors to walk 
 on the left hand of fuperiors, that 
 their right hand might be ready to 
 afFord protection and defence to 
 their left fide, which was, on ac- 
 count of the awkwardnefs of the 
 left hand, more expofed to danger. 
 
 Harangues were ufually made 
 by the Generals, pievious to an 
 engagement both amongil the 
 Greeks and RtTnans. An harangue 
 on fuch occahnvc was called allo- 
 cutio. See AllocuUo. 
 
 Hareoup.s, amongft the Greeh 
 and Rojiir.ns, were femicircular, the 
 extremities of which, by the lati:?! 
 
 called Corntia, had chains or large 
 booms reaching from one fide to 
 the other, for the fecurity of the 
 fliipping. On both fides were 
 towers with garrifons of foldlers for 
 their protedftion, and watch towers, 
 with lights, to direft mariners, at 
 no great diftance. Moll harbours 
 were adorned with temples or altars 
 to the tutelar deities of the place. 
 Merchants, artificers, and profti- 
 fates, generally abounded near the 
 port. 
 
 Harlots, were tolerated a~ 
 mongft 'jfe-Tvs, Greeks, and Romans. 
 Fornication indeed was prohibited 
 among the Jenjs, under fevere pe- 
 nxlties, but thefe they explained as 
 extendi ngonly to women of their 
 own nation. 1 he public ftews 
 were therefore fl;ocked with foreign 
 proilitutes, who feem to have been 
 taken under the protcftion of Go- 
 vernment. Hence appears the rea- 
 fou why the word Ilrange woman 
 is often found to fignify a harlot. 
 Proilitutes at firfl wore veils or 
 maiks; but by and by their modefty 
 was entirely put to flight, and they 
 went abroad bare -faced. At Athens 
 the proilitutes were generally ftran- 
 gers ; and fuch as debauched an 
 Atheniati female were liable to a 
 penalty. To frequent the public 
 itews was not held difgraceful ! — 
 The wifeil: of the Heathen fagcs 
 allowed it ! Solon permitted common 
 vchores to go publicly to the young 
 men who had engaged them, and 
 encouraged the youth ol Athens Xo 
 gratify their lull with thefe, rather 
 than feduce and debauch the wives 
 or daTighters of citizens. Cato the 
 cenfor was of the fame fentiments, 
 and Cicero challenges all perfons to 
 name a time when men were either 
 reproved for this practice, or not 
 countenanced in it ! ^mongil the 
 y^e-zus, the harlots ufed to ply in 
 the highways, and flrcets of cities ; 
 at Athe?2S they frequented the cem- 
 
 micus 
 
H AR 
 
 M A S 
 
 !.K!<::iS fcir^Sy and the old fortiv:. — . 
 in {:iTi\t places they were diitin- 
 g'jiflied by their drefs, from other 
 womeu. Ccr'nith was a remark- 
 able iinrfcry of harlots, and gave 
 birth to the noted Lais. 1'heir 
 accompliflunenrs were ofientimea 
 great, in all the polite aud elegant 
 parts oi female education, viz. phi- 
 lofophy, dancing, finging, rhetoric, 
 ^cc. Afpefta, the miiLrefs oi Peri- 
 cles, was admired by SocraUs for 
 her learning. The mere accom- 
 pliflied proltitr.tes frequently amaf- 
 ied large fortunes; a remarkable 
 Jnltance cf which \vc have in 
 Pkryne^ who of}cred to rebuild the 
 walls of T/^^^^j, when deflroyed by 
 Alexander, on conditioci that they 
 would perpetuate her memory and 
 profcfiicn, by an infcription. Pro- 
 ilitutes, at Rcme, were obliged to 
 fix a bill over their doer:, indi- 
 cating their charafter and profcf- 
 fion. It was alfo cuftomary for 
 them to change their na:nes, after 
 they had figniiicd, to the prate?-, 
 rheir intention of leading luch a 
 difiblutc life; this they did bcraule 
 their trade was unbecoming their 
 birth and condition ; but they rc- 
 ailumcd their family names when 
 they quitted their infamous m.ode 
 of living. Women u hofc grand- 
 father, father or huiLand had been 
 a Roj!ic.-:2 K-night, were forbidden 
 by the laws to make a public pro- 
 fcfTion of Icv-'dnsfs. 
 
 Harp, an inilrunicnt of mtijlc 
 aniongll the 'jeivs, expreficd in 
 their language by the word Kinncr, 
 which is generally tranflated Ci- 
 ihara, T.yrn, Pfalterium or Chiyra. 
 The Kinnor was in ule before the 
 fiood. Gl-/i.\v.2\. David played 
 upon the Kimwr before Said, i 
 Sam. ::vi. i£- — 23. It was the 
 Kinr.cr which the Levites hung 
 tipon the willows of Babylon. But 
 the figures ©f the Kinncr, which 
 Si-e to be feen upon the medals of 
 
 Siaicn HLzccal-iTus, have no rcfem- 
 blance to tlie harp now in ufe, or 
 to that which painters put into the 
 hand of Da-jid. TJie Kin nor or 
 harp of fcripture was made of 
 wood, and played upon in the 
 te m pi e of Jcri-falcni. Jofcphus faj's 
 that the Civyra of the temple had. 
 ten firings, and was touched with 
 a bow. He fays alfo that Solomon 
 made a confiderablc number of 
 them of a precious metal called 
 Eleiirum, but in this he fecms to 
 be miilaken. See i Kings, x. 12. 
 For a defcriptionof this iniirumcnt, 
 fee Ki?i^7or. 
 
 The number of firings on this 
 inflrumiCnt werethrcc, fix, or nine, 
 and according to Jcfep.'jus fomc- 
 tirr-cs ten. 
 
 Harpacints, were hooks of 
 iron, hanging on the top of a 
 p>ole, which, being fecurcd with 
 chains to the malh oi fhips, and 
 then let down with great volocit/ 
 into the enemy's vefie!.'?, caught 
 them up into the air. By way of 
 defeuce againft thcfe machines, 
 they covered their fhips wiihhidc5, 
 which broke and blunted the force 
 of the iron. The PIarpagi?ies, by 
 the Grcslis called ApTcayai^ owe 
 their invention to Ancchcrfis tlie 
 Scythian pliilofopher. 
 
 Harpastum, amongft the P^o- 
 mii7:s, was fomcthing like our foot- 
 ball. This ball was placed in the 
 middle, and x.\\o parties of young 
 men endeavoured to kick it beyond 
 each other's goal, which gave the 
 vi(f!:ory. 
 
 Haruspex. ^Q.t Arufpcx. 
 
 Hasta, is a 5;;encral term, fig. 
 nifying any kind of an offcnfivs 
 weapon with a long flafF or handle, 
 as a pike, fpear, javelin. The 
 hajix of the Vclites were liglit and 
 flender, each man carrying ieven. 
 
 Hajia lotiga, was a fpear of un- 
 ufual length, fcmctirncs exceeding 
 twenty cubits. The Grecians called 
 
 them 
 
HE A 
 
 HE A 
 
 tlaem ^c^oclx 'Navixax<Xi becaufe 
 they were uied only in naval en- 
 gagements. 
 
 Hajia pnra was a fine fpear of 
 wood, without any iron at the end. 
 It was ufually beftowed, as an h,o- 
 novary prefent, upon fuch as in 
 ibmc fligiit foirmifh had killed one 
 cf the enemy, hand to hand. The 
 hnjtn fara was ufed alio as a fceptre 
 and badge of authority. Hence 
 Virgil has given one to Sjh'ius in 
 the ilxth yEiieid. 
 
 -. pirra ju^jcnis qui nititiir ho.Jla. 
 
 In imitation of the haft a fur a, in 
 all probability, fome of our officers 
 of Ibtc in England, carry white 
 rods, or Haves, as enfigns ot thcii- 
 dignity. 
 
 The hajlaox fpear w^as fet up at 
 all collefticns of taxes by ^tcenfors, 
 and at all aufiiovs, public or pri- 
 vate, tofignify that they acted un- 
 der a lawful coniraiihcn. Hence 
 the phrafe, fub hajla 'veiidi : For 
 the Ipear, before the fceptre was 
 introduced, was made uleofasthe 
 emblem of authority. When the 
 r^/zj^/zif/;-: afled as judges, a fpear 
 was always for the tiaic ituck up in 
 thcjhrum. Sec Cefiiuru'viri. 
 
 As the Laf a p:tra, called fome- 
 times donadca and gn'.??iiiiea, v/as 
 given as a mark of honour for fome 
 noble atcliievementj fo the foldier 
 was fbmetimes, by way of dilgracc 
 and pur.ifhment, obliged to rehgn 
 his f^pcar ; this was called Cenjio 
 hajlaria. 
 
 Hast AT I, amongfl the Rc^nans, 
 were foldiers arjned with fpear?, 
 ■who were always drawn up in the 
 firll line ot battle. Thefe were 
 pickcJ out the next in age to the 
 Vcliics. At 1 -.it they laid afide the 
 fuear. but ftill retained their name. 
 Sec Fclites ai,d Battle. 
 
 H E A D -D i. £ s s, amongil the Je^v- 
 ijl:>y Grecian and Reman ladies, was 
 
 various, according to the diffcreixt; 
 periods of time. It principally 
 confiitcd of their hair differently 
 tricked or.t. It was ufually dividect 
 before, with a bodkin, into two 
 equal parts; fbmctiir.es it was co- 
 vered v.'ith a net, or put into a kind 
 of purfe, or tied behind in forn of 
 a- knot, or bound back and plaited 
 with ribbands. It was waflicd 
 with great care ; cfTence and per,- 
 furacs were applied to it, and gold- 
 duff fbmctimes made ufe of as pow- 
 der. Pearls and jcv/els made a pare 
 of their ornanients;. and pendants 
 were worn in the ear. To cover 
 the defefl. of hair, perukes were 
 made ufc of by the gentlemen of 
 Rome. And we read that 0/,6o had 
 a covering of falfe hair, becaufe he 
 had not much of his own. See 
 hair, ye-Mch. 
 
 Both. Grecian and Roman ladies 
 wore tctcs ; and, to the honour of 
 the tote be it fpoken, it once made 
 its appearance amongfl confuh and 
 difiators : But vv h et h er Grecia?! and 
 Reman ladies ever built up their 
 heads fo high as the Engli/h, \w\\l 
 admit of a difpute, though 1 think 
 the viftory due to our own country. 
 
 Heaven. The y^i^v acknow- 
 ledged three heavens. Firtl the. 
 aerial heaven, in which the winds 
 blow, bird3 fly, &c. Secondly the 
 firmament, in which they fuppofed 
 the ftars were fixed, as in a cieling 
 folid and impenetrable : and thirdly 
 the heaven of hea\'en?, the refi- 
 dence of the Almighty, and the 
 abode of faints and angels. Into the 
 third heaven St. Paul affcrts him- 
 felf to have been caught up. But 
 God mufl be equally prefent in 
 every part of fpace,. and operate 
 with equal efFeCl in every place. — 
 If a pure fpirit can have no loco^ 
 exiftcnce, an infinite fpirit mufl be 
 every where equally prefent. And 
 if God is perfedlly prefent e^very 
 ivhere, it isdifhcult to copceive 
 
 how.. 
 
HEA 
 
 HEC 
 
 how he can be fnore than perfeclly 
 prcfent a?iy ^inhere. " Keaven and 
 earth are tull of the Majefty of his 
 glory : yea the heaven and heaven 
 of heavens cannot contain him, — 
 Whichef fhall I go from thy fpirit ? 
 or whither fhall I flee from thy pre- 
 fence ? If I afcend up into heaven, 
 thou art there : If I go down into 
 hell, thou art there jilfo. If I take 
 the wings of the morning and re- 
 main in the uttermoft parts of the 
 fea ; even there tTiall thy hand lead 
 Ti\e. and thy right hand fhall hold 
 me/* Yet the fcripture, in ccn- 
 defcendon to human capacities, 
 mentions him as having vouchfafed 
 to eftablifh his throne, in one parti- 
 cular place, where he exhibits him- 
 felf in the fymbol of light inaccei- 
 fible : where his holy angels at- 
 tend upon him, and fee his face : 
 From whence he ifTues forth his 
 commands, as Princes do theirs 
 from the royal palace. But this re- 
 prefentstion is evidently in allufion 
 to the courts of callern Kings, and the 
 dcfciiption is levelled to our com- 
 prehenfions. In the fame manner, 
 when Chrift isfaid to f.t or. the right 
 hand of the father, the expreffion is 
 univerfally allowed to be figurative, 
 and accommodated to our ideas oi 
 precedency and honor : nor are we 
 to underftand from hence, that 
 God, who is an infmite fpirit, hath 
 either hands, or any other bodily 
 members. The word firmament, 
 however, giving an idea of folidity 
 and refiftance, fupports the notion 
 of a ccelefie Solum, as the refidence 
 of Angels and fpiritual fubflances, 
 tibove the vifible expance, and, in- 
 deed, though the deity be equally 
 prefer.t every where i yet it is not 
 to be denied, that he may give 
 iJiore fenfible manifefhations of his 
 prefence, in one part of fpace than, 
 another; in the lame manner as he 
 manifefts his power, on many oc» 
 cafions, in cne place more than aQO>° 
 
 ther ; yet as this does not prove him 
 to be more pov.-crful in one place 
 than another ; fo neither docs the 
 other ccnfulerntion prove that he is 
 more perfeclly, or immediately pre- 
 fent, in one part of fpace than anc- 
 ther. And to conliJer God a-; 
 equally preftut e<very njjhere, mufc 
 have a very ftrong influence on the 
 minds and acftions of all who are 
 duly imprefTed with fo important, 
 and fo folemn a truth. 
 
 The Heathens fuppofed heaven 
 to be the reiidence of celeilial Gods 
 only, into which mortals were ne- 
 ver admitted, but by deification. 
 The heaven of good men was£/v- 
 fum, a pleafant part of the infernal 
 regions. See Ehjliim. 
 
 Hecatesia, a public entertain- 
 ment or fupper given by the Athe- 
 ma7is every new moon, in honour" 
 o{ Hecate. The fupper was pro- 
 vided by the rich, and immedi- 
 ately carried ofi by the poor, who, 
 notwithflanding, aflTcrtcd that Ee^ 
 cate had devoured it, 
 
 HtCATiSA, Itatues erefted by 
 the Athenians, in honour of //frfl/t", 
 who they believed was the overfeer 
 of their families, and proteftrefs of 
 their children. 
 
 Hecatomb, amongfl the Greelcs 
 was a facrifice confining of an hun*' 
 dred oxen offered upon fome very- 
 extraordinary occaiion. Such a 
 one v/as offered by Clijlhe-nes, ac- 
 cording to Herodotus. Hecatomb ,. 
 in its moft general fenfe, fignifies 
 no more than a facrifice of an hun- 
 dred animals ; but the ox being the: 
 chief of animals ufed in facrifice^ 
 gave derivation to the word, for 
 authors generally agree in deducing 
 it from fKai<iV jSkj, though fome de- 
 rive it from fxa7ov paaeig, an hun- 
 dred feet, and imagine that the He - 
 catojr.b therefore confii^ed only of 
 twenty -five quadrupeds. Some 
 again fuppofe that a definite num- 
 ber is put for an indefinite, and 
 
K £ L 
 
 HEL 
 
 fkat an Hccato?nb fignifics no mere 
 than a faerifice confilting of many 
 animals. Others again derive the 
 name, not from the number of ani- 
 mals oftorcd, br.t of the pcrfons 
 rrefent at the facritice. Sometimes 
 ihey creiled an hundred altars, and 
 cfiered upon them an hundred hogs 
 or flieep, Sec. This pompous fa- 
 erifice was often promifcd, but 
 feldom paid ; for they invented a 
 method of inpofing upon the Gods 
 br offering one animal only, and 
 fiibftituting, for the remainder, 
 little images of pafte. &c. Pytha- 
 goras is faid to have offered an 
 hicatomb to the mufes, for having 
 difcovered the demonitration of the 
 47th propof.tion of Euclias firft 
 book. The hecatombs oi the Ro- 
 man Emperors fometimes confuted 
 of an hundred lions, eagles, &c. 
 See Sacrifice. 
 
 Hecatomb^on was the firft 
 month of ihe Athenian year, con- 
 fiiling of thirty days, beginning 
 on the finl new moon alter the 
 furamer folilice, and confeauently 
 anfvvering to the latter part of our 
 June, and the beginning of July, 
 it had its name from the great 
 number of hecatcmhs facrificed in 
 it. See Hecatomb. 
 
 This month was called Hippo- 
 drovius by the Boeotians, and Lous 
 by the Maccdcnians. See Month. 
 
 Heifer. The aflics of a red 
 heifer were made ule of by the 
 "Je-vjs, by way of making atone- 
 ment for certain crimes, and for 
 the removal ot certain legal pollu- 
 tions. The whole proccfs and ce- 
 remony v.'ill be found Numb. xix. 
 I, 2, &c. See Jjl-es. 
 
 IIelepolis, a machine made 
 life of by the Greeks in dcftroying 
 cities, and invented by Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes. It was fomewhat like 
 the ram, but vaftly bigger, and of 
 greater force. It was driven both 
 with ropes and v.'heels, ?.nd con.- 
 
 tained feveral fm.aller engines, otit 
 of which fcones, ^c. were call.-— 
 See Armour. 
 
 Hell, in the tranflation of the 
 fcriptures, and in the Apoftlc's 
 creed, is ufcd to fignify the grave, 
 the general Hare of the dead, and, 
 in the new teftamcnt, it fignifies 
 the region of the damned. The 
 ancient Jck.':s feem 10 have had no 
 knowledge of any but temporal pu- 
 nifiiments, and the law threatens 
 no other: But, after they became 
 converfant with the Greeks, they 
 adopted many of their opinions on 
 this fubjedl:, and added fome in- 
 ventions of their own. They be- 
 lieved hell to be in the centre of 
 the earth, and that there were 
 three roads leading to it ; one thro' 
 the wilderncfs, by which Dathan 
 and Abirain paffed 3 another thro' 
 the lea ; and the third in Jerufalem. 
 The idea of hell, amonglt the 
 Greeks and Romans, varied accord- 
 ing to the fancy and imagination 
 of each individual: The hell of 
 the vulgar was an alfemblage of 
 whatever they conceived fright- 
 ful and tormenting ; and the plii- 
 lofophers were more ingenious, in» 
 deed, butfuU as wild in their con- 
 jcclores. Much time has been 
 mif-fpent, and much reafoning 
 ridiculoufiy employed to affign the 
 place of hell, find fuel to fupport 
 its fires, invent racks and wheels 
 to torment the poor wretches who 
 are condemned to dwell there, and 
 prove the reafonablcnefsof its eter- 
 nal duration. Our bufinefs is to 
 acft like Chrifiians, and endeavour 
 to avoid its tortures, and not to 
 expofe the weaknefs of human rea- 
 fon, by prying with too bold an 
 eye into the fecret things which 
 belong to God. To end'eavour to 
 fix the topography cf hell is no lefs 
 ridiculous than to look for the foul, 
 in the dilfeflion' of a body, and 
 afiign its place of refidcnce in the-, 
 huaian franis. 
 
HEL 
 
 HEM 
 
 This however we arc aflured of, 
 Tind this is enough for us to know, 
 that there will be a day of reckon- 
 ing, a day of retribution, when the 
 wicked will find their millake, and 
 Jiave caufo to lament, /o;- eve*-, the 
 iinprudeiit choice they have made. 
 In whatever pnrt of I'pace the fcene 
 is laid, it will to them be itidiffer- 
 ent ; for thcv will fall into the 
 hands of a God who is jealous of 
 his lionour, and has full power to 
 punifli, \n. any place, the violation 
 of his laws. This he has certainly 
 threatened, and he is a God of 
 truth. See Hewven, Hades. 
 
 Hell, in its gerxeral acceptation, 
 according to the prevailing notions 
 of the Heathen poets and philofo- 
 pliers, is beautifully defcribed in 
 the fixth ALneidol Firgil. 
 
 IIellanodic/e, were diredlors 
 of the Ohmpic games. They were 
 obliged to cake an oath that they 
 would aft impartially, receive no 
 bribe, nor difcover their reafons 
 for difliking or approving any of 
 the contending parties. At the 
 folomnity they fat naked, having 
 before them the viftorial crown, 
 whicii, at the concluhon cf the 
 exercifes, was prefented to whom- 
 foevcr they adjudged it. An ap- 
 peal, however, lay from them to 
 the Olyrnpian Senate. They were 
 obliged to rcfide ten months before 
 the games in the Elean forzim^ and 
 ail'emble in a place , there, called 
 Hellet.odico'uni, to fee that fuch as 
 offered themfelves performed their 
 proper exercifes, and were duly 
 inftrucled in the laws of the games 
 by the No//o(p:*X««Ej. See Olympic 
 Games . 
 
 Hellenists. See Grecia;:s. 
 
 Helmet, a piece of dcfenfive 
 armour for the head. Amongil 
 the Greeks it was made of brais or 
 other metal, fometimes of the fiiin 
 of a lion, bull, goat, dog or other 
 animalj the teeth of which were 
 
 difplayed, grinning upon the enr,; 
 my. The helmet was open bv t 
 fore, and faftencd round the neck 
 by a ll: ring For the Roman hel- 
 met, i'ee Galea. 
 
 On each helmet was fixed a crell. 
 See Crejl. 
 
 Helots, a kind of flaves a- 
 mongrt the Lacedemofiians, io called 
 becauie ihey came fruiii Hclos, a 
 town oi'LacMia, conquered by the 
 Spartavs. All the inh:ibi-tant3 were 
 made prifoneis of war, and, vvicli 
 their poilerit)^ reduced to ablolut^ 
 llavery. Their mailers the La:c- 
 demonians made tham till the 
 ground, manage all forts of trade?, 
 and make proviiion for the whole 
 city; whilllthey themfelves danced, 
 feaited, purfucd their dlvcrfions, 
 and fauntered in the Lefih.-v. — ' 
 Notwithllandi-iig-thcir ferviccs, the 
 poor Helots were exceedingly ill 
 treated by their Lords, they were 
 frequently murdered, without any 
 fhew of juilice, -expofeJ to every 
 fpecies of contempt, forced to got 
 drunk at their public afTemblies, 
 and then pointed out to their chil- 
 dren, by way of deterring thera 
 from bealtly excefs ; they were 
 obliged to dance ridiculous dances, 
 and fmg indecent longs, being; 
 prohibited to ufe any that were fe- 
 rious or manly.; this was done ta 
 infpircthe Lacedemonian youth with 
 a love of virtue and fobriety, and 
 an abhorrence, at -the fame time, 
 of flavery. 
 
 •Hemeroij.ro,mi, centinci^ and 
 guards , amongil the Greeks, ap- 
 pointed for the prefervation and 
 iecuritv of cities, &c. Their d'jt;/ 
 was, after the gates were opened, 
 to patrol about the place all day 
 long, to prevent a furprize of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Hcmcrodrom: were alfa a fort cf 
 couriers, who only travelled one 
 day, and then delivered their pack- 
 ets to others who ran their day, ko. 
 X 2 'to 
 
HER 
 
 HER 
 
 to the end of the journey, Thefe 
 Jail ieem to hav.. born a ftrong re- 
 iemblance to our -pojis. 
 
 Hemergtrophis, a meafure 
 of capacity amongil the Greeks, the 
 ikma with the chasnix, fo called 
 becaufe ic held one day's food, be- 
 ing derived from rifxioa, a day and 
 1 ^e<pii J ooci . ice Chanix. 
 
 liEMiNA, a Rcniun meafure of 
 liquids, equal to half a ivine pint 
 Engl Jo, See Meafure. 
 
 Hemioboeium a Grecian coin 
 
 ■worth ^ [J of our inoney. See 
 
 Money. 
 
 Hepatoscopia, a mode of di- 
 vination, hy which conjedtures 
 concerning futuricy were drawn 
 from the appearances exhibited by 
 the l.ver of the \idim offered in 
 facriiice. If all was oblerved to 
 be agreeable to nature, it was a 
 lucky omen J but if any thing pre- 
 ternatural was obfervcd, it por- 
 tended ill fuccefs. See Arnf^ex, 
 Sacrifice. 
 
 Heph^stia, an Athenian fef- 
 tival in honour of Vulcan, by the 
 Greeks called H^airof, in which 
 three young men ran together, the 
 iirlt of wn^.m carried a lighted 
 torch, which he delivered to the 
 fecond, and the iecond in like 
 ananner to the third : V iftory was 
 iiis, that had the fortune to have 
 the torch, when thev came to the 
 end ot the race. ^Authors fre- 
 «|uentjy allude to this as a ht em- 
 blem of the viciilitudes of life.— 
 Set Lucre t Lib. ii. 
 
 Hlxalds, amongft the ancient 
 Greeks and Romar.s, were held in 
 gv^.it eltimaiion, and looked upon 
 as iacred. Thofe of G/'ffc^ carried 
 in their hands a jf/jcvKiov., which 
 ■was a rod of laurel, round which 
 twolerp^DCK, without crefts, were 
 twiftcd a^ emblems of peace. The 
 Atheh.at' heralds itcntimes bore the 
 EipcTiW'-*? ". V o'ive branch t- 
 
 yercd with wool, and adprned 
 
 with various fruits, as a fymbol of 
 peace and plenty. The Athenian 
 heralds were all defccnded from 
 Cerjx, whence their name xr.pvxzi. 
 Their office and duty conhHed in 
 adjulting differences, declaring 
 war, and bearing important mei- 
 fagesfrom General to General in 
 the field. A ilrong voice feems to 
 liave been a neceflary' qualihcation. 
 The Roman heralds conitituted ^ 
 college, and were called /VaW^j. 
 See Feci ales. 
 
 riERMiE, ftatues of Mercury, fct 
 up by the Greeks and Romans in 
 crofs ways. They were made of 
 brafs and fometimes of marble, 
 and fad neither arms nor feet. 
 
 HERM-ATiiENiS:, llatues of a 
 compound nature, reprefenting 
 Mercury and Minerva, on fquare 
 pedellals. Mercury reprefcntcd 
 eloquence, and Minerva wiidom ; 
 thele ftatues therefore intimated 
 that eloquence without erudition, 
 is but an empty found, and eru- 
 dition without eloquence an almoft 
 unprofitable treal'ure. We read of 
 Herm- Hercules, Herm-Eros, isc. 
 
 HERMiEA, a Grecian leitival in 
 honour of Mercury. Sometimes 
 under this name were held in Pelo- 
 ■pon-nefus, BcrotiQ, Crete, isc. Dur- 
 ing the celebration of the herrmea 
 at Crete, the mafters ferved their 
 flaves at table. This cuftom ob- 
 tained alfo among the Athenians, 
 Babylonians, and even the Romans 
 during their Saturnalia, See Sa- 
 turnalia. 
 
 Hero, amongft the Greeks and 
 Rojnans, was a perion who partook 
 partly of the divine and partly of hu- 
 man nature, and who, though mor- 
 tal had neverthelefs a kind of im- 
 mortality peculiar to himfelf, be- 
 in? after his death, placed a- 
 mongft the Gods Heroes in other 
 words were fuppofed to have been 
 begot betwixt i. deity and a mortal. 
 Such was Hercules the fon of y«- 
 ^iterixid Ahme^te. Th? wofd hero 
 
HI E 
 
 HIG 
 
 is rvnonimous with Demi-God, a 
 ibmcthing of tlie mule kind be- 
 twixt GW and 7na7;. Ic is alfo ufed 
 lor apcrfon o\ great valour, 
 
 Herodians, a fed amongft the 
 jfc-ivs, concerning the principles 
 and origin of which autiiors are 
 much divided. The moll prob:i- 
 blc opinion is, that they borrowed 
 thiir fentiments and tenets, as well 
 as their name, from Herod the 
 Great, maintaining that the domi- 
 nion of the Romans, over the 'Jeeves, 
 was j aft and lawful, and that they 
 might, under their prcfcnt circum- 
 ftanccs, adopt \\ith a good confci- 
 ence many of the Heathen modes 
 and ufages. Some with great 
 plaufibilicy of argument contend 
 that Hercdians and Gauloaitcs were 
 the fame feft, exprefTcd by dilfer- 
 enCnam.es. Sec Gau/of^ites. 
 
 Hexaclikon, a name given to 
 the Stibadium, when calculated to 
 contain fix guefts. See StiLadium. 
 
 Hexerls. See Ship, Trircmis, 
 
 HiEROCLYPHics.myftical cha- 
 rafters in ufe amongil the Egyptians 
 in their writings and inicriptlons, 
 wherein they exprciled their mean- 
 ings by the images or figures of the 
 things fignified. Befides the com- 
 mon hieroglyphics, the priefts had a 
 iacred hieroglyphic, wherein they 
 ex'prefled the myfceries of their re- 
 ligion. 
 
 Hi EROGRAMMATISTS, Were 
 
 certain priefts amongft the Egypti- 
 ans who prefidcd over learning and 
 religion. Their duty was to take 
 care of the hieroglyphics, and ex- 
 pound religious myiteries and opi- 
 nions. They were alfo /killed in 
 -divination, and were honoured 
 with many exemptions from civil 
 duties and taxes. They bore a 
 iccptre, were cloathed in linen, 
 bathed twice in the night, and 
 -thrice in the day, in cold water, 
 »i;d ufcd to difcipUne th^mfelves 
 
 very fcverely. I give this and the 
 preceding article a place in this 
 work, becaufe, though they are not 
 immediately within the compafs of 
 my defign, they are nevertheleis 
 alluded to by clafiic authors. 
 
 HiEROMANCY, a fpecies of di- 
 vination, which predidled future 
 events by obierving the appear- 
 ances of the various things oirercd 
 in facrifice. 
 
 HIER0^I^fEM0N, a delegate 
 choicn by lot, and fent to the great 
 council of the AmphiSIyons, to take 
 care of v/hat concerned religion, 
 as the name implies. The Hie- 
 romncnicnes were reckoned m.oll ho- 
 nourable. They fiimmoned the 
 general meetings of the Jr:nhySry- 
 onic body, and prefixed ihcir names 
 to the decrees cfthe council. See 
 Amphictyon. 
 
 Hi EROPHANTES, amoHgfc the 
 Athenians, was the name given to 
 the priefts or prieftefies who were 
 appointed to take care of the fa- 
 cred things and the facrificcs. They 
 were obliged to obfcrve the liriftclt 
 chaftity, and drank decottion of 
 hemlock, by way of emafculating 
 thcmfclves and extinguifiiing car- 
 nal defires. 
 
 The Hierophant performed the 
 ceremonies of initiation into the 
 myfterious rites nf Ceres, and in- 
 :errogated the candidates. The 
 names of the Hiercphants were held 
 fo facred, that the initiated were 
 forbidden to mention them before 
 the profane. The Hicrcphaat waS 
 to be a citizen of Athens, and to 
 hold hisofiics during life. He had 
 three aififtants, Aaox^oj, or the 
 torch-bearer — the K>;cy| or crver— 
 and the o I'm ^oiixoi^ w ho miniftred 
 at the altar. 
 
 High-Places, were eminences 
 on which the Hcatiiens ufed to 
 worfhip their Gods, chofen for that 
 purpofe; as being fuppofed to be 
 jiearer heaven, their conftant refi- 
 dence 
 
HIP 
 
 HIS 
 
 •<3ence. The Je^jjs are frequently 
 blamed for their attachment to 
 high places, after the manner of 
 the Gentiles; though their profen- 
 chfs were frequently upon moun- 
 tains, with groves clanted about 
 them. Where high places are re- 
 probated in fcripturc, therefore, 
 we fh.3itld underltand them as a- 
 hufed or proftituted to idolatrous 
 purpofes. See Gro-ves, T^emtles. 
 
 HiLAP.iA, a fellival kept by the 
 Romans on the 25th of March, m 
 honour of Cybele, and attended 
 with every demonltration of chear- 
 fulncfs and mirth. The fhatue of 
 the Goddefs was carried through 
 the ftreets, and mafquerades were 
 permitted in the fuUeft extent. — 
 The preceding day was always 
 {"pent in tears and mourning, to 
 reprefcnt the difference betwixt 
 fummer and winter, in their effecls 
 upon the earth, which Cybele re- 
 prefented. 
 
 HiLARODi, a fort of itinerant 
 poets amongft the Greeks, who fung 
 up and down, little gay poems or 
 fongs, accoinpanied with fomc in- 
 llrument. They were afterwards 
 introduced into tragedy. They 
 appeared in white, with crowns ot 
 goid, and wore the crepida. Sec 
 Crept da. 
 
 Hjlar.odia, metrical ccmpo- 
 fitions made or fun-g by the Hiia- 
 rodi See Hilarodi. 
 
 Hilaro-Tragedia, a drama- 
 tic compofition invented by Rhin- 
 thon, a poet of Tareiitiim. It was 
 partly tragic and partly comic, or 
 a tragedy with a happy catajlrcphe, 
 or perhaps of the nature of what 
 we call iragi-comcdy. Some will 
 have it to have been the fame with 
 the Hilarodia. 
 
 HiN was a Hebrew liquid mea- 
 fure of capacity, containing 3 cabs 
 or I gallon, 2 pints, 2 inches and 
 533 decimal parts. See Mecfnre. 
 
 Hi r r A 1 N li P, were fliips f paf- 
 
 fagc, for the tranfportation of hor* 
 fes, in ufe both amongft the Greeks 
 and Ro?7iaiis. The (areeks diftin- 
 guiflicd them by the name of 
 iTT-K-Ayoi and iTiTrayu^/oi. See 
 Skips. 
 
 Hipp A R CHS, amongft the 
 Greeks, were officers who had the 
 chief command of the cavalry, and 
 were two in number, having under 
 them ten Phylarchs, who had au- 
 thority to difcharge horfemen, and 
 fill up the vacancies as occaiion 
 required. 
 
 HippocRATiA, a fellival kept 
 bv the Orcadians, in honour of 
 Neptune the horfeman, during 
 which horfes and mules were ex- 
 empted from working, and were 
 led along the ftreets richly and 
 magnificently caparifbned. The 
 fame ceremony was obferved, we 
 are told, at Rome, in favour of 
 horfes, at the feaft of Confualia.—^ 
 See Covfualia. 
 
 HiPPOMANES, a famous poifon 
 or drug amongfl the ancients of 
 fovercign ufe as they imagined in 
 philtres, and love potions ; but 
 authors are not agreed what it was. 
 Pliny fays it was the name given 
 to a flefhy excrefcencc on the fore- 
 head of a colt juft foaled, which 
 the mother cats up immediately ; 
 fome will have it to be a vegetable, 
 and others will have it to be the 
 Virus diftilling ab inguinc eiiue coi- 
 ti'jn appeientis. See Lois. 
 
 HisTRio, among the ancient 
 Romans, was -^xofZxXy ^Pantoinime, 
 whole part ccnfjfted of dancing 
 and gcfiurcs. The Hiftricnes are 
 faid to have been fo called from 
 IJiria, the country from which the 
 hrfl pantomimes came to Rome, or 
 from one amongft them called 
 Hijhr, w\\o excelled the reft of his 
 prcfefiion. The Hifiriones were 
 ranked beneath the adlors of plays, 
 loft the benefic of their tribe, and 
 had not th? hQnpur of being ad- 
 cutied 
 
HON 
 
 HOS 
 
 ir.jtted to fcrve in the army, for 
 ihis was a privilege allowed to 
 iVee-men only. Sec Ador. 
 
 Hoc Age, a form of words 
 pronounced at tiie time olTacrince, 
 by a crier among the Roinans, to 
 call the people's attention to the 
 iblemn bufinefs in hand, as much 
 as to fay, do ihis and nothing clfe 
 . — quit your feveral employments 
 and let this engnge your whole at- 
 tention. Stc Sacrijice. 
 
 PIoLOCAUST. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Homer, ^n Hehre^v meafiire of 
 capacity, containing fix pints, or 
 thereabouts. It was the tenth part 
 of an EpJ.wh, and the meafure of 
 M:inna which God afligned to each 
 
 perfon. See Epha, Meofure, 
 
 Maatia. 
 
 Holy of Holies. See Sanfrum 
 Sixr.Borkfii. 
 
 HoMOGRAMMI, fuch of the 
 
 Alhleta: as were engaged to con- 
 tend againft each other in the 
 games, fo called becaufe they were 
 matched by drawing two of the 
 fame letters ; for whatever was the 
 number of the Athlelte who had 
 entered the litis, in order to dete- 
 mine with whom each fliould con- 
 tend, they threw into an urn an 
 equal number of letters, but took 
 care always to have two of a fort, as 
 two A's, two B's, ^c. thofe who 
 got the fame letters were to engage 
 each other. 
 
 HovEYwas never ofiercd upon 
 God's altar by the ye-ncs, but the 
 firft fruits of it are commanded to 
 be paid to him for the ufe and fup- 
 pcrt of the prielb. Milk, cream, 
 and honey were the food of chil- 
 dren, and honey was efteemed a 
 delicacy amonglt the Helrevjs. — 
 Honey was ufed in facrifices both 
 by the Greeks and Rcjnansy and alfo 
 by the Heathens in general, to 
 many of their Gods, and confti- 
 tuted an important par: in offerings 
 to the dead. As fugir is a fpics 
 
 with which the ancients were not 
 acquainted, we may irom thence 
 conceive the extenfiveufe of honey. 
 
 HoPLOMACHi, a fort of gladi- 
 ators who engaged in complete 
 armour. See Gladiators. 
 
 HoR^. See Horns. 
 
 HoRDiCALiAor Hordicidia, was 
 ai?a;;;^?« fellival held on the i5tli 
 of April, on which they facrificed 
 thirty cows with calf, to the Gcd- 
 defs Tellus. The calves were taken 
 out of their bellies and burnt to 
 aihes, fometim.es by the Pontificesy 
 and fometimes by the oldeil of the 
 Fejfal virgins. Part of the cows 
 were facrificed in the temples of 
 Jupiter. 
 
 HoRK, amonglt the Jcixs, f:g- 
 nifies an eminence, an angle or 
 corner. Horns of the altar were 
 eminences at the corners. Horn 
 cups were much ufed. 
 
 Horses were very rare xv^'Judea, 
 See Ca^jalry. 
 
 Horfes were ufed both amonglt 
 tlie Greeks and Romans in war, but 
 were not originally very numerous; 
 for as each horieman provided his 
 own horic, few would be able to 
 bear tlic expence. Horfes for a 
 confiderable time were managed 
 by the voice alone, or by a iwitcli, 
 without bridle, faddle, or ilinups. 
 Their harneis was fkins of bealls, 
 or fometimes cloth. Both horfes 
 and men amongil the Greeks under- 
 went a fevcre probation berore 
 their admiifion into the cavalry.— 
 See Cai'alry, Equiies. 
 
 Horfe-races vvere common a- 
 mongil the Greeks and Remans, and 
 the place where they ran or breath- 
 ed their courfers, was called H:p- 
 podromiis. See Race. 
 
 HosANNA, was a form of blef- 
 fing amongil the Hchn-jcs, fignify- 
 ing fa've, I hcfeech you. Tnis ac- 
 clamation Vv'as lo much uf:d at the 
 fealt of tabernacles, that the folcm- 
 nity was cdlcd Hcfannc rahla. It 
 
 was 
 
HO S 
 
 HOU 
 
 was ufeJ at the inauguration of 
 Kings to exprefs their good wi flies 
 for the proiperity of their princes. 
 At the fealt of tabernacles it was 
 continually echoed, both as ex- 
 preffive of gratitude for former de- 
 liverances, and of their joyful ex- 
 pectation of a future one by the 
 Mejfiah. With this latter applica- 
 tion it was made ufeofby the peo- 
 ple, who believed or hoped that 
 'jefus was the promifed deliverer, 
 on his triumphant entry mtojeru- 
 Jhlem. The word lliould be writ- 
 ten Hofa-na. 
 
 HosPiTiuM. In the more early 
 agcsof the world, before the con- 
 venience of public inns were 
 thought of, perfons that travelled 
 lodged in private houfes, and were 
 obliged, if need required, to return 
 the favour to thofe that entertained 
 them. This was the occafion of 
 the moft intimate friendfhip be- 
 twixt the parties, infomuch that 
 they treated one another as relati- 
 ons. Hence the word hofpitium, 
 •which properly figniiies lodging or 
 entertainment at the houfe of ano- 
 ther, is ufed for friendfhip, founded 
 tipon the bafis of hofpitality. The 
 lights of hofpitality v/ere held in- 
 violably facred on both fides. See 
 iit ranger, Tcjfera. 
 
 HosTiAisproperlydiflinguifhed 
 from 'Lii^i^ai; for hojiia was the 
 of^":ring made before a batfle, and 
 fiStrmazkcn victory. //f_^'?^? alfo 
 fign'fies the leffer forts of fiicrilice, 
 and 'vichna the larg..r. A. G'ellius 
 fays that every prieft, indigently, 
 mi^ht fdcrifice th? hojna, but .;hat 
 the njiCthna could be r^ffercd by 
 T.-ine but the con-ya-r-r hiinr-;fi.. 
 'L'c.X, after all, we f"r.d thcie two 
 words promifcuou!^y J fed one for 
 the other by ancient w-i.ers. We 
 read of many k rds of h'Jiia; as 
 hofia purne, which v/e:e p'es rr 
 Ir-mbs tcii days rid ; %«-- frj::i- 
 dcxeeSi i'acrificCs offered the dajr 
 
 before a folsmn feafl ; hvjl'ia: hideif 
 tes, facrifices of ilieepor other ani- 
 mals of two years old ; hofti^ exi- 
 Tfiio", a facrifioe of the flovver of 
 the flock; hojlice fucciJo.nete, facri- 
 fices offered after others which had 
 exhibited fome ill omen ; hcf.ioi 
 ambar'vales, viclims facrificcd after 
 fiaving been folemnly led round 
 the fields at the ambar'valia ; hoftia 
 amhurbialcs, viftims flain after the 
 c.mhurkhini ; hojlice caneares or ca- 
 'viares, victims facrificcd every fifth 
 year by the college of ponti&s, in 
 which they offered the part of the 
 tail called cai'iar; Lojli^e prodigicey 
 facrifices in which the fire con- 
 fumed all, and left nothing for the 
 prieils ; Jwfiix piaculares, expiatory 
 facrifices ; hcjlia a?nheg7}ee or am- 
 hicgiix, facrifices of cows or Iheep 
 that had brought forth tuins: 
 boflics harugd, vi£tims ofiered to 
 predidl future events from ; hofiies 
 mediates, black vidims offered at 
 noon. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Hour. The ancient Hebren.fs 
 did not divide their day into ho;;rs. 
 Their divilion of the day was into 
 four parts, morning, high day or 
 noon, the firft evening, and the 
 laft evening ; and their night was 
 divided into three parts, night, 
 midnight, and the morning-watch. 
 But afterwards they adopted the 
 manner of the Greeks and Koviai::, 
 who divided the day, i. e. the fpace 
 of time from fun- rifing till fun-fct, 
 into twelve equ..l parts, which 
 confeqnently dilfc.ed in length, at 
 the different fe.-f.^rs of the. year, 
 ri'.ough ilill equal co each other.— 
 The firfl hour, cf ecinlly at thce- 
 qcinoxes,anfwer:;dia our feven, thv-^ 
 iec -r.d to our eight, the third to Ji:r 
 nine, &c. till wc come to twelve, 
 V. hich anfv.-creu to our fix in the; 
 cvei.in?, i-nd concluded their day. 
 7 he Jev ■;• had their hours of prayer 
 ciftngui.'ht-d by the names of the 
 third boivr of pi^yerj tlie fixth hour 
 
 of 
 
HOU 
 
 H YD 
 
 of prayer, and the r.inta hour of 
 prayer. Each of thefc ftatcd times 
 contained the fpacc of three hours, 
 and each fpace was called by the 
 name of chat hour on which it be- 
 gin: Thus the third hoar of pt oyer 
 was fo called, becaufe it began at 
 the third hour or our nins in the 
 morning: The Jixth was fo called 
 becaufe it commenced at x.\\c fixth 
 hour of the day, which anfwcrs to 
 oar ttvel-ve : and the ninth hour of 
 prayer was fo named, becaufe it be- 
 gan at the ?iii2th hour of the day, or 
 three in the afternoon according to 
 <7;<r reckoning. The third ^ndfiiKth 
 hour of prayer were the times of of- 
 fering the daily burnt offerings, or 
 the morning and evening facrifice. 
 See Exod. xxix. 39. The night 
 was divided, not into hours, but 
 watches. See Night and Watch. 
 
 Houses, amongft the Je'vjs, 
 Greeks and Romans were flat on 
 tlie top for them to walk upon, 
 and had ufually Hairs on the out- 
 fide, bv which they might afcend 
 and defcend without coming into 
 the houfe. E»ch houfc, in faft, 
 was fo kid out, that it enclofed a 
 quadrangular area or court. This 
 court was expofed to the weather, 
 amd, being open to the fky, gave 
 light to the houfe. This was the 
 place where company was received, 
 and for that purpofe it was ftrewed 
 with matts or carpets for their bet- 
 ter accommodation. It was paved 
 •with marble or other materials, ac- 
 cording to the owner's ability, and 
 provided with an umbrella ot 've- 
 lum to flielter them from the heat 
 and inclemencies of the weather. 
 This part of their houfes, called by 
 the Romafis implwvium, or ca'va 
 tedium^ was provided with chan- 
 nels to carry off the water into the 
 common fewers. The top of the 
 houfe was level, and covered with 
 a ftrong plaifter, by way of ter- 
 race; hither, efpecially aciongft 
 
 t'le fe-xvs, it was cuftomary to re - 
 tire for meditation, private con- 
 verfe, devotion, or the enjoyment 
 of the evening breezes. The yc^s 
 were commanded to make a battle- 
 ment for the roof, Deut. xxii. 8. 
 Rahab hid the fpit; upon the rocf of 
 her houfe, Jol. ii. 6. 8. Dwvid 
 KKalked upon the roof of the houfe, 2 . 
 Satn. xi. 2. To this mode of build- 
 ing Chriil alludes when he bids 
 his difciplespreach openly upon the 
 hoife tops. Matt. x. 27. And Pe- 
 ter ^jjent up upon the hoife top to pray, 
 Afts. X. 9. 
 
 The Gr^r/;:?;: houfes were ufually 
 divided into two parts, inwhich the 
 men and women had di Hindi man- 
 Jions affigned. The part alfigned 
 to the men was afterwards the 2;atc, 
 and called AvO/jft.'i'dij ; the apart- 
 ment of tlie women was the fartheft 
 part cf the houfe, and called 
 TuvaiKdviliq. Jei'js, Greeks, and 
 Romavs, fu ppofed their houfes to 
 be polluted by dead bodies, and 
 to ftand in need of purification. 
 
 Hyacinthia, a Grecian f?ltival 
 in honour of Hyacinthus, kept at 
 Amycla:, in the month Hecatom- 
 ba-on. It continued three days, oti 
 the firft cf which all was lamenta 
 tion, and mourning, and woe; 
 but on the fecond and third days 
 they danced and fung hymns tCK 
 Jpollo offered facrifices, exhibited 
 fpedacles, treated their friends^ 
 and enjoyed themfelves with much 
 feftivicy. 
 
 Hydromancy, a method of 
 divination by water, amongft the 
 ancients, performed by holaing a 
 ring in a thread over the water, and 
 repeating, along with the queltion 
 to be folved, a certain form of 
 words. If the queftion was an- 
 fwered afiirmatively, the ring of its 
 own accord llruck the fides of the 
 bowK 
 
 Another kind of hydromancy was 
 performed by looking into the wa- 
 
H YF 
 
 H YS 
 
 ter and obferving the forms of Dee- 
 ?>wns, which they fay fometimes 
 prcfcnted themfelves. Numa is 
 jaid to have had recourfe to this 
 Ipccies of divination, in order to 
 get inftruttions how to fettle the 
 ceremonies of religion. What 
 lergths v/111 not imagination go, 
 when crazed by fuperllition ! 
 
 HvuROPKORiA, a feftival kept 
 by the Jthenians\w memory of thofe 
 that peridied in the deluge. 
 
 HvMEN-ffiALS, fongs fuHg at 
 marriages. See Epitbalamium. 
 
 Hymns, were religious fongs 
 or odes fungin honour of the Gods. 
 They were generally compofed of 
 three forts of ilanza's ; one of 
 which, called Strojhe, was fung 
 bv the hand, as they walked from 
 EalltoWeil:; another, called ^«- 
 tiftrcpke, was performed as they 
 returned from Weft tc Eaft ; the 
 third part, or Etode, was fung be- 
 fore the cltar. The Jcnxijh hymns 
 were accompanied with trumpets, 
 crums, and cymbals, to aflift the 
 voices of the Z-fw/fi and people- 
 
 HypocAusTUM, a fubterrane- 
 ous ftove amongft the Romans, tor 
 heatii'.g the baths. The Hypocauf- 
 ttim was made ufe of as a .fweating- 
 room. A dilcovery f the remaHns 
 of a Roman ftove of thj^s kind was 
 made at Lincch. 
 
 HvposcENiuM, was a pariltion- 
 under the pulpit of Logeu?,':, of the 
 Grecian theatre, appointed for the 
 mufic. See Lcgeum. 
 
 Hyssop was generally made vXz 
 of in purifications amongft the 
 
 yenx;s, by way of a fprinkler. 
 
 Sometimes they added a little wool 
 to it of a fcarlet colour j for exam- 
 ple they dipped a bunch of hyffop, 
 ibme branches of cedar and red 
 wool, in water mingled with the 
 blood of a bird, in the purification 
 of lepers. Hyilbp, it is probable, 
 grew to a confiderable height in 
 Judea, fince the gofpel informs 
 us that the foldiers filled a fpunge 
 with vinegar, put it upon a reed 
 (or long ftem) of liyiTop, and pre- 
 fented it to our Saviour upon the 
 cro fs. 
 
 Hysteropotmi, amongft the 
 Greeks, were perfons who returned 
 in fafety home, after they had been 
 fuppofed to be dead in foreign 
 countries. They were not allowed 
 to participate in any religious rites, 
 till they had been purified, by paf- 
 fmg through a woman's lap, which 
 was intended to reprefent their be- 
 ing born again, and wiping away, 
 by their fecond birth, the pollution 
 of their fuppofed death. See Deu^ 
 ierjpotmi. 
 
 lACCHAGOGI, 
 
JAN 
 
 JAT 
 
 I. 
 
 ACCHAGOGI, thofe wlio car- 
 ried the ftatue of the hero lac- 
 ■thus in folemn proccflion ai the ce- 
 lebration of the Eleujinia. Their 
 heads were crowned with myrtle, 
 and they beat drums and brazen 
 kettles, dancing and finging all 
 the way- See Eleujinia. 
 
 January, the firft month of 
 the Rontan year. It was net in the 
 calendar of Rcmulus^ but intro- 
 duced into it by Numa Po7;ipi!ius, 
 in the place which before had been 
 afligned to March. January has 
 its name from Janus the double- 
 faced deity, becaufe it looks both 
 into the old and new year, or be- 
 es ufe _^rt««/ was the God who pre- 
 sided over a,ll beginnings. 
 
 The calends, or firft day of this 
 month, was und^r the proteclion 
 of jfuno, and in a peculiar manner 
 confecrated to Janus by an offering 
 of a cake made of new meal and 
 •new fait, with new frankinccnfe 
 and new wine. On the firJl day 
 of January a beginning was made 
 of every intended work, the cor.fuls 
 cleft took pofFeflion of their office, 
 who, with i\\s fianiens offered facri- 
 iices and prayers for the proiperity 
 of the empire. On this day all 
 enimofities were fufpended, and 
 friends gave and received new- 
 year's gifts, called Slren.e. On 
 this day too the Romans, above all 
 things took care to be merry and 
 divert themfclves, and oftentimes 
 fuch a fccne of drunkennefs was ex- 
 hibited, that they might with pro- 
 priety enough havediftinguifhed it 
 with the name of AU-Fool's-Day. 
 See ^trencs. 
 
 Janu&'s temple was a ^quaife 
 building, fome fay of entire brafs, 
 containing a llatue of Janus fiVc 
 feet high in a niche of brafs, with 
 brazen gates en each lide, which, 
 according to the order of Numa, 
 were kept open in times of war, 
 and fliut in time of peace. Tq 
 fhew how much the Romans were 
 engaged in war it may be proper 
 to mention that this temple A'as 
 only fiiut fix tinies in 800 years, 
 firft in the reign oi Numa, fecond^ly 
 at the concluiion of the firit Punic 
 war, thrice in the reign of Aug-uf- 
 t:is A. U. JZ-, — 729, and at our 
 Saviour's birth ; and laftly by Nero. 
 
 In this temple the co7:fuls took 
 pofleffion of their oftice. It wis 
 built by Romulus. The ceremony 
 ot opening the gates was performed 
 by the conful, fenate, heads of the 
 city, and the loldiers in railitarv 
 drefs. See Virg. En. vii. 607. 
 
 Janus, was the name ofa llreet 
 in Rome, inhabited, for the mofc 
 part, by bankers and ufurers. \t 
 was fo called from two Itaiues of 
 Janus, which w^re ersfted there, 
 one at the top, the other at the 
 bottom of the ftrcet. The -top of 
 the ftreet was therefore called Janus 
 Simmus, the bottom Janus Imus, 
 and the middle Janus Medius. — 
 Hence Horace Lib. i. Epijl, \. 
 
 llac Jan-^sfummus ab imo perdocet . 
 
 and Sat. 5. Lib. 2. Pojt^uam 
 
 cmnes res m:a Jarum 
 Ad medium fracla eji. .» 
 
 Jatriliptje, were officers in 
 
 the Grecian gymnajia, appointed to 
 
 y 2 anoint 
 
IDO 
 
 JE A 
 
 anoint the Athhta. Sometimes 
 the word is ufed for the mailers of 
 the exercifcs, fuch as the Gymvaf^e 
 and Pa.iotritte. 
 
 IcHTH YOMANCY, a fpccies of 
 divination umongil th? Greeks per- 
 formed by obferving the entrails of 
 iiflies. 
 
 I D ^ I , Daayli. See Dr.ayli. 
 Ides, were eight days in each 
 month of the /?6/A«?2 calendar. They 
 began on the 15th oi March, May, 
 'July, and October; and on the 
 J 3th of the other months. The 
 Ides like the calends and 7t07ies were 
 always reckoned backwards j thus 
 they faid viii Idus, the eight day be- 
 fore the Ides,\\\ Idus, the 7th be- 
 fore the Ides, Sec. When Idus is 
 ufed in ttie accufativc cafe, the 
 preoofition a^jteh undcrllocd. To 
 make this mode of reckoning more 
 clearlfiir.l'i give a fpecimcn through 
 the Ides of one month, thus the 
 8th of the Ides of January is Ja- 
 nuary the 6th ; the 7th of the Ides 
 of "January is January the 7th ; 
 the 6th ot the Ides of January is 
 January oX-h ', the 5th of the Ides 
 of January is January 9th ; the 
 4th of the Ides of January \s Ja- 
 nuary loth; the 3d of the Ides of 
 Jar.uary is January lith; the 
 fridie idus Januarii is January 
 1 2th-; me /(/fi of January is Ja- 
 nuary 1 3th. Tfae Ides are fo called 
 frcm "C old verb iduare to divide, 
 becaufe the Ides were generally the 
 iri.ldleot the month. To form a 
 liill more perfedl idea ofthe^c/;/^* 
 method of counting the days of 
 their months, lee Month. 
 
 Idolatfiy, iignihei, in its li- 
 teral acceptation, the worfhip paid 
 to idols. It is alfo ufed to fignify 
 the i'upcrftitious adoration paid to 
 an^cia, pl-.nets, &c. There is 
 great dilference betwixt worfhip- 
 pirg idols themfelves, and making 
 life of iinr.ges in the worlhip of the 
 true Uod, by way of heightening 
 
 our ideas and improving our iiV^O" 
 tion. But wherever images are 
 employed as a. medium oi worfliip, 
 there is great reafon to fear that 
 they will at la ft, from the grofs 
 conceptions of the vulgar, be re- 
 garded as the objefls of adoration. 
 The vvifcr Heathens, though they 
 made ufe of images, ftill kept clear 
 of idolatry, and looked upon them 
 as images only : But the common 
 people believed the ftatues them- 
 felves to be divinities; at length 
 the philofophers met them half 
 way, for though thev efteemed the 
 images, as merely images, yet they 
 fuppoled them by confecration to 
 become the inhabitants, recepta- 
 cles, or places of immediate refi- 
 dence of the Gods to whom they 
 were confecrated. It would bean 
 endlcfs labour ro Hate the various 
 opinions concerning the origin ot 
 idolatry ; fufitce it to fay that it 
 prevailed in very early ages of the 
 world, and very probably took its 
 rife from that veneration paid to 
 the fun, moon, and other heavenly 
 bodies, by which the bleflings of 
 providence were every day dii- 
 penfed to the world. The JcvAJh 
 law, ftrongly as it fenced againll 
 idolatry, could not hov.'ever prevent 
 it; for the Jen.vs though per- 
 petually fmarting under the pu- 
 nifhments inflicfled for this crime, 
 hadftillapropcnfitytogoa whoring 
 after flrange Gods, and pollute 
 themfelves with idols. 
 
 Idols were ftriclly watched, and 
 every appearance they exhibited, 
 was noted as an intimation of the 
 will of heaven. Many a moufe 
 and rat, performing their gambols 
 in the belly of a wooden God or 
 Saint, have been folemnly attend- 
 ed to as the workings of the in- 
 dwelling divinity, and the miracu- 
 lous difplay of fome heavenly 
 power. 
 
 Jealousy, ^tzJVatenoi Jea- 
 leujy. 
 
J ER 
 
 ING 
 
 Tehovah. See God. 
 
 Jentaculum was, amongft the 
 RofKars, a mcrning reiVefiiment 
 like our breakfaft. It was exceed- 
 ingly fimple, confifting, for the 
 moft part, ot bread alone; labour- 
 ing people indeed had fomething 
 more Uiollantial, to enable them to 
 lupport the fatigues of their em- 
 ployment. What has been here 
 iaid may be obferved of the jfczvj 
 and Greciatis alio. The Greeks 
 dilHnguifhed this morning-meal 
 by the feveral names of Apicrov^ 
 aKpdliJixQi; ':>r cutpciUa-jxa thoughfr^;foy 
 is generally applied to dinner. — 
 See Eating and Dinner. 
 
 Jerusalem, if we credit Jofe- 
 phus,v^zs built hy Melchifedcc, and 
 v.'as called Sale?n. It was the me- 
 tropolis of Judea, and famous for 
 its temple, which will be treated 
 of as a diitinft article. It had ten 
 gates, viz. ill, The fheep gate. 
 2d, The filh gate. 3. The gate 
 of Ephrai-t, 4. The hcrfe gate. 
 5. The old gate. 6. The gate of 
 the valley. 7. The dung gate. 
 8. The gate of the fountain. 9. 
 The water gate. 10. The high 
 
 gate. 'JeriifaUm underwent a 
 
 variety of fortune : It was taken 
 by Scfac King of Egypt 971 B.C. 
 hy Ptoh^.y Soler 320 B.C. taken 
 and facked by Antiochus i-jo B. C. 
 again by Pofnpey, and with all the 
 Jenx;s made tributary to the Ro- 
 mans 63 B. C. taken, pillaged, 
 burnt and ra/.ed to the ground by 
 Titus the Roman General, under 
 Dotnitian A. D. 70, rebuilt by 
 Adrian and called ALlia Capitola- 
 7iia A. D. 130, pillaged by the 
 Perjlans and 90,000 inhabitants 
 put to the fvvord A. D. 613, taken 
 by the Saracens A. D. 637, its 
 temple v/as rebuilt for a TurkiJI? 
 Mofque A. D. 643, the city retaken 
 by Godfrey oi Bouillon A. D. 1099, 
 finally conquered hy Saladin A.D. 
 1187, and remains nov/ in the 
 
 pCiTelTion of theT'ar/f/. The city 
 is at prefent three miles in circum- 
 ference, but much altered in its 
 fituation; for Mount Cahary, 
 which was form.erly without the 
 walls, is now in the middle of the 
 city J and Mount Sion, which was 
 near the center, is now without the 
 walls. 
 
 Jewels, made a part of the or- 
 naments with which the Je^'js, 
 Greek: and Rojiians, efpecially their 
 ladies of diftindion, adcrned them- 
 iclvcs. So prodigious was the ex- 
 travagance of the /?(/;;/«« ladies, in. 
 particular, that Plmy the elder fays 
 he faw Lollia Paulinaw'iih. an equi- 
 page of this kind amounting, ac- 
 cording to Dr. Artuthi:ot's calcTi- 
 lation, to 322,9161. 13s. 4d. of our 
 money. It is worthy of obferva- 
 tion that precious iloncs amrngil 
 the Remans and all the ancients 
 were much fcarcer, and confe- 
 qucntly in higher efleern than they 
 are amongft us, fmce a cor/imerce 
 
 has been opened with the Indies. 
 
 The ancients did not krow how to 
 cut and polifh them, to much pcr- 
 feftion ; but coloured Hones were 
 not fcarce, and they cut them very 
 
 well either hollow or in relief. 
 
 When luxury hj.d gained ground 
 amongft them, the Romans hung 
 pendants and pearls in their ears ; 
 and for this purpofe the ears of 
 both fexes were frequently bored. 
 ^QzEars. 
 
 Igmspicium, a fpecies of di- 
 vination praclifed by the Romans; 
 it confiftcdof obfervations made on 
 the fire ufed in facrifices. See Di- 
 'vi nation. 
 
 Ignobiles, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, was the dengnation of fuch 
 perfons as had no right of ufing 
 pictures and ftatues, and what that 
 right confifted in will be fecn un- 
 der the article Jus Imaginiim. 
 
 In GO MINI A, a fpecies of pu- 
 
 nifhment amongft the Romans, 
 
 whereby 
 
IMA 
 
 IMP 
 
 uhereby the ofi'ender fufi'crcd pub- 
 lic fliainc, either by virtue of the 
 *>r/ctor's ediSi, or by order of the 
 cenfor. This punifhment, befides 
 the fcandal, deprived the party of 
 the privilege of bearing any oSces, 
 and almoft all other liberties of a 
 Romu'n Citizen. Similar to the Ro- 
 tnan Ignominia was the Greaax 
 
 Ignorance, fo grofsly pre- 
 vailed amongft the Romans, before 
 the taking of Rome by the Gauls, 
 that few of the citizens could read 
 or write, and the alphabet was al 
 moft unknown. During three ages 
 tliere were no public ichools, but 
 the little learning their children 
 had, was taught them by their pa- 
 jejits, and how little that was, may 
 \)t partly concluded from this cir- 
 ■cumftancc, that a nail was ufually 
 <lr iven into the wall oi the temple 
 ai Jupiter Capitclinus, on the 15th 
 of September, to aihft the igno- 
 rance of the people in reckoning 
 the years, becaufe they were un- 
 acquainted with letters or figures. 
 The driving of the nail was alter- 
 wards converted into a religious 
 ceremony, and performed by the 
 Dictator, to avert public caJami- 
 ties. See Anr.alis Clavus, Nail, 
 Diaator. 
 
 Ilicet, is a folemn word pro- 
 nounced at the conclufion of the 
 I'uneral rites by the aldeil of the 
 prafuce, being a fort of formal no- 
 tice to the company to depart. It 
 is an abbreviation of ire licet, you 
 fnay go; and bec?.ufe the con- 
 courfe, upon pronouncing this 
 word, fuddenly departed, itisufed 
 as an adverb to fignify hafte It 
 is alfo uied proverbially, to fignlfy 
 all is o-ver. 
 
 Imagines were images and por- 
 traits, rcprelenting their anceilors, 
 which the nobility of Rome kept in 
 the galleries, or under the porches 
 of tlieir huufes, in wocden cafes 
 
 for the purpofe. Thefc Images 
 were of wax, filver, marble, or 
 wood, with labels or infcriptions, 
 giving an account of the exploits 
 of the perfons they reprefented. — • 
 On certain feitivals they were un- 
 covered and adorned. When any 
 man of confideration in the family 
 died, thefe figures, habited accord- 
 ing to their dignities, were carried 
 in proceffion at the funeral At 
 the funeral parade of Dru/us, Tibe- 
 rius commanded the images of the 
 C^far family, from jEr.eas's till 
 Roinulus's reign to grace the fo- 
 lemnit)', and after them the ima- 
 ges of all the Claudia7i family, 
 from Aj)piu5 Claudius. They were 
 ulually carried in chariots, and 
 placed upon ivory chairs near the 
 rojlra. All, however, who had 
 pictures and images of their an- 
 ceftors, were not allowed to carry 
 them in their funeral proceflions. 
 See the article Jus Jmaginian. 
 
 Immolat:o, a ceremony ufed 
 in the Roman facrifices ; it con- 
 flfted in throwing upon the head 
 of the vi£lim feme fort of corn and 
 frankincenfc, together with the 
 niola or fait cake, and a little wine. 
 See Mola, ^acrif.ces. 
 
 Immunes is a term applied by 
 the Romans to fuch provinces as 
 had an account of their dutiful fub- 
 milTion, and peaceable behaviour 
 being excufed from paying tribute. 
 [t is ufed in contradiflindlion to the 
 VeFtigales, See Proniince and Vec- 
 ti gales. 
 
 Imperator was a title of lio- 
 nour conferred on Generals after a 
 victory, iirfl by the acclamation of 
 the foldiers, and afterwards con- 
 firmed by the Senate. See Accla- 
 matio, Re-vjard, Triumph. 
 
 As the word properly fignifies a 
 General, what belongs to this ar- 
 ticle in this fenfe will be found 
 under General. 
 
 Imperator was alfo the title a- 
 d opted 
 
INC 
 
 INF 
 
 dopted by the Roman Emperors. — 
 See En:peror. 
 
 Imprecations, by the Jeivs, 
 Greeks and Romans, were thoiighc 
 to be fo powerful, when duly pro- 
 nounced, as to occafion the dellruc- 
 tion not of fmgleperfons only, but 
 of whole families and cities, to the 
 lateil poUericy. The moll dread- 
 ful imprecations were thofe de- 
 nounced by parents, priells, kings, 
 prophets, or other facred perfcns. 
 See Curfcs, Excommunication^ Exe- 
 cration. 
 
 Impurity. See Pollution. 
 
 Inachia, a fellival obferved at 
 Crete in honour o{ Lcucothea oxlnoy 
 in commemoration of her misfor- 
 tunes. 
 
 Incantation, was a form of 
 words attended with certain cere- 
 monies and magical mixtures of 
 heterogeneous fubftances, and ufed 
 with an intention to raife devils 
 and fpirits, to wreak their revenge 
 upon fome hated perfon or thing, 
 to recover loft afieclion, and melt 
 the heart of fome obdurate lover. 
 JNo paffion has added more to the 
 catalogue of human fooleries than 
 that of love. To enumerate the 
 ceremonies, ingredients, &c. which 
 make up a complete philtre, and 
 conftirute a perfeil incantation, 
 -would fill a large volume. — See 
 Lave. 
 
 yeivs, Greeks and Romans, were 
 fond ot the idea of magic and in- 
 chantments. They are forbidden 
 and condemned Deut.x\'i\\. 12. — 
 Thofe of the Jeivijh and Egyptian 
 nations were nothing more than 
 flight of hand, ai.d knowledge of 
 ■ fome natural fecrets. See Charms, 
 Magic, Philtre, Witchcraft. 
 
 Incense, a rich periame ufed 
 in facrifices, known by the names 
 oiThus and Olibanum. The burn- 
 ing of incenfe made part of the 
 daily fcrvice of the y^w///^ temple j 
 and the priefts drew lots to know 
 
 who fliould ofFer it. The quan- 
 tity confumed was half a pound 
 each day, and as much at night. 
 One reafon of ufmg fo much in- 
 cenfe might be to overcome the 
 bad fmells which would neceifarily 
 have prevailed in the temple, on 
 account of the number of vidlims 
 continually offered up. Without 
 this expedient it wo uld have been 
 difguiting as a flaughter-houfe, and 
 might have infpired difgull inftead 
 of reverence. The Greeks and Ro- 
 mans fancied that the Gods de- 
 lighted in perfumes, and greedily 
 fnuffed up the afcending vapours, 
 efpecially when mixed with the 
 fmell of roall-meat. In the Jeivija 
 temple there was an altar prepared 
 for the purpofe of burning incenfe. 
 See Jltar. 
 
 Incest was allowed by the 
 Greeks m a certain degree; for the 
 Lacedemo7iians were permitted by 
 their law-giver to marry their fillers 
 by the fame mothers, provided 
 they had difierent fathers, but the 
 Athenians were allowed, on the con - 
 trary, to marry their fillers by the 
 fame fathers, provided they had 
 different mothers. An inllance of 
 this. we have in Archeptolis the iow 
 oilhemijiocles, and alfo in Civton, 
 according to the account given us 
 by Cornelius Nepcs. 
 
 Infantry, amongft the Greci- 
 ans, were of three ibrts, o'TTMlcciy 
 or heavy-armed foldiers :— ''FiXoi, 
 or light - armed foldiers,— and 
 ntAracraj, who carried the buck- 
 lers, called IlE^Ta. — — The Roman 
 infantry or foot foldiers, were di- 
 vided into four kinds, Felites, Haf- 
 tati, Principes and Triarii. See the 
 articles Felites, &'c. 
 
 Infants, amongtl the Je^ws, 
 Greeks and Romans, were fwadled 
 as foon as they were born, in a 
 manner fimilar to that pradllfed by 
 the Moderns. The Ja:-: circum- 
 
 cifed 
 
INF 
 
 INF 
 
 eifed and named their infant chil- 
 dren on the eighth day from the 
 birth. Upon the birth of a fon, 
 the Grecia?!s crowned their doors 
 with olive — of a daughter with 
 wool. The infant was wafhed in 
 warm water, and anointed with oil 
 —by the Spartans witli wine; it 
 was then drefred,and laid in a baf- 
 Icet, or a fliicld, if the father was a 
 warrior, particularly amongfl the 
 Spartans. At five days old the/ 
 ran with it round the fire, and the 
 another's relations fent prefcnts. — 
 The Greeks named their children 
 on the tench day, the Romans on 
 the ninth : The naming was at- 
 tended with facrifices and other 
 demonftrations of jov. The ma- 
 ternal office of fuckling their own 
 children was never declined, when 
 circumitances would permit. How 
 jnuch diftcrentis this from the un- 
 natural delicacy obferved by mo- 
 dern mothers, a delicacy which 
 to the child is cruelty \ The 40th 
 day was a day of folemnity for the 
 mother. The names of children 
 were regiftercd both by the Greeks 
 and Remans. See Regifier. 
 
 For an account of the ciiftom of 
 cxpofing infants, fee Expoftng. 
 
 Infants were kept from crying 
 in the ilreets by means of a fponge 
 foaked in honey. Nurfes had alli> 
 their bugbears and terrible names 
 to frighten the children into peace : 
 —The figure with which they 
 were principally intimidated, was 
 fdofixohuksiov., a fort ot ta'w-head 
 ana bloody -hones. $ec Children. 
 
 iNFERiiE, facrifices oft'e-red by 
 the Romans to the Dii Manes, or 
 the louls of deccaied herr,e.= or 
 other illiiftrious perfons, or even 
 any relation or perfon whrfe me- 
 mory was held in veneration.— 
 Thcfc fpxrifices coiiiifted of honey, 
 water, wine, milk, ;ne blood of 
 vi6lims, variety of baliamic ungu- 
 ents, chaplets, and loofe flowers. 
 
 The viflims upon thefe occafiono 
 were generally of thefraaller cattle, 
 though in ancient times they fa- 
 crificcd flaves or captives : But 
 what a fhocking view does this give 
 us of their fenciments of human na- 
 ture, as if nothing but murthcr. 
 Cruelty, and human blood could 
 fatisfy or prove acceptable to an 
 human foul ! The facrifices were 
 ufually black and barren. The al- 
 tars on which they were offered 
 were holes dug in the ground.-r- 
 See JItar. 
 
 The honey, water, wine, &c. 
 were ufed as libations, and were 
 poured on the tombs of children 
 by children, on thofe of virgins by 
 virgins, and on thofe of married 
 men by women. The inferL-e were 
 offered on the gth and 30tli days 
 after interment amongfl the Greeks, 
 and repeated in the month Anthtf- 
 terion. The whole of this article 
 aoplies equally to the Greeks and 
 the Romans. 
 
 Informers were very common 
 both in Greece and Rome. Every 
 corner of the flreets was pefLercd 
 with fwarms of turbulent rafcals, 
 who made it their conftant bufincf-s 
 to pick up ftories ^nd catch at every 
 occafion to accufc perfons of credit 
 and reputation : Thefe by the 
 Greeks were cailled "ZvHCxpavlui ; 
 for a more particular account of 
 whom, fee the article Sycophant. 
 
 Amongfl the Romans, informers 
 were of two forts, Mandatores and 
 Delatores. Thefe played into each 
 other's hands ; the former marking 
 down fuch perfons as they pre- 
 tended to have found guilty of any 
 mifdemeanor, and the other profe- 
 cuting them. What tended to en- 
 creafe the number of thefe peflilent 
 fellows was, that the informers 
 were entitled to a fourth part of 
 the effefls of the perfons convifted. 
 Wicked princesre warded and coun- 
 tenanced this mifchievous tribe; 
 
 but 
 
INT 
 
 INT 
 
 hyxiTiius fct on foot a mofl diligent 
 fearch after them, and punifhed 
 fuch as he found, with c^eaib or 
 banifiiment. Trnjan alfo ispraifed 
 hv Pliny for a fimilar conduct. See 
 Delator, Mandator. 
 
 Infula, was a mitre worn by 
 the Ronian and Grecian priefts, upon 
 the head, from which, on each fide 
 hung a ribband. The covering the 
 head with a mitre was rather a Ro- 
 man than a Grecian cuftom, intro- 
 duced into Italy by ^neas, who 
 covered his head and face at the 
 performance of facrifice, left any 
 ill-boding o?nen fhould difturb the 
 rites. The Infula were commonly 
 made of wool, and were not only 
 worn by the priefts, but were put 
 upon the horns of the vidims, upon 
 the altar and the temple. The In- 
 fulce were alfo called Vitta. See 
 Sacrifce, Vi^ifn, Vitta. 
 
 Incenui, a defignation of fuch 
 citizens of Rome as were born free 
 themfelves, and of parents who 
 had been always free. It is ufed in 
 contradiftinftion to Libertini and 
 Liherii. See Libertini, Liberti, iffc. 
 
 Inscriptions were the com- 
 mon methods of tranfmitting to 
 pofterity an account of their tranf- 
 aflions, praftifed by the ancients 
 in general. Sanchoniathon drew 
 mofl of his hiftory from infcriptions 
 found in temples and on columns, 
 both amongft the Hebre-vcs and the 
 Heathens. The Greeks and Roma7is 
 were exceedingly fond of being 
 mentioned in infcriptions. Large 
 volumes of them have been col- 
 lefted by Gruter, Reinejius, Fabretti 
 and Gra'vius. The lirft public 
 monuments we are told were made 
 of plates of lead, and the treaties of 
 confederacy between the Jeius and 
 Jtomans were contained upon plates 
 t>f brafs. 
 
 Intercessio, was the inter- 
 ference of a Tribune of the Roman 
 people to prevent the paffing Qf a 
 
 decree In the Senate. It was done 
 by the fingle word Veto. Any ma- 
 giftrate might inhibit the ads of his 
 equal or inferior; but the Tribunes 
 alone had the power of controuling 
 the afts of all the reft, and were 
 themfelves uncontroulable. Tliis 
 kind of interference whether from 
 the Tribune or any other magillrate,' 
 had the name of Intercejfio. See 
 Tribune, ^c. 
 
 Intercisi dies, amongft the 
 Romans, were a fort of half holi- 
 days, one part of which was allot- 
 ted to ordinary bufinefs, and the 
 other to holy and religious exer- 
 cifes. Some of thefe days were 
 /a/?i in the merning, and nefajH ia 
 the afternoon ; and others were 
 nefajli in the morning, and fajli m 
 the afternoon. They were called 
 interciji, becaufe they were, as it: 
 were, cut afunder. See Day, FaJIi^ 
 NefaJIi. 
 
 Interest of money, was com- 
 monly paid by the Romans on the 
 calends, for they imagined the days 
 after th.c jiones, ides and calends, un- 
 fortunate, but it is more than pro- 
 bable the poor wretches, who had 
 it not in their power to fatisfy 
 their creditors, would look upon 
 the calends as the moft unlucky day 
 in all the month. Calends were 
 fixed upon as days of payment, be- 
 caufe it was cuftomary to lend mo- 
 ney at fo \n\ic\\ per cent . per month, 
 Ufury prevailed fomuch at the be- 
 ginning of the commonwealth as to 
 occafion many feditions ; but the 
 laws of the twelve tables reduced 
 the mtereft from a moft exorbitant 
 rate to 07ie per cent, per month. Ic 
 was at length reduced to half, 
 which is equal to fix per cent, per 
 ann. But fuch was the propenfity 
 of the people of Rome, to ufury, 
 that further regulations were found 
 necelfary, and were accordingly- 
 made. 
 
 The yeivijhlwf prohibited every 
 Ml fpecies 
 
INT 
 
 IPS 
 
 ^ecics cf aPary, from a cautions 
 fear of dcf-roying thac charity, and 
 brotherly tendernefs, which ought 
 tJ be maintained betwixt Tubjcft 
 and iubject. Bnt thuiugh the Jenvs 
 were forbidden to receive ufivry of 
 cachotiier, this prohibition did not 
 extend to ftrangers — for whenever 
 tjiey caught hold of a ftranger they 
 never tailed to Recce him, if pof- 
 fible. 
 
 According to the Grecian laws, 
 no perfon on a.nv pretence could 
 take more intercil than he firil a- 
 grccd for — and the rate of intcretl 
 ivas to be moderate, but different 
 times required difierent limitati- 
 ons. No Jtke-niaft was permitted 
 to lend money to be exported, ex- 
 cept for corn or other allowable 
 commodity. 
 
 Interlude, any kind of enter- 
 tainment exhibited between the 
 n£ls of a play, to amufe the fpefta- 
 tors, till the performers were ready 
 to proceed with the remainder.— 
 Amongft the ancients, the chorus 
 fung the interludes, to mark the in- 
 tervals of the a£ts; this was during 
 the continuance of ancient tragedy. 
 Afterwards they made ufe of pav- 
 tcmimcs to prevent the audience 
 from growing weary of the play. 
 But how deplorable mufl be the 
 tafte of thofe who are better enter- 
 tained with low and nonfenfical 
 diverfjons, than with manly fenti- 
 ment and confiftent pieces of mufic. 
 Arijiotle and Horace lay it down *s 
 a rule, that interludes ihould be 
 compofed of fongs that bear a rela- 
 tion to, and are founded on, the 
 principal parts of the drama. 
 
 I:;Tr.RREx, was that fupreme 
 magiilratc v.'ho governed between 
 the death of one King, and the 
 declion of another. The office 
 was taken by turns by the Senators, 
 continuing in the hands of every 
 man five days, or, according to 
 Piutarchy only twelve hours at a 
 
 time. This oSce was continued 
 under the coT^fiilar government ; at 
 leaft we meet with the name of In- 
 terrex occaflonally created to hold 
 alieniblies, when the proper ra.x- 
 giftrates were either abfcnt, or in- 
 capable of aching, by reafon of an 
 undue eleftion. 
 
 ly.vsr 10 frontis, burning in the 
 forehead. This was a punifhment 
 inflicted bv the Ronw.m, on fuch 
 as were guilty of calumniating a 
 perfon, hi bringing againft him an 
 accufation or charge which tended 
 to ruin his reputation, and fecnied 
 to be founded in malice. See 
 Stigma. 
 
 Ionic feci of philofophcrs, was 
 founded by 7kales, All their en- 
 quiries feem to have been direfted 
 to the inveftigation of nature. This 
 procured the appellation cf natura- 
 lifts, with refpeift to politics and 
 morality, they had only an exoteric 
 dodtrine, conceived in the moft 
 J accmic terms. They held that 
 water was the principle from which 
 all corporeal things were derived 
 and into which they svili finally be 
 refolved again. They admitted 
 but 07ie world which they regarded 
 as the work of God, and as animat- 
 ed by him as its foul. They main- 
 tained that the univerfe was go- 
 verned by deftiny, by which they 
 meant the immutable laws of pro- 
 vidence. They afferteJ matter to 
 be changeable, but denied that it 
 was divifible ta infinity. They be- 
 lieved the exigence of Spirits or 
 Di^Tnons, as intelligent and i.mmor- 
 tal fubllances. The foul, they held 
 exilted after it left the body ; and 
 attributed to inanimate things, a 
 kind of torpid foul. The doflrines 
 of this fe£l underwent confiderable 
 changes from Aneximander, AKcxi- 
 nicnes ,Anaxagora- , Diogenes or Apcl- 
 lor.ia znd j^rche/aus. ^.ztPirlofophy - 
 I PS ulj^, called zUcipJtlcs, jiib- 
 files o\ fubfulff, were ;hin plates of, 
 
 metai^ 
 
1ST 
 
 JUD 
 
 inctal, ^vhich the 5'/2/;7 bore in their 
 hands, while they peitonned their 
 dances. Thcfe plates were worked 
 into the fhapes of men and women. 
 See Salii. 
 
 Irrogatio, alawterm aniongll 
 ihe RcKiafis, fignifying the inftru- 
 mcnc in which w-cre put do-n the 
 punifhmcniy which the law pro- 
 vided, againi iach otTences as any 
 perfon wa^ i-s-cufed of, by a magif- 
 irate, before the peojile. Thefe 
 puniHiinents were firil proclairaed 
 ■oi'vd <^joce by the accufsr, and tJiis 
 was called Inquifitio. The fame, 
 being inimediately after expreffed 
 in writing, tod: the name of Roga- 
 iic, in reipecl of the people, who 
 were to beconfuk^d or afked about 
 jt, r:nd was called Irrcgaiio in re- 
 ipecl of the criminal, as it imported 
 the mulct or puniflimcrit iilligiaed, 
 I'i-Ti by the accukr, 
 
 IsELASTJCS were gnmes and 
 contclb celebrated in Greece and 
 Jfiain the time of the Roman Em- 
 perors. The vicftors were crowned 
 on the fpot immediately after the 
 contcft, had penfions allowed, were 
 iurnifncd with provifions at the 
 public expence, carried home i". 
 triumph and entitled to many coa- 
 ijderable privileges. 
 
 IsiA, were abominabk feafls 
 and facrif.ces, folemnized in ho- 
 nour of the Goddcfs IJis. They 
 were full of all kinds of obfccnities 
 and impurities, and held for nine 
 clays fucceffively. The i's.vcj/^abo- 
 liflied them, under the cmfulfkip of 
 P.ifo and Garbini:. Thofc who 
 were initiated took an oath of fe- 
 crcfy, and indeed fo faameful 
 were their practices that they would 
 not bear relating. 
 
 Isthmian games, were cele- 
 brated in the Ijlhmus of Corinth^ 
 from which they took their name, 
 at the tem.pl e of Ijlhniian Nspiur.e, 
 which was furrounded with a thick 
 f^reft of pine. Some fay they were 
 
 inHituted in lionour o^ Pultttmn or 
 Melicertes, others report that they 
 were inilituted by 1 hefeus in honour 
 of Neptii?:e, others again conLemJ 
 that there were diillncl games, ob- 
 fervcd in the Ifihmus, one for Meli- 
 certes and another for Isebtune.—- 
 Some fay that the IJlLuiiian gam.es 
 U'cre cciebratcJ every three years^ 
 others e\cry tour, and others every 
 five. The viclors were rewarded 
 with a garland of pine, afterwards 
 parfley was given, and at lall the 
 pine was rcfumcd, and i.co lilvcr 
 drachma were add<;d. The con- 
 tcfls were of the fame kind as ac 
 the Olympic games. So grcit was the 
 concourie at thcfe games xhat only 
 the principal people, .of the m.ol,t 
 remarkable cities, could have place. 
 Tlie Athema-ns were only allowed 
 fo much room as the fail of ti^eir 
 £hip, which they fenc yearly to 
 Dglosy could cover. The prcfi- 
 dents of thefe games were at hrtl 
 Corijithiajis atterwards SicxonfaKs, 
 They w'cre in high veneration, both 
 for their antiquity arid the religion 
 by which they were confccrated. 
 After a ihort iufpcnfion they were 
 with great induliry revived. The 
 gleans were the only people of 
 Greece who were excluded from tiie 
 IjVoinian games, and this e.xclufioni 
 was occafioncd by a quarrel. 
 
 ItaIiIC Seel, was a name given 
 to the Pythagorean philofophcrs. 
 Pythagoras tounJcd his fchool in 
 Italy ; whence it was called the 
 Italic philofophy. For an account 
 of the doftrines maintained by the 
 Italic feci. See Pythagoreans ^ Phi- 
 lofophy, &c, 
 
 Ithynterion. a f!:^lF of lau;:cl 
 which prophets ufually carried in 
 their hands amongft vhe Greeks. It 
 was fometimes called Sccptriim or 
 
 I.KYiTllfQV. 
 
 J V B J L E E . See } 'ear cfjulihe . 
 ■ jvviLX ^rfiionis, in the Roman 
 courts cXlaw was a perfon deputCijL 
 Z 2 by 
 
JUD 
 
 JUG 
 
 by the prx tor to manage trials ; tlie 
 prator himfelf only performing the 
 principal bufmeis. This magif- 
 trate is fometimes called Princeps 
 Jiidicum. He was next in order 
 to the ^tejitor. See Prator, ^<a- 
 fitor, Trial, yudices. 
 
 Judges, certain fupreme ma- 
 gillrates who governed the //J-^^/Z/'^'j 
 from the time of Jojhiia till the 
 Tcign of Saul. Thefe judges re- 
 fembled the Atlnnian Jrchons, or 
 Roman DiSiators. The dignity of 
 Judge was for life, but not always 
 in uninterrupted fucceffion. God 
 himfelf, by fome cxprefs declara- 
 tion of his will, regularly appointed 
 the Judges : But the Ifraelites did 
 not always wait for his appoint- 
 ment, but fometimes chofe them- 
 felves a judge, in times of danger. 
 The power of the Judges extended 
 to affairs of peace ami war. They 
 were protectors of the laws, de- 
 fenders of religion, avengers of all 
 crimes ; but they could make no 
 laws, nor impofe any new burthens 
 upon the people. They lived 
 without pomp or retinue, unlefs 
 their own fortunes enabled them 
 to do it; for the revenues of their 
 office confifted in voluntary pre- 
 ients from the people. They con- 
 tinued from the death of Jojhua 
 till the beginning of the reign of 
 ^auL being a fpace of about 339 
 vears. 
 
 Judges, fo;- .ordinary affairs, 
 civil and religious, were appointed 
 by Mofes in ^szry city, to terminate 
 differences; in aflairs of greater 
 confequencc, the differences were 
 referred to the prices of Aarcrts 
 family, and the Judge of the peo- 
 ple or prince at that timeeftablifh- 
 cd. Mofes likewife fet up two 
 courts in all the cities, one confill:- 
 ing of Priefts and Le^vites, to deter- 
 mine points concerning the law 
 and religion j the other confifting 
 o^" heads of families, to decide in 
 
 civil matters. StzSanhedrim. 
 
 Judgment. See Actio, Trial, 
 Accvfatio. 
 
 JuDiCES feleSIi, were perfons 
 fummoncd by the pra'fcr, to give 
 their vcrdift in criminal matters in 
 the Roman courts, as juries do in 
 ours. Noperfon could be regularly 
 admitted into this number till he 
 was twenty-five years of age. The 
 Sortitio Judiciim^ or impannelling 
 the jury, v.'as the ofEceof the "Judex 
 SlvfTJlionis, and was performed af- 
 ter both parties were come into 
 court, for each had a right t© rejeft 
 or challenge whom they pleafcd, 
 others being fubftjtuted in their 
 room. The number of the fudices 
 feleiii varied, according to the na- 
 ture of the charge. When the 
 proper number appeared, they were 
 fworn, took their places in theyJ^^- 
 fellia, and heard the trial. See 
 Trial. 
 
 ]uDiciA centuvi'viralia, were 
 trials before the Centumi'iri, to 
 whom the prefer committed thedc- 
 cifion of certain matters of inferior 
 nature, like our juftices of peace at 
 the quarter feffions. During the 
 judicia centuvi'viralia, a fpear was 
 Iluck up in the forum to fignify that 
 the court was fitting. See Cen- 
 tum^jiri. 
 
 Judicium calumnia, was a n ac- 
 tion brought againft the plaintiff 
 for falfe accufation. The punifli- 
 ment upon conviftion, was inuf.io 
 frontis, or branding in the fore- 
 head. See Inufiio. 
 
 Judicium falft, was an adion 
 which lay againit the Judges for 
 corruption or unjuft proceedings. 
 
 Judicium prtcvaricationis, was 
 an adUon brought againft the pro- 
 fecutor, after the criminal was ac- 
 quitted, for fuppreffing the evi- 
 dence of, or extenuating his guilt, 
 rather than urging it home, and 
 bringing it to light. 
 
 JuGUM, an humiliating mode of 
 pj^Vnifhrnej^ 
 
JUL 
 
 JUN 
 
 punin-imeiit inl^idled by the vidlcr!- 
 ous Ramans upon their vanquilhed 
 enemies. It was thus : They fee 
 ,up two fpears, and laying a third 
 acrofs, in the form of a gallows, 
 they ordered thofe who had fur- 
 rendered thcmfelves, to pafs under 
 this ignominious erection, without 
 arms or belts. None fuftcred the 
 diigrace of ^z^w^ifubjugo but fuch 
 as had been obliged to lurrender. 
 
 Julian Period, in chronolo- 
 gy, fignifies a revolution of 7980 
 years, which arifes from multiply- 
 ing thcfolar cycle, the cycle of the 
 moon, and the cycle ciindidiojt in- 
 to one another J for 28x19x15= 
 7980 : and fuppo.^ir.gall thefe cy- 
 cles to have commenced together, 
 it will be 7980 years before they 
 can be fo circumllanced again. — 
 The Julian period had its imagi- 
 nary beginning 710 years btiorc 
 the creation, and is not yet com- 
 plete. The truth is, the three 
 different cycles of which it is com- 
 pofed, were fo related to each 
 other when the period was invent- 
 ed, that, on a fuppofition cf their 
 having commenced together, their 
 commiencem.ent muft have been 
 710 vears before the creation of 
 the world. This period is of great 
 ufe, as the ftandard and general 
 receptacle of all other cpcchasy pe- 
 riods and cycles ; into this as into 
 a large ocean, all the ftreams of 
 time difcharge themfelve?, yet fo 
 as not to lofe their peculiar cha- 
 raders : and had hiftcriar.s remark- 
 ed the number of eich cycle in each 
 year refpeftively, there could have 
 been no difpute about the time of 
 any adion or event in paft ages. — 
 When the chrijlian ^r« commerced 
 4713 years of the 'Julian period 
 were elapfed, 4713 therefore being 
 added to the year of our Lord, will 
 give the year of the Julian pericd. 
 For any given year before CJhrift, 
 jTubftrad the given number from 
 
 4713, and the remainder is the 
 year of the "juli an period. To any 
 given year of the v/or!d add (ac- 
 cording to UJkers account) 710, 
 and the refult will be the year of 
 the yulian period. This pericd 
 was called julia;:, bccaufe Jcfeph 
 Scaliger adapted the years of it to 
 the Julian form, and made them 
 begin on the firft day of January. 
 See Cycle. 
 
 July was the fifth month of the 
 old Roman year, and known by the 
 name of ^intilis; but received the 
 name of July in compliment ta 
 Julius Cafar, who reformed the 
 calendar, in fuch a manner, that 
 this month flood as it does now with 
 ns, tlie fcventh in order. Itsname 
 was changed hy Mark Antony . Tha 
 firil of this month was a time ap- 
 pointed for paying houfe rents, and 
 quitting lodgings. See Martial 
 L. 12. Epigr. 32. 
 
 June was the fourth month of 
 the old R:;;mn year, but the fixth 
 of the year as reformed by Nufra 
 and Julias Cafar. Some fuppofe 
 it received its name in honour of 
 Ju?n:is Brutus. It was looked upon 
 as under the protctiion of Mercury. 
 
 JuKONALiA, a fcftival obfcrved 
 by the Rcnans in honour of Juno. 
 It was inilituted on account of cer- 
 tain prodigies that happened in 
 Italy, and was celebrated by ma- 
 trons. In the foiemnity two white 
 cows were led from the temple of 
 ApcUo, into the city, thro' the gate 
 called Carnientalis, ?.nd f.vo images 
 of Juno, made of cvprefs, w.erf- 
 born in proceffion. Then marched 
 twenty-feven girls, habited in long 
 robes, fingir.g sn hymn to the 
 Goddef? ; then c?.m.c the Decemnji- 
 ri, crowned with laurel, in velt- 
 ments edged with purule. Thj.'? 
 pompous company, going thro' the 
 Vicus Jugarius, had a dance in the 
 great held or" Rome; from thence 
 they proceeded, through the Forum 
 Boariui7f 
 
JUS 
 
 J YN 
 
 JB'oiiriufn, to the temple cf yuno, 
 where the victims were iacrinced 
 by the Decemviri, and the cyprers 
 images were left Handing. This 
 fcftival is not mentioned in xhtfajli 
 of O-vid, but is fully defcnbed by 
 Li-1-y, Lib. 7. Dec. 3. The hymn, 
 ■ufcd upon the occalion, was com- 
 pofed by LiKjius ihe poet. 
 
 JuRAMEKTUM calum7:ia:,2ir\. oath 
 required to be taken in the Ronian 
 courts of law, by the contending 
 panics, in which they called hea- 
 ven to witnefs that they did not 
 proceed with a defign to abufe each 
 other. 
 
 J u s f/i'/A', amongllthe Ro-mans, 
 fignified no more than the inter- 
 pretation given by the learned, of 
 the lavvsof the twelve tables, though 
 the phrafe now extends to the 
 uhole fyftem of the Ror.iavA-is-io. 
 ^ Jus ci-jiiati:, fignifies freedom 
 of the city oi Rof?:e, which entitled 
 thofe pcrfons who had obtained it, 
 to molt of the privileges of Romaii 
 citizens -ryet it differs from Jus 
 ^iritium, which extended to all 
 the advantages which a irce. native 
 c£ RcKe was entitled to, the cifFcr- 
 cnce is much the fame as betwixt 
 iknizaticn and naturalizatioi: with 
 us. 
 
 Jus hcnorarium, was a name 
 given to thofe Roman laws, which 
 were made up of edidls of the fu- 
 preme magiftrates, particularly the 
 pro- tors. 
 
 J us imaginis wss the right of 
 itfing pidures and ftatucs amongil 
 the Ro":ans, and had fome refem- 
 blance to the right of bearing a coat 
 of arms amongil us. This honour 
 was allowed to none, but thofe 
 Avhofe anceftors or themfclves had 
 borne fome curulc ojf.ce, that is, had 
 been Curule, Sdile, Cenfor, Frator 
 cr Co'riful. StQ Imagines. 
 
 The ufe of ilatucs, &c. which the 
 Jus Imaginis gave was the exhibit- 
 ing them in funeral procsfuons, f,'C^ 
 See funcrp.L 
 
 Jva pafiria?ii(M, was the laws of 
 R:;?:uh-:s, Numa, and other Kings 
 of Rofue, collected into a body by 
 Sextus PapiritiSf who lived in the 
 time of Tayqiiin the Proud, which 
 accounts for the name. 
 
 Jus trium lihercrutn was a privi- 
 lege granted to fach perfoiiJ in the 
 city oi Rome 2.% hid thre^ children, 
 by which they were exempted f:or.; 
 all trocblefomc olri-es. The fan:Q 
 exemption \\ as granted to any pcr- 
 fons \-;\io lived in ether parts of 
 Italy, having four children ; and 
 thofe tli£t lived in tlis pfovinccs, 
 provided they had ^v:t (or as fome 
 fay fevcn) children, u'cre iatiilcd 
 to the fame immunities. This wai 
 good policy, and tended to the po- 
 pulation of the Empire. For a 
 further account of thefe privilege?, 
 fee Children. 
 
 J u c J u R A N D u Ji. See Qath, 
 S^vearing. 
 
 JuvzNALES ludi, were games 
 inltituted to Nerc at the ihaving of 
 his beard. They were at firft pri- 
 vately celebrated in his palace or 
 garden; but foon became public 
 and magnificent. The following 
 Emperors held yearly games in the 
 palace, under the name of juve- 
 nalia, on the firft day of January. 
 
 We meet alfo with the Ludi j'u- 
 '•jentutis inliituted by Salinator dur- 
 ing t\izSene?tf,an war, forthe health 
 and fafety of the youth of Rcme, a 
 plague then raging in the city. 
 
 Jynx, a bird made ufe cf by the 
 ancients in their incantations, to ex- 
 cite love. The tongue was the 
 moll; effectual member, though they 
 fometim.es faiiened the whole bird 
 to a wheel of wax, which they 
 turned over the fire till the whole 
 was confumed ; by this filly trick 
 expecting to infiame the objedl of 
 their defires with a mutual love. 
 I am forrv I have it not in my 
 power to gratif/ my fair readers, 
 bj inforiair.g them wk^t bird the 
 
 Jj?2X 
 
KIN 
 
 KIS 
 
 yynx Wis ; but their own natural Some f.iy the J nx wzs a mufical- 
 
 charms are enougli to fccure them ijillrument, and c>tjicrs fay i is a 
 
 admirers, without the aid of any general name for all ions of aliure- 
 
 otiier, than tlieir ufual witchcraft, ments. 
 
 K 
 
 r^ADAS. See C^adas. 
 
 Kalends. See Calends. 
 Karaites, were a feft amongtl 
 the 'Jeivs, who adhered clofely to 
 tne text and letter of the fcripture, 
 rejefling Rabbinical interpretati- 
 ons, and the ravings of the cabbala. 
 They are fiid to trace their defcent 
 from £s;;-^, and to boaft much of 
 their origin ; but it is a matter of 
 the greateit difficulty to fix the time 
 when, or the manner how, they 
 firil: began. The particulars of 
 their ditfcrence with the Rabbinijls 
 may be thus briefly fummed up. — 
 The Karaites deny that the oral 
 law came from Mofcs, and rejefl 
 the traditions. They abhor the 
 tah::ud, and obferve the fahhath 
 with more rigour thanthe/ia6'<b/«<^;V. 
 The word Karaite is Babylonic, and 
 fignifie: a Scripturiji. See Rabbi. 
 
 Kings were not known amongft 
 the Ifaraclit^s till the reign of Saul. 
 Before him they were governed, at 
 firft, by Elders, as in Egypt ; then 
 by Princes of God's appointment, 
 as Mo/es and Jcjkua ; then by 
 Judges, till the time of Samuel and 
 laft of all by Kings. See Judges . 
 
 Mcftofthe Grecian ftates were 
 governed at firll by Kings, who 
 were chof^. by the people, to de- 
 cide differences and execute a 
 pov.'er which was limited bylaws. 
 They commanded armies, prefided 
 over the worlhip of the Gods, &c. 
 This royalty vvas gensrally heredi- 
 
 tary ; but if the vices of the heir 
 to the crown were odious to the 
 people, or if the oracle had fo com- 
 manded, he was cut of}' from the 
 right of iuccefiion ; — yet the Kings 
 were fuppofed to hold their fove- 
 reignty by the appointment oi Ju- 
 piter. The enfign of Maielly was 
 the fceptre, v/liich was made of 
 wood, adorned with ftuds of gold, 
 and ornamented at the top with 
 feme figure ; commonly that of an 
 Eagle, as being the bird oi Jo-je. 
 
 Rome alfo was governed at firll 
 by Kings, vvho were clcdled by the 
 people, with the approbation of 
 the Senate, and concurrence of the 
 Augurs. Their power extended to 
 religion, the revenues, the army, 
 and the adminill:ration of jutticc. 
 The monarchical form of govern- 
 ment fubfifccd 244 years in Rome, 
 under feven Kings, the lail of whoni 
 vva s Tarcuinius Superb us . 
 
 King of Feajh. See Arbiter. 
 
 Kin NOR, a mufical inilrument 
 amonglt the ancient Je-ws, which 
 tranllarors getrerally veiidcr Citb'ara. 
 It had a bafe or hollow founding 
 belly, clofe by which arofe two 
 perpendicular branches, acrofs 
 which was fcflened a piece of 
 wood, and to the piece uf wood were 
 fixed three, fix, or nine firings to be 
 played upon with the fingers, or 
 touched with the bov/. See harp, 
 P/altery. 
 
 Kissing, by way of ialutation, 
 
 QV as a toicen of reipe»fk, has been 
 
 pradifed 
 
LAB 
 
 LAB 
 
 pracllfed in all nations. The Rc- 
 wan Emperors fahitcd their princi- 
 pal officers by a kifs. Kifling the 
 nonth or the eyes was the ufual 
 compliment upon any promotion 
 or happy event. Soldiers kiifed 
 the General's hand when he quitted 
 his office. Fathers, amongft the 
 RcfKans, had (o much delicacy, 
 that they never embraced their 
 wives in the prefence of their 
 daughters. Near relations were 
 allowed to Icifs their female kin- 
 dred on the mouth, but this was 
 done in order to kno-vv whether 
 they fmeltof wine or not, becaafe 
 the Reman ladies, in fpite of a pro- 
 hibition to the contrary, wcrefound 
 ibmetimcs to have made too free 
 
 with the juice of the grape. Slaves 
 kiifed their mailers hand, who ufed 
 to hold it out to them for that pur- 
 pofe. Kiffing was a cuftomary 
 mode of falutation amcngil the 
 yeivs, as we may coUecl irom the 
 circumftance o^ Judas approaching 
 his mailer with a kifs. P.elations 
 nfed to kifs their kindred when 
 dying and when dead ; when dy- 
 ing, out of a Il,-ange opinion that 
 they fhonld imbibe the departing; 
 foul ; and when dead, by way of 
 valcdidtory ceremony. They even 
 kifled the corpfe alter it was con- 
 veyed to the pile, v.'hen it had 
 been feven or eight days dead.-»- 
 See Salutatio. 
 
 L. 
 
 LABARIFERI, amongft the 
 Remans, were ftandard bear- 
 ers who carried the iabarum. See 
 Labariim. 
 
 Labarum, was the banner or 
 ftandard borne before the Roman 
 Emperors in the wars. It confiitcd 
 of a long lance with a Itafr" placed 
 acrofs on the top, at right angles, 
 from which hupg a fplendid ftrea- 
 ir.er of purple, edged with fringe, 
 and befet with precious Iloaes. — 
 Conjiantine, in the room of the 
 eagle, which before his time had 
 been painted upon it, added acrofs 
 with a cypher cxpreffive of the 
 name of Jefus^ which Danet fays 
 was a P with the letters A and ii, 
 
 i. e. the beginning and the end 
 
 Some fay the cypher of this fiand- 
 ard was X P. the two firft letters 
 of the Greek word XPI2T02. — 
 The letter on medals were combin- 
 ed thus \ and thur J. This cy- 
 
 pher is fappofed to have been ex- 
 hibited to Confiantine in that 
 wonderful vifion of the crofs w hich 
 converted him to chriflianity. — 
 Conjlantine choie fifty of the braveft 
 men in the guards, to bear it on 
 their flioulders in turn ; and the 
 Emperor himfelf informed Eufebius, 
 that in the battle againft Maxentius, 
 the perfon who bore it was mira- 
 cukujly defended by it from all 
 danger — and died the inftant he 
 had parted with it. 
 
 This Standard the Romans took 
 from the Germans, Daci, Sarm.ata, 
 Pannonians, i3c. whom they had 
 overcome. The name Labarum 
 was not known before the time of 
 Conf!a?ithie, but the form of it, 
 abating, the fym.bols of chrijiianiiy 
 was ufed in their itandards by all 
 the preceding Emperors. Critics 
 are not agreed as to the derivation 
 of the word, but have found it an 
 3nrlc field f-pr difputation. 
 
LAC 
 
 LAM 
 
 Labrum, a great tub which 
 flood at the entrance both of the 
 Jeivijh temple, and ' thofe of the 
 Pagans, containing water for the 
 pricfts to wafh thcmfclves in, pre- 
 vious to their facriiices. It was 
 alfo the name of a bathing tub ufed 
 in the baths of the ancients. The 
 S. S. call it the brazen Tea. 
 
 Labyrinth, a building full of 
 intricate and perplexing turns and 
 meanders, (o contrived that if a 
 perfon went in, he could not, with- 
 out the utmoll difiiculty, lind his 
 way out again. There were four 
 Labyrinths famous in antiquity, 
 one at Crete, another at Lsmnos, 
 another in Egy-^t on the banks of 
 M.ei-is, and another in Italy built 
 hy Parfenna King of the Etrurians. 
 Tlie Egyptian Labyrinth was the 
 moft ancient, but that of Crete 
 built by Disdalusy was the molt I'a- 
 mous and moll frequently menti- 
 oned in clajjjc authors. 
 
 LacccSs, was a ditch or trench 
 ufed by the Greeks by way of altar, 
 when they facrificed to the infernal 
 Gods or fubterraneous deities. 
 
 Lacerna, a coarfe thick gar- 
 ment, worn by the Romajis over 
 their gowns like a cloak, to keep 
 off" the rain and cold. It was firlt 
 ufed in the camp, but afterwards 
 admitted into the city. The Em- 
 perors wore the lacerna of a purple 
 dye. The lacerna was at firfl very 
 fhort, but was lengthened after it 
 became fal'hionable, which was not 
 till the civil wars and the trium^vi- 
 rate ; before this time it was con- 
 fined to the foldiers. Senators were 
 forbidden wearing it in the city by 
 Valentinian and Theociojius. Mar- 
 /jW makes mention o'i lacerna worth 
 10,000 fejierces. Some confound 
 this garment with the penula ; but 
 it feeras rather to have refembled 
 the chlamys and hirrus. Some au- 
 thors contend that the lacerna was 
 worn by women, refting their ar- 
 
 gument on thefe two paflages of 
 "Ju^jenal and Horace. 
 
 Ipfe lace matte cum fe jaSiaret arnica i 
 Jwj. Sat. 
 
 Sub clara nuda lacerna. 
 
 Hor. Sat. 7. Lib. 2. V. 48, 
 
 but, whoever examines thefe paf- 
 fages, will find that 'Jwvenal is 
 fpeaking of the Catamite Sporus — 
 and that the line in Horace ought 
 to hs fub clara. nuda lucernd, allud- 
 ing to the cuilom which prevailed 
 amongft the proflitutes, of carrying 
 lamps when they walked the 
 ilreets in the night. 
 
 Lachrimatories were fmall 
 glafs or earthen veffels, whereia 
 were put the tears which the fur- 
 viving friends and relations wept 
 for the dead. Thefe, with their 
 contents, were buried with the 
 urns and afhes of the deceafed.— — 
 Lachry?natories are to be found iii 
 the cabinets of the curious. 
 
 Laconicum, a fliort pithy fcn- 
 tcntious fpeech, fuch as the Lace- 
 demonians were remarkable for : — 
 Their way of delivering themfelv€9 
 was very concife, and much to the 
 purpofe, 
 
 L/ena, was a gown worn by 
 the Roman Augurs, and peculiar to 
 their office. In this gown they 
 covered their heads when they 
 made their obfervations on the 
 flight of birds, &c, ^zt Augur. 
 
 Lami^, a fort of dccmons who 
 had their exillence in the imagina- 
 tions of the Heathens, and were 
 fuppofed to devoar children.— 
 Theirform was human, refembling 
 b|eautiful women. Horace makes 
 mention of them in his Art of Po- 
 etry. The name, according to 
 fome, is derived from lanio to tear^ 
 or according toothers, is a corrup- 
 tion of a Hebreiv word fignifying 
 to devour. They are atfo called 
 Larvit 9T Lemuret, 
 
 A a Lamp* 
 
LAN 
 
 LAN 
 
 Lamps were in general ufe a- 
 mongrc tliC Jciusy Greeks and Ro- 
 ?)ia>i5. The candlcftick with feven 
 brar.ches, placed in the fandluary 
 by Mrjcs^ and thoie which ^clcmon 
 afterwards prepared tor the temple, 
 veie ciiryllal lamps, filled with 
 oil, and lixed upon the branches. 
 The lamps or candlcilicksmadc ufe 
 of by they^-vj in their owahoufcs, 
 were g^^nerally put into a very high 
 iland on the gr-ouRd. The lamps 
 of the foolifh virgins, &c. in the 
 ■gofpel, wete of a diflerent fort — • 
 They were a fort of torches made 
 6: i<c7i or potters earth, wrapped 
 abo'Jt with old linen, and moiilen- 
 tfd, from time to time, with oil. 
 Matth. XXV. I, 2. The lamps of 
 Gidem s folditrs were of the fame 
 kind. The ufe of wax was not 
 unknown to the Rc?naiis, but they 
 generally burnt lamps; hence the 
 proverb 7e>r:pus et cleu}n perdidi — 
 / ha-x'e loji my labcur. Lamps 
 were fomctimes burn: in honour 
 of the dead, both by Greeks and 
 Romans. But a great difpute has 
 been railed smongft the learned,. 
 Cjncerning thefe fepulchral lamps. 
 I'lifiy, St. Aupin, and others have 
 Jed many to believe that the anci- 
 ents had the inveation of perpetual 
 lamps ; and feme ot the moder&s 
 have vainly endeavoured to find 
 ■out the fecret. The evidence of 
 ■Pliny and 5/. AujVin is not fufficient 
 TO induce us to believe that a lamp 
 was ever contrived to burn for lOCO 
 years, much lefs that the ancients 
 tnew how to make lamps to burn 
 jbr ever. Theij- ojl-efrus \& a poor 
 ihifr. The tiling, in fliort, is con- 
 trary to the known principles of 
 nature; and as. inconceivable as 
 the perpetual motion. 
 
 Lancea, an ofFenfive weapon, 
 with a long ilaiT, like a half-pike. 
 It confiited of three parts, the.ihaft, 
 the wings, and the dart, Pilny 
 attributes the invention of this in- 
 
 ftrument to the jEto!ia?:s ; Fefltis 
 derives it from the Greek Xoyx^r 
 which it exaftly refembled. I: 
 was pointed with iron, 
 
 L AN GEAR 1 1, loldiers, whofe 
 chief weapon was th.e. laizcea. The 
 Romans held them in great efieem. . 
 We meet with them in writers of 
 the middle age. 
 
 Language. The firft language 
 Is with great probability fuppofed 
 to have been given by God to 
 Jdam and E-ve, and derived to their 
 pofterity from them, as one com- 
 m.on fource, by imitation and ufe, . 
 continuing the fame till the de- 
 flrufiion of Baiel ; at which time 
 God divided the language of men, 
 giving one fort to one family, and 
 another to another ; that they mdght 
 feparate into companies, and be 
 better difpofed for peopling the 
 earth. Very learned men fuppoie 
 that the firft language was Hebrevjy 
 becEufe thofe that live neareft to 
 5«3f/ ilill retain great remains of 
 thQ Hebre-iv tongue; and becaufs 
 the words j^dam and Eve are of 
 Hehre^w origin ; Jdam fignifying 
 r.ed earth or duji, and Ei'e, to iinje^ 
 becaufe fhe was the mother of all 
 living. — The language of the jfc'ws 
 before the captivity, was He6re'Wi 
 but, during, their ieventy years rc- 
 fidencc among the Chaldeans and 
 Syria?iSy the purity of the Hehre-uf 
 was corrupted into what was gene- 
 rally called the Syriac, the fame 
 which continued to be vulgarly 
 fpoken in Judea, in the time of 
 Chrijl and his apoflles. 
 
 Both the Greeks and Romans were 
 particularly careful of preferving 
 the purity of their language. It 
 feems amongft the Romans to have 
 been a point, which they thought 
 worthy the attention of the ftate 
 itfelf ; for we find the Cumeans not 
 daring to make ufe of the Latl/t 
 language, in their public ads, 
 without, having firft obtaiacd leave. 
 
 in 
 
LAN 
 
 L A r 
 
 i-n form. Tiherius himfelf would 
 not hazard the word monopolium 
 in the Senate, without making an 
 excufe for employing a foreign 
 term. Seneca gives it as a certain 
 maxim, that wherever a general 
 falfe tafte in ftile and expreilion 
 prevails, it is an infallible fign of a 
 corrupdon of manners in that peo- 
 ple : A liberty of introducing ob- 
 folete words, or forming new ones, 
 is a mark, he thinks, of an equal 
 licenticufnefs of the moral kind. — 
 Accordingly it is obferved, there 
 are fcarcc more than eight or ten 
 inftanccs of new words to be pro- 
 duced from the moft approved Ro- 
 man writers, in the coarfe of two 
 or three centuries. If this mode 
 of reafoning, concerning the mo- 
 rals of the ftate, was introduced 
 and applied in our own country, 
 no nation on the face of the earth 
 could appear more abandoned ; for 
 no nation is more fond of adopting 
 new words, though our language is 
 fufficiently copious. This delicacy 
 oi Seneca appears to be carried a 
 ■little too far, and his manner of 
 eilimating the morals of the people 
 muft be a little fallacious. The 
 Greeks were very remarkable for 
 their difcernment ofprovincialifms, 
 efpecially the Athenians, whofe 
 dialeft was inconceivably fweet 
 and elegant. 
 
 Lanista, amongll the Romans, 
 was a majler-gladiator , who taught 
 the ufe of arms. The lanijia had 
 always perfons nnder them, ready 
 to difpofe of themfclves to enter- 
 tain the people in the fhews. For 
 this purpofe they either purchafed 
 gladiators, or educated in that art 
 children that had been expofed, or 
 bargained with cruel mailers for 
 difobedient ilaves, or purchafed 
 captives. Thefe poor wretches 
 were ready, at the fliorteft warn- 
 ing, to lay down their lives, to en- 
 tertain a bloody-minded populace, 
 
 La?:ijfa is fometimes ufcd to fignffy 
 an executioner. See Gladiators. 
 
 Laramum, was achapel which 
 the ^o;««;;/ trequenclv had in their 
 houfes for the houihold Gods called 
 Lares. Sparlian iays that Alexnn.- 
 der the fon o^ Mamineiis kept, in his 
 lararium., the figure of our Saviour, 
 together with his o,.thcr idols. 
 
 L A R E N T 1 N A L I A , a Roman fea jt, 
 held on the 23d of September, k 
 is fuppofcd by fame to h::ve been 
 inftituted in honour of the Lares \ 
 but others, with greater probabi- 
 lity, imagine it to be the fame 
 '^'n\\Laurentalia,\'a. honour cf.^na, 
 Laurentia, 
 
 Largitio, was a diftribution 
 of corn, provifion, cloaths, money, 
 &c. to the people of Ro?r.e. iyrac- 
 cJrus, whtnTri brine, to make hira-« 
 felf popular, pafled a law for fup- 
 plying the RoiKan citizens with 
 corn at a very low rate, out of 
 the public granaries. CLmdius, 
 another Tribune, wifh the fame 
 views to popular applaufe, pro- 
 cured it to be diilributed gratis.- — • 
 Cato, to win the common people 
 from Ca;far, perfuaded the Senals 
 to do the fame, and 300,000 citi- 
 zens fliared in the diitribation. — 
 CfEfar, alter his triumph extended 
 his bounty to 150,000, giving theni 
 each a jnina. The Ronuxn Empe- 
 fors enlarged ftill further the lilt of 
 thofe who were to partake of their 
 diftributions. Largitio is frequent- 
 ly taken in a bad fenfc, to fignify 
 a mafked bribery ; whereby ca:i- 
 didates purchafed votes, when they 
 flood for places of honour or trui 
 in the ftate. The diftribution of" 
 money was called Congiariuiyt, and 
 the diuributors, divifores and fc- 
 quejlres. See Congiariutn. 
 
 Latiar, a fcftival amoiigft the 
 Romans, in honour of Jupiter La- 
 tialis, or Latiaris, the fame v/ith 
 the Ferice Latina. See Icri^ 
 Latin<^, 
 
 h^ 2 Lat- 
 
LAT 
 
 LAT 
 
 Laticlave, was an honoura- maftcr's clofe-ftools. Wearepretty 
 
 ble diflindliorij peculiar, in the well aifurcd that the Roma7n had 
 
 times of the republic, to the 5f public places ofconvenience, which 
 
 naiorsy but whether it was a parti- were covered over, and had a fpunge 
 
 cular kind of garment, or onjy an hanging up in them for cleanlincls. 
 
 ornamfnt upon it, the critics are R.ich men had clofe-ftools, v/hich 
 
 ■not agreed : But the niore general were taken away occafionally to 
 
 opinion is, that it was a broad the common ftiores. The common 
 
 Itripe of purple fewed upon the pejple were in a fituation in this 
 
 fore-part of their tunic, and roand refpe«!l; finiilar to the inhabitants of 
 
 the middle of the bieaft. There a flourifning city in the northern 
 
 were buttons let on the lotus cla'uus part of Great Britain, 
 
 or laticlave, which appeared like Latrones, the fame as /a/ra«- 
 
 the heads of large nails, whence culi. See LatrunculL 
 
 fome think it derived its name.—- Latrunculi, a game amongft 
 
 The Saiators, Praiors, and chief the Romans, of much the fame na- 
 
 magillrates 01 colonies and munici- ture with our chefs. The lafrun- 
 
 pa] cities, had a right to wear it. cu/i were properly the chefs-men, 
 
 The/ir<^/fA-/«was always worn over called alfo Latrones and Calculi . — 
 
 it; but when the Ptcttor pro- They Vi?ere made of glafj, and dif- 
 
 nounced fentence of death, the 
 pr/ctexta was then put off, and the 
 laticla-ue retained. The laticla- 
 fjiiim differed from the angitjiicla- 
 n.ni:.m, but authors do not agree in 
 what refpeft this difterence con- 
 iiiled ; the moft general opinion 
 feems to be, that the flips or 
 ilripes of purple were narrower in 
 the angujlicla've. 
 
 I.ATINJE Feri^. See Fencs 
 Latitiie. 
 
 Latomia properly fignifies a 
 
 tinguilhcd by black and white co- 
 lours. Sometimes they were made 
 of wax, or other convenient fub- 
 ftance. Some give the invention 
 of this game to Palamades when st 
 the fiege of T^'O)' ; Seneca attributes 
 it to Chilon^ one of the feven Gre- 
 cian Sages ; others honour Pyrrhus 
 with the invention ; and others 
 again contend that it is oi Perftan 
 origin — but is not this Lis de land 
 cafrind ? Frequent allufions to this 
 game are met with in the Ro7nan 
 
 ftone quarry: But the places claffics, and a little poem was wrote 
 
 whence Hones had been dug hav- upon it addreffed to Pifo, which 
 
 ing been made ufe of fomecimes as fome fay was the work of O'vid, 
 
 dungeons, jails, or prifons forcri- others oi Litcan,\n the end of fome 
 
 in nals, it is oftentimes applied as editions of whofe works it is to be 
 
 a name for a prifon. There was a found, and to which I refer for a 
 
 place of confinement of this fort at fuller account of the game. This 
 
 ^orie, near Tulltamun ; another game expreffes fo well the chance 
 
 at Syracnfe, in which Cicero fays and order of war, that it is, with 
 
 Verrcs ha.d fhut up Ro,'na7j citizens, great appearance of probability, at- 
 
 Latrin^'E, were public houfes tributed to fome military officer as 
 
 of off.ce, or neceffuries amongft the the inventor. One Canius 'Julius 
 
 Ro7hc.rs. We do not find, in the was fo exceedingly ford of chefs, 
 
 writings or buildings that remain that after he was fentenced to death 
 
 of aptiquity, that they had any by C«//^«/«, he was found playing, 
 
 privies in their houfes. The la- but interrupted in his game by a 
 
 /rzK^ were public places where the call ■• exti ation ; he obeyed the 
 
 flavco walhed and emptied their fummons, but firft delired the Cen- 
 
 tvrtQti 
 
L AU 
 
 LAW 
 
 ttiy'ion who brought the fntal order 
 to bear witncis that he had one man 
 upon the board more than his anta- 
 goniil, that he might not falfely 
 brag of viftory when he fhould be 
 no more. 
 
 Laudatio, in a legal fenfe was 
 the teftimony delivered in court of 
 the accuici pcrfon's good behavi- 
 our and integrity of life. It re- 
 fembled the cuilom, which pre- 
 vails in our trials, of calling per- 
 fons to fpeak to the charaifler ot the 
 prifoner. The leafl; number of the 
 laudatorcs amongft the Romans was 
 ten. 
 
 Laudicoeni, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, applauders, who for reward 
 entered the rehearfal -rooms, at- 
 tended the repetition of plays, and 
 were in waiting when orations were 
 pronounced, in order to raife or 
 encreafe the acclamation and ap^ 
 plaufe. 
 
 Laver. See La'orum. 
 
 Laurel, being facred to Apollo, 
 the God of prophecy, was much 
 ufed by thofe who pretended to 
 infpiration. The prophets had 
 their heads furrounded with its 
 leaves, carried in their hands a 
 fceptre of its wood called ISi/i'7>if lov, 
 by way of magic wand, and rre- 
 quently chewed its leaves to tempt 
 the God to take poilellion of their 
 fouls. 
 
 Laurentalia, a Rcria?! fclli- 
 val kept by the Rotnam en the Z3d 
 of December, in memory of Acca 
 Lauren tia, the nurfe of Ronulus and 
 Remus, the wife of Faufiulus, and 
 a common"proftitute. She was cal- 
 led upa by way of nick-name ; 
 hence the ftory of the wolf that 
 fuckled the Royal twins. After 
 the death of Faujiulus, Acca mar- 
 ried a rich man, by whom Ihe was 
 left pOiTen'ed of a large fortune, 
 which Ihe left to the Romans, and 
 was therefore honoured in this fef- 
 
 tival. Some fay this feftival was in 
 honour oi Jupiter Latialis. 
 
 Law, a command or precept 
 coming from fome iuperior autho- 
 rity, which inferiors are obliged to 
 obey. The law of Mofes is the 
 moil ancient that we know of in 
 the world, and is of three kinds; 
 the moral law, the ceremonial law, 
 and the judicial law. By the mo- 
 ral law is meant the ten command- 
 ments written by the finger of God 
 himiclf on two tables of {tone, and 
 emphatically called, by the Jen.>:sy 
 the ten ^Mords. The ceremonial 
 law includes all the direftions 
 which were given concerning holy 
 places, holy times, holy peribns, 
 and holy things, with all the dif- 
 tinguilhing peculiarities to which 
 the Jc^-s were required as a pecu- 
 liar people to conform. The Jw 
 dzcial lanv comprehends all fuch. 
 laws as concerned their eftates and 
 poffelfions, their cattle and their 
 goods, with fuch regulations as re- 
 lated to their buying and felling. 
 The different manner, in which 
 each of thefe was delivered, may 
 perhaps fuggell to us a right ide.t 
 of rheir different natures. Tho 
 moral law, or ten commandment£, 
 for inltance, was delivered on the 
 top of the mountain, in the face 
 of the v/hole world, as being of 
 a7?/c;fr/2z/ influence, and obligatory 
 on fi// mankind. The ceremonial 
 was received by Mcfes in private, 
 in the Tabernacle, as beincr of pe- 
 culiar concern, belongino- to the 
 Je^-s only, and deftined to ceafe 
 when the tabernacle was down, and 
 the vail of the temple rent. As to 
 the judicial law, it was neither fo 
 publicly, nor fo audibly given, as 
 the moral law, nor yety3 pri'vately 
 as the ceremonial- this kind of law- 
 being of an indifferent nature, to- 
 be obfervcd or not cblerved, as its 
 rites fuit with the place and go- 
 vcrnmeuE 
 
LAW 
 
 vernment under which we live.— 
 The five books of Mofes, called the 
 Pentateuch, are frequently ftiled, 
 by way of emphafis, the la-iv. — 
 This was held by the Je~j.s in fuch 
 
 LAW 
 
 veneration, that they would no', 
 allow it to be laid upon the bed of 
 any fick perfon, left it fhould be 
 polluted by touching the dead. 
 
 A Table of the Jewijh Laws isfubjoined, which it is pre- 
 fiimed will be found ufeful to many. 
 
 A T^ 
 
A TABLE or HARMONY 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 Whole Jewiili Law or Law of Mofes, 
 
 Digefted into proper HEADS ; with REFERENCES to the leveral 
 Parts of the PENTATEUCH, where the reipeftive LAWS occur.— 
 Of Ule to give Light to the Tenor of that Inftitution, and for an eal/ 
 turning to every Branch of it.— Taken from a M. S. in the Library of 
 o^ St. John Bapiiji's College ; given by Archbij'hop LauJ, and probably 
 either compiled by his Grace, or by his Direction. 
 
 The FIRST CLASS. 
 
 The Mcral Latu 'written ok the Tvjo Tables, containing the Ten 
 Commandments. 
 
 The firft Table which includes 
 
 The Firft Commandment, 
 
 The Second Commandment, 
 
 The Third Commandment, 
 The Fourth Commandment, \ 
 
 The fecond Table including 
 The Fifth Commandment, 
 The Sixth Commandment, 
 The Seventh Comandment, 
 The Eighth Commandment, 
 The Ninth Commandment, 
 The Tenth Commandment, 
 The Sum of both Tables, 
 
 The SECOND CLASS. 
 The Cererncnial Law may be fitly 
 
 reduced to the following Heads, 
 
 viz. 
 Of the Holy Place, 
 Of the Matter and Strudlure of 
 
 the Tabernacle, 
 Of the Inftruments of the fame 
 
 viz. 
 The Laver of Brafs, 
 The Altar of Burnt Offering, 
 The Altar of Incenfe, 
 The Candleftickof Pure Gold, 
 The Table of Shew Bread, 
 OfthePrieftsadd theirVeilments 
 
 for Glory and Beauty, 
 Of the choofing of the Levites, 
 Of the Prieft's Office in general. 
 
 Of their Office in Teaching, 
 
 Of their Office in Bleffing, 
 
 Exod. 
 chap. 
 
 Levitic] 
 chap. 
 
 Numb. 
 chap. 
 
 Deut. 
 chap. 
 
 20.13. 
 20.23.^4 
 
 23. 
 
 2^.31 
 
 35:. 
 
 26. 
 
 19.26.18. 
 
 19.23.26 
 
 ig. 
 
 ig. 
 
 18.19. 
 
 ig. 
 
 ig. 
 
 ig. 
 
 17. 
 
 19. 10. 
 
 ■{; 
 
 5.6. 
 
 4.5.6.7.8 
 O.I 1.12. 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 5- 
 5- 
 
 5-23- 
 5- 
 
 5- 
 
 i. 
 
 18.3.8. 
 3.1S. 
 
 18.12. 
 17.31- 
 
Of their Office in ofi'ering which 
 Funftion largely Ipreading itfelf 
 is divided into thele Heads, viz 
 
 What the Saciifice ought to be, 
 
 Ot the continual Fire, 
 
 Of the manner of the burnt offerings 
 
 ■ the peace offerings 
 
 ■ ■ of the iacritices ac- 
 cording to their leveral kinds, viz. 
 
 For fin committed ihro' ignorance 
 
 thch 
 For fin committed thro' ignorance } 
 
 of the fad, S 
 
 For fin corrmitted wittingly, y^il 
 
 not thro' impiety, 3 
 
 The fpecial law ot facrifices for fin, 
 Of things belonging to the facrifices, 
 Of the (hew bread. 
 Of the lamps. 
 Of the fweet iucenfe. 
 Of the ufe of ordinary oblations, 
 
 whereof there were feveral kinct 
 
 obferved by the prielh. 
 Of the confccration of the high/ 
 
 prieits and other prieils, i 
 
 Of the confecrations and office of ? 
 
 the Levites, i 
 
 Of the dwellings of the Levites, 
 Of the anointing the altar, and ^ 
 
 all the inftruments of the ta- > 
 
 bernacle, j 
 
 Of the continual daily facrifices, 
 Of the continual fabbath days 7 
 
 facrifice, i 
 
 Of the folemn facrifice for feall 
 
 days which were diverfe, and 
 
 had peculiar rites, diftinguifhed 
 
 into thefe, viz. 
 Of trumpets, 
 
 Of kalends or beginning of months, 
 Of the three moit folemn feafis? 
 
 in general, 3 
 
 Of the feaft of paffover, i 
 
 Of the feaft of pentecoft, 
 Of the feall of tabernacles, 
 Of the feartof blowing the trumpets 
 Ot the fealt ot expiation, 
 Of the firft fruits, 
 Of tythes. 
 Of fruits growing and not eaten of. 
 Of thefirlt-born, 
 Of the fabbatical year. 
 Oft he year of jubi'ee. 
 Of vows in genera), 
 What perfons ought not to make 7 1 
 rows. Si 
 
 Exod. 
 chap. 
 
 lLe\-itic. 
 chap. 
 
 - 3 7- 
 
 - 57- 
 
 :9.30. 
 
 Numb, 
 chap. 
 
 Deut, 
 chap. 
 
 51: 
 
 23 34- 
 
 12.13.25 
 
 34- 
 23.24. 
 
 23 34- 
 
 13 22 34 
 23, 
 
 25. 
 
 25- 
 27- 
 
 8 
 
 
 35- 
 
 
 
 28. 
 28. 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
 28. 
 
 9.28. 
 28. 
 
 2g. 
 
 29. 
 29. 
 
 >5- 
 18. 
 
 16. 
 16. 
 
 16. 
 16. 
 
 26. 
 12.14 26. 
 
 15- 
 
 30. 
 30. 
 
 13, 
 
Exoi. 
 chap. 
 
 What tilings cannot be vowed. 
 Of redempiion of vows, 
 Or" the vowsof tiic I'Tazariles, 
 Of the lawi proper for the prieU; 
 
 or pollutions, 
 
 Of the high prides mourning, 
 
 Of his marrij^c, j 
 
 Of the inourning of tiie ordiiiaiy \' 
 
 prieftf, _ S ; 
 
 Of their marriage, r 
 
 Of their kc\r>g forbid theufecf ?;, 
 
 wine, &c. 5j 
 
 Of far.ftified meats, 11 
 
 Of the oface of the Levites, viz. | 
 
 Teaching, 
 
 Off-erins, 
 
 Other promifcuous ceremonial 
 
 laws, viz. 
 Of uncleannefs in general, 
 Ofuncleannef's in meats., viz. 
 Of blood, Gen. ix. 
 
 Of fat, 
 
 Of dead carcafes, 
 Other meats and diverfe living? 
 
 creatures, J 
 
 Of uncleannefs in the iflue of feed ? 
 
 and blood, i 
 
 In the dead bodies of men. 
 In the leprofy. 
 
 Of circumcifion. Gen. xvii. 
 
 Of the water of expiation. 
 Of the mourning of the liraclites. 
 Of mixtures, 
 Of their garments and writing 
 
 the law privately. 
 Of young birds not to be taken 
 
 with t: e dam, i 
 
 Of their paddle flives. 
 
 The THIRD CLASS. 
 The Political Law. 
 
 N. B. The Magiltrate is the 
 Keeper of the Precepts of both Ta- 
 bles, and to have Refpedl to human 
 Society ; — therefore the Political 
 Lav;sof the If>-aelites arc referred to 
 both the Tables, and are to be re- 
 duced to the feveral Precepts of 
 
 The Moral Law. 
 Laws referred to the firlt Table, 
 
 namely ift, to the ift and ad 
 
 Commandments, viz. 
 Of idolators and apoftates 
 Of aboliniing idolatry, 
 Of diviners and falfe prophets. 
 Of covenants with other Cods, 
 
 22, 
 
 Lciitic. 
 chap. 
 
 Numb, 
 cliap. 
 
 27. 
 
 27. 
 
 Deuf. 
 
 chap. 
 
 23. 
 
 22. 
 2:. 
 21. 
 
 21- 
 
 21 . 
 
 10. 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.19. 
 
 5. li 
 
 .19. 
 
 17.19 
 
 7 ' 
 
 .20. 
 12. 
 
 34.1S. 
 5- 
 
 13 
 
 12. 
 
 ig. 
 
 19. 
 10. 
 
 19. 
 
 15- 
 
 22. 
 
 2324. 
 22. 
 
 23-34- 
 
 JB 
 
 20. 
 
 12.1c.1i 
 
 17.27.3r. 
 
 10. 
 
 14. 
 14. 
 
 23. 
 24. 
 
 14. 
 
 zz. 
 
 6.11. 
 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 13.17. 
 7.12. 
 18. 
 
 sd. To 
 
unwittingly-) 
 cities i 
 
 3 
 
 zi. To the third commandment, 
 
 viz. 
 Of blafphcmics, 
 3d. To the fourth commandment, 
 
 viz. 
 Of breaking the fabbatli, 
 Political laws referred to the fecond 
 
 table, 
 rft, To the fifth commandment, 
 
 OfmagiHrates and their authority. 
 
 Of the power of fathers, 
 
 .-^d. To the fixth com.-nandmcntj 
 
 viz. 
 Of capital puniihments. 
 Of wilful murthcr. 
 Of manllaughter 
 
 committed, and of the 
 
 of re''uge, 
 Cf Heinous injury, 
 Of punifhments, not capital, 
 Of [be law of war, 
 3d. To the feventh commandment, 
 
 viz. 
 Of unlawful marriages. 
 Of fornication. 
 Of whoredom. 
 Of adultery andjealoufy, 
 Of copulation againll nature. 
 Of divorcements. 
 
 Other matrimoniallaws, I 
 
 4. To the eight commandment, 
 
 viz. 
 Of the punifhment of thefts, 
 Offacrilcge, Jofhua vii. 
 
 Of not injuring flrangers, 
 Of not defrauding hirelings, 
 Of jufl weights, 
 Of removing the land-mark, 
 Of I off goods, 
 Of itray cattle, 
 Of corrupted judgments, 
 Of fire breaking out by chaftjce. 
 Of nian-ftealing, 
 Of the fugitive fervant. 
 Of gathering fruits, 
 Ofc ^ntraifts, viz. 
 liorrowin», 
 Of the pledge. 
 Of ufury, 
 Of felling, 
 Of the thing lent. 
 Of a thing committed to be kept, 
 Qf heir."!, 
 
 Exod. 
 ch?p. 
 
 I LeviticJKum J. 
 cl'.np. I ch^p. 
 
 31.35. 
 
 18. ^JO. 
 
 24. 
 
 24. 
 
 22. 
 
 22.23. 
 
 22. 
 22.23. 
 
 23- 
 22. 
 
 1H.2O. 
 
 ig. 
 21. 
 
 ig,20. 
 18.20. 
 
 18.20. 
 
 22. 
 22. 
 21 . 
 22. 
 
 i9.?3. 
 
 25- 
 25. 
 
 IS- 
 
 Deut 
 chap. 
 
 I. 10. I?. 
 21. 
 
 21.24. 
 ig. 
 
 1g.21.22, 
 
 25. 
 25. 
 20.23. 
 
 7.22 
 
 23- 
 22, 
 
 24. 
 21,22.24. 
 [25. 
 
 
 S- 
 
 
 19. 
 
 ig. 
 ig. 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ig. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 [26.27 33 
 ^6. 
 
 10. 
 
 26.2^, 
 25. 
 _i_9j 
 
 22. 
 16.24. 
 
 24. 
 23. 
 23.24. 
 
 15- 
 
 24- 
 
 5. To 
 
Exod. 
 cliap. 
 
 ^. To the nintii commandment, 
 
 \'.z. 
 C;f witPffT s 
 
 The eftabi ilrr.K the political law, 
 The eiiabi, Tiling the divine law in 
 general, 
 
 From tlie dignity of tlie lawjjiver, 
 
 From the excellency of tlte laws, 
 
 From the promireb, 
 I'lom the threatnlngs, 
 
 Levi:ir 
 
 chn' 
 
 Mum'- 
 • hap. 
 
 S. 19.23 
 24. 
 
 23. 
 
 ^9 20.2 
 
 18.26. 
 26. 
 
 Deut. 
 
 :h.n). 
 
 17.10. 
 •I- 
 
 6.1 1.20. 
 
 ]:.3i.' 
 ■5.6.7.3. 
 
 4.26. 
 
 4. 7. II. 
 
 The firft laws amongft the J//.-e- 
 t:'tans leem to have been thofe of 
 Thrfcus, for vvh.^t we can find earlier 
 than this period is involved in 
 fable. After Thefeus came Draco 
 the Archon^ whofc laws were laid, 
 for their feverity, to have been 
 written Vv-ith blood.; by his laws 
 ^v^xy offence was punifhed u'ith 
 death, fo that Ifealing an apple, 
 and betraying their country, were 
 treated as equal crimes. Thefe 
 laws were afterwards repealed by 
 Solon, except fuch as related to 
 •murder: By way of diftinftion, 
 Draco s laws were called Qstixiu) 
 and Solon's No^oi. The laws of 
 Sc/o7i were in a great meafure Aif- 
 .pended during the ufurpation of 
 Pifijlraius, but, after the expulfion 
 of his family, were revived with 
 fome additions by Cllfthcnes. After 
 this, the form of government was 
 again changed, firll by the four 
 hundred, and afterwards bv the 
 thirty tyrants ; but thefe llorms 
 being over, the ancient laws were 
 again reilored in the Archonfoip of 
 Euclides, and others eilablilhed at 
 theinftance 01 Diodes, Arijiophon, 
 and laft of all of Demetrius the 
 Phalercan. This is a Ihort (ketch 
 of the hiftory of AtkerAan Icgifia- 
 •tion, before that Ilatc fubraitted to 
 
 the Roman yoke. But nanv law? 
 were enaflcd by the fuffragcs oi 
 the people on parti ja'arc.<igcncics -, 
 the decrees of x.\\&Se;.ate continued 
 to have the force of laws nolon'^er 
 than a year. If a new law wa^ tj 
 be propoied to the affembly it v^^as 
 neceflary to write it UDon a white 
 tablet, and fix i: up lome davs be- 
 fore the m.eeiing, Icfi their judg- 
 ment fliould be caught by farprize. 
 The lav.'s were carefully rcvifed 
 every year, and if any of them, 
 from a change rf ri'-cumftauccs 
 were found unfuitable or prcia- 
 dicial, they were re ceiled : Tliis 
 was called £/r;%s(5;c7:via tu-j vo(jl'x.j^ 
 becaufe the futfrages were given b--' 
 holding up of n nds. The firft 
 laws amongfl: the Qre:ians\Ntrc un- 
 written and compoled in verfe 
 tha,t the common people might with 
 jnore eafe coi-nmic them tomemory. 
 Sohn penned his laws upon wooden 
 tablets, called K^omc^ and fome 
 authors with great probability ai- 
 fert that they were written in the 
 manner called Ba>70^v;ocy from left 
 to right, and from right again to 
 left, in the lame manner as oxen 
 walk the iurrows in plowing thu.^, 
 EKAI02 AP 
 
 V023WUX 
 
 It was againft the law for any per- 
 JS b 2 fcii 
 
L A W 
 
 LAW 
 
 fon to erafe a decree, and certain 
 perfons called Tpaf.ifxaliii, vvcrc 
 appointed to prevent -dny corrup- 
 tion ; Vv'hofe iDufincIs it was alfo to 
 ■tranfcribc the old and enter the 
 new ones. 
 
 The Homan laws were of three 
 kinds : ift, Such as were made by 
 their Kings. 2d, The laws of the 
 twelve ti.bles brought by the De- 
 cemnjiii from Athens^ cs'f. And gd, 
 Such as were propofcd by the \\x- 
 perior n";;':gillrates in the times of 
 the republic. The laws of this lafi: 
 clafs f.-;!l more particularly 'within 
 the pliin I have prupofed to myfclf 
 in this work ; I ihall therefore lay 
 fcefore the re 'der an account of the 
 manner in which they were cn- 
 aded. 
 
 No law could be propofed but 
 by fome of the following magif- 
 Jrates, viz. the Pr/ticr, the Ccn- 
 fuls. Hxzl) I crater, tha' I?:terrex, the 
 Dccemfiri, the Military 'iributes, 
 ^Tri:i7!:-v:ri and Tribunes of the peo- 
 ple. If any of tliefe propofcd a 
 Jaw, it was hrfl: committed to v/rit- 
 ing, and privately examined as to 
 -its u till t_) and probable confequen- 
 ces, by Tome perfons wfl! qualified 
 ior ilic tafk ; fom crimes it was rc- 
 i'errcd to the whole Senate for their 
 lentiincnts. Jt was then hung up 
 75uhlicl:ly, for three market dayi:, 
 that all the people iiiight have time 
 to examine it, and confider its 
 tendency: This was called hgis 
 •!>rOi?iuI':atio, qua ft proi'uigatio. It 
 the pcrfon who framed the bill, 
 did not fee caufe, in the mean 
 time, to drop it, the people v. ere 
 convened in Cotiiitia, and he ad- 
 drelfed chem in an oration, being 
 alfo leconded by his friends, fetting 
 forth the expediency and probable 
 udlity of fuch a Jaw : This was 
 called rcgatlo tegis, becaufe the 
 p.ddrefs was ahvays prefaced with 
 fhis petit! inary form of words, I'e- 
 iitis jubcatJke 'juiriies, will you O 
 
 Rcmr.vs confent and order this I.i'.v 
 to pafs. This being done, ihjic 
 that dilliked the motion delivered 
 their fencimcnts in oppofition t j ir. 
 An urn was then brought to certain 
 priefts, who attended upon the oc- 
 cafion, int^ which were call the 
 names of the Tribes, Cc?itur:cs or 
 Cuna, as the Co7niiia happened to 
 be Tributa, Centuriata or Cirriala, 
 The names were Ihaken together, 
 and the firll drawn tribe or century 
 was called pnsrcgaf!-~L>a, becaufe 
 their fuftrages were firil taken. — 
 The ni?-ia that was lirft drawn was 
 called principium for the fame rea- 
 ion. The other tribes y centuries, 
 Z^c. were called Tribus jure Kiccr.taf 
 Ccnlurite jure ^jccatx, t3'c. 
 
 Matters being in this fituation, 
 the ^jcio or negative voice of the 
 tribunes of the people might put an 
 entire end to the proceedings, and 
 diflbive the allembly. The tri- 
 bune's interierence was called /;/- 
 tcrcejjio. The conful z.\(o had it in 
 his power to ftop further proceed- 
 ings, by commanding any of the 
 holidays, called fcria irnperati-jay 
 to be obfervcd. 'ThQcomitia would 
 of coarfe be dilfolved alfo by any 
 of the perfons prefcnt being fcized 
 with the faiiing-ficknefs, or upon 
 the appearance of any unlucky 
 omen. But fuppofmg the bufinefs 
 to meet with no interruption of 
 this fort, the people were each of 
 them prefcnted with two tablets, 
 on one of which was written, in 
 large characlcrs, A. on the other 
 U. R. Their difapprobation of 
 the bill was exprefled by throwing 
 into an urn the tablet infcribed A. 
 fignifving I forbid it, antique^ I 
 prefer the old. Their affent was 
 iignified by throwing in the tablet 
 marked U. R. i. e. uti rogas, be it 
 as you defire. According to the 
 majority of thefe tablets the law 
 palled or not. If it palTed it was 
 written upon .record, and carried j 
 
L A W 
 
 LAW 
 
 into the treafury ; tliis was called 
 legem jWre. AFtervvards ituusen- 
 gidvcd upon plates of brais, and 
 hung i.!p in the moil public and 
 coa!picaoi;s places ; this was term- 
 ed legem fgere, and a future repeal 
 oi this la',7 was legan rrfigere. 
 
 I'i a law paiTed in the ccmit'ia 
 curiata, it was called lex curiafay 
 if in the co?rAtla ccyitiinata, it had 
 the name of lex ccnturlata ; but ii 
 it paiied in the eomitia iriouia, it 
 was termed pleLi/ii.'/tm. The laws, 
 too, generally, bore the names of 
 the prcpofcrs, as Lex u^lia. Lex 
 fuf:a, Uc. 
 
 Under this head we may piJt 
 down as laws the fcnatvs ccnfuitn, 
 or decrees of the feuate, and the 
 edic'is of the pra:icrs or other fu- 
 prenie magillrates, which were 
 called thzjus honorarium. 
 
 Romulus ufcd to make laws b/ 
 his own fingle authority, but fuc- 
 ceeding Kings fought the approba- 
 tion of the people. 
 
 The falling-fjcknefs, becaufe the 
 eomitia were dilTolved in confe- 
 quencecf its happ;;ning to any per- 
 Ion prefent, was called Morbus 
 Co mi fi alts. 
 
 A:i Al^hahctical Arrangement of fitch Reman Laws as mofi 
 frequently occur in Lathi Aulhcrs. 
 
 Lex. — 'Aciaiia, de pecuniisrepe- 
 tundis, .vas propofed by M. Acilius 
 Glnbrio, and contained this claufc, 
 that the perfon convidcd de ^.ecu- 
 niis repetundis, i. e. of opprcHion or 
 extortion in the provinces, ihould 
 neith.er be allowed c.mpliaiio, nor 
 ccmpcrcr.dir.atio, that js, neither a 
 r.ew hearing at a time prefixed by 
 xXicpr.vic:-, nor an adjourninent of 
 the trial till the third day after the 
 firil appearance of the parties in 
 court. 
 
 — Acilia Calpnrnia, de Ambitii, 
 ordained, that befidcs the line im- 
 pofcd, no perfon convic?ccd of the 
 crime called ambitus, or ufing bri- 
 bery and corruption at elections, 
 fhall bear an cilice, or come into 
 the Seriate. The autliors of this 
 law were il/. Acilius Qlahrio, and 
 C Cahurnius Pifo, Coafuls, A. U. 
 C86. 
 
 -— ^^Llia de Comitiii, ordained, 
 that the Augurs, in all aifcmblies of 
 the people ihould make obfervati- 
 ons on the heavens, and that the 
 Jnagiftrate ihould have power to 
 lander the proceeding?.. The au- 
 
 thor of this law was i^ .^lius P fe- 
 tus, the coniul. 
 
 Lex .Emilia de Sumptihus, had 
 rcipeft to the difrerent kinds of 
 meal in uie, and fettled the jail pro- 
 portions ot every fort. Tiie i.uchor 
 was /./. ^^milius Letndus, conill 
 
 --- Ampia Labiena, gave Farpey 
 the Great the privilege o{ wearing 
 a golden crowr. and triumphal iobea 
 at the Circevjlan games, and the 
 Prxlexta and a golden crown at 
 ilage plays. The authors of it were 
 T. Ampius and T. Lahienus, tribunes 
 of the people .</. U. Og-^. 
 
 - - Antia de Suraptibus attempt- 
 ed the luppreiTion of luxury ; but 
 of what particulars this lav/ con- 
 fifted is not now known. The at:- 
 thor was Avtius RujHo, who after 
 this law would never fup abroad, 
 lor fear of feeing it violated. 
 
 --- Antonit: de Religione, reneal- 
 ed the Lex Atia, and renewed the 
 Cornelia, by rclloring the privi- 
 lege of clefting prieib to the col- 
 lege of priefts, wnich had beibre 
 been trausferred to- the people 
 il/. 'A:::cn ' 
 
L A W 
 
 LAW 
 
 M. Autc::y, confal was the author. 
 yl. U. 709. 
 
 Lex Ar.tonia dc Mae.ill:ranbus, 
 another law Dy the fame I>I. Antony, 
 jvhca a member of the trijnivirate. 
 It ordained that no propofal fliould 
 ever afterwards be made for the 
 creation of a diSlator, nor any per- 
 ibn accept the ofiice on pain of 
 death. 
 
 — Antonia de Judicibus,by the 
 Jame M. Antony, when conful, A, 
 U. 709. It added a third Decury 
 of judges to the two former, to be 
 chofcn out of the centurions. 
 
 ■ — Antonia de Mageftate, by the 
 fame il/. Antcn-i. I: allowed an 
 appeal to the pcopie to fuch perfons 
 as were condemned dc Magiftc.te, 
 Tvhich before was only allov^ed in 
 the crime called Verducllio. 
 
 — Apulela de Mo] eft ate, by Z. 
 ^ipi'.hii'.s tribune of the commons, 
 A. U. 652. Its obje6l probably 
 was to reilraiii public violence and 
 fedition in the city. 
 
 — Atiade Religionc by T. Atius 
 LahUmis, tribune of th.c people. A. 
 V- 690. It repealed the Co-nielian 
 law, and rellored the Doniitian, by 
 transferring the tight of electing 
 priefts from the college to the pea- 
 pie. 
 
 — Atilia de Tutehs, gave to the 
 /rr,!r/£r and a majority of the tri- 
 bunes, the right of appointing 
 guardians to fuch minors, as had 
 none previ-ufly afiigned them. 
 
 — Anti.THtiV Mag2Jh-atihus,hy 
 At'i^:ius, tribune of the people, gave 
 to a tribune the privilege of a fe- 
 nator, and a feat in the houfe ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 — Auudia de Amhztu, by Aufi- 
 dius Lurco, tribune of the people, 
 A. U. 692, ordained that if any 
 candidate fuing for an ofiice pro- 
 mifcd money to the tribunes, and 
 failed in the performance, he Hiould 
 he excufcd ; but if he actually paid 
 it, he&ould be comuellcd lo pay 
 
 to every tribe a yearly fine of 6cc<? 
 pjiertii. 
 
 Lex Aurelia de yudidhus, hy L. 
 AiircliusCotta, pra:tor A.V. 653, 
 enaded that the Scnr.torian and 
 Epief.rian orders, together with the 
 Trihuni yEraril, fnould fhare the 
 judicial power between them. 
 
 — A'dvtWd de Magi fcratihus, by 
 L. Aurelius Cctta, conful vvitji 
 VOaa-Aus, A. U. 678, allowed 
 the tribunes of the commons to hold 
 other ofiices, after the expiration 
 of their tribuncfhip ; and confe- 
 quently abrogated part of the Lex 
 Corr.clia. 
 
 — Cadia de Judiais, by Crlitu, 
 tribune of the commons, ^.D'. 63;, 
 ordained that in judicial proceed- 
 ings before the people, in cafes of 
 trcafcn the votes fhould be given 
 by tablets; contrary to the excep- 
 tion of the CaJ^tan law. 
 
 — Ctccilia DiJia, de Legihia, by 
 ^ C^ciUiis Mctellus',zn6. T. Didlus, 
 confuls, A. U. 655, concerniag the 
 enacting of laws, required that no 
 more than one fir.glc m.atter fhould 
 be propofed to the people in one 
 queflion ('una Rcgntionc) left by 
 or-.c word they fliould aiTent to a 
 v.'hole bill, which might contain 
 claufes which they approved, and 
 others which they djfliked. It 
 alfo required that every law, before 
 it was preferred, fliould be expcfed 
 to public view in three market 
 days. 
 
 — Ctrcilia, de jure Italia-, ct 
 7ribtii!s tolIe?:di.s, ordained that the 
 tax called Pur/ma fliould be taken 
 off ffom all the Ita/ian iia.tes; or 
 that they fliould ha\-e free exporta- 
 tion. It v.-as propofed by i^ de- 
 cilius MctcUus Kepos, prstor, A. U. 
 
 693- 
 
 — Calpurnia de Amhitu, by Z. 
 
 Calpurnius PifoFrugi, A.U. 604, 
 ordained a certain praetor to enquire 
 into the crime, de Ambitu, and laid 
 a heavy penalty on fuch as fliovil4 
 be fcunc^ gui-:ty. 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 J-EX CAmp2niJgr.ina,thc fame 
 with the 'Julian law. See Julia. 
 
 — C&fi\3.de Suffragiis, rec^uircd 
 that in the courti or' juftice, and 
 the comitiatributa, votes ihouLi be 
 given by tablets, as raolt confident 
 with freedom. Its author was 
 Cojiusk. U. 6t6. 
 
 — CafTia by L. CcJJius Lo7;gi- 
 nusy tribune of the commons A. U. 
 649, required that no perfon who 
 had been coiKlcmrred, or deprived 
 cf iiio cilice by the people, lliould 
 he alio'.ved to come into the fcnate. 
 
 — CafTia Jgraria, by Sp. C.?/^ 
 jiiis Vifcellinus, conful A. U. 267, 
 required that the land taken from 
 the Hfrnid, fhonld be divided, half 
 to the Latins, and half to the com- 
 mons of Rjifie. Thii law was not 
 long cbfcrvcd. 
 
 < — Cincia ife Judiciis, by M. 
 Cincius, tribune of the people, 
 A. U. 549, forbade any perfon to 
 receive any thing, as a gift, for 
 judging a caufe. It is alfo called 
 Lix mmieralis. 
 
 — Claud ia^^ negotia.ione, by i^ 
 Claudius, tribune of the commons 
 A. U. 535, forbade any Jh:at07- or 
 father oi a feiiatcr, to have any 
 l.-iiring velTel of more than three 
 hundred amphora?; mercliandize 
 being eileenied beneath the dignity 
 of that order. By the fame law 
 alfo the Scribes, efpecially fuch as 
 aiTiftcd the ^lueftcrs were laid under 
 fhe fame prohibition, becaufe it 
 was held to be improper for perfons 
 to be concerned in traffic who were 
 likewife concerned in public ac- 
 counts, left a regard to private 
 emol umcnt fho aid prevail over their 
 duty to the Itaie. 
 
 ~ Claudia de C ami I i is, by M. 
 Claudius Marcelkis, conful, A. U. 
 702, ordaining that at the comitia, 
 fcr the eledlion of magiftrates, the 
 abfenteesiiiould not be reckoned. 
 
 . — - Claudia de ufura, by Qlau- 
 diUi QfeJ'ar, forbade uftJrtrj 19 ]?nd 
 
 money to minors, payable after rfa-e 
 death of their parents. . 
 
 Lex Clodia de Religionc, by P. 
 Clodius, tribune of the people, A. 
 U. 696, deprived the prieft of Cj- 
 be/j, trora Pefcir.wn, of his ofnce, 
 and conferred it on Broii<rcrus, a 
 Galh-gvecian. 
 
 — Clodia de Magijlratibiis, by 
 P . Clodius, tribune oi the people, 
 forbade the cenfoys to put a mark of 
 infamy on any perfonin their gene- 
 ral fur veys, who had not been ac- 
 cafed and condemned by both the 
 ce^rfors. It paffed A. U. 695. 
 
 — Clodia de Pr:<vir,ciis, by P. 
 Clodius, tribune of the people A.U. 
 695, committed all ^jna, Babjlon 
 and Perfia, to Gabinius the co!:f.:l-, 
 and Macedcn, Jcbaia, Thi'/faly, 
 G'-cece, Ba:ctia, to his colleague 
 Pifo, with the prccor/ular power- 
 It alfo ordered them a fum from 
 the rreafury to enable then to march 
 an army thither. 
 
 — Clodia, de Cyfro, by Ptcblius 
 Clodius, tribune cf the people, A. 
 U. 605, reduced Cyprus into a Ra- 
 man province ; authorized the ex- 
 pofin? of PtolofKv Kinp of E'r\-f<t 
 to laie in his regal ornaments ; 
 commanded his goods to be fold bv 
 auction, and commifTioned il/. Cata 
 to go, v.'ith pngtc^ian power, inta 
 Cyprus, to look after the fale of the 
 King's property, and convey the 
 money to Rome. 
 
 ~ Clodra, by P. Clodius, tri- 
 bune of the people, A. U. 695, re- 
 quired that the fame quantities of 
 corn fhould be dritributed among 
 the people gratis, which had for- 
 merly been fold to them at fix aj/cs 
 and a triens the buflic;!. 
 
 — Clodia de Judiciis, by P. 
 Clodius, tribune of the people, or- 
 dered thofc to be brought to an ac- 
 count who had executed any citi- 
 zen at iJcwi? without the judgment 
 of the people, or the formality of 
 tml, I: vvas enabled A.U. 695. 
 
 Lex 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 Lex Cornelia :^5'.v;.-.';^///,v.r, hjL. 
 Coriiehu: Syiln, limited the cx- 
 pcnces oi funerals. 
 
 — Cornel iii a'e Puuglone, by 
 L. Come li -us Sylla, diftator and con- 
 l"ul, A. U. 677, reftored to tlie col- 
 lege the privilege of chufing priefts, 
 xvhich by the Dotnitia?'. law had 
 been transferred to the people. 
 
 — Cornelia de Ciiitdc, by L. 
 Corr.cHus Sy//a, A. U. 670. con- 
 iirmed the Sulpicia?! lavv, which re- 
 quired that the new citizens, who 
 tonipofed the eight tribes, fhould 
 be divided among the thirty-five 
 old tribes, as a comphmcnr. 
 
 — Corrslia cie Mtinidpii,^, by 
 L. Cof}:el:us Sylia, didator, took 
 i rem the corporate towns that had 
 afiiiled Marius, Cinina, and the 
 other fa£tion, the privileges grant- 
 ed to them before. 
 
 — Cornelia, de MagiJJmtihus, by 
 Cornelius Sylla, A. U. 673, con- 
 firmed the (jtnufin;: law, which or- 
 dained that no perfon {hould boar 
 the fame magiltiacy within ten 
 years diiiance, nor be veiled with 
 two offices in one year. 
 
 — Cornelia de M^eJ/iratHus, by 
 L. Conxliia Sjlla, dictator, gave to 
 thofe of his own party, the privi- 
 lege of bearing honours before the 
 legal age; and took the power of 
 jtanding for any oincc from the 
 children of thofe who had been 
 profcribed. 
 
 — Cornelia de Judiciis, by L. 
 Ccr}ieH7is Sylla, didator, A. U. 
 673, required tYtj^rators to adhere 
 slways to the fame method in judi- 
 cial proceedings ; whereas btrt~-'> 
 the proccfles were various, accord- 
 ing to the will ot the j^r^£/i//- Ji-u»- 
 fted by his cdid. 
 
 — Cornelia de Magijlraiihus, by 
 L. Cornelius Sylla, aictat(»r, A. U. 
 673, took from the tribune the 
 poucr of m.' king laws, interpofing, 
 holding afemulies, ant receiving 
 appeuls; it alfo madi; all v.'ho had 
 
 held that cSce incapable cf any 
 other dignity in the Irate. 
 
 Lex Cornelia Militaris, bv L. 
 Cor;:£u:is Sylla, diftator, aulr.orized 
 thofe, who were fent with any 
 command into a province, 10 hold 
 that command till their return to 
 Rcr:e., without being at the trouble 
 of getting their commilfion renew- 
 ed by the f:na!e, as had been the 
 cafe before. 
 
 — Cornelia ^r<7;7^?, by L.Cor- 
 7!clius Sylla, diftator, enaded thai: 
 tiie lands of profcribed perfons 
 fl-.ould be common J efpeciilli^ 
 about VcUaterres and Feful^, ia 
 7:tfca7:y, wliich Sylla divided a- 
 inong his foldiers. 
 
 — Cornelia de Maj'JJate, by L. 
 Coyjiellus Sylla, ditlator, A. U. 67c, 
 made it treafon to lend an arni^- 
 out of a province, or engage in a 
 war v.iihout orders, lo aim at an 
 intcreftcd popularity v»ith the fol- 
 diers, to fpare or ranfoni a captive 
 General of the enemy, to pardon 
 the Caotains of robbers or pirates ; 
 or for a Roman citizen to relide c.t 
 a foreign court without leave. — 
 The punifnnaent was aqu^ ct ignis 
 inderdidio, 
 
 — Cornelia, by C. Cornelius^ 
 tribune of the people, A. U. 686, 
 ordained that no perfon fliould be 
 exempted from any law, as feme- 
 times was the cafe, unlefs 200 fe- 
 nators were prelent in the houfe, 
 and tliat no perfon, thus exempt- 
 ed, (hould hinder the bill of his 
 exemption frcm being carried to 
 the Commons, for their approba- 
 tion. 
 
 — Cornelia, inter ficarios Pt Kte- 
 ne fici'r, by L. Cornelius Sylla, dicta- 
 tor, had for its objeft fuch as killed 
 another by wcapcnsorpoifDn, thcfc 
 that fired houfes, or took away life 
 by falfe accufations. The perfon 
 accofed was by this law allowed to 
 choofe whether the jury fhouldgive 
 
 their 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 iheir verdict clam or palam, vi'va 
 <voce or by tablets. 
 
 Lex Cornelia, /^^, by Z. Coj-ne- 
 Jlus Sjlla, diclator, under the ai- 
 ritn falji includes forgers, conceal- 
 ers and interliners of vvills ; forgers 
 of writs and edifts ; falfe accul'ers 
 and corrupters of the jury; thofe 
 that debafed the public coin by 
 filing the geld, or adulterating the 
 £iver, or uttering and circulating 
 counterfeit pieces of tin, lead, &c. 
 Thofe alfo who knew, but con- 
 niv'ed at, the above olTences were 
 included under the fame defcrip- 
 tion. The penalty was aqiice et 
 ignis interdiciio. 
 
 -— Cornelia de pecuniis repetiin- 
 dis, by L. Cornelius Zylla, diftator, 
 ordained that belides the litis ^ejii- 
 matio or rating the damages, the 
 perfon who was convidled of the 
 crime of peculation in the pro- 
 vinces, called the crimen pecuniartim 
 repufundariui:, fhould fuller the 
 aqua; et igr.is interdiilio. 
 
 -'- Curia, de Ccmitiis, ky M. 
 Curius De/itatus, tribune of the 
 people, forbade the co?nitia to be 
 convened for the cleftion of ma- 
 giftrates, Vv'ithout leave of the 
 ferMte. 
 
 — Didia, de Su/npiihus, by Di- 
 didius, A. U. 606, ordained that 
 upon high feftivals and other con- 
 vivial occ2iions, the Italians as 
 well as the Romans fhould be rc- 
 llrained in the number of their 
 gucils, and the expences of their 
 entertainments; or incur a penalty. 
 This was an extennon of the Or- 
 chian and Fannian laws. 
 
 --- Domitia de Rcligione, by Cn. 
 Domttius Ahenoharbus, tribune of 
 the commons, A. U. 650, trans- 
 ferred the right of chufmg prieils 
 irom the college of the people. 
 
 — - Fabia de Ambitu, would have 
 prefcribed the number cifeiiatores 
 sllc'.ved to anv candidnte ; it was 
 
 propofed, but did not pafs. 
 
 Lex Fannia</i? Sumptibusy by C. 
 Fannius, conful, A. U. 588, re- 
 quired that no perfon on the higher 
 feftivals fhould expend more than 
 100 affes in a day, 30 affes on tea 
 other days in each mon:h, and tea 
 at all other times. 
 
 --- Flaminia Agrai-ia, by C. 
 Flaminiiis, tribune of the people, 
 A.U. 525, required the lands of 
 Picc7:um, from whence the Galli 
 Senones had been expelled, fiiould. 
 be di\ided among the Roman fol- 
 dieri. 
 
 — - Flavia Jgnxria, by L. Fla^ 
 1-ius, tribune of the people, A.L^. 
 693, was for dillributing a fufHci- 
 ent quantity of land, among Pom- 
 pey's foldiers and the commons. 
 
 — - Furia de 7ejia?nentis, by C. 
 Furius, tribune of the people, for- 
 bade any perfon to give, by way of 
 legacy, more than a thoufand ajcs, 
 unlefs to the relations of the mailer 
 who manumitted him, with a few 
 more exceptions. 
 
 — Fufia de Comitiis, forbade bu- 
 finefs to be done in any meetings 
 of the people, c« certain days, 
 though of the number called Fajli. 
 
 • -- Gabinia, de Comiiiisy by J, 
 Gabinius, tribune of the people* 
 A. U. 614, required that in the 
 comitia for elecling magiib-ates, for 
 the greater impartiality, the votes 
 fliould be given by tablets, and not 
 'vinja ijoce. 
 
 -— Gabinia, de Comitiis, nad^ 
 it capital for any perfon to convene 
 a clandefline affembly, agreeable tc» 
 an old lav/of the twelve tables. 
 
 -— Gabinia Militaris, by A. 
 Gabinius., tribune of the people, 
 A. U. 685, allowing a commif- 
 fion to be granted to Pompcy, for 
 the management of the war againic 
 the pirates for three years ; and 
 empowering him to command 
 Kin^s, Governors and States, to 
 C c fupply- 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 fupply him with all neceflariesj 
 lypon all the fea on this fide the 
 pillars of Hercules, and in the nia- 
 r'itiine provinces, as far as 400 
 Jladla from the fea. 
 
 Lex Gabinia de Vfurd, by Aid. 
 Gahinim, tribune oi the people, 
 A. U. 685, orJairicd that no ac- 
 tion fhoald be granted for the re- 
 covery of any money borrowed 
 upon frnall intereft to be lent out 
 upon larger. This was an ufual 
 practice at Roj.ne, and^ called Ver- 
 Jiiram Jacere. 
 
 — - Gcllia Cornelia, de Ci^jitate, 
 by L. Geiliu: PopUccia and O;. Cor- 
 ?ielius Lentiihii, A. U. 681, enaded 
 that all thofc perfons who had been 
 honoured with the privilege of the 
 city by Ponjpey, on his own autha. 
 rity, fhould adftually keep that 
 Hberty. 
 
 --- GcnMlidi de Magijlrat thus, by 
 L. Geniiilus, tribune of the people, 
 A. U. 411, required that no pcr- 
 fon Ihould bear the fame niagif- 
 tracy, within ten years diRance, 
 nor Ihoald hold two offices in one 
 year. 
 
 — - Hicrcnica, by Hicro, tyrant 
 of Sicily, lettled the quantity of 
 corn, the price, and time of re- 
 ceiving it bctwcdn the farmers of 
 Sicily and the Decnmnr.i, or col- 
 lectors of the corn-tax. This law, 
 for it? jullice, was continued by 
 the Romans, after they became 
 mafters of the iiiand. 
 
 — Hirtia de Mpgijlrntihu:, by 
 A. Hirtius, requiied that none of 
 Forf'pey's party fhould be admitted 
 to any dignity. 
 
 --- Horienfia, by ^ Hortenf.v.s, 
 ftictator, A. U. 467, required the 
 vv'hole Roman people to pay obedi- 
 ence to whatever was cnacled by 
 the Commons. The nobility be- 
 fore this law had claimed an ex- 
 emption . 
 
 --- Julia de Proi'inclls, by 'Julius 
 
 Ccsfar, dictator, required that no 
 Prtetorian province fliould be held' 
 longer than one year, nor Corfular 
 province more than two. 
 
 Lex Julia, de ci^uitate, by L. 
 Julius Ccefar, conful, A. U. 664, 
 ordained that all thofe people, 
 who, during the facial war, had 
 continued hrm ro the Roma?! in- 
 tereft, fhould have the privilege cf 
 citizens; and when that war was 
 ended, all the Italians were ad- 
 mitted as free denizens, andcom- 
 pofed eight nev/ tribes. 
 
 — Julia, prima de prcvinciis, by 
 C. Juli:ts Co-far, conful, A. U. 
 691, ordained t\iztAchaia,7hefaly, 
 and all Greece, fhould be free ; 
 that the Roman magiftrate fhould 
 be judge in thofe proinnces', that 
 their towns and villages through 
 which the Roman m.agiftrates pf.f- 
 fed, fiiould fupply them and their 
 retinue v/i:h provender, and other 
 conveniences; that the governors, 
 when their office expired, fhould 
 leave a fcheme of their accounts,. 
 in two cities of their provinces, 
 and deliver a copy of the fame, at 
 the public treafury ; that the go- 
 vernors cf the pi-ovinces fliould not 
 accept a golden coronet, unlefs a 
 triumph was decreed them by the 
 
 fcnnte ; that no commander in 
 chief fliould go out oi^ his pro'vi nee, 
 enter any other dominions, lead 
 the army out, or engage in any 
 war, without the authority of the 
 fenate or the people. 
 
 — Julia, or campana agraria, 
 by J nli?is C^far, A.U. 69J, re- 
 quired that all the lands in Cam- 
 pc.r.ia, formerly farmed at a rer.t 
 fixed by the flate, fhould be di- 
 vided among the commons ; and 
 that all members of the fetiaie, 
 fhould bind themfelves by oath to 
 confirm and defend this law, 
 
 Julia, de fumptilus, was 
 
 palTcd in :he time ci Augufins, and 
 limite4 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 • imircd the expence of provifions 
 on \\\z dies prof ejU, X.o zoo fcfisrtli, 
 on common calender tcftivals to 
 300, and on extraordinary occa- 
 iions, as marriage feaib, &c. to 
 
 lOCO. 
 
 Lex ]vX\i, de judicihtis, hy jf tilt us 
 Carfar, conririned the Pompeian law, 
 in a certain degree, requiring the 
 judges to be chofen out ot the 
 richelt people in every century, 
 allowing t\vcfe>iaiorian and equff- 
 trian rank, but excluding the 
 tribimi ^rarii. 
 
 — Julia, -de adulterio ft pudi- 
 clt'ia, hy /lUgHjlusdefar , punilhed 
 the crime ot adultery with death. 
 This law was afterwards confirmed 
 and put in execution by the Em- 
 peror DoTnitiau, and is rdluded to 
 by ywjenal Sat. 2 v. 30. 
 
 — - Tulia, de jnajejlatc, by Juli:;s 
 'Carfar, ordained the punifhmcnt 
 of Aqufe et Ignis Intsrdiilio, to be 
 inllidted on all perfons whatfocver, 
 that were found guilty of the 
 crimen mnjcjiatis, or treafcn againft 
 the ftate. 
 
 — Julia, de amhilu, publifiied 
 by Av.gujlus Cafar, reilrained un- 
 lawful methods ufed at eleftions, 
 by feveral penalties, and rellored 
 the ancient privileges to the cotni- 
 iia, which had been greatly in- 
 jured by Julius Cicfars practices. 
 
 — Julia, de tnarita>idrs ordim- 
 hiis, hy A ugiijins Cacfar, A.U. 736, 
 gave certain rewards to fuch per- 
 fons as engaged in matrimony, of 
 a particular defcription ; and in- 
 flidled puniflament upon celibacy ; 
 allowing alfo the Ingeniii (fcnators 
 and the fons of /^«^/5;v excepted) 
 to intermarry with the Lihertini. 
 This law is by Horace alluded to, 
 under the name of Lex marita. 
 
 — Julia Papia, or papia pcppcsa 
 lex, was the fame Vv'ith the law lall 
 mentioned, but improved and en- 
 larged a little by Papius and Pop- 
 
 pcctis, confuls, A. U. 76^. See 
 B^tchelcr, Jus trium Liher:.ru!M. 
 
 Lex Junia, de percgrinis, by M, 
 Junius Pe7t7:us, confiinied the lex 
 papia de peregrinis, requiring th;it 
 all llrangers fhould be expelled 
 from RoKe, and that no flrdngers 
 fliould be allowed the privilege of 
 citizens. 
 
 — Junia, de peainiis tepetundis, 
 by M. Junius Pennus, tribujie o'iXn<z 
 people, ordiincd, that befides ili'j 
 litis a;Jli?natio or damages, \.\\-i 
 perlbn convifted cf the crizriC cr' 
 picunia: rcpeiundae, or extortion ii 
 the provinces, fnould fufFer banila- 
 ment. 
 
 -- Julia Licinia, by D. Junius 
 Silar.us and L. Licinius Murxf:ay 
 confuls A. U. 691, required, that 
 thofe who did not according to the 
 lex csocilia didia, publilh the heads 
 of any new bills, on three marl;e': 
 days before they were pro,pofed, iix 
 order to be palled, fliould incur ;i 
 heavier penalty than the lex c-cciltu 
 didia enadcd. 
 
 — jwrn^facrata, by L. Junius 
 Brutus, the firll tribune of the 
 commons, A. U. 260, ordained 
 that the perfon of the tribune flionld 
 be be lacred ; that an appeal might 
 be made from the determination of 
 the confuls to them ; and that no 
 
 fenator fhould be capable of bear- 
 ing -the office oi tribune. 
 
 --- Lsetoria, required that per- 
 fons who were diftracfted., or pro- 
 digally fquandering away their 
 eftatcs, fliould be committed to the 
 care of proper peribns, for the Ic- 
 curity of themfelves and their pof- 
 ieffions ; and that a fraud againft 
 any in thofe circumRances fliould 
 be deemed a highmifdemeanor. 
 
 — - Licinia, by C. Licinius Craf- 
 fus, tribune c£ the people, A. U. 
 
 608, was intended to transfer the 
 right of chufmg priefts from th 
 
 C c 2 
 
 coHvo? 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 their accufation and defence. The 
 plaintiff was confined to twa hours, 
 and the defendant to three. This 
 law was chiefly directed againft the 
 authors of the riot, on account of 
 Clodius and Milo. 
 
 Lex Pompeia, de a!nhitu, by 
 Pofnpey the Great, conful, 70 1, or- 
 dained that whatever pcrfon had 
 been convided of the crime called 
 Ambitus, fliould himfelf be par- 
 doned, provided he ftiould atter- 
 %vards impeach two others of the 
 fame crime, and occafion the con- 
 demnation of one of them. 
 
 - Porcia, de ci'uitate, by M. 
 Torciits, tribune of the people, A. 
 U. 453, ordained that no magif- 
 trate fliould punifli with rods or 
 cxtcMtc ti Ro7nan citizen, but that 
 upon condemnation he fliOuld be 
 allowed to go into exile. 
 
 Pupia, de Se::atu, required 
 
 that the f;nate fhould not be con- 
 vened from the i8th of xhc calends 
 o^ February, to the calends of the 
 fame month; and that before the 
 Embanics were either accepted or 
 vejefted, \.hzf:iiate fliould be lield 
 ■on no other account. 
 
 Remmia, de Judiciis, or- 
 dained that perfons convifted of 
 calumny fhould be uigmatized. 
 
 Rofcia Tbeatralis, by L. 
 
 Kofcius Otho, tribune of the people, 
 h. U. 6S5, required that none 
 Ihould fit in the iirit fourteen feats 
 of the theatre, unlcfs they were 
 worth 400 Jefiertia, which was 
 then reckoned the cenfus e^uejlris, 
 or Knight's fortune. 
 
 Sacrati, adlitaris, by M. 
 
 Volerius Corzus, as is fuppofed, 
 when didator, A. U. 411, ordain- 
 ed that no foldier's name fhould be 
 ilruck out of the mufter roll, but 
 •by his ow^n confent; and that no 
 perfon who had been a military 
 tribune fliould execute the oiiice of 
 ducior ordiniivi. 
 
 Lr.x Scatinla, de pudicitia., bv 
 C Scatinius Arlcinus, tribune of 
 the people, was particularly level- 
 led againil the keepers of Cata- 
 mites, or fuch as proftitutedthem- 
 felves for fach vile and unnatural 
 fervices. The penalty by this law 
 was only pecuniary, but Augiiftia 
 Citfar afterwards made it a capital 
 offence. The law is foraetimes 
 called fcantinia, as fome think, 
 from one Scaniinius, tribune of the 
 people, againft whom it wac put 
 in execution. 
 
 Sempronia, de coviitii:, by 
 
 C. Ssmpronius Gracchus, A. U. 
 655, required that centuries fliould 
 be cliofen out by lot to give their 
 votes, and not according to the 
 order of the clajfes. 
 
 Sempronia, de comit'.is, by 
 
 C. Ser:pronius Gracchus^ tribune of 
 the people, A. U. 635, ordained 
 the people, A. U. 635, gave to the 
 Latin confederates the privilege of 
 giving their fufirages as well as the 
 Roman citizens. 
 
 Sempronia, de ci-viiate, by 
 
 C Sempronius Gracchus, tribune of 
 the people, A. U. 630, ordained 
 that no capital judgment fliould 
 pafs upon a citizen without the au- 
 thority of the people; with othex 
 regulations. 
 
 Sempronia, de magijirati- 
 
 bus, by C. Semproinus Gracchus, 
 tribune of the people, A. U. 630, 
 ordained that no perfon who had 
 been legally deprived of his ma- 
 giflracy, fnould be capable of bear- 
 ing an office again. This was af- 
 terwards repealed by the author. 
 
 Sempronia, de pronjinciis 
 
 by C. Sempronius Gracchus, tribune 
 of the people, A. U. 630, ordain- 
 ed that tht fenate, before the cotifu- 
 lar comitia, fliould determine, at 
 their pleafure, the particular pro- 
 rjiiiccs Vi'hich the r^t^v conful s fliould 
 divide by lot; and tliat the tri- 
 bunes 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 6tinss fhould be deprived of the li- 
 berty o^ i ntei-pnjing ag^inft a dec re 3 
 oil\\c fenaie. 
 
 Lex Senipronia agraria prima, 
 by T. Sempronitts Gracchus, tribune 
 of the people, A. U. 620, con- 
 firmed the. ',?.\-Z,m;,7rt agraria, and 
 required all perfons who held more 
 land than that law allowed, to re- 
 ilgn ic, to be divided among the 
 poorer citizens. Three officers 
 were appointed to fuperintend the 
 execution of this law. It was le- 
 velled direftly againil; the rich and 
 powerful, and coit the author his 
 life. 
 
 ■ Eempronia agraria altera, 
 
 by '7". Sempronitts Gracchus, re- 
 quired thar all the ready money 
 found in the treafury of King ^//^t- 
 ius, who had left the Roman ftate 
 his heir, fhculd be beftowcd on the 
 poorer citizens, to lupply them 
 with inilruments of hufhandry ; 
 and that the King's lands fhonld. 
 be farmed by the cerfors, and the 
 rent divided annually among the 
 people. 
 
 ' ■ ' Stm'^rQmdi frumenfat'ia, by 
 C. Semprcnius Gracchus, required 
 that a certain quantity of corn 
 fhoufd be diftributed monthly a- 
 ii(iongIl the Commons, fo much tO' 
 cV'ery man; for-which they were 
 only to pay the fmall confideration 
 0^ ^ femiJJIs and tricns. 
 
 Semproni.i r-ti/ifaris, by C. 
 
 Setnprc}:i:is Grccchv.s, tribune of 
 the people, A. U. 630, ordained 
 that the foldiers fhculd receive their 
 cloathsaLthe public charge, with- 
 out any diminution of their ufual 
 pny; and that no man fhould be 
 obliged to ferve in the army, till 
 the age of feventeen. 
 
 Scmpronia, de vfura, by 
 
 M. Zemprov.ius, tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. 560, ordained that in 
 lending money to the allies oiRome 
 and ro the hatii.s, the Rnvrnv laws 
 
 fliould beobferved, as vvcll as Z' 
 mcng the citizens. 
 
 Lex Senipronia, de judicihus^ 
 bv C. Semprcnius Gracchus, tribune 
 of the people, A. U. 630, required 
 tliat the right of judging, which 
 had been alligncd to the Senaiorian 
 order by Romulus, fliould be trans- 
 ferred from them to the Equiies. 
 
 . Sentia, de faiatu, by G. 
 
 Sentius, conful, A. U, 734, or- 
 dered that others fliould be fubili- 
 tuted in the room of fuch noble- 
 men as were wanting in xY.zfe?:aic. 
 
 Servilia, de clvitate, by 
 
 C. Ser-viHus Glaiicia, ordained that 
 il any Latin accufed 2.Roman Sena- 
 tor (o X.'vLZt\\c was condemned, the 
 accufer fhould be honoured with- 
 the privilege of a Rc;nanc\t\zs.n. 
 
 Servilia, agraria, by P. 
 
 Ser'vilius Rullus, tribune of the 
 people A. U. 690, required the 
 fale of certain houfcs, fields, Src. 
 belonging to the public, and the- 
 purchafe of lanes, in other parts of 
 Italy. It created ten fupervifcrs- 
 to take care of the bufinefs, and 
 contained many other heads bc- 
 fidcs. Cicero, by his three crations- 
 againil this law, hindered it from 
 pafTmg. 
 
 Servilia, de judicihus, by 
 
 ^ Serrjiltus Ctfpio, conful, A. U. 
 747, required that the right of 
 judging, which, by the Sejnpronian 
 law, had been transferred from 
 the Senators to the Ecuites, fliould 
 be divided between buth orders. 
 
 ■ Servilia, de pecuniis repe- 
 tuvdis, by C. Ser^rlius Glaucia, 
 pr^-Etor, A. U. 653. The particu- 
 lar penalties of this lav/ are not 
 preciiely known, but from the 
 fragments preferved by Sigoni::s, it 
 was pretty fcvere upon thofe 
 who were guilty of extortion and 
 peculation in the pro^uinces . 
 
 Sexria Licinia, de magif- 
 
 iratihus, by C. Licinius, and L, 
 
 Scxtiiis, 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 Scxttus, tribunes of the people, 
 A. U 3S6, ordained that oac cf 
 the confuh nioulci be eleftcd ou: of 
 the k^ommons. 
 
 Lex Sextia Licinia, da rellgione. 
 by L. Sextius and C. Licrnius, tri- 
 bunes of the people, A. U. 385, 
 required that a Deca:i<virate fhouid 
 be chofen, part out of the Patrici- 
 ans and part out of the Plcheiivis, 
 inlltad ot the Decef,i-viri facrii fa- 
 ciundis. 
 
 Syivani ct Carbonis de 
 
 cititate, by Syl'vanus and Carbo, 
 tribunes cf the people, A. U. 664, 
 ordained that any pcrfcn who had 
 been admitted free denizen of any 
 of the confederate cities and had 
 9 dwelling in Italy at the time 
 when this law was made, and had 
 given in his name to the Prator 
 within fixty days, fiiould have the 
 privilege oi a ciiizen of l\o??:e. 
 
 Sulpicia, de c:-jitate, by P. 
 
 Su/pidus tribune of ihe people, 
 A. U. 665, ordered that the new 
 citizens, v ho compofcd the eiglit 
 iribcs, ihould be divided among 
 the thirty-five old tribes, as a great- 
 er honour. 
 
 Sulpicia, defer.r.tu, by Scr- 
 
 "jius Suipcii/s, tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. 665, required that no 
 
 fenator fnould owe more than 20CO 
 drachma. 
 
 - Sulpicia, v:ilitaris, by P. 
 Sul}:cius, tribune of the people, 
 A. LJ. 665, required that the chief 
 command in ttie Mithridatic war, 
 faould be taken from L. Hylla and 
 conferred upon C. Mariju. 
 
 — — Sulpicia Sempiouia, de rc- 
 linone, by P. Suipicius Sa'verrio 
 and P. Scmproniiis Scphus, coniuls, 
 A. U. 449, forbade any perfon to 
 con I cerate a temple or altar with- 
 out leave cf the Ser.a:e, and a ma- 
 jority of the 'I ri tunes. 
 
 Terentia CalTia, frumsr.ta- 
 
 xla^ by /(/. Tcrcnti'.is Varro Lucul- 
 
 /fo-, and C. Cajpus ©onfuls, A. U. 
 6S0, required that the fame price, 
 fhould be given for all corn bought 
 in the provinces, to hinder the ex- 
 aclions o'i the S^iieEjlors. 
 
 Lex Thoria, agraria, by Sp. 
 TLoriiis, tribune oi the people, 
 ordained that no perfon Oiould pav 
 any rent to the lands which he pof- 
 feli'ed. It alio regulated grazing 
 ai.d pailurage. 
 
 Ti:iu, dc viagifiratilus^ 
 
 by P . Titius, tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. 710, ordained that a 
 trium'virr.te of magiflrates, with 
 confular power ihould be fettled 
 tor live years, to regulate the com- 
 monwealth. The perfons nomi- 
 nated were OSta^vius, Antony and 
 Lepidus. 
 
 Titia, dz proi;inciis, is 
 
 thought to have required that the 
 provincial qua-JIors, like the conjuis 
 and prators, fheuld take their 
 places by lot. 
 
 Trcbonia, de provi/iciis, by 
 
 L. ^l'rcbo7:i!>s, the tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. 6g8, gave Ca;far the 
 t^ief command in Gaui for five 
 years longer than had been ordered 
 by the Vatinian law ; by this means 
 preventing the Senate frcm recal- 
 ling or fuperleding him. 
 
 Tullia, de fenatii, by M. 
 
 TuUius Cicero, conful, A. U. 690, 
 ordained that thofe who had a 
 libera legatio allowed them by the 
 Senate fliould hold the privilege 
 no longer than a year. See the 
 article Legatio. 
 
 Tullia, de ambitUy by M. 
 
 Tidlius Cicero, conful, A. U, 690, 
 foroade any perfon, two years be- 
 fore he fued for an oSce, to ex- 
 hibit a 010 w oi gladiators, unlefs 
 that care had devolved upon him 
 by will. It punifhed_/'^/.'i(/c/v con- 
 victed of x.\i^ crimen c7::bitus, with 
 the aq^a et ignis ititerdiciio, for 
 ten yc^.rs ^ -and inflidled upon the 
 Commouj 
 
LA W 
 
 LEA 
 
 Commons a fcvcrer penalty than 
 ihc Calpiirr.inn\z.\\ . 
 
 Lex dc Vacaticne, was enafted 
 concerning exemption from miii- 
 f;;ry fcrvice, and contained tills 
 remarkable claufe, nifibellum Gal- 
 l-cum exoriatur ; unlefs a warwitli 
 Gaul fliould break cut ; in which 
 c;de tht priejis themfelves were not 
 exciifed from fervirg. This fhews 
 how much danger the Romans ap- 
 } rchcndcd from the Gallic nation, 
 i:ncc the Gauls had once taken 
 their city. 
 
 — ^ — Valeria, de proircatloTte, 
 by P. Valerius Pcplicola, fole con- 
 fu], A. U. 243, gave the liberty of 
 appealing from any magiilrate to 
 the people, and forbade the ma- 
 gi flrates to punifii a citizen in cale 
 of luch appeal. 
 
 • -Valeria Horatio, by L. Va- 
 lerius and M. Horatius, confuls, 
 A. U. 304, revived the former Va- 
 lerian law, which under the 'Tri- 
 umniirate had loft its force. 
 
 Valeria tertia, by M, Va- 
 lerius Corvinus, conful, A. U. 453, 
 confirmed theiirit Valerian law. 
 
 — — Valeria, de magijlratibus, 
 by P. Valerius Pcplicola, fole con- 
 ful, A. U. 243, required the pub- 
 lic treafure to be kept in the tcm- 
 
 againft Rome, fliould be brought to 
 
 public trial. 
 
 • Vatinia, de provinciis, by 
 
 P. Vatiiiius, tribune of the people, 
 A. U. 694, gave the command of 
 all Gallia Cifalpi7;a and IlUricum to 
 Cicfar, for five years, without the 
 decree of the Senate or the forma- 
 lity of cafting lots. It alfo ordered 
 the perfons mentioned in the bill 
 to go with him in quality of Zi^^a//, 
 without the deputation of the Se- 
 nate ; his army to be paid out of 
 the treafury ; and Caefar himfelf to 
 tranfplant a colony into the town 
 o^ Nc'joccmum, \n Gallia. 
 
 ' Villia annalis or annaria, 
 
 by L. Villius, tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. 574, defined the proper 
 ages for bearing all the magiftra- 
 cies. Authors are divided as to 
 this particular, but Lipjius ftates 
 the age proper to fue for the qutsf- 
 torfiip to be 25, ---for the oihces of 
 jEdilc and Tribune 27 or 28, ---for 
 that of Prxtor 30, and 42 for the 
 the office oi Conful. 
 
 Voconia, de tejiamentis, by 
 
 P. Vcconius Saxa, tribune of the 
 
 people, A. U. 584, ordained that 
 no woman fhould be left heirefs to 
 an eftate ; and that no cenfus or 
 rich perfon, fhould bequeath by 
 pic of Saturn, and that two quajlors his will more than a fourth part of 
 fliould be appointed to take care what he was worth to a woman. 
 
 of it. 
 
 Valeria, de debitorihus, by 
 
 Valerius Flaccus, required that all 
 creditors fliouid difcharge their 
 debtors, on receiving a fourth part 
 for the whole fum. 
 
 — ; — Varia, de ci'vitate, by ^ 
 Varius Hybrida, puniflied all fuch 
 perfons as were difcovcred to have 
 affifted the Italian people in the 
 petition for the privilege of the city. 
 
 Varia, de majejlate, by L. 
 
 Varius, tribune of the people, A. 
 tr. 662, ordained that all who had 
 slTifted the confederates ia the \Yar 
 
 This was to prevent the decay and 
 extin(flion of noble families. 
 
 Lawyers. See Scribe. 
 
 Leagues, amongft the Greeks^ 
 were of three forts ; SttovS"*?, SwSw)?, 
 or Ei^wn, whereby both parties 
 were obliged to ceafe from hoilili- 
 ties, without even molefting the 
 allies of each other: Y^%hjlxxix, 
 whereby they engaged to lend af- 
 fiftance to each other in cafe of in- 
 vafion ; and laftly 'Zvfx^axia, 
 whereby they engaged to have the 
 fame friends and enemies, and to 
 affift csch other upon all cccafions. 
 D d Ail 
 
LEA 
 
 LEG 
 
 All tlicfc leagues were conf.rnicd 
 with oaths, and imprecations, and 
 taciiliccs. The vidims moil: ge- 
 nerally ui'ed were a boar, rain, or 
 goat, fometimis all chrec; and 
 loractimcs bulls end lambs. They 
 cut oi!t the teiticles o:" the animal, 
 and iccod' upon them while they 
 Ivvore ; and forae ot' the air of the 
 vitlim was distributed to all prc- 
 icnt. Then they cut the animal's 
 throat, which was called o^Kia 
 TE/iveivi, in latin, ferire f^edus. — 
 Tins dene, they repeated their 
 oaths and imprecations, calling 
 the Gods towitneis the honefty ot" 
 their intentions. A libation was 
 then made of" v/inc, which at this 
 time was mixed, to imply their 
 ccnjunftion and union : while this 
 was pouring out, they prayed that 
 the blood ot him who fhould break 
 tlis treaty, might be poured oat in 
 like manner. Upon thefe occali- 
 ons no ptut of the victim was eaten. 
 8till iurthcr to increafe the folcm- 
 riity of this obligation, the league 
 was engraven upon brafs, fixed up 
 in places of public concourfe, and 
 ibmetimcs read at the fokmn 
 games. Some exchanged certain 
 liv,'ii3o?.a or frferfr upon the occa- 
 ficn, and frequently fent Embaila- 
 clors, on fome appointed day, to 
 keep them in mind of their engage- 
 ments to each other. See Cc-ve- 
 iiaiit. 
 
 For the ceremonies of the Ro- 
 mans ixi making leagues, fee Fe- 
 ci^s. . 
 
 .Leaping v.as an exercife ufed 
 both amongll the Greeks and Ro- 
 i::afis. The Grecians called it 
 i\.r.5ra, and performed it with 
 \v!.igh:3 upon their heads and 
 ,ihouldcrs. Sometimes they car- 
 ried the weights in their hands, 
 which were of different figures, 
 but generally oval and made with 
 liclcc or covered with thcngs, thro' 
 
 which the contenders put the^'r 
 fingers. The.^e weiglits were called 
 AXin;£j. The conteft was who 
 could leap the highell and farti.eL!:'. 
 The place from whence they jump- 
 ed was called (3cij>j;j, and that to 
 which they leaped %CKoi.iji.y.i\x.^ 
 bccaufe the ground was there dug 
 up. Tins exercife was performed 
 in the fime manner bv the Ronirjis. 
 
 Leave 1+ was llriflly forbidden 
 by tlie law oXMofes, during the fe- 
 ven davs of the palTover; and the 
 Je-.vs, in obedience to this law, 
 very carexully purified their houfi.s 
 from all leaven, as loon as the vigil 
 of the feail began. Nothing of 
 honey or leaven v/as to have place 
 in any thing prefented to the Lord, 
 upon this altar, during this folem- 
 nity. If, during the feall, the 
 leaft particle of leaven was found 
 in their houfes, they imagined the 
 v;hole was polluted, for a little 
 leaven leaveneth the whole lump. 
 Leaven, in its figurative fenfe, f:g- 
 nifies the bad paffions of envy and 
 malice, and rancour, which four 
 the temper, and extend their fer- 
 ment over the fociai afxeclionj ; 
 whereas unleavened bread implies 
 finccrity and truth. It is fre- 
 quently ufed for any kind of m.orar 
 contagion. 
 
 Lecanomancy, a kind of di- 
 vination performed in a bafon with 
 wedges of gold or filver, dillin- 
 guilhed with certain charafters.— 
 The wedges were fufpended over 
 the water, and the Dscmon for- 
 mally invoked, who returned the 
 aniwer in a fmall hiifing voice 
 through the fluid. Kow open to 
 jmpofition is human credulity '— 
 See Hydromancy. 
 
 Lecti, beds or couches, wer^ 
 of two kinds amongft the Romans, 
 as being deflincd to two difi'erenc 
 ufes, to lie upon at entertainments, 
 and to repcfe upon for nightly 
 
 relL 
 
LE C 
 
 LEG 
 
 vil — the firll were called LeJl 
 '^Tridini.ircs, the other Leili Cubi- 
 xularii. Sic Beds. 
 
 Lectica, was a litter cr vehi- 
 cle, in which the Romans were car- 
 ried. It was of two kinds, covered 
 and uncovered. I'he covered lec- 
 tica is called, l''y Pliny, culiadinn 
 'viatorum, a traveller's bcdchr>m- 
 ber : And indeed we are informed 
 that Aiigujlus frequently ordered 
 Ills fer^'ants to ftop his litter that he 
 might fleep upon the road. This 
 vehicle was carried by lix or eight 
 men called Icclicarii. The h/Tcica 
 dilFered from the fella, for in the 
 firfl: the traveller could recline him- 
 felf fur ficcp, in the latter he v/as 
 obliged to fit. The /f6'7/Vrt was in- 
 vented in Bitbynia; ths/ella was a 
 J\oma!2 machine, and eftecmcd the 
 more honourable of the two. Lec- 
 iica was alfo the name of the fune- 
 ral bed or bier for carrying oat 
 the dead. 
 
 Lectisternium, a folemn ce- 
 remony obferved by the Romafis in 
 times of public danger, wherein an 
 entertainment was prepared with 
 -great magnilicence, and ferved up 
 in the temples. The Gods were 
 invited to partake of the good cheer 
 and their ftatues placed upon 
 couches round the vablc, in the 
 'fame manner as men ufcd to fit at 
 meat. The firft leiiijlerniiun held 
 ax Rome was in honour of Jpolh, 
 Jj-.tova, Diana, Hercules, Mercury, 
 and 'Nebtui:e, to put a ftop to a con- 
 tagious diftempcr which raged a- 
 mongH the cattle, in the year of 
 Rcnie 354. At thcfc feafts the 
 Epilones prefided, and the facred 
 banquet was called epuium. See 
 Epulo, Epulum, l^c. 
 
 Something like the hiTttJIernium 
 v.'as occafionallv obferved amongft 
 the Greeks, according to Cnfaubc7t. 
 
 LectoPvES, were fervants kept 
 by .the rich and learned, araongft 
 
 the Rcmsins, to read to theni durir.g 
 fupper. They were the fame as 
 the anagnojia:. See Jnagnofa:. 
 
 Lectus igneus, a l:ind cf tor- 
 ture amongft the R'wna-ns, faid to 
 have been invented by Decius. It 
 was a bed, the -bottom cf which 
 Vv'as fct with teeth, like thofo of a 
 fan-, and ftrewcd with Tilt, v/hili^ 
 melted tallow, from above, poured 
 down upon the urihaopy tprtarci 
 perion fealding hot. 
 
 Legatio libera, was a privi- 
 lege frequently obtiincd cf the 
 ftatc, hy Senators oi Rome, fof g!?- 
 ing into any province or country^ 
 upon their own private bufmcfs, iri 
 the quality of Icgati or envoys fropv 
 i\\Q He-ate, that the dignity of this 
 nominal office might fcciire them 
 a good reception, and have an in- 
 fiaence on the management of their 
 concerns. The cities and towr^s, 
 Through whicli thev paffod, u'cre 
 obliged todefra} their expences: — 
 This was caillcd libera legatio, be- 
 caufe they might 'lay afide the cf- 
 iice as foon as they pleafed, ai;d 
 were not encumbered with any 
 aftiiaitruf!:. ' 
 
 Leoatus, a military officer a- 
 mongft the Ro;na',:s, who ccni- 
 .m.anded as depaty of the com- 
 mander in chief. The legtati, at 
 their I'irit inllitution, were not fo 
 much to command as to advifc.. — 
 They v;ere generally chofen !:>•"■ 
 the conftih, with the approbation 
 o^ \\\Q. fenate. As to the number 
 of the legati, we have no certain 
 inforni^tion, thoug'h we may upon 
 good grounds aihgn one to every 
 legion. In the abfence o^ ccnful or 
 pro-corful, they 'had the honour to 
 ufe x}.\tfafces. • 
 
 Under the Emperors there were 
 two forts of ugati, confularcs, and 
 p\-ttrrii. Tlie firft commanded 
 whole armies, as the Emperors 
 Lieufenant-Gcnerals ; and the other 
 ■ ■ D d 2 had 
 
LEG 
 
 LEG 
 
 had the command of particular 
 ■legions. 
 
 The legati under the pro-cpnfuls, 
 in the provinces, ferved forjudg- 
 ing inferior caufes, and manage- 
 ment of fmaller concerns, remit- 
 ting things of great moment to the 
 governor or prefident himfelf. — 
 This was the original office of the 
 legati, as was hinted above ; though 
 as we have feen, they were after- 
 wards admitted to command in the 
 army. 
 
 Legend in Reman antiquity fig- 
 jiifies the infcription upon medals. 
 But the legend diftcrs from the in- 
 fcription properly fo called. The 
 iKfcription, properly fo called, lig- 
 j^iiies words placed on the reverie 
 of a medal in lieu of figures ; but 
 the legend is the word made ufe of 
 to explain the figures. Medals 
 confiftbothof images and emblems ; 
 the images are intended for the 
 common people— the emblems for 
 perfons of tallc and parts ; Images 
 reprcfent the faces of princes, em- 
 blems their virtues and patriotic 
 deeds ; This however does not hold 
 univerfally. 
 
 In medals of cities and provinces, 
 the head is ufually the genius or at 
 leaft fome deity of the place ; And 
 the legend is the name of the deity, 
 the city, province, or all together ; 
 and the reverfe fome fymbol of the 
 city or province, frequently with- 
 out a legend . Legends generally 
 commemorate the virtues of prin- 
 ces, their honour and confecrations, 
 iignal events, public monument?, 
 deities, vows, privileges, &c. which 
 are either in Latin or Greek, or a 
 mixture of both, and arc intended 
 to eternize their names, and the 
 benefits done by them to theEmpirc. 
 
 Legion, a kind of regiment or 
 body of foldiers in the Roman army, 
 confiding of different numbers at 
 different periods of time, In the 
 
 time oi Romulus the legion confift- 
 ed of 3000 foot, and 300 horfe ; 
 though after the reception of the 5^- 
 lines, it was augmented to 4000. 
 In the war with Hannibal, it was 
 raifed to 5000, after this it 
 funk to 4000 or 4500, this v.'as the 
 number in the time of Polyhius. — 
 The number of legions kept in pay 
 together, differed according to 
 times and occafions. During the 
 confular ftate four legions were fitted 
 up every year, and divided be- 
 twixt the two confuls; yet v/e meet 
 with the number of fixteen or eigh- 
 teen, as the fituation of affairs re- 
 quired, Augufius maintained a 
 ftanding army of twenty -three or 
 twenty-five legions — but this num- 
 ber in after times is feldom found. 
 The different legions borrowed 
 their names from the order in which 
 they were raifed, hence we read of 
 legio prima, fecunda, tertia; but as 
 tlicre might be many prima, fc- 
 cundee, iertia, i^c. they were fur- 
 named from the Emperors as Au- 
 giijia, Claudiana, Galbiana, Flai-ia^ 
 Ulpia, Trajafia, Antonlana, i^c. 
 or from the provinces which had 
 been conquered, by their means, 
 as Parthica, Scythica, Gallic a, Ara- 
 bica, i5c. or from the deities under 
 whofe proteflion the commanders 
 had particularly placed themfelves, 
 as Minerfia, Apcllinaris, isfc. or 
 from the regions where they were 
 quartered, as Cretenfts, Cyrenaica, 
 Britanica, i^c. or from particular 
 accidents as adjutrix, martia, fuhni- 
 natrix, rapax, n;i8.rix as leg. XXVV. 
 Legio 'vigejima njalens njiilrix at 
 Ribchejier. 
 
 Each legion was divided into ten 
 cohorts, each cohort ilito ten com- 
 panies, and each company into two 
 centuries. The chief commander 
 of the legio7i was called Legatus, i.e. 
 Lieutenant, 
 
 The Itandards born by the legi- 
 
 cn,\ 
 
LEN 
 
 L E T 
 
 CVS were various; at firft, the ftand- 
 ard was a woUin honour of Fioniu- 
 luss nurfe ; afterwards an hog, 
 which animal was ufually facrificed 
 at the conclufion of a treatv, to in- 
 dicate that war is undertal;cn with 
 a view to peace; fometimes a Mi- 
 notaur, to remind the General of 
 his dnty of fccrefy, of which the 
 LajjriKth was an emblem, and 
 confcquently the Tilinotaur; a horfe 
 was alfo born, alfo a boar; and 
 Marias, we are told, was the firft 
 who changed all thefefor the eagle. 
 Sec Sig?:a. 
 
 Leo: A, was a name given to 
 the Irorders of the tog^ and ^alliitm 
 of the Romans. It is ufed in con- 
 tradiiVinclion to the o/a orextrcmi- 
 ti cs. Sec Gra. 
 
 Lemur i a, a Roman foftival, ce- 
 lebrated on the ninth day of May, 
 to pacify the rnanes cf the dead. — 
 It was infliTtrt-ed by Roniulus, toap- 
 peafe the ghoil of his murthered 
 brotlier Remus, which he thought 
 was continually purfuing him, to 
 revenge the horrid crime — the 
 name Lemuria'vs therefore fuppofed 
 to be a corruption of Remiaia, i. e. 
 tlie ieaft oi Remus. Sacririces con- 
 tinued for three nights, the tem- 
 ples were fhut up, and marriages 
 were prohibited during the folcm- 
 nity. A variety of whimfical ce- 
 remonies were performed, magical 
 words made ufe of, and the ghcfts 
 defired to v/ithdraw, without en- 
 deavouring to hurt or aiTright their 
 friends above ground. The chief 
 formalities \vcre ablution, putting 
 black beans into their mouths, and 
 beating kettles and pans, to make 
 the goblins keep their diiiance. 
 
 Len^a, a feftival kept oy the 
 Greeks in honour of Bacchus, at 
 which there was much feafting and 
 Bacchanalian jollity, accompanied 
 with poetical contentions, and the 
 ^xKxhiXlonoi tragedies . The pocf 
 
 goat was generally facrificed on thi 
 occafion, and treated with various 
 marks of cruelty and contempt, 33 
 being naturally fond of broufing 
 on the vinc-fiioots. 
 
 Leprosy, a foul, cutaneous 
 difeaie, appearing in drv, white, 
 thin, fcurfy fcales, either on the 
 whole body or \cn\c part of it. — 
 Tiie leprofy is of various kinds, but 
 the Jci.us were particularly fubjeil 
 to that called Elephaniiafls. Hence 
 the Je-Mijh law excl^idcd lepers 
 frcm communion with mankind, 
 banifliing them into the country or 
 uninl abitcd places, without ex- 
 cepting even Kings. V^'hen a le- 
 per v»'r,s cicanied, he came to the 
 city gate, and v.'as there examined 
 by the priclls, after this he took 
 two live birds to the temple, and 
 falcened one of them to a wifp of 
 cedar and hyffop tied together with 
 a Icarlct ribbon; tiie fecond bird 
 was killed bv the leper, and the 
 blood of it received into a vcffcl of 
 water; with tliis v/atcr the prielt 
 fprinkled the leper, dipping the 
 wilp and the live bird into it — thi.^ 
 done, the live bird was let go, and 
 the leper, having, undergone this 
 ceremony, was again admitted into 
 lociety and to the ufe of things fa- 
 cred. See Zf-:;//. xili. 46,47. and 
 Lcvit. xiv. I, z, I'ic. 
 
 Leptum, a fmall piece o~i ino- 
 ne'.', concerning the valtie cf'.vjiich 
 authors are not agreed, fomc fup- 
 pofing it to be one-eighth of an 
 obolus, and others contending that 
 it was a filver or brafs drachm. 
 
 Lessus, a funeral for.g amongll: 
 the Romans, fung by tiie *rteflcc:. 
 It is the fitme as llic n,EK;a. See 
 haniii. 
 
 Leteck was an Ilelrc-'j me.-.- 
 fure of capacity for cry thing?, con- 
 taining 1 5 pecks, 20 iblid inches, 
 and 500 dec. parts, ^zt Meajhe. 
 
 Letters. See ff'rifif.g. 
 
 hl.VZC>AA 
 
LEV 
 
 LIB 
 
 Leucoma W3.S a public rrgijlcr 
 amonglt the /liheniaiis, in wiiich 
 Avcre infertcd the names of all the 
 ciiizcns, as foon as thev were cf 
 age to enter upon their paternal 
 'iniicritancc. 
 
 Levip.ate, amongfi the Je-ivs, 
 wzs that particular law which 
 obliged a man, whole brother died 
 wiihcnt iifue, to marry his widow, 
 and to raife up feed to his bro- 
 ther. Mofes leaves it to a man's 
 choice, whether he will comply 
 with this law or not ; for in cafe of 
 rcfufal the widow could only fum- 
 mon him before the judges of the 
 j^iace, and proceed to the ceremony 
 cf excalceation. See Excaheo.iion. 
 
 Levites, a term a-j)plied in 
 fcripture to fucli of . the tribe of 
 L?nji-&s were employed in the lower 
 offices and miniitries of the temple : 
 In this particular, they were dif- 
 ringt:ifl!ed from the prieils, who, 
 being dclbended from Ja'-o;:, were 
 likevvife oi the tribe oi Le-z-i. The 
 Lc-vites bore fome refemblance in 
 the tabernacle, and temple of the 
 ye-..vs, to the Deacot:s amongit the 
 chrijuav.s. They 'were obedient to 
 tlie prieils in their miniitration, and 
 ■brought them wood, water and 
 ocher neceffaries for the facrificc. 
 TlTieyfung and played upon inflru- 
 inents, in the temple and in other 
 places. They applied themfcjvcs 
 ro the fludy o^i the law, and were 
 ihe ordinary judgesof the country, 
 but always fubordinatc to the 
 prieils. Their fubfillencc was the 
 tvthes of corn, fruit and c-ttlc 
 throughout //;-^f/ : But the prieils 
 were cntitkd to a tenth of their 
 tythes, by ^vay of firli fruits to the 
 Lord. ' Eight and forty cities were 
 afligned for the refidencc of the 
 Lcvitei, of which the prieils claim- 
 ed thirteen, fix \\hereof where cho- 
 fcn f.T cides cf refuge. They 
 were conlcc:-.ited, before they .en- 
 
 tered upon their minillry, by lliav- 
 ing their flefh, wafhing their 
 cloaths and fprinkling with the 
 water of expiation. Impofuion of 
 hands was uied in coniecration, 
 and two bullocks were offered ac 
 the door of the tabernacle. They 
 waited weekly, and by turn?, in 
 the temple, beginning their at- 
 tendance on oncfabiath, and end- 
 ing the next : During this time 
 they were maintained out of the 
 oitcring', &c. In the time of So- 
 lomo7t, the number of Lc-vites, from 
 the age of twenty, and capable of 
 Icrving, was 38,000. 
 
 Lex, amongfl; the Romans, AU- 
 fercd from a fkhlfcitum in this, that 
 the lex palled in the cojnitia curiata 
 or centuriata, whereas the law 
 which pafTcd in the comiliairihutoy 
 w as called plebifiium. See La^zv. 
 
 Lexiarchs, were fix Athe7:iaii 
 officers, who were affifted by thirty 
 inferior ones. Their bufmefs was 
 to fine fuch as came not to the pub- 
 lic aflemblies, and fcrutinize Inch 
 as were preient. They alfo kept a 
 regitler of the age, manners and 
 abilities of all the citizens, who 
 were conilantly enrolled at the age 
 of twenty. 
 
 Li BAM I N A prima, in the Roman 
 facrifices, were fome of the rougheil 
 hairs betwixt the horns of the 'Z'/V- 
 //>;;, which the priell plucked ofF 
 and threw into the fire. This was 
 done immediately after the liba- 
 tion. See Libation. 
 
 The ceremony of throwing the 
 hairs abovementioned into tlie fire, 
 was obfcrved by the Greeks alfo.— 
 See Sacrifice. 
 
 LiEA:;oMANcy, a fpccies of di- 
 vination, performed by throwing 
 frankincenfe into the fire, and ob- 
 ferving its manner of burning, and 
 the fmell emitted by it ; if it caught 
 fire inftantly ; and fmelt gratefully, 
 the omc-n was fortunate ; and 'vice 
 qjerfa. Lib A- 
 
LIB 
 
 LIB 
 
 Ljcaticn, was amongil the 
 Gireh and Ror:a7!s an cHential part 
 of folemn lacriliccs. It v. as alio 
 I'erfbrmccl alone, as a drink olTcr- 
 ing, bv vvav of procuring the pro- 
 tection and favour of the Gods, in 
 the ordinary affairs of life. Liba- 
 tions according to the dlfi'erent na- 
 tures of the Gods, in honour of 
 wjiom they were made, ccniiltcd 
 of di!F:;rent liquids, but wine was 
 the nicft uiiiai. The wine olreved 
 to the Gods was always unmixed 
 nith water. V^''e meet with liba- 
 I'cns of water, libations of honey, 
 libations of milk, and libations of 
 oil, theie arc called vr.^ctUa l^fn. 
 The libation was made with a fc- 
 iiaus deportment and folemn pray- 
 er. At facriiiccs the libation after 
 it had been tailed by the prieil, 
 and handed to the by-11:?.n'^cr?, was 
 poured upon the vidim. At en- 
 tertainments, a little v\inewas ge- 
 r.erally poured out of the cup, be- 
 f.ne the liquor began to circulate, 
 to flie^v their gratitude to the Gods 
 for the blelTings they enjoyed. 
 
 LiBELLA, a piece of money a- 
 mongilthe Romavs, being the tenth 
 part of the Denarius^ and equal in 
 value to the Js. It was called //- 
 hriin, as being a little pound, be- 
 caufe equal to u pound of brafs.— 
 It? value in our money is I ob. i qu. 
 or a half-penny farthing. See 
 
 I.iEEi i.i.i, was the name given 
 to the bills which were put up a- 
 mongll the Romans, giving notice 
 of the time when a fliow of glacli- 
 otors would be exhibited, with the 
 number of combatants, and other 
 circuniitances. This was called 
 muntis froniniciare or prcponere- 
 
 Thcfe bills were fometimes termed 
 ediSia. Thefe public noticci were 
 given by the perfon who dcfigned 
 to oblige the people with the Ihow, 
 end were frequently attend sd vvi;h 
 
 picflurcs, rcprerencing the engage* 
 ment of fome celebrated giadiators. 
 This culcom is alluded to by Ho- 
 race, Lib. 2. Sat, vii. 96, &c. — 
 See Oladh-.icr:. 
 
 There was alfo thefamc/in liheU 
 lii>, defamatory libels. Seneca 
 calls them coaiiundioji HheHl, infa- 
 mous rhymes, which by a Roman 
 ordinance were puniflu:ble with. 
 death. Lilelius alfo in the civil 
 law lignifies the declaration, or 
 Itate of the profecutor's charge a- 
 gainit the defendant; and it has 
 the like fignification in our fpiii- 
 tuaJ courts. 
 
 Liber. Sec Bozh and Writing. 
 LiDSRALiA, feafls celebrated 07 
 \\\tRo}Kans, in honour of BacciJusi 
 They were fo called from Liber, a 
 name given to Bacchui, fome fav: 
 in memory of his giving liberty to 
 the people of Baot^a, or accordinij 
 to others becaufe he irees men front 
 care and forrow. But Varro f.iys 
 thefe feaits were called lihcralia, 
 becaufe the priefts in the celebra- 
 tion of them were free from their 
 fuuftions, the old women taking 
 upon thcmfelves the management 
 ol" the ceremonies and facrificcs. 
 This fefli-val was the fame with the 
 Bacchanalia or Dyouypa. See Bcc- 
 ckcnalia. and Dyomjin. 
 
 LiBERTi, was the name by 
 which the Remain dillinguilhed 
 thatclafs cf citizens who had been 
 ilaves, but were fct free from thcic 
 legal fervitudc: He that gave a 
 {lave his freedom, had a right of 
 patronage over the Libertus, who, 
 if he failed of fhewing due rcfpccl 
 to his patron, was induced again 
 to ilavcry, and if he died without 
 children, "Ci^.ztatrcn was his heir. 
 
 LiEERTiM, were fuch citizens 
 as were never thcmfelves in fiaveryj 
 but were the children of fach as 
 had been fct free from legal fervi- 
 tudc. In ctl'cr words they tvrc 
 
 the 
 
LI B 
 
 LI C 
 
 tlic childrcri of the Lihe7-ti. See 
 L:la-!i. 
 
 Lieitina:i:i, were undertakers 
 whoic ofncc it was to take care of 
 f\:ncni]s, prepare all tilings necei"- 
 fary upon the folcani occarion,and 
 
 furniih every article required. ■ 
 
 I'hey r^ot their livelihood by this 
 glooiny buhncfs, and kept a num- 
 ber of icrvants to perforin the work- 
 ing part of the prcfeliion, fiich as 
 the pcUiiiBoreSi ■•jefp!ilj?:es, ^c. — 
 The name Lihitinarii is derived 
 from Lihiih'.a, the Goddefa of fune- 
 rals, in whole temple were lold all 
 things relating to funerals. See 
 Fionral. 
 
 Libra, amongH: the Remaps, 
 was a coin confiiting of 12 ounces 
 «f filver, or 96 drachiiite or latter 
 denarii^ worth in our money 5I. 
 
 Jt is alfoufed to fignify a pound 
 weight and has the fame iubdivi- 
 :fion with the as, viz. the iL7:c}a or 
 izih, l\iZ fcxtar,! or bth, the qua- 
 drcns or 4th, the trhm or 3d. The 
 quincunx contained five ounces or 
 i3ths, the funis fix, the fcptunx 
 feven^, the hcs eight, tlie dodrar.s 
 nine, the dextans ten, the dcunx 
 eleven, laftly the lihv<i was equi- 
 valent to the as or twelve ounces. 
 See As, Weight, Money. 
 
 LiBRARir, amonglUhe Uomaas, 
 were copyilb, whofe buunefs it 
 was to tranfcribe f::ir and legible 
 what had been written in notes and 
 iibbreviaticn by the Notarii. See 
 Nctarii. 
 
 Library. Some authors refer 
 the origin of libraries to that fin- 
 gular attention which the tlcbyczvs 
 paid to the prefervaiion of their la- 
 cred books, and whatever concern- 
 ed tlie aftions of their anceitors.--- 
 The fcriptures fpeak of a library 
 of the Kings of Pei-f,a. There was 
 a library at Athf72s in the time of 
 Pif.fratus. That of EnTr.sncs at 
 Pergamis contained 200,000 books; 
 
 that of Tyrannlan the grammarian, 
 cotemporary with Pomp^y, con- 
 tained 30CO, but that of Ptokrnv 
 P/.-:hJe!pf:us combined 700,000, all 
 in rolls. The mofl celebrated li- 
 braries of ancient Rcme, were ihe 
 U/piafi and the Palatiiie. Much is 
 faid toe of ihofe of Paulas jEmili- 
 us, Lucilizii LiiCuHus, Jf.r.ius PoIIic, 
 Aiticiis, Julius Se^jerus, T)cjnitia'>:, 
 Serenas, Po.tnphilus, Martyr, and th/; 
 Emperors Gordian and Trojan, 
 
 LiBRi Elephant ini. See Elc- 
 phantini. 
 
 LiBURNic.^ naves, were fhips 
 smongft the Remans with two banks 
 of oars, made very light and trim. 
 They were called LiLurnica from 
 the Liliirnl, a people of Dalmatia, 
 ■ their inventors, who, as thev lived 
 by piracv, built their fliips of the 
 befl conllrudlion for quick failing. 
 
 Lie HAS, Ai^^aj, a Grecian m.ca- 
 fure of length containing 10 Dac- 
 tyli, or 7 inches, and 5546I- deci- 
 mal parts, EvgUJ}? mea'l'urc. Sec 
 Meaf-urc. 
 
 LiCNON, the van or fan of Bac- 
 chus, v;hich v/as effential to his 
 and alraoll every other folemnity. 
 Sec Fan. 
 
 LiCNOFon.1, the per.Q)r.3 who 
 carried the tan or licncn in the Dio- 
 r.vflan folemnity. See Dionyfia. 
 
 LicTORS, arnongfc tlie RoTTtansy 
 were oiTicers who always attended 
 the chief magiilratcs, vvhen thev 
 appeared in public. Their duty 
 ccn filled in thele three particulars. 
 I. Submotio of clearing the way for 
 the magiflrate ; This was done ci- 
 ther by word of mouth, or ufing 
 the rods which they always carried 
 along with them. 2. Animad'verjio^ 
 or caufing the people they palfed 
 to pav the ufual relped: to the ma- 
 giitrate whom tliey attended, fucb 
 as to alight if on horfcback- or in a 
 chaiiot ; to rife up, uncover, make 
 
 and the like. 
 
 P- 
 
 C-- 
 
LIG 
 
 LIT 
 
 or walking before the magiftrates j 
 this :l'ey did by fmgly following 
 one another in a llrait line. 
 
 A dictator was preceded by 24 
 liaors ; a maiier of the horfe by fix ; 
 a cQiiful by twelve ; a prcetor Dy 
 fix; and each 'vejlal \\T^\n, when 
 fhe appeared abroad, had one. — 
 The enfigns of the lidors were the 
 fafces ivAfecurii. See Fafces and 
 Sccuris, 
 
 They puniflied fuch offenders 
 as were furprized in the fad, at 
 the firft coRiir.and of the magii'- 
 trates, which was given in thefe 
 words, / licior, colliga ma-nus, ex- 
 pe'i 'virgas, plede fecurt. Beiides 
 they generally a«5led in the capacity 
 of executioners. Their name is 
 derived a Ugandc, becaufe they 
 bound the hands and feet of con- 
 demned perfons before their exe- 
 cution. They were commonly 
 chofen out of the body of the com- 
 mon people. 
 
 LiGHTNiMG was looked upon as 
 facred both by the Greeks and Ro- 
 mar.s, and was fuppofed to be lent 
 to execute vengeance on the earth : 
 Hence perfons killed with light- 
 ning, being thought hateful to the 
 Gods, were buried apart by them- 
 ielves, left the afhes of other men 
 fhculd receive pollution from them. 
 Some fay they were interred upon 
 the very fpot where they died, o- 
 thers will have it that they had no 
 interment, but were fuffered to rot 
 where they lell, becaufe it was un- 
 lawful for any man to approach the 
 place. For this reafon the ground 
 was hedged in, left any perfon un- 
 awares ihould contrail pollution 
 from it. All places, ftruck with 
 lightning, were carefully avoided 
 and fenced round, out of an opi- 
 nion that Jupiter had either taken 
 offence at them, and fixed upon 
 them the marks of his difpleafure, 
 or that h« had, by this mearrf, 
 
 pitched upon them as facred to 
 himlelf. The ground thub fenced 
 about was called by the Romans 
 hide-fital. 
 
 Lightning was much obfcrved. 
 in Augury, and was a good or bad 
 omen according to the circumftan- 
 ces ittending it. 
 
 i-iMOCiNCTi, j'?o«a«priefts whr> 
 ofRciated at public lacrifices, and 
 were drefled m a garment called 
 limus. See Lim:is.. 
 
 Limuj, a garment reaching to 
 the ground, and worn by certain 
 Roman priefts, who on that account 
 were called Limocincli. 
 
 Lj:.'en was not worn by Jerjjs, 
 Greeks, or Ramans, as any part of 
 their ordinary drefs. Under-tu.;icks, 
 of a finer texture, fupplicd the 
 place of fliirts : Hence the occalioa 
 for frequent bathing, Alexander 
 Senjerus was the firll fimpcror who 
 wore a fliirt: but the ufe of fo i.e- 
 cefljry a garment did net become 
 common till long after him. 
 
 LiQj-'OR. The principal beve- 
 rage among ft the ye-zvs, as well as 
 the Greeks and Romans, in their 
 early ftate, was water, milk, and 
 the juices of various plants inf'.ifcd 
 therein. For a long time, under 
 the commonwealth of Rome, wine 
 was fo fcarce that in their facrificcs 
 to the Godsthe libations were made 
 with milk only : Wine did not be- 
 come common there ti.U A. U. C. 
 600, when vines began to be plant- 
 ed. See Wine. 
 
 Li TAT 10. See Sacrifce. 
 
 LiTERiE. Sec Writing. 
 
 Liters laureate, were letters 
 fent by the i?0OT«« Generals wreath- 
 ed about with laurel, and giving 
 an account of fome confiderable 
 advantage, for which they begged 
 the favour of z/upplicatio, or public 
 thankfgiving. See Supplicatio. 
 
 LiTKOMANCY, a fpecies of di- 
 
 vip.ati9n performed' by ir.eans of 
 
 E e ftones. 
 
LIT 
 
 LOG 
 
 none?. Scrr.cci:r,es the flcne called 
 jideritcs was made ufe of. The 
 perfun that confultcd it vvaflied it 
 in fprirg water, by candle light, 
 puriucd himrdf thoroughly, co- 
 vered his face, repeated a form of 
 ■j^raycr, and placed certain charac- 
 ters in a certain order. Then the 
 lione moved of iti'elf, and in a foft 
 gentle murmur, or an infantine 
 jiote, gr^vc the anfwcr. By this 
 fart of divination Heleim. is laid to 
 hive foretold the dclhudlion of 
 7rc-f. 
 
 LiTHOSTROTOX, among the Ro- 
 ;:na::s., vv as pavement of Mofaic work, 
 confining of fmall pieces of cut 
 iaarh'e, of ciiTerent l:ind,s and co- 
 lours. The llthofiroia began to be 
 ufed in the time of Z^lla, who m.ade 
 one at Pr(C72ejle, in the temple of 
 Tcrii'.ne, At laic they were ufed 
 in private houfes, and were brought 
 to luch perfc6licn that they exhi- 
 bited moil lively reprefentat^ons of 
 nature, with all the exadncfs of 
 the finell painting. 
 
 LiTRA, was a Sicilian coin of 
 brafs. It was at firft a pound 
 weight, as the name implies, as 
 the Lilra or As was amcngll the 
 Uc77ians. Sixty litro' made a ta- 
 lent. Gchn ilruck pieces of hfty 
 pc'-uids weight each, called Pente- 
 co?:taIilr^. But they are rather to 
 bcconfidcred as medals, than mo- 
 ney, and were probably ftrtrek on 
 account of- his victory over the Car- 
 tl.'aginiavs. 
 
 i, I T u R G I , among the AtherAar.s, 
 •were perfons of confiderable pro- 
 perty, on whom the public or their 
 own tribe fcmetimcs impofed the 
 dutvof performing fome cxpenfive 
 bufincfsjor fupplying the ftate witli 
 r&ccfiarics atth.eirown expence. 
 
 LiTUus among the Romans, 
 \vas the iialT made \i{q of by the 
 Augurs in quartering the heavens. 
 \x. bore a great refemblr.ncs to the 
 
 croficr of a Cilhop, but was fhorJen 
 It was crooked at one end, and 
 thickefl in the curved part, accord- 
 ing to A. Gelllus. "We frequcntlv 
 meet with a rcprcfentation of it 
 upon medals amongfl other ponti- 
 fical inllrumcnts. It was called 
 Lituus ^irincilii from ^irinus, a 
 name oi Ro^Kuius, who was fliillsd 
 in all the myftcries of Augury. 
 
 Lituus was an inflrument of 
 mufic in ufe in the Romarz army. — 
 It was llraight, excepting that it 
 had a little bending at the upper 
 end like the lituus or facred ftafi-'of 
 the Augurs ; and from the iimili- 
 tade it derived its name. The 
 lituus, as an inil-rument of martial' 
 mufic, was of a middle kind be- 
 twixt the ccrnu and the tuba. 
 
 Locusts were, by the Jc^vijh 
 law, clafled am.ong the clean ani- 
 mals,, and there is great reafon to 
 fuppofe that they were ufed a& 
 food in Falejiitie, and the neigh- 
 bouring countries, where they 
 greatly abounded, John the ^'c/- 
 tifi, we are told, fubfilled upon 
 locuflsand wild- honey. But com- 
 mentators are not agreed what th2 
 locufts v»erc on which the Baptijl 
 is faid to have lived. The word iiv 
 G)-eck is Anpi^cg, which fome 
 fuppofe to have been the foft and 
 tender fhoots of trees, which in- 
 terpretation is indeed favoured by 
 both the Lati^ word Locujla, and 
 the Greek axptgy which fometimes 
 may fi^miy /um^Kitas. Others fup- 
 pole the locufts to have been the 
 lam.e.as the KEpaliov, or hulks men- 
 tioned by St. Luke as the diet of 
 the prodigal fbn, but this opinion 
 has little foundation. The moil 
 probable interpretion is that 
 w hich is given by our Englijf:) tran- 
 flators. The difference m opinion 
 however is of very little confe- 
 quenee. 
 
 Log, a Hehrenv meafiire, con- 
 taining 
 
LGR 
 
 I 
 
 raining a quarter of a cib or fi'/c- 
 iixths ot a pint. It was according 
 to Dr. Arbu'.hiiot the yad pare of 
 the hath or e^ha, an4 the 1 2th ot a 
 hhi. It is frequently nfed in Le- 
 viticus for that meafure cf oil 
 which lepers Oiiered after they 
 were cleanfed of their leprofy. 
 
 LcGEiJM, on the Grecian fi-age, 
 was tiic pulpit, which was iituatod 
 exacliy in the middle of .the cr- 
 cbefii-a. 
 
 LoGiSTiE, certain oihcers at 
 Athens, in number ten, whoi'e bufi- 
 nefs con filled in receiving and paf- 
 fmg the accounts ef magiltrates 
 when they wentcutof ofiicc. The 
 iogijlte were clefted by lot, and had 
 ten tuthym or auditors of accounts 
 under them. 
 
 LoGOGRAPHi were the fecrcta- 
 rics of the Athenian logiji^, and kept 
 an account of the public revenues. 
 
 X.OE.JCA was a cuirafs, brigan- 
 tine or coat of mail in ufe amongil 
 the Ro7nan foldiers. It was gene- 
 rally made of leather, and is fup- 
 pofed to be derived from loruni. — 
 Thclorics were fet with plates of 
 metal in various forms ; fomctimes 
 in hooks or rings like a chain, fome- 
 tinics like feathers, and fometimes 
 like the fcales ot/erpents or fiflies, 
 to which plates of gold were often 
 added. There were other lighter 
 cuirailes conillling only of njany 
 iolds of linen cloth, or of fiaxraade 
 flrong enough to rcfirt weapons. — . 
 Such foldiers as were rated under 
 a thoufaod drachms inilead of the 
 lorica now defcribed, wore a fee- 
 tor ale. See Fe£lorale. 
 
 For an account of the Grecian 
 cuirafs, ^CQThcrax. 
 
 The R.oman lorica was made like 
 a fhirt, and defended the wearer 
 both before and behind, but was 
 fo contrived that the back part 
 could be occafionally feparatcd 
 from the fionf . Some of the io^ 
 
 LOV 
 
 ricx were nijde of cords cf hemp, 
 or flax clofe fct together, whence 
 they arc called thcraces, kilicics, iri- ^ 
 licies, fe°(r. from the number of the 
 cords fixed one upon another; but 
 thefe were ufcd rather in hunting 
 than in -the iield of b<:ttle. 
 
 Lots. See Scries. 
 
 Lotteries, by llie Reman Em- 
 perors, were oTten given gratis to 
 thci-T' gueils at cniertainmerts, to 
 put them in good humour, and 
 d-ifplay their ov.-n liberality. AU 
 the tickets that we're diilributcd 
 gained fomc prize; but of the' 
 firi'ies fome were valuable and iomr: ' ' 
 riciculous. At a lottery cf the; 
 UmperoT Heligca/'a'us, in one tickcc . 
 there were fix flaves, in another rix- 
 flies; in one a vafc of great valut-,, 
 in another an earthen pst, and fj 
 on of the re 11:. 
 
 Love Of all tlie painons to 
 which humanity is liable, none h:is 
 given rife to fo many fuperftitionj 
 as this of love ; It even appears 
 that to aft the part of a lover, and 
 to play the fool, .u'crc one and the 
 fame thing. From tlic age of pu- 
 berty this paffiim reigns fo!e mo- 
 narch of the lii'.m.m breafr, and 
 caiition, ikii! ar.d prudence fce:n 
 to be exerted chiciiy with a viev/ to 
 its gratiiication. The other paiH- 
 ons of the mind, likeferpents lodg- 
 ed within, poifon the fatisf;i«ri.ion3 
 ot the loul,and put an cud to our 
 rcpofe; but ihiv, like Aaroii^ j I'od, 
 devours them ail, and contains 
 them within itfelf. 
 
 What I have to obferve on love 
 and lovers will be equally r,pplica.^ 
 ble to the Greeks and Rcriar^s.— 
 They generai'jy made a difcovery 
 cf their pafiion by vvriting upon 
 trees, walls, doors, &c. the name 
 of their beloved. They ufually 
 decked the door of their Dulcinea 
 with flowers and garlands, made 
 libatipns cf vvinc before their houfe?. 
 
LOV 
 
 LO V 
 
 fprlnkiing the pofts with the fame 
 liquor, as if the cbj eft of" their af- 
 feclion was a real Goddcfs. For a 
 man's garland to be untied, and 
 for a woman to conipofe a garland, 
 were held to be indabitable indi- 
 cations of their love. They h^d 
 leveral methodscf difcovering whe- 
 ther their paffion would prove fac- 
 ccfsful, but the moll frequent were 
 the cottabujzvi6.cofU7io?r.a:uj. See 
 Cottabiis and Crjkinomancy. 
 
 When their love was without 
 fucceft:, they ufed feveral arts to 
 excite afxeclion intheobjcdoftheir 
 defire. They had recourfe to in-: 
 chantreJicj, of whom the Ikejfallan 
 were in the higheft eftimation. — 
 The means madeufe of were moft 
 rommcnly philtres or love potions, 
 the operation of which was vio« 
 lent and dangerous, and frequently 
 deprived fuch C3 drank themof their 
 reafon. Some of the inoil remark- 
 able ingredients of which they were 
 com.pofcd were ihefe; the hitpoma- 
 Kfj, they>'//A-, infedts bred from pu- 
 trefadion, the fifh remora, the li- 
 zard, brains of a calf, the hairs on 
 the tip of a wolf's tail, his fee ret 
 parts, the bones of the lefi fide of 
 a tcad eaten \\i;h ants, the blood 
 of doves, bones of fnakes, fcatl.ers 
 of Icritch-owls, twiltcd cords of 
 •^vool in which a perfon had hanged 
 himfelf, rags, toichss, reliqucs, a 
 reft of fwallows buried and tamifii 
 •id in the earth, bones inatchcd 
 from hungry bitches,- the marrow 
 of a boy famifncd in the midlt of 
 plenty, dryed liuman liver, to thefe 
 ix\z\ be added leveral herbi- grow- 
 in^ cutof putrid fubilances. Such 
 were the ingredients that entered 
 into the compofition of that infer- 
 nal draita loi:e potion. 
 
 But befides the philtres, various 
 other arts ucre tied to excite love, 
 in (\hich the application of certain 
 Uibllanccs was to have a magical 
 
 influence en the perfon againfc 
 whom they levelled their fliill. A 
 H'jfsr.as udder, worn under the 
 left arm., they fancied would draw 
 the afi'edions of whatever woman 
 they £xed their eyes upon. That 
 fpecies of olives called Tnlufa^ 
 and barley bran made up into a 
 palle and thrown into the fire, they 
 thought would excite the flame of 
 love. Flour was ufed with the 
 fame intention. Burning laurel, 
 and melting wax, v^ere fuppoied 
 to have the like efteft. When one 
 heart was to be hardened and ano- 
 ther moliiied, clay and wax were 
 expofed to the fame fire together. 
 Images of wax were frequently 
 ufed reprefcnting the perfcns, oi\ 
 \7h0m they wilhed to make an imr 
 prefTicn, and whatever was don^ 
 to the fubilitutc of wax, they ima- 
 gined was felt by the perfon repre- 
 fented. Enchanted medicaments 
 vverc often fprinkled on fome part 
 of the houfe v.diere the perfon re- 
 fided. Love pledges were fuppofed 
 to be of lingular ule and efficacy: 
 thefe they placed under their threfh- 
 hold to preierve the afFeftions of 
 the owner from \vandering. Lov^ 
 knots u'ere of fingular power, and 
 the number three was particularly 
 obferved in all they did. But no 
 good efFcft was expefted if the ufe 
 of thefe things was not attended 
 with charms or magical verfes and 
 forms of words. 
 
 Paving mentioned their arts of 
 exciting love, it may not be amifs 
 to tr.ke notice that the ancients 
 imagined, that love excited by ma- 
 gic might be allayed by more pow- 
 erful fpells and medican ents, or 
 by applying to daTnoirs more pow- 
 erful than thofe who had be< n con- 
 cerned in raifing that pafTion. But 
 love infpired without magic had no 
 cure; .<^c//(? himfelf could find no 
 remcdv, but cried out 
 
 Hei 
 
LO V 
 
 LUC 
 
 Hei. fails quod nuJlus atnor ejl tmd. - 
 cahiiis Her bis. 
 
 The artidntes againft love wer^ 
 gQncra.]\Y /Ignus Cajlits, which has 
 the power of weakening tlie gene- 
 rative faculty; fprinkling ihe duft 
 in which a nv.ilc had rolled herfelf ; 
 tying toads i:; the iiides of a beail 
 newly ilain ; applying amuletj of 
 minerals or licrbs, which werefup- 
 pofed of great efficacy in other ca- 
 fes ; and invoking the affiftance of 
 the /V;/tr;;«/ deities. Another cure 
 for love was bathing in the waters 
 of the river Sclemnus ; to which we 
 piay add the lover's leap, or jump- 
 ing down trom the Leucadian pro- 
 piontory. 
 
 Love of bcy;s was vc-y common 
 among the ancient Greeks, not 
 only in private, out by the pub- 
 lic allowance, and encouragement 
 of their laws : But it was far from 
 being of that grol's and criminal 
 kind which the term will at firft be 
 luppofe^d to fuggelt : It was a love 
 of the moil exalted nature, it wa? 
 friendfhip refined, and tended to, 
 promote virtue in all its branches. 
 Such an opinion did the ancients 
 entertain of it, that they thought 
 there could be no means more ef- 
 fedlual to excite their youth to no- 
 ble undertakings, nor any greater 
 fecurity to the commonwealth than 
 this generous paffion. The in 
 vaders of the liberties of Greece fo 
 ottcn experienced this, that it be- 
 came a received maxim in the po- 
 liticks of tyrants, to ule all their 
 endeavours to extirpate it out oF 
 their dominions ; whereas all thofe 
 free itates, that coniulted the ?.d- 
 vancement of their own honour, 
 were unanimous in eftablifhing 
 laws to encourage and reward it. — 
 This was the cafe with the Cretans, 
 Spartans, and Jthetuans in parti- 
 cular. Solon efteemed the love of 
 
 boys (o honourable, that he forbad 
 it to be practifcd by ilaves, but in- 
 vited the worthy to the indulgence 
 of fo honourable an affciftion. Ic 
 was alfo encouraged by the Ihelan 
 laws. Much ceremony was ui'ed 
 by the lover, before he procured 
 the boy for whom he had conceiv- 
 ed an affeftion, and the confent of 
 friends was to be obtained before 
 he was taken home. After the lo- 
 ver had taken him he carefully in- 
 ftruiffed him in every thing that 
 could qualify him to become an 
 ufeful member of fociety, in every 
 thing virtuous and manly. Virgil 
 feems to give countenance to this 
 kind of attachment in his Epiiode 
 of "Nifus and Euryalus. How far 
 this cutlom of loving boys might be 
 abuicd, in more corr.upt times, 
 both amongft the Greeks and Ro- 
 7nans, it is not my intention to 
 enquire. The bell things when 
 abufed become the worll. ^ 
 
 Love -Feast. See jgapa. 
 LucAR was the name which the 
 Romar.s gave to fuch money as was 
 expended upon plays and public 
 fhews : This money was ib tailed 
 from Lucarla. See Lucaria. 
 
 LucARiA, a feail celebr.ued at 
 Rome on the i8th of July, in me- 
 mory of the li.ght of the Romans 
 into a great wood, where they 
 found an Af)Ium, and faved them- 
 felves from deilruclinn. This wood 
 in Vrfhich they found proteflion, 
 v.'as fituatcd bctv^een the lyber and 
 the Via Salaria. The enemies from 
 whom the Remans Hed were the 
 Gauls. — On this feltival, Plutarch 
 tells us, it was cuflomary to pay 
 the adors, and fuch as contributed 
 to the public amufement, with the 
 money arifing from the felling of 
 wood. This money was called 
 lucar. It is obvious, from what 
 has been obferved, that lucar and 
 lucaria are derived from lucus, a 
 grove. Luci. 
 
LU P 
 
 LUP 
 
 Luc I. See Gni'es. 
 
 Lucifer, in the fcriptures, 
 has three very difrerent fignificati- 
 ons. In its moft proper fenfe it 
 denotes the morning ftar, in a figu- 
 rative feni'e it is applied to Je/us 
 Chrifi, the light of the world ; and 
 lallly it is a defignation of the de- 
 vil whom the fathers often call Lu- 
 cifer, in allulion to his former glo- 
 rious flate. In the firft fenfe the 
 word is ufed in Job xxxviii. 7. 
 " Where waft thou when the morn- 
 ing ftars (Litcifers) fang together." 
 In the fecond fenfe 'JefusCbriJi ap- 
 pliesit to himfelf, Re^v. xxii. 16. 
 " I Jcfus, am the bright and morn- 
 ing Itar, arv?^ haixTipoi; 6 Trpaivog." 
 In the laft fenfe it is ufed in 7/2?/. 
 xiv. 12. *• How art thou fallen 
 from heaven, O Lucifer, fon of the 
 morning." Thus we fee the words 
 ufed to lignify Lucifer or the morn- 
 ing ftar, are applied metaphorically 
 in very different fenfes. 
 
 LucTA. See JFfe/i/i?:g. 
 
 LuDi, a term ufed for ihews and 
 public rcorefentations made by the 
 P.cma:is, lor the entertainment of 
 the people. See Gat~es. 
 
 For an account of the particular 
 games of Greece and Rome, as the 
 Ifthinian, Nemaa?:, Olympic, ilfc. 
 See IJlhpiiMi, t^c. 
 
 The Roman games will be found 
 under their proper heads, as Jc2- 
 aci, Jpoliinwei, Augujiales, k^c. 
 
 LuDir, a fort of mimicks or 
 players on the Roman ftage. They 
 were generally hired at magnifi- 
 cent funerals, to dance after the 
 ya/)T/f manner, before the funeral 
 bed, as the company proceeded 
 with the corpfe towards the pile. 
 See FuneraL 
 
 LuFERCALiA, was 2. fcftival 
 i:ept by the Romans on the 15th 
 day of February, in honour of the 
 GodPa«; it was a feaft of p'a.rifi- 
 cation, and the day ofthisfolcm- 
 
 nity was anciently zzWcaFehiuaca. 
 The method of celcbraticn was 
 this ; in the morning the Luperci, 
 or prietts of Pi?;/, affembled toge- 
 ther, running naked through ihe 
 ftreets, and ftriking, on the hands 
 and belly, all the married women 
 they met with in the way, with 
 whips made of goat-fkin thongs. — 
 The women received willingly this 
 rude falute, froin a fupcrilitious 
 perfualion that it would make them- 
 fruitful. Their facriiices on this 
 occafion were a goat and a dog. — 
 The priefts who officiated dipped 
 two knives in the blood of the vic- 
 tim, and marked with them the 
 faces of two young men of noble 
 family ; then they wiped ofr the 
 bloody ftaini with wool dipped in 
 milk : This being done they made 
 of the ikinsof the vidimsthe thongs 
 above - mentioned, and applied 
 them in the indecent m.anncr al- 
 ready defcribed. Different rea- 
 fons are afiigned for this ftrange 
 cuftom, but the moft probable is, 
 that Romulus introduced it, by the 
 ad\'ice of the Ji/gurs, to render the 
 Sahi}!e women fruitful, who, he 
 had the mortification to fee, were 
 in general barren after the rape- 
 Authors are not agreed to whom 
 this fellival owed its inftitution, 
 forae afcribe it to E-vander, and 
 others to Romuhis. Thtw^VMihtper- 
 calia is an allufion to the epithet of 
 Pan, which is in Greek Ijc^us, from 
 y.vHog Lupus, a wolf, becaufe Pan 
 protected the cattle from the wolf. 
 See Luperci. 
 
 LuPERCi, were the priefts of 
 the God Fan. This was the moll 
 ancient order of priefts in RoKie,s.v.<i 
 confifted of two colleges or compa- 
 nies, the one called Fabiavi, the 
 other ^uintiUani, from Fahius and 
 ^inii/iius two of their mafters or 
 chief prieib. The Fabiani were 
 for Rcnulus the S^uitiiiniqli for 
 RcfhuSf - 
 
L US 
 
 LUS 
 
 Jletnus.. Tq tliefe two colleges Ju' 
 lius Citfar added a third called 
 Juiti. The inllitution of the y?;/// 
 was a vcrv unpopular aft, and ren- 
 dered Cicfar more odious to the 
 people than ever. See Li'.^ercalla. 
 Lupus, a wolf. It was a gene- 
 ral opinion, amongft the ancients, 
 that a man becomes hoarfe or dumb 
 it a wolf happen to have the ad- 
 vantage of feeing him firll. Thus 
 /'///?)' obferves ; in Italia, ut credi- 
 tur liiporian 'vifus cfl noxius, 'voccm- 
 qve kominis quern prius contcir.platur, 
 adimit: In Virgil alio, this notion 
 is alluded to 
 
 Vox quoque MfSrim 
 
 Jam ft: git iyfa, lupi Ma rim njidere 
 priores. 
 
 With the fame allulion alfo is the 
 proverb applied, Lupus ejl in Ta- 
 bula, when fudden filence enfues, 
 upon the perfon's coming in, who 
 had before been the iubjeft of con- 
 verfation. This erroneous opinion, 
 of the wolf's producing fuch effects 
 by priority of vifion, feems to ha'-e 
 been promoted by this paffage of 
 Theocritus ov (p^s'y^rj^ ?^vy.ov £iO£$, 
 " Thou canft not Ipeak, thou hall 
 fecn a wolf," is the ccmm.on ccn- 
 Itruclion ; but the true interpreta- 
 tion is, " thou canft not fpeak, thou 
 haJl feen Lycus,^ which Lycus was 
 a rival. The real ground of this 
 vulgar error is probably the amaze- 
 ment and fudden filence occafioned 
 by the unexpetflcd appearance ot a 
 wolf. 
 
 LusTRAL day, or dies lujiricus 
 sunongfl: the Rov.ans, was the day 
 on which lu'ftrations were perform- 
 ed for a child, and the name given, 
 which was ufually the ninth from 
 the birth cf a boy, and the eighth 
 from that of a girl: though fome- 
 times, the laft day of that week in 
 wiiich the child was tern, was 
 
 chofen for the performance of this 
 ceremony. The Goddefs N.mdina 
 v/as thought to prefide on the oc- 
 cafion, and the child was handed 
 by mid-wives, nurfes and domef- 
 ticj, backward and forward, round 
 a fire on fome altar. Aher this 
 the infant was wafted in water, 
 mixed with duft, and the fali^ja of 
 the old women; And the whole 
 was concluded with a feaft. See 
 Amphidroinia. 
 
 Lustra riON, a folemn cere- 
 mony by which the ^^^^^t^j purified 
 their cities, fields, armies, cr peo- 
 ple, after any crime or impuritv. 
 Lvjirations might be performed by 
 fire and fulphur, by water, and by 
 air ; this lail was performed by 
 ventilation, or fanning the thing to 
 be purified. All forts of people, 
 flaves excepted, were miniflers of 
 iome kind of lullration. When a 
 peribn died, the houfe was to be 
 Iwept in a particular manner; nev/ 
 married people v/ere fprir.klcd bv 
 the prielt with water. • People 
 fometimes, bv way cf purification, 
 ran feveral times naked through the 
 llreets. There was Icarce any ac- 
 tion performed, at the beginning 
 and end of which, feme ceremony 
 wasnot required to purify them- 
 felves and appeafe the Gods. 
 
 Lullraticn is particularly ufed to 
 fignify that ceremony and facrifice 
 performed by the Rs;.ia::s, after the 
 numbering of the people, at the 
 conclufion of each hijirum. See 
 Lucrum. 
 
 Lustrum fSgnifies, in Rowa7i 
 authors, a fpace cf five years. So 
 called becaufe every five years 
 the r-erfors m.ade a furvcy of the 
 people, ftrialy enquired into their 
 manner, numbered and took down 
 rheir names and eflates, concluding 
 the whole with the facrifice called 
 Suj'vetauritia, confilfing of a fow, 
 a fhccD, and a bull : Thii was cal- 
 led 
 
LUX 
 
 LUX 
 
 led a hiP.ration or expiatory o'ffcr- 
 ing, and the perlormance of the 
 ceremony was termed lujlrum con- 
 dere. 
 
 Lujlruin is frequently ufcd to iig- 
 nify the facrilice itfelf which was 
 offered afternumbcr'ng the people. 
 The cenfus and lujlrum were not 
 lieli together, but irregularly and 
 variouflv, according to the particu- 
 lar exigences of the Hate. Seri'ius 
 u'as the firlt that purified the peo- 
 ple with che Juonjetanrilia. See 
 Suo'vetaurilia. 
 
 Some derive the word Ivjlrnm 
 from Afa, Jolijo, to pay, bccaufe 
 the Romans^ at the beginning of 
 every fifth year, paid the tribute 
 appointed by the ceHjor. See CV«- 
 for and Cenfus. 
 
 Luxury, amongfl the Rcniaju, 
 prevailed to fuch a degree, that fe- 
 veral laws were m.ade to fupprefs, 
 or at leaft to limit it. The extra- 
 vagance of the table began about 
 the time of the battle of Actum, 
 and continued in great exccfs till 
 the reign of Galba Peacocks, 
 cranes of Malta, nightingales, ve- 
 nifon, wild and tame foul, were 
 confidered as delicacies — a profu- 
 jion of provifions was the reign- 
 ing talle. Whole wile boars were 
 often fcrved up, andfometimes they 
 were filled with various fmall ani- 
 mals, and birds of different kinds, 
 thisdifh they called the trcjankorfe, 
 in allufion to the wooden horfcfilled 
 with Ibldicrs. Fovxls and game of 
 all forts were ferved up, in v. hole 
 pyramids, piled up in difhes as 
 broad as moderate tables. Lucullus 
 had a particular name for each 
 apartment, and in whatever roooi 
 he ordered his fervants to prepare 
 the entertainment, they knew by 
 the dircftion tiieexpence to which 
 thev were to gi. Wi.eii lie fuppcd 
 in the .4^>ollo, theexpencc was rixed 
 at 50,000 iirachn:ec, that is 1250!. 
 
 M. Antony provided eight boars for 
 twelve guefts. VitelUus had a large 
 filver pLater, faid to have colh a 
 mill ion ofy^/i-rff/, called Mineriias 
 buckler. In this he blended toge- 
 ther the livers of gilt heads, the 
 brains ofpheafants and peacocks, the 
 tongues oi' phe/iicopters, a.nd the milts 
 of lampreys. Caligula ferved up 
 to his gucils pearls of great value, 
 diflblved in vinegar; the fame was 
 done alfo by Clodrus the fon of ^fop 
 the tragedian. Apicius laid afide 
 ninety millions of iciterces, befide^ 
 a mighty revenue, for no other pur- 
 pole but to be facrificed to luxurv; 
 fit;ding himfclf involved in debt, 
 he looked over his accounts, and 
 though he had the fum often million 
 of fofierces ftill left, he poifoned 
 hi;nielf for fear of being fiarved to 
 death. 
 
 Inltances might be produced of 
 great luxury amongft the Greeks. 
 But both the Greets and Romans 
 leem to be outdone by our own 
 country. I fhall give one inflance 
 only. In the lothvearof thereign 
 oi Ed-Txard \.\\c 4th, 1470, George 
 Nevtil, brother to the Earl off^ar- 
 ivick, at his inftallment into the 
 archiepifcopal fee of 7'crk, enter- 
 tained molt of the nobility and 
 principal clergy, when his bill of 
 fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 
 350 tuns of ale, 104 tuns of wine, 
 a pipeof fpiced wine, 80 fat oxen, 
 6 wild bulls, 10C4 wethers, 300 
 hogs, 300 Calves, 3000 geefe, 3000 
 capons, 300 pigs, loo peacocks., 
 200 cranes, 2C0 kids, 2000 chick- 
 ene; 4C00 pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 
 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200 
 piieafants, 500 partridges, 2000 
 woodcocks, 4C0 plovers, 100 cur- 
 lews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 
 rees, 400 bucks, does and roe- 
 bucks, 1500 hot venifon pafties, 
 4000 cold ditto, 1000 difhes of 
 jelly parted, 4000 diftlcS of jell/ 
 
 plain» 
 
L YM 
 
 LYR 
 
 tilaiu, 4000 cold cuilarcs, 2C00 hot 
 cuilards, 300 pikes, 300 breams, 
 S feals, 4 porpuflcs, 400 tarts. At 
 this fealt the Earl of IVar^ick was 
 Iteward, the Earl of Bedford trea- 
 furcr, and hox<i Hajlings coi-ftptrol- 
 ler, with many more noble ofScers, 
 1000 ferviters, 62 cooks, 515 me- 
 nial apparitors in the kitchen. 
 
 But luch was the fortune of the 
 man, that after his extreme prodi- 
 gality he died in the moft abjeft, 
 but unpiticd poverty, njinSus ja- 
 lult in fumma inopia. 
 
 The Roman\?i\Ms to reflrain lux- 
 ury were Lex Orchiay Fannia, Di- 
 dia, Licinia, Cornelia, and many 
 others: But all thefe were too lit- 
 tle, for as riches encreafed amongft 
 them, fodid fenfuality. 
 
 Lyceum v/as one of the Gym' 
 7:afiazt Athens, ofconfiderabie note. 
 It flood on the banks of IliJJus and 
 was built by Pififiratus, though 
 fome fay it was erecled by Pericles, 
 and others by Lycurgus. Kere A- 
 rijlotle taught philofophy, inftruft- 
 ing fuch as came to hear him, as 
 they v/alked, Vv'hence his difciples 
 are fuppofed to derive their name 
 oi Peripatetics. 
 
 Lycurcia, a feflival obferved 
 by the Spartans, in memory of 
 their lavv-giver Lycurgus, whom 
 ihey honoured with a temple and 
 anniverfary facrifice. 
 
 Lymph^ea were artificial caves 
 or grottoes amongft the Romans, 
 furnifhcd with a great many tubes, 
 canals, and various hydraulic ap- 
 paratus, through which the water 
 gufhed out upon the fpedlators un- 
 expedledly, while they were ad- 
 miring the beautiful arrangement 
 of the flicll work in the grotto. 
 
 Lymph AT I was a name given 
 by the Romans, to fuch as were 
 feized with madnefs. It is fup- 
 pofed to be ufed for Nymphcli, be- 
 Gaufe the ancients imagiusd that 
 
 every perfon who had the misfor- 
 fortune to fee a Nymph was inflantl / 
 ftruck with phrenzy. Lymphati 
 may indeed fignify mad - men, 
 as derived from lympha, nvater^ 
 over which element the Nymphs 
 were though to prefide : But 
 to me it appears mioll likely, 
 that diilrafted people were called 
 lymphati, from the circumllance of 
 mad-men's being affcded with the 
 hydrophobia or dread of water after 
 the bite of a mad -dog; for this 
 peculiarity, in cafes of canine mad- 
 nefs, was not unknown to the 
 Romans. 
 
 Lyra. The lyre. An inflru- 
 ment of mufic amongft the anci- 
 ents, the invention of which is at- 
 tributed by fome to Mercury, by 
 others to Apollo, by others to Her- 
 cules, by others to Orpheus., by- 
 others to Linus, and by others again 
 to Amphion. It is faid to have been 
 originally formed of a Tortoife/ 
 fhell; whence it is fometimes cal -■ 
 led tejludo. It was mounted with 
 feven firings, and a jugum was ad- 
 ded to contract or loofen the ten- 
 fion. It varied in different ages 
 in the number of firings, forfome- 
 times it had but three, fbmetimes 
 four, and fomctimes feven. Ic 
 difl'ered alio in fhape according to 
 different periods of time: But its 
 form in general bore fome re!em- 
 blance to the ^z////^r. SeeCithara. 
 
 Lyric poetry, was fuch as the 
 ancients fung to the lyre or harp. — - 
 It was originally employed in ce- 
 lebrating the praifes of Gcds and 
 heroes, atid its charafteriflic was 
 fweetnefs. Who was the author 
 of it is not known. It was much 
 cultivated by the Greeks ; and Ho- 
 race was the firfl who attempted it, 
 in the Latin language. Anacreon, 
 Alcaus, Stejichorus, Sapho, and 
 Horace, were the moil celebrated 
 lyric poets of antiq^uity. 
 
 M f LYkOD>5 
 
MAC 
 
 MAC 
 
 tiVRODi, amo'ngft the ancient;, 
 a kind of w«/?c/«»i who played on 
 the lyre, and iung at the fame 
 time. This appellation was arllo 
 s^iven to fuch asmade it their em- 
 ployment to fing lyric poenss com- 
 pofed by others. 
 
 Lysan'dria, a Sam'ian feftlval, 
 celebrated with games and facrifi- 
 ces, in honour of the Lacedeynonian 
 General, Lyfnnder. It was anci- 
 ently called herea, but this name 
 
 the Stxfnians abolifhed by a public 
 decree. 
 
 Lysiarch, an ancient magif- 
 trate whj fuperiatended the fa- 
 cred games, and presided in mat- 
 ters of religion in the province of 
 Lycia. He was created in a coun- 
 cil confifting of deputies from all 
 the provincial cities, in num.ber 
 2 3 . The Lyjlarchs were both heads 
 of the council, and pontifis of 
 the province. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACCABEES in the Jerjjljh 
 hiftoryisa name given to all 
 that fought in defence of their religi- 
 on and their country, under the 
 Itandard of Judas furnamcd Mac- 
 cabfTus. Thi.-^ furname was given to 
 judas on this account: The motto 
 of his flandard v/as the Hrfl. letters of 
 xhdxHchrE-LV fentcnceExod. XV. ii, 
 mi camocha Baelira Jehovah; that 
 is, " who is like lo thee among the 
 Gods, OILord r" thefe letters form- 
 ed the artificial word M a c c ae i,and 
 all that fought under his llandard 
 were therefore called Maccabees. 
 It has been a common pradlice 
 araongil the Jeivs to frame words in 
 this manner; Thus ^abbi Mofes 
 Ben Maimou, is called Ram bam ; 
 Rabh: Solomon Jarchi, is called Ra- 
 si. Thus too the letters S. P. Q^R. 
 were written onthci2o;;i^;2ll:andards, 
 for Senatus Pcpuhifque Ro?nc7ius ; and 
 Jefus Cbrift hath been called 
 1X0T2. i. c. a filh, by the fathers, 
 became thefe letters are the initials 
 of the Greek words, Jcfiis Chrlft, 
 God's fan, the Sa--viour., _ 
 
 Machines, ufed in war a- 
 mongfl; the Greeks, were prin- 
 cipally thefe, I. Ys^iiJ-oiKBCy or 
 
 fcaling ladders; ;:. the battering 
 ram ; 3 . the heleplis ; 4. the 
 X£?-wv)i or tortoife, called by, the 
 Romans tejludo; 5. the %aj/*a or 
 agger, vi\'nc\i was faced with llone, 
 and raifed higher than the waU ; 
 6. upon the X-i^/jLawere built "xupyoi. 
 or towers of the wood ; Ts^pai or 
 ofier hurdles; 8. Catapulix or 
 nala7r£>1ai) from which they threw 
 arrows with amazing force; and 
 9. the ^iSocOXct, TTST^oSoxoi or 
 a'pilv^ia^ from which ftones were 
 call with great velocity. 
 
 The machines made ufe of by 
 the Romans were the ram, the lupus 
 or wolf, the tejludo or tortoife, the 
 balijla, the catapulta, and the fcor- 
 pion. Many more, indeed, might 
 have been here enumerated, but 
 thofe that I have mentioned were 
 the principal, and moft commonly 
 employed; many more are inferted 
 in this work as they occurred, un- 
 der their proper heads. 
 
 I^'Iactatio, in the Roman fa- 
 crifices, fignifies the acl of killing 
 the viclim : This was performed 
 either by the prieft himfelf, or 
 fome of his inferior officers, whom. 
 
 VV£ 
 
MAG 
 
 MA 
 
 avc meet with tinder the names of ever, to have been reformed by 
 topcV, agofies, cultrarii, and iiicii- Zcrcajier, who held that there is 
 inarit; but, before the beaft uas one independent and fuprcme Be- 
 Jcilled, the pried, turning hinrfelf ing, from whom all things proceed, 
 to the eaft, drew a crocked line and who dircfts the fubcrdinatc 
 with his knife, from the forehead deities. The pricfts of \}\ft magi 
 to the tail. Among the Greeks, were well fkilled in machematicks 
 this ceremony was performed moil and philofophv, and could account 
 commonly by the pricil, or, in his lor the phiinomena of nature, ac- 
 abfence, by the moll honourable cording to the fyilems and hypo- 
 perfon preient. If the facriiice was thefes which then prevailed ; hence 
 olFered to the celeRlal Gods, the a learned man and a magician be- 
 viftim's throat was bent up towards came fynonym.ous terras ; and in 
 heaven, if to the infernal, or to procefs of time, tlie vu'lgar, hold- 
 heroes, it was killed with its throat ing their wifdom in the higheil 
 towards the ground. The manner veneration, began to look upon it 
 ot {dlling the animal was by a ilroke as fupernatural ; and thofe who 
 on the head, and after it was fallen, pretended to wicked and diabolical 
 thruiling a knife into its throat, arts of conjuration, &c. affumcd 
 Much notice was taken, and good the name of M^j/a-'.v, tillatlaftthe 
 or ill fiiccefs .prediclcd from the words Magiaii, Magician, and Ma- 
 ftruggles of the beail, or its quiet gic, received the fignifications now 
 fubmiiTion to the blow, from the annexed to them. As to the v/ife- 
 flowing of the blood, and the men from the call, mentioned in 
 length of time it happened to live Matth. \\. i . and called Magi in 
 after the fall. See Sacrijice. the original, it is difficult to deter • 
 
 Mj-EMACTER ION was the fourtli mine who t'hev were ; whence thcv 
 month of the Athenian year, con- came ; hov/ many they were in 
 taining twenty-nine days, and anf- number^ Vv'hen they arrived at 
 wering to the latter part of our yerufalem; and of what nature the 
 September, and the beginning of ftar was which condufled them. — 
 Odlober. It received its name The fathers and commentators have 
 from m.-vmaSleria, a feitival in ho- laboured niuch, but to very littic 
 iicur of Jupiter, which was ob- purpofc, for the folution of thcf*; 
 ferved about this time. This queflions. See Wife-Men. 
 month was called by the B<£Gtians Magic properly 'fignifies tire 
 Alalcomenius . dodlrine of the r^iagi ; but the magi 
 
 Magi, a religious feci in P^;;yr,3, being fuppofed to have acquired 
 and other ealtern countries, who their extraordinary f.iill from fa- 
 abominated idolatry, and worH-dp- m.iliar fpirits or other fuperr;atural 
 ped God by fire only ; which being information, the word ir.o.git ac- 
 pure itfelf, and the purifier of all quired the fignification it now 
 things, they looked upon as a good bears, viz. a fcience wliich teaches 
 emblem of the deitv. They held to perform wonderful and furpriz- 
 •two principles, one good, and the ing afts, by the application of cer- 
 author of all good ; the other evil, tain means, which procure the af- 
 
 fiflance and interpofition o^ demons. 
 
 The Magicia?:s of antiquity were 
 
 generally acquainted v.'ith certain 
 
 lecret powers, properties and affi- 
 
 F f 2 nitie^ 
 
 and the fource cf all evil. In this 
 they were followed by the chijlian 
 a'ed called Manichees. The doc- 
 traiei of the magi wers faid, how- 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 rities of bodies, and were hence 
 enabled to produce furprizlng ef- 
 fects, to aftonifh the vulgar ; and 
 thcfe furprizing cftedls, produced 
 by natural caufes, procured them 
 credit in their pretcnfions to fuper- 
 natural and miraculous power.-— 
 Aftrology, divination, enchant- 
 ments and witchcraft, were parts 
 of this fanciful fcience ; which, 
 irom being truly refpert^ble once, 
 as having had for its objeft mathe- 
 matics and natural philofophy, by 
 thefe means became contemptible, 
 its profelTors opprobrious, its pro- 
 dudions ridiculous, and its illuu- 
 ons mere jugglers tricks. The 
 ■Egyptians, Chalditans^ and Baby- 
 lonians, affecled great ficill in Tragic, 
 and pretended by certain combina- 
 tions of numbers, and arithmetical 
 calculations^ to dive into futurity ; 
 But w as not all this reafoning with- 
 out premifec, and drawing conclu- 
 lions without data ? 
 
 The _/>zf.f were exceedingly ad- 
 difled to divination, and inclined 
 to liften to the talcs oi Magicians and 
 artful impoftors, but were forbid- 
 den by their law, on pain of death, 
 to coufult them, Lei'it. xix. 21. — 
 :j:x. 6. The Greeks and Romans 
 were, in this refpedl, no lefs cre- 
 dulous than the y^w;, and indeed 
 .every nation has been liable toim- 
 pofition in this particular, and none 
 more fo than our own, the refor- 
 mation, however, and the culti- 
 vation of philofophy in this land, 
 have fo far enlightened the minds 
 cf the people, as to fet them above 
 the reach of thefe filly prejudices, 
 and fecur.e us from the praftices of 
 defigning jugglers and infidious 
 conjurors. See Witchcraft. 
 
 As to the wonders performed by 
 ;the Magicians, in the land of Egvpt, 
 we have every reafon to believe 
 they were no more than curious 
 ^lluiions. deceptions and juggling; 
 
 and what an extenfive field is open- 
 ed for cafily impofmg upon the 
 vulgar by elecrricitv, magnctifm, 
 chemiitry, and-idmoit every branch 
 cf philofophy? Avery little fci- 
 ence would fuffice to give a man 
 the reputation of a conjuror. 
 
 M AGISTER equitujn, was an offi- 
 cer am.ongft the Rojnans, fubordi- 
 nate to the dittator, and defied by 
 him. He was the di3ator''s Lieu- 
 tenant General in the army, but 
 could not aft without his exprcfs 
 order. Yet we find two inllances, 
 wherein the magijicr equitum had 
 equal authority with the didator, 
 or was as it were a fecond diHatcr : 
 Minutius, the mailer of horfe to 
 Fabius the dif:ator, in the war with 
 Hannibal, is one inftance ; and 
 Fabius Buteo, after the battle of 
 Camia being raifed to an equal 
 degree of authority with M. "Junius 
 the diftator, though he was nomi- 
 nally magijier equituin only, makes 
 the fecond initance. The magijier 
 equitum, except in thefe two in- 
 llances, was always, in prefence 
 oi thedidator, fubjcft to his con- 
 troul, but, when left t® himfelf in 
 fhe field, was under the power of 
 no man. 
 
 Magistrates of Jthens, arc 
 confidered as divifible into three 
 forts, according to the different 
 methods of their eleftion and pro- 
 motion. I. Xe^foJovjiloi, 1.YiM^uloi.y 
 3. Ai^sloi. The Xei§olovy{loi owed 
 their promotion to the people met 
 together in lawful afl'embly in the 
 Pnyx, and were fo called becaufe 
 the votes were given by holding up 
 of hands. The K^upcoloi received 
 their dignity from lots drawn by 
 the Thefmotheta, in the temple of 
 Thefcus. The manner of cafling 
 lots was thus, the names of the 
 candidates, written upon tablets of 
 brafs, were put into an urn, toge- 
 ther with black and white beans, 
 
 and 
 
-*» 
 
 MAJ 
 
 era the choice fell upon thofc can- 
 didates, whofe names were drawn 
 out vvidi white beans. It was a 
 capital crime to throw into the urn 
 more than ore tablet for each can- 
 didate. The Aipfsoi were extraor- 
 dinary officerc, appointed by par- 
 ticular tribes or boroughs, to take 
 cire ot any bufinefs ; Inch were 
 the f'T'-eyors o( public works, &c. 
 Previous to any pcrfon's admif- 
 fion to public employment, his lite 
 and conducl were enquired into 
 before certain judges in the/omm. 
 This fcrutiny was called DocimaJIa. 
 in Greek AoKii.:aa-iCi. See Dociniojia. 
 The chief of the Athenian ma- 
 giftrates will be found under their 
 propei articles. 
 
 The magiftratea cf the Romans 
 may be confidercd as of two forts, 
 Vrbavi and Prc-oindalesf the firft 
 refiding at home, and taking eare 
 of the city ; the other haviiig rheir 
 rcfidence abroad, and taking care 
 cf the provinces. The principal 
 cityniagillrates were the Co:-?J'uls, 
 DiSatcr, Praetors, Ce7ifors, ^efr^rs, 
 Trilunes, JEdiles, Dccsmuiri, In- 
 terrcx, Tribunus ceierum, P-nefcFius, 
 TriiiVfjii-i, ^atuorviri, Centum- 
 I'iri, Duu:;i-oiri. The principal 
 magiflrates were the Proccnfuls, 
 Prators, Proprators, Legati, Shiaf- 
 tors, Proqu^JfoiS. 
 
 Thofe who offered themfelvcs 
 candidates for thele honours were 
 cloathed in the T^oga Candida, 
 whence their name; and they de- 
 clared their prctenfions a year be- 
 fore the election ; in the interme- 
 diate time going about the city to 
 folicic votes, and procure the in- 
 tereft cf as many as poffible; this 
 was c-dled Ambitus. See Ambitus, 
 Candidate. 
 
 Majestatis crimina, among 
 the Romans, were treachery and 
 perfidioufnefs againfl tiie comnion- 
 :\vcalth. See Crimes, 
 
 MAN 
 
 Malleoli, were bundles of 
 combuiHble materials, ftt on fire, 
 to give light in the night, or to an- 
 noy the enemy ; when they were 
 employed for the latter purpofe 
 they were Ihot out of a bow, or 
 fixed to a javelin and thus thrown 
 into the enemies engines, fhips, <S;c. 
 in order to burn them. Pitch v.as 
 always a principal ingredient in 
 the compofition. The malleoli had 
 alfo the name c^ pyrobcli. 
 
 Mammon, in the Sjriac lan- 
 guage, lignifies riches. It is ufed 
 Malth. vi. 24. and Luke xvi. 13. 
 and is there called the mammon of 
 unrightcoufnefs, intimating that 
 riches are frequently the inftrii- 
 ments of iniquity, or acquired by 
 unrighteous means. Some have 
 ailerred, but without good proofs 
 of what they advance, ti\it mammon 
 fignified the god of riches; Milton^ 
 introduces a devii into his poem ot 
 Paradife Loft, under this appella- 
 tion ; but Milton has every claim 
 to be indulged in poetic licence ; 
 while commentators are bound by 
 every tie to pay the ftri(ftcll atten- 
 tion to truth. 
 
 Mancipatio, was a term made 
 ufe of in the P.oman law, and may- 
 be thus explained ; every lather 
 had fuch a legal authority over his 
 fon, that before the fon could be 
 releafcd from his fubjeclion and 
 made free, he muft be three times 
 over fold and bought, his natural 
 father being the vender. The 
 vendee was called paler fidnciarius. 
 After this fidlitious bargain, the 
 pater fiduciarius fold him again to 
 the natural father, who could then, 
 but not till then, manumit or make 
 him free. The im.aginary lale was 
 called mancipatio, and the aft of 
 giving liberty or fetting him free 
 after this, was called emancipatio. 
 See Children. 
 
 Ma?:dpatio alfo fignilics the fel- 
 ling 
 
MAN 
 
 M A N 
 
 Itng or alienating of certain lands 
 by the balance, or money paid by 
 weight, and live witncfTes. This 
 mode of alienation took place only 
 amongft Ro7?:an citizens, and that 
 only in refpedl: to certain eftarcs 
 iituatad in Italy, which were cal- 
 led Ma/:cipia. 
 
 Mandatores, the defignation 
 of a fet of infamous wretches at 
 Ro:ne, who made it their bufinefs 
 to inform another fpecics of fcouft- 
 <irei3 called Delai<.rcs, what per- 
 ibns thev had upon inquifition, 
 found guilty of any mifdemeanor, 
 tiiat they might, as they pretended, 
 be brought to punilnment : but 
 their information were frequently 
 falfe, and their defigns moft Aame- 
 fully mercenary. See Ddatores, 
 Infcriners. 
 
 Mai;datum, was a fee or re- 
 tjiner given by the Ro7natis to the 
 Jroaa-atores and ad-vccati. The 
 7-,icindatuin was a neccflary condi- 
 tion, witliout which they had not 
 the liberty of pleading. Thus the 
 legal eloquence of i?f5/AT, like that 
 of oar own country, could not be 
 unlocked without a golden key. 
 
 Mandrake, or Kajidragora, a 
 plant of which natural iibtellllrange 
 llories. it has been fuppofed, for 
 inftance, to be produced from the 
 fat or urine of malefaftors, and to 
 grow inider the gallows and places 
 of execution ; its root is faid to re- 
 femble the human form, and to cry 
 out with a fhriek almoll human, on 
 being pulled out of the ground. It 
 has been reported that fome fatal 
 evil conlVantly overtakes the perfon 
 who has plucked it up, without 
 obfcrving due formalities, which, 
 according to Pliny are to dig three 
 circles abaut it, and then to root 
 it out, looking towards the weft. 
 When adminillered in a dofe of a 
 finglc d.'-am, it is faid to give to the 
 perfon who takes it an idea of his 
 
 ov/n beauty, and extravagant coh- 
 fidcnce in the power of his own ac- 
 complifhments : three times the 
 quantity converts him into aa 
 ideot. The mandrake was ima- 
 gined to be of great efficacy as a 
 love potion. Julian the Emperor 
 tells Calixcnes in his epiftles, that 
 he (drinks the juice of it every night, 
 to conciliate the friendfhip of the 
 God of love, and excite amorous 
 inclinations. It was alfo fuppofed 
 to be pofTciled of prolific virtues, 
 and upon this fuppofition it is pro- 
 bable that Rachael procured LecUs 
 mandrakes, and her confent that 
 yacob fnould be her bedfellow the 
 lollowing night, Gei:. xxx. 14. — 
 The ancients called mandrakes the 
 apples of lo-i:e, and Venus had the 
 name of Mandragoritis. When 
 mankind begin to indulge them - 
 ielves in whimfical conieilures, or 
 to make foolifh affertions concern- 
 ing any thing, it is impoffibletofix 
 bounds to the wildnefs of their 
 imaginations, 
 
 Maneh, or Mill a Hebriaca, a 
 Jewifli coin worth 5I, 14s. c|d. of 
 our money. See Mo?iey. 
 
 Manipularii. See Manipiilus. 
 
 Manipulus, was a fmall body 
 of infantry amongll the Remans. — 
 It was of two Ibrts, the greater 
 7nnnipulv.s and the lefs ; the greater 
 confilted in the time of Romulus of 
 100 men, afterwards of 150, and 
 in the CoTif^Jar times, and under 
 the firfl: Cafars the number was 
 200, and 256. The fmaller Tna- 
 f/ipulus conCiilcd only of ten men. 
 Each of the hrgsr manipuli had two 
 Centurions or Captains called ot«- 
 nupularii, ot which one was Lieu- 
 tenant to the other. A cohort wqs 
 divided into three manipuli, and 
 each 7nanipulus into two centuries. 
 So far I trull will be found in ge- 
 neral right, but authors fecm to 
 differ much on the fubjecl. 
 
M A N 
 
 MAP 
 
 The inc.nlt-.ih'.s is faid to be {o 
 called from inar.i-^ulus ati hanriful of 
 Lay, which was formerly ftuck 
 UDcn a ipear point, and carried, 
 ?,3 a flag, before the Eagle was af- 
 fumed. Hence the expreifion, an 
 kandfiil of ir.en . 
 
 Manna, ?. miraculou? kind of 
 food which fell from hetucn, for 
 the fupport of the Ifraelites in tlie 
 ifvildernefs, for the fpaoe of forty 
 years. That the falling of the 
 mar.T.p. was really miraculous, ap- 
 pears from the following confidera- 
 tions. 1. That it fell but lix days 
 in the week. z. That it fell in 
 fuch prodigious quantities as faf- 
 taincd almoit 3,000,000 of people. 
 3. That there fell a doable quan- 
 tity every Friday, toferve them for 
 the next day which was their fab- 
 bath. 4. That what was gathered 
 on thefirft five days flunk and bred 
 worms, if kept above one day ; 
 Init that which was gathered on 
 Friday kept fweet for two days. 
 And laftlv that it continued falling 
 during the Itay cf the Ifraelites 
 in the v/ildernefs, butceafed as focn 
 as they got out of it. and had got 
 corn to eat in the land ot Canc.aji. 
 
 This heavenly food received its 
 name, according t® {or^xz, from 
 the word n:anah, a gift, as being 
 the gift of God — or according to 
 others from minnah, which figni- 
 fied to prepare, beca;ife it came 
 down ready for eating ; but the 
 moil probable account is, that it 
 was called fo from the Egyptian 
 word man v/hat is it ? becaufe when 
 the Ifraelites firft faw it lying upon 
 the ground, they expreiled their 
 lurprize by crying out man v/hat is 
 this ? Mofes ordered a quantity of 
 manna to be preferved as a memo- 
 rial of the providence of God to 
 future generations. 
 
 Manubi^ fignified amongfl the 
 Romans^ fpoils taken from the ene- 
 
 n-;y in war, or the money ariung 
 from the iale of them. 
 
 Man'umjssion, was an afl a- 
 mongll the Romans, -vvhercby a 
 Have was let at liberty, or freed 
 from bondage. This was perform- 
 ed three w-ys .- iiril:, when a Have 
 by the coiifent oi his reaflcr had his 
 name entered in the ceifiis or public 
 regiitcr of citir.cns. 2. When the 
 flave was led before the prtetor, and " 
 that magiibate laid the wand called 
 i-indiSia on his head. 5. When 
 the mailer gave his llavc liberty bv 
 tcihment. The firfl mode wa* 
 inftituted by Sur--vius Tv.llus, tlic 
 fecond by Faierius Pid-Ucola, and 
 the third is mentioned by fufiinian 
 in his Inflitutcs. The /i;-^7or could 
 perform his ofHcc of 7rammiflinn 
 any where, by laying his rod en 
 the head cf the flave, and pronoun- 
 cing thefe words, dico cum Uhcrum 
 efe ?::cre qtnritiuTi, I pronounce hira 
 free after the manner of the Ro- 
 TT.ans '. The rod was tlien given t> 
 the liEior, who flruck the Have on. 
 the head with ir, and crx the baric 
 aflerv/ards with his hand. The 
 ?:otary then entered his name in the 
 regifler, with the reafons of his 
 7nanumifficn, The new frced-man's 
 head was then fhaved, and a cap 
 given him by his mailer, as a token 
 of liberty. A third name was alfo 
 given lU.ni on this occafion. See 
 harne, Slave, V indicia, Pihvs. 
 
 Mappa, in the public games of 
 the Rotnan circus, was a napkin 
 hung cut at the pr^ioth or other 
 great magiftiate's ieat, as a fignal 
 for the race, or otlier diverfions to 
 begin. The 7nappa was received 
 by the mappariits, or perfon who 
 held it, from the conful, prcvtor, or 
 other great ofiicer. Notice was 
 anciently given by found of trum- 
 pet, but Nero is faid to have intro- 
 duced the mappa, by throwing his 
 napkin <?ut of the window, to fi- 
 
 tisfy 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 tisfy the people, who grew ncAfy 
 at the delay ot the fpcrts, while he 
 was at dinner. 
 
 Maranatha, amongft ihcyeivs 
 was a form of threatning, curfing, 
 or anathematizing, and was looked 
 upon as the moil fevcre denuncia- 
 tion they had. The v/ord is faid 
 to fignify /.be Lord cotr.cs, or is come : 
 Which taken as a curfc or threat 
 may be thus paraphrafcd, " the 
 Lord come quickly to take ven- 
 geance on thy crime," the indica- 
 tive mood being ufcd for the opta- 
 tive. St. /"ix.y/ iifcs the exprefiion, 
 I Cor. xvi. 22. pronouncing Ana- 
 thema Maranatha on all that love 
 not the Lord Jefus CbriJI, where 
 the words may very probably have 
 this meaning, Let him that does 
 net love the Lord Jcfus Chriji be 
 Anathema — the Lord is come — evil 
 to vyhomfoever receiveth him not. 
 See Anathema. 
 
 March, was the thiid month 
 of the 'Roman year, according to 
 the calendar ot Nu7/:a and Julius 
 Co-far ; but in the calendar of Ro- 
 muiits, it ilood infi: in honour of his 
 reputed father Mars. This month 
 i'eems to have a ftrong claim to the 
 liill place in the fcries, becaufe in 
 March the fun enters into the f-gn 
 Ariss, which is rekoned the frit 
 fign of the Zodiac,. On the calcntls 
 of this month, as having, in the 
 eld computation, been the firil day 
 of the year, fsvcral ceremonies were 
 pciformed ; a lire was kindled by 
 means of a burning glafs on the 
 altar of Vrf.a ; the doors of the Rex 
 Sacrorum was ilrewed with trcfh 
 laurel; the courts of the F/a/^;/V/fjwere 
 fpread with new flowers, and the 
 Ccnufls had a new ax for ihcfafces ; 
 the magiftrates took poffcilion of 
 their places, and the feaft of Ma- 
 tronaUa was held. The cullom of 
 entering upon oiEces on the firft of 
 March continued till the firil Punic 
 
 war, when it was changed to the 
 firll oi January. March was held 
 an unfortunate month for marriage, 
 as well as Ma^. 
 
 March of fcldicrs. Nothing is 
 laid down particularly concerning 
 the marches of the fevAfh armies ; 
 only thus much we may collect 
 that they made ufe of trumpets, to 
 the different founds of which they 
 prepared themfelve? by packing up 
 their baggage, putting themfelves 
 in rcadinefs, and attending at the 
 ftandards, to wait the fignal for 
 marching. We are told that the 
 army of the Ifraelites marched in. 
 general no more than one league 
 in a day and an half; but this ap- 
 pears to hold good only of their 
 progrefs thro' dii?.cult roads : For 
 FoIIard hys they might, in an ooen 
 country, march four leagues in a 
 day, or more. The Rabbins fup- 
 pofe that the Ifraelites marched in 
 the lame order they v/ere placed in 
 their camp. See Camp. 
 
 The Greeks, let the pofcure of 
 their affairs be what it would, ne- 
 ver marched againll their enemies 
 till favourable omens encouraged 
 the enterprize. An cclipfe of the 
 moon, or any untoward accident, 
 or the intervening of what they 
 eileemed an unlucky day, entirely 
 prevented their march. But of all 
 the Greehs the Lacedc?)icmans were 
 the moll nice and fcrupulous.- — ► 
 The heavenly bodies directed all 
 their motions, and it was an in- 
 variable maxim with them never to 
 march before the full moon. The 
 Greeks are particularly remarked 
 by Homer for m.arching in good 
 order and profound filencc, where- 
 as the Barbarian forces were all 
 noife, clamour and confuiion. 
 
 It is needlefs to fay any thing 
 concerning the marches of the Ro- 
 man armies, more than that they 
 were performed with the greateft 
 
 order 
 
MAR 
 
 MA R; 
 
 videian.1 c.ifpatch, infomuch tliit 
 tlicir uncxpc6lcd piefence fre- 
 quently damped the Tpirirs of their 
 enemies. The Roman loldiers 
 were enured to the military pace, 
 that is, to walk 20 miles and fome- 
 times 24 in five hours, tho', at 
 the fame time, tl^cy carried bur- 
 thens of fixty pounds weight. Sec 
 Soldier, ylr?.iy. Battle, i^c. 
 
 Marriage, a contracl both of 
 a civil and religious nature, be- 
 tween a man and a woman, by 
 which they engage to live in mu- 
 tual love and frienddiip ; the chief 
 end of this connection is the pro- 
 creation of children. The ji'ei.vs 
 looked upon the words ** be fruit- 
 ful and multiply," as containing 
 an indifpenfible injunction to enter 
 into this llatc ; and the man who 
 did not marry his daughter before 
 the age of tv^enty, was looked upon 
 as acceflary to any irregularities 
 ihe might be guilty of. The He- 
 Ire^^v men generally married before 
 the age of eighteen, hut were not 
 allowed to exceed it; but the wo- 
 men were contrafted very early, 
 . but not permitted to marry till 
 tliev were twelve complete. The 
 huiband ufcd to purchafe his ^vife, 
 by paying down a competent dow- 
 xv. David payed Saul for his 
 daughter 100 Philifiine forcfcins. 
 i^Tarriage amongil the yc'-ivs was 
 of two kinds ; one by which they 
 conncdedand engaged themfelves 
 to an inferior fort of wives or con- 
 cubines ; and the other whereby 
 ihey joined themfelves to wives of 
 a higher rank, or wuves properly 
 fo called. The inferior wives they 
 called pilgajhim, and the otlicr 
 vajhim. The law of Mofcs does 
 not confine a man to one wife, but 
 the Talmud allows as many as he 
 has riches to maintain, and ftrength 
 to manage. Each wife is intitled 
 to food, raiment, and conjugal 
 
 duties; the rale in rcfpc^ io.,lji,i^ 
 lall particular is tha'. the matriind,T 
 nial debt be paid -jnce a vyeek, or 
 that tlicrefhall not be more than i 
 month's arrcar with any one. Fur 
 the manner of betrothing, fee 
 Efponfah.^ 
 
 A confiderable time elapfed fre- 
 quently betwixt the efpoufals and 
 the marriage ; but \vhen the terms 
 and time of marria_gc were fettled, 
 a contracl was d^raivu pp fpccif^ing 
 all particulars of the agrecraerit. 
 Widows were generally married on 
 a Thurfday, and virgins upon 
 Wedncfday orFridav. 1'he even- 
 ing before the folemnity the bride 
 was led to a bath, by a train ol 
 women, who founded all the way 
 all manner of kitchen inftrunicnts, 
 to give notice of the approachin'^ 
 nuptials. The next day the lad\- 
 was dreiTcd out in her richell robe,i 
 and led into the open air, to the 
 bank of a river, a garden, or into 
 a hall adorned for the occafion.--- 
 Here the bridegroom and bride 
 both in full drcfs, but covered with 
 black veils, were placed under a 
 canopy. Another veil Cd.\\c6. taled, 
 with four tufts hanging from the 
 four corners, of a fquare form, ^va3 
 put upon their heads. Then the. 
 Rahlin of the place, or chanter of 
 the Synagogue, prcfented a cup full 
 of wine to the parties, havin^^ 
 firfl: pronounced, this benedifliur, 
 " Eloifcd be thou, O Lord, wb.» 
 haft created man and woman, and 
 ordained marriage, &c." Tl;ie 
 couple having juil tailed, the bride- 
 groom produced a plain gold ring, 
 and having taken the people t> 
 witnefs that it was good gold, and 
 of due value, he put it upon the 
 finger of the bride, before two 
 witnefles, pronouncing thcfeword,«, 
 *' By this ring thou art my fpoufe, 
 according to the cuflom of Mofes, 
 and the children of Ifrceiy Then 
 G g the 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 t^e marriage contradl was read and 
 put, by the bridegroom, into tlie 
 hands of his wife's relations. Wine 
 was now again produced, part of 
 v/hich was drank by the bride and 
 bridegroom, and the rcll thrown 
 upon the ground ; and fmce the 
 dellruftion of the temple, the bride- 
 groom always breaks the vefl'el 
 that contains it, with violence a- 
 gainft the wall, in memory of that 
 mournful event. Before the tem- 
 ple was dcftroyed, the bride and 
 bridegroom wore crowns at the 
 jiuptials. See Crozcn. 
 
 The bridegroom during the ce- 
 remonies was attended by a bride- 
 man, called by our Saviour the 
 friend of the bridegroom, yobn 
 iii. 29. The wedding ceremonies 
 commonly lafted fevcn days for a 
 maid, and three for a widow ; 
 during which time the married 
 couple were attended by a number 
 nf young people of both fexes.--- 
 The friends and companions of 
 the bride fung the Epithalat.vium 
 at her door the evening before the 
 marriage ; the young men during 
 the fcaft, kept themfelves in a dif- 
 tindt apartment, and entertained 
 themfelves by propofing and folv- 
 ing riddles, and fuch as appeared 
 the moft ingenious in this little 
 exertion of talents, received a prize 
 from the bridegroom. The feven 
 days of fealling were generally 
 Ipent at the houfe of the bride's 
 father, with much pomp and fplen- 
 dor ; after which the bride v.as 
 conduced 10 the dwelling of her 
 hu/band with much ceremony and 
 a great attendance, though generally 
 in the night. This circumftance 
 helps to explain the parable of the 
 Ten virgins buying oil for the 
 lamps, &c. Matth. xxv. i, 2, &c. 
 When the married couple arrived 
 at home, the company fat down to 
 Rapper, and the bridegroom furg a 
 
 long blefling in Hehreiv. Supper 
 ended, a dance begun, in which 
 the men and women performed 
 feparatcly. This d«ne, the bride 
 was led into her chamber, and a 
 long blefling was pronounced in 
 the hearing often competent wit- 
 ncfles. 
 
 It appears that the "Je-uos were 
 permitted to marry, not only in 
 the twelves tribes, but even out of 
 them ; provided it was among na- 
 tions that ufed circumcifion. The 
 Patriarchs before the law, married 
 their fillers, and 'facob even mar- 
 ried two fiftcrs together, B.achcl 
 and Lech : Bnt the law prohibited 
 a man from marrying his mother— 
 his father's wife— his filler — his 
 grand-daughter — the daughter of 
 his father's wife— the filter of his 
 father or his mother — his niece— 
 his uncle's wife by the father's fide 
 — his daughter in law- — his bro- 
 ther's wife whilft the brother lived, 
 or after his death, if he left chil- 
 dren — but if he left no children, 
 he was in fome degree required to 
 raife up feed to his brother by mar- 
 rying his widow. A man could 
 not marry the mother and daugh- 
 ter at the fame time — nor the 
 daughter of the mother's fon — nor 
 the daughter of her daughter — nor 
 two lifters together. See Levirate, 
 J)i-vorce, Polygamy, JVidoiv. 
 
 Amongfl: the Greeks, before the 
 inftiiution of laws, the conjunc- 
 tion of the Icxes was promifcuous 
 —but as fociety encreafed it alfo 
 refined, and marriage was not only 
 honoured but authorifed by law, 
 and an averfion to matrimony was 
 both looked upon as fcandalous, 
 and in fome communities punilh- 
 ed. Cecrops was the firft who en- 
 joined that each man Ihould invio- 
 lably poflefs his own wife, and fub- 
 jefted the Athenians to matrimonial 
 obligations. The laws concerning 
 inarriage 
 
M A R 
 
 M A R 
 
 marriage afrevwarcs were inipror- 
 cd, and ihc Jthenians were notfaf- 
 fercd to intei-marry with Itrangers. 
 The marriageable age was iixcd 
 for both fcxes, but was difFercnt at 
 di£er':nt times. Polygamy was 
 oiily allowed on particular cafes. 
 Sor.3 and daughters &f the fame 
 mother could not marry ; but the 
 prohibition did nc: aff:;(ft fens and 
 daughters of the fame fi:ther. Mar- 
 riages were not contradcea without 
 confent of parents or relations.—— 
 The givinj a young woman in 
 marriage was called v/yvav-, ^sy- 
 ■yvaVf &c. In betrothing, the man 
 gave to the woman as a pledge of 
 love and honour, a prcfent named 
 acfflfj a^^a'Suv, &iC. The betroth- 
 ed woman on her part gave a dow- 
 ry to a very conliderablc amount, 
 wiiich was always returned in cafe 
 of a divorce. See Daughter. 
 
 Solon however ftruck oir dowries 
 as a difcouragemsnt of matrimony, 
 requiring the woman to bring three 
 fuits of cloaths and feme furni- 
 ture ; but he enjoined the nearelt 
 relations of orphans to give them 
 fortunes or to marry them. 
 
 Both men and women, among 
 the Jthe7iiar.s, cut off their hair 
 before marriage, and confecrated 
 it to fame God or Goddefs, under 
 whofe proteftion they had more 
 immediately placed themfelves ; 
 and all virgins, before they could 
 enter upon that ftatc, were confe- 
 crated to Diana. 
 
 Previous to the aftaal marriage 
 of the parties contracted, facrifices 
 were offered up, and the gall ot 
 the vidim was always thrown be- 
 hind the altar, intimating that an- 
 ger and malice fhould have no 
 admiffion. The entrails were in- 
 fpefted, and if any unlucky omen 
 appeared, the nuptials were pre- 
 vented, and the contraft dilTolved. 
 When the preparatory cerenionies 
 
 were difpatched, the brldegi'oon^ 
 took the bride to his own houfc in 
 pomp, in the dulk of the evening ; 
 inc was generally conveyed in a 
 chariot, litting in the middle be- 
 twixt the bridegroom and his mofb 
 intimate friend, called ttcc^oxoc. 
 In this manner they proceeded a- 
 midft a great company of friends^ 
 muf.cianci, &cc. with a number of 
 torches, flambeaux, &c. Many 
 foags were fung upon thcoccafion^ 
 which they call af /waTr lov M£?>oj ; 
 when they arrived at the houfe the 
 marriage began, and was accom- 
 panied with dances. Sacrifices 
 were then offered called molc^nczy 
 and TT^oyafitiay which being ended 
 the company fat down to the mar- 
 riage feall called yaixog. None 
 were admitted to table who had 
 not bathed and changed their 
 cloaths. The cloaths of the bride- 
 groom were all dyed ; the fame 
 may be obferved of the bride's 
 drefi. They wore garlands of aro* 
 matic herbs and flowers, or fueh 
 as were the moR fruitful j and ths 
 bridegroom's houfe was decorated 
 on this occafioB. A pellle was 
 tied to the door, and a heve was 
 carried by a girl. The bride alfo 
 carried an earthen vafe full of bar- 
 ley, called in Greek (^cuyil^ov. 
 
 Over the door cf the bridegroom's 
 houfe was this infcription Mw^-j 
 tiailu xauiOVj Let no evil enter here. 
 which mide Diogenes once obferve 
 that the maker had no right to go 
 in. At Atltens, during the nup-- 
 tial feaft, a boy went in with acorns 
 and a baCiet of loaves finging 
 
 quitted the bad, i found the bet- 
 ter," After the feafi, the ncv mar- 
 ried couple wereconducled into thef 
 KHfi^tov Cufict or marriage-chamber, 
 in which wss the J.ix,^; ua^ihcvt- 
 After they entered, according ta 
 G g 2 aa 
 
"iyTAH 
 
 MAR 
 
 an injunflion of Solon, the briic- 
 groom and bride eat a quince be- 
 twixt them. After they had en- 
 tered the nuptial - chamber, the 
 croaking of a raven might ieparate 
 ihem. The bride always waflied 
 her feet at leail with warm water. 
 After which, the bridegroom un- 
 lied and took off her girdle. After 
 they were got into bed, the youpg 
 people at the door began to ilioiu 
 i;nd fing andilamp vvith their tcet, 
 to prevent the voice of the bride 
 from being heard. The folem- 
 j^ity, fcafting. ^-c. lafted for feveral 
 day»; but the bride woi-c a veil 
 till the third day. 
 
 The Spartan marriages were a 
 fort of rape, for the woman was 
 clofe iliaved and dreiled in a man's 
 habit 'oy her female friends, and 
 left upon a mattrek ; then the 
 bridegroom entered in his common 
 cloath?, untied t'jc virgin' girdle, 
 apparently by farce, and took her 
 into his embraces. Having flayed 
 a ihoit time he again joined his 
 comrades, and never viiitcd her 
 afterwards, but bv Health ; and 
 often paid. her many vifus before 
 he favv the face of his wiie ; nay 
 the Sharians frequently had chil- 
 dren by their wives, before they 
 hnew their perfons. This kept 
 idive their love, and the difficulty 
 ofacccfs, continued the ardour oi 
 rheir pa-Sion. The laws ot Lycur- 
 gtts fuffcred neither fcx to marry 
 till they were.of full age, for fear 
 of wcnl;cning the Hate with a de- 
 generate offspring. 
 
 Among the B~07:ians there was 
 no particular age determined for 
 j,iarriac-e, but all efpoufals were to 
 I'C confummated by the nupti- 
 als within t^vo years. The man 
 always, at the time of entering 
 into contrail, fcnt a plain iron 
 ring to the woman, as a pledge of 
 afl'ccli'jn. Rcrnr.Ks were obliged to 
 
 marry Tliv:ans, or at leaft free de- 
 nizens of the city. A law of the 
 Dccem'viri- prohibited marriages 
 between the Patricians and Plebei- 
 ans, but this law gave fuch um- 
 brage to the Commons that it was 
 repealed \Vithin fevcn or eight 
 years, upon the motion o^ Carr.ii' 
 llus the tribune of the people.— 
 The co.hrids, ncnesy and Ides of 
 everv month, the whole time of 
 the fealt of Parentalla, and the 
 month of May, were looked upon 
 as unfortunate for the celebration 
 of marriages ; The molt happy 
 feafon for this folemnity was that 
 which followed the Ides of June.— 
 Marriage was contraded three ways 
 by the Ro7naJis, l . Ccnfarreattone'r 
 
 Coeviptl 
 
 Vfu. See Con- 
 
 farrcatlo, i5c. 
 
 The nuptial ceremonies always 
 began with taking ori:ens by the 
 azifpiccs. In dreffing out the bride, 
 they divided her locks with a fpear. 
 in the memory of the rape of the Sa- 
 bine virgins, or as an ojnen of bear- 
 ing a warlike oftspring, or in ho- 
 nour of Juno who prefidcd over 
 marriages, and to whom the fpear. 
 was facrcd. She was then crowned 
 vvith chaplets of flowers, and put 
 on the veil called Flammeiim, hence 
 the teiun Nuptla: from Kubo to mar- 
 ry, and that from Nubcs a cloud 
 or veil. Inftead of her ordinary 
 drefs fhe wore the Tunica re Era, 
 tied about with a girdle, which 
 tlie hulband was to unloofe. Thus- 
 prepared flie was led to the bride- 
 groom's houfe by three boys, ha- 
 bited in the pretext a, and whofe 
 uarents were all alive. Torches 
 were carried before her, for the 
 ceremony was performed in the 
 evening ; and a diftaff and fpindle. 
 were likewife carried along with- 
 her in memory of Caia, 'Tnrquiniu . 
 Prlfcus^s wife, and during the nup 
 tiai folemnitv the bride called her 
 
 fci: 
 
MAR 
 
 MAT 
 
 >L'lf Carr, as a fortunate name. — 
 Being arrived at the door fhe 
 bound the poils with bands ot 
 woo], and fmeared them with oil, 
 tallow, or the fat of a wolf, to 
 prevent forccry. The doors of the 
 houfe were on this occafion adorn- 
 ed with flowers and leaves. In 
 going in flie either jumped over 
 the thrcfliold, or was lifted over 
 it, without touching, becaufe it 
 was facred to l^ejla. Upon her 
 entrance her hufoand delivered to 
 her the keys of the houfc, and two 
 vclleh, one of fire and the other of 
 water. Then fhe and her compa- 
 nions were magniiicently treated 
 by the bridegroom, in which feait 
 the laws againfc luxury gave more 
 than ordinary latitude. This en- 
 tertainment was attended with the 
 mufic of flutes and other inftru- 
 ments, and the company ioined in 
 a fong called TalaJJ:o. See Ta- 
 li- J/io. 
 
 The bridegroom, during the 
 nuptial feltivitv, threw nuts about 
 the roo:n for the boys to fcramble 
 for ; indicating by this action that 
 he now threw away and laid dhde 
 his childifh amufements and diver- 
 iions, as he was entering on a fe- 
 lious and manly Hate of life. In 
 the mean time the genial bed was 
 prepared by a fet of old matrons 
 who had been married no more 
 than once : This done, the bride 
 was put to bed with much ceremo- 
 ny ; the bridegroom having hril 
 loofed the gordian knot upon her 
 girdle, by Vv hich her tii7:ic was faf- 
 tened round her wailt. A rude 
 rabble generally attended, who 
 were noiiy and riotous, and gave 
 a looft to their wanton ideas, by 
 linging obfcene and indelicate 
 fongs. The day after, the bride- 
 groom invited all his former com- 
 panions and old acquaintance to a 
 rich and mp.gnificer.t feAil, which 
 
 they termed Repotia. See Repotla. 
 
 For an account of the Roman 
 cuilcm of borrowing and lending 
 wives, and m.any other things re- 
 lating to the married ftate in ge- 
 neral ; fee BorrQ~j:iiig, Children, 
 ExpoJIngy Epitl.alamium, Efpoufah, 
 Daugbiers, Infants, Wi--ves, iffe. 
 
 Mask. See Perfona. 
 
 Massora, was a criticrd work 
 amongll the Jeivs, containing re- 
 marks on the verfes, words, letters 
 and vowel points of the Hebreiij 
 text of the bible, and ferving as an 
 hedge to protecl the law, from any 
 alterations : For it is to be obferved 
 that the facred books were origi- 
 nally written, without any breaks 
 or divifions into chapters, or verfes 
 or even words; the Jl-vs there- 
 fore found it neceflary to eftablifl> 
 a canon, to fix and afcertaln the 
 reading of the Hehre-M text; this 
 rale or canon they call Majfora or 
 tradition, in which are numbered 
 the verfes, letters, words, ice. and 
 the flightcfi variations are taken 
 notice of. The Jexdjh dodors or 
 Ruhbins vvho drew it up are culled 
 Mafforites. 
 
 Mastigophori, were certrdn 
 officers amongfl: the Greeks, who 
 were appointed to preferve the 
 peace, maintain due order, and 
 correal thediforderly at the Ol^npir 
 gamcs. They were alfo called 
 Rhakdophori, from bearing in their 
 hands a flick, as the badge of their 
 ofiice. They fometimes had the 
 name of j1 litre amongft the Eleavs^ 
 and their prclident was called Aly- 
 tarcha. 
 
 M A T R N a L I A , a RoTr.an fefti val 
 inftitutcd by Romulus, and cele- 
 brated on the caUvds of March, in 
 honour of Jl/i^rr. It was kept br 
 Matro?:s in puriicular, and bache- 
 lors were entirely excluded from 
 any fliare in the folemnity. The 
 men durirg this feaft, fent pre- 
 
 fents 
 
MAY 
 
 ME A 
 
 fents to the women, for which a 
 return was made by them at the 
 Saturnalia: And the women gave 
 the lame indulgence to their ler- 
 vants now, which the men gave to 
 theirs at the feaft of Saturn, ferving 
 them at table and treating them as 
 fuperiors, Hor. Od. Lib. 38. Ov. 
 Faji. 1.^.2^1. 
 
 Mausoleum is ufed as a ge- 
 neral defignation of any fuperb and 
 magnificent monument of thedead, 
 adorned with rich fculpture, and 
 infcribed with an epitaph; in a 
 more confined acceptation it figni- 
 fies the pompous monument, in 
 honour of fome Emperor, Prince, 
 or very illuftrious perfonage ; but 
 it properly and literally fignifies 
 that particular monument built by 
 jlrtetnifa, to the memory of her 
 hufband Maufolus, King of Caria, 
 •whence it derives its name. This 
 monument was fo fuperb that it 
 was reckoned one of the wonders 
 of the world, of fuch confequence 
 is duft and alhes! 
 
 May, the third month of Ro- 
 Tjiulus's year, but the fifth of the 
 year as reformed by Numa and Ju- 
 lius Cajar. It was under the pro- 
 tcftion oi Apollo. Though May has 
 beenefteemed a month particularly 
 favourable to love, yet the Romans 
 held it unfeafonable and unlucky 
 for the celebration of marriages. — 
 In this moath were held the fctti- 
 
 vals of the Bc?:a Dea, the Lemiiric-., 
 and the ceremony of the Regifugi- 
 um. See Lemuria, Regifugium. 
 
 Maza, ^mongft the Atheniansy 
 was a fort of cake made of flour 
 boiled with water and oil, and fct, 
 as the common fare, before fuch 
 as were entertained at the public 
 expence in the common hall or 
 prytaneiim. 
 
 Maza was alfo a coarfe kind of 
 food in ufe amongil tlie ancients, 
 and made of the meal of parched 
 barley, fprinkled with fome liquid, 
 and eaten with honey or defrutum. 
 Hippccrates advices the ufc of it in 
 fpring, as preferable on account of 
 its moiiture to common bread. 
 
 M A z o N o M u s was a large 
 wooden difli in v.'hich the ancients 
 ferved up the muxa. See Maza. 
 
 Meal-Time$. Sec Eati>!g. 
 
 Measure, is that by which any 
 thing is meafured, adjulled or pro- 
 portioned for the eafe, convenience 
 and regulation of trade and com- 
 merce. As different meafurcs muft 
 neceffarily prevail, in difierent na- 
 tions, as they are of an arbitrary 
 nature, without any univcrfal Ifan- 
 dard for diredlion , I fhall, for 
 the information of my readers, ex- 
 hibit tables of the fcripture mea- 
 fures, and thofe of the Greeh and 
 Romans reduced into EngHJb raea- 
 fures, according to Dr. Arbnthiiot , 
 
 ■'-vsi- 
 
 SCRIPTURE 
 
SCRIPTURE MEASURES of LENGTH, 
 
 In EngliJh Feet, Inches and Decimal Parts. 
 
 Digit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^Palm 
 
 
 
 
 "( ^ 
 
 Span 
 
 \ 
 
 Z4; 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 96, 3< 
 
 6 
 
 2 Fathom 
 
 — _'— _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I44| 3f 
 
 12 
 
 6 Ji 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ID* 
 
 4^' 
 
 16 
 
 8 2 
 
 1 1 Arab 
 
 19Z0 
 
 4SC 
 
 160 
 
 8a 2C 
 
 '3j 
 
 10 
 
 Sclecnusov mea. 
 turing line 
 
 F. In. Dee. 
 
 o o 91Z 
 
 o 3 64S 
 
 10 944 
 
 1 9 S8S 
 
 7 3 55* 
 
 10 II 32S 
 
 14 7 IC4 
 
 V 145 II 04 
 
 LONGER SCRIPTURE MEASURE, 
 
 In Er.glijh Miles, Paces, Feet. 
 
 Quhit 
 
 400 Stadi 
 
 urn 
 
 
 ■ 
 zcoo 5 
 
 ^lib Djys "Journey 
 ■iEjP.ern Mile 
 6, ^Parafaitg 
 48 24 8 1 Dafs 
 
 
 1 
 4000 IC 
 
 
 12000 3c 
 
 
 9§oco 240 
 ■••^ 
 
 Jourfiey 
 
 M. P. F. Pet. 
 
 o o I 824 
 
 o I4S 4 6 
 
 722 3 CX)0 
 
 1 403 X oca 
 4 153 3 °co 
 
 33 17* 4 «<>• 
 
 SCRIPTURE 
 
SCRIPTURE LIQUID MEASURE of CAPACITY, 
 
 Reduced to EngliJIi Wine Meafure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Call 
 
 P/«« 
 
 J«ci 
 
 .D^f. 
 
 Capb 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 
 
 177 
 
 I-: 
 
 Log 
 
 
 
 ^l 
 
 
 
 an 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-. 
 
 4 Cab 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 S44 
 
 i6 
 
 iz 
 
 3F;« 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 533 
 
 32 
 
 '4 
 
 6 2 ^eai> 
 
 _ J 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 C67 
 
 96 
 
 71 
 
 18 ( s 
 
 Sjf£> or Epha 
 tc Carcn cbcmer 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 <,6r 
 
 72 
 
 i8:|6: ic 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6^5 
 
 SCPaPTURE DRY MEASURE of CAPACITY, 
 
 Reduced to Enghjh Corn Meafure. 
 
 
 ai 
 Cab 
 
 
 PecksGalh, Pints. SoLInch. Dec, 
 of-^o 31 
 
 2| 075 
 
 St 
 
 I2C 
 
 6 
 
 
 h 
 
 5;^ 1 211 
 
 1 I 4 036 
 
 16c 
 
 iSoo 
 f 
 
 18 
 
 -\ \ 
 
 Epha 
 
 5 Leiech 
 — — 1 ChoKter 
 lie! 2] or Qrc;; 
 
 3 3 12 107 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 16 26 500 
 
 3600 
 
 180 
 
 .ioO'3c 
 
 ^ 32 I 18 969 
 
 GRECIAN 
 
•VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 0\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 N 
 
 M 
 
 h» 
 
 — 
 
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 *m 
 
 
 
 
 o_ 
 
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 _o\_ 
 
 -!»■ 
 
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 00 
 
 _Os. 
 
 N 
 
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 o_ 
 
 
 1" 
 
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 VO 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 t 
 
 hi 
 
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 V/1 
 
 -S^ 
 
 4^ 
 
 tn 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 ogl 
 
 
 
 o 
 
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 •+• 
 
 
 
 NlW 
 
 
 
 *-|w 
 
 
 b 
 
 ft-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 \o 
 
 
 
 
 
 h* 
 
 
 
 •H. 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 On 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 tJ 
 
 NH 
 
 **^ 
 
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 ••* 
 
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 '% 
 
 
 
 
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 _o_ 
 
 •^.M 
 
 VM 
 
 
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 ^. - 
 
 c ~ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
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 o 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
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 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 >• 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ?3 
 
 OS 
 
 -00 
 
 "eo 
 
 Z'^ 
 
 ►-NO 
 
 I^ 
 
 ^•A 
 
 ,^ 
 
 1- 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 \xi 
 
 -J^ 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 N 
 
 M 
 
 »« 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 D- 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 V>^^ 
 
 N<H 
 
 CCI-. 
 
 _ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 <-» 
 o 
 
 I" 
 
 4^ 
 00 
 
 CS 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
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 o .. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 C\ 
 
 Wiw 
 
 ■Mw 
 
 mT« 
 
 
 «* 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 »-< 
 
 -> 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 > 
 
 OS 
 
 o^ 
 
 
 
 M- 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 1' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 so 
 
 CO 
 
 -*• 
 
 „ 
 
 ^ 
 
 * 
 
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 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►^ 
 
 t-« 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 l^-t- 
 
 ^« 
 
 - J» 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 8 
 
 
 >.>« 
 
 M 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 ? 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z: 
 
 oo 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 &- 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 ; t ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 **! 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 00 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 — ^ 
 
 ;j^ ta, S- 
 
 let 
 
 « 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 : 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 .« 
 
 11 
 
 1 ( - 
 
 
 
 
 
 !3 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 « : 
 
 1 
 
 ' 1 
 
 .« 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 «i 
 
 » 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^8 
 
 
 m 
 
 o o o 
 
 Vt 4w 
 
 Ov »■ ■* 
 
 *. « c 
 
 o »^ 
 
 -<^ 
 
 O OS v>» 
 
 VO 
 
 
 IJl 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 (» 
 
 V/l 
 
 n 
 
 
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 so 
 
 a\ 
 
 M« 
 
 v^ 
 
 M 
 
 »4 
 
 oo 
 
 VJ 
 
 wn 
 
 o 
 
 -f^ 
 
 
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 4^ 
 
 sn 
 
 o\ 
 
 
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 oo 
 
 
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 +IH 
 
 i?o 
 
 »l>t 
 
 *>!-. 
 
 hH 
 
After exhibiting the table of Grecian long meafures it may 
 not be amifs to obferve that they were commonly taken from 
 the members of a human body, and in this the Creeks were 
 followed by the Romans. Thus AciKlvXogis a finger's breadth; 
 Au^cv a hands breadth or four fingers ; O^^^upov the length of 
 the hand, from the upper part to the extremity of the longeft 
 finger-, Xm^axY) the length of the hand extended between the 
 thumb and little finger-, ITsj the foot equal to four hands 
 breadth ; nr.x,vg from the elbow to the extremity of the fingers ;. 
 Tluyav from the elbow to the fecond joint of the fingers, or a 
 cubit, with the fingers inflefted; TluyiMn from the elbow, with 
 the fingers quite clafped; o§yuiK from the extremity of one 
 middle finger to the extremity of the other, the arms being ex- 
 tended. Thus in Latin we have Digitus^ PalmipeSf falmust, 
 PeSi Pafus, U/na, Cubitus^ ^c. 
 
a. 
 s 
 
 TOO 
 
 ■ - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^— «-, 
 
 ON 
 
 •^ 
 
 »^ 
 
 0\ 
 
 ■M 
 
 fc^ 
 
 
 
 
 -*«. 
 
 M 
 
 (■> 
 
 o 
 
 V^ 
 
 o 
 
 V/l 
 
 M 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 i__2__ 
 
 
 
 
 
 h>|t-l 
 
 M 
 
 -*- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ,^^ 
 
 U) 
 
 C\ 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 N 
 
 On 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 N 
 
 *■ 
 
 ; o- 
 
 _2_ 
 
 
 
 .•^J*?-- 
 
 
 .J^!':'- 
 
 'Mh 
 
 -3 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 »» 
 
 -t- 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 V^t 
 
 00 
 
 4^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3N 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 Jk 
 
 o\ 
 
 •p- 
 
 u 
 
 
 "~— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 •-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 M 
 
 4^ 
 
 fj 
 
 ta« 
 
 
 
 &i 
 
 
 
 _eio. 
 
 -4^ 
 
 -4^ 
 
 N 
 
 u> 
 
 M 
 
 
 ) . 
 
 • 
 
 C3\ 
 
 •Nj 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 - JT 
 
 -f"- 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 On 
 
 fJlw 
 
 
 
 
 
 v-n 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 •<! 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j5>. 
 
 00_ 
 
 00 
 
 •*^ 
 
 '^^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 
 ' 1 ' 
 
 -T 
 
 a. 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 N 
 
 M 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 -1 
 
 
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 ft. 
 
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 C5 
 
 M t)|M CBl 
 
 "m *>_ ■»»« 0» 1^1 "S 
 
 h4 
 
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ATriC DRY MEASURES of CAPACITY, 
 
 Reduced to Englijh CORN MEASURE, viz. Pecks, Gallon*, 
 Pints, Sol. Inches, and Decimals. 
 
 CochUarion » • 
 \oCyatbui - 
 ' 5i *i Oxyhapbon 
 6oi 6 \ /^'Cotyle 
 
 z\Xeftes 
 
 iSo! i8 i: 
 
 1 1 
 
 8640J 864! 576,1 1441 7243 I Med'mnot 
 
 Pecks Gals. Pints 
 000 
 
 Jttcb. 
 
 
 
 Dec- 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 763! 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 144^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 579 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 IS8 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
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 705! 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
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 w-i ^» w rj- 10 vo 
 
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 H 
 
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 Id 
 
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 0000 
 
 ^ o ,0 o ci 00 
 
 ft* 
 
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 f» 
 
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 rt 
 
 
 
 "^o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 
 
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 r*!^ 
 
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 vO 
 
 
 
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 60 
 
 
 
 
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 »^B*nft 
 
 
 
 m^^fm^ 
 
 
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 i. Mb 
 
 
 
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 3 
 
 
 ROMAN DRY MEASURES 0/ CAPACITY, 
 
 Reduced to £;;^//y^ Pecks, Gallons, Pints, folid Inches, and 
 
 Decimals. 
 
 lAgal'a 
 
 Cyatbu 
 
 384 
 
 96 
 
 Acetabulum • • 
 
 e\Hem'wa - • 
 
 81 z^Sextarius » 
 
 6416, i SemimoJius 
 
 I^8 74'i6! 2 I Afj<//«j 
 
 Ptcks. Gals. Pints- I". Dea 
 o o 04'g o 01 
 
 
 
 or^ 
 
 
 C4 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 g6 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 S4 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 68 
 
ME A 
 
 MEA 
 
 <?/Wm« fquare meafures were the ^fz?jii« fquare meafure v/as the 
 
 fhthron or acre, containing accord- jugernm, which, like the libra or 
 
 ing to fome, 1,444, °'' according as, they divided into twelve parts 
 
 toothers, io,oco fquare feet; and or u7iciee. Here follow the divifi- 
 
 Jroura, which was half of the ons of the j«_jf;-«//?, or acre, reduc- 
 
 pUphron. ed to Englijh meafure. 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 S^ 
 
 
 
 jugerutny 
 or 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 1-. ^ 
 
 Ai 
 
 28S00 
 
 288 
 
 2 
 
 iS 
 
 Deunx 
 
 26400 
 
 264 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Dextcns 
 
 24000 
 
 240 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Dcdrans 
 
 21600 
 
 216 
 
 
 34 
 
 Bes 
 Seplutix 
 
 19200 
 
 192 
 
 
 -5 
 
 i68co 
 
 168 
 
 
 17 
 
 Scriis 
 
 1 4400 
 
 144 
 
 
 9 
 
 ^i?lCU'/2X 
 
 12000 
 
 120 
 
 
 I 
 
 Tricns 
 
 I 9600 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 32! 
 
 ^adrans 
 
 72CO 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Sexta?!S 
 
 4800 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Uncia 
 
 j 2400 
 
 
 Q 
 
 8 
 
 Note, Ac7iis ?fiajor, 
 ■R-as 14,400 fquare feet, 
 equal to a yew/V — Clima 
 was 3600 fquare feet, 
 equal to fefcimcia ; and 
 aciiis minhtiHs was equal 
 to a fextans. Aihis is 
 the length of one furrow 
 or fo far as the plough 
 goes before It turns^ ia 
 length 120 feet. 
 
 Meats, An^ongft the Jcrv:s, 
 Several kinds of animals were for- 
 bidden to be uf'ed as food. The 
 flefh with the blood, and the blood 
 without the flefh were prohibited ; 
 the fat aifo of facrificed animals 
 was not to be eaten, Roaft meat, 
 boiled meat, and ragouts were in 
 ^le smongft the Hehreivs, but v/e 
 jneet with no kind of feafoning 
 except fair, bitter herbs, and ho° 
 ney. They never mingled milk in 
 any ragout on hafh, and never eat 
 at the iime meal both meat and 
 milk, butter or cheefe. The daily 
 provifion for SolofKons tzh]^ was 30 
 me.-ifures of fine wheat flour, 60 
 of common flour, 20 flails of czen, 
 20 pafture oxen, 100 fhecp, be- 
 iides vcnifon and wild-fowl. See 
 fjt(xury. 
 
 The principal and moll necef- 
 
 fary food among the ancient Greeks 
 was bread, which they called afoi;, 
 and produced in a wicker balket 
 called xav£cy. Their loaves were 
 fometimes baked under the afiies, 
 and fometimes in an oven. They 
 alfo ufed a fjrt of bread called 
 Maza. See Maza. 
 
 Barley meal was ufed amongfi: 
 the Greeks, which they called 
 a>.<Pilcv. They had a frequent difh 
 called 6f(Cy, which wa? a compofi- 
 tionofrice, cheefe, eggs, and ho- 
 ney, wrapped in fig-leaves. The 
 MtfTToj'iov was made of cheefe, gar- 
 lick and eggs, beaten and mixed 
 together. Their bread, and other 
 fubflitutes for bread, were baked 
 in the form of hollow plates, into 
 which they poured a fauce. Gar- 
 lick, onions and figs feem to have 
 been a very coramQi) food amongfl: 
 
 the 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 the poorer Athenians. The Greeks 
 efpecially in the heroical times, ate 
 ilefli roalted ; boiled meat feldom 
 was ufed. Filh i'ecms not to have 
 been ufed for food in the early ages 
 of Greece. The young people only, 
 amonglt the Lacedemonians, ate 
 animal food ; the men and the old 
 men were fupported by a black 
 foup called /itEXa ^v/jiOiy which to 
 people of other nations was always 
 a difagreeable mefs. Grafshoppers 
 and the extremities or tender ilioots 
 of trees, were freequently eaten by 
 the poor among the Greeks. Eels 
 dreifed with beet root was clleemcd 
 a delicate dilh, and they were fond 
 of the jowl and belly of falt-fifli.— 
 Neither were they without their 
 fweet-raeats. The defert confillcd 
 frequently of fruits, almonds, nuts, 
 figs, peaches, &;c. In every kind 
 of food we find fait to have been 
 ufed. 
 
 The diet af the firfl; Romans con- 
 Cfted wholly of milk, herbs, and 
 roots, which they cultivated and 
 dreifed with their own hands ; 
 they alfo had a kind of gruel or 
 coarfc grofs pap, compofed of meal 
 and boiling water ; this ferved for 
 bread : And when they began to 
 ufe bread, they had none for a great 
 while but of unmixed rye. Barley- 
 meal was eaten by them, which 
 they called Polenta. When they 
 began to eat animal food, it was 
 efteemed a piece of luxury, and an 
 indulgence not to bejuftified, but by 
 fame particular occafion. After 
 animal food had grown into com- 
 mon ufe, the meat which they moll 
 frequently produced upon their 
 tables was pork. How much the 
 Romans departed from their original 
 iimplicity of diet, in fucceeding 
 ages, will be found under the arti- 
 cle Luxury. See Luxury, 
 
 Medal, a fmall piece of metal 
 in form ©f a coin, i;itcnded to pre- 
 
 fer ve the memory of great events.. 
 Medals do not ferve merely to en- 
 gage the curiofity of the fcholar, 
 but are of great ufe in elucidating 
 hiilory, determining chronologic"! 
 difputes,and throwing clear lights 
 upon ancient iranfatlions. The 
 coins of the ancients were really- 
 different from their medals j but, 
 as the money of antiquity can no 
 longer pafs amon^il us, on account 
 of the fmall quantity that remains, 
 and of the difference in the valuj 
 of the geld and filvcr, fach coiiij 
 arc now become precious medals. 
 This is particularly the cafe with 
 refpeft to thofe of the /o'-xtv, there 
 being no medals amongll them ex- 
 cepting a ie.wjhekels of copper and 
 filver, and one of gold, rn the 
 King oi Denjnark^s cabinet. Egyp- 
 tian medals are the mojl ancient ; 
 and x.\\t Grecians h.?A beautiful mo- 
 ney in gold, filver and copper, be- 
 fore the building of Ron'c ; their 
 medals far excel all others in de- 
 fign, attitude, ftrength and delica- 
 cy. Thofe of the Romans are beau- 
 tiful, the engraving fine, the in- 
 vention fimplc, and the tafte e:5S- 
 quifitc. The medals of the R\~ 
 i',Vi7ffi are diltinguiihcd into confuiar 
 and iir.perral. The .ccvfalnr medals 
 are the moil: ancient, tho' the cop- 
 per and filver ones do not go far- 
 ther back than the 4S4th year of 
 Rome, and thofe of gold exJcnd not 
 beyond the year c;46. Among the 
 imperial medals, a diftiniftion is 
 made between thofe of the upper 
 and lower Empire. The firft com- 
 menced under JtcliHs Crfar, and 
 continued till A. D. 260: The 
 lower Empire includes a fpace ot 
 near 1200 yesrs, and ends witk 
 the taking o-f Ccvjlayitinople. 
 
 Medals were moll commonly- 
 formed of gold, filver and copper^ 
 but there are fome of iron, tin, and 
 even lead. Connoifiei-rs alio pre- 
 tend 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 tend that there are fomc of Coiin- 
 ihian brafs. On the copper me- 
 dals is found an antique ruft, re- 
 fcmbling a varnifh, which is of a 
 variable colour between green and 
 black : It prevents the rufl from 
 eating any further, ind is what the 
 moderns have not yet been able to 
 imitate. With regard to the me- 
 thods which the ancients made ufe 
 of, in forming or coining their 
 monies or medals, opinions differ 
 widely. Qttaiio Ligorio, an Italian 
 antiquary, imagines they drew the 
 defign on the medal flrft, and after- 
 v/ards graved it in relief. 
 
 The parts of a medal are the 
 two fides ; one of which is called 
 the face or head, and the other the 
 reverfe. On each fide is the field 
 or area^ which makes the middle 
 of the medal j the rim or border ; 
 and the exergum, which is that part 
 that is beneath the ground on 
 which the figures (land. On the 
 two fides they diftinguira the type 
 End infcription or legend. The 
 figures reprefented conllitute ';he 
 type. The infcription or legend is 
 the writing, and principally that 
 which is on the rim ; indeed we 
 frequently find in Greek medals, 
 and foraetimes in the Roinan, the 
 infcription upon the area or field : 
 That which is on the exergu7n is 
 lefs comrr:onIy the infcriDtion, as 
 confifting frcquendy of initial let- 
 ters only, the meaning of which is 
 not underllood. The reverie by 
 image , or fymbol? exhibited to 
 the fight of all forts of memorable 
 event?, exprelfiiig by corporeal 
 figu-esmor:u or ideal objecls. 
 
 The gieiitell: erudition is con- 
 tained in '.noie reverfes which con- 
 cern the Gods, divine worfhip, 
 facrifice.?, gamcb, plays, conquefts, 
 triu'Tiphf; office?, colonies, build- 
 ings. &;c. '1 ney were efi.eemed for 
 their antiquity, rcpatation of the 
 
 mailer, good prefervation, clean- 
 nefs and beauty, their fize, eru- 
 dition and rarity. Thofe are rare 
 which are of perfons of a fliort 
 reign, or of whom few were made. 
 There may alfo be fome rare me- 
 dals of a perfon of whom many 
 others are common. 
 
 The fingularity or fcarcenefs of 
 a medal forms its hypothetical va- 
 lue. Thus the Othom large cop- 
 per is fingular, and confequently 
 is almolt ineftimable. Again the 
 Pefcennius ISiger and Pertznax are 
 very rare in all metals, and there- 
 fore very valuable : And the Di- 
 dius Julianus is hardly found any 
 where but in large copper, fo that 
 in any other metal it will be worth 
 what the owner pleafes. Any re- 
 markable fingularities enhance the 
 value of a medal, as Capita jugata, 
 or two heads joined together. The 
 fcarcity either of the head, reverfe 
 or legend, conftitute the imaginary 
 worth, without the Icalt refpeft to 
 the intrinfic value. 
 
 Antiquarians arrange their me- 
 dals into feries or fets, according 
 to the different metals— that of 
 gold is the leail numerous, and 
 contains about 1200 imperials^* 
 that of filvcr contains about 3000 
 imperials, and that of copper of the 
 three leveral fizes, viz. the great, 
 the middle, and the fmall, confifts 
 of 6 or 7000 all imperial. A ca- 
 binet of medals properly arranged, 
 conltitutes a body of hiftory j and 
 certainly it was the belt way in the 
 v.'orld, to perpetuate the memory 
 of great aftions, to put every ex- 
 ploit to the mint, and coin out the 
 life of an Emperor. Medals form- 
 ed a fort of printed hiftory before 
 the art of printing, and have this 
 advantage over books, that they tell 
 their iiory quicker, and fum up a 
 whole volume in twenty or thirty 
 reveries. See Money. 
 
 Mediastini 
 
MEG 
 
 MER 
 
 Mediastini were certain' fer- 
 vants and attendants at the baths, 
 and in the temples of the Romans, 
 ib called becaufe medio Jlant, they 
 {land in the midft of the company, 
 v/aicing their commands, and ready 
 to execute them upon the flightell 
 notice. 
 
 Medicine. See Phf/ician. 
 
 DEDiMNUsor :r.sdimtium, a Gre- 
 cian mcafure of capacity, contain- 
 ing fix Roman tnodii or bufhels.-— 
 See Mcafure. 
 
 Meditrinalia, a Roman fef- 
 tival in honour of the Goddefs Me- 
 ciitrina, kept on the 30th of Sep- 
 tember. Both the deity and the 
 fellival were fo called a medendo, 
 becaufe on this day they began to 
 drink new wine mixed with old by 
 VJ^y oi medicine. The mixture of 
 v/ines, on this feftival, was drank 
 with much form and folemn cere- 
 mony. 
 
 Megalesia and megalenfes luJi, 
 werefeafts and ganies in honour of 
 Cybele or Rhea, the mother of the 
 Gods, kept on the 1 2th of April 
 by the Rovians, and famous for 
 great rejoicings and diverlions of 
 various forts. The Galli carried 
 the image of the Goddefs along 
 the city, with found of drums and 
 other mufic, in imitation of the 
 noife they made to prevent Saturn 
 from hearing the cries of his infant 
 Ion Jupiter, when he was difpofed 
 to devour him. 
 
 Megaric SeSi, called alfo the 
 e7-ijiic or contentious, from the afperl- 
 ty with which they treated all that 
 oppofed the opinions of Socrates, 
 ■whom they profefi'ed to follow. This 
 feft derived its appellation from£«- 
 f/iVofAffj-«ra, the founder. The5o- 
 craf/Vdoftrines were maintained and 
 defended by thefe philofophers with 
 great zeal, and logic made no incon- 
 liderable part of their ftudy. The 
 followers of Eudid w«r« Euhulidet, 
 
 Clincmc.chi'.s, Alexinus, Euphantcs, 
 Diodorus, Cronus, and Stilpo. For 
 a view of their principal tenets, fee 
 Socratic, Philufoph'f, i^c. 
 
 Mensarii, Reman officers, ap- 
 pointed to manage the public trea- 
 fury. There was not always the 
 fame number, fcmetimes three and 
 fometimes five were appointed. 
 
 Mens is. Sec Month. 
 
 Mensores, among the /?(7OTfl,7j, 
 were harbingers, whofe bufinefs it 
 was to go before the Etnpcror, and 
 fix upon lodgings for him when he 
 travelled into any of the provinces. 
 They alfo marked out encamp- 
 ments, and afiigned every regiment 
 its poll. 
 
 Men/ores were alfo land furvcy- 
 ors, architeds, or appraifers of 
 houfes and public buildings. The 
 diilributors of provifions in the 
 army were called tnenfores frumen- 
 tar.'i. And men/ores was alfo an 
 appellation given to fervants who 
 waited at table. 
 
 Merenda was an entertain- 
 ment, or rather refrcfhment about 
 the middle of the day, or fome 
 time before the aena or iupper. 
 See Cxna and Eating. 
 
 Mercy-Seat. See Propitia-^ 
 tory. 
 
 Mercatorum fejium, was a 
 feftival kept by the Roman mer- 
 chants on the 15th of May, in ho- 
 nour of Mercury, who prefided over 
 merchandile. A fow was facrificed 
 on the occaficn, and the people 
 prefent fprinkled themielves with 
 water fetched fromi the fountain 
 called j4qua Mercurii ; the whole 
 concluding with prayers to the God 
 for the profperity of trade. 
 
 Meretrix, among the ^owz<3;?i, 
 differed from the projlihula. The 
 projlihules were common courtezans 
 with bills over their doors, fig-ni- 
 lying their profeffion, and were- 
 Tcady at all times to entertain cuf.^ 
 I i lomcrs ^ 
 
ME5 
 
 MET 
 
 tomcrs ; whereas the meyelriccs en- 
 tercaincd none but at night. The 
 i.nerctnccs dlirered. in their drefs 
 irom the matrons ; the former wore 
 the toga and fhort tuf.-ics, like thole 
 <;f the men ; the latter wore the 
 j)^;/a and the_/?o/fi, of iuch a length 
 as to reach to their feet. See 
 Harlots. 
 
 MiiRiDiANi, the name given 
 to certain Gladiators, who after 
 having been expofcd in the morn' 
 5ng t3 right with wild beaiis-,againll 
 ••viiich they had combated with 
 fjccefs, were again, about noon, 
 obliged to kill one another for the 
 further entertainment of the people. 
 How barbarous was the tafte of the 
 Romans, who could find pleafurc 
 in fccncs of cruelty, and be di- 
 verted by the fight of murther ! 
 
 M::socKORi, were muficians 
 among the ancients, who prefided 
 5n concerts, and by beating a 
 wooden delk regularly with their 
 Icet, dlrefted the m.eafure of the 
 rnufic. For the purpofe of bear^ 
 ing time they wore wooden clogs, 
 called by the ancients criipczia, 
 whi^h occafioned tht found to be 
 tetter heard. 
 
 Mcl'iicb'jnis, among the Romans , 
 v.'as a perfcn appointed in public 
 f.ilcmblics to give the fignal for 
 licclamacion, that all might join in 
 it at the fame time. See Accla- 
 rr.aiicji, 
 
 MesoporpHyron, a name 
 given bv the Greeks to the Ro?;:an 
 Litkla-ve ; bccaufe that garment, 
 being edged on each fide where it 
 opened before, with purple, ap- 
 peared when clofed with two pur- 
 ple ftripcs down the middle. The 
 fame term was alfo applied to the 
 angujiicla-vc. See Lctkla^jc. 
 
 Messiah is a Hebrenx: word, 
 fignvfying anointed or facred, and 
 is in thai fenfe applied to Kings,- 
 priells and prophets, bccaufe it 
 
 v/as cuftomary to anoint IvingSj 
 high-priefls, and fometimes pro- 
 phets, when they entered upon 
 their offices. Bat this name is 
 given principally, and by way of 
 eminence, to that fovereign deli- 
 verer whom the Je-'js of old cx- 
 pefled,and do ftill exped; though 
 chrijiians, upon the flrongeil: rea- 
 fons believe that "Jefus Chrijl was 
 he ; For he came when the Mef- 
 fiah was generally expeded in 'Ju- 
 dca, and fulfilled tiie prophecies 
 as to the time and circumftanccs or 
 his birth, the place of his nativity, 
 and the manner of his life ; he was 
 anointed by the Ko'y Ghoit as 
 King, priell and prophet. As a 
 King he fubdued our fpiritual ene- 
 mies, and fat down on the right 
 hand of God, above all principa- 
 lities nnd powers: As a prieflhc 
 hath offered himfelf a facrifice for 
 lln, and made an atonement for 
 us : As a prophet he hath revealed 
 to us the whole will of God for our 
 falvation. He was acknowledged 
 by a voice from heaven, and aifert- 
 ed himfelf to be the MsJ/Juh, and 
 his affertions were Urcngthened by 
 miracles, which he performed in 
 the openefi mariner, before a cloud 
 of witneffes. His death was fuch 
 ar the prophets had foretold, and 
 his refurredicn and afcenlicn ara 
 the moil allonifhing and indubita- 
 ble proofs of his divine miflion.- 
 And to crown all, the powers of 
 working miracles, which he con- 
 ferred upon the church: and which 
 continued long after his departure, 
 afford the ftrongefl; tellimony that 
 he was the true Mcjfich. 
 
 Me PA in the Roman circm, wis 
 a pile of itones of a pyramidical 
 form intended ks a boundary of 
 the Jladium, or charict-courfc. — • 
 When the meta was palTed the 
 fcvenrh time, the race was con- 
 cluded.— The greateft art and 
 
 management 
 
M E T 
 
 M E Z 
 
 Ti-.anngcmcnt were reqiiired in 
 avoiding the tneta, and yet going 
 ss near i[ as poiFible. Iftliey went 
 too nejir, ihcy were in tlie 
 greatelt danger of breaking tiie 
 chariot to pieces ; and if they took 
 too large a circuit in the turn, 
 they gave their rivals an opportu- 
 nity of getting uithin them, be- 
 iide; loofing a great deal of ground,. 
 The boundary of the Grecian, 
 Jiadium or co\.\:[c, was called rzXo^f 
 ■Tff/^a, y^aixf.i.n and aK^a y^ocf^/zv, 
 to which lalt name Horace probably 
 alludes in calling death '■'■ultima 
 line a re yum." 
 
 The tnetic at Rame, were firfl of 
 wood, afterwards of Hone, but the 
 Emperor Claudius made them of 
 gold, or rather gilted them. In 
 the Roman circus there were two 
 7!23t^, one nigh the Carccres at the 
 entrance of the courfe, and the 
 other at the end of it. An egg was 
 placed upon the top of the mct.t. 
 See Stadium, Carceres, Circus. 
 
 M E T A G I T N I O N, thc fcCOnd 
 
 pnonth of thc atkenian year, anf- 
 wering to the latter part of our 
 July, and thc beginning of Auguil, 
 and fo called from 7netagiltiia, a 
 ieilival in honour of Apollo, which 
 v/as kept in it. The Brrotians 
 called this Ti\ovi.x\\ ^anevAiis, and the 
 Syr acn fens, c ami us. 
 
 Met ALL A. Set ad Metalla. 
 
 Metallici, was a name given 
 by thc Romans, to fuch wretches 
 as were condemned to the mines. 
 See ad Metalla. 
 
 Matator, among the Romans, 
 was a Quarter- Ma Iter. A Tri- 
 hune and lome Centurions, out of 
 every legion, went before the 
 army, in this capacity, to chufe 
 proper ground for a camp, and 
 affign and mark out quarters to 
 each legion. 
 
 Metempsvchosis, ^zzTra-f' 
 fii^ration. 
 
 MsTOECi, a name given by tns; 
 Atbciiians to iuch as had their fixed 
 habitations in y^'V//Vi7, tho' foreign- 
 ers by birth. The metefxi u ere ad- 
 mitted by tlie council of Arerpf' 
 gus, and entered in the public re- 
 giller. They differed both from the 
 m-ohilai and Hevcj, becaufe the po- 
 litcc or citizens wcrs freemen of 
 Athens, and the xcni or liranger?, 
 hid lodgings f>n!y for a fliorttime ; 
 whereas the mctceci, tho' not free- 
 men of Atlei:.', conftantly rcfidecl 
 upon the fpot w^hither they had 
 removed. 
 
 Metretes, z Grecian meafurc, 
 containing foincthing more than 
 nine Englijh gallons. See Mcafure. 
 Metroxomi, the name givei 
 by the Athenians to five oScers in 
 the city, and ten in the pir/eus, 
 whole duty it was to infpecl ail 
 forts of meafure, except thofc of 
 corn. The ///-^'w/ was the greatei'c 
 mart in Attica. 
 
 Mezuzoth, certain pieces o: 
 parchment which the Je^ivs rolled 
 up and put into a cafe of reeds o;- 
 other matter, writing at the end of 
 the cafe the word _/vW/:r/, which is 
 one of the names of God. This 
 parchment, _ thus prepared, thev 
 lixed to the doors of their houfes, 
 chambers, and other frequented 
 places ; they t^'ailened it alio to th.i 
 knockers of the doors on thc right 
 fide, and as often as they went in 
 or out, they touched it very cerc- 
 raonioufly with the tip of their 
 finger, which they immediately 
 kiffed out of devQtion. In the in- 
 fide of the parchment were written 
 with a particular kind of ink, and 
 in a fquare character the 4th, jih, 
 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th verfes of the 
 6th chapter of Deuteronomy. Then 
 they left a fniall fpacc and wrote 
 again from Deut. xi. 13. as far as 
 thefe words, *•' Thou fhalt write 
 them upon the door palls of thy 
 lis houfe 
 
MIC 
 
 MID 
 
 liouTe, &c." The mezhzoth was 
 niade according to a ccmmand or 
 Mofes iiteyally interpreted. See 
 Dcut. vi. 9. 
 
 MiCARE Digiiist is a phrafc 
 wiiicli expreffes the manner ct play- 
 ing a certain game of hazard and 
 conjecture, amongll the Romans, 
 in which two pcrions only were 
 cngrjged. The method was tliis: 
 Both had their right hands clench- 
 ed, and each, at the fame moment 
 I'uddenly extended as many fingers 
 as lie pleafcd, ac the fame inllant 
 pronouncing a certain number, by 
 way of guclling what the fingers of 
 both parties amounted to: If nei- 
 ther guelTed right, the procefs was 
 repeated, and when either was fo 
 fortunate as to guefs the number 
 which the extended fingers of both 
 produced, he fccred one ; and this 
 was repeated till the game was 
 finifhcd. The game ccnfilled of 
 any number, as parties agreed, 
 -which was counted by holding up 
 fo many fingers of the left hand as 
 correfpond with the numbers of 
 the game. If this game was play- 
 ed in the dark, it required a ilrong 
 piinciple ot honeify in the parties, 
 to declare their numbers with \e- 
 racity, hence Cicero expreffcs a 
 man of confummHtc integrity by 
 _faying he is one, quicum in temhris 
 mices, Cjf. iii. 19. This phrale 
 was proverbial, Erafm. Ad. p. 2/5.9. 
 This game is mentioned in Cic. di 
 Divin.u. 41. Augujl. de Trlnit. 
 and prdclifcJ in //'/7/v to this day, 
 under the name 01 Mora, frcm T'lo- 
 raii, an IJland near Venice, the in- 
 habitants of which, as alfo the Vc- 
 7'etiam, arc very expert in their 
 plav, though it is chiefly confined 
 to the lower ranks of the people. — 
 They were laid fnicare, bccaufe 
 their hands were fuddenly held 
 jout ; and their fingers extended as 
 ^q^uick as I'gh:. In Greek they ex- 
 
 prCiTcd it by KayOCavuVyOr tTTx^KaT' 
 TEiv rag canluT^Hg^ The Rcnjcinj uicd 
 to fettle littledifputes in their reck- 
 onings, and in m^arketing, micati- 
 otie, i. e. micando digitis, in the iame 
 manner as we fettle fmall differ- 
 ences by hiding .the horfe : Bat 
 gambling, micando digitis, arofe to 
 fuch a pitch at Rcme, that Aprom- 
 anus, \.\\& praft-aus tfrbis, thought 
 proper to forbid it by an ed:6l. 
 
 MiDV/iFE, one Vv'hofe profef- 
 fion it is todeliverwomcnin labour. 
 Women only performed this office 
 among the y^ifj, as delicacy feenii 
 to didate. But it is obfervable 
 that the ancient Athenians ufed 
 none but men-midwives, the laws 
 forbidding women and flaves to 
 have any concern with the ftady 
 or praftice of phyfic. This prov- 
 ing fatal to many vvom.en, whofe 
 modefty would not fubmit to tha 
 prevailing praclice, one Agnodice 
 difguifed herfelf in man's cloath;, 
 and attained, under Herophilus , a 
 complete flciJl in that neccfTary art. 
 She then revealed herfelf to her 
 own fex, who agreed to employ 
 none befules her. The fhsjlcians 
 were enraged, and indifted her at 
 the court of Areopagus, as a cor- 
 rupter of men's wives. By way of 
 defence againft this charge, file 
 difcovered Jier fex. They then 
 profecuted her for violating the 
 law which confined the pradice of 
 phyfic to the men only ; but to pre- 
 vent her ruin the principal matrons 
 of the city interfered, telling the 
 judges, that the perfon they were 
 going to condemn, was one to 
 whom they owed their lives, and 
 that by paiTing fentcnce upon her, 
 they would prove themfelves not 
 hufbands, but enemies. Upon this 
 the old law was repealed, and free 
 women permitted to undertake this 
 employment. The midwife flaye4 
 with the woman to whofe afTiftance 
 
MIM 
 
 MIN 
 
 fhe had been called, till the fifth 
 day. She then delivered the child 
 to the care of the nurfe, and gave 
 dircdiioiis about the mother, after 
 which (lie waihed her hands, and 
 was QiliniHed wiih prefents. Men- 
 •nidvvives were ufed at Rome for a 
 confiderable while, but delicacy 
 and decer.oy at lail prevailed, and 
 females wsrc preferred. A certain 
 avjinbcrof whom were permitted to 
 live in what part of the city they 
 pleafed. 
 
 MiLiARiuM, was the name of 
 a long, narrow veffel ufed by the 
 Romans in bathing, to heat water to 
 any degree required, in order to 
 give the neceffary warmth to the 
 relL 
 
 Mi LION. Mi?.i3v, a Grecian 
 ineafurc of length, equal to 805 
 pace?, 5 feet, Engltjh. See Mea- 
 Jure. 
 
 Military revmrds r.nd pinijh- 
 rients. See Rewards and Pwiijh- 
 tnents. 
 
 MiLLiARE or miU'uxrium, a Ro- 
 man mile, which confifled of 100 
 paces, inille pajfiis, hence the name, 
 ijee Meafure. 
 
 MiLLiARiuM aureum, was a 
 gilded pillar in lh.z forum of Rome, 
 at which all the highways of Italy 
 met, as one common centre. From 
 this pillar the miles were counted, 
 and at the end of every mile a ftone 
 ■was put down. The military co- 
 lumn was ereifled hy jiugujlus Qe- 
 far, and, as we are informed by 
 travellers, is ftill to be feen. 
 
 MiMi, in the ancient comedy, 
 were burioons or mimics, who en- 
 tertained the people by taking off 
 certain characters, ufing fuch gef- 
 tures as fuited the oerfons or fub- 
 jects they reprefented. There were 
 on the Roman ftage female per- 
 formers of this kind called mimee. 
 The word is derived from ^i\.ijki(i^9,i^ 
 J imitale. 
 
 Some of the mimi afled their 
 parts to the found of the tibia, thefe 
 they called mimaidi. 
 
 Mimi were alfo a kind of farce 
 or ludicrous comedy, generally 
 performed by one perfon. They 
 had no afts, nor any exordium.-— 
 The mimi were introduced upoa 
 the Roman ftage long after comedy 
 and tragedy had arrived at their 
 full perfection. The aclor wore 
 no mafk, but fmeared his face with 
 foot, was dreffed in lambfkin, wore 
 garlands of ivy, and carried a baf- 
 ket of flowers and herbs, in honour 
 of Bacchus, and diverted the audi- 
 ence with apifli tricks, and ridicu- 
 lous dances. This was the ftate of 
 the mimi foon after their firft in- 
 trodudion, but they underwent 
 many alterations which it would 
 take up too much room to relate, 
 and which were not of fufficient 
 importance to jullify a detailed ac- 
 count. See Pa7itQ)nimes, 
 
 MiNA, called alfo mna, was a 
 Grecian coin worth 100 drachind, 
 ox fomewhat more than three 
 pounds fterling. Sixty mina made 
 an Attic talent. See Money. 
 
 MiNEiiVAL, or miner'vale munus, 
 was a prefent made by pupils at 
 Rome, to their fchoalmafters, jull 
 before the feaft called quinquatria, 
 at which time they broke up, and 
 had a fhort recefs. The znincrval 
 feems to have been given, not as 
 any part of the mafter's wages, but 
 as a compliment or gratuity over 
 and above what was due : It was 
 fcmething like the cockpenny ia 
 the northern fchools amongft us, 
 dnd was fo called from Miner-ua';- 
 who prefided over the arts. See 
 Mi?ier<valia. 
 
 MiNERVALiA, feafts celebrated 
 by the Romans in honour of Miner- 
 va, for five days fucceliively, be- 
 ginning on the 19th of March.— 
 The firft day was ufually fpent in 
 prayer? 
 
M 1 S 
 
 MO L 
 
 .prayers to thegadJefs, and the vcfl 
 in facrifices, foews of cladiators, 
 the performa'nce of tragedies upon 
 joount Aiha7ms^ and the recital of 
 humorous compofitions, in which 
 the conaueror was complimented 
 with a prize. Scholars had then 
 a vacation, and carried to their 
 jnaflers the gratuity culled mi-ncr-val. 
 .See M!7ier-jal, ^.inquatria. 
 
 This fcftival was alfo called 
 quinque.tria' 
 
 MiNicuLATOR, amongft the 
 Romans, was a fervant who em- 
 bellifhed any writings with Imniu7n. 
 
 Pv'liNT. See Tythe. 
 
 MiSiiMA, were a certain kind 
 of largefles, thrown amongft the 
 Rana?! people, fuch as fmall coins 
 of gold or filver, fwcet-meats, &c. 
 Sometimes animals, as fheep, goats, 
 oxen, deer, he. were let loofe to 
 be caught and carried off by the 
 populace. SQQFe?mtIo Dirspclonis, 
 SjI'va, 
 
 Missio, among the Romc7is, was 
 a full diicharge given to a foldier 
 sfter twenty-years fervice, and dif- 
 iered from the exaufioratio, which 
 was 1 difcharge trom duty after fe- 
 venteen years fervice. Every fol- 
 dier had a right to claim his ttiK/io 
 at the end of twenty years. See 
 ExauBoratio. 
 
 Ivxissi alfo fignines a refcue fent 
 by the Emperor or perlbn who ex- 
 hibited the games, to a wounded 
 glailiatcr. Favourite gladiators 
 were refcucd cither by the people, 
 or by the vm72crayU, This favour 
 th;y ^\^\-\iiicd. pollice prejjo, with the 
 rhumb hid in the paliri of the hand. 
 By this means, the gladiator, how- 
 ever, was only iaved for the prc- 
 fe It. whereas the Rudis intitled 
 him to a fall difcharge. See Gla- 
 diator and Rudis. 
 
 iViissxjs, in the drccnj:an games, 
 were the matches in horfe or cha- 
 riot races. The ufual number of 
 
 niij/li: or matches in one day, way 
 twenty-four. Though the Emperor 
 Do77iitian prefented the people with 
 an hundred. The lait match was 
 generally made at the expence of 
 the people, who made a colleftion 
 for thepurpole; hence it was called 
 naj]us (trarius, a fubfcription plate. 
 
 Mite, a fmall piece of monev 
 mentioned Z,«A'^xii. 39. and xxi. 2. 
 In the Greek it is ^od'oavlyig i. e. ^ua- 
 drans, or a quarter of the Ro77:an 
 denarius ; {0 that the mite was worth 
 above feven farthings, or two-pence 
 of our money, ^zc Money. 
 
 MiTRA, was a cap or covering 
 for the head, worn by the Ro77ia7i 
 ladies, fometimes by the men, but 
 it v/as looked upon as a mark of 
 effeminacy inthem, efpccially when 
 it was tied upon their heads. It 
 differed little from the pileus, cu- 
 cullus, gale/'us And paliioliiTii. See 
 Fiieus, is'c. 
 
 MiTRA, or MiTfn> amongft the 
 Crccksy Vv'as a piece of defenfive 
 armour, made of brafs, lined with 
 wool, and worn next to the &in, 
 under the coat of mail. 
 
 MoDius, a Romaji dry meafure, 
 for all forts of grain, containing 
 '\zhe}tiii:ie or \6 fextarii, or i of 
 the a77iphora, amounting to an Eng- 
 liHi feck. See Meafure. 
 
 Modus, a term made ufe of in 
 ancient mufic, which is explained 
 under the article Mi'f.c. 
 
 MoL A /al/a, was barley parched, 
 and afterwards ground to meal or 
 flour, then mixed with fait and 
 frankincenfe, with the addition or 
 a little water. Thus prepared it 
 was fprinkled between the horns 
 of the victim, before it was killed 
 in facrifice. This aft was called 
 i7:'!7Kolatio, and was common to the 
 Greeks as well as Ro7na7is, with this 
 difference that the mola of the Ro- 
 ma72s was of wheat. The Greeks 
 called it 8>v»] or «Xo%i/7>i, See ///;-. 
 molatio, and Sacrifice, 
 
iVION 
 
 MO N 
 
 ^.Tolvedoma::cv, was a fpccies 
 of divination, inwFiich the ancients 
 drew conjcclures concerning future 
 events from the motions, figures, 
 and various phenomena of melted 
 lead: as if the Gods took delight in 
 giving intimations of their will, by 
 lymbols and enigmas. 
 
 MoNERES, amongll the Greeks 
 and Roman:, was a galley with only 
 one row or bank of oars. See Ships. 
 MoNETARii, were oflicers of the 
 mint amongrt the Romans, who 
 preiidcd over the management of 
 the metal and llamping the c^in. 
 Sec Money, 
 
 Money is the medium by which 
 the great machine of trade is car- 
 ried on with esfe and convenience. 
 In the moil ancient times, it is 
 certain, all commerce was manag- 
 ed bv way of barter. There was 
 ■ahvavs a nccefiitv, however, for a 
 fort of common meafure, by which 
 toeHimatethe value of commodities. 
 The firlt inh;ibi cants of the earth 
 TVerc almoil all i'nepherds and huf- 
 bandmen : They therefore made 
 that common meafure to confiit of 
 a certain portion of their flocks, 
 which was conlidercd tanqua/n pre- 
 tiu.'K eminens: and any commodity 
 was faid to be wortlifo many flieep, 
 oxen, &c. It was afterwards found 
 more expedient to exprefs the va- 
 lue of moit commodities bv bits of 
 leather, which by their marks 
 iTiewed the number of beads they 
 were worth. This was the firlt 
 money and the origin of all coins. 
 The Jeivs, and indeed all other 
 nations, originally, paid their mo- 
 ney by weight for a longtime after 
 they had begun to ufe metals with 
 •that intention. The invention of 
 money is attributed, by different 
 writers, or difFerent pjerfons, and 
 even different rations. 'Jofephus 
 afcribes this honour to Cainy and 
 
 Hcroc\o!uj to the Lydiojis : Fhularch 
 fays that Tlefcus coined pieces of 
 iilver weighing two drachmie, with 
 an ox on one iide, and an owl or 
 Jupiter upon the other. The mo- 
 ney in Reloponnefus was ilamped 
 with a tOrtoife. The Cizycemcn 
 money had the Goddefs Cybek o\\ 
 one fide, and a Lion on the other. 
 Lycurgus, to exclude avarice, lux- 
 ury, and all the train of vices at- 
 tendant upon riches, prohibited the 
 ufe ot any but iron moncv. Nu?na 
 Fompilius cauicdmonev to be made 
 of wood and leather, but, finding 
 metals to be the moll durable, he 
 brought into nfe bits of rough cop- 
 per called ees rude, and reckoned 
 them by their weight. From iV,m'« 
 money derives its Latin name nuni- 
 mus. This copper moiiey was af- 
 terwards marked with figures, in- 
 dicating its weight, and lallly with 
 images of animals, efpecially oxen, 
 and iwine, hence it was called pc- 
 cimia from pecus, cattle. Silver 
 money was not ufed at Rome till 
 the 4S5th year after the building 
 of the city — and gold was firlt 
 coined in the year 546, during the 
 confulfhip of AVs, and Saiinator. 
 "Julius Cafar was the firll whofe 
 head was itampcd upon money, by 
 order of l\izSei:atc. The firll coi ncd 
 money regularly minted, and pro- 
 perly fo called amongil the Je-c:s, 
 was in the time of Judas Macca- 
 b^us, who had leave given him bv 
 Antiochus Sidetes, to coin monev of 
 his own in Judea. — Payments, be- 
 fore this, had aUvays been made 
 by weight, hence the corrcfpon- 
 dcncc between the names of their 
 fums and the names of their 
 weights. The Englijh word mo- 
 ney is derived from the Latin mo- 
 neta — which was a name given to 
 money by the Romans, becaufe they 
 kept their fiver mcney in the tem- 
 ple 
 
M O N M O N 
 
 pleofya»o Moneta. I (hall con- with their value in Englijh monzy , 
 
 elude this article with the tables of according to Dr. Arhuthnot' s cal- 
 
 HehreiUy Grecian, and Roman coins, culation. 
 
 JewifJj Coins with their Value in Engll/Jj 
 
 Money. 
 
 Gerah • 
 
 10 \Behah - 
 
 z\Shekel ' 
 
 lOOO lOO 
 
 ^oManeh or Mina Htbraica 
 
 60000 6000 
 
 3000 60 \ Talent 
 
 SoUdus Aureus, or Sex tula, worth 
 
 Siclus Aureus, worth . 
 
 A Taler.i of Gold worth — 
 
 /. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 <9 
 '16 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 lil 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3h 
 
 ' 5 
 
 H 
 
 oi 
 
 342 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 oi 
 
 I 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 5475 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Grecian 
 
a-. 
 
 i-O 
 
 
 •..-. 
 
 Nl 
 
 •" 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 -f" 
 
 --J 
 
 J> 
 
 N 
 
 
 -/n 
 
 1 N 
 
 — 
 
 
 o 
 
 4^ 
 
 N 
 
 _Cs 
 
 _-f',_ 
 
 _N>_ 
 
 CN 
 
 » OC 
 
 .±_ 
 
 ^J 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 •-• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?> 
 
 -f^ 
 
 vO 
 
 V3 
 
 -^ 
 
 IjJ 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 N) 
 
 
 
 '-> 
 
 i-T 
 
 OO 
 
 4.. 
 
 
 ;;^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 vC 
 
 -*i. 
 
 N 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 ■-> 
 
 
 O 
 
 r- 
 
 oc 
 
 -^ 
 
 ON 
 
 ?' 
 
 -(>- 
 
 M 
 
 - a 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 ' ' ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 •■*>■ 
 
 1 
 
 t. I 3= 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 .. 1 
 
 •.^wl 
 
 .;^ 
 
 IJl 
 
 j^ 
 
 1 . 1 
 
 b 
 
 2 
 
 
 " 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 a 
 •^ 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 s^ 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 Si 
 
 is- 
 
 <:) 
 
 
 
 1 • 
 
 ■^ 
 
 »>, 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 t) 
 
 fit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 
 <>< 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 
 « 
 
 1 
 
 *=» 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?D 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 an 
 
 
 Q 
 
 O Co 
 
 MVJOi-OV^ N*- O'O O O 
 
 b 
 
 Wl.> "H CJ,„ ^^. ^ +,^ ^ 
 
 
 I • 
 
 En 
 
 v-*" 
 ^ 
 
 ta 
 
 r>3 J J \: I 
 
 i: \ I 
 
 "S- 
 ?> 
 
 ooocooooooo 
 
 
 K k 
 
MON 
 
 MON 
 
 Of the above coins, the drachma, 
 d'ulrachmon, tetradrachaion or Jlater 
 and the pentadrachmon\strc of iilvcr, 
 the reft for the moft part of brafs. 
 The Grecian gold coins were the 
 Jlater aureus, worth twenty-five 
 attic drachms of filver ; the Jialer 
 
 cyxicenus, jlater fhilippicus, and 
 Jlater ' alexandriiius, worth twenty 
 eight drachms, and ihtjlater daricus^ 
 according to Jojephus, worth fifty 
 attic drachms, and the Jlater cracius 
 of the fame value. 
 
 Roman Coins, with their Value in EngUJh Money. 
 
 Terunciui 
 
 zSemilihella 
 
 4' i'Lihella or As 
 
 — • 
 
 ' I 0utnarius I 
 
 2010' 5 2>^„ . ^ > 
 
 1 ^ ViSioriatus J 
 
 40 20 10 4 2 I Denarius 
 
 Of the Roman coins the denari- 
 us, 'vicloriatus, Jejlertius, and fome- 
 times the as were of filver; the reft 
 were of brafs. 
 
 The Roman gold coin, was the 
 Mureus, which generally weighed 
 double the denarius. The value of 
 it, according to the firft propor- 
 tion of coinage mentioned by Plir.y 
 was ... - ^.i 4 0,1 
 According to our ?. , q „ 
 proportion. J ' 
 
 According to the do- ^ 
 
 cuple proportion 1 
 
 mentioned by Z.7- > o 12 li 
 
 I'y, and Julius \ 
 
 Pollux - - ^ 
 According to the. 
 
 proportion men- 
 tioned by Tacitus, 
 
 which afterwards 
 
 prevailed. 
 
 The evrcus, according to this 
 
 \ 
 
 16 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 ?• 
 
 
 
 
 
 o,V^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3/^ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3i 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3l 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 laft value, was ufually exchanged 
 for twenty-five denarii. 
 
 The reader will pleafe to obferve 
 that in all thefe tables of ancient 
 coins, filver is reckoned at five 
 fhillings, and gold at four pounds 
 the ounce. An accoilnt will be 
 found of each piece under their 
 diftincl heads. 
 
 MoNOCHORDUM, was an in- 
 ftrumeni made ufe of by the ancient 
 muficians to try the variety and 
 proportion of mufical founds. It 
 confifted of a rule, divided and 
 fubdividcd into many parts, and a 
 Itring pretty well ftretched at the 
 end of it, over two bridges, hav- 
 ing a moveable bridge in the mid- 
 dle, by means of which, in the 
 application of it to different divifi- 
 ons of the line, the founds were 
 found to have the fame proportion 
 tQ one another as the divifions cut 
 
 bv 
 
MO N 
 
 MON 
 
 by the bridge had. Pythagoras is 
 faid to have been the inventor of it. 
 
 MoNOPKAGi, perfons who ce- 
 lebrated the j^givean feflival, fo 
 called becaufe they eat together 
 w-ithout fervants to wait upon 
 tiiem, none but denizens of the 
 ifland being allowed to attend. 
 
 Monster, any animal praster- 
 naturally formed. The appearance 
 of any monfter was looked upon, 
 both by the Greeks and Rotnans, as 
 portending fome difafterous event. 
 If a woman brought forth a child 
 whofe limbs were diftorted, or in 
 which there was either a deficiency 
 or redundancy of parts, or whofe 
 cries did not refemble the human 
 voice, it was, according to the 
 Jaws of i?o»7«/«j, and of the twelve 
 tables, to be deftroyed. But the 
 tendernefs of mothers, and huma- 
 nity of thoie who attended at the 
 birch, prevented the too rigorous 
 execution of them. 
 
 Month, in its proper accepta- 
 tion, is that fpace of time which 
 the moon takes up, in pafling from 
 any certain point in the fame again, 
 which is called a periodical month. 
 
 Order of the facred Year. 
 Nifan anl waring to our March 
 
 Jiar 
 
 Si'van — 
 
 Thamniuz 
 
 Ab — 
 
 Elul 
 
 Tifri — 
 
 Marche^an 
 
 Cajleu 
 
 10 T fie bet 
 
 11 Sebat 
 
 12 Adar 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Auguft 
 September 
 Oaober 
 November 
 December 
 January 
 February 
 
 Thefe months, being lunar, can- 
 not exaftly anfwer to our folar 
 months ; but every 'Jei^ijh month 
 jnull be conceived to anfwer to 
 two of Gurs, and partake of both, 
 as thefe twelve lunar mgnths Con- 
 
 or it is the fpace of lime between 
 two junctions of the moon with 
 the fun, which is chilled a fynodi- 
 cal month. That fpace of time 
 which the fun takes up, in pafling 
 through one- fign or twelfth part of 
 the zodiac, is alfo called (but im- 
 properly) a month. So that there 
 are two forts of months, Imtar 
 which are meafured by the moon, 
 iXii. folar which are meafured by the 
 fun. The lunar periodical month 
 confifts of 27 days, 7 hours, 43 mi- 
 nutes, 5 feconds. The lunar fyno- 
 dical month is 29 days, 12 hours, 
 44 minutes, 3 feconds, and 1 1 
 thirds. A folar month contains, 
 upon a mean calculation, 30 day?, 
 10 hours, 29 minutes, 5 feconds. 
 
 The fevjSy Greeks, and Ron:ans, 
 made ufe of lunar fvKodical months i 
 but, to avoid fraflions, they con^ 
 fifted alternately of 29 and 30 days. 
 The former, the Remans called. 
 ca'vi, and the Greeks, x,Oi>^oi. ; the 
 latter were tenntd pleni and TThvPEic, 
 The Heire-vv months were ranged 
 difierently in their facred and 
 civil year. 
 
 Order of the ci'vil Tear. 
 I 7V/rzanfwering to our September 
 
 2 MarfcJu'van — 
 
 3 Cafeu 
 
 4 Thebet 
 
 5 Sebat 
 
 6 Adar 
 
 7 Nifon 
 
 8 Jiar 
 
 9 Sipan 
 
 10 Thajnmwx 
 
 11 Ab 
 
 12 Elul 
 
 Oftober 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 Tune 
 
 "luiy 
 
 fifled only of 354 days, the Jews, 
 in order to bring it nearer to the 
 true year, took care every three 
 years to intercalate a thirteenth 
 month into the number, which. 
 they call -ve-adar, or the fecond 
 K k 2 ade*^ 
 
M ON 
 
 MON 
 
 adar. The new moon was always 
 the beginning of the month, and 
 k is iald the Ja^jjs had people poll- 
 ed on elevated places, to give 
 notice to the Sanhedrim as foon as 
 Ihc made her appearance : After 
 this, proclamation was made by 
 ibund of trumpet, and " the feall 
 " of the new moon, the feall of 
 " the new moon," refounded a- 
 m<M)gil the people. 
 
 The ancient Hehrenv months 
 v;ere of thirty days each, excepting 
 the lall, which confilled of 35, fo 
 that the year contained 365. days, 
 with an intercalary month at the 
 did of I 20 years, which, by ab- 
 loibiii? the odd hoars which re- 
 
 mained at the conclufion of eacli 
 year, brought it back nearly to its 
 proper place. This regulation cf 
 the year was borrowed from the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 The mcvths of the Athenian year, 
 as we have before obferved, con- 
 lifted alternately of 29 and 30 days. 
 The firll month, according to 
 Metons reformation of the calendar, 
 began with the firll new moon after 
 the fummer folllicc, and Vv^as called 
 hecat07nbfEon, anf'Aering to the latter 
 half of June, and the former half 
 oi Jiily. The order of the months, 
 with the number of days in eachj 
 are as follow : 
 
 1 Keca!omliton, 30 I 4 AlicmaF.enon, 29 
 
 2 Metagihuor:, 29 I 5 Panepfi.n, 30 
 
 3 Bzednmeon, 30 J 6 Antl.cflcn'.r-, 29 
 
 E?.ch month was divided into 
 tiirce decads of days called Jfp^ry.E^^. 
 Thenrft was called M/ivcj ac'x^ojxv.H 
 -•'r ira/^Eva, or the dccad cf the be- 
 ginning of the m.onth, the fccond 
 was M-^voj iMBO-dvlog or the decad of 
 the middle, and the third was 
 r-.lA''''OJ"pS!y:7loj,'rayO(W£vs or Mycilcsj 
 the dccad of the expiring month. 
 
 The hrfc day of the firll dccad 
 v.'as termed Ncc/Anwa, becaufe the 
 'iirll month began with the new- 
 inoon ; the fccond day v/as hJle^a 
 icccfXEVHf the third t^i7)j icafj-c-.a^ 
 &CC. The firll day of the fecond 
 decad v/as tt^jjIm fJ-icrHflo^, the 
 ieconJ ^iJls^a /ji.£(Tiivlsij &c. — 
 ihe days of this dtcad were alfo 
 called TT^oily] E5n osna, ^ai/ls^a svri 
 ^mUi &C. The lirlt day of the 
 third decad was 7rfaj7>j ett' fixc:^;, 
 the fecond was ^sulsca stt' stkocOit 
 tvc. i. e. the Hrft, fecond, &c. after 
 twenty, bscaufc the lail decad be- 
 -gan on the 20th day. This decad 
 vvas alfo counted by Jnvcrli?n, thus. 
 
 7 Pof,deon, 33 
 
 8 Gamelioiif 29 
 
 9 Elaphcboiior., 3c 
 
 1 1 Tbarge/lorr, 30 
 
 12 Scirro^herion, 29 
 
 (poi'jcvlog hhat-ny the 2 1 ft. ^?(;'oy7«J 
 Evjcilr, the 22d. (pSii'o-Jlci oy^on the 
 23d. and fo of the reft to the lail 
 day ol the month, which vvas called 
 Evv] xai v£a, the old and the new, 
 becaufe one part of that day be- 
 longed to the eld, and the other to 
 the new moon ; but after the lime 
 of Demetrius, the laft day of the 
 month was called from him 
 Ariix-iflnx;; it fometimes was named 
 
 The Grecian months, thus con- 
 fifting ol 29 and 30 da\s alternate- 
 ly, fell ihort of the folar year 1 1 
 days, 6 hours. To remedy this 
 deled the cycle of four years, 
 called TiyaHn^'.;^ was invented. — 
 In this cvcle, after the hrft two 
 years, they added an intercalated 
 m.onth called f,acC^i;UOc, coniiiling 
 of 22 days ; and again, after the 
 expiration of two years more, they 
 inferted another month of 23 days, 
 the fourth part of a day having in 
 the fpaceoffour years, amoimred 
 to a whole day. See l^ear. 
 
MON 
 
 MON 
 
 The R:77ir.n year, under RcmU' 
 his, coniifted of ten months only, 
 and began with March, which con- 
 tained 31 days, then followed 
 .-4^i/v7 which had 30, May 31, Jnne 
 30, ^intilis 31, Sextilis 30, Sep- 
 tember 30, Ociober 31, ho-ver.iher 
 10,Dcce}i;ber 30. Thcfe ten months 
 containing no more than 304 days, 
 this account was in a fnort time 
 found to be deficient. Nmr.aPcKi- 
 ■piiius, therefore, took away one 
 day from each of thefe fix months, 
 y^pril, June, Sextilis, September^ 
 No"jemher, December, to the fix days 
 thus obtained he added 51, which 
 was the num.ber thziRcmulus's year, 
 in his opinion, wanted to make it 
 perfect. Numa had now 57 days 
 to difpofe cf, he therefore divided 
 them, and conllitutcd two other 
 months, 'Januo.ry and February, the 
 former ccnfifting of 29, and the 
 latter of 28 days. The month of 
 January, which he placed at the 
 winter folllicc, he made inftead of 
 March to begin the year. Thus 
 Kumas year confiitcd of 355 days, 
 but this being found 11 days, fix 
 hours ftiort of the folar year, he 
 made ufe of the intercalation cf 50 
 days at the expiration of eight years 
 perpetually, which number, being 
 made up of the 1 1 days and a quar- 
 ter, kept the year pretty well to its 
 place. The beginning of the year 
 in yuli us Cr^/ar'stime, had antici- 
 pated its true place 6y whole days : 
 thefe he intercalated betwixt Nc- 
 'vember and Dece:?:bcr: fo that the 
 year ccnfilled, for this one time, of 
 
 15 months or 445 days. This re- 
 formation was called the Julian ccr- 
 rcfiicn, and this year the year of 
 confuficn. At the end of 12 vcars, 
 by the ignorance of priells, who 
 did not underiland intercalation, 
 tvvelve days had been intercalated 
 for nine. This was obl'ervcd by 
 Auguflus Cafar, and reftificd, br 
 ordering 12 years to pafs, without 
 any intercalary days. The order 
 and fuccciTion cf months was the 
 fame as that oC A'uma: But Janu- 
 ary, March, Blay, i^intilis, Sexti- 
 lis, Odobcr and December, had each 
 31 A^ys. April,Ju7ie, September t^o, 
 r.'nd February, in common vears, 
 28 ; but every fourth year or bijfcx- 
 tile 29. This, with a very little 
 difference, is the account cbfervcd. 
 at present, ^intilis, in compli- 
 ment to Julius CtT/'ar, was called 
 July, bccaufe in this month he was 
 born, and Sextilis, in honour of 
 Jupuf.us, was called AuguJ}, botli 
 which names are i'till continued. — . 
 See Year, 
 
 Each month by the Rjmans was 
 divided into calends, Jiones ■and ides , 
 all of which were reckoned back- 
 wards. The calends were the firll 
 day of the month. The nones fell 
 on the fcventh, and the idcs on the 
 fi.^tcenth of March, May, July, Oc- 
 tober — but in all other months the 
 nones vjete on the 5th, and the ides 
 on the 13th. Fcr the more e2.{y 
 comprehenncn of the Reman man- 
 ner of dating, according to this di- 
 vifion of the months, here follows 
 a table. 
 
 March 
 
MOO 
 
 MOO 
 
 
 Marc/^ 
 
 
 April 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 January 
 
 June 
 
 February 
 
 
 July 
 
 Auguft 
 
 September 
 
 
 
 amber 
 
 December 
 
 November 
 
 
 1 
 
 Kalevdce 
 
 Kalenda 
 
 Kalendee 
 
 Kalendts 
 
 2 
 
 6 . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 . 
 
 3 . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Nona 
 
 Nona 
 
 Non/e 
 
 6 
 
 PriMe Nonas 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 Ncfue 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 • 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 lO 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 . 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 Pridie Idus 
 
 i'nW;^ /i«j 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 Lhis 
 
 Idus 
 
 /d'^j 
 
 H 
 
 Pridie Idas 
 
 ^9 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 Bus 
 
 18 
 
 J? 
 
 >5 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 H 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 »3 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 '4 
 
 12 
 
 ^9 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 '3 
 
 II 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 1 1 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Pr/^/> Kalendas 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 , 1 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Pridie Kalendas 
 
 
 31 
 
 Pridie Kalendas 
 
 Pridie Kalt'f:das 
 
 '■ 
 
 
 N. B. Every leap-year, February confifting of 29 days, the 24th 
 and 25th of that month are wnncxifexto Kal. Mart, hence leap 
 year is called Biffextilis. 
 
 Monument differs from a fc- 
 pulchre — for the fepulchre is the 
 grave cr receptacle of the afhcs or 
 the corpfc of the dead , whereas a 
 monument is feme building or e- 
 rtclibn defigncd to preferve the 
 memory of the dece?.fcd. See 5^- 
 pidcbre. 
 
 Moon was more regarded hy the 
 
 Hebrews than the fun, and they 
 were more inclined to worfhip her 
 as a deity. The new moons or 
 firit days of every month, were 
 kept as feilivals amongll them, 
 which were celebrated with found 
 of trumpets, entertainments, and 
 facriiice. See Numb, xxviii. 1 1, 
 X. CO I.. Sam. XX. 5. — 18. People 
 
 were. 
 
MOR 
 
 MO U 
 
 were not obliged on thefe days to 
 rert. The ieaih of new moons 
 were a miniature reprefentation of 
 the fealt of trumpets, which was 
 licld on the firft of the month Tifri, 
 which was the beginning of the 
 ci'vil year. See Fea/i and Trumpets. 
 The y^ Tfj not being acquainted 
 with tiie phyfical cauie of eclipfcs, 
 looked upon them, whether of fun 
 or moon, as figns of the divine dif- 
 pleafurc. See Eclipfe. 
 
 The Grecians looked upon the 
 moon as favourable to marriage, 
 and the full moons or the times of 
 conjundlion of fun and moon, were 
 held the moft lucky feafons for ce- 
 lebrating marriages; becaufe they 
 imagined the moon to have great 
 influence over generation. The 
 full moon was held favourable for 
 any undertakings by the Spartans: 
 And no motive could induce them 
 to enter upon an expedition, march 
 an army, or attack an enemy till 
 the full of the moon. The moon 
 was fuppofed both by Greeks and 
 RoKa?2s, to prefide over child- 
 birth. 
 
 The Patricians at Rome wore a 
 crefcent on their fiioes, to diftin- 
 guifh them from the other ordersof 
 men. This crefcent was called 
 Lunula. Some fay it was of ivory, 
 others that it was worked upon the 
 fhoe, and others that it was only a 
 particular kind o^ fibula or buckle. 
 See Calcei Lunaii. 
 
 Morbus comitialis, a namcgiven 
 to the Epilepfy: becaufe, if on any 
 day when the people were aflem- 
 bled in comitia, upon public bufi- 
 nefs, any pcrfon fuddenly feized 
 with thisdiforder, fhould fall down 
 — the alTembly was difrolved, and 
 the bufmefs of the comilia, how- 
 ever important, was fufpended. — 
 See Comitia and La-iv. 
 
 MoRPHASMus, a kind of dance 
 among the ancients, wherein, by 
 
 a great many figures and poftures 
 they imitated the metaKorphofes of 
 Proteus, 
 
 MoRRHiN A i;<7/27, were a fort of 
 cups or vafes, made ufe of by the 
 ancients lor drinking out of, and 
 other purpofes Authors are not 
 agreed as to the fubllance of which 
 they were made. Some fay it was 
 a ilone, fome afTert that it was a 
 fluid condenfed by being buried 
 under ground. All that we know 
 concerning it is, that it was known 
 by the name of murrha, and that 
 Heliognbalus^ scVd.wva^iX'^ox. was made 
 of it. The word is fomecimes writ- 
 ten myrrhina. 
 
 Mountains, among the anci- 
 ents were looked upon as facred j 
 and places of worlhip as temples, 
 and profencha w Qxt ohcw built upon 
 them. The foundation of this re- 
 verence was either theconlidcration 
 that they were nearer to the fkie?, 
 or the circumftaaces of being fre- 
 quently wrapped up in cloudy 
 maje^y. 
 
 Rome was famous for the feven 
 hills on which flie was built, or 
 rather the feven hills were enoblcd 
 by the magnificence of Rome. 
 Their names are as follows, Mons 
 Capitoiinus, Mons S^uirinalis^ Mons 
 CaliuSf Mons EfjtiiUnus, Mens Vi- 
 minalis, Mons A^jentinus. 
 
 Mourning, amongll the Jenics, 
 on the death of their relations or 
 intimate friends, was fignified by 
 weeping, tearing tReir cloaths, 
 fmiting their breafts, or tearing 
 them with their nails, pulling or 
 cutting off their hair and beards, 
 walking foftly, i. e. bare-foot, lying 
 upon the ground, failing, or eat- 
 ing upon the ground. They kept 
 themfelves clofe fhut up in their 
 houfes, covered their faces, and 
 abllained from all work, even read- 
 ing the law, and faying the; • ufual 
 prayers. They neither drefled 
 themfelves 
 
MOU 
 
 MOU 
 
 t'hemfelves nor made tlieir beds, 
 nor fhaveJ themfclves, nor cut their 
 nails, nor went into the bath, nor 
 faluted any body ; fo that ful- 
 kinefs feems to have been an in- 
 dication of forrow, and dirtincis, 
 ofdiitrefs. I'he time of mourning 
 among the Jens was generally 
 fevcn days, but this was lengthened 
 or Ihortened according to circum- 
 llances, but 30 days were thought 
 fuflicicnt upon the feverefl: occafi- 
 ons. The different periods of the 
 time of mourning required different 
 decrees of grief and diflerent tokens 
 of it. 
 
 The Greeks, on the death of 
 friends, flie^^ed their forrow by fe- 
 cluding themfelves from all gaietv, 
 entertainments, gam.es, public fo- 
 lemnities, the enjoyment of wine, 
 and the delights of niu£c. They 
 J'a: in gloomy and folitary places, 
 Itripped themfelves of all external 
 ornaments, put on a coarfe black 
 iluff, by way of mourning, tore 
 their hair, fliavcd their heads, rol- 
 Jed themfelves in the dull and mire, 
 fprinkled alhcs on their heads, 
 Imote their breafts with their palms, 
 tore their faces, and frequently 
 cried out with a lamentable voice 
 and drawling tone, reiterating the 
 jnrerjeftion e, £, £, e^ hence fune- 
 ral lamentations were called EyE^Oi. 
 If they appeared in public, during 
 the time of mourning, they had a 
 veil thrown over their faces and 
 heads. Du'ring the funeral pro- 
 ceffion certain perfons called £|a^voj 
 ■^pnvav marched before, and lung 
 melancholy ftrains called o'ko(pv^(j.o.'.y 
 lar.E^ci, Aivci and Ai'Kmi. Thefe 
 vocal mourners fung thrice during 
 the proceffion — round the pile — 
 and round the grave. Flutes were 
 alfo ufed to heighten the folem- 
 nity. 
 
 At the funerals of foldiers their 
 :fcliovY foldiers vvhQ attended, as a 
 
 tcftimony of their affliclicn, he](i 
 their fhields, their fpears and the 
 rell of their armour inverted. 
 
 As to the tokens of private grief 
 amongit the Romam, they were the 
 fame as thofe already obferved as 
 cuitomary amongll the Greeks.'-' 
 Black or dark-brown were the co- 
 lours of the mourning habits worn 
 by the men ; they were alfo com- 
 mon lotlxcjuomen. The mourning 
 of the Emperors at firft was blacks 
 In the time of Aitgiifius the women 
 wore white veils, and the reft of 
 their drcfs black. From the time 
 of Domitian they wore nothing but 
 white habits, without any orna- 
 ments of gold, jewels or pearls. 
 The men let their hair and beards 
 grow, and wore no wreaths of 
 Bowers on their heads while the 
 days of mourning continued. The 
 longelT: time of mourning was ten 
 months ; this was Numas cftablifh- 
 ment, and took in his whole year. 
 For a widow to marry during thig 
 time was infamous. Mourning 
 was not ufed for children who died 
 under three years of age. From 
 this age to ten they mourned as 
 many months as the child was years 
 old. A remarkable vidlory or o- 
 ther happy event, occafi^ned the 
 Ihortening of the time of mourn- 
 ing : The birch of a child, or the 
 attainment of any remarkable ho- 
 nour in the family, certain feails 
 in honour of the Gods, or the con- 
 fecration of a temple had the lame 
 effcfl. After the battle at Cann^, 
 the common wealth decreed that 
 mourning fhould not be worn for 
 more than thirty days, that the 
 lofs might be forgot as foon as pof- 
 fible. 
 
 When public magiftrates died, 
 or perfons of great note ; alfo when 
 any remarkable calamity happened, 
 all public meetings were intermit- 
 ted, the fchools of exercife, batlij, 
 
 fhops. 
 
MUN 
 
 MUN 
 
 fTiops, temples, and all places of 
 concourfe were ihut up, and the 
 whole city put on a face of forrow, 
 the Senators laid afide the laticla've, 
 and the Confuls fat in a lower feat 
 than ordinary. This was the cuf- 
 tom of Athens alfo, and was ob- 
 ferved upon the death of Socrates^ 
 not long after he had been fcnten- 
 ced to death by their judges. 
 
 Pr^Jjca or mourning women, 
 by the Greeks called Sfijvoij s^apxoi, 
 ^"Vvent about the ftreets ; this was 
 cuftomary among the yt-.-^fj as well 
 as the Greeks and Ramans, Jerem. 
 ix, \y. Se&Praficte. 
 
 MuGiL or Mugz/is, a iilli with a 
 large head, fmali towards the tail, 
 tough with fcales from tbe-tdil to- 
 wards '..e head, but fmooth in a 
 contrary dire6lion. This fifh was 
 made ufe of as, an inftrument of 
 puniftiment, againft fuch perfons 
 as were caught in the a6l of adul- 
 tery. Its penal application was 
 thrufting it up the fundament of 
 the delinquent, with its head fore- 
 moft. This mode of pnniflijucnt 
 Jwvenai alludes to, 5^2/. 10.317. 
 
 "^quo/dam m.tckes et Mtigilis hit rat. 
 
 Catullus mentions the ufe of the 
 MiigiU and radiihes, with the fame 
 intention, 15. 19. 
 
 ^uem attraEiis pedihus, patente forta 
 fer current raphanique mugilefque 
 
 The Mugil of the Romaics is, by 
 fome, thought to hsve been the 
 fame as the Mullet. 
 
 MuLLEi Calcei. See Calcei 
 Mullet. 
 
 MuNDUS patens: The open 
 world — was a folemnity performed 
 in a fmall temple, of a round form 
 like the world, dedicated to Dis, 
 and the reft of the inferr.al Ggtls, 
 
 This temple was opened bat three 
 times in the year, viz. the 24th of 
 Augull, the 4th of Oftober, and 
 the 7tU of November. During 
 thefe days, the Romans believed 
 hell was open i on thefe days there- 
 fore they never offered battle, liiled 
 foldiers, pu: out to fea, or mar- 
 ried. 
 
 MuNiciPEs, an appellation 
 given by the Rotnans to the inha- 
 bitants of the municipia or munic pal 
 cities. Sec Munidpia. 
 
 In the Roman\-\\\ of the word/^w- 
 Kicipal denotes perfons veiled with 
 the rights and privileges of Rc';!ii?z 
 citizens. The tide of muyiicipcl 
 was frequently bellowed on foreign 
 cities and people, and in fact was 
 little more than a title. 
 
 MuNiciPi.^ were corporations, 
 borojghs or enfranchifed cities or 
 towns, where the inhabitants en- 
 joyed their own laws and culloms, 
 and at the fame time \vere honoured, 
 with ihc privileges of Reman citi- 
 zens; LuiC chcDj this privilege ge- 
 nerally reached no further t.ian the 
 bare title. Some indeed, by par- 
 ticular merit, obtaipe.^. the liberty 
 of votes, which oc ::.f. ui.iJ that 
 diilinftion of municipi^im jiief:>lfra- 
 gio, zndtmaiicipium cumfujfiao^i^ . — 
 The inhabitants of the mu>.:c:t:a 
 fine fuffyagio were called b ircly 
 Romani, but thole of the munidpia 
 cum fuffragio were called Ci-nes 
 Ramani. 
 
 The difterence between proper 
 citizens or Rsme, and the inhabi- 
 tants of il/«wV/p/« m^y be thus ex- 
 prcffed; The proper citizens of 
 Rome were ill, rcgillered in the 
 Cenps — z. Had the right of fuf- 
 frage, and of bearlrg h'ncnrs — 3. 
 Wc-e ai!;ffed in the poll tax — 4. 
 Served in the /wWf— 5 Ufed the 
 Roman laws an^" religion - 6. were 
 cailtfd ^irites and popului R^;.':a- 
 L 1 »»/ 
 
MtJil 
 
 MUR 
 
 v:is ; whereas the Municipes enjoyed 
 the three firft of thcfe privileges, 
 but were denied the three laft. 
 
 jVIunvchia, an univerrarv fo- 
 ]cmnity obl'ervcd at Athens, in 
 Jiop.our o{ Dia}:a, en the i6th cf the 
 jponth Mu;-,yckio7i. Cakes were 
 offered on the occalion called 
 
 MuNYCHiON, the tenth month 
 I'f \!wt Athenian vcir, containing 29 
 d^ys, and anfvvering to the latter 
 pirt of our March and the begin- 
 iiing of April. It was fo called 
 Irom the fciiival Munycbia, which 
 v-.-ns obfcfvcd in this nianth. See 
 Monih and Munycbia. 
 
 fvluREVj a fhell-fifh of the uni- 
 valve clafs, befct v/ith fliarp fpines 
 and tubercles. The ancients were 
 furni.^ed tt'ith their finei^ purple 
 dye from a fifil of the murex l;ind, 
 and therefore expreiTed the purple 
 colour by the vvord Tnurex. The 
 ^juices contained in the body of the 
 iifh were what they made ufe of in 
 dyeing, and, as the quantity pro- 
 c|^cd could not be large, we may 
 h-iturally conclude that purp'e muft 
 have been a very e.xpen live colour. 
 Pliny informs us that the 7Kiirexes, 
 when dying, ejeft a confiderable 
 quantity of this precious liquor, 
 and that the Tailors for that rcafon 
 endeavoured to catch them alive. 
 The dog o'i Hercules is faid to have 
 firft difcovered to his maftcr the 
 t-rcat ufe cf this fifh, in communi- 
 I'aring a fine purple colour ; for as 
 jic played along the fhore he found 
 a mure.x, and having tore it with 
 Ills teeth, the liquor oozed out, and 
 : inged his mouth with a niofl; beau- 
 liFi'd hue, which being taken no- 
 tice of by tlcrcules, gave him the 
 hint of tlie itfe to which the fiHi 
 v.-as r.fccr'vvards applied. Th'? fhell 
 j'.fh abounded on thecoafts oiTfre 
 rind SiJon X hence purple is called 
 
 the Ty-iai?, PhterAcian, and Sido- 
 '/lian dyt. 'Tht. bitccinian and/wr- 
 furf>. were Ihefl-fifh made ufe of for 
 the fame puroofe as the tnurex. — 
 Sec Pui-ple. 
 
 Mnrcx, a caltrap or iron inllru- 
 incnt, with fliarp points prcjefl- 
 ing in every dircflion, ufcd by the 
 V.cmans as a defence againft the 
 enemy's horfe. It was fo called, 
 probaoly, becaufe the points bore 
 fbme relemblance to the fpines and 
 tubercles with which the fhell of 
 the nfh v.urex is furrounded. 
 
 Muii iNA or murines, a delicious 
 fweetwine, m.edicatcd with fpices, 
 and the ufual drink of the ladies of 
 antiquity. 
 
 IVluRTHER, amongft the He- 
 bre-jjs, w-as always puniflied with 
 inftant death. He v/ho had been 
 guilty of this atrocious crime might 
 be dragged away even from the al- 
 tar to execution ; and the kinfman 
 ot the murthered perfon might kill 
 him with impunity; money could 
 not redeem his life. To be con- 
 vinced of the abhorrence they had 
 of this crime, confult Deut. xxi. 
 I — 8, Involuntary homicide was 
 punifhed with baniihment, and 
 cities of refuge were appointed for 
 luch unfortunate perfons as had 
 killed a fellow-creature. To one 
 of thefe cities they might retire,' 
 and continue in fafety, till the 
 death of the high-pricfl : After 
 which they were at liberty to re- 
 turn to their own city, and their 
 own houfe. 
 
 Murther was punifhed with death 
 by the Athe-fiians, and afTaflins were 
 dragged away, to fuiier death in 
 the country of the murthered per- 
 fons. Killing a murthcrer, un- 
 condenined, was adjudged to be 
 murthc-r. An aflaf^in's counfel was 
 not allowed to make any prelimi- 
 nary apology, endeavour to excite 
 
 com- 
 
i\'I u 
 
 M u a 
 
 compafiion, or fpcak any thing 
 foreign to tlicCiUle. He ik»t had 
 ■been guilty cfchar.ce medley, was 
 baniihcd I'cr a year, or till fatisfac- 
 tion was made to the relatioiiii oF 
 the deccaicd, after this ,he might 
 return, facviiice and be purified. 
 
 The Roma:is puniflied with the 
 culeus or projcFtis in prof:tc;:tem tlic 
 crime of parricide or the murther 
 of a near relation. See Quleus, 
 
 It would be needlefs to cnlarg.e 
 on this head ; any perfon, who 
 has the leall acquaintance with 
 hillory, mull know that m.urther 
 was always looked upon by thp 
 ancients, in general, with the 
 grcateft abhorrence. Nature fluid - 
 ders at the crime, and fpcK'.ks the 
 fame language in every country. 
 It may not perhaps be amifs to 
 obferve, that neither the Gr^r/i- nor 
 Latin language can furnifli a word 
 which expreHes this crime fpecifi- 
 cally, and exiiclly anfwers to our 
 word ^/wr/iv/-, which implies a mr.- 
 licious purpofc in the aftion. 
 
 Muse A, a name given to fuch 
 pcrfons, among the Romans, as of- 
 ficially thrufl; thcmfelves into the 
 company of their fuperiors, and 
 thole who defpifed them, by find- 
 ing means ot getting admittance to 
 entertainments without invitation, 
 and without a welcome : So that 
 mufca; were the fame as parafJes^ 
 wlio were frequently by the Greeks 
 termed Myicti. See Parofite^ Urn- 
 hr/V. 
 
 MuscuLus, a military machine 
 niado ufe of by the Romans, to 
 cover and protetl the foldiers, 
 while they approached and under- 
 mined the walls o[ beiieged place?, 
 or filled the ditches. It feems to 
 have rcfcmhlcd the ufindo in form, 
 but was fmaller in iizc. Sec 'Tef- 
 iuh. 
 
 MuGEiAj were G/rai?;/ fcflivals 
 
 in hcacui of the M/./ls, celebrated, 
 with games every kiWi year, par^ 
 ticularly by the Theffio.ns. The 
 i!f:?tvyt>w'fl;« alio oblerved a fjllival 
 of the fam.e name, in honour of 
 jupiter and the il/^ytv, which laftcci 
 for nine da) s, and was celeliratcd" 
 with llagc p'ays, fong"^, and poeti- 
 cal compoJ;ticr,s. 
 
 Museum properly fignilies 3 
 chapel or place, dedicated to the 
 Mu/csy and the fine arts; fuel) was 
 the 77::tfcu;n of Alexandria, which 
 was iet apart for the cultivarion of 
 the arts and fcipnccs. Here a 
 number of learned' :jii;n were lodg- 
 ed, entertained, ana claflcd into 
 colleges or companies, according 
 to the diifcrent parts of learninj^' 
 whicli they de\otcd themfelves tc, 
 Thevvord inufiiun was afterwards 
 applied as a general name to any 
 repofitory of fuch curious thin^.s. 
 as have a rt:lation to the arts, over 
 which the Mufcs prefidc. The 
 Alexandrine fnufeurn was eltablifhcd 
 by Ptolemy Philadelpbus, as is ge- 
 nerally believed. 
 
 There was a fo)-t called^ mi'fcum 
 or Mscr-sicv, near the citadel t/f 
 Athe?is. It was fjrced to entertain 
 agarrifon by Antigonus, furrcunded 
 with a wall by Deinelrius, ard 
 named from the po^t Muf,cus, who 
 ufed to repeat his verfes there. 
 
 Music is t,he fcience of founa';-, 
 confidcred as capab;c of producing 
 melody, and agrccablv aucfting the 
 mind by a due difpoaticn, combi- 
 nation and proportion. Miific is 
 very ancient ; for Mcfcs tells iis that 
 Jubal, who lived, before the flood, 
 was the inventor of the Kinnor and 
 the Hiigah, i.e. the harp and the 
 organ. The "Je-ivs were fond of 
 miific in their religious ceremonies, 
 their feafts, t'lcir public rcjoicirgs^ 
 their marriage-;, and their mouin- 
 iiig:. The muhc of the temple 
 
MUS 
 
 MUS 
 
 was performed by tke families of 
 jifaph, Hemafty and Jcauthun the 
 Lcvites, whofe \Vhole bunnefs was 
 to learn and practice this agreeable 
 art ; and abundant provifion was 
 made for them, that they might not 
 be prevented from purfuing their 
 :mufica! fludies, by the cares of 
 life. Kings and great men among 
 the Jeijcs ftudied mufic, and Da'vid 
 made a very great proficiency in it. 
 -Singing men and finging women 
 frequently occur in fcripture, and 
 were in confiderable eftimation. — 
 Female ir.uiicians were admitted 
 into the temple, as well as male ; 
 the females were generally the 
 daughtersof the Z-fc'zVr^. How far 
 the 'Je-Mijh mufic, m its higheft 
 pcrfedion, fell Hiort of that of the 
 moderns, cannot without precifion 
 be determined, but there is little 
 doubt of its inferiority. 
 
 I'he Greeks give the invention of 
 mufic to Pythagoras. They had 
 fcven muficai notes which were 
 confecrated to the fcven planets. 
 1. TrajJvj to the Moo7i. 2. 
 Tlx^'jTTain to 'Jupiter. 3. Ajxaoj 
 to Mercury. 4. Me^r] to the Sun. 
 5. Tlaoaiizcr, to Mars. 6. Tfi7;i 
 to Venus. 7. Nn7n to Saturn. — 
 The tone or mode, whether grave 
 or acute, was termed Nr^ij. — 
 There were four modes, the Phry- 
 gran, which was religious; the 
 LyAia7iy plaintive ; the Doric, mar- 
 tial ; the J-:n:c, gay and flowery ; 
 the ^sAV, fimple. To thefe modes 
 ma/ be added the llypodorian, Hy- 
 pophrygian, HvpoJydiaK, and Mixo- 
 lydlan. The mode by which the 
 foldiers were animated was called 
 o^^iZi. In later times the word 
 No/Ltof wab applied to the words 
 themfelves, which were fung in 
 fhefe modes. The Grecir.r,s had 
 both vocal and inftrumental mafic. 
 Tiieu iiiuucal inftrumcnrs wcrv of 
 
 two kinds, E/x7rv£t/ja, or wind i::- 
 flruments ; and Evlala, or ftringed 
 inftruments. Their principal m- 
 llruments were the lyre, the P.ute, 
 and the pipe. The lyre was dif- 
 diftinguifhed by the names of Lyra, 
 Cithara, and ^opfjtr/i. The flute 
 was called AvXc^ and Tih'a. And 
 the pipe had the name of Syrinx. 
 The Greeks were exceedingly fond 
 of mufic. It had a confiderable 
 fhare in their education ; and fo 
 great was its influence over their 
 bodies as well as minds, that it was 
 faid to be a remedy for many dif- 
 orders. 
 
 We do not find that their mufi(; 
 confifted of part,«, but probably 
 was only unifon or full chorus. 
 They had not the ufe of notes, for 
 they were not invented till the 
 eleventh century byGuido d'Jrez.zo. 
 To fupply this defeft they ufed a 
 feries of tones and femi -tones, to 
 which they gave difterent names. 
 
 What has been faid here of the 
 mufic of the Greeks applies, with- 
 out any confiderable exception, to 
 that of the Romans. 
 
 The martial mufic of the Romans 
 confiilei.1 of the founds of theiuiie, 
 the cornua, buccin^e and litui . Sec 
 Tuba, Sic. 
 
 The inrtruments in vulgar ufe 
 amongft the Greeks and Romans 
 were many and various. Certain 
 feftivals alio, and ceremonies of re- 
 ligion required particular inftru- 
 ments of mufic, fuch as the crota/a, 
 tympana, Jijira, &c. See Crotalum, 
 Tyripanuin, Sec. 
 
 Mufic, among the ancients, was 
 taken in a much more extenfive 
 fenfe than among the moderns. Its 
 parts are thus enumerated, harmo- 
 nica, rhythmica, mctrica, organica, 
 poetica and hypocritica. 
 
 Mustard, Seed. The Je-ixs 
 
 when they would cxprcfs a f??ia}l 
 
 quantity 
 
M YR 
 
 M YS 
 
 quantity of any thing, likened it to 
 a grain oi mufiard feed, which was 
 noted to be the imalleft feed 'mju- 
 dea that produced fo large a plant. 
 For though this is not the cafe a- 
 mongfi: us, yet in Judea, and other 
 hotter climates, it produced great 
 and high branches, like a tree. In 
 the fcuthem parts of America we 
 are told there are mujlard trees high- 
 er than a man on horfcback, and 
 that the birds build their nells in 
 them. Our Saviour therefore may 
 be conceived to have fpoken ac- 
 cording to the common ufage, and 
 proverbial phrafe of the country, 
 when hecomparedthe fmall begin- 
 ning and future increafe of the 
 golpel to a grain of mujiard feed, 
 which, fays he, is indeed the leafi 
 of all feeds, hut njjhen it is groivn, 
 it hecometh a tree. Maith. xiii. 32. 
 
 Myomancv, a kind of divina- 
 tion by rats or mice. This method 
 of foretelling future events is fup- 
 pofed to be of very high antiquity, 
 and Ifaiah is iuppofed to allude to 
 it when he reckons mice among the 
 abominable things of the idolaters. 
 See Ifaiah Chap. Ixvi. 17. 
 
 Myoparo, among the Romans, 
 was a fliip of fuch conftruclion as 
 to refemble both a mercliant fliip 
 and a fhip of war. It was ufed moll 
 commonly by pirates. See Ships. 
 
 Myrmillones v/ere gladiators 
 of a certain kind at Rome, who 
 fought againft the Retarii. Their 
 arms were a fword, head-picccand 
 fhield- On the top of the head- 
 piece they wore a ihip emboffed, 
 called Mof^ay^cf, whence their name 
 is by fome fuppofed to be derived. 
 The Retiarii, in their engagements 
 made ufe of a net, in which they 
 endeavoured to entangle their ad- 
 verfaries, and furg during the 
 fighr, " non te peto, pifcem peto ; 
 ♦• <iuid me fugis, Galle V I aim 
 
 not at thee, but I aim at thy fifli, 
 why doft thou fhun me O Gaol ? 
 The Myr?nillones were called G«///, 
 becaufe they wore Gallic armour. 
 They were alfo named Se cut ores. 
 This kind of gladiators was fup- 
 prefled by Caligula. - See Gladia- 
 tors, Retiarii, Sec. 
 
 Myrrh is a vegetable produc- 
 tion, of the refinous kind, ifl'uing 
 from the trunk and larger branches 
 of a tree in Arabia, Egypt, and 
 Jbyffmia. It was this gum, which 
 the Magi, who came from the Eafl: 
 to worfliip ©ur Saviour, made him 
 an offering o'i. It was this gum alfo 
 Hvhich vvas mingled with the wine 
 given him to drink at his paflion, 
 to deaden his pains, and produce 
 a ftupor. See Markw. 23. The 
 gall mentioned on the fame occa- 
 fion by St. Matthe^w, is probably 
 the lame with myrrh ; for any 
 thing bitter was ufually diflinguifli- 
 ed by the name of gall. The 
 Hebre^vs were accuftomed to give 
 thofe that were executed fome ftu- 
 pefying draught. The difficulty 
 which ariies from the feeming 
 difference betwixt the two Evan- 
 gelifts, by fome is folved by fay- 
 ing that St. Matthen.v, writing in 
 iSy^vrtf, made ufe of the word marra 
 which fignifies OTjrr/6, bittcrncfs or 
 gall ; but the Greek tranflator has'- 
 taken it for gall, and 5/. ¥iark for 
 myrrh. Others will have it that 
 our Saviour's drink was mingled 
 with myrrh, as a ftvpefying drug, 
 but fuppofe that the foldiers, out 
 of wanton cruelty and inhumanity, 
 infufcd gall, which v/as the rea- 
 fon, fay they, why, vvhen he had 
 tafted he reiufed todrink. SecGall. 
 
 Myrrh IN A Fafj. See Mor- 
 rhina. 
 
 Mystery, a truth revealed by 
 God, which natural re;iion ■' .iild 
 neither find out without reveiation, 
 
 nor 
 
M YS 
 
 M YT 
 
 lior comprehend fully when reveal- 
 ed. The religion of the Jci-js was 
 full of myfteries, their laws, nay 
 their whole conftitution and iiation, 
 were mylterioiis. The myfteries 
 of the old teftamew were gene- 
 rally types or fliadowsof fomething 
 in the new. Thus the brazen ftr- 
 pent reprefentcd the crofs, and the 
 death olChrift ; Sarah and Hagar, 
 Jfaac and Ijhmad denoted the two 
 covenants. 7'heir facrificcs, their 
 priefthood, their purifications in- 
 cluded myfteries, which have been 
 explained by our Saviour and his 
 Apoftlss. 
 
 The myfteries of the chriftian 
 religion are chiefly the incarnation 
 ot the Deity. The union of the 
 divine and human nature ; the mi- 
 rscalous birth of our lord ; his 
 death, refurreclion, and alfcnfion ; 
 the operation of divine grace in 
 our hearts ; the refurreflion of the 
 dead, &c. Thcfe things, tho' 
 above human comprehenfton, are 
 neverthelefs objedls of faith i and 
 the mind, when fufHcientiy con- 
 vinced that they are exprefsly re- 
 vealed in fcripture, and that the 
 fcripturcs are the word of God, 
 can, without difuculty believe 
 them. My mathematical friend 
 tells me that he has dcmonftrated a 
 certain prcpofition, which to me 
 appeared paradoxical, m^y friend 
 is a man of veracity, and I am 
 perfuaded has no dehgn to impofe 
 upon me — I therefore believe wiiat 
 he has told mc. 
 
 As the myfteries of theoA/tef- 
 tamert were many of them illuf- 
 trated and cleared up in the «i:ii;, 
 and had an ufeful elFedl in beauti- 
 fully confirming the truth of our 
 Sayioui'spretcnlions as the :ne£iab; 
 
 fo the chrijilan m.yftevies may, irt 
 fome future period of exiftence, be 
 found of the grcateft ufe to us, in 
 preparing us for the enjoyment of 
 the chrijlian paradife. 
 
 The Heathens had their myfteries 
 aifo, fuch as were kept fecret, be- 
 caufe unfit to be divulged j tho' 
 this might not perhaps be the cafe 
 with all their myfterious rites. — 
 Their chief myfteries v/ere thofe of 
 C^es called Llufinian, the Orgia 
 of Bacchus, the myfteries of the 
 Bona Dta, Sec. See Elulinia, 
 Orgia, &c. 
 
 Thefe were not called myfleries, 
 as being incomprehcnfible, or 
 above the power of reafon, but 
 becaufe they were wrapped up in 
 types and figures, to raile the 
 people's veneration. They were 
 generally celebrated in the night, 
 and in caves and grottoes, fitter 
 for the concealment of crimes than 
 the celebration of facred rites. — 
 They choofe darknefs rather than 
 light, becaufe their deeds were 
 evil. 
 
 PvIystrum, a liquid meafure 
 among the ancients, containing 
 the fourth part of the Cyathus, and 
 weighing two drams and an half 
 of oil, or two drsms two fcruplcs 
 of water or wine. It nearly ani- 
 wers to our fpoonful. See Men- 
 fun. 
 
 Mythology. Sto. God. 
 
 Myttoton, a coarfe kind of 
 food, ufed by the labouring peo- 
 ple among the Greeks, and lomc- 
 times among the Roma?:s. It was 
 made of garlic, onions, eggs, 
 cheefe, oil and vinegar, and rec- 
 koned very wholelbme. — — S^c 
 Meats. 
 
N. 
 
 NAB 
 
 L. Thefe letters, in the 
 * Roman courts of judica- 
 ture, fignified, that the jury were 
 not fatisfied as to the fad, and 
 could neither proceed to acquit or 
 condemn, but adjourned the mat- 
 ter for further enquiry : This ad- 
 journment they called ampliatio. 
 The letters N. L. therefore, are 
 the initials of the words non liquet, 
 the cafe is not clear. See Condem- 
 natio, Ampliatio, Trial, &c. 
 
 Nablum, in Hebreiu, Nehel, 
 was an inrtrument of mufic among 
 the Jeius. It had firings like the 
 harp, and was played upon by 
 both hands. Its form was that of 
 a Greek A. In the Septuagint and 
 Vulgate, it is called nablum, pfal- 
 terion, lyra ; and fometimes citha*- 
 ra. 
 
 NffiNiA, was a funeral fong# 
 fung by the Preefices, among the 
 Romans, and filled with the praifes 
 of the deceafed ; but, for the moft 
 part, trifling and mean, even to a 
 proverb. The 'Nanits were ufual- 
 ly fung to the found of the Tibia. 
 See Tibia. 
 
 Nails were made ufe of by 
 the ancient Hebrenus for cancel- 
 ling bonds ; and the ceremony 
 was performed by (Iriking them 
 through the writing. This feems 
 to be alluded to in Scripture, 
 where God is faid by our crucified 
 Saviour to have " blotted out the 
 " hand-writing of ordinances that 
 '* was againft us, and to have 
 " taken it out of the way, nailing 
 " it to his crofs." Col. ii. 14. 
 By the hand-ivriting of ordinances 
 is meant the law ot Mofes, which 
 was in the nature of a bill, bond, 
 or obligation, perpetually ftand- 
 
 N AM 
 
 ing in force againft men, and 
 ready to bring a penalty or for- 
 feiture upon them in cafe of non- 
 performance, for " curfed is eve- 
 •' ry one that continueth not in 
 " all things which are written ia 
 «' the book of the law to do 
 " them:" But it is certain none 
 of us have fo continued, for " the 
 *' Scripture hath concluded all 
 " under fin." Thus were we all 
 left liable to punifhment; but the 
 ftrongeft obligations may be can- 
 celled, and this obligation, which 
 was fo feverely againft us, was can- 
 celled by the nails which pierced 
 our Saviour's body, and faftened 
 it to the accurfed tree. Deut. xxvii.* 
 26. Gal iii. 10. — For the caufe 
 and ceremony of driving the ««- 
 nual nail, or clavus annalis among 
 the Romans, fee Annalis Cla<vus, 
 Ignorance, Dilator. 
 
 Names, were given to infants 
 by the ye'ws on the eighth day, 
 by the Greeks on the tenth, and by 
 the Romans on the ninth. The 
 name was given by the Jeius on 
 the day of circumciiion, which, 
 was always a day of feafting. The 
 Greeks and Romans, on the day of 
 naming their children, performed 
 facrifices, and offered up prayers 
 for their profperity, concluding 
 with chearfulnefs and feftivity. 
 The names of men in all nations 
 were fignificative, and not fimple 
 founds for diftinftion-fake : They 
 generally marked the good wifhes 
 of the parents, a happy name 
 - feeming to indicate profperity in 
 life. Hence the names FiSior, 
 C aft or, Fauftus, Probus, &C. The^ 
 faufta nomina, or lucky names, 
 were always firft enrolled in the^ 
 
 ♦ A Roman 
 
NAM 
 
 NAM 
 
 Reman ir.afters, and firu called to 
 ferve at the firft facrifices at the 
 foundation of colonies. Plato re- 
 commends fortunate names, and 
 Pythagoras taught that men's ac- 
 tions and fucceffes were according 
 to their names. The name of a 
 dillinguifhed philofopher, faint, 
 or hero, may indeed fometimes in- 
 fluence the perfon who bears it, 
 either to imitate their condudl, or 
 to be upon their guard not to dif- 
 grace the name. 
 
 The Romansj from the begin- 
 ning, had two names ; and, in 
 procefs of time, the better to dif- 
 tinguifti t^1emfelves, they took a 
 third. The firft was the preenomen 
 the fecond the nomen, and the third 
 was the cognomen. Eldell fons 
 generally took the pranomen of 
 their fathers ; younger fons chofe 
 what they pleafcd for their pra- 
 nomin. This name was not given 
 to fons till they affumed the toga 
 fvirilis, i. e. till they arrived at 
 the age of feventeen ; nor to the 
 daughters till their marriage. — 
 The nomen, which was the name 
 of the family, was ufually given 
 to a fon on the ninth day after the 
 birth, and to a daughter on the 
 eighth. — The cc^jiomen was added 
 for the fake of diitinguifhinff fami- 
 lies, and was affumed from no cer- 
 tain caufe, but generally from fome 
 particular occurrence. Such was 
 the origin of the cognomen ; but, in 
 procefs of time, it became here- 
 ditary, though frequently charg- 
 ed for a new one. — To thefe three 
 names already mentioned, a fourth 
 was fcmetimes added, called ag- 
 nomen, or adnomen\ but this was 
 merely an honourable title: Thus 
 Scipio had the additional name of 
 JfricanusiCatooi Sapiens; Crajfus 
 of Dives, &c. 
 
 Slaves, in ancient times, had 
 no names, but what they borrow- 
 q4 from the pranomen of th^ir ma- 
 
 iiers, as Lucipor,Publipor, Merci- 
 pcr, I. e. Lucii Puer, Publii Puer^ 
 Marci Puer, &c. This cultom 
 growing obfolete, they gave other 
 names to their flaves, which ge- 
 nerally expreffed their origin as to 
 country, as Syrus, Geta, See. — 
 Slaves, upon rnanumiffion, affum- 
 ed ihs nomemnd pri^nomen of their 
 mafters, keeping their own names 
 by way of cognomen. 
 
 Foreigners, admitted denizens 
 of Rome, bore the nomen and pr^- 
 tiomen of the perfons by whofe 
 means they obtained that privi- 
 lege. 
 
 Adopted perfons affumed the 
 names of thofe who obliged them 
 with this kindnefo, retaining, at 
 the fame time, their own nomen ot 
 cognomen as a mark of their proper 
 defcent. If the woot^w was retain- 
 ed, it flood exaftly as before ; if 
 the cognomen continued, it under- 
 went a flight alteration. I will 
 oive an inftance in both cafes : 
 /if. Junius Brutus, being adopte<i 
 by ^ Servilius Ctpio Agalo, was 
 called .^ Servilius Cepio Agalo 
 Brutus ; and C. Ocia-vius, being 
 adopted by Julius Cafar, was call- 
 ed C. Julius Cajar OiSavianus. 
 See Jdopiion. 
 
 The pranomen was anciently af- 
 fumed by women, as well as the 
 men, as Caia, Marci a, Ccecilia, 
 Lucia ; but the initials were wrote 
 the wrong end upwards, as -3 and 
 'PV reverfed, for Caia and Marcia. 
 This was a manner of expreffing 
 the feminine gender; but this cuf- 
 tom was at lall dropt. An only 
 daughter took the family name 
 alone, which was frequently fof- 
 tened into a diminutive, as Tulli- 
 ola, for Tullia. If there were two, 
 three, or more daughters, they 
 were diftinguiftied by a word ex- 
 preffive of feniority, &c. or by 
 numerals. Where there were two, 
 for inftance, they were diftinguilh- 
 
 ed 
 
NAT 
 
 NAU 
 
 ed by the addition of /euicr and 
 junior, or major and minor ; where 
 there were three or mere, they 
 were called Pritna, Secunda, Ter- 
 tia, ^arta, ^inta, &c. or thefe 
 ordinals were made diminuti'ves, 
 as Secundilla, i^artilla, ^inlilla, 
 &c. 
 
 Thofe called to the Equeftrian 
 Order, if they had bafe names, 
 were always new named, Nomine 
 tngenuorum njeterumque Romanorum. 
 
 Deified perfons always received 
 new names at their confecration, 
 thus ^oz««/aj Was called ^irinus; 
 Melicertes, Portumnus, &c. 
 
 Heathens, upon their conver- 
 fion to Chrillianity, received new 
 names, as Saul, the^^'u;, was call- 
 ed Paul. This cuftom was adopt- 
 ed in imitation of the Remans, 
 whofe flaves upon manumiffion 
 received names, and Chrillianity 
 was confidei ed as making free the 
 flaves of fin. It was cuftomary 
 with the Je^Ms to be called by a 
 Jeixjijh name among their own 
 country-men, and by another a- 
 mong the Gentiles. Hence we find 
 Thomas called Didymus, John xi. 
 l6. and Tabitha, Dorcas, Acts ix. 
 56. and fome alledge the fame 
 reafon for SauTs afluming the Ro' 
 vian name of Paul. 
 
 The Greeks had but one name 
 pach J but, by way of dillindion, 
 the name of the family was ex- 
 preffed by ^patronymic, as Atrides, 
 ^■Eacides, P elides, &c. 
 
 Nardus. See Perfumes, Ma- 
 lobathrum. 
 
 Nat A LIS, Dies, cr Natalitium, 
 iignifies one's birth-day. Birth- 
 days were, among the Romans, ob- 
 ferved with much folemhity. They 
 bbferved the birth-days of the 
 gods, of their emperors, of great 
 and worthy men, befides their 
 own. Their own birth-days were 
 kept by facrificing, if men, to 
 their Genius > if women, to Juw. 
 To their Gm«/, they offered wine, 
 
 frankincenie, and garlands of 
 flowers, at the fame time regaling 
 themfelves with the richeft dain- 
 ties ; hence the expreffion, Indttl- 
 gere Genie, implies rich living. 
 On this day they weredrefTed out 
 in white garments, and wore a 
 particular ring on the occafion, 
 called Natalis Anr.uhts. They made 
 fometimes a public entertainment, 
 called Con-'oi'vium Natalitium, to 
 which they invited perfons of Pa- 
 trician and Equ'JJrian rank. The 
 birth-days of cities were frequent- 
 ly obferved with great femvity, 
 particularly thofe of Rome and Con- 
 Jlantinop'e. — Dolabella the Conful, 
 we are informed, propofed a law, 
 by which it was to have been re- 
 quired that the ides of March, fa- 
 mous for the afTiffination of C<«yflr, 
 fliould ever after be called Natalis 
 Urbis, the Birth-Day of Rome ; as 
 if their liberty had revivtd upon 
 the death of Cafar. The fame 
 day, by a decree of the Senate, 
 was ordered to be called Parrici' 
 dium. — Adopted children obferv- 
 ed the day of their adoption under 
 the name of Natalis dies. 
 
 Naval Croivn. See Crotun, 
 
 Navalia, among the Romans, 
 were docks, or ports, where fhips 
 iifed to be laid up after build- 
 ing. 
 
 Nwvalia alfo fignifies wharfs or 
 quays, at Rome, where the (hips 
 were unloaded or loaded. Thefe 
 wharfs were near the Sublician 
 bridge. 
 
 Naucrari, among the Athe- 
 nians, was the name given to the 
 chief magiftrates of the A>)ji^oi, bo- 
 roughs or townfliips, called N«- 
 t^xjagiaijbecaufe each was obliged, 
 beffdes two horfemen, to furnifh 
 out one fhip for the public fer- 
 vice. 
 
 Navigation, ^eejhips, 'voyage. 
 
 Navis. Sttjhips. 
 
 Naulum, apiece of money put 
 • A 2 into 
 
NAU 
 
 N AZ 
 
 into the mouth of a perfon deceaf- 
 ed, among the Romans, to enable 
 him to pay Charon, the ferryman, 
 for his paflage. This piece was 
 to be of the current coin of the 
 Emperor then reigning ; fo that 
 from this money the time of the 
 perfon's death may be known. 
 The fum for poor men was a far- 
 thing, but rich men generally were 
 very liberal to the old tar Charon, 
 as appears by the quantity of 
 coins frequently found in the 
 neighbourhood of Rcrne on open- 
 ing the graves of great men.— 
 Charon was looked upon as a ve- 
 ry morofe and obftinate o!d fel- 
 low, who would not carry over 
 any man without his fare ; hence 
 the proverbial ufe of that verfe of 
 Jwvenal, 
 Furor iji pofl omnia per dire naulum. 
 
 The fame cuftom prevailed a- 
 mong the Greeks, but the money 
 put into the mouth of the deceaf- 
 ed was called Aa^axij. See Da- 
 nace. 
 
 NAUMACKi^ffi, were places at 
 Jicme, fitted up for the exhibition 
 of naval engagements, for the di- 
 verfion of the people. They were 
 a fort of Circus" i, or Amphithea- 
 tres, provided with feats and por- 
 tico's. The pit or middle part 
 was filled wiih water bv ineans of 
 pipes, and there the veffels were 
 introduced to reprefent a fea-fight. 
 There were feveral ot the Nautna- 
 chia a: Rome: Three built by Au- 
 gujius, one by Claudius, another 
 by Domitian, and another by Nero, 
 which ferved for the reverfe of his 
 medals. Claudius made ufe of the 
 lake Fucinus as a Naumachiie. 
 
 NAUMACHi.ffi, is frequently 
 ufed to fignify the exhibition of 
 naval engagements, as well as the 
 place where they were exhibited. 
 Thefe mock fea-fights are fuppof- 
 ed to owe their original to the 
 time of thefirft Punic war, w^.en 
 
 the Remans firft initiated their 
 men in the knowledge of naval 
 affairs. Afterwards they were in- 
 tended both to entertain the po- 
 pulace, and improve the feamen. 
 They were frequently like other 
 fhows exhibited at the expence of 
 individuals, to encreafe their po- 
 pularity. 
 
 In thefe fiiows they fometimes 
 ftrove to excel each other in fwift- 
 nefs ; and fometimes engaged in 
 a hoftile manner. The Naumachite 
 of Claudius was a favage diverfion 
 indeed. The combatants ufed to 
 deftroy each other to divert a ty- 
 rant and a barbarous mob. As 
 they pafled before him they falut- 
 ed him with this melancholy greet- 
 ing, " A've Imperator, morituri te 
 ''^ Jaiuiant." The Emperor repli- 
 ed " Avete 'LOS." This they mif- 
 took for an anfwer of kindnefs, 
 and a gran: of their lives, but 
 were foon convinced that it pro- 
 ceeded from wanton cruelty, anJ 
 barbarous infenfibility. Under 
 the Emperor Dotnitian fuch a vali 
 number of vefiTels engaged ts 
 would have almoil formed two ret 
 gular fleets for a proper fight, and 
 the channel of water was equal in 
 dimenfions to a natural river. 
 The E.Tiperor Heliogabalus is faid 
 to have filled the channel where 
 the veffels were to ride, with wine 
 inltead of water. Tritons and fen 
 monllers were often exhibited dur- 
 ing the engagement. See Ships, 
 
 Nazarite, or Nazarean, a- 
 mong the "Jeius was one who had 
 laid himfelf under the obligation 
 of a vow to obferve the rules of 
 Nazaritejhip, either for his whole 
 life, as was the cafe with Samuel, 
 and John the baptift; or only for 
 a time, as thofe mentioned in 
 Numb. vi. i8, 19, 20. and Amos 
 ii. II, 12. The rules of Naxa- 
 ritejhip, during the time fpecified 
 in the vow; obliged the man or 
 womaa 
 
N AZ 
 
 N EC 
 
 woman to more than ordinary de- 
 orees of purity. They were to 
 abftain from wine, and all intoxi- 
 cating liquor, to let their hair 
 grow without cutting or (having, 
 not to be prefent at a funeral, or 
 enter a houfe where there was a 
 corpfe, or, if they happened to be 
 prefent when any one died, to be- 
 gin the whole ceremony anew. 
 The ceremony lafted generally for 
 eight days, Ibrnetimes a month, 
 and fometimes, as was before ob- 
 ferved, for their whole lives. 
 When the time of their Nax,arite- 
 Jhip was accomplifhed, ihe perfons 
 offered at the door of the Temple, 
 a he Iamb for a burnt offering, a 
 Ihe lamb for an expiatory facrifice, 
 and a ram for a peace offering ; 
 with loaves and cakes, and wine 
 for libations. Then the prieft 
 Ihavcd the head of the Nazarites 
 at the door of the tabernacle, and 
 threw their hair upon the altar to 
 be burnt. After this the prieft 
 put into their hands a fhoulder of 
 the ram roafted, with a loaf and a 
 cake ': Th;;fe the Nazarites again 
 returned to the prieft who imme- 
 diately offered them up, lifting 
 them on high in the prefence of 
 the Nazarites. This done th^y 
 might again drink wine, &c. 
 
 Thofe that made a vow of Na- 
 x.ariiejhip out of Palejiine, and 
 could not come to the temple 
 when their vow was expired, con- 
 tented themfelves with the abfti- 
 nence required by law, and cut- 
 ting their hair in the place where 
 they were. The offerings which 
 Mofes prefcribes to be made at the 
 temple, as mentioned above, were 
 deferred to a convenient opportu- 
 nity. This is exemplified in the 
 cafe of St. Paul, Ads x\\u. 1 8. 
 When a perfon found that he was 
 not in a condition to make a vow 
 of Nazaritejhip, or perform its 
 ceremonies, he could ncverihelefs 
 
 partake in the merit of the per. 
 formance, by contributing to the 
 expence of the facrifice, &c. of 
 thofe who had made and fulfilled 
 the vow. The Apoftle St. James 
 advifes St. Pauho take this courfe, 
 in order to quiet the minds of the 
 converted Jeivs, who fufpefted 
 that he preached up the entire abo- 
 lition of the law of Mojest A8s 
 xxi. 23, 24. 
 
 Our Sa'viour was called a Naza- 
 rite, or Nazarene, either becaufe 
 he dwelt at Nazareih, or becaufe 
 the purity and confecration of the 
 l^azarites v/as a fort of propheti- 
 cal type of thofe of Jefus ; or e!fe 
 he was fo called in allufion to the 
 prophecy, which fays, " There 
 " fhall come forth a rod out of 
 " the ftem of JeJJe, and a branch 
 " (in Hebrew nezer) Ihall grow 
 " out of his roots." 
 
 The name iVflzarzV^jfometimes 
 denotes a man of great diftinftion 
 and dignity. — Nazarite Or Naza- 
 rean v.'as alfo a term of contempt 
 and derifion, applied by infidels 
 to our Saviour and his followers. 
 It is alfo a name given to an early 
 fet oi Heretics. 
 
 Nebel, a mufical inftrument 
 among the Hebrexvs, the fame as 
 Nablum. See Nablum. 
 
 Necromancy, the fuppofed 
 art of calling up the dead to give 
 information concerning future 
 events. It was faid to be performed 
 by the magical ufe of a bone or a 
 dead body, or by pouring warm 
 blood into the carcafe, as it were, 
 to re-animate it. Sometimes the 
 ghoft was fetched up by the power 
 of invocations attended with va- 
 rious ceremonies. Ifthe dead ap- 
 peared in any unfubftantial form 
 like a ftiade, it was called Zxto/xa*- 
 laa and ■\/v^oiia,v\iix. It might be 
 performed in any place ; but fome 
 places were more particularly ap- 
 propriated to Chis ufe and called 
 
NEF 
 
 NEO 
 
 li^Kvoneiv]tia. No fouls could, as 
 they imagined, be {o readily call- 
 ed up, as thofe that had been fent 
 down by untimely death, or a£ls 
 of fuicide ; becaufe they believ- 
 ed that fouls of this defcription 
 were not admitted to the more dif- 
 tant parts of the infernal regions, 
 but lodged fomewbere on thecon- 
 ftnes of both worlds. — Both Jeius, 
 Greeks, and Romans pretended to 
 necrortiantic arts. The witch of 
 Endor is of famous memory for a 
 bold and artful deception of this 
 kind. See Witchcraft. 
 
 Nectar, was the fuppofed 
 qrink of the immortal Gods, and 
 was imagined to contribute much 
 towards their eternal exiftence. 
 it was, according to the fables of 
 the poets, a moil beautiful and 
 delicious liquor, farexceeding any 
 thing that the hum.an mind can 
 imagine. It gave a bloom, a beau- 
 ty, and a vigor, which furpafTed 
 all conception, and repaired, to- 
 gether with Ambrojia, all the de- 
 cays or accidental injuries of the 
 divine conftitution. Ste Ambrojia. 
 
 Nedar is fo(netimes qfed to ex- 
 prefs honey, from an ingenious 
 iuppoiuica that honey was the 
 drink of the bees, and the yellow 
 matter collefted on their thighs 
 their food, this lalter they there- 
 fore called Ambrofia. This opi- 
 iiion feems to be confirmed by 
 modern obfervation. 
 
 Nefasti Dies, an appellation 
 given by the Romans to thofe days 
 wherein it was not allowed to ad- 
 tniniiler juflice, or hold courts. 
 '1 hey were fo called becaufe, non 
 fart licebai, the Pretor was not al- 
 lowed to pronounce the three fo- 
 It mn words ov formula! s, of the 
 iaw, Do, Dico, Addico, I give, I 
 appoint, I adjudge. Thele days 
 v.ere diftinguilhed in the calendar 
 by the letter N. for Nefafius, or 
 In. p. Nefafus Prima, when the 
 
 day was only Nefafus in the fore- 
 noon, or firft part. The days of 
 a mixed kind were called hnercifi. 
 See Day, Intercifi, Prator, &c. 
 
 NemjEan Games, were cele- 
 brated games in Greece, deriving 
 their name from Nemea, a city 
 and facred wood of Argja, fituated 
 between Cleonie and PhUus. They 
 were inftituced in memory of Ar- 
 cbemorus or Opheltes ; but after 
 fome intermiffion, were revived by 
 Hercules, in honour oi Jupiter, Af- 
 ter the vidory over the Nemaan 
 lion. Thefe games were celebrat- 
 ed every third year, on the twelfth 
 day of the Corinthian month n«- 
 I'E/y.oj, which is faid to anfwer to 
 the Athenian Boedromion, or our 
 Auguji ; but of this coincidence of 
 theC(jn'«//^/i2«and Athenian month 
 authors feem not quite convinced. 
 Funeral honours were paid at thefe 
 games to Archemorus, and facri- 
 fices performed to Menesan Jove. 
 Contefts of every kind, gymnical 
 and equejirian were exhibited. 
 They had chariot races, and all 
 the exercifes of the Pentathlum. 
 SsePentathlum. 
 
 The prefidents of the Nemaan 
 games were chofen from Argi, 
 Corinth, and Cleonee. The crowns 
 which rewarded the victors were 
 at firft of olive, afterwards of parf- 
 ley. 
 
 Nenia. See Na^nia. 
 
 Neocori, among the Greeks^ 
 were perfons appointed to take 
 care of the temples and other con- 
 fecrated places. The office and 
 duty of the Grecian Kioko^oi were 
 the fame as thofe of the Roman 
 jEditui. The vEditui, indeed, 
 are frequently mentioned under 
 the name Neocori. See A£aituus. 
 
 Neoenia, a Grecian feftival in 
 honour oi Bacchus, when the new 
 wine was firft tafted. 
 
 Neomenia, a term ufed to fig- 
 nify the new-moons. Some affert 
 
 that 
 
NEP 
 
 NET 
 
 that the yeivs had two kinds of 
 Neomenia ; the firll on the day of 
 the moon's conjunftion with the 
 fun, the fecond on the day of her 
 appearance: Others again fay, 
 that they only obferved the day of 
 conjunftion. Be this however as 
 it may, the Je-ws obferved their 
 new-moons as feftivals of an in- 
 ferior kind, and kept them every 
 month with found of trumpet, en- 
 tertainments, and particular fa- 
 crifices. At thefe times they ex- 
 prefied their joy and gratitude for 
 the bleflings received in the former 
 month, and prayed for a continu- 
 ance of them, during that which 
 was now begun. The oiFerings 
 required on thefe new-moons will 
 be found Numb, xxviii. ii. and 
 X. lo. alfo I Sam. xx. 5.18. 
 
 A feftival called Neo^tjh* or 
 Na/^i)V(«, was alfo obferved by the 
 Greeks at the beginning of every 
 lunar month, in honour of all the 
 gods, but more efpecially o{ Apollo, 
 who was called Nsofijjyjc, as being 
 the author of all lights, the foun- 
 tain and original from whence the 
 other planets derive their rays, 
 and the grand luminary from 
 which all time receives its princi- 
 pal diftindlion and divifions. — At 
 thefe folemnities the Athenians 
 offered up prayers and facrifices 
 in the temple of Erechtheus, for 
 the profperity of their common- 
 wealth the enfuing month. Games 
 were exhibited, and the rich made 
 entertainments for the poor. 
 
 Neoptolemia, a pompous fef- 
 tival, kept by the Delphians in 
 memory of NeoptoUmus, the fon of 
 Achilles, who was flain in attempt- 
 ing to procure full revenge for his 
 father's death, by facking the tem- 
 ple of the Delphian god, who 
 had affifted Paris in aiming the 
 fatal Ihaft which deprived him of 
 life. 
 
 Nepenthe, was a kind of ma- 
 
 gic potion mentioned by Greek 
 and Roman poets, which was fup- 
 pofedto make perfons forget their 
 forrows and misfortunes. It was 
 the juice or infufion of a plane 
 now unknown ; Homer fays it grew 
 in Egypt, and tells us further that 
 Helen made ufe of it to charm her 
 guefls,and make them forget their 
 
 miferies and their pains. How 
 
 valuable would a nortrum of this 
 efficacy prove to wretched mor- 
 tals ! 
 
 Nephalia, feafls and facrifices 
 of the Greeks, io called from 
 NfipaAio?, fober, becaufe no wine 
 was offered, but milk, mead, &c. 
 Thefe facrifices were offered to the 
 fun, moon, memory, Aurora, Fe-^ 
 nus, the Furies, and the Nymphs. 
 Any fort of wood might be burnt 
 at this folemnity, except the vine, 
 the fig-tree, the mulberry : Thefe 
 were prohibited becaufe they were 
 looked upon as fymbols of drunk- 
 ennefs. The Nephalia were moft 
 particularly obferved by the Athe- 
 nians. 
 
 Neptunalia, feafls obferved 
 by the Romans in honour of Nep- 
 tune. They differed from the 
 Confualia, in which that god was 
 conlidered as prefiding over horfes 
 and the manage; whereas the 
 Neptunalia were feafts oi Neptune ^ 
 in his more general charadler, as 
 God of the Sea. See Confualia. 
 
 They were celebrated on the 
 tenth of the Calends of Auguji. 
 During the folemnity it was cuf- 
 tomary to live in booths, ereded 
 on the banks of the Tiber : Thefe 
 booths were made of branches of 
 trees interwoven with fmall twigs, 
 to exclude the fcorching rays of 
 the fun, and called for that reafon 
 Umbree. 
 
 Nethinims, among the Jews, 
 were fervants of the Priefts and 
 Levites, employed in the loweft 
 and raeaneil offices about the tem- 
 ple. 
 
NIC 
 
 NIG 
 
 p]e. They were, as the Scripture 
 expreffes it, heivers of ivood and 
 drainers of njuater for the Houfe of 
 God. To this office the pofterity 
 of the Gibeonites were firft con- 
 demned by Jejhua; afterwards the 
 Ca«^a«;/^j,whofurrendered them- 
 felves, and were fpared, had 
 the fame duties affigned them. 
 Da-vid and Solomon devoted many 
 of their captives to the fame kind 
 of flavery. — In procefs of time, 
 the number of the Nethinims was 
 (o much reduced, that a folfmnity 
 called Xylophoria\vz% inftituted to 
 fupply the defed of their fervices, 
 in which folemnity the people, 
 with great ceremony, carried wood 
 to the Temple, to keep alive the 
 fire on the altar of burnt facri- 
 fice. 
 
 New-Moon. See Neomenia. 
 
 New-Year's Gift. See Strenee. 
 
 Nexi, among the Romans, were 
 perfons free-born, who for debt 
 were delivered bound to their cre- 
 ditors, and obliged to ferve them 
 till they could diicharge the debt. 
 See Debtor, 
 
 NicoLAiTANS, or Nuolaites, 
 were Chriftian heretics of JJia, 
 whom Chrift himfelf condemns in 
 the Renjelations, chap. ii. 6. 15. 
 They were fo called from Nicolas, 
 one of the feven firft Deacons 
 mentioned JSis vi. 5. Though 
 perhaps he had no (hare in their 
 errors or irregularities, he is fup- 
 pofed to have given fome handle 
 to them. He is faid to have had 
 a beautiful wife, but that he might 
 attain to greater perfedion, he 
 left her to live in a Hate of conti- 
 nence and purity: Not being able, 
 however, to perfevere in this refo- 
 lution, he took her again, and to 
 jufiify his conduft advanced doc- 
 trines contrary to truth and chaf- 
 tity, and gave rife to the Nicalai- 
 tans, Gnojlics, and other fedls. 
 They held adultery, and the ufe of 
 
 meats offered to idols, as indiffe- 
 rent things, provided thefe meats 
 were firft exorcifed. They forgave 
 fornicators eight days after the 
 offence, had their women in com- 
 mon, lived in great impurity, and 
 made libertinifm and folly thedif- 
 tinguifliing characters of their 
 herefy. They held many extra- 
 vagant opinions concerning God 
 and the creation, denied the divi- 
 nity of Chrift, afferted that the 
 divine nature inhabited the hu- 
 man, but was not hypoftatically 
 united with it, and held that all 
 pleafures were good'. They fci u- 
 pled not to conform to all the 
 Pagan fuperftitions, and intimat- 
 ed that the world was not created 
 by God, but by certain other 
 Powers wildly conceived, and 
 feigned with the moft impious 
 temerity. Thefe heretics arofe in 
 the end of the firft age of the 
 Church, but were not of long con- 
 tinuance, being fuperfeded by o- 
 ther feds, and loft under other 
 denominations. See Gnojlics. 
 
 NiDDUi, was a lefler fort of 
 excommunication among the He- 
 bveivs, which commonly continu- 
 ed about a month ; if it was not 
 taken off in that time, is was pro- 
 longed for fixty or even ninety 
 days. If, during this term, fa- 
 tisfnftion was not made, the ex- 
 communicated perfon fell into the 
 Cherem, which was the fecond fort 
 of excommunication ; and thecce 
 into the Scammatha, which was the 
 moft dreadful of ail. He that in- 
 curred the Niddui, was to with- 
 draw himfelf from his relations to 
 the diftance of four cubits at leaft, 
 during the terra. 
 
 Night, was divided, by the 
 Romans, into four equal parts, 
 each confifting of three hours ; 
 thefe they called watches, and 
 reckoned by the firft, fecond, 
 third, and fourib watch, accord- 
 
NOB 
 
 NOM 
 
 ing to the cuftom obferved in the 
 army, where the guard was re- 
 lieved four times during the night. 
 The firft wacch began at fix in the 
 evening, and continued till nine; 
 the fecond commenced at nine, 
 and ended at twelve, or midnight; 
 the third watch 1 ailed from twelve 
 to three ; the fourth, or morning 
 watch, began at three, and clofed 
 at fix in the morning. This man- 
 ner of dividing the night, was 
 adopted by the Je^w! before our 
 Saviour's time, and is frequently 
 alluded to in the New Teftament. 
 The firft watch they caU O-v^s, or 
 Even ; the fecond MEi7o>!/>ilK>*, or 
 Midnight; the third AAsjclo^o^t^na, 
 or Cock-crowing ; and the fourth 
 
 The Romans furthur divided 
 the Night into Cicpufculum, or 
 Twi-light ; Prima fax, or Can- 
 dle-lighting; Vefper, or the Even- 
 ing ; Concubium, or Bed-time ; 
 Kox Intempejta, the Firft Sleep ; 
 Ad Mediant nodem, towards Mid- 
 night ; Media Nox, Midnight; 
 DeMedia Nocla, a little afterMid- 
 night; Gallidnium, Cock-crow- 
 ing; Conticinium, from Cock- 
 crowing till Day-break. 
 
 But the Night, with all its di- 
 vifions and fubdivifions, was ftill 
 fuppofed to confift, like the Day, 
 of twelve equal parts or hours, 
 which v/ere longer or ftiorter, ac- 
 cording to the feafon of the year. 
 See Day 
 
 NoBiLEs, among the Romans, 
 were fuch as had the Jus Imagi- 
 num, or the right of ufing the pic- 
 tures or ilatues of their anceftors; 
 a right which was allowed only to 
 thofe whofe anceftors had borne 
 lome Curule office, that is, had 
 been Curule j^Jile, Cenjor, Prat or, 
 or ConjuL For a long time, none 
 but the Patrick were the Nobiles, 
 becaufe no perfon but of that fu- 
 perior rank could bear any Curule 
 
 office ; hence in Li'vy, Salufi, &c. 
 Nobilitas is ufed to fignify the 
 Patrician order, and fo oppofed 
 
 to Plebs. To make the true 
 
 meaning of A'i7^/Zf'/ ftill more clear, 
 let it be obferved, that the Roman 
 people were divided into Nobiles, 
 No-vi, and Ignobiles. Nobiles were 
 they who had the piftures, &c. of 
 their anceftors, Novi were fuch as 
 had only their own, Ignobiles were 
 f ich as had neither. See Novi^ 
 Ignobiles, Jus Imaginum, &C. 
 
 The Roman Nobility, by way 
 of diftindlion, wore an half moon 
 upon their ftioes, efpecially thofe 
 of Patrician rank. 
 
 The Grecian Nobility were call- 
 ed Ei^TTol^jJat, as being defcended 
 from thefe old heroic anceftors, fo 
 famous in hiftory. Such were the 
 Praxiergidee, E'.robutida, Alcma- 
 onida, &c. all which had many 
 privileges annexed to their quali- 
 ty, amongft which was this, that 
 they wore grafhoppers in their 
 hair, as a badge of Nobility. 
 
 NoMEN, among the Romans, 
 was the name which immediately 
 followed the Pranomen, and anf- 
 wered to the Grecian Patronymic : 
 For example, in C. Julius Cafavy 
 C. is the Pranomen, Julius the 
 Nomen, and Cafar the Cognomen. 
 See this more largely explained 
 under the article Name. 
 
 NoMEN'CLATOR, amoogft the 
 Romans, was generally a flave who 
 attended perfons that ftood candi- 
 dates for offices. His bufinefs was 
 to prompt or fuggeft to them the 
 names of all the citizens they met, 
 that they might folicit their in- 
 tereft, and call them by their 
 names, which among the Romans 
 was the highcft piece of civility. 
 
 Nomenciators were ufed alfo up- 
 on many other occafions, as at 
 feafts, to call over the names of 
 the gueils, and aftign to each bis 
 proper place. 
 
 * B NOMIKIS 
 
NON 
 
 NOT 
 
 NoMiuis Delatiot in t\ie Roman 
 courts of judicature, was the en- 
 tering into the court-book the 
 name of the offender, and the na- 
 ture of his offence. The form was 
 this: The offender's name and his 
 crime were firft pronounced nji'ua 
 voee^ and then written on a ta- 
 blet and given to the Prator ; if 
 the Praetor appro\'ed it, the accuf- 
 €d party's name and crime were 
 inferted in the book, roll, or ca- 
 lendar of criminals. See Trial. 
 
 NoMopHYLACES, Athenian mz.- 
 giftrates who were appointed to 
 fee the laws duly executed upon 
 criminals, to take charge of pri- 
 foners, to feize thieves, kidnap- 
 pers, highwaymen, &c. upon fuf- 
 picion, to put them to death if 
 they confefTed the faft, or profe- 
 cute them in a judicial way if they 
 did not. The power of the No- 
 mophylaies, in fhort, was fimilar 
 to that of our Sheriffs. 
 
 NoMOPHYLACES, officers be- 
 longing to the O/yw/Zf games, ap- 
 pointed to inftrud in the laws of 
 thefe games, thofe who were to 
 contend. See HelUnodicee. 
 
 NoMOTHETiB, officers amongft 
 the Athenians, a thoufand in num- 
 ber, chofen by lot out of fuch as 
 had been judges in the court He- 
 lieea. Their bufinefs was to in- 
 fpeft the old laws, and caufe to be 
 abrogated fuch as were ufelefs, 
 prejudicial, orcontradidory. They 
 were alfo to take care that no man 
 ploughed or dug deep ditches 
 within the Pelajgian wall, or to 
 apprehend the offenders, and fend 
 them to the Archcn. See Laiu. 
 
 NoN Liquet, the form of the 
 verdift given by the Roman jury 
 when a matter did not appear 
 clear, but required a further hear- 
 ing. It was expreffed by the ab- 
 breviation N. L. See N. L. 
 
 NonJ&Capretina, a name given 
 to the Reman fei\ival of Poflifu- 
 
 gium. See Poplifugium. 
 
 NoNES, in the Roman Calendar^ 
 were the fifth days of the months, 
 January, February, April, June, 
 Auguft, September, November, 
 and December; and the feventh 
 of March, May, July, and Odo- 
 ber: Thefe four laR months hav- 
 ing fix days before the Nones^ and 
 the others only four. 
 
 March, May, July, and Ofto- 
 ber, had fix days in their Nones, 
 becaufe thefe months alone in A'a- 
 ma's year contained 31 days a- 
 piece, the reft having only 29, 
 and February 30; and Ceg/ar, 
 when he reformed the year, tho' 
 he affigned 31 days to other 
 months, yet did not allot them 
 fix days of A'owfx, which accounts 
 for thea^qu^lity- 
 
 Thel^ones were fo called be- 
 caufe they reckoned nine days from 
 them to the Ides, qu. nono. idus. 
 
 The Nones, like the Calends and 
 Ides, were reckoned backwards, 
 the number of the Nones running 
 in a feries contrary to thofe of 
 the days of the month. For the 
 manner of dating and counting 
 the Roman months, fee the table 
 under the article Month. See alfo 
 Calends, Ides. 
 
 Nose, was by the Augurs par- 
 ticularly attended to in forming 
 conjedlures concerningfuturegood 
 or ill fuccefs. The tingling of the 
 right or left fide of it, for inftance, 
 was thought to have different fig- 
 nifications as it happened to dif- 
 ferent fexes, or perfons in diffe- 
 rent conditions. 
 
 NoTARius, was an officer in 
 the Roman Courts whofe bufinefs 
 it was to take an account of pro- 
 ceedings. The Notarii alfo an- 
 fwered to our attorneys, and drew 
 up papers and writings which were 
 produced before the judge. They 
 were called Notarii, becaufe they 
 drew up contra^s and other inHru- 
 meots 
 
NOV 
 
 merits in notes or abbreviatures ; 
 which, after they had been exa- 
 mined and approveti, were written 
 in fair charafters, by the Tabelli- 
 oaest who feem to have had a par- 
 ticular authority over the Nctarii. 
 See Tabellio. 
 
 Note, Nota was ufed among 
 the Romans to fignify a charader 
 or abbreviation, ferving to denote 
 or exprefs fomething in a ihort 
 compafs. Notes, or a fpecies of 
 fhort hand, gave employment to 
 the Notarii, who always wrote in 
 charaders. The Greeks cultivat- 
 ed the art of writing a kind of 
 ihort-hand, and Xenophon is faid 
 to have been completely mafterof 
 it : But different perfons undoubt- 
 edly would adopt different fyf- 
 tems, as is the cafe amongft us. 
 
 Notes, charaiflers in mufic 
 which mark the tones of the voice 
 or found. The Greeks ufed the 
 common letters of their alphabet 
 for mufical notes; and as more 
 notes were required than they had 
 letters, this defeft wasfupplied by 
 their different portions, viz. plac- 
 ing them upright, inverting them, 
 doubling fome rtrokes and cutting 
 off others. This mode ofexprei- 
 ling the different tones, &c. was 
 v^x'f perplexed and intricate, but 
 continued till the eleventh cen- 
 tury, when Guido Arezzo, a Bene- 
 diftine Monk, in lieu of letters 
 fubftituted the fix fyllabies ut, re, 
 mi, fa, Jol, la, which were the 
 initial letters of a hymn to St. 
 John, which ran thus 
 UT queant taxis 
 R E/onare fibrts 
 MIra gejiorum 
 FAmuli tuorutn. 
 SOLve poUuti 
 LAbii r eat urn, 
 Sanile Johannes. 
 
 For an abridged account of an- 
 cient muiic in general, fee Mufic. 
 
 November, was fo called, be- 
 
 NOV 
 
 caufe it was the 9th month of /Jo- 
 mulus^s year, which began with 
 March: It is however the eleventh 
 month of the year, as fince reform- 
 ed by Numa and Julius Cafar. 
 See Month, Year, &c. 
 
 NovEMViRi, a name fometimes 
 given to the Athenian maoiftrates 
 called Archons, becaufe they were 
 nine in number. See Archon. 
 
 NovENDiALE, a folemn facri- 
 iice performed by the ancient Ro- 
 mans, when any prodigies appear- 
 ed, which they thought v/ore a 
 threatnlng appearance, and por* 
 tended fome difallrous event to the 
 public. It was ufually celebrated 
 for nine days, from which circum- 
 fiance its name is derived. Sep 
 Sacrifice. 
 
 NovENNAHA, feftivals and fa- 
 crlfices in honour of the dead, 
 after the fpace of nine years, as the 
 word itfelf implies. This parti- 
 cular attention to the memory of 
 deceafed relations and friends, 
 was not paid by all the Romans in 
 general, but by particular fami- 
 lies who chofe to have proper fea- 
 fons for this duty, as the iVov^w- 
 nalia, Decennalia, &c. The ce- 
 remonies on thefe occafions were 
 the fame as are mentioned un- 
 der the article Feralia, viz. fa- 
 crifices, feafts, and games. See 
 Feralia. 
 
 NovENSiLES, among the Ro- 
 mans, were heroes lately received 
 into the number of the gods; or 
 they were the gods of fuch pro- 
 vinces or kingdoms as they had 
 newly conquered. Romulus gave 
 the name of Dii Novenfiles to the 
 gods of the Sabines, after he had 
 adopted them, and built a temple 
 to their honour. 
 
 Novi Homines, among the Jio-_ 
 mans, were fuch perfons, as, by 
 their own perfonal merit and in- 
 fluence, had raifed themfelves to 
 (uruU offices without the aififtance 
 • B 2 of 
 
NU M 
 
 NUM 
 
 of family connexions, or the idle niently enough for the purpofes of 
 
 recommendation of illuftrious an- ready calculation. The invention 
 
 ceftry. They were fuch perfons, of the cypher, or arithmetical fi- 
 
 in fhort, as were the authors of the gures, which we now make ufe of, 
 
 nobility of their families. Novi has given us a very great ad- 
 
 Homines differed from Nobiles, for vantage over the ancients in this 
 
 the former had aright to ufe only refpeft. 
 
 their own pictures or ftatues, Mankind, we may reafonably 
 whereas the latter could alfo ufe fuppofe, lirft reckoned by their 
 thofe of their anceftors. See No- fingers, which they might indeed 
 hiles. Jus Imaginum, &c. do in a variety of ways. From 
 NovissiMA Verba, were the this digital arithmetic, very pro- 
 words fpoken at the clofe of the bably, is owing the number ten, 
 funeral ceremonies, after the urn which conftitutes the whole fet of 
 was lodged in the fepulchre. arithmetical figures. 
 They were .directed either to the The letters chiefly employed by 
 deceafed, or to the company ; the Rornans to exprefs numbers 
 when they were addrefled to the were, M, for looo ; D, for 500; 
 deceafed, this was the ufual form; C, for 100 ; L, for 50 ; V, for 
 
 rale, 'vale, 'vale : nos te ordine, 
 quo natura permijerit, cunFii jeque- 
 mur. The form with which the 
 Prtefica difmiffed the people was 
 Ilicet, i. e. ire licet, you have 
 leave to go. At their departure 
 
 5; X, for 10; and I, for 1. — 
 
 M, probably fignified looo, be- 
 came it is the initial of Mille ; D 
 flandi for 500, bccaufe it is Di- 
 midium Milk; C fignifics 1 00, 
 as being the firft letter of the uord 
 
 they generally wifhed the earth to Centum-, L Hands for 5c, bccaufe 
 lie light upon the reliques : fit it is half of C, having formerly 
 tibi terra le'vis. been wrote thus L ; V fignifies 
 
 Novus HcMO- See Noui H:- 5, becaufe V is the fifth vowel ; 
 mines ' 
 
 NuDiPEDALiA, a folemn ici- 
 tival obferved on account of feme 
 public calamity, as the plague, 
 famine, drought, &c. On this 
 occafion all were obliged, in token 
 
 X ftands for 10, becaufe it con 
 V 
 
 tains 
 
 twice 1 or V in a double 
 A 
 
 form ; I fiands for 1 , becaufe it is 
 the hrft letter oS Initium. 
 
 The "Jeijcijh' Cabbalids, the 
 of humiliation, to walk bare-foot- Grecian Conjurors, and the Roman 
 cd. Thefe folemnities were occa- Augurs, had a great veneration 
 fionally praftifed by yewj, G^^'f/fv, for particular numbers, and the 
 and Remans. refult of particular combinations 
 
 The ^c/«««Matrons, when they of them. Thus three, fuur, fix, 
 made vows or fupplications to the feven, nine, ten, are full of Divine 
 goddefs P'pjia, always walked to myfteries, and of great cfiicacy. 
 her temple bare-footed. See Three, Se^jen, Sec. 
 
 Numbers were bv the yeiu/, as Numella, an engine of wood , 
 well as the ancient Greeks and Ro- made ufe of by the Romans as an 
 /nans, exprefTed by letters of the inllrument of punifhment, in 
 alphabet ; hence we may conceive which the offender's neck and 
 how imperfecl and limited their feet were faftened. 
 arithmetic was, becaufe their let- Numella was alfo a rope or cord 
 ters could not be arranged in a made of raw ox-hides, to bind 
 feries, or in different lines conve- beafts with. 
 
 NUMENIA. 
 
NUP 
 
 N YG 
 
 NuMENiA. See Neomenia. 
 NuMENiAST^, an appellation 
 given to thofe that keep a tellival 
 on every new-moon. See Neome- 
 nia. 
 
 NuMMULARius was, smong 
 the Romans, a fort of banker, or 
 dealer in money. 
 
 It alfo fignifies one who was ap- 
 pointed to eftimate the goodnefs 
 or value of money, as to its weight, 
 finenefs of meral, and intrinfic 
 worth; and anfwers to an aflayer. 
 NuMMus, was freciuently ufed 
 for Sejiertius by the Romans, a ge- 
 neral word being put for a parti- 
 cular one. See Sejiertius. 
 
 For an account of the Money 
 of the Antients, fee Money. 
 
 NuNCiATio, among the Rc' 
 mans, was tlie report which the 
 Augur made to the Chief Magif- 
 trate of what he had feen ; the 
 Augur'i report was by the Magif- 
 trate communicated to the people, 
 after which the aflembly was dif- 
 mifled, which was called Obnun- 
 ciaiio. See Obnunciatio. 
 
 NuNDiN^.Were days fet apart 
 by the Romans for the country 
 people to exp^fe their wares and 
 commodities to fale, much like 
 our grearer markets or fairs. They 
 were called Nundina:, becaufe they 
 were kept every ninth day. The 
 Nundina at firll were reckoned in 
 the number of Feriie ; but were 
 afterwards, by a law, declared to 
 be Dies Fajii, for the conveni- 
 ence of the country people, that 
 they might be enabled, at the 
 fame time, to perform the bufi- 
 nefs of the market, and have their 
 controverfies and caufes decided 
 by the Prcetor. See Ftria, Fajli, 
 Day, &c. 
 
 NuPTi^, Marriage, fo called 
 from Nubere, to veil, becaufe the 
 bride wore a veil of the colour of 
 fire, called Flammeum. See Flam- 
 meum, Marriage ^ &c. 
 
 Nuptial BenedOiion, was ufed 
 to the married couple at the mar- 
 riage folemnity, by the Je^ws, 
 Greeks, iind Romans. That of the 
 Je^s was in this form, " BlefTed 
 be thou, O Lord, who halt created 
 man and woman, and ordained 
 marriage," &c. I'his was repeat- 
 ed every day during the wedding 
 week, provided there were new 
 guefts. The Grecian forn) of be- 
 nediftion was a.^a,^r) Tv^n ; tbe 
 Latin was quod faujlumfeli.xque Jit. 
 The 'Je'ws conftantly made ufe of 
 the fame form ; but the Greeks 
 and Romans frequently varied 
 theirs : A benediftion, however, 
 ia fome form, was always ufed. 
 See Marriage. 
 
 Nuts, among the Romans, were 
 thrown about the room, by new- 
 married men, immediately after 
 the chief ceremonies were con- 
 cluded, for the boys to fcramble 
 for. Various reafons have been afr 
 figned for this cuftom, but that 
 vvhich moft generally prevails is, 
 that, by this ad, the bridegroom 
 fjgnified his rcfulution to aban- 
 don trifles, and to take him- 
 felf to a ferious courfe of life, 
 nucibus-reliSis in that feiife has 
 palTed into a proverb. — The nuts 
 might alfo be confidered as an em- 
 blem of fertility. See Marriage. 
 The Roman boys played with 
 nuts at a variety of games, and 
 ufed to carry them in their bo- 
 foms. 
 
 NycTELEiA, were certain fa- 
 cred rites of Cybele, performed in 
 the night-time, and fo called from 
 that circumftance. The debaach- 
 eries pradtifed by her priefts upon 
 the occafion were fuch as would 
 not, perhaps, bear the eye of day. 
 They loiied darknefs rather than 
 light, becaufe their deeds nuere evil. 
 They were performed every three 
 years, in the fpring feafon ; but 
 fuch debaucheries were pxadifed, 
 
 tha( 
 
OAT 
 
 that the Romans prohibited the 
 celebration of them, on account 
 of the fhamelefs impurities with 
 which they were attended. 
 
 Nychthemeron, among the 
 Ancients, fignified the whole na- 
 tural day, or day and night, con- 
 fiding of twenty-four hours, or 
 equal parts. This way of confi- 
 dering the day, was particularly 
 adopted by the Jenjus, and feems 
 to owe its origin to that exprelTion 
 of Mo/es, in the firft chapter of 
 Genefis, " the evening and the 
 morning were thefirftday." — -Be- 
 fore the Jeavs had introduced the 
 Greek language into their dif- 
 courfe, they ufed to fignify this 
 fpace of time by the fimple ex- 
 preffioD of a night and a day. 
 
 It is proper here to obferve, 
 that all theeaftern countries rede- 
 fined any part of a day oi fwetity- 
 four hours for a <vjhole day^ and fay 
 a thing that was done on the third 
 or /e-venth day. Sec. from that laft 
 iuentioned, was done after three 
 Or/e'ven days. And the Hehreivs, 
 having no word which exactly an- 
 fwered to the Greek Nv^/>iJt.epovy fig- 
 nifying a natural day of twenty' 
 four hours, ufe night and day, or 
 day ajid zight, for it. So that to 
 fay a ihing happened after three 
 days and three nights, was, with 
 them, the fame as to fay it hap- 
 pened after three days, or on the 
 third day. This, being remem- 
 bered, will explain what is meant 
 by " the Son ofManh being three 
 
 OAT 
 
 days and three nights in the heart 
 of the earth." See Day, Nighty 
 &c. 
 
 At Rome, they had the com- 
 mand of the watch, and were call- 
 ed lioSiurni Triumwri, from their 
 office and number. 
 
 Nychtastrategi NvxIo5ga]j!yc», 
 among he Ancients, were officers 
 appointed to prevent fires in the 
 night, or to give the alarm and 
 call affillance when a fire broke 
 out. 
 
 NyMPH^ffTA, certain public 
 baths at Rome, of which there 
 were twelve in number, adorned 
 with curious ftatues o^ \.h.e. Nymphs, 
 to whom they were confecrated, 
 furniihed with pleafant grottoei, 
 and fupplied with cooling foun- 
 tains, which rendered them ex- 
 ceedingly delightful, and drew 
 great numbers to frequent them. 
 Silence was particularly required- 
 there, as appears by this infcrip- 
 tion, Nymphis loct, hike, lava, 
 tace. — A building of this kind is 
 flill to be feen betwixt Naples and 
 mount Vefwvius. 
 
 NyMPHACOGi, an appellation 
 given by the Greeks, and fome- 
 times by the Romans, to thofe who 
 conducted the bride from her fa- 
 ther's to the bridegroom's houfe. 
 The fame name is not infrequent- 
 ly applied to perfons who per- 
 formed the fame office amongft 
 the Jeivs, after they had adopt- 
 ed the Greek language. See Mar- 
 
 O. 
 
 OAT OAT 
 
 OATHS have been ufed a- curity for the performance of pro- 
 mong all nations for decid- mifes. Different formalities have 
 ing controverfies, and giving fe- been cuftoraary in different coun- 
 tries 
 
OAT 
 
 tries in taking oaths. The y^io/ 
 fometimes fwore with their hands 
 lifted up, and fometimes placed 
 under the thigh of the perfon to 
 whom they fwore. This was slfo 
 the cuftom among the Athenians 
 and the Romans. The Je-Ms at firft 
 fwore by none but Goii Almighty, 
 but afterwards they became more 
 corrupted in their morals, and 
 wilhed to imitate other nations, 
 r.vearing by the Creatures, by 
 yerujalem, by the Temple, by the 
 Altar, by the OfFering called Cor- 
 i^<j«, fometimes they fwore by their 
 Heads, by the Heavens, by the 
 Earth, &c. Our Sa'viour forbids 
 all fwearing, except upon folemn 
 and important occalions ; but few 
 occafions can be fo folemn as to 
 juflify an oath in converfation. 
 The ufe of the name of God, on 
 flight and trivial occafions, de- 
 ftroys, or at leaft greatly dimi- 
 nifhes, that reverence which we 
 ought to have of the Deity, 
 
 Ths RomanConfuls took an oath 
 when they entered upon their of- 
 fices, [-lurporting that they would 
 govern according to law. The 
 people fwore to the Emperors in 
 the Capitol, on the Calends of Ja- 
 nuary, by Jupiter Capitolinus, who 
 held a thunderbolt in his hand to 
 punifh perjury. At the ratification 
 of leagues or contrails, they fwore 
 per Jo'vem Lapidem, which was a 
 Itone Itatue of that god, holding a 
 flint in their hands. Judges when 
 firft put into commiflion fwore at 
 the altar called Puteal Libonis, 
 that they would proceed in their 
 office and pronounce fentence ac- 
 cording to law. In all law-fuits 
 the parties took the "J ur amentum 
 Calumni^, in which the plainciff 
 fwore he did not draw the declara- 
 linn too high, with a view to in- 
 jure the defendant, and the defen- 
 dant fwore he had not done the 
 injury alkdged by the plaintiff. 
 
 OAT 
 
 This was alfo the cuftom in the 
 Areopagus or chief court of judi- 
 cature among the Athenians, biic 
 to their oaths they added direful 
 imprecations likewife. The Aths'' 
 nian Judges, alfo, in criminal and 
 other matters, fwore to adminifter 
 impartial jullice. 
 
 The Roman foldiers took an oath 
 that they would run the fame 
 rifques, and fubmit themfelves to 
 all the fortunes of their General, 
 at the fame time brandifhing their 
 fvvords, to fignify that they were 
 ready to cut the throats of fuch as 
 fhould be guilty of perjury. The 
 Romans frequently fwore by their 
 heads, their lives, the heads and 
 lives of their children, the fortune, 
 life, or genius of the Emperor. The 
 men fwore by the gods, the wo- 
 men by the goddefTes. 
 
 The Athenians diftinguifhed 
 oaths into two kinds, the greater 
 and the lefs; th'e greater was when 
 the gods fwore by the Styx, or men 
 by the gods, or women by the 
 goddefTes : The lefTer oath was 
 when they fwore by a Creature. 
 A law of Solon allowed men to 
 fwear by Jupiter, Supplex, Pro- 
 curator, and A'verruncus, which 
 are three epithets of the fame 
 Jo~ue. Sometimes they fwore by 
 Neptune, Apollo, Ceres, &c. fome- 
 times by the ghofts of the deceaf- 
 ed, thus Demojlhenes fwore by the 
 fouls of thofe who were flain at 
 Marathon ; all thefe oaths were 
 reckoned of the greater kind, So- 
 crates made ufe of the lefTer oath, 
 and frequently fwore by a goofe, 
 a dog, a plane tree, &c. Men 
 often fwore by the implements of 
 their profefllon ; thus failors fwore 
 by their ftiips, fifhermen by their 
 nets, foldiers by their fpears, and 
 kings by their fceptres. In mak- 
 ing folemn oaths they fometimes 
 drew their hands through the fire, 
 or took up red hot iron, from an 
 opinion 
 
OBE 
 
 opinion that, if they fwore fincere- 
 Jy and honelily, they Ihould re- 
 ceive no harm ; this Teems nearly 
 akin to the ordeal tna], formerly 
 praftifed in our own country. 
 Women accufed of incontinence, 
 ufed to take a purgation oath, 
 which was written upon a tablet 
 and hung round the neck ; thus 
 sccoutred, they flepped into the 
 water up to the mid-leg. If they 
 were innocent, nothing enfued ; 
 but if guilty, the water rofe to 
 their necks, and covered the ta- 
 blet, to prevent the deteftable 
 crime of a falfe oath from being 
 expofed to view. This fort of 
 purgation oaths was taken in Si- 
 cily, in the temple of the gods 
 called Palici, and is not unlike 
 the Jeixsiflj trials by the Waters 
 'rf Jealoufy. See Adultery, Wa- 
 ters. 
 
 The Ancients guarded againft 
 perjury very religicufly; and for 
 fear they might fall into it thro' 
 negleft of due form, they ufually 
 declared that they bound them- 
 felves only {o far as the oath was 
 pradlicable ; and left the obliga- 
 tion fhould lie upon their gholls, 
 they made an exprefs obligation, 
 when they fwore, that the oath 
 fhould be cancelled at their death. 
 Perjury they believed could not 
 pafs unpunilhed, and expedled the 
 Divine vengeance to overtake the 
 perjured villain even in this life. 
 Perjury, however, in matter of 
 love, is reprefented, by the poets, 
 as an oftence of the moft trivial 
 nature, which the gods only 
 laughed at. See Perjury. 
 
 For the manner of fvvearing at 
 the conciufion of leagues and trea- 
 ties, fise the articles Feciaks, 
 Leagues, &c. 
 
 Obelisk, a quadrangular py- 
 ramid, flender and high, frequent- 
 ly charged with hieroglyphical fi- 
 gures and infcrjptioni, and ered- 
 
 OBO 
 
 ed for an ornament to fome pub- 
 lic place, or to (hew fome ftone of 
 an enormous fize, or to tranfmit to 
 pofterity important precepts of 
 philofophy, or to immortalize the 
 aflions of heroes. The Egyptian 
 priefts called their Obelifks the fin- 
 gers of the fun. either becaufe in 
 form they refembled a ray of the 
 fun, or ferved for fome aftronomi- 
 cal purpofcs ; and indeed one of 
 the ufes of Obehjks were to find the 
 meridian altitudes of the fun at 
 different times of the year, ferving 
 inflead of very large gnomons. 
 Augujius erected an Obelijk at 
 RcrKe,\nX\\t Campus Mar tius, which 
 marked the hours on an horiznn- 
 tal dial, drawn on the pavement. 
 One of the Obelifks now flanding 
 at Rome, viz. that of St. "John of 
 Lateran, is in height ic8 b'nglifh 
 feet, without the pedeffal ; and 
 that in the Campus Martins, wants 
 but little of the fame height. 
 Ohelijks have fmall bafes. Pyra- 
 mids \e.x'^ '^'■ge ones ; in this con- 
 fifts the difference : They differ 
 alfo in another refpeff ; for Obe- 
 hfks are generally all of a piece, 
 confining of one fingle flone ; 
 whceas Pyramids are formed of 
 feveral. — Obelijks are {o called 
 from oj36Xo;, afpit, broach, or long 
 javeiin, which they partly refem- 
 bled. Some fay the word Gbelifk, 
 in the Phenician language, figni- 
 fies a rav. 
 
 Obnunciatio, in Roman an- 
 tiquity, waf the difmifTion of the 
 Affembly of the People by the 
 Chief Magirtrate, after the /jvgur 
 had made his report of what 
 otnens, &c. he had obferved. See 
 ISuncialio. 
 
 Oeolus, an ancient filver coin 
 G^ Athens, worth about id. iq. 4. 
 The Roman Obolus was of the fame 
 value, being a fixth part of the 
 Denarius. Its name is derived 
 from o^sXoi, zfpit, or broach, ei- 
 ther 
 
OC R 
 
 ther becaufe it bore that impref- 
 f]oh, or becaufe it had the form 
 of it; but thofe in the Cabinets 
 of Antiquaries are round. See 
 Money. 
 
 Ooolus was the money put into 
 the mouths of the dead, as Cha- 
 r Oil's fare. 
 
 The Jews had a weight called 
 fometimes Qboius, ac other times 
 Gerah, equal to i6 barley-corns. 
 See Gerah and IVeight. 
 
 Obsecratio, was afolemn ce- 
 remony performed by the Chief 
 Magiftraces o( Rorne, to avert any 
 iaipending calamity. It confilled 
 of prayers offered up to the gods, 
 whom they fuppofed to be enrag- 
 ed. And fo exafl were they in 
 obferving the prefcribed form on 
 ihefe occafions, that a perfon was 
 appointed to read it over to the 
 man who was to pronounce it, 
 and the moft trifling omiffion was 
 held fufEcient to vitiate the whole 
 folemnity. 
 
 Obsequi^, were funeral (o- 
 lemnities performed at the burials 
 of eminent men. The word is 
 derived from obfequium, complai- 
 Jance, becaufe thefe obiequies are 
 the lall compliments or devoirs 
 we can render to the deceafed. 
 See Funtral. 
 
 Obsidionalis Corona, a crown 
 or garland made of grafs, and 
 given by the Romans to fuch Ge- 
 nerals as had delivered a Roman 
 army or fortrefs bef:eged by the 
 enemy. See Crovjn. 
 
 Obstetrix. See Mia'wife. 
 
 Obstita, among the Remans, 
 places which had been thunder- 
 ftruclc, called alfo Bidentalia. See 
 Bidental. 
 
 OcREffi, among the Ancients, 
 a fort of military ihoes or fhort 
 boots, made of white tin, and or- 
 namented about the ancles with 
 gold or filver. The Greeks called 
 them w-f\^\hiit and were fo well 
 
 ODE 
 
 provided with this article of defen- 
 
 five drefs, that they are diftinguifh- 
 ed by the name of tyy.i^fAi^-s A-)(jx,\(n. 
 Among the Romans, none were al- 
 lowed to wear the Ocrea but the 
 two higher ctajjis of the people, or 
 perfons whole eftates exceeded 
 7jOO drachma's. 
 
 OcTAETERis, 3 cycle or term of 
 eight years, in the Grecian Chro- 
 no'oo-y, at the conclufion of which 
 three entire lunar months were 
 added. This cycle was in ufe till 
 Melon's invention of the goldea 
 number or cycle of nineteen years. 
 See Tear, Month. 
 
 October, the eighth month of 
 Romulus's year, which the name 
 implies ; but tenth in the calendar 
 of Numa, Julius Cafar, &c. The 
 Senate gave this month the name 
 of Faujlinus, in compliment to 
 Fauftina, the wife of the Emperor 
 Antoninus ; Commodus would have 
 it called Innjiaus ; and Domitian 
 named it Domitianus ; but in fpite 
 of all thefe attempts it ftill retains 
 its original name. This month 
 was facred to Mars, and under his 
 proteftion. 
 
 OcTOBtR Eqiius, a horfe annu- 
 ally facj ihced to Mars in the month 
 of Qdober, either becaufe the horfe 
 is a warlike animal, or to puniflx 
 him for the taking of Troy A race 
 was run with chariots draWn by 
 two horfes, previous to the facri- 
 iice, and he that ran quickeft was 
 adjudged to be the vidim. 
 
 OcTOPHORUM, among the An- 
 cients, was a carriage with eight 
 wheels. It fignifies frequently a 
 chair, or litter, carried by eight 
 men. This kind of chair was moftly 
 ufed by the Ladies. It was a fpe- 
 cies of the LeBica. See Ledica. 
 
 Ode, in Ancient Poetry, a fong, 
 or compofition proper to be fung, 
 and compofed for that purpofe. 
 The finging was generally accom- 
 panied with fome mufical in- 
 * C ftrument. 
 
CECO 
 
 ftfument, chiefly the Lyre. See 
 Lyre. 
 
 Odes, at firft, were only of ore 
 kind, but by degrees, for the fake 
 of the mufic, they fo varied the 
 numbers and fett, that their kinds 
 are now almofl; innumerable. 
 
 The Ancient O/i? had originally 
 but one Jlanza or Jircphe, but was 
 at lall divided into three parts, 
 Jfrope, antijlrophe., and cpode. The 
 prierts going round the altar, fing- 
 ing the praife of the gods, called 
 their firft entrance Jlrophe, i. e. 
 turning to the left ; the fecond, 
 turning to the right, they called 
 - antijlrcphe, q. d. turning the con- 
 trary way ; laftly. Handing ftiil be- 
 fore the altar, they furg the re- 
 mainder, which they ca'led epcde. 
 
 Odeum, a mufic-theatre at 
 Athens, where mufical prizes were 
 contended for : It was built by 
 Pericles, and was full of feats and 
 ranges of pillars. Here was alfo a 
 tribunal. 
 
 Odeum, fometimes fignifies the 
 place where the mufic, intended f r 
 the theatre, was rehearfcd. The 
 name Odeum was applied alfo to 
 buildings that had no relation to 
 the theatre. Herod, the Athenian, 
 we are told by Pau/anins, built a 
 ft>agnincent Odeum for the fepul- 
 chre of his wife. 
 
 CEcoNOMiCAL Method of Dlf- 
 putation was that in which the 
 Difpuiants accommodated them- 
 felves, as far as poifible, to the tafte 
 and prejudice of thofs whom they 
 wifhed to bring over to their opi- 
 nions. Little attention was paid 
 to the means, if they gained but 
 their end. To them artifice and 
 plain-dealing were alike. Some 
 Chrijlian Dodlors in the early ages 
 of the Church, who had been edu- 
 cated in the Schools of the Sophijis 
 and Rhetoricians, rafhly employed 
 this method in the fervice ciChriJ- 
 tianity, and abufed St, Paul's ex- 
 
 OFF 
 
 ample, i Cor. ix. 20, 21, 22. to a 
 degree inconfiftent with the purity 
 and fimplicity of the Gofpel. The 
 Platonijis contributed much to the 
 fupportcf this ungenerous method 
 of difputing, by that maxim of 
 theirs, which afferted the innocence 
 of defending Truth by Artifice and 
 Falff hoods. 
 
 CEnisteria, facrifices offered to 
 Hercules by the youth of Athens. 
 previous to their firlt cutting of 
 their hair and beards. The prin- 
 cipal part of the offering was 
 wine. 
 
 CEnomancy, a fort of divina" 
 tion praftifed by the Ancients, in 
 which they drew conjeflures fronti 
 thecolour, motion, noife, and other 
 accidents attending the wine of li- 
 bations. 
 
 QiNOPT.^, were certain Athe" 
 tiian Officers or Cen/ors, who at- 
 tended fealls, regulated the num- 
 ber of cups each was to drink, 
 took care that no perfon drank too 
 much or too little, and prefented 
 to the Areopagus fuch as would not 
 be kept within the bounds of tem- 
 perance. 
 
 Offerings may be dilliiiguifli- 
 ed from Sacrifices, the latter con- 
 fiding of aniniah, the former of 
 the fruits of the earth. The He- 
 hretvs had fcveral kinds of offer- 
 ings, which they prefented at the 
 Temple, Some were free-will 
 offerings, and others were of obli- 
 gation. The firft-fruits, the tenths, 
 the fin-offerings, were of obliga- 
 tion ; the peace-offerings, vows, 
 offerings of bread, wine, oil, fait, 
 and other things which were made 
 to the Temple, or to the Minifters 
 of the Lord, were free-will offer- 
 ings, or offerings of devotion. Of- 
 ferings in general were called Cor- 
 ban. Offerings of bread, fruit, 
 liquors, which were prefented to 
 the Temple, were called Mincha. 
 The bread-offerings were to be free 
 
 from 
 
OFF 
 
 from leaven. Offerings, a? juft 
 now enumerated, were appointed 
 in favour of the poor, wlio could 
 not go to the charge of facrificing 
 animals : But meal, wine, fait, 
 &c. always went along with the 
 greater facrifices. Part of the 
 offerings were confumed on the al- 
 tar, and part was appointed for 
 the maintenance of the Priefts. — 
 No kind of oblation is more an- 
 cient than this of the fruits of the 
 earth. The Heathens, in the ear- 
 Jieft ages, offered clean wheat, flour, 
 and bread. See Sacrifice, FirJI- 
 fntits, SiC. 
 
 Officers of the Grecian armies 
 cannot, perhaps, be very accurate- 
 ly enumerated ; the lift, however, 
 which follows, will be found fuf- 
 liciently complete for general in- 
 formation. In the early ages. 
 Kings took the field, and were the 
 Generals of their own armies, or 
 chofe a Polcmarch to aifl in their 
 ilead. When the fupreme power 
 c^. Athens was exercifed by the peo- 
 ple, each tribe chofe a Prater, 
 with the title of I,Toct]Y>yo<; ; the 
 number was confequently ten ; an 
 eleventh was at length added, with 
 the name of Polemarch, who, on 
 nn equality of fuffrages, in a coun- 
 cil of war, had the calling vote. 
 Second in rank to the Strategi 
 were the T«|ja^;)^oi, who marfliall- 
 ed the army, cho;'e the ground for 
 encampments, laid down the route, 
 and calhiered foldiers who had been 
 guilty of great mifdenieanors. 
 
 As the Strategi and Taxiarchi 
 were the principal officers of the 
 infantry ; fo the YttnTOLsyjn and 
 fvXoi^^ot were at the head of the 
 cavalry. There were two Hippar- 
 thi, and ten Phylarchi: The for- 
 mer commanded all the cavalry, 
 the latter, the cavalry of each 
 tribe; they were therefore fubjedl to 
 the Hipparchif as the Taxiarchi 
 were to the Strategi, 
 
 ' OFF 
 
 There were fubaltern officers 
 
 named XiA»a^;i^oi, E>c«IoKla^j|^o« 
 
 riE^ala^^oi, Ov^uyoi, viz. Captains 
 of thculands, hundreds, fifties, fif- 
 teens, tens, fives. The Ov^xyot 
 took care that none cf the foldiers 
 were left behind or deferred. To 
 thefe may be added, the Zr^aloxjigt;!, 
 who conveyed the word of com- 
 mand ; S»,aEK)ipo^o;, the Enfign, 
 who remitted by figns the Officers 
 orders; "ZxXTriyxlrii;, theTrumpeter, 
 and Ywr^fl*)?, who fuppiied the fol- 
 diers with neceiTaries. Thefe four 
 were placed next to the foremolt 
 rank. 
 
 An account of the Officers in 
 the Roman army will be found un- 
 der their refpeftive heads. See 
 Imperator, Legatus, Centurio, &c. 
 
 Officers cf the navy, among, 
 the Greeks, were the Ap^ntv^coti-i^n^, 
 or Admiral ; Kt^jSt^vjjIr^j, or t'iiot ; 
 Tl^uoev^, or Under-pilot ; K£A£D5>)?, 
 or Jnfpedor of the Rowers; 
 T^ir,puv\'>;s, or Players oh the Flute 
 on board the Triremes; Nat^nXaxEf, 
 Infpedors of the Ships ; Aion-o*, 
 Supervifors of the VefTel ; To^-xjtxq- 
 Xpi, thofe who taks care of the 
 lides of the fhip ; 'Ea^x^iv<; he who 
 had the care cf the tire; Aoyi^yi^^ 
 the Keeper of the fhip's accounts : 
 Thefe O.fficers commanded the 
 failors. Thofe that commanded 
 the f-.ldiers on board were, the 
 Y,-To'Kx^'/o<i, or Commander of the 
 Troopt ; 'Hocva.^ypi;, the principal 
 Land-Officer on board ; EotsoAe:;?, 
 the fecond Land- Officer; Tpj/ji^a^p^oj 
 the chief Military Officer on board 
 a Triremes, &c. 
 
 The principal Officers on board 
 the Roman navy were, Pr^feiius 
 ClaJJis, or Admiral ; when two 
 were joined in command, they were 
 called Duumviri. — Trierarchus was 
 the Mailer of a Triremis ; the Gu- 
 bernator, or Matter ; the Celeujies, 
 or Boatfwain j with others of infe- 
 * C 2 rior 
 
OL Y 
 
 tJor note, fimilar in name and of- 
 fice to thofe of the Grecian navy. 
 See Ship- 
 
 Ointment. See Perfume, Ma- 
 lobatbrum. 
 
 Olympiad, a fpace or period 
 of four years, by which the Grecians 
 reckoned their time. This method 
 of computation took its rife from 
 the Olympic Games, which were 
 celebrated every fifth year near the 
 city Olympia, in Peloponnefus. The 
 Olympiads were fometimes called 
 Anr.i Iphiti, from Iphitus, who in- 
 ftituted, or at leaft renewed the fo- 
 lemnity of the Olympic Games. 
 The firft Olympiad, according to 
 fome, commenced in the year of 
 the Julian period 3938, from the 
 creation 3174, before Chrijl 774, 
 and before the foundation of Rome 
 24. According to others, the firft 
 Olympiad began in the year of the 
 Julian period 3941, of the world 
 3251, before Chriji 773, and be- 
 fore the building of Rcme 23. The 
 computation by Olympiads ceafed 
 after the 364th, in the year of 
 Chriji 440. 
 
 Olympic Games v/ere celebrat- 
 ed at Oiympia, a city of Elis, from 
 which they took their name. They 
 were inftituted in honour of Oym- 
 fian Jupiter. Their Origin is at- 
 tributed to Hercules, one of the 
 Idai Dadyli. See DaFiyli. 
 
 Thefe Games returned every 
 five years, and lafted five days. 
 They were omittsd a ftiort time 
 after their firft inftitution, but af- 
 terwards renewed by Iphilus ; and 
 from the time when he reftored 
 them, the Greeks counted the firfl 
 Olympiad. See Olympiad. 
 
 Trie people of Pi/a or Elis had 
 the care of thefe Games ; but mcft 
 commonly the Eleans. Public of- 
 ficers were appointed to condudl 
 them, and feize fuch as difturbed 
 the celebration of them. Thefe 
 officers were called h^-S\a\ by the 
 
 OLY 
 
 Eleans, and their chief was nam- 
 ed AXvla^^iii<;. Their fundlion was 
 the fame as that of the p'a.^hxoi* 
 or Lidors, in the other ftates of 
 Greece. In the more ancient times 
 women were not allowed to fee 
 the Games ; but afterwards there 
 were even female combatants, fome 
 of whom, we are told by hiftory, 
 obtained the prizes.— Any perfon, 
 who intended to be a competitor, 
 was to give in his name, and pre- 
 pare hiinfelf ten months before the 
 celebration. Nine of thefe months 
 were fpent in eafier exercifes ; but 
 during the tenth, he inured himfelf 
 to labour and fatigue, and pra£lif- 
 ed regular combats. Any man was 
 excluded from contending in thefe 
 Games, if either himfelf, his 
 friends or relations were branded 
 with infamy. The combatants 
 were matched sgainft each other 
 thus : A certain number of bails 
 were but into a filver vafe called 
 KaX'TTt;, on each of which a letter 
 of the alphabet was written. They 
 who drew the fame letters, were to 
 he antagonifts to each other. If 
 the number of combatants was un- 
 equal, he who drew the odd ball 
 was to contend laft with the con- 
 queror, and for that re.'ifon was 
 liiled E^fo^cf. 
 
 Befides running, leaping, box- 
 ing, wreftling, and the quoir, 
 which were called by the general 
 name of nev1aS?vci, or Sluinquertium, 
 there were others alfo, as horfe^ 
 racing, chariot-racing, SiQ. Some- 
 times the piize of eloquence, poe- 
 try, and the other fine arts was 
 difputed. Tjie victor's prize in 
 each of thefe contefts was a wreath 
 of wild olive, called in Greek Koltt-o?. 
 A prize of fmall value was chofen, 
 that the combatants might be fti- 
 muiated by courage, and the love 
 of glory more than by the fordid 
 hope of gain. In faft, the glory 
 of the conquerors was ineftimable 
 
 and 
 
I 
 
 OME 
 
 and immortal. Their ftatues were 
 erefted at O'ympia, in the facred 
 wood of Jo've, and they were con- 
 duced home in triumph on a car 
 drawn by four horfes, and were 
 complimented by poets, painters, 
 &c. nay many privileges and im- 
 munities were granted them ever 
 after. See ^inquertium, Pentath- 
 lon. 
 
 Not only all Greece, but foreign 
 nations alfo, reforted to thefe 
 Games, in great numbers, from 
 the extremities of ^^j/)?, from Li- 
 tya, Sicily, and other countries. 
 
 The combatants in the Olympic 
 Games contended quite naked ; 
 they ufed at firft to tie a fcarf 
 round their waift, but this having 
 once thrown down a perfon by en- 
 tangling his feet, and loll him the 
 viftory, it was adjudged to be laid 
 afide. 
 
 Chaplets of v/ild olive and 
 branches of palm were expofed on 
 a tripod, to the view of the com- 
 petitors, to encreafe their ardour. 
 The Prefident of the Games, call- 
 ed Hellanticdzecs, fat near the goal, 
 on a Tribunaly to determine the 
 eonteils and declare the vidlory, 
 
 Olymfionic^, a name given 
 to the viftors in the 0/)'w/>/V Games. 
 They were looked upon as ex- 
 tremely fortunate, and to have 
 done immortal honour both to 
 themfelves and their country, The 
 Athenians were fo iavifti in their 
 bounty to them, befides their 
 praifes, that Solon, by a fpecial 
 law, limited their liberality, net 
 fufFering the city to give them more 
 than 500 drachmas, about 58 oz, 
 of filver. The Olympioniae were 
 exempted from many troublefome 
 offices and difagreeable duties. See 
 Olympic Games. 
 
 Omen, among the Greeks and 
 Bomans, was a fuppofed fign or 
 indication of fomething future. 
 Omens may be divided into three 
 forts. I ft, External, or fuch as ap- 
 
 ONE 
 
 peared to men, but did not origi- 
 nate from them ; of this fort may 
 be reckoned an unufual fplendor, 
 or a remarkable darknefs in any 
 houfe, the former was a fortunate, 
 the latter an unfortunate prefage. 
 It was thought a direful Omen 
 when any thing unufual befel the 
 temples, altars, or ftatues of the 
 gods. Among the external Omens 
 we may rank unufual birds, mon- 
 rtrous births, the meeting of eu= 
 nuchs, blacks, apes, &c. zdly. 
 Internal Omens, or thofe which af- 
 fefted the perfons themfelves, com- 
 prehended marks upon the body, 
 perturbations of mind, panic ter- 
 rors, fneezing?. Sec. 3dly, Verbal 
 Omens, or ominous words, compre- 
 hended luch words as convey any 
 agreeable or difagreeable ideas ; of 
 the former fort was the mention of 
 a god, of profperity, of a name of 
 happy import, &c. Of the latter 
 kind was the mention of the Furies, 
 of death, of a prifon, or any thing 
 difgufting to the fenfes. See Ju- 
 gur, Diuination, &c. 
 
 Omer , a yf'u,'//2' meafure, the fame 
 as Homer. See Homer and Meafure. 
 
 Omophagia, a Grecian felHvai 
 in honour of Bacchus Omophagus, 
 i. e. the eater of raivji^jh. It was 
 celebrated with every appearance 
 of phrenzy and madnefs. The de- 
 vouring the raw entrails of a goat 
 was a ceremony peculiar to this 
 feftival, in imitation of the god, 
 who was fuppofed to have done the 
 fame godlike adlion ! 
 
 Oncus, an ornament ofthe head, 
 peculiar to thofe who offered facri- 
 £ce. 
 
 Oneirocritica, the art of in- 
 terpreting dreams, and foretelling 
 future events from them. In the 
 Scripture we frequently find, that 
 under the Je-iui/h difpenfation, 
 fome men really predided from 
 dreams what truly came to pafs, 
 as was the cafe with Jofeph, and aU 
 fo with Daniel during the capti- 
 vity ; 
 
OPH 
 
 vity ; but we ought not from thefe 
 Scripture inftances to conclude that 
 dreams are capable cf interpreta- 
 tion from artificial rule?, becaufe 
 we have reafon to fuppofe that a 
 particular revelation was granted 
 for the purpofe. Not only the 
 Greeks and Romans, but all nations 
 have pretended to this art, and 
 have in fome degree encouraged 
 and cultivated it. See Dreams. 
 
 Onomamancy, the art of di- 
 vining by the letters of a perfon's 
 name, whether good or evil for- 
 tune (hall befall him. Both Pytha- 
 goras and Plato lay a ftrefs upon 
 the name of a man, as having an 
 influence on his life, and feem to 
 advife the choice of names of for- 
 tunate import. See Name. 
 . Onychomancy, a fort of divi- 
 nation performed by examining the 
 nails of an unpolluied boy. For 
 this purpcle they were covered 
 with oil and foot, and turned to 
 the fun : The iniages rcprefented 
 by the reflexion ot the light gave 
 the anfv^er required. 
 
 OoscopiA, a method of divina- 
 tiop. by eggs, in which they obferv- 
 ed the leveral parts, and, after 
 brooding ever them awhile, hatch- 
 ed them into oracles \ 
 
 CpALiA, Roman fedivals in ho- 
 nour of the goddefs Ops : They 
 were celebrated for three days, be- 
 ginning en the 19th of December, 
 which was one cf the days of the 
 Saturnalia ; becaufe Ops v/as the 
 wife of Saturn. The vows offered 
 to the goddefs, on this folemn oc- 
 cafjon, were made fitting on the 
 ground, beciufe Ops reprefented 
 the earth, the mother of all things. 
 
 Ophiomancv, the art which the 
 Ancients preiu-f. Jed to, of making 
 predi^lions by ferpents. Serpents 
 were always regarded with atten- 
 tion, as portentous and facred. 
 Calchas fcretelis the continuance of 
 the Trojan war by a ferpent's de- 
 
 OPS 
 
 vouring eight fparrows with theif 
 dam ; and ./Sneas^s fcven yeaiis 
 wandering was foretold to him by 
 the feven coils of the ferpent which 
 was feen on Anchifes'& tomb. 
 
 OpiMA Spolia. See Spolia. 
 
 Opimatores, in the Roman 
 army, hid the direftion of the 
 provifions, and were to take care 
 that the foldiers wanted nothing. 
 
 Opisthodomos, the public trea- 
 fury of the Athenians, fituattd be- 
 hind Mineri>a's, temple, whence it 
 derives its name. Here was depo- 
 fiied rot only the public money 
 for prefent exigencies, but a thou- 
 fand talents againft particular emer- 
 gencies, the mifapplication of 
 which was punifhed with death. 
 In this place were kept regifters of 
 fuch as were indebted to the ftate. 
 Jupiter, Soter, and Plutus were the 
 guardian gods of the building ; the 
 latter was reprefented with ex- 
 panded wings, to {hew that riches 
 loon fly away. 
 
 OpisTHOGRAPHUM, among the 
 Greeks and Romans, was a v/alte- 
 book or fchedule, on which were 
 v;ritten extemporary things that 
 required revifal and correflion. 
 After the writing had been arrang- 
 ed and reftified, it was copied over 
 again, on the back of every page, 
 which was left blank for that pur- 
 pofe ; hence the name. 
 
 This appellation was alfo given 
 to books which were fo filled with 
 matter, as to oblige the author to 
 write on the outfide of bis vo- 
 lumes. To this Juvenal 3.\\\idei in 
 his firft Satire, verfe the 6th, 
 Script us tt in tergo, necdutn jinilus 
 Oreiles. 
 
 OpLiTODROMi, a name given by 
 the Greeks to ti\ofe who ran in ar- 
 mour at the Olympic and other pub- 
 lic games. 
 
 Oplomachi. See Hoplomachi. 
 
 Opsonomi, Athenian Officers, 
 whofe bufinefs was to infped, re- 
 gulate. 
 
OPT 
 
 OR A 
 
 gulate, and take care of the fifh- 
 market. They were two or three 
 in number, and appointed by the 
 Senate. 
 
 Opteria, a name given by the 
 Ancients to the prefents made to a 
 child, the firft time a perfon faw it 
 after the birih. 
 
 Opteria were likewife the pre- 
 fents which the bridegroom and his 
 friends made to the bride when 
 ihe took off" the veil and fhewed 
 her face to her fpoufe. It mull be 
 obferved, that the Grecian women 
 were kept under clofe confine- 
 ment, being rarely allowed to con- 
 verfe with men before marriage ; 
 or, if indulged in this particular, 
 they were obliged to wear a veil 
 in their prefence ; but marriage 
 admitted them to a more unreferv- 
 ed freedom. See Women, Mar- 
 riage. 
 
 Optimates, or3 of the divi- 
 fions of the Roman people oppofed 
 to Populars. It does not certain- 
 ly appear what were the ckarafte- 
 riilic differences betwixt ihefe two 
 parties. Some fay the Optimates 
 were warm fupporters of the dig- 
 nity of the chief magillratc, and 
 fticklers for the grandeur of the 
 iiate, who cared not if the inferior 
 members fuffered, fo be the com- 
 manding powers were advanced : 
 Whereas the Populares boldly ilood 
 up for the rights of the people, 
 pleaded for larger privileges, and 
 laboured to bring matters nearer 
 to a level. In fhort, they refem- 
 bled, according to this account, the 
 court and country parties amongll 
 the people of this iiland. 
 
 ^ ully fays, that the Optimates 
 were the beji citizens, who wifhed 
 to deferve the approbation of the 
 better fort ; and that the Populares 
 courted the favour of x.'tiZ populace, 
 not fo much confidering what was 
 right, as what would pleafe the 
 
 people, and gratify their own thirl! 
 of vain glory. 
 
 Optio, an officer in the Rcnati 
 arri.y, who afted as an affiilant or 
 lieutenant to every Centurion. The 
 Optio was fo called becaufe he was 
 the choice or option of the Centurion 
 in later times ; though at firft he 
 was chofen by the Tribune, or 
 Chief Commander of the Legion. 
 Thefe Opiiones are fometimes call- 
 ed Succenturiones and TergiduBores\ 
 the laft name was given them be- 
 caufe their port was in the rear of 
 the company. Authors make men- 
 tion of Sub-optioties or Sub-lieute- 
 nants. 
 
 It is proper under this head to 
 obferve, that Optiones were not 
 peculiar to the camp, but were 
 alfo ufed in many other offices of 
 life. 
 
 Oracle, is ufed to fignify both 
 the anfwer given with refpeft to 
 any doub:ful matter or future 
 event, and alfo the place where the 
 anfwer was received. The ftupi- 
 dity and blindnefs of the heathens 
 cannot be fufficiently wondered ar, 
 with refpecf to their oracles, 
 wh;ch were always captious, or 
 obfcure, or ambiguous, and no- 
 thing eife but the pure artifice of 
 the priefts, without any diabolical 
 operation ; though thefe reverend 
 gentlemen made the people believe 
 that the gods fpoke by their 
 mouths. 
 
 The Oracles were held in fuch 
 veneration, and had obtained fuch 
 credit, that they were confulted by 
 the Greeks in particular, and often 
 by the Romans, upon important af- 
 fairs and doubtful events. Their 
 anfvvers were deemed the advice of 
 heaven, and received with impli- 
 cit faith. In ihort, if a form of 
 government was to be changed, 
 laws made, war declared, or peace 
 concluded, the Oracles were firft 
 
 con- 
 
OR A 
 
 confulted. Large gifts and facrl- 
 iices were cbnftantly expefted from 
 thofe who confuked tht-m : Hence 
 all but princes and rich men were 
 excluded, and thofe only admitted 
 upon certain days. Of the gods 
 who preiided over Oracles, the moll 
 eminent were Jupiter and Apollo. 
 All Oracles, however, were not 
 delivered in the fame manner. In 
 feme places the anfwers were given 
 by interpreters ; in others, the 
 gods themfelves revealed their will 
 either by a voice, or dreams, or 
 feme decifive events. But I (hall 
 give a particular account of fome 
 of the njcft famous Ora^/^j. 
 
 The Oracle of Dodona, a city of 
 Chaonia, or Molojfta, or Theffaly, 
 (for fb various are the opinions of 
 the learned with refped to its fuu- 
 ation) was the molt ancient. Near 
 Dodona was a forefl: of oaks confe- 
 crated to Jupiter, and held from 
 time immemorial in the higheft 
 veneration. Thefe oaks were re- 
 ported to fpeak and report the an- 
 fwers of the god. Two doves alfo 
 are faid to have perched upon a 
 particular tree, which was taller 
 than the reft of the foreft, and from 
 this elevated fituution to have given 
 anfwers to thofe who confulted 
 them. But the origin of thefe fa- 
 bles is this; In early times, the di- 
 viners of this place, when confult- 
 ed, mounted an oak, and fatis- 
 lied enquirers from the top of it. 
 Hence the tales of the vocal and 
 prophetic oak. Afterwards old 
 women of the proper fex, were ap- 
 pointed to this office ; and the 
 word Yiih.ny.^i.'; in the TheJ/alian 
 language, fignifying both old wo- 
 men and doves, this ambiguity 
 gave rife to the fable of the pro- 
 phetic doves. A wonderful foun- 
 tain and a remarkable caldron 
 contributed much to the fame of 
 this Oracle. The fountain would 
 extinguilh a lighted torch, or light 
 
 GR A 
 
 an extinguifhed one. The caldron 
 made a continual noife, occafjoned 
 by the wind, or fome other caufe ; 
 but was fuppofed to proceed from 
 the immediate influence of the pre- 
 fent deity. From the incclTant 
 founding of this wonderful caldron 
 Came the proverb XaXxsjovAw^iyfaio/, 
 Dodonean brafs. 
 
 The moft famous Oracle was 
 that at Delphi, a city of Phocis. 
 Here was the celebrated temple of 
 Pythian Apollo, whofe Oracle was 
 called Pythian ; the prieftefs who 
 gave the anfwer, Pythia ; and the 
 folemn games exhibited at Delphi, 
 the Pythian games. The word 
 Pythian is, by fome, derived from 
 the ferpent Python, by others from 
 Trt-SEs-Sau, to rot, becaufe that fer- 
 pent rotted in that country ; but 
 the moll likely derivation is from 
 •nv^a,, another name of the city of 
 Delphi. This Oracle was very an- 
 cient, and flourilhed one hundred 
 years before the Trojan war. It 
 originally belonged to the goddefs 
 Themis, who refigned it in after 
 times to Apollo. 
 
 A flock of goats are faid to have 
 given rife to this Oracle. For on 
 mount Parnojjiis there was a deep 
 cave, with a narrow entrance, 
 which, by its exhalations, was ob- 
 ferved to afFeft the goats that ap- 
 proached it, in a furprizing man- 
 ner, making them fcream and 
 frilk. The goat-herd, furprized 
 at the phjenomenon, in order to 
 gratify his curioficy, went to the 
 place, and found hiir.felf indantly 
 feized with a kind of fury and di- 
 vine enthufiafm, which opened fu- 
 turity to his view. A Tripod v.'as 
 therefore placed over the opening 
 of this cavern, and a temple built 
 there. Notwithftanding the fmall 
 degree of credit which this fable 
 may receive, it is certain, that in 
 the fanduary of the temple there 
 was a deep cave, from which a 
 
 cold 
 
OR A 
 
 cold exhalation rofe high into the 
 air ; and that a Tripod, calkd 
 %f>)?>!poic and 9r^o^r)1i)£o?, was placed 
 over the opening of it. See Tri- 
 pcd. 
 
 The Tripod had a cover to it of 
 a circular form and full of holes, 
 on which the prieftefs fat, and thus 
 intoxicated heifelf with the vapour 
 which exhaled from the bottom 
 of the cave ; after which, with 
 difheveiled hair, and a foaming 
 mouth, fhe proaounced her Ora- 
 tks. 
 
 The Pythia, or Prieftefs, was at 
 iirft a young girl ; but in later 
 times, a woman of fifty years of 
 age was appointed to that office. 
 Phemonoe was the firft and molt fa- 
 mous of the Pythias, and delivered 
 her Orticles in hexameter verfes. 
 One month in the year, called 
 Bio-jo; or Ili/trio?, was allowed for 
 coniulting the Delphic Oracle i but 
 in after times it was confulted once 
 every month. Whoever applied 
 for information here, was obliged 
 to bring ample prefenrs, and offer 
 facrfices to Jpollo. Thefe prefents 
 enriched the temple, and the facri- 
 fices afforded an handfome fubfift- 
 ance to the priells, called O(7»o», 
 who were five in number, and had 
 the care of ihefe facrinces. They 
 who came to confult the Oracle, 
 walked with crowns on their heads, 
 and gave in their quedions written 
 and lealed. The anlwers were de- 
 livered in Greek hexameter, and 
 ibmetimes in Iambic verfes. But 
 in latter times the Oracles were ge- 
 nerally given in profe. The lan- 
 guage of the anfwers was common- 
 ly obfcure and equivocal ; hence 
 Apollo had the furname Ao|i«5. 
 The Oracles were however deem- 
 ed infallible, whence the proverb 
 T05 ir. TciTToJ'o^, fignifying Truth. — 
 But whatever the priellefs might 
 be as to her infallibility, we cacnot 
 
 ORA 
 
 {i'f much of her honefty, for we 
 read o'" her taking bribes. 
 
 When this Oracle ceafed is very 
 uncertain. Some fay it was filenc 
 in the reign of Nero ; but it is 
 proved from good authority to 
 have given anfwers aftter that 
 time, and even in the days of Ju- 
 lian the Apoltate. Chrijiians af- 
 fert, without fufficient proof, that 
 Oracles became dumb immediately 
 upon the birth of our Saviour .• 
 But it is highly probable that, as 
 they were managed by human ar- 
 tifice, without diabolical affiftance, 
 they would not be at all afFefled 
 by that event, immediately on its 
 taking place. Their filence is na- 
 turally accounted for, from the 
 decline of men's credulity, and the 
 frequent detedion of oracular im- 
 poliure. 
 
 The Oracle of Trcphonius, in the 
 neighbourhood of Lebadia, a city 
 of Baectia, was held in high eftima- 
 tion. It received its name fronv 
 Trophonius, the brother o{ Agamedes^ 
 who lived in a fubterranean dwell- 
 ing near Lebadia, pretended to the 
 faculty of foretelling future events, 
 died in his cave, and was deified 
 as an oracular god. This Oracle 
 owed its reputation to one Saon. 
 
 Tho(e who repaired to this cave 
 for information, were required to 
 offer certain iacrifices, anoint them- 
 felves with oil, and bathe in a cer- 
 tain river: They were then cloth- 
 ed in a linen robe, took a honeyed 
 cake in their hands, and defcended 
 into the fubterranean chamber by 
 a narrow paflage. Here it was 
 that futurity was difclofed to them, 
 either by vifions or extraordinary 
 founds. The return from the cave 
 was by the fame paflage, but the 
 perfons confulting were to walk 
 backwards. They generally came 
 out aftonilhed, melancholy, and 
 dejeded ; hence the proverb, ny 
 
OR A 
 
 T^ofixiviyj ix'^ixavliulxi. The pnefts on 
 their return placed them on an ele- 
 vated feat, called the feat of Mne- 
 mc/yne, where an account was taken 
 c f what they had {^^x\ and heard. 
 They were then condudled to the 
 chapel of good Genius by their 
 companions, where, by degrees, 
 they recovered their ufual compo- 
 fuie and chearfulnefs. 
 
 Befides the three principal Ora- 
 cles of Greece, now defcribed, we 
 ciight to take notice of that of 
 Amphiaraus at Oropius in Attica. 
 .It was fo called from Amphiaraus, 
 the fon of Oiclius, a man {killed 
 in magic, the interpretation of 
 dreams, &c. and who after his 
 death was deified and delivered 
 Oracles in a temple eredted to his 
 divinity. They who applied to 
 him for information, were to pu- 
 rify themfelves, offer facrifice, fall 
 tv;enty-four hours, abftain from 
 wine two days, and make an of- 
 fering of a ram to Amphiaraus, on 
 the fkin of which they were to 
 fleep, and fee their deftiny in a 
 dream. Near the temple was Am- 
 phiaraus''% fountain, which was fa- 
 ered, and the waters of it forbid- 
 den to be ufed for ordinary pur- 
 pofes. 
 
 At Delos there was an Orjicle of 
 the Deli an Apollo ; in Mtlefa was 
 that of the Eranchidir, with others 
 of lefs rote, which require not a 
 particular defcription, luch as that 
 of the camps at Lacedemon, that of 
 Nabarcha, that o{ Chryfopoli^, that 
 of Claros in hnia, that of Mailos, 
 that of Patarea, that of Pella, that 
 of PhufcUides, that of Sir.ope, that 
 cf Orpheus's bead, &c. 
 
 Though the Remans confulted 
 the Grecian Oracles upon many 
 occafions, and had few Oracles in 
 their own country ; yet we muft 
 ret omit mentioning the Cumaan 
 Oracles, which were delivered by 
 ■the ^ibyl of Cuma. For an ac- 
 
 QR A 
 
 count of the Sibyl, fee the article 
 Sibyl. 
 
 Oration, a fpeech or harangue, 
 fram3d according to the rules of 
 Oratory, and fpoken in public. 
 Orations are of three kinds, ift, 
 Demonji rat I've, which includes Pa- 
 negyrics, Genethliaca, Epitbaiamia, 
 Epiceaia, Lucharijli^, Epinicia. and 
 Congratulations ; 2d, Delihtrati-ve^ 
 to which belong Perjuafion, Dif- 
 fuafton. Exhortation, and Com'henria- 
 tion ; 3d, "Judicial, which contains 
 Accujation, Confirmation, Confuia' 
 tioH, &c. 
 
 Oral Law. See Cahala. 
 
 Orator, among the Romanst 
 diif^red from a Patronus : The 
 latter was allowed only to plead 
 caufes on behalf of his Clients', 
 whereas the former might quit the 
 Forum and afcend the Pcftra or 
 Tribunal, to harangue the Senate 
 or the people. Th:; Orators had 
 rarely a profound knowledge of 
 the law, but they were eloquent, 
 and their llyle was generally cor- 
 reft and concife. They were em- 
 ployed in caufes of importance, 
 inftead of the common Patrons. 
 Orators, in the violence of elocu- 
 tion, ufed all the warmth of gef- 
 ture, and even walked backwards 
 and forwards with great heat and 
 emotion ; this it was which occa- 
 fioned a witticifm of Fla<vius Fir- 
 ginius, who aflced one of thofe 
 walking Orators, '* ^ot millia paf- 
 Juum declamajfet /"' Hoiv many 
 MILES he had declaimed. Similar 
 to the Roman Orators were the 
 Grecian Rhetores. There were two 
 forts of Orators in the ftate of 
 Athens, devoted to the fervice of 
 the republic. One fort was to de- 
 fend an old law when a motion 
 was made to repeal it. Thefe 
 Orators were in the pay ofthe 
 ftate; but the fame man, when the 
 term of his fervice expired, was in- 
 capabk of being eiecled again. 
 
 The 
 
ORG 
 
 OR^ 
 
 The other fort confiftexl often fet- 
 tled Orators, called Rhitores. bee 
 
 Kheloies. 
 
 Orchestra, in the Grecian 
 theaires, was th^t part of the Prof, 
 anium, or l^age where ihe Chorus 
 ufed to dance. In the middle of 
 it was placed the Aoyeto*, or pul- 
 pit. The Orchefira was of a femi- 
 circular form, and furroiuided with 
 feats. 
 
 In the Roman theatres the Or- 
 thejira made no part of the Scena, 
 but anfwered nearly to the pit in 
 our p-'ay-houfes, being taktn up 
 witii ieats for Senaiors, Magifirates, 
 Vefiats, and other perfons of dif- 
 tindioo. The adors never went 
 down into it. See Theatre. 
 
 Orcixi Llberti, a name given 
 to fucn of the Liherti among the 
 Romans as had been made free by 
 tellament, becaufe their freedom 
 did not commence till their maf- 
 ttis were gone to Orcus, i. e. dead. 
 S'.'f Liherti. 
 
 Ordinarii, a name given to 
 G'aiiiators who were appointed to 
 exaibit combats on cercain I'ated 
 days. See Giadiaiors. 
 
 Organ, as a mufical inftru- 
 irei.t, is of confiderabie antiquity, 
 though little ufed till the eighth 
 Century. It f^ems to have been 
 borrowed from the Greeks, and is 
 defcribed by Vitruvius in his tenth 
 book. 
 
 Orgia, feafls and facrifices in 
 honour of Bacchus, held every third 
 year, and chiefly celebrated by 
 wild diltraded women, called Bac- 
 ch/e. The chief folemniiies were 
 performed in the night, to conceal, 
 perhaps, their £hock.ir.g impuri- 
 ties ; and a mountain was gene- 
 rally chofen as the place ot cele- 
 bration. They were inilituted by 
 Orpheus, and from him are fonie- 
 times called Orphica. Authors are 
 DOt agreed as to the derivation ot 
 the word; but if we conHder the 
 
 frantic proceedings of the Baccha- 
 nalians, opyo, furor, bids fair for 
 the true et)mology. See Bucha- 
 ttalia, DioKjfia, &;c. 
 
 Orgia, according to Seri/ius, 
 was a common name for all kinds 
 of f;-:crifices amongft the Greeks, a$ 
 CertmcHia was among the Ry- 
 ot am. 
 
 Orgyia, 0^vi», was a Grecian 
 meafure of length, containing four 
 lirr/if,:,, or fix Grecian feet, and 
 a Grecian foot w- as one foot, Enflifh, 
 and 0875 decimal parts. See Mea- 
 fure. 
 
 Orichalcxjm, a mixed metal 
 amongll the Ancients, made on 
 the fame bafis that we make our 
 brafs at prefent ; but they had fc- 
 veral ways of doing it, and diliia- 
 guilhed it intofeveral kinds. Pliny, 
 indeed, teils us of one natural 
 mine of this metal, found fome- 
 where, of much higher value than 
 the artificial; but that ic \\'as at 
 Jail exhautled. This, however, is 
 contrary to the opiaion of all the 
 Greek nvriters, who declare that 
 Orichakum was made with copper 
 and Lapis Calatai-iaris, as bra.'s is 
 now made. Orichakum Album was 
 made by mixing an earth with cop- 
 per whiie in fufion ; but what that 
 earth was we are no where inform- 
 ed. This compofuion acquired a 
 peculiar brighmefs, anJ coiitirued 
 dudiie. 
 
 Originaru, an apptllatioa 
 giveik by tlie Romans to flaves bora 
 in their maimers' houfes, v,ho v/ers 
 alio call'.-d '/ernts. 
 
 Ornithomancy, a kind of di- 
 vination by means of birds, prac- 
 tiied by the Greeks, and fimilar to 
 the Roman Augury. S;e Augur ^ 
 
 V-r- 
 
 Qrp H AH s of Athens, whofe fa- 
 thers had ioft their lives in their 
 country's caufe, were provided for 
 by the Polemarch out of the pub- 
 lic treafury. See Polemarch. 
 
 * D 2 0?,PHEOT^LiST.^, 
 
osc 
 
 Orpheotelist^, were pcr- 
 fons initiated in x\ie,Orphic myfte- 
 lies. They afTured all that were 
 admitred into their fociety of cer- 
 tain felicity after death : This 
 made Leotychidasy the Spartan, re- 
 ply to Philip, one of that order, 
 who was boalHng of this afTurance, 
 *• Why do you not die then, you 
 fool, that you may get rid of your 
 misfortunes, together with your 
 life." An oath of fecrecy was re- 
 quired at their initiation, and this 
 was indeed the principal thing ex- 
 pcfted from them. 
 
 Orygma, among the Athenians ^ 
 was a dark, noifome hole, in which 
 criminals were confined and exe- 
 cuted after conviftion. The top 
 was fecured with rtiarp fpikes to 
 prevent an efcape, and the bottom 
 was full of prongs to pierce and 
 torment thofe who were thrown 
 into it.— »Ic was fometimes called 
 Barathron. See Barathron 
 
 OscopHORiA, a feall inflituted 
 by The/eus, in memory of his ter 
 vices to his country, by deftroying 
 the Minotaur, and freeing his native 
 city from the annual tr:-bute of fe- 
 ven young men, who were deltin- 
 cd to be devoured by that mon- 
 Iter. At this feftival young peo- 
 ple, whofe fathers and mothers 
 were alive, uled to run to the tem- 
 ple of Bacchus, and that of Mi- 
 nerva aUo, with grapes in their 
 hands He who arrived firR was 
 conqueror, and performed facri- 
 £ce by pouring out of a phial a 
 mixture of wine, honey, cheefe, 
 flour, and oil. — The Ojchophoria 
 are fuppofed by fome to have been 
 inilituted in honour of Minernja 
 and Bacchus, who ailifted Thejeus \n 
 his enterprize — Others imagine 
 they were in honour of Bacchus 
 and Ariadne. They had the name 
 from offyjxi, branches of a 'vine loaden 
 nvith grapes, and <peg«, to carry ; be- 
 caufe, as Plutarch iays, Thejeus re- 
 
 OST 
 
 turned to Athens, where thefe {tU 
 tivals were held, at the time of the 
 vintage. 
 
 OsciLLA, fmall images of wax 
 or clay, made in the fhape of men 
 or women, and confecrated to Sa- 
 turn, to render him propitious. 
 Ofcilla is fometimes ufed to fignify 
 a kind of malks fcooped from the 
 bark of trees, and worn by the 
 performers of comedy in the ruder 
 ages of Rotne. In this fenfe we 
 meet with it in Vir. Geo. ii. 386. 
 It is alfo ufed to fignify little heads 
 or images of Bacchus, which the 
 countrymen of old hung upon 
 trees, that the face might turn 
 every way, out of a notion that 
 the countenance of this god gave 
 felicity to themfelves, and fertility 
 to their vineyards. An allufion to 
 this opinion and cuftom is found 
 in yirgil, Geo. ii. 388. 
 
 OsciNEs, an appellation given 
 by the Romans to thofe birds whofe 
 chattering and notes were regard- 
 ed as cmens and predictions. Of 
 this fort were crows, pies, jays, 
 owls, r.ivens, &c. See Augur, &c. 
 
 OssiLEGiUM, the a£t ot tolleft- 
 ing the bones and afiies of the 
 dead, after the funeral-pile was 
 burnt down. It was performed 
 by the friends or near relations of 
 the deceafed. The perfons con- 
 cerned in gathering up the remains, 
 firft wafhed their hands and ungirt 
 their garments. When all the 
 bones were colle<^ed, they were 
 wafhed with wine, milk, perfumes, 
 and the tears of friends ; after this 
 ceremony was over, the relicks 
 were put into an urn, and the urn 
 was depofited in a fepulchre. — 
 See Funeral, Pile, SepulcLre, &c. 
 
 The ceremony of OJJilegium was 
 performed in the fume manner by 
 the Greeks, and called Oi^ioMy^ov . 
 
 Ostium, called by the Greeh 
 
 fo^Aa, was the entrance or mouth 
 
 of a harbour, between the arms of 
 
 ' the 
 
OVA 
 
 OX Y 
 
 the femi- circle, of which figure 
 their harbours generally were. 
 The mouth of the harbours were 
 fometiraes called Fauces. See Har- 
 bour, 
 
 Ostracism, a kind of popu'ar 
 judgment or condemnation among 
 the Athenians, whereby fuch per- 
 fons were banifhed as had power 
 and popularity enough to attempt 
 any thing againft the public liber- 
 ty. This kind ofpuni{hment, there- 
 fore, was fo far from being infa- 
 mous, that it was efteemed hono- 
 rable ; for it was not the confe- 
 quence of any crime, but of extra- 
 ordinary merit; it was not irflift- 
 ed becaufe the Athenians hated, but 
 becaufe they loved the perfon con- 
 demned. 
 
 The banlfliment of Of.mcifm 
 lailed f r ten years, but the patriot 
 exile had, during all that time, the 
 fall enjoyment of his eftate. 
 
 The procefs in this condemna- 
 tion was thus. The people being 
 aflembled, every man t»>ok a tvle 
 called of^axov, and carried it to a 
 certain part of the market.place, 
 furrounded with wooden rails for 
 that purpoie, in which weie ten 
 gates for the ten Tribes to enter 
 diftinftly : In this place the tyles 
 were depofited by each perfon, 
 and numbered in grofs by t.ie Ar- 
 chons : [if the tyles did not amount 
 to 6000 the Ojhacijm Vt^as void.] 
 Then laying every name by itfelt, 
 the Archons pronounced him whofe 
 name was written by the major 
 part, banifhed for ten years, with 
 leave to enjoy his ellate. — Ofira- 
 iijm was fo called from cj^axov, a 
 ihell or tyle. 
 
 Othone, a kind of linen gar- 
 ment worn by women among the 
 ancients both of Gr^^f^and Rome. 
 
 'Ovation, among the Romans, 
 was a lefler Triumphs granted to 
 thofe who had gained feme advan- 
 ta^^e cvc; the enemies of the {la;e. 
 
 \vl;ich h^cl coft little ; or over ene- 
 mies of lefs confideration, and un- 
 worthy of the Rctr.un arms, as pi- 
 rates, &c. or when a war had been 
 happily concluded without mucii 
 eil'ufion of blood ; or elfe when s 
 war had not been declared in all 
 its due forms. The Ovation re- 
 quired much lefs preparation than 
 the greater Triumph. For the per- 
 fon who had the honour of an O-ya- 
 tion made his entrance on foot 
 moft commonly, fometimes ou 
 horfeback, but never in a chariot, 
 and only to the found of flutes, 
 not of trumpets. He was preceded 
 by the foldiery with olive branches 
 in their hand-, and was drciTcd ia 
 a white robe bordered with pur- 
 ple. To fliew that the adlo;) had 
 not been very bloody, he wore on 
 his head a crown of myrtle, called 
 corona o-valis. The Senate, Knights^ 
 and principal Plebeians alfiiled at 
 the prcceffion, which began at the 
 Albanian mount, and concluded at 
 the Capitol, where rams were facri- 
 ficed to Jupiter. The firil Ovation 
 was granted to Pojthumius Tuhertm 
 the ConJ'ul, for his vidtory over the 
 Sabines, in the 253d year of R.omr. 
 The Ofation had its name not 
 from O .' and E-voe ! the scclama- 
 lions of the people on the occa- 
 fjon ; but from Ovis a iheep, be- 
 caufe that animal was facrificed 
 by the conqueror; which dillin- 
 guilTiesit from the greater Triumph, 
 in which an ox was offered. Sec 
 Triumph. 
 
 OviLiA, called alfo Srpta, were 
 places or apartments in the Campu: 
 Martins, endofed ar,d fenced about, 
 into which the people entered to 
 give their votes in the Comitia. 
 They palled into the Ovilia over 
 planks or boards laid there for the 
 purpofe, and called Pontes. See 
 Comitia, Pontes. 
 
 OXYEAPHON, O:?ypci<pov, W3S a 
 
 Crecicn raeafuiC cl capacity, con- 
 tiiaiog 
 
P A C 
 
 taining one cyathus and a half, 
 equal m Englijh meafure lo -J of a 
 pint, and 53 ;f decimal parts of an 
 inch. See Meafure. 
 
 Oysters were efteemed as a 
 great delicacy among the Romans^ 
 efpecially among thofe U'ho were 
 admirers of table-luxury. They 
 were generally eaten at the begin- 
 ning of the entertainment, and 
 brought to the table unopened. 
 Our own country had the honour 
 to furnilh the Romans wiih Oyfters, 
 which they fetched from Sunaivich, 
 and jfunjenal fays, that Montunus 
 was fo well {killed in thefcience of 
 good eating, that he could tell by 
 she firft tafte whether they came 
 fiOE.1 thence or not. 
 
 Circais nataforetit, an 
 Lucrinum adfaxum, Rupinove ediia 
 
 /undo 
 Ojirea, callebat prima deprendere 
 morju. ^ki, iv. 140. 
 
 He, whether Circe's rock his Oyf- 
 
 ters bore. 
 Or Lucrine lake, or the Rutupean 
 
 fhore. 
 Knew at firft tafle. Duke. 
 
 The Romans ufed to feed and 
 fatten their Oyilers in oyfter- 
 beds, called Ojirearia. Thefe yNCtQ 
 lirft invented by Sergius Orutaf 
 not to gratify his talte, but his ava.- 
 rice. 
 
 P, 
 
 lACALIA, a feaft among the 
 Romans in honour of the god- 
 defs Pax, or peace, which waswor- 
 ihipped as a Deity by that people 
 with great folemnity, and honour- 
 ed wiih an akar and magnificent 
 temple. 
 
 Pactio, among the Romansy 
 was a temporary celTation from 
 hoftilities, a truce or league for a 
 limited time. It diifered from 
 Fcedus, which was a perpetual 
 league, and required one ol thofe 
 Herals called Feciales to confirm 
 it, by folemn proclamation ; nei- 
 ther of which conditions were ne- 
 cefTary in the truce called Pa^io. 
 
 Pactum, is ufed to fignify the 
 fettling of adifpute without litiga- 
 tion, by compofition for proper 
 damages ; which were to be afcer- 
 taiae4 by an equal number of 
 
 friends on each fide. See JSHo, 
 Trial, Sec. 
 
 P^AN a fong or hymn in ho- 
 nour of fome of the gods, but 
 chiefly addrefTed to Apollo, from 
 whom it took its name; for this 
 god was denominated Pfson from 
 •na^i^v to flrike, in allufioc to his 
 penetrating rays, or elfe to his 
 flriking the ferpent Python. The 
 Paeans were chiefly uled on occa- 
 fion of vidtory and Triumph. Some- 
 times a hymn to Mars was fung, 
 on the eve of an engagement, this 
 was called wo.jai' s/AjSaT/j^Jo; and that 
 fung to Apollo, after a fuccefsful 
 battle, was termed vxia.ii BTnvmior. 
 Such fongs were named P^eafis, 
 becaufe the words Jo Pa-an ! fre- 
 quently occurred in thtm, which 
 alluded to Apollo's conteit with the 
 ferpent. 
 
 PiEDOTHYEIA, 
 
PAG 
 
 PiEDOTHYsiA, the inhumati cuf- 
 tom of facrificing children, which 
 prevailed among the heathens : 
 Thus Mo<-ih, being reduced to 
 great ftraits by the Ifraelites, of- 
 fered his eldeft fon as a burnt of- 
 fering. This barbarous cuftom 
 probably took its rife from a vici- 
 ous imitation of the virtuous obe- 
 dience of Abraham, exhibited in 
 his readinefs to facrifice I/aac. 
 
 V/£.KVi.\. See Penula. 
 
 Paganalia, an ancient rural 
 feftival among the Latins^ in which 
 the peafants went, in folemn pro- 
 ceflion, round the villages, purify- 
 ing them with luftradons, and 
 offering cakes on the Altars of the 
 gods. 
 
 Each Pagus or village had its 
 Paganalia, and at this feftival each 
 perlbn was to pay, into the hands 
 of him who prefided at the facrifice, 
 a piece of money, the men of one 
 kind, the women of another, and 
 the children of a third : Thus an 
 exad account was obtained of the 
 number ot men, women, and chil- 
 dren in each Pagus. For it is to 
 be obfcrved, that Seri/ius Tullius 
 divided the whole Roman territory, 
 country as well as city, into dif- 
 tind tribes, requiring that there 
 fhould be a place of refuge in each 
 tribe, fituated on a rifing ground, 
 to fecure theeffefts of the peafants, 
 in cafe of slarm; and thefe ftrong- 
 holds he called Pagi, i. e. Vilages. 
 
 Pagam, properly fjgnifies per- 
 fons that live in villages, and 
 drink cut of the fame fountains, 
 al aC\xic, tcck; 'Trriya.n;. And as chrif- 
 tianity was a long time in pene- 
 trating theditlant villages, Pagani 
 might hence be applied to fuch as 
 remained idolaters. 
 
 Pagani a.'fo fignified fuch pcrfons 
 as did not bear arms, or wer^ not 
 enrolled among the foldiers, in op- 
 pofition to Milttes ; and in beauti- 
 ful aliulion to this fenfe of . the 
 
 PAI 
 
 word it may be ufed in oppofition 
 to Chrijiiani, and point out to us 
 perfons who were not enlifted un- 
 der the banner of C/^r;y?, to engage 
 in the Chrifiian warfare. 
 
 Paganica Pila, a fort of ball 
 ufed by the Romans for exercife and 
 diverfion. It was of leather, and 
 ftuifed with feathers. The play ia 
 which it was ufed bore fome re- 
 fern blance to the En^lijh game of 
 Cricket, or the Scotch Golff'. The 
 Paganica had its name a Pagis^ 
 becauie it was chiefly ufed in coun- 
 try towns and villages. It was not 
 Huffed fo hard as the Pila proper- 
 ly fo called, nor was it fo foft as 
 the FoUis. For this we have the 
 authority oi Martial, xiv. 45. 
 
 H^c quee diffuilis turget Paganica 
 
 Pluma, 
 Folle minus laxa ejiy it minus arda 
 
 Pila. 
 
 Painting, among the Greek.', 
 was from its origin clalTed with the 
 liberal arts, and grew fo much in- 
 to efttem, that it became at length 
 an eflential accomplifhment of a 
 fine and polite gentleman, and con- 
 fequently formed a part oi Grecian 
 education. But the art was fo im- 
 perfetfl in its firfl origin, that the 
 painters were obliged to write at 
 the bottom of their pi^ures the 
 names of the objefts which they 
 had attempted to reprefent. One 
 colour was only ufed at firft, but at 
 length five, and at laft many. 
 
 The fpoils of the city oi'Syracufe, 
 which Marctlhis brought to Rome 
 and difplayed in hhTriumph, gave 
 birth to the love of painting as 
 well as fculpture amongft the Ro- 
 mans, which they had little re- 
 garded before. As to painting 
 indeed it is not faid that they car- 
 ried it to fo high a perfetftion as 
 the Greeks : But of this we can be 
 no judges, few performances of thi* 
 
 kind 
 
PAL 
 
 kind having travelled down to us, 
 as tioc being proof againft the in- 
 juries of time. 
 
 We may naturally fuppofe that 
 the jft'ujs would neither excel in 
 painting nor fculpture, being pro- 
 hibited from making to thcmfelves 
 any graven image, or the likenefs 
 of any thing, and being alfo inclin- 
 ed to interpret the law in its largeft 
 latitude. See Sculpture. 
 
 PAL.a:STE, a Greek meafure of 
 length, being the fame with the 
 Doron, and containing four Digits 
 or finger-breadths. 
 
 Palestra, among the Greeks, 
 was the name of a building where 
 all the GxexQiits oi ih.Q Pentathlum 
 were pei-fcrmed ; though fome 
 will have ic appropriated to wref- 
 tling only, as the word implies, 
 beingdenved from 7r&X»j, wrellling. 
 The Fancratium was performed 
 here. To prevent the combatants 
 from hurting themfelves by falling, 
 the bottom of the Palajlra was 
 covered with duft or gravel. Some 
 will have the Palajira to be only 
 a part of the Gymnajtum. Many 
 authors imagine that the Palajlra 
 was of two kinds, the one for the 
 cxercife of the body, the other for 
 the cultivation of the mind ; but 
 the derivation of the word feems 
 to confine it to bodily exercife. 
 Sec Pcntalh'ium, Pancratium, &c. 
 
 Pal^strophylax, was the 
 guardiani keeper, mailer, or direc- 
 tor of the Pal^ejira. 
 
 Palaria, an exercife performed 
 by the Roman foldiers, to improve 
 them in all their neceffary ma- 
 noeuvres. It was performed at a 
 ilake fix feet high, and fixed firmly 
 in the ground ; againll which the 
 undifciplined men advanced, arm- 
 ed with a hurdle and cudgel, in- 
 ilead of a (hield and fword, and 
 went through all the rules of at- 
 tack and defence, as if aftually 
 engaged v/i:h an enemy : Some- 
 
 PAL 
 
 times they attacked it at a diftance, 
 with miffive weapons, making the 
 proper motions of defence. 
 
 Palatini l^udi, were games in- 
 flituced by Li'via, in honour of 
 ^ugujiui, after he was enrolled in 
 the number of the gods, and cele- 
 brated always in the Palace, which 
 accounts for the name. Some au- 
 thors fay that thefe cames were 
 inftituted in honour oi Julius C<e- 
 Jar, and others again confound 
 them with the Ludi AuguJiaJes, bu: 
 neither of thefe opinions feem to 
 be well fupported. See Augujiales. 
 Pa LA TIN us MoHi. See Moun^ 
 tains. 
 
 Palatium was the houfe ia 
 which the Emperor Augujius chofe 
 to refide and keep his court. It 
 was a magnificent Itrudure, builr 
 on the Palatine mount. This li- 
 tuation was pleafing to Augvjlus, 
 becaufe Romulus the founder of 
 Ro7ne, and Tullus H)ftilius kept their 
 courts in the fame place. The word 
 Palatium is evidently derived from 
 Palatinus, the monnt on which it 
 Hood i though the fame name is 
 now become general, and applied 
 to any royal feat. 
 
 Palilia, a Roman feftival in ho- 
 nour of the goddefs Pales. It was 
 celebrated chiefly by the (hepherds 
 on the 1 1 th of the Calends of May 
 or 2ift of April. Prayers at this 
 folemnity were offered up for the 
 health and fertility of their fheep. 
 A feaft was made at night, after 
 which heaps of firaw were fet on 
 fire, and the ceremony concluded 
 with dancing amongif, and jump- 
 ing over the flames. Some perfons 
 call this feilival Parilia, a pariun- 
 do, becaufe prayers vvere made for 
 the fruitfulnefs of the flocks. 
 
 PaLLa, among the Romans, wa'S 
 a mantle thrown over the gown, 
 called Ztola. It was worn by the 
 women only ; who bore it on the 
 left fhoulder, from whence itpaffed 
 
 to 
 
PAL 
 
 to the other fide under the right 
 arm; and the two ends being 
 bound under the left arm, the 
 brealt and arm were quite bare. 
 It had a great many folds or plaits, 
 and is derived from irxXKu, to (hake 
 or tremble. 
 
 Palladium was a Trojan (latue 
 of the goddefs Minernju or Pallas, 
 on which the fate of the city was 
 fuppofed to depend : While they 
 retained this facred image, it had 
 been given out Troy would be 
 invincible. This induced UlyJJes 
 and Diomedi to engage in the un- 
 dertaking of Healing it out of Mi- 
 nerva's temple. jEneas, however, 
 is faid to have brought the true 
 Palladium with him into Italy, 
 which they faw was preferved at 
 Rome, in the temple of Fefta, 
 among the other facred things, but 
 was known to none but the priefts 
 and Vejiah. It was regarded as 
 the deih'ny of Rome, and to prevent 
 its being Itolen, feveral other ima- 
 ges were made perfedly like it. — 
 It is faid to have fallen down from 
 heaven originally, to mark out 
 the ground in Troy where Miner-va 
 chofe to have a temple eredted. 
 The Palladium reprefented Pallat 
 as holding in her right-hand a 
 fpear, in her left a fpindle and dif- 
 talF, with a buckler on her arm; 
 but concerning her armour au- 
 thors difagree. 
 
 A Palladium was alfo placed by 
 Nicias in the citadel of Athens. 
 
 PalliaTj^, a name given by 
 the Romans to fuch plays as laid 
 the plot in Greece, and required 
 the performers to appear in Gre- 
 (ian habits. It is uled in contra- 
 dillinflioo to -Jo^g-a/^, in which the 
 fcene was laid at Rome, and the 
 drelTes were Roman. The word Pal- 
 liata is derived from Pallium, which 
 was a part of drefs peculiar to the 
 Greeks ; whereas the Toga belong- 
 
 PAL 
 
 ed to the Romans only. See To- 
 gatte. Comedy, &c. 
 
 Palliolum, among the Romans, 
 was a covering for the head, dif- 
 fering little from the Pileus. See 
 Pileus. 
 
 Pallium, an upper garment or 
 mantle worn by the Greeks, as the 
 Toga was by the Romans. Each 
 of thefe were fo peculiar to the 
 refpeftive nations, that Palliatus is 
 ufed to fignify a Greek, and Toga- 
 tus a Roman. 
 
 Palm, among all nations al- 
 moft has been regnrded as an em- 
 blem of viflory, and affigned as 
 the reward of it. The reafon why 
 this tree was adopted, and made 
 ufe of to reprefent victory, is faid 
 to be, becaufe the palm is fo elaf- 
 tic, that, if prefled by the greateft 
 weight, it will rife fuperior to the 
 preffure, and be able to reftore it- 
 felf to its former Hate, appearing 
 almoll invincible. 
 
 Palmipes, a Roman long mea- 
 fure, containing a foot and z pal- 
 mus, and lefs than the cuhit by one 
 palmus. See Palmus, Meafure. 
 
 Palmularii. See Parmularii. 
 
 Palmus, a long meafure ufed 
 both by the Greeks and Romans. 
 The Grecian Palmus was of two 
 kinds, the greater, which contain- 
 ed nine finger-breadths, and the 
 lefs, which contained four. The 
 Roman Palmus was alfo of two 
 forts ; the greater, which contain^ 
 ed twelve finger-breadths, or eight 
 inches and a hs\f Englijh ; and the 
 lefs, which contained four finger- 
 breadths, or near three inches 
 EngUJh. — The great Palmus was 
 taken from the length of the hand, 
 or fpan ; the lefs from the breadth 
 of it. The Greek Palmus was call- 
 ed Doron. See Meafure. 
 
 Pa'.udamentum, a military 
 
 garment worn by the officers and 
 
 principal men among the Romans, 
 
 *E in 
 
PA^ 
 
 ? AN 
 
 in titfie of war ; who are tliereford 
 called P hdati, which diftingufh- 
 cd them r^ m t/ie common foldiers, 
 who becaule they wore the Sagum, 
 were denominared the Sagati. The 
 Taludamentum came down no lower 
 than the navel, was open on the 
 jides, had fhort fleeves, refembling 
 angels wings, and was generally 
 white or red. It is foinctimes ufed 
 to fignify the common foldier's 
 coat. The Toga Pi SI a. Purpurea, 
 Palmata, the conlular Trahea, and 
 the Chlamys, differed but little 
 from the Paludamenium, See Toga, 
 &c. 
 
 Pamboeotia, a feftival cele- 
 "brated by all the Easotiuns affsm- 
 bled near Coronea, at the temple of 
 Mifiewa, called Itonia. 
 
 Pamma<;hion, a name given to 
 the Pa-icratium, See Pancratium. 
 
 Fanathens:, a feaft: celebrated 
 at Athens in honour of Miner-va, 
 at vvhich all tiie people of Attica 
 were preient. each dilHnft people 
 fending a bullock (oi the facrifice 
 and to furnilh out the entertain- 
 ment. Much was eaten and drank 
 at this Solemnity. Their drinking 
 vefTels, ufed on this occafjon, were 
 called Panathenaica, and held two 
 Congius'i and a half. Proceflions 
 of old men the moft a<ftive they 
 could find, w;th olive branches in 
 their hands, in honour of Miner<va, 
 the inventrefs of the olive tree, 
 confiituted part of the ceremonies. 
 They had alfo combats, in which 
 the viftors were crowned with 
 olive, and rewarded with veficis of 
 oil. To appear in black ix. thefe 
 feilivals was a crime. 
 
 The Panathevaa were of two 
 kinds, the greater celebrated eve- 
 ry five years, and the lefs which 
 fell every year. The ceremonies 
 were the fame in both, excepting 
 that at the greater feftival a ban- 
 ner of embrcudery, wrought by 
 
 in .lids, was difplayed In the pro- 
 ceflion, wherein were reprefented 
 the actions of the goddefs, and the 
 names of fuch peribns as had dif-r 
 tinguifhed themfelves in the fervice 
 of the ftate. 
 
 Some refer the inflitution of this 
 feftival to Erichihcnius, others give 
 it to Orpheus, and others again to 
 Thejens. The truth feems to be, 
 that this feaft, before the time of 
 Theftus, was celebrated by the peo- 
 ple oi Athens only, under the nane 
 of Athenaa ; but that prince hav- 
 ing united all the people oi Attica 
 into one Republic, admitted them 
 all to the feaft, which ever after 
 was called Panathenaa. 
 
 Pancarpus was a fort of fpec* 
 tacle, or diverfion, frequently ex- 
 hibited by the Roman Emperors. 
 It w. 3 a kind of chace, or hunt, in 
 which a number of deer, hares, 
 bullocks, and other animals were 
 endofed in the Amphitheatre, or 
 Circus, into which a number of 
 trees were tranfplanted, that it 
 might refomble a wood ; upon 
 thefe animals the people were let 
 loofe. to fhoot, kill, cut in pieces, 
 &c. as many a- they could. What- 
 ever they caught they had a right 
 to carry away with them. 
 
 PANCRATirfj,among X.heGre-ks%. 
 was a mixed exercife, confifting of 
 wreftling and boxing. In the Pan- 
 cratium, the combatants endea-' 
 voured to threw each other down, 
 and when fallen, rolled and fought 
 upon the ground. This exercife 
 is fcmetimes called Pammachiumt 
 and the combatants Pammachii. 
 
 Panegyris, a fair and feftival 
 day, on vvhich, among the Greeksf 
 people ufed to meet together. It 
 exadtly correfponds with the Ro- 
 man Nundina. 
 
 Panellenia, a public feftival, 
 celebrated by a concourfc of peo- 
 ple from all parts of Greece. 
 
 Pane:.! OS, 
 
pan: 
 
 Pan^mos, the Bastian name of 
 
 the Athenian month Mttagitniony 
 which was the fecond of their year, 
 and anfwered to the latter part of 
 our "July and the beginning of Au- 
 guji. vSee Month. 
 
 Panic, a needlefs or ill-ground- 
 ed fear, fhe word is derived from 
 Pan, one of Bacchus'^ Captains in 
 the Indiuu expedition, who routed 
 a numerous army by a noife which 
 he inilrutled his f >ldiers to make 
 in a rocky vale, fuirounded with 
 a nupiber of Eccho''s. Thefe made 
 his army appear far more than 
 they really were, and contributed 
 ereatly to difcomiit their enemies. 
 Hence the fable of Fan's amour 
 with Ercho Hence all the Romans 
 borrowed their cuftom of railing a 
 difmal clamour before an engage- 
 ment, which they termed Barritus. 
 See Rarritui. 
 
 Some tliink the word Panic al- 
 ludes CO the Itory of Pan'' & ftriking 
 terror into the hearts oFthe Giamsy 
 by means of a fc:a-lheli, which he 
 ufed as a crumpet. 
 
 Pamonia, a feftival In honour* 
 of iht g')<i Neptune, «fciebrated by 
 a concourfe ol peo^-Ie from every 
 part of Ionia ; hence the name. A ■ 
 bull was oiFered in facrifice to the 
 the watry deity ; and if it hap- 
 pened to bellow, the found was 
 elleeraed a happy omen, for the 
 Jowing cf bulls was thought to be 
 acceptable to Neptune, becaufe i: 
 refembled the roaring of the ocean. 
 
 Panthea, were Itaiues which, 
 by being charged wirh different fi- 
 gures and fymbols, repvefentcd all 
 or many of the gods. This was a 
 cheap methsd of procuring deities, 
 and the deities themfelves occupied 
 lefs /pace by being thus clubbed 
 together. 
 
 An inllance of uniting feveral 
 gods in this manner, appears upon 
 a medal of Ananinus Pius, where 
 Jte tame figure repiefents, at the 
 
 PAN 
 
 fame time, Serapisy by the buftiel 
 it bears ; the Sun, by the crown of 
 rays ; Jupiter Amman, by the ra.m's 
 horns ; Pluto, by the great beard; 
 and JEJculapius, by the ferpents 
 tvviildd in his hand. T\\t Panthea 
 have taken their rife from a defire 
 of having as mady gods as pofTible 
 crowded together in the fame fta- 
 tue for the greater proteiftion of 
 men's perfons, families, and houfes. 
 
 Pantheon, a temple in Rome, 
 built by M. Agrippa, in honour of 
 all the gods. It was of a round 
 form, to reprefent heaven, the feat 
 of the deities: The outfide was of 
 brick, the infide of variegated mar- 
 ble; the gales wereofbrafs, and 
 the beams were covered with the 
 fame metal, nchly gilt ; the roof 
 was made of filver plates, v/hich by 
 Conjiantine were removed to C<s«»- ■ 
 Jiantincple. It had but one door, 
 Knd one window, receiving ail its 
 light from the top of its dome In 
 the walls were niches to receive the 
 flatues of the gods. That of Mi- 
 nerva was ineiiimable, being the 
 work of Phiaias. At the ears of 
 tt>e ttatue of Venus bung the rich 
 jewel of C'eopatra. which for this 
 purpofe was cut in two by order of 
 Augufius. It weighed half an :unce, 
 and was valued at 76,390 pound* 
 Enghjh ; the fellow to it Cleop.%tray 
 by way of bravado, dilfolvcd and 
 drank. There was a Pantheon 
 like this at Atbensy built by A- 
 drian. 
 
 The celebrated Pantheon above 
 defcribed, is flill to be feen at Rome, 
 but was converted into a church, 
 under the title of St. Mary de Ro- 
 tonda, and All Saintly by Pope Bo-^ 
 nifiut HI. What is \&xy remark- 
 able, and fhews the altcratioa 
 which has taken place at Rcmcy is, 
 that the entrance is now twelve 
 Heps below, though heretofore it 
 was twelve ilcps above the furface 
 ot the ground. 
 
 * £ 2 Pantomimes, 
 
PAP 
 
 Pantomimes, among the An- 
 cients, were perfons who could imi- 
 tate all kinds of aftions and cha- 
 laders by figns and geftures. Scali- 
 ger fuppofes they were firft intro- 
 duced upon the flage to fucceed 
 the Chorus and Comedies, and di- 
 vert the audience with apifh pof- 
 tures and antic dances. In after 
 times their interludes became dif- 
 tind entertainments, and were fe- 
 parately exhibited. But the ufe of 
 Pantomimes was not confined to 
 the ftage only ; for they were, ac* 
 cording io Suetonius, introduced in 
 funeral folemnities, in order to re- 
 prcfent the manner of the deceaf- 
 ed. The Pantomimes did not 
 JT.ake their appearance in Rome till 
 the time of jugvjius, though they 
 were certainly known in Greece in 
 Piata'i time. Such was their at- 
 tention to nature in their poftures 
 and gefticulations, that Barbarians 
 perfeftly underftood their mean- 
 ing, though perfedt ftrangers to 
 the Roman manners. See Mimic. 
 
 Paper. See Writings Books, Pa- 
 pyrus. 
 
 Papyrus, or Biblus, was a fpecies 
 of reed which grew on the banks of 
 the Nile. The trunk confifts of a 
 number of long ftrait fibres, which 
 produce fmall flowers ; the leaves 
 refemble the blade of a fword, 
 and are ufed for keeping wounds 
 open, which the afhes are faid to 
 CKre if not inveterate. Gf this 
 plant the ancients made paper, 
 which thence derives its name. 
 Some fiy it was made of the rind 
 of the plant, and others affirm it 
 was formed from the pith, which 
 was beaten into a white pulp, or 
 gluey parte, and then expanded into 
 iheets, like the paper made from 
 rags. This reed, before the im- 
 provement of agriculture, ferved 
 the Egyptians for food, cloaths, 
 boats, domeftic utenfils, writing- 
 paper, crowns for their gods, and 
 
 PAR 
 
 /hoes for their priefts ; but in con- 
 fequence of other more ufeful in- 
 ventions, the Papyrus is now en- 
 tirely neglcded. See Books, Writ- 
 ing. 
 
 Par /OT/ar, was a game of chance, 
 pradifed amongft the Greeks and 
 Romans, in the following manner; 
 one perfon took in his hand a 
 number of dice, beans, nuts, al- 
 monds, walnuts, or pieces of mo- 
 ney, and another endeavoured to 
 gLiefs whether the number was 
 even or odd, if he gueffed right, he 
 was entitled to the whole, if wrong, 
 he forfeited an equal quantity. 
 Amongft the Greeks thofe who 
 played at this game were faid 
 u^Kx^em, becaufe they were called 
 upon to guefs afnx, >j iri^irla, i. e. 
 whether the number was e'ven or 
 oi^d. Suetonius informs us that 
 Augujlus fometimes condefcended 
 to try his luck at it; though the 
 game was chie.^iy confined to boys 
 and flaves. It was exadly the fame 
 as the game oi odd or t~<-'en, which 
 is pradifed amongft the children in 
 England. See Hor. Sat. 3. lib, 2. 
 248. Ovid de Nuc. v. 79. Sueton. 
 Jug. C. 71. Piti/c. in -voc. See 
 Par impar. 
 
 Parables were in conftant ufe 
 amongft the Je-voijh Raobies and 
 DodofS when they inftruded their 
 Difciples. This mode of inftruc- 
 tion was cuftomary in all the eaf- 
 tern regions. Spiritual things were 
 fct forth by means of ftories, apo- 
 logues, and parables, under certain 
 reprefentations and (imilitudes, 
 taken from common affairs, well- 
 known cuftoms, and familiar cb- 
 jeds. In this manner Nathan re- 
 proved David, 2 Sam. xii. i. &c. 
 Hence our Lord, in compliance 
 with the cuftoms of the "Je^Ms, who 
 had a kind of natural genius for 
 this fort cf inftrudion, fpoke fre- 
 quently in parables, moft beauti- 
 fully conftruded, and calculated 
 
 for 
 
PAR 
 
 for edification. 
 
 Paradise, in its original mean- 
 ing, fignities an orchard or plan- 
 tation of fruit-trees walled in. It 
 is ufed in the Old Teftament for 
 the delightful place where Jdam 
 and E-ve were feated during their 
 innocence. Many anxious enqui- 
 ries have been made after its fitu- 
 ation. It has been placed in the 
 third heaven, in the orb of the 
 iBOon, in the moon itfelf, in the 
 middle region of the air, above the 
 earth, under the earth, under the 
 north-pole, in the moll fouthern 
 regions, in the place now occupied 
 by the Cafpian fea, in AJia, in 
 j^frica, in Europe, in America, in 
 J'artary, upon the banks q[ Ganges: 
 In fine, there is fcarcely any part 
 of the world where Paradife has 
 not been fought for. The moll 
 pjobable opinion is, that it was 
 lituatcd between the confluence of 
 Euphrates and Tigris, and their fe- 
 paration; Pijon being a branch arif- 
 ing from one of them after their 
 reparation, — and Gthon, another 
 branch arifing from the otheronthe 
 wellern fide. Arabia Deferta was 
 X.Y,t Ethiopia mentioned by Mo/es as 
 waftied by thefe rivers ; and Chu- 
 Jifian in Perfia anfwers to the land 
 ot Ha-uilah, where there was gold. 
 Bdellium, the onyx ilone, &c. 
 Some look upon the whole account 
 oi Paradife X.0 be an allegory; but 
 as well might they call the whole 
 bible allegorical. 
 
 In the iMew Teflament Paradife 
 is put for that place of delight, 
 where the fouls of the bleffcd en- 
 j jy everlalling happinefs. Thus 
 Jefus tells the thief, " This day 
 llialt thou be with me in Paradife." 
 In the fame fenfe we meet with it, 
 2 Cor. xii. 4. Rev. ii. 7. 
 
 Paradoxi, a fort of mimes or 
 buiFooni, among the Ancients, 
 who entertained the people with 
 exumpore efTaaons of drollery. 
 
 PAR 
 
 They were alfo called ParaJoxbk^ 
 gi, Ordinarii, Neanicologiy and Are' 
 talogi. See Mimi. 
 
 PAaAGAUD^ffi, among the .^0- 
 mans, were wreaths of gold, or 
 filk and gold, interwoven in, noC 
 fewed to, their garments. The 
 garment was fomecimes of one co- 
 lour, with one Paragaudfs ; fome- 
 times of two colours, with two 
 Paragauda ; or three colours, witfal 
 three Paragaudte, &c. They were - 
 worn both by men and women. 
 
 Paranymphus, among the An- 
 cients, was the perfon who waited 
 on the bridegroom, and direcfleii 
 the nuptial folemnities. The Pa- 
 ranymphus officiated for the bride- 
 groom, as the Pronuba did for the 
 bride. A mailer of the ceremonies 
 of this kind was cuilomary amongii 
 the Jf^vs, as well as the Greeks and 
 Romans, and is alluded to under 
 the name of friend of the bride- 
 groom in the New Teilament. 
 The Paranymphus was alfo called 
 Parochus, Ponubus, and even Au- 
 fpex ; becaufe the marringe cere- 
 mony began with taking Qmem, 
 i. e. Aufpicia. See Marriage. 
 
 Parasakg, a Perfiun meafure, 
 frequently mentioned in Greek au- 
 thors, containing fometinDes 30, 
 fometimes 40, and fometimes 50, 
 Stadia, or furlongs. There is no 
 pronouncing with certainty how 
 much it was, becaufe it diitered at 
 different times and difi^erent places; 
 but generally fpeaking it was about 
 three miles. 
 
 Pap ASCENiUM, in the Grecian 
 and Roman theatres, vyas a placs 
 behind the fcenes whither the ac- 
 tors withdrew to drefs and undiefs 
 themfelves. The Romans mors 
 frequently called it Pof/cenium. 
 See Theatre. 
 
 Parasceve, a name {jgnifying 
 preparation, given by the Jenxs to 
 the fixth day of the week, or 
 Friday ; becaufe, Kot being allow- 
 ed 
 
PAR 
 
 ei to prepare their food on the 
 feventh or fabbath day, they pro- 
 vided and prepared it on tbat day. 
 
 Parasemon, among the Greeks, 
 was the figure carved on the 
 prow of the (hips, to diilinguifli 
 them from each other. This fi- 
 gure was generally that of a buU, 
 Jion, or other animal ; fometimes 
 the reprefentation of a mountain, 
 tree, flower, &c. 
 
 Parasit!, among the Greehs, 
 were an order of Priefts, or at lead 
 minifters of the gods, refembltng 
 the Epulones at Rome. Their bufj- 
 nefs was to colleft and take care of 
 the facred corn detlined for the 
 fervjce of the temp'es and the 
 gods ; to fee that facrifices were 
 duly performed, and that no one 
 with-held the firft fruits, &c. from 
 the deities. In every village of 
 the Athenians, certain Parajiu, in 
 honour of Hercules, were maintain- 
 ed at the public charge ; but, to 
 cafe the commonwealth of this 
 burthen, the roagillrates at laft 
 obliged fome of the richer fort to 
 take them to their own tables, and 
 rntertain them at their own ex- 
 pence; hence the word, in after 
 times, came to fignify a hanger- 
 on, a flatterer, one who for rlie 
 fake of a dinner will conform to 
 the humour of any man. 
 
 Parasitium, among the Greeks, 
 was the granary where the facred 
 corn was preferved, by the Parajiti, 
 for facred purpofes. See Parajiti. 
 
 Parchment. See I'Fritivg. 
 
 Paredri, among the /Athenians, 
 were perfons of age, gravity, and 
 reputation, chofen to fit upon the 
 bench with, and, upon occafion, 
 direfl the Archonst Baftleus, or 
 Pclemarch, when by reafon of their 
 youth they happened not to be fo 
 well {killed in the laws and cuf- 
 toms of their country, as might 
 have been vvifhed. Each of thefe 
 magilUates might chufe two affsf- 
 
 PAR 
 
 fors cr Paredri, who underwent 
 the fame examination in the Senate 
 Houfe and Forum, with the Archon, 
 &c. who made choice of them, and 
 at the expiration of their office 
 were obliged to give an account of 
 their conducl. 
 
 Par-Impar, the game of even 
 or odd. It was common among 
 the children at Rome, but was not 
 wholly confined to them, for ic 
 was fometimes ufed at entertain- 
 ments like dice or chefs. The 
 game was played amongfl the Ro- 
 mans exadlly as it is at prefent 
 among the children of our own 
 country. One perfon concealed 
 in his hand, a number of nuts, al- 
 monds, pieces of money or the 
 like, and another guefied at the 
 unknown number ; if he gueffed 
 right he was entitled to them all, 
 if wrong he forfeited as many as 
 there were. See Par. 
 
 Parma, a kind of round buck- 
 ler ufed by the Velites in the Roman 
 army. It was three feet in diame- 
 ter, made of wood and covered 
 with leather. Its form was round, 
 and its fubilance ftrong ; but Ser- 
 •vius on the ^ned, and even Virgil, 
 fay it was a light peace of armour 
 in comparifon of the Clypeusy tho* 
 bigger than the Pelta. 
 
 Parochus, among the Romans, 
 was a perf. n appointed to provide 
 mules, tents, carriages, and all 
 other necefTaries for the provincial 
 magillrates, and ambafliadors in 
 their journeys. For in the early 
 times of the republic, fuch perfons 
 had their expences borne by the 
 public, that the allies or provincial* 
 might not be burthened. 
 
 Parricide, properly fignifies 
 the murther of a father, as matri- 
 cide does that of a mother ; though 
 it is in a more general fenfe ex- 
 tended to both, and alfo to the 
 murther of any peiibn. 
 
 Parricide^ in its limited and 
 prcpef 
 
PAS 
 
 proper fenfe, was not provided a- 
 gainll in the Roman laws, from aa 
 opinion that no man could be fo 
 wicked as to lite his murtherous 
 hand to flay his parents. L. Of- 
 tius was the firft among the ^o- 
 mans that was guilty of this crime, 
 five hundred years after the death 
 of Numa., on which the Pomptian 
 law was pafTed, which ordained 
 that the criminal Ihould firft be 
 whipped, then fewed up in a lea- 
 thern fack with a dog, an ape, a 
 cock, and a viper, and thrown in- 
 to the fea, or the nearett river. 
 This punilhment was called Pro- 
 je£lto in profluentem. The fack was 
 named Cu!eus, which denomina- 
 tion is alfo given to the punilh- 
 nifhment itfelf. See Culeus. 
 
 Parricidium, was a name given 
 by a decree ot the Roman fenate to 
 the Ides of March, which was the 
 anniverfary of Cajar''% murther. 
 Dolabella, the Con/ul, propofed a 
 law to change its name to Nutalis 
 TJrbis, looking on that day as the 
 birch-day of Roman liberty. 
 
 Parsley, among the Greekt, 
 was made ufc of for decorating the 
 tombs of the deceafed, and confe- 
 quently was regarded as a vegeta- 
 ble not much calculated to contri- 
 bute to agreeable fenfations, as it 
 would of ccurfe be followed v/ith 
 melancholy ideas. It v/as, how- 
 ever, the herb of v/hich, in the 
 Ijihmian and Nemean games, the 
 victors crowns were compofed. 
 
 Among the Remans, ParJIey was 
 a neceflary ingredient in their fef- 
 tive garlands, becaufe it retains its 
 verdure a long time, afFjrds a 
 grateful fmel], and was fuppofed 
 to abforb the inebriating fumes of 
 wine, and by that means prevent 
 intoxication. 
 
 Pascha. See PaJJTover. 
 
 Passing bitwan the l'ar!s. See 
 Co'veuant. 
 
 PAS 
 
 Passover, a feaft of the yewi^ 
 inftituted in commemoration oftlje 
 dellroying Angel's palling over the 
 houfesofthe Hehre-TMs, when he de- 
 ftroyed the firft-born oi Egypt, the 
 doors of the Hebre'vjs being marked 
 with the blood of a lamb llain on 
 the evening before, and therefore 
 called the Pafchal Lamb ; pafcha, 
 in the Hebrevj language, {ignifying 
 paffage or /f^^.— -This feaft was ce- 
 lebrated on the fourteenth day oF 
 the moon next after the vernal 
 Equinox, and continued feven 
 days ; but the firft and the feventh 
 of the number were the moft fo- 
 lemn. They killed a Iamb with- 
 out fpot on the occafion ; or, if 
 this could not be procured, a kid, 
 fprinkling the door-pofts and linttl 
 of each houfe with the blood. The 
 lamb or kid was to be eaten vvitb 
 unleavened bread and bitter herbs ; 
 a bo;)e of it was not to be broken ; 
 and if any part of it remained till 
 the day following, it was thrown 
 into the fire. If one family was 
 not fufficient to eat a lamb, two 
 houfcs were joined together. They 
 eat it with their (hoes on their feet, 
 their loins girded, and their ftaves 
 in their hands, in the pofture of 
 travellers in a hurry. Neglefling 
 to keep the PaJJo-ver, and eating 
 leavened bread during its continu- 
 ance, were feverely punifhed ; the 
 firft with death, the fecond with 
 excifjon or cutting off from the 
 people, which v«^as a fpecies of ex- 
 communication : But a journey, 
 ficknefs, or uncleannefs were al- 
 lowed as good excufes for omitting 
 the PuJJover at the regular time, 
 provided the perfons fo hindered 
 C' uld celebrate it on the fourteenth 
 day of the month Jiar, which an- 
 fwers to our Jpri/ and May. While 
 the temple was ftanding, they 
 brought their lambs thither, and 
 facriliced them i cixaing the blood 
 
 to 
 
to the priefl:, who poured it out at 
 the foot of the aitar. At this feaft 
 every male of all the tribes, who 
 Tvas able to perform the journey, 
 was bound to repair to "Jeru/a/em, 
 and bring his offering with him. 
 The women too, out of devotion, 
 very frequently attended. 
 
 For the inllitution of this Feaft 
 fee ExoJ. xi'u 
 
 Passus, among the Romans, 
 was a meafure of iengtb, contain- 
 ing about four feet ten inches, or 
 the thoufandth part of a Romas 
 mile. The word properly figni- 
 £es the fpace betwixt the feci of a 
 xnan walking at an ordinary rate. 
 See Meajure. 
 
 Pastophori, amongft the An- 
 cients, were priefts, whofe office 
 it was to carry the images, along 
 with the ftirines of the gods, at 
 folemn feftivals, when they were 
 to pray to them for rain, fair wea- 
 ther, or the like. The Greeks had 
 a college of this order of priells ia 
 SjiUa*s time. 
 
 Tlie ceils or apartments rear the 
 remples, where the Vajiophori lived, 
 «/ere called Tajlothoria. There 
 v/ere feveral lodging-rooms for 
 the prieih, of a fnniJar kind, in 
 the temple of 'Jerufahm. 
 
 Pastoral, a poem in which 
 any adion or pafiion is reprefent- 
 «d by its efFef^s upon a count rj^ 
 life. -This definition being allov^- 
 ed, it follows that whatsoever may, 
 according to the common ccurfe 
 Ci-f things, happen in the country, 
 may afford a fubjeft for a pajloral 
 poet. — The form of Pajloral is 
 colloquial, or narrative, or mixed 
 cf both ; the fable is fimple, the 
 manners delicately rural, the 
 thoughts plain, the paffion fliort 
 and flowing, the expreilion hum- 
 ble, yet pure as the language will 
 allow, neat, but not florid, eafy 
 and yet lively. In fliort, the rnan- 
 B£j's, thoughts, and expreJions are 
 
 PAT 
 
 full of the greatefl: fixTiplicity ia 
 nature. The complete character 
 of this poem then confifts in lim- 
 plicity, brevity, and delicacy ; 
 the two firft of which render an 
 Eclogue natural, and the laft de- 
 lightful. 
 
 In the Idylliums of Theocritus we 
 are charmed with a certain fweet- 
 nefs, a romantic rufticity and 
 wildnefs, heightened by the Doric 
 dialeft, that are almoft inimitable. 
 Firgil took Theocritus for his model, 
 but has excelled him in thefe three 
 particulars, in decency, in delicacy, 
 and in the variety of his fubjeft. 
 
 Pater Patratus, was the name 
 of the iirft and principal perf:.n of 
 the college of Heralds called Fecia- 
 les. Some fay the Pater Patratus 
 was a conftant officer and perpetual 
 chief of that body ; and others 
 fuppofe him to have been a tempo- 
 rary minifter, eleSed upon acconnt 
 of making peace or denouncing 
 war, which were both done by 
 him. See Feci ales. 
 
 Patera, among the Romans, 
 was a goblet cr vefTel of gold, fil- 
 ver, marble, brafs, glafs, or earth, 
 out of which they made libations, 
 arid offered conlecrated meats to 
 the gods in facrifice. The Patera 
 is frequently found on medals, in 
 the hands of the Emperors, and 
 implies the junflion of the Sacerdo- 
 tal with the Imperial authority. It 
 \jz^ fometimes inclofed in urns 
 with the afhes of the dead, after ic 
 had ferved for funeral libations. 
 Patera has its na.me from Pateo^ 
 being an open veffel. 
 
 Patieulum, among the Romans, 
 was an inftrument of punifh- 
 ment, either the fame with, or 
 nearly refembling the Furca Pana- 
 lis. See Furca. 
 
 Patibulum is ufed alfo to fignify 
 a crofs. 
 
 Patres Con/cripti, a name givea 
 to the Roman Senators in general, A 
 
 though tI 
 
PAT 
 
 PAU 
 
 though at fird it was applied to a 
 
 particular part of that body. 
 The hundred appointed by Ro- 
 mulus were called fimpiy Patres ; 
 a fecond hundred added by Romu- 
 lus and Tatius upon the union of 
 their people, were denominated 
 Patres minorum Gentium ; a third 
 huri(i!ed being afterwards added 
 by T/irquinius Pri/cus, the two 
 latter clafies were called Patres 
 Covfcripti, becauie they were writ- 
 ten down or put upon the lift 
 with the original hundred of Ro- 
 muluf. The Senators chnfen from 
 the K'rghis were called Adktli, 
 Sse ■Sfnate. 
 
 Patriarch, properly fignifies 
 the head or chief of a family. 
 The name of Patriarchs is gene 
 rA\y confined to the fatheis of 
 families that lived before Mojes, 
 as Aaatn, Lamech, Noah, Abra- 
 ham, Ijaac, jfacob, &C. The ap- 
 teliation has from hence been 
 trniisferred to the bifhops of the 
 nril churches of the Eaft, viz. 
 Antioch, Alexandria, Jerufalem, 
 and Coujlantinople. 
 
 Patricians, a title given by 
 the Romans to the defcendants of 
 the hundred Senators chofen by 
 Rcrr.ulus, and by him called Pa- 
 trss. Some imagine that the term 
 Patricians includes the pofterity 
 of the two hundred firll iienaton. 
 See Patres and Senate — Patricians 
 \T.zv. were ihe Roman nobility, as 
 diilinguilhed from the Plebeians. 
 But genealogies becoming at laft 
 obfcure from length of time and 
 changes in government, a new 
 kind of Patricians was created, 
 which depended not. on birth, but 
 na th;; Emperor's favour for no- 
 bility. 
 
 Patron, among the Romans, 
 was an appellation given to any 
 perfon in power, under whofe pro- 
 reftion a few inferiors put them- 
 feives, under certain conditions of 
 obedience and perfonal fervicc. 
 
 The perfon s protefled were called 
 Clients. The duty of the Patrons 
 was to be their Clients'' counfellora 
 in difficult cafes, their advocates 
 in judgments, their advifers in 
 matters of doubt, and their over- 
 fecrs in all their affairs. For the 
 duty of Clients to their Patrons ^ 
 fee Client. 
 
 The cullom of chufing Patrons 
 from amongft the Nobility and 
 Senators is afcribed to Romulus, 
 who thought the eftablifliment of 
 fuch a relation, as fubfills betwixC 
 Patron and Client, neceflary to 
 unite the Patricians and Plebeians^ 
 and prevent thofe bickerings 
 which generally prevail between 
 the higher and lower order of 
 people. 
 
 Patron was alfo a title conferred 
 on a mafter who hsd freed his 
 flave ; the relation ot Patron com- 
 mencing when that of mafter ex- 
 pired. The Patron was legal heir 
 to his freed-men, if they died in- 
 tellate, or without lawful -.ITue, born 
 after their freedom commenced. 
 By the Papian law, if a freed- 
 man's fortune amounted to ten 
 thoufand Sejierces, and he had 
 three children, the Patron was 
 entitled to a child's portion. 
 
 Pavicula, a rammer, made 
 ufe of by the Romans for beating 
 down pavements, or levelling un- 
 even ground. It was a block of 
 wood with a long handle. 
 
 Pausania, a Spartan feftival, 
 in honour of Pau/anias, under 
 whofe conduft the Gr^f/Jj defeated 
 Mardonius at Platea. At this feaft 
 there were public games, wherein 
 free-born Spartans only were al- 
 lowed to contend. An oratiori 
 was always fpoken in praife of 
 Pau/anias, 
 
 Pausicape, among the Athe- 
 nians, was an inftrument of pu- 
 nilhraent. It was of a round 
 form, and was put about the neck 
 •F f 
 
PEC 
 
 of the offender in fuch a manner 
 that he could not lift his hand to 
 his head. 
 
 Peace, among the Greeks and 
 Romans, was always concluded 
 with great folemnity, and a num- 
 ber of formalities, facrifices, pray- 
 ers, and imprecations always ac- 
 companied the ceremonies. An 
 account of the manner of making 
 peace among the Greeks will be 
 found under the article League ; 
 for the forms made ufe of amongft 
 the Romans, fee Feciales. 
 
 Peace could not be concluded 
 by a Roman General ; he was au- 
 thorized indeed to hear the terms 
 of the enemy, but could neither 
 accept or rejefl them without 
 the exprefs commands of the Se- 
 nate. Peace being ngreed upon, 
 the Feciales performed the cere- 
 monial part. 
 
 PEACE-OfFerings, amongft the 
 Jeixis, were made to God, for 
 bleflings received, or in hopes of 
 receiving fome favour from him, 
 or in confequenceof-a vow. Thefe 
 Offerings might according to the 
 occafion be termed yi/K/ary* when 
 paid to procure fome fignal pre- 
 fervatioD, or Eucharijiical, when 
 paid for mercies received, or 'uo' 
 ti-ve, when paid as the perform- 
 ance of a vow. In thefe facrifices 
 the blood and entrails of the vic- 
 tim were burnt upon the altar j 
 the breaft or left fhoulder belong- 
 ed to the prieft, and the reft of 
 ihe flefti, with the fkin, belonged 
 to him who made the offering. 
 The perfons that offered always 
 ate thereof, which was a faederal 
 aft, for by feafting with God, 
 upon what had been confecrated 
 to him, they fignified their friend- 
 filip and reconciliation with God. 
 See Offering, Sacrifce, &c, 
 
 Pechys, «>jxt;f, a Grecian mea- 
 furt of length equal to xvio/pitba- 
 ma^ or 24 Dadjli, about 19 in- 
 
 PED 
 
 ches and a half, Englijh. See 
 Me a fare. 
 
 Pectoral, an ancient facer- 
 dotal habit, or veftment, worn by 
 the yifctu//^ high-prieft. "Wicjenus 
 called it Hhofchen : the Greeks, 
 Aoytov ; the Latins, Rationale and 
 Peilorale J and the Englijh trarf- 
 larors of the Bible call it Breajr- 
 plate. It confilled of embroidered 
 ftuff, about a fpan fquare, worn 
 upon the breaft, fet with twelve 
 precious ftones, ranged in four 
 rows, and containing the names 
 of the twelve tribes. It was faf- 
 tened to the fhoulder by two 
 chains and hooks of gold. God 
 himfelf prefcribed in form of ir. 
 See Breajl- plate. 
 
 Pectorale, a breaft-plate of 
 thin brafs, about twelve fingers 
 fquare, worn by the poorer Ibl- 
 diers in the Roman army, who 
 were rated under 1000 Drachma. 
 See Lorica.. 
 
 Peculatus, among the Ro' 
 mans, was the crime of robbing 
 the public treafury, by any perfon 
 who was the difpofer, keeper, or 
 receiver of the public money. 
 
 Peculium, the money or eftate 
 which a fon may acquire under 
 his father, or a flave under his 
 mafter, by their own induftry. 
 Roman flaves frequently amafTei 
 confiderable fums of this kind. 
 Peculium properly fignifies the ad- 
 vanced price which a flave could 
 get for his mafter's cattle, &c. 
 above the price fixed upon them 
 by his mafter. This was the 
 Have's own property. 
 
 Pecunia. See Money. 
 
 Pedarian, an epithet applied 
 to fuch of the Roman Senators as 
 fignified their opinions by walk- 
 ing over to the fide of thofe with 
 whom they agreed in fentimenC 
 upon any debated point, and thus 
 giving their vote by their feet, not 
 their tongues.— The appellatioa 
 
 of 
 
 J 
 
PED 
 
 of PeJaniwas given alfo to magi- 
 ftraies during the continuance of 
 their office, and fuch as had bore 
 fome curule honour, becaufe they, 
 tho' not Senators, bad a right to 
 come into the Senate-houfe, give 
 their judgments upon any matter, 
 and be numbered amongft the 
 voters ; but, at the fame time, 
 they were not fufFered to fpeak, 
 but obliged to txprefs themfelves 
 tacitly, by going over to thofe 
 Senators whofe fentiments they 
 approved, — This was called Pe- 
 dibus ire in Sententiam ; and gave 
 rife to the joke of the mimic La- 
 i/erias, 
 
 Caput Jine lingua pedaria fententia 
 eji. tJee Senate. 
 
 Pedatura was ufed, by the 
 Romans, to iignify any certain 
 number of feet meafured out and 
 alTigned to fome particular pur- 
 pole. Thus Pedatura Cajfrorum, 
 was the fpace of ground fet out 
 for the camp ; Pedatura Militum, 
 the fpace to be occupied by each 
 foldier ; and Pedatura Murorum, 
 the ground meafured out for the 
 building of walls. The word fre- 
 quently occurs in writers of mili- 
 tary affairs. 
 
 Pedi^^an, TTE^taioj, the name of 
 a faftion at Athens, arifing from 
 local diltindion only ; for Athens 
 was divided into three different 
 regions or parts ; one on the de- 
 fcent ofa hill, the inhabitants of 
 which were called Diacrians ; 
 another on the fea-lhore, which 
 occafioned the inhabitants to bear 
 the name of Paralians ; and ano- 
 ther on the plain between the 
 other two, whofe inhabitants were 
 called Pediaans, from Trt^iov, a 
 plain. The circumftance of fitu- 
 ation begat competitions ; compe- 
 titions, jealoufy j and jealoufy, 
 open quarrels. 
 
 PEL 
 
 Pegmares, a name given to 
 certain Gladiators, who fought 
 upon moveable fcaffolds, called 
 Pegmata, which were fometimes 
 unexpe(nedly raifed,and furprifed 
 the people with Gladiators in hot 
 contention. Sometimes they were 
 fo fuddenly lifted up as to throv/ 
 the combatants into the air; and 
 fometimes they were let down into 
 dark and deep holes, and then 
 fet on fire, thus becoming the 
 funeral-piles of thefe miferable 
 wretches, and roalHng them alive 
 to divert the populace. 
 
 Pegomancy, a fort of divina- 
 tion performed with fountain wa- 
 ter. See Hydromancy. 
 
 Pelani, a fort of cakes made 
 ufe of by the Athenians in making 
 libations. They were horned, 
 and ferved inilead of animal facri- 
 fices, by the appointment of Ct- 
 crops. 
 
 Pelat^e, among the Athenians, 
 were free-born citizens, who by 
 poverty were reduced to the ne- 
 ceffity of ferving for wages. Dur- 
 ing their fervitude they had no 
 fuffrage in public affairs, as hav- 
 ing no eftate to qualify them ; but 
 this reftridion was removed when 
 they had releafed themfelves from 
 their fervile ftate, which they were 
 allowed to do when able to fup- 
 port themfelves. While they con- 
 tinued fervaiits they had a right 
 to change their mailers. We find 
 them fometimes diftinguiflied by 
 the name of Theta. 
 
 Pelopia, a feftival obferved by 
 the Eleans in honour of Pelops. 
 A ram was facrificed on the oc- 
 cafion, which both prjefts and 
 people were forbidden to partake 
 of, on pain of excommunication 
 from Jupiter^ temple ; only the 
 neck was allotted to the officer 
 who provided wood for the facri- 
 fice. This officer was called 
 Svhtvi, and white poplar was the 
 ^ F a only 
 
PEN 
 
 6nly wood made ufe of at this fo- 
 lemnity. 
 
 Peloria, a TheJJuUan feftival, 
 Jiot unlike the Roman Saturna- 
 lia. 
 
 Pelta, afmall, light, and ma- 
 nageable buckler, ufed among the 
 Ancients. It was worn by the 
 Jmazons. The Pelta, by {ome, is 
 faid to have rel'tmbled an ivy 
 leaf in form ; by others it is com- 
 pared to the leaf of an Indian lig- 
 Tree ; and by Ser=vius, to the moon 
 in her firft quarter. 
 
 Penetrale, was a facred room 
 or chapel in private houfes, fet 
 a part for the worfhip of the 
 lioufliold gods among the Romans. 
 In temples alfo there were Pene- 
 tralia, or apartments ot particu- 
 lar (andlity, where the images of 
 the gods were kept, and certain 
 iblemn ceremonies performed. 
 
 Pentadrachmon, a Grecian 
 coin worth about 3' zd. 3^. cf 
 our money. See Money. 
 
 Pentateuch, a name com- 
 monly given to the Hve books of 
 Mofei, viz. Genejis, Exodus, Levi- 
 ticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 
 The word is derived from lar.c,, 
 jive, and tiMyot^, a ^volume, 
 
 Pentathlum, a general name 
 given to the five exercifes per- 
 formed at the Grecian g:imes, and 
 for v;hich prizes were propofed. 
 Thefe exercifes were running, 
 the Dijcus, leaping, boxing, Vv-rcf- 
 tling. In the place of boxing 
 fome antiquarians put the cooteft 
 of the javelin. He that won the 
 prize in all was called wE^laS^o?, 
 by the Greeks ; by the Romans, 
 ^iiinquirtio, who alfo gave the 
 isame of ^inquertium to the five 
 exercifes. See Boxing, Races, 
 Leaping, Sec. 
 
 Pentfcost, a Jc'wijh fealt, fo 
 called from w£>1»!xocc?, \.he Ji/'ticth, 
 becaufe it was celebrated in ms- 
 jnory of the law's being given to 
 
 PEN 
 
 Mc/es, fifty days after ti.e depar- 
 ture out cf E^ypt, or more pro- 
 perly becauie it was kept on the 
 fiftieth day after the fixteenth of 
 Ni/an, v;hich was the fetond day 
 or the Pajfo^'er It was fometimes 
 CaVxAiwK-FeaJiofWciki, becaufe 
 it fell feven weeki afrei' the Pcjjf- 
 cver. The "Jetjos at this time of- 
 fered the firfl fruits oi their wheat 
 harvefl, and prefented at the tem- 
 ple feven lambs of that year, one 
 calf and two rams, for a burni- 
 cfFering ; ttt'O lambs for a peace - 
 offering; and a goat for 3 fin-of- 
 fering. The Peniecofi was inflitut- 
 ed to oblige the Jenjos to repair 10 
 the temple of God, to acknow- 
 ledge his fupremacy over tlic 
 whole country, and to bring to 
 their recoliettion the giving of 
 the law, which happened th^- fif- 
 tieth day after they left E^ypt. 
 All the males of all the tribes 
 were obliged, at this Feltival, to 
 repair, with their ofFerings, to Jij- 
 rujalem. On this fcUival was the 
 remarkable tfFufion of the Holy 
 Ghojl on the Jpcjlles of our 
 Loid. 
 
 Pentesiringus, an inilrument 
 cf punifiiment among the ht\- 
 cients, fomething fimilar to our 
 flocks, having five holes, wherein 
 the head, leg^, and arms of cri- 
 minals, were fallened to prevent 
 their flirring. 
 
 Penula, among the Rojuans, 
 was a ccarfe garment, or cloak, 
 worn by way of defence againft 
 rain or cold. It was fhorter thi^n 
 the Lacerxa, and confequently 
 more proper for tiavellers. It 
 was generally brown, and fucceed- 
 ed the '7'oga, after the llaie became 
 monarchical. Augufius, however, 
 abolifhed the cuilont of weaiing 
 the Penula over tne Toga, looking 
 upon it as too effeminate for Ro- 
 mans; and the jiiazhs had or- 
 ders to fufFer none to appear in 
 
 the 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 the Circus cr Forum with the La- 
 cerna or Penula. Authors are not 
 agreed as to the precife difference 
 betwixt thefe two articles ofdrefs, 
 but we learn from them that they 
 were chiefly worn by the lower 
 orders of people. See Lacerna. 
 
 Peplus, a long robe worn by 
 the women among the Ancients, 
 reaching down to the feet, with- 
 out fleeves, and fo exceeding fine 
 that the fliape of the body might 
 be difcerned through it. 1 he 
 jithenians ufed much ceremony in 
 making the Peplus, and drefiiug 
 the ftatue of Minewa with it. 
 Homer makes frequent mention 
 of the Peplus of that goddcfs. Virg. 
 a'En. i. 483, 
 
 Peplui was alfo the fail of the 
 fhip Panathenaica, confecraied by 
 the Athenian matrons at the Pana- 
 thentta, on which were wrought 
 the exploits of Muurvay particu- 
 Jarly the Gigantomachia. This 
 Pep us w;i3 annually carried about 
 the city of Aihem, in honour of 
 the goddeis. 
 
 Per^quatores, among the 
 Remans, were affL-fTors appointed 
 to regulate the Cenjus, by lower- 
 ing or raifing it according to the 
 circun.ftanccs of each perfon. 
 
 Pehcussio, was a fpecies of 
 capital punilhment among the 
 Romans, not unlike our behead- 
 infj ; it was generally performed 
 with a ftroke of a hatchet, and 
 therefore commonly called Per^ 
 Ciijjio Jecuri. 
 
 Perfumes were much in ufs 
 among the ye-iAjs, Greeks, and Ro- 
 mans, efpecially thofe into the 
 compofitiou of which mufk, am- 
 bergris, and civet enter. The 
 Nardus and Malobathrum were 
 held in mucheltimation, and were 
 imported from iiyria. The IJn- 
 guendum Nardinunc was varioufly 
 prepared; and contained many in- 
 
 gredients. Malobathrum was an 
 Indian plant. 
 
 Perfumes were ufed at facrificeS 
 to regale the gods ; a: fealts, to 
 encreafe the pleafures of fenfation ; 
 at funerals, to overpower cadaver- 
 ous fmells, and pleaie the manes 
 of the dead ; and in the theatres 
 to prevent the ofFenfive effluvia, 
 proceeding from a crowd, from 
 being perceived. See Maloba" 
 thrum. 
 
 Peripatetic Philofophy, was 
 that fytiem of Philufophy taught 
 and eftablilhed by Arijlotle the 
 Stagyrite. His followers were 
 called fomeiimes AriRotclians, 
 and fonieiimes Peripatetics. The 
 latter name was given them be- 
 caufe he delivered his ledlures 
 •walking among!! his auditors, in 
 the Lyceum, a place of public ex- 
 ercife at Athens. Arijlotle'^ eru- 
 dition fcems to have been as ex- 
 tenfive as the ftate of knowledge 
 at that lime permitted, but not 
 entitled to that excefiive praife 
 which fome have thought proper 
 to beftow up(^n it. In a word the 
 Peripatetic philofophy was loaded 
 with technical and fcholaitic 
 terms. It was obfcure in itfelf, 
 but the commentators have ren- 
 dered it Itill more fo. Inilead of 
 throwing light upon the difficult 
 parts of it, they have wrapped it 
 in darknefs vifible. The charac- 
 ter of this philofophy is, that ic 
 dictates with tyrannical affertion, 
 rather than enlightens by the 
 gentler methods of convidion. 
 We are told by Serranus that there 
 is nothing exquifite in any part 
 cfy/r//?o//f'spl.ilofophy, cialedtics, 
 ethics, politics, phyfics, or meta- 
 pbyfics, but is found in Plato and 
 borrowed from him ; but this, 
 perhaps, is afTerting too roundly. 
 Arijiotle divided philofophy into 
 two parts, Theontical and Prac- 
 ticalj 
 
PER 
 
 tical, to which he fubjoined the 
 Injlrumental, His Logic was two- 
 fold, Jna/ytic snd Dialef/ic : The 
 former produced knowledge, the 
 latter only probability. He dii- 
 tJnguifhed 'Terms or themes into 
 fuch as were homcnymaus, Jynony 
 mous, and paronymous. He efia- 
 bhfhtd ten predicaments, and dif- 
 tinguifhed prepofnions by their 
 feverai parts, viz. \.\it/uhjeSi, the 
 predicate, and the ccpulu. He ex- 
 adtly (hewed the force of the three 
 terms which conflituie a SyJiogiJm, 
 and the three figures to which 
 they are reducible. He alfo af- 
 ferted, with great truth, that 
 fcience was founded on the rea- 
 fon of things, and that captious 
 fophifnis only led to error. Ac> 
 cording to him the three things, 
 of which all others are compofed, 
 are matter, form, and privation. 
 He fays there are four forts of 
 caufes, the materia! cau{e ex qua; 
 xhe formal caufe per quatn; the 
 efficient caufe u qua ; and X^Q final 
 caufe propter quam. He denied a 
 ^vacuum, and held that time is the 
 nneafure of moiion. His ideas of 
 the foul were quite senigmatical ; 
 he called it the i.)!^,i\i-/i\a, of an or- 
 ganized body, which is a term his 
 folluwers have not been able to 
 explain fatiifafloiily. Happinefs 
 'he fays confiit:. in the analogy of 
 the {unChons of the foul with vir- 
 tue, and that by the exercife of 
 thefe fundions, we arrive at the 
 fumraum bonmn : That virtue is a 
 habit founded on choice, and con- 
 fifts in keeping an even mean, be- 
 tween two extremes. Tkeophrafius 
 and Strata were his immediate 
 fucceffors. From the fyrtem of 
 the Peripotttics, ill explained, and 
 mifunderllood, came the fchool 
 philofophy of the Thomijh, Sco:iJis, 
 Nominalijis, Realifis, and, in a 
 confiderable degree, the Metaphor 
 
 PER 
 
 fics and Logic of moft of the uni- 
 verfities in Europe. See Philofo- 
 phy. 
 
 Periphaldia, the fame with 
 Phallogogia and Dicnyjia. See 
 Phallogogia and Dionyfia. 
 
 PeRIPORPHYRUM, WE^lTTO^^f^OF, 
 
 was the name by which the Greeks 
 diilinguifhed the Toga Pratexta of 
 the Romans, becaufe there was a 
 border of purple round the edges. 
 See Toga. 
 
 PfcRlRRHANTERIUM, 3 VCfTel of 
 
 floneor brafs filled with holy-wa- 
 ter, with which al] thofe were 
 fprinkled who were admitted by 
 the Ancients to the facrifices. Be- 
 yond this veffel no profane perfon 
 was allowed to pafs. Some fay it 
 was placed in the Adytum, or in- 
 moft recefs of the temple ; others 
 will have it placed at the door, 
 which indeed feems the more like- 
 ly opinion. It was ufed both by 
 ijreeks and Romans, and fomething 
 fimilar is found ii. the churches of 
 modern Rnme. The Hebreivs alfo 
 had a vefiel for purification. 
 
 PeriSCYLACISMUS, TTspt^Kt^Aas- 
 xtcTjuo?, a method of purification 
 praftifed by the Greeks. A whelp 
 was drawn round the defiled per- 
 fon, and this ceremony was fup- 
 pofed to remove his pollutions 
 and render him again fit for fo- 
 ciety. 
 
 Peristiarchus, among the 
 Greeks, was the perfon who offi- 
 ciated in a luilration. 
 
 Peristylium, was among the 
 Athenians, a large fquare fpace, 
 and fometimes oblong, in the 
 middle of the Gymnafium, defign- 
 ed for walking in, or for fuch ex- 
 ercifes as were not performed in 
 the PciUjira. 
 
 Perjury, the crime of fwear- 
 
 ing faliely. In fome places it 
 
 was punilhed with death; in 
 
 Others it made the falfe fwearer 
 
 liablQ 
 
PER 
 
 liable to the fame punillimenti 
 which was clue to the crime he 
 had charged the innocent perfon 
 with ; in others a pecuniary itiuIA 
 tvas iinpofed. But though it ef- 
 capeJ human, yet it was thought, 
 amongft the ancients in general, 
 that the divine vengeance would 
 molt certainly overtake itj and 
 many fevere inflidions from the 
 hand of God are left upon record, 
 as monuments of the abhorrence 
 in which this atrocious crime is 
 held by 'he deity. The fouls of 
 the deceafed were fuppofed to be 
 employed in puniihing perjured 
 villains. Even inanimate crea- 
 tures were thought to take revenge 
 for this crime. The Greeks ima- 
 gined, that no perfon could fwear 
 falfly by Styx, without fome re- 
 jnarkable punifhment ; and that 
 no perfon guilty of perjury could 
 enter the cave of Paltemon at Co- 
 rinth, without being made a me- 
 morable example of divine juftice. 
 In Sicily, at the temple of the 
 Palici, there were certain foun- 
 tains called Del/i, oat of which if- 
 fued boiling water with flames and 
 balls of fire, and we are told that 
 if any perfon fvvore falfly near 
 them, he was infiantly ftruck 
 dumb, blind, lame, or dead, or 
 was fvvaliowed up by the waters. 
 But notwithllanding the general 
 abhorrence in which perjury was 
 held, notwithllanding the credit 
 which was given to fuch accounts 
 of divine mflidions, it was fo 
 much pr^dilifed by ihe Greeh, that 
 Gr^eca Fides became a proverb. 
 Lovers' perjuries however were 
 fuppofed to pafs unnoticed, or to 
 be very flightly puniflied with 
 blacknefs of the nails, a decayed 
 tooth, or fome little diminution 
 of beauty. See. Oaths. 
 
 Perones, a kind of high fhoes, 
 worn not only by country people, 
 but by men of ordinary rank in 
 
 PER 
 
 the city of Rome. In the early 
 times of the commonwealth they 
 were worn even by Senators, but 
 at lad they were laid afide by 
 perfons of figure, and confined to 
 plowmen and labourers ; indeed 
 they were very rudely formed, 
 confiiling only of hides undreflT- 
 cd, and re<:ching to the middle 
 of the leg. Virgil mentions the 
 Perones as worn by a company of 
 rurtic .'o'diers on one foot or.Iv, 
 j¥ln. 7, 690. 
 
 , Pe.^oration, the laft part of 
 an oration, which recapitulates 
 the whole with new force and 
 weight, and takes hold of the 
 paffions of the audience. The 
 excellence of a peroration confifts 
 in vehemence, /ifi//jw, and brevity, 
 all which wereobferved by Ciceroy 
 who never had an equal in the 
 management of this part of an 
 orator's province, for peroration 
 was h:s mailer-piece. 
 
 Persona, was the maflc worn 
 by the ancient Tragedians and 
 Comedians, in order to make them 
 better refcmble the perfons whofe 
 charafters they aflumed. The 
 ancient Perfona were not like our 
 maiks which cover only the face ; 
 for they came over the whole 
 head, and had always a fort of 
 peruke of hair faftened on them, 
 proper to the perfon whom they 
 reprefented. This is true of co- 
 mic maiks, and we have reafon to 
 conclude it is no lefs fo of the 
 tragic vizards. Horace refers the 
 invention ofthe maik \o ^FJchyius : 
 Before his time the aflors by way 
 of mafk ufed to paint their faces 
 with lees of wine, or other mix- 
 tures; and yet this was well 
 enough when we confider that 
 their llage was only a cart, with a 
 floor thrown over it. 
 
 Perfona is derived from perfonoy 
 
 to Jound through, becaufe being put 
 
 over the face, and left open at the 
 
 moutk. 
 
PET 
 
 mouth, it rendered the voice 
 much clearer and fuller, by con- 
 trafting it into a lefs compafs. 
 Some fay the ancient mafks had 
 a fort of button belonging to them, 
 which the adlors held in their 
 mouths to give the due modula- 
 tion to their voices. Be this as 
 it will, we always find in all the 
 old figures of the mafes, a very 
 large and wide opening for the 
 mouth. 
 
 Maflcs were not only ufed upon 
 the itage, but were alfo introduc- 
 ed at feafls to add to the hilarity 
 of the guefts ; at funerals to re- 
 prefent the countenance of the 
 decealed ; in war to impofe upon 
 the enemy ; in triumphs to exhi- 
 bit the countenances of thofe gods 
 Vs'hom they fuppofed iriftrumental 
 to the victory. 
 
 Pes, a foot, a meafure of 
 length amongfl the Romans, equal 
 to 1 1 inche?, 604 decimal parts. 
 The Grecian foot, or tts? was I 
 foot, 0875 decimal parts of an 
 inch, Etiglijh meafure. See the 
 Tables nviA^x the article Meafure. 
 
 Pescia, a name given by the 
 'Romans to the iamb-flcins in which 
 the Mi mi weredrefled. The Pefcia 
 were chiefly worn upon the head. 
 The word occurs in the old verfes 
 of the Salii. See Mimi. 
 
 Petalism, a fort of bani/h- 
 ment for five years. It prevailed 
 among the Syracufans, and was 
 performed by an afiembly of the 
 people, who wrote the name 
 of the perfon againft whom the 
 charge was brought iv TtilccXoi;, 
 upon leaves; hence the name. It 
 differed little from the Jthenien 
 O/trncifm. Petalifm find Ojiracifm 
 were in faft the fame, excepting 
 that the firft was for five years, 
 and performed by writing on 
 leaves, wkereas the other was for 
 ten years, and the party's name 
 was written srocfaxoK, on tiles and 
 
 PH A 
 
 fliells. Both of thefewere honour- 
 able to a man, and a proof of his 
 merit. 
 
 The banifliment of Petali/m was 
 inltituted in the 86th Olympiad, 
 and the leaves made ufe of vvere 
 generally thofe of the olive tree. 
 See Ojiracifm. 
 
 Petamarius, a name gi\'en 
 by the Romans to perfons who per- 
 fcrrried lurprifing feats of aflivity 
 in leaping, vaulting, &c. The 
 word is derived from 9r6l«//.«*, 'volo, 
 to fly. 
 
 Petasus, among the Romans, 
 was a covering for the head, not 
 unlike our hat? ; it had a broad 
 brim, and was ufed in journeys to 
 preferve the face from the fcorch- 
 ing influence of the fun, or incle- 
 mencies of weather. Mercury, 
 as the god of travellers and mer- 
 chants, is reprefented in ancient 
 figures as wearing the Petafus. It 
 differs r7om the Ptleus in having a 
 brim. 
 
 Petoritum, a fort of wagon 
 with four wheels, in ufe among 
 the Gauls. It is mentioned by 
 Horace. Ep. ii. I. 192. Sat. i. 6. 
 104. See alfo Cell. xv. 30. 
 
 Phagesia, a feftival in honour 
 of Bacchus, celebrated during the 
 Dionyjia : It was fometim.es called 
 P hagefipofia,fvovn ^xynnyfo eat, and 
 Tz-cEif, to drink ; becaufe it was a 
 time of excefs in eating and drink- 
 in a, when men to pleafe a god 
 made beafts of themfelves. 1 his 
 fefiival was fometimes called Pha- 
 gon, though fomc will have it to 
 be diftinft from it. 
 
 Phalanx, amongft the Greeks, 
 was a huge, fquare, compadl bat- 
 talion formed of infantry, let 
 clofe to one another, with their 
 ihields joined, and pikes turned 
 crofs-ways ; fo that it was nexrt 
 to an impoffibility to break them. 
 This fort of battalion was invent- 
 ed by the Macedonians, who were 
 
 ver/ 
 
PH A 
 
 very famous for this way of em- 
 battling. The Macedonian Pha- 
 lanx is ihus defcribed by Polyhius. 
 It was a fquare of pike-men, con- 
 fifting of fixteen in flank, and five 
 hundred in front; the foldiers 
 flood To clofe together that the 
 pikes of the fifth rank extended 
 three feet beyond the front : The 
 rell, whofe pikes were not fervice- 
 able by reafon of their diftance 
 from the front, couched them up- 
 on the flioulders of thofe that 
 Jlood before them, and To locking 
 them together in file, prefled for- 
 ward ti) fupport and pufh on the 
 former rank, fo that the afiault, 
 by this means, was rendered more 
 violent and irrefiftible. 
 
 The Macedonian Phalanx \s fup- 
 pcfed by fome to have had the 
 advantage, in valour and ftrength, 
 over the Roman Legion. Its num- 
 ber was eight thoufand men. But 
 the word Phalanx is ufed for a 
 party of twenty-eighty and feveral 
 other numbers; and even fome- 
 times tor the whole body of foot. 
 Sie Legion. 
 
 Phaleb^, among the Romans, 
 were military rewards beftowed 
 for fome fignal adl of bravery. 
 Authors are not agreed whether 
 the Phaler^ were a fuit of rich 
 trappings for a horfe, or golden 
 chains lomethiog like the Torques, 
 bat fo formed as to hang down to 
 the bread and difplay a greater 
 profufion of ornament. The laft 
 <'pinion feems to have the greater 
 prevalence, but perhaps both are 
 true. 
 
 Phallagogia, called alfo Pe- 
 riphallic, a ceremony obferved by 
 liie Athenians in the feall oi Bac- 
 chus, called Dionyjla, in which a 
 company of men covered as to 
 their faces with various herbs, and 
 crowned with violets and ivy, 
 carried long poles with the figure 
 of the Membrum virile faftened to 
 
 PHA 
 
 the ends of them. The poles thus 
 prepared were called (p«AAo», the 
 bearers of them <pc(.7^o(po^oi, and 
 the fongs repeated upon the occa- 
 fion, which were full of obfcenity, 
 had the name of (pot,>.\ixa u.ayi.cc\x. 
 Then followed the iStxpaMo*, ia 
 women's girments, llriped with 
 white, and flowing to the ancles, 
 with garlands on their heads, and 
 gloves com pofed of flowers. Their 
 geftures reprefented the reeling 
 and foolifh aftions of drunken 
 men. Thefe ceremonies of the 
 Dionyfia were fometimes called 
 Phailica. See Dionyjia. 
 
 Phallophori, befides the 
 fenfe afligned to it in the article 
 above, fignifies a fort of Mimes at 
 Sicyon, who ran about the ftreets 
 with faces blackened, cloathed ia 
 flieep-flcins, and bearing baflcets 
 full of various herbs, particularly 
 chervil, branca urjina, violets, ivy, 
 &c. 
 
 Pharisees were a celebrated 
 feft among the Jeivs, fo called 
 from the Hebre-w word Pharejh, 
 to feparate, becaufe they pretend- 
 ed to feparate themfelves from the 
 reft, by aufterity of life, fandlity 
 of manners, and exadl obfervance 
 of the law. They were, however, 
 after all, rank hypocrites, and had 
 a greater regard to the appear- 
 ance, than to the reality of virtue 
 and religion. They made long 
 prayers, and generally uttered 
 them with an audible voice, in 
 the corners of the ftreets, in order 
 to catch the attention of the mul- 
 titude. They fafted frequently, 
 and disfigured their faces to give 
 them the external marks of mor- 
 tification. They wore broad Phy- 
 laderies, and oftentatioufly found- 
 ed a trumpet when they diftribut- 
 ed their alms. They were exadl 
 in difcharging a number of little 
 fuperftitious niceties, fuch as pay- 
 ing tithe of mint, anife, cummin, 
 ♦ G &c.' 
 
PH A 
 
 &c. but negleded the weightier 
 matters of the law, miz. juftice, 
 fidelity and mercy. They paid 
 more attention to abfurd com- 
 ments on the Scriptures, than to 
 the word of God, and made void 
 the law through their traditions, 
 exalting human inventions above 
 divine direftions. Their power 
 in church and ftate was very great, 
 and thro' their influence the exe- 
 cution of our Sa'viour was effeft- 
 ed : They believed the exiftence 
 of angels and fpirits : The refur- 
 redion alfo of the dead, and eter- 
 nal rewards and punilhments were 
 articles of their creed. They held 
 the doftrine of predeftination and 
 an irreverfible fatality ; but in 
 fuch a manner as did not exclude 
 the free-agency of man. They 
 were fond of making profelyte;, 
 and required of them a thoufand 
 minutenefles, fuch as v^'afliing the 
 Dutfide of the cap or platter, tho' 
 the injide was full of rapaciouf- 
 r.efs, intemperance, and all ini- 
 quity. In fine, they had the form 
 of godlinefs, but were Grangers to 
 the power of it. 
 
 Opinions differ as to the time 
 when this feft arofe ; fome fix its 
 origin about the time of E/dras, 
 others about the time of Chrift's 
 incarnation, or a little before, and 
 others, with more probability, 
 ttier its origin to the days of the 
 Maccabees. 
 
 Pharmaca, amongft the An- 
 cients, fignified medicated or en- 
 chanted compofitions of herb?, 
 minerals, &c. fome of which be- 
 ing taken inwardly were fuppof- 
 ed to caufe blindnefs, madnefs, 
 love, &c. others infeded by touch ; 
 fuch was the garment fent by 
 Medea to Cerufa, prepared y^^azr- 
 dum artern j and others again ope- 
 rated upon perfons at a diftance. 
 Pharmaca foteria were employed 
 by way of antidote againil the 
 
 P HI 
 
 mifchicvous compofitions : Thus 
 the herb nioly preferved VlyJ/it 
 from the magical influence of 
 Circe. The laurel, the rha/nnus, 
 the fiea-bane, the jafper-;;cne, 
 were ufed for fimilar purpofes. 
 
 Pharmaci, were two perfons 
 employed in the lulbation or pu- 
 rification of cities. Some fay they 
 were both men ; others that a 
 man to reprefent themaies, and a 
 woman to reprelent the females, 
 performed this office. They per- 
 formed facrifice, and wore about 
 their necks figs, called o\>i(x.ot<;, 
 thofe of the man being blackiih, 
 and thofe of the woman white. 
 Figs were an emblem of fertility, 
 which they doubtlefs prayed for 
 on thefe folemn occafions. 
 
 Pharos, a light-houfe, built 
 near a port, where a fire was 
 kept conftantly burning by night, 
 for the guide and diredion of vef- 
 fels near at hand. The ColoJJits 
 at Rhodes ferved for this purpofe; 
 but the mod; famous Pharos o^ an- 
 tiqulty was that at Alexandria. 
 
 Phellos, a Grecian fellival in 
 honour of Bacchus^ and prepara- 
 tory to the Dionyjia. 
 
 Pherephattia, a feftival kept 
 at Cyricum, in honour of Pro/er- 
 pine, who was alfo called Phere- 
 fhatta. A black heifer was the fa- 
 crifice. 
 
 Pmiditia, Lacedemonian felli- 
 vals, remarkable for the frugality 
 of the encertainmenr, and the cha- 
 ritable intention of the meeting. 
 They were held in public places, 
 and in the open air. Thole who 
 attended, if they were of ability, 
 con'ributed each a bulhel of flour, 
 eight choruses of wine, five mimt 
 of cheefe, and as much fig?. Rich 
 and poor affilled alike at this feaft, 
 and were upon the fame footing j 
 the defign of the inftitu'ion being, 
 like the Roman Chari^ia, to re- 
 concile differences, and to culti- 
 vate 
 
' PHI 
 
 vate peace, friendfhip, a good un- 
 derftindinw and equality among 
 all the virizens, gteat and fmall. 
 See ChariJJia. 
 
 Philosophy, the knowledge 
 or ftudy or' Nature, founded on 
 reafon and experience. It may 
 be divided into three parts, Intel- 
 kaual, M)ral, and Phyfical. The 
 Incelleftsjal part comprehend? Lo- 
 gic and Metaphj/ics ; the Moral 
 part contains the laws of Nature 
 and Nations, Ethics and Politics ; 
 the Phylical part comprizes the 
 dodlrine of bodies, animate or in- 
 animate. Soextenfive is the field 
 of Philofcphy ! With how much 
 propriety then do thofe who ap- 
 ply themfelves to the ftudy of 
 Nature, call themfelves Philofo- 
 pbers, i. e. Lovers of Science, ra- 
 ther than alfume any other name 
 which would arrogantly imply the 
 perfection of their knowledge. 
 The harveft truely is great ; but 
 the labourers weak and few in 
 number. How fmall the propor- 
 tion of what we know, to what 
 yet remains tot.iL'y unknown 1 
 
 Some of the Grecians have chal- 
 lenged to their nation the origin 
 G^ Fhilo/ophyi but the more learn- 
 ed of them acknowledge it to be 
 derived from the Eaft ; that Thales, 
 who travelled into the Oriental re- 
 gions, firit brought into Greece 
 Natural Philofophy, Geometry, 
 and Aflrology ; for which reafon 
 the attribute of ivi/e was confer- 
 red upon him, and at the fame 
 time upon others for their emi- 
 nence in Ethics and Politics. 
 
 The ancient Philofophers were 
 divided into numerous fedls, 
 which may be thus arranged : 
 I ft. The Wi/e-men, including 
 ^haleSf Solon, Chilon, Pittacus, 
 Bias, Cleobulus, Periandery Sojia- 
 des, Anacharjis ; to whom may be 
 added, My/on, Epimtnides, Pherecy- 
 dej,--2dt The iowVfeft, the prin- 
 
 PHI 
 
 cjpal fupporters of which were, 
 Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
 gorai, Archelaus. — 3d, The Socra- 
 tic fefl, the chief of which were, 
 Socrates, Xencphon, JEfchines, Cri- 
 to, Simon, Glauco, Simmias, Cebes. 
 — 4th, The Cyrenaic{t(X, of which 
 were Arijiippus, Hegfjias, Annice- 
 ris, Theodoras, Bion. — -5th, The 
 Mtgaric fcdt, namely, Euclid, Eu- 
 buhdes, Alexitius, Euphantt/s, Apol- 
 lonius Chronus, Diodorus, Ichthyas, 
 Clinomachus, Stilpo- — 6th, The 
 Eleac or Eretriac fe»S, containing, 
 Phtedo, Plijihenes, Menedemus. — 
 7th, The Acade»2ic {c&., of Which 
 were, Plato, Speuj7ppus, Xenocrates, 
 Polemo, Crates, Grantor, Arcejilatis, 
 Carneades, CUtomachus, Philo, Art' 
 tiochus. — 8th, The Peripatetic fed, 
 the principal Philofophers of 
 which were, Arijlotle, Theophraf- 
 tus. Strata, Lyco, Arijlo, Cntolaus, 
 Diodorus. — 9th, The Cynic fedl, 
 of which we may reckon, ^«///- 
 thenes, Diogenes, Monimus, Qneji- 
 critus. Crates, Metrocles, Hippar- 
 chia, Menippus, Menedemus. — lOth, 
 The Stoic fed, embraced by Zeno, 
 Cleanthes, Chryjtppus, Ztno the lefs, 
 Diogenes, Antipater, Pantstius, Po- 
 fidonius. — I ith, The Italic fed, of 
 which were, Pythagoras, Etnpedo- 
 cles, Epicharmus, Archytas, Alc- 
 mteon, Hippafus, Philolaus, Eu- 
 doxus.—'izth. The Heraclitian 
 fed, of which we meet with the 
 founder's name only, viz. Heracli- 
 tus, his followers having been 
 wrecked upon the tide of time 
 before they reached diflant pcfte- 
 rity. — 13 th, The Eleatic fed, in 
 which are ranked Xenophanest 
 Parmenides, MeliJJiis, Zeno, LeU' 
 cippus, Democritus, Protagoras, 
 Anaxarchus. -^l^th, The Sceptic 
 fed, containing, Pyrrho, Timon.-— 
 15 th, The Epicurean fed, whofe 
 founder was Epicurus ; profeffors 
 of this man's dodrine were fo 
 many, that it would be impoffible 
 * G 2 to 
 
PHI 
 
 to enumerate them : Lucretius 
 adopted the opinions of this ftft, 
 and threw them out in a highly 
 finifhed poem. The vehicle was 
 fo pleafant, that it raifed preju- 
 dices in favour of the odious prin- 
 ciples it contained. 
 
 Pbilo/cphy, in general, was fo 
 imperfeft in the earlieft ages of 
 antiquity, and even in the politer 
 times oi Greece and Rome, that it 
 appears, from the high pinnacle 
 of modern improvements, and of 
 ]ate difcoveries, mere folemn tri- 
 ile and puerile afftftation. Yet 
 fome of the Ancients, it mud be 
 confeffed, have come fo near the 
 truth, in matters of high import- 
 ance, that we almoft wonder how 
 they failed of making the difco- 
 very. In Ethics and in Poli/ics 
 they have left behind them fome 
 excellent works : but the folution 
 of the Phenomena of nature, was 
 left for a Bacon and a Neivton to 
 efFecl. Their reafonings were hy- 
 pothetical, and they never thought 
 cf arguing by indudio'.i, which is 
 adopted by the moderns, and is 
 the only chain, by whicfi truth 
 can be dravvn from many of her 
 deep recefles. 
 
 The Philo/ophy of the ancients 
 is thus charafterized by fome 
 writers: It htc&mt impinus arAer 
 Dias^oras, 'vicious under Epicurus, 
 hypocritical under Zeno, i:npudent 
 u.ider Diogenes, co^oetous under 
 Demochares, 'voluptuous under Me- 
 troiif.'iis, fantajtuul under Crates, 
 fcurriloui under Menippus, iicemi- 
 ous under Pyrrho, and quarreljcme 
 under Ckanthes. 
 
 Sound Philofophy, in the primi- 
 tive times of the church, was of- 
 ten the foundation of Chrillianity, 
 and made ufe of bv the ancients 
 in its defence. But Pliilcfophy, 
 in its corrupted Rate, after it had 
 efpoufed ab'jrd principles, and 
 whea it defended undiie prac- 
 
 PHY 
 
 tices, was reprobated by the 
 Chriftian writers, and of fuch 
 Philofophy St. Paul bids the Co- 
 IcJJians htvj!Lre. Some of the fen- 
 timents of the Epicureans and 
 Stoicks are alluded to in the New 
 Teftament in terms of diiappro- 
 bation. See Colo/, li. 20, 21. 
 Jds xvii. 18. 
 
 Philtres, among the Greeks 
 and Romans, were certain drugs, 
 or preparations, which were fup- 
 pofed to operate as charms or 
 fpells, in exciting love. Philtres 
 were much ufed by the ancientj, 
 and were of two kinds ; \\\t Jpu- 
 rious, which were (uppored to ope- 
 rate by fome magic virtue com- 
 municated to them by witches, 
 &c. and t\\t.true, which they ima- 
 gined wrought their e.^z&. by 
 fome inherent, natural, and mag- 
 netical power. For an account 
 of the ufual ingredients which en- 
 tered into the compolition of 
 Philtres, fee L>i}e. 
 
 Phosphoria, a Grecian felli- 
 val in honour of Phojphorus or 
 Lucifer. 
 
 Photinx, a fort of flute, 
 made uie of by the Greeks, and 
 exactly refcmbling tne Roman 
 Plagiaula. 
 
 Phratriarch, an Athenian 
 magiltrate, whofe power over the 
 Phratria, or third part of a tribe, 
 was the fame as thr:t of the Phy- 
 larcb over the whole tribe. See 
 Phylarchs. 
 
 Phylacist^e, among the 
 Grteks asd Remans, were oScers, 
 to whofe keeping the flaves in 
 work-houfes and prifons were 
 committed. 
 
 Phylactery, among the an- 
 cients, was a general name given 
 to all kinds of fpells, charms, or 
 amulets which they wore about 
 them, to preferve them from dif- 
 eafe or danger. 
 
 It is more particularly ufed to 
 fignify 
 
PHY 
 
 PHY 
 
 fignify a flip of paper whereon 
 was written feme text of Scrip- 
 ture, efpecially of the decalogue, 
 which the more devout people 
 amongft the Jeixjs wore on the 
 forehead, the breali, or the r.eck, 
 as a badge and mark o^ their re- 
 ligion. The Pharifees, who were 
 fond of exhibiting external figns 
 of remarkable iandtity, wore their 
 philaileriei broader than other 
 men. See F'ontleis. 
 
 Phy'archs, a name given to 
 certain /Athenian magillrates, who 
 had each of them the government 
 and diredion of a tribe commit- 
 ted to his charge. Their bufinefs 
 was to take care of the public 
 Ireafure belonging to each tribe ; 
 to manage all their concerns, and 
 to call them together, as ofien as 
 the prefence of the whole body 
 was necelTary. 
 
 Phvlla, among the ancients, 
 were wreaths or fillets, that hung 
 from the head-drefs of the women 
 in form of flowers. 
 
 Phyllobolia, a nhme given 
 to the rudom of throwing flowers 
 and leaves on the tombs of the 
 dead. The Roma7is borrowed this 
 cuii^m from the Greeks, and add- 
 ed likewife wool. The PhyllodoUa, 
 pr ceremony of flrewing flowers, 
 was ufed aifo on account of any 
 vii.'^ory at the public games, when 
 not only the viftors themfclves, 
 but their parents likewife were 
 llrewed with flowers. 
 
 Phylobasiles, /Athenian ma- 
 giflrates, who had the fameofiice, 
 with refpedl ro particular tribes, 
 as the Bajiles had vvith refped to 
 the Commonwealth. They were 
 chofen out of the Eupatrida, or 
 Nobility; had the care of public 
 facrifices and divine worfiiip in 
 their refpedive tribes, and kept 
 their court in the Portico, called 
 Bajileion or Bucekion, 
 
 Physicians appear not to have 
 been very commiin amongft the 
 Hebreivs, efpecially for internal 
 diforders and comp'aints ; but for 
 all external wounds, b)u:fes, frac- 
 tures, &c. they had phyficians 
 who knew how to drefs and bind 
 up the injured parts. The Je-ws 
 looked upon moll: maladies to be 
 the effeds ol God's anger, or the 
 inflidion of evil fpirits ; and for 
 this reafnn, in extraordinary cafes, 
 applied themftlves for a remedy 
 to the Prophets of the Lord, or to 
 Diviners, Magicians, and Enchan- 
 ters. 
 
 Phjficians were held in high ef- 
 timation in Greece, and the name 
 of Hippocrates is an honour to the 
 proftffion. The lludy of phyfic 
 being looked upon as a branch of 
 philofophy, was fure to command 
 refped in a land where philofophy 
 was the reigning foible, and was 
 cultivated with a confiderable 
 mixture of party rage. 
 
 As long as the Romans led a 
 hardy and laborious life, Phyficians 
 were difpenfed vvith, and totally 
 unknown amongft them, without 
 any bad confequence enfuing. 
 But the luxury of the table, and 
 the excefl'es with which it was at- 
 tended, iritroduced difeafes ; and 
 as one evil produces another, fo 
 difeafes introduced phyfic, to 
 which they had before exprefled 
 much repugnance. In the 535th 
 year of Ro?ne, f )me Phyjicians had 
 come from Greece to that city, but 
 had no fixed eftablifliment there 
 till the year 600. Phyfic at that 
 time included Pharmacy and Sur- 
 gery ; for Phyjicians not only 
 compounded medicines, but per- 
 formed all chirurgical operations 
 themfelves, tho' they had then but 
 a very imperfeft knowledge of 
 anatomy. During the ccmmon- 
 wealth there were no Phyjicians or 
 Surgeons 
 
PIL 
 
 PIL 
 
 Surgeons in the army, but the 
 ancient citizens, who had almoft 
 all ferved in the army, adminifter- 
 ed medicines, and the foldiers 
 drcfTed each other's wounds with 
 feme v/eli-known remedies ufed 
 in the city. The Emperors, how- 
 ever, having a particular refpeft 
 to their own health, took Fhyji- 
 eians upon every expedition. The 
 art of healing was not held in high 
 eftimation at Rotnc^ but was fome- 
 times profcffed by flavcs. Ca/ar 
 granted Phyfuians, as a fingular 
 favour, the freedom of the city ; 
 and their reputation encreafed 
 with the luxury of the people. 
 
 Tht Babylonians, i\iG Egyptians, 
 and the ancitnt P on ugueje, we are 
 informed, had no Phyftcians a- 
 mongll them, but ufed to carry 
 their fick into the market, that all 
 who psfTed by and had ever had 
 or feen the like diftemper, might 
 give their advice, and encourage 
 them to try what themfelves or 
 others had ufed with fuccefs in fi- 
 milar cafes. The perfons who 
 could recol!e(5l the greateft num- 
 ber of cafes, with their cures, 
 were moil confu'ted; and hence 
 {he origin of Phyfic and Phyfici- 
 ans ; but every malady had at 
 firft a diftinft Phyfecian, whofe 
 fkill was never e.\erted beyond 
 the difoider he profeiTed himfelf 
 capable of curing. 
 
 PicTA Toga. Sec Toga. 
 
 PiLA, was a ball made in a dif- 
 ferent manner according to the 
 different games in which it was to 
 be ufed. Playing at bail v/as vt- 
 ly common amongtl the Romans 
 of the fitft: diflinftion, and was 
 looked upon as a manly exercife, 
 which contributed both to amufe- 
 roent and health. The Pila was 
 of four forts, ift, Fo//is or Balloon', 
 2d, Pila Trigonalis ; 3d, Pila Pa- 
 ganica ; 4th, Harpajium, All 
 thefe come under the c;eneral 
 
 name of Pila. For the manner of 
 playing with each of them, fee 
 the articles Follis, Triconalis, Pa- 
 ganica, and Harpajium. 
 
 PiLANi, a name given to the 
 Triarii in the Roman army, be- 
 caufe they were armed with jave- 
 lins called Pila. See Triarii, BaU 
 tie. Soldiers. 
 
 Pile, among the Greeks and 
 Rowans, wss a pyramid built of 
 wood, whereon were laid the bo- 
 dies of the deccafed, to be burnt. 
 It v/as partly in the form of an 
 altar, and differed in height ac- 
 cording to the quality of the per- 
 fon to be confumed. Probably it 
 might originally be confidered as 
 an altar, on v^hich the dead were 
 confumed as a burnt-offering to 
 the infernal deities. The trees 
 made ufe of in the ereflion of a 
 funeral pile, were fuch as abound- 
 ed in pitch or roiin, as being 
 moft combullible; if they ufed 
 any other weed it was fplit, that 
 it might the more eafily cateh 
 fire. Round the pile were placed 
 cyprefs boughs to hinder the noi- 
 fome ime!!. See Funeral. 
 
 PiLENTUM, was an eafy kind 
 of chariot ufed by the Roman la- 
 dies at games and religious pro- 
 ceffions. 
 
 PiLE'Js, was a hat or cap worn 
 by the Romans, during any indif- 
 pofition which prevented them 
 from appearing fafely wich their 
 heads uncovered, as was the ge- 
 neral cuftom. The Pileus was 
 alfo worn by fuch as had lately 
 received their freedom, becaufe 
 on having their liberty granted 
 they were conitantly fhaved : The 
 Pileus therefore being necelTary 
 on this account, was alfo efteemed 
 a badge of liberty ; hence pileo do- 
 nari fignifies to be made free.- — 
 The Milra, Cucullus, Galerus and 
 Palliolum, were coverings of the 
 head which differed little from 
 
 the 
 
PIL 
 
 the Pikus, and have been long 
 confounded together beyond a 
 poffibility of accurate dilbnftion. 
 
 The Pileas was worn at pub- 
 lic {hews and fac-ifices, but not 
 on a j urney, for in travelling 
 the Peiafus was preferred. See 
 Petajui. 
 
 The Pileas, by way of reward 
 and co:iferring freedom, was of- 
 ten given to fuch oF the Gladia- 
 tors as were flaves, and had ac- 
 quitted themfelves with credit 
 and applaufe, in their bloody oc- 
 cupation. 
 
 Pillars. See Column- 
 
 PiLUM, a iTiiflive weapon ufed 
 by the Roman foldiers, and in a 
 charge darted upon the enemy. 
 Its point, we are told by Poljbius, 
 was fo long and fmall, that after 
 the firlt difcharge it was generally 
 fo bent as to be rendered ufelefs. 
 The Legionary ibldiers made ufe 
 of the Pila, and each man carried 
 two. The Pilum underwent ma- 
 ny alterations and improvements, 
 inforauch that it is impoffible 
 with any precifion to defcribe it. 
 'Julius Scaliger laboured much to 
 give an accurate account of it, 
 and would have efteemed fuccefs 
 on this head amongft the greateft 
 bleffings of his life. This wea- 
 pon appears, however, to have 
 been fumetimes round, but molt 
 commonly fquare, to have been 
 two cubits long in the ftaiF, and to 
 have had an iron point of the 
 fame length hooked and jagged at 
 the end. Marius made an imme- 
 diate improvement in this inftru- 
 menc, during the Cimhrian war, 
 having fo contrived it, that when 
 it fluck in the enemies fhield it 
 fhould bend down in an angle in 
 the part where the wood was con- 
 neded with the iron, and thus be- 
 come ufelefs to the perfon who 
 received it. 
 
 PiNACiA, among the Athenians^ 
 were tablets of bra;', infcribed 
 with the names of all the citizens 
 in each tribe, who were duly qua- 
 lified and willing to be judges of 
 the court of Areopagus. Thefe 
 tablets were caft into one \t![iil 
 provided for the ..'urpofe, and the 
 fame number of beans, an hundred 
 being white, and all the reft black, 
 were thrown into another. Then 
 the names of the candidates and 
 the beans were drawn out one by 
 one ; and they, whofe names 
 were drawn out together with the 
 white Ijeans, were eleded Judges 
 or Senators. In Scion's time thefe 
 were only four tribes, each of 
 which chofe loo Senators', but 
 the number of tribes afterwards 
 encreafing, the number of 5f«a/crj- 
 or Jud_^es encreafed to fo many 
 hundreds more. 
 
 PiNARii, an order of priefts 
 belonging to Hercules, who offered 
 facrifices to that god, morning 
 and evening, together with the 
 Potiiii, whofe fervants in fad they 
 were; or at leaft they were in 
 fome degree of fubordination to 
 them. See Potitii. 
 
 PiNNiRAPi, a name given to 
 a fort of GlaiiiatDrs at Rome, who 
 were ufually matched againft the 
 Samnites. They had their name 
 from the P/w/z^e- which adorned the 
 Samniie helmet, which they ufed 
 always to aim at and bear off in 
 triumph, if their attempts proved 
 fuccefiful. Some, amongft whom 
 is Dr. Holiday, take the Pinnirapi 
 to have been the fame with the 
 Retiarii. See Retiarii and Sam- 
 nites. 
 
 Pjr^us, at Athens, was a fa- 
 mous harbour for fhips, and be- 
 longed to the tribe of Hipfothoon' 
 tis. The P/Vvi-wj contained three 
 docks, the iiril called Cantharus, 
 from a hero of that name; the fe- 
 
 cond 
 
PL A 
 
 cond Afhrcdijiunif from the two 
 tern pies of rlptrodite or Fenus ; 
 and the third Zea, from ^iix, 
 bread-ccin. This harbour had 
 five porticoes, which being join- 
 ed together compcfed one large 
 portico, called Maxpa ^oa. it 
 had alfo two Fciu/ju, and a cele- 
 brated mart, to which merchants 
 reforted from almoil every part of 
 Greece. 
 
 Piscina, a large bafon in an 
 open public place, or jquare, 
 vvhe;e the Roman jouih learnt 
 to fwim. It was generally fur- 
 rcunded with a high x-aW to 
 prevent the throwing of filth in- 
 10 it. 
 
 Pitched-Shirts were made 
 ufecfby the Romans to puniih 
 incendiaries. The criminals were 
 wrapped up in a fort of coat or 
 Ihirt, daubed all over with pitch, 
 and other combuftibies-, and then 
 fet on fire. When Nero had fet 
 Rome on fire, he endeavoured to 
 caft the odium of the crime upon 
 the CbriJUans, as a fort of men 
 generally detefted. He feisied, on 
 thisoccafibn, all hecouid difcover, 
 treated them as incendiaries, con- 
 demned them to the Pitched-Jhirts, 
 and ordered them to be lighted up 
 that they might fcrve for tapers 
 in the dark. 
 
 Place of Honour, at the enter- 
 tainments of the Jevjs in our Sa- 
 <viouri time, as well as amongll 
 the Greeks and Romans, was the 
 middle ol the midulcmoll bed. In- 
 deed among the Greeks it feems 
 Cifficult to determine which was 
 the molt honourable place at ta- 
 ble ; but as the Romans feem to 
 have imitated, in the ceremony of 
 their tables, the cuttoms of Greece, 
 we are iUongly warranted in the 
 fuppofition that there was an 
 agretnient in this particular. 
 See Acculidtion, 
 
 PL A 
 
 Planipedes, a name given to 
 the Mimi of the Romans, becaufe 
 they always adled barefoot. See 
 Mimi. 
 
 Plate was not ufed by the 
 Romans during a great length of 
 time under the commonwealth. 
 Their vtffels were of wood or 
 earth. In the year 477, Publius 
 Cornelius Rufinus, was expelled 
 from the Senate by C Fairicius 
 the Cenjor, becaufe he had about 
 ten or twelve pounds of filver 
 plate in his houfe. But, under 
 the Emperors, the cafe was much 
 alteied, for a freed-man of C/aa- 
 dius caufed a filver difh to be made 
 weighing 500 pounds. Gold plate 
 was a![o common. 
 
 Platonics, a name given to 
 thofe ancient Philofophers who 
 adopted the dodlrines of Plato. 
 The intention of Plato Was to 
 blend into one fyllem the opinions 
 of Socrates, Heraclitus, Parmenides, 
 and the EriJIic i'ttl. He divided 
 Philofophy into three parts, viz. 
 Dialeilic, Contemplatinje, and Ac- 
 ti've ; and held that truth cannot 
 be difcovered by the fenfes, but 
 that the foul alone is the proper 
 judge of it. He affirmed that 
 memory is only a chai.n of fenfa- 
 tions ; that the foul of man is a 
 blank page, without any impref- 
 fions ; and that all the ideas we 
 feem to acquire, are but remem- 
 brances of vt^hat we learnt in a 
 fojmer Hate. He afi'erted that 
 God Avas incorporeal, perfedlly 
 wife, and eternal ; and that he ar- 
 ranged, and Itil! contrculs the 
 material world ; that all beings 
 once exillfcd, as ideas only, in the 
 divine mind ; that there were eter- 
 nal Gods, and created Gods, be- 
 fjdes a Divinity pervading the 
 Univcrfe, which he called the 
 mundane foul ; that the foul of 
 Kjan was diflindl from the mun- 
 dane 
 
PLE 
 
 PLO 
 
 tJane foul ; that Virtue was beau- 
 tiful, and fiiould be .followed for 
 her own fake ; that the end of all 
 fcience is to mnke us refemble the 
 Deity, by prudence, juftice, tem- 
 perance, and piety ; and that death 
 frees us from iinprifoninent. The 
 Platonic philofophers, who have 
 written (ince the time of Chrift, 
 are full of ?>bfurdity, and have 
 done great difcredit to their foun- 
 cer. The notions of Plato are 
 full of fublimity, but are frequent- 
 ly vifionary. This great man 
 taught in the Academy, whence 
 his followers were called Acade- 
 ?n'ics. See Academies, Philcj'opkf. 
 
 Plays. See Ludi, Games, Dra- 
 ma, he. 
 
 Pleading, amongil the Greeks 
 and Romans, was limited as to its 
 duration, by a Cleplydra or hour- 
 glafs of water ; and to fee that the 
 Orators had juftice done them, 
 in this refpet^l, an oflicer was 
 appointed to dillribute the pro- 
 per quantity of water to each. 
 This officer, by the Greeks, was 
 called Epkydor. See Ep-hydor, Clep- 
 Jydra, Trial. 
 
 Plebeian, amongfi: the Romans, 
 was a perfon of the rank of the 
 common people, or populace, as 
 diftinguifned them from t^sSsna- 
 torian and Equefirian orders. The 
 Plebeians were generally attached 
 to the higher orders of the Roman 
 ' people, by certain ties of duty and 
 obedience, confidered in which 
 relation ihey v.'ere called Ciientes, 
 and the perfoas to whom they 
 rtood thus reJp.red were called Pa- 
 troni. See Client and Patron. 
 
 The Plebeians, 3c firi^, were oc- 
 cupied in cultivating the lands, 
 and the excrcife of trades and me- 
 chanical profcfTions, and v/era 
 
 confined to this narrow line of 
 employment only ; but in procefs 
 of ti.me they broke througli this 
 illiberal reftraint, ex?rted their 
 Roman fpirit, and claimed a par- 
 ticip:;tion with the other orders in 
 places of trurt, dignity, and emo- 
 lument. The power of the Ple- 
 beians, from the firft appointment 
 of Tribunes, in the year of the ci- 
 ty 260, gradually encreafed, till 
 it became an over-match for that 
 of the Senate. See Tribunes. 
 
 Plebiscita, among the Ro- 
 mans, were laws made at the Ce- 
 mitia Tribtita, at the requeft of tha 
 Tribune, or forae other Plekcictn 
 magiftrate, without the authority 
 of the Senate, but by the power, 
 of the common people alone. 
 The Plebi/cita, tho' not honoured 
 with the title of Leges, were yeC 
 allowed to be of equal force with, 
 other conftitutions. See Comitia, 
 Tribunes, &c. 
 
 Plebifcitutn is more particularly 
 applied to the law made by the 
 people when they retired in dif- 
 gufi to the Aventine Mount. 
 
 Plectrum, among theancients, 
 was an inllrument made of ivory 
 or other matter, and ufed in play- 
 ing upon the Lyre. 
 
 Plethron was a Grecian fquare 
 meafu-re, confiftiig of 1,444, o*^ 
 according to others of j 0,000 
 fquare feet. See Mea/ure. 
 
 Plough, an in'trument of huf- 
 bandry of great antiquity, for 
 breaking up the f)i!, and prepar- 
 ing the lands for fowiog. There 
 is a brafs figure of an antique 
 Plough in the jeft:it's college at 
 Rome, v^hich feems nearly to aji- 
 fwer Firgil\ defcription. The 
 iii^ure of it is as follows ; 
 
 la 
 
In this figure the bending part, a a'ls the Bnn's, or pTongh-tail — ^ ^the 
 pole, or Temo — cc the Aures., or two pieces that go over the necks 
 of the oxen — dd the plough-fhare, or Dentale — te the Dor/a, or 
 clouts of iron to faften the plough-fhare — and f is the handle, cr 
 Suva. Virgil''^ plough had no coulter. Georg. i. 
 
 POD 
 
 Plumbata, a klod of fcourge, 
 in ufe amongll the Ancients, and 
 fo called becaufe it was armed 
 with lead. 
 
 The Reman foldiers fometimes 
 annoyed the enemy with leaden 
 balls called ?lumbatfp. 
 PtUNDEJV' See Booty. 
 Plutei, were a fort of milita- 
 xy machines in the form of arched 
 waggons, with three wheels, fo 
 conveniently placed that they 
 would move either way with equal 
 cafe. The Plutei were made ufe 
 of by the R.omans with the fame 
 intention as the Mufcuili, viz. to 
 convey the pioneers to the walls 
 in fafety, that they might under- 
 mine the foundations. 
 
 PoDERis, was a robe hanging 
 down to the feet, worn by the 
 yeivijh Prifjis during their at- 
 tendance in the temple. This was 
 the proper habit of their order, 
 snd was made of linen, refembling 
 a (hirt, or rather furplice. 
 
 PoDisMUS, among the Greeks, 
 was the lame as that meafure 
 which the Romans called Pedatura. 
 See Pedatura. 
 
 Podium, in the Grecian Thea- 
 tre, was the wali that ftparated 
 ths Orchejlra from tke Sctne. 
 See Orckejira and Scene. 
 
 POE 
 
 Poets, were formerly hrld in 
 high ellimation, and regarded as 
 perfons who were favoured with 
 a fort of infpiration from heaven. 
 Hipparchus Prince of the Aihtfijans 
 fent a galley to fetch Anacreon to 
 him; Hiero of Syracufe importun- 
 ed Pindar and Simonides to live 
 with him ; Ptclemy Philopator, 
 King oi Egypt, built a temple to 
 Homer, and having fet him on a 
 throne therein, pictured round 
 about him all the cities that con- 
 tended for his nativity ; and Alex- 
 ander, we are told, had Homcr^s 
 Iliads conftantly at his bed's-head 
 along with his dagger, faying that 
 that performance inilruftcd him 
 in the military art. The Romans 
 alfo had a particular regard for 
 their Poets, for Scipio Africanus 
 had Ennius always with him» 
 and Cicero fpeaks of great Com- 
 manders who paid their court to 
 poets, that they might be immor- 
 talized in their works ; what Ci- 
 cero thought of Poets he has told 
 us at large, in his oration for 
 Archias, and no one can be ig- 
 norant in what favour Firgil and 
 Horace were with Augujius and 
 Mccanas. 
 
 Mi/es, David, and the Prophets 
 
 have left behind them the nobkil 
 
 mo.iu.mencs 
 
POL 
 
 jnonaments of poetical conjpofi- 
 tion. Indeed, in the ruder ages 
 of the world, poetry was the ve- 
 hicle of moral inrtrudion : and 
 even aphorif;iis of agriculture, 
 and rules concerning any art v/cre 
 delivered in verfe. Nay the very 
 laws of focieties and infant Hates 
 were drawn up in the language 
 of poetry, that they might be 
 more generally perufed, and more 
 eafily retained. The llory of Or- 
 pheus and of Amphicn arofe from 
 hence; for their moral maxims 
 being delivered in a poetic drefs, 
 and recommended by the harmo- 
 nious flow of their numbers, re- 
 ducCii mankind from a ilupid and 
 brutal iiate, to a more humane 
 and po'i(hed method of living. 
 See Recitatio. 
 
 PoLEMARCH, an Athenian ma- 
 giltrate, whofeduty it was to take 
 care that the children of fuch as 
 left their lives in their country's 
 fervice were, maintained out of the 
 publi: treafury; to ofter folemn 
 facrifices to Enyalus (who, accord- 
 ing to fome, was tiie fame with 
 Mars ; bur, according to others, 
 his companion) and alfo to Diana, 
 furnamed Ayfoic^a, in honour of 
 the patriotic Harmodius. 'Ihe 
 Polemarch had alfo the care of fo- 
 journers and flrangers in Athens ; 
 his authority ever them being- 
 equal to that of the Archon over 
 the citizens.- — This magiftrate was 
 one of the nine who were diftin- 
 guiilied by the general name of 
 Aichons. Stt Archcn. 
 
 FoLET^, were ten magiftrates 
 at Athens, who, together with 
 three that had the management 
 of money allowed for public 
 iliews, were empowered to let out 
 the tribute money and other pub- 
 lic revenues, and to fell confif- 
 cated eitates ; all which bargains 
 were ratified by tiieir prefident, 
 or in his name. They were by 
 
 POL 
 
 t'leir office alfo bound to convift 
 fiich as hid not paid the tribute 
 called Aleli'iKioi/, and fell them in 
 the market by auttion. The 
 market where thefe wretches were 
 fold was called "jrtcXinir.^iuvrii (/.tioiinv. 
 
 PoLiEiA, a Thihan feiiival in 
 honour of Apollo 'joT^toq becaufe in 
 Thebes, contrary to the practice of 
 of all other places, Apollo was re- 
 prefented with grey heirs. 
 
 PoLLiCis Preffio and PoUicis 
 Vcrjio, were made ufe of at the 
 combats of Gladiators, as fignals 
 of life or death to the vanquished 
 combatant; or notices to the vic- 
 tor to fpare or take the life of his 
 antagonirt. The PoUicis PreJ/h, 
 hy which the people granted life 
 to the prollrate Gladiator, was 
 no more than a clenching of the 
 lingers of both hands together, and 
 fo holding the two thumbs upright 
 clofe together. The PoUicis Ver- 
 J70, which authorized the vidor 
 to kill the other combatant for a 
 coward, was the bending back of 
 the thumbs. This is the opinion 
 of Dacier ; but others fay the PoU 
 iicis PreJ/io was when the people 
 held up one hand with. the thumb 
 bent, and the PoUicis i'trfio when 
 they fhevved the hand with the 
 thumb raifed. Authors however 
 are not on this point agreed, tho* 
 the phrafes pclticem premere and 
 poUicem -vertere frequently occur in 
 the Latin ClaJJtcs as indications 
 of tlve people's will that a Gladi- 
 ator ftiould live or die. See G/a- 
 diator. 
 
 PoLLiNCTOREs, an appellation 
 given by the Romans to thofe who 
 walhed and anointed the dead, 
 preparatory to the funeral. 
 
 Pollution, under the Mo/aic 
 law, was of various kinds, fome 
 of which were voluntary, and 
 others involuntary. Amongil the 
 voluntary PcUuticnswere touching 
 a dead body; touching any ani- 
 * H 2 mai 
 
POL 
 
 mal that died of itfelf, or any 
 creop'i g thing or unclean crea- 
 turf- ; touching a ly conlcv rated or 
 h' ly things, if the perfon was not 
 clean, or a piieft ; touching one 
 wrjo had a gonorrhcsa, or who 
 had touwhed a dead carcafe ; 
 touchin^j a woman who had ]ately 
 ]ain iri, &c. &c. ^c. Involuntary 
 Pollutions are fo various and (o 
 r.uirjerous that we niuft refer our 
 readers to the Bible for informa- 
 tion. Vide Numb. xix. ii. 14. 
 Levit.xi. 24. 43. — xii. 23. 45. — ' 
 XV. 25. See Expiation, Sec. 
 
 Numberlcfs impurities and pol- 
 lutions prevailed alfo amongft the 
 Greeks and Romans, which requir- 
 ed particular purifications and 
 ablutions. /^z>|^// reprefenrs ^ne- 
 as as afraid to touch the houfe- 
 liold gods and facied reliqiics of 
 Troy, till he had waflieci oir the 
 defikmcnts of war. Sse Lujlra- 
 tion. 
 
 It was a notion that generally 
 prevailed, not only in the "Je^jciJIj 
 nation, but in the Heathen world, 
 that there was a pollution in the 
 coniaft of dead bodies ; and this 
 ihey extended to the very houfe in 
 which a corpfe lay, and even to 
 the uncovered veiTels which flood 
 in the iame room. See Funeral. 
 
 Polygamy, aplu:ality of wives 
 or huibanas, in the poiTeFion oi 
 one man or woman, at the fame 
 time. It feems (o be particularly 
 difcountenanced bv the conltitu- 
 Uon of Nature, in tiic numbers of 
 each fi-x, which are nearly equal, 
 only there is a ini'ail excefs on the 
 iide of the males, 10 make up for 
 the extraordinary expence thereof 
 in war, at lea, &c. To this ar- 
 gument wc may add, that Polj^a- 
 my would be attended with perpe- 
 tual bickerings ar.d jealoufies 
 ambngii the wives tf the fame 
 perlon ; cciir;ention an.I perpetual 
 cnzr.ity amongll the diirercnEchi]- 
 
 POM 
 
 dren of fuch connexions, and a 
 thoufa'id inconveniences which 
 tne flightell confideration would 
 fuggelL But, notwithrtanding 
 the arguments that might be urg- 
 ed againft the pra£ticf, we find it 
 was tolerated by the Jenuijh law. 
 L was not allowed by the ftatcs 
 of Greece, except upon fome emer- 
 gencies, when their men had been 
 deftroyed by war or other calami- 
 ty. Socrates is faid to have had 
 two wives at the fame time. But 
 this may be accounted for from 
 the reafons jud now given ; the 
 fad, however, is not abfolutely 
 certain, and Plutarch thinks it 
 fully confuted by Pancetius. The 
 Romans v/ere not rcftrained from 
 Polygamy by any law ; but io 
 ftrift were they in their morals, 
 they never prailifed it till the 
 time of Mark Antony, who was the 
 firft that took the liberty of having 
 two wives ac the fame time. Af- 
 ter this the example was frequent- 
 ly followed in the empire, till the 
 reigns ot Theodofius, Honorius, and 
 Arcadius, who made an exprefs 
 law agaiall it. A, D. 393. The 
 Emperor Falentinian, however, 
 allowed all his fubjeds, by an 
 edid, io marry feyeral wives, and 
 does not feem to have met w'th 
 any oppcfition from the biiiiops 
 of thofe days. See Marriage, 
 Concubine, Wi-ves, Sec. 
 
 I'oMOERjuM, among the Ro- 
 mans, was, according to Li^jy, that 
 fpace of ground both within and 
 without the walls, which the Au- 
 gurs, at the firll building of citk-r., 
 foiemnly confecrated, and on 
 which no edifices were iuffcred to 
 be raifed. In drawing the Pomde- 
 rium, this, according to Plutarch, 
 was the ceremony : " They dug 
 a trench, and threw into it the 
 firil-fruits of all tilings, either good 
 by cultom, or necelTary by na- 
 ture ; and every man taking a 
 
 fmall 
 
PON 
 
 fmall turf of earth, of the country 
 from whence he came, they call 
 them in promifcuoufly. Then 
 making this trench their centre, 
 they defcribed the city in a circle 
 round it. After this, the founder 
 yoking a bull and a cow tooe- 
 ther, ploughed a deep furrow, with 
 a brazen plouj^h-fhare, round the 
 bounds. The attendants took 
 care that all the clods fell inwards, 
 i. e. toward the city. This fur- 
 row they called Pomierium, and 
 built thewall upon it." — Plutarch, 
 in this account, is to be undjrilooJ 
 as fpeaking q{' Rotr.e. 
 
 P omcsrium Proferre fignifies to 
 extend or enlarge a city, which 
 could not bij done by any, but 
 thole who h-d taken away fome 
 partof an enemy's country in war. 
 Iiut this q ahficati'jn was fome- 
 times diipenfed with. Pomcerium 
 is (jurji pone mjeniji, behind the 
 
 PoMPA, among the Remans, 
 was any fort of folemn proceffion 
 at feRivals, or on other religious 
 occafjons. The Pompce were al- 
 ways attended with much ceremo- 
 ny and laboured ollentation, 
 
 Po.MPA Circenjls or Cerealis, 
 was a procefiion exhibited at the 
 Lndi Ccrcales of the Romans, con- 
 iilhr.g of a fulemn niarch of the 
 perlons who were to engage in 
 tl)8 exercifes of the Circus, at- 
 tended by the magiitrates and 
 ladies of quality ; the li^tues of 
 the gods and illullrious men be- 
 ing carried ;ilong in ftate on wag- 
 gons called Thenjre. 6ee Cenaies, 
 
 Pontes vvere narrow hoards or 
 pi.inks over which the Centuries 
 paffed into the Ovilia or Septa, 
 when called upon to give their 
 votes in the Corr.itia Centuriata 
 ?i.mor,<yx\\Q Romam : Hence pedons 
 who were upon any account re- 
 fufed ihe privilege of voticg, were 
 
 PON 
 
 faid de ponte dejici, or calicd De- 
 pontani. 
 
 PoNTiFEX, among the /Z5/w<z».'-, 
 was one of the order of Pomijices, 
 who had the fuperintendance and 
 direflion of divine vvorlhip in ge- 
 neral. The Pontijicef were tr^iH- 
 ed into a college confilling oi fif- 
 teen perfons, of v.'hom the eight 
 firll had the tide oi Majores, and 
 the feven others oi Pontifices Mi- 
 nores. They made together but 
 one body, the chief of which was 
 called Pontifex Maximus. The 
 Pontifices owed their inllitution to 
 Numa, Vv'ho confined their number 
 to four, and chofe them out of the 
 Patricians 'i four others of Plebeian 
 rank were afterwards adopted. 
 Sylla, the Diclator, augmented 
 them to fifteen. The college of 
 Pontifices iupe.'-intended every 
 thing that related to religion, 
 took cognizance of religious dif- 
 fcntions, regulated ceremonies, 
 and explained mylteries. It was 
 alio tiieir duty to write the Reman 
 hillory, in a iimple flyie, year by 
 year. They piefided in all games 
 of the Circus, Amphitheatre, and 
 Theatre, exhibited in honour of 
 any of the gods. The Pcnti^s, 
 in general, were confidered as fa- 
 cred perlons, and, by way of dif- 
 tini5vion, took place of all the ma- 
 gillrates. Vacancies in the Pon- 
 tfical college were liiled up by 
 eledions, acc'ordi^ig to plurality 
 of voi;;es. This methou ot elect- 
 ing new Pontifices continued uu- 
 dei the Commonwealih for 6co 
 years. The P ouiif ex Maximus w^^ 
 ch.ofen in the lame manner, till 
 Dcmitiiis j^noharbus. Tribune of 
 the people, trnnsuirred that fighc 
 to the people aiiem bled by Tnbss. 
 But /iugujliis reifored to the col- 
 lege the privilege of elcdin? their 
 own members. The office of 
 Pontificx, in general, was hllcd by 
 perfons of the iirlt diltindlion ; 
 
 buc 
 
POP 
 
 POR 
 
 but t/Kit of Pontifex MaxifJius, 
 Ironi tlie extenfue power with 
 which he was verted, was LfTuriied 
 by ihe Emperors thcnifelves, and 
 remained attached to their pcr- 
 fons. Fejlui calls the Pontipx 
 Tluximus, " Judtx atque arbiter 
 rrrum humanarum divinarumgue. 
 Authors difFcr as to the derivation 
 of the word Pontifex; fome will 
 fcave it to be from pons, a btidge, 
 and fucere, to make j becaufe the 
 Pontifces built and repaired the 
 Sublician biidge: Others derive 
 it frcm p^Jpt ^0 bs able, a-nd facer e, 
 «k-hich lometirr.es fignifiss to Ja- 
 irif.ce. The iirit of ttiefe opinions 
 more generally prevails, though 
 Plutarch calls it abfurd. 
 
 The er.tertainnieiits made upon 
 the election and adrniiiic'n of a 
 new member, by the college of 
 ihe Pontijjces, were fo exper.five 
 and luxurious, that Pontifcum 
 ecena became proverbial and fig- 
 uined extravagance. For the ce- 
 remony cf confecrating the Ponti- 
 fex Max. See Conjecrution. 
 
 PoPiK, ceriain officers of infe- 
 rior rank who affilled the Priells 
 at facrihce?, among the Rcnuuis. 
 
 Their bufinefs was to provide 
 the victims, and to kill them after 
 they hud knocked them dov/n. 
 They v/ere naked, when upon 
 duty, as far as the navel ; but 
 the reft of their bodies to the mid- 
 log was covered with a lineu apron, 
 o;- the fkins of the facnfices. 'I'hey 
 rvore crov/ns of laurel on their 
 aeads. See Vidimarii. 
 
 PopMFUGiUM, a Somen fefli- 
 val, celebrated on the Nones of 
 ]uly. It Vi/as alfb called Nonee 
 Caprctinte. The origin of this 
 feitival is differently related, 
 liome fay it was kept in honour of 
 Romulus, who upon that day dif- 
 appeared aniidll thunder, light- 
 wing, and other unuiual diforders 
 of the au, while an ailsiDbiy was 
 
 held in the Palus Capnee or oazxi- 
 matfh : Thj pcoj ;e being terri- 
 fied with the Itorni betook them- 
 feives to fiighr, hence the na.T:;e 
 Poifugium : The place where the 
 nutrting was held, viz. Palus Ca- 
 prctz, accounts for the name Ca- 
 protina dXki, — Others will have it 
 that the feltival was held in me- 
 mory of a vidlory which the iiJo- 
 mam obtained over the Gauls ill 
 the Gallic war, by the afullance 
 of a Roman virgin, a prifbner in 
 the enemy's camp, v/ho, feeing 
 the Gauls one night in di.^order, 
 got into a wild fig-tree, 2nd hold- 
 ing out a lighted torch, gave her 
 countrymen a fignal to fall on, 
 which they did with f'uch fuccefs 
 as to obtain a memorable victory. 
 According to this account the fef- 
 tival was called Nona Caprotina, 
 from Caprif.cus, the wild .:g-tree, 
 from which the heroine gave the 
 fignal for attack. 
 
 PopuLAREs, the name of a par- 
 ty at Roine who ilruggied to ingra- 
 tiate themfelves with the people, 
 and by extending the.r influence 
 and power to encreafe t'tir own. 
 The Populares were oppofcd to the 
 Opttmates. For a further account 
 of the principles of eacii party, 
 fee Optimates, 
 
 PopuLARiA, were benches or 
 f-'ats in the Roman Ampbithiutri., 
 wn--re the people fat to behold the 
 oa»nc:, 6.0. See Amphitheatre. 
 
 PoRRiCERE, was a term ufed io 
 ancient facriftces of the Romans t 
 by which they expreffed the acl 
 of throwing the entrails of the 
 vidlim into tne fire, after they bad 
 been duly examined by tne Aruf- 
 pices. Inter caja, et porreda, is 
 ufed proverbially to exprefs the 
 fudden interven::on of any difa- 
 greeable accident to hinder the 
 completion of a thing juH finilh- 
 ed. 
 
 PoRTffi, gates> Thofs of i?£iws 
 wcie 
 
POR 
 
 were or'gjnally but three, or four 
 at the moft : But as the builciing 
 encreafed the gates were multi- 
 plied, and in Pliufs time there 
 were no fewer than thirty-four ; 
 the principal of which were pcrta 
 Tlumentana^ fo called becaufe it 
 was near the river : Porta Flami- 
 Tiia, which owed its name to the 
 Flaminian Way which begins 
 there : Porta Carment/ilist fo 
 called by Romulus in honour of 
 the prophctefs Carmtnta, the mo- 
 ther of E-vander : Porta Navia, 
 derived a«<?;»c?7^;//,irom the woods 
 tliat flood near it forrnerly : Porta 
 8aliana, fo called becaufe the 5^;- 
 hities brought fait through it to 
 fupply the city : Porta Capena, fo 
 called from Capua, becaufe the 
 way to Capua laid through this 
 gate : It is fometimes called ^p- 
 fia, from the Appian way to 
 which it led, and Triumphalis, be- 
 cause the triumphal proceffion 
 pfiffed through it, and Fontinalis, 
 jfrom the Aquaduds raifed over it. 
 See Gates. 
 
 Portico's, a fort of buildings 
 Zt Rome, which were carried to an 
 extreme degree of magnificence, 
 and ferved for various uies ; fome- 
 times for the afTembly of the 5^- 
 xatf, fometimes for Hands of the 
 moll curious merchandize. But 
 the genera; ufe they were put to 
 was the p'eafure of exercif.ng in 
 them on foot, or on horieback, 
 like the prcfent Pj'azza's in Itafy. 
 The Portico's were oftentimes an- 
 rexed to other public buildings, 
 and took their names from tiie 
 temples they liood near, or from 
 the founder, or from their form, 
 or, laftly, from the (hops kept in 
 them, &c. Private n\cn, in time, 
 grew fo extravagant, that they 
 built Portico's to rival the public 
 ones. Nero had three Portico'' s 
 to adorn his palace, each •.zctt 
 paces iong. 
 
 POS 
 
 The Athenians were curious la 
 their Portico's, and the poets and 
 philofbphers rec'ted their works, 
 and held their difputarions there- 
 Their moll famous Portico was 
 that called P^cile, which was in 
 faft a piflure gallery, adorned 
 with the work's cf the gresteft mai^ 
 ters o^ Greece. The phiicropher» 
 Zeno, kept his fchool in a Portico, 
 whence he and his fcholars were 
 called Stoics. We rea^ of fub- 
 terraneous Portico's for fummer. 
 
 PoRTiscuLus, was an ofHcer 
 among the Romans, who had the 
 direction of the rower? in a galley. 
 He was called Ibmetimes Paufa- 
 rius and Hortator Re mi? urn. 
 
 PoPTiTORES, were officers ap- 
 pointed to colleft the taxes or 
 tolls called Portoria. See Porto- 
 rium, 
 
 PoRTORiuM, was a tax or to?l 
 p'^'d always on carrying any ex- 
 portable goods to the haven, 
 where they were to be fii.ipped. 
 T\\?Ca'cilian law took ofr this tax 
 from all the Italian liates. 
 
 Posc\, was the drink of the 
 Roman ioVdierii, confifling of water 
 fnarpened with a little vinegar- 
 This mixture, when under ftrict 
 difcipline, was an indulgence, 
 their ufual drink being v/ater 
 only. See Finegar, 
 
 PosiDEON, was the fevenik 
 month of the Athcniaf. ye^r, con- 
 fining of thirty days, and anfwer- 
 ing to the latter part of our Decern^ 
 her and the beginning of yuna- 
 ary. It was fo called from Pcf:- 
 ciia, or Pofidonia, a felHval in ha-r 
 x)Ci\.\x oi Neptune, obfcrved during^ 
 this month by the Athenians. See 
 Month. 
 
 PosiTi, an appellation given by 
 the Romans to their dead whem 
 placed at the door, with their feet 
 outwards, previous to their inier- 
 ment. See Funerals. 
 
 f 05f MMIKIUM, 
 
POS 
 
 Postliminium, among the 
 Romans, fignified the return of any 
 one to his own country, after he 
 had gone to Hijourn elfewheie, or 
 had been baniQied, or taken by 
 the enemy. 
 
 Posts, or public couriers, are 
 faid to owe their origin to Cyrus, 
 who, in order to receive the car- 
 lieft inteliij^ence from the govern- 
 ors of the feveral provinces, ereft- 
 ed poft-houfes throughout the 
 kingdom ci Per/ia, at equal dif- 
 tances, which fupplied men and 
 hcrfes to forsvard the public dif- 
 patches. Jus^tiflus fiift introduced 
 this mcft ofeiulinlHtution amongll 
 the Romans, by employing polt- 
 chaifes, at convenient diftances 
 from each other, for the purpofe 
 of political intelligence. The 
 Magiilrates of each city were 
 obliged to furnifli horfes for the 
 public ineiTengers upon their pro- 
 ducing of their tf^/^/ow,?, or war- 
 rant, either from the Emperor, or 
 from fuch as had proper autho- 
 rity under him. Sometimes, up- 
 on very urgent and extraordinary 
 cccafions, persons who travelled 
 upon their own private aifairs 
 were allowed the uie of thcfe pofi- 
 chaifcs. 
 
 It is furprizing Fojls were not 
 fooner ufed for the purpofes of 
 commerce and pri^'ate communi- 
 cations. Louis XI. iirll eilabli/hed 
 them in the kingdom of France, 
 A. D. 1^74 ; but it vvas not till 
 the I 2th of Charles the lid- that 
 the port-office was fetcled by acit 
 of parliament \n England. 
 
 The perfors among the Terf,- 
 ans who v.-ere charged with im- 
 portant difpatches, were autho- 
 rized at the end of their Ibges (to 
 prevent delays) to compel any 
 one they met with to proceed 
 with the packet. This aft of 
 ccmpuir:on was called Ayya^Eyeic; 
 from Ayyo!,:<3c, which fignihes a 
 
 POT 
 
 Perfian courier, and is alluded to 
 by St. Matthcvj, v. 41. 
 
 Augujlus Cafar, we find, be- 
 fides the poft-chaifes above-men- 
 tioned, appointed young perfons 
 to aft as news-carriers in the pro- 
 vinces, plating them at fmall dif- 
 tances from each other. 
 
 PosT-scENiuM, was the back 
 part of the Roman Theatre, whither 
 the aftors retired to undrefs them- 
 felves. It was fometimes ufed to 
 fignify a lady's drefling room, 
 where fhe kept her wafnes and her 
 paint, and whither the men were 
 never admitted, 
 
 PosTOMis, a barnacle, or iron 
 infirument to fix on the nofe, or 
 put into the mouth of a horfe, to 
 make him quiet. 
 
 PosTULATio Aclionis, was when 
 the plaintiff, having given the de- 
 fenda^,t notice of his defign to fue 
 him, aflicd leave of the Prator to 
 profecute him in fuch an aftion. 
 This being done, the next tiling 
 vvas I'adari renm, to require fure-- 
 ties of the defendant for his ap- 
 pearance on the day appointed. 
 See Trial. 
 
 PosTULATiTii, a (onoi Glaeii- 
 ators, the mod valiant of all, and 
 kept for the Emperor ^ diverfion. 
 They were called PoJlulatitH, be- 
 caufe, on account of their lingu- 
 lar fkill and courage, the people 
 often de.Qred them to be produced 
 for their entertainment. See G:a- 
 diators. 
 
 PoTiTii, werePrieus dedicated 
 and ordained to the ferviceof //t?- 
 cules. They owe their inflitution 
 to Enjander on the following ac- 
 count: Hercules having killed the 
 giant Cacus, who had ftolen his 
 cows, was furrounded by uO igno- 
 rant mob of country people, who 
 apprehended and brought him 
 berore k'ng Evander. E'vanJer^ 
 upo« examinatioii, found him to 
 be the perfoa of whofe coiriinr; 
 
 his 
 
fcis mother Carmenta, had prophe- 
 iied, intimating at the fame time, 
 that he fhould afterwards become 
 a god. Evander, upon this, erect- 
 ed an altar, and facrificed a young 
 bullock to him, which had never 
 been yoked, ordaining that the 
 fame folemn ceremony fhould be 
 annually repeated. The perform- 
 ance of thefe rites he therefore 
 committed to the care of the Poti- 
 tii and Pinarii, two of the nobleft 
 families in thofe parts. The Po- 
 titii having applied to Appius 
 Claudius the Cenjor, got leave to 
 have their hereditary minillry dif- 
 charged by fervants; but the 
 whole family, it is faid, by way 
 of judgment for this negleft, be- 
 came extinft, and Appius, for his 
 hafty compliance, loll his fight. 
 The Pinarii were priefts dedicated 
 to the fame god, and appointed 
 to the fame miniftry, but were 
 fubordinate to the Potitii. See 
 Pinarii. 
 
 The Potitii were always clad in 
 the fkins of beafts. 
 
 Practores, Athenian officers, 
 appointed to receive the money 
 due to the city from fines laid up- 
 on criminals. 
 
 pR^ci^, the fame as Pns- 
 ciamitatores. See Presclamitatores. 
 
 Pr^cipitatio de Robore., a- 
 mongll the Romans, was a capital 
 puniihment, infiifted on the cri- 
 minal by throwing him headlong 
 from that part of the prifon called 
 Rcbur, or elfe from the bigheft 
 part of the Tarpeian rock. See 
 Rohur. 
 
 Pr^clamitatores, were cer- 
 tain officers or criers, who went 
 along the flreets of Rome, before 
 the Flamsd Dialis, to caufe all 
 people to give over their work 
 on holy-days ; for, if they faw 
 any one at work, the fervice 
 of the gods could not be per- 
 formed . 
 
 PRJE 
 
 pR^coNEs, among the Romatif, 
 were public cryers, whofe office it 
 was to proclaim things in the 
 flreet, to attend fales, and declare 
 what every one bade. Sometimes 
 at public afTemblies of the people, 
 they called the Clajfes and Centu- 
 ries in order, and ordered filence 
 in the temple during facrifice. 
 They differed from the Ajcenji, 
 See Afcenji. 
 
 Pr^fectur^, were certaia 
 towns in Italy, whofe inhabitants 
 had the name of Roman citizens j 
 but were neither allowed to enjoy 
 their own laws nor magiftrates, 
 being governed by annual Pr^- 
 fe^s fent from Rome. Thefe 
 were generally fuch places as 
 were fufpefled, or had ibme way 
 or other incurred the difpleafure 
 of the State. This was accoont- 
 ed the hardefl condition that was 
 impofed upon any people of 
 Italy. 
 
 PrjEfectus, among the Ro" 
 mans, was a title applied to many 
 officers, the principal of which I 
 fhall here fet down in order. 
 
 Pr^fectus Al(S, a name by 
 which each of the two officers, 
 who had the command of the tv/o 
 grand divifions of the allies, called 
 Al^r, were diftinguifhed. Thefe 
 Prafefls were appointed by the 
 Conful, and governed their re- 
 fpeftive divifions in the fame man- 
 rei as the Legionary Tribunes, See 
 Ala. 
 
 PRiEF£cTus Annone was an of- 
 ficer at Rome, whofe bufinefs it 
 was to fupply the city with pro- 
 vifions. — Maximin the Emperor 
 feems to have filled this office, be- 
 fore he was raifed to the command 
 of the Empire. 
 
 pR^FECTus jErarii, an officer 
 appointed by Augujius to fupervife 
 and regulate the public fund which 
 he raifed for the maintenance of 
 the army. He >vas chofen out of 
 * I fuch 
 
PRJE 
 
 iuch pcrfons as had difcharged the 
 cSicc of Frator. This office was 
 created by Augujius, and adopted 
 occafionally by feveral of his fuc- 
 ceffors. 
 
 Pr^fectVs Cajirorum, was an 
 officer appointed by Augujius. His 
 province was to pitch upon the 
 ground for encamping, and to lay 
 it out ; to diflribute the quarters 
 and pavilions, and to direft the 
 workmen in railing the ramparts, 
 digging the ditches, &c. He had 
 alfo under his care, all the milita- 
 ry engines, carriages, and iron 
 tools. There was one cf thefe of- 
 ficers in every legion, and they 
 feem to have ranked before the 
 
 Pr^fbctus ClaJJiSy was an of- 
 ficer in the Roman navy, refem- 
 bling our admiral, having the 
 command of the fleet fent upon 
 any expedition. 
 
 Pr^fectus Fruntenti, was an 
 officer .vriC'fe duty it w.s to infpeft 
 and regulate the dillribution of 
 corn, which ufed to be often made 
 among the common people of 
 Rome on different occaiions. 
 
 i'R^FECTUs Legionis, was the 
 fame with Primipitus. See Pri- 
 mipiius 
 
 Pr^fectus Pretoria, was an 
 officer firft created by Augujius to 
 command the Pretorian Cohort, or 
 Life-guard, who borrowed their 
 name from Pratorium, the Gene- 
 ral's tent, all commanders in chief 
 being anciently fliKd Preetores. 
 The office of Pratorian Pnefea 
 anfwered nearly to that oi Magi/, 
 ier Equitum under the old Dila- 
 tors. Augujius created two of thefe 
 officers, and fome of the Emperors 
 three. While there continued 
 Qiore than one, their authority 
 was not fo extenfive as it became 
 afterwards, being confined to the 
 decifion of differences which arofe 
 among the foldiery. Euc when it 
 
 PRiE 
 
 became a fole command, the per* 
 fon that pofTefTed it was called in 
 to try almoft all affairs, and be- 
 came the principal magillrate for 
 adminiflering juilice. Appeals lay 
 from all other Tribunals to his, 
 and from his there was no appeal, 
 bat to the Emperor, The Pr<^fe£lt 
 in fhorr, was the fecond perfon in 
 the empire. None but Knights 
 were chofen at firlt to fill this of- 
 fice, but afterward Senators, and 
 men of Con/ular dignity, efteemed 
 it an honour t^i be invelled with 
 it. The PrafeBus was generally 
 the higheft perfon in favour with 
 the foidiers, and therefore, when 
 the army came to make their own 
 Emperors, this officer was common- 
 ly made choice of. The authori- 
 ty of the Pr atari an PrafcSl, in 
 the plenitude of his power, ex- 
 tended through the empire and all 
 its provinces ; but he had depu- 
 ties under him, called Ficarii, 
 whofe jurifdi£lion extended over a 
 certain divifion, called a Diocefe., 
 containing feveral principal cities. 
 The Infignia of the PrafeSPi dig- 
 nity were the fword and belt, the 
 rods, the Curule chair, the ivory 
 fceptre or ftaff, the Pratexta, the 
 Laticla've and Trabea, alfo the 
 Infula or Mitre, and a company of 
 archers by way of guard. Con- 
 Jiantine, finding the power of the 
 Prafeii a'.moft a match for that 
 of the Emperor, aboiifhed the of- 
 fice, but created four Magiftrates 
 under the fame name, to whom 
 he affigned four different parts of 
 the empire, of which they were 
 governors, but only in a judicial 
 capacity, for they had no military 
 command. 
 
 Pr^fectus rigilum, was com" 
 mander in chief of the foidiers 
 appointed as a conftant watch to 
 the city, there being a Cohort for 
 every two Regions. The bufinefs 
 of this officer was to take cogni- 
 zance 
 
sance cf thieves, incendiaries, idle 
 vagrants, and the like. He had 
 alio the power to punifh all petty 
 mifdemeanors which were of too 
 trivia! a nature to come under the 
 care of the PrxfeBus Urhis. 
 
 Prefect us Urhis, was a fort 
 of Mayer of the city. The office 
 had exifted under the Kings and 
 Confuls during their abfence ; but 
 in procefs of time grew into dif- 
 ufe, till the reign of Auguftus, 
 wh -, with the advice of his friend 
 Mccanas, revived it, and made it 
 perpetual. The firft Magiftrate 
 of this name under Augujlus was 
 Mecanas. The Prxfecius Urhis 
 took precedence of all other city 
 Magiftrates. He received appeals 
 from the inferior courts, and had 
 power to decide almoft all caufes 
 within the limits of Rome^ or a 
 thoufand ftone-throws (which 
 fome will have to be loo miles) 
 round it. He convened the Senate, 
 judged the Senators, and defended 
 all their rights and prerogatives. 
 It was his duty alfo, on the firft 
 day of the year, to prefent the 
 Emperor with fome golden cups, 
 and five pieces of money, in the 
 name of all the people. 
 
 pR^FERICULUM, WaS 3 VefTcl 
 
 ufed by the Romans in their facri- 
 fices, particularly thofe oi Ops. It 
 had a prominent mouth, like ma- 
 ny vefiels now in ufe. 
 
 Pr ^FiCiE, amongft the Romans, 
 were female mourners hired to at- 
 tend funeral folemiiities, where 
 they praifed the dead in their 
 Nania, or lamentable fongs, 
 fhewed many artificial figns of 
 grief, beating their breafts, and 
 inciting others to mourn by the 
 rueful ciftortions of their counte- 
 nances. See Funeral. 
 
 Pr^liares Dies, were fuch 
 days as the Romans held to be fa- 
 vourable for engaging the enemy, 
 and on which they thought it lavV' 
 
 PR J^ 
 
 ful to commence hoftilitles : For 
 during the time of fome particular 
 feafts, as the Saturnalia, Feria 
 Latinx, and that of MunJus Par- 
 tens, which was confecrated to 
 Dis and Pro/erpine, they reckoned 
 it a piece of impiety to raife, 
 inarch, or exercife men for war, 
 or to encounter the enemy, unlefs 
 firft attacked. See Saturnaliuj 
 Ferix, Mundus, &c. 
 
 Pr.tliares Dies belong to the 
 general clafs of days called Pro^ 
 fefii Dies. See Day and Profejii. 
 
 Pr.t.lusio, when applied to 
 the Roman Gladiators, was a floUr 
 rifhing before the fight begun, in 
 which they tried their fkill one 
 againil another with harmlefs 
 weapons, fuch as the rudes, head- 
 lefs fpears, blunted fwords, files, 
 &c. This pievious trial of fkill 
 was fometimes called ^''entilatio. 
 Sec Gladiators. 
 
 Pr/enom EN, among the /?(?««*/, 
 was that which was put before the 
 general name, and fignified as 
 much as our Proper or Chrijlian 
 name, and ferved to diftinguifh 
 brothers, &c. from each other. 
 The Preenomen was not brought 
 into ufe till long after the Nomen, 
 or Family Name. The Nomen was 
 given to boys on the ninth, and 
 to girls on the eighth day after 
 their birth ; but they did not re- 
 ceive the Prteiiomen till they af- 
 fumed the Virile robe, or Toga 
 Firilis, that is, about the age of 
 feventcen. Thus Cicero*s' chil- 
 dren, before that age, were call- 
 ed Ciceronis Pueri ; but afterwards 
 he called them Marcus Filius, 
 ^intus Filius, Scc. Care was ge- 
 nerally taken, in conferring the 
 Pr.tnomen, to give that of the fa- 
 ther to the oldeft, that of the 
 grandfather to thefecond, and fo 
 on. The Pranomina moft in ufe, 
 together with the initials, which 
 commonly fiand for them in writ- 
 * I 2 ing. 
 
PRJE 
 
 ing, are as follow: — A. Aulas', 
 C Caias ; D. Decius ; K. Ca/o ; 
 L. iaa«/ ; M. Manias and Afar- 
 r?« ; N. Numerius ; P. Publius ; 
 Q;,^/«r«/; T. T/Vaj; AP. Ap- 
 fius ; CM. Cneus ; SP. Spurius ; 
 TI. Tiberius ; MAM. Mamercus ; 
 SER. S^r-u/aj ; SEX. 5f;«:/«/. See 
 
 Pr^petes, a name given hy 
 the Romans to fuch birds as fur- 
 niftied the Aufpices or y^a^ar/with 
 obfervations and omens by their 
 flight. Of this fort were eagles, 
 vultures, buzzards, &c. See Au- 
 gur. Augury. 
 
 Propositus Saeri Cubiculiy 
 among the Romans, was an officer 
 appointed to take care of the 
 JEmperorh bed-chamber. His of- 
 iice was nearly the fame as that 
 of our Lord-Chamberlain, and 
 he had the privilege of marching 
 next to the Captain of the Horfe- 
 guards. 
 
 Pr/esaltopv, a name given to 
 the perfon who had the direction 
 of the ceremonies and dances of 
 the Salii. See 3alii. 
 
 Procicia, were thofe parts of 
 facrifices which were cut off and 
 offered to the gods, chiefly the en- 
 trails. 
 
 Protexta, or Toga Prcetexta, 
 was a long white robe, with a pur- 
 ple border, originally appropri- 
 ated, by Tullus Hojiilius, to the 
 Roman Magiftrates, and fome of 
 the Priells ; but afterwards worn 
 hy children of quality, by boys 
 till the age of feventeen, when 
 they affumed the Toga Virilis ; and 
 by girls till they were married. 
 The Magiftrates, Priefts, and Au- 
 gursy as well as Senators, wore it 
 on folemn days, and in certain 
 ceremonies The Prxtexta was 
 not put on by the noble youths 
 till the age of thirteen ; for till 
 that period they wore the veft 
 without ileeves, called AlUata 
 
 Chlamys. The Pratexta was recfc^ 
 oned a facred habit, and is fup- 
 pofed to have been adopted as 
 proper for that age, to guard them 
 againft fuch temptations as youth 
 is expofed to, and induce others to 
 reverence and defend their age's 
 weaknefs. The Pratexta we find 
 was worn by Matrons at the fcfti- 
 val of Poplifugium. See Poplifw 
 giuvi. 
 
 Prjetextato, in the Roman 
 Drama, were plays in which the 
 a£lors perfonated people of qua- 
 lity, who had the particular pri- 
 vilege of wearing the Pratexta, 
 Thefe plays were of the fame 
 nature as our genteel Comedy, 
 and contradiftinguiftied from Ta- 
 bernaria, in which the perform- 
 ers exhibited low charaders, fuch 
 as are found in the Tabernne, or 
 mean ordinary buildings. Se^ 
 Comedy. 
 
 Prjetor, the name given to 
 one of the chief Magiftrates a- 
 mongft the i?o»/<2«j. It is derived 
 a Praundo. The office of Prator 
 was inftituted in the year of the 
 city, 388, to adminifter juftice in 
 the city inftead of the Con/uls, who 
 were at that time wholly engaged 
 in foreign wars. The inftitution 
 alfo was intended to compenfate, 
 to the nobility, the lofs of their 
 exclufive right to the Con/ulpip, 
 to which honour the commons had 
 now put in their claim, and fuc- 
 ceeded. Only one Prtstcr was 
 created at firft, but another was 
 added in the year of the city 501. 
 One of them applied himfelf whol- 
 ly to the preferving of juftice a- 
 mongft the citizens, with the name 
 of Prtetor JJrbanus % and the other 
 appointed judges in all matters 
 relating to foreigners. Upon re- 
 ducing Sicily and Sardinia to the 
 condition of provinces, two more 
 Prators were created to alfift the 
 Con/uls in the government of 
 them J 
 
PR^ 
 
 PR JE 
 
 tliem ; this happened in the year 
 of Rome 520. As many more 
 were added on the entire conqueft 
 of Spain, in the year of the city 
 551 ; and Sy/la encreafed the 
 number to eight. Julius Cafar 
 augmented them firit to ten, and 
 afterwards to fixteen ; but the fe- 
 cond Trium'viri railed them to 
 fixty-fcur. After this their num- 
 ber fludluated, being fometimes 
 eighteen, fometimes fixteen, and 
 fometimes twelve; but in the de- 
 cline of the empire they fell again 
 to three. 
 
 The Prator^s bufinefs was to 
 9dminifter juftice in the quality 
 of judge, to proted widows and 
 orphans, to adl as Con/ul in the 
 adt of that Magiitrace, 10 aflemble 
 the Senate, and prefide in the pub- 
 lic games. During his office, he 
 was obliged to exhibit Ihews, and 
 celebrate the feaft of the Bona 
 Dea, in which his wife always 
 prefided ; for the other fex was 
 totally excluded from it. He de- 
 creed and proclaimed public 
 feafts ; could make and repeal 
 laws, with the approbation of the 
 Senate and people ; and kept a 
 regifter of all the freed- men who 
 ivere enfranchifed at Rome, and of 
 the reafons why they were made 
 free. In the abfence of the Con^ 
 fuls, he had a right to command 
 the armies : He alfo commanded 
 the ^a;ftors, who ferved him as 
 Lieutenants, and were charged 
 v\'ith part of the bufinefs of his of- 
 iice. He was entitled to the Prae- 
 texta, the Curule chair, and two 
 Lidors to walk before him in 
 Rome, and f:x when out of the 
 city. He was alfo attended by a 
 Secretary, and other officers called 
 j^jcenji or Criers. After the num- 
 ber of Pr tutors had been encreaf- 
 ed, and the i^ejliones, or enquiries 
 into crimes, were made perpetual, 
 find not committed to officers 
 
 fpecially appointed for the pur* 
 pofe, the Prator Vrbanus (and, 
 as Lipjius thinks, the Prietor Pe- 
 regrinus) undertook the cogni- 
 zance of private caufes, and the 
 other Prators that of criminal 
 matters : Thefe latter were there- 
 fore fometimes called ^ayuores, 
 becaufe •' quierebant de crimtne^** 
 whereas the foimer barelv Jus di- 
 cebat, i. e. a!lo>^ved the aflion, and 
 granted y^i/wj to determine it: 
 fuch is the fejife oi Jus dicer c, and 
 it differs materially from Judicar^, 
 which only rtlfites to the Judnes^, 
 and denotes their actual hearino- 
 and deciding a caule.—A fword 
 and fpear were planted upright 
 before the Prator^s Trthunai, 
 whilll he gave audience and adr 
 miniflered juftice. JulHce was 
 adminiftered by thefe three words ; 
 Do, Dico, Addico — Oo fignified ta 
 admit the plaintiff to commence 
 his fuit ; Duo to fummon iipoa 
 oath, to diipatch matters of adop- 
 tion, and to make edit^s as a fup- 
 plement to the civil law ; and 
 Addico to adjudge, condemn, and 
 pronounce fentence. — The whole 
 office of the Prtetor may be thus 
 fummed up : It confilled in admi- 
 niitring julHce to citizens and fo- 
 reigners, in prefiding over games, 
 taking care of facritices, and fome- 
 times commanding armies, — The 
 Pr if tor's Jribunai was called Pr/s- 
 torium. The Prator Vrbanus rode 
 a white horfe as a diflindion of 
 honour. The Prjstor was gene- 
 rally affiiled by ten JJfeJjors, viz. 
 Five Senators and as many 
 Knights, whom he was obiigfd 
 to confuit before he pronounced 
 fentence. 
 
 Provincial Praters wert not on- 
 ly judges, but afiilled the Con/uh 
 in the government of Provinces % 
 and even were inveiled with tii2 
 government of Provinces them- 
 felves. 
 
PR A 
 
 pRjETOREs CerealeSj officers 
 appointed by "Julius Cajar to 
 take care that Rome was fupplied 
 v/ith corn. They were fotnetiraes 
 called Frumentarii. 
 
 Pretoria N'l, Pretoria Cchor- 
 tes, or Pretorian Guards, were the 
 Emperor^s guards, who at length 
 were encreafed to ten thoufand. 
 They were fo called, according to 
 feme, becaufe they were ftationed 
 at a place in the palace called 
 Pratoritvji. Their commander 
 was (liled Prafeilus Prxtoris. The 
 Praterian bands were very ini- 
 mical to the liberties of Rome: 
 They owe their firft inftitution to 
 Sdpio Africanus., who chofe for his 
 guards a company of the bravell 
 men in his army. 
 
 Pr^torium, among the Ro- 
 mans, denoted the hall or court 
 where the Pnctor adminiftred 
 jullice : It was alfo his palace, 
 fometimes it fignified his plealure 
 houfe. . 
 
 Pratorhm was alfo the name 
 given to the general's tent, or pa- 
 pavilion, in the Roman camp. 
 This ttnt was of a round figure, 
 and its chief p^rts were the Tri- 
 bunal where courts martial v/ere 
 held, and councils of war aflem- 
 bled ; and the Augurak, which 
 was fet apart for religious pur- 
 pofes, as pr<)yers, facrifices, &c. 
 Il was called Pnetorium from Pta- 
 tor, becaufe the ancient Romans 
 called all their commanders Pra- 
 tors a Praeundo. See Camp. 
 
 PrjEvaricator, in the civil 
 Jaw, is one who betrays the caufe 
 to the adverfary, and turns on the 
 criminal's fide, whom he ought to 
 profecute, thus making only a 
 fham profecuiion. An action 
 laid among the Romans againft 
 this fort of villainous coUufion. 
 See Calumnia. 
 
 Prandium, among the Romans^ 
 denoted ihe refrethmect taken 
 
 PR A 
 
 before fupper, which we know waf 
 their principal meal. This/r««- 
 dium, or dinner, confifled of fruits, 
 &c. according to the feafon, and 
 was very inconfiderable. It was 
 taken about the filth hour, or ele- 
 ven o'clock, sccoiding to our 
 reckoning See Hour, Meals, &c. 
 
 Prasina, was the name of one 
 of the four factions or companies 
 of charioteers at Rome. It is de- 
 derived from 7rg«(ro»', a leek-, in al- 
 lufion to the colour of the livery. 
 The Romans were as mucl. divid- 
 ed, and as much enflamed ig^inft 
 each other on behalf of their par- 
 ticular party, as if the fafety or 
 deftru6tion of the State had de- 
 pended upon the fuccefs of a par- 
 ticular driver in a chariot-race. 
 See Charioteers, Faiiion, &c. 
 
 Prayer, an aft of devotion, 
 wherein we implore the affillance 
 of Heaven for procuring bleffirg";, 
 or averting evils. Among the 
 Hebre'ws prayers were daily put 
 up together with their offerings. 
 For ihis purpofe they had litur- 
 gies, or pre-compofed forms. 
 Thefe forms at firft were few in 
 number, but have now encreafed, 
 for the Synagogue fervice, to a te- 
 dious length. The moft folemn 
 part of the Jetvijh prayers is that 
 called The Eighteen Prayers, com- 
 pofed, as they fay, by Ex.ra, with 
 the affiftance of the Great Syna- 
 gogue. To thefe eighteen ano- 
 tiier was added, a little before the 
 dellruftion oi Jeru/alem, by Rahhi 
 Gamaliel. This nineteenth prayer 
 was defigned againft the Chrijiians, 
 under the name of Heretics and 
 Apojiates. — In cafes of extreme 
 danger, or when the long forms 
 could not be repeated, this excel- 
 lent ftiort prayer was made ufe 
 of: " The neceffities of thy peo- 
 *' pie are many, and their under- 
 *' ftandingis weak: May it pleafe 
 •♦ lh€€, O Lord, our God, to 
 •• grant 
 
PR A 
 
 " grant us what is fufficient for 
 *' our fuftenance, and what is 
 •' good in thine eyes. Blefled be 
 ** thou, O Lord, that hearelt our 
 " prayer." The poilure of the 
 yezvs in prayer was bowing or 
 kneeling, or proilration, and 
 fometinies Handing. The three 
 iirrt were ufed on the day of Expi- 
 ation. Their heads and faces 
 were covered with a veil, as a 
 mark of humility and confufion 
 of countenance, befone the pre- 
 fence of the Divine Being, Thofe 
 that di^It at Jerujulem pr in Ju- 
 dea turned their faces towards the 
 Temple, and thofe that dwelt 
 clfewhere, conftantly looked to- 
 wards the Hoiy Land. They 
 were to appear neat and clean in 
 their cIoath$, and neither were 
 allowed to eat, or drink, or fleep 
 in their Synagogues. 
 
 Neither Greeki nor Romans un- 
 dertook any bufjnefs of confe- 
 quence without fiift afking the 
 favour and affiilance of the gods ; 
 and it feems to have been an uni- 
 verfal cullom among all nations, 
 civil or barbarous, to recommend 
 themfelves to their feveral deities 
 morning and evening at leaft. 
 The Lacedemonians had a peculiar 
 form of prayer, in which they 
 made no other requeit than that 
 the gods would grant what was 
 honourable and good for them, 
 and enable them to fuffer inju- 
 ries. The ufual p'dlures in prayer 
 among the Greeks and Romans 
 were itanding, fitting, kneeling, 
 and proilration ; the two Jalt, 
 however, were the moll common. 
 The ceremonies ufed in fupplica- 
 tion were various. The petition- 
 ers had green boughs in their 
 hands, crowns upon their heads, 
 or garlands on their necks. The 
 boughs were generally of olive or 
 laurel, and wrapped about with 
 woo!. With thtJ»; they touched 
 
 PR JE 
 
 the knees of the Datue. If they 
 had hopes of fuccefi, they touch- 
 ed the r'j^ht-hand of the image; 
 and if thoir topes arofe to any 
 degree of confuie.ie, they touch- 
 ed the chin, the checks, or head. 
 They touched the knees, as being 
 moil flexible ; the hand, as the 
 inilrument of adion ; and the 
 head, as being the a/Tenting mem- 
 ber — Sometimes they proftrated 
 themfelves at the entrance of the 
 Temple, and kifled the threlhold. 
 They even pulled off their hair, 
 and offered it to the god ; and 
 often cloathed themfelves in rags, 
 or in a mourning habit, to excite 
 compaffion. In praying to gods, 
 they turned to the eall ; but ia 
 addreffing heroes or demi-gods, 
 they looked towards the welt. 
 Others fay they followed the fun, 
 looking eall in the morning, fouth 
 at noon, and weft at night.— Ia 
 praying to celejiial deities, they 
 held up their hands; but in ad- 
 dreffing the infernal gods, they 
 held them downwards, and llamp- 
 ed upon the ground. Kilfing their 
 own bands, and the hands and 
 feet of the ftatue was very com- 
 mon. They alfo believed that 
 their prayers would be more fuc- 
 cefsful, if offered in a barbarous 
 and unknown language. Wh^a 
 their petitions were granted, they, 
 always fhewed their gratitude by 
 offering fome rich gift, or facri- 
 ficing, or regifteriog the bleifing 
 received. See Imprecations, Curfes, 
 Devoting, Adoration, and Sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 Pr.5:rogativ£, an epithet ap- 
 plied to thofe Tribes or Centime s^ 
 who had the right of voting firlt 
 in the Roman Comitia, or affem- 
 blies of the people for the eledion 
 of Magiltrates. The Centuri^ 
 Praroguttv.t and Tribw. Pneroga- 
 tiva were always determined by 
 lot, and were firit calkd upon to 
 
PRE 
 
 PR! 
 
 gtve their fuffrages ; tlie other 
 Writes and Cemuries were called 
 yure Vocata, becaufe they were 
 called cut according to their pro- 
 per places and due order. The 
 Frd^rcgatl'veCenturies were intend- 
 ed to redlify a difadvantage which 
 the commons laboured under ; for 
 the Centuries of the firft and richeft 
 clafs being firft called upon, be- 
 fore this expedient was found out, 
 the other ciaffes were rendered 
 reedlefs ; becaufe the Centuries 
 of this clafs being three more in 
 Dumber than all the reft put toge- 
 ther, if they all agreed, which 
 was generally the cafe, the bufi- 
 iiefs was already decided. It was 
 therefore ordained that the Cen- 
 tury fhould firil vote which fhould 
 be firft drawn by lot, the reft be- 
 ing to follow according to their 
 Clares. After the conftitution of 
 the thirty-five Tribes., into which 
 the ClaJJes and their Centuries 
 ■were divided, the Tribes firft ca{l 
 lots w'hjch ihould be the Prarcga- 
 tive Tribe, and then the Centu- 
 ries of the Tribe for the honour 
 of being the Pr^erogatinje Century. 
 That Candidate who had the 
 Toices of the Pn^rogatit-e Tribe, 
 or Century, was fa id to have omen 
 frxrogati'vam, and had a fair 
 chance for fuccefs, becaufe the 
 other Tribes and Centuries gene- 
 riily followed their determina- 
 rion. See Century, Clajps, Tribe ^ 
 Comitia, &c. 
 
 Precepts of Noah, are feven 
 traditionary Injuniftions, frequent- 
 ly mentioned by the "Je^ws, as 
 given to the fons of Njah. Six 
 cf ihefe Precepts they afRrm were 
 enjoined to Adam and his chil- 
 dren, and the feventh to Noah. 
 They are as follow: i.To re- 
 liounce all Idob, and idolatrous 
 woffliip. 2- To worlhip the true 
 God. 3. To avoid bloodlhed, or 
 to coiBmit no munher. 4. To 
 
 abftain from fornication, adultery, 
 and inceft. 5. To avoid injuftice 
 and theft. 6. To adminifter juf- 
 tice, and preferve the order of ci- 
 vil fociety. 7. To abftain from 
 eating flefh with the blood. See 
 Prcfelyte. 
 
 Presages. See OmenSf Augurs y 
 Augury, Dinjination, &c. 
 
 Presents. It was the cufiom 
 of the Eaftern People to carry 
 Prefents to their Kings or other 
 perfons in authority, whenever 
 they vifited them, or requefted a 
 favour. Thus Jacobus fiAs car- 
 ried a Prefent to Jcfeph, when 
 they went to buy corn in Egypt, 
 Gen. xliij. 2. The Magi alfo, or 
 wifemen of the Eaft, brought 
 Prefents when they vifited Chriji, 
 as the Meffiah, or King of the 
 Je^s,Matth.\\. II. The fame 
 cuftom yet continues in the coun- 
 tries of the Eaft, as travellers in- 
 form us, and our Nabobs can tef- 
 tify. 
 
 Presbyters, were a fecond or- 
 der of Ecclefiaftics in the primi- 
 tive Chriftian Church, holding 
 their rank betwixt Bijhops and 
 DeacoTiS. Bijhops, indeed, are 
 fometimes called Prejhyters; for 
 in fad, every Bijhop was a Pref- 
 byter or PrieJI, tho' every Prejby- 
 ter was not a Bijhop. The Pref- 
 byters might baptize, preach, 
 confecrate, and adminifter the 
 elements of the Eucharift, if au- 
 thorized and deputed by the 
 Bijhop, but was conftantly liable 
 to his fuperintendance and con- 
 troul. See Bingham, Potter, Bur' 
 net, and other ecclefiaftical writers. 
 See the article Bijhots, Deacons. 
 
 Priest, a general name for a 
 Minifter of any religion. Before 
 the promulgation of the law by 
 Mojes, the firft-born of every fa- 
 mily, the Fathers, the Princes, the 
 Kings, were Priefts : This was 
 the cafe with the whole Heathen 
 world. 
 
PRI 
 
 world, and, in Hiort, in all the 
 world; for Cain and ^bel, Noah, 
 Abraham, Job, Abimekch, and 
 Laban, 1/aac, and Jacoh ofFered 
 themlelves iheir own facrifices. 
 But after the Lord had chofen the 
 family oi Aaron, and annexed the 
 priedhood to that line, then the 
 right of facrificing to God was le- 
 feived to that faniily only. The 
 High-Prieilhood was confined to 
 the Hrrt-b )rn, and that branch in 
 finaijar fuccelTion ; and all the 
 reil of his pollerity were Priefts 
 fin;ply {o called, or Prielh- of the 
 fecond order. Both in tne High- 
 Pr;eft and the fecond or inferior 
 Prices, two things celerve notice, 
 their conjecrattOH ana their ofice. 
 Jn fome things they differed, ; nd 
 in fome th-ngs agreed. In their 
 confecration they ditFered thus: 
 The High Prielt had the chrij'm, 
 or facred ointment poured upon 
 his head, fo as to run down to his 
 beard, and the fkirts ot his gar- 
 ment, Exod. XXX. 23. Le'vit. viii. 
 12. P/alm cxxxiii. 2. Bu the 
 fecond Priefts were only fprinkled 
 with this oil, mixed with the blood 
 of the facrifice, Le--vit, viii. 30 
 They differed alfo in their gar- 
 ments, which were a neceffary 
 adjunct to conjecration. The High- 
 Prielt wore ar. the ordinary times 
 of his minirtration in the Temple, 
 eight garments ; linen-drawers — 
 a coat of fine linen clofe to his 
 fkin — an embroidered girdle of 
 line linen, blue and fcarlet, to 
 furround the coat — a robe all of 
 blue, with feventy-two bells, and 
 z% many pomegranates of blue, 
 purple, and fcarlet upon the fkirts 
 t)f it: this was put over the coat 
 ar.d girdle — ^x\ epbcd oi ^o\di, and 
 of blue, purple, fcarlet, and fine 
 iinen curioufly wrought, on the 
 inoulders t f which were two be- 
 rj/s engraved with the names of 
 
 PRI 
 
 the twelve 7V/^^r ; it was put over 
 the robe, and girt with a curious 
 girdle of the fame — a breaft-plate, 
 about a fpan fquare, wrought 
 with gold, blue, purple, fcarlet, 
 and fine linen, and faltenec upon 
 the ephod by golden chains and 
 rings ; in this breaft-plate were 
 conjoined the urim and tbummimt 
 alfo twelve feveral ftones, con- 
 triining the names of the twelve 
 Tribes — a mitre of fine linen, fix- 
 teen cubits long, to wrap round 
 his h^ad-— and lallly, a plaie of 
 purple gold, or holy coiun, two 
 fingers broad, where n was en- 
 graved Holinejs to the Lord; this 
 was tied with blue lace upon the 
 front of the OT///7?. Befides thefe 
 garments which he wore in his or- 
 dinary miniftrati -n, there were 
 four others, which he wore only 
 upon extraordinary occafions, 
 wz on the day of expiation, whea 
 he went into the Holy of Holies^ 
 which was once a year. Thefe 
 were as follows : Linen drawers 
 —a linen coat — a linen girdle 
 — a linen mitre, all white, Exod, 
 xxviii. Le'vit. xvi. 4. The inferior 
 Priefts had only four garments: 
 Linen drawers — a linen coat— 
 a linen girdle — a linen bonnet.' 
 The Piieft and High-Prieft differ- 
 ed alfo in their marriage reftric- 
 tioni, which may be confidered as 
 an adjunft of confecration ; for the 
 High-Prieft might not marry a 
 widow, nor a divorfed woman, 
 nor a harlot, but a virgin only ; 
 whereas the other Priefts might 
 lawfully marry a widow, Le'vit, 
 xxi. 7. 
 
 In the following particulars the 
 High-Prieft and inferior Pnefts 
 agreed in their confecration : Both 
 were to be void of bodily blemifh 
 — both were to be prefented to 
 the Lord at the door of the Ta- 
 bernacie — both wcre to be wafhed 
 
 ♦ K with 
 
PR I 
 
 with water — both were to be con- 
 fecrated by offering up certain 
 facrifices — both were to have the 
 blood of a ram put upon the tip 
 of the right ear, the thumb of the 
 right hand, and the great toe of 
 the right foot, Exod. xxix. 20. — 
 In the time of confecration, cer- 
 tain pieces of the facrifice were 
 put into the Prieft's hand, ivhich 
 was called yf///«^ h'n band; hence 
 the Hehretv phrafe, " filling of the 
 hand," fignifies confecration. 
 
 In the difcharge of their offices, 
 the High-Priell: differed from the 
 other Prielts in thefe particulars : 
 The High-Prielt only, and that 
 but once a year, might enter into 
 the Holy of Holies — the High- 
 Prieft might not mourn for his 
 neareft relations, by uncovering 
 his head, or tearing any part of 
 his garments, except the Ikirt; 
 whereas the Prieft was allowed to 
 mourn for thefe fix, — father, mo- 
 ther, fon, daughter, brother, and 
 fifter if fhe had no hufband, Lenjit. 
 xxi. z. 10, II. 
 
 In the difcharge of their ofiice, 
 the High-Frieft and Priefts agreed 
 in thefe refpedts : They both 
 burnt incenfe and oiiered facrifices 
 — they both founded the trumpet, 
 either as an alarm in war, or to af- 
 femble the people and their rulers 
 — they both flew the facrifices — 
 both inftrudted the people — and 
 both judged of leprofy. 
 
 For the more orderly perform- 
 ance of thefe offices, the High- 
 Trieit had his Sagan, who, in cjfe 
 of the High-Prieft's Pollution, 
 performed his duty. The Higb- 
 Priej} and his Sagan refembied our 
 Bijhop and his Suffragan. King 
 Da-vid, for the fake of regularity, 
 diltributed the whole company of 
 Priefls into twenty-four ranks, or 
 courfes, called i(pr,y.r,^icci. The 
 fuccefiion of PriefU was preferved 
 
 PRI 
 
 in the families of E/ea^ar, and 
 Ithamar, after the death oi Nadab 
 and Abibu ; Da'vid, therefore, 
 made his divifion according to 
 the number of people in each 
 family. This divifion Was by lot, 
 and the firft lot fell to Jebobia- 
 ritb, the fecond to Jedaiab, the 
 third to Harim, &C. I Cbron. 
 xxiv. Every rank or courfe re- 
 tained the names of thofe, who, 
 at the time of the divifion, were 
 the heads of the feveral families. 
 The chief of every courfe was 
 called Suminas Sacerdos ifiius Ciaf- 
 fis. The weekly courfe of Prietts 
 fell out by lot, and by lot was de- 
 termined alfo the particular office, 
 in the Temple, of each Prieft, 
 namely, who fnould burn in- 
 cenfe, who flay the viftims, who 
 lay them on the altar, who trim 
 the lamps, &c. Thus Zacbarias 
 was of the courfe of Jbia, and his 
 lot was to burn incenfe, Luke i. 9. 
 The Prierts wore their hair ihart, 
 dipt with fciffars, not fhaven ; 
 and they officiated with their 
 heads covered, for to have the 
 head covered was a mark of re- 
 fpecl amoagil the Jeivs- The age 
 of confecration was twenty-five, 
 and they quitted the miniltry at 
 fifty. But ZJ^iz^/t/ permitted them 
 to attend the fervice of the Taber- 
 nacle at twenty years of age. 
 The Prieits were fupported by 
 tithes, firft-fruits, offerings, &c. 
 and, with the Lenjites., had forty- 
 eiglit cities affigned for their habi- 
 tation, fix of which were cities of 
 refuge. 
 
 The High-Prieft was at the 
 head of all religious affairs, and 
 was the ordinary judge of all 
 matters concerning the juftice and 
 judgments of the Jenuifb nation. 
 
 Prieits were held in great ve- 
 neration in all the flates of Greece^ 
 as were the FrieftefTes alfo : And 
 originally 
 
PRI 
 
 originally the priefthood and the 
 fovereigntywere united. ^K Athens 
 the Priefts and PrieftefTes were 
 drawn by lot, from the men and 
 virginsof didinguiOied family and 
 irreproachable life. Maimed or 
 deformed perfons were not ad- 
 mitted, and purity and chadity 
 were fo particularly required, that 
 the Priefts frequently ufed means 
 to emafculate themfelves. When 
 they performed their office in the 
 Temples, they wore a linen robe 
 and crown. Some Priefthoods 
 were hereditary, and the worfhip 
 of the gods of the country was 
 fometimes exclufively committed 
 to certain families. Celibacy was 
 generally, but not always, enjoin- 
 ed to Priefts and PrieftefTes. Wo- 
 men who had had more than one 
 hufband, were excluded from fome 
 facerdotal clajfes. The Priefteffes 
 generally carried fome diftinclive 
 emblems of the deity to whom 
 they were confecrated. In great 
 cities there were different claJJes 
 of Priefts, and ever the whole 
 number an High-Prieft. The dif- 
 ferent orders of Priefts were ma- 
 ny ; the chief of them will be 
 found under their refpedive 
 heads. 
 
 The Roman Priefts, like thofe 
 oi the Grecians, were numerous, 
 and as different as the gods to 
 whom they were confecrated. 
 The principal were the Luperci, 
 the Pctitii, and Pinarii, the Fra- 
 tres Ar-vales, the Curiones, the 
 Titii Sodales, the Flamines, the 
 AuguJiaUs, the Salii, the Corybart- 
 les, the Augurs, the Feciales, the 
 Epulones, the Pontifices, the Duum- 
 'viri, &c. which will be explained 
 under their diftin^l heads. See 
 Luperci, &c. 
 
 Many of the Roman Priefts, as 
 well as other Magiftrates, were 
 obliged to exhibit games to the 
 
 PRI 
 
 people, when they entered upon 
 their ofRce. See Prejbyters, 
 
 Prime. See Golden Number, 
 Cycle. 
 
 Primopilus. Sc* Primopi/us. 
 
 pRiMiTi^.the firft-fruits ofthe 
 earth, which were offered to the 
 gods upon an altar in the form of 
 a tri-vet. Not only the Jeivs, 
 Greeks, and Remans, but, in fhort, 
 all nations almoft, have agreed in 
 coniecrating the firft-fruits to the 
 Deity. To give a fmall part of 
 what we receive, to him from 
 whom every blefTing of our lives 
 proceeds, is but common grati- 
 tude. The Greeks called their 
 Primitia Avx^^xi. See Firft- 
 Fruits. 
 
 Primogeniture, or the cir- 
 cumftance of being iirft-born, 
 had many privileges annexed to it 
 amongft the Je^s : For the firft- 
 born was confecrated to the Lord, 
 had a double portion ofthe eftate 
 allotted him, had a dignity and 
 authority ov^r his -brethren, and 
 fucceeded in the government of 
 the family or kingdom. — When 
 God, by the fword of the deftroy- 
 ing angel, had cut off the lirlt- 
 horn of Egypt, he ordained that 
 all the firftborn male children, 
 and all the firft-born of tame beafts 
 fhould be confecrated to him. If 
 a man had many v.'ives, the firft- 
 born of each of them, if males, 
 were holy to the Lord. If a wo- 
 man's firft child was a girl, neither 
 fhe, nor the children that cams 
 after, were confecrated. What is 
 meant by their being confecrated 
 to the Lord, is, that they were to 
 be offered in the Temple, and 
 redeemed by their relations, for 
 the fum of five Shekels each. The 
 firftlings, or firft-born of clean 
 beafts, were facrificed at the Tem- 
 ple, the blood was poured round 
 the altar, the fat was burnt, but 
 * K « the. 
 
PRI 
 
 PRI 
 
 the flefli belonged to the Priells. 
 The firftlings of unclean beafts, 
 fuch as horfes, afles, camels, &c. 
 were either redeemed with money, 
 or fome othsr animals were given 
 in exchange; thus the iirflling of 
 an afs was redeemed by giving a 
 lamb; if it v/ere not redeeu ed, 
 it was to be killed. This confe- 
 cration of animals muft neceflarily 
 bring in a large revenue to the 
 Temple, and make, in addition 
 to other fources of wealth, a vaft 
 income for the Priefts. See Priejis. 
 
 Primogeniture^ in almoft all na- 
 tions, has given a title to particu- 
 lar privileges, though there dees 
 not appear to be any foundation 
 in nature for fuch partiality. 
 
 Primopilus Centurio. among 
 the Romans, was the principal 
 Centurion in the Roman Legion. 
 He was the Centurion of the right- 
 hand order of the firft Manipulus 
 of the Trearii or Ptlani in every 
 Legion. He had the honour of 
 be-ng admitted into the councils 
 of war to which the Tribunes v.'ere 
 fummoned. He gave the word 
 of command by order of the Ge- 
 neral or I ribunes. He made the 
 troops march or halt according to 
 the orders he received. He bad 
 the care of the Eagle, or chief 
 ftandard of the Legion, had' it in 
 his keeping, defended it in battle, 
 and, when the army was to march, 
 he was the perfon that took it up, 
 and gave it to the ftandard-bearer. 
 His fiipend was very confiderable ; 
 probably equal to a Knight's ef- 
 tate. After he quitted his charge, 
 he was reputed equal to members 
 of the Equefirian order, arid bore 
 the title of Primpilarius ; and, 
 among other privileges enjoyed 
 by fuch officers, moft of the fol- 
 diers who died in the campaign 
 left them their heirs. The Pri- 
 mopilusj beiides this name, was 
 
 diftrnguiflied with the title of Dux 
 Legionis, Prafe^us Legionis, Pri~ 
 mus Centurionum, and Primus Cen- 
 turin. See Cenitirio. 
 
 Princ£ps Ju^entutis, was the 
 title given by the Romans to the 
 captain or ciiief in the little army 
 of boys, who celebrated the La- 
 dus Trnja- The Princep: was ge- 
 nerally the fon cf fome principal 
 Senator ; and, under the Emperors, 
 he was fometimes the next neir to 
 the empire. See Traja. 
 
 Prikceps Senatus, an honoura- 
 ble appellation given to that Se- 
 nator who flood firft upon the Cen- 
 Jar's roll. But, tiOtwithiUnding 
 this title, the chief Magiilrates, 
 as Cmjuls, Dilators, &c. were 
 akvayj his fuperiors in the houfe. 
 See Senate. 
 
 Principalis Conjlitutio, was 
 the name given to fuch ordinances 
 as were made by any fmg'.e per- 
 fon, into whofe hands the Coni- 
 monvveaith was at any time 
 committed. The Princip:Jis Con- 
 fiiiutio had the force of a law. See 
 La^vs. 
 
 Prixcipbs, a name given to 
 one of '.he four grand divifions of 
 the R:,n:an\x\^iiV,\xs. The Prinei- 
 pes Wire generally men of the 
 greateft vigour, and of a middle 
 age, who, probably before the in- 
 fxHulion of the Hajiaie, ufed to 
 begin the fight, and from this cir- 
 cumiiance, perhaps, they derive 
 their name. The other three bo- 
 dies were the Velites, Hafiati, and 
 Triarii. See Vtiites, Sec. 
 
 Principes Ordinum, the fame 
 with Primopili. See Primopilus. 
 
 Principes Centurionum, the 
 fame with Primopili. See PrimO', 
 pilus. 
 
 Principia, was a fpot of 
 grouno, abf'Ut loo feet in length, 
 included between the two parti- 
 tions of the Roman camp, in 
 whicb 
 
PRO 
 
 which were erefted altars and fta- 
 tuesofthe gods, and in which, 
 perhaps, were lodged the chief 
 enfigns altogether, fuch as the 
 Slandards and the Injlgnia. 
 
 Prisoners, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, were fettered and confined 
 in a fingular manner. One end of 
 a chain, t'«at was of a commodious 
 length, was fixed about the right- 
 arm of the Prifoner, and the other 
 about the left-arm of a foldier. 
 Thus a foldier was coupled to 
 the prifoner, and every where at- 
 tended him. To this Manilius al- 
 ludes, 
 
 Vindorum dominus, fociufque in 
 
 parte catena , 
 Inter dum pants innoxia corpora fer- 
 
 njat. Lie. v. 
 
 In this manner was St. Paul 
 confined, when he made his in- 
 comparable apology before Fejlus, 
 King Agrippa and Bernice. It 
 was this whic|i gave peculiar pa- 
 thos to his eloquence, when he held 
 up his irons, and faid, " Would 
 to God that not only ycu, but al- 
 io all that hear me this day, were 
 not alnioj} but altogether fuch as I 
 am, except thefe bonds," 
 
 Sometimes the prifoner was faf- 
 tened to two foldiers, one on each 
 fide. St. Paul, at firir, was thus 
 confined ; and in this manner alfo 
 was St. Peter confined by Herod 
 Agrippa. See A^s xxi. 33. and 
 xii. 6. 
 
 Probatio, a review of the ^0- 
 man Equites who compofed the ca- 
 valry. The Probatio was annual, 
 and confifled of a diligent enquiry 
 into the lives and manners of the 
 Equites, and an examination in- 
 to their plight of body, ftate of 
 their arms, condition of their 
 horfes, &c. 
 
 Probolium, was a kind of 
 fpear made uie of by the Remant, 
 in hunting the m\i boar. 
 
 PRO 
 
 Probuleuma, w^o0a^et/*36, u- 
 mong the Athenians, was a decree 
 or vote of the Areopagus or Senate 
 of Athens. This decree could not 
 have the force of a law for more 
 than a year, unlcfs it was pro* 
 pounded to, and ratified by an af- 
 fembly of the people, becaiife the 
 Senators laid down their commif- 
 fions at the end of the year, as did 
 tiie other MagiRrates alfo. 
 
 Procestria, among the Ro- 
 mans, were buildings adjoining to 
 efpecialiy winters quarters, or 
 ftandiig camps, where futlers, 
 ftrangers, -traders, &c. refilfed; 
 for they were not allowed to mix 
 with the foldiers, unlefs when the 
 enemy was near. 
 
 Progharisteria, tr^oyjx.^i^r.^ia, 
 a folemn facrifice offered yearly to 
 Minerva, by the Athmian Magif- 
 trates, when the Spring began to 
 make its hrlt appearance. 
 
 Pro-consuls, amongft the Ro' 
 mans, were the chief provincial of- 
 ficers, and may be divided into 
 four forts :— i. Such as being Coa- 
 fiils, had their office prolonged be- 
 yond the legal time. — 2. Such as 
 being in a private ftation before, 
 were iovelted with this honour, 
 either for the government of the 
 provinces, or the command in 
 war.-r3. Such as immediately 
 upon the expiration of their Con- 
 fuljhips went Pro'Cou/uh into the 
 provinces, in the timeof the Com- 
 monwealth.— 4.. Such governors 
 as in the times of the empire .were 
 feat into thofe provinces wnicU 
 fell to the people's ftiare. 
 
 The third kind more properly- 
 enjoyed the name and dignity of 
 Pro-con/uls, and fliall therefore be 
 defcribed. 
 
 The Pro-conful then, was a ma- 
 giftrate /ent to govern a province, 
 with a confular and extraordinary 
 power. The Confuls eleft at the 
 time of ele^ioQ, chofe by lot 
 
 what 
 
 ^> 
 
PRO 
 
 what provinces they had a mind 
 to govern, at the expiration of 
 their ConfulQiip, in the quality of 
 Pro-cofi/uh : afterwards they for- 
 Tnslly got leave of the people, pro- 
 cured a decree of the Senate, and 
 laftly, applied for the Tribunes 
 permiflion to undertake this com- 
 mand. A Pro-conJuU before he 
 quitted Rome, went up to the Ca- 
 fitol, offered facrifice, put on the 
 robe of war called Paludamentum, 
 and then departed from the city in 
 a kind of pomp, preceded by 
 Liclors, with rods, and axes, an^ 
 attended by his friends to fome 
 diltance from ^d?wf. His equipage 
 confiding of pavilions, charging 
 horfes, mules, clerks, fecretaries, 
 &c. was called his Viaticum, and 
 provided at the public expence. 
 The Pro-con/ul carried Vwith him 
 into his province a number of 
 young men of diftinclion, to learn 
 the trade of war, and to form his 
 court; thefe were called Contu- 
 bervaies. His adminiftration be- 
 gan on thevery daycf his arrival. 
 The vvin'er he generally fpent in 
 the execution ot civil bufmefs, the 
 fummer in the cxercife of his mi- 
 litary authority. By virtue of his 
 edicts he ordered &11 things relat- 
 ing to Tribunes., taxes, contribu- 
 tions, &c. In hi? Pratorium he re- 
 ceived petitioners, heard com- 
 plaints, granted writs under his 
 feal, &c. In the Pratorium, or 
 Palace, alfo he fometimes decided 
 cafee of equity and juliice, in a 
 private manner ; but the mort ge- 
 neral method was to determine 
 matters of that kind publicly in 
 the Common-Hall. The proceffes 
 were to be in all refpeds the fame 
 as thofe 2$. Rome. 
 
 This ofHce lafted no longer than 
 one year, at the expiration of 
 which the Pro-con/ul h&d only thir- 
 ty days allowed him for his return 
 
 PRO 
 
 to Rome. He either met his fpc- 
 cefTor, and refigned his charge in- 
 to his hands, or left a deputy in 
 his room to perform the ceremo- 
 ny of refignation, having firft 
 made up his accounts, and left 
 them in writing in the two chief 
 cities of the Province. He was 
 alfo obliged within thirty days to 
 give in his accounts into the pub- 
 lic treafury, and his whole con- 
 duct underwent a (lri(5l enquiry, 
 
 Pro-conjuls had all the enfi»ns 
 cf a Confyl''s power, viz. the curule 
 chair, the ivory fceptre, the purple 
 robe ; but they had no more than 
 fix Liters, 
 
 This is a ftate of the Pro-ccn- 
 Jular power during the Common- 
 wealth ; but, under the Emperors, 
 i: was greatly altered and dimi- 
 nifhed. Augiijius divided the Pro- 
 vinces into two parts, giving one 
 to the management of the people, 
 and referving the other to himfelf. 
 Pro-confuls were then deprived of 
 their military power, and the ma- 
 nagement of the finances. 
 
 Frocubitores, among the ^0- 
 mam, a name given to that divi- 
 fion of their infantry called VeUtes\ 
 becaufe, when theenemy was near, 
 they always formed the out-guard. 
 They were alfocalled tr^wivomivoy- 
 Iff, or the forlorn hope, becaufe 
 they were moll expofed to danger. 
 See Velites. 
 
 Procuratores, under the Ro- 
 man Emperors, were officers lent 
 into the Provinces to regulate the 
 public revenue, receive it, and 
 difpofe of it as the Emperor <i\- 
 retted. Such an officer was Pon- 
 tius Pilate in Judea ; but, becaufe 
 the Jenvs were looked upon as a 
 rebellious people, befides his au- 
 thority over the revenue, he was 
 inverted with all the power of a 
 Pro-con/ul, even a power of life 
 and death ; and, that he was tho- 
 roughly 
 
 m 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 roughly prepared to pafs an un- 
 jult fentence, appears from the 
 chamber given him by Agrippa^ 
 as a p:rfon guilty of corruption, a 
 venal perverfijti of juftice, rapine, 
 violence, ruin, torments, the 
 fhedding of innocent blood, and 
 the moft barbarous cruelties. 
 Thefe officers were generally dif- 
 tinguilhed by the name of Procu- 
 ratores Ccejaris. 
 
 Procuratores, in the Roman 
 courts of judicature, were pro- 
 perly fuch lawyers as aflifted the 
 phiintilFin proving, or the defen- 
 dant in clearing hinifelf from the 
 matter of faft alledged. They are 
 often confounded with the Ad-vo- 
 cate. 
 
 Prodigals, by a decree of the 
 Emperor Adrian, if they hadfquan- 
 Uered away their eltates, were to 
 be pablicly v/hipped in the midll 
 of the Amphitheatre, and then dif- 
 mifled to go where they pleafed. 
 Before this decree, thofe who had 
 ipent their fortunes by their ex- 
 travagance, and eontradled debts 
 which they were not capable of 
 difcharging, either became their 
 creditors' flaves, or loft all their 
 goods, or were obliged to fell 
 themfelves. 
 
 Among the Grecians, thofe who 
 had walled their patrimony, for- 
 feited the right of being buried in 
 their father's fepulchres, and their 
 bodies, if they died in debt, be- 
 came the property of their credi- 
 tors, and might be by them with- 
 held from burial till fatisfaftion 
 was made. 
 
 Proedri were certain Athenian 
 Magiifrdtes, who had the firft 
 feats at the public afTemblies, and 
 vvhofe office it was to propofe at 
 each alTembly the things to be 
 deliberated upon and determined. 
 Their office always ended with 
 the meeting. Their number was 
 
 nine, fo long as the Tribes were 
 ten in number. 
 
 Profesti Dies, in the Roman 
 diftinflion of days, were thofe days 
 which were allotted for the civil 
 bufinefs of men. They were di- 
 vided into Fajii, Conntiaks, Com- 
 perendini, Stati, and Preeliares. 
 See Day, Fafli, &c. 
 
 pROGVMNASMATA, Certain pre- 
 paratory exercifes performed by 
 all thofe who offered themfelves 
 to contend in the Olympic games. 
 
 ProJlCTio in Fluentem, was a 
 pnnilhment inflidted upon parri- 
 cides. It ufually went by the 
 name of Culeus. See Culeus and 
 Parricide. 
 
 Proletarii, one of the two 
 fubdivifions of the fixth clafs of 
 Roman people. They were fo 
 poor, that they could contribute 
 but very little to the neceffities of 
 the ftate, by way of taxes ; it was 
 therefore intended thatthey (houid 
 flock the Commonwealth with 
 men, and by their procreative fa- 
 culties, labour at once to promote 
 both the llrength and population 
 of their country. The word is 
 deiived from Proles, an offspring. 
 The other fubdivifion of the fixth 
 clafs was called Capite Cenji, be- 
 caufe they marfhalled rather by 
 their heads than their eftates. See 
 
 Claffis. 
 
 Prologia, was a feftival cele- 
 brated in Laconia before the ga- 
 thering of the fruits. 
 
 Promachia, a feftival in which 
 the Laced(^monians crowned them- 
 felves with reeds. 
 
 Promethia, an Athenian fef- 
 tival in honour oi Prometheus. It 
 was celebrated with torch-races, ia 
 memory of his having lirft taught 
 men the ufe of fire. 
 
 Prophets, perfons who foretel 
 future events. The term is par- 
 ticularly applied to thofe infpired 
 
 men. 
 
PRO 
 
 men, among the Ifraelitss, who 
 were commiffioned by G- d to de- 
 clare his will and purpofes to that 
 people. We have in the Old Tef- 
 tament the writings of fixtcen Pro- 
 phet?, four of whom were called 
 the Greater, and twelve the Lef- 
 fer : The greater Prophets are, — 
 Ifaiah, yeremiab, Ezekid, Daniel, 
 The lefier Prophets are, — Hoj'eay 
 Joel, Amos, Qbaaiah, Micah, Jo- 
 nah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zepha- 
 niah, Haggai, Zechariah, Mala- 
 chi. 
 
 The moft ufual way by which 
 God communicated himfelfto the 
 Prophets, was infpiiation. He 
 alfo intimated his will by dreams, 
 and nodurnal vifions, trances, and 
 audible voices. 
 
 As the nations round about the 
 '/t-xwi had their oracles and arts of 
 eti"jinatio7i, which the law of Mofes 
 Itriffliy prohibits, and as the Je^ws 
 were a ftifF- necked people, and 
 ready to adopt the cuftoms of the 
 Heathens, there Teems to have been 
 a neceffity ofeRablifhing fome/fo- 
 phetic officers amongft them, to 
 prevent their apoftacy from the 
 laws o^ Mofes. For this purpofe 
 fchcols or academies of Prophets 
 were ereded, about the time of 
 Sainusl, where young people were 
 inilrudcd in religion and piety, 
 the better to qualify them for the 
 reception of the prophetical fpi- 
 rit. Here the fcholars fat at their 
 mailer's feet, and received prophe- 
 cies from his mouth. The lludents 
 were called 5ons of the Prophets, 
 and had fome venerable pro- 
 phet as their prefident. The prin- 
 cipal of thefe academies were at 
 Bethel, Jericho, and Gifgal; there 
 wert fome alfo in fudah.. particu- 
 larly at JerufaUm, within the fe- 
 cond wall of the city. — When a 
 Prophet firft entered upon his of- 
 fice, fome think he was anointed 
 
 PRO 
 
 with oil, like Kings and Priefts ? 
 others fuppofe the ceremony of 
 inauguration to have been the put- 
 ting over his fhoulders the pro- 
 phetic mantle, or upper garment 
 of lamb-fkin. Hair-cloch, tied 
 with a leathern girdle about the 
 body, was worn next the flcin. 
 
 The prophetic fpirit being very 
 common, the Sanhedrim, to pre- 
 vent impollors, uled this method of 
 tnal: Ifa Prophet prophefied good, 
 and it came not to pafs, he was 
 condemned. If an undoubted 
 Prophet gave him tellimony, he 
 was received as true. If he pro- 
 phefled evil, and the evil did not 
 come to pafs, his credit was not 
 hurt; becaufe God is merciful, 
 and might withhold his threaten- 
 ed judgments, as in the cafe of 
 Iftzekiah and of Nine'ueh. 
 
 The diet, the drefs, and the 
 dwellings of Prophets, were gene- 
 rally fimple and mean. 
 
 After prophecy ceafed among 
 the fezL's, they fubltituted a piece 
 of ftrange fuperftaion in the room 
 of it, called Bath kol, or the 
 Daughter of the Voice. S;e Bath- 
 kol. 
 
 Prophecies in general are fup- 
 pofed to have had a double fenle, 
 and a double completion ; one 
 fenfe referred to, and had its ac- 
 complilhmentaboui the time when 
 the propnets wrote ; the other 
 fenfe had a relation to diftant 
 times and events, to which it ap- 
 pl es in a fomewhat allegcrica! 
 manner. As to thf accomplilh- 
 ments of particular prophecies, 
 we find endlefs difputes among 
 critics and inierpreters concerning 
 them, and there are few modern 
 events, of any confiderable note, 
 but one interpreter or other finds 
 to be the completion of fome 
 Scripture prophecy. But though 
 much darkneis refts upon the fub- 
 
 jett 
 
PRO 
 
 jeQ. in genera!, yet it muJl be al- 
 lowed that the prophecies, rela- 
 ting to \.\\tMtJJiabs were remarka- 
 bly fulhlici in Jefus Chnji. In 
 the hirtory of the firil pubiifhing 
 o{ the Gofpel, mention is made of 
 Prophets, who feem to have been 
 ordained for the piefent occafion, 
 by God himfsif, and infpired with 
 the fpiritual giTts, not only of 
 foretelling things to come, but, of 
 interpreting the types and prophe- 
 cies of the QU TeliamcKt which re- 
 late to Cbrifi. This lall feems to 
 have been particularly their pro- 
 vince, and the word Prophet mull 
 be conceived as of the fame im- 
 port as Interpreter, in the New 
 Teflament. See Acis xi. 7. xiii. i. 
 
 The nature of ihe pretences 
 which the Greeks and Romans made 
 concerning their flcill in predift- 
 jng future events, may be found 
 under their proper heads. See 
 j^ugur, Augury, Divination, Ora- 
 cles. 
 
 Fropinatio, a particular me- 
 thod of drinking, which prevailed 
 at entertainments amonw the 
 Greeks. It was thus, — the mafter 
 of the feaft took a large cup, filled 
 it, and then drank off the whole, 
 or a part, fending the cup v.ith 
 the remainder (if there was a re- 
 maindei) to the perfon whom he 
 named ; the rules of goodtellow- 
 fhip required that he, to whom it 
 was fent, fhould drink all that re- 
 mained, or, if the cup was drank 
 oiF, take another of the fame fize. 
 The perfon who fent the cup was 
 faid 'sj^oirivnv, and he who receiv- 
 ed It et,i\i7r^07riyuv OjMoia. The^ro- 
 pination was generally carried a- 
 bout toward the right-hand, hence 
 it is fometimes termed ^£|i«3-»?. 
 In the propination, the perfon's 
 health was drank, which was ex- 
 preffed by the word %aige. This 
 method of drinking is freqaently 
 
 PRO 
 
 alluded to, both in the Greek and 
 Latin Clajp.cs.. See Drinking. 
 
 Propitiatory, or Mercj-Seatt 
 the covering of the Ark of the 
 Covenant. This covering was of 
 gold, and at its two ends were fix- 
 ed two Chenihimsoi tht fame me- 
 tal, which, by their wings extend- 
 ed foi wards, feem to form a throne 
 for the Majelly of God, who 
 in Scripture is reprefented as 
 fjiting between the Cherubims ; 
 and the Ark itfelf was, as it were, 
 his footilool. It was from hence 
 that God gave his oracles to 
 Mo/es, or to the Prieft that con- 
 fulted him. 
 
 Pro-pr^tor, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a Magiftrate who had 
 all the authority of a Prator, and 
 the fame enfigns of honour. In 
 the early times of the Common- 
 wealth thofe Prtffsrs who had the 
 command of provinces, and con- 
 tinued in power beyond the time 
 fixed for the continuance of the 
 Pr/eiorfhip, afTumed the name of 
 Pro-prcctors, tho' thei r a u thority re- 
 mained the fame as before. About 
 the year of Rome 604, the Prxtors 
 eleil began to divide the Praeto- 
 rian provinces by lot, as the Con- 
 fids did the Confular ; and at the 
 expiration of their offices retired 
 to their refpedive governments, 
 under the title of Pro-prcetors. 
 Their creation, their entrance on 
 their governments, and the whole 
 courfe of their adminiftration were 
 exadly fimilar to thofe of Pro- 
 confuls. They had fix LiBors, and 
 the fame number of Fafces. In 
 the time of Auguflus, the Pro-prce- 
 tors got the preference of the Pro- 
 conjuls in refpeft of power, being 
 inverted with military command, 
 and continuing in office during the 
 Emperor's pleafure. See Prt- 
 confuls. 
 
 Pro-questor, among the Ro- 
 * L manst 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 mansf was the ^aftorh Lieute- 
 nant, or the perfon who perform- 
 ed his office for him. The Pto- 
 qutejior was not deputed by the Se- 
 nate, and was feldojn appointed 
 except when a ^aftor died, or 
 came from his province to Rome, 
 before a fucceflbr was chofen in 
 his ftead. See ^<eJior. 
 
 Proscenium, 111 \.\i\: Grecian and 
 Roman theatres, was the rtage or 
 place before the fcene, where the 
 Pulpitum flood, into which the ac- 
 tors came from behind the fcenes 
 to perform. See Theatre. 
 
 PrOSCH^RETERIA, TT^OO-vai- 
 
 ^^fiot, among the Greeks, was a 
 day uf rejoicing, kept when a new 
 married woman went to cohabit 
 with her hufband. 
 
 pRoscRiPTio, a punifhment in 
 vfe among the Romans, which had 
 fome analogy to our outlawry. 
 The names of the Pro/cripii, or 
 perfons fufFering under projcrip- 
 lion, were fixed up in tablets at 
 the Fcrum, to the end that they 
 might be brought to juftice, a 
 reward being propofed to thofe 
 that tcoi^ them, and a punidi- 
 ment to thofe that concealed 
 them. It was not pofitive ba- 
 uifhrnent, but it was compelling 
 perfons to become exiles, by way 
 of fecuring themfelv»s from wnrle 
 confequences. iiylla prokribed 
 2000 Knights and Senators at 
 once. If profcribed perfons did 
 mot appear, their eftates were 
 cor.jifcated, on a prefumption-of 
 their guilt. 
 
 Proselyte, a perfon who quits 
 or renounces one religion to em- 
 brace and profefs another. A- 
 jnongft the Jeios, thofe went by 
 this name who came to dwtll in 
 iheir country, or who embraced 
 their religion, not being Jetus by 
 birth ; and in the New Teftament 
 they ate fometinaes called Proje- 
 
 lytes and fom' times Gentiles. The 
 tieh^e^vos acknowleJged two kinds 
 of Projelytes, viz. Projelytes of the 
 Gate and Projelytes of Jufice. 
 Profelytes of the Gate were luch as 
 ferved and worlhipped the true 
 God, and obierved the precepts 
 delivered to the children of Noah, 
 without cbl'gifg themfeives to 
 circumcifion, or any other cere- 
 mony of the Law. The precepts 
 given t) the fons ox Ncah are faid 
 to be thefe : To o; ey Magilirates 
 — To guard agaiill the worlhip 
 of falfe gods, (uperlfition, and la- 
 crile<ie — To avoid b'aiphemy and 
 perjury — To beware of inceltuous 
 and unnatural conjundioris : — 
 Murder, maimina, and the effu- 
 fion of blood, either of men or 
 other animals, are prohibite<; ; as 
 are alf > thefts, cheating, a d ly- 
 ing — And, hrtly,they are in thefe 
 precepts cautioned aga;nlt eating 
 the parts of any animal Itiil ahve. 
 Profelytes of the Gate, if tney ob- 
 ferved thefe precept? and prohi- 
 bitions, wpre (hougi.t to have jult 
 preC' rifliins to ete.nal life. They 
 ^re mentioned in the New Telfa- 
 ment unaer tlte appellation of the 
 De'vcut. ^^is X. 2. XV ii. 14. iiee 
 Devout, Precepts. 
 
 The Projelytes of Juftice are 
 fuch as were converted to Ju- 
 daifm, who had engaged them- 
 feives to receive circumcifion, and 
 obfeive the whole law of My'es, 
 Thefe were admitted to all the 
 privileges and prerogatives of the 
 people of the Lord, both in this 
 world and the world to come. Pro- 
 felytes of this kind were firil exa. 
 rained as to the fincerity of thcr 
 converfion, and, if approved, 
 were admitted to circumcifion, 
 and afterwards, when the wound 
 was healed, they were baptized. 
 Women Profelytes were admitted 
 by bapiifm only. Boys under 
 twelve. 
 
PRO 
 
 twelve, and girls under thirteen 
 years of aqe, could not become 
 Projilytes without the confent of 
 parents, or in cafe of their obfti- 
 nate refufal, the concurrence of 
 the officers ot jultice. After ad- 
 miffion, an oblation of two turtles 
 fr pigeons was required. The 
 Rabhins tell us that ihe Projelytes 
 Of Jujiice received from heaven a 
 new foul, and a new fubftantial 
 form. 
 
 Projelytes of the Gate are the 
 fame with Ji ranger s luithin thy 
 gates- Projelytes of 'Jujiice were 
 alfo called Projelytes of the Co've- 
 nant aid Projelytes of Right eoujnej's. 
 The word Pro/elyte is derived wrta 
 Ta TT^ocTEXr/AtS'si'aj, to come oijer to a 
 party. 
 
 faosEucH^, places of prayer 
 amongll the Je^Ms, fuppofed to 
 have been nearly the fame as their 
 Synagogues ; only the Synagogues 
 were covered places, and origi- 
 nally in the cities; whereas the 
 Profeuch^ were out of the cities, 
 upon the banks of rivers, &c. 
 and had no covering, except per- 
 haps the (hade of fome trees, or a 
 few covered galleries. In a Pro- 
 Jeuchee every one prayed apart for 
 himfelf, as in the Temple. The 
 word is derived from ntioniv^^/it 
 prayer. See Synagogue. 
 
 Prostates, tr^orcilni, among 
 the Athenians, wat any patron to 
 whofe protection fojourners com- 
 mitted themfelvcs, and in whole 
 name they traniacted bufinefs. He 
 was allowed to demand feveral 
 .Services of tnem, in which if they 
 failed, or neglcded to chufe a pa- 
 tron, an adtion was brought be- 
 fore the Polemarch, and, on con- 
 viftion, their goods were confif- 
 cated. See Sojourners. 
 
 Prostitution. See Harlots, 
 
 loTASis, in the ancient Drw 
 
 if was the firft of the four parts 
 
 PRO 
 
 of 3 Comic or Tragic piece, where- 
 in the feveral perfons are fhewn, 
 their charaders intimated, and 
 the fubjcdt of the piece propofed 
 and entered upon. It might 
 reach as far as our two firft afts. 
 Where the Protajis ended, the Epi- 
 tajis began. See Epitajis, Dramoy 
 Sec. 
 
 Prothesis, among the Greeks, 
 was the ceremony of layino out 
 the dead near the door, till the 
 time of their interment, with their 
 feet outwards, on which account 
 the Romans called them Pojiti. 
 The ceremony was called by the 
 Latins CoUocatio. See Collocat4o, 
 Pojjii, and Funeral. 
 
 PROTRyciA, a Grecian feftival, 
 in honour of Bacchusy furnamed 
 
 I'ROviNCES, belonging to the 
 Roman empire, were foreign coun- 
 tries of large extent, which, upon 
 their being entirely reduced under 
 the Reman dominion, were new 
 modelled, according to the plea- 
 fure of the conquerors, and fub- 
 jefted to the command of annual 
 governors, fent from Rome, being 
 liable to fuch taxes and contribu- 
 tions as the Senate thought fit to 
 require. The larger Provinces 
 were governed by Pro-confuls, and 
 the lefs by Pro-prators. — Thofe 
 provinces which behaved well, 
 and patiently fubmitted to the 
 yoke, were cften allowed to make 
 ufe of their own conftitutions, 
 and fometimes excufed from pay- 
 ing tnbuts : Thoie that were re- 
 fradory and obftinate, met with 
 a degree oF feverity anfwerable to 
 their conduft, and were feverely 
 taxed. Hence the dilHnftive ap- 
 pellations of Provincta Immunest 
 and Provincice Vtiligales. The 
 tribute exadeci from rhe provinces 
 was of two fort£, certain and uncer- 
 tain. The certain tribute was 
 • L 2 called 
 
PRY 
 
 called Stipendium ; the uncerlain 
 was vvhatarofe from the Portorium, 
 Scriptura, ard Decuma, See 5//- 
 pendiumt Decuma, Portorium, Scrip- 
 tura. 
 
 The Roman provinces in the 
 times of the emperors were of two 
 forts, Prcvincite Crsfaris and Pio- 
 •vinci^e Sen at us : The fir II or im- 
 perial provinces were fuch as the 
 Emperor, for reafons of policy, 
 referved for his own adminillra- 
 tion, or the adminiftration of ihofe 
 whom he (hould think proper to 
 appoint: The other, or Pro-cot- 
 fular provinces were fuch as were 
 left to the government of Procon- 
 Ju'n and Prators, chofen according 
 to ufual form. See Pro-confuh, 
 Sec. 
 
 Prytanes, were certain J/be- 
 nian magiUrates who prefidcd in 
 the Senate. Their authority con- 
 fided chiefly in afiemblirg the 
 Senate, which for the moft part 
 was done once every day (fefli- 
 vals excepted,) and oftener, if oc- 
 cafion required. They conrtantly 
 reforted to a common-hall, near 
 the Senate-houfe, in order to give 
 audience, in which they offered 
 facrifice, and had their diet toge- 
 ther. The common-hall where 
 they aiTembled was called Pryto- 
 neum. The Prytanes were elcAed 
 oMioi (\\Q Senate, which confifled 
 of CGO, 50 being chofen for each 
 Tribe; and the manner of their 
 eleftion was this : The names of 
 the Tribes were thrown into one 
 veflel, with nine black beans, and 
 a white bean into another ; the 
 Tribe, whofe fortune it was to be 
 drawn together with the white 
 bean, prefided firfl ; and the reft 
 in the order in which they were 
 drawn, for their proportion of the 
 year, which was divided into ten 
 parts of 35 days each; but this 
 diviilon fell ihorc of the year ; 
 
 PSE 
 
 and how the fupernumerary days 
 were employed authors are not 
 agreed. When the number of 
 Tribes was encreafed to 12, each 
 of the Prytanes prefided a full 
 month. 
 
 PRVTANEUM,was 3 large build- 
 ing at Athens, where the council 
 of the Prytanes aifembled, and 
 where thofe who had rendered fig« 
 nal ferviee to the Commonwealth, 
 were maintained at the public 
 charge. See Prytanes. 
 
 Prytaneunt was alfo a name given 
 to all places facred to yejla Hence 
 thofe widows called Prytanides, 
 who took care of the facred fire, 
 received their name. See Pryta- 
 nides. 
 
 Prytanides, were old women 
 amongll the Greeks, to whom the 
 facred fire of Fejia was commit- 
 ted. Thcfe women were requir- 
 ed to be widows, as thofe who 
 watched the velial fire at Rome 
 were to be virgins. See Pryta- 
 neum. 
 
 Psaltery, a mufical inftru- 
 ment much ufed among the an- 
 cient Jeixis, who called it Nabel, 
 or Nablum. See Nablum, Harp, 
 Kinnor. 
 
 PsEPHisMA, the fame with Pro- 
 bu'euma. See ProbuUuma. 
 
 PsEPHOMANCY, a fpecies of di- 
 vination by lots, the fame with 
 Cleromancy. See Cleromancy. 
 
 PsEPHOs, a name given to fe- 
 veral things made ufe of by the 
 Greeks in giving their fufFrages, 
 and in their computations, as 
 fmall Hones, fhells, beans, &c. 
 The Pfcphi, in calculations were 
 all of the fame colour ; but in fuf- 
 frages, part were white and part 
 were black. The P/ephi amongft 
 the Romans were called Calculi 
 and Tabella, viz. tablets. See 
 Calculi and Tablets. 
 
 The P/ephi ufed at public 
 games 
 
PUB 
 
 games are frequently called Cal' 
 cult Aihleiici'j ti'cy v. ere niarked 
 with figures and uled thus: Sap- 
 pofe twenty /itbUtiS ready to en* 
 gage, twenty Ca.culi were thrown 
 into a filver urn, every two of 
 which were marked with the fame 
 numerical figures from i to lo : 
 Upon drawing, thofe who got the 
 fame numbers were to engage to- 
 gether. Hence the combatants 
 were called Homogrammi. See Ho- 
 mogrammi. 
 
 PsiLLi, were a fort offnake 
 doftors, who made it their bufi- 
 nefs to cure the bite of ferpents, 
 by fucking out the poifon. They 
 pretended, alfo, to a power of 
 enchanting ferpents, and difarm- 
 ing them of their fury, by llupify- 
 ing them, and laying them afleep. 
 Jerem. viii. 17. 
 
 PsiLociTHARisTA, amoilg the 
 ancients, was one who played on 
 the Cithara without finging in 
 concert to it. See Cithara. 
 
 PsYCHOMANCY, a fpccies of 
 Nc'cromancy in which the dead ap- 
 peared only in airy forms,- to give 
 the intelligence required ; hence 
 this kind of divination is fome- 
 times called Stiomancy, See Ne- 
 cromancy. 
 
 Publicans, among the Romans^ 
 were farmers or receivers of pub- 
 lic mo;;ey. Perfons employed in 
 colledmg fuch impofuions as 
 were hateful to the people. There 
 were two forts of Publicans far- 
 mers general of the revenues, who 
 were men of great confideration 
 in the empire, — and deputies, or 
 under-farmers, or Publicans ofthe 
 lower order, who were looked 
 upon as fo many thieves and 
 pick-pockets. — The yevos parti- 
 cularly valued themfelves upon 
 their freedom, therefore to fee 
 Publicans in their country rigor- 
 oufly exailing thofe tributes and 
 
 PUL 
 
 impofitions, which were laid iipon 
 them by the Romans^ muft fill 
 them with indignation, as bring- 
 ing to their recolleijlion the hat- 
 ed idea of their lofs of liberty. 
 Publican: v/ere not by the Je^ws 
 allowed to come into the Temple 
 or Synagogues, and their oblations 
 they difdained to receive. To 
 prevent extortion, to which the 
 Publicans had ftrong temptations, 
 the Roman laws required than 
 whenever any of that clafs of 
 farmers were conviiled of that of- 
 fence, they ihould rellore four 
 times the value of what they had 
 extorted. To this Zaccheus al- 
 ludes, Luke xix. 8. 
 
 PuGiLATUs. See Boxing. 
 
 PuGiLLARES, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, were tablets fmeared with 
 wax, in order to be written upon 
 with the Stylus. The Pugillares 
 were generally of box wood,fome,- 
 times they were made of citron, 
 fomctimes of ivory, and fomctimes 
 of parciiir.tnc. Homer caXh them 
 riivaxE^. II. vii. i6g. Hence P//- 
 »); concludes they were in ufe be- 
 fore the Trojan war. They were 
 covered with wax, that what was 
 written upon them might the 
 more cafily be correded, altered, 
 or cral'ed ; for this purpofe one 
 end of the Stylus, or writing in- 
 llrumenr, was pointed, and the 
 other flat ; the iirll being intend- 
 ed for the formation of <.he charac- 
 ters, and the fecond for making 
 the neceflary erafures. See Sty- 
 lus. 
 
 PuLLARius, a name given by 
 the Romans to the Augur who 
 took smens, and drew conjeclures 
 of future fortune from the facred 
 chickens, kept in a particular 
 coop for that very purpofe. This 
 Jugur ufually went to confulc 
 them early in the morning ; and, 
 having commanded filence, he 
 threw 
 
PUL 
 
 threw them down a handful of 
 crumbs, or of corn, and then let 
 out the chickens from their con- 
 finement. If they feemed indiffe- 
 rent to the meat, pafied by it 
 without notice, or fcattered it with 
 their wings, or flew away, it was 
 an unlucky o)nen. If, on the con- 
 trary, they leaped haftily out of the 
 penn, fell greedily to the meat, fo 
 as, in their impatience, to let fome 
 of it drop from their beaks upon 
 the pavement, there was afTarance 
 given offuccefs. The crambt frill- 
 ing to the ground Were called Tri- 
 pudium, quafi terrje paviani or terri- 
 favium^ from llriking the earth, 
 from the old verb pavio, to ftrike. 
 It was in the power of the Pul'ari- 
 iis, by previoufly feeding or llarv- 
 ing the birds, to give what o?mii he 
 pleafed : Claudius Fulcher feemed 
 indeed to think fo, when he order- 
 ed the chickens to be thrown into 
 the fca for difcountcnancing his 
 fcheme of engaging the enemy, 
 •'Ifthev will not eat," fays he, 
 *' they fhall drink." 
 
 PuHarius is alfo a name given to 
 the perfon who was appointed to 
 keep the facred chickens. See Au- 
 gur, Augury, &c. 
 
 PuLLATA VeJJis, was an habit ge- 
 nerally worn by the common 
 people among the Rorr.nns by way 
 of mourning. The colour of it 
 •U'as black or brown, and in form 
 it refemblcd the Lacerna, See La- 
 ter na. 
 
 PuLPiTUM, in the Grecian and 
 "Roman theaires, was a place where 
 the players performed their parts. 
 3t was lower than (he Scenii, and 
 higher than the Orchefira. It near- 
 ly anfwered to what we call the 
 ilage, as diftinguifhed from the pit 
 and galleries. 
 
 Pulpitum alfo v/as a moveable 
 defk or pulpit, from which difpu- 
 •jtants pronounced their diflerta- 
 
 PUN 
 
 tions, and authors recited theif 
 works. 
 
 PuLVERATicuM, in Roman an- 
 tiquity was a fee paid to furveyors 
 for the trouble, Aveat, and dull oc- 
 cafioned by the execution of their 
 office It alfo fignifics a certain lum 
 exafledofthe provincial cities by 
 their garrifons. 
 
 PuLViNARiA, were cufhions on 
 which the ftatues of the gods were » 
 reclined round the tables in the 
 Roman temples, in times of pub>- 
 lie rejoicing, or general humilia- 
 tion ; for by way of expreffing 
 their joy or averting impending 
 calamities, it was cullomary to 
 give the gods a treat, which they 
 called Ledifternium or Epulum, 
 The minifters who conducted the 
 folemn farce were called Epuhries. 
 See Epulones, Epulum, and LtBtjler^ 
 nium. 
 
 Ad otnnia Puhinaria fupplicire, 
 fignifies to make folemn proceffioft 
 to all the temples, take down ihe 
 flatues of the feveral gods, and lay 
 them on cufhions. 
 
 Punishments, among the Jezos , 
 were of various kinds, moll of 
 which are here fet down ; cruci- 
 fixion, hanging. Honing, bu-ning, 
 the baftinado, precipitation, deca- 
 pitation, tearing in pieces, fawing 
 afunder, plucking ofx the hair, 
 plucking out the eyes, cutting ofF 
 the extremicles of hands and ieet, 
 expofing to wild bealh, iniprifon- 
 ment. Many ofthofe punifhments, 
 it muft be allowed, are not Jeuijh, 
 but I thought proper to infert them, 
 as they are all found in the C-Z/r'and 
 iVt? i; Tejlament; this circumftance 
 gives them a title to be mentioned 
 in this place. Unckr the Law the 
 lefTer offences and legal pollutions 
 were expiated with facrinces and 
 offering- ; the greater offences were 
 punifhed with a fine, reflitution, 
 snd lofs of the fame limb of which 
 
 any 
 
PUN 
 
 any perfon deprived another, or 
 by fcourging. The higheft of- 
 fences were puniflied with death, 
 luch as murder, fmiting and curf- 
 ing parents, man-ftealing, witch- 
 craft, beitiality, idolatry, adultery, 
 fodoniy, and blafphemy. But the 
 jewifli Dodlors mention only four 
 kinds of capital punifhment, viz. 
 ftoning, burning, beheading with 
 The fword, and Urangling: ftoning 
 however was the mod frequent 
 way of putting criminals to death. 
 Sometimes the offender was cut 
 off by the immediate hand of 
 God. 
 
 The principal and moil ufual 
 punifhments amongfl the Aihe 
 niam were At»/xk*, or public infa- 
 my; AaAfta, iervitude; Dn/Aola, 
 burning in the hand or forehead ; 
 1,'vrtKyi, engraving the criminal's 
 offence upon a pillar ; A£t7f*of, 
 chains, which were of various 
 kinds ; <J)fy»), exile ; OfpaxiijjiAoj, 
 oftrachifm, which was a particular 
 fort o^ banifhnient See Qflracifm. 
 
 Capital punifhments amongfl: 
 the Greeks in general were, Sifof, 
 the fword ; AjSo/SoAk*, ftoning ; 
 K«.7«H^j)^no-/A05, precipitation from 
 a rock ; Kxloe.<7rovrK7ix.o;, drowning 
 in the fea ; ^a^i^Luxov, poifon ; 
 Bx^tx^^of, throwing into a deep 
 pit; Tffi7ran£7^<35, beating to death 
 with fticks; B^o;^os, hanging; Tlv^, 
 burning. 
 
 The p.nncipal military punilh- 
 ments were thofe inflitled upon 
 fuch as had refufed to ferve, and 
 iuch as had deferted their ranks. 
 Offenders of thefe kinds were 
 obliged to fit in the Forum in a 
 female habit, for three days, and 
 were excluded from the temples 
 and affemblies. Runagates always 
 fuffered death. Among the Lace- 
 demonians to lofe their bucklers, 
 was no lefs difgraceful than to quit 
 their ranks; and he that ran away 
 was at every man's mercy, and no 
 
 PUN 
 
 roan had mercy upon him : He 
 was obliged to wear a nafty patch- 
 ed habit of various colours, and 
 to have his beard half fhaved, 
 half un/haved. He was not al- 
 lowed to ftand upon the defenfive 
 when abufed and infulted. No 
 perfon was permitted to marry 
 into his family. Such was thei 
 difgrace of running away, that 
 moth'jrs generally atoned for the 
 crime, by ftabbing their guilty 
 fons, at the firft meeting. 
 
 Amongfl the Romans eight dif- 
 ferent punifhments were in ufe, 
 viz. Damnum, or a fine ; Vincula, 
 or imprifonment and fetters; Ver- 
 bera. fcourging or ftripes; Talio^ 
 retaliation ; Ignominia, public 
 fliame; £'.yz7/a»!r,' banilhment; Ser- 
 'Vitus, bondage; Mors, death. As 
 belonging to this laft-mentioned 
 punifliment we may reckon Per- 
 cujjio Securi, or beheading; Strati- 
 gulatio, or Urangling ; Prxcipita- 
 iio de Robore, or throwing the cri- 
 minal headlong from a part of 
 the prifon called Robur; Dejectia 9 
 rape Tarpeia, or throwing down 
 from the Tarpeian precipice ; in 
 crucem aSlio, or crucifixion ; Pro-^ 
 ieSlio inprofluentem., or throwing a 
 perfon fewed up in a fack into the 
 fea, or fome neighbouring lake. 
 This punilhment was commonly 
 called Culeus. See Culeus, &c. 
 
 Befides thefe punifhments now 
 mentioned, which prevailed du- 
 ring the free ftate of Rome, there 
 were others invented or adopted 
 under the Emperors, and freely 
 in flitted upon the firrt Chrijlians\ 
 the moft confiderable of thefe 
 were the condemnations ad Ludos\ 
 ad Metalla, ad Bejiias, and the 
 moleftia Tunica. See Ad Ludos, 
 ad Metallat &c. 
 
 The punifhments moll com- 
 
 monly inflided upon the Roman 
 
 foldiers for negleft of duty, &c. 
 
 were the 'vitesi admonitio fujlium ; 
 
 ' 4tcimaticn% 
 
PUR 
 
 PUT 
 
 Jeciniation ', degradation ; giving 
 them barley, inftead of their ai- 
 lovvance of wheat; taking away 
 their belt ; ntaking them ftand, 
 whilft the reft fat; and, for cowar- 
 dice, blood-letting. See Fites, 
 Admonitio, Fujiium, ScC. 
 
 Purification. See Pollution, 
 ExpiiUion. Lujiration, Ablution. 
 
 PuRiM, among the Jews, was 
 a folemn feftival, ufually called 
 the Fcaji of Lots. It is fome'times 
 written pur or phur, both which 
 words fignify a lot. This feaii 
 was inftituted by Mcrdicai, in me- 
 inory of the deliverance which the 
 'Je-Ms received from the wicked 
 attempts of H^man, before whom 
 lots were caft day by day, and 
 month by month, for the deilriiC- 
 tion of that people. It began on 
 the 14th day o[ Jdar, and con- 
 tinued till the end of the 15th, 
 £j1i>er in. J. — ix. 51. On ihefc 
 two days they ufed to read the book 
 of E^her in ihe Sjnaoo^ues. In that 
 bock there are five pafTages where- 
 in the reader raifed his voice and 
 made a dreadful howling. The 
 names of the ten fens of Hanati 
 were repeated quick, v.'ithout ta- 
 ,king breath, to fhew that they 
 were defxruyed in a moment; and 
 as often as the name of Human 
 himfeif occurred, the congregation 
 ufed to knock and beat the boards 
 and benches of the Synagogues with 
 tlieir fills, or with hammers, as if 
 they %vere ilriking the man him- 
 felf. A great ftone was fometimes 
 brought into the Syi:agague, v/ith 
 the name of Human written upon 
 it, which they beat and broke to 
 pieces with other ftones, while the 
 book of EJiher was reading. A 
 cribbtt was often built at this fe^ft, 
 on which they burnt a man of 
 ftraw, which they called Haman. 
 They^otZ/^'doftors, of later times, 
 allowed the people to drink wine 
 •till they could not diftinguifh be- 
 
 tween •' curfed be Haman, and 
 cuifed be Mordecai." They al- 
 lowed them aifo on the fecond day 
 of the feftival to drefs the raen in 
 v.'omen's apparel, and the women 
 in the apparel of men, contrary to 
 an cxprefs prohibition of the law, 
 J)eut. xxii. 5. 
 
 Purple, amongll the Ancients, 
 was held in b'gh eileem, and was 
 the dininguil"hing badge of the 
 chief Magiftrates of Rome., info- 
 much that purpura is ufed figura- 
 tively Ux the higheft offices, and 
 for the Imperial dignity. Purple 
 v/as very expenfive, efpecially the 
 finefi fort. The dye was the blood 
 or fome juice of the filh Murex. 
 The quality of the dye was very 
 different according to the diirerent 
 coafts where the Murex was caught. 
 Before the C<xfars, purple was 
 worn by matrons of the middle 
 clafs, but it was prohibited after- 
 vvards to all private perfbns what- 
 ever. In Judea, in Greece, and 
 in Rome, the ufe of it has been 
 confined to the rich and fjreat, 
 and it was worn by Princes and 
 Potentates by way of diftinflion. 
 The different kinds of purple met 
 with in the ClaJJJcs are as follow: 
 Purpura Ale:<andrina, purpura D^i- 
 bapha. Purpura haconica. Purpura 
 PL hi a. Purpura Probiana, Pur- 
 pura Tyria. The Purpura haconi- 
 ca and Tyria were the moll valua- 
 ble. See Murex. 
 
 Purses, aniongft the Ancients, 
 were pouches or fmall pockets in 
 the duplicature or folding of their 
 girdles. Hence the word zona 
 fignified both a girdle and a purfe. 
 See Girdle, Zona. 
 
 PuTEAL, among the Remans, 
 was a fmall kind of edifice built 
 over the fpot where a thunder-bolt 
 had fallen. Thus we read of Pa- 
 teal Libonts, and Puteal Scriboniump 
 eredled by Scribonius Libo by order 
 of the Senate. This facred build- 
 ing 
 
PYA 
 
 ing Hood nigh the Rojlra, and the 
 Praior^s Tribunal being clofe by, 
 is often fignified in authors by the 
 fame expreffion. Commentators 
 differ much indeed in their ac- 
 counts of Puteal Libonis\ but the 
 opinion of Dacier, which I have 
 liere given, is by far the moft pro- 
 bable. Some take it to have been 
 a bank, near the ftatue of Janus 
 with three heads, others fuppofe 
 it was the cover of a water-pit, 
 others the brink of a well, others 
 a bar or tribunal. It was a place, 
 however, much frequented by the 
 merchants of Rome. 
 
 PuTicuLi, or Puticulee, were 
 ditches or holes in the earth, like 
 wells, a little without the E/gui- 
 hne gate, in which the poorer fort 
 of people were buried: Hence it 
 became a nqifance to the neigh- 
 bourhood, for the removal of 
 ^vhich Augujim gave the place to 
 Maecenas, who built there an ele- 
 gant houfe, and made beautiful 
 gardens, as Horace informs us. 
 Sat. viii. Lib. i. ver. 8. 
 
 Pyanepsia, an Athenian fefll- 
 val, fo called aitu t« t-^nf to, 
 'Rvxi:i, from hailing pulj'e ; the 
 reafon of which cullom, and fome 
 account of the folemnity, may be 
 given thus : Tbe/eus, having bu- 
 ried his father, paid his vows to 
 Apollo on the feventh day of the 
 month Pyanepfton, for on that day 
 the youths who returned fafe from 
 Crete, made their entry into the 
 city, and having put their pujfe 
 and other proviiions, which they 
 had yet remaining, into one com- 
 mon pot, they boiled the whole 
 together, and feafted out of the 
 common ftock, with much rejoic- 
 ing. An olive branch, bound 
 with wool, and crowned with all 
 manner of fruits, &c. was carried 
 in proceffion, to fignify that their 
 poverty was now no more. The 
 olive branch, bound with wool, 
 
 PYR 
 
 was called Eifiyi^c*}. The branch, 
 when carried in honour of Apollo^ 
 was of laurel; when in honour of 
 Minerva, it was of olive. When 
 the ceremony was over, they 
 ereded it before their houfes as 
 an amu!et againft poverty. Some 
 fay this feftival was obferved in 
 memory of the Heradida. 
 
 Pyanepsion, an Athenian: 
 month, containing thirty days. 
 It was the fifth of the year, anf- 
 wering to the latter half of our 
 Odober, and the former half of 
 Nenjember. The fead of Pyanep^a 
 was celebrated in this month, and 
 hence the reafon of its name. See 
 Month, Pyanepfia, See. 
 
 Pygon, Uvyuii, a Grecian mea- 
 fure of length, properly fignifying 
 the diftance betwixt the elbow and 
 the fecond joint of the fingers. As 
 a certain meafure it is equal to 
 I foot, 3 inches, and i09|-decimat 
 parts Englijh. See Meafure, 
 
 Pyra, a name given by the! 
 Romans to the funeral pile, which 
 Ser<vius fays was called Pyra before 
 it was lighted, Rogus when the 
 burning was begun, and Bujium 
 after it was reduced to afhes. See 
 Pile and Funeral. 
 
 Pyrgus, among the Romans^ 
 was a dice-box, of the Ihape of a 
 Modius, open above, and witli 
 many (helvings or partitions with- 
 in, fo that when the dice were 
 thrown into it out of the Fritillum, 
 they viZTQ turned feveral times be- 
 fore they reached the bottom, ii* 
 which there was an opening for 
 them to fall through upon the ta- 
 ble. See Fritillum, 
 
 Pyroboli were fire-balls, ufed 
 both by the Greeks and Romans, 
 They feem to have been the \ix>f 
 fame with the Malleoli. See Mal~ 
 leoli. 
 
 Pyromancy, a fpecies of di- 
 vination by fire. It was generally 
 praftifed at the altar, while the' 
 * M facrifice 
 
P YT 
 
 facrifice was burning, and cor.jec- 
 tures concerning futurity were 
 drawn from the appearances exhi- 
 bited by the flame, fmoke, or 
 noife of the fire. 
 
 Pyrrhice, or Pjrrhica Saltatio, 
 a fort of warlike dance, faid to have 
 l^ecn invented by Pyrrhus to grace 
 the funeral of his father Achilles. 
 Its original is, by forae, referred to 
 Minerva, by others to the Cory- 
 bantesf and others again fuppofe it 
 to have been the fame with the 
 Lucius frojie; but its name fuffi- 
 ciently indicates its inventor. The 
 performance of this dance feems 
 10 have confided chiefly in the 
 nimble turning of the body, and 
 the ftiifting every part as if it were 
 done to avoid the ftrolies of an 
 enemy. It was performed by a 
 company of young men, fome- 
 times by a band of young men and 
 maids together. Thefe dancers 
 were always armed, and ftruck 
 their weapons againll their fliields 
 in a fort of mufical cadence. The 
 motions required in this excrcife, 
 might be luoked upon as a kind 
 of training for the field of battle. 
 The Pyrrhica is faid to be de- 
 fcribed by Homer, as engraved 
 upon the ftiield of Achilles. 
 
 Pythagoreans were a fedt of 
 Philofophers founded by Pytha- 
 goras. They are frequently called 
 the Italic Sed. The fyllem of 
 Pythagorean Philofophy is, from 
 various caufes, involved in im- 
 penetrable obfcurity. The prin- 
 cipal intent of it feems to have 
 been to difengage the foul from 
 too intimate an union with the 
 body. The dcdbine of Pytha- 
 goras was two- fold, public and 
 Jiscret. The latter he communi- 
 cated only to a frleft and chcfen 
 number; the former he taught in- 
 difcriminately to all, as it confilled 
 chiefly of moral rules. He re- 
 quired from his Difciples a fi.ve 
 
 PYX 
 
 years Hlence, before they coul I 
 be admitted to the fecrets of his 
 more fublime and recondite Phi- 
 lofophy. He was particularly 
 fond of Arithmetic, and found. 
 Of fancied he found particular 
 powers and magical efFedls in par- 
 ticular combinations of numbers. 
 He was a very able Geometrician, 
 and feveral of his Problems are of 
 great ufe to this day. His Pupils 
 had their exercifes prefcribed for 
 every part of the day, as Study, 
 Mufic, Dancing, Sacrificing, and 
 walking for recreation. He taught 
 the Tranfmigrstion of Souls, and 
 confequently touched no animal 
 food. For certain myfterious rea- 
 fons, too, heabftained from beans. 
 He ufed Allegory and Symbols in 
 his Philofophy, which, not being 
 now underllood, throws an air of 
 myftery over his dodrines, and 
 involves them in obfcurity. He 
 wa'S acquainted with the true 
 fyftem of the world, which is now 
 called the dpernican, and held 
 that the moon and planets were 
 habitable orbs. He aflierted the 
 movement of the planets to be in 
 harmony, and held that there were 
 antipodes. See Philofophy. 
 
 Pythia, the Prieltefs of Apollo 
 at Delphi, by whom he delivered 
 oracles. She was fo cabled from 
 Pythias, a name of that god, 
 which is faid to have been given 
 him on account of his viftory over 
 the ferpent Python. 
 
 The Pythia was at firft required 
 to be a young girl, but in later 
 times Ihe was a woman of fifty 
 years of age. The firit and moll 
 famous Pythia was Phemonoe. 
 Oracles were firft delivered by her 
 in hexameter verfe. Ail the Pythias 
 were to be pure virgins, and all of 
 them delivered their oracles with 
 great enthufiafm and violent agi- 
 tations, fitting on the cover of a 
 brazen veiTel, called O^fcoj, which 
 
 was 
 
Q^U A 
 
 was mounted on tiTripcd, or three- 
 Jegged ftool. See Oracle, Tri- 
 pod, Sec. 
 
 Pythian G^mes were celebrat- 
 ed in honour of Pythian /Jpotlo at 
 Delphi, a city, which was likewife 
 called Pytho ; hence the appella- 
 tion of thefe games, and the fur- 
 jiame of Apollo. In early times 
 the Pythian games were celebrated 
 every fine years, and afterwards 
 every five years. With this change 
 the Amphifiyons renewed them, af- 
 ter they had been for a confider- 
 able while omitted. The time of 
 celebration was the fixth day of 
 jhe month called ip-jc-to; by the 
 Delphiav!, and ©a^7»:?.ifc'v by the 
 Athenians ; anfwering to the latter 
 part of April and the beginning of 
 May. The AmphiSlyom alfo added 
 the conteft of the flute to that of 
 the lyre, which had been of an- 
 cient appointment. In the con- 
 teft of the flute they played the 
 Pythian Mode, or 'Sofjioi;, in me- 
 mory of Apolloh viftory over thp 
 ferpent Pythn. This aode had 
 five parts, AtxKfaaii, or the pre,- 
 paration for fight; E/zwEtfa, or 
 the firft attempt; K<{\ay.EXivay.o^, 
 or his collecting freflj courage; 
 Ja/ii,(?o» xa» ^ax]fAo», Or Apollo's io^- 
 
 • (iUA 
 
 fulting farcafms over the van- 
 quiflied monfter; Y.v^tyyK;, or the 
 ferpent's expiring hifi'es. Some- 
 times they danced to the found of 
 the lyre, and the dance was di- 
 vided into five parts, termed Of ip«, 
 
 Kcc]ai^oftvo-{^. The combats at the 
 Pythian were the fame as thofe at 
 the Olympic games. Horfe-races 
 and chariot-races made part of 
 both. At the Pythian games there 
 were alfo prizes for intelle£lual 
 merit, by way of encouragement 
 to the cultivation of genius. The 
 prize, when mufical excellence 
 only was difputed, was of filver or 
 gold ; but when gymnallic exer- 
 cifes were added, a crown of lau- 
 rel, a branch of palm, or of beech, 
 or fome fruits, made the prize. 
 See Olympic Games. 
 
 The firfl inftitution of the Py- 
 thian games is, by fome, attri- 
 buted to Amphic7yon, the fon of 
 Deucalion; by others to Agamem- 
 non; by others to Diomede^ and by 
 others to Apollo himfelf, which 
 feems to be the moft general opi- 
 nions, tho' a fabulous tranfaftion 
 is but a poor foundation for a real 
 folemnity. 
 
 Q. 
 
 OUadrans, was the fourth 
 part of the Roman As; fome- 
 times it was called Teruncius or 
 Triuncis, becaufe it contained 
 three ounces, or three twelfths of 
 the As. See As, Money, &C. 
 
 ^adrans is ufed for a fourth 
 part of any Integer^ when fuppofed 
 lo be divided into equal parts. It 
 general.'y fignifies three* twelfths 
 
 cf an eftate, &c. becaufe the Ro- 
 nans made the fame divifion of 
 their property as they did of the 
 As, viz. into twelve parts. See /^/. 
 
 QuADRATA Legio, literally fig- 
 nifies a fquare Legion; and, in Re- 
 man antiquity, denotes a Legion 
 confiding of ^cccmen. See Legion. 
 
 QuADRiG/E, among the J?o- 
 mans, were chariots drawn by four 
 
 * M 2 hories. 
 
liorfes, which were harnefled all 
 thread, and not in paits, or two 
 and two. 
 
 Quad RIG ATtrs, among the Ro- 
 tnans, was a name fomeiimes given 
 to the Denarius, when the figure 
 of the ^adriga was (lamped upon 
 it. See Denarius. 
 
 QuADRiREMis, was a fort of 
 fhip of war, a fpecies of the Naves 
 Lo»g^ ufed by the Romans, and 
 alfo by the Greeks. The ^adri- 
 rgmis were fo called becaufe they 
 Jiad four banks of oars. See Ships. 
 
 Qu ADRUPLATORES, among 
 the^cfflf«»j, were informers, who, 
 if their information was followed 
 by conviflion, had the fourth part 
 of the confifcated goods for their 
 pains. Informers of this kind 
 were, as we may well fuppofe, 
 very common in Rome, and were 
 jfometimes called Delatores and 
 Mandaiores. See Delatio, Delator, 
 ^Jandatores, Informers, Sycophant. 
 
 QuATUORViRi Viarum Curan- 
 darum, among the Romans, were 
 perfons deputed by the Cen/or to 
 fupervife the public ways. 
 
 Qy^siTOREs, a name given to 
 the Roman Preetors who, in their 
 judicial capacity, took cognizance 
 of crimes. The Prator Urbanus 
 and Prator Peregrinus took cog- 
 nizance only of private caufes ; all 
 the other Prtetors, therefore, were 
 ^afitores. The name is derived 
 a quarendo de crimine. See Prator. 
 
 ^ajitores Parricidii 'vel rerum 
 Capitalium, were Magiftrates dif- 
 tin£l from the Prators, till about 
 the year of the city 604. They 
 were appointed by the people af- 
 .ter the Confuls were denied the 
 privilege of giving judgment in 
 criminal matters; but after the 
 period above-mentioned, the Pra- 
 ters had this power conferred upon 
 them by the people, the inquifi- 
 tion of fuch and fuch crimes being 
 committed to fuch and fuch Pra' 
 
 tors. They were alfo called ^af- 
 tores. 
 
 Qu^sTOR, among the Romans, 
 was an ofhcer who had the ma- 
 nagement of the public revenue 
 or treafury. The ^afiorpip was 
 the firft office any perfon could 
 bear in the Commonwealth, and 
 might be undertaken at the age of 
 twenty-four or twenty-five, or, as 
 others fay, of twenty-feven. The 
 name is derived from ^itro, be- 
 caufe it was thej^<^or's bufinefs 
 to get in the revenue. The^/<«^- 
 Jiors were at firft but two, and 
 were created about the year of the 
 city 269 ; but two others were ap- 
 pointed in the year 332, whofe 
 bufinefs it was to take care of the 
 payment of the armies abroad, 
 and to fell the plunder and booty. 
 Thefe laft-creaied:^d?/?or/ accom- 
 panied the Con/uls in any expedi- 
 tions, and had the name of Pere- 
 grini, whereas the two others were 
 called ^ajiores Urbani. Four 
 more ^ajiors were added in the 
 year of the city 439, who had 
 their refidence with the Pro-confuls 
 and Pro-praiors in the provinces, 
 and were employed in regulating 
 and receiving the taxes and cuf- 
 tom? due from thence to the State. 
 The ^(fjfors had a right to a feat 
 in the Senate, and we are told that 
 Sylla the Dilator, and after him 
 Julius Ca/ar, created a great ma- 
 ny to fill up that body ; Sylla ap- 
 pointed twenty, and Julius Cajar 
 forty. 
 
 We may properly enough divide 
 the ^aJiors'iuKO Urbani, Peregri- 
 ni, and Pro<vinciales : The firft 
 had the care of the treafury, and 
 kept an account of all receipts and 
 diiburfements. They alfo required, 
 of every General, an oath that he 
 had been faluted Imperaior by the 
 foidiers, and that he had given 
 the Senate a true account of the 
 numbers flain on both fides^ before 
 
 they 
 
QJJl 
 
 they would permit him to enjoy 
 the honour of a Triumph. Thefe 
 ^ajiers alfo kept the Roman ea- 
 gles, or military enfigns, when 
 the armies were not in the field, 
 in the temple of Sa/ura, which 
 was the public treafury. They 
 had alfo the care of lodging, as 
 well as receiving and carrying out 
 Embaffadors: They alfo, by the 
 appointment of ^a^«/?«j, kept the 
 decrees of the Senate, which before 
 bad been under the care of the 
 uEdiles and Tribunes. This ap- 
 pointment gave rife to thefe two 
 offices, that of j^ajlor Principis, 
 or !^!eJlor ^ugujii, rr Candidaiis 
 Ptincipis, which reiembltd our Se- 
 cretary of State; and that of ^/(f- 
 Jior Palatii, anfwering nearly to 
 our Lord Chancellor. Thus have 
 I given a fummary of the duty and 
 office of the ^ccjlores JJrbani; and 
 as to the ^ajlores Peregrini and 
 ProTjincialeSf enough has been faid 
 in the firft part of this article con- 
 cerning their duties, 
 
 Qu^sTORES Parriddii. See 
 ^xjitores. 
 
 Qu^sTORiuM, in the Roman 
 camps, was the apartment or tent 
 of the ^<ieJlor, or treafurer of the 
 army, it Hood on the right of the 
 Prxtorium, or the apartment of the 
 General, and near the Forum, 
 where various commodities for the 
 ufe of the army were expofed to 
 fale. See Preftorium, Camp, &c, 
 
 QuARTARius, a Roman mea- 
 fure, being the fourth part of a 
 Sextarius, and nearly equal to a 
 quarter of a pint of our wine mea- 
 iure. 
 
 QuESTOR. See ^a-Jior. 
 
 QuiNARius was a fmall Roman 
 coin, "equal to half (he Denarius, 
 and confequently worth about 
 three-pence three-farthings of our 
 money. Sec Money. 
 
 It was called i^dnarius becaufe 
 it contained the value of five Jj/es, 
 
 QVl 
 
 in the fame manner as the Dena- 
 rius was named from its contaio- 
 ing ten. 
 
 Quincunx, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, was ufed to fignify five» 
 twelfths of any Integer, partica. 
 larly of the As, which was always 
 cunfidered as ccnfifling of twelve 
 parts, called Uncia: i^incunx, 
 therefore, \i^in(jtie Uncia. Scejf, 
 
 ^incunx alfo fignifies a certaia 
 order obferved in the plantatioa 
 of trees, but particularly in vines, 
 in which the difpofition is like the 
 
 five at cards, thus 
 
 and 
 
 continued toany length the grccnd 
 would admit of. 
 
 This was alfii the order in whicli 
 the Roma/j army was drav.n up for 
 battle, according to {one, and is 
 fuppofed to be alluded to in /'/>- 
 ^/7's fecond Georgic, 278. Tho* 
 others imagine the Poet meapt the 
 following order ; 
 
 • * * * * 
 
 * * •* * 
 
 * * * * 
 *- * * ijf 
 
 The Romans ufuaJly allowed 
 three feet fquare to every foldier 
 to manage his arms, that is, fix 
 feet between each ; fo that they 
 had room, both for the ufe of their 
 weapons, and Un withdrawing 
 into the (pares behind them, with- 
 out occafioning any confufioo. 
 This arrangement Virgil, in the 
 paffage above refened to, recom- 
 mends, according to the opinion 
 of \^x. Martyn, for the planting of 
 vines. 
 
 QuiNDECEMviRi, were an or- 
 der 0} Pxierts appointed originally 
 by Tarqtiinius Superhus, to take 
 care of the Sikyihve books. The 
 number of Prieils, to whofe charge 
 thefe books were committed, were 
 
 . at 
 
QUI 
 
 at firft only two, witli the name of 
 Duumviri. Afterwards they were 
 encreafed by the Trihunes of the 
 people to ten, about the year of 
 the city 388, and were then called 
 Decemviri i and, in the time of 
 Sylla the Dilator, they were fur- 
 ther augmented to fifteen, and had 
 the title of ^indecemviri. See 
 Decemviri, &C. 
 
 QuiNQUATRIA, Or ^in^ua- 
 
 trui, was a feftival kept at Rome in 
 honour of Minerva, which began 
 on the eighteenth of March, or, 
 as others will have it, on the nine- 
 teenth, and laded five days. On 
 the firft day they offered facrifices 
 and oblations, without the efi"ufion 
 of blood: The fecond, third, and 
 fourth were fpent in fhews of Gla- 
 iliators; and on the fifth they went 
 in proceffion through the city. 
 Scholars had a vacation during the 
 folemnity, and prefented their 
 mafters at this time with a gift or 
 fee called Minerval. Boys and 
 girls ufed now to pray to the 
 woddefs Minerva for wifdom and 
 learning, of which fhe had the pa- 
 tronage. Plays were acted, and 
 difputationa held, at this feaft, on 
 fubje(!is of polite literature. The 
 ^inquatria were fo called becaufe 
 they lafted for five days. There 
 feems to be a ftrong refemblance 
 betwixt this fellival and the Pana- 
 thenaa of the Greeks. See Pana- 
 thencea, Minervalia. 
 
 QuiNQUENNALEs Ludi, wcre 
 the fame with the A£iian games. 
 See Adian Games. 
 
 ^inquennales is alfo ufed to fig- 
 rify any other games celebrated 
 €very five years, in honour of fuch 
 Emperors as had been deified. 
 
 QuiNQUENNALEs, among the 
 Remans, was a Magiftrate in the 
 colonies and municipal towns or ci- 
 ties of the empire, who had much 
 the fame ofiice as the jEdile at 
 Home. See JEdile. 
 
 Q.UO 
 
 QuiNQUE-PRiMi, amongft the 
 Romans, were the five principal 
 men, in the Senate of every muni- 
 cipal town. 
 
 QuiNQUEREf4is, 3 name given 
 by the Romans to a galley, which 
 had five rows of oars. See Ship. 
 
 QuiNQ^JERTiONEs. among the 
 Romans, was an appellation given 
 to thofe who came ojFviflorious io 
 the ^inquertium or Pentathlum. 
 
 QutNQUERTiuM, amongft the 
 Romans, was the fame with the 
 Grecian Pentathlon^ or Pentathlum, 
 See Pentathlum. 
 
 QyiNQUEViRi Menfarii, amongd 
 the Romans, were five officers ex- 
 traordinary, appointed by the 
 Con/uls, to difcharge the debts of 
 the people, who had been ruined 
 by the ufuries exadted from them. 
 QuiNTANA, a name given 
 fometimes to the Forum in the 
 camps of the Romans. See Camp. 
 QuiNTiLis, the month of July, 
 fo called becaufe it was the fifth 
 month of Romului'i year, which 
 began in March. It received the 
 name of July from Marc Anthony, 
 in honour of Julius Co-far, who 
 reformed the calander. See July, 
 Month, Tear. 
 
 QuiRiNALiA, afeaf! celebrated 
 by the Romans in honour of Romu- 
 lus, who was called S^uirinus. It 
 was held on the thirteenth of the 
 Calends of March. 
 
 QuiRiTES, was a name given 
 to the people of Rome, from Cures, 
 a city of the Sahines, with which 
 ^owa/«xmade a flri(fl alliance; and, 
 uniting the people of that place 
 with his own, they called the whole 
 united body by the common name 
 i^irites. ^iriies is applied to the 
 common citizens chiefly, as dif- 
 tinguiihed from the foldiery. 
 
 Quoits, a kind of exercife or 
 game in ufe amongft the Ancients, 
 and generally known by the name 
 of Dtfcus, See Di/cus, 
 
 R. 
 
R. 
 
 R AB 
 
 RABBI, Kab, Rabbin, Rah- 
 ban or Rabbim, a title of 
 dignity amongft the Hebrews, fig- 
 nifying mailer or excellent. Rab 
 was ot" greater honour than Rabbi, 
 and Rabbin or Rabbim, which are 
 plurals, were of greater dignity 
 t-lua either Rab or Rabbi. There 
 were feveral gradations before they 
 could arrive at the dignity of Rab- 
 tin, as aniongll us is the cafe with 
 refpedl to the degree of dodor. 
 The mailer, or head of the fchool, 
 was called Chacham or Wife; he, 
 who afpired to the dodorlhtp, 
 and for this purpofe frequented 
 the fchool of the Chacham, had 
 the name oi Bachur or Elau; when 
 further advanced he was called 
 Cabar of the Rab, or the matter's 
 companion; and laltly, when he 
 was further {killed in knowledge 
 of the law and traditions, he was 
 called only Rab, or Rabbin, or 
 Morena, cur mafter. The Cacbam 
 Rab, or matter Rabbin, decided all 
 forts of differences, determined 
 what was allowed and what was 
 forbidden, and was judge in civil 
 and religious controverfies. He 
 celebrated marriages, declared di- 
 vorces, preached and prtiided in 
 the academies. He reprinjanded, 
 cenfured, and excomraunicated. 
 The Rabbies and Scribes claimed 
 aa implicit acquiefcence in all 
 they taught, and requiied no lefs 
 belief from their hearers than if 
 their words bad been equal to the 
 Law of God ; nay more, they 
 taught, that a Prophet ought to 
 Hiew a fign or a miracle to pro- 
 cure him credit J but their tradi- 
 tions ought to be received on their 
 ozf« bare ivcrn^s. This obferva- 
 
 R AC 
 
 tlon will illuftratc Matth. xxiir. 
 8, 9, 10. The Rabbins in their 
 fchools fat upon raifed chairs, and 
 their fcholars at their feet: Thus 
 St. Paul ftudied at the feet of Gu- 
 maliel. Such of the doflors, as 
 ftudied the letter or text of fcrip- 
 tare, were called Caraites, thofe 
 who ftudied the Cabballa, Cab- 
 balijis, and thofe whofe ftudy was 
 in the traditions or oral law, were 
 called Rabbins or Rabbinijis. The 
 common fundions of i\\q Rabbins, 
 in general, were to pray, preach, 
 and interpret the law in I'aQ Syna^ 
 gogues. When a Synagogue was 
 poor and fmall, one Rabbin per- 
 formed the offices of both judge 
 and dodlor. But in places where 
 \he yetvs were rich and numerous 
 they appointed three Pallors, and 
 a houfe of judgment, where all 
 civil affairs were determined; and, 
 in that cafe, the Rabbin confined 
 himfelf to the bufinefs of inftruc- 
 tion only, unlefs he was called 
 into the council to give his advice. 
 The Rabbins were generally y/ctf 
 proud, very ignorant, full of 
 themf.Ives, and Iticklers for pre- 
 cedency. Their creation was by 
 impofition of hands. Rabboui ot 
 Rabbani fignifies My M after, 
 
 Raca, is a Syriac word, and 
 fignifies vain, empty, fooiilh, beg- 
 garly ; and includes in it a Itrojig 
 idea of contempt. The Jexvs ufed 
 to pronounce the word with cer- 
 tain gellures of indignation, as 
 fpitting, turning away the head, 
 &c. Our Sa-viour ufes the word, 
 Matth. V, 22, and intimates, tha: 
 whoibevcr (liould call his r.ei^li- 
 bour Raca, ihouid be condemned 
 by the council of the Zc.r.hedrim. 
 Rac2;. 
 
R AC 
 
 Races, were much encouraged 
 by the Ancients, becaufe they 
 tended to improve ftrength, and 
 bv habit to give fwiftnefs ; both 
 U'hich are exccMent qualifications 
 in a warrior. We may properly 
 enough dillinguifh the races of the 
 Ancients into three kind.-, foot- 
 races, horfe-races, and chariot- 
 races. The Greeks and Romans 
 perfeflly agreed in the manner of 
 performing and managing each of 
 tbefe contells, io that one account 
 •will fuffice. 
 
 As to foot-races they were par- 
 ticularly countenanced, becaufe 
 they were confidered as training 
 men for war; and Homer tells us, 
 that fwiftnefs is one of the moll 
 excellent endowments a man can 
 be blefled with, for it ferves for 
 fuddcn afTauk and quick retreat ; 
 what wonder then that 7roJ«? ox.v<; 
 is the conrtant charaderofy^f^/7/ej/* 
 But to return ; the courfe where 
 the races were performed was call- 
 ed Stadium, and generally con- 
 tained 125 paces; hence the run- 
 ners were called Stadiodrom:. 
 Purging the fpleen was looked 
 upon as a neceflary preparation for 
 the contelt. Sometimes they ran 
 once, fometimes twice, thrice, or 
 oftener over the ground ; and 
 fometimes they ran over . it in 
 zrmour; in this cafe they had the 
 name of Oplitodromi. The part of 
 the Stadium where they began the 
 race was called, in Latin, Car- 
 teret ; in Greek, A(pj<7ij, B«^iJl?, 
 and rga//./A'j- The other bound- 
 ary of the Stadium was called, in 
 Latiny Meta ; in Greek, T»?.oj, 
 TiPl/.a., &c. Many perfons ran 
 together, and he who firft reach- 
 ed the goal received a prize, by 
 the Greeks called aOao> and Bejc- 
 0Hay, v/hich was adjudged by the 
 flewards or prefidents of the 
 games, called BsuQtvlcct. Thofe 
 prizes were oftentimes of little 
 
 R AC 
 
 value, being crowns of olive, pine, 
 apple-tree, patfiey, &c. 
 
 Kor ft -races were performed ei- 
 ther by fingle horfes, which were 
 called Kt?.»i7E? or MotafATrvv.sj ; or 
 by two horfes, on one of which 
 they perfomed the race, and 
 leaped upon the other at the goal;, 
 thefe men were called Aja.Soia.j ; 
 and if it was a mare they leaped 
 upon, {he was named KaXTrrj. 
 
 Chariot-races were performed 
 by one, two, three, four, five^ 
 or more horf&s joined together in- 
 chariots. How great foever the 
 number of horfes might be, they, 
 were all ranged abreaft, or in one 
 front, being ccmpled together in 
 pairs. Ciijihenes, the Sicyonian^ 
 introduced the cuftom of coupling 
 the two middle horfes only, vvhich 
 were therefore called Ztyjoi ; tha 
 reft he governed by reins. Some- 
 times mules were ufed inftead of 
 horfes, and the chariots drawn by 
 them were called A7rj)»«i. The 
 principal part of a Charioteer's 
 Ikill conlifted in dexteroully avoid- 
 ing the Niirra*, Metre, or goals ; 
 a failure in this point overturned 
 his chariot, which was an event 
 that was attended not only with 
 great danger, but aifo with great 
 difgrace. The chariot-races were 
 generally ended at the feventh 
 turn round the Maa. The num-. 
 ber of Mijfus, or matches, was 
 ufually twenty-four. Sse Mi^s. 
 
 We read that Nero, at the Olym- 
 pic games, made ufe of a Decem- 
 Jugis, or chariot drawn by ten 
 hoifes. The fame Emperor ufed 
 camels in the Roman Circus l and 
 Helicgahalus introduced elephants 
 inftead of horfes. 
 
 The moft remarkable circum- 
 ftancc relating to the Roman cha- 
 riot-races, was the fa(S;ions or com- 
 panies of the Charioteers, which 
 divided into parties the whole city 
 of Rome. See Charicteer. 
 
REC 
 
 Radish. See Raphanidojis. 
 
 Rains fell in JuJea b'U twice 
 in the year, in any confiderabie 
 quantities. The rainy feafons 
 were in the beginning of the civil 
 year, abou: September or OSIoher ; 
 and Haifa year after, in the month 
 /Ihib, or March, which was the 
 firft month in the eccleJiaJiicaU or 
 holy-year. Kence will appear the 
 propriety of thefe e.xpreflions, the 
 former rain, and the latter rain ; 
 the rain of the former fcafon, and 
 the rain of the latter feajcn. The 
 lulter rain, as happcninjr in the 
 firit month of the ecciejlajiical ye&T, 
 is called ti)e latter rain of the frjl 
 tnonth, Joel ii. 23. 
 
 Rans, or Battering-Ram, an en- 
 gine ufed in war, defcribed under 
 the article Aries. See Aries. 
 
 Raphanidosis, a punilhment 
 rnflidttd at Athens upon adulterers. 
 The manner of it was thi^ : Tlie 
 hair was plucked off from the pri- 
 vities of the offender, hot afhes 
 laid upon the place, and a radifh 
 thru.1 up his fundament. Some- 
 limef a mullet was ufed for the 
 purpofe, to which ya-z/fWij/ alludes, 
 $ai. X. ver. 3 17. 
 
 vhtofdam machos et mugilis intrat- 
 
 But poor men only were thus 
 treated, the rich being allowed to 
 commute. See Adultery. 
 
 Perfcns who had been thus pu- 
 nifticd were called evTrpoiitloi. The 
 word raphanidofii is derived from 
 fa^aiir, a radifj. 
 
 Recensio, was an account ta- 
 ken by x.(tC infer:, tvzxy Luflrum, 
 of all the Roman people. It was 
 a general furvey, at which the 
 Equites, as well as the relt of the 
 people, were to appear. New 
 names were now put upon the 
 Cenfor*^ lill, and old ones cancel- 
 led. The Recenfio, in lliort, Wds a 
 more folemn and accurate fort of 
 Probatio, and anfwercd the purpofe 
 
 REC 
 
 of a review by Ihewing who were fit 
 for military fervice. See Probatio. 
 
 Rechabites were a religious 
 order of men amongft the fenvst 
 who owed their foundation 10 
 "Jonathan the fon of Rechab, and 
 the Rechabites were confined ta 
 his family. Their tules were "to 
 drink no wine; to build no houfes, 
 but live ii! tents; tr fow no corn; 
 to plant no vineyards:" and thefe 
 rules they ftriftly adhered to. 
 When xXvcs were conftrained ta 
 retire to Jerufalem for fear of 
 Nebuchadnezzar* % army, Jeremiah 
 brought them to the temple, and 
 offered them veffels of wine to 
 drink, on the refufal of which, 
 agreeably to their rules, the Pro- 
 phet took occaiion to reproach 
 the Je^kis with their difobedience 
 to the laws of God; Jeremiah, 
 chap. XXXV. 
 
 Recitatio. It was cuftomary 
 with authors, amongft the Ro- 
 mans, particularly poets, when 
 their compofitions were finifhed, 
 to engage an houfe, if their own 
 was not fuitable for the purpofe, 
 and to rttcite, amongft their li- 
 terary friends, who were invited 
 on the occafion, their whole per- 
 formance. By this means they 
 availed themfelves of the hints 
 given by the learned for the far- 
 ther improvement of the work, or 
 fappreffed it if it did not meet 
 with approbation. But authors 
 are in general partial to thei." own 
 produdtions; and this was fo much 
 the caie in thofe days., that fev/ 
 were invited, who were net in- 
 clined to be favourable to the 
 work, from private friend/hip, or 
 gratitude for kindnelTes received. 
 The cullcm of thus reciting their 
 works i- alluded to frequencly in 
 claffic authors. See Hor. Lib. i. 
 Ep. 19. ver. 34 — 47. Art. Poet. 
 419 — 433 Junj.^ Sat. 1. I — 6. 
 Perf. Sat. I, &c. See Revieivfrs. 
 * N Recinium, 
 
REF 
 
 Recinium, or Reeinum, or Rf- 
 iinus, was a kind of fquare mantle 
 or veil wore by women on their 
 heads. Salmajlus will have it to 
 be a fort of gown of a purple 
 colour, worn by Roman ladies, 
 and tucked up before with a fquare 
 pin. 
 
 Recvperatores, were judges, 
 delegated by the Prator to decide 
 controverfies about receiving or 
 recovering things which had been 
 loft or taken away. 
 
 Redditio, was the third part 
 of the facrifice of the heathens, 
 and confided of the folemn ad of 
 putting in again the entrails oft ne 
 viftims, after they had been re- 
 ligioufly infpeded. See Sacrifice, 
 
 Redimiculum, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a girdle, which being 
 put about the neck, divided on 
 the breaft, pafied down each fide, 
 and then going round, kept the 
 robe tight to the body. 
 
 Refuge, Cities of, were places 
 provided as AJyla, for fuch as 
 againft their will fhould happen to 
 kill a man. Of thefe cities there 
 were three, on each fide 'Jordan : 
 On this fide wereKede/h CtiNaph- 
 iali, Hebron, and Schechem ; be- 
 yond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, 
 and Ramoth-Gikad. When any 
 of the Hebreius, or ftrangers that 
 dwelt in their country, happened 
 to fpill the blood of a man, they 
 might retire thither to be out of 
 the reach of the violent attempts 
 of the relations of the deceafed, 
 and to prepare for their defence 
 and juftification before the judges. 
 The manflayer underwent two 
 tryals ; firft before the judges of 
 the city of refuge, to which he had 
 fled ; and fecondly, before the 
 judges of his own city. If found 
 guilty he was put to death with 
 all the feverity of the law. If he 
 was acquitted he was not immedi- 
 
 REG 
 
 ately fet at liberty; but, to infpire 
 a degree of horror againft even in- 
 voluntary homicide, he was recon- 
 duded to the place of refuge, and 
 obliged to continue there, in a 
 fort of banifhment, till the death 
 of the high-priell: If, before this 
 time, he ventured out, the re- 
 venger of blood might freely kill 
 him ; but after the high-prieli's 
 death he was at liberty to go where 
 he pleafed, without moleflation. 
 It was neceffary that the perfon, 
 who Hed to any of the cities of 
 refuge, fhould underfland fome 
 trade or calling, that he might not 
 be burthenfome to the inhabitants. 
 
 The cities of refuge were re- 
 quired to be well fupplied with 
 water and neceffary provifions. 
 They were alfo to be of eafy ac- 
 cefs, to have good roads leading 
 to them, with commodious bridges 
 where there was occafion. The 
 width of the roads was to be thirty- 
 two cubits, or forty-eight feet, at 
 lead. It was further required that 
 at all crofs-ways direction polls 
 ihould be erefted, with an infcrip- 
 tion pointing out the road to the 
 cities of refuge. The fifteenth of 
 Adar, which anfwers to our Fe- 
 bruary moon, was appointed for 
 the city magiftrates to fee that the 
 roads were in good condition. No 
 perfon in any of thefe cities was 
 allowed to make weapons, lefl 
 the relations of the deceafed fhould 
 be furniflied with the means of 
 gratifying their revenge. Deut. 
 xix. 3. iv. 41. 43.^ Jajb. XX. 7. 
 
 Three other cities of refuge 
 were conditionally promifed, bu{ 
 never granted. See Afylum, 
 
 Regifugium, was a feaft cele- 
 brated at Rome on the 24th of Ft- 
 bruary, in commemoration of the 
 expuIfiOQ of Tarquinius Super bus, 
 and the abolition of regal power. 
 Ic was alfo performed on the 26th 
 
 of 
 
REG 
 
 of May, when the king of the 
 facrifices, or Rex Sacrorum, offered 
 bean flour and bacon, in the 
 place where the aflemblies were 
 held. The facrifice being over the 
 people hailed away with all fpeed, 
 to denote the precipitate flight of 
 King Tarquin. 
 
 Region, in ancient Rome was 
 a part or divifion of the city. The 
 regions were only four in number, 
 |ill Augujius Ca/ar^s time, who 
 divided the city into fourteen ; 
 over each of which he fettled two 
 Turveyors, called Cur at ores Via' 
 rum, who were appointed annually, 
 and took their divifions by lot. 
 Thefe fourteen regions contained 
 four hundred and twenty -four 
 ftreets, thirty-one of which were 
 called greater or royal ftreets, 
 which began at the gilt pillar that 
 flood at the entry of the open 
 place, in the middle of the city. 
 The extent of thefe divifions va- 
 ried greatly, fonae being from 
 I2000 or 13000 to 33000 feet, or 
 upwards in circumference. Au- 
 thors however are not agreed as 
 to the exa£t limits of each. The 
 Curatores Viarum wore the purple, 
 had each two liftors in their proper 
 divifions, had (laves under them 
 to take care of fires that happened 
 to break out. They had alfo two 
 ofEcers called Denunciator es, in 
 each region, to give account of any 
 diforders. Four Vico-magijiri alfo 
 were appointed in each ftreet, who 
 took care of the ftreets allotted 
 them, and carried the orders of 
 the city to each citizen. 
 
 Registers, were kept both at 
 Athens and Rome, in which were 
 inferted the names of fuch chil- 
 dren as were to be brought up, as 
 loon as they were born. Marcus 
 Aurelius required all free perfons 
 to give in accounts of their chil- 
 dren, within (hirty days after the 
 
 REM 
 
 birth, to the treafurer of the em- 
 pire, in order to their being depo- 
 fited in the temple ofSaturti, where 
 the public afts were kept. Officers 
 were alfo appointed as public re- 
 gifters in the provinces, that re- 
 courfe might be had to their lifts 
 of names, for fettling difputes, or 
 proving any perfon's freedom. 
 
 Relegatio, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a fort of banilhment 
 made ufe of againft certain crimi- 
 nals; bgt it was of fuch a nature, 
 that tfio' the offender was fent to 
 a certain place, for a certain time, 
 or perhaps for ever ; yet he was 
 nnt deprived of the privileges of a 
 Roman citizen, as he was in the 
 cafe oiexilium, or banifhment pro- 
 perly fo called. A new Tort of re- 
 legatio was invented by the Empe- 
 ror Claudius^ in which the fufpeft- 
 ed perfon was forbidden to ftir 
 three miles from the city. Sec 
 Banijhment, 
 
 Religion. See Worjhip. 
 
 RfiLiciyi^, were the afhes and 
 bones of the dead, which remain- 
 ed after the bodies had been burnt 
 upon the funeral pile, and which 
 the Ancients kept very religioufly 
 in Urns, and afterwards laid up 
 in Tombs. 
 
 Remancipation, a form of di- 
 vorce, obferved by the Romans, 
 in marriages which had been con- 
 trat^ted by coemption. As marriage 
 by coemption was concluded by de- 
 livering the wife into the hands of 
 the hufband, fo it was again dif- 
 folved by the hufhand's re-deli- 
 vering his wife into any perfon'-s 
 hands agreed upon betwixt them. 
 See Divorce, Marriage, &c. 
 
 Remuria, was a feftival in- 
 ftituted by Romulus, in honour of 
 his brother Remus ; thus was an 
 empty ceremony called in, to atone 
 for an unnatural murther. 
 
 Remuria is ufed alfo for the place 
 
 * N z where 
 
REP 
 
 REW 
 
 where Remus took his Augury from 
 the flight of birds, and where he 
 was afterwards buried. 
 
 Repetund^, or Crhnen repe- 
 iundarum, bribes taken by the 
 Magillrates from the allies and 
 fubjefls of the Romans, as alfo 
 from the citizens. This crime 
 was no: at firft made capita!, tho' 
 it became fo afterwards, as may 
 be feen in the example of Verres. 
 This crime includes oppreirion 
 and extortion exercifed upon the 
 inhabitants of provinces, whom, 
 as allies and confederates, the Ro- 
 mans were obliged to patronize 
 and defend 
 
 Repotia, a fcaft made by new- 
 jnarried men on the day after the 
 celebration of their nuptials. At 
 this entertainment the wife laid 
 on the fame couch at table with 
 herhulband, leant upon him with 
 a familiar air, renounced all mai- 
 denifh fliame, and talked without 
 yeferve. On this day the mar- 
 ried couple received prefents from 
 their friends, and facrificed to the 
 gods. 
 
 The word repotia is ufed to fig- 
 nify not only the feaft, but the day 
 itfelf after the marriage folemni- 
 ■ ty, and is perhaps derived from 
 repeto, to repeat, becaufe the for- 
 mer day's feftivity was now re- 
 peated. This day was obferved 
 by the Athenians in the fame man- 
 ner, and was called by them ■jra.Xia-, 
 from 7r«?iit, which fignifies O'ver 
 again. See Marriage. 
 
 Repudium, is oftentimes ufed 
 to fignify an aftual Divorce; but 
 it differs from Di'vcrtium in this, 
 that Repudium implies breaking 
 off the marriage contrail or efpou- 
 fal, before marriage; whereas Di- 
 'vortium was a reparation after ac- 
 tual matrimony. Repudium fome- 
 times fignifies a bill of divorce- 
 ment {ent to the wife, and con- 
 
 taining the reafons of feparation. 
 See Divorce, Marriage, &c. 
 
 Retaliation. See Talio. 
 
 Retiarii, among the Romans, 
 a kind of Gladiaton who entered 
 the lilis armed only with a trident 
 in the left, and a net in ti.e right- 
 hand. Their utmoit addref; vva& 
 to be ufed to throw the net over, 
 and entangle their antagonifls. If 
 they miffed of their aim, they were 
 to betake themfclves to flight, till 
 th:y had the good fortune to re- 
 cover their nets. The trident 
 which they bore was calkd Fujci- 
 na, and was made ufe of to difpatc^ 
 their antapoiiills when caught in 
 the net. Their diefs was a fhcrt 
 coat, and a hat tied under the 
 chin, with a broad ribbon. Their 
 antagonifts were called Secutores, 
 See Gladiator, Sccnteref, &c. 
 
 Revenues of the Roman go- 
 vernment, under the kings, arofe 
 chiefly from a capitation tsx, 
 which equally afFeded rich and 
 poor; from a duty bid upon herbs 
 and roots, carried to market; and 
 fome fait wo/ks made by Anciii 
 Martius near OJiia, The reve- 
 nues of the commonwealth were 
 augmented in proportion to he; 
 new conquelh: But in the year of 
 the city 359, gold was fo fcarce 
 that when Canillus, on the taking 
 ofFeii, had vowed the tenth of the 
 booty to Apollo, and refolved to 
 make that god a prefcnt of a golden 
 cup of that value, he could not dif- 
 charge his vow, without borrcvving 
 of the ladies rings and ornaments 
 of gold for that purpofe; for there 
 was no money in the treafury at 
 that time, except copper 01 brafs. 
 After Rome had extended her con- 
 quefts beyond I/afy, gold became 
 plentiful, and in the year f^f the 
 city 586, upon the reduftion of 
 Macedonia, the public treafure was 
 fo atagmented by foreign tri- 
 buiesa 
 
REV 
 
 butCB, &c. that the koman people 
 were exempted from paying the 
 annual taxes. It would beimpof- 
 fible to give a certain ftate of the 
 revenues of the commonwealth, 
 becaufe they were continually 
 changing. It will be fufHcient to 
 mention that the provinces paid, 
 befides a capitation tax, three kinds 
 of import, viz. Portorium, Decuman 
 and Scriptura. Sumptuary laws 
 were aifo found neceffary to check 
 the extravagance of the people ; 
 hence taxes were laid upon the 
 luxuries of life. The gold, filver, 
 and lead mines of Spain, &c. 
 brought large fums into the trea- 
 fury. From the 397th year of 
 Rome, the twentieth part of what 
 llaves made free were worth, be- 
 longed to the State. One per cent. 
 was paid for goods fold volunta- 
 rily, and two for thofe fold by 
 audlion, in the reign of Tiberius. 
 Jiugujlus exaiSled a twentieth of 
 inheritances in the collateral line; 
 he aifo exa£led a legacy from 
 every perfon of fortune, otherwife 
 tiieir wills could not be executed. 
 We ra:ght mention aifo the fait 
 revenues, and taxes upon various 
 articles of merchandife, taxes upon 
 urine, and from journeys and 
 voyages, &;c. but a large volume 
 would not fuffice, if we were to 
 defcend to particulars belonging 
 to this head. See Decuma, Por- 
 tcrium, Scriptura, &c. 
 
 Reviewers The Earl of i^ij/^ 
 common, in his Preface to the Notes 
 on Horace*^ Art ot Poetry, informs 
 us, that in Afta, Greece, Macedonia, 
 and Egypt, there were, time out of 
 mind, feleft aflemblies of peffons 
 to examine the writings of the Poets 
 and Orators, in the quality of au- 
 thorized Reviewers. Augujius, he 
 tells us, eredied fuch a fociety at 
 Romet and encouraged them by 
 rewards and hononr£> affigning 
 
 RE W 
 
 them the Temple and Library of 
 Jpollo to meet at. And to this, 
 he fays, the alTemblies of learnecl 
 men, which we call Academies, 
 owe their origin. Tbecdorus Mar- 
 cilus, v.'ho however does not tell 
 us his authority, fays the number 
 of this Roman Academy was 
 twenty, of whiclr five or feven can 
 only be termed judges. He goes 
 fo far as to give us the names of 
 them, and, whether he is right or 
 not, he could not have named 
 better men than his fociety of 
 Reviewers was compcfed of, viz. 
 Virgil, Farius, Tarpa, MecePms, 
 Plotius, Valgius, O^avius, Fujcus^ 
 the two Ft/cus's^ PoUio, the two 
 'Mejfala's, fhe two BibuluCs, Ser- 
 •vius, Fulvius, TibuUus, Pi/o the 
 father, and Horace, 'f'his affertion 
 perhaps was founded on the lift of 
 rames given us a: the end of the 
 iirft Salire of Horace, Lib. i. Mar- 
 cilus fuppofes, aifo, that Horace 
 wrote the Art of Poetry, at the 
 i.-iftance of the Academy, in order 
 to coliedl all the rules'and judg- 
 ments which were made in the 
 fociety, and form them into a 
 fyilem. 
 
 Reus, in the Roman courts o^ 
 judicature, anfwered to our word 
 Defendant, and is oppofed to //rpor, 
 v.'tiich anfwers to our Plaintiff. 
 
 Rev/ards Military, among the 
 Athenians, were called Apjftja, 
 and may be enumerated as fol- 
 lows: Soldie.'-s were preferred to 
 the rank of officers, and fubal^ 
 terns 10 fuperior rank. Gallant 
 adions were praifed in poetry and 
 funeral orations. Crowns were 
 bcftowed on fuch as had behaved 
 with rem.arkable bravery, on which 
 were infcribed their names. Pil- 
 lars and ftatues were ere<fled in 
 honour of the gods, with the vic- 
 tories infcribed upon them.— — 
 nwoff^tes, or complete fuits of ar- 
 ciotir 
 
REX 
 
 jnour were (bmetimes given to 
 tbofe who had diftinguifhed them- 
 felves in battle. The honourable 
 title of Cecropides was given to fol- 
 diers of confpicuous valour (Ce- 
 cropiJes fignifies perfons of ancient 
 and noble blood) and their arni3 
 were depofited in the citadel. 
 They who had been mainjed in 
 battle, were maintained at the 
 public charge. The children of 
 ihofe who ha<J fallen in battle, 
 were maintained by the public, 
 and:, whan grown up, were pre- 
 fen^ted with the PanopUa, and ho- 
 noured with diflinguifhed feats at 
 the public games. SoLn alio or- 
 dained tliat parents who had loft 
 the comfort and fupport of their 
 children, by the chance of war, 
 fliould be iupported by the public. 
 
 The chief military rewards 
 amongft the Romans, befides the 
 pecuniary gratifications, and pro- 
 motion in the army, were the 
 Hajla Pura, the ArmilU, the Pha- 
 ler/e, the Fexilla, the Torques, the 
 different kinds of Cro-ivns, the 5^- 
 iuiatio Imperatorii, the Supplicatio, 
 O'vation, and Triumph. See HuJ- 
 ta, Armilla, Phaler/e, &c. 
 
 Ft deferves particular notice, 
 that Sicinius Deiitatus received du- 
 ring his military fervice, eight 
 crowns, of gold, fourteen Crvic 
 and three Mural crowns, eighty- 
 three golden Torques, fixty golden 
 ArmilU, eighteen Haji/sPuvi^, and 
 feveuty-five Phalera. 
 
 Rex SacroruKi, or Rex Sacrifi- 
 tulus, among the R:omani, was a 
 perfon appointed to prefide in cer- 
 tain facred dutie?. He generally 
 performed fuch offices as the Kings 
 oi Romehdid referved tothemfelves 
 before the abolition of their power. 
 He was chofen by the Augurs and 
 Pontifices, at the eilablilhment of 
 the Commonwealth, "that the name 
 of King might not be wholly ex. 
 
 RHA 
 
 tinft; and that his power might 
 never be dangerous to civil li- 
 berty, he was mads inferior t© the 
 Pontifex Maximus, and was not 
 permitted to have the leall fkare in 
 f/i/i/ affairs. His bufinefs was to 
 declare the holy-days, explain the 
 reafons of them, prepare the ne- 
 ceflaries for facriace, declare what 
 was lawful or unlawful every 
 month, and, on the fifth of the 
 Ides of yanuary, facrifice a ram to 
 Janus. He alfo offered op a fa- 
 crifice in the Comiiium, or great 
 hall of juftice; after which he ran 
 out as faft as he could to the 
 market-place, to intimate the pre- 
 cipitate flight of Tarquin. See 
 Regifugtun. 
 
 His wife was called Regina Sa- 
 crorum^ and facrificed a lamb or a 
 pig on the Kalends of each month 
 to ya«i.^-The Fejr^ls once every 
 year addreffed the Rex Sacrorum 
 with Vigilafne Rex ? Figila — to 
 put him in mind of his duty. 
 
 Rhasdomancy, a fpecies of 
 divination among the Ancients, 
 performed with rods. It was prac- 
 tifed by the Jeivs fometimes, and 
 was done by ereding two rods, and 
 muttering; a few words; the direc- 
 tion in which the fticks fell formed 
 the anfwer. It was pradtifed both 
 amonglt the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Rhacdophori, were officers 
 appointed amongll the Greeks, to 
 preferve peace and good order at 
 the public games. They were fo 
 called from Pa(3^o?, a rod, which 
 was the badge of their authority. 
 
 Rhapsodi, a name given to 
 fuch poets asfung their own works, 
 in detached pieces, from town to 
 town ; of this clafs was Homer, as 
 we are gravely informed by an- 
 cient writers. See Rhapfody. 
 
 Rhapfodi was alfo the appella- 
 tion given to perfons who made it 
 their bufinela to fing Homen^s po- 
 ems 
 
RHE 
 
 Cfp.s in fcraps and pieces. When 
 they fung the Iliad their drefs was 
 red; but blue, when they fung the 
 Odyjpv. As they fung in compe- 
 tition, the i\\'o antagonifis, at the 
 conclufion, joined their papers to- 
 gether, hence the name, from 
 rsczrLj, to Jeiv, and u^n, a fong. 
 
 Rhapsodomancy, a fpecies of 
 divination performed by the An- 
 cients with the works of Rhap/o- 
 Mjis, or poets 5 particularly Homer 
 and Virgil. — For an account of 
 the ceremony of confulting thefe 
 books, fee Sortes. 
 
 Rhapsody, a poem fung or re- 
 fiearfed by the Rhapfodi. The 
 term, however, is particularly ap- 
 plied to the works oi^6«tr,'<;vhich, 
 iiaving been for a long time dif- 
 perfed in pieces and fragments, 
 %vere at length colle-ded together, 
 by order of Pifjfiratui, and digeft- 
 cd into books called Rbapjcdies, 
 from fwnla, to Jeiu, and w^-/j, a 
 Jong. 
 
 Rhetores, acubngft the Athe- 
 nians, were ten in number, eledl- 
 ed by lot to plead public caufes in 
 the Senate houfe or aflembly. For 
 €very caufe in which they were re- 
 tained, they received a Drachm 
 out of the public money. They 
 were fometimes called Syvnyopoi, 
 and their fee to Evyvyo^txcv. No 
 man was admitted to this office be- 
 fore he was forty years of age, tho' 
 others fay thirty. Valour in war, 
 piety to their parents, prudence 
 in their affairs, frugality and tem- 
 perance, were necefiary qualifica- 
 tions for this office, and every 
 candidate underwent an examina- 
 tion concerning thefe virtues pre- 
 vious to the ekdion. The Ora- 
 titrs at Rome were not unlike the 
 ^libenian Rhetores. See Or^itcr. 
 
 RjDDLEs, have engaged the at- 
 tention of men in every age of the 
 tt'orld, and, tho' looked upon 33 
 
 RIN 
 
 trifles now, have fometimes em>. 
 ployed the minds of heroes, phi- 
 lofophers, and kings : Thus we 
 read of the ridJle of Sam/ou, and , 
 the ridaUs that pafl'ed betwixt 
 Sclcmon and Kirg Hiram \ and as 
 to the phiiolophers of antiquityj 
 their principal ftydy fecms to have 
 had for its obje<ft the formation or 
 fcletion of Enigmas: VVhat elfe 
 indeed was their philofophy, but 
 an attempt to difcover truth under 
 borrowed appearances. And what 
 is this but folving riddlts. The 
 Mytholagijis deal in nothing but 
 riddUsy in which the operations 
 of nature were difguifed under va- 
 rious fymbols, and emblematically 
 exprefied. The riddle of the 
 Spljyax is kncwn to all ; and that 
 the poets hsA'e employed tbem- 
 felves in compofing riddles, is ob- 
 vious to all who have read the 
 Eclogues of Virgil and the IdyV.ia 
 of Theocritus ; Virgil's riddles have 
 puzzled the commentators in ge- 
 neral fince they were iirft pro- 
 pounded ; And we are told that 
 Homer, the prince of poets, in a 
 fit of defpair langui/hed and died> 
 becauie he was unable to folve a 
 riddle propofed to him by fome 
 lifhermen at the ifland of lo. To 
 be ferious, the folution or com- 
 poiing of ridaks is an innocent 
 amufcment, which give^ ftretch to 
 the fancy, and play to the imagi- 
 nation, and might prove as,certain 
 a means of improvement as form- 
 ing fyllcgifms or finding out logi- 
 cal fallacies, which in fad are but 
 ri-ddks of a lefs entertaining kind. 
 RjNGS, are of great antiquity, 
 as is proved from fcripture and 
 profane authors. Judch left his 
 ring or fignet to T amur, Pkarach 
 took a ling from hii finger and 
 put it on Jofeph\ when he corti- 
 mitted to him the government of 
 . •%//-'* The IJratlitiJh women 
 
 wore 
 
RO A 
 
 Wore rings, not only on their nn- 
 gers, but alfo in their noftrils and 
 ears. The Prodigal Son had a 
 jing pet on his finger at his return, 
 which was a mark of refpeft. The 
 ring was uTcd chiefly as a fea! 
 or iignet, and coniequently was 
 highly valued. Rings were iifed 
 boih by Greeks and Romans in their 
 erpoulals; but thefe were generally 
 of iron, tho' fometimcs of copper 
 and brafs, with little knobs in the 
 form of a key, to reprefent that 
 the wife had poflefTion of the hiif- 
 bsnd's keys. Some of the nuptial 
 rings had infcriptions, as /fz/ta ne, 
 amo te : Bonam 'viiam, &C. In 
 the early times of the common- 
 weahh, only Knights and Senators 
 of Rome were allowed to wear gold 
 rings, which might be partly 
 owing to the great fcarcity of 
 gold ; but in proccfs of time gold 
 rings were indifcriminately worn, 
 as may appear from the three 
 bufliels gathered out of the fpoils 
 after Hannibars vitlory at CanntS, 
 Rings were at firft of a plain con- 
 ftruttion, and worn on the fourth 
 finger only, a Itone afterwards was 
 added by way of feal, then gems 
 and precious llcncs were intro- 
 duced : by and by a ring was 
 worn on the fore finger, by way of 
 ornament ; afterwards they added 
 another on the little finger. At 
 length they grew (o extravagant, 
 that they had light rings for ium- 
 iner, and heavy ones for winter. 
 
 Roads. Of a!l the people in 
 the world the Remans took molt 
 pains in forming roads : The la- 
 bour and expences they were at 
 in rendering them fpacious, firm, 
 and durable, are almoft incredible. 
 They ufually dug a trench and 
 ilrengthened the ground which 
 formed the founddtion of the road, 
 by ramming it, laying it with 
 flints, pebbles, or fand, and 
 
 RO A 
 
 fometimes with a Hning of ma- 
 fonry, rubbifli, bricks, or other 
 materials, bound together with 
 mortar. This compofition reach- 
 ing in fome places ten or twelve 
 feet deep, became at laft hard and 
 ccmpadl as maf le, which has re- 
 fifled the injuries of time for 1600 
 years, and is flill fcarce penetrable 
 by all the force of hammers, &c. 
 tho' the flints it confilts of are not 
 bigger than eggs. The moll noble 
 of the Roman roads were the Fia 
 u^ppia. Via F I ami lit a, and Fia 
 Emilia. The length of the Fia 
 Jppia was five days journey, or 
 350 miles, 12 feet broad, and 
 made of fquare free Hone, a foot 
 and a half on each fide. Tho'chis 
 road has laH^ed 1800 years, yet it 
 is in many places, even now, as 
 entire as when it v/as firft made, 
 Thei?5CTan roads are dillinguifned 
 into military roads, double roads, 
 ZT\A fubterraneous roads. The mi- 
 litary roads were intended for 
 marching their armies into the 
 provinces; of this kind were Ike- 
 nild-JIreet, IP'atling Jireet, Fc/s-iuay 
 and Ermincigejlreet in England. 
 Douhle-roads were roads for car- 
 riages, having two pavements, 
 one for thofe gfling one way, and 
 the other for thofe returning the 
 other way. Between the two 
 pavements was a caufeway, a litttc 
 raifed for foot paflengers, which 
 was paved with brick, and had 3 
 border, mcunting-ftones and mile- 
 fiones. Subterraneous roads were 
 thofe dug through a reck and left 
 vaulted, as that of Puzzoli near 
 Naples, which is near half a league 
 long, fifteen feet broad, and as 
 many high. Making of roads was 
 the employment of the foldier?. 
 which enured them to labour, con- 
 tributed to increafe their ftrength, 
 improved their health, and pre- 
 vented idle habits. The Reman 
 policy. 
 
ROM 
 
 policy, in this particular, is worthy 
 the imitation of our own country. 
 It would be of fervice to the men 
 themfejves, and of great advan- 
 tage to the nation at large. See 
 Solniers. 
 
 RoBiGALiA, was a feaft obferved 
 by the Remans on the 25th of 
 Jpvil, in honour of the deity Ro- 
 bigOt or Rchigus, who took care to 
 keep off the mildew and blading 
 from corn in the ear, and from 
 fruits. 
 
 RoBUR, a name given to that 
 part of the prifons at Rcme, from 
 whence criminals, by way of pu- 
 ni!hment,were thioun down head- 
 long. 
 
 RoGATio. See Irrcgalio. 
 
 RoGATio Legis, was the pro- 
 pofing a law in the Roman Comi- 
 tia. It was called Rcgatio, becaufe 
 the perfon who brought in the bill 
 made an oration to the people, 
 to point out the expeditrncy and 
 convenience of fuch a law ; and 
 began with this interrogatory 
 form of words, ydii't! 'Jubeatijne, 
 fhiirites? The perfon who pro- 
 pofed the jaw was called Rogator. 
 See Laiu. 
 
 RcGus, a name given by the 
 Remans to the Funeral Pile after 
 the burning was begun. It was 
 Caiied Pyra before it was lighted, 
 and Bujium when burnt dov/n. 
 See Pyra, Pile, Funeral, &c. 
 
 RoMANi, was a tuie of lefs 
 honour than Gives Romani- The 
 inhabitants or fuch cf the Mumci- 
 fia as enjoyed the privilege of 
 Pieman citizens, fuch as voting in 
 the aflemblics, bearing oflices in 
 the city, &c. were honoured with 
 the nnme of Cives Romani; when 
 thefe privileges were not enjoyed, 
 rhey were called Rcmam only. 
 See Municipia. 
 
 Rome, the Capital of the Ro- 
 man Empire, was founded by Ro' 
 
 kOM 
 
 muhts, its firll King, 753 jfears 
 before Chriji, or, according to 
 Neiv fan's Chronology, 627 B. C. 
 The Sabine women are feized, at 
 a public fpeftacle, by the Romans^ 
 and detained for wives, 750 B. C. 
 The Romans and Albans, contend- 
 ing for fuperiority, decide the con- 
 tell by three champions chofen on 
 each fide ; the Horatii on the part 
 of the Romans, and the Curatii for 
 the Albans ; in the engagement, 
 the Albans were conquered, but 
 unired with the Romans 667 B. C. 
 The Circus built, capable of con- 
 taining 150,000 people 605 B. C. 
 Sexttis Tarquin, having raviflied 
 Lucretia, is expelled with his 
 whole family from Rome. Kingly 
 government abolifhed, and the 
 Republican eftablilhed, under two 
 annual Cor.fuh, 508 B. C. The 
 Di/iatorjhip firft introduced 493 
 B. C. Decemviri appointed to col- 
 led a body of laws, which being 
 done, they were written on ten 
 tables, afrerwards tranfcribed on 
 pillars of brafs, and made the 
 Itandard of judicial proaeedings, 
 451 B. C. Creation of Cenjors 
 443 B. C. Patrician Tribunes 
 chofen, inftead of Con/uls, 421 
 B C. Co7i/uls reilored 418 B. C. 
 Three ^ajlcrs from among the 
 people eleded 410 B. C. The 
 Temple of Mars built 38c B. C. 
 The firft Punic war declared ; be- 
 fore which the Romans had never 
 carried their arms beyond Italyy 
 nor encountered their enemies at 
 fca, 764 B. C. Silver money in- 
 liead ot brafs, which had been in 
 ufe before, was fint coined in the 
 Temple of Juno Mcneta, from 
 whence it took its name of Mone- 
 ta, about the year 260 B. C. The 
 fccond Punic war began 218 B. C. 
 The third Punic war 149 B. C. 
 The Romans take and utterly de- 
 ftroy Carthage, after a three years 
 * O fiege. 
 
ROM 
 
 iiege, 146 B. C. Marius makes 
 his grand triumphant entry into 
 Jiome, with the rich fpoils of Nu- 
 midiay the famous "Jugurtha, its 
 King, and his two fons in chains, 
 to grace his Triumph, 103 B. C. 
 The Ambrones and Teutores defeat- 
 ed by Marius, and the wives of the 
 former, being refufed fecurity from 
 violation, raurther themfelves and 
 their children, 102 B. C Pompev 
 and Julius Ccejar begin their con- 
 tention for the fupreme power over 
 the Commonwealth, which pro- 
 duced a civil war, 59 B. C. Ca- 
 far affaflinated in the Senate houfe, 
 and the revolution, intended to be 
 prevented by this cataRrophe, is 
 only haftened, 44 B. C. The 
 If Oman State divided into two par- 
 ties by O^wvianusCa^far inAMarc 
 Antony, and a civil war enfucs, 41 
 B. C. The Republic changed to 
 an Empire; OSia'vius Ca/ar hav- 
 ing the titles of Imperator and Ju- 
 gujius conferred upon him by the 
 Senate and people, 27 B. C. A- 
 bout this time the annual revenue 
 of the Empire amounted to forty 
 million pounds fterling.' 'i'he ci- 
 ty of Rome is computed to have 
 been fifty of our miles in circum- 
 ference, and its inhabitants to 
 have exceeded four millions. The 
 famous Temple of the Mother of 
 theGodsconfumed by fire, A. D. z. 
 A Cenjus held, and the people 
 uumbered by Claudius the Em- 
 peror, who found them to amount 
 to fix million nine hundred thou- 
 fand, A. D. 48. Goths, Vandals, 
 and other northern barbarians be- 
 gin to invade the Empire, A. D. 
 250. The Empire divided into 
 four parts between two Emperors, 
 Dioclefian and Conjlantius, which 
 naftened its dilTolution, 292. The 
 Seat of Empire removed from Rome 
 to ConJiarAtnopUt by Ccnjlantine, 
 330. Divided again into \.h^ Maji- 
 
 ROS 
 
 ern and Wefiern Empires 379-. 
 Rome taken and plundered by the 
 Goths 410. By the Fandals 455. 
 By the Heritli 476. Is recovered 
 ior J ujlini an, by Bellifarius, 537. 
 Re-taken by the Goths 547. Re- 
 conquered for yvjiinian, by Nar/es, 
 one of his Generals, 553. Re- 
 volted from the Greek Emperors, 
 became a free State, and was go- 
 verned by a Senate, 726. The 5^- 
 nate and people acknowledged 
 Charle:nagne, King of France, as 
 Emperor of the Weji, who fur- 
 rendered the City and Dutchy to 
 the Pope, referving the Sovereign- 
 ty, A. D. 800. The Popes after- 
 wards made themfelves independ- 
 ent, and continue in pofieflion of 
 this renowned City, and its terri- 
 tories, called the Ecclejiafitcal 
 States, to this day. 
 
 RoRARii, a name given to a 
 party of young men in the Roman 
 army, whofe bufinefs it was to go 
 before the main body, and, by 
 ikirmiihing, to annoy the enemy. 
 They aie alfo called Ferentarii. 
 They were armed with feveral 
 lorts of weapons. The Rorarii 
 were dilccntinued after the in- 
 lUtution of the Felites. See 
 Fell Its. 
 
 Roses, are too grateful to the 
 fenfe not to have been admired 
 ard fout',ht after by the Ancients. 
 The Rofe has accordingly been 
 celebrated, not only by Greek and 
 Roman Poets, but by thofe of the 
 yevjijh nation alfo. It was never 
 omitied, in its proper feafon, at 
 the feaits of the Ancients, whether 
 public or private. In fuch eftima- 
 tion was it held, that it is frequent- 
 ly ufed as an emblem of beauty. 
 We find alfo that it was the fym- 
 bol of filence, and as fuch was 
 worn at feafts i;pon the head,' and 
 placed, in entertaining rooms, a- 
 bove the table, tD lignify that whac 
 
 was 
 
ROS 
 
 was there fpoken, fhould be kept 
 private : Hence our Englijh phrafe, 
 Under the Rofe, is ufed as a re- 
 quifition of filence and fecrecy. 
 Aniongfl the Greeks and Romans, to 
 hold up a Rofe to any perfon, was 
 to demand his faltliful conceal- 
 ment of the converfation paffing. 
 The Poets fay, that Cupid confe- 
 crated the Rofe to Harpocrates, the 
 god of filence, to engage him to 
 conceal the lewd aftions of f^enus; 
 and hence we are told it came to 
 be efteenied an emblem of (ilence: 
 This reafon is affigned in the fol- 
 lowing beautiful epigram : 
 
 Ej? Rojajios Veneris, cujus q^uo fac- 
 ta laterent 
 Harpocrati, matris dona, dicwoit 
 Amor : 
 Jnde Rcjam men/is hofpes fu/pendit 
 amicis ; 
 Conviva ut fub ed di5ia tacenda 
 /ciat. 
 
 But Nazianzen feems to imply 
 that the Rofe, for its natural qua- 
 lities, may be confidered as aa 
 obvious fymbol of filence. His 
 verfes on this fubjeft are thus 
 tranflated : 
 
 JJtque latet Ro/a vtrna fuo putamiru 
 
 claufa, 
 Sic OS •■vincia ferat, validi/que arc- 
 
 tetur habenis, 
 Indicatque, fuis prolixa filentia la- 
 
 bris. 
 
 Befides the ufe of the Rofe at 
 feafts and convivial meetings, it 
 was alfo frequently laid upon the 
 tombs of the dead, either to fignify 
 the filence of death, or as an offer- 
 ing grateful to the deceafed, or, 
 perhaps to overcome, by its agree- 
 able odour, the foetid exhalations 
 of the grave. 
 
 Rostra, was a fort of flage or 
 pulpit, adorned with the prows of 
 
 ROW 
 
 Ihips taken from the Antiata, ia 
 the firft naval viflory obtained by 
 the Romans, in the Con/ul/bip of 
 Duillius. From this pulpit ora- 
 tions were made to the people oa 
 public occafjons. It flood in the 
 Forum Romanum, and was called 
 Rojira from the beaks of (hips, 
 which were fixed there by way of 
 trophy, as being the moil public 
 place in the city. In common con- 
 verfation it is ufual to talk of 
 mounting the Rojhum ; but the 
 phrafe is certainly improper, for 
 it ought to be Rcfira, the plural 
 number. See Rojirum. 
 
 Rostrum, by the Greeks called 
 sfA^o>^Qv, was an important part of 
 the ancient fhips of war, which 
 were hence denominated Naves 
 Rojlrata. The Rojirum, or beak, 
 was made of wood, but fortified 
 with brafs, and faftened to the 
 prow to annoy the enemy's veflels. 
 It was fo called from its refem- 
 blance to the RoJ}rum, or beak of 
 a bird J and the invention of it is 
 attributed to Pifaus, an Italian, 
 The firll Roflra were made long 
 and high ; bu: afterwards Arijiot 
 a Corinthian, contrived to make 
 them fhort and ftrong, and placed 
 them fo low as to pierce fhe ene- 
 my's Ihips under water. By the 
 help of thefe, great havock was 
 made in the Athenian fleet by the 
 Syracufans. The Rojira taken by 
 the Romans from their enemies^ 
 and hung up as trophies of vidory 
 in the Forum, occaiioned the pul- 
 pit, or pleading place, to be called 
 Rojira. See Rojira. 
 
 Rowers, among the Gr^fi/and 
 Romans, were placed on each fide 
 of the {hip, upon benches, called 
 by the Greeks toi)(;oi and t^uXttx. ; 
 by the Romans, Fori and T^anjira. 
 Thefe benches were placed one 
 above another. The lowed was 
 called $«Xa/x,05, ar^d the; i ewers 
 that laboured thereon ^aAa/xw* ; 
 
 * O 2 the 
 
SAB 
 
 the middle {vya,, and the men 
 ^ty»o» ; the uppermoft Spi/oi, 
 whence the rowers were termed 
 Spulai. There was generally a 
 jnufician on board called rpj^pay^*)?. 
 who, by the harmony of his voice 
 and inlUument, raifed and fup- 
 ported the fpirits of the rowers, 
 and aflifted them in keeping time 
 with the ftroke of their oars. See 
 Ships, Officers, &c. 
 
 PuDiARii, a name given to 
 fuch Gladiators as had got an ex- 
 emption from engaging in public 
 exhibitions and (hews, This ex- 
 emption was given by prefenting 
 them with the Rudis. See Rudis. 
 
 RuDis, was a kncity rough 
 ilick, which the Prator occafion- 
 ally gave tr> Gladiators as a mark 
 of their freedom. Hence rude do- 
 nare, which fignifies to make a 
 Gladiator free, and difcharge him 
 from fighting any more, is aKo 
 metaphorically ufed to fignify the 
 acquificion of liberty from love 
 enc^agements, or any o;her mental 
 fervitude. The rudis, being given 
 to fuch Gladiators as were flaves, 
 excufed them fronm fuither per- 
 formances in public only, upon 
 which they generally turned lanif- 
 ti^i or fencing-marters ; but the 
 
 SAB 
 
 rudis, when given to fuch perfons 
 as were free, but had hired them- 
 felves out for the fliows, re'uOieJ 
 them to a full enjoyment of their 
 liberty. Thofe who had gor the 
 rudis were called Rudiarii, and 
 hung up in the temple of Hercuhs 
 the inlbuments of their prcftflioH. 
 The rudis, we have re^.fon i.o fup- 
 pote, was of different kinds, ac- 
 cording to the diiferent forts of 
 Gladiators. That of the Tbraces 
 was crouked, that cf the Rfiiarii 
 was n~.adewiih prongs, that of the 
 Secutores was Ilreight. Sometimes 
 it had the form of a fwcrd, fome- 
 times of a cudgel, and fometinies 
 of a ferula. 
 
 Ru£, a garden herb, of which 
 the hypocritical Pharijees paid 
 tithe, tho' not requued by the 
 law ; but notv/ichttanding their 
 fuperftitiousexaclnefs in fuch little 
 matters, they were very deficient 
 in more effentiai points. 
 
 Rulers of the Synagcgiie. See 
 Synagogue- 
 
 Running. See Races, Games, 
 &c. 
 
 RussATA Radio, a name given 
 to one party oi Charioteers, among 
 the Romans, whofe diif. ■ guifhing 
 colour was red. See Charictar. 
 
 s. 
 
 SAbbath, was a feftival among 
 the je-ws, inflituted by Gcd, 
 in commemoraticn of the creation 
 of the world, which was finifntd 
 on the fixth day. The inllitution 
 of the Sabbath was intended to 
 preferve the remembrance of the 
 creation, to lead men's minds to a 
 contemplation of the true God, to 
 give one day of rell and refpite, 
 
 every week, both to man and 
 bealt ; and to celebrate the me- 
 mory of the return of the IJ'raeliies 
 from the land oi Egypt. 
 
 The Sabbath began on Friday 
 evening about fun-fet, and ended 
 the next day at the fame time. 
 Friday was called the preparation 
 of the Sabbath. During the Sab- 
 bath both man and beafl were 
 obliged 
 
SAB 
 
 obliged to reft, and abftai'n from 
 all fervile occupations. This reft 
 feems to have been a very eflential 
 part of the folemnity and worftiip 
 of the day. Religious exercifes, 
 however, futh as reading the law, 
 praying and blefling, were reckon- 
 ed ueceffary on the Sabiiath, tho' 
 not enjoined by the lasv. Even 
 the moU necciT.i y wcrki were for- 
 bidden ''•n p:iij! of death, as ga- 
 thering w>.oj, baking bread, 
 ligh-.iFio ;, lire, fowing, reaping, 
 arid plucking of corn, or going 
 above two thoufand cubits or paces, 
 which in Scripture was called a 
 Sabbath day's joun-ey; nay fj far 
 did the "Je-xvs carj-y their fcruples 
 oa this head, that they imagined 
 they were not even allowed to 
 fight, in defence of their live;, on 
 the Sabbath day. Circumcifion, 
 and works of mercy to men or 
 bearts, were however held to be 
 lawful on this day. A burnt of- 
 fering of two lambs was on the 
 Sabbath acsd.d to the morning and 
 evenii5g facrifices. Accoiding to 
 "Jcjcphus, Philo and the Talmudijis, 
 feallings and rejoicings were held 
 eflential to the Sabbath, and Chrijt 
 himfelf made no fcruple of being 
 at a feaft on the Sabbath day, 
 Lukex'wi. 1. On the day prece- 
 ding the Sabbath, a greater quan- 
 tity of provifijn than ordina-y was 
 prepared for the morrow ; and on 
 l\ieSabhath\.\\t trumpet was found- 
 ed at different timet, illuminations 
 were made, and every man put on 
 his beft garments as a token of joy. 
 Sr. Luke, chap. vi. ver. i, ufes 
 the expreffion ax^^ulu h-Jli^QV^ulu, 
 which has perplexed the commen- 
 tators not a little. It is not there- 
 fore my intention to ftate the va- 
 rious opinions on the fubjed, and 
 the arguments by which they are 
 maintained; but I fhall take the 
 liberty to obferve, that to me it 
 feems moft probable, that hvlt^- 
 
 SAB 
 
 v^ulv ff»$0cilca fignifies the firft 
 Sabbath after the fecond day of 
 the feaft o^ unleavened bread, when 
 the handful of barley was offered, 
 and fiom which the {^\cn weeks 
 between the P.ijfo-ver and Fenteccji 
 were reckoned. Many circum- 
 ftances tend to confirm this fuppo- 
 fuion, on which I have not at pre- 
 fent time to infift. 
 
 Saesaticvl Tear, among the 
 yeivs, happef;ed every fcventh 
 year, and was for that reafi n fome- 
 times termed the Sabbath. The 
 Hr^ J'abSat.cal year, celebiated by 
 the children of Ijrae/, was th« 
 fourteenth year after their coming 
 into the land of Canaan ; becaufe 
 they were to be fcven vears in 
 making their.felves mafters of it, 
 and feven more ia dividing it 
 amonf;ft themfeives. This year 
 was reckoned from Ti/rt or Sef- 
 ttmber, and for feveral reafons was 
 called the year of relea/e : i. Be- 
 caufe the ground remained entire- 
 ly untilled. z. Becaufe fuch debts 
 as had been contrafted during the 
 fix preceding years, were remitted 
 and cancelled. 3. Becaufe all //r- 
 bre=iv flaves were then fet at liber- 
 ty, unlefs they were willing tore- 
 main in the fame ftate for H.^e, in 
 which cafe their mafters brought 
 them before the Judges, and bor- 
 ed their ear through with an awi 
 againft the door-pofts; hence bor- 
 ing the ear fi^;niiica perpetual obe- 
 dience, fee P/a!m xl. 6. — 4. B€-» 
 caufe every one entered into his 
 inheritance again who had been, 
 alienated. The Jahbatical year 
 then feems not only to hjve bein 
 appointed in memory of the crea- 
 tion, but to inculcate humanity, 
 for the fovereignty of the Lord was 
 acknowledged by giving up the 
 fruits of the field, and humanity 
 was promoted by the care which 
 was taken of the poor, and of the 
 ftrangers. ^^^ Jubilee t Sla<vesyEar, 
 
 SaC£LLVM, 
 
SAC 
 
 Sacellum, among the Romans, 
 was a place facred to the gods, but 
 without a roof. The word /ace/- 
 lum is a diminutive of ades Juaa, 
 in the fame manner as adicula, 
 Signifying a little a^es. See Temple. 
 
 Sackbut, Samhucay a rnufical 
 inftrument ufed in Chatdea, and 
 mentioned in the Old Teltament. 
 It is thought to have had four 
 lirings only, and to have given 
 a ihrill found. Some fay it re- 
 fembled the PeJIis, Magacii, and 
 Trigones, the figure of which is 
 not known to us. Others fay it 
 refembied the Hautbois, and took 
 its name from the Satnbucus, or el- 
 der-tree, of which it was made. 
 
 Sack-cloth was worn by the 
 yeijus by way of mourning for the 
 death of friends or relations, or in 
 limes of calamity and dillrefs. — It 
 was alfo the common clothing of 
 Prophets. 
 
 Sacramentum Militare, was 
 the oath taken by the Roman fol- 
 diers, after the levies were com- 
 pleted. It was adminiftered firrt 
 to one whom the Tribunes made 
 choice of, as the propereli for the 
 purpofe, and was in fubflance as 
 follows : " That he would obey 
 his commanders in all things, to 
 the utmoll of his power ; be ready 
 to attend whenever his appearance 
 was nece(rciry ; and never to leave 
 the army but with their confent." 
 After he had ended, the whole 
 legion, pafiing one by one, fwore 
 to the fame eiFecl, each man cry- 
 ing as he paiTed, Idem in me. This 
 and fome other oaths were fo ne- 
 celTary to the military ftate, that 
 ihe wox6 facramenta \h ufed by ^u- 
 •venal for miinis or militia. See 
 Sat. xvi. 
 
 Sacrarium, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a chapel ia a private 
 family- It differed from Larari- 
 um, which was ccnfecrated parti- 
 cularly to the Lares^ whereas this 
 
 SAC 
 
 w«s confecrated to fome particular 
 divinity. See Temple. 
 
 Sacrifice, is an offering made 
 to fome god upon his alii: , oy a 
 lawful Minifter, to acknowledge 
 his authority, procure his favour, 
 or avert his wrath. It is not eafy 
 to determine whether mankind 
 firll; offered facrifice by the pofitive 
 command of God, or of thtir own 
 accord, from the fuggeftions of 
 reafon, influenced by gratitude. 
 The laft opinion is the molt pro- 
 bable. But however this be, it is 
 certain, that the facrifices of the 
 Law were of Divine inftitution, 
 being appointed to tie up the peo- 
 ple of Ijrael to the iervice of God, 
 to turn them from idolatry, and 
 to continue as figures of things to 
 come under theGo/^^/difpenfaiion. 
 
 Sacrifices, properly fo called, 
 amongil the Jevus, were known 
 by the general name of Corban, 
 that is, an holy gift, and may be 
 divided into biooiiy or animate, and 
 into unbloody or inanimate. The 
 firft were of three forts, viz. Whole 
 Burnt-offerings, Sin-fferings, and 
 Peace-rfftrings. Some were pub- 
 lic, and others private ; there were 
 fome appointed for the Sabbaths, 
 the folemn feafis, and extraordi- 
 nary occafions. This, however, 
 may be fet down as common to 
 them all- i. Sacrifices in general 
 were holy offerings, but the pub- 
 lic ones were holieft. 2. It was 
 unlawful to facrifice any where but 
 in the Temple. 3. All facrifices 
 were to be offered in the day-time, 
 never in the night. 4. There 
 were only five forts of animals 
 which could be offered up, name- 
 ly, oxen, fheep, goats, pigeons, 
 and turtle-doves. All thefe were 
 to be perfeft, without fpot or ble- 
 mifh. 5. Certain ceremonies were 
 obferved in every facrifice, fome 
 of which were performed by thofe 
 that offered it, as laying their 
 hands 
 
SAC 
 
 hands on the viAim's head, kil- 
 ling, (laying, and cutting in pieces, 
 and then wafhing the entrails of it. 
 Others were to be done by Prie(b, 
 as receiving the blood in a vcffel 
 appointed for that ufe; fpi inkling 
 It upon the altar, which was the 
 molt efTcntial part of the facrifice ; 
 lighting the fire, fetting the wood 
 jn order upon the altar, and lay- 
 ing the parts of the vittim upon 
 it. 6. All facrifices were falted. 
 
 A HolocauJ}, cr Whole Burnt -of- 
 fering, was the moll ancient, as 
 well as mcft excellent of all the 
 facrifices. In this the viftini was 
 all confecrated to God, and whol- 
 ly confumed upon the altar; where- 
 as fomc parts of the others belong- 
 ed to the Priejis then upon duty, 
 snd thofe that had offered the vic- 
 tim. The Holocaiiji was intended 
 as an acknowledgment cf the fo- 
 vereignty of God, and was ufed 
 to imply thankfulnefs for favours, 
 or to beg fome bleffing, or to de- 
 precate his wrath. The fame ani- 
 mals were factificed, and the fame 
 ceremonies almoil v/ere obferved, 
 in Whole Burm -offerings, as in the 
 other facrifices. There was, how- 
 ever, this difference, that a Holo- 
 caujl might be offered by a liranger, 
 that is, a profelyte of the gate. Of- 
 ferings of this kind were either 
 public or private. 
 
 Prtpiiiatory Sacrifices were of 
 two forts, fome being for fins and 
 others for trefpaffes. Thofe for 
 fins are generally fuppofed to have 
 been tor offences committed, thro' 
 inadvertency and undefjgnedly, 
 againft fome prohibition of the 
 law. Trefpnfs Offerings are fup- 
 pofed to have been for fins of ig- 
 norance. Propitiatory Sacrifices, 
 however, were not fuppofed to be 
 of any elncaty in atoning for fins 
 without repentance; for repent- 
 ance was held to be indifpenfably 
 ffeceiTary to remiffion of fins. 
 
 S AC 
 
 Peace Offer in gsy or Sacrifices of 
 Gratitude, were oifered to God in 
 hopes of obtaining foifie favour 
 from him, or as a thankfgiving 
 for feme fignal mercy. In the firlt 
 fenfe they were termed Jalutary, 
 in the fecond eiuharifiical. Some 
 were in confequence of a 'vonv, 
 others were -voluntary. In Peace 
 Offerings the blood and entrails 
 were burnt on the altar, the breall 
 or left Ihouldcr belonged to the 
 Prieft, and the reft of the flelli, 
 with the fkin, was for him that 
 made the offering. Under the clafs 
 of Peace Offerings we may rank the 
 Pajchal Lamb, for an account of 
 which {it the article Paffo-vtr. 
 
 U II bloody Sacrifices were, I. Of- 
 ferings and libations, z. Firft- 
 ffuits. 3. Tenths. 4. Perfumes. 
 Whole Burnt-Offerings of four- 
 footed bealts, and alfo Peace-Of- 
 ferings, were attended with liba- 
 tions; but this was not the cafe 
 with Propitiatory Sacrifices. la 
 their offerings the children of Ifi- 
 rael were forbidden to mix honey, 
 but required to ufe fait. Offer- 
 ings were alfo to be of unleavened 
 bread, except the two loaves at the 
 fcail oi Pentecofi, which were lea- 
 vened, Le'-vit. xxiii. 17. Ses 0/"- 
 ferings, HolocauJ}. 
 
 The firll Athenians, following 
 the injundlon of Triptolemusy fiewf 
 nu^iTOic, ccyaXXay, to regale the gods 
 with fruits, offered them only the 
 produce of the earth ; but after- 
 wards they offered animals, fiz. 
 the ox, the hog, the flieep, the 
 kid, the cock, and the goofe. 
 Thefe aniaials were to be without 
 biemifh, and healthy. The oxen 
 were to be five years old, and fuch 
 as had never been yoked were re- 
 quired. The Iheep were to be two 
 years old, called by the Latins Bi~ 
 de/ites. Sometimes they Jacrificed 
 many animals at once. Thus at 
 Jihens there was a facrifice confilt- 
 
 ing 
 
SAC 
 
 irtg of three animals, the hog, the 
 he-goat, and the ram. It was for 
 this reafon called t^ittc?. Similar 
 to this was the Suo-uetaurilia among 
 the Rotnans. Sometimes an hun- 
 dred viftims were offered at once. 
 This was a fulenm facrince, and 
 called an Hecatomb. See Hecatomb. 
 Different deities had different vic- 
 tims ; thus an ox five years old 
 was facrificed to "Jupiter^ a black 
 bull and an hog to Nfpiune, an 
 heifer and a ewe to Mmcwa, a 
 black and barren ewe to the infer- 
 nal deities, a fhe-gnat and a cock 
 to Efcuiapiui. 
 
 As the Romans borrowed their 
 cuHoms and ceremonies of facri- 
 ficing from the Greeks, one ac- 
 count will ferve for both. In the 
 choice of vidliims, care was taken 
 that they fhould be free from ble- 
 mifh, that their tails were not too 
 fmall at the end, the tongues not 
 black, nor the ears cleft, and the 
 hulls fuch as had never been yok- 
 ed. When the vii5lim was chofcn, 
 it was adorned with wreaths and 
 garlands. On the middle of the 
 body a kind of ll-ile hung down 
 on each fide. Sometimes its horns 
 were gilded. Thus adorned it 
 was brought before the altar. The 
 larger victims were led in a halter, 
 the lefler were driven. If they 
 ftruggled, or refufed to go, it was 
 regarded as a had omen, and the 
 facrifice was let afide. The viditn, 
 when brought before the altar, was 
 accurately examined, and if found 
 perie<ft, was fprinkled all over 
 with pure water ; a little wa- 
 ter was alfo poured into its ear. 
 Then the Pricir, accompanied with 
 the iacrifices and other attendants, 
 being wafhed and purified, con- 
 feffed his fins and afked forgive- 
 nefs of the gods. The confeffion 
 over, he cried aloud hoc age, i. e. 
 con^pcfe yourfelves, and be atten- 
 tive; then sn uiher, holding a rod 
 
 SAC 
 
 in his band, called cotnmeniaculumt 
 went thro' the Temple, and drove 
 out all who were not initiated in 
 the mylleries of religion, or who 
 were exccrimunicated. Among 
 the Greeks, the Priell on coming 
 to the altar afeed in a loud voice, 
 TK Tj ^£ ; Who is here ? The peo- 
 ple anfwered, TToMot. Ka*, ayct^oi. 
 Many good pcrjons : Then the uiher 
 went through the Temple, cry- 
 ing, Exaj e){«5 Ere, (3i$yi?\oi, I. e. 
 Out ivtth the profane The Ro- 
 TTiar.s ufed the words, Nocentes, pro- 
 fani, abfcedite. The profane be- 
 ing withdra.vn, he cried, Favete 
 liiiguis, or animis, or pafcite lin- 
 guam, to require filent attention 
 during the facrifice. This cere- 
 mony entied, the chief facrilicer 
 fat down, and the reft of them 
 flanding, the ma^Milrates, or pri- 
 vate perfons who offered facrifice, 
 came before him, and prefented 
 him with the firft-fruits and vic- 
 tim, with a fhort complimentary 
 fpeech ; but firft they wafhed their 
 hands in a part of the Temple for 
 that purpofe. When the offering 
 was made, the officiating Prieic 
 perfumed the vitlim with incenfe, 
 and fprinkled it with lutlral water. 
 He then wafhed his hands, went 
 up to the altar, and prayed with a 
 loud voice that the god would fa- 
 vourably receive the offering, and 
 grant his requefts for the perfon 
 who made the facrifice. In the 
 clofe of the prayer, the Prieih re- 
 ceived, from one of the afliftants, 
 the Mola Sal/a, called by the 
 Greeks ofAat and a'jAo~;J]a», made 
 of barley or wheat fl.>ur, mixed 
 with fait and water. Little bits of 
 this he fcattered upon the viditn's 
 head, on the altar, and on the 
 knives, by way of confecration. 
 He then took wine in a veffel, 
 called Simpulum, tafled it himfelf, 
 and ma ie hi* affidants do the fame,, 
 (O Ihew that they all partook of 
 
 the 
 
SAC 
 
 SAD 
 
 the facrlfice ; the reft he poured 
 between the horns of the victim, 
 proiiouncin? thefe words ofconfe- 
 cration, Maflus hoc 'vi'no mfsris ejlo. 
 Aher this he pulled off the hairs 
 from between the horns, and threw 
 them into the fire. Then the Fic- 
 timarius, who afked him J^on' ? 
 Shall I Jirike? at the word of com- 
 mand knocked down the viftim 
 with an hammer or ax by a ftroke 
 on the head ; upon this another 
 affiltant, called Pcpa, thruft a knife 
 
 the members were alfo laid upon 
 the th'jjhs, which, when thus pre- 
 pared, were laid upon a part of 
 the alcar ; but fiiit they were 
 fprinkled wirh flour. The parts 
 deftined to the altar were always 
 burnt wi'.h dry wood, and to make 
 the flame rife higher, wine was 
 fometiir.es p^">ured upon it. The 
 facrifice being burnt, and other 
 necefiary ceremonies performed, 
 they concluded the gods to be fa- 
 tisfied, and their vows accom- 
 
 into its throat, and a third re- pliflied, which they exprefl'ed by 
 ceived the blood into a veflel, the verb litare. The Prieft then 
 called S^ayEjof. difinifl^ed the people with the word 
 The vi(flims offered to the celef- ilicct. After the facrifice, they 
 tial gods, were flain with their ufed to roalt upon a fpit the re- 
 heads raifed, and turned back- mainder of the viftim, which they 
 wards : but thofe which were of- ate with their friends, The ban- 
 
 fered to the infernal deities were 
 flain with their's lowered to the 
 ground. When the viflim was 
 ilain, they flayed him, if it was 
 not a burnt-oftering, in which cafe 
 they burnt fkin and all. They 
 
 quet being over, they returned 
 home; but firft threw the viftim's 
 tongue into the facred fire in ho- 
 nour of Mercury. 
 
 From what haa been faid, it 
 may be collected, that the facrlfices 
 
 then lock the flefh <"'fF the head, confided of five principal parts r 
 
 adorned it with garlands, and faf- 
 tened it to the pillars of the Tem- 
 ple, ufjng it afterwards in procef- 
 flon on folemn occafions. The 
 Priclls often wore the fkins, or de- 
 pcfited them in the Temple for 
 fuch perfons to fleep upon as wifh- 
 ed to have oracular dreams, or to 
 be cured of any malady. They 
 then opened the victim, carefully 
 furveyed the entrails, and drew 
 prefiiges therefrom: after this they 
 dredged them with meal, fprinkled 
 them with wine, and prefented 
 
 I. LihatiOt or pouring wine upoa 
 the victim. 2 Immolatio, or fcat- 
 tering the facred palte upon its 
 head 3. M iSlatio, or killing it. 
 4. Redditio, or offering the en- 
 trails to the gods. 5. Lit alio, or 
 the completion of the facrifice 
 without any blunder or omiffion. 
 See Liba*io, Imwolatioy ScQ. 
 
 Saddles were unknown among 
 the Ancii-nts, See Stirrup, Ca- 
 'valry. Trappings. 
 
 Sadducees, a fed among the 
 Jeivs, elteemed as deilts o; free- 
 
 them to the gods, redJebant exta thinkers, rather than real Jeijus, 
 diii : This was done by throwing tho' they afTuied at all the cere- 
 
 them into the fire in fmall bits, 
 boiled or parboiled : hence the 
 entrails were called porricee, from 
 porricio, which expieiTes the facri- 
 ficial a.ft of throwing. After the 
 
 monies of worfliip in the Temple. 
 Their origin and name is derived 
 from one Sadac, who flouriftied in 
 the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus^ 
 about 263 years before Chriji, 
 
 viftim was cut in pieces, its thighs The Creed of the Sadaucees is thus 
 were wrapped over with fat, and concifely reprefented. They aC- 
 laid apart. Raw pieces from all fert, that there is no refurreftion, 
 
 • P neither 
 
S A G 
 
 neither angel nor ifpirit. They 
 denied the immortality of the 
 foul, and the exidence of all fpi- 
 ritual and immaterial beings : 
 They acknowledged, indeed, that 
 the world was formed by the power 
 of God, and fuperintended by his 
 providence; but that the foul at 
 death fulFered one common extinc- 
 tion with the body. They held 
 the Scriptures alone to be of Di- 
 vine authority, and obligatory 
 upon men, as a fyftem of religion 
 and morals ; and paid no regard 
 to tbofe traditionary maxims, and 
 human inflitutions, which the 
 "Je-ws fo highly extolled in gene- 
 ral, and the Pharifees reverenced 
 in particular, even more highly 
 than the Scriptures themfelves. 
 The Sadducees were inconfiderable 
 in number J but this deficiency was 
 partly fupplied by the dignity and 
 eminence of their perfons, for the 
 inoft illuftrious among the Jenust 
 either as to family or opulence, 
 were of this feft. Their principles, 
 however, were not popular; they 
 were only adopted, like the Epi- 
 curean principles in Greece and 
 Rome, by a few perfons of the firft 
 quality. They feldom tranfafted 
 any bufinefs of State, or held any 
 civil office. In their general con- 
 verfation they were morofe and 
 favage ; and in their judicial f<;n- 
 tences always feverc. They main- 
 tained the perfect freedom and li- 
 berty of the haman will, in oppo- 
 fition to the Efenes and Pharijees, 
 who were Predejiinariam and Fa- 
 talifts. See EJJenes, Pharifees. 
 
 SECULAR Games, See Secular. 
 
 SECULAR Poem. See Secular. 
 
 S^CULUM. See Seculum. 
 
 Sagatio, the ludicrous punish- 
 ment of tofling in a blanket. It 
 is not unfrequently mentioned by 
 the Ancients. Martial very pro- 
 ^rly defcnbe; it in thefe wordi : 
 
 S AI 
 
 His ah excujfoy mijfus ada/ird, Sagt, 
 Lib. i. Ep. iv. ver. 8. 
 
 The Emperor Otho, we are told by 
 Suetonius, was much delighted with 
 giving this kind of difcipline ; it 
 being his praftice to ftroll out in 
 dark nights, and, where he met 
 with a helplefs or drunken man, 
 to divert himfelf by tofling him in 
 a blanket. Some fay he was fond 
 of undergoing the ceremony, and 
 had as much pleafure in being 
 tofTed himfelf, as in tofling others. 
 Certainly he purchafed his fatif- 
 faftions at the cheapeft rate, had 
 they but fuited the dignity of an 
 Emperor ! 
 
 Sagittarii, in the koman 
 army under the Emperors, were 
 young men armed with bows and 
 arrows, who, together with the 
 Funditores, were generally fent out 
 to flcirmifh before the main body. 
 They condituted no part of the 
 Velites, but feem to have fucceeded 
 them at the time when the Socii 
 were admitted into the Roman Le- 
 gions, for at that period the Velites 
 were difcontinued. See Fundi- 
 tores, Velites, &c. 
 
 Sagum, a military garment of 
 two forts, whereof one was worn- 
 in winter, and the other in fum- 
 mer. It was ufed by the Greeks, 
 the Romans, and the Gauls ; and 
 was made in manner of a cloak or 
 cafTock, covering the ihouldersand 
 hips, where it was faftened to the 
 Cuira/s. Its form was fquare, and 
 the materials were of wool. 
 
 Sailors, among the Greeks, 
 were divided into— i. irM^i'ii'.ctict i 
 2. Nasvlat ; 3. Rov.'srs, KwnriXa- 
 ']cn', the higheft called Opai/il«t ; 
 thofe in the middle, ZvyOat ; the 
 loweft, 6a^«//^^<»^. They who fat 
 near the prow were called w^o- 
 Kuirot; and they who were neaf 
 the ftern ETTwwjrti. NiatVIai were 
 
 not 
 
SAL 
 
 not employed in rowing, but had 
 their particular bufmefs diftributed 
 amongft them. The Aff*«»»r«t, 
 for inflance, had the care of the 
 fails; the 'Lx,oiyo0cclut, went aloft; 
 and others, called Mtcrovavlai, had 
 different charges allotted them. 
 A iimilar diviHon took place alfo 
 among the Roman mariners. 
 
 Salii, among the Romatu, were 
 Priefts of Man. This order of 
 Priefts was inHituted by Numa, to 
 take care of the facred fhields 
 called Ancylia, one of which Numa, 
 (to put the people in fpirits during 
 the ravages of a terrible plague,) 
 pretended was fent down from 
 heaven as a pledge of the protec- 
 tion of the gods. This fliield, he 
 faid, was to be preferved vvith the 
 itrifteft care, becaufe the fate of 
 the Empire depended upon it; he 
 therefore caufed eleven to be made, 
 fo like the firft, that it could not 
 be difiinguifhed from them. The 
 number of the Salii then vyas 
 twelve, equal to the number of 
 the Ancylid. See Ancyli. 
 
 To the original number of Sa- 
 lii, twelve more were added by 
 Tullus Hojliltusy after his viftory 
 over i\it Fidenates, in confcquence 
 pf a vow he had made to Mars. 
 All the Salii were of the Patrician 
 order, and conllituted a college ; 
 tbofe inftituted by Numa were 
 called Salii Palatini, and thofe who 
 were added by Tullus Hojliliui were 
 named Coilini. The three feniors 
 governed the reft, of whom the 
 firft was called Pra/ul, the fecond 
 Fates, ZTidihexhlr^MagiJier. The 
 Sa/iiwore round bonnets, with two 
 corners (landing up, and a parti-co- 
 loured TawV. They alfo wore a kind 
 of a coat of arms, of which no- 
 thing could be (een but the edges; 
 a purple coloured band, or belt, 
 furrounded their middle, which 
 was fattened with copper buckles. 
 }a their right handi they carried a 
 
 SAL 
 
 fmall rod, and in the left a fmall 
 buckler. In the month o{ March 
 was their grand feaft, when they 
 carried the Ancylia round the city. 
 They began their ceremony with 
 facrifices ; then walked along the 
 ftreets, fometimes dancing toge- 
 ther, and fometimes cutting their 
 capers feparately, at the found of 
 wind-mufic, ufiog a great many 
 geflures, and ftriking mufically 
 one another's bucklers with their 
 rods, finging hymns in honour of 
 Janus, Mars, Juno, and MinervOf 
 which were anfwered by a chorus 
 of girls, drelTed like themfelves, 
 and called Sali<e. The chief of 
 thefe hymns was called Carmen 
 Saliare, the original form of which 
 was compofed by Numa. Tho* 
 the month of March was the pro- 
 per time for this proceflion, yet 
 the Ancylia were moved whenever 
 a juft war was declared by order 
 of the Senate, againft any llate or 
 people. The entertainments of 
 thefe Priefts were fo coftly and_ 
 magnificent with all kinds of mu> 
 fic, garlands, perfumes, &c. that 
 Horace ufes Dopes Sailiares, like 
 Pontificum cana, for the higheft 
 and moft luxurious treat that could 
 be given. Many derivations of 
 the word Salii are given us, but it 
 is moft probable it is derived from 
 /alio, to leap or dance. 
 
 Saline, among the Romans, 
 were falt-houfes near OJiia, to- 
 wards the Tiber's mouth, which 
 were firft ereded by Ancus Martius. 
 There were alfo magazines of fait 
 near the gate Trigemina. 
 
 Salt was appointed by God tp 
 be ufed in all facrifices that were 
 offered to him, Levit. ii. 13. To 
 this Chrijl makes an alluiion, 
 Mark ix. 48. The Jeijiis for- 
 merly rubbed new-born children 
 with fait. By the fait of the earth, 
 Matth. V. 13. is probably meant 
 marie. The Je'ws» near the Deatl 
 * P 2 Sea 
 
SAL 
 
 Sea made ufe of a fait that loft its 
 favour when kept for a long time, 
 to this our Saviour makes an allu- 
 iion in the Gofpel, and reprefents 
 it as good for nothing when thus 
 grown taftelcfs. Salt, among the 
 Hebreivst was an emblem of wif- 
 dom, of perpetuity, of purity, of 
 fterility and hofpitality ; and as 
 fuch is frequently alluded to in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 As it is the virtue of fait to fea- 
 fon food, and preferve it from cor- 
 ruption, fo Chriji teaches us that 
 it is the office ofihe Paftors qf the 
 Church, and all his followers, to 
 endeavour to feafon the manners 
 of men, and keep them frnm the 
 corrupting influence of fin.—— 
 Matth. V. 13 — 17. 
 
 Among the Greeks and Romans 
 fait was commonly ufcd at enter- 
 tainments both of G' ds and men ; 
 and was therefore regarded as fa- 
 cred. Salt was commonly let be- 
 fore ftrangers before they tailed the 
 vi6tuals provided for them. To 
 have tailed fait with a man, was 
 to have entered into the facred ties 
 of friendfhip and hofpitality ; 
 hence Paris, in dealing Hifena, is 
 faid to have contemned the fait, 
 and overturned the hofpitable 
 table. 
 
 See 
 
 and 
 
 Saltatio 
 Pyrrhica. 
 
 Salutatio. In the ancient ea- 
 ftern nations men faluted by bow- 
 ing themie!ves,even tothe ground, 
 as a mark of profound rcfpeft. 
 Gen. xxxiii. 3, 6, 7. This hum- 
 ble demeanour was generally at- 
 tended with wifhing peace to each 
 other. 
 
 Salutatio, among the Remans, 
 was a daiiv homage paid by clients 
 and inferiors to their fuperiors. 
 Among the great it was performed 
 in the Atrium; but among people 
 of middling condition, in the Fef- 
 
 SAM 
 
 iilulum only. In the army, the 
 private foldiers went early in the 
 morning to falute the Centu ton, 
 who at their head proceeded to 
 falute theTril^une; andlhcTriSunf, 
 with the reft, went to falute the 
 Emperor, or Commander in Chief. 
 Roman women too had their crouds 
 of faluters every morning. Of 
 thofe who came thus to pay their 
 refpefts, the better fort were re- 
 ceived with a kiff, and thole of 
 lowee rank had an entertainment 
 given them, and were fometimes 
 teailed by thofe who vvifhed to 
 make themfe'ves popular. Sa/u- 
 tatio Imperatoris was a formal 
 compliment paid to the Com- 
 mander in Chief upon any fignal 
 fuccefs, ill which he was laluted 
 by the name of Imperator, in the 
 joint acclamations of the foldi;rs 
 througlioiit the camp. This title, 
 thus cor.fer;ed by the foldiers, was 
 decreed him by the Senate, 
 
 The Greeks ufed to falute their 
 guefts by embracii'g them. 
 Kriends faluted each other by 
 joining their right-hands. They 
 alfo kilT.d the lips, hands knees, 
 or feet in falutations, as the per- 
 fon deferved more or lefs refpeit. 
 There w^s a particular fort of kifs 
 called yjjlp^ov. given mod common- 
 ly to children, in which they took 
 them by the ears like a pot; it is 
 mentioned in Tibullus, lib. 2. 
 and in Theocritus, Idyll, e. 132. 
 See Ki^ffirig. 
 
 SALUfATORES, a name given 
 by the Romans to fuch perfons as 
 openly efpoufed the caufe of any 
 candidate, and {hewed their at- 
 tachment by paying their compli- 
 ments to them in a morning. 
 They differed a little from the 
 Deduflores and Seiiatores. See 
 DeduStores, Se^atores, and Can- 
 didate. 
 
 Samaritans, were originally 
 
SAM 
 
 a medley of Heathens fent by the 
 King of /f/^ria, Shalmane/er, after 
 he had taken Samaria, the capi- 
 tal of the ten Tribes, and carried 
 away the inhabitants into capti- 
 vity, to re people the defolate re- 
 gions. Thi-i hetero^rencous colo- 
 ny, from Cutha.. J-va, Hamalh, 
 and Sephar'vaim, filkd the deferred 
 cin'ei arid tuvvns of Ijraeh and 
 pradlifed th? idolatrous rites of 
 their refpeclive countries. But 
 being infelled with wiid-beafts, 
 and attributing this calami y to 
 their neglsd of the tutelar God 
 of that country, which was now 
 their refidence, they petitioned 
 Ejarhaddon, the fucceffor of Shal- 
 inanefer, to fend feme perfon to 
 inllruft them in the worlhip of the 
 God of Ijrael : Their requeft was 
 complied with, and a Prieft was 
 fent. But they worfliipped their 
 feveral Heathen Deities, in con- 
 junction with the true God. In 
 this confufed mifceliiny of reli- 
 gion they continued for a long 
 leries of years. We may naturally 
 imagine that the Jexvs would have 
 the higheft ccncempt for this mot- 
 ley worlhip, and the woilhippers 
 alio. But this contempt was 
 heightened into the molt ranco- 
 xous odium, when the Pagan colo- 
 ny endeavoured to fruftrate their 
 attempts to rebuild the city and 
 temple of Jeru/ahm, after their 
 return from their captivity, and 
 when they infidioufly accufed them 
 to Artaxerxes as rebels and trai- 
 tors to his government. Thtjcuj! 
 and Samaritans were further ex- 
 afperated againfteach other by the 
 following circumllance. Sanballat, 
 the 2,o\ tT nor oi Samaria, gave his 
 daughter in marriage to Manajfes, 
 the brother of Jaddus the high- 
 prieft, hoping by this means to 
 conciliate the afFedions and bene- 
 volence of the Jevjs ; but in this 
 he was greatly miftaken, for the 
 
 SAM 
 
 members of the Sanhedrim wonV 
 not permit one who had married a 
 firanger, to (hr.re the honours of 
 the pontificate ; and the high- 
 prieft himfelf, joining in the po- 
 pular tumult, which grew very 
 high, prohibited his brother from 
 the altar. On this Manojps fled 
 to Sanballat, and Itated to hini the 
 difficulties and dangers in which 
 he was involved, and hinted the 
 neceffity he was under of dif- 
 folving the marriage. To prevent 
 this, Sanballat promifed to inveft 
 him vv'ith the power and fpiendour 
 of the hinh-priert's office, to build 
 him a temple upon mount Gmzm, 
 fimilar to that of Jeru/akm, and 
 conftitute him governor of a.'l the 
 country, ever which he himfelf 
 prefided. On mount Gerizim a 
 temple was erefled, which was the 
 caufe of conflant competition, the 
 bittereft virulence, and the molt 
 irreconcileable hatred between the 
 yeivs and Samaritaas. From this 
 time the Jtivs purfued the Sama- 
 ritans with a degree of enmity, 
 which nothing could foften, broke 
 ofFall focial intercourfe with them, 
 and loaded the.-n with the mod 
 opprobrious language that refenr- 
 ment could did..te. With a Jeiu 
 the very name of Samaritan com- 
 prized madnefs, malice, drunken- 
 nefs, ap^^ftacy, rebellion, and e\'ery 
 thing vicious. The fame aver- 
 fiofi prevailed in the minds of 
 the Samaritans againft the Jeius. 
 They ani-rted Gerizim to be the 
 place which God had originally 
 chofen to fix his name and wor- 
 lhip there, and altered the fcrip- 
 tures to fupport their pretenfions. 
 They acknowledged the five books 
 of Mojes only, which they havte 
 preferved in the old original He- 
 bre'iu character. The other books 
 of the Old Teftament they re- 
 jefted as deftitute of divine au- 
 thority. 
 
 Sambvca, 
 
SAN 
 
 SAN 
 
 Sambuca, a mufical indfument 
 defcribed under the title Suckhut. 
 See Sackbut. 
 
 It was a!fo ufed as the name of 
 an engine employed in war, and 
 ferving befiegers as a, portable 
 bridge, to facilitate their paflage 
 from the turrets to the walls of the 
 "befieged. Its form was triangular, 
 like the mufical inflrument of the 
 fame dfinomination. 
 
 Samnites, a {oxtoi Gladiators 
 among the Romans^ fo called be- 
 caufe the CompaniatiSi hating the 
 Samnitej, armed a part of their 
 Gladiators after the manner of that 
 people, and gave thera the name of 
 Samnites. Their fhield was broad 
 at the top, to defend the breaft and 
 ihoulders. They had a fort of 
 greave on their left foot, a crefted 
 helmet on their heads, and a belt 
 over their breails. The Saniuite 
 feems to be the fame with the 
 Araaxonian fencer, mentioned by 
 ywvenal. Sat. 3. 
 
 Balteus et manica, tt criftat cru- 
 
 rifque Jinijiri 
 Dimidium tegmen. 
 
 Sanates, among the Romans, 
 were fuch people, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome, as had revolt- 
 ed, but foon fubmitted themfelves 
 again; on which account they had 
 equal privileges with the other 
 citizens. 
 
 Sanctuary, or Holy Place, in 
 the Jevjijb Temple, was between 
 the porch and the Sandunt, Saniio" 
 rum, or moll holy place. It was 
 twenty cubits broad, Jind forty in 
 length and height. It had two 
 gates ; the lelTer was pafled thro' 
 in order to open the great gate, 
 which had four folding doors. 
 The San&uary was divided from 
 the Sart<Sum SanSorum, the Holy of 
 Holies, or moji holy place, by a dou- 
 ble veil, which i& fuppofed to be 
 
 the veil that was rent in twain at 
 our Sa'v:our*s death, becaufeit was 
 to be of no further ufe In the 
 Sanfluary flood the altar of incenfe, 
 the table of Jhetu-bread, and the 
 golden candleftick. 5^^ Altar, 
 Incen/e, Sbeiu- Bread, Candlejiickf, 
 SanSlum SanQorum. 
 
 Sancluary is fometimes put for 
 the Temple at large, and fome- 
 times for the San^um San^orutftf 
 or mo ft holy place. 
 
 Weights of the SanBuary^ 
 among the Jeivs, fignified juft 
 and eqjual weights ; becaufe the 
 priefts kept ftone weights in the 
 temple, to ferve as ftandards to 
 regulate all others by. 
 
 Sanctum Sanctorum, the 
 Holy of Holies, otherwife called the 
 mofl holy Place and the Orach, 
 was a facred apartment in the 
 JeiMiJh temple, into which none 
 but the high-prieil was permitted 
 to go, and that but once a year, 
 viz. on the great day of expiation, 
 but on this day it was lawful for 
 him to enter feveral times, to in- 
 tercede for the people. The Sanc- 
 tum SanSiorum is therefore fuppofed 
 to have been a type or figure of 
 heaven, into which our Saviour 
 Jefus Cbriji, as high-priell, is en- 
 tered once for all, to make inter- 
 ceflion for us. This part of the 
 temple was furrounded with vari- 
 ous buildings and apartments for 
 various purpofes. Its roof, con- 
 trary to the eaftern cuilom, was 
 not flat, but floping, and covered 
 all[over with golden fpikes, to pre- 
 vent the birds from neftling upon 
 it ; a baludrade alfo furrounded it 
 to prevent any perlbns falling 
 down. The length of the 5a«^a/» 
 Sandorum was twenty cubits. Its 
 fituation was to\yards the well, and 
 its entrance towards the call. The 
 ark of the covenant, which was 
 the greateft ornament of the firfi 
 temple, was wanting ia \,\iz Jecand, 
 
 but 
 
SAN 
 
 but a ftone of three inthes thick, 
 it is faid, fupplied its place, 
 which, they further aflert, is ftil! 
 in being in the Mahometan Mofque 
 called tht Temple of the Stone, 
 wh.ch is erefteU where the temple 
 oi yeru'alern Itood. See Ark. 
 
 Sandal, a rich kind of flipper, 
 worn by the Greek and Roman 
 ladies. It was made of gold, ill k, 
 or other precious rtufF, and con 
 fifted of a fole, with an hollow 
 part at one extreme, to embrace 
 the ancle, and leaving the upper 
 part of the foot bare. Apolloy 
 from his effeminate drefs, was 
 called Sandaiius. The Sandal was 
 fometimes however worn by the 
 men, who had fervants to carry 
 the fandais after them called San- 
 daligeruU. 
 
 SArffDApiLA, a kind of bier 
 ufed among the Romany for car- 
 rying out the bodies of people in 
 low circumftances. It was a fort 
 of wooden cheft, made of a few 
 boards nailed together, which they 
 ufuaily burnt along with the body. 
 
 Sanhedrim, among the yeius, 
 was tifC great council or c urt of 
 judice. Thii council confiftcd of 
 Teventy-one or fev^enty-two per- 
 foiis, (\K out of each tribe, who 
 aflcmbied in an apartment of the 
 temple c,i 'Jerujaiem, to dertrmine 
 the moft important affairs both of 
 their church and (tate. The room 
 they met in was a Rotunda^ half 
 of wh.ch was built within the 
 tempie, and half without ; the 
 outer femicircle was for the mem- 
 bers of the council to fit duwn in, 
 becaufe it was unlawful for any 
 perfon to lit down in the temple. 
 Over this alTembly theie were two 
 prefidents, the chief of whom, 
 called Nafi, was generally the 
 high-prieft, who fat upon a throne 
 at the end of the hall : The other 
 prefident, who was called Ab, or 
 father of the council, fat at his 
 
 SAN 
 
 right-hand, and the reft of the 
 counfellors were regularly ranged 
 on each fide. The Ab, or father 
 of the council, was to be a grave 
 perfon of an iiluftrious family. 
 Moft of the members of the 8an- 
 heurim were prieiis and Le'vites, 
 bat any other I/raeli/e of good cha- 
 racter and of fvifpedabie parentage 
 m;ght be admitted. At the two 
 extremities of the council room fat 
 two regillero, one to take the votes 
 of condemnation, and the other 
 to take thofe of abfolution. The 
 firft eftabliihme.nt of the Sanhedrim 
 is by fome carried up to the time 
 of Mo/esy and Numb, xi. 12. is 
 quoted as an argument: but con- 
 cerning this there is much difpute. 
 Whenever it began, itfubfifted till 
 the deftru^iion of JerufaUm : But 
 from the time that the Jewijh na- 
 tion became fubjed to the Roman 
 Empire, its authority was much 
 reduced ; it continued however to 
 have the power of life and death, 
 but this privilege was confined to 
 crimes committed againft the 
 Jexvijh law, ^nd depended upon 
 the governor's will and pleafure. 
 
 There were feveral inferior San- 
 hedrim in PaUjihei one was the 
 court of twenty three, which was 
 eftabliflied in every city containing 
 an hundred and twenty inhabi- 
 tants ; it confil^ed of twenty three 
 judges, and took cognizance of 
 capital caufes, except fuch as were 
 to be tried by the great Sanhedrim. 
 Another of the inferior Sanhedrim 
 confifted of three perfons, and was 
 therefore called the court of three: 
 This was initituted in every place 
 where there were fewer than aa 
 hundred and twenty inhabitants, 
 and determined common matters 
 between man and man. 
 
 Sanhedrim is derived from the 
 Greek "Svn^^tov, which fignifies a 
 fitting together or feffion. 
 
 Our Saviour alludes to the grea( 
 Sanhedrimf 
 
SAT 
 
 SanheJrimy and the tribunal of 
 twenty three, in the go/pel of 5/. 
 Matthevu, V. 2 2. The firft he dif- 
 tinguilhes by the name of council, 
 and the fecond by that ofju<igmei>l. 
 The Sciv.hp'irim was alfo called the 
 threat council, and the hcufe of 
 judgement. 
 
 Saronia, a feftival in honour 
 •of Diana., furnamed Swonia from 
 Saro, the third king cf Tr^vzene, 
 who built her a temple, and infti- 
 luted this feftivai, to be obferved 
 by his lubjecls. 
 
 Satan. See Devil. 
 
 Satire, a poem, wherein men's 
 follies are wittily expofed in or- 
 der to their reformation. Satire, 
 among the Romans, was either 
 dramatic, narrative, or Varronean. 
 The dramatic fatire was invented, 
 original'y, for entertainment at 
 •felliva!;i. The verfes were rude, 
 extemporary, and without mea 
 fure, the produifl of a favage peo- 
 ple, whoie only infpiration was 
 the fumes of wine ; their jokes 
 ■were confequtntly coarfe, and 
 their raillery was ^rudely (evere. 
 This kind of Jatirical entertain- 
 ment Li'vius Andrcnicus improved 
 into plays. After him, Ennius, 
 Pacwvitis, and Lucilius compofed 
 narrative Jatires. Thefe pieces 
 contained the gall and pleafantry 
 •of the former, but coiifuted of 
 variety of ailufions, f.bles, and 
 •even dialogues, but not of the 
 dramatic kind. The Varrontan 
 J'aiire was fo called from its author 
 Varro; it is alio called Menippean, 
 from Menippus the Cynic, whofe 
 manner Farro imitated. This 
 J'aiire was not only a mifcellany of 
 different forts of verfe, but was 
 ..alfo inteilarded with profe, and 
 iblended together Greek and Latin, 
 
 The chief Satirifis, among the 
 Jtofiians, are Horace, Juvenal, and 
 Perjius. Harace plays about us 
 .with a Thjr/u} foi'exed with vice 
 
 SAT 
 
 leaves, and ftabs us unawares. J'u^ 
 'venal and Perfius brandifh a naked 
 fword. 
 
 Some fuppofe the word Satire 
 to be derived from Saiyrus', be- 
 caufe, like the Satyrs, it is full of 
 peculancy and wantonnefs, and 
 turns things upfide down to find 
 occafion \or cenfure and ridicuie. 
 Others deduce it f om Satura^ 
 Vv'hich is fometimes uf;d as a fub- 
 llantive, with Lanx underftood, to 
 fignify a ' t^afon fiiied with all 
 manner of iruits. which the Romans, 
 offered yearly loBacchu^ and Ceres, 
 a3 their firif fruits, ecaufe Satires 
 are various and mifcellaneous coni- 
 pofitions. Thofe who adopt the 
 fiift derivation, write it Satyra, 
 and the advo ates for the fecond, 
 prtfer the <tther mode of writing 
 it Saiira, quafi Satura, as max- 
 ima ii u ed for maxuma. 
 
 Satura, with the fubftantive 
 LttKx undcrllcod, fignifies a fore 
 of d'.lli, which the Romans fiiied 
 with all kinds of fruit, and offered 
 on their feiiivals to the gods, but 
 particularly to Ceres and Bacchus, 
 as the Pri:nitia, or firft gather- 
 ings of the ieafon. Hence any 
 thing, p;omifcuoufly blended to- 
 gether, was called Satura: and 
 when fuffrages were confufedly 
 tak- n tliey were faid to he per/atu- 
 ram. Hence alfo f ime derive the 
 word Sattre, as being a poem 
 filled with various matter. See 
 Satire. 
 
 Saturnalia, fcafts celebrated 
 among tne Romans in honour cf 
 the god Saturn. They were kept 
 on the i6th according to fome, 
 according to others on the 17th, 
 and according to others on the 
 18th oi December. At firil only one 
 day was obferved, but afterwards 
 the number was encreafed to three, 
 four, five, and fome fay feven days. 
 
 The Saturnalia had their origii^ 
 in Greece^ long before the founda- 
 tion 
 
SAW 
 
 tron of Rome : But to whom they 
 owe their firlt inftitution, or who 
 firft introduced them among the 
 Romans, are points concerning 
 which the learned are not agreed. 
 This however is certain, that they 
 were inftituted in memory of the 
 golden age, when all the world 
 was on a level, which the poets 
 inform us happened in the reign 
 of Satur7i. Befides the facrifices 
 offered on the occafion, this fefti- 
 val was remarkable for the liberty 
 which theflaveswereallovvedtotake 
 witii iheir mailers ; they ridiculed 
 them to their faces W!th impunity, 
 and tcld them freely of their faults. 
 At this time friends fent prefents 
 to each other, reconciled dif- 
 ferences, and laid afide animoiity. 
 No war was to be declared, no of- 
 fender executed ; the fchools kept 
 a vacation, and nothing but mirth 
 and good humour prevailed : but 
 their fertivity frequently ran out 
 inco extravagance, diflblutenefs, 
 and debauchery ; and din, riot and 
 dif;:rder prevailed, inllead of fo- 
 cia! enjoyment and harmleis in- 
 dulgence. 
 
 5rtTURNiAN Verfes, among the 
 Romans, were a kind of Iambics, 
 ufed in the fir(lyiz//r/Va/ compofi- 
 tions, confifting of fix feet and a 
 fyliab!e over. They were fo called 
 becaufe they fuppofed fuch to have 
 been uled in the reign of Saturn, 
 or becaufe they were ufually com- 
 pofed to give entertainment ac the 
 Saturnalia. 
 
 Saw. This inftrament was 
 fometimes made ufe of among the 
 Hebrews, in puniihing criminals. 
 It was applied in various ways, 
 but mofl; commonly in cutting 
 them through in the middle : This 
 is faid to have been the fate of the 
 prophet Ijaiah. This punifliment 
 is Hill in uie among the S-witzers, 
 and not long fince was executed 
 vpon a countryman of theus : He 
 
 SCA 
 
 was put in a kind of coffin, and 
 fawn through the whole length 
 like a ;iece of wood. 
 
 ScALJE Gemonia, among the 
 Romans, was a place for the exe- 
 cution of criminals, not unlike 
 our Tyburn. S' me fay it was a 
 plice raifed on many fteps, froiti 
 whence the criminals were preci- 
 pitated. Others will have it to 
 have been a fort of dungeon, to 
 which they defcendea by fteps. 
 Ths bodies of criminals were herfi 
 expofed for fome time after their 
 execution, and then dragged from 
 thence with hooks into the Tyber. 
 The Scales Gemonia were ereifted 
 by Camilius, in the year of the 
 city 358, in the tenth region, near 
 the temple of Juno. 
 
 ScAPE-GoAT, among the Je-ivs 
 was tne goat which was fet at li- 
 berty on the day of folemn expi- 
 ation. Some fay, that a piece of 
 fcarlet cloth, in the form of a 
 tongue, was tied to his forehead. 
 Mony have been the difputes of 
 the learned about the meaning of 
 the word Azazel, for which Scape- 
 Goat is put in our verfion of t/ie 
 bible. Some fay that the word 
 fignifies a precipice, and only 
 alludes to the precipice dowa 
 which the goat was thrown ; others 
 fay It was the name of a Damon, 
 to which the fcape-goat was fent, 
 and reprelents the dreadful condi- 
 tion or fiiincrs; others again alTert 
 that Az^izel is the name of the 
 goat. For the ceremonies ufed 
 on difmilTmg the fcape-goat, fee 
 Levit. xvi. 5, 6, &c. See alfo 
 the article Expiation. 
 
 ScAPHEPHORi, a name givea 
 to ftrangers refiding at Athens ; be- 
 caufe at the feftivai Panathenaa 
 they weie obliged to carry litUe 
 fhips called "Zxaipui, as a fign of 
 their foreign extradion 
 
 ScAPHisM, a mode of punifli- 
 ment formerly in ule among the 
 * Q^ Perftansi 
 
SCE 
 
 SCE 
 
 Perfians, and fometimes men- 
 tfooed in books of ancient hiftory. 
 The criminal was locked up in the 
 trunk of a tree, bored to the di- 
 menGons of his body, with five 
 holes for his head, legs and arms 
 to come through. In this manner 
 he was expofed to the fun, and the 
 parts which appeared, were anoin- 
 ted with honey and milk, to in- 
 vite the wafps and flies to be his 
 tormentors. He was slfo forced 
 to eat to excefs, fo that his excre- 
 ments, clofely pent up in the wood, 
 rotted his body. In this condition 
 pcrfons we are informed would live 
 forty days. This infernal inven- 
 tion is afcribed to Pari/atis, queert 
 of Perjia. 
 
 Scene, Scena, among the 
 Greeks and Romans, was a partition 
 reaching quite acrofs the Theatre, 
 and afligned to the atlors. At firft 
 it was drcfled with boughs and 
 leaves agreeably to the ancient 
 fimplicity, but, in more expenfive 
 ages, it was adorned with rich and 
 coilly hangings. It was either fo 
 framed that it might be turned 
 round, and then it was called Fer- 
 Jatilisi or it was drawn up, in 
 which cafe it was called DufiiUs. 
 It had three principal gates, one 
 upon the right, and another on 
 the left-hand, by which were pre- 
 fented the meaner and fmalier 
 edifices; the third was in the mid- 
 dle, by which were brought to 
 view temples, palaces, and other 
 magnificent buildings. On each 
 fide of this gate was a lefler en- 
 trance, thro' which the perfons of 
 gods or men were introduced by 
 various machines. The whole 
 fcene was divided into many parts, 
 the chief of which were the Bron- 
 iium, Epi/cenium, Para/centum^ 
 Frofuniunti and Hypo/cenium. 
 See Brontium, &c. 
 
 According to Fitrttvius there 
 were three forts of fccnes Tragic, 
 
 Ctmie, and Satyric. The Tragic 
 was adorned with palaces, and 
 royal decorations; the Comic with 
 private houfes and ordinary build- 
 ings ; and the Satyric with rural 
 ornaments and landflcips. 
 
 Scenic Games, Ludi Scenici, 
 entertainments of the llaoe were 
 not known among the Romans, for 
 almolt 400 years; but from fmall 
 and rude beginnings they grew 
 more and more peifeft, till at laft 
 they were reprefented, with a jull- 
 nefs and magnificence beyond any 
 thing the world elfewherc ever faw. 
 The Scenical Games were loudly 
 exclaimed againft and reprobated 
 by the fathers of the church. 
 
 ScENOPEGiA, a name given to 
 the Fea/ ofTabernacUs among the 
 Jenxs. See Takemucles. 
 
 Sceptics, were a feft of philo- 
 fophers amongft the Greek:, whofe 
 principle it was to doubt every 
 thing. They held that all things 
 are uncertain and incomprehen- 
 fible, and that the mind is never 
 to affent to any propofition, but 
 to remain in perpetual fufpence. 
 But in afl'ening that all things 
 were doubtful, they departed from 
 their grand principle, and Rum- 
 bled upon the threfhoid : For to 
 be confiftent with therafelves, they 
 fhould, at leaft, have doubted whe- 
 ther all things were doubtful. 
 Scepticijm, properly fpeaking, is a 
 colledlion of extravagances, rather 
 than a fyfiem ; and every attempt 
 to eftablilli it by reafon is an 
 aftual demolition of the whole. 
 The endlefs difputes of the other 
 philofophers en every quefiion 
 gave rife to Scepticifm, which, to 
 cut fhort thefe eternal controver- 
 fics, fought repofe in indifference, 
 and fatisfied itfelf with fufpence. 
 This philofophy was called Sceptic, 
 or conjiderati've ; Zetetie, or inqui~ 
 fitivt', Epheiiicy or fufpenfi'vt ; 
 Jpvretie, or dubkativf. It was 
 
 alfo 
 
SCI 
 
 ilCo frequently called Pyrrhonian^ 
 from Pyrrho of E lea, who delivered 
 the principles of it with more 
 cleamefs than they had been ex> 
 hibited by thofe before him. This 
 Pbilofophy is difplayed at great 
 length by Sextus Empiricus, and 
 in the works of Bayle. The Scep- 
 tics, or PyrrhoniJIs, attacked all 
 other fefts, and threw doubts into 
 every part of fcience. This fe£l 
 was in the higheft elleem in the 
 times of the Roman Emperors. 
 See Pbilofophy. 
 
 Sceptre, a royal ftafF born on 
 folemn occafions, as a badge of 
 regal authority. The Sceptre is of 
 greater antiquity than the cruwn. 
 The Greek tragick, and other 
 poets, put Sceptres in the hands of 
 the moil ancient kings they intro- 
 duce. In moft remote antiquity, 
 'Jujlin fays, the Sceptre was an 
 Hafia, and that men adored the 
 Hajla as immortal gods. Be this 
 as it may, the gods, it may be ob- 
 ferved, were always furnilhed with 
 Sceptres, that of Neptune was his 
 trident. Tarquin was the firft a- 
 mong the Romans that afTumed the 
 Sceptre. 
 
 ScHOENOBATEs, a name which 
 the ancient Greeks gave to their 
 rope-dancers, by the Romans cal- 
 led FunambuU. The rope-dancers 
 of the ancients had feveral ways of 
 ihewing their agility : Sometimes 
 they vaulted, or turned round like 
 a wheel upon the rope j fonietimes 
 they fiid or flew from above, reft- 
 ing on their breafts ; fometimes 
 they ran upon a ftrecched rope 
 backwards and forwards \ and 
 fometimes they made furprizing 
 leaps or turns upon the rope. The 
 Shanobatie were flaves, whofe 
 mafters made money of them, by 
 Ihewing them to the people. See 
 Dancing. 
 
 SciADEPHORA, rx»«l^)]^op«t, 
 
 an appellation given to the female 
 
 SCI 
 
 flrangers refiding in Athtns ; be- 
 caufe they were obliged, at th« 
 fe(H val Panatheneea, to carry £//w- 
 brellas to defend the free women 
 from the weather. 
 
 SciERiA, an Arcadian feftivaj, 
 in honour of Bacchus, at which 
 the image of the god was carried 
 f9ro T>) xrxia^t, under an Umbrella. ; 
 hence the name. At this time 
 women were whipped like the 
 Spartan boys, with great fevcrity, 
 in obedience to the command of 
 the Delphian Oracle, 
 
 SciLLONEORTE, 'Zxi'KKuv tofvif 
 
 the feftival of fea onions, at which 
 the Sicilian youth beat one another 
 with fea onions. This was a fort 
 of combat, and the vidor was re- 
 warded with a bull. 
 
 SciMPODiuM, among the an^' 
 cients, was a fmall bed or couch 
 on which one perfon only could 
 lie down. On this they reclined 
 themfelves when weary or indiA 
 pofed. It was fometimes ufed, 
 inftead of the Ledica, to carry roeft 
 or women not only through the 
 city, but likewife into the country. 
 
 SciOMANCY, a method of di> 
 vination pradifed by raifing the 
 dead, as was fuppofed, who were 
 faid to appear in airy forms like 
 £hades. 
 
 SciRRHOPHORiA, an Athenian 
 feftival in honour of Minerva, or 
 as fome fay, of Ceres and Prtftr'- 
 pine. It was obfcrved on the 
 twelfth day of Scirrhophorion. \z 
 was famous for the race called O/- 
 cophoria, in which young men 
 contended with their hands full of 
 vine branches and clullers of 
 grapes. 
 
 Scirrhophorion, the laft 
 month in the Athenian year, an- 
 fwering to the latter end of May 
 and the beginning of June. Its 
 name is derived from the feftival 
 called Scirrbephtria. See Scirr- 
 bophoria. 
 
 * Qji Scos- 
 
SCR 
 
 Scorpio, a large millfary en- 
 gine, ufed in attacking and de- 
 fending walls. Stones, &c. were 
 thrown out of it by means of a 
 wooden beam, caWedJfjlus, which 
 was joined by ropes to two other 
 beams on each fide of it; and be- 
 ing drawn back by four men, and 
 then let go, it difcharged ftones 
 as from a fling, or fmall arrows. 
 It hid the name of Scorpion from 
 the wound it makes with its fmall 
 arrows, like ftings, or from its re- 
 feniblance to the Scorpion when the 
 long beam or tillar was erecEted, 
 
 There was alfo another fmaller 
 engine of the fame name, which 
 differed but little from the Catapul- 
 ia. Theiron points of the arrows it 
 difcharged were extremely fmall, 
 like the fting of a Scorpion. 
 
 Scourge, was an inftrument 
 with whi^h punjftiment was fre- 
 quently inflifled among the Jeivs, 
 as ordained by Mofes, Deut. xxv. 
 1, 2, 3. There were two ways of 
 fcourging, one with thongs of lea- 
 ther or rope's ends, the other with 
 rods or twigs. The Rabbins men- 
 tion one hundred and fixtv-eight 
 faults as liable to this punifhment. 
 In punifhing with the fcourge, the 
 offender was ftripped from the 
 Jhoulders downwards, and tied to 
 a low pillar. They could not in- 
 fli(5l more than forty lafhss, and 
 therefore, left they fli-uld exceed 
 the number, and err on the feverer 
 fide, they made a rule of (lopping 
 at thirty-nine. Thus St. P«a/ in- 
 forms us, that at five different 
 times he received forty ftripes fave 
 one. Beating with rods was a 
 punifliment from which Roman ci- 
 tizens were exempted by law. 
 
 Scribe, a principal officer in 
 X\iQ jfeioijh law, whofe bufmefs 
 was to write and interpret Scrip- 
 ture. The Scribes are fometimes 
 called, in the Greek Teftament, 
 No/A»xo>, or Laivyen, The Scribes 
 
 scu 
 
 were very numerous, but did not 
 form any diftii.A fedl. They were 
 a profeflion of men devoted to the 
 miniftry, and to the ftudy of facred 
 literature. Originally they had 
 their namefrom theiremployment, 
 which was tranfcribing the law, 
 and multiplying copies of it ; but 
 in procefs of time they exalted 
 themfelves inio public minifters 
 and expofitors of it. They fat in 
 Mofesh feat, and authoritatively 
 determined what dtclrines were 
 contained in Scripture, and what 
 were not. They had a place in 
 the Sanhedrim, or fuprenie coun- 
 cil of the nation; and were con- 
 fulted as Oracles in diffiicul: points 
 of do6lrine or duty. They were 
 generally of the fed of the Phari- 
 Jees, and like them were fticklers 
 for traditions, for which they are 
 cenfured by our Saviour, Mat. xv. 
 2, 3, 6. Mark vii. 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Scribes were alfo a fort of ma- 
 gillrates among the Romans, as 
 well as among the y^xuj, whodif- 
 tinguiftied them by the title of 
 Scribes of the People. Public no- 
 taries alio, and Secretaries of fu- 
 perior magiibates, were by the 
 Romans csiied Scribes. 
 
 ScRiPTURA, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a tax l<iid upon wood, 
 cattle, and p .lluragtr. 
 
 Scrobici;li, a name given to 
 the altars dedicated to the infernal 
 gods, which were in fad nothing 
 more than holes made in the 
 ground, into which they poured 
 the Libations, &c. See Altar. 
 
 ScRUPULus, the leaft of the 
 weights ufed by the Ancients, 
 which, among the Romans, was 
 the twenty-fourth part of an ounce. 
 It was fometimes written Scrupu- 
 lum and Scripulum. 
 
 Sculpture, is the art of cut- 
 ting, carving, or forming wood, 
 flone, metal, or other matter in- 
 to various figures or repcffenta- 
 tions 
 
scu 
 
 tions of real or imaginary beings. 
 The firft inventors of this art can- 
 not be afligned ; but its great an- 
 tiquity is evident from Scripture, 
 which makes mention of the idols 
 of Lahan ftolen by RacheL and 
 the golden calf made by the Ij'rael- 
 ites. Of profane authors fome af- 
 cribe the origin of fcuipture to 
 Dubitadus, a potter of Sicyone ; 
 and others t^' IJe/cus and Theoaorus. 
 Demaratus, the father of Tarquin, 
 is faid to have brought the art in- 
 to Italy, and, it is added, that 
 Tarqu'ni caufed a ftatue to be made 
 of baked earth, as a frontifpiece to 
 the temple of that god. Soon af- 
 ter this time, Greece had many 
 fculptcrs, and the art was cultiva- 
 ted with fuccefs. So numerous 
 were the productions in this kind, 
 that Rofne is faid to have contained 
 more ftatues than living perfons. 
 
 The Romans were, however, ex- 
 celled by the Grecians in this art; 
 but it was carried by both to a 
 wonderful pitch ; and, perhaps, 
 their religion, which was a fyilem 
 of idolatry, contributed greatly to 
 this perfedlion, to which it was 
 brought. The naked llatues of 
 Greece and Rome are remarkable 
 for the elegance of their contours, 
 ,the juitnefs of their proportions, 
 and their exaftnefs of anatomy ; 
 which perhaps may be accounted 
 for from the frequent games and 
 ihews, in which wreltlers and Gla- 
 diators combated naked, and thus 
 ferved the painters and fculptors 
 inllead of a fchool of anatomy, 
 making them acquainted with all 
 the different exterior motions of 
 the mufcles, nerves, and other 
 organs. 
 
 Scutum, was a buckler made 
 of wood, the parts being joined 
 together with little plates of iron, 
 and the whole covered with a bull's 
 hide. An iron plate furrounded 
 it without to keep off the blows, 
 
 SEA 
 
 and another within to prevent any 
 damage from lying on the ground. 
 In the middle was an umbo, or bofs 
 of iron, which jutted out, and 
 was ufeful to glance off ftones or 
 darts, and to prefs upon the foe. 
 T\it/cuta were of two kinds, onia- 
 ta and imbricata j the firlt were 
 plain oval figures, the fecond were 
 oblong and bent inward like a half 
 cylinder. "Y\it fcuta, in general, 
 were four feet long, and differed 
 in fizefrom the cly/>ei, which were 
 lefs, anc quite round. See Shields. 
 
 ScYTALA Laconica, a method 
 of writing letters much celebrated 
 and praflifed among the Lacedemo- 
 nians, in matters of fecrecy. It 
 was thus; the correfpondents took 
 each a black ftick, or round ruler, 
 exadlly equal to one another; and, 
 when they had any thing of mo- 
 ment to communicate, they cut a 
 long narrow fcroll of parchment, 
 and rolling it about their own 
 ttaff, with one fold clofe upon a- 
 nciher, they wrote their bufinefs 
 upon it ; then, taking it off", they 
 difpatched it to their friend, who 
 applying it to his own Itaff, the 
 folds fell in with one another, and 
 the writing became legible, which 
 before was confufed and unintelli- 
 gible. This method was pradlif- 
 ed between the magiilrates and 
 generals or admirals. The word 
 IS derived from S)tJ]of, ajkin. 
 
 Seah was an Hebrew meafure 
 of capacity, both for liquids and 
 dry things. As a liquid meafure 
 it contained 2 gallons, 4. pints, 
 5 inches and 067 decimal parts; 
 and as a dry meafure it held i 
 peck, I pint, 4 folid inches, and 
 036 decimal parts. See Meafure. 
 
 Seals are of very ancient in- 
 vention ; thus Judah left his feal 
 with Tamar as a pledge ; 'Job fays 
 that God keeps the ftars as under a 
 feal ; Haman fealed the decree a- 
 gainft the Jenvs with the King's 
 
 feal; 
 
SEC 
 
 feal ; Cyrus fet his feal on the tem- 
 ple, &c. The ancient Hebreivs 
 wore their feals or figncts in rings 
 on their fingers, or in bracelets on 
 their arms. Sealing-rings, called 
 Annuli Signal or it, Sigillares, and 
 Chircgraphi, arefaid, by prophane 
 authors, to have been invented by 
 the Lacedcemonians, who not con- 
 tent to (hut their chefls, armories, 
 tec, with keys, added feals to them 
 alfo. Letters and contrafts were 
 fealed thus : FirR they were tied 
 up with thread, or a firing, then 
 the wax was applied to the knot, 
 and the feal imprefled upon that. 
 Rings feem to have been ufed as 
 feals, in every country almoll, 
 which were engraved on metals, 
 precious ftones, &c. Pliny, how- 
 ever, obferves, that feals were 
 fcarcely ufed at the time of the 
 Trojan war, the method of (hut- 
 ting up letters, &c. was by curi- 
 ous knots, and the invention of 
 curious knots feems to have been 
 particularly honoured ; hence the 
 Gardian knot. We are a!fo in- 
 foimed by Pliny, that in his times 
 no feals were ufed but in the Ro- 
 wan empire ; but at Rome, he fays, 
 teftaments were null v/ithout the 
 tellator's feal, and the feals of 
 fevcn witnefTes. 
 
 Secespita, among the ^oOTfj;;/, 
 was a knife v.'ith a round ivory 
 handle, adorned with gold and 
 filvcr, which the Flamins and 
 Priells ufed at facrifices. Every 
 thing cut off with this knife, as 
 the Ltbufn-Placenta^ SiC. was call- 
 ed Secium. 
 
 Sectatores, 3 name given to 
 fuch perfons as attended a candi- 
 date ibr any high oiiice, in thei?;?- 
 mcn Republc, thro' the whole of 
 his circuit, in making his can- 
 vafs. See Dedtul.res, Salutatores, 
 and Candidate. 
 
 Seculum, according to Fejius, 
 contains the fpacc of loo years 
 
 SEC 
 
 complete, fometlmes it Is taken 
 for I lo, fometimes for looo years; 
 and Servius obferves that it is ufed 
 to fignify the fpace of 30 years. 
 The Secular Games were celebrated 
 at the conclufion of each Seculum. 
 See the next article. 
 
 Sf.cvh^K Games, SecularesLudi, 
 were folemn games held amongft 
 the Remans once in a Seculum, or 
 period of years deemed the longeft 
 extent of human life. The Secu- 
 lar Games were inlHtutcd to Hop 
 the ravages of a plague, according 
 to Valerius Maximus ; tho' Dacier, 
 with more probability, imagines 
 that they were indebted, for their 
 origin, to a remarkable prophecy 
 in the Sibylline Oracles, which in- 
 timated, that if the Romans, at 
 the beginning of every age, would 
 hold fclemn games in the Campus 
 Martius in honour of Pluto, Pro" 
 ferpine, 'Juno, Apollo, Diana, Ceres, 
 and the Parca, their city fhould 
 ever flourifli, and all nations be 
 fubjeft to their dominion. 
 
 The folemnity was as follows : 
 The whole world was invited by a 
 Herald to a feaft which they had 
 never feen already, nor ever fhould 
 fee again. Some days before the 
 games began, the ^indecem-jiri 
 in the Cnpiiol and the Palatine 
 temple, diilributed to the people 
 purifying compofitions, of various 
 kinds, as flambeaus, fulphur, &c. 
 Fiom hence the populace pafTed to 
 Diana' i. temple on the Jventine 
 Mount, with wheat, barley, and 
 oats, as an offering. After this, 
 whole nights were fpent in devo- 
 tion to the Deftinies. When the 
 time of the games was fully come, 
 the people afTembled in the Cam- 
 pus Martius, and facrificed to Jw 
 piter, Juno, Apollo, Latona', Dia- 
 na, the Parcte, Ceres, Pluto, and 
 Proferpine. On the firft night of 
 the feaft the Emperor, with the 
 ^indecem'viri-, caufed three altars 
 
 to 
 
SEC 
 
 to be eredled on the Ti6er*s batiks, 
 
 which they fpririkled v/ith the 
 blood of three lambs, and then 
 proceeded to regular facrifice. A 
 fpace was next marked out for a 
 theatre, which was illuminated 
 with innumerable flambeaus and 
 fires. Here they fung hymns, and 
 celebrated all kinds of fports. On 
 the day after, having offered vic- 
 tims at the Capitol, they went to 
 the Campus Mariius, and cele- 
 brated iports to the honour of 
 Jpsllo and Diana. Thefe lafted 
 till next day, when the noble ma- 
 trons, at the hour appointed by 
 t>e Oracle, went to the Capitol to 
 iing hymns to Jupiter. On the 
 third day, which concluded the 
 iblcmnity, twenty-feven boys, and 
 as many girls, fung in the temple 
 of Palatine Jpcl.o, hymns and 
 verfes in Greek and Latin, to re- 
 commend the city to the protec- 
 tion of thofe deities whom they 
 defigned particularly to honour by 
 their facrifices. 
 
 The inimitable Carmen Seculare 
 of Horace was compofed for this 
 laft day, in the Secular Games held 
 by Augujius. 
 
 It has been much difputed whe- 
 ther thefe games were held every 
 hundred, or every hundred and 
 ten years. Valerius Antius, Far- 
 re, and Livy, are quoted in fup- 
 port of the former opinion : In 
 favour of the latter may be pro- 
 duced the ^eini/ecemviral Ttghlers, 
 the edicts of Augujius, the words 
 qI Horace in the Secular poem, 
 
 Catus undenos decies per annos. 
 
 And the Sihylline veifes alfo, as 
 quoted by Zojimus, 
 
 K?it> ohvut, SCCt 
 
 SEC 
 
 2ut after all, according to the an- 
 cient accounts we have of the ce- 
 lebration of thefe games, neither 
 of ihefe periods feem to have been 
 much regarded. The Emperors, 
 we may fuppofe, that they might 
 have the honour of celebrating the 
 Secular Games, would not fcruple 
 to anticipate the ufual time. 
 
 The nambsr tljree, it may be ob- 
 ferved, was much regarded in this 
 folemnity, in allufion probably to 
 the triplicity of Phcebus and Dia- 
 na, as well as the Paras, l^he 
 fports continued three days and 
 three nights ; the altars were three 
 in number ; and the number of 
 boys and girl?, who fung the Se- 
 culare Carmen, were nine times 
 three, &c. 
 
 It was a genera! belief, that the 
 girls, who bore a part in the fong, 
 ihould be fooneft married ; and 
 that the children who did not 
 dance and fing at the coming of 
 Apollo, fhould die unmarried, and 
 at an early period of life. 
 
 Valerius Publicola was the firft 
 v/ho celebrated the Secular Games 
 at Rcme, in the year of the city 
 245. 
 
 bECURis. See Fa/ces. 
 
 Secutores, a kin<i of Gladia- 
 tors, among the Romans, who 
 fought againlt the Retiarii. They 
 were armed with a fword and 
 buckler, to keep off the net of 
 their antagonift j and they wore a 
 cafque on their head, on which 
 was the figure of a fifli, in allufion 
 to thenetoftheir adverfary. Some 
 confound the Secutores with the 
 Mirmillones, becaufe they were 
 armed nearly alike. They had 
 their name a Sequendo, from pur-- 
 Juing their antagonifts. See Gla- 
 diator, Mirmillones, Retiarii. 
 
 Secutores was alfo a name given 
 to fuch Gladiators as took the place 
 of thofe who were killed in the 
 coxnbflt, or who fought the con- 
 queror; 
 
SEN 
 
 SEN 
 
 queror. This poll was ufually 
 taken by lot. 
 
 Secittbres is alfo applied to cer- 
 tain pfficers attending Generals or 
 Tribune's, in the quality, perhaps, 
 of ^iJs </e Camp. 
 
 Sejuges, were chariots drawn 
 by fix horfes a- bread, which were 
 not uncommon, efpecially in Ne- 
 rc's time. The Bigee and Sluadri- 
 gfe were mod ufual, but that ex- 
 traordinary man made ufe of the 
 Deremjugis at the Q'ympic Games. 
 
 StLEN^, were a fort of cakes 
 ufed in facrifices, and fo called be- 
 caufe they were broad and horned 
 like the new-moon. 
 
 Sella Curulis. See Curule 
 Chair. 
 
 Sembella, or Semilibella, a 
 fmall fijver coin, among the Ro- 
 tr.aus, equal in value and weight 
 to half the Libella, and the Libella 
 was not worth more than three far- 
 things. See Libella, Money, &c. 
 
 SEMEKTiNi^ Feria-, fealts held 
 annually amoig the Remans to ob- 
 tain of the gods a plentiful har- 
 vell. They were moveable feafts, 
 obferved about feed-time, in the 
 temple of Tellus or the Earth, and 
 facrifices were offered to the Earth 
 or Ceres. 
 
 Semissis, among the Romuns, 
 was half of the ds. See As and 
 Money. 
 
 Semuncia, a fmall Roman coin 
 of the weight of four Drachms, be- 
 ing the 24th part of the Roman 
 Pound. See Money. 
 
 Senaculum, a place of meet- 
 ing for the Roman Senate. Fejius 
 tells us of three Sevacula ; two 
 within the city walls for ordinary 
 confultations, and one without the 
 limits of the city, where the 6V- 
 nate gave audience to foreign Am- 
 baffadors, whom they were unwil- 
 ling to admit into the city. The 
 Emperor Heliogabalu\ built a Sena- 
 cuium for the ufe of women, whi- 
 
 ther the grave matrons reforted on 
 high days to keep their court. 
 See Senate. 
 
 Senate, among the Romans, 
 was the chief Council of State. It 
 owed its ir.liitution to Romulus, 
 who appointed firil an hundred 
 Senators, and afterwards doubled 
 that number ; but Tarquinius Prif- 
 cus, in his reign, augmented it to 
 three hundred, at which number 
 it was long fixed : However it 
 ceafed to be fo at laft ; for fome- 
 times it rofc to feven, and fome- 
 timcs to nine hundred and a thou- 
 frind, which was of very fhort du- 
 ration. Augujjus reduced it to {\y. 
 hundred. The choice of .Sf^a/ery 
 belonged at firll to the Kings, af- 
 terwards to the Con/uls, and at laft 
 to the Cenfors, who, in their Cenjus 
 or furvey, every fifth year, filled 
 up '.he vacant places of thofe that 
 were dead, or degraded. We find 
 that the people fometimes nomi- 
 nated Senators, but this happened 
 only in extraordinary cafes. None 
 were pitched upon for thefe vacan- 
 cies, but fuch as had pafTed through 
 the, great offii^es of ^^ejlor. Tri- 
 bune of the people, yEjile, Prue- 
 tor, ar:d Conjul, or fuch as were of 
 the Equijirian order. The dignity 
 oi Senators was not hereditary, but 
 acquired by merit; but their chil- 
 dren ranked with Knights. When 
 the Emperors had affumed the of- 
 fice of Cf^^r to themfelves, they 
 filled up the Senate as they thought 
 fit. The proper fenatorian age 
 was twent)-five, tho' fometimes, 
 by way of particular compliment, 
 perfons were promoted at an ear- 
 lier age. Before the reign oi Au- 
 gujius, an ellate fufficient to fup- 
 port their rank was required, as 
 an indifpenfible qualification, 
 which was fettled at 80c Sejlertia, 
 which amounted to between 6 and 
 7000/. of our money. When the 
 fortune oiSenaton funk below this, 
 
 they 
 
SEN 
 
 they were degraded. This quali- 
 fication, however, in the times of 
 the Emperors, was overlooked. 
 The Senators, out of refped, were 
 called Fathers, and theif defcend- 
 ants Patricii. Pafres con/cripti, at 
 firft, Was a name given to thofe 
 Senators who were added to Romu^ 
 /us's number by Tarquittius Pri/cus, 
 becaufe they were written upon 
 the fame lift with them ; but, in 
 procefs of time, that name became 
 common to the whole body. It is 
 faid, however, that the defcend- 
 ants of the firft Senators, to exprcfs 
 the antiquity of their nobility, 
 wore fmall crefcfints of filver or 
 ivory on their ihoes, iiiftead of 
 buckles. During the Common- 
 wealth, the Senate ufually met 
 three times a month, 'viz. On the 
 Calends, Nones, and Ides ; but, 
 under Augujlus, they only met on 
 the Calends and Ides. They al- 
 ways aflembled in a temple, pre- 
 vioufly confecrated by the Augurs, 
 asin thofe of Concord. Jupiter Ca- 
 pitoUnus, Cajlor and Pollux, Apol- 
 lo, &c. Sometimes they aflembled 
 in the Curia, called Hojiilia, Ju- 
 lia or Pompeia ; but thefe had been 
 confecrated by the ^af«r/. When- 
 ever the Augurs declared that a 
 cow had fpoke, the Senate were 
 immediately to fit fub dio, in the 
 open air. The Senate was always 
 held withoLl't the gates of Rome, 
 either in the temple of Bellona or 
 o^ Apollo, when foreign AmbalTa- 
 dors were received, efpeciaily from 
 enemies ; or when bulinefs was 
 tranfafled with their own Gene- 
 rals, when they had the a^ual 
 command of the army; for neither 
 foreign Ambafladors from ene- 
 mies, nor Roman Generals while 
 their commiffions fubfifted, were 
 allowed to come within the walls. 
 A certain number was always re- 
 quifite to render their decrees au- 
 thentic ; thofe therefore who were 
 
 SEM 
 
 abfent on the day fixed, were fined. 
 The number required in Augujius's 
 time was four hundred, and the 
 fine in his reign was augment- 
 ed. No bufinefs could be entered 
 upon before the fun was rifen, nor 
 finifhed after it was itt ; hence it 
 was a Handing rule that nothing 
 new fhould be moved after four 
 o'clock. All that related to the 
 adminiftration of the Common- 
 wealth was tranfafted in the 5"^- 
 nate, except the creation of ma- 
 giftrates, making new laws, and 
 declarations of waror peace, which 
 belonged to the people. The Se- 
 nate had the fuperintendance of 
 religion, the d'fpofal of provinces, 
 the diftribution of public money, 
 the nomination of Ambafladors, 
 the appointment of thankfgivings, 
 the enquiry into public crimes, the 
 interpretation of laws, the pro- 
 roguing or poftponing of aflem- 
 blies of the people, and they had 
 the power of arming the Con/uls, 
 by a vote, with abfolute power. 
 The manner of giving opinions, 
 and voting in the Senate, was not 
 always the fame. In the early 
 times they began with the oideft 
 Senators, and the red went on, 
 each according to his age, till 
 they came to thofe who had no de- 
 liberative voices or right to fpeijc. 
 Afterwards, when there were C*«« 
 /ors, the opinion of the Princeps 
 Senatus was firft aflced, and tne 
 mort ancient perfons of Conjular 
 dignity fpoke next : The Pnnceps 
 Senatus was that Senator whofe 
 name ftood firft on the CenJor\ lift. 
 In Cicero's time the Conjuls eleft 
 gave their opinions firft. In Cee- 
 /ar's time, we are informed, that 
 perfon continued to fpeak firft till 
 the end of the year on whom the 
 Conful had conkrred this honour 
 in the beginning of it. Under 
 the Emperors, their will was the 
 rule; but ihey moft generally be- 
 • R gan 
 
SEN 
 
 gan with the Confuls. Propofuig 
 any bufinefs to the houfe was ziW- 
 ^6. refetre ad fenatum. When the 
 matter was propofed and opened, 
 any Senator, whofe opinion was 
 aflced, might fpeak as long as he 
 pleafed ; and it was no unufual 
 thing.for members to protratl their 
 fpeeches till it was too late to de- 
 termine. When the queftion was 
 put, thofe who approved it went 
 to the fide of the fpenker, and 
 thofe who were of a different opi- 
 nion to the other fide ; by this 
 means the plurality of voices was 
 found at a fingle glance, wirhout 
 the trouble of collefling them. 
 This was called pedibu$ in alicujus 
 fefitentlam ire: Hence thofe who 
 had no deliberative voices or right 
 to fpeak, but only the privilege of 
 giving a fjlent vote, were called 
 Pedarii Senatores. Of this fort 
 ■were all thofe who had pafled chro' 
 Curuk offices, and Magillrates. 
 The numbers being told after the 
 divifion, the majority determined 
 the matter, and a fenatus-con/ul- 
 tum was accordingly wrote by the 
 notaries, at the feet of the Chief 
 Magiftrate, and fubfcribed by the 
 principal members that promoted 
 it. In cafes of great expedition, 
 or of little concern, a decree might 
 pafs without afking opinions, up- 
 on a bare divifion of the houfe. 
 This was called fenatus confultum 
 fier difcfjjionim Jadum. We read 
 alfo of Jenatus confulia tacita, 
 which were made in matters of 
 great privacy, under en oath of 
 fecrecy, without the admittance 
 even of public fervants. A de- 
 cree of the Senate might be pre- 
 vented from paffing by the inter- 
 pofition of the Tribunes of the peo- 
 ple, or any other Magillratc, of 
 equal authority with him, who had 
 propofed the bufinefs to the houfe. 
 This was done by pronouncing the 
 fingle word o'^/c, and was called 
 
 SEN 
 
 intercejfio. The bufinefs was alfo 
 left undetermined if a fufficient 
 number was not prefent to pafs a 
 decree. In both thcfe cafes the 
 opinion of the major part was csX\- 
 ^d/enatus-authoritas, which was of 
 little fignification, unlels it was 
 afterwards ratified and turned into 
 z fenatus-conjulfum. Till the year 
 of the city 304, the written de- 
 crees of the Senate were in the 
 cuftody of the Conful, who might 
 either fupprefs or prefcrve them ; 
 after that, a law pafled by which 
 they were required to be carri- 
 ed to the jEailes Plebis, to be 
 depofited by them in the tem- 
 ple of Ceres ; and at lall they 
 were kept in the publis treafu- 
 ry. It has been obferved, that 
 the Senate ordinarily afl^embled on 
 the Calends, Nones, and Ides, this 
 meeting was called fenatus legiti- 
 mus ; but they were fometimes af- 
 fembled on particular emergencies 
 on any other days, except the diet 
 comitiales, when the Senators were 
 obliged to be prefent at the Comi- 
 tia. A decree palTed that they 
 Ihould never meet on the Ides of 
 March, called Parricidiutn, from 
 the murder oi Julius Ca/aron that 
 day. Senators^ fons, after they 
 had put on the Toga Virilis, were 
 indulged in the privileges of ufing 
 the latus clanjus, and going into 
 the Senate. Ambaffadors were al- 
 ways chcfen from the Jenatorian 
 order ; and Senators, when they 
 had occafion to travel abroad, even 
 en their own bufinefs, obtained 
 the privilege of a free legatiouy 
 which entitled them to all necef- 
 faries upon the road for thera- 
 felves and their attendants. At 
 home they were honoured with 
 particular feats at public fhews and 
 plays. They had alfo the fole 
 right of feafting publickly in the 
 Capitol, in habits of ceremony, 
 when the Magiftrates facrificed to 
 Jupiter, 
 
SEN 
 
 SEP 
 
 'Jupiter. They had alfo a right 
 to the Curule chair. Their dif- 
 tinguifhing ornaments were the 
 Laticlave, and half-boots of a 
 black colour; the Patricians wore 
 on their (hoes or half-boots, an 
 ivory or filver crefcerit. All the 
 Senate^ on public feftivals, wore 
 the Prtttexta if they had born any 
 Curule office, becaufe the Prce- 
 texta was the gown worn by Con- 
 /uls, Praetors, and other Curule 
 Magirtrates, during the year of 
 their inagiftracy. The right of 
 calling tlie Senate was at firft in 
 the Kings ; and under the Com- 
 monwealth in the Con/ul, Diila^ 
 ior, Magijier Equitum, Prators, 
 Governor of Rome, and Tribunes 
 of the people ; but an inferior 
 Magiftrate could not aflemble it, 
 except in the abfence of the fupe- 
 rior: This rule, however, did not 
 extend to the Tribunes of the peo- 
 ple. Some time after the firft Em- 
 perors, the title of Clarijffimus was 
 given to each of the Senators. It 
 may not be amifs here to remark, 
 that fuch Senators as had been de- 
 graded, on account of their for- 
 tunes having fufFered a diminu- 
 tion, might be reftored to their 
 order when they had acquired a 
 fortune fufficient to qualify them. 
 The Cenfor's method of degrading 
 them was by omitting their names 
 in the Cenjus, which was called 
 Praterire ; but the Senators could 
 challenge them, and make them 
 fhew caufe why they were omitted. 
 See Cen/or, Patricians, Patres Con- 
 fcripti, Laticla'ue, Moons. 
 Senator. See Senate. 
 Senatus. See Senate. 
 Senatus-Consultum. See 
 Senate. 
 
 Senio, a name given to the 
 Jice or higheft throw at dice. It 
 was fometimes called Fenus or Ba- 
 Jilicus, and was oppofed to Cani- 
 cular which fignihes the ace or 
 
 lovveft throw. See Tali and Te/- 
 fera. 
 
 Sentence. See Trial. 
 Septa, enclofures or rails made 
 of boards in the Campus Martius, 
 thro' which the people went to 
 give their votes in afTemblies of 
 the Romans. They were alfo-call- 
 ed O'vilia. See Ovilia. 
 
 September, the ninth month 
 of Numa's year and that of Julius 
 C^/ar; but the feventh of the year 
 of Rcmulus ; hence its name, qu. 
 Septimus Men/Is. The Senate of 
 Rome would have named it Tibe- 
 rius, in honour of that Emperor, 
 but he rejefted the compliment. 
 Domiiian Calicd it Germaniciis. It 
 was alfo called Antoninus, in ho- 
 nour of Antoninus Pius. Commo- 
 dus named it Herculeus, and Taci- 
 tus would have called it by his own 
 name ; but the name of September., 
 tho' improper, if we conlider its 
 place in the number of the months, 
 has outlived every other occafional 
 or complimentary appellation. 
 This month was under the protec- 
 tion of Vulcan, and among other 
 feftivals was famous for the Diony- 
 fiaca, or feaft of the vintages ; the 
 Circenfian games, the dedication 
 of the Capitol, &c. See Month. 
 
 Septemjuoes, a name given 
 to the chariots in the public games 
 when drawn by feven horfes a- 
 breaft. See Riga, ^adriga, &c. 
 
 Septerion, a Delphic feftival 
 in honour of Apollo, celebrated 
 every ninth year. A reprefenta- 
 tion of Python, purfued by the 
 god, was the chief part of the fo- 
 lemnity. 
 
 Septimontium, a feaft cele- 
 brated by the Romans in December 
 on all the feven hills of Rome ; 
 hence its name. It was alfo call- 
 ed Agonalia. 
 
 Septvagint, a Greek verfion 
 of the books of the Old Teftament, 
 fo called becaufe the tranilation is 
 
 * R 2 fuppofed 
 
SEP 
 
 foppofed to have been made by 
 ieventy-two "Jenvs, who for the 
 fake of round numbers are ufually 
 called the Seventy Interpreter]. 
 This tranflation is faid to have 
 been made at the requeft of Ptok' 
 my Philadelphus, King of Egypt, 
 who was very deflrous of cblleding 
 curious books to furnifh his exten- 
 five library. Many wonderful 
 tales are told concerning the tran- 
 flators, particularly by Arijlaus ; 
 but his account bears ftrong inter- 
 nal marks of forgery. Juftin Mar- 
 tyr tells us, that the feventy inter- 
 preters were fhut up in feventy dif- 
 ferent cells, in the iftc of Pharos, 
 that they might have no communi- 
 cation v/ith each other while they 
 performed the talk; and that they, 
 jieverthelefs, by infpiration, tran- 
 ilated the facred volume in fo uni- 
 form a manner, that they ufed not 
 only the fame words, but the fame 
 number of words. Different au- 
 thors, however, relate the matter 
 differently. The Septuagint ver- 
 ^on differs in many places from 
 the Hebreau text, particularly in 
 Cenejisy with refped to the ages of 
 the Patriarchs, before and after 
 the Flood, as far as the building 
 Kii J^abelj fo that the world, ac- 
 cording to the Greek, is 1466 years 
 older than it is found to be in the 
 "iiebrew text. Thefe changes and 
 additions are fo numerous, arid at 
 the fame time fo uniform and re- 
 gular, that they could not be the 
 effefts of chance. The critics are 
 much divided as to the point of 
 preference between the Septuagint 
 tranflation and the Hebre-w text. 
 
 Sepulchre, a place for the 
 burial of the bodies, bones, or 
 aihes of the dead. All nations 
 have fhewn particular reverence 
 and refpedt to the dead : Hence 
 Sepulchres have always been held 
 facred, and the care of them 
 dleemed a religious duty y which 
 
 SEP 
 
 feems to be grounded on a belier* 
 of the foul's immortality. The 
 Sepulchres of the Hebreivs in ge- 
 neral were hollow places dug cut 
 of rocks. 1l\\m% Abraham is faid 
 to bury Sarah his wife in the cave 
 of Macpelah, Gen. xxiii. 19. In 
 fuch Sepulchres too the bodies qf 
 Lazarus and Je/us Chriji were bu- 
 ried, Johnx\.i%. Mattheivxxvu. 
 60. And the fame cullom pre- 
 vails, in the Eaftern coijntries, to 
 this day, according to the account 
 of Mautt^irel and other travellers. 
 But fometimes their graves were 
 dug in the ground, commonly 
 without their towns. Some hewn 
 ftone was ufually put over the 
 graves, to fignify to pafTengers 
 that they were burying places, 
 that they might not inadvertently 
 violate the reding places of the 
 dead, or pollute themfelves by 
 touching them. With the fame 
 intention they took care to whiten 
 the Sepulchres anew every year on 
 the 15th o{ February, Matth. xxii. 
 27. Luke ix. 44. The Greeks ufed 
 to inter their dead without the ci- 
 ties, by the fides of their high- 
 ways. Sometimes indeed, by way 
 of particular honour, they were 
 buried in an elevated part of the 
 town ; and the Lacedemonians were 
 allowed by Lycurgus to bury in the 
 city, and round their temples : 
 But this was forbidden among the 
 Romans by the law of the twelve 
 tables, Jn urle ne fepelito, ne-'ue u- 
 rito', yet Valerius Publicola, Poji- 
 humus Tubertius, and the family of 
 the Clauaii, were buried in the 
 Capitol. To bury by the fides of 
 public roads was common among 
 the Romans alfo ; hence their epi- 
 taphs frequently began with Jijie 
 •viator. Highways were made 
 choice of probably for two reafons, 
 J. That the dead might not be of- 
 fenfive or injure the health of the 
 living ; which they certainly 
 would 
 
SES 
 
 would ifburied in towns or popu- 
 lous places. And, 2dly, That 
 they might hold out to travellers a 
 IcfTon of mortality, and teach the 
 ruftic moralift to die. Befides Se- 
 pulchres, the Antients were defir- 
 ous offuperb monuments to pre- 
 ferve their names from oblivion. 
 See Monument, Burial, Burning, 
 funeral. Epitaph, Mau/oleum. 
 
 Seraphs and Seraphim, were 
 Angels or Spirits of the higheft 
 rank, who, from their neamefs to 
 the throne of God, were fuppofed 
 to be the moit inflamed with Di- 
 vine Love, and to communicate 
 their fervors to the lower orders. 
 The word is derived from an He- 
 breiju root fignifying to burn or in- 
 flame. See Cherub. 
 
 Serra, among the Romans, was 
 a particular manner of drawing up 
 an army, in which the fiiil compa- 
 nies in front, beginning the en- 
 gagement, fometimes advanced, 
 and fometimes drew back, fo that 
 a lively fancy might find fome re- 
 femblance between them and the 
 teeth of a faw. 
 
 Servjtus, among the Romans, 
 was a fpecies of punifhment in 
 which the criminal was fold, and 
 all his goods expofed in public 
 audion. This feldom happened 
 to citizens, but was i^fually the 
 fate of captives taken in war. See 
 Punijhment. 
 
 SES 
 
 Sf Rvus. See Slaves. 
 
 Sestertium. See Sefiertiut*- 
 
 Sestertius, thQ /mall /ejierce^ 
 called alfo fimply numptus, was a 
 fmall Roman coin, of fjlver ; in 
 value it was the fourth part of the 
 denarius. It's value in Englijh mo- 
 ney was fomewhat above one 
 penny half-penny farthing, or 
 \d. 3 f . %. it originally contain- 
 ed two as's and a half. 
 
 Sejlertius is an abbreviation for 
 femijejlertius, which fignifies two^ 
 and an half of a third. Hence the 
 /efierce was denoted by LLS. ; the 
 two L's fignifying tvyo librx, or 
 OS's, and the S, half. ' The fcribes 
 at lail put an H for the LL's, and 
 marked the fejierce thus HS. It 
 was alfo marked IIS. and H-S. 
 
 There was alfo a \^rgtx fejierce^ 
 called fefiertiuin. The fejiertium 
 contained a thoufand times as 
 much as ihc /ejlertiust or 8/. is, 
 id. ^ of our money. In reckon- 
 ing ihe/ejlirtia, ox greater /ejlerces, 
 the numeral adjedlive fignilies no 
 more than it naturally Hands for j 
 but if the adverbs of number be 
 ufed, other adverbs of higher va- 
 lue are underltood. But the be^ 
 method of explaining this fubjeft, 
 will be to prefent a table contain- 
 ing the value of the fejiertii and 
 /ejiertia, as differently exprefled 
 by clafTic authors. 
 
 Sejiertius -----. 
 Decern . - - . - 
 Centum - - - - - 
 MilUi equal to Z^ fejiertium 
 
 SESTERTII. 
 
 - - - - - - oo : CO 
 
 - ----- oo : oi 
 
 - - _ - - - oo : 16 
 • 08 : 01 
 
 SESTERTIA. 
 
 08 : 
 
 80 : 
 
 Selenium ------ 
 
 Decern - - ^ - - - - 
 
 Centum, exprelTed by centum, centum I « 
 /efertia, 01 (tat majkilhafeferiium^ ' 
 
 S. 
 01 
 H 
 
 OS 
 
 D. 
 I : 
 
 7 • 
 J : 
 
 5 ' 
 
 D. 
 Sk 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 3i 
 
 DECIES 
 
S E S S E V 
 
 DECIES SESTERTIUM, &c. 
 With C E N T I E s underftood. 
 
 Deetesfejlertiumy 'ueldedes cen- ' 
 tena millia fiummum [ 
 
 Centies, vel ctnties HS - - - 
 MiWes HS ------ 
 
 MM'es centies HS ,- - - - 
 
 In fpeaking of funis above a 
 thoufand, the word fefiertium, or 
 its mark, is often underftood thus ; 
 millia is put for millia fejleriia. 
 Sometimes 7/iille or millia is under- 
 ftood, thus feptingenta ftands for 
 feplingenta Jnilliaj'ejiertia, When 
 numeral adverbs are ufed, adjec- 
 tives of number are often under- 
 ftood J thus HS bis et tricies ftands 
 for HS bis et tricies centena millia. 
 Where the fum is to be reduced to 
 nummi feflertii, both centum and 
 7nille are underftood, and decies, or 
 7f»,muftbemultip]ied by 100,000; 
 thus decies HS, multiplied in this 
 manner, is 1,000,000 nummi fef- 
 tertii. If the fum is to be reduced 
 Xo/ejlertia, the word centum being 
 underftood, it muft be multiplied 
 by 100 only. Thus decies HS, 
 multiplied according to this direc- 
 tion, is icoo fefiertia. 
 
 Mille Sejiertii is only lOQO /ef- 
 tertii ; but mille fejlertia is looo 
 times as much; aiiwii millies HS is 
 100,000 times as much, as ap- 
 pears by the table. 
 
 When the numeral letters have 
 a line over them, centena millia is 
 underftood, thus MC. HS ftands 
 for 1 10,000,000 /ejlertii ; whereas 
 HS MC, without the line, de- 
 notes only 1 \oo Jejlertii. 
 
 When the numbers are diftin- 
 ouifhed by poir.ts in two or three 
 difterent orders, the firft towards 
 the right-hand fignifies units, the 
 I'econd thoujands, and the third 
 hundred thoufands ; for inftance 
 III. XII. DC. HS denote 300,000, 
 
 8072 
 
 80729 
 80729 I 
 888020 
 
 S. 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 16 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 04 
 
 08 
 
 T2,coo and6ooHS, in all 3 1 2,600 
 fejlertii. 
 
 Some u'ill have it that there was 
 no fuch diftinflion known among 
 the Remans as that which 1 have 
 mentioned, hetw'wx. Jejlertius and 
 fejlertium : Stjlertius, fay they, im- 
 plies no more than asjejlertius, i. e. 
 two«/'jand an half, and is ufed ad- 
 jeftively ; and when ufed plurally, 
 as in quinquaginta fejitrtium ot fe/" 
 iertia, they aft"ert that it was only 
 by way of abbreviation, with mil- 
 lia underftood. This opinion is 
 not without probability. 
 
 The qualification for a Roman 
 Knight was 400,000 fejlerces^ for 
 a Senator 800,000. 
 
 The Jeftertius was fometimes 
 C&\\t<^ /ejiertius nummus. See Ma- 
 ney — Authors mention a copper 
 Jejlertius, worth abcut | of a pen- 
 ny Englijh. 
 
 Seflertius is alfo put for any thing 
 that contains two wholes and half 
 of another ; as as was frequently 
 ufed for a whole. See Js. 
 
 Seven, a number to which an 
 extraordinary degree of liolinefs 
 hath always been afcribed both by 
 the Hebrews and the Heathens. 
 Thus God ordered Noah to chufe 
 fe'ven pairs of clean animals and 
 bring them into the ark, and a pi- 
 geon was fent out every /even days, 
 to fee if the waters were abated. 
 Abraham fet apart y^f^a lambs for 
 Abimelech ; "Jacob ferved Laban 
 twice yif-ufw years; Cain was to be 
 revenged feven-fold, and Lamech 
 ek'ven times Ji'ven. Balaam erefted 
 
 /even 
 
SH A 
 
 SHE 
 
 /even altars, and ^^zxtd^ fcjtn bul- 
 iocks and feven rams ; "Joos 
 friends were alio commanded to 
 offer the fame number of the fame 
 animals. In Pkaraoh*s dream 
 there were fe-ven cows and /even 
 ears of corn. The Sabbath day 
 was appointed to be kept holy. 
 Extraordinary facrihces were gene- 
 ral lyy^i/^'w, or that number multi- 
 plied. The purifying fprinklings 
 were performed y^x/i"/? times. The 
 greateft number of feftivals laltcd 
 Je^jen days, and more ot them hap- 
 pened in the feventh month than 
 in any other. Many more in- 
 ftances might be produced of the 
 regard paid to the xi\xmhsT fe-ven \ 
 but enough has been faid to mew 
 that it was held facred, and was 
 full of myftery. 
 
 Sextans, the fixth part of the 
 Roman /is, which was divided al- 
 ways into twelve ounces or equal 
 parts, of which the Sextans con- 
 tained two. See As. 
 
 Sextans was alfo a .meafure con- 
 taining two ounces or Cyathi. 
 
 Sextarius, among the Romans, 
 was a meafure containing two 
 Cotyla or HerrAna. 
 
 Sextilis, the fixth month of 
 Rotnulus's year, but the eighth of 
 the year of A^«OTi2. It was under 
 the protection of Ceres, and was 
 called Augujl, in honour of Au- 
 gujlus, which name it llill retains. 
 See Month. 
 
 Shambles, called by the Ro- 
 mans Maceila, were publick build- 
 ings in which fldli and fi(h were 
 expofed to fale. The molt re- 
 markable buildings of this kind at 
 Rome were thofe upon the C (titan 
 and ^Efquilian hills. 
 
 Shaving was not praclifed a- 
 mong the Romans till the year of 
 the city 450, about which time 
 they Caufed barbers to come from 
 Sicily. Pliny informs us, that till 
 thea it had not been the cullom to 
 
 cut their hair, or to fhave. From 
 this negleft of their perfons we 
 may judge of the hard and grofs 
 life which they led. Julian once 
 called for a barber, and a barber 
 appeared, in a drefs far above his 
 condition ; but looking upon him 
 earnellly, and betraying great fur- 
 prize, he faid, " I called for a 
 barber, not for a Governor or 
 Senator." Univ. Anc Hiji. 
 
 The Hebrevus ufed to Ihave the 
 beard, the hair, and even thewhole 
 body. Levites on the day of their 
 confecration, and lepers at their 
 purification, fhaved all the hair off 
 their bodies. A woman, taken 
 prifoner in war, (haved her head 
 when (he married a "Jeiv. Sha- 
 ving was alfo ufual in times of 
 mourning or any great calamity. 
 The Greeks of both fexes fhaved 
 their heads before they were mar- 
 ried, and confecrated the hair to 
 their guardian gods. See Hair, 
 He ad- drefs, &c. 
 
 Shechinah, was that vifible 
 and glorious appearance under 
 which God was pleafed to mani- 
 ^txi himfelf to Adam and the an- 
 cient patriarchs. It feems to have 
 been a very fliining flame or a- 
 mazing fplendor, breaking out of 
 a thicK cloud, and is frequently 
 in Scripture dillinguifhed by the 
 name of the Glory of the Lord. It 
 was not itfeif a divine thing or 
 ray of divinity, but a fymbol or 
 fign of God's glorious prefence. 
 This was the pillar of fire and of 
 a cloud which attended the march 
 of the children of Ifrael from 
 Egypt; this was the glory which 
 beamed forth from between the 
 cherubims in the Holy of Holies; 
 this was the fire which appeared 
 to Mofes in the mid ft of the bufli. 
 Thefe feveral appearances of God 
 mentioned in the Pentateuch are 
 afcribed by the ancient fathers 
 and many other learned authors 
 
 to 
 
SHE 
 
 to the fecond perfon of the blefied 
 Trinity ; and they affirm that 
 whenfoever thedivinity vouchfafed 
 to make a vifible appearance it 
 was by the Logos. See Gen. iii. 8. 
 XV. 17. xvii. 22. Exod. xxiv. 16, 
 17. xxix. 46. iii. 2. xiv. 19. xl. 
 34, 35. Lf.'vit. ix. 23, 24. Exod. 
 xiii. 21, &c. 
 
 Shekel, the name of a weight 
 and a coin among the Je^ws. The 
 weight was equal to 9 p^wt. 2f gr. 
 Englijh Troy-iveight. The value 
 of the coin was equal to 2s. 3|-«'. 
 but the golden Jhckel was worth 
 I A \Si. bd. Every man from 
 twenty years old and above, rich 
 and poor alike, was to give an 
 ha!f-Jhekel as an offering unto the 
 Lord, for the raniom of his foul 
 or life. This contributed to fup- 
 ply necefTaries for the houfe and 
 public fervice of God, and the 
 people were enabled to pay it, at 
 its firft eftablifliment, out of the 
 fpoils of the Egyptians. The 
 Hehrevj doftors fay however that 
 it was a perpetual ordinance, and 
 yearly paid by all, except women, 
 bondmen, and children. It is the 
 D'ldrachmon mentioned Matth. xvii. 
 24. as a tribute, fee Didrachmon. 
 See Weight! and Money. 
 
 Tht Jhekel of the Sanduary does 
 not appear to have been a weight 
 diftindl from the c:Qtt^mon Jhekel, 
 but is made mention of to exprefs 
 a jull and exA&. Jhekel, fuch as that 
 was which was kept in the Sanc- 
 tuaryt as a ilandard, for the regu- 
 lation of other weights. See 
 Weight. 
 
 Shew-Bread, the loaves of 
 bread which the Prielt of tne week 
 put every Sabbath Day, upon the 
 golden table in the Sanftuary, be- 
 fore the Lord, in the Temple of 
 the Jetus. They were twelve in 
 number, and were oiFered to God 
 in the name of the twelve Tribes of 
 J/rael. They were fliaped like a 
 
 SHI 
 
 brick, were ten palms long, and 
 five broad, weighing about eight 
 pounds each. They were un- 
 leavened, and made of fine flour 
 by the Lewtes. The Pritfts fet 
 them on the table in two rows, fix 
 in a row, and put frankincenfe 
 upon them to preferve them from 
 moulding. They were changed 
 every S.ibbath, and the old ones 
 belonged to the Priefts upon duty. 
 Of this bread none but the Priefts 
 might eat, except in cafes of ne- 
 cefltty. It was called the Bread of 
 Faces, becaufe the tab!e of the 
 Jhetxi-bread, being almoil over a- 
 gainlt the ark of the covenant, 
 the loaves might be faid to be fee 
 before the face of God. The 
 original tabic was carried away 10 
 Babylon, but a new one was made 
 for the fecond Temple. It was of 
 wood overlaid with gold. This, 
 with the candleftick, and fome 
 other fpoils, was carried by Titus 
 to Rome. 
 
 Shields, among the Ancients, 
 were compofed either of wickers, 
 or light wood, or hides doubled 
 into feveral folds, and fortified 
 with plates of metal. Moll part 
 of the ai.cient bucklers feem to 
 have covered the whole body, but 
 thofe of Jrgos were the largeft. 
 Sometimes little bells hung upon 
 them, to ftnke terror into the 
 enemy. Shields were generally 
 ornamented with figures of gener- 
 ous and courageous animals, of the 
 celellial bodies, and all the works 
 of Nature. Soldiers always held 
 it highly difgraceful to lofe their 
 Shields ; hence the Spartan mo- 
 thers ufed to give this command 
 to their fons, n t«v, v) ett* rav ; 
 either bring this hack, or he brought 
 upon it : Alluding, at the fame 
 time, to the cuftom of carrying 
 dead foldiers from the field of bat- 
 tle upon their Shields. Theocritus 
 reprefents the infant Hercules as 
 having 
 
SHI 
 
 having a Shield for his cradle. 
 The principal parts of the buckler 
 Were the aJIv^, Itu?, Ue^iipc^Hx, 
 or KvyJ\<^, the circumference or 
 round ; the 0^<pa?^cf . or umSo, the 
 io/} jutting nut in the middle, on 
 which was fixed the E-oi^-cpuMcv, 
 of ufe in repelling weapons, and 
 bearing down the enemy ; and, 
 laftly, the TeXctfjiuv or Katup, 
 which was a thong of leather or 
 rod of metal reaching acrofs the 
 buckler, whereby it was hung up- 
 on the ihoulders. See Scutum. 
 
 Shjps, among the Ancients, 
 were divided into Monocrota and 
 PolycTota, the former having only 
 one tire of oars, the latter feveral, 
 from two or three, to twenty, 
 thirty, or even forty : Such a vef- 
 ftl as the laft we have an account 
 of in Philopater, which required 
 no lefs than four thoufand men to 
 row it. The learned differ much 
 about the manner in which the 
 ranksof oars were difpofed. Some 
 will have them to have been placed 
 long ways, like the ranks of oars 
 in modern galleys ; others are of 
 opinion, that the ranks of the Bi- 
 rttnes, Triremes, ^uinqueremes. Sec. 
 were fet one above another, not 
 perpendicularly, but obliquely, 
 and, as it were, by ileps; and this 
 they prove from many paflages in 
 ancient authors; but, what is ftill 
 inore decifive, this opinion is con- 
 firmed by ancient monuments, 
 efpecially Trajan's Pillar, which 
 reprefents thele ranks one above 
 another. It is eafy to conceive, 
 that there tnuft have been an al- 
 mcft infuperable difficulty in work- 
 ing vefleis of extraordinary fize, 
 fuch as thofe, for inftance, oi Pto- 
 lomy Phiiopator, King of Egypt, 
 and Hiero, King of Syracu/e. The 
 VeiTels of Hiere were built by the 
 direftion of Archimedes, one of 
 which had twenty ranks of oars, 
 and the other forty. This laft 
 
 SHI 
 
 was 280 cubits long, 38 broad, and 
 50 cubits high. The oars of thofe 
 in the highefl rank were 38 cubits 
 in length, tho' there was only a 
 fingle man to each oar. Vegetius 
 reckons, among fhips of a reafon- 
 able fize, and fit for war, only the 
 ^inqu£re?nes and thofe of lefs rank. 
 The ^hiinque>emes had each 4.20 
 men on board ; three hundred of 
 whom were rowers, and the reft 
 foldiers. The Roman fleet at Me/- 
 Jina confided of 330 of thofe fhips, 
 and that of the Carthaginians at 
 Lilybisum of 350 of the Tame fize. 
 Each vefTel was an hundred and 
 fifty feet long. Thus 130,000 
 men were contained in the one, 
 and 150,000 in the other, with, 
 provifions, and the necefTary ftorea 
 of every kind. What a grand ideas 
 does this give us of the ancient 
 naval armaments ! Yet this is the 
 account given by Polybius, who 
 exprefTes his own wonder at his 
 own relation. From the time o£ 
 AuguJ}us, the Romans feldom made 
 ufe of velTels with more ranks of 
 oars than the Triremes and the Bi^ 
 remes. The (hips called Liburnte 
 were adopted, as proper for en- 
 gagements. The larger fhips of 
 war were called Halves Longa. 
 Some of thefe bad hatches, and 
 others none. Thofe which had 
 hatches were called Teila or Con- 
 Jirata, by the Greeks xalaipp^xlo* t 
 Thofe which had no hatches were 
 by the Romans named Jperta, bjr 
 the Greeks a(pfuy%i. Sometimes 
 we find mention made of Na-ves 
 Turrittt', thefe had turrets upon 
 their decks, from whence the fol- 
 diers ufed ail forts of weapons and 
 engines. All fhips of war in ge- 
 neral were Rojlrata, or armed 
 with Rojira. bee Rojlrum. 
 
 For an account of the officers and 
 failors, fee Officers and Sailors. 
 
 The Romans firft applied them- 
 
 felves to the building of fhips ia 
 
 » S the 
 
SHO 
 
 the firft Pukic war, and foon be- 
 came a formidable naval power. 
 
 Shirts, were not worn by 
 Jenus, Greeks, or Romans, but their 
 place was fupplied by thin Tunica 
 of wool. The want of linen a- 
 inong the ancients made frequent 
 wafliings and ablutions necefTary. 
 
 Shoes, among the Jews, were 
 of leather, linen, rufh or wood ; 
 tboie of foldiers were fometimes of 
 brafs or iron. The Hebreivs, ge- 
 nerally fpeaking, had their legs as 
 well as feet covered when in the 
 field, and in cities. To put off 
 the ihoes from their feet was an 
 aft of reverence to the majelly of 
 God ; and was alfo a fign of 
 mourning. To bear their ihoes 
 after them or untie the latchets, 
 was the meaneft fervice that could 
 be performed for any one. The 
 man who refufed to raife up feed 
 to his deceafed brother by marry- 
 ing his widow, had his ihoes 
 plucked off by her for refufing. 
 The ihoes of the Jeius, like thofe 
 of the Greeks and Romans, were tied 
 with thongs under the foles of the 
 feet. A man pulling off his ihoe, 
 and giving it to his neighbour, 
 ijgnified that he thereby made over 
 his right of poiTefiing that land, 
 or fetting his foot upon it, as the 
 owner or proprietor of it j and 
 this was an ufual ceremony in re- 
 deeming lands, or in contrads. 
 Ruth iv. 7. 
 
 Among the Greeks, AtajSaSjia 
 were a kind of ihoes worn indif- 
 ferently by men or women. San- 
 dals, "ZavbotKot., were the ihoes of 
 heroines, or of rich and gay wo- 
 men. 'BXa.vloti were worn only in 
 ihe houfe. Kohtto^ej were low and 
 flight like the former, negt^^^t^; 
 were worn by ladies of diilinftion. 
 JHfyttntti belonging to military 
 j>eople. A^0v?^at were large and 
 cafy fhoes. ncfcrixeti were worn 
 hy courtezans, of » white colour. 
 
 SIB 
 
 AciK0inKi}n were red ihoes worn by 
 the Lacedemonians. Ku^^Mivut 
 were worn by pesfants. E/AjSolat 
 were worn by comedians, anfwer- 
 ing to the Socci of the Romans. 
 E/xjSaJsj, called alfo Cothurni, 
 were the high ihoes or buikins of 
 tragedians. The Grecian ihoes in 
 general came up to the middle of 
 the leg. 
 
 The ihoes of the Romans, like 
 thofe of the Jenus and Greeks, co- 
 vered half of the leg, were open 
 before, and tied with thongs called 
 corrigia. They made a point of 
 having the ihoe apply clofely to 
 the foot, and often made ufe of 
 wool, &c. for that purpofe. Black 
 fhoes were worn by the citizens of 
 ordinary rank, and white ones by 
 the women. Red ihoes were fome- 
 times worn by the ladies, and pur- 
 ple ones by the coxcombs of the 
 other fex. Red ihoes were put on 
 by the chief magiitrates cf Rome, 
 on days of ceremony and triumphs. 
 The ihoes of Senators, Patricians, 
 and their children, had a crefcent 
 upon them which ferved for a 
 buckle, thefe were called calcei lu- 
 nati. Slaves wore no ihoes, hence 
 they were called cretati, from their 
 duity feet. Phodon alfo, and Gala 
 Vticenjis, went without ihoes. The 
 toes of the Roman ihoes bent a 
 little backwards and ended in a 
 point, hence they were called cal' 
 ceiy rejirati, rtpandi. Sec. 
 
 The different kinds of ihoes a- 
 mong the Romans were the calcei 
 muUei, calcei lunati, Jolece, fandals, 
 cothurni, caliga, galicee, crepida, 
 jocci, per ones, ocrea, campagi. Sec. 
 moft of which will be found under 
 their proper heads. 
 
 Shows 0/ tf^ild BeaJIs. See 
 
 Beafts. 
 
 SiBYLL-ffi, were certain entbu- 
 fiaftic virgin propheteiTes who gave 
 oracles, which were held in the 
 bjghell veneration by the An- 
 cients. 
 
SIG 
 
 SIG 
 
 cicnts. The Romans kept their 
 books with infinite care, and con- 
 fulted them on great occafions 
 with the utmoft credulity. Tar- 
 quin committed the Bibylline books 
 to the cullody of two priefts, ap- 
 pointed for that very purpofe out 
 of the Patricians. Authors are not 
 agreed as to the number of Silyylls; 
 feme reckon two. Erophyle, of 
 Troy, called Sybilla Phrygia ; and 
 Sinuachia, of Erythrts, called Si- 
 bylla Erythaa. To thefe others 
 add the Perjian, Delphic, Libyan, 
 Cunntan, Samian, Cuman, Hellef- 
 pontic, and Tihurtine, denominat- 
 ing them from the places of their 
 nativity. The Erytkraan, Del- 
 phic, and Cumaan are the moft fa- 
 mous. 
 
 The Sibylline Grades feem to 
 have been compiled to anfwer cer- 
 tain political purpofes; little ftrefs, 
 therefore, ought to be laid on the 
 prophecies which they are faid to 
 contain concerning the MeJJiab. 
 
 SiCERA, an inebriating liquor 
 among the y^ivj, fuppofed by ma- 
 ny to be palm-wit)e. 
 
 SiDEROMANcy, 3 fpccies of 
 divination, performed by burning 
 ftraws, &c. on red-hot iron, in 
 which operation conjeflures were 
 formed from the mahi)er of their 
 burning, &c. 
 
 SiGiLLARiA, fealls in honour 
 of Saturn, celebrated after the Sa- 
 turnalia. At this feftival little 
 ftatues of gold, filver, &c. were 
 facriSced to the god, inftead of 
 men, v.'hich had been the ufual 
 viflims, till Hercules changed the 
 cruel cuftom. See Saturnalia. 
 
 SiGNA, ftandards or enfigns a- 
 mong the Greeks, were of different 
 kinds ; fome had the reprefenta- 
 tion of different animals, bearing 
 fome relation to the cities they be- 
 longed to : The /Athenians, for in- 
 ftance, bore an owl ; the Thebanst 
 ^/phinxj the Ptrjians, a fuv* Su( 
 
 the moll frequent eniigtl araon^ 
 the Greeks was a purple coat upon 
 the top of a fpear. The flag or 
 ftandard elevated, was a fignal to 
 begin the battle; and the Itandard 
 depreffed, was a fignal to defill. 
 
 The Itandards, among the Ro- 
 mans, were of various forts alfo. 
 Some had an image of the Empe- 
 ror, id which cafe the ftandard- 
 bearers were called Imagini/eri. 
 Others had a hand ftretched out, 
 the bearers of which were called 
 Signiferi. Some had a filver eagle, 
 and then the enfign-bearers were 
 called Aquiliferi. Others had a 
 dragon, with a head of filver, and 
 a body of taffety, which move4 
 with the wind like a real dragon; 
 the bearers of this enfign were cal- 
 led Draconarii. The Emperor's 
 enfign was called Labarum, and 
 the bearers of it Labariferi. Thi» 
 was of a purple colour, befet with 
 gold fringe, adorned with gems, 
 and only carried when the Empe- 
 ror went in perfon to the field. In 
 the rude ages of Rome a manipulusi 
 or wifp of ftraw, was the enfign; 
 this was afterwards changed to a 
 hand, or a fpear, with a tranfverfe 
 piece at the top like a crofs ; be- 
 low the tranfverfe part was fome- 
 times an orbicular fhield, contain- 
 ing images of the gods. Augujius 
 ufed a globe to imply the conqueft 
 of the world. The enfign of the 
 horfe was not folid like thofe of 
 the foot foldiers, but a cloth, like 
 our colours, fpread on a ftaff, on 
 which were commonly the names 
 of the Emperors in golden or pur- 
 ple letters. The common enfign 
 of the whole legion was an eagle 
 of gold or filver, with a thunder- 
 bolt in its talons. All the enfigns 
 were mounted upon a fpear, fharp 
 at the end, that it might be fixed 
 in the ground with more eafe. 
 The ftandards were always prc- 
 ferved with moft religious care; 
 
 * S 2 the 
 
SIL 
 
 thefoldicrsworfliipped them, Twore 
 by them, and incurred certain 
 death if they loft them. 
 
 Signals have been in ufe in 
 all ages for conveying intelligence 
 from place to place, or conveying 
 ideas to one another, by figns mu- 
 tually agreed upon. The fignals 
 were either vocal or vifible. Vo- 
 cal fignals were the tejjera, found- 
 ing fhells, trumpets, pipes, &c. 
 Vifible fignals were made by mo- 
 ving the head, clapping the hands, 
 pointing their pikes in the field of 
 battle. Fires and flambeaux were 
 vfed in the night. The fignal for 
 battle among the Romans was a 
 purple coat of arms ftuck on the 
 General's pavilion. The eleva- 
 tion of the flandard was a fignal 
 for battle among the Greeks, and 
 the depreffion of it was the fignal 
 to defift. See Tejfera. 
 
 SiGNiFERi. See Signa. 
 
 SiLiCERNiuM, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a feaft of a private na- 
 ture, provided for the dead fome 
 time after the funeral. It coniill- 
 ed of beans, lettuces, bread, eggs, 
 &c. Thefe were laid upon the 
 tomb, and they foo!i(hly believed 
 the dead would come cut for the 
 repaft. What was left was gene- 
 rally burnt on the ftore. The 
 word filicernium is derived ^rom 
 Jilex and cana, i. e. a fupper upon 
 a ftone. Eating what had thus 
 been provided for the dead, was 
 efteemed a mark of the moft mi- 
 ferable poverty. A fimilar enter- 
 tainment was made by the Greeks 
 at the tombs of the deceafed j but 
 jt was ufual among them to treat 
 the ghofts with the fragments from 
 the teaft of the living. See Fune- 
 ral, Inferia. 
 
 Silk was firft worn at Rome by 
 Heliogabalus, who had an imperial 
 Tobe made entirely of filk, wtiich 
 was then called Holojerka, becaufe 
 filk came from Sereu cow called 
 
 SIT 
 
 Cathay. Silk in thofe times was 
 fold for its weight in gold. In 
 Aurelian's reign the price was not 
 much diminifhed. He would not 
 fuffer his wife to wear a robe of 
 filk dyed in purple. 
 
 SiMPLODiARiA, among the 
 Romans, were a kind of funeral 
 honours paid to the decealtd at 
 their obfequies, confiiling chiefly 
 of dancing, j^raping, vaulting, &c. 
 
 SiMPULUM, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a veflcl like a cruet, 
 made with a long handle, and 
 ufed at facrifices and libations, for 
 taking a very little wine at a time. 
 
 S.IN-0FFERING. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Sjstrum, in ancient concerts, 
 was made ufe of for beating time. 
 It was a plate of founding metal, 
 of an oval form. The upper part 
 was adorned with the figure of a 
 cat, with a human face in the 
 middle, the head of Ifis on the 
 right, and that of Nephthys on the 
 left. It was filled with wires, 
 which beat againft the plate when 
 ftiaken. 
 
 SiTiciNEs, among the Romans^ 
 were certain muficians who attend- 
 ed funerals. Spme of them found- 
 ed the trumpet, and others the 
 flute or pipe. See Funeral. 
 
 SiTONJE, Athenian officers ap- 
 pointed lo lay in corn for the uf§ 
 of the city. The money for the 
 cccafion was furniflied by the t«- 
 //c»«5 T>5; dtomiaiu^, or the public 
 treafurcr. 
 
 SiTOPHYLAX, an Athenian ma- 
 giftrate, who fuperiniended the 
 corn, to take care that no peifon 
 bought morethiin was peceflary for 
 his family. The laws prohibited 
 particular perfons from buying 
 more than fifty meafures or (pop/^«» 
 of wheat: To prevaricate in this 
 was a capital crime. The Sitophy- 
 laces were fifteen in number, 'viz. 
 Ten for the city, and five for the 
 Firaus.—They regulated the price 
 
SLA 
 
 of meal, and appointed the afTize 
 of bread. 
 
 Slaves, among the HebreivSf 
 were of two forts; thofe taken in 
 war or purchafed, which might be 
 kept, exchanged, fold, or difpofed 
 of by their raafters as their own 
 proper goods ; and thofe who thro' 
 poverty fold themfelves, or were 
 fold to pay their debts, or were 
 delivered up by their parents for 
 flaves in cafes of necefiity. The 
 flavery of this fecond fort only 
 continued till the year of Jubileey 
 unlefs they chofe to continue in 
 the capacity of flaves, in which 
 cafe they had their ears bored with 
 an awl againft their mafter's door- 
 pofls. Hebrew fljves were alfo 
 entitled to their liberty in the Sab- 
 batical Tear, if they chofe to ac- 
 cept it. It was ufual to have a 
 market for flaves, where men and 
 women were expofed to fale. Thus 
 Potiphar bought Jc/eph of the Ijh- 
 maelttes, to whom his brethren 
 had fold him, Gen. xxxvii. 27, 36. 
 xxxix. 1. There is alfo mention 
 made of fervants bought with mo- 
 ney. Gen. xxiii. 27. To the cuf- 
 tom of buying flaves the Apollle 
 alludes, when he fays, we are 
 bought 'with a price, viz. the 
 Blood of Chriji, and therefore are 
 bound to obedience, 1 Cor. vi. 20. 
 Matth. xviii. 25. We are in- 
 formed, by travellers, that mar- 
 kets fc: flaves are Hill concinued 
 in the Eaft. See Jubilee, Sab- 
 batical Tear. 
 
 Slaves, among the AtbenianSy 
 were of two forts, the Pelata, who 
 were freemen, by poverty reduced 
 to fervitude^ and flaves properly 
 fo called. For an account of the 
 Pelata, fee Pelata. 
 
 The fecond fort of flaves were 
 wholly in their mafter's power, 
 they were confldered as properry, 
 had no hopes of obtaining liberty 
 for themfelves or their pofterity ; 
 
 SLA 
 
 but continued in a condition little 
 better than that of beads. It was 
 deemed an unfufferable piece of 
 impudence for flaves to imitate 
 freemen in their drefs, behaviour, 
 or the manner of cutting their 
 hair. The particular form in 
 which they cut their hair was cal- 
 led 6f»| a>Jpo7r«^»j;. The love of 
 boys, which was efteemed honour- 
 able among freemen, was forbid- 
 den to flaves. Slaves could nei- 
 ther plead for themfelves, nor 
 give evidence in any caufe ; yet 
 they were frequently tortured to 
 excite confcflions. They were 
 not allowed to communicate in 
 the worfliip of certain deities ; 
 they were excluded for inflance 
 from the worfliip of the Eumenides 
 at Athens, and of Hercules in like 
 manner at Rome. They were not 
 permitted to learn the liberal arts, 
 their whole learning being a leflbn 
 of fervile obedience ; yet genius 
 fometimes broke through all thefe 
 reftraints, as we fee in the works 
 o^ jEfop, Anacharjis, EpiSletus, &c. 
 Slaves were not allowed to bear 
 any name in ufe among free-born 
 citizens J hence when they obtain- 
 ed their liberty their fervile names 
 were changed for others which had 
 more fyllables. They were never 
 fuffered to bear arms, becaufethis 
 might have been dangerous to the 
 ftate, fince their number exceeded 
 by twenty times that of the citi- 
 zens ; fometimes indeed they were 
 permitted to arm in defence of 
 their mailers. Defertion to the 
 enemy and theft werepuniflied by 
 tying the offender to a wheel, and 
 whipping him with the greateft: 
 feverity. The fcourge was a fre- 
 quent punifliraent inflifted on 
 flaves, and for heinous offences 
 they were condemned to grind at 
 the mill, or rather to beat the 
 grain into meal, which was a moft 
 laborious employment. Slaves 
 
 were 
 
SLA 
 
 were frequently branded or dig- 
 matized, fometimes by way of 
 punifhment, and fometimes to dif- 
 tinguiJh them in cafe of defertion. 
 The tem^ple of Thefeus was an Afy- 
 lum for flaves, and they had alio 
 the privilege of commencing fuits 
 againfl their maflers for inhuman 
 treatment at Athens. They were 
 alfo permitted to get eftates, pay- 
 ing a fmall tribute to their mailers 
 every year. Faithful flives were 
 often rewarded by their mailers 
 with freedom ; and for any fignal 
 fcrvice to the llate, they had liber- 
 ty beflpwed upon them by the pub- 
 lic. While they continued under 
 the abfolute government of their 
 mailers, they were called 0»xelai»; 
 but after freedom had been grant- 
 ed them, they received the name 
 of A8?^os, being only bound to 
 fome fmall fervices. 
 
 The flaves of Sparta, called He- 
 Uia, are mentioned under the ar- 
 ticle Helots. 
 
 Among thj; Romans, flaves were 
 diftinguiihed into three forts ; 
 thofe who had been taken in war, 
 who were ufually fold by auiElion; 
 thofe bought of dealers, who traf- 
 ficked for them in the markets; 
 and thofe who were born of other 
 flaves in their mailer's houfe. To 
 thefe may be added fuch as being 
 free voluntarily fold themfelves, 
 or became flaves to their creditors. 
 The flaves who were expofed to 
 fale in the public market feme- 
 times wore a garland on their 
 heads, to fignify that they were to 
 be fold ; fometimes a hat or cap, 
 which implied that the feller would 
 warrant them ; and fometimes 
 they had a label banging at their 
 necks, fpecifying their good and 
 bad properties, feal:h and infir- 
 mities. Such flaves as were brought 
 from beyond fea to be fold, had 
 their feet rubbed with chalk, 
 h^oce they were called Cretaii. 
 
 SLA 
 
 The flaves were once entirely fub- 
 jefted to their mailer's will, fo 
 that they were liable to be killed, 
 pr put to the mofl exquifite tor- 
 tures, and, in cafe of ficknefs, to 
 be abandoned, and fent to the 
 ifland of JE/culapius, which is 
 in the river Tiber, with the 
 wretched confolation of refied- 
 iog that with the recovery of their 
 health they might regain their 
 liberty. But the Emperor J- 
 drian made it death to kill 9 
 flave without fufficient caufe ; and 
 the Emperor Claudius decreed, 
 that if any flave was by his mailer 
 abandoned in ficknefs, he fliould 
 be declared free in cafe of recove- 
 ry. Slaves had four bufliels of 
 corn per month allowed them for 
 fubiillence, and whatever they 
 fpared out of this became their 
 own property under the name of 
 Peculium. Whatever they could 
 earn after finifliing the work pre- 
 fcribed by their mailers became 
 theirs alfo under the fame name. 
 It was death for Roman flaves to 
 enter into military fervice, tho', 
 in cafes of urgent neceflity, this 
 was allowed. The common pu- 
 nifliment of flaves was whipping, 
 during which they were tied by 
 the arm-pits, and a weight fallen- 
 ed to their feet to prevent them 
 from kicking thofe that fcourged 
 them. To prevent revolts, they 
 were prohibited from holding af- 
 femblies, or having fealls among 
 themfelves. If a mailer was kil- 
 led by one of his flaves, not only 
 they who were aftually in the 
 houfe were to be executed, but 
 fuch alfo as were made free by his 
 will, if in the houfe at the time of 
 the murder, fuffered the fame fate. 
 Slaves were oftentimes fkilled in 
 arts and fcicnces, and were em- 
 ployed in different ways according 
 to their qualifications ; fome, for 
 inftance, inftrutted their mailer's 
 childreOj 
 
SLI 
 
 children, others performed the of- 
 fice of Amanuenjis, Sec. But the 
 greatcft number was empioyed in 
 the cultivation of lands and coun- 
 try bufinefs. Slaves fometimes 
 rented their mafter's land, and 
 kept the overplus that remained, 
 after fatisfying the owner. There 
 were alfo public flaves belonging 
 to the ftate, who were employed 
 in public works. Slaves obtain- 
 ed their liberty by will, or in gra- 
 titude for good offices, or by pur- 
 chafe. In times of fcarcity, ava- 
 ricious mailers made their flaves 
 free, that they might thro' them 
 partake more largely in the month- 
 ly dirtributions of corn, &c. Some 
 gave freedom to their flaves by 
 will, with a vain intention of 
 augmenting their funeral pomp, 
 becaufe at funerals the freed men 
 conltantly attended. The aft ©f 
 making a flave free was called 
 ManumiJJion ; the principal cere- 
 mony attending it was a ftroke on 
 the head with the Vindiiia. See 
 Manumijpon and VrndiQa. 
 
 Upon being made free, they 
 were immtdiately infcribed in the 
 Praetor's Jiti, and became citizens; 
 but if they failed in paying refpeft 
 to their former maftets, they were 
 obliged either to return intoflavery 
 again, or fent to work in the 
 mines. The freedmen were called 
 Liberti, and their children Liber- 
 tini. It is to be obferved that 
 ilaves, together with freedom al- 
 ways received a new name. See 
 Name. 
 
 Sleep, it was cuftomary among 
 the Romans to fleep in the middle 
 of the day, and for that purpofe 
 they had apartments diflind irora 
 their bed-chambers. 
 
 Slimg, an inllrument u(ed by 
 the Ancients in war. It was made 
 up of two firings, having a little 
 pouch, like a net, in the middle, 
 for holding the ftone, which was 
 
 soc 
 
 to be call out of it. The CIngcrs 
 were a part of the RomoK militia. 
 In the iflands of Majorca and Mi- 
 norca, called Balearic the art of 
 flinging was pradlifed with won- 
 derful iuccefs; even the children^ 
 after they were lirong enough to 
 whirl a fling, were not allowed to 
 eat till they had with their fling* 
 flruck their breakfafl, and brought 
 it from the beam on which it was 
 placed as a mark. — Strabo tells us 
 that thefe people ufed three kinds 
 of flings, fome longer and others 
 fliorter, according to thedillance; 
 and that they wore the firft as a 
 head-band, the fecond as a girdle, 
 and the third was carried in the 
 hand. 
 
 Snails were a very common 
 difli at the Roman tables, and fome 
 very grave authors of antiquity 
 have told us the methods ofed to 
 fatten them. Fulvius Hirpitms^ 
 according to Pliny, had fludied 
 that art with {o much fuccefs, that 
 the fliells of fome of his fnails 
 would contain about ten quarts. 
 We find fnails mentioned in a 
 philofophical bill of fare of Pliny 
 himfeU. This food is flill in high 
 repute in fome parts oi S<uiitzer- 
 lanJ. 
 
 Snow was ufed "by the Romcuis, 
 not only to cool their liquors, buc 
 their ftomachs alfo, after having 
 enflamed themfelves with high 
 eating. This cuftom ftili prevails 
 in Italy, efpecially at Naples, where 
 a fcarcity of fnow would be coo- 
 fldered as a calamity. 
 
 Soccus, among the Romans, 
 was a high flioe worn by aSors, in 
 the ancient Drama, in reprefent- 
 ing comic charadlcrs. It is ufed 
 in oppofltion to CottburKus, the 
 tragedian's buikin; and fometimes 
 Uands for comedy itfelf, as Ca- 
 tburnus does for tragedy. The 
 Soccus reached above the ancle, 
 but not fo high as the Cothurnus, 
 whick 
 
soc 
 
 soc 
 
 which may be confiJered as inti- 
 mating that comedy muft talk in a 
 humbler ftyle than tragedy — the 
 Seek is lower than the Bujhn. See 
 Cothurnus- 
 
 Soccus and Soccuhs were alfo a 
 fort of (hoes worn by the Roman 
 ladies, and by thofe of Greece alfo. 
 
 The Romans alfo wore Avaths or 
 bands to cover the leg down to the 
 Soccus. Thefe bands they called 
 Soccelli. 
 
 Socii, among the Romans, were 
 fuch States as were in alliance with 
 the Commonwealth of R':me. In 
 the time oS Polyhius, all Italy was 
 fubjefl to the Romans ; yet n:) Hate 
 or people in it had been reduced 
 into the fr^rm of a province, but 
 retained in general their own Jaws 
 and governors. End were termed 
 8ocii or confederates. The con- 
 federate troops vi^xe. raifed at the 
 Same time the levies were made in 
 Rome, on the ConfuPs giving no- 
 tice of the number of forces they 
 fhould have occbfioci /or to the 
 cities of the allies, together with 
 the time and place cf rendezvous. 
 The ftates accordingly convened 
 their men, chofs their number, 
 and gave the oatlv, appointing a 
 commander in chitf and a pay- 
 mafler-general. The Scdi receiv- 
 ed no confideration for their fer- 
 vice, but a diliribution oi corn. 
 The Auxilia diffared from the So- 
 cii, as being borrowed at a certain 
 pay from foreign Princes and 
 States. The name of Socii in time 
 ceafed, all the natives Oi Jtaly be- 
 ing accounted Romans, and ho- 
 noured W!th the Jfus Ci'vilatis, 
 See Auxilia. 
 
 SocRATic Philofophers, were 
 fuch as adopted the doftrines of 
 Socrates, who was the moft amiable 
 of all the ancient profeifors of 
 philofophy. His mind was en- 
 larged, liberal, candid, and de- 
 voted to the inveftigation of moral 
 
 truth. The Socratic philofophy 
 oblerved a due medium betwixt 
 the vain curiofity of the Natural- 
 ills of thofe times, and the empty 
 orientation of the Sophifts. The 
 intention of Socrates was to in- 
 fluence the conduft, and improve 
 the heart. For this purpofe he 
 made ufe of dialogue, which he 
 managed with the utmoft delicacy, 
 ingenuity, and addrefs. He dif- 
 guifed his drift till his antagonift 
 had made fuch conceffions as juf- 
 tified his praftical conclufions. 
 He aflerted the being, omnipo- 
 tence and omnifcience of God, 
 and held that he made the world 
 by his power, fupports it by his 
 providence, and is an attentive 
 ob.'erver of the adions of his 
 creatures. Man, he faid, was 
 pofTeiTed of an immortal foul, 
 which had fomething in it of the 
 divinity ; by which it was enabled 
 to know its creator, obferve his 
 will, and rife to the moft fublime 
 conceptions. He held that the 
 foul, upon leaving the bcdy, re- 
 turned to heaven, and enjoyed a 
 degree of felicity proportioned to 
 its improvements in virtue. This 
 was the folid foundation on which 
 he erected morals. He placed all 
 real good in moral fcience, and 
 faid that the true end and ufe of 
 knowledge was to corred the will. 
 He made the worlhip of the gods 
 confilt in obedience to their wills, 
 aflerted what was juft and what 
 was ufeful to be the fame things 
 and placed all tranquillity of mind 
 in the practice of our duty. He 
 held that the divine will was 
 trar.fcribed upon the human hearty 
 and confequently, that to obey 
 the dictates of realbn and the 
 fuggeftions of our own feelings was 
 obedience to the laws of heaveD. 
 He held that nothing is really 
 ufeful but that of which we are 
 capable of making a good ufe ; 
 
 that 
 
SOD 
 
 that riches ought to be applied to 
 purpofes truly beneficial ; that 
 paffions are the pefts of a ftate ; 
 that agricuicuie was intitled to 
 liberal encouragement; that the 
 greateft caution was neceffary in 
 the choice of a wife ; and that 
 women ought not to ramble from 
 home. Such were the doctrines 
 <if Socrates, as handed down to us 
 by bis difciples; the chief of whom 
 were Plato, Xenophon, Critias, Al- 
 cibiades, .'^/chines, Crito, Simon, 
 Cebes, Timon and others. But of 
 all his difciples Xenophon feems 
 moft fully to have imbibed his 
 fpirit, to have collected his opi- 
 nions with the greateft care, and 
 publiflied them with the moll ftu- 
 dious exaftnefs. Socrates appears 
 not to have opened a fchool, but 
 to have given his leflures wherever 
 he went, which he delivered ex- 
 tempore, or from memory ; for he 
 left no writings behind him. He 
 frequently aflerted, that on extra- 
 ordinary occafions he experienced 
 the aid of a Daemon or Genius, 
 which communicated wifdom, cou- 
 rage, and perfeverance by its 
 fecret whifpers. See Philo/ophy, 
 Damon, &c. 
 
 SoDALEs, among the Romans, 
 were members of any collegiate 
 body, particularly fits tradesmen 
 of the feveral companies. But 
 thofe who challenged that name 
 by way of eminence, were religi- 
 ous officers, inftituted to take care 
 of the feftivals and annual honours 
 of great men deceafed. Thus we 
 meet with Sodaies Titii, Sodales 
 Augujiales, Sodales Antoniani, Hel- 
 viani, Aiexandrini. See Auguf- 
 tales. 
 
 SoDALiTiA, among the Romans, 
 fometimcs fignihed an unlawful 
 making of parties at eledtions, 
 which was interpreted as a fort of 
 violence offered to the freedom of 
 the people. Againft this prance 
 
 SOL 
 
 tbe Lex Licinia dt SoJaJitiit was 
 enafted in the year of the city 692, 
 by M. Licittius Crajfus, when ha 
 was Con/ul with Cn. Pompey : This 
 law appointed a (Q\er& penalty. 
 
 Sojourners, among the Athe- 
 nians, were allowed to dwell ia 
 the city and follow their own bu* 
 finefs without diflurbance, provi-i 
 ded they obeyed the la^vs, and con- 
 formed to the cultoms of the coun- 
 try. But they had no fhare in 
 government, nor could tianfaflj 
 any concerns in their own names, 
 but were obliged to make choice 
 of fome perfon under whofe pro- 
 tection tney put themfelves, and 
 whofe duty it was to defend them 
 from all oppreflion. This perfon 
 to whom they committed them- 
 felves was called Projiates. See 
 Prejiates. 
 
 Solarium, among the Romans^ 
 was a piece of ground iu fome ele- 
 vated fituation, exp jfed to the 
 fun, and made very level, where 
 they ufed to walk for the fake of 
 air and exercife. Such walks they 
 ufually had on the tops of theic 
 houfes. See Houfe. 
 
 Soldiers, among the Romans, 
 were levied by th^Diiiator 01 Con- 
 fuls. On the day appointed, by 
 decree or proclamation, the ftand- 
 ard of war was raifed upon the 
 Capitol, and the levies made there, 
 or fometimes in the Campus Mar^ 
 tius. All the young men, capa- 
 ble of bearing arms, were obi ged 
 to be prefent on pain of a fine; to 
 fail was criminal during the Com- 
 monwealth. The funeral, how- 
 ever, of a near relation, or the 
 performance of certain religious 
 ceremonies, were admitted as fuf. 
 ficient excufes. None were ex- 
 empt from ferving io the army» 
 except fuch as had particular ex-> 
 emptions from the Senate, or were 
 lame, or fubjed to the falling fick- 
 nefst or had not atuiaed the aee 
 • T of 
 
SOL 
 
 of feventeen, or were turned of 
 forty-fix. Priefts were alfo excufed 
 from ferving, except they had war 
 with the Gauls, The officers who 
 made the levies chofe the foldiers, 
 hence Legio is derived from Legere, 
 and the levy was called Dele^us. 
 No foldier was admitted under the 
 height of five Roman feet and ten 
 inches, except in cafes of necefli- 
 ty. The men of the firft cohorts 
 of each legion were not under fix 
 feet;- but the Roman foot was ele- 
 ven inches and fix hundred and 
 four decimal parts of an inch Eng- 
 lijh. The foot were obliged to 
 ferve fixteen years, the horfe ten. 
 Soldiers were not obliged to ferve 
 aft«r the age of forty-fix, tinlefs 
 they defired to continue in the 
 fervice, in which cafe they were 
 ranked with the veterans or volun- 
 teers. Furlows of ten months 
 were frequent, on account of the 
 great diftance of one part of the 
 empire from another. A foldier 
 had no other judge but his officer. 
 Roman foldiers originally ferved at 
 their own expence ; but, becaufe 
 of the length of the fiege of Veli, 
 the infantry began to receive pay 
 about the 347th year of Rome, 
 The foot at firil had three /^Jfes a 
 day, and each Centurion fix. Five 
 or fix years after the cavalry began 
 to be paid alfo, and each horfeman 
 had three times the pay of a foot- 
 foldier. The pay was afterwards 
 augmented to two Oboli for the in- 
 fantry, and a Denarius for the ca- 
 valry ; but under the Emperors, 
 each foot-foldier had a Denarius^ 
 and each horfeman two. Every 
 thing was fo well regulated in the 
 camp, that the time for fleep was 
 fixed, no lefs than the time of 
 their meals. They all eat toge- 
 ther by tents, not being allowed 
 to cat feparately. Their food was 
 bacon, cheefe, and bifcuit, and 
 their drink water, mixed with a 
 
 SOL 
 
 little vinegar. The armour of the 
 foot-foldiers were helmets, cui- 
 rafles, a dagger on the right-fide, 
 and a long fword on the left ; 
 darts with long bucklers, a wicker 
 cafe containing a faw, an hedge- 
 bill, an hatchet, a pick-ax, a fic- 
 kle, a chain or leathern thongs, 
 with bread for three days. They 
 carried their bucklers hanging at 
 their backs, and their darts in 
 their hands, befides a ftake to 
 ferve as a palifade in their en- 
 trenchments, and fometimes three 
 or four tied together like a faggot. 
 The flakes had branches at the top, 
 which interwove into an hedge. 
 The horfemen wore a long fword 
 on the right fide, carried a fpear 
 in their hands, a fhield flung on 
 the fide of their horfes, a quiver 
 with three or more long darts with 
 broad Jpoints, a cuirafs and helmet 
 like thofe of the foot. — The Pala- 
 ria, mock fights, throwing the 
 javelin, running, leaping, &c, 
 were the exerciles of the foldiers 
 in the camp when not on duty. 
 In times of peace they were em- 
 ployed in public works, as making 
 roads, &c. to prevent habits of in- 
 dolence, to encreafe their ftrength, 
 and to preferve their health. They 
 had no phyficians in the army, but 
 the foldiers drefied each others 
 wounds with knov/n remedies ufed 
 in the city. The foldiers were 
 formed into Legions, which were 
 fubdivided into Cohorts, Manipu- 
 li. Centuries, and Decuria. The 
 cavalry were called Ala. For mi- 
 litary punilhments and rewards, 
 fee Punijhments, &c. 
 
 The advantages of a military 
 life, among the Romans, were very 
 confiderable, befides being efteem- 
 ed honourable; for foldiers were 
 entitled to their fhare of the plun- 
 der of cities,, conquered countries 
 were often divided amongft them, 
 fatms and houfes in provicces were 
 
 alfo 
 
SOP 
 
 &\Co given them, none could touch 
 their goods while they were abfent 
 in the camp, legacies were often 
 left them by the Emperors, dona- 
 tives were not infrequent, and 
 every brave man might expefi pro- 
 motion without the diftinftion of 
 birth. All thefe advantages, be- 
 fides their pay, cloaths, and prc- 
 vjfions, made the profeffion of 
 arms defirable. See Legion, Co- 
 hort, Oncers, Oath, Sacramentum. 
 SoLDURii, a kind of military 
 clients or retainers to the great 
 men in Gaul, who bound them- 
 felves to bear all the good or ill 
 fortune of their patrons, and fre- 
 quently died for them. They are 
 mentioned by defar. 
 
 SoLE^, were a fort of fandals 
 without upper leathers, covering 
 only the foles of the feet, and faf- 
 tened above with flraps and buc- 
 Ijles. The Solets were the ordi- 
 nary wear of the women, and 
 therefore held fcandalous in men, 
 except on occa/ions of mirth and 
 jollity, as at entertainments, pub- 
 lic fhews, &c. At thefeaftsof the 
 Romansy the Solex were always pul- 
 led ofF the feet of the guelh by the 
 flaves before they laid down upon 
 the table couches. See Accubatio. 
 Sophists was a name at firft 
 given to philofophers, and thofe 
 who were remarkable for their 
 wifdom : It was afterwards ap- 
 plied to rhetoricians, and laAly to 
 fach as fpent their time in verbal 
 niceties, logical conundrums, fri- 
 volous diftinftions, fententious 
 quibbles, and philofophical senig- 
 mas. For example there was a 
 famous problem amongd tlfft an- 
 cient Sophijis, called the Pfeudo- 
 menos, to this purpofe j " When a 
 man fays, / lie, does he lie, or 
 does he not lie? If he lies, he 
 fpeaks truth ; and if he fpeaks 
 truth, he lies." Many books were 
 wxitten to folve this wonderful 
 
 SOR 
 
 problem ; for Chryfeppus favoured 
 the world with no fewer than fix^ 
 and PhUetas ftudied himfelf to 
 death in his efforts to folve it. 
 Lucian's Dialogues, efpecially the' 
 n^acT*? Twv Btwy, afford us many 
 fpecimens of this kind of learned 
 nonfenfe. Even Arijiotle himfelf 
 was frequently impofed upon by 
 Sophifms of his own. Thus he 
 proves the earth to be the centre 
 of the univerfe ; " Heavy bodies 
 naturally tend to the centre of the 
 univerfe ; but we know by expe- 
 rience that heavy bodies tend to the 
 centre of the earth ; therefore, the 
 centre of the earth is the fame 
 with the centre of the univerfe.". 
 Sorcery. See Love, Magic, 
 Philtre, Witchcraft, &:c. 
 Sorrow. See Mourning. 
 SoRTES, amongft the Jenui, 
 Greeks, and Romans, were inftru- 
 ments made ufe of to fee what the 
 decifion of fortune fhould be. The 
 Sortes were of many different- 
 kinds ; fometimes arrows were 
 made ufe of, fometimes dice, and 
 various other things. The Old 
 Teftament contains certain com- 
 mands for the regulation of the 
 Series, or lots ; and the Scripture 
 informs us that the lot fell upon 
 Matthias, in the choice of an 
 Apoftle. The Sortes Pranejiina 
 were famous anjong the Greeks, 
 The method was to put a great 
 number of letters, or even words, 
 in an urn, fhake them together, 
 then throw them out, and the ar- 
 rangement of the letters, &c. com- 
 pofed the anfwer of this Oracle* 
 The Sortes Homer ica, Sortes Vir- 
 giliana, &c. fucceeded the Sortes 
 Pranejiina. In confulting Homer 
 or Virgil, as Oracles, the books 
 were opened, and whatever firft 
 prefented itfelf to the eye, was 
 taken for the ordinance of Heaven. 
 I cannot in this place forbear men- 
 tioning the V9ry remarkable an- 
 * T a fwers 
 
SPH 
 
 ^ers of the Sortes FirgiUiujte., to 
 King Charles I. and Lord Falk- 
 land, who, during their ftay at 
 Oxford, inthoretroublelome times, 
 by way of amureinent, propofed to 
 dip for their fortunes, after the 
 manner of the Ancienrs. Both 
 of them flumbled upon paffages 
 exactly fuited to their deftinies ; 
 that of the King was ^n. iv. 615. 
 &c. that of Lord Falkland was 
 jEn. xi. 152, &c. The reader is 
 deiired to perufe the lines. This 
 kind of divination was called Sor- 
 tilegium, Cleromancy, Rhapjodo- 
 mancy, &c. 
 
 SoRTiTio "Juditum. See Ju- 
 dtx, Judices, &c. 
 
 SoTERiA, were facrifices offer- 
 ed to the gods in gratitude for the 
 recovery of health. Poetical pieces, 
 coinpofed with the fame intention, 
 had alfo the fame name. 
 
 Sfecularia, a fort of window 
 cafements, made of tranfparent 
 Aone, called Specularis Lapis, in 
 ufe before glafs was introduced a- 
 mon^ the Romans. See t-f^indows. 
 Sfhjecvlje, tickets of wood, 
 according to which the Roman Em- 
 perors dirtributed their prefents to 
 people of both fexes, in the T/jea- 
 tre. Circus, &c. 
 
 SpH.ffi;RisTERiUM, was the fc- 
 renth part of the ancient Gymna" 
 /turn, where the young men prac- 
 tifed Tennis-playing. Whether the 
 Spharifiica differed from our Ten- 
 nis or not, is unknown. 
 
 Sphji;romachia, a particular 
 kind of boxing, wherein the com- 
 batants had balls of lead or ftone 
 in their hands, called £^ai^a». 
 This kind of boxing was praftiled 
 Ibmetimes among the Grecians. 
 
 Sphinx was a fort of Itatue in 
 Egypt, with the head of a woman 
 and the body of a lion, fignitying 
 that the river Nile began to fwell 
 in the months of July and Auguft, 
 «4tea tho fan pafles through th« 
 
 SPO 
 
 figns of Leo and Virgo. Several 
 of thefe Sphinxes are flill to be 
 feen ; one in particular near the 
 Pyramids, of a prodigious fize, and 
 cut into the rock itfelf ; The head 
 and neck only appear ac prefent, 
 the reft of the body being hid in 
 the fand. What is meant by the 
 Theban Sphinx is djfiicult to fay, 
 and requires another Oedipus to 
 explain. Some fuppofe it was a 
 robber, others a baftard daughter 
 of Laius, who for her wifdom was 
 preferred to examine the pre- 
 tenders to the crown, and to pu- 
 nifh, with death, thofe who could 
 not make out their title to it. 
 The poets have given her the 
 face, parts, and qualities of feveral 
 creatures; and the Egyptians make 
 her the hieroglyphic of wifdom 
 and flrength. Her riddle was, 
 " what creature is that which 
 goes in the morning npon four ; 
 at noon, upon two ; and in the 
 evening, upon three legs.*' Oedi- 
 pus very ingenioufly aniwered, *' ic 
 is man ; who, in his infancy, 
 crawls upon all four, walks after- 
 wards on two, till old age brings 
 him to his ftaff, which conllitutcs 
 three legs." This foluiion gained 
 him the government. 
 
 Spit HA ME, 2;7rt3a»/:*n> was a gre- 
 cian meafure of lergth, containing 
 about nine inches and an half. 
 Ses Meofure. 
 
 SpoiL. See Booty. 
 
 SpoLiA Opima, were the armour 
 of commanders in chief of the ene- 
 my ; but they were never called 
 by this name unlefs the Roman ge- 
 neral had killed the commander 
 with his own hand. In this cafe 
 the fpoils were hung up with much 
 ceremony in the temple of Jupi- 
 ter Feretrius. The firft who per- 
 formed this gallant piece of reli- 
 gion was Romulm, when he had 
 flain Acron'y the fecond Cornelius 
 Cojfusi when he ha4 flain Toluto' 
 
STA 
 
 niuj; the third and IsA was M. 
 MarceHus, when he had flain Firi- 
 domarui. The Spolia OfimUf in 
 the triumphal pomp, were carried 
 before the vidor, hanging on the 
 fiock of an oak, and fo compofing 
 a trophy. 
 
 Spondaula, a perfon who 
 played upon the flute or other 
 wind inllrument, while the Prieft 
 offered facrifice, to prevent him 
 from hearing any founds of ill 
 omen, &c. which might difturb 
 the ceremony or divert his atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Spondyli, pellets of brafs, 
 ufed by the Ancients in giving 
 fentence, before the beans came 
 into uie. 
 
 Sponsalia. See EfpoufaU. 
 
 Sportula, among ttie Romansy 
 was a dole of meat or money given 
 by princes or great men to the 
 people or the poor. This diftri- 
 bution was made on feafts or other 
 folemn days. Silver medals and 
 Denarii were fometimes given on 
 chefs occafions. The hmperors 
 bellowed gold medals. Con/uU, 
 when they entered upon their of- 
 hce, made diftributions of this 
 kind, attending them with fmall 
 pocket-books of filver or ivory, 
 called Fcjii. The word Sportula 
 iignifies a fmall balket, and is ap- 
 plied to fuch prefents, becaufe they 
 \vere fent in baflcets made of 
 broom. The bafket is alfo called 
 Sportum. 
 
 Spcnula fignifies alfo a fmall 
 piece of coin, in value \ s. 6d. \f[, 
 which rich men gave their clients, 
 after they had waited upon them 
 in public, in lieu of the dole of 
 victuals formerly given at the 
 door. 
 
 Stadium, an ancient Grecian 
 long meafure, containing iz; ge- 
 ometrical paces» or 625 Jiomaa 
 feet, and anfwering to our fur- 
 lofig. Th«uEe wera hovrevcr Sut* 
 
 STA 
 
 iia of difFerent meafures, aeccfrd<^ 
 ing to different times and places. 
 Stadium is faid to be derived froiti 
 Start, to Itand, becaufe HercuUs 
 ran over fuch a fpace at one breath, 
 and flopped at the end of it. 
 
 Stadium was alfo the courfe of 
 place intended for the running of 
 men and horfes. At the two ex« 
 tremities were two polls, called 
 Career and Mtta. It was ufually 
 125 feet in length, and built like 
 an Amphitheatre, to accommo* 
 date the fpedators. There were 
 feveral Stadia at Rome ; a very no- 
 ble one, Suetonius tells us, was 
 built by Domitian. 
 
 Standard. See Signa. 
 
 Statera, a kind of balance, 
 commonly called the Roman ba- 
 lance, much the fame with our 
 lleei-yard. 
 
 Stationes, a name given by 
 the Romans to the guard which 
 was kept in the day-time at the 
 gates of the camps, and at the 
 entrenchments. To defert their 
 polls, or abandon their corps of 
 guard, was an unpardonable of- 
 fence. See Excubia. 
 
 Stativ.« Feries, were im- 
 ^loveable holidays, marked in the 
 Roman calendar, which always of 
 courfe fell upon the fame days. 
 The chief of them were Agonalia, 
 Carmsntalia, and Lupercalia, See 
 Feria. 
 
 Statues, pieces of fculpture 
 in full relievo, reprefenting the 
 human figure, or the fuppofed 
 figure of a 'god, formed of ftone, 
 marble, metal, or other materi- 
 als. Love is faid to have dilated 
 the art to a young lady, the 
 daughter of a potter, who, filled 
 with the idea of her fwain, made 
 the firlt eifay by the affiftance of 
 her father's implements. Somci 
 afcribe the invention of flatuary to 
 Dtttd»ltts. Sutues at firfl were 
 m«£« ihapekfs Aoa«s, but Daddui 
 
STi 
 
 is faid to have feparated the feet 
 and other parts, fc as to give them 
 the attitudes of walking and aft- 
 ing. Statues, with refpeft to 
 their fize, were of four forts, i. 
 Thofe lefs than the life, of which 
 fort there were feveral ftatues of 
 men, of kings, and even of gods. 
 2. Thofe that equalled the life, 
 in honour of men of learning or 
 extraordinary merit, creeled at 
 the public charge. 3, Thofe that 
 furpafled the life once and an half, 
 for Kings and Emperors; or thofe 
 that furpaffed the life twice, eretl- 
 ed in honour of heroes. 4. Thofe 
 that exceeded the life twice, thrice, 
 or even more, and were called Co- 
 lojfus^s, which were made only for 
 the gods. The Romans were 170 
 years without ftatuaries. The fta- 
 tues of Greece exceeded thofe of 
 Rome in workmanihip and fancy. 
 The religion of the Pagans being 
 fuch as to require a variety of 
 images, contributed much to the 
 perfedion of this pleafjng art. 
 See Sculpture, Imagines. 
 
 Stews were tolerated among 
 the yenvs, Greeks, and Romans. 
 But the women refiding in thofe of 
 X\\eje-ws were generally Itrangers, 
 hence Itrange women and prolH- 
 tutes become fynonimous terms. 
 The Grecian flews were moft nu- 
 merous near the public harbours. 
 See Harlot. 
 
 Stibadium, among- -the Ro- 
 mans, was one large couch made 
 ufe of at entertainments to hold all 
 the guefts. It was in the fhape of 
 a half-moon, or Grecian Sigma, 
 and by this name it was fometimes 
 diftingififhed. The Stioadiawtre 
 intioduced after the round citron 
 tables came into falhion, inftead 
 of the three beds which had be- 
 fore that period been made ufe of. 
 The Slibadia were differently de- 
 nominated, according to the dif- 
 ferent numbers of gueils they con- 
 
 Stl 
 
 tained. When they held fix, they 
 were called Hexadina; when feven, 
 Heptaclina ; and fo on. See Ac- 
 cubatio, Beds, &c. 
 
 Stichomancy, a fpecies of 
 divination performed by putting 
 verfes into an urn, ftiaking them 
 up, and drawing them out. The 
 verfe drawn firit was the Oracle. 
 This was frequently praclifed upon 
 the Sibylline verfes dilperfed in 
 Greece, Italy, and the whole ^0- 
 man empire. The Sortes Virgili- 
 ana, Homeriae, &c. are lome- 
 times dillinguiflied by the name of 
 Stichomancy or Rhapfodcmancy. See 
 Sortes. 
 
 Stigmata, letters or other 
 marks burnt into the forehead, or 
 other parts of the body, with a 
 hot iron, and afterwards fmeared 
 with ink, to make the impreffion 
 fair and durable. Stigmatizing 
 was frequently pradlifed upon 
 ilaves, either as a punifliment or 
 as a mark to know them by. In 
 fome nations it was a badge of 
 honour, and a token of nobility. 
 Grecian foldiers, when en lifted, 
 had Stigmata impreffed upon the 
 left Ihoulder or the hand. 
 
 Stipendium, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a certain tribute or fix- 
 ed fum of money collefted in the 
 provinces by the provincial i^(S- 
 Jlor ; or it was a fubfidy raifcd in 
 the provinces for the maintenance 
 of a certain number of foldiers, 
 fitting out a fleet, &c. Stipendium 
 is alfo ufed for foldier's pay. See 
 Soldiers. 
 
 Stirrups were unknown to 
 the Ancients. The want of them 
 in getting upon horfeback, was fup- 
 plied by their agility or art. Some 
 horfes were taught to ftoop to take 
 their riders up ; but the riders of- 
 ten leapt up by the help of their 
 fpears, or were alTifted by their 
 flaves, or made ufe of ladders for 
 the purpofe. Gracchus filled the 
 highways 
 
STO 
 
 highways with ftones, which were 
 intended to anfwtr the fame end : 
 The fame was alfo required of the 
 furveyors of the roads in Greece as 
 part of their duty. 
 
 Sto^, Srsai, were certain Pcr- 
 tico'i at Athens., full o{ Exedrji and 
 fide-buildings, furnifhed with feats 
 to accommodate fuch as came thi- 
 ther for Itudy or difcourfe. In 
 thefe places philofophers and their 
 difciples ufed to meet. See Exe- 
 dra^ Sioics. 
 
 Stoics, were a fe£l of philofo- 
 phers amongft the Greeks, whofe 
 founder was Zeno. Their name is 
 derived from 2to«i, certain por- 
 tico's or piazzas at Athens, where 
 they ufed to meet for ftudy and 
 difputation : They denied innate 
 ideas, and confequently held that 
 feofation and rtHetftion were the 
 two fources, and the only founda- 
 tions of human knowledge. They 
 held that in the beginning a chaos 
 exilled, from the arrangement and 
 regular difpoiition of which the 
 univerfe was produced. The uni- 
 verfe, they affcrt, contains an ef- 
 ficient principle, which is God, 
 and a paflive principle, which is 
 matter. God, they faid, was a 
 fire or pure asthereal fubllance, 
 by vvhich they meant fpirit in the 
 highell degree of purity. They 
 held that He was one, eternal, 
 good Being, endued with fore- 
 light, becaufe intimately connec- 
 ted and prefent with every part of 
 the univerfe. They alferted that 
 deftiiiy governs the world, by 
 which they meant the natural 
 order and chain of caufes and ef- 
 feds, difcernible in all things, and 
 eftablifhed by the will of God. 
 Demons and fouls they faid were 
 particles of the divinity. In E- 
 thics they taught that the true 
 end of man confilh in living con- 
 formably to nature, and in obe- 
 dience to his internal monitor. 
 
 STO 
 
 that particle of the divinity whkh 
 conltitutes the foul. They taught 
 that good is what conduds men 
 to felicity, and that all good things, 
 are equal; that pafTions arife from 
 falfe judgments; that duty confifts 
 in the inveftigation of moral truth, 
 and in living agreeably to the ob- 
 vious deftination of cur nature; 
 that virtue is a difpofuion of the 
 mind friendly to the true ends and 
 purpofes of human life; that there 
 are four cardinal virtues infeparably 
 linked together, and that there is 
 no medium betwixt vice and vir- 
 tue. The moft celebrated fuc- 
 ceffors of Zeno, the father of this 
 feft, were Per/eus, Arijio, Henillus, 
 Sperus, Cleanthes, Chryjippus, Ze^ 
 no of Tar/us, and Diogenes of 
 Apollonia ; we may like wife add 
 Antipater, Panatius, PoJJidonius, 
 and Epitletus : and among the 
 Romans we may reckon Cato, 
 Varro, Cicero, Seneca, and the 
 Emperor Antoninus. The Stoics 
 frequently expreffed tbemfelves in! 
 paradoxes; thus they afTerted that- 
 a wife man is ix&Q from all per- 
 turbation of mind ; that he is 
 happy in the midft of torture ; 
 that he is always the fame, and 
 always joyful ; that pain is no 
 evil ; that the wife man is always 
 free ; that he alone ought to be 
 efleemed a king, magillrate, poet, 
 philofopher, &c. that he alone is 
 a great man ; that he alone is 
 capable of being a friend or lover; 
 that nothing can happen to him 
 beyond his expedlations ; and that 
 goodnefs admits of no increafe or 
 diminution. Thefe paradoxes are 
 frequently ridiculed in Horace, and 
 other claffic authors. See Pkilo- 
 fophy. 
 
 Stola, a long robe in ufe a- 
 mong the Roman ladies. Over 
 this robe they put a large mantle 
 or cloak, called Palla, and fome- 
 limes Palliumy when they wore 
 
 their 
 
STR 
 
 thejr habits of ceremony. The 
 Stall was their ordinary drefs with- 
 in doors, and the Pailtum was put 
 on when they went abroad. 
 
 Stoves were ufed by the Ro- 
 mans for warming their rooms, for 
 they had no chimneys. Seneca 
 fays, that in his time certain pipes 
 were invented, which being iixed 
 in the walls warmed the chambers 
 equally to the upper flory, by 
 means of fires made in furnaces a- 
 long the bottom of the walls. 
 
 Stbagula, the coverings of 
 the couches of the Ancients, on 
 which thev reclined at entertain- 
 ments. Thefe were formerly of 
 rude materials, fucli as the (kins 
 of fheep or goats, but were after- 
 wards changed to coverlets of a 
 richer kind. They were feme- 
 times called Toralia. See Beds. 
 
 Strangers are faid to have 
 been civilly treated in all the dates 
 of Greece, except the Spartans, who 
 are ill fpoken offer their inhofpi- 
 table difpoiitions. Strangers were 
 fuppofed to be under the immedi- 
 ate proteftion of certain gods, and 
 the gods themfelves were thought 
 fometimes to appear as Grangers. 
 Salt was ufually fet before Grangers 
 immediately afer their arrival. 
 The alliance betwixt a gueft and 
 his holt was looked upon as parti- 
 cularly facred, and the violation 
 of it was deemed the darkeft of 
 crimes. Hence it was cuftomary 
 for men thus connefled to give 
 each other certain tokens, called 
 a-vf/iffoXa, the producing whereof 
 was a recognition of the covenant 
 of hofpitality. Thefe tokens, or 
 mutual prefents, were preferved 
 with the (Iriftert care, and tranf- 
 anitted to poflerity as valuable 
 treafures to prelerve the family 
 connexion. The latter Greeks, 
 as well as the Romans, ufed to 
 break a dye in two parts, one of 
 which was kept by the gueft, the 
 
 STR 
 
 other hf the entertainer. This 
 was called, by the Romans, 7ejferix 
 Hofpitalis. Upon thefe T'^r/e were 
 engraved their names, or fome 
 charaflerof diftinftion, as alfo the 
 i m age of Jupiter Ho/pi talis, Hof- 
 pitality was kept up by the An- 
 cients with particular care, be- 
 caufe there were no inns for the 
 accommodation of ftrangerj. See 
 Hojpitium. 
 
 Strangulatio, among the 
 Romans, was a capital punifhment 
 inflidled upon certain criminals. 
 It was fimple ftrangling, and per- 
 formed in the priion, as it is now 
 '\Xi Turkey. ThtTa'mudiJis reckon 
 fix forts of criminals that were 
 condemned to beftrangled amongft 
 the Jenus ; i. Men-llealers. 2. 
 Thofe that Hruck their parents. 
 3. Prielh that refufed to obey the 
 determination of the court. 4. 
 Falfe prophets. 5. He that de- 
 filed another man's bed. 6. He 
 that had criminal converfation 
 with a prieft's daughter. The 
 delinquents were plunged to the 
 knees in dung ; and two execu- 
 tioners tied a napkin about their 
 necks and twilled it till they were 
 fuffocated. See Punijhment. 
 
 Strategus, among the Athe- 
 nians, was the commander in 
 chief of the army. The Strategi 
 were ten in number, one from each 
 tribe. They were all equal in 
 authority, but when fent out toge- 
 ther, they took the command al- 
 ternately, each of them for a day. 
 An eleventh Strategus was at laft 
 added, f^'\t\n\\Qm\eoi Polemarchus. 
 This officer, in a council of war, 
 had the calling vote. About the 
 time of the decline of the Roma?: 
 Empire, the chief magiftrate of 
 jit hens was called Strategus. See 
 Polcmarch, 
 
 Strator, a name given to va- 
 
 rioas officers among the Romans : 
 
 I. To him who took care of the 
 
 horfc? 
 
Str 
 
 horfcs furnifhed by the Provincials 
 for the public fervice. 2. To him 
 who held the bridle of the Prince's 
 horfe, andaflifled him in mounting. 
 3. To the furveyor of the high- 
 ways, who removed obltruftions, 
 laid bridges, cut down woods, Sec. 
 to facilitate the march of the army. 
 
 SxREtiJE, among the Romans, 
 were new-year's gifts or prefents 
 made on New Year's Day, out of 
 refpeft, as prefages of a happy 
 year. The cuftom is faid to have 
 been brought up in the time of 
 Tatius, who received on that day 
 branches of vervain, gathered from 
 the facred wood of the goddcfs 
 Strenia. After his time they be- 
 gan to make prefents of fruit and 
 honey, and by degrees the cuftom 
 was introduced of giving gold and 
 filver medals, or other valuable 
 thing;. In the time of the Em- 
 perors the people ufed to run in 
 fhoals with prefents of money to 
 the palace, each man according 
 to his ability. The word Strents 
 is fuppofed to be derived from 
 Strcriuus, becaufe thefe new-year's 
 gifts were originally given 'vitis 
 Jirenuis, tho' afterwards the cuf- 
 tom prevailed betwixt friend and 
 f/iend. 
 
 Strigil, an inftrument ufed 
 among the Ancients in their baths, 
 and at fome of the Gymnajiic ex- 
 ercifes, to wipe ofF the Aveat or 
 oxX\tx j'crdes from the body. The 
 Strigils were of the fhape of a gar- 
 dener's knife, and made of differ- 
 ent materials, as ivoiy, horn, gold, 
 iilver, iron, brafs, and the like. 
 In after times, the word was ap- 
 plied to a piece of fpunge or linen 
 cloth, when ufed for the fame pur- 
 pofe. The Sordis were fometimes 
 laved for medicinal applications, 
 and were called Strigmenia. 
 
 Strophe, a ftanza, or certain 
 number of verfes, including a com- 
 plete fenfe. The word is formed 
 
 sue 
 
 from rp«^«> I turn; becaufe at the 
 end of the Strophe the fame mea- 
 fures returned again, or becaufe 
 the Chorus, at firft coming in, 
 turned to the left, and, that raea- 
 fure ended, turned again to the 
 right. The ilanza fucceeding the 
 Strophe was called Antifirophe. 
 
 Strophium, a (hort fwath or 
 band w rn by the young women, 
 among the Romans, to keep down 
 the fwelling of their breafts, which 
 might be nccefi'ary for them, as 
 they wore no Hays. It alfo figni- 
 fies two or three garlands tied to- 
 gether. It alfo fignifies the part 
 of the girdle where they placed 
 their jewels. 
 
 Struppi, among the Romans^ 
 were g .rlands, or wreaths of ver- 
 vain put upon the heaas of the 
 ftatues ot the gods. 
 
 Stylus, a lort of bodkin ufed 
 by the Rimans in writing uport 
 plates ot lead or tablets covered 
 with wax. The Stylus was pointed 
 at one end for wiiting, and flatted 
 at the other, like a fpatula, for 
 erafures. From this inftrument 
 the particular manner of writing, 
 as to the turns of language or 
 peculiarity of fentiment is called 
 a Ilyle. Vertere Stylum fignifies to 
 make corredions. The Styli we 
 may fuppofe would be made of 
 different materials, as fteel, filver, 
 gold. The waxen tablets on 
 v/hich they wrote with the fiylus 
 were called Pugillares. See Pugil~ 
 lares. 
 
 SuBARMALE, was a coarfe caf- 
 fock worn by the Roman foldiers 
 under their armour, to prevent 
 them from being hurt by the 
 weight. 
 
 buBsuL^, little images of men 
 and women, which the Salii are 
 fuppofed to have carried about 
 with them when they performed 
 their ceremonious dance. 
 
 SuccENTURiONES, among the 
 
 * y Romanh 
 
SUI 
 
 Romavs, were a fort of deputies or 
 lieutenants chofen by the Centuri- 
 ons. They were alfo called Op- 
 tiones. Each Centurion had the 
 power of appointing two of thefe 
 officers. See Optio. 
 
 SuDES, in the Roman encamp- 
 ments were wooden lUkes, which 
 were driven into the Vallum or pa- 
 rapet, in order to Itrengthen it. 
 See Camp. 
 
 SuFFETEs were the chief ma- 
 giftrates of Carthage. They were 
 two in number, and anfwered to 
 the two Kings oi Lacedfemon, and 
 the two Confuls of Rome. The 
 Carthaginian Suffttes were chofen 
 out of the bed tamilies, and were 
 fuch perfons, as by their wealth 
 and talents attradled the notice of 
 the public. Their province was 
 to affemble the Senate, over which 
 they prefided, to propofe fubjefts 
 for deliberations, to take the 
 votes, and to prefide in debates of 
 real confequence. By whofe fuf- 
 frages they were chofen is not 
 clear, but moft probably by thofe 
 of the Centuw'virate, or the people. 
 They had the power of life and 
 death, andofpunifliing all crimes. 
 Their concurrence was neceflary 
 to prevent debates from coming 
 before the people. Moft of the 
 Carthaginian cities had their Suf' 
 fetts, as well as the metropolis. 
 They had Suffetes a: Tyre for fome 
 years. The name is derived from 
 the Hebrew Shaphetim, Judges. 
 
 SuFFRAGiA. See Fetes. 
 
 SuGGRUNi>ARiuM, among the 
 Romans, was a burial place for in- 
 fants not exceeding forty days old ; 
 it being unlawful to burn them. 
 See Burning. 
 
 Suicide, the crime of felf- 
 murder. The general lawfulnefs 
 of fuicide was by no means uni- 
 verfally received in the ancient 
 Pagan world; many of the molt 
 confiderable names, both Greek 
 
 swo 
 
 and Roman, having exprefslv de- 
 clared againft that pradice. Py- 
 thagoras, Socrates, Plato, Tally, 
 have condemned itj even Brutus 
 himfelf, tho' he fell by his own 
 hand, yet in his cooler and philo- 
 fophical hour3, wrote a treatife 
 wherein he highly condemned 
 Cato, as bei.-}g guilty of an aft 
 both of impiety and cowardice in 
 dellroying himfelf. The judicious 
 Virgil is alfo in the fame fenti- 
 ments, and reprefents fuicides as ii> 
 aftateof punifhment, jTln- vi. 4.3^. 
 
 SuN-DiALS. See Dials. 
 
 SuovETAURiLiA, aa expiatory 
 facrifice, confifting of a hog, a 
 ffieep and a bull, whence its name 
 is derived. It was offered by the 
 CenJ'or in the name of all the Ro- 
 man people every fifth year after 
 the general furvey of the inhabi- 
 tants, and the inquifition into 
 their manners. See Lujlrum. 
 
 Supper. See Ccena. 
 
 SuppLiCATiO, was a folemn 
 procefEon to the temples of the 
 gods to return thanks for any re- 
 markable viftory. The Senate 
 upon thefe occafions afTilled at the 
 facrifices, and a feaft was held for 
 a fet number of days to the ho- 
 nour of the fcveral deities. The 
 Supplicatio was a high compliment 
 to the fuccefsful General, and was 
 commonly folicited by him in his 
 Litera laureate. See Liters lau- 
 reates. 
 
 Swearing. See Oath, 
 
 SwiNE were forbidden to the 
 jfeius, Levit. xi. 7. Deut. xiv. 8. 
 The Hebrews held the flefh of 
 thefe animals in fuch deteftation, 
 that they would not fo much as 
 fpeak of it. Inftead of fvvine they 
 ufually faid " That beaft, that 
 thing." 
 
 Swords were worn by foot fol- 
 
 diers on the left fide, by horferaen 
 
 on the right. Clofe to the fword 
 
 was hung the ponyard, which was 
 
 feldom. 
 
SYM 
 
 feldotn ufed in battle, but ferved 
 on ail occafions as a knife. 
 
 Sycophant^?:, fometimes fig- 
 nifies falfe witneffes, but is more 
 properly taken for what we call 
 common barrecors, being derived 
 «7re ra o-vkx (pcinitv, from indi«5ling 
 peif)ns that exported figs; For 
 among the primitive JtheniaKs, 
 when that fruit was firll found out, 
 or in the time of dearth, when all 
 provilions were exceeding fcarce, 
 it was enafted that no figs (hould 
 be exported out of Attica ; and 
 this law not being aftualiy re- 
 pealed, when a plentiful harvcll 
 had rendered it ufelefs, by taking 
 away its reafon, gave occafion to 
 ill-natured and malicious men to 
 accufe ail perfons they caught 
 tranfgreffing the letter of it : And 
 from them, all bufy informers have 
 ever fmce been branded with the 
 name of Sycophants. Others will 
 have the ftealing of figs to have 
 been prohibited by a certain law, 
 and that thence informations grew 
 fo numerous, that all vexatious in- 
 formers were afterwards termed 
 Sycophants. 
 
 Sylva, among the Romans, a 
 ludicrous kind of hunting exhi- 
 bited in the Roman Circus, in 
 which tr^es were dug up and tranf- 
 planted there by the foldiers, the 
 place being then filled with all 
 kinds of graminivorous animals, 
 the people were let loofe upon 
 them and carried all clear off. See 
 Fenatio, 
 
 Symare, a fort of veil with a 
 long train, which was faftened on 
 the right fhoulder with a rich 
 clafp, in order to leave the arm 
 at liberty, which the Roman ladies 
 wore uncovered as well as the men. 
 This veil was worn by the women, 
 and by falling full from the left 
 ihoulder formed a number of plaits, 
 which made this habit very grace- 
 ful. U was common on the llage. 
 
 SYN 
 
 Stmbacchi, an appellatioa 
 given to the two men who purified 
 the city of Athens at the feftival 
 Thargelia. See Thargelia. 
 
 Symbolum, in the military af- 
 fairs oi Greece, was a fignal to con- 
 vey intelligence from place to 
 place. See Signals. 
 
 Symposiarch, among the an- 
 cients, was thcdireftor and mana- 
 ger of an entertainment, Tbis 
 office was fometimes performed by 
 the perfon at whofe expence the 
 feaft was provided, fomttimes by 
 the perfon whom he thought fit to 
 nominate, and at other times, par- 
 ticularly at entertainments, pro- 
 vided at a common expence. He 
 was eleded by lot, or by the fuf- 
 frages of the guelts. He was cal- 
 led Bafileusy Rex, Modimperatott 
 Sec. He determined the laws of 
 good-fellowfhip, and was to fee 
 them executed, hence he was na- 
 med Oculus or Ophthalmus. See 
 Drinking, Sec. 
 
 Synagogue, among the Je^ws^ 
 was a place where the people met 
 to worfliip God. Authors are not 
 agreed about the time when the 
 Jenus firft began to have Synu' 
 gogues : Some will have them as 
 old as the Ceremonial Law, and 
 others fix their beginning to the 
 times after the Babylomjh captivi- 
 ty. They erefted Synagogues not 
 only in towns and cities, but alfp 
 in the country, efpecially near 
 rivers, that they might have water 
 for their purifications and ceremo- 
 nious walhings. No Synagogue 
 was built in any town, unlef$ 
 there were ten perfons of leifure 
 in it; but there might be many in 
 one town, or in one quarter of a 
 town, provided it was very popu- 
 lous. Jeru/alem is faid to have 
 contained 480. The chief things 
 belonging to a Synagogue were, i. 
 The ark or chell, made after the 
 model of the ark of the covenant, 
 * U 2 containing 
 
containing the Pentateuch. 2. The 
 pulpit and deflc in the middle of 
 the Synagogue., in which 'iood up 
 he that was to read or expound the 
 law. 3. The feats or pews for 
 the people. 4. The lamps to g've 
 light at evening fervice, and the 
 feaft of dedication. 5. Rooms or 
 apartments for the uteiifils and 
 alms-chefts. — The Synagogue was 
 governed by a council or affembly, 
 over whom was a prefident called 
 The Ruler 0/ the Synagogue. Tbefe 
 are fometimes called Chiefs of the 
 Jeivs, The Rulers, The Priejis or 
 Elders, The Go'vernors, The O'ver- 
 feers. The Fathers of the Syn/igogue. 
 Their bufinefs was to punifh the 
 difobedient by cenfures, by ex- 
 communication, or by penalties, 
 fuch as fines and fcourging ; to 
 take care of the alms, which are 
 frequently called by the name of 
 righteoufnefs. The chief Ruler, 
 or one of the rulers, gave leave to 
 liave the law read and expounded, 
 and appointed who fliould do it. 
 In every Synagogue, there were 
 feveral minifters who had d fferer.t 
 offices affigned to them. Service 
 was performed three times a day, 
 viz. in the morning, in the after- 
 noon, and at night ; at the time 
 of morning facrifice, evening fa- 
 crifice, and after the evening iacri- 
 fice, on Mondays, Thurfdays and 
 Saturdays, there was a more forci- 
 ble obligation upon the people to 
 attend than upon other days. 
 
 Syncomisteria, the fame 
 with Thalyfia. .^ee Thalyfia. 
 
 Syndici, among the Athenians, 
 were orators appointed by the peo- 
 
 ple to plead in behalf of any law 
 which was to be enabled or abro- 
 gated. They were fometimes cal- 
 led Rhetores, and luvvrjyo^x, and 
 their fee to a-vvnyopneov. Left this 
 office fhould be abufed, the people 
 were prohibited by a law from con- 
 ferring it twice upon the fame 
 perfon. 
 
 Synthesis, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a large robe or cloak, 
 which they put on to eat in, as a 
 more commodious habit for lying 
 upon the beds at table. Martial 
 tells us, that fome perfons, out of 
 an air of magnificence, changed 
 them often during the repail. 
 
 Syrma, a long garment, com- 
 mon to both fexes among the Ro- 
 mans. It reached to the ground, 
 and was worn by Tragedians, that 
 the heroes and heroines might ap- 
 pear taller. 
 
 SyrMj^ea, in Antiquity, was 
 ufed as a defignation of the games 
 of Sparta; the prize, in which 
 was 'EvfiA.onx, or a mixture of fat 
 and honey. 
 
 Syrinx and Syringa, were pipes 
 made of reeds of different lengths 
 joined together, which, when 
 blown into with the breath, yield- 
 ed as many different founds. The 
 Syrinx generally confilted of I'even 
 reeds. The mufjc of them was 
 exceedingly fimple, being no more 
 than the regular fucceffion of feven 
 diffimilar founds. This kind of 
 inilrument is ufed amongft the 
 tinkers and boors of our own coun- 
 try. The invention of the 5)'r/«A- 
 it attributed to Pan. See an ac- 
 count of it in Ovid's Met. Lib. i. 
 
 T. 
 
 TWas fubfcribed to the de- 
 crees of the Roman Senate, 
 
 by the Tribunes, as a mark of their 
 approbation. This letter feeras 
 
 to 
 
TAB 
 
 to have been adopted for no other 
 reafon but becaufe it is the initial 
 of the word Tribune, 
 
 T was alfo ufed as a numeral 
 letter, and fignified i6o, accord- 
 ing to this verfe : 
 
 T quoque cenlenos et fexaginta te- 
 rn bit. 
 
 When a dafli was adJed at the top 
 
 thus r it fignified 160,000. 
 
 T, in the Roman judgments, 
 was a na k of a'lfoluticn, as ©, 
 among the Greeks, was a tokrn of 
 concien. nation, being the initial 
 o\ @xicPo^. See Theta. 
 
 Tasella Votiva, among the 
 Romans, was a tsblet or pi(5tuie 
 hung up by failors in gratitude 
 lor their elcape from {hipwreck. 
 On t.lis tablet were reprefenttd 
 the circumllances of ther adven- 
 ture, their imminent danger, and 
 their providsntial prefei vation. It 
 was generally hung up in the tem- 
 ple of the gods, to whom, in their 
 dirtrefs, they had particularly ad- 
 drefled themfelves to for protec- 
 tion. Some perfons, before they 
 hung up the tablet, made ufe of 
 it to excite compaffion and chari- 
 table contributions, travelling 
 with it about their necks, and 
 finging the difmal ftory of their 
 danger and misfortune. Frequent 
 allufions are met with in the 
 poets, to this cullom. 
 
 We are informed by ^ifitilian, 
 that lawyers at the bar fometimes 
 made ufe of a Tabella, or pifture, 
 to reprefent the hard cafe of their 
 clients. Perfons efcaped from 
 any dangerous ficknefs frequently 
 dedicated a pidure to the god, 
 from whom, they fuppofed, they 
 derived relief. The ancient Chrij- 
 tians alfo paid the fame compli- 
 meat, after any remarkable re- 
 covery, to their faints. 
 
 Tabell.®, See Tahlett, 
 
 TAB 
 
 Tabelliones. See Tabularii. 
 
 Taberna Meritoria, among 
 the Romans, was a place where 
 difabled foldiers ufed to be main- 
 tained at the publick expence. It 
 was a fort of military hofpital. 
 
 Tabernacle, among the 
 jfe-Ms, was the place where the arlc 
 of the covenant v/as lodged, both 
 while they were in tents during 
 their journey from Egypt, and 
 when fixed in Jerujalem. The 
 Tabernacle, along with the ark, 
 was at hit depofited in Solomon s 
 Temple. It was compofed of 48 
 cedar boards lined with gold, un- 
 der each of which was a filver 
 Hand or foot, and at the lop a 
 capital of gold : Ten pieces of 
 rich lapeftry encomptjfled it, which 
 were of different colours, purple, 
 fcarlet, hyacinthine, &c. The 
 Tabernacle was thirty cubits long, 
 and ten, or as "jofephus fays, twelve 
 in breadth. The ark was placed 
 in a fecret oratory in the middle, 
 and was gilt both within and with- 
 out ; the top, which was a kind 
 of a lid, was called the Propitia- 
 tory, becaufe it appeafed the wrath 
 ot God. The Tabernacle was en- 
 compafled with feveral veils or 
 curtains, Ihetched over it with 
 hooks and buckles of gold. See 
 Propitiatory. 
 
 Tabernacles, Feaft of, was 
 inftituted by God for a memorial 
 ot the I/raelites having dwelt in 
 Tents or Tabernacles^ while they 
 were in the Defert, or as fome will 
 have it, in remembrance of th« 
 building of the Tabernacle. It 
 began on the fifteenth of the month 
 Ti/ri, and lafted feven, or as fome 
 fay, eight days. At this feftival 
 they returned thanks for the fruit 
 of the vine, and exprefTed with joy 
 their expeflation of the MeJJiah. 
 During the whole folemnity they 
 lived in tents, offered a variety of 
 facriiices, befides the ufual ones, 
 every 
 
TAB 
 
 every day; carried branches of 
 palm, olive, citron, myrtle, and 
 willow ; frequently repeated the 
 word Ho/anna, and made frequent 
 libations of water from the pool of 
 Siloam, repeating at the fame time 
 the words of IJ'aiah, " With joy 
 ihal! ye draw water out of the wells 
 of falvation;" to which our Savi- 
 our alluded when he cried out on 
 the lail day of the feaft of Taber- 
 nacJes, to all the people, " If any 
 man third," &c. John vii. 37. 
 No feaft was attended with greater 
 rejoicings than this ; fo great in- 
 deed were the rejoicings that forne 
 authors, confidering that the fealt 
 fell out in the time of vintage, af- 
 fert that the Jfvjs were wont to 
 facrifice to Bacchus. Every male 
 of all the tribes, if able, was 
 obliged to attend, with his offer- 
 ing, at the Temple in JerufaJem. 
 
 Tabernari^e, a name given 
 to thofe low comedies, among the 
 Romans^ in which the characters 
 were of the lower clafs, and where 
 the fcenes exhibited poor and or- 
 dinary buildings. See Comedy. 
 
 Tables, among the Romans^ 
 were of various forms. While the 
 Triclinia continued, the tables 
 were long and fquare ; but, after 
 the intrcdudion of the Stihadiu, 
 they were round. They varied 
 alfo in the number of feet on 
 which they were fupported. The 
 Roman; were very extravagant in 
 the prices paid for the tables, and 
 fought for thofe which were of cu- 
 rious wood : The lemon of Mau- 
 ritania was moft coveted. At lirft 
 the tables were not covered, but 
 cleaned with a wet fpunge before 
 every courfe. Table-clo hs were 
 not ufed till the reign of the laft 
 Emperors. For the pofture at ta- 
 ble, fee Accuhatic. 
 
 Tables Ttuelve, See Tavel-ve 
 Tables. 
 
 Tablets were made ufe of in 
 
 TAC 
 
 pafling laws, and alfo In judiciary 
 proceffes. In paffing of laws the 
 tablets marked U. R. i. e. Uii 
 Rogas, approved the bill ; and 
 thofe marked A. i. », Anti^uo, re- 
 jeded the law in queftion. In ju- 
 diciary procefTes, the judges con- 
 demned the accufed perfon by the 
 tablets marked C i. e. Condemno, 
 and abfolved him by thofe marked 
 A. i. e. AbjolTjo. When the evi- 
 dence was fo doubtful that they 
 could neither acquit nor condemn, 
 they made ufe of tablets marked 
 N. L. i. e. Non Liquet. — Small 
 ftones, {hells, beans, ivory, metal, 
 &c. have been ufed in giving votes. 
 See Votes^ P/ephi, Calculi, Beans, 
 &c, 
 
 Tabularii, or Tabelliones, a- 
 mong the Romans, were a fort of 
 fcrlvencrs, fomewhatdifFerent from 
 the Notarii ; for the Notarii only 
 drew up and kept the minutes of 
 afts and inilruments on paper, and 
 in notes, or fhort-hand ; whereas 
 the Tabularii or Tubelliones deli- 
 vered them fairly engroffed on 
 parchment, in the full executory 
 form. They alfo put the feals to 
 contrads, and rendered them aur 
 thentic. A contradl written by a 
 Notary was not binding, till the 
 Tabuiarius had written it fair, af- 
 ter which the parties fubfcribed ir» 
 i. e, wrote at the bottom that they 
 approved the contents, for figna- 
 tures were not then in ufe. Ta- 
 bularii or TabsUiones were a fort of 
 public fervants, with whom were 
 lodged contrads made between 
 private perfons. See Notarius. 
 
 Tabularium. among the Ro- 
 mans, was that part of the treafury 
 where the ELphantine Books were 
 kept. See Ehpbantini. 
 
 Tacit Decree:, among the Ro- 
 mans, were fecret decrees of the 
 Senate, made in private delibera- 
 tion, to which none but old Se- 
 nators were fummoned. They 
 
 wer^ 
 
TAL 
 
 were made only in cafes of great 
 emergency, when it was neceffary 
 to execute ceirain meafures before 
 they were publilhed, and bore 
 fome analogy to the refolutions of 
 our Cabinet-Council. They were 
 called S. C. Tacita, i. e. Senatiis 
 Conjulta tacita. See Senate. 
 
 Talassio, an acclamation 
 much ufed by the Romans at the 
 celebration of marriages. It is 
 commonly fupp.;fed to be a kind 
 of admonition or recommend.i- 
 tion of good hoiifewifery, from 
 the Greek word Ta!^«^•t«, which 
 fignifies /pinning. This fuppa- 
 fition is the more probable, 
 when ic is remembered, that it 
 was mutually agreed upon, be- 
 twixt the Romans and Sabines, 
 after the rape of the virgins, that 
 the women (hould be obliged to 
 no fervile offices for their huf- 
 bands, further than fpinning, 
 weaving, &c. Other derivations 
 are given of the word, but this 
 appears the moft probable. It is 
 Ibmetimes written TkalaJJio. See 
 Marriage. 
 
 Taled, a fort of habit worn 
 by the Jeivs, particularly when 
 they repeated their prayers in the 
 Synagogue. Numb. xv. 38. Deut. 
 xxii. 12. 
 
 Talent, both a weight and a 
 coin, very famous amongft the an- 
 cients. A Talent in weight, a- 
 mong the Je^ws, was equal to 60 
 Maneh, or 113/,^. iocs;. I dnxit. 
 lof^r. The value of a y.r/f/j/ of 
 filver among the Je-vcs was 34.2/. 
 3 J. ()d. and a Talent of gold was 
 worth 5475 /. 
 
 The Attic Talent, confidered as 
 a weight, contained 60 Atiic Mi- 
 nes, or 62 Attic pounds and an 
 half, or 6000 Attic Drachma., be- 
 ing equal to 56 pounds 1 1 ounces 
 Englijh, Troy-weight. 
 
 The Romans had two forts of 
 Tulentsp the greater and the lefs ; 
 
 TAL 
 
 the greater Talent exceeded the 
 lefs by one third part, and was 
 worth 99/. bs.'Sd. fterling ; the 
 lefs Talent, called fimply Talen- 
 tum, contained 60 1, tho' Bud^'us 
 will have it to have been worth 
 75/. llerling. Tht great Talent 
 of gold wab worth 1125/. fterlincr. 
 Kennet fays, that the Roman Ta- 
 hnt contained 24 Sfjlertia, and 
 6coo latter Denarii, being the 
 fame with the Attic Talent ; for 
 the names of Talent, Mina, and 
 Drachma, the Roman f took from 
 the Greeks, as the Greeks borrowed 
 from them, the Libra and the Un- 
 cia. The Talent, fays he, was 
 worth, of our prefent money, 187/. 
 10 /. See Money and Weight. 
 
 Tali, among the 2?o/>//aw;, were 
 certain inftruments made ufe of in 
 games of hazard, not unlike our 
 Dice. They had only four fides, 
 and were conically lliaped. Four 
 Tali were made ufe of at a time, 
 and the belt throw was when four 
 different fides came up. One fide 
 of the Talus was marked with an 
 Ace, and the oppofite with a Sice j 
 one with a Tres, and the contrary 
 with a ^atre, fo that the upper- 
 moft and the lowell number con- 
 ftantly made feven. Some authors 
 imagine that the different fides 
 were marked with animals, as the 
 dog, the vulture, the bafilifc ; or 
 with the figure of fome god, as 
 Hercules, Venus ; hence the heft 
 call was called Venus, and the worft 
 Canicula or Canis. The Tali v/ere 
 ufed in divination, and in chuCng 
 the Arbiter Vini, or Toad- Mailer, 
 at entertainments, as well as in 
 play. The Tali are to be careful- 
 ly difiinguiiLed from the TeJJertSf 
 which had fix fides, and anfwered 
 exdiflly to the modern Dice ; both 
 however were comprehended un- 
 der the general name of Alea,' 
 See Arbiter. 
 
 The box out of which they 
 threw 
 
TAR 
 
 threw both the Tali and Tejfera 
 was of a long form, and called 
 PritiHiim, Pyrgus, Tuiricula, Or- 
 (a, c&c. 
 
 Talio, Lex Talionis, or Pana 
 Talicnh, was a puiiifiiment in 
 which the guilty pcrion fuffeied 
 exadlly in the fame manner as he 
 had offended ; an eye was requir- 
 ed for an eye, and a tooth fcr a 
 tooth. This rule of pun;fh:ng was 
 eftabliihed by the law of Mojes, 
 and the Romans obferved it in cafe 
 cf iraiming and the liice; but the 
 criminal was allowed the liberty 
 of compounding with the perfon 
 injured, fo that he needed not to 
 fuffer the Talw unlefs he chofe it. 
 And indeed a parity or eqiiali'y of 
 punifliment could not pLiTibly be 
 obferved in fome cafes. See Pu- 
 nijbment. 
 
 Talmud is the name of a "Jeiv- 
 ijh book, which contains the tra- 
 diiions of the Jeivs, their polity, 
 co<flrine, ceremonies, and all that 
 relates to the explication of their 
 law. It confiih of two general 
 parts, the Mi/chna, or text, the 
 ilyle and reafoning of which are 
 tolerably accurate ; and the Gema- 
 ra, or comment, which contains 
 the decifions of the y^'u;//?' doctors, 
 and their expcfjtioi.s of the text. 
 The Talmud of Batylon was com- 
 pofed about 500 years after Cbrij}, 
 and was inuch elleemed ; that of 
 Jeru/alem was not held ia fuch 
 <>reat veneration, tho' earlier in 
 its conipilation, having been com- 
 pofed 200 years before the other. 
 
 Tarpeian Rock, was the rock 
 on which the Reman Capitol was 
 built, and from which, by th« law 
 of the twelve tables, thofe perfons 
 who were found guilty of certain 
 crimes were precipitated. The 
 Tarpeian rock might formerly be 
 fteep enough on one fide to break 
 a man's neck ; but it could never 
 have been of that furprifing height 
 
 mentioned by fome writers, if any 
 judgment can be formed from its 
 prefent appearance. It is proba- 
 ble, in the times of ancient Rome, 
 that fome perfon was ready to re- 
 ceive the ciiminal at the bottom, 
 and difpatch him in cafe the fall 
 had not deprived hi.ii of life. See 
 P unijhment . 
 
 Taurea, among the Remans, 
 was a punifhment inflifte.i by 
 whipping with fcourges made of 
 bull's hides. 
 
 T.\URIA, Ta.v^snx; a Grecian 
 feftival in honour of Neptune at 
 Ephejus. The cup-bearers in this 
 folemnity were young men, and 
 called T«t;pt. 
 
 Taurilia, among the Remans, 
 were certain games in honour of 
 the infernal gods. They are fome- 
 tinies called Taurii Ludi. 
 
 Taurobolii'M, facrifices of 
 bulls uti'ered to Cyiele in gratitude 
 to that goddefs, who reprelcnts the 
 earth, for teaching men the art of 
 taming bulls, and rendering them 
 ferviceable in agriculture. 
 
 Taxes. See Ri -venues. 
 
 Taxiarchs, in the Athenian 
 army, were ten in number (every 
 tribe having the privilege ot e'efl- 
 ing one) and ccmmandcc next un- 
 der the Xrplryyot. I'neif bufmefs 
 was to ii:a.lhajl ti'e army, give or- 
 ders for their ;r.arches,. and ap- 
 point what proviiions each foldier 
 fnould furnifii himfelf with. They 
 had aifo power to cafhier any of 
 the common foldiers, if convicled 
 of a mifcemear.or. But their ju- 
 rifdidtion was only over the foot. 
 
 Teeth, among the Roman la- 
 dies, were an objeft of particular 
 attention and care. They ufed 
 Various arts to prefetve their white- 
 ned, and fubrticureri artificial ones 
 in the ro.m of tnoie they had lolt. 
 
 TeiCHOP )EUS, Tetpi/oTSroiog, a 
 
 nair • ;;;;ve!! to luch offieers as were 
 appoiuud to take care of the walls 
 
 of 
 
TEM 
 
 TEM 
 
 of the city oi jit hens. Their num- 
 ber was equal to that of the tribes, 
 each tribe having the choice of 
 one. 
 
 Telonium, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a cuftom-houfe or place 
 where tolls were received. The 
 word is derived from the Greek 
 TfAof, which fignified, among the 
 Athenians, thoie revenues arifinw 
 from lands, mines, woods, and 
 other public poffcffions, a? alfo tri- 
 bute paid by fojoumers and freed 
 flaves, and the culloms laid upon 
 certain traces and goods. See 
 Publican. 
 
 Temple, a public building e- 
 redted in honour of feme deity, 
 and fct apart for religious worfliip. 
 Temples are by fome fuppofed to 
 owe their ori^jin to the Sepulchres 
 built for the dead. The Egyptians 
 are fa:d to have been the hilVwho 
 built Temples to the gcds. Ma- 
 ny ancient nafons, from a perfua- 
 fion that the whole world was the 
 Temple of God, would not allow 
 Temples to be built ; among thefe 
 we may reckon the Perjtans, the 
 Scythians, the Numidians, the Si- 
 cyonians, and \.\\zBithynians. Tem- 
 ples were originally ail open. The 
 word Templum, in its primary fenfe, 
 among the Romans, fignified no- 
 thing more than a place fet apart 
 and conlecrated by the Augurs, 
 whether enclofed or open, in the 
 city or in the fields 
 
 The Temple of Jerufalem was 
 built by Solomon, agreeably to the 
 ccmmand of God, on IVIount Mo- 
 riah, which was called alio Mount 
 Sicn. The foundations of it were 
 laid in the year of the world 2992, 
 and it was finifhed in the year 
 3000. This Temple, which was 
 called the Firft Temple, was after 
 many revolutions deltroyed by AV- 
 huchadnesxar in the year 3398. 
 It continued an heap of ruins till 
 the year of the world 3468, when 
 
 an attempt was made to rebuild 
 it, but it met with many interrup- 
 tions ; it was, however, finifhed 
 and dedicated in the year 3489, 
 and afterwards much improved by 
 Herod, This was the Secona Tem- 
 ple, which was deftro'yed by the 
 Romans in the year of our Lord 70. 
 For a defcription of the Firft, or 
 Solomon's Temple, fee i Kings vi. 
 vii. and Ezek. xl, xli. 
 
 Tne moit remarkable things be- 
 longing to the Temple of "Jeru^ 
 falem were, i^ The outward en- 
 clofure, called The Mount of the 
 Temple, being a fquare of 500 cu- 
 bits every way, and containing 
 feveral buildings appointed for 
 different ufes, with piazzas and 
 cloyfters all around, fupported by 
 marble pillars. No perfon was 
 allowed to come into this enclo- 
 fure with a ftick or a purfe, with 
 fhoes on, or dully feet; tocrofsit» 
 in order to (horten the way, or tOi' 
 throw down any thing nafty or of- 
 fenfive — 2. The Soreg^ or BaluA 
 trade, which was a fpace betweea 
 the Mount of the Temple and the 
 Courts, feparated from the Mount 
 by ftone baluftres three cubits 
 high. — 3. The Court of the Wo- 
 men, which was the firft on going 
 into the Temple, fo called be- 
 caufe women were permitted to go 
 no farther. It was 135 cubits 
 fquare, and had four rooms ap- 
 pointed for four different ufes at 
 the four corners. In the firft, the 
 lepers were purified after they 
 were healed; in the fecond, was 
 the wood for facrifice ; in the 
 third, the Nazarites fhaved their 
 heads, and prepared their obla- 
 tions; and in the fourth, was kept 
 wine and oil for facrifice. There 
 were alfo two rooms more, for 
 the mufical inftiuments of the Le- 
 'vites. — 4. The Great Court, in- 
 to which they afcended from the 
 Court of the Women. This was 
 • X divided 
 
TEM 
 
 divided into two parts, the Court 
 of the Ifraelites, and the Court of 
 the Priefts. In the Great Court 
 was the altar of burnt-offerings, 
 upon which the daily offerings of 
 morning and evening fervice were 
 made; near the altar were tables 
 to receive the flefli of the facrifices, 
 pillars to which the viftims were 
 faftened, and the brazen fea or 
 bafon for the priefts to waih-»in. 
 5. The Temple, properly fo cal- 
 led, into which they afcended 
 from the Court of the Priefts by 
 twelve fteps. It was 100 cubits 
 every way, excepting in front, 
 which was 120. It contained the 
 Porch, the Sanctuary or Holy 
 Place, and the Saniium San^orum. 
 See Saniluary, San^um, Altar, &C. 
 
 The Grecian Temples were built 
 in the moll elevated part of the ci- 
 ties, or on mountains without the 
 cities, with the gate facing the 
 eaft. Some were dedicated to one 
 and others to marjy deities. The 
 innermoft and moft facred recefs of 
 the Temple was called Adytum. 
 Temples were moft; commonly 
 adorned with ftatues and offerings.. 
 The Temple of Minerva, called 
 N»)4)j, and that of the famegoddefs, 
 called Huf^inov, were the moft ce- 
 lebrated in Athens : That of Dia- 
 na, at Ephe/us, was reckoned a- 
 raongft the wonders of the world. 
 
 The Romans not only built 
 Temples to their gods, to their 
 virtues, to their difeafes, &c. but 
 they paid the fame compliment to 
 their Emperors alfo, even in their 
 life-time. The Temples built by 
 their Kings, confecrated by the 
 Augursy and deftined to the regular 
 exercifes of religion, were proper- 
 ly called Templa, and differed from 
 jEdeSi ^dicula, Delubra, and 
 Sacella. See uEdes, jEdiculoy D4- 
 lubrumy Sacellum, Fanum. 
 
 The moft celebrated Temples 
 at Rome w«re the Pantheon, the 
 
 TER 
 
 Capitol, the Temple of Saturn^ 
 which ferved for the public trea- 
 fury, becaufe Saturn taught the 
 Italians to coin money ; and the 
 Temple of Janus, which was al- 
 ways kept open in time of war, 
 and {hut in time of peace. See 
 jfanus. 
 
 For the ceremony of confecrat- 
 ing Temples, fee Confecration. 
 
 Tennis-Courts were not in- 
 frequent among the Romans. The 
 floors were generally marked with 
 particular lines and circles, as the 
 fuccefs of the game depended oi> 
 the balls lighting in fuch a circle, 
 after it had been ftruck, which it 
 was the adverfary's bnfinefs to pre- 
 vent. This room was made for 
 many forts of exercifes befides, 
 and, for this end, was diverfified 
 with lines and circles on the walls 
 and floor. 
 
 Tents. The manner of living 
 adopted by the Patriarchs of old, 
 both before and after the flood 
 was not in cities or houfes, but in 
 Tabernacles or Tents, fet up for 
 their prefent occafions, and re- 
 moved when they thought proper 
 to change their abode. TiiusiVi?a,6 
 luas uncovered in his Tent, Gen. 
 \x. 21. and Abraham remo'ved and 
 pitched his Tent, Gen. xii. 8. The 
 men and women had diilinft 
 Tents each for themfelvcs, Gen. 
 xxiv. 67. xxxi. 33. In the fame 
 manner, we are informed, the 
 Scythians lived. See Tabernacle. 
 
 Tephromancy, a fpecies of 
 divination, performed by writing 
 the queftion in afhes upon a plank, 
 which was afterwards expofed to 
 the air ; the letters which remain 
 ed whole and undifturbed by the 
 wind, formed the anfwer. 
 
 Te RAP HIM, were certain 
 images or luperftitious figures 
 mentioned in Scripture, which 
 fome fuppofe were a fort of Dii 
 Penates, or houfhold gods j others 
 
 that 
 
TES 
 
 that they were real TaJi/mant, or 
 figures ofmetal caft under particu- 
 lar afpedls of the planets. Rachel 
 in her flij;ht ftole her father's Tera- 
 phim\ fome fay, that he might net 
 be informed by them which way 
 fhe went^ others fuppofe that (he 
 Itole them in order to remove the 
 caufes and objects of her father's 
 idolatry; and others imagine that 
 Ihe ftole them becaufe (he was her- 
 felf addifted to idols. Gen. xxxi. 
 
 Terminalia, among the Ro- 
 mans, were feafts held on the 2 2d 
 or 23d ai February., in honour of 
 Terminus, the god of boundaries 
 or land-marks. Cakes and fruit 
 were the ufual facrifices. No ani- 
 mal v/as to be offered, it being 
 deemed unlawful to llain the land- 
 marks with blood. But fheep and 
 fwine were fometimes offered, not- 
 withftanding the ancient prohibi- 
 tion of bloody facrifices. The 
 Terminalia, in fad, were held in 
 honour of Jupiter, confidered as 
 confervator of land-marks. 
 
 Teruncius, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a very fmali brafs coin 
 in ufe fof feme time, but at lail 
 laid afide as being of too fmall a 
 iize : Its name was ftill retained in 
 reckoning. The Teruncius at firll 
 was a quarter of the /is or Libra, 
 for the As being divided into 12 
 parts, the Teruncius contained 
 three: Hence its name, '^aji trts 
 unciee. Teruncius was alfo uled for 
 a quarter of the Denarius ; its va- 
 lue confequently varied with the 
 value of the Denarius. See Dena- 
 rius, As, Money, &c. 
 
 Tessaraconta, among the 
 Athenians, were forty men ap- 
 pointed to go their circuits round 
 the boroughs, and take ccgni- 
 zance of all controverfies about 
 money, if not above ten Drachms % 
 as alfo of actions of aiTault and 
 |>attery. 
 
 TES 
 
 Tessaracontbris, a fort of 
 galley, among the Ancients, con- 
 taining no lefs than forty tires of 
 rowers, one above another, and 
 confequ«ntly requiringabove4ooo 
 men. Accounts of fuch monftrous 
 veffelsalmoftrtaggerour belief, but 
 we are well informed that Ptolemy 
 Philopater had one fuch, and that 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus had one of 
 30 tires. Ships of this magnitude 
 were not only uncommon, but un- 
 ferviceable, and were rather foe 
 Ihow than ufe. The Triremes were 
 found the moft ufeful, and the En- 
 neeres were the largeft ever brought 
 into common ufe. See Ships, 
 
 Tessaracoston, among the 
 Greeks, was a folemnity kept by 
 the women on the fortieth day af- 
 ter child-birth, when they went 
 to the Temple and paid fome 
 grateful acknowledgement for 
 their fafe delivery. It refembled 
 churching amongft us. 
 
 Tessera, among th^ Romans^ 
 was the fame with our Dice. Ic 
 had fix fides, and in this refpedt 
 was different from the Talus. 
 Three TeJJeree were ufed in play. 
 The highell cait was called Venust 
 and the loweft Canis or Canicula. 
 See Tali. 
 
 TeJJera fignifies alfo a tally of 
 wood or other matter delivered to 
 each foldier to diJtinguifh him 
 from the enemy. This tally is 
 fuppofed to have had fome parti- 
 cular word or fentence of good 
 omen infcribed upon it, which was 
 afcerwards ufed without the tally, 
 and gave rife to the watch-word. 
 See Watch-iuord. 
 
 Tessera Hofpitalitatis, was a 
 fort of tally or certificate of mutu- 
 al intercourfe between perfons of 
 different countries. Friendlhip 
 and the rights of hofpitality were 
 by this means perpetuated and 
 tranfmitted to their defcendants. 
 The.T'^ra was a piece of wood, 
 
 • X 2 ivory. 
 
TES 
 
 ivory, &C. marked and fo cut, 
 that feparate, it made two ; but 
 joined again, it tallied fo exaft- 
 ly as (hewed it had been but one. 
 Charadlers were frequently cut 
 upon them. Each party kept one 
 of thefe tallies, or Tejfera, which 
 did not only ferve thofe who had 
 contraded engagements of hofpi- 
 tality perfonally, but fuch as they 
 thought fit to lend it to ; fo that 
 the bearer of this kind of certificate 
 was as well received, lodged, and 
 entertained, as the perfon to whom 
 it belonged. See Stranger. 
 
 Tesserarius, among the Ro- 
 mans, was the perfon who carried 
 the tally from the Tribunes to the 
 Centurions, previous to their fet- 
 ting the nightly guard or watch. 
 See Watch. 
 
 Testament, a name given to 
 the Holy Scriptures. It properly 
 fignifies the Will of the dead ; but 
 in this fenfe it cannot be applied 
 with ftrift propriety to the Ho!y 
 Writings. The word ^\.a.^r,-/.-/i, 
 which the Englijh and Latin tran- 
 flators have rendered by Ttjiament 
 and Tejl amentum, fometimes figni- 
 fies a will, but the Greek interpre- 
 ters of the Old Teftamcnt, , and 
 the writers of the New, commonly 
 ufed the word AiaS>;y.v) to ai fwer 
 the Hebrew word Berith, which 
 properly fignifies a contract or 
 covenant. The Old and New 
 Teftament might, therefore, with 
 great propriety, be called the Old 
 and New Covenant. 
 • Testamentum. See Wili. 
 
 Testudo, in the military art 
 of the ancients was a defenfive ma- 
 chine, confifting of a wooden 
 tower covered with fkins, under 
 which the foldiers fcreened them- 
 felves when they approached the 
 walls to mine them. It was 
 moveable, and called Teftudo be- 
 caufe it fhehered the foldiers as a 
 tortoife is covered in its fhell. 
 
 TET 
 
 Tejiudo was alfo a cover or fkreen 
 which the foldiers formed by 
 means of their bucklers, thus ; 
 they were drawn up clofe to one 
 another, the firft rank ftood ereft, 
 the reft ftooped lower and lower 
 by degrees, till the laft rank kneel- 
 ed upon the ground : The men in 
 front held their bucklers before 
 their bodies, thofe on the fides 
 did the fame, the reft covered the 
 heads of thofe before them, fo 
 that the whole body refembled a 
 pent-houfe or roof covered with 
 tiles, down which the enemies' 
 miflive weapons, ftones, &c. gli- 
 ded without injury to the foldiers 
 underneath. This invention was 
 ufed in fie'd battles, but more fre- 
 quent'y in furprizing cities, before 
 the befieged were prepared for de- 
 fence, and ferved to protedt the 
 befiegers in their approach to the 
 wails. Sometimes other foldiers 
 mounted upon this roof of buck- 
 lers, and covered themfelves in the 
 fame manner. 
 
 Tetraeteris, in the Athenian 
 chronology, was a cycle of four 
 years, invented by So/on, to make 
 the lunar year equal to the folar : 
 For as the lunar year confifled of 
 354 days only, which fell ftiort of 
 the foiar eleven days and a quar- 
 ter, or thereabouts; an intercala- 
 ted month of 22 days was added ; 
 and again, after the fpace of two 
 years more, another month was 
 intercalated ccnfiiting of 23 days. 
 Thus in the fpace of four years 
 there was an addition of 45 days 
 made to the lunar reckoning, 
 which preverited the lunar years 
 from fulling fnort of the folar. 
 See Tear, Month, Sec, 
 
 Tetradrachmon, a Gredan 
 coin, worth zs.-j d, of cur money. 
 See Money. 
 
 Tutrarch, properly fignifies 
 
 a fovereign prince who has the 
 
 fourth part of a ftate, province or 
 
 kingdom 
 
TH A 
 
 kingdom under his dominion, 
 without wearing the diadem, or 
 bearing the title of king. The 
 word letrarcb is a!fo u(ed to fig- 
 nify not only a fourth, but fome- 
 times an half or a third part of a 
 kingdom or province. The title of 
 Tetrarch was common among the 
 defcendants oi Herod the great, to 
 whom the Roman Emperors dillri- 
 buted his Demejnes. It is met with 
 in fcripture, Matth. x\v. I. Luke 
 iii. I, \g. ix. 7. /iJls xiii. i. 
 Upon the death of Herod the 
 great, the largeft part of his king- 
 dom was given to his fon ^r- 
 chelaus, viz. Idumeot Judea, and 
 Samaria. Galilee and the country 
 called Peraa, beyond Jordan, fell 
 to the (hare of ycung Herod, called 
 Amipai ; and 10 Philip was given 
 Trachonitis, a country aboutMount 
 Gileaa; Abilene, the fourth part, 
 was given to one Ly/anias. This 
 four-fold divifjon lufficiently ac- 
 c unts for the name of Tetrarcht 
 and Tctraichies. 
 
 Tetrobolum, a Grecian coin, 
 ■worth 5 rf'. f of a farthing of cur 
 money. See Money. 
 
 Tettiges, was a title which 
 the Athemarii affumed to them- 
 iielves, fignifying grafshoppers, 
 becaufe they boafted that they 
 were produced by fome ftrange 
 prolific virtue of nature from the 
 fame foil that they inhabit ; and 
 in allufion to this opinion they 
 wore golden grafshoppers in their 
 hair. 
 
 Thalamegus, among the an- 
 cients was a fhip of pleafure or 
 yacht ufed by princes, accommo- 
 dated generally with a good cabin 
 or bedchamber. That of Philo- 
 pater. King of Egypt, was the lar- 
 getl fhip of this kind upon record. 
 It was 312 feet long, 30 cubits 
 broad, and 40 cubits high, with 
 the pavillion. It was defigned for 
 {ailing with his wife and (;hildrea 
 
 THE 
 
 in parade, on the hlile. See Shipt, 
 
 Thalamitje, in the naval ar- 
 rangements of the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, fi£;niried thofe rowers (in 
 galleys which contained feveral 
 leries of rowers) who fat on 
 the Thalamus of the vefTel, and 
 made the lowed row. Thefe 
 moved their oars and hands under 
 the feats of the row that fat next 
 above them. The fecond row was 
 called Zygita, and the uppermoft 
 Thranit<£. See Zygita, Thranita, 
 Ships, Rcwers, Triremis, &c. 
 
 Thallophori, the old men 
 and women who, in the Greciani&U 
 tival Panathenaa, walked in the 
 proceffion, with olive boughs in 
 their hands. See Panathena;a. 
 
 Thalysia, a facrifice offered 
 by the Grecian hufbandmen after 
 harveft. Some will have it to 
 have been performed in honour of 
 Ceres and Bacchus, but it appears 
 that Neptune and all the gods had 
 a fhare in it. 
 
 Thargelia, an Athenian fefti- 
 val, in honour of the fun and the 
 hours his attendants; or as others 
 think of the Deli an Apollo and Di- 
 ana. During the folemnity the 
 city was luRrated by two perfons 
 called (paffiuxQi, one being a man 
 the other a woman, the man car- 
 ried about his neck figs of a black 
 colour called nrxoc^ii, and the wo- 
 man white ones. Adopted fons 
 were now enrolled, pledges were 
 given and received, and perfons 
 who offended in thefe matters were 
 arraigned at an affembly held in 
 Bacchus's theatre. 
 
 Thargelion, was an Athenian 
 month of thirty days, fo called 
 from the feflival Thargelia kept in 
 it. It was the eleventh month of 
 the year, and anfwered to the lat- 
 ter part of April and the begin- 
 ning of May. See Month. 
 
 Theatre, among the ancients, 
 a public edifice for the exhibition 
 
 of 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 «f fcenic (hews or fpeflacles to the 
 people. All Theatres were dedi- 
 cated to Bacchus and Venus, the 
 deities of fports and pleafure. 
 The moft ancient Theatres were 
 temporary, being compoftd of 
 boards placed gradually above 
 each other, for the convenience of 
 fpedlators. The Improvements of 
 the Theatre however kept pace 
 with dramatic tafte, and Theatres 
 at laft were fixed and durable, be- 
 ing built of ftone, commonly of 
 marble ; which by degrees were 
 encreaied to that magnitude that 
 they exceeded almolt all other 
 buildings of Greece and Rome, 
 The figure of Theatres was femi- 
 circular, but contained fomething 
 more than half of a circle ; and 
 therefore Amphitheatres, which 
 were made in the fame figure as if 
 two Theatres were joined together, 
 were not exaftly obicular but oval. 
 Every Theatre confifted of two 
 parts, the Scena and the Cwvea, 
 The Scena confilled of many parts, 
 whereof the moft remarkable are 
 thefe, the Brontium, the Epi/ceni- 
 um, the Parafcenium, Prejcenium, 
 Qrchejira, and Hypo/cenium. The 
 Cavea, called by the Greeks KotAof, 
 was appointed for the fpedlators, 
 and confirted of three parts, placed 
 in equal degree one above another, 
 the loweft belonged to perfons of 
 quality and magiftrates, the mid- 
 dle to the commonalty, and the 
 uppermoft to women. The Ca'vea 
 anlwers as a general term to pit, 
 boxes, and gallery. Theatres be- 
 ing open at the top, Portico's were 
 ereded behind the Ca'vea, whither 
 the fpedlators retired in rainy wea- 
 ther tor fhelter. See Scene, Ca'vea, 
 Brontium, Epijcenium, &C. 
 
 The Roman Theatres were di- 
 vided, as to their feats, into three 
 parts, the Qrchejira for Senators^ 
 Equejiria for Knights, and PopU' 
 laria for the commonalty. 
 
 THENSiE were veils or cano- 
 pies ufed in the Roman chariots at 
 games, folemn proceffions, &c. 
 and alfo to cover a feat of ftate. 
 Then/lie could not be granted to 
 any but by the exprefs allowance 
 of the Senate. The name of Then' 
 fee is likewife given to the waggons 
 in which the ftatues of the gods 
 and great men were carried on fo- 
 lemn occaiions. 
 
 Theocracy was that peculiar 
 kind of government under which 
 the children of 7/rWlived, having 
 God for their King. Mofes and 
 Jojhua, and, after them, the 
 Judges, were his vicegerents or 
 deputies. God as their King 
 made them laws and ftatutes, 
 eftabliflied rewards and punifli- 
 ments, and gave orders in ail 
 matters of moment. The direc- 
 tions which God gave to Mofes 
 were given face to race, the voice 
 proceeding probably out of the 
 Shechinah, God vouchfafed to 
 continue their immediate King, 
 till, in the time of Samuel, they 
 rejedled him, and would have a 
 King like other nations, i Sam. 
 viii. 7, 19. And, even afterwards, 
 their Kings were in a peculiar 
 manner God's deputies. After 
 the days of Mofes, God, when 
 confulted in matters relating to 
 the governmtnt, and affairs of 
 conftquence, intimated his will 
 by the oracle of IJrim and Thum- 
 mim. See JJrim. 
 
 Theogamia was a Sicilian fef- 
 tival inllituted in honour of Pro- 
 ferpine, to commemorate her mar- 
 riage with Pluto. 
 
 Theomancv, a fpecies of di- 
 vination, founded upon a fuppofed 
 infpiration of fome deity. It dif- 
 fered from Oracles, as not being 
 confined to any particular time or 
 place. 
 
 Theophania, a feftival oh* 
 ferved by i\iQ Delphianjf in memo- 
 ry 
 
THE 
 
 ty of JpoUo^s firft appearance and 
 manifellation among them. 
 
 Theoria, a folemn annual 
 voyage performed, by the Atheni- 
 ansy in the fame fhip in which 
 Thejeus went to the Temple of 
 >^/o//i?, in the ifland of Z)f/o/. This 
 annual cuftom was founded upon a 
 vow which Thejeus made to Apollo, 
 that if he would grant him a fafe 
 return from Crete, whither he was 
 fent, with other Athenian yoachs, 
 to be devoured by the Minotaur, 
 they would yearly make a voyage 
 to his Temple at Delos. The 
 perfons employed in this ceremony 
 were called 6£wpo». They wore 
 garlands of laurel on their heads, 
 and were accompanied by two of 
 the family of Kv/ftxE^. Before 
 them went Certain men with axes 
 in their bands. On their arrival 
 they facriiiced to the god, repair- 
 ed their ihip, and then (leered 
 homewards. The Ihip underwent 
 fuch frequent repairs, that at laft 
 not any of the old materials re- 
 mained, fo that it was individu- 
 ally the fame, though numerical- 
 ly different. 
 
 Theoxenia, a feiUvalin honour 
 of all the gods, celebrated at Athens^ 
 and in many other Grecian cities. 
 
 Therapeutj?: were an ancient 
 fe£l, who lived in folitude, and 
 devoted themfelves to meditation, 
 prayer, and reading the Scrip, 
 tures. Saturday was their Holy 
 Day, when they ufed to aflemble. 
 The men and women were ranged 
 feparately, moving in the mealure 
 of a dance, and turning to the 
 Eaft in the morning to beg blef- 
 fings for the coming day ; after 
 which they retired to their cells. 
 An account of them is given by 
 Philo. Some fuppofe they were 
 Ejjenes, others imagine they were 
 yevus, reiiding in Egypt, and Eu- 
 febius and others confider them as 
 Cbrifiianu See EJfenes, 
 
 THE 
 
 Therms. See Balnea. 
 
 Theseia, a feftival in honour 
 of Thejeus, celebrated at Athens, 
 on the eighth day of each month. 
 It was obferved with much rejoic- 
 ing and banquetting, of which 
 the poor partook at the expence of 
 the rich. 
 
 Thesmophoria, a feftlval ce- 
 lebrated in honour of Ceres, by 
 the Athenians and many other ci- 
 ties o[ Greece. It was attended at 
 Athens with every appearance of 
 gravity and ferious devotion. The 
 women were clad in white, and 
 obliged for three or five days be- 
 fore the ceremony to abilain from 
 ali venereal pleafures. They puc 
 agnus cafius, flea-bane, and vine- 
 branches in their beds, becaufe 
 they uere fuppofed to deftroy all 
 appetite to mutual inrercourfe be- 
 twixt the fexes. The feftival con- 
 tinued feventeen days. 
 
 Thesmothet^, an appella- 
 tion given to ux of the nine Athe- 
 nian Archons. The firft or chief 
 of the nine, was called, by way 
 of eminence, Archon, the fecond 
 Bajileus, the third PolemarchuSf 
 and the remaining fix The/motheta, 
 The duty of the The/mothetx was 
 to hear complaints againll falfe 
 accufers, calumniators, perfons 
 guilty of bribery and impiety. 
 They heard difputes betwixt citi- 
 zens and ftrangers, fojourners or 
 flaves, and controverfies about 
 trade ; they preferred all appeals 
 to the people, ratified contrails, 
 and appointed the times of public 
 trials in the courts of judicature* 
 See Archon. 
 
 Theta. The letter 0, among 
 the Ancients, was ufed on the bal- 
 lots of judges, by which they con- 
 demned a perfon to death, it be- 
 ing the firft letter of the word 
 ©avolo;, Death. Hence it had the 
 epithet Qi niger and in/elix, thus, 
 
 Q 
 
THR 
 
 THU 
 
 O multum ante alios infelix litera 
 Theta. 
 
 Thorax, a piece of defenfive 
 armour, among the Greeks and 
 Romans, ccnfifting of t'.vo parts ; 
 one of which defended the back, 
 and the other the belly. The ex- 
 tremities of it were called wli^Oyti;, 
 the middle yvuT^u. The fides 
 were coupled together with but- 
 tons. The Romans called it Lori- 
 ca. The Thoraces were not all 
 compofed of the fame {lufF; f^me 
 were of linen or hemp twilled into 
 fmall cords and clofe fet together ; 
 hence we read of Thoraces bilices 
 l^ triUces, fi'om the nomber of 
 cords fixed one opon another. He- 
 mithoracium wanted the back part, 
 and only defended the breall and 
 belly. 
 
 Thraces, a kind of Gladia- 
 tors, among the Romans, who ufed 
 a Sica or faulchion, and a Parma 
 or little round fhield, peculiar to 
 the country of Thrace, of which 
 nation they generally were, be- 
 caufe the Thracians were reckoned 
 a mod fierce and barbarous people. 
 See Gladiators. 
 
 Thranit^, in Grecian and 
 'Roman Ihips, which had feveral 
 banks of oars, fignified the upper- 
 moft range of rowers, Thefecond 
 row of men were called Zygit^e, 
 and the lowed Thalamttee. See 
 Xygita, Thalamitte, Ships, Trire- 
 mis, Ronjoers, Sec. 
 
 Three was a number in high 
 eftimalion among the Greeks and 
 Remans, and even amongft all na- 
 tions civilized or barbarous. The 
 gods were thought to have a par- 
 ticular pleafure in this number. 
 The particular fanftity afcribed to 
 this number might be owing to 
 the idea of its being a perfeft 
 number, as containing a begin- 
 ning, a middle and an end, or to 
 the Trinity as obfcurely taught by 
 
 Pythagoras and other Philofophers^ 
 or to the threefold divifion ot the 
 gods, into celeflial, terreflriai, and 
 infernal. The judges of the dead 
 were three, the fates were three, 
 the furies were in number three, 
 the heads of Cerberus were three, 
 thefons of Saturn, amongft whom 
 the world was divided, were 
 three ; "Jupiter s thunder was triji- 
 dum or three-forked, and Neptune's 
 trident had three prongs. Odd 
 numbers, but particularly fuch as 
 arofe frofti the multiplication of 
 three, were much ufed in incan- 
 tations, and ihepherds chofe an 
 unequal number in their flocks as 
 more fortunate. See Senjen. 
 
 Th R E shing-Floor, among 
 the 'Jeius, was a place open to the 
 air, where the corn was threfhed 
 by fledges or flails, with horfes or 
 bullocks feet, they being made to 
 run round upon the (heaves fet 
 near one another, with the ears 
 uppermort. Thefe floors were 
 inade by mixing lees of oil with 
 clay, which whtn well foaked, 
 was beaten and made fmooth ; 
 and when dry was impenetrable 
 to rats, or mice, or ants, neither 
 weedb could grow, nor water pene- 
 trate. The threfhing-floors of the 
 Romans were of the fame kind. 
 
 Thunder, has ever been re- 
 garded as fomething divific, and 
 as proceeding immediately from 
 the deity; and pirfons and places 
 lUuck with lightning have been 
 treated with peculiar ceremony. 
 The idea of its fanftity has given 
 rife in moft countries to many 
 fuperltitions and whimfical ob- 
 fervances. But at this we need 
 not be furprized, when we con- 
 lider the awfulnefs of thunder and 
 lightning, and call to mind, that 
 the caufe was not till lately under- 
 ftood, nor indeed can our prefent 
 fyftems of philofophy fufHciently 
 explain it, in all its circurailances, 
 
 the 
 
 1 
 
THY 
 
 the eleftricity appears to be the 
 principal agent. See Bidental and 
 Lightning. 
 
 In taking Omens., thunder and 
 lightning were confidered as lucky 
 or unlucky as they proceeded trcm 
 the eait or well, from the right or 
 left. 
 
 Threces, among the Romans 
 a fort of Gladiators. See Thraces. 
 Thrio, a feftival in honour of 
 Jpolloy fo called from his three 
 nurfes nazr.ad Thrice. 
 Thummim. See Urim. 
 Thuribulum, was a cenfer or 
 vefiel in which incenfe was burnt 
 at Roman facriiices. 
 
 Thyia, a feilival in honour of 
 Bacchus celebrated by the Eleans. 
 in the ceremonies of this folemni- 
 ty the chief was the conveying cerr 
 tain vefiels into a chapel, and fe- 
 cretly filling them with wine. 
 
 Thylla, a feltlval in honour 
 of Venus. 
 
 Thymele, was a kind of pul- 
 pit where the fingers called Thy- 
 melici performed. See Thynelici. 
 
 Tkymelici, among the Ro- 
 mans, were muficians who fung 
 and played in the interludes, dan- 
 cing and keeping time with their 
 geitures. They were fo called 
 t/om Thymele, a noted dancer, in 
 great favour with Domitian. The 
 place where they performed was 
 alfo from hef' called Thymele, 
 hence yu^uenul vi. 66. 
 
 Attendit Thymele, Thymele nunc 
 rujlica difcat. 
 
 Thynnia, a facrifice of tun- 
 nies, offered to Neptune by fiftier- 
 iiien, after a plentiful draught. 
 
 Thyos, a facrifice of fruits, 
 Jeaves or acorns, which were the 
 only offerings at firft in ufe. 
 
 Thyrsus, a fceptre or fpear 
 wrapped up in vine leaves, which 
 the poets put into the hands of 
 
 TIB 
 
 Bacchus, and the Manadesy at the 
 Bacchanalia. It is alfo put into 
 the hands of the Satyrs, who were 
 Bacchus's foJdiers, and are fup- 
 pofed to have fought with the 
 Thyrfus, in his Indian expedition. 
 
 TiaRa, was an ornament or 
 habit wheiewith the ancient Per-. 
 flans adorned their heads. It was 
 in the form of a tower, and adorn- 
 ed with peacocks feathei-s. The 
 Per/Ian Kings wore it ftraight and 
 erect, the priells and great lords 
 wore it depreded. The Tiara, 
 however, was made in difFcrenc 
 forms. The Kings of Parthia, 
 the Kinos of Pont us, the Armeni- 
 ans and Phrygians appear to have 
 worn it as well as the Perjians, 
 
 Tibia, was a pipe or flutie, 
 which flie ancients made ufe of in. 
 performing their comedies. Flutes 
 are diftinguifhed by the feverai 
 names of Tibiee pares and impares, 
 dextra and finifirte, Lydite, Sar- 
 rana and Phrygia. To give the 
 proper diftindtion of all thefe has 
 been confidered as a confiderable 
 difficulty. The moft fatisfaftory 
 account of the matter may be 
 given as follows. The performers 
 played always, the whole time of 
 tne comedy, on two flutes ; that 
 which they flopped with their 
 right hand they called dextra Ti~ 
 bta, and that which they flopped 
 with their left, Siniftra Tibia. 
 The firit had but few holes, and 
 founded a deep bafs ; the other 
 had a great number or holes, and 
 gave a fhriller and fharper note. 
 When the muficians played on two 
 flutes of a different found, they 
 ufed to fay the piece was played 
 tibiis ifnparibus, or tibiis dextris 
 i^ Jinijlris, When they played oa 
 two flutes of the fame found, they 
 ufed to fay the mufic was perform- 
 ed tibiis paribus j and if the equal 
 flutes were of the fhriller note, 
 tbey exprefled il by tibiis paribus 
 
 * Y Jinijiris, 
 
TIT 
 
 finiftris> Two eqaal right-hand 
 flutes they called Lydian, two 
 equal left-hand ones they named 
 Sarrame or Tyrian, and two un- 
 equal flutes were termed Phrygian., 
 as imitations of the mufic of thofe 
 countries. Right-hand flutes were 
 ufed at funerals. Ticia properly 
 fignifies the leg-bone, flutes hav- 
 ing firft been made of the legs of 
 cranes or other birds. 
 
 TiBiALJA, among the "Romans, 
 were a kind of fwarhs which they 
 made ufe of to cover their legs. 
 When applied to the thighs, the 
 bandage was called Femoralia or 
 Taminalia, 
 
 Time, among the Romans, was 
 divided in a manner different from 
 that which prevails amongil: us. 
 They meafured the night into four 
 equal parts, which they called 
 Watches, each containing the fpace 
 of three hours; part of thefe they 
 devoted either to the pleafures of 
 the table or to fludy. The natu- 
 ral day they divided into twelve 
 hours, the firft beginning with 
 fun-rife, and the laft ending with 
 fun-fet; by which means the hours 
 were of unequal length, varying 
 according to the different feafons 
 of the year. The time for bufi- 
 nefs began with fun-rife, and con- 
 tinued to the fifth hour, being that 
 of dinner, which was only a flight 
 repaft; from thence to tie feventh 
 hour was a time of repofe, a cuf- 
 tom which ftill prevails in Italy. 
 The eighth hour was employed in 
 bodily exercifes ; after which they 
 conflantly bathed, and from the 
 bath went to fupper, which was 
 their principal meal. Time was 
 meafured by Dials, Clepfydrce, ob- 
 fervations made upon the apparent 
 motion of the fun, &c. Stc Dial, 
 Clepfydra, Hour, Day, Month, 
 Tear, Night, Watches, Sec. 
 Tithes. See Tythes. 
 TiTULus, was a label or in- 
 
 TOG 
 
 fcription which, in crucifixioi>s, 
 the Romans always affixed to the 
 crofs, declaring the caufe why the 
 fufferer was thus punifhed. It was 
 written in capitals, to convince the 
 people of the equity of the pu- 
 nifhment, and the jurtice cf the 
 proceedings. This infcription is 
 called in the New Teftament «(7«a, 
 TtT^oj, iitvy^a.^-n, and nt^y^a.i^-n. 
 Tri5 aslio?, Matth. XXvii. 37, — 
 Mark XV. 26. — John xix. 19. — 
 Luke xxiii. 38. Suetcntus calls 
 this infcriptiou Elcgium. The like 
 declaration was uiually made in 
 other punilhments, either by in- 
 fcription, or the voice of a cryer, 
 efpecially in capital punifliments. 
 Toga, among the Romans, was 
 a robe without fleeves, open before 
 like a large cloak, which they 
 wore over the Tunica. One end 
 of it was brought over the left 
 fhoulder, that the right arm might 
 be more at liberty; in other words, 
 that part of the Toga which came 
 under the right arm was drawn 
 over to the left flioulder, where it 
 covered the knot of plaits, and 
 kept the gown clofe together. 
 When they wanted to act in this 
 habit, they wrapped it round the 
 body like a fafli, and faftened it 
 with a knot. The Toga was made 
 of woollen cloth, generally white, 
 or of its natural colour; fometimes 
 however they wore them of differ- 
 ent colours. They quitted it in 
 times of mourning and public ca- 
 lamity. It was originally an ha- 
 bit of honour, and prohibited to 
 the common people, who went a- 
 bout in the Tunic only ; but at laft 
 it became common to almoft every 
 body, the rich being diftinguifhed 
 from others only by the finenefs of 
 the ftuff, and by its being more 
 ample. It was even common ta 
 both fexes, till the women of qua- 
 lity made ufe of the robe called 
 StoJui and then the Toga was wora 
 
 onlv 
 
TOG 
 
 only by the vulgar women and 
 courtezans; hence that expreflion 
 ol Horace, In Matrona peccej've To- 
 gata. The Toga adnriitied of va- 
 rious ornaments, and had various 
 denominations : Thus there was 
 the Toga aomejiica, which was worn 
 within doors J Toga/orenjis, worn 
 abroad ; Toga aperta^ when it was 
 open ; Toga pracin^a, when tuc- 
 ked up; Toga laxior, which trail- 
 ed upon the ground; Toga adjlric- 
 tior, which did not reach to the 
 feet ; Toga gabinia, when one of 
 thefiiijts or lappets was girt round 
 the body. There was alio the To- 
 ga pura, 'vtrilis, or libera, which 
 young men affumed at the age of 
 fevent€en inftead of the Pratexta, 
 which was now laid afide. The 
 friends of the young men attired 
 them in the Forum, or Capitol, 
 with much ceremony. They cal- 
 led the day on which the Toga viri- 
 Us was aifumed, Bits tyrocimi; be- 
 caufe from that time they com- 
 menced Tyrones, and became ca- 
 pable of ferving in the army. It 
 was called Libera, becaufe they 
 lyerethen delivered from thepower 
 of tutors and inibuflore; but they 
 were obliged, for the hrlt whole 
 year, to keep their arms \yithin 
 their gowns, as a token of modef- 
 ty. 'Ihis gown was called Pura, 
 becaufe it had no addition of pur- 
 ple to the white. Toga Candida 
 was worn by candidates for offices. 
 It was not of a natural, but artifi- 
 cial white, which it received from 
 a line kind of chalk. The Toga 
 fulla was made of black cloth, and 
 proper to perfons in mourning. 
 Toga fordida was black from long 
 wearing and fullying, and worn 
 by priloners at their trials, tu ex- 
 cite compaffion ; it was alfo the 
 drefs of ordinary people : The 
 *Toga pulla and fordida, however, 
 are fometimes confounded with 
 pach other, Th« TogapWa, pur* 
 
 TOP 
 
 purea, palmata, and triumphalis, 
 feem to have been the fame gar- 
 ment under different names. It 
 was worn by victorious generals 
 when they triumphed. It was cal- 
 led piila Irom its rich embroidery, 
 purpurea becaufe the ground was 
 purple, palmata becaufe it was 
 adorned with palms, or with clavi 
 of the breadth of a palm ; and, 
 lallly, it was called triumphalis, 
 becaufe it was worn in triumph. 
 The Trabea, Paludamentum, Prce- 
 texta, and Chlamys, were names 
 given to the Toga made in a par- 
 ticular manner and for particular 
 purpofes. See Trabea, Paluda- 
 mentum, &c. 
 
 The Togq was the robe which 
 diltinguifhed the Romans from the 
 Greeks, who wore the Pallium, 
 hence togatus fignifies Roman, and 
 palliatus Grecian. The Toga was 
 alfo the badge of peace, being 
 laid afide on engaging in any 
 martial defign, tho' fometimes it 
 was worn in the camp. 
 
 ToGAT/E, among the Romans, 
 were fuch plays as reprefented Ro- 
 man charaders, in Roman habits; 
 in oppofition to Palliated, which 
 reprefented Grecian charafters in 
 Grecian drefles ; for the Toga \vas 
 peculiar to the Romans, as the 
 Pallium was tO the Greeks. The 
 To gat a Commcedite were divided, 
 according to the quality of the per- 
 fons reprefented, into Preetextatx, 
 Trabeata and Tabernaritt : The 
 fii ft exhibited charadlersof diftinc- 
 tion, the fecond, confuis or great 
 magiftrates, and the third, perfons 
 of inferior rank. Set Toga, pra^ 
 textata. Drama, Comedy, &c. 
 
 Tomb. See Sepulchre, Monu- 
 mentf Burial, Funeral, Epitaphy 
 &C. 
 
 Top of the Houfe, not only in 
 
 the eaftern countries, but alfo a- 
 
 mong the Greeks and Romans, was 
 
 fiat and covered with a flrong ter- 
 
 • Y 2 race . 
 
TOR 
 
 race. Hither they frequently re- 
 paired for meditation, prayer, 
 converfation with a friend, &c. 
 Here a'.fo they dried their linen 
 and flax, prepared figs or raifins, 
 enjoyed the refrefhing breezes, 
 &c. On the tops of the Roman 
 houfes were fmall rooms contain- 
 ing the figures of their anceftors, 
 fuch rooms were therefore ccnfide- 
 j-ed as chapels. On certain fed;- 
 •vals ard public folemnities the 
 images were uncovered and adorn- 
 ed. When any perfon of confide- 
 Tation in the fnmi'y died, thefe 
 figures were carried in procefiionto 
 the funeral, dreft according to the 
 dignities they had enjoyed. See 
 Houfe, Funera!, &c. 
 
 TopHET, was a polluted, un- 
 clean place near "jerufalem, where 
 they ufed to throw the caicafles of 
 beafts, or the bodies of men to 
 which they refufed burial ; and 
 all the filth of the city was alio 
 brought thither. A perpetual fire 
 was kept there for burning what 
 v/as brought. Tcphsi is for this 
 reafon fonietimes put for hell. It 
 was in the valley of the children 
 of Hinncm, and had been defiled 
 by the human ficrifices offered 
 there to the god Moloch. The fa- 
 crifices were- offered by beat of 
 drum, which in Htkreiv is called 
 Toph : hence the place was called 
 ^ophet. 
 
 ToRALiA, vvere the coverlets 
 or carpets which were laid over the 
 ^ori or couches of the Romans 
 when they fupped. Originally 
 they were nothing but the fkins of 
 goats ; but as riches encreafed, the 
 delicacy of that people encreafed 
 glfo, and more expenfive materials 
 were fought for. See jiccubatio, 
 Bedsy Cana, &c. 
 
 Torches, among the ancients 
 were not like our flambeaux, for 
 ^cy bad no wicks ; a great many 
 if ^in y^iitel^!^]^^ (et in the end 
 
 TR A 
 
 of a nick, or a bundle of rags 
 fmeared with pitch. Torches 
 were alfo made of pine branches, 
 and other trees which produce 
 pitch and rofin, particularly the . 
 
 T/^da tree. Torches were' ufed IM 
 both at marriages and funerals. ^ 
 'i'hofe ufed at marriages were made 
 of white thorn, and had incenfe 
 in their compofition, that with 
 their light they might afford a 
 grateful fmell. Torches were 
 made ufe of as fignals in war, and 
 intimated the approach of an ene- 
 my or a friend, according as it had 
 been previoufly agreed upon. They 
 were likevvife ufed as philtres, and 
 made an ingredient in love-po- 
 tions. See Lo've. 
 
 It is almoit needlefs to obferve, 
 that torches were made ufe of in 
 many folemn and facred procef- 
 fions, particularly in the Eleujinian 
 myrteries. See Eleujinia, Dadu- 
 chi, &c. 
 
 ToRquEs were golden and fil- 
 ver collars, wreathed with curious 
 art and beauty, worn as ornaments 
 about the neck amonglt the Ro- 
 mans. They were frequently given 
 by the Roman Generals, to fuch 
 foldiers as had dillinguifhed them- 
 feives by their valour and indultry. 
 Pli^ry fays, that golden collars were 
 given to the auxiliaries, and filver 
 ones to the Roman foldiers : But 
 this is held to be a miftake. See 
 Renuards. 
 
 ToxoT^, among the Athenians, 
 were a fort of iiifenor officers, or 
 rather fcrvants, who attended the 
 Lexiarchi, and were armed with 
 bows. They were much like the 
 Roman Li£lors ; there were about 
 one hundred of them in the city 
 of Athens that lived in tents, erec- 
 ted firlt in the Forum, and after- 
 wards in the Areopagus. See Lex- 
 iarch. 
 
 Trabea, was a fort of gown 
 worn by Roman Kings, Confuls, 
 
 and 
 
TR A 
 
 ^nd Jugurs, and by the Knights oh 
 the laes of July. It was white, 
 bordered with purple, and adorned 
 with Cla'vi and Trabes or fprigs of 
 icarjct; it differed in this from the 
 Pr<£texta, which was only edged 
 with purple. The Conjuls put ic 
 on when they opened the Temple 
 oi 'Janus. Romulus is faid to have 
 worn it, and Virgil adorns Picus 
 with it, yEn. vii. i83. Authors 
 differ much in their accounts of 
 the Trabea, but this is the beft in- 
 formation 1 am able to give con- 
 cerning its form and ufe. See 
 Toga. 
 
 Tp.ABEATi^ ComcsdiiS, a fpe- 
 cies of Comedy, among the Ro- 
 mans, which reprefented fome 
 chief officers, and had for its fub- 
 jed, matters relating to the camp. 
 The name is derived from Trabea, 
 a fort of gown which the Reman 
 Conjul wore when he fet out upon 
 any warlike defign. 1 he Trabe- 
 oice Comcedia were a lubdivifion 
 of the Comedies called Togai^e. 
 bee Togata, Trabea, Comedy, &c. 
 
 Tractorij^, among the Ro- 
 mans, were Diplom^Ts, or tickets, 
 <^!ven by the Emperors to fuch as 
 tliey called out of, or fent into, the 
 provinces, by which they were 
 tntitied to tne public port, and 
 had a right to be maintained at 
 the expence of government. 
 
 Traditions. See Cabbala. 
 
 Tragedy, a Dramatic Poem, 
 reprefenting fome fignal adion 
 performed by illuftrious perfons, 
 and which has generally a fatal 
 iffue or end. It is calculated to 
 refine and purge the paffions, by 
 raifing terror and compafTion. — 
 Tragedy, in its original, was on- 
 ly an Hymn fung in honour of 
 Bacchus, by fevcral perfons in 
 chorusy with mufic and dancing, 
 while the goat flood at the altar 
 ready to be facrificed. It was, 
 therefore, a piece of religious fer> 
 
 TR A 
 
 vice, a part of their Liturgy, and 
 called H^a-yuhx, i. e. The Goat's 
 Song. '1 he hymn being long, fa- 
 tigued the performers, they there- 
 fore divided the fong into feveral 
 parts, with certain recitations in 
 the intervals. Accordingly The/- 
 pis iirfl introduced a perfon to 
 fpeak upon the Aage with this 
 view: jEfchylus, finding one per- 
 fon infufficient, introduced two to 
 entertain the audience with a dia- 
 logue; he alfo cloathed them more 
 decently, and firft put them on 
 wearing the buflcin : Sophoclej, 
 finding two perfons infufficient for 
 the variety of incidents, added a 
 third, and here t\\Q Greeks iezm to 
 have flopped, or but feldom intro- 
 duced a fourth. The perfons who 
 made the recitations were called 
 aftors. Tragedy and Comedy 
 were at firft confounded with each 
 other. The Tragedy of the Ro- 
 mans was wholly borrowed from 
 the Greeks, and built entirely upon 
 their mode! ; fo that one account 
 will ferve to give an idea of both. 
 See Comedy, Drama, Sec, 
 
 The paits of Tragedy are the 
 fame as thofe of Comedy, and will 
 be feen under the article Drama 
 and the heads there referred to. 
 
 Trajan's Pillar. See Column. 
 
 Traitors, who betrayed or 
 confpired againft their country, 
 were by the Athenians denied the 
 rites of burial. Amongfl the Ma- 
 cedonians, not only the traitors 
 themlelves, but their children, and 
 all who were nearly allied to them, 
 fuffired death. 
 
 Transactio, in the Roman 
 courts of judicature, was when a 
 caufe was dropped on account of 
 its being dubious or uncertain. 
 
 Trans FUG a. See Defer ten. 
 
 Transmigration of Souls, 
 was taught by Pythagoras, and the 
 do^rine may be briefly Hated thu$. 
 That philofopher acknowledging 
 
 fouls 
 
TR A 
 
 TRE 
 
 fouls to be immortal, affbrted that 
 they are pre-exillent to bodies ; 
 that there is an innumerable com- 
 pany of them ; that thofe which 
 tranlgrefs, are fent down into bo- 
 dies by way of punifhment ; that, 
 being purified by fuch difcipline, 
 they return to their own place ; 
 that thofe which, whilft they are 
 in bodies, lead a wicked life, are 
 fent down farther into irrational 
 creatures, to continue their punifh- 
 ment and complete their expia- 
 tion ; that the angry and mali- 
 cious tranfmigrate into ferpents, 
 the ravenous into wolves, the au- 
 dacious into lyons, the fraudulent 
 into foxes, and the like. This 
 doftrine feems to have been bor- 
 rowed from the Egyptians, v/ho 
 held that the foul, when one body 
 perifhed, paffed into another, till 
 it had gone thro' every thing ter- 
 relhial, marine, volatile ; then it 
 again afTumed an human body. 
 This circuit wascompletedin 3000 
 years. The pre-exillence of fouls 
 feems to be alluded to in the quef- 
 tioD propofed to our Saviour con- 
 ceriiing the blind man, John ix. 2. 
 Some Tuppofe that it ret'ers to a 
 wild fancy of the Rabbins, that a 
 child m\2}^\. fin in the womb. Be 
 tfiis as It may, jt is certain, that 
 this notion met fome countenance 
 among the Jenvs. See Wi/J. viii. 
 J9, 20. Jojfphus alfo hints at it. 
 
 Transvectio, among the 
 Romans, was a fort of review of 
 the Equites, or Knights, previous 
 to their being embodied for the 
 fervice of the Itate. It is thus de- 
 fcribed by D'.onyfius, "The facri- 
 fice being finifhed, all thofe who 
 are allowed horfes at the expence 
 of the ftate, i. e. all the knights, 
 ride along in order, as if returning 
 from a battle, being habited in 
 the Tog<e Palmatte or the Trabea, 
 and crowned with wreaths of 
 plive. The procefiion begins at 
 
 the temple of Mars, without the 
 walls, and is carried on thro* all 
 the chief parts of the city, parti- 
 cularly the Forum, and the temple 
 iii Caji or and Pollux, The num- 
 ber fometimes amounts to 5000: 
 every man bearing the gifts and 
 ornaments received from his gene- 
 ral as a reward of his valour. A 
 moft glorious fight, and worthy of 
 the Roman grandeur!" This fo- 
 lemnity was inflituted in honour 
 of Cajhr and Pollux, who in the 
 year of the city 257, are faid to 
 have rode poft, to inform the ^0- 
 mam of their viflory over th« 
 Latins. See Knights. 
 
 Trappings, among the An- 
 cients, were made ufe of to adorn 
 their horfe;, but authors cannot 
 agree as to the manner of placing 
 them; fome will have it that they 
 were placed on their breads, others 
 on their foreheads, and others a- 
 gain on their cheeks. On the 
 breail they wore a fmall kind of 
 fhield finely polifhed ; but they had 
 neither faddles nor ftirrups- See 
 Stirrups, Phalerte. 
 
 Treasury, the place where 
 the public revenues are received, 
 preferved, and difburfed. The 
 public treafure of Rome was kept 
 in the Temple of Sutum, where 
 the fpoils of conquered nations 
 were depofited. Julius Cafar, in 
 the civil war, feized upon and 
 plundered this Temple; and what 
 immenfe wealth that threw into 
 his hands, may be judged of by 
 the elegant defcription which Lu- 
 i-fl« gives of its riches, B iii. 155. 
 c*v:c. Pliny the elder, fays that 
 Ca:/ar got, in gold and filver 
 plate, and coin, to the amount of 
 1,093,979/. 3/. 4</. Under the 
 Emperors, the Romans had two 
 kind of Treafuries, one called 
 jEranum, wherein was kept the 
 money deftined for the fupport of 
 governments and the other called 
 Fi/cus^ 
 
TRE 
 
 Fi/cfis, wherein was preferved the 
 money appointed for the fubfift- 
 ence of the Emperor and his 
 Court. jErarium, therefore, be- 
 longed to the people, and the Fif- 
 cus to the Prince. See ^rarium, 
 Fi/cus. 
 
 The Athenian Treafury was fa- 
 cred to "Jupiter Soter, and Plutus 
 the god ot riches. Befides other 
 public monies it always contained 
 looo talents, which it was capital 
 to touch, except on the moft pref- 
 iing occafions. The public Trea- 
 fury was divided into three parts ; 
 the firil contained money for civil 
 ufes, the fecond that for defraying 
 the charges of war, and the third 
 contained money intended for pi- 
 ous ufes, plays, public (hews, and 
 felHvals. Tne Treafury was fup- 
 plled from the miM, or income of 
 public polfefiions btlonging to the 
 State ; trom the ^opoi, or payments 
 exafted from tributary cities; from 
 the e»«rfiopa», or taxes laid upon 
 citizens, ibjourners and freedmen; 
 and from T»/A»;/Aa1«, or all iines and 
 amercements, except the tenth 
 part, which was given to Miner- 
 -va, and the fiftieth, which was 
 allotted to the rell of the gods. 
 
 Treaty. See League and 
 F-eace. 
 
 Trechedipna, a kind of li- 
 very or dillinguifhing habit worn 
 by Parafites, which was a lufHcient 
 palTport to the tables of their pa- 
 trons, whofe livery it was. 
 
 Trees were held facred to the 
 gods when they grew in coufider- 
 able numbers together; their 
 gloomy fhade infpired fo:emn 
 ideas, and hence was derived the 
 fandity afcribed to them. Groves 
 and woods, in the fir It ages, were 
 reforted to as temples ; and parti- 
 cular trees were fuppofed to be the 
 refidence of certain divinities, 
 thus the Dryades and Hamadryades 
 were believed to be ©nllirined in 
 
 TRI 
 
 oaks. The gods are alfo faid to 
 have taken particular fpecies df 
 Trees under their protedion; thus 
 Jupiter chofe the oak, Venus the 
 myrtle, Apollo the laurel, Cybele 
 the pine tree, Hercules the poplar, 
 Minerva the olive, and Bacchus 
 the ivy and the vine. 
 
 When the Jezus planted a vine 
 or fruit-tree, they were not allow- 
 ed to eat of the produce for the 
 firft three years, they offered to 
 God that of the fourth year, and 
 afterwards might enjoy their fruits 
 at difcretion. The fruit of the 
 three firil years was accounted un~ 
 clean, Levit. xix. 23. 
 
 Trial, is the examination of 
 any caufe, civil or criminal, ac- 
 cording to the laws of the coun- 
 try, before proper judges. Caufes 
 amongli the Jezvs were deier- 
 mined before the Sanhedrim, or in 
 the leffer courts which were held 
 at the gates of their cities. See 
 Sanhedrim, Gates. 
 
 The Athenians, for trying caufes, 
 had three noted tribunals; the tri- 
 bunal of the Areopagus, the tribunal 
 of the Ephetce, and the Heliafttc 
 tribunal. The Areopagus took 
 cognizance of robberies, malicious 
 plots, wilful wounds, poifoning?, 
 fetting lire to places, homicides, 
 contempt of the gods, innovations 
 in religion, &c. In this court 
 none could be admitted as judge 
 who had not been Archon, This 
 regulation was made by Solon. 
 The judges at firft ufed to meet on 
 the three laft days of every month, 
 but afterwards their meetings were 
 aimoll daily. When the magif- 
 trates were afTembled, a crier or- 
 dered the people to remove to fome 
 dillance, and enjoined them fi- 
 Isnce ; then he of the Arcbons, who 
 was ftiled Bafkusy took his place 
 among the judges J but firft of all 
 folemn facrifices were offered. 
 Then the accufer and the accufed 
 
 took 
 
took each an oath at the altar, 
 laying their hands on the flelh of 
 the viftini : They afterwards 
 pleaded their caufe either in per- 
 fon or by their patrons ; the ac- 
 cufer being mounted upon the 
 ilooe called viSficjq, and the ac- 
 Cufed 01! that called acairstaj. At 
 iirft every one pleaded his own 
 caufe; but in after times ten per- 
 fons were chofen by lor to be the 
 patrons of this tribunal. Thefe 
 orators, howevtr, were not per- 
 mitted to make ufe of the infinu- 
 ating openings of caufes, nor the 
 other refources of eloquence. The 
 judges, having heard the parties, 
 gave their opinions privately, by 
 means of black and white Itones. 
 The black had holes in them, that 
 they might be diftinguilhed in the 
 dark. The white ftones were put 
 into an urn of brafs, called T/ji 
 Vrn cf Mercy, and the black into 
 £ wooden urn, named The Urn of 
 Death. If the number cf white 
 ftones prevailed, they made a fhort 
 line with the nail in a wax tablet, 
 and the perfon was acquitted ; if 
 the black were more numerous, a 
 long line was drawn, and the per. 
 ion was condemned : If the num- 
 bers were equal, the crier threw a 
 white ftone into the urn of mercy, 
 which was termed The Stone ofMi- 
 ner-va. After condemnation, the 
 .criminal was loaded with chainf, 
 and led forth to execution. Be- 
 fore the fentence, the culprit was 
 not in chains ; but had it in his 
 power, if he defpaired cf his 
 caufe, to avoid punilhrnent by vo- 
 luntary exile, in v.'hich cafe his 
 goods were confifcated. — T^.e tri- 
 bunal of the Epheta took cogni- 
 zance of involuntary murther. 
 The judges were fifty-one in num- 
 ber, and fifty years of age. They 
 were the moft refpeftable perfons 
 of the ten tribes, from each of 
 whichj £ve cuizeas were chofen. 
 
 TRI 
 
 of irreproachable life, and they 
 chofe the additional one by lot. 
 They were called Epheta, from 
 £^»6>a*, to appeal, becaufe ap- 
 peals were made from inferior 
 courts to this. 
 
 The Heliajlic tribunal was fo 
 called from rj^ioy, the Sun, becaufe 
 it was in the open air, expofed to 
 the fun. The judges were called 
 Heliajia, and were more or fewer 
 in number according to the impor- 
 tance ot the caufe. They were 
 chofen hy lot, and qualified for 
 their office by a foleron oath. He 
 that wanted to bring an at^ion be- 
 fore this tribunal firll obtained 
 leave of the Thefmothetee, and then 
 fummoued the other party by an ap- 
 paritor called KAnljjp. The judges 
 then met, and the magirtrace* au- 
 thorized them to try the caufe. 
 The accufed perfon might elude, 
 or delay judgment by pleading 
 informality in the proceis, indif- 
 penfdble avocations, recrimina- 
 tion, or want of legal notice, li' 
 none of thefe pleas were urged, 
 each of the parties took an oath, 
 and depofited a fum of money. 
 Then the plaintiff and the de- 
 fendant, or his patron, were al- 
 lowed to fpeak, the time permit- 
 ted each of them being meafured 
 by a Clepfydra or water-clock. 
 The judges gave their judgmenc 
 by little pebbles, and pafied fen- 
 tence o'^ death, or a fine, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the offence, 
 if the accufed perfon loft his caufe. 
 The eleven, «» ivh^x, executed 
 the fentence of death, and the 
 "ffi-pfclofcj, received the fine. If 
 he couid not pay the fine, he was 
 thrown into pnlon, his fon was 
 declared infamous, and was thrown 
 into the fame prifon if his father 
 died there. 1 he pay of the Hdi- 
 afia for every caule was three 
 oboli. 
 
 Trials araong the Romanst were 
 always 
 
TRI 
 
 St1«(rays held on the Dies Faftly and 
 were either of a public or private 
 nature. Public caufes were tried 
 fub Dis, in the open air, in the 
 places where the Comitia were 
 held; private caufes were tried in 
 a building ca<led Bafi'ica. Public 
 caufes were either caufes of law or 
 fafl; thofe of law were determined 
 by the centuries, i. e. the judges 
 of the Decurite, and thofe of faft 
 were judged upon the report of a 
 Tribune. The cognizance of pri- 
 vate caufes b. longed to the Prator 
 only. In ordinary matters his 
 perm'ffion to cite the defendant 
 before him was demanded by biil. 
 The fummons was given by the 
 party, the creditor went to feek 
 his debtor,, and in the prefence of 
 two witnefles, cited him to appear 
 before the jndge. He pulled or 
 pinched the ear of the two wit- 
 nefles that they might the better 
 remember the fummons; hence 
 aurem 'vellere, aureSlari. If the 
 defendant was not willing to ap- 
 pear immediately, or promife to 
 appear, he might be carried be- 
 fore the Pnetor by force. If, on 
 the concrary, be appeared, or pro- 
 mifed to appear, he was faid to be 
 'vaciimonio adjiridus. His appear- 
 ance to the iummons might be de- 
 ferred three days, if the matter 
 in queilion was a mutter of iact, 
 the Prxtor appointed judges to en- 
 quire into it If it was a matter 
 of law he judged it himfelf with 
 his Centurr.virs, or referred the 
 decifion to them. The deleg=ited 
 judges were only fimple comniifla- 
 ries. Their power was not fo ex- 
 tennve as that of the Centutnvirs ; 
 they were refirifted to a Formula 
 given them, and took cognizance 
 only of fafts, fo that theirjudgment 
 was only a report, according to 
 the Formula prefcribed. The Cen- 
 tumvirs were the afleflbrs of the 
 Prator. Their number was 105, 
 
 TRI 
 
 three being chofen out of each or 
 the 3^ Tribes. Thev were after- 
 wards encreafed to I 80, and divi- 
 ded into four councils or tribunals. 
 They were called JuJices Ordina- 
 rii. — In criminal matters there was 
 always an accufer and an accufed. 
 The bill of indidment or accufa- 
 tion was lodged in the public trea- 
 fury, till it was cancelled. From 
 the day of accufation, the accufed 
 had a right to fet a watch upoa 
 the accufer, to prevent his ufing 
 any unwarrantable arts: The in- 
 terval between the citation and 
 judgment was at lead thirty day^, 
 i. e. there were to be three mar- 
 ket-days (trinundinum) betweea 
 the affignation and the fentence. 
 After the third market-day, the 
 accufed appeared befjre the Pree- 
 tor. The accufer placed his feat 
 in the moft commodious part o£ 
 the Forum, and in a few words 
 exhibited the matter of the com- 
 plaint ; for inftance, Aio tejiculos 
 fpoliajfe. — The accufed either de- 
 nied the charge, or, by his filence, 
 acquiefced. In the firft cafe, time 
 was granted to coiled evidence; 
 in the fecond, cods and damages 
 were granted to the futferers, and 
 fettled upon the fpot. This was 
 called Litis jEJiimatio. In public 
 crimes the Prxtor convoked feve- 
 ral perfons out of eac h Decuria to 
 form a kind of jury ; the commoa 
 number was 75. The accufer and 
 accufed mignt chjUenge thofe 
 whofe charader they d.faiiproved, 
 or whom they fufpedled of partia- 
 lity. They were always chofea 
 by ballot, and thofe who were rc- 
 jeded, were replaced by other 
 names taken out of the urn. This 
 jury were called Judices. Three 
 tablets were given to each of them ; 
 on one was the letter A. for ab- 
 /ol'vatur, fignifying acquittal^ on 
 anoiher the letters V. P. for ultra 
 probetur, denoting that the affair 
 • Z was 
 
TRI 
 
 was not fufficiently explained; up- 
 on the third was a C. the mark of 
 condemnation. The perfons con- 
 cerned in pleading and preparing 
 the caufe were the Ad-vocates, who 
 originally were friei.ds of the par- 
 ty accufed, and attempted by their 
 numbers to influence the judges ; 
 the Ccgnitcresy who being learned 
 in the cultoms of the bar, aflilled 
 the pleaders, they are alfo called 
 Patront, and were allowed to 
 fpeak ; the Cognitores of an infe- 
 rior fort, who refembled our at- 
 tornies ; the Mcnitores, who re- 
 prefled the extravagant warmth 
 and fallies of the Ad-uocaies ; and 
 the Cujicdcs, who held the bags 
 which contained the feveral in- 
 Uruments of the procefs. In 
 caufes of great importance Orators 
 were employed, inftead of the 
 common Patrons. Claudius, the 
 Emperor, forbad the Advocates 
 to take mere than lo SeJIerces, 
 worth about 80/. for one caufe. 
 The number of Ad'vocates was fix- 
 ed, they were exempt from fubfi- 
 dies, took place of the Equefirian 
 order, and had palms placed be- 
 fore their houfes. They fpoke 
 {landing, and were limited by a 
 Clepjydra, as to their time in 
 fpeaking. When they had finifh- 
 ed on each fide of the queilicn, the 
 Prator pronounced with a loud 
 voice Dixerunt, and immediately 
 each of the judges call one of their 
 tablets into a bcx ; thefe being 
 counted, the Prator put off his 
 purple robe, or Pr^stexta, and 
 pronounced judgment according- 
 ly : But from this fentence there 
 lay an appeal to the Senate or the 
 people. A fpear was always ftuck 
 up in the Forum during the time 
 that caufes were trying, to fhew 
 that the court was open. See Ac- 
 tio^ Judices, Prator, &C. 
 
 Triarii, one of the four grand 
 divifions of th^ Roman infantry. 
 
 TRI 
 
 They confined generally of ivefe- 
 rans, or harJy old foldiers rf long 
 experience and approved valour. 
 They were called Triarii from 
 their pofition, being marfliaHed in 
 the third place, as the main 
 ftrength and hopes of their party. 
 Their ranks were {o wide and 
 loo;e, tnat, upon occafion, they 
 could receive both the Principes 
 and Hajlaii, who were placed be- 
 fore them, into their body, in 
 cafe of dillrefs. They are fome- 
 times called Pilani, from their 
 weapons, the Pila. 
 
 Tribe, a certain order or de- 
 fcription of perfons, when a city 
 or people is divided into diltriftf, 
 &c. The Je-ivijh nation was di- 
 vided into twelve Tribes, the de- 
 fcendants of the twelve fons < f Ja- 
 cob, 'viz- The Tribes of Judaht 
 Reuben, Gad, Afoer, Dan, Naph- 
 tali, Ephraim, ManaJ/ah, Simeon, 
 Lewi, IJfachar, Zetulun, and Ben- 
 jamin. But Jacob, on his death- 
 bed, adopted Ephraim and Manaf- 
 fah, the fons of Jofeph, and would 
 have them conltitute two Tribes 
 alfo; inftead of twelve Tribes then 
 there v.'ere now 13, that oi Jo/eph 
 being divided into two. In the 
 divilion of lands by Jojhua, how- 
 ever, they made but twelve lots, 
 the Tribe of Levi being omitted 
 by the order of God, as having 
 been appointed to the fervice of 
 the Tabernacle of the Lord, and 
 provided for in a different way. 
 See Genealogy, Le'vites, &c. 
 
 The city oi Athens was at differ- 
 ent periods divided into different 
 numbers oiTribes; but at lafi: Clif. 
 thenes, by the advice of ApcLo^s 
 Oracle, encreafed them from four 
 to ten, and gave them new names 
 derived from certain ancient he- 
 roes, all born in Attica, except 
 Ajax the fon of Telamon. The 
 names of the heroes are thefe : 
 ErecbtheuSf Curoptx uSgeus, Pan^ 
 
 dior-i 
 
TRI 
 
 </<«», AcamaSf Antlochus, Leo, Oe- 
 veus, Hipfivihocn, /^jax. 
 
 Rotnului divided the Roman peo- 
 ple ir.to three Trikes; hence the 
 origin of the word Trihus. The 
 lirlt confilted of Albam, the fecond 
 of Saf>!Kes, and the third of a mix- 
 ture of fugitives. Servius Tullius, 
 fearing feditions, divided the in- 
 habitants oi Rome into four Trihes, 
 and of the citizens who had retired 
 into the country he compofcd 26 
 Tribes, in all 30. In after times 
 the number of Tribes was encreaf- 
 €d to 35. The Cen/ors, who form- 
 ed their lills at difcretion, fre- 
 quently confounded the country 
 Tribes with thofe of the city. No 
 jnan was a Romav. citizen unlefs he 
 had the Jus Tribus, which is alfo 
 called Jus !^iritium, which v.' as 
 the right of being magilhate, tind 
 the right of voting in aflerablies 
 of the people. Inhabitants of 
 municipal cities were, thererore, 
 imperfeft citizens, as being of no 
 Tribe. Freed-men always pur- 
 chafed the right of Tribe, which 
 did not otherwife belong to them, 
 <ho' they were citizens of R.cme. 
 
 Tribunal, among the an- 
 cients, was a place from whence 
 the people were harangued by 
 the Tribunes of the Remans. It 
 was an eminence in a temple, or 
 the Forum, as that called Rojira, 
 where the people were harangued 
 jn tribes. Tribunal figniiies alfo 
 a place where juftice was admini- 
 ilred ; in this fenfe the Remans had 
 three Tribunals, for caufes were 
 pleaded before the people in the 
 general siTemblies ; before the 
 Prator who was the ufual judge; 
 or before the judges commifiioned 
 by the Prator. The Athenian 
 Tribunals of moft note were, that 
 of the Areopagus, that of the 
 Ephetec, and the Heliajlic Tribunal. 
 See Trial. 
 Trijunes of the People^ Tri^ 
 
 TRI 
 
 luni Phiis, were certain Roman 
 magillrates chofen out of the com- 
 mons, for the defence of their 
 liberties, and to guard them a- 
 gainll any impofitions or inju- 
 ries ofi'ered by their fupericrs. 
 Thefe magillrates owe their inlU- 
 tution to a qunrrel betwixt the 
 nobility and commonalty about 
 the year of the city 260. The 
 commons revolted, and could not 
 be reduced to order without the 
 privilege of elefting Tribunes. 
 At firlt they had only two, foon 
 after they were encreafed to five, 
 and in the year of Rome 297, they 
 were augmented to ten, and this 
 numbercoiuinuedever after. Tho' 
 at jirll they only profclTed thcm- 
 felves the redrefl'ers of public 
 grievances, and wrongs done to 
 the people; yet afterwards they 
 aiTumed an arbitrary power, being 
 backed by the authority of the 
 whole people- They affembled 
 the people, preferred laws, made 
 decrees, and executed them upon 
 the magiltrates themfelves, com- 
 manding the very Confuls to be 
 carried to prifon. In f:id, they 
 occafioned far greater animofuies 
 among the Reman nobility and 
 commons, than thofe they were 
 intended to appsafe. They had 
 the reputation of being Sacroj'anSi^ 
 which was even confirmed by 
 Jaw ; fo that it was reckoned 
 highly impious to cfFer them the 
 leail injury, or to interrupt them 
 v.hen fpeaking. Nothing could 
 be concluded without their con- 
 fent, which was fjgnified by fub- 
 fcribing the letter T. at the bottom 
 of the decree. They could pre- 
 vent the palling or the execution 
 of any decree in the Senate, or 
 any other afitmbly of magiltrates, 
 by ftanding up and pronouncing 
 the fingle word Feto : This was 
 called InterceJJio. They bad no 
 PrataxtUy Liiiorst or Curule 
 * Z 2 chair. 
 
TRI 
 
 chair, only a beadle called Viator 
 walked before them. The Tri- 
 hunes of the people were Senators 
 by virtue of their office. Atini- 
 us Labeo, in the year of Rome 
 623, pafled a law requiring that 
 they fhould be chofen out of the 
 body of the Senate, or, which 
 js the fame thing, that they 
 jhould have borne the office of 
 ^uejior. Their houfes were to be 
 always open to every body, and 
 they were never allowed to lie out 
 cf Rome except at the Ferit^ Lati- 
 ■na, when they went to offer facri- 
 £ce with the other magifirates upon 
 the y^/^i3« mount. Their jurifdic- 
 tion did not extend beyond the 
 city. Sylla endeavoured, but in 
 vain, to curb their power; it was 
 iowever effedlually checked under 
 the Emperors, who obliged the 
 people to confer the fame power 
 and authority on themielves ; 
 lience they were faid to be Trihu- 
 ■nitia Potejlate donati, for they 
 could not be diredly Tribunes, un- 
 lefs their families had been Ple- 
 beian. See InterceJJjo, Senate, &c. 
 Tribunes of the Soldiers, Tri- 
 iuni Militum, or Militares. Cer- 
 tain officers among the Romans, 
 who commanded in chief over a 
 body of forces, particulaily a 
 divifioa of a Legion ; they refem- 
 bled our Colonels. At firll ihey 
 were chofen by the Kings, then 
 by the Con/uls, then by the peo- 
 ple ; the Con/uls afterwards re- 
 covered the power of election, and 
 at laft it was divided betwixt the 
 Con/uls and people. Thcle cho- 
 fen by the Con/uls were called Ru- 
 fuli or Rutuii, from RutHius Ru/us, 
 who preferred a law on behalf of 
 the Con/uls right of election ; 
 thofe chofen by the people were 
 Called Comitiati, becaufe they were 
 elefted by the public votes in the 
 Comitia. They were foniCtimes 
 taken out of the Senatorian and 
 
 TRI 
 
 Eque/irian order : The former 
 were called Laticla'vii, the latter 
 Angu/icla'vii, becaufe the Lati' 
 cla've belonged to Senators, and 
 the Angu/licla've to the Equites or 
 knights. Their bufinefs was, a- 
 mong other things, to decide con- 
 troverfies in the army, to give the 
 word to the watch, and to take 
 care of the works and camp. 
 They had the honour of wearing 
 a gold ring, and in order to make 
 the rotation as quick as poffible to 
 an office fo defirabie, they con- 
 tinued in command but fix months. 
 They were called Tribunes, be- 
 caufe at their inftitution by Romu- 
 lus there were only three in num- 
 ber, chofen out of his three Tribes, 
 They were afterwards encreafcd 
 to fix in every Legion. At the 
 time of the year when the Coo/als 
 were declared eleft, ox de/gnati, 
 fourteen Tribunes were chofen out 
 of the Equites, who had ferved in 
 the army five years, and ten out 
 of the commonalty, who had made 
 ten campaigns: The former were 
 called Trikuni Juir.ercs, the lattef 
 Seniores. 
 
 Tribunes o/t/je Soldiers, nvith 
 Conjular Poxver, Tribuni Miliium 
 Conjuiari Poujiate, were elected 
 inllead of CohjuIs in the year of 
 the city 310. At firft they we.'-e 
 only three in number, but after- 
 wards were augmented to fix, and 
 even more, according to the will 
 of the people and the occafions of 
 the Comn:;onwealth. Part of 
 them were eleded out of the Ple- 
 beians. Thele Magiltrates fub- 
 fiiled about 70 yeais, after which 
 Con/uls were re-eflablifhed, who 
 governed, as before, to the end of 
 the Commonwealth. 
 
 Tribunes 0/ the Trea/ury, Tri' 
 buni jErarii, were officers taken 
 from among the people, who kept 
 the money defigned for the ufe of 
 the army. The richelt perfons 
 were 
 
TRI 
 
 TRI 
 
 were chofen into this office, for it 
 was an employrrent where a great 
 deal of money was to b? managed. 
 Vojfiui i..yi> tney toi k up tiionty of 
 ihe ^<e lorj to pay the army ; and 
 Cal-jiii the civilian, fays that they 
 had the fupervifal of the money 
 coined in tae city. 
 
 Tribunus Cuhortium Pratori- 
 iinatuniy the Tribune of the Prato- 
 rian Cohorts was much liice our 
 Captains of the Guards, whofe 
 bufii;efs it was to guard the Em- 
 peror. 
 
 Tribute properly fignifies a 
 tax or impoil which one Prince or 
 3tate pays to another, in virtue of 
 a treaty, in token of dependance, 
 or as the purchafe of peace : But 
 Jugujlui having made a divifion of 
 the provinces between himfelfand 
 the people, the taxes paid by the 
 Emperor'i) provinces were called 
 Stipendia, and thofe gathered in 
 the people's provinces were called 
 Tributa. See Revenues. 
 
 Tribute, among the Je^vusy was 
 paid with reluclance to any human 
 Sovereign, becaufe they looked 
 upon themfelves as under the im- 
 mediate government of God, 
 whofe dominion they acknowledg- 
 ed by a Tribute of half a Shekel a- 
 head, which every Ifraelite paid 
 year'y, as under a Theocracy.— 
 Exod. XXX. 13. 
 
 Triclinium, a name given 
 by the Grteks to the room where 
 they fupped, becaufe three couches 
 or beds were placed about the ta- 
 ble. This name was adopted by 
 the Romans as fynonimous with 
 Ceenaculum. Triclinium is fome- 
 times ufed for the beds on which 
 the guefts reclined. See Accuba- 
 tio, Ceena, &c. 
 
 It was cultoraary in entertain- 
 ing rooms to have a rofe placed 
 over the table, as an emblem of 
 filence, to put the guells in mind 
 that nothing which pafTed there 
 
 fliould be blabbed abroad. See 
 Rofe. 
 
 Trident, was the fceptrc 
 wliich poets and painters put into 
 the hands of Neptune. It is in 
 form of a fpear or fork, with three 
 prongs or teeth ; hence the name. 
 The poets inform us i\ii.l Neptune, 
 by ftriking the ground with this 
 Tridenty would throw the globe 
 into convulfions and produce an 
 earthquake. It v/as an emblem of 
 his power ever the fea, the frcfli 
 waters, and the fubterraneous 
 waters. 
 
 Triens, a fmall Roman coin 
 of copper, worth one-third of the 
 Js, as the name implies. On one 
 fide it bore ^ijfanus^s head, on the 
 other a water-rat, and fometimes 
 a boat. This was the piece of 
 money ufually put into the mouths 
 of the deceafed to pay Charon his 
 fare for their paflage into the 
 other world. 
 
 It is alfo put to fignify the third 
 part of any Integer: For every In- 
 teger, or whole, as the Js for in- 
 llance, was confidered as contain- 
 ing twelve parts, or ounces, of 
 which parts the Triens coutained 
 four, or one-third of the whole. 
 See As. 
 
 Trier ARCHs, among t\iQ Athe- 
 nians, were certain commifliooers 
 annually chofen out of the richeft 
 citizens, and obliged to furnilh 
 and provide all forts of neceflaries 
 for the fleet, and to build Ihips ac 
 their ov/n charge. 
 
 Trieteris, in Grecian chro. 
 nology, was a cycle invented by 
 Thales to correct his year, which 
 confifted of twelve months, of 30 
 days each, amounting to 360 days. 
 This falling fhort of the true folar 
 year, he added a month of 30 days 
 at the conclufion of every two 
 years ; by which means he made 
 it exceed the true year by tea 
 days. This cycle was called Tri- 
 eterisg 
 
TRI 
 
 eterh, becaufe the Intercalation 
 was made at the beginning of eve- 
 ry third yesr. 
 
 Triga, a car or chariot with 
 three horfes. The Triga in fadl 
 was only drawn by two horfes, 
 the third bein^r tied to the others 
 like a led horfe, for change, and 
 called Eguus funalis. The Triga 
 was in ufe both among the Greeks 
 and Romans. See Biga, ^adri- 
 ges, &c. 
 
 Trigonalis Pila, was a fmall 
 ball much ufed among the Ro- 
 mansy by way of diverfjon, and 
 as a falubrious exercife, ac the 
 bath. It was called trigonalis, or 
 three-cornered, either from the 
 form of the Tennis-court wheie 
 they played, or from the triangu- 
 lar pofition of the perfons en- 
 gaged. The chief objefl in this 
 diverfion was to keep up the ball. 
 The perfon, by whofe mifmanage- 
 ment it came to the ground, was 
 obliged furam dare, by way of 
 punifiiment, i. e. he held out his 
 leg, and the ball was flung at it. 
 Mart. xii. 84. 3. and xiv. 46. 
 See Pila. 
 
 Tripos, was a facrcd feat or 
 fiool fupported by three feet, 
 whereon the priefts, prielleffes, or 
 fybills fat, when they gave ora- 
 cles. It had a cover of a circular 
 form called OA/^o;, full of holes, 
 thro' Vv'hich the Pythia at Delphi 
 ufedi to fnufF the infpiring vapor 
 which commuiiicated to her the 
 fpirit of prophecy. The Tripod 
 on medals exprelTes prieilhood, or 
 facctdotal dignity. The T'/v/c/j' on 
 Roman medals, with a raven and a 
 dolphin, fignjfies the Duumviri 
 who were appointed to keep the 
 Siljylli'ie books, and confult them 
 upon occafion. 
 
 Tripudium, among the Ro- 
 wans, was a term made ufe of to 
 exprefs the falling of the crumbs 
 from the mouth of the facred 
 
 TRI 
 
 chickens wben brought from their 
 pens to be consulted concerning 
 the fuccefs of any intended enter- 
 prize. The word is derived from 
 Terra and Pa'vire, which fignifies 
 the fame as ferire to Arike. We 
 n:;eet with Tripudium SoliJIimum, 
 and Tripudium Sonivium, both de- 
 rived from the crumbs falling to 
 the ground. When the chickens 
 eat fo greedily as to let part of 
 their meat fall thro' hurry, they 
 gave aflurance of fuccefs. See 
 Pullarius. 
 
 Tripudium alfo fignifies dancing 
 or tripping on the toe like a dan- 
 cer. See Dance. 
 
 Triremis, among the Greeks 
 and Romans, was a galley with 
 three tires or banks of oars, in 
 which the rowers were placed upon 
 feats fixed one at the back of ano- 
 ther, and afcending gradually one 
 above another like ilairs. The 
 Triremes, which the Greeks called 
 Tpn9|£K> were moll common, as 
 being of the moft manageable fize, 
 and moll ufeful in war. See 
 Ships. 
 
 Trisolympionica, a name 
 given to any perfon who had been 
 lo fortunate as to return three 
 times victorious from the Olympic 
 games. The condition of iuch 
 perfons was truly honourable. 
 They were exempted from taxes 
 and encumbrances, could never 
 be marked with infamy, enjoyed 
 many honours and privileges, en- 
 nobled the place of iheir nativity, 
 and had Iconic ftatues ereded to 
 their memories, modelled to the 
 form and fize of their perfons. 
 See Olympic, Olympionicis, Sec. 
 
 Tritopatoria, Wis aGreciaKf 
 folemnity, in which it was ufual 
 to pray for children to the Beoi 
 yBiiiB?iioi, or gods of generation, 
 who were fometimes called Tp»lo7ra- 
 
 Trjttyarchs, were Jthenian 
 . jna^iftrates. 
 
TRI 
 
 magiftrates, who had the command 
 or government of the third part 
 of a tribe. See Phylarchs. 
 
 Triumph, amonji; the Romans, 
 was a magrificent ceremony, fo- 
 lemnity and proccffiin, decreed 
 by the Senate to a General, for 
 having conquered a province, or 
 gained IbiDe fi^nal battle. Pre- 
 vious to the Triumph, the general 
 fent couriers, with tidings of his 
 fuccefj, written in letters wreath'jd 
 about with laurel, and called Lite- 
 ra Laureate. Thefe letters the 
 Senate read in the temple oi Bello- 
 na. This done, they lent him the 
 thhof Imperator, and ordered him 
 to return with his victorious army. 
 When he arrived near the city, he 
 and the principal officers were re- 
 quired to atteft, upon oath, the 
 truth of the viftory ; after which 
 the day of Triumph was fixed. 
 The day being come, the Senate 
 met the general at the gate called 
 Capcna or Trrumphalis, and march- 
 ed before him to the Capitol. The 
 victorious hero was clad in a pur- 
 ple robe called Toga Palmata, a- 
 dorned with golden figures, fet- 
 ting forth his aichievements : His 
 bufkins were Itudded with pearl, 
 and he wore a crown of laurel, 
 which in after times was changed 
 for gold : In one hand he carried 
 a branch of laurel, in the other a 
 truncheon. He was drawn in a 
 chariot of ivory and gold, drop- 
 ped here and there with blood, by' 
 two white horfes, fometimes by 
 elephants, lions, tigers, deer, or 
 hermaphrodite mares. His chil- 
 dren were placed at his feet, or 
 mounted upon the chariot horfes. 
 aa executioner went behind, to 
 remind him that all thefe honours 
 could not fcrecn him from pianilh- 
 men: if ever he Ihould tranfgrefs 
 the laws. The cavalcade was led 
 up by muucians with crowns on 
 their heads. Then came feveral 
 
 TRI 
 
 chariots containing plans of cities 
 taken, and countries fubdned, 
 done in relievo. Thefe were fol- 
 lowed by the fpoils taken from 
 the enemy, their horfes, arms, 
 gold and filver plate, money, ma- 
 chines, tents, &c. After thefe 
 came the kings, princes, or gene- 
 rals fubdued, loaden with chains, 
 walking with folemn fteps and 
 flow, and folic wed by mimics and 
 buffoons, who mocked their mife- 
 ry and infulted ever their misfor- 
 tunes. Next came the ofHcers of 
 the conquering troops, with crowns 
 upon their heads After thefe ap- 
 peared the Triumphal chanot, be- 
 fore which the ground was ilrewed 
 with flowers, the mufic played, and 
 the people with Icud acclamations 
 reiterated, lo Triumphe. The cha- 
 riot was followed by the Senate 
 cloathed in white, and the Senate 
 by ranfomed citizens. The priefts 
 with their ofiicers, utenfiis, and a 
 whiteox for the chief vidim, clofed 
 the proceffion. In this order they 
 marched along the Via Sacra, 
 thro' the criumphal gate to the 
 Capitol, wiiere the vidlims were 
 flain. in the mean time the tem- 
 ples were all open, the alta;s 
 loaded with facrifice and incenfe, 
 games and combats were every 
 where celebrated, and every thing 
 was done which could add to the 
 general joy and feftivity. Amidft 
 all this rriirth an aft was always 
 perpetrated which humanity fhud- 
 ders at : For, before the victims 
 were touched, the poor captives 
 were led from the Forum and 
 ftrangled in prifon. The rites 
 and facrificcs being over, the 
 triumphant General treated the 
 people in the Capitol, under the 
 portico's and in Hercules's Tem- 
 ple. 
 
 The Triumph now defcribed 
 was called The Triumph, Trium- 
 phui Qurulis, or The Greater Tri' 
 
 UTBphf 
 
TRO 
 
 itmph, in oppofition to tlie O'va- 
 tian, which was a fort of lejjer 
 Triumph. See Ovation. 
 
 TttGrecians had acafiomwhich 
 rcfembled i\\q RomanTriumph; for 
 the conquerors ufeJ to make a pro- 
 ceffion thro* the middle of their 
 city, adorned with garlands, re- 
 peating hymrs and fongs, bran- 
 difiiing their fpearj, leading their 
 captives, and expofing aU their 
 fpoils to public viLW. To do this 
 Was called Gco.lp^jts'. 
 
 Triumphal Arches. See 
 Arches. 
 
 Triumviri, amorg the Ro- 
 v'.ans, were three perfons who go- 
 verned abfolately with equal 
 power. There were two famous 
 Triumvirates at Rome : Pompey, 
 Cafar, and Crajfus eftabUfhed ttie 
 firft ; AuguJIus, Marc jintcny, and 
 Lepidus the fecond, which gave a 
 fatal blow to Roman liberty. 
 
 There weie other officers uncer 
 the name oi Triumviri : Thus we 
 meet with the Triun.virt Capitales, 
 who took care of prifonei-s, and 
 looked to their execution. The 
 Triumviri Monet ales, who looked 
 to the coinage of money; hence 
 the maik Hill extant on feme an- 
 cient coin£, IllVIRI. Their ti- 
 tle on medals is IIIVIR.AAA.FF. 
 i. e> Triumvir auro, argento, ce>e 
 fiando, fericndo. There were aifo 
 triumvirs of health and triumvirs 
 «f virtue, who took care of the 
 temples of health and virtue. We 
 meet aifo with triumviri noSiurni 
 inftituted for the prevention of fires 
 by night. 
 
 Triuncis, the fame as Terun- 
 cius. See Teruncius. 
 
 Trochus, among the Romans, 
 was a circle or hoop of iron, £ve 
 or fix feet in diameter, with a 
 number of rings of the fame metal 
 Jn the infide. The boys and 
 young men in play whirled and 
 relied it along, direfting its mo- 
 
 TRO 
 
 tions with an iron-rod that had a" 
 wooden handle. This rod the 
 Greeks called Pa/JJoj or EXoIfj^; 
 the Romans, Radius. Both {kill 
 and ftiength were required in this 
 exercife; and the rings, by their 
 clattering, contributed to the 
 diverfion of the boy?, and 
 ga\re people notice to keep out 
 of their way. This is reckoned 
 among the manly exercifes by 
 Horace, Lib. iii. Ode xxiv. and 
 De Art. Poet. 
 
 Troja, or Troj^ Ludi, were 
 Roman games, inltituted, as it is 
 faid, by Afcanius, the fon of 
 jEneas. They were ce'ebrated by 
 companies of boys of the bed fa- 
 milies, neatly dreffed, and fur- 
 niihed with little arms and wea- 
 pons. The Captain of the party 
 was called Princeps Juventutis, 
 being fometimes next heir to the 
 empire, and feldcm lefs than the 
 fon of a principal Senator. They 
 exhibited a kind of mock-fight on 
 fiorfeback, and fometimes on foot. 
 Some fay that chariots were ufed 
 on the occafion. The place of 
 aflion was^ the Circus. Firgil 
 has given us a beautiful de- 
 fcription of thefe exercifes, ..'£'//. 
 V. 545. &c. 
 
 Trophy, among the Greeks 
 and Romans, was an eretSlion in' 
 memory of fome viftory. Tro- 
 phies were originally nothing mc. e 
 than the trunk of a tree hung 
 round with the fpoils of the van- 
 quilhed enemy. The olive was 
 frequently ufed for this purpcfe, as 
 being an emblem of peace, which 
 fhould ever be the cbjedl of war. 
 Sometimes the oak or other trees 
 were made ufe of. The Trophies 
 were generally p'aced upon moun- 
 tains, and dedicated to fome of the 
 gods, efpecially Jupiter Tropaus. 
 A pile of arms left on the field of 
 battle, fometimes ferved as a Tro- 
 phy. 
 
TRU 
 
 TRU 
 
 pi^y. The word is alfo ufed to 
 lignify a reprefcntation of fuch a 
 pile of marble, or other matter; 
 of this kind were the Trophies of 
 Marius and Sylla in the Roman Ca^ 
 pitol. Pillars of Hone or brafs, 
 ftatues and temples in honour of 
 jfupltcr Tropcsus, were fometimes 
 eret^ed as Trophies to perpetuate 
 the memory of a vidlory. To de- 
 molifh a Trophy was looked upon 
 as facrilegious ; and ic was no 
 lels a crime to repair them 
 when demoli(hed, becaufe this 
 fliewed a difpofition to revive 
 forgotten quarrels, and engage 
 pofterity to revenge the difgrace 
 of their anceftors. There is a 
 defcription of a Trophy in J^irgil, 
 jEn. xi. 4. 
 
 Trumpets, mufical inftru- 
 ments ufed chiefly in war. The 
 Lord commanded Mofes to make 
 two Trumpets of beaten filver, to 
 call the people together when they 
 were to decamp, Numb. x. 2, 3, 
 4, 5, 6, &c. The Priefts, the 
 ions oi Jaron only, had the privi- 
 lege of founding them. Thefe 
 Trumpets, according to Jofephus., 
 were near a cubit long, and had a 
 tube or pipe of the tnicknefs of a 
 common flute: Their mouths were 
 but juft wide enough to blow into, 
 and their ends were like thofe of a 
 modern trumpet. At firfl: there 
 were but two in the camp: but in 
 'Jojhucis time there were feven ; 
 and at the dedication of Solomon's 
 Temp!e there were 120 Piiells that 
 founded the Trumpet. The 
 Trumpets were founded in going 
 forth to war, at the folemn 
 feltivals, when they offered 
 burot-oiTerings or peace-ofFer- 
 ings, on the firft day of each 
 month, at the beginning of 
 the Ci'vil year, the Sabbatical 
 year, and the Jubilee. Levit. 
 XXV. 9, lO. 
 
 Homer never fpeaks of Trumpets 
 
 as ufed in the field of battle among 
 his heroes ; but Virgil makes Mi' 
 fenus to have fervcd He£lor, in the 
 Trojan war, in the capacity of 
 Trumpeter. Shtll Trumpets feem 
 to have been firll in ufe, then thofe 
 of brafs. There were fix different 
 forts of Trumpets among the 
 Greeks: — I. The "EccXirty^. 2. 
 The Egyptian Trumpet, called 
 p/E»s»), to call the congregation to- 
 gether at facrifices : It was round, 
 and contrived by OJiris. 3. The 
 K«pn|, invented in Gallia Celti- 
 ca, of a fhrill found, with a mouth- 
 piece of lead, and adorned with 
 the figure of fome animal. 4. 
 The Boii'o?, with the figure of 
 an ox on the orifice, of a 
 deep bafs found. 5. The deep- 
 toned Median Trumpet, with 3 
 mouth-piece of reeds. 6. The 
 2:«^7r^y| Tv^^tny.-n, invented by 
 the Tyrrhenians, loud and fhrill, 
 and proper for engagements. 
 The orifice of this Trumpet was 
 cleft. 
 
 The Trumpets ufed by the ^0- 
 mans in war were of four kinds: 
 The Tubes, the Ccrnua, the Buc- 
 cina, and the Litui. Hence 
 Trumpeters were caPed Tubi- 
 cines, Cornicities, Buccinatores, 
 &c. Becaufe the Trumpets in 
 general were made of brafs, 
 u^neatores was a name ap- 
 plied to Trumpeters in general. 
 See Tuba, Buccina, Cornu, Li- 
 tuus. 
 
 Trumpets, Feaji of, was ob- 
 fcrved, among the Jeius, on the 
 firil day of the fcvench month of 
 the J'acred year, which was the 
 firil of the civil year, and an- 
 fwered to our Seftember. The 
 beginning of the year was pro- 
 claimed by found of Trumpet. 
 This was rather a civil feali 
 than a facred folemnity ; for 
 no religious caufe can be af- 
 
 A a figned 
 
TUN 
 
 iigned for its eftablifliment. 
 Mofes commands it, however, 
 to be obferved as a day of reii, 
 and that particular facrifices 
 Ihould be offered upon the oc- 
 cafion, Le'vit, xxiii. 24, 25. 
 Numb. xxix. i, 2. 
 
 Tuba, among the Romans, was 
 an initrument of mufic ufed in war, 
 fuppofed to haveexadtiy refembled 
 our trumpets, running on wider 
 and wider, in a dircdt line, to the 
 orifice. The perfon that played 
 upon the Tubj was called Tuhicen. 
 This inftrumert was commonly of 
 brafs. 
 
 TuLLiANUM was an apart- 
 ment under ground, in the 
 public prifon at Rome, into 
 which the moil notorious cri- 
 minals were put. It was fo 
 called becaufe it was added by 
 Servius Tullius. 
 
 Tumuli Inane s ot Honor a- 
 rii, among the Romans, were 
 the fame as Cenotaphs, See Ceno- 
 taphia. 
 
 Tunica was an under garment 
 worn by the Romans. The com- 
 mon people wore the tunica only ; 
 but thofe of better fafhion wore a 
 toga, or gown, over it. Phiiofo- 
 phers wore the toga without the 
 tunica. Inftead of the tunica, the 
 women wore the_y?o/a. The /a«/- 
 ca was fhort and narrow, the 
 lleeves at firll were very fhort, 
 tut afterward they came down 
 to the elbows, but no farther. 
 The tunica of Senators was en- 
 riched with little pieces of pur- 
 ple, cut in the foim of large 
 nails, whence it was called la- 
 tidanjia. The Knights had lefs 
 nails upon their tunica, it was 
 therefore called angufiicla'via. 
 The common people had no 
 cla^i, or nails, at all. By thefe 
 different kinds of tunica, the 
 three different orders of Roman 
 people were diftinguiihed in 
 
 TWE 
 
 their habits. We read alfo ot 
 the tunica palmata, which was 
 worn under the toga pifia, and 
 called palmata, either becaufe 
 the cla-vi were a palm in breadth, 
 or becaufe it was adorned with 
 embroidered figures of palms. 
 See Toga. 
 
 In procefs of time the common- 
 alty oi Rome wore the toga over 
 the tunica. 
 
 Tunica Molejla. See Molejla 
 Tunica. 
 
 TuRMA, in the Roman cavalry, 
 was a troop ccnfifting of 30 horfe- 
 men. There were ten turmx in 
 every legion, and three decuriee in 
 every turma, 
 
 T u R R I s Mobiles, moveable 
 towers in the Roman and Grecian 
 art of war, were of two forts, the 
 greater and the lefs : The greater 
 were about 120 cubits high, and 
 23 fquare; the lefs were about 6o 
 cubits high, and i7fquare. They 
 contained 15 or 2odivifions, which 
 contained ioldiers, ladders, en- 
 gines, &c. Thefe towers moved 
 upon wheels. The front was ufu- 
 ally covered with tiles, and the 
 top with raw hides, to fecure them 
 from fire-balls and miffive wea- 
 pons. They were of great ufe in 
 making approaches to the walls 
 of a city. 
 
 TuRRis, or itxj^yo^, among tbe 
 Greeks end Romans, was a man- 
 ner of drawing up an army, 
 in the form of a tower, with 
 very few men in a file, and the 
 files extended to a great length. 
 Homer mentions this arrangement 
 in Yh, fji,. 
 
 Oh ^e re Wfyin^ov o-fsxt; avini; «^- 
 Ivaoivleq. 
 
 Tv/ELVE Tables. About the 
 year of Rome 300, that is, 452 
 years before CAriJl, embaffadors 
 
 were 
 
TYT 
 
 were fent into Greece, to make a 
 ccUetflion of luch lav.s and cuf- 
 toms, as the vvifdom of that po- 
 lite people had ellablifhed, parti- 
 cularly the famous omcs ot Soioa. 
 Ax. tneir retuin, thefe laws were 
 approved and confiiintd, and to- 
 gether with luint additional ones, 
 were engraven on ten tables of 
 brafs. Two other tables of laws 
 were foon afterwards added to 
 thefe, which together with the 
 former, went by the name of the 
 tnuelve tables, and were looked 
 upon as the fountain of all law, 
 public and private. Thefe laws 
 were fit It put in execution by 
 the Decemviri. See Decemviri, 
 
 Tyrbe, a drunken feftival ob- 
 ferved by the Greeks, in honour of 
 Biiccbus. 
 
 TyTHEs, are of great antiqui- 
 ty, as appears from the inllance of 
 Abraham, who paid tythes ioMel- 
 chi/edeck, of all the fpoils he had 
 taken from the Kings of Canaan. 
 l^his inllance, at the fame lime, 
 proves the antiquity of the cuftom 
 cf paying tyihes to thofe that are 
 appointed to wait at the altar. 
 The Jeivs, according to the law 
 of Mojes, paid tythe of their yearly 
 encreafe, viz. their cattle, the 
 fruits ot trieir trees, and the fruits 
 of their land, even to mint, anife 
 and cummin, Le'vit. ?:xviii. 30, 
 31, 32. Tythes were paid from 
 what remained after the payment 
 of firlt-fruits and offerings ; and 
 were the tenths of what ttiey pi f- 
 fcfled. They were paid to the Le- 
 'vites in the city oi Jeru/alem; and 
 the Le<vites fet apart the tenth of 
 their tythes for the priefts. Of 
 thofe nine parts which remained to 
 the proprietors after the tithe was 
 paid to the Le<vites, they took ftill 
 another tenth part, which was 
 either fent to jerufalem in kind, 
 or its value in money, vvas remit- 
 
 TYT 
 
 ted thither. This tenth part was 
 called the fecond tythes, and was 
 applied toward celebrating the 
 teltivals in the Temple, where 
 it was eaten as a fign of re- 
 joicing and gratitude towards 
 Gcd. Thefe were a kind of 
 Agapa, or love-fedlls, liks thofe 
 of the firR Chrijiian^. There 
 were Tythes alfo allotted to 
 the poor, which the Levites, 
 like the reft, were obliged to 
 pay, becaufe they were in pof- 
 feflion of fonie cities. Beiides 
 v/hi-h there was appointed for 
 the fuftenancc of the poor, a 
 corner in every field, which it 
 vvas not lawful to reap with 
 the reft. They were ajfo al- 
 lowed fu;h ears of corn, or 
 grapes, as dropt, or were fcat- 
 tered about, and the fheavcs that 
 might happen to be t"orgotten in 
 the fie;d. See Firji-fruits, Z,£- 
 'piies, Priejls. 
 
 By a very ancient and uni- 
 verfal prefcription, Tenths or 
 Tythes were paid by the Greeks 
 and Romans to their gods : Thus 
 the Grecians on driving the 
 Perjlans out of their country, 
 dedicated a Tripod to the Del- 
 phi, and Apollo, out of the 
 tenths of the fpoils ; after the 
 taking of Tanagra, a buckler 
 was dedicated to Jupiter, which 
 was of gold, and the tenth 
 of the plunder : The tenths of 
 fpoils, according to Lucian, v;ere 
 confecrated fometimes to Mars : 
 The tenth of the produd of 
 a certain field, coniecrated to 
 Diana, was facrificed every year : 
 The Siphnians prefented a tenth 
 of their mines to Apollo: It was 
 alfo cullomary for Kings to re- 
 ceive a tenth of the revenues of 
 their fubjeds. See Plunder. 
 
 Chrifiiajts alfo pay the Tythe of 
 the produce of their ellates to the 
 
 A a z miiuders 
 
VAD 
 
 minifters of the Lord. But this 
 is rot by virtue of any law 
 eftabliflied either by "Jefut Chrijl^ 
 or his Jpojiles ; but by the law of 
 the country, framed in imitation 
 of the law of Mo/es. 
 
 TzANG/£, among the Romans, 
 
 VAL 
 
 were, according to fome, a fort of 
 fhoes fet with precious ftones 
 formed into the figure of eagles, 
 and defigned for the Emperor's 
 ufe. Others will have Tzangcs 
 to have been a kind of Parthian 
 garments. 
 
 V. 
 
 VAcuNALiA, a feftival kept 
 by the Romans, in honour 
 of the goddefs Vacuna. It was 
 celebrated in December by the 
 country labourers after the fruits 
 were gathered in, and the lands 
 tilled. Vacuna was the goddefs of 
 leifure, or indolence. Hor. 
 
 Vadari, was a term made ufe 
 of in the Roman courts of judica- 
 ture, and denoted a perfon's pledg- 
 ing himfelf, undertaking, or giv- 
 ving fecurity on behalf of another, 
 that he ftiould, on a certain day, 
 appear in court to profecute or 
 anfwer : If he failed, his furety 
 had an adlion Vadlmonii defer ti a- 
 gairft hirp, i. e. an aftion for de- 
 ferting his bail. 
 
 Vadari ream, was the afl of the 
 plaintiff himfelf, who demanded 
 furety or bail from the defendant, 
 that he would appear .before the 
 Frator on a certain day, which 
 commonly was the third day fol- 
 "lowing, properly called Dies fe~ 
 rendinas, and fumetimes Dies tcrr 
 tins fimply, as appears by thofe 
 capital letters, I. D. T. S. P. 
 written in their procefs, which 
 ai'e thus explained. In diem 
 iertiumjive perendinum. See J^iOf 
 Trial. 
 
 Vadimon'um, a Roman law- 
 term, fignifying a promife, bond, 
 furety or fecurity, given for ap- 
 pearance before the Prator or 
 judge, upon a day appointed. 
 Vadimonium was applied to the 
 pliiiniifF as well as the defend- 
 ant ; for both were engaged 
 to make their appearance, bee 
 Vadari, 
 
 Vail. See Veil. 
 
 Valla Ris Corona, was a gol- 
 den crown which the Roman gene- 
 rals bellowed on him, who in at- 
 tacking tiie enemy's camp, firll 
 broke in upon the lines or palli- 
 fades. It was alfo called Co)ona 
 cojiretijis. See Corona. 
 
 Vallum, among the Romans, 
 was the parapet which fortified 
 their encampments. It confifted 
 of two parts, the Jgger and the 
 Slides ; the digger was the earth 
 thrown up from the Vallum, and 
 the Sudes were a fort of wooden 
 flakes to fecure and llrengthen it. 
 See Camp. 
 
 Vallus, a flake which ferved 
 as a pallifade, in the Roman en- 
 trenchments, to fortify the camp. 
 Every foldier carried one of thefe 
 Vallii and on fome occafions, 
 
 three 
 
VEI 
 
 three or four bound together like 
 a faggot. Theie llakes were not 
 fmooth ; they chole them full of 
 branches, of which they left three 
 or four on, but only on one fide, 
 which ferved, as they were planted 
 near one another, to interweave fo 
 as to form :^u hedge, and to bind 
 them iirmly together, fo that one 
 could net be pulled up feparately, 
 or a paffage be made thro' them 
 without cutting them down. See 
 SoUiers. 
 
 Varronian Satire, a fpecies 
 of Satire fo called from the 
 leatned Varro, who firll ccmpcfeJ 
 it. It was written freely, with- 
 out any reltraint to verfe or 
 prole, confiiiir.g of a mixture of 
 both. Of this kind are the Saty- 
 riccn of Fetionius, Seneca^s mock- 
 deification of the Emperor Clau- 
 dius, and Boelbius's confolations. 
 See Satire. 
 
 Veil of the Temple, divided the 
 Holy of Holies from the Holy Place. 
 It was made, according to the 
 commandment of God to Mo/es, 
 of blue, purpie, and fcarlet. This 
 veil, among other things, figni- 
 fied the feparation betwixt the 
 ^eius and the Gentiles, which is 
 now removed by Chrlft ; and 
 therefore a: the death of Chrift 
 the veil was rent in twain, Exod. 
 xxi. 31 — 33. Epk' i»- H' Matt. 
 jcxvii. -51. 
 
 Veils were worn by women, 
 amongil the Hebre-Ms, in token of 
 modelty, of reverence and fubjec- 
 tion to their hulbands, Gen. xxiv. 
 65. — I Cor. xi. 3, 6, 7, 10. 
 Among the Athenians, virgins, be- 
 fore marriage, wore a veil con- 
 ilantly over their faces, which was 
 not to be taken off till the third 
 day after the celebration of the 
 nuptiah, on which occafion pre- 
 fents were giv;. n to the bride cal- 
 led aiay.aXt/Trlipa. The Reman 
 
 womea alfo wore veils^ partica- 
 
 VEN 
 
 larly at the marriage folcmnity, 
 and the word nubo, to marry, 
 is derived from nubes, which 
 Cgnifics the veil worn by the 
 bride at that time. See Marriage, 
 Women, Sec. 
 
 Velarius, in the courts of 
 the Reman Emperors, was an 
 cffiter or ufher, whofe port was 
 behind the curtain, or -velum, in 
 the Pfince's apartments. The 
 Felarii had a fuperior of the fame 
 denomination, who commanded 
 them. 
 
 \'elites, in the Reman srmy, 
 were commonly fome of the 7y, o's, 
 or young foldiers of mean condi- 
 tion, and lightly armed. They 
 had their name, a ijelocitate, from 
 their velocity. They fecm not to 
 have been divided into dillincl 
 bodies or companies, but to have 
 hovered loofcly before the army. 
 They weredifpofed fumetimes be- 
 fore the front of the Hajiati, fome- 
 times difperfed up and down a- 
 mong the void fpacesof the^,3;?a. 
 //, and fometimes placed in two 
 bodies in the wings. The Veiites 
 generally began the combat, ikir- 
 milhing in flying parties with the 
 firil troops of the enemy, and, 
 when repulfed, fell back by the 
 flanks of the army, or rallied 
 again in the rear. Their ar- 
 mour was a javelin, cafque, cui- 
 rafs, and ftiield, all Qi a light 
 conltrudion. 
 
 Venatio Direptionis, was an 
 entertainment exhibited in the 
 Roman Circus, in which the peo- 
 ple were permitted to run after 
 boars, deer, oxen, fheep, hares, 
 and birds of various forts, and to 
 convert what they caught to their 
 own ufe. The middle of the Cir~ 
 cus, for this purpofe, was all co- 
 vered over with trees, tranfplant- 
 ed thither on the occafion. The 
 Emperors inflituted this diverfion, 
 
 and 
 
VER 
 
 and let the people know, by tef- 
 Jene or tickets, what they (hould 
 feize; and thefe tickets entit'ed 
 them to the contents when caught. 
 Sometimes the tickets were mark- 
 ed with certain lums payable to the 
 £rll taker. Thefe largejfes were 
 called imjjilia, becauCe they were 
 thrown or difperfed among the 
 muiiifude. The Venatio Direpti- 
 onii was either the fame with, 
 or very like, the Pancarpus. 
 See Pancarpusy M/Jfiliut Beajis, 
 Sylva. 
 
 Veneta Fadioy was that order 
 of charioteers which wore a blue 
 or Iky-coloured livery. The fac- 
 tioni or parties of charioteers were 
 four in number, and i'o much 
 were the Roman people interelled 
 in the fuccefs ot their favourite 
 colours, in the chariot-races, that 
 their zeal oftentimes cairied 
 them to dangerous lengths, and 
 produced quarrels of the moil 
 ferious nature. See Charioteers, 
 Failions, 
 
 Ventilatio, among the Ro- 
 man Glacliatoriy was a fort of flou- 
 rifhing performed with the Rudes, 
 fpears without heads, blunted 
 iwords, foils, and lucli like, be- 
 tore the real combat began. This 
 extrcife continued till the trumpets 
 founded to give notice for thedef- 
 perate encounter. This previous 
 flounfh, or harmlefs tnai of Iki.l, 
 was iomctiines caiiea PnCiufio, 
 See Gladiators. 
 
 Venus, a name given by the 
 Romans to the higiielt throw with 
 the Tali or Tejjtra. The beft 
 call with the Tali was when they 
 prefented four different numbers, 
 the belt with the Tcjfeius was three 
 Sices. See Tali, TeJ/ira. 
 
 Verbera, a punifhment a- 
 mong the Romans, wherein flripes 
 were inflided either with rods, 
 Virga, or batoons, Fujies. The 
 firft generally preceded capital 
 
 VES 
 
 punifhments, the fecond was moH 
 in ufe in the camp as a militarv 
 chaflilement. See Jamomtio Fuf- 
 tium 
 
 Versura, a terra given by the 
 Romans to the adl of borrowing 
 money upon fmaii interefl, in or- 
 der to lend it out again upon 
 greater. The Gabiniun law for- 
 bad any adlion to be granted 
 for the recovery of money thus 
 put out for gain. We meet with 
 Verjuram facere, in this fenfe, 
 in Tully*s orations, more than 
 once. The Gacinian law feems 
 to have been a very neceflary 
 check upon fuch unreafonable anci 
 avaricious pradlices, 
 
 Vertumnalia, a Roman fcC- 
 tival, in honour of the god /^^r- 
 tumnus, which was celebrated ii) 
 the month o\ October. 
 
 Vespillones or l^efp/e, a name 
 given by the Romans to thofe per- 
 fons who Cdiriea the corpfe dt fu- 
 nerals. The name is derived irom 
 Vejper, the evening, because this 
 folemn bufinefs wa^ performed at 
 that time. FeJ'peilones are quafi 
 Fejperones. The iuneril folemnrty 
 was performed in the evening to 
 avoid meeting with the mdgiltrates 
 or priefts, whofe eyes they imagi- 
 ned would be deiiltd by fuch a 
 fpcdacle. See Funeral. 
 
 Vestalia, fcliivals in honour 
 of Fejia, obferved by the Romans 
 on the ninth day of" June', oa 
 which occafion banquets were 
 niade before the hcufes, meat 
 fent to the vellals to be offered to 
 the god:, mill Rone? decked with 
 garlands, and the afils that 
 turned them were led about the 
 city, crowned with flowers and 
 chaplets mado oi bread. The la- 
 dies wentbari-footed inproceffion, 
 to the temple of Vejia, and an al- 
 tar was ereded to Jupiter Pijior, or 
 Jupiter the Baker ^ in the Lapitol. 
 Vestals 
 
VES 
 
 ViSTALS were certain virgins 
 conlecraied at Rome to the fervice 
 of the goddefs FeJIa. Some a- 
 fcribe their inftituuon to ^neas, 
 who brought the facred fire from 
 1'roy. Others will have Numa to 
 have been the founder of the order. 
 He appointed four, and Servius 
 TuUius added two more ; and this 
 number continued during the 
 whole Roman empire. As the 
 Vejlah were to be virgins, they 
 were received into the order at the 
 age ot fix; their parents were to 
 be living, and in poflliTion ot their 
 freedom. Upon the death of a 
 VeJlaU 20 virgins were brought 
 before the Pontiff, who chole one 
 by lot, and connrmed the eledlion 
 by a fet form of words pronounced 
 over her: This ceremony was cal- 
 led Captio Firginis. Her hair was 
 then Ihaven, and hung upon a 
 ]ote-tree. The drels ot the l^ef- 
 tals was a white veft, with a pur- 
 ple border ; a white linen furplice, 
 called Suparum Linteum ; and over 
 this a great purple mantle, with a 
 long train, which they tucked up 
 when they facrificed. On their 
 heads they wore the /«/«/«, which 
 came very clofe, and from the in- 
 fula hung ijltta, or ribbands. At 
 the end of thirty years the Vejlals 
 were at liberty to quit the order 
 and be married, otherwife they 
 continued as afliitants to the other 
 Vejiali. The firft ten years they 
 fpent in learning their fundilions, 
 the ten following in the exercife 
 of them, and the laft in teaching 
 them to others. Their chiet bu- 
 finefs was to preferve the facred 
 fire of y.Jla. ii, thro' their neg- 
 left, it was extinguilhed, they 
 were feverely whipped by thePcw- 
 tifex Maximui ; and the flame was 
 to be rekindled by burning glaffes 
 from the fun. They were preced- 
 ed by a Liilor, with a bundle of 
 rods, when they went abroad ; and 
 
 VET 
 
 might be carried in a chariot as 
 far as the Capitol. When they 
 met any great Magiftrate, they 
 turned afide, or kifled the fa/ces 
 which were borne before him. 
 They had a particular place affign- 
 cd them at games and fhevvs ; had 
 the privilege of being buried ia 
 the city ; and fwore by no other 
 than their goddefs Fejia When 
 they met a malefaiflor carrying to 
 execution, they had the power to 
 refcue him from the hands of juf- 
 tice, pr<;vided they would take 
 oath that they met him by acci- 
 dent. They were, in fad, Prieft- 
 efles, and offered facrifices to Fef- 
 ta. When a Vejial was convided 
 of unchaltity, fhe was led to the 
 Campus See. status, and dripped of 
 her habit folemnly by the Pontiffs 
 which Ihe kiffed with tears. She 
 was then put alive into a pit, 
 with a lighted candle, a little 
 water and milk, and thus covered 
 up to pine and languiih away the 
 fhort remainder of her life. The 
 perfon who had deflowered her 
 was whipped to death. See Firtt 
 Defofio. 
 
 Vestibulum, a large open 
 fpace before the door or entrance 
 of a houfe. Vejiibula were fre- 
 quent at the entrance of the Roman 
 houfes, to (helter people from the 
 weather who were obliged to (land 
 at the door till leave was given for 
 their admiflion. 
 
 Veto was the important and 
 folemn word which the Tri~ 
 bunes of the Roman people made 
 ufe of, when they inhibited 
 any decree of the Senate, or law 
 propofed to the people, or 
 any ad of other Magijirates. 
 The bare pronouncing of the 
 word Veto was fufHcient to fuf- 
 pend the bufinefs, without any 
 reafons afligned for their difient. 
 The exertion of this power was 
 called 
 
VIA 
 
 VIC 
 
 called Interceffio. See lnterce£iOt 
 Tribune, Senate. 
 
 Vexillum was a banner or 
 ■ flag. See Signa. 
 
 Vexillum Rofeum was a red 
 flag which the General, on any 
 fudden tumult or unforefeen 
 d?.iiger, brought out of the Ca- 
 fitol, and eccouraged the peo- 
 ple to flock to it as rec uits 
 for the infantry. A blue flag was 
 brought forth in the fame manner 
 to raife recruits for the horfe. 
 The blue fliig was called Vexillum 
 Cfsruleum. Every Manipulus had 
 two Vexiilarii, or enfigns Itnder 
 him. 
 
 Vexilla, of ditFerent colours, 
 worked in filk or other cu- 
 rious materials, were fometimes 
 bellowed upon foldiers as a 
 compliment to their fervice?. 
 In this manner Auguftus re- 
 warded Ai^rippa after the battle 
 at Aaium. 
 
 Via. See Roads. 
 
 Viaticum, among the Ro- 
 tr.ans, was the allowance or 
 provifion made by the Repub- 
 lic :or fuch of its Officeri or 
 Magiftrates as travelled upon 
 the bufinefs of the State into 
 any of the provinces. The term 
 Viaticum implies not only money 
 for deffiiying the expences of 
 travelling, but the ring given 
 upon the occafion, cloath?, bag- 
 gage, tents, and the whole of 
 their equipage. 
 
 ViATOREs, tifiicers, among the 
 Romans, whofe bufinefs it was to 
 go into the country and acquaint 
 the Senators and Magiflrates when 
 aflemblies were to be held. Offi- 
 cers of this kind were neccfiary in 
 the earlier times oi Rome, becaufe 
 the Senators and great Magijlrates 
 lived moftly at their country- 
 houfes. The beadle that preced- 
 ed the Tribunes of the people was 
 called Viator. Fiatoreti in fliort, 
 
 is a general name given to al! 
 
 Lidors, Accenji, Pracones, Sec. 
 See Liclor. 
 
 ViCENNALiA, feafts held, a- 
 mong the Romans, in honour of 
 the dead, twenty days after the 
 funeral. See Decennalia. 
 
 Vicennalia, or Vicennales Ludi^ 
 were games celebrated, among the 
 Romans, every twentieth year of 
 an Emperor's reign. On this oc- 
 cafion vows were put up for the 
 Etnperc r and Empire, called Vi- 
 cennalia Vota. 
 
 ViCEsiMATio, among the Ro- 
 mans, was when, for feme general 
 crime in the amiy, as mutiny, 
 running from their colours, &c. 
 every twentieth man was put to 
 death, their names being drawn 
 by iot. bee Decimatio. 
 
 VictiMa, an animal defu'ned 
 to be facriiiced. Vidima and Hof- 
 tia are frequently confounded to- 
 gether in authors; but the former 
 iignifles a greater animal, and 
 Hojiia is uied to exprefs one 
 of the fmaller kind. See Sacrifice , 
 Hffiia 
 
 ViCTiMARius, an Officer who 
 attenced the Pneft at the time of 
 facrificing. To the Vtflimarii it 
 belonged to prepare the water, 
 knife, cake, and other neceflaries ; 
 to bind the vidim, knock him 
 down, and kill him. They Hood 
 by the altar, and holding up the 
 hatchet or knife, alked the Prieft's 
 leave to llrike, faying, Agone F 
 Shall 1 Jlrike? Hence they were 
 called Agones and Cultrant. When 
 the victim was killed, tbey flead 
 him, took out his bowels and pre- 
 pared them for the infpeftion of 
 the Aru/pex. They were naked 
 to the waift, and crowned with 
 laurel. It was their bufinefs too 
 to light the fire wherein fuch books 
 were to be burnt as had been con- 
 demned. See Sacrifice. 
 
 ViCTORIATUS, 
 
VIG 
 
 VIN 
 
 Victor I ATUs, a Roman coin, 
 with viftory reprefented on one 
 fide, equal In value to half the 
 Denarius. See Denarius. 
 
 ViGESiMA, a Rcn-.an tax, of 
 the twentieth part of the yearly 
 income cf all inheritances, firll 
 tftablilhed by AuguJJus. It was 
 alfo the name of a cuilom paid for 
 flaves fold or made tree. 
 
 ViGiLiTE, was the nightly 
 Watch which the 'Reman foldiers 
 were obliged to ^)erform when up- 
 on duty. 1 he proper VigiUs, or 
 watchmen, were four in every Ma- 
 isipulusy who kept guard for tnree 
 hours, and then were relieved by 
 others ; fo that there were four 
 iets in a night, the firft continued 
 from fix in the evening till nine, 
 the fecond from nine till twelve, 
 the third from twelve till three in 
 the morning, and the fourth from 
 three till fix. h was this regula- 
 tion of the v/atch which guve rife 
 to the common cuftom of reckon- 
 ing the night by watches, which 
 Vve fo often meet with in ancient 
 authors. bee Night, Watch, 
 Hour. 
 
 The way of fetting this nightly 
 guard was by a tally, or TeJ/era, 
 with a particular infcription, given 
 trom one Centurion to another, 
 quite thro' the army, till it came 
 again :o the Tritune who hrll de- 
 livered it. Upon the receipt of 
 this, the guard was fet immediate- 
 ly. To defert their poll, or deep 
 on duty, was a molt unpardonable 
 crime. For the better regulation 
 of the watch, they had the Circui- 
 tio Figilum, or a vifiting of the 
 watch, performed about four times 
 in the night by fome of the horfe. 
 Up -n extraordinary occafions the 
 Tribunes and Lieutenant-Generals 
 made thefe circu ts in perfon, and 
 took a drift view of the watch in 
 every part of the camp. 
 
 The nightly watch, amopg the 
 
 Lacedemonians, were not permit- 
 ted to have bucklers, that being 
 unable to defend themfelves, they 
 might be more cautious how they 
 fell afleep. The Atber.ian watch 
 was vifited at d fFerent hours ofthe 
 night by officers called nspTroAoi. 
 To try whether they were afleep or 
 no, they t:nk!ed a little bell, called 
 k.<y^w» ; at the found of this the 
 foldiers were to anfwer. How 
 often the guard Was relieved doth 
 not appear ; but 4)vA«>'.?j is fre- 
 quently takfen for ihe fourth part 
 of the night ; but this fignifica- 
 tion it has rather from the Roman 
 than the Grecian watches. See 
 Excuhies. 
 
 ViGiN'TiviRATUS, a dignity 
 among the Remans eflablifhed by 
 Cafar. It comprehended four 
 fets cf magiftrates ; for of the Vi' 
 gintiviri, or twenty-men, which 
 C( mpoftd the company, three fat 
 in judgment upon criminal af- 
 fairs, three infpeded the coins 
 and coinage, four took care of the 
 ftreets of Rome, and the reft were 
 judges of civil affairs. 
 
 Villa Publica, was a palace 
 or magnificent building in the 
 Campus Martius, for the recep- 
 tion and entertainment of Embaf- 
 fadors from foreign States, who 
 were not allowed to enter the city. 
 See Emhojjfador. 
 
 \"iNALiA, a double feftival, 
 celebiated by the Romans, on the 
 nineteenth of Augufi, in honour of 
 'Jupiter and Venus. It was infti- 
 tuted during the war of the Latins 
 again It Mizentius, when that peo- 
 ple vowed a libation to Jupiter of 
 all the wine of the fucceeding vint- 
 age. On the fame day fell the 
 dedication of a temple of Venus; 
 it was therefore celebrated with 
 ceremonies peculiar to each deity, 
 as being facred to both. 
 
 ViNCULA, as ufed for a Roman 
 
 B b punifhment. 
 
VIN 
 
 puniftiment, fignifies the imprifon- 
 ment of the delinquent, and bis 
 confinement in chains, of which 
 there were various forts, as Mani- 
 Cft, Pediccs, Nervi, Boiee., Sec. See 
 Punijhment, 
 
 ViN DICTA, among the Romans, 
 was the Praetor's rod, which he 
 laid upon the heads of flaves in 
 the ceremony oi Man umij/ion. The 
 words ufed by the Prator when he 
 laid the Vindiiia upon the head of 
 a flave were, Dico eum liherum rffe 
 more ^iritum. The Li SI or then 
 •took the rod, and flruck the flave 
 ieveral blows on the head, face, 
 and back. See ManumiJJion, Pra- 
 toft Slave. 
 
 ViNE-E, a contrivance in the 
 military art, frequently made ufe 
 of by the Romans. The Venea 
 were compofed of wicker hurdles 
 laid for a roof upon the top of up- 
 right ports. Some fay they were 
 made of planks of a light wood, 
 covered with hurdles, and over 
 the whole raw hides, or a little 
 earth was thrown to defend the 
 fabric from fire. Under the cover 
 of the Vmea the foldiers carried on 
 their works. The upper roof of 
 hurdles ferved to break ;he force 
 of any blow or impulfe without 
 difordering the machine. The 
 Finea were generally fixteen feet 
 long, eight broad, and feven high, 
 and differed but little from the 
 Pluteus. See Plutei. 
 
 Vinegar, amDng the Ancients, 
 was of feveral kinds, and was 
 made ufe of as their common 
 drink. The Emperor Pe/cenmus 
 Kigir gave orders that his foldiers 
 (hould drink nothing but vinegar 
 on their marches. It is very pro- 
 bable that the vinegar offered to 
 our Saviour, at his crucifixion, was 
 the vinegar allowed to the foldiers, 
 and made ufe of as their common 
 drink, Matth. xxvii. 48. Con- 
 Jlantine allowed his foldiers wine 
 
 VIR 
 
 and vinegar alternately every day. 
 But this vinegar was not of that 
 fort which we make ufe of for fal- 
 lads and fauces, but a fmall wine 
 called Pe/ca or Sera. It is now 
 much ufed in Italy and Spain in 
 harveft-time. Among the ancient 
 yenvs reapers made ufe of this li- 
 quor for their refrefliment. Boaz 
 told Ruih that (he might come and 
 dip her bread in vinegar along 
 with his people, Ruth ii. 14.— • 
 The Scripture forbids the Naza- 
 rites to ufe vinegar, or any fort of 
 liquor that comes from the vine, 
 which is capable of inebriating, 
 Numb. vi. 3. 
 
 ViRG^. See Fafces. 
 
 ViRGULA Di<vina is ufed in a 
 proverbial fenfe, to fignify a fu- 
 pernatural power of obtaining 
 what we defire. As the Ancients 
 imagined that many magical vir- 
 tues refided in a rod duely prepar- 
 ed, fo they have not failed to make 
 it the inftrument by which any ex- 
 traordinary benefits were to be 
 conveyed to them. The proverb 
 feems to allude to the celebrated 
 rod which Homer puts into the 
 hand of Mtner'va, with which fhe 
 refiores Ulyjfes to youth and 
 ftrength. The rod of Mercury is 
 alfo very famous in poetical hiilo- 
 ry for its extraordinary virtues. 
 The Mufes have not forgot to give 
 Circe a rod likewife, by means of 
 which file works her celebrated 
 miracles. Probably the Poets, 
 in all thefe fiftions, have taken the 
 hint from the rods of Mofes and 
 Aaron, which they made ufe of 
 in performing many wonderous 
 works. The Caduceus, twified 
 round with ferpents, feems at ieaft 
 to have fome reference to Mo/es*s 
 rod, which was changed into a 
 ferpent. The rod made ufe of by 
 pretended conjurers of the prefent 
 times has the fame origin, and 
 
 may 
 
UMB 
 
 UNG 
 
 saiy be looked upon as a young 
 fhoot from the rods of Mo/a and 
 ji/arofj. 
 
 ViscERATio, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a feaft in honour of the 
 dead, given at funerals, when the 
 entrails of animals werediibibuted 
 among the people. This cullom 
 was only obferved at the burial of 
 perfons of dilHndtion, and the 
 yifceratio was fometimes perform- 
 ed without a fealL 
 
 ViTES, rods or truncheons of 
 the vine, which were badges of the 
 Centurion's office ; each Centurion 
 carried one of them in his hand : 
 Hence Vitem pojcere fignifies to 
 make application for a Centurion s 
 place. The E'vocati alfo ufed the 
 yites, as being in all refpefts ra- 
 ther fuperior to the Centurions. 
 The ufe of the Vites is faid to have 
 been borrowed from Bacchus, who 
 had a fceptre of this kind in his ' 
 expedition, and recommended it 
 to pofterity. The Fites was made 
 ufe of in the army as an inftrunient 
 of corporal punilhment. 
 
 ViTT^ffi were a fort of ribbands 
 or thin faibes which the Roman 
 women wore about their heads. 
 Vittig or Infula were bkeivife a 
 kind of white fillets which were 
 put upon the heads and horns of 
 vidims, before they were brought 
 to the altar. Their colour was 
 generally white, and they were 
 for the moft part made of wool. 
 See Infula. 
 
 The Roman matrons wore their 
 Vitta double, to diilinguifh them 
 from the virgins who bound their 
 hair with a fingle one. Priefts and 
 Ppets wore Vitta of olive or laurel 
 branches. Theltatues of thegods, 
 altars, the doors of temples, and 
 fupplicants, as well as vidims, 
 were adorned with Vitta. 
 
 Umbilicus v/as ufed, by the 
 Romans y to iignify the ftafi* on 
 which the books of the Ancients 
 
 were rolled : For a whole book 
 was generally written in one conti- 
 nued page, and when fini(hed it 
 was coiled up by means of a roller 
 applied to one end, as many large 
 maps are amonglt us ; hence ad 
 umbtlicum ducere, fignifies to Jinijh. 
 The two ends of the roller iiand- 
 ingout a little were called Cornuoy 
 and were generally tipt with filver 
 or gold, or otherwife curioufly 
 adorned. See Book. 
 
 Umbo, in Greek, O/AipaAoj, and 
 Mei7o/A^«Aio>, was the bofs which 
 jutted out in the middle of the an- 
 cient bucklers, on which was pla- 
 ced another prominent part called 
 E9ro/-t;p«Xtoj'. This was of fervice 
 in glancing off and repelling m\(- 
 five weapons, and alfo in bearing 
 down the enemy. See Shields. 
 
 Umbr^, among the Greeks^ 
 IL^Acn, were fuch perfons as not be- 
 ing invited were brought to enter- 
 tainments by thofe who had receiv- 
 ed invitations. Among the Greeks 
 and Romans, thofe who were afeed 
 to a feaft had a right to bring a 
 friend along with them. Such 
 friends were called UmbriCy be- 
 caufe they followed the principal 
 guefts as Ihadows follow bodies. 
 See Ccsna, Accubatio, Mufca. 
 
 Uncia, among the Romanst 
 was the twelfth part of the At, Li- 
 bra, or any Integer; hence it fig- 
 nifies an ounce, or an inch, or 
 the twelfth part of an eftate. 
 See As. 
 
 Ukction, or anointing, was a 
 ceremony ufed among the Jeius 
 by way of confecrating, or fetting 
 apart any perfon or thing to par- 
 ticular offices or ufes. It was prin- 
 cipally ufed in confecrating Kings, 
 Priefts, and Prophets, whence they 
 are called the Lord's anointed. 
 This ceremony was fo conftantly 
 adhered to, that the term to anoint 
 is ufed figuratively to fignify an 
 
 £ b 2 appointment 
 
VOT 
 
 VOW 
 
 appointment to an ofRce. The 
 holy anointing oil, for the confe- 
 cration of- the King, the High- 
 Prieft, and the facred vefTels of the 
 Houic of God was made by Moj'e<, 
 Exod. XXX. 22, 23. but it was 
 wanting in the fecond Temple. 
 See MeJJiah. 
 
 VocATOREs, among the Ro- 
 manst were fervants whofe bufinefs 
 it was to call the guefts, receive 
 them, and affign every one a place 
 according to his dignity. 
 
 Volume, Volumen, properly 
 Signifies a roll or book, fo called 
 a ■vol'vendp, becaufe the ancient 
 books were rolls of bark or parch- 
 ment. This manner larted till 
 Cicero's time. The feveral fiieets 
 or pieces were glewed or palled 
 end to end, and written only on 
 cne fide. At the bottom a flick 
 was fallened, called Umbilicus, 
 round which it was rolled ; and at 
 the other end was a piece of parch- 
 ment, on which the title of the 
 book was written in letters of gold. 
 jjitalus. King oi Pergamus, is faid 
 to have had fonie books bound 
 up in the fquare form. The 
 library of Plclemy, King of Egypt, 
 contained, according to Auius 
 Gellius, 300,000 volumes, or, 
 according to Sabellicus, 700,000. 
 See Book, TJmbilicui, M'riting, Li- 
 brary. 
 
 ' Votes, or fuiFrages given by 
 the Greeks and Romans in choofing 
 Magiflrates, tnafting laws, or giv- 
 ing judgment, were for a long 
 time taken by word of mouth, by 
 officers for that purpofe, called by 
 the Remans Rogaicres. This me- 
 thod being found inconvenient, 
 becaufe men by giving their voices 
 thus audibly, expofed themfelves 
 to the difpleafurc of a party. The 
 Greeks made ufe firft of fea-lhells, 
 called j,^oipkv«j, or pebbles, called 
 >4/»)9ot ; after thefe the o-wov^fc>\j», 
 which were pellets of brafs^ came 
 
 into ufe, and lafily beans. Suf- 
 frages were given, among the Ro- 
 mans, by word of mouth till the 
 year of Rome 615, when the Ga- 
 binian law required that votes for 
 Magillrstes fhould be given by 
 ballots thrown into an urn. In 
 625 the Papyrian lawpafled, which 
 required the ufe of ballots in enact- 
 ing laws ; and CaJJius the Tribune 
 pafTed a law, which required the 
 lame method to be obferved in 
 matters of judgment. Thefe bal- 
 lots were little pieces of wood or 
 other matter made very narrow. 
 In chufing Magiftrates each per- 
 fon had as many ballots as there 
 were candidates, the different bal- 
 lots being marked with the firll 
 letters of the candidates names. 
 In affemblies held for palling laws, 
 each perfon had two ballots, one 
 by which he could fignify his af- 
 fent marked U. R. i. e. UtiRogas, 
 be it as you ivijh ; the other to lig- 
 nify his dillent marked A. i. e. An- 
 tique, I prefer the old laiu, and re- 
 jeil the nczv. In matters of judg- 
 ment, each of the judges had three 
 ballots given, one marked A. i. e. 
 Abjclvo, 1 acquit ; another C. i. e. 
 Condemno, I condemn ; and the third 
 was marked N. L. i. e. Ken Li- 
 quet, i. e. The matter is not clearly 
 pro'ved, a further iifveftigation is 
 neccffary. Thefe ballots were cal- 
 led by the general name Tabellx, 
 See Tabe.la, Pfephos, Trial, Adio, 
 Comitia. 
 
 Vow, a promife made to God, 
 Vows may be divided into two 
 kinds: — 1. Vows, whereby men 
 bound themfelves to abftain from 
 things otherwife lawful, as parti- 
 cular kinds of food, cloaths, or 
 aftions, 2. Vows, whereby either 
 perfons or things were devoted to 
 God. Of the firft fort was the 
 vow of the Rechabites never to 
 drink wine, nor to build houfes, 
 
 nor 
 
vow 
 
 URI 
 
 nor to fow any grain, to plant no 
 vineyards, to have no lands, and 
 to dwell in tents all their lives. 
 The vow of the Nazarites was of 
 both kinds, for they were per/ons 
 confecrated to God, and bound to 
 feveral forts of abllinence. If a 
 man or woman, among the jfeivs, 
 vowed themfelves to the Lord, they 
 were to adhere llridly to his fer- 
 vice, according to the tenor of the 
 vow, or to redeem themfelves. 
 For a boy from a month old to five 
 years they gave five Shekels, tor a 
 girl three; from five to twenty a 
 man gave twenty Shekels, a woman 
 ten ; from twenty to fixty a man 
 gave fifty Shekels, a woman thirty; 
 a man of fixty years old or upward 
 gave fifteen Shekels, and a woman 
 ten. The Shekels were of filver. 
 If the perfon was pocr, and could 
 not procure thefe fums, the Prieft 
 impofed a ranfom according to his 
 abilities. The vows of children, 
 without the confent of parents, 
 and the vows of married women, 
 without the confent of their huf- 
 band?, were of no validity. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans were 
 llridl obfervers of their vows ; and, 
 when any perfon had made a con- 
 ditional vow, he was faid to be 
 feus 'vofi, after the condition was 
 fulfilled, until he had performed 
 k. Vows, among the Ancients, 
 were a fort of barter v/ith the gods, 
 wherein they promifcd certain 
 prefents or offerings, for certain 
 favours and bleflings they pe- 
 titioned for. 
 
 Fonxis, Vota, among the Romans, 
 VvCre certain facnfices, off^erings, 
 prefents, and prayers for the prof- 
 perity of their Emperors, and the 
 perpetuity of the Empire. Thefe 
 were at firll made every five years, 
 then every fifteen, and then every 
 twenty, and were accordingly Cd\- 
 led i^i»que»nalia, Decennalia, and 
 Vicennalia, In many ancient me- 
 
 dals we meet with yot. X. Vot. 
 XX. Vot. Mult, for Fotis Deccnna- 
 libus, Votis Vicennalibus, Votis 
 Mu'tis. Thefe vows are oftener 
 found upon the edges than upon 
 the faces of medals, at leaft under 
 the Wtftern Empire. 
 
 Voyages, among the Ancients, 
 were performed without any other 
 guidance but the fun, moon, 
 and ftars. When this affiftance 
 failed them, they went on by 
 chance, and knew not what courfe 
 the veflel took. They could not, 
 therefore, fail very far into the 
 open fea, remove very far from the 
 coalts, or venture to undertake 
 long voyages. The compafs, in 
 our times, has removed thefe dif- 
 ficulties. See Ships. 
 
 U. R. in pafling laws in the 
 Roman Comitia, was wrote upon 
 one of the Tablets delivered to the 
 people, by which they expreffed 
 their approbation. Thefe letters 
 fignified Uti Rogas, be it as jou 
 dejire. See Comitia, Laius, 7a- 
 blets. Fetes, Pjephos. 
 
 Urbis Natalis. See Natalis 
 Vrbis. 
 
 UxiM and Thummimy among 
 the Jeius, was the name of an 
 ornament in the High-Prieft's ha- 
 bit, which was confuhed as an 
 Oracle. Some fay the Urim and 
 Thummim were the precious flones 
 in the High-Prieft's breaft-plate, 
 which made known the will of 
 God by cafting an extraordinary 
 luftre. Some again afllert that they 
 were the words Manifejl ation and 
 Truth, writteri upon two precious 
 ftones or upon a plate of gold ; 
 and Spencer believes they were two 
 little golden figures, fhut up in the 
 pedtoral as in a purfe, which an- 
 fwered with an articulate voice the 
 queflions of the High-Prieft. Va- 
 rious are the conjedures upon this 
 fubjeft, and Mofes has no where 
 diftinftly 
 
URN 
 
 UXO 
 
 difilflfily expreffed what it was. 
 When the Urim and Thummim was 
 to be confuited, the High-Priefl: 
 put on his robes, and going into 
 the Holy Place, flood before the 
 curtain that feparated the SanSium 
 from the SanBuary ; then turning 
 bis face direftiy towards the Ark 
 and the Mercy Seat over it, upon 
 which the divine prefence refted, 
 he propofed what he wanted to be 
 refolved about; and diredly be- 
 hind him, at feme diftance, with- 
 out the Holy Place, flood the per- 
 fon at whofe command or entreaty 
 God was confuited, and there 
 with all humility and devotion ex- 
 pected the anfwer. According to 
 Jcfephus, this Oracle ceafed about 
 112 years before Chrifl. The 
 words Urim and Thummim fignify 
 Light and PerfeSiion, or the Shin- 
 ing and the Perfed ; according to 
 Si jfcrom, Doilrine and judgment ; 
 and according to tiie Septuagint, 
 Declaration and Truth, See Ora- 
 cle and Prieft. 
 
 Urna was a Roman liquid mea- 
 fure, containing half the Amphora, 
 and four times the Congius, being 
 equal to 3^ gallons of Englijh 
 wine-meafure. 
 
 Urns, among the Ancient.", 
 efpecially the Romans, were vafes 
 made of different materials, and 
 applied to different purpofes. 
 They were made ufe of among the 
 Greeks and Romans for drawing lots 
 out of", and for calling their votes 
 into, in courts of judicature, &c. 
 But the ufes they were moll com- 
 monly applied to were to preferve 
 the allies and remains of the de- 
 ceafed, after they had been burnt 
 upoa the funeral pile. Urns of 
 gold, filvcr, brafs, and other me- 
 tals were defigned for Kings and 
 perfons of quality. Urns were 
 moft com^monly made of a mixture 
 of fand and clay, of a bluifh-grey, 
 blue, or red colour. They differ- 
 
 ed from our earthen ware in three 
 particulars; firll, they had no lead 
 glazing; fecondly, they had more 
 fand than clay in their compoli- 
 tion ; and, thirdly, they were not 
 baked in immediate contaft with 
 the flames of an open fire, but en- 
 clofed in large earthen veflels. 
 They were tall and narrow about 
 the neck, with figures of men or 
 animals upon them. The urns 
 ufed by the vulgar were generally 
 of a larger fort, becaufe the bones, 
 not being perfeftly burnt, took up 
 a larger fpace ; befides, the fame 
 urn often fervcd for both hulband 
 and wife, or fometimes for a whole 
 family. Some contained epitaphs, 
 others had only the naoie of the 
 perfons to whom they belonged, 
 others had the letters D. M. for 
 Diis Manihus, and many had on- 
 ly the name of the potter. The 
 urns were fometimes placed under 
 Hones, with epitaphs cut upon 
 them ; fometimes on the tops of 
 pillars, and fometimes in the 
 houfe ; we meet with them alfo 
 in coffins. See Funeral, PiUt 
 Burial. 
 
 UsTRiNA, or Ujirinum, was the 
 place where the Romans burnt their 
 dead ; it was commonly the Cam- 
 pus Martius, or fome other place 
 in the fuburbs, and fometimes in 
 the city, for perfons of quality. 
 The common people were burnt 
 upon the Efquiline Mount. See 
 Burial, Pile, &c. 
 
 Usury. See Intereji. 
 
 VuLTURius, among the Ro- 
 mans, was a name given to the 
 worft throw of the Tali. It was 
 alfo called Canis and Canicula* 
 See Tali, Tejfera, Canis, &c. 
 
 UxoRiuM, or ^s Vxorium, a- 
 mong the Romans, was a fum paid 
 as a penalty for living batchelors 
 to old-age. This tax upon batche- 
 lors {ttscA to have beea firli im- 
 pofe(^ 
 
WAR 
 
 pofed in the year of Rome 350, 
 under the Cenjorfiip of M. Furius 
 Camil'us and M. Pojlhumus. The 
 method of levying It was this : At 
 a Cen/us, or review of the people, 
 each perfon was afked, Et tu ex 
 anlmi Jententia uxorem habes, H- 
 berum quxrendorum caufd? He 
 who had no wife, was hereupon 
 
 WAR 
 
 fined after a certain rate called 
 
 j^s Uxorium. 
 
 This tax upon batchelors, among 
 the Romans, anfwered to the jithf 
 man Ay«/>tia ^«k»), and to the 
 0-^iyxyi.ni and KccnoyxyMi ^ix.v of the 
 Spartans. See Children, Jus tri- 
 umy &c. Borrovjtngy Marriage, 
 IVives, &C. 
 
 w. 
 
 WAR, a conteft or difference 
 between Princes, States, 
 or large bodies of people, referred 
 to the decifion of the fword. 
 
 Among the Hebrenus, wars were 
 of two kinds : Some were of obli- 
 gation, as being exprelly com- 
 manded of the Lord, fuch were the 
 wars againft the Amalekites and 
 Canaanites : Others were free and 
 voluntary, undertaken by the cap- 
 tains of the people, to revenge in- 
 juries and infults ofFered to the 
 nation, or to maintain and defend 
 their allies. In fliort, all the laws 
 of Mo/es every where, fuppofe that 
 the Ifraeliies might make war and 
 fupport themfclves againft their 
 enemies. When a war was re- 
 folved upon, all the people that 
 were capable of bearing arms were 
 afTemblcd together, or only a part 
 of them, according to the exigence, 
 a review was made of them by 
 tribes and families, and then they 
 marched againft the enemy. Be- 
 fore the reign of King David \.\ittt 
 were no regular troops in I/rael, 
 nor any magazines. Thofe that 
 went to war, carried their own 
 proviiion along with them. The 
 
 Hebretu Kings fought on foot, as 
 well as the meaneft foldier, horfes 
 not being ufed till the reign of 
 David. The ofHcers of war a- 
 mong the Hebrenus were, the 
 General of the Army, the 
 Princes of the Tribes, Cap- 
 tains of Hundreds, Captains 
 of Thoufands, Captains of Fif- 
 ties, and Captains of Tens. 
 They had alfo Scribes or Com- 
 mifTaries that kept the mufter-roU 
 of the troops. 
 
 In the firft ages of Greece, the 
 wars among the neighbouring 
 States, were little more than 
 fquabbles concerning trefpafTes, 
 combinations to punifh robberies, 
 or afTociations to make reprifals. 
 But as the States began to flourifh 
 and grow into real confequence, 
 their wars became more ferious, 
 and more fyftematical. The man- 
 ner of declaring war among the 
 Grecians, was to fend an Herald, 
 who bade the people by whom, 
 they had been injured, to prepare 
 for war. The Herald fometimes, 
 in token of defiance, hurled a 
 fjpear towards them. The Jtieniaut 
 frequently 
 
WAR 
 
 frequently let loofe a Iamb Into 
 their enemies' territories, fignify- 
 ing that what was then an habita- 
 tion for men, fhould be laid wade, 
 and defolate, and become a pa(- 
 turc for Iheep : Hence A^tx vfo- 
 ^a?v>.in', fignilies to enter into a 
 ftate of war. But war was 
 ieldom declared without con- 
 fulting the Prophetical Deities, 
 Soothfayers, Diviners, &c. They 
 offered facrifices upon the occa- 
 fion, made large vows, to be 
 paid upon the fuceefs of the en- 
 terprize, enriched the Oracles with 
 prefents, and fpared no expence, 
 or labour to engage Heaven on 
 their fide. 
 
 Anfjong the Romans., the Fecia- 
 ks were always employed to make 
 the declaration of war. When 
 any neighbouring State had given 
 the Senate reafon to conclude there 
 was a defjgn of breaking with 
 them, or upon any violence offer- 
 ed, or injuftice done to the fubjedis 
 of Rome, or^e of the Feciales, habi- 
 ted in the drefs of his order, with 
 his other enfigns and habilimenti. 
 Its. for.vard for the enemy's coun- 
 try. As foon as he reached the 
 confines, he formally dech^red the 
 caufe of his arrival, calling all the 
 gods to witntfs, and imprecating 
 the divine vengeance on himfclt, 
 and his country, if his reafons 
 were not jaft. When he came to 
 the chief city of the enemy, he 
 made the fame declaration, with 
 fome additional foimahties, and 
 defired fatisfadtion. If they gave 
 up the authors of the injury, or de- 
 Jivered holUges by way ot fecurity, 
 he returned to Rome fatisfied : if 
 they defired time to confider, he 
 allowed them ten days, and re- 
 turned after that period to receive 
 their anfsver ; this in fome cafes 
 was done three times. If nothing 
 was done towards an accommoda- 
 fion in thirty days, he declared 
 
 WAT 
 
 that the Romans would endeavour 
 to affert their right by arms. He 
 then made his report to the Senate, 
 and declared the legality of the 
 war. He then went into the bor- 
 ders of the enemy's country to per- 
 form the laft part of the ceremony, 
 which was to throw a fpear into, 
 or towards the hoilile larid, in to- 
 ken of defiance, as a beginning of 
 hoftiJities, and as a fummons to 
 war, pronouncing at the fame 
 time a folemn form of words to 
 the fame purpofe. See FeciahSj 
 Army, Battle, Soldiers. 
 
 Washing, bee Lujiration, 
 Pollution, Purijication. 
 
 Watch, bee Excubiet, Vigi- 
 liee. 
 
 Watches of the Night. See 
 Night. 
 
 Watch-word, in Greek 
 Tfj-Sij^a, in Latin Tejfera, was a 
 Vvord communicated by thegeneral 
 to the fubordinate officers, and by 
 them to the whole army, as a 
 mark of dillinciion, to know 
 friends from enemies. If com- 
 monly contained fome good omen, 
 the name of fome deity, or of 
 fom.e general, from whom iuccefs 
 was expedted. Cyrus, for example, 
 ufed Zst? crt)/A/A5cp5^o? , r,yi[t.'->iv Or 
 cuTr.f, Cafar uled l^enus Genetrix, 
 and Augujiui, Apol.o : We find 
 alfo Fein It as, Libert as, Viiioria, 
 Fortuna Ctsjaris, made ufe of wiM 
 the fame iutention. But this cuf- 
 tom often proved of pemitious 
 confecjuence ; for the foldiers by 
 frequsiUly queitioning one ano- 
 ther, brec confufion amon;^ them- 
 felves, and difcovered the woid to 
 the enemy. It became likewife 
 the occafion of many mifchievousi 
 flraragems, one of which we find 
 praclifed by an Arcadian Captain 
 in a war with Lacedamon ; when 
 engaging in the night, all the Tef- 
 fera he gave his foldiers was, 
 •• That 
 
WEE 
 
 « That they fliould forthwith kill 
 all that demanded the word;" by 
 this means they eafily diftinguifh- 
 cd and (lew the Spartans, them- 
 felves being undifcovered, and 
 therefore fecure. The Watch- 
 word was called TeJ/ira by the Ro' 
 mansy probab'y becaufe Tallies 
 ufed to be delivered to the fol- 
 diers with feme p.irticular word or 
 fentenceinfcribed upon them. See 
 TtJJira. 
 
 Ways. See Roads, 
 
 Water- CLOCKS. See Ctepjy- 
 dra. 
 
 Waters ofjealou/y, called alfo 
 Waters of Bitt'rnefs, were thofe 
 which were given to a woman fuf- 
 pedted of adultery amongft the 
 jfeavs, in order to evince her in- 
 nocence, or miraculoufly prove 
 hei- guilt. For an account of the 
 manner of proceeding. Sqq Adul- 
 tery. 
 
 Weapons. See Armour. 
 
 VJ EVDinG-Garments, among 
 the Ancients as well as the Mo- 
 derns, were generally fplendid, 
 and fometimes adorned with florid 
 embroidery. Any perfon coming 
 to a wedding-feaft, without a wed- 
 ding-garment, or drefs fuitable to 
 the occafon, was looked upon as 
 ill-bred ; and the negleft of his 
 own perfon, was regarded as an 
 intended affront to the company. 
 It was not unufual for the mafter 
 of the feall to offer garments to 
 fuch as came a confiderable jour- 
 ney, out of his own wardrobe, 
 and, in this cafe, to refufe the 
 offer, was looked upon as an ar- 
 gument of want t f decency and 
 good-manners. Matth. xxii. ii, 
 1 2. Wedding-garrnents were of- 
 ten white, Re'v. xix. 8, 9. See 
 Marriage. 
 
 Weeks, feem, as to their ori- 
 gin, to be of the fame (landing 
 
 WEI 
 
 with the world itfelf, and to havb 
 taken their rife from the circdm- 
 fiance of the creation's being 
 finifhed in fix days ; and God's 
 having relied on the feventh day, 
 was the caufe of obferving a Sab- 
 bath. The Hebreius had three 
 forts of weeks ; i. Weeks of 
 days, which were reckoned from 
 Sabbath to Sabbath. 2. Weeks 
 of years, which were reckoned 
 from one Sabbatical Tear to ano- 
 ther, and confided of feven years, 
 3. Weeks of feven-times fevea 
 years, which were reckoned from 
 one Jubilee to another. They had 
 at firll no particular names for the 
 days of the week, but called them 
 the firll, the fecond day of the 
 week, &c. as is evident from feve- 
 rai paffages of the Ne<v} Teftametit. 
 The firft day of the week, was by 
 the firft thrijiians called the 
 hordes Day, becaufe on that day 
 our blefled Lord arofe from the 
 dead, Rev. i. 10. See Day, 
 Month, Tear, Sabbath. 
 
 Weight, any thing made ufeof 
 whofe weight is known, to be put 
 in the balance againft other things 
 whofe weight is required. The 
 Jenjus had not the ufe of coined 
 money, which was of a certaia 
 determinate weight, they there- 
 fore weighed all the gold and 
 filver which they ufed in trade : 
 So that the Shekel, the half Shekel, 
 the Talent, are not only denomi- 
 nations of certain fums of gold 
 and filver, but alfo of certain 
 weights. Their weights were 
 generally of Hone. The Shekel of 
 the Saniluary is fuppofed to have 
 been double the common Shekel^ 
 but moll probably it was only the 
 common Shekel according to the 
 exaiSl and accurate iiandard kept 
 in the Temple or TabtrnacU. 
 
 C c Jewifh 
 
WEI 
 
 WEI 
 
 o 
 
 VO, 
 
 M- 
 
 ■vl 
 N 
 
 OO 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 N 
 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 -la- 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 OS 
 4^ 
 <^ 
 
 :5. 
 
 N 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 0^ 
 
 OO 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 ___ 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 N 
 M 
 
 <s" 
 
 ;^ 
 
 s 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 ON 
 00 
 
 HI- 
 
 i 
 1- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 f 
 1 
 
 OO 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 N 
 
 _ 
 o 
 
 5" 
 
 
 ^' I I I » I I I I • 
 
 , I I I f I I I » 
 
 oooooooooo 
 
 •-ooooooooo 
 oooooooooo 
 
 fc««OOOOOOOOj 
 00 060n-<^«*»«>» O O O 05 
 
 •-00 — OO-OOO 
 
 VtlWri »-V« O ONO0VOV*> O 
 
 ^;u« -Jlx vJlw vi,0 «:10> i-l -1 (M »\^ "i^ 
 
 0t5, 
 
 4.| Ml 00| 
 
 -1 -'„, -Iv. -1- 
 
 c; £?/s '•Vs ^ ^ ^ to to to ^ 
 2. ^ ^ S' 3- §. ? ^ ^ § o 
 
 » 5 
 
 
 ^1 s « 
 
 S >« 2 
 
 £3 
 
 n 
 
 tiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 M ». M ^ 
 
 «r N V) -fk ^^ On'^ OOnO O '^ f* Z 
 
 Co 
 
 St 
 
 &: 
 
 re 
 
 13 <* 
 
 • » 
 
 s 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 G. 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 5= 5^ 
 
 W 
 
 02- 
 c 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ON,^ 
 
 - o o 5: 
 
 tj4 N o • 
 
 « o o g 
 
 o o o 5 
 
 M ON NO C 
 
 ►- « o &,, 
 O O N -t 
 
 •olt» -Jltl ■-'+• • 
 
 9 n 
 
 - o 
 o *» 
 
 Co* 
 >Co 
 
 c o< 
 
 n 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 OP 
 
 The Reman Ounce is the Englip divided into feven Difidrii, as well 
 Aviirduptifi Oufife, which they as eight Drachmj j aod fince they 
 
 reckoned 
 
WIF 
 
 reckoned their Denarius equal to 
 ihe jiitic Drachm, this will make 
 the Attic weights one-eighth hea- 
 vier than the correfpondent Roman 
 weights. 
 
 The Grecians divided their Obo- 
 lus into Cbalci and "Kfifia. : Seme, 
 as Diodorus and Suidas, divided 
 the Obelus into fix ChaUi, and 
 every Calchus into feven ^fw^«6. 
 Others divided the Obolus into 
 eight Chalci, and every Cbalcus 
 into eight Aewla or Minuta. 
 
 Widows, among the Hebrews, 
 who had no children by their de- 
 ceafed hufbands, might claim in 
 marriage their hufband's brothers, 
 in order to raife up children to in- 
 herit their goods, and perpetuate 
 their names and families. The 
 Jaw that appoints thefe marriages 
 is delivered in Deut. xxv. 5, 6, 
 &c. But this cultom prevailed be- 
 fore the Law, Gen. xxxviii. 6, 7, 
 8, 9. The Law, as appears from 
 the cafe of Ruthy who married 
 Boaz, was not confined to brothers 
 in law only, but extended to more 
 diftant relations of the fame line. 
 Widowhood, as well as barren- 
 nefs, was a kind of fhame and re- 
 proach in Ijrael. Widows of 
 Kings were to continue in their 
 widowhood. High-Priefts were 
 not allowed to marry Widows. 
 God frequently requires us to re- 
 lieve the Widow and the Orphan, 
 Widows had certain employments 
 in the church, as to vifit fick wo- 
 men, affill them at the time of 
 baptifm, and do feveral things at 
 the order of the Bifhop, which de- 
 cency would not allow him to do 
 of himfeU : But none were chofen 
 for thefe offices unlefs they were 
 fixty years old, and of good cha- 
 rafter. Widows in the firft ages 
 of Chriftianity were maintained, 
 if poor, at the expence of the 
 faithful. 
 
 W*FB. See WiiHi, 
 
 WIL 
 
 Wills, folemn and authentic 
 afts or inlhuments, whereby men 
 fignify their inclinations as to the 
 difpofal of their eltates after their 
 deceafe. Some Grecian States per- 
 mitted men to difpofe of their pro- 
 peity as they thought fit, others 
 wholly deprived them of that pri- 
 vilege. Solcti's law gave every 
 man the liberty of bellowing his 
 fortune on whom he pleafed, ef- 
 teeming friendfhip a ftronger con- 
 nexion than kindred, and affec- 
 tion than neceffity. He required 
 however the following conditions 
 on all perfons who made wills ; 
 I. That they muft be citizens of 
 Athens. 2. That they muft be of 
 the age of ao; for before that age 
 they were not allowed to difpofe 
 of more than a Medimn of barley 
 by will. 3. They mull not be 
 adopted ; for the fortunes of a- 
 dopted perfons, who died without 
 ifTue, returned to the relations of 
 thefe who adopted them. \. That 
 they Ihould have no male children; 
 for then their eftates belonged to 
 them. If they had daughters on- 
 ly, the perfons to whom the inhe- 
 ritance was bequeathed, were 
 obliged to marry them. 5. That 
 they fhould be in their right minds. 
 
 6. That they fliould not be under 
 imprifonment or other conftraint. 
 
 7. That they fhould not be indu- 
 ced to it by the charms and iufinua- 
 tions of a wife. Wills were figned 
 and fealed before feveral witnefTes^ 
 then put into the hands of Truftees. 
 They began their wills with a wifh 
 for health and long life, adding, 
 that if it happened otherwife, 
 their will was as followed. 
 
 Among the Romans., the laws of 
 the Tivei-ve Tables firft authorized 
 fathers to make wills, in order to 
 difpofe of their effeds; confe- 
 quently children, as being under 
 their father's controul and autho- 
 rity, were not entitled to the pri* 
 
 C c 2 vilege 
 
WIN 
 
 vilege of difpofing of any property 
 they might have acquired, by will. 
 Soldiers however were excepted, 
 and had the power of difpofing by 
 will their Bona cajlrenjia aut quaji 
 taftrenjiat i. e. goods obtained in 
 war; for over thefe the father had 
 no power. Slaves could not make 
 wills even with the confent of 
 their mafters. Perfons condemned 
 to death, or to the gallies, could 
 not make wills, becaufe they were 
 flaves by way of punifhment; and 
 the wills which they made before, 
 were not valid. The power of 
 making wills did not extend to 
 perfons who were condemned to 
 perpetual exile, or to ftrangers ; 
 for the former had loft, and the 
 latter had never obtained, the 
 right of citizens. Boys were inca- 
 pable of making a will till they 
 were of the age of fourteen, and 
 girls till they were of the age 
 of twelve. The wills of hoftages 
 were invalid, unlefs they were 
 made before their captivity. Sol- 
 diers had the right of making 
 Nuncupati-ve wills, that is, they 
 could make their wills by word of 
 mouth, in the prefence and hear- 
 ing of their comrades. Thefe 
 wills were as valid as any other, 
 without any ether ceremony ; and 
 indeed the perpetual dangers to 
 which the lite of a foldier was ex- 
 pofed, made this kind of military 
 tellament in fome degree necefiary. 
 Windows. It is not known what 
 the Ancients made ufe of in their 
 windows to let in the light, and 
 keep out the injuries cf the v/ea- 
 ther. It was perhaps linen cloth, 
 or fomething fimilar to it. It is 
 certain, that tho' they had drink- 
 ing veflels of glafs, they never 
 made ufe of glafs for windows. 
 Nero employed, for the purpofe, 
 a tranfparentftone cut into fquares. 
 Jo/ephus fpeaks of a different fub- 
 fiance applied to this ufe, but 
 
 WIN 
 
 does not fay clearly what it was. 
 He fays however, that the Emperor 
 Caligula, giving audience in a 
 gallery of one of his palaces, or- 
 dered the windows to be fhut on 
 account of the wind ; he adds that 
 thofe windows, which excluded the 
 wind and let in the light only, 
 were clear as rock-cryftal. This 
 fubllance perhaps was a kind of 
 ftone which, Pliny fays, was com- 
 mon in Spain, and would fplit in- 
 to leaves like flate, being at the 
 fame time as ti-anfparent glafs. 
 We do not know whether it was 
 brittle or not, but the defcription 
 fhews it to be a kind of Talck. 
 
 Wine is fuppofed to have been 
 firlt ufed by Noah after the Deluge^ 
 but diiferent nations afcribe the 
 invention to diiterent perfons. 
 Thus the Jeijos afcribe it to Noah, 
 as mentioned before, the Egypti- 
 ans to Ojiris, the Greeks i.o Bac- 
 chus, the Latins to Saturn. The 
 Jeivifi Priefts were forbidden to 
 drink wine during their miniftra- 
 tion in the Tabernacle, or at the 
 altar. It was alfo forbidden to 
 the Nazarites ; and the Recha- 
 hites voluntarily abftained fronrj 
 this liquor. Scarcely any facri- 
 fices were made either among the 
 jfeiijs or Heathens without libations 
 of pure unmixed wine. Wine, 
 mixed with certain narcotic drugs, 
 was ufually given to condemned 
 perfons, at the time of execution, 
 to ftupify them and extinguilh the 
 fenfe ot pain. This was cuilom- 
 ary, not only among the ye-ivs, but 
 amoi>g the Greeks and Romans alfo; 
 fuch a mixture is fuppofed to have 
 been given to Je/us Chriji upon 
 the crofs, Mark xv. 23. The 
 Ancients in general drank their 
 wine mixed witri water; medica- 
 ted and perfumed wines were like- 
 wife in ufe. Matrons, virgins, 
 and even children were allowed 
 to drink wine among the Qre&ks ; 
 
 but 
 
WIS 
 
 WIT 
 
 hat Romulus made a law which 
 permitted ihe Romans to punifh 
 their wives with death if they were 
 found guilty of drinking wine. 
 Women in general were prohibi- 
 ted the ufe of this liquor, and their 
 near relations, when they came to 
 their houfes, were permitted to fa- 
 lute them, in order to fmell whe- 
 ther they had drank any. The 
 Romans preierved their wine in 
 great earthen veflels, flopped with 
 pitch. They ufed calks alfo, as 
 well as tanned ikin« of beafls, and 
 bottles of green goat Ikins, for 
 carrying it from place to place. 
 The older the wine was, the more 
 it was elleemed. To know its 
 ?ge, they marked the Cor/uls 
 names upon the vefTels. They 
 preferved it fometimes an hundred 
 years and upwards, for which pur- 
 pofe they kept it, not in vaults as 
 we do, but in an upper-room, 
 where it might imbibe the fmoke, 
 and early leceive the mellownefs 
 and other marks of age. The 
 vintage was a time of diverfion, 
 and thofe employed in it, claim- 
 ed the privilege of jeering all paf- 
 fengers with impunity. 
 
 In the Scriptures we meet with 
 the wine of Hdbon and the wine 
 of Lebanon. In Latin authors we 
 read of Vinum Albanum, Amineum, 
 Anitianum, Ariujium, Cacubum, 
 Calenum, C/jium, Cnidium, Faler- 
 vum, Lejhium, Methymnaum, Ma- 
 Tnertinum, Marxoticum, Maroneum, 
 Opimianum, Setinum, MaJJicum, 
 Thajium, &C. 
 
 Wine, with a little blood, ho- 
 ney, milk, and water, was otFered 
 to the Manes of the dead, by the 
 Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Wise-men from the EaJ}, as 
 jnentioned by St. Matth. ii. i. 
 who travelled to JerufaUm, at the 
 time of our Saviour's birth, by 
 the diredion of a lUr, to pay hira 
 homage, and prefent unto him 
 
 their gifcs of gold, frankincenfe, 
 and myrrh, arc by fome fuppofed 
 to have been Kings: and this 
 fuppofition is founded upon an- 
 cient tradition, upon the autho- 
 rity of many fathers, and upon an 
 implication of Scripture: ♦' The 
 Gentiles fhall come to thy light, 
 and Kings to the brightnefs of thy 
 rifing." " The K:ngs of Tarfii/h 
 and the Ifles, the Kings of Arabia 
 and Sa!;a Ihall ofFcr gifts." But 
 the mod probable opinion is thac 
 they were Gentile phjlofophers. 
 The Greek word by which they 
 are exprefled is Mayot, which is a 
 title generally applied to men of 
 learning, and particularly fuch as 
 were curious in examining the 
 works of nature and obferving the 
 heavenly bodies, with their mo- 
 tions and different phanomena. 
 See Magi. 
 
 Witchcraft, the fuppofed 
 crime of forcery, committed, 
 as was vainly imagined by the 
 Ancients, and fome of the Mo- 
 derns, by means of familiar fpi- 
 rits and coropacl with Damons^ 
 The belief of the reality of witch- 
 craft, prevailed among the Je^ws, 
 Greeks, Romans, and indeed a- 
 mong all nations: But as this be- 
 lief feems to be formed upon a 
 very weak foundation, which ne- 
 verthelefs partly prevails to this 
 day, I iTiail fo far deviate from 
 my propofed plan, as to give a 
 fummary of the arguments againil 
 it. ift. Then, there are aftions 
 in molt of the wonders performe4 
 by witches, which are ridiculous, 
 and in the nature of things im- 
 poffible ; fuch are their flying ; 
 their transformation into different 
 animals ; their feeling in their 
 oiun, all the hurts received in other 
 bodies ; their raifing tempells by 
 muttering nonfenfical fpells; their 
 being attended and fucked by fa- 
 miliar fpirits. 2. It is improbao 
 
 ble 
 
WIT 
 
 t)le that the Devil, or any wife 
 and powerful fpirit, (hould be at 
 the beck of a"lJoor hag, and have 
 fo little to do as to attend the er- 
 rands of a filly old woman. 3. 
 The belief of witchcraft implies a 
 charge againft providence, for ex- 
 pofing children and innocent per- 
 (bns to the fury and malice of re. 
 vengeful and wicked fiends. 4. 
 If wicked fpirits can hurt us by 
 the diredion and at the requeft of 
 a witch, they mull have equal 
 power of doing injury without in- 
 lligation or compadt J it is there- 
 fore wonderful that we are not 
 conftantly annoyed by them. 5. 
 If there be fuch an intercourfe 
 between Evil Spirits and wicked 
 perfons as witchcraft fuppofes ; 
 why is there not an equal corref- 
 pondence between Good Angels 
 end the virtuous, fufficient to pre- 
 vent the influences cf witches. 6. 
 The belief of witches and their 
 wonderful performances, weakens 
 our faith, and expofes the world 
 to infidelity, in matters of reli- 
 gion ; for if witchcraft can work 
 miraJes, what aiTurance have we 
 that the miracles of the Gofpel 
 were not of this kind. 7. The 
 Gofpel is filent as to the exillence 
 of witches. 8. The llory of the 
 witch of Endor, and other pafTa- 
 ges of the Old Tcftament, afford 
 no good arguments for the reality 
 of witchcraft, they only intimate 
 that there were pretenders to this 
 art. g. The perfons that have 
 been accufed of witchcraft, were 
 generally old women, deprefled 
 by poverty and diftrefs, into dif- 
 content and melancholy ; and the 
 effefts of melancholy upon the 
 imagination, will esfily account 
 for fuch extravagances as have 
 been afcribed to forcery. 10. The 
 perfons fuppofed to have been be- 
 witched, were for the moft part 
 children, or people very weak. 
 
 WIT 
 
 liable to be impofed upon, and 
 apt to receive ftrong imprefiiona 
 from the moft trifling caufes. 1 1. 
 The frequent deteftion of impof- 
 tors in this kind, afford a ftrong 
 prefumption, that all fuch rela- 
 tions are forgeries and idle tales. 
 12. It cannot be fuppofed, fince 
 witches have always been repre- 
 fented as exceedingly abandoned 
 and wicked, that the Devil 
 Ihould enter into a folemn compact 
 for fouls which were fecurely his 
 before. 13, The pretenfions to 
 witchcraft have been gradually 
 lefs frequent, fince the belief of 
 witchcraft haS loft ground in the 
 world. 14. The belief of witch- 
 craft is moft prevalent in the moft 
 barbarous and fuperftitious coun- 
 tries. 15. The reformation, and 
 a fpirit of philofophy and free en- 
 quiry, have broke the magic fpells 
 which knavery and prieftcraft fo 
 fuccefsfully employed in former 
 centuries, againft ignorance and 
 fuperftition. Thefe arguments, if 
 we had an inclination to dwell up- 
 on and expand them, are capable 
 of being worked into a demonftra- 
 tion of the non-exiftence of witch- 
 craft and witches. See Magic, 
 Divinatiorty Sorcery, Lovgy Phil- 
 tres, Charm, Incantation, Inchant- 
 mtnt. 
 
 Witness. The Law of Mofes 
 appoints that two or three wit- 
 neffes ftiould be credited in matters 
 ot judicature; but <9«^ witnefs only 
 is not to be believed, Deut, xvii. 
 
 6, 7. When any one was con- 
 demned to die, the witneffes be- 
 gan the execution ; they threw the 
 firft ftones, for example, if the 
 party was to be ftoned, Deut. xvii. 
 
 7. The law condemned a falfe 
 witnefs to undergo the fame pu- 
 nifliment that he would have fub- 
 jeded his neighbour to, Deut. xix. 
 
 16 — 19. 
 WicneiTes atxiong the Qrteks were 
 
 of 
 
WIT 
 
 of two forts, viz. Such as had 
 been e)e-vvirneffes of the faft, and 
 fuch as tcftified what they had 
 heard from another perfon, who 
 had been an eye-witnefs : The 
 evidence of the former was called 
 Maplffiflt, of the latter Ex/Ltaplffj*. 
 The latter was never admitted ex- 
 cept the eye-witnefs was dead, or 
 in a foreign country, or detained 
 by feme unavoidable accident. 
 Witnefles delivered their telHmc- 
 uy written on Tablets, to prevent 
 their receding from what they had 
 once depofed, and to make the 
 deteftion of falfe witnefles more 
 eafy. Thofe who came into court 
 with an intention to give evi- 
 dence, had Tablets of a different 
 kind, from thofe who were cafual- 
 ly called upon. The latter were 
 of wax, that the matter of the 
 evidence might be altered as oc- 
 cafion required, or further recol- 
 leftion fuggelted. Witnefles were 
 required to take a folemn oath at 
 the altar, which was in the court 
 for that purpofe. None were ad- 
 mitted to give evidence but men 
 of credit, tree-born, and diflnte< 
 refted. 
 
 The Remans were no lefs cau- 
 tious in the admiflion of witnefles 
 than the Greeks. Proper ftrefs 
 was laid upon eveiy minute cir- 
 cumllance ot the witneflfes. They 
 were to be freemen, and their 
 evidence was qualificrd by the con- 
 fideration ot their condition. 
 Stridt enquiry was made whether 
 the witnels produced was rich or 
 poor, a man of good or bad cha- 
 radter, a friend or an enemy to 
 either of the parties, a relation or 
 unconnefled, and whether pro- 
 inifes, threats or babes, had in- 
 duced him to come. The ufual 
 form of examining witneflies was, 
 *' ^aro de te^ arbitrerifne ?" The 
 examination of witnefles was re- 
 garded as the moll difficult and 
 
 Wiv 
 
 moft material part of the condu£k 
 ofacaufe. Such perfons as could 
 not attend to give evidence, were 
 fometimes allowed to fend their 
 depofitions, Falfe witnefles were, 
 by the law of the Tivehe Tables t 
 to be thrown from the Tarpeian 
 Rock: The Athenians alfo had their 
 adion ot ij/fy^o/xajlupa. 
 
 Wives, among the Jeixjs, feem 
 not to have been treated with much 
 delicacy or particular refpeft. The 
 hufljands, on the contrary, were 
 generally fui-ly, and fond of ex- 
 erting their authority in a tyranni- 
 cal and barbarous manner ; and 
 our Saviour informs us, that Mo/et 
 allowed them to divorce their 
 wives, becaufe of the hardnefs of 
 their hearts and the cruelty of 
 their tempers ; better indeed is a 
 feparation, than a continual per- 
 fecution. It was anciently cufto- 
 mary in many countries, and in 
 the Ea/ particularly, for men to 
 purchafe wives inftead of having 
 portions with them. Thus She- 
 chem defired to contraft with 
 Jacob for his daughter Dinah, 
 Gen, xxxiv. 12. And Jacob, hav- 
 ing no money or goods, propofes 
 to ferve feven years for Rachel, 
 Gen. xxix. 18. This cuftom ftill 
 remains in the Eaji-Indies and ia 
 Africa. See Divorce. 
 
 Wives and concubines, among 
 the Greeks, feem not to have been 
 dilingaiflied by any other circum- 
 flance more than this, that the 
 former brougiit a portion, and the 
 latcer did not. Wives might, 
 upon juft occafions, divorce their 
 hufljands, upon making an appeal 
 to the Archons, and prefenting 
 the bill of their grievances with 
 their own hands. The moft ex- 
 traordinary circunrftances attend- 
 ing the matrimonial connexion 
 were thefe : That heirefles, in 
 cafe of impotency in their huf- 
 bands, might make ufe of the 
 hufbands* 
 
WOM 
 
 WOM 
 
 hulbands' neareft relations ; and 
 that the traffic of lending and bor- 
 rowing wives was not uncommon: 
 Socrates lent his wife to AUibiades. 
 This was fometimes praftifed a- 
 mopg the Romans. See Borro^u- 
 ing. Marriage, I'Fomen, Divorce, 
 Cerfcubine. 
 
 Wolf. See Lupus. 
 
 Women, in the primitive ages, 
 were ufed agreeably to that fim- 
 plicity of manners which perva- 
 ded all nations : They drew wa- 
 ter, kept Iheep, fed cows and 
 horfes ; Rebecca carried a pitcher, 
 and drew water, the' (he was Abra- 
 ham's niece ; Rachel, the daugh- 
 ter of Laban, kept her father's 
 flocks; Zipporah and her Sifters, 
 had the care of their father Jeibra's 
 fheep ; Andromache, the wife of 
 He8or, mingled wine with the 
 provender of her hulband's horfes. 
 But the roofi common employ- 
 ments of the Grecian and Roman 
 women were, fpinning, weaving, 
 embroidery, and all forts of nee- 
 dlework ; moft of the hcui'es had 
 apartments for them to purlue this 
 kind cf bufmefs in. The educa- 
 tion of females was confined to do- 
 meftic ceconomy within doors, 
 and the kinds of work above enu- 
 merated. Their chambers were 
 at the top of the building, and 
 they were much confined at home. 
 T'he apartments of the young wo- 
 men were fecured by locks and 
 bolts. New-married women were 
 i)bliged alfo to keep at home; but 
 when they became mothers, they 
 were more at liberty. To gad 
 much abroad, however, was look- 
 ed upon as very indecent. AU 
 women when they went from home 
 wore veils, which were never taken 
 off till they returned to their own 
 doors. Such were the reflraints 
 under which women were kept at 
 Athens and at Rome ; but the fa- 
 ihioti was widely different among 
 
 the Lacedemonians : Their virgins 
 went abroad bare-faced, in order 
 to get hufbands ; and the married 
 women wore veils, to fliew that 
 they had no ambition to draw the 
 admiration of any but their huf"- 
 bands. The Romans alfo differed 
 from the Greeks, in treating their 
 women with more liberality ; for 
 the Roman women were allowed to 
 be prel'ent at public entertain- 
 ments, to converfe with the gue/is, 
 and to occupy the belt rooms in the 
 houfe ; whereas the Grecian ladies 
 feldom appeared in company, and 
 were confined in the remotefl 
 rooms. Athenian women were not 
 allowed to ftudy phyfic, or pradlife 
 midwifery ; but this law at laft 
 was repealed. The marriageable 
 age of women is not clearly afcer- 
 tamed, either among the Greeks or 
 Romans. Both the Greek and Ro- 
 man ladies paid much attention to 
 the preieivation and improvement 
 of tneir beauty; for thefe purpofes 
 they made uie of paints ana malks 
 of parte. They had fometimes 
 falfe teeth, and employed much 
 time at their toilets; but this was 
 looked upon as an adl of religion,, 
 in which they facrificed to P'enus 
 and the Graces. Pearls and pre- 
 cious Hones were fometimes worn 
 by the Roman ladies upon their 
 legs and feet ; and they frequently 
 wore pendants at their ears, and 
 twilled their hair in chains of gold. 
 Rich head-dreffes were fought af- 
 ter, and their locks were powder- 
 ed with gold-duft. Much refpeft 
 and delicacy were ufed by the Ro- 
 mans in prefence of the ladies: Fa- 
 thers would not even embrace their 
 wives in fight of their daughters; 
 and tho' relations were fuffered to 
 kifs their female kindred on the 
 mouth, it was done in order to 
 know whether they fmelt of wine, 
 becaufe wine was, by a law of Ro- 
 mulus, prohibited to women. The 
 refpedt 
 
WRi 
 
 WRI 
 
 jf-eTpeft and deference paid fo the 
 ladies have in every country en- 
 creafed, as the people emerged 
 from barbarifm. See Marriage, 
 Wives, Hair, Head-Drefs, Wine, 
 Concubine, Harlot, Di-vorce, Mid- 
 *wi/e. 
 
 For the laws refpecling women 
 under the J^ou?/^ difpenfdtion, fee 
 Leuit. xii. 2, 3. XV. 19 — 25. 
 Numb. V. 14, 15. Deut. xxii. 15. 
 
 Worship, among the Ancients, 
 confifted of three parts : Prayers, 
 facrificey, and lullrations. See 
 Prayer, Sacrifice, Lvfiration, Ex- 
 piation, Adoration. 
 
 Wrestling was one of the 
 cxercifes performed at the public 
 games of Greece and the Circenfian 
 fhews of the Romans. It was the 
 oJdeft of all the exercifes, and was 
 performed among the Greeks in the 
 Xyftus^ by two naked men, a- 
 Jiointed with oil, and rubbed over 
 with duft, who intertwined their 
 arms, and endeavoured to bring 
 each other to the ground. Thefeus 
 is faid to have improved this exer- 
 cife into an art, for in early times 
 the combatants availed themfelves 
 merely of their fize and ftrength. 
 He who threw his antagonilt thrice 
 was the viftor; hence Tf)j«|a» and 
 avolfia^xi fignify to conquer in 
 wreitling. The vanquiflied com- 
 batant made a public acknowledg- 
 ment of his defeat by his voice, 
 and by holding up his finger. 
 There were two kinds of vvreftling, 
 lepSoTraXij and uvciK>^noTrxXy) ; in the 
 former they wrellled on their feet 
 and ereft, in the latter they con- 
 tended rolling on the ground ; 
 this was alfo called TravxpaW. 
 See Pancratium, Olympic, Circen- 
 fes Ludi, Sec. 
 
 Writing is faid to have beeft 
 the invention of Cadmus. Vari- 
 ous materials have been made ufe 
 of by mankind to write their fen- 
 timents upon, as ftonfs, bricks. 
 
 plates of lead, the leaves of herbs 
 and trees, and their rinds or barks ; 
 alfo tables of wood, wax, ivory, 
 rolls of linen. At length the /'a- 
 pyrus was found out, then parch- 
 ment, then cotton-paper, and 
 laflly linen paper. The Romans 
 wrote finl upon tablets made of 
 bark, cut very ihin and covered 
 with wax, upon which they mark- 
 ed the letters with a Stylus, or 
 iron-bodkin. They afterwards 
 ufed parchment of different co- 
 lours, upon which they wrote, ia 
 letters of gold orfilver, with pens 
 made of reeds. Then the Papy- 
 rus or Biblus was introduced, and 
 then linen cloth was ufed, of which 
 they made books, in the form of 
 rolls, called Folumina ; hence the 
 word Volume. They fometimes 
 wrote in fhort-hand, called Ncta, 
 when they took depofitions, &c. 
 See Nct^. 
 
 In writing letters, the Romans 
 generally began with the name of 
 the writer and the perfon to whom 
 the letter was addrelTed : But whea 
 they wrote to a perfon of fuperior 
 rank, as Conful or Emperor, the 
 Conful or Emperor's name flood 
 iirfl ; and Confuls or Emperors al- 
 ways placed their own names be- 
 fore thofe of the perfons whom 
 they addreffed. — -Before the taking 
 o^ Rome by the Gauls, the alpha- 
 bet was almoll unknown. The 
 charaders ufed by the firft Romans 
 were the fame as thofe of the an- 
 cient Greeks. The Jenvs, and o- 
 ther Orientals, wrote from right 
 to left ; the Greeks wrote in the 
 way called Burpo(p>)^oi'> or as the 
 hufbandmen turned their oxen ia 
 ploughing, the firll line running 
 from left to right, and the next 
 from right to left, as in thefe 
 words : 
 
 Dd 
 
 EK AIOS AP- 
 
 v©sawux- 
 
 fiiit 
 
XES 
 
 XYS 
 
 But the Romans, and other Euro- we now do. See Baohi, Fvlume, 
 peons, wrote from left to right as Umbiiicus, Stylus, 
 
 X. 
 
 XAntkica, a fiJacedoman fef- 
 tival, obferved in the month 
 called Xanthus, .at which the whole 
 royal family with the army were 
 purified ; after this luftration the 
 army was drawn up in two parts, 
 and exhibited a mock-fight. See 
 LuJIfaticn. 
 
 Xenelasia was a law, among 
 the Spartans, by which ftrangcrs 
 were excluded from thnr fociety, 
 not out of fear lell they fhould 
 imitate the Spartan manners, but 
 left the Spartans fhould be con- 
 taminated by foreign vices. It 
 was a barrier fet up againil con- 
 tagion ; but was not fo fhidl as to 
 exclude deferving men, or any ta- 
 lent worthy of being received. 
 
 Xenia, among the Greeks and 
 Romans, were prefents made by 
 ftrangers to fuch perfons as had 
 treated them with kindnefs and 
 liofpitality. Xenia was alfo a 
 Tiame given to the gifts and pre- 
 ients made to the governors of 
 provinces by the inhabitants of 
 them. It is aifo ufed as fynony- 
 jnous with Strena. See Strena; 
 Strangers, Tejfera- 
 
 Xenoparochus, among the 
 Romans, was an officer, whofe du- 
 ty it was to provide Embafladors 
 with all kinds of necefiaries at the 
 public expence. 
 
 Xesta, an Athenian meafure of 
 capacity, anfwering to the Roman 
 Sffctarius. Sec Sextan ut. 
 
 Xylocopia, among thtGreeh, 
 was a fort of punifhraent infliifted 
 with a cudgel. See J^monitio, 
 Fujligatio, Punijhment. 
 
 Xylon, a fpecies of puniftx- 
 ment in ufe among the Greeks., 
 which anfvvered to our putting of- 
 fenders in the flocks. See Punijh* 
 ment. 
 
 Xynoecia, was an Athenian 
 feftivai, obferved in memory of 
 The/ens' s uniting all the petty com- 
 munities of Attica into one Com- 
 monwealth, whofe aflemblies were 
 ever after to be held at Athens in 
 the Prytaneum. 
 
 Xystarch, an officer in the 
 Grecian Gymnajium, who prefided 
 over the Xyjius, as lieutenant to 
 the Gymnafiarch. His bufinefs 
 was to fuperintend the Athleta ia 
 their exercifes in the two Xyfti. 
 See Xyjius, Gymnajium, Gymna- 
 Jiarch. 
 
 Xystici, a name given to the 
 Athlette, becauTe they performed 
 their exercifes in the Xyjii. See 
 Xyjius, 
 
 Xystus, among the Greeks, 
 was a portico covered at the top, 
 and defigned for the exercife of 
 the wreftlers, when the weather 
 did not permit them to contend 
 in the open air. The Xyjius 
 made a neceflai'y part of a Gymnes- 
 Jium. 
 
 XyJii, fometimes called wfp»^po- 
 
 (»i^s, w^« walks open at the top, 
 
 defigned 
 
YEA 
 
 defigned for exercifes, or for re- 
 creation in the heat of fummer 
 and the milder feafons of the 
 winter. 
 
 Xystus, among the Romans, 
 was an alley or double row of 
 trees, meeting like an arbour at 
 the top, and forming a fhade to 
 
 YEA 
 
 walk under. It is ufed alfo for a 
 terrace or open walk, raifed above 
 the common furface of the ground, 
 and ornament€d like our old fa- 
 fliioned Parterres. We meet with 
 Xy/}a as well as X}J}i in the plural 
 number. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YBy the Pythagoreans, was 
 , made the emblem or fym- 
 bol of Virtue and Vice. The 
 broad line at the bottom of the 
 letter, reprefents the innocency 
 and fimplicity of infancy and ear- 
 ly youth. The place where it is 
 divided into two parts Ihews us 
 the years of difciecion, when we 
 take the fide of wifdom or of folly, 
 and can difcriminate what is right 
 from v/hat is wrong. The narrow 
 line on the right exhibits to the 
 fancy the ftrait path that leads to 
 happinefs, and the difficulties 
 which attend a couife of virtue. 
 The broad line on the left repre- 
 fents the broad way that leads to 
 deftruftion, and the feducing blan- 
 dilhments of vice. Could any 
 thing have been added to intimate 
 the confequences which attend a 
 virtuous and a vicious conduct, the 
 emblem had been peifed. Per- 
 fius alludes to this emblematical 
 reprefentation of virtue and vice. 
 Sat. iii. 56. and Sat. v. 35. 
 
 Year, a fyltem or cycle of 
 months, ufually twelve, fo con- 
 ftituted and proportioned as to in- 
 clude the four feafons. The year 
 h9$ puzzled all nations, and was 
 
 never accurately fettled till the 
 prefent century. The year, as 
 regulated by the Sun, is called So- 
 lar \ and, as regulated by the 
 Moon, is called Lunar. The Solar 
 year is the interval of time in 
 which the Sun finiihes his apparent 
 courfe thto' the Zodiac, and con- 
 tains 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 
 minutes. The Lunar year con- 
 fided of 12 Lunar months. See 
 
 Month. 
 
 Befides the Solar and Lunar 
 years, we may mention the Ci-vil 
 year, which different nations a- 
 dopttd without regard to ajirono- 
 w/V«/ accuracy, to render the com- 
 putation of time in the common 
 affairs of life more eafy. 
 
 The Jeijoijh year confided of 1 2 
 mor.ths, unieis it happened to be 
 intercalary, for then it had 13. 
 The ancient Hebreavs ufed to re- 
 gulate their months by the courfe 
 of the Sun, and each of them had 
 30 days; but, after their deliver- 
 ance out of Egypt, they adopted 
 the Lunar months, containing al- 
 ternately 29 and 30 days, in all 
 354 days. This was made to 
 agree with the Solar year by ad- 
 
 D d 2 ding 
 
YEA 
 
 YEA 
 
 ding eleven and fometimes twelve 
 days at the end of the year, or by 
 an Emboli/mic month. They had 
 an EcclefiaiUcal as well as a Civil 
 year ; the firft began in the month 
 of Ni/an or Ahih, which anfwers 
 to part of our March and April, 
 becaufe about this time the I/rael- 
 ites came out of Egypt. By this 
 they reckoned their feafts. The 
 fecond began in the month Ti/rit 
 about the middle of our September, 
 becaufe they fancied the world to 
 have been created about this time. 
 All contrails were dated, and the 
 'Jubilee; reckoned according to this 
 year. The time of Netv Moon was 
 formerly difcovered by its Phajis, 
 or firft appearance, but ajircnomi- 
 ^£j/ calculation is now made ufe of. 
 Neither Je^vijh nor Chrijiian wri- 
 ters have given a fatisfadory ac- 
 count of their Solar and Lunar 
 years, and their method of inter- 
 calat'ng. 
 
 The Roman year was Lunar, 
 which, as fettled by Romulus, con- 
 lifted of ten months, four of which 
 contained 31, and the other fix 
 3c days, in all 304 days ; which 
 fell 50 days fhort of the true Lunar 
 year, and 61 of the Solar. The 
 beginning of the year, according 
 to this conftitution of it, muft ne- 
 ceffarily be very vague and varia- 
 ble; to remove this inconveni- 
 ence, Romulus required fo many 
 days to be added to the year, as 
 Ihould bring the ftate of the hea- 
 vens to a correfpcndence with the 
 firlt month. Thefe additional days 
 were not incorporated \vith any 
 months, or called by any particu- 
 lar name, Romulus's year began 
 about the Vernal Equinox. The 
 firft month was March, then fol- 
 lowed April, May, June, ^inti- 
 lis, Sextilis, September, Ocioler, 
 No'vember, December : So that the 
 Numeral months were named ac- 
 cording to their order in the Series* 
 
 Numa Pompilius, to correfl and re- 
 form the year, made two new 
 months, January and February, 
 of the days which ufed to be con- 
 fufedly added to the year of Romu- 
 lus. Numai year then confifted 
 of 12 months, of which feven had 
 29 days, and the reft 31, except 
 February, which had only 28, in 
 all 355 days ; which fum exceeds 
 the Lunar, but falls fhort of the 
 Solar year ten days. The year, 
 therefore, according to this con- 
 ftitution, muft be vague and un^ 
 fixed as to the time of its com- 
 mencement. Numa, however, de- 
 firous of fixing it to the winter Sol- 
 fiice, ordered 22 days to be inter- 
 calated every fecond year, 23 eve- 
 ry fourth year, 22 every fixth, and 
 23 every eighth; and thefe inter- 
 calations to be made in February. 
 But this rule failing of its object, 
 it was thought proper to add only 
 15 days every eighth year, inftead 
 of 23. The care of the whole was 
 committed to the Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus, who, either by inattention or 
 ignorance, let things run into 
 confufion. Such was the ftate of 
 the Roman year till Julius Ca/ar 
 made a reformation. The year, as 
 reformed by Julius Cafar, is a 
 Solar year, confiding commonly 
 of 365 days, but every fourth 
 year, called BiJJixtile, contains 
 366. The true quantity of the 
 Julian year, therefore, is 365 
 days, 6 hours,' which exceeds the 
 true Solar year by ]] minutes, 
 which in 131 years amount to a 
 whole day. Thus flood the year 
 till the reformation of it made bjr 
 Pope Gregoty. ' \ 
 
 The Athenian year was Lunar, 
 But it was long before any plaa 
 was adopted for making the Solar 
 and Z.a«iar revolutions correfpond 
 with each other. Thales, obfer- 
 ving that the Lunar revolutions 
 
YEA 
 
 H<ver exceeded 3c days, afligned 
 to the year 12 months of 30 days 
 each, in all 360 days. This fall- 
 ing Ihort of the Solar year, he in- 
 tercalated 30 days at the end of 
 every two years, which exceeded 
 the true number by no lefs than 
 20 in the fpace of two years. So- 
 lon, having obferved that the Moon 
 flnilhed her couife in 29 days and 
 an half, made the months to con- 
 fift alternately of 29 and 30 days, 
 which make in all 354, and fall 
 lliort of the Solar year 1 1 days 
 and fomething more. To recon- 
 cile this difference, rilfccilrift^, or 
 a Cycle of four years was invented, 
 after the firft two years of which 
 they intercalated a month of 22 
 days, and afitr the other two years 
 a month of 23 days was added, the 
 fradion of a day having amounted 
 to a whole day in the ipace of four 
 years. But the T£lfa/l»fK» which 
 added 45 days in four years, end- 
 ing in the midit of a Lunar month, 
 the o;;1&s]rp»j, Or Cyc:e of eight 
 years, was adopted in its ftead, 
 by which three Lunar months were 
 added tt diiFerent times. Thus 
 the Calindar Hood till the days of 
 Melon, who having obferved that 
 the motions of the Sun and Moon 
 fell fh:jrt of one another by fome 
 hours, which difagreement, tho' 
 at fi-rft almofl imperceptible, he 
 forefaw would in thecourfeof ages 
 quite invert the feafons, invented 
 a Cycle of 19 years, called n'n»- 
 Kcnoixje.£%pi(;, at the concluficn of 
 v»-iiich the Sun and Mocn returned 
 nearly to the fame place of the 
 heavens in which they had been at 
 the beginning of it. In ih\s Cycle 
 there v.'as an Emboli/mic, or inter- 
 calary month, every 3d, 5th, 8th, 
 iith, 14th, 16th, and 19th year. 
 Afterwards Calippus, having found 
 that in the courfe of this Cycle the 
 Moon outwent the Sun about feven 
 hours, contrived a Cycle of 76 
 
 YEA 
 
 years, containing four of Melon's 
 Cycles, to remedy this inconveni- 
 ence. A fmall difagreement be- 
 tween the Sun and Mocn having 
 been obferved at the end of this 
 term, Hipparchus \nvznr.td another 
 Cycle of 152 years, which was af- 
 terwards divided into two equal 
 parts, and from each part one day 
 was dedudted, which had beea 
 found fuperfluous in Melon's Cycle. 
 The beginning of the Athenian 
 year was fixed to the day of the 
 Ne^w Moon immediately preceding 
 the Summer Soljlice. In the time 
 o^ Melon and EuJoxus it was placed 
 on the 8th oi June, and in the time 
 of Timocharis and Hipparchus oa 
 the 27th of July. The Greeks 
 were, of all peop'e, the mofl 
 wretched AJirouumers, their chro- 
 nology is confequently full of con- 
 fi-fion. See Month, Day, Hour. 
 
 The Lunar year of the Macedo^ 
 nians agreed with the Jttic, and 
 their Salar year with the Julian* 
 The Macedonians fometimes di- 
 vided the year into four equal 
 parts, on the Suns entrance into 
 the four cardinal points, allowing 
 91 days to each quarter. See 
 Month, Day, Hour. 
 
 Year of Jubilee, among the 
 Jeivs, was celebrated at the end 
 of fcven times feven, or 49 years, 
 that is, every 50th year. It be- 
 gan on the joch day of the month 
 Ti/ri, anfvvering to our September, 
 and was proclaimed throughout 
 the country by the found of a ram's 
 horn cr trumpet. There is no 
 mention of Jubilees but while the 
 Tiusl-ve Tribes were in pofTeflion 
 of the Land of Canaan. The TaL 
 mudijls fay they ceafed when the 
 Tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the 
 Half Tribe of ManaJfeh were car- 
 ried into captivity. They are not 
 at all mentioned under the fecond 
 temple, tho' the Sabbatical-Years 
 continued 
 
ZON 
 
 ZYG 
 
 continued ftill to be obferved. 
 The Jubilee had the fame privi- 
 leges as the Sabbatical-Year ; the 
 ground was not then cultivated, 
 Haves were fet at liberty, and 
 fuch lands as had been fold or 
 mortgaged returned to the firil 
 owners, if thty could not redeem 
 them fooner, except houfes in 
 walled towns ; thefe were to be 
 redeemed within the fpace of a 
 year, otherwife they belonged to 
 the purchafer, notwithftanding the 
 Jubilee. The year when John the 
 
 Baptifi firft began to preach, had 
 Jubilees been then obferved, v.'ould 
 have been a year o^ Jubilee; which 
 circumftance beautifully corref- 
 ponds with the defign of the gof- 
 pel, and the end oi John the Lap- 
 tiji^s coming, which was to pro- 
 claim the grand Jubilee, the Spi- 
 ritual Freedom of the children of 
 God, foretold by Zechariah, ix. 
 14. and prefigured by the Jubilees 
 of the Jews. See Sabbatical- 
 Tear. 
 
 z. 
 
 ZEMIA, Z/5ftt«, among the 
 /Athenians, is fometimes in a 
 large and general fenfe for any 
 kind of punifhment ; but more 
 frequently for a pecuniary muldl 
 or tine, laid upon a criminal, 
 according to the degree of his 
 offence. 
 
 Zetet/e, Ziilijlatf, among the 
 Athenians, were officers appointed 
 upon extraordin.iry occafion?, to 
 enquire after the public debts, 
 when thro' the neglect of the re- 
 ceivers they were run up to large 
 foms, or by any other means be- 
 gan to be in danger of being loft, 
 if not called in. 
 
 Zeugit^, Zft-vilat, among 
 the Athenians, were the third clafs 
 of the people, comprehending 
 thofe whofc eftates amounted to 
 two hundred Medimns. 
 
 Zona, among the Greeks and 
 Romans, was the girdle by which 
 their garments were tied clofe 
 about them : It was ufed both by 
 
 men and women. The word is 
 fometimes ufed to fignify a purfe, 
 becaufe the Zon^ were either hol- 
 low, like an eel-fkin, and ferved 
 to carry money in, or the purfes 
 were fufpended from the girdle. 
 The bridegroom ufed to loofe the 
 giidle of the bride as the firft aft 
 of connubial familiarity ; hence 
 >.vuv ^mnv, or folt-ere zonam, fig- 
 nify to defioiuer ; and yvm \vj-i- 
 ^uiyoi;, one 'who has loji her Virgini- 
 ty. This girdle was not worn by 
 maids only, as fome have imagi- 
 ned, but by married women alio, 
 being Jefigned to fecure theweaker 
 fex from the fuddcn attempts of 
 libidinous men. This appears 
 from the mention which authois 
 make of untying women's girdles 
 in child-birth, and from calling 
 fuch girls as were not arrived at 
 maturity «/x,»1p«, i. e. not having 
 a girdle. See Girdle. 
 
 ZyGASTici;M, ZuyaftKoi', a- 
 mong 
 
ZYG 
 
 mong the Ancients, was money 
 paid for weighing things. The 
 word is derived from ^t-yo?, a bal- 
 lance. 
 
 ZygitjE, in the Grecian and 
 Roman galleys, were thofe rowers 
 
 ZYG 
 
 who fat on the fecond row of the 
 Triremes or three-rowed galleys, 
 j. e. above the Thalamita^ and 
 below the Thranita. See Ronuersf 
 Ships, Triremes, Thalamita, Thra" 
 nita. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 pf-'.'AC ^^'0 
 
 216^ 
 
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 l1 
 
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