MALCOLM GARDNER Bradbourne Farmhouse Bradbourne Vale Road Sevenoaks - Kent - Tel - Sevenoaks 51311 Clocks, ! Watches, j Horological I Books ! Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/conripletebookoftrOOwhit THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, OR THE PARENTS' GUIDE AND YOUTHS' INSTRUCTOR; FORMING A POPULAR ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TRADES, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE, AS AT PRESENT PURSUED IN ENGLAND ; WITH A MORE PARTICULAR REGARD TO ITS STATE IN AND NEAR THE METROPOLIS : INCLUDING A COPIOUS TABLE OF EVERY TRADE, PROFESSION, OCCUPATION, AND CALLING, HOWEVER DIVIDED AND SUBDIVIDED : TOGETHER WITH THE APPRENTICE FEE USUALLY GIVEN WITH EACH, 4ND m AN ESTIMATE OF THE SUMS REQUIRED FOR COMMENCING BUSINESS. BY SEVERAL HANDS, viz. MR. N. WHITTOCK, MR. J. BENNETT, MR. J. BADCOCK, MR. C. NEWTON, AND OTHERS, AS MORE PARTICULARLY SET FORTH IN THE PREFACE LONDON: PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, No. 73, CHEAPSIDE. 1842. u 7 LONDON : BALNE BROTHERS, PRINTERS, GRACECHURCH STREET. THE GETTY CEMTf LIBRARY PREFACE. The custom of preface is a good one ; and in the present case must be complied with, as well for the satisfaction of the reader, as for the writers' justification. Taking the usual review of a miscellaneous work which time has here brought to a conclusion, the undertakers feel them- selves called upon to state the general objects of the several writers who have lent their aid to its completion, to apologize for any supposed omission, and to claim for each the share which has been assigned him to execute— so far as the more important articles seemed to demand. If they were imbued with any peculiar notions, or motives out of the common way, it has been deemed competent in the public to require a satis- factory solution of these, as likewise a plain statement of what their opinions and motives actually were at the time of pro- mulgation. But we will not assume the existence of any such a lapse, simply for the puerile purpose of refutation ; much less would we apologize for errors or omissions that are common to every work of this nature. iv PREFACE. Doubtless, different opinions have been entertained by the several writers as to which might be considered the best method of performing their respective tasks ; neither will it betdenied that the bare details which would be extremely proper for describing a meagre handicraft employment, however ingenious in itself, or beneficial to the community, could be employed with equal propriety in all cases ; nor would it admit of that philosophical research or those enlightened views of the relative subjects, like those which fitly become another more expansive commercial pursuit. Haply, too, what is met with under one head of information, often serves to illustrate another trade, if it do not equally apply to those and all others of the same class ; the interests that are involved in our export trade, for example, the cramping effects of the excise laws, and the like kind of generalities; when any such views have been once stated, repetition would seem absurd, and they will be found frequently referred to, for avoidence of repetition. In those, and similar cases, readers naturally expect to meet with a difference of style, as well as the mode of treating the several subjects : we may adduce the gentleman who undertook to describe H File-maker," for instance, and that other who thought himself competent to " Ship-building whilst again it must be equally apparent that the compiler who required sixty pages to describe the Bookselling trade would be placed at a nonplus on finding no more than six pages set apart for the Printer. From the first, compression^ duly exercised, formed one main object of the projectors : repeated dilatation PREFACE. V would have marred their views, however entertaining the excursus in which their wordy coadjutor might have indulged, or supposed himself entitled to the character of an agreeable instructor. As the title page imports, this volume owes to several hands the varied contents of its pages. Of these, the first forty-nine articles, extending to 170 pages, were done by Mr. Nathaniel Whittock, the Artist, who also furnished the work with the plates of Painter, Farrier, Plasterer, Mason, &c. Thence, to page 233, vir, " Currier to Filigree-worker," inclusive, came from the pen of Mr. John Bennett, the Engineer, author of the " Artificer's Lexicon," and other works con- nected with the arts. Of the remainder we are enabled to speak less definitively : Surgeon and Physician, Fuller, Grocer and Teaman, Gold and Silversmith, Glass-maker, Mariner, Music-seller, Jeweller, Optician, Printer, Painter, Paper- maker, Soap-boiler, Statuary, Stationer, Saddler, Shipwright, Tanner, Tailor, Tallow-chandler, Wine-merchant, Water- proofer, proceed from the prolific pen of Mr. John Badcock, manufacturing Chemist ; who was the joint author, a few years since, of " The London Tradesman," a treatise on the rationale of trade and commerce. He is also understood to have given the corrective to several other articles. For Fishing-tackle- maker, Green-grocer, Gun-maker, Hatter, Linen-draper, Ma- chinist, Merchant, Smith, Tinman, Type-founder, Veterinary Surgeon. Upholder, Wine-merchant, this volume is indebted to Mr. Cyrus Newton, a young Veterinarian of great promise; VI PREFACE. who cheerfully desires to acknowledge the kindly revisions of his old tutor, Mr. Johnt Hinds, author of the " Grooms* Oracle" and other works on the Horse. Of this latter gen- tleman we cannot without injustice, avoid saying, that he is as eminent for the teachableness of his manner, and the plain- ness of his style, as for happy illustration of his topics, and the successful pursuit of his chemical processes. vii LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 1. Frontispiece — Emblematical of the Works of Design. 2. House Painter. Herald and Sign Painter. t 3. Stone Mason. u Sculptor. 4. Bricklayer. Plasterer. 5. Blacksmith. Farrier 6. Boat Builder. Shipwright. 7. Baker. Bill Sticker. 8. Carpet Weaver. Carpenter. 9. Basket Maker. Carver and Gilder. 10. Rope Maker. Wheelwright. 11. Paper Maker. Copper Plate Printer. Letter Press Printer. Bookbinder. Bookseller. v 12. Glass Blower. V Gold Beater. Hatter. Iron Founder. Jeweller. THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. AGRICULTURIST. Agriculture is the art of cultivating the earth, so as to make it produce the greatest quantity of food of the best quality; and has always been justly considered the most useful and healthy pursuit that men can be engaged in. The art of cultivating the earth is the basis of all others, for as the inhabitants of a country increase their quantity of food, by attending to the means of rendering the soil more productive, it decreases the necessity for the whole of the population being employed as cultivators : men thus obtain means and leisure to turn to other pursuits, as taste or necessity directs them. It is not intended in this work to enter deeply into the remote history of any trade or profession, but rather to describe their present state, and the remuneration they afford to persons engaged in them ; but as it will be useful to shew how the land became divided into portions called farms, and the beneficial result of these divisions, not only to the proprietor and the farmer, but to the whole community, it will be necessary to glance at the state of Agriculture in England from the earliest period. We have little account of the Agriculture of Britain previous to the invasion by the Romans : they introduced all the knowledge which extended empire gave them, and used all their art to cultivate the con- quered island, not only to procure food for themselves, but to civilize the inhabitants, and to render Britain a profitable province of the Roman Empire. After the decline of the Roman power the country was laid waste by continual wars, under the Saxon Hep- tarchy, by the incursions of the Danes, and intestine divisions. The invasion of England by William the Conqueror, was beneficial to ine country as far as Agriculture was concerned. Thai monarch parcelled out nearly the whole of the island to the chief- B 2 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES tains that aided him in his conquest. They, being used to the luxuriant cultivation of France and Italy, sent for experienced Agriculturists from abroad to render their newly-acquired lands productive. The power of the Normans was too well known to make them fear the incursions of the Danes or other predatory nations, and the art of the cultivator was rewarded with luxuriant crops, which, under the protection of the warrior proprietor, were securely harvested, and England shortly became proverbial for its abundant supply of food, notwithstanding the vast increase of Norman inhabitants. In after ages the barons and the inferior feudal proprietors let portions of their land for a term of years to persons that were ex- perienced cultivators ; who, instead of sending a part of their produce, and performing personal service in lieu of rent, as heretofore, sold their corn to the inhabitants of the towns, that had grown into im- portance, and paid the proprietor his rent in money. This mode of payment enabled the nobleman to calculate the amount of his income with tolerable exactness ; and having now the command of money instead of a large stock of provisions, and the personal service of his vassals, he dropped his warlike pursuits, gradually decreased the number of his military retainers, and disposed of his income for the general benefit by encouraging the mechanic and liberal arts, and assisting in the diffusion of learning. If the advantages arising from dividing the land into farms, and receiving rent in money, was great to the proprietor, it was still more so to the farmer : it raised him from the condition of a serf or slave of the soil, to an independent yeoman, who paid the landlord a certain sum for permission to occupy the land, but became the uncontrolled master of the profit he made above the rent. His knowledge, skill, and industry, were employed for his own benefit, and instead of being liable to be torn from the plough to grasp the sword or bend the bow, at the command of his landlord, he became the master of his own time, and entirely shook olf the inconvenience and disgrace of vassalage. The cultivation of the earth from this period not only became a useful but an honourable employment. Men of high birth and great learning became interested in the pursuit ; the implements of Agri- culture were improved and greatly increased ; the cultivation proper tor different soils was attended to ; writers began to bestow their attention on this primitive art. In the reign of Henry VIII.. a Judge, named Sir A. Fitzherbert, produced a work entitled The AGRICULTURIST. 3 Book of Husbandry, which shews great knowledge of the subject. A number of works were produced by different authors during the reign of Elizabeth ; and the excellent effects of making all classes of persons have a direct interest in the welfare of a nation was glo- riously proved in her reign, when the willing and unanimous exertions of her subjects bade defiance to the greatest power ever raised for the subjugation of England. From this period to the reign of Anne, Agriculture was steadily progressing ; and if we may be permitted to name the golden days of husbandry in England, we should say during the reigns of George I. and II. At this time men Ijad not been taught, nor did they feel, that it was necessary to be rich in order to be happy. The labour of the farmer and his workmen was rewarded with a sufficiency of food, raiment, and fuel. Amassing wealth was not considered the prime object of life ; and time and opportunity was afforded for en- joyment. The disparity and distance between the different classes of society was not so great as at present. The landlord resided upon his estate, enjoying the sports of the field, and presiding at the rural festivals, where the farmer and ploughman were welcome guests. The spirit of commerce had not made an inroad on Agricultural pursuits, nor is it desirable that it ever should, since the only mode by which the speculator in the production of food by the cultivation of the earth could realize great profit, must be from the increased toil and decreased remuneration of the Agricultural labourer. The cultivation of the earth, though a pleasing and profitable pursuit, does not hold out the hope of the speedy attainment of riches. The seasons cannot be forced, or the nature of the soil altered upon any extended scale. Men must plough and sow, and even then the produce is uncertain; as it depends on the state of the weather to ripen the grain, or to harvest it when ready for the sickle. And though science has done much for Agriculture, and the application of chemical and mechanical knowledge may increase the production upon sterile lands, and the introduction of machinery materially lessen the necessity for manual labour, yet the primal fiat, that man should cultivate the earth by the sweat of his brow, is still in full force. Some years ago, when England was at war with the most powerful states of Europe, the sources of the supply of foreign provisions were stopped. This, joined with the great alteration in the value of money in consequence of extending the paper currency, made the English produce so increase in price that farming became a c 2 4 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. desirable pursuit to persons who had hitherto paid no attention to the subject. Agricultural Societies were formed, consisting of noblemen, men of science, and great capitalists ; every means that money could command were employed to increase the quantity and quality of the productions of the soil, and the animals that fed upon them. Large capitals were employed, many small farms were thrown into one, that modern improvements might be applied on an extended scale. At this period a number of youths were apprenticed, or rather placed, with practical farmers, to learn the art of cultivating the earth, and the farmer was paid for the instruction he rendered by a proportionate premium. This state of things has passed away. The farmers of the present time may profit by the temporary ex- citement, by selecting many of the improvements or alterations that were suggested at that time, but he will find at last that the true key to the treasures of the earth, is a steady application of human exertion and practical observation. At the present time there are few persons apprenticed to this business. The farmer's agricultural education begins as soon as he can walk, and as he is in general brought up to this pursuit alone, if misfortunes should occur, and he is thrown out of business in conse- quence of the total loss of property, he is immediately reduced to the situation of a labourer ; as with the exception of the few persons that are emplo}'ed as bailiffs to superintend farms for gentlemen, there is no intermediate state like that of a journeyman employed in mechanical or commercial pursuits A person desirous of entering upon a farm should first ascertain the nature of the soil, the present state of cultivation, the conve- nience and stability of the house, barns, stables, cow sheds, &c. ; the amount required for fixtures, utensils, and for acts of husbandry ; the amount of rent per acre, including the tithes and poor rates ; the rate of wages, and the requisite stock : by this means he will ascertain the amount of capital required before he can have any return of money by the sale of the produce of the land. Like all persons engaged in any other business, he must hazard something ; but comparing the expenses with the probable quantity and price of the produce, is the only guide to a satisfactory conclusion. It would far exceed the limits of this work to give the titles only of the very numerous works that have been published on Agriculture. Those that require information on this point are referred to Loudon's Dictionary of Agriculture. 5 APOTHECARY. The term Apothecary is derived from the Greek word apothrca, the name given to a storehouse for drugs, provisions, or other goods. The warehouse-keeper was called apothecarius ; but, as it was the practice of the ancient physicians to prepare their own medicines, the business of an Apothecary, as conducted at the present time, was unknown to the Greeks or Romans. Dealers in drugs and nostrum venders are sometimes mentioned by Roman authors by 'he names of pigmentarii, pharmacopola?, and seplasiarii. The latter were dealers in medicines for cattle, but the persons designated by either of these names were held in no greater estimation than the mountebanks, empirics, and nostrum venders of the present time. The earliest mention of Apothecaries, as exclusively con- nected with medicine, occurs in the life of Affer, a celebrated physician, who practised in Lower Italy about the close of the tenth century. Affer had attained great reputation in Africa, and on his settling in Italy his patients were so numerous, that he intrusted the keeper of his store of drugs with the office of mixing up medicines according to his written directions. By the celebrated medical edict of the Emperor, Frederic the Second, in 1090, for the governance of the medical profession, the office of Apothecary, or, as they were there termed, Confectionarii, was properly defined. The edict required that the Confectionarii should take an oath to keep by them fresh and sufficient drugs, and to make up medicines exactly according to the prescriptions of the physicians, and a price was fixed at which the Confectionarii might vend medicines so prepared. The physicians at Salerno had the inspection of the statios or houses where medi- cines were sold. The word apotheca seldom occurs in the edict : when it does it signifies the warehouse where drugs are deposited. After the appointment of Apothecaries in Italy, the example ^vsas followed in other countries. There was no incorporated company of Apothecaries in London till 1617; previous to that time they were joined with the grocers. In 1712 an Act was passed for exempting the Apothecaries from serving the offices of scavenger, constable, or other parish offices; or from serving on juries. Apothecaries are obliged to make up their medicines according to the formulas of the College of Physicians, and are under an obligation to have the G THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. medicines there enumerated ready in their shops. Their warehouses or shops are liable to be visited by the censors of the College, who have it in their power to destroy such medicines as they judge not to be good. As the Apothecaries had a constant opportunity of observing the medicines ordered by the physicians for the cure of particular dis- orders, they in some cases sold the like mixture to persons labouring under similar complaints, that were too poor to fee a physician ; and as the medicines proved efficacious the practice became more common, and it soon became the business of the Apothecary not only to prepare medicines according to the prescription of the physicians, but also to dispense them according to his own judgment to all persons that chose to confide in his skill and experience. This practice has become so general, particularly in the country, that few persons now apply to a physician till they have tried the skill of an Apothecary, and it has therefore become necessary for the latter not only to have a knowledge of the materia medica, but also of the organization of the human frame, and the cause and cure of the various disorders to which it is liable. No person can practise as an Apothecary or Apothecary's assistant, without obtaining a certificate from the Company ; to obtain which it is necessary for the applicant to prove that he has served at least five years as an apprentice to a respectable master, and that he should be able to prove himself duly qualified before a court of examiners of the Apothecaries' Company. The cost of the certificate is 10/. 10*. for a person practising in London or within ten miles of it : beyond that distance 6/. 6s. The certificate of an assistant costs 3/. Ss. Both the Apothecary and assistant are liable to penalties for carrying on business without a certificate. The parent or guardian who designs to apprentice a youth to an Apothecary, should first consider his natural endowments ; he should possess a genteel person and address, a retentive memory, and a cheerful, compassionate disposition. To these natural advantages should be added a good classical education, or, at least, a competent knowledge of the Latin language. The amount of premium given with an apprentice depends greatly upon the practice and reputation of the master : it varies from 100/. to 500/. The term is some- times for seven, but generally five years. The two last years of the time the apprentice is allowed on all occasions to attend the lectures on chemistry, botany, and anatomy. APOTHECARY. 7 The wages of an Assistant depend on the practice of the master. The most usual terms are from 30/. to 60/. a year. The amount oi wages is seldom a great consideralion with an Assistant, as he obtains a situation rather to obtain practical knowledge than emolument. From the number of hospitals, lecture rooms, and museums open to the medical student in London, it is evident that an apprentice m the metropolis has advantages that can be obtained in few pro- vincial towns. The Physic Garden at Chelsea, belonging to the Apothecaries 1 Company, is acknowledged to be the best in the kingdom. This garden was presented to the Company by Sir Hans Sloane, Bart., in 1721, upon condition of their paying 5/. annually to the Royal Society, and also presenting them with a yearly offering of fifty plants. The intentions of the donor have been most faithfully and liberally fulfilled by the Apothecaries' Company, who expend a large sum annually with no other view than the promotion of botanical knowledge, more especially in the cultivation of rare and curious plants. The garden is embellished with an elegant statue of Sir Hans Sloane, by Rysbrach, which is represented in the annexed engraving. STATUE OF SIR HANS SLOANE This public-spirited baronet not only left this garden to posterity, but previous to his death he directed by his will that after his decease 8 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the whole of his museum of natural and artificial curiosities, which had cost him upwards of 60,000/., should be offered to Parliament for the moderate sum of 20,000/., to be paid to his family. The Parliament accepted the offer without hesitation. This magnificent collection was the commencement of the British Museum. The Apothecary that depends upon his private connexion for business, only requires sufficient capital to support himself respect- ably, and continue his studies till his connexion gradually increases as his attention and efficiency become known and appreciated. Those that purchase a connexion pay highly for it, and it frequently happens that the emolument is not commensurate with the outlay, as it is impossible to secure a business like this to a successor. Those that depend upon the sale of medicines in their shops, of course require display and a proper situation for business. This is the trade of the Chemist and Druggist rather than the modern Apo- thecary : a description of this business will be found in its proper place. APPRAISER AND AUCTIONEER. An Appraiser is a person employed to estimate the value of land, houses, and goods of every description ; and as changes of property are constantly occurring, where the Appraiser is required to value either for the buyer or seller, or in some cases for both parties, a sworn Appraiser is generally considered a very respectable and lucrative business. The Appraiser should be a man of solid judgment, and should have a general knowledge of the value of property and all kinds of goods. And as he cannot tell what articles he may be called upon to value, he should be an incessant observer, and have a retentive memory. The slightest doubt of his integrity would be fatal to him in his business. There are many Appraisers whose principal business consists in valuing the premises, furniture, utensils, &c, of inn-keepers and publicans. If a person is desirous of taking a house of this sort, he names an Appraiser to value the goods on his side, the person letting the house names another ; each of the Appraisers make an inventory of the goods, describing every article, and making private marks to denote the value of each. When the whole has been carefully examined, the two Appraisers meet, and state to ^ach APPRAISER AND AUCTIONEER. 9 other tiie gross amount of their respective valuations ; if there is but a trifling difference between them, they endeavour to adjust their accounts by pointing out the different articles on which they differ ; they both reconsider their valuation till they agree in the gross amount, which is written in the inventory, and presented to both buyer and seller, who are bound by agreement to abide by the valuation. If the two Appraisers cannot agree in their valuation* they call in a third Appraiser, he again looks over the goods with great care, and his valuation is final, and binds both parties. Ap- praisers are paid a per centage upon the amount of their valuation. The business of an Auctioneer is frequently joined to that of an Appraiser. The Auctioneer disposes of lots of goods by advertising a public sale, where the lots of goods numbered and described in the catalogue are to be sold to the highest bidder. On the day of sale the Auctioneer commences by reading the conditions of sale ; the lots are then offered separately, the Auctioneer allowing a reasonable time for bidding between each lot ; during which time it is his business to expatiate upon its qualities, to induce the persons at- tending to be liberal in their offers. When the biddings have ceased, the Auctioneer declares he is about to knock the lot down to the last bidder; he then taps the desk or pulpit, behind which he usually stands, with a small wooden mallet, and the lot is knocked down to the party. In some cases where the lots are of great value, or where they are of that nature that the Auctioneer may be supposed to act partially by taking the bidding of one party to the prejudice of another, the sale takes place by the candle, which is done in the following way : after the lot has been described, the Auctioneer lights an inch of candle, which is placed before the company, and declares that he can only take the biddings while the candle burns. At first the bidding goes on slow T ly ; but as the flame is about to go out they become more rapid. If two persons bid the same sum at the moment the candle goes out, the lot is put up at that sum, and an advance must be made upon it before either can be declared to be the purchaser. Auctioneers are paid a per centage according to the amount the sale produces, and have, therefore, an interest in obtaining the best price upon every lot they sell. Auctioneers that dispose of estates, are generally men of respecta- bility. The bidder often relying upon the veracity of the Auctioneer bids for land that he has never seen. If the lot does not upon c 3 10 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. examination appear to be equal to the printed or oral description of the Auctioneer, the purchaser can not only demand to have his money returned, but the Auctioneer loses his professional respecta- bility, and ceases to find employment. The business of either Appraiser or Auctioneer, does not require a very expensive education in youth ; but rather memory, observation, and shrewdness. A good English education is sufficient, with the exception of the Appraisers or Auctioneers engaged in valuing or selling books or pictures ; here a knowledge of the Latin, French, and Italian languages, gives the Auctioneer a decided superiority over the merely English scholar. But few persons serve an apprenticeship to either of these businesses. The mere routine of conducting a sale or taking an appraisement may be acquired in a few weeks; but the tact and judgment, which renders the services of one Auctioneer more de- sirable to the seller than another, cannot be imparted. Both the Auctioneer and Appraiser are paid as soon as the business they have in hand is effected, and they have no occasion for very large capitals. ARCHITECT. The beauty of every building depends upon the taste of the Architect ; that taste is formed by education and observation. Archi- tecture, like every other art, is progressive in its growth, from the rude piles of the Druids, to those triumphs of modern ecclesiastical architecture, St. Peter's at Rome, and St. Paul's in London ; or in domestic habitations, from the Kraal of the Hottentot to the palaces of our kings ; and the Architect can only discover by what means the men that have gone before him have produced architectural harmony and picturesque effect, by studying their works, either by inspecting their buildings, or from accurate drawings of them. When he is master of the several styles of architecture that have prevailed at various periods in different countries, he will be able to apply his knowledge to practical purposes. In the erection of an habitation, the Architect has first to ascertain the probable amount the person requiring the house is diposed to spend upon its erection Next the situation and extent of ground ARCHITECT. upon which it is to be built ; then the solidity, convenience, and beauty. Having decided upon the plan, and made a rough estimate of the expense, he proceeds to make a drawing for the approval of the proprietor of the intended house. The plan being agreed upon, he has to make working drawings for the use of the builder, to select proper timber, bricks, stones, and other materials, and attend constantly to their proper application by the different workmen employed till the edifice is completed. The brief sketch here given of the duties and acquirements of the Architect, will convince every reader that it is not a trifling profession, that can be acquired without study or labour, nor is it a profession in which a number of persons can stand much chance of succeeding to any great extent. The youth desirous of becoming an Architect, should be liberally educated, and in addition to the Latin language, he should be master of French and Italian ; have some knowledge of mathematics, geome- try, and drawing. The premium required with a pupil by a respect- able master, is from two to five hundred pounds : the youth will also require a considerable sum for the purchase of books, instru- ments, and drawing materials. He must, during his apprenticeship, learn to make accurate architectural drawings from admeasurement, also to sketch picturesque buildings, columns, &c. He must be careful in observing the proceedings of workmen, in every branch of business connected with building. When he is out of his pupilage, if he can afford it, he should spend a few months in Italy, to study the remains of the ancient masters, and the works of artists of a more recent date. On his return, if he have no private connexion, he will wait for an opportunity of competing with other Architects for the erection of a public building. If his design be selected, and he com- plete the edifice satisfactorily, his reputation becomes established, and he seldom lacks highly lucrative employment. But it is almost impossible for a man in the middle walk of life, to afford the money requisite to enable a youth to work his way in this arduous pur- suit. If he have not the advantage of a capital to live on till he succeeds in business, the pupil, after he is out of his time, obtains employment as a drawing clerk in an Architect's office : here he is liberally paid and treated ; and, during his leisure hours, makes plans and drawings for small builders, or is empktyed to measure and value their work. Some, by this means get into extensive business. 12 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ATTORNEY. Of all the professions that men can be engaged in, there is none of more importance to the general welfare of society, if honourably pursued, than that of an Attorney at law. An Attorney at law, according to the ancient definition of the term, is " one who is put in the place, stead, or turn of another, to manage his matters of law." Formerly all persons that were sum- moned to the king's law courts, either as plaintiff or defendant in civil causes, were obliged to appear in person, as they do at the present time in criminal cases. But learning was so little diffused at that time, that it was very rarely that men could read or write, unless they were brought up for the church or the law, and it was necessary that both the plaintiff and defendant should be accom- panied by their clerk or scrivener, to read any process or writing that might be produced on the trial. In course of time, those persons were allowed to appear for their clients, to prosecute or defend any action at law in the absence of the parties. Attorneys are distinguished according to the courts into which they are sworn, and are considered officers of the respective courts in which they are admitted ; and as they enjoy many privileges from this distinction, they are also peculiarly subject to the censure of the judges that preside over the different courts. According to Colly er's description of the duties of an Attorney, his knowledge ought to be very extensive. " He should be well acquainted with all the forms of proceeding in the different courts, and with the nature and names of the several actions ; be able to draw up, execute, and register, all deeds of what kind soever, and to prepare and conduct all proceed- ings in law : more particularly he should be able, from his client's information and the writings put into his possession, clearly to com- prehend the case, and to draw up a compendious state of it. He must then proceed to expedite the proper writ against the adversary, and have him served or attached, according to the circumstances of the action. He then compels him to appear, or enter an appearance ; and enters a declaration against him — a paper containing his client's claim, with a conclusion for the recovery of costs and damages : he next obliges his adversary to answer this declaration, and, if neces- sary, makes a rejoinder and replication. At last, both parties join ATTORNEY. 13 issue, and a record is made of ail the past proceedings, and a rule of court is entered for trial against a certain day. For this he prepares by drawing up briefs for the counsel, containing an accurate state of the case, the witnesses' names, and the questions to be asked in support of the allegations in the original declaration. After verdict is obtained, he enters up judgment and obtains execution against his adversary's person or goods. He must know how to guard against all writs of error, injunctions, &c. ; and, knowing all the windings and shiftings of this intricate profession, guard against all the chicanery and villainy of the Attorney opposed to him." It is evident from this description of the conducting of a suit through the court, that an Attorney, who has to attend to a number of cases at the same time, where so much circumspection is required at every step, should be a man of steady application and great regularity. It is true that the proceedings have recently been a little simplified, but there is still room enough for the sharp practitioner to act, and to render it neces- sary for the honest attorney to be perpetually on his guard. From the multitude and intricacy of the laws, which the complicated and artificial state of society, at the present time, may have, in some measure, rendered necessary, it is almost impossible to have any ex- tensive transactions in the way of sale or business, without having occasion to consult an Attorney, or employing him to draw up agree- ments and other writings. To the Attorney we apply if we would obtain pecuniary redress for injuries sustained either in our persons or character. To his honour is confided the most important secrets, which may affect the welfare of numerous families : he obtains by this means a knowledge of all defective titles, and is well aware of the pecuniary circumstances of all within his circle of acquaintance, and can, if he has no moral feeling to restrain him, work open or secret mischief to all around him. It is this power that makes him so effective an agent in elections, and it is to guard against its abuse as much as possible, that severe regulations have been made by the judges presiding over the different courts, and that the legislature have so greatly increased the price of stamps, admission fees, &c. to prevent men of needy circumstances entering a profession where there are so many temptations to act for their own benefit rather than for the advantage of their client. A youth designed for the protession of the Law ought to have a clear and solid understanding, a retentive memory, and genteel person and address ; the whole improved by a liberal education, 14 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. which may be continued till his sixteenth year, as it is not customary to article a youth as clerk to an Attorney for more than five years. The premium varies according to the sphere of life and business of the Attorney ; and it is of the highest moment that the youth should be articled to a respectable man, who is anxious to keep up the character of an honourable profession, and not on account of the reduction of the amount of premium be articled to one of those heartless pettifoggers who have no other talent than the power of fomenting division, by low cunning, reckless of the ruin and misery he is spreading around him, if from the midst of it he can secure a paltry advantage to himself. No father or guardian of gentlemanly feelings would expose a youth to contamination by articling him with such a character. The law requires, that "persons bound Clerks to Attorneys or Solicitors, are to cause affidavits to be made and filed of the execution of the articles, names and places of abode of Attorney or Solicitor and clerk. Clerks are to serve actually during the full term of five years, and to make affidavit thereof. In addition to the premium, the stamp duty and the expenses for the articles for an Attorney's Clerk, will amount to upwards of 120/., and the young man will have to support the character and appearance of a gentleman during the term of his clerkship, from his own resources ; and, in addition to this, the law books which he will require will be found expensive. At the expiration of his clerkship, unless the young man has property to subsist on till he has formed a connexion, or has the means of purchasing a business, he will have to work as an Attorney's Clerk, for wages inferior to those paid to many working mechanics. And, to quote again from Collyer, when speaking of persons in the middle walk of life, that are anxious to make their sons Attorneys, because it is a genteel profession, he observes, " When all these circumstances are considered, it must appear how absurdly those parents act, who, having no fortune to give to a son, bring him up to be an Attorney's Clerk, and thus force him to be contented with an income more precarious and not much more con- siderable than that of a journeyman tailor, or to become a nuisance to society, by being a poor pettifogging Attorney, an employment equally base, scandalous, and injurious to society. Attorneys or Solicitors practising in London, or within the bills of mortality are obliged to take out an annual certificate from their respective courts, for which they pay 6/. per year for the first three years, and 12/. per year after that time. ATTORNEY. 15 If they practise beyond the bills of mortality, that is, more than ten miles from London, the cost is reduced to 4l. per year the first three years, and 8/. per year afterwards. The expenses attending the clerkship, stamps, fees, &c. of a Solicitor are the same as those of an Attorney ; the only difference is, that the Attorney practises in any of the King's courts, the Solicitor in the Court of Chancery only. An Attorney sworn in any of the other courts may practise as a Solicitor, but it is always done in the name of a Solicitor sworn in Chancery. ANCHOR SMITH.— (See Smith.) AURIST. An Aurist is a Surgeon that devotes his attention to the cure of diseases affecting the ear. See Surgeon. ARTIST. Art is founded on a system of rules, pointing out the means of performing certain actions, in which sense it stands opposed to science or a system of speculative principles. Arts are usually divided into liberal and mechanical : the liberal arts comprehend Poetry, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, &c. ; and the mechanical arts, the whole body of mechanical trades : as Carpentry, Masonry, Turnery, &c. It is obvious from this brief explanation, that any person engaged in either of these divisions may be called Artists ; but the term in England is usually confined to the professors of the liberal arts, particularly to the persons engaged in producing pictures, either by painting, drawing, or engraving. Every branch of art will be found by referring to the articles according to the alphabetical arrangement used in the compilation of this work. IS THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. BACK-MAKER. The business of a Back-maker consists in making coolers, mash- tuns, working- tuns, liquor-backs and under-backs for brewers. This business is usually joined to that of a cooper. For remarks on this trade, see Cooper. BAKER. Grain in all countries forms the principal portion of the food of mankind, and as it is necessary to reduce it to flour and bake it into bread, before it is either pleasant to the taste or easy of digestion, there can be little doubt but the art of baking is nearly as ancient as the practice of agriculture. Rye, oats, and barley, are used in some parts of Britain to form bread, but there can be no doubt that the bread made from wheat is the most palatable and nutritious. The whiteness and fine quality of wheaten bread chiefly depend upon the preparation of the flour before it comes under the hands of the Baker ; but the finest flour will not produce good bread if made by an unskilful Baker. In country places it is usual for the females of the family to prepare their own dough, form it into loaves or cakes, and bake it into bread. Where they have not the convenience of an oven, they take the loaves to the bakehouse of the village, where it is the business of the Baker to take care that the dough is properly baked, and not burned ; but he is not at all responsible for the quality of the bread, as he has had no share in making it. In London and other large towns, the inhabitants find it more conve- nient and economical to leave the v/hole process of making the bread to the Baker, purchasing it after it is made. Baking has thus become a regular business, affording profitable employment to a vast number of persons. Baking, as carried on in the metropolis, is a profitable but a very laborious business, both for the master and the journeyman, parti- cularly the latter, who have fewer hours lor rest or recreation than men employed in any other business. The most important part of the Baker s business, and that in which the secret of their trade baker. 17 consists, is the art of preparing the leaven, or as it is technically called the sponge ; Hour, salt, water, yeast, a few potatoes, and other ingredients are mixed up together, and left to ferment for some hours. When the working has ceased, and the heaving mass becomes still, the sponge has become set, and is in a proper state to mix with the dough. The labours of a journeyman Baker begins about eleven or twelve at night ; he has then to mix the dough and knead it well. The dough is a large mass of flour mixed with water and the leaven. The process of kneading or working it with the hands, is very laborious but indispensable, or the dough would be in lumps and the bread heavy. When the dough is prepared it is allowed to remain in the trough two or three hours ; during this time the workman has to light the fire, prepare the oven, and other work of the bakehouse, and when this is done, while the dough is rising, if he can obtain an hour's sleep upon the sacks he considers himself fortunate. When the dough is ready, he has to weigh it into pieces of the weight required : in London these pieces are generally of a proper weight to form loaves which when baked must weigh two pounds and four pounds each. When the dough is all weighed out, he has to form it into loaves ; during this process the oven has been heating, and the two and four pound loaves are placed within it. When the bottom of the oven will contain no more, it is called a batch ; while this batch is baking, another, if more is required, is being prepared. The first batch will probably take an hour and a half baking ; it is then drawn from the oven with long wooden peels, as seen in the plate, and the second batch inserted. While this is baking the Baker is busy in preparing small bread and rolls ; these are required to be ready at eight o'clock, so that they go into the oven as soon as the second batch of bread is drawn. When the rolls are drawn and served out to the customers, a person that was unused to the baking business would naturally suppose that the workman would retire to rest, on the contrary, his daily labour is about to com- mence ; after he has taken his breakfast and washed himself, he is required to take out heavy loads of bread in a basket, or if he does not carry it, to wheel the bread in a barrow round to the customers, having to take an account of the bread or flour he delivers to each of them ; this occupies the greater part of the morning : when he returns he has to draw and deliver the meat or pastry that has been sent to bake. After he has dined he has to clear up the bakehouse, get in fuel, prepare the sponge, deliver in the account of the bread 18 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. he has delivered, and it is generally seven o'clock in the evening before he can retire to sleep. This is his continual round of employ- ment every day of the week, with the exception of Saturday ; on that night he may if he pleases take rest ; but, continuous as his exertions are during the week, he generally devotes this night to theatricals, dancing, or revelry, and he is perhaps more fatigued after the labour of attending to the bakings on a Sunday than on any day during the week. The wages of a journeyman varies from sixteen to twenty-four shillings per week, the master finding him lodging and a great portion of his board. A vast number of the journeymen Bakers employed in London are natives of Scotland. Their frugality and industry enables them in a few years to save sufficient out of their earnings to enter into business for themselves, either in London or the large provincial towns. It is not usual to take apprentices for the term of seven years in this business, with the exception of the Bakers residing within the ancient boundaries of the city of London, where, according to municipal regulations, no apprentice can be bound for a shorter term ; in other places, if a boy is bound at all, it is seldom for more than four years. The greater part of the journeymen have served no apprenticeship; they come to London when young men, and offer their services at a low price to master Bakers. They are employed in doing the most laborious and disagreeable part of the work, and in time get an insight into the business ; in a year or two they become sufficiently expert to. undertake situations as journeymen. The capital required by a master is in proportion to the business he enters upon ; if he takes a bakehouse in a crowded neighbour- hood, and sells inferior bread at a low price for ready money, he does not require so much capital as the Baker that enters upon a regular established trade ; where the customers are respectable house- holders, they generally pay their bills at stated periods, monthly, quarterly, and sometimes half-yearly, as may be agreed upon, and of course the Baker requires a considerable capital to enable him to give that extent of credit. The Fancy Bread and Biscuit Baker is another branch of the same business. Having described how wheaten bread is made, it will be seen that its lightness depends on the quality BAKER. 19 of the flour and the leaven. There are a variety of articles which can be mixed with flour that will make it -still lighter than the leaven used for bread; milk and eggs are the principal addi- tions for fancy bread. Proper quantities of eggs, butter, flour, and sugar, make what is called rout cakes ; captains' biscuits have no sugar ; other biscuits no butter : it would require a volume to state all the variety of cakes that are made, which would come under the denomination of biscuits. This is a business that more properly belongs to the Pastrycook. The regular Biscuit Bakers are those persons employed in baking biscuits for the use of the navy. The dough for common sea biscuits is merely flour and water, these are prepared for the royal navy in bakehouses established by government. Sir Richard Philips describes the process of biscuit-baking as practised at the victualling office, Deptford, in the following words : " The dough, which consists of flour and water only, is worked by a large machine, it is then handed over to a seccnd workman, who slices it with a large knife for the bakers, of whom there are five. " The first, or the moulder, forms the biscuits two at a time ; the second, or marker, stamps and throws them to the splitter, who separates the two pieces and puts them under the hand of the chucker, the man who supplies the oven, whose work of throwing the bread upon the peel must be so exact that he cannot look off for a moment ; the fifth, or the depositer, receives the biscuits on the peel, and arranges them in the oven ; all the men work with the greatest exactness, and are, in truth, like parts of the same machine. Their business is to deposit in the oven seventy biscuits in a minute ; and this is accomplished with the regularity of a clock, the clacking of the peel operating like the motion of a pendulum. There are twelve ovens at Deptford, and each will furnish daily biscuits for 2040 men." Fancy Bread and Biscuit Bakers take apprentices for five or seven years ; a small premium is required. It is a light business com- pared with the common Bread or Biscuit Baker. An ingenious, active boy, whose parents are in confined circumstances, will find this a good business, as the wages of a journeyman are high, and it takes but a small capital to establish himself in business. The Bakers are a very ancient fraternity of the City of London, as it appears they were charged in the great roll of the Exchequer with a debt of one mark of gold due for their guild in 1155. The 20 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Company was not incorporated till the year 1307. Henry VII. granted them a renewal of their charter. In the charter of incorpo- ration they are styled the Master and Wardens of the mystery or art of Baking, of the City of London. The annexed cut shews the arms of the Bakers' Company. After the overthrow of the Western Empire, when Rome had fallen into the hands of barbarians, Italy, the proud seat of empire and the garden of the world, became the prey of contending bands of uncivilized warriors. The Goths at one period gained the ascend- ancy but were obliged to yield to the Lombards, a fierce and warlike people, who continued their iron sway over a great part of Italy upwards of two centuries. After the fall of the Lombard power, Italy became divided into several independent states, some of which became great commercial countries ; but all Italians trading to England for ages after this division took place, were known by the general title of Lombard merchants, and even when the inhabitants of Venice became the greatest merchants in the world, their agents, who were established in England, were known by the name of Lombard agents. The Lombard agents first introduced the Banking system into England, and by their intervention with Venetian merchants the produce of England was not only vended in Europe, but, by the Venetian commerce, to the principal powers of Asia and BANKER. BANKER. 21 Africa. The Venetians, bartering the produce of one country for that of another, made a profit upon both, and by this means became the richest state in Europe. When a Venetian merchant received a cargo of English goods, he did not send back the value in gold or other money, but he sent his order for payment on his agent in London, paj^able, probably, at six months after date ; this note or order was called a bill of exchange, and they were and still are found very convenient in commercial transactions, as there was no danger of the loss of the money either by accident or robbery ; if the bills were lost they could be replaced by others, and if they were stolen the money could only be received by the parties to whom they were made payable, and the thieves reaped no advantage by possessing them. It frequently happened that the London mer- chant received the bill some time before it was due,, and if he required the money for it immediately, he took it to the Lombard agent, who, well knowing both parties, agreed to give the Londoner the money for the bill, having thorough confidence that he should receive the money or the value in goods from the Venetian before the bill became due; for this accommodation the Lombard would, perhaps, deduct five pounds in every hundred, or, in commercial language, five per cent, upon the amount. Thus, if the bill of exchange was for five hundred pounds, and had three months to run, the Lombard cleared 25/. by advancing 475/. for that time. The Lombard agent also made a profit of the capital that he held in his hands in another way. A London merchant that had an imme- diate necessity for money, applied to the agent for an advance upon goods that were to be deposited with him, either for sale or till the Londoner could return the money, the goods being held as a pledge that the money should be returned within a given time ; for this advance the Lombard exacted as much money as he could from his necessitous customer, and though very severe laws were made against usury, they were constantly evaded by both borrower and lender. Money is advanced upon pledges in this way by pawn- brokers at the present time, who have adopted the three golden balls, the arms of Lombardy, as the insignia of their business. These money agents lived generally in that part of the city, which is, from them, called Lombard-street at the present day, and even now it is there that the principal Bankers have their offices. The Lombards, from being the accredited agents of foreign merchants, in the course of time sank into mere money lenders and sharping 22 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. speculators, fostering extravagance in the young and thoughtless, and filching from the needy. Their exactions at length became so notorious, that they were compelled by Queen Elizabeth to quit England, who passed a law forbidding their return. Bankers, at the present time, are not only the agents between foreign and English merchants, but are the money agents, payers and receivers, for gentlemen, merchants, tradesmen, and shop-keepers that choose to deposit cash in their hands for the purpose of safety or convenience. Bankers are considered gentlemen of large capital, and as they are intrusted by their numerous customers with cash to a large amount, they make their profit by employing their own money or the balance left in their hands in discounting bills, dealing in government securities, shares in public companies, and other investments, where the money is considered safe and yields a propor- tionate profit ; this enables them to keep large establishments of clerks, cashiers, and collectors, for the accommodation of their customers. This sketch of the origin and present state of banking will be enough to shew that the business of a Banker is one of the most respectable and lucrative that can be followed, and there are com- paratively few persons engaged in it. The capital and connexion required to establish a respectable banking concern prevents a great number being engaged as principals, but the number of persons employed in banking houses as clerks and collectors, and the res- pectable living and station in society awarded to the office of Banker's Clerk almost entitles it to the rank of a separate business ; at any rate, as it is one of the means whereby respectable young men make their way in life, the mode by which the clerks gradually attain the most lucrative situations in a banking-house, is a subject of interest in a work like this. It is indispensably requisite that the youth intended to become a Banker's Clerk, should write a good, clear, expeditious hand, be well skilled in arithmetic, have a genteel appearance and address, and, above all, have a high sense of moral rectitude, that should make him conceive the slightest deviation from honesty, as the most degrading calamity that could befall him. This feeling should be common to all, but particularly to a Banker's Clerk, who has so much property intrusted to his care, and who by swerving from the straightforward path may bring ruin on so many. The friends of a young man having procured a situation for him in a banking-house, BANKER. 23 he is required to produce security for his honesty, to the amount of a thousand pounds, or more, according to the agreement with the firm; junior clerks generally board and lodge in the house. The treatment in both respects is liberal, and the salary commences at about 25/. per year. It is the practice of the customers of a Banker to give a liberal gratuity to the clerks at Christmas ; this is divided among the whole according to their standing in the house, but the junior clerk seldom receives less than 20/., this, in addition to his salary makes a fair income for a young man just commencing life. After he has been an inmate a year or two, he finds other clerks introduced, they are of course his juniors, and as only a certain number can remain in the house, his salary is increased to 40/. a year, and an allowance of 60/. per year for board and lodging, with the addition of a larger share in the annual gratuities ; the longer he continues in the office the higher he is paid, the senior clerks fre- quently receiving .500/. a year, and if particularly steady and clever, sometimes become junior partners in the firm. The foregoing statement is certainly on the favourable side of the question : supposing that the current of life is to flow clear and smooth ; but the slightest storm alters the prospect ; the youth may err in his accounts, false accusations may be made, and loss of character ensue, or the firm may become insolvent, and the Banker's Clerk becomes thrown upon the world without any means of obtain- ing a living ; he has little or no chance of getting into another banking-house, and he has not the slightest knowledge of any kind of business, and at an advanced age he finds he has to recommence his career in the world, without the buoyancy of youth or the assist- ance of friends to support him. The careful parent will weigh both these statements in his mind before he decides. If he has great interest with the firm, and they appear desirous of serving the youth, and he can be relied on for steadiness and punctuality, it would be wrong lightly to reject the chance of settling him comfortably for life ; but if the youth is of an ardent temperament, with a lively disposition, and withal address and ingenuity, it is a great chance if he would submit to the mono- tonous bustle without the slightest mental interest or excitement, that must be his lot if he makes up his mind to pass through life as, a Banker's Clerk 2i THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. BARBER. It is the fashion for the professors of this art at the present time to shrink from the ancient name that denoted the shaver of beards and the clipper of hair ; and, without intending to commit a pun, our elegant hair-dressers and perruquiers consider the word Barber as something barbarous, when, if their heads were not as thick as their own blocks they would glory in a title that has been honoured for centuries. Without entering deeply into Grecian history, to prove the antiquity of Barbers, we may be allowed to mention the fact, that to this body of men Alexander was in a great measure indebted for his victories. He ordered the Barbers to shave the Macedonian soldiers, to cut off the possibility of their being bearded by the Persians. Wigs and Barbers were both held in high estimation by the Romans, but we need not refer to classic pages to prove the respectability of the fraternity of Barbers. Are they not an incorpo- rated company of the city of London, having their hall and theatre for operations in Monk well-street ? which Hughson, in his history of London, describes as follows : " On the west side of this street we come to Barbers' Hall, a magnificent building for its time, consisting of a spacious hall, court-room, and various other commodious offices. The grand entrance from Monkwell-street is enriched with the company's arms, large fruit and other decorations, and the whole is esteemed one of the best works of Inigo Jones. The theatre for operations is eliptical. A fine picture by Holbein is preserved here : Henry VIII. with all his bluffness of majesty, in the acbof giving the charter to the company ; and Dr. Butts, mentioned by Shak- speare, are among the figures. The theatre above mentioned having become dilapidated, was taken down a few years back, and houses erected on its site. The hall and other buildings still remain. The picture by Holbein is in excellent preservation, and is a great curiosity, not only as a specimen of that master, but from the number of portraits it contains ; nor has the entrance hall quite lost all remains of its chirurgical honours ; two whole-length paintings of anatomical figures, the size of life, still decorate the walls. The Company of Barbers were originally the only persons p2r- BARBER. 25 mitted to practise the art of surgery in the city ; they were incor- porated by King Edward IV., in 1461, by the name of the Masters or Governors of the mystery or commonalty of the Barbers of London. In 1512 an act was passed to prevent any persons that were not members of this company from practising the art of surgery within the City of London, and seven miles round. The Barbers seldom extended their practice be}^ond bleeding, cupping, extracting teeth, shaving, and hair cutting ; all superior surgical ope- rations were performed, by or under the directions of the physicians ; but during the reign of Henry VIII., when learning was revived by the introduction of a great number of printed books, many learned men began to study the structure of the human body, with a view of amending any part of the wonderful machine that was disarranged by accidental circumstances. These persons arrived at a higher degree of knowledge in the art of surgery than the Barbers, yet in consequence of the incorporation of that body, none but members of their company could practise surgery. To remedy this evil the Surgeons were permitted to join the Barbers' Company by an act of parliament, passed in the 32d year of Henry VIII., by the appella- tion of the Barbers and Surgeons of the City of London. Thus this Company obtained the name of Barber Surgeons, which they con- tinued to use till the year 1744, when the Surgeons became a separate company, and left the Barbers the hall and theatre, but removed their anatomical preparations, apparatus, &c. The members of the Barbers' Company at the present time are styled, the Master/ Governors, and Commonalty of the Barbers of London. The an- nexed cut represents the arms of the Company. 26 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. It must not be supposed that the retirement of the Surgeons in the slightest degree diminished the reputation of the Barbers ; on the contrary, the art and mystery of the profession was never in such repute as at that period. Nor was there the slightest diminu- tion till the year 1795, when all persons wearing powder were compelled to pay an annual tax of one guinea. This was a severe blow to the Barbers ; and though many persons continued to pay the poll tax, powder, and in consequence the necessity for daily hair dressing, was nearly abandoned. The Roman style of dressing the hair was copied from our then republican neighbours the French ; and men were seen in their own hair, which they were able to dress themselves, without the assistance of the Barber ; whose business was reduced to cutting and shaving ; and even the latter operation, which they had performed for time immemorial, began to be performed by other hands. At the present time most persons in the middle classes of society shave themselves ; and the professors of the art pride themselves so little either upon the name or pro- fession of a Barber, that they are now better known by the name of Hair-Dressers. This is a light, easy, and profitable business ; and, from the reviving fashion of wearing wigs made to imitate the natural hair, and also from the variety of false curls used by the ladies, requires some taste and ingenuity on the part of the maker. This business is well calculated for a lively, active boy, whose parents cannot ' afford a large premium ; it is a business which in some shape or other is sure to be in request ; and in which, if the youth be indus- trious, neat in his person, and displays ingenuity and taste in the format ion of wigs, fronts, &c.,he will be well paid as a journeyman ; and in a short time be enabled to set up in business, which requires but a small capital. The plate shews the appearance of a Hair- dresser's shop at the present period, with two persons employed; one in dressing hair, and the other, a youth, weaving hair for making a wig. The display of elegant head dresses on the wax figures that are now so beautifully formed, the neatness, and in some cases splendour, of the fitting-up of the Hair-dressers' shops, contribute very much to the gaiety of the leading streets of the metropolis 27 BASKET-MAKER. The art of Basket-making is practised in all countries where the material for forming them can be found ; and in an island like Britain, intersected by rivers, with banks fringed with willows, it might reasonably be expected that Basket-making would occupy the at- tention of the inhabitants at an early period. Accordingly we find that the Britons were such proficients in this art, that their baskets became an article of commerce, and were exported to Rome in large quantities : some of them were so elegantly shaped, and of such elaborate workmanship, that they became fashionable articles of fur- niture, and were purchased at a high price to decorate the apartments and tables of the luxurious Romans. Nor was the art confined to forming baskets for the conveyance of dry goods. Large boats, called galleys, capable of containing thirty persons, were formed with wicker-work, covered with skins of beasts. These boats, from their lightness and strength, were found so useful, that they were employed by the Romans in their wars with the Germans, for the conveyance of soldiers and baggage across the most rapid rivers. Specimens of this sort of boat upon a small scale are still to be found on the Welsh coast, and are extensively used in some parts of the East Indies. The Basket-makers form one of the companies of the city of Lon- don. They are a company by prescription ; but when, 01 by whom established, is not known. They are called the Wardens, Assistants, and Freemen of the Company of Basket-makers of the city of London, Their arms, which are expressive of their calling, are annexed. 28 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Willow-trees are usually found in low marshy ground, or on the banks of a river. Their long shoots, when of a proper age, are very strong, though flexible and easily woven into baskets. In the vicinity of the metropolis, and in many parts of England, the willow is cul- tivated on small parcels of marshy land, intersected with ditches : these are called osier-beds. The osiers are not cut till the tree has been planted three years : after that time they are cut regularly at proper seasons, and made up into bundles for the use of the Basket- makers. The longest and smallest are stripped of their bark while green ; the largest, which are used for coarse work, such as hampers, hurdles, and other articles, are left with their bark on. Osier grounds are in most instances very profitable to the proprietor. As the osiers are made up in bundles and allowed to get dry before they are sold to the Basket-maker, he is obliged to soak them to render them flexible, before he can proceed to work with them. The finer sort of baskets, such as market-baskets, work-baskets, and reticules, are made from the willow, split very fine. They are all formed upon the same principle ; but as the art of Basket-making is so generally known, there can be no necessity for describing the process. The engraving will give a good idea of the mode of com- mencing a basket ; likewise of the position the maker sits to work in. Basket-making is a healthy, clean business, and is a trade of importance from the number of persons engaged in it. Masters of respectability take apprentices, but the principles of the art are often taught for a trifling sum by one workman to another ; and a short time will suffice to teach a person of ingenuity all that can be taught in this art. Blind persons are taught Basket-making with great facility : the improvement comes through practice. Journeymen can earn about four shillings per day ; and with a few pounds he can become master, as the tools are of but trifling value, and the materials of which baskets are made are not very expensive. Where a Basket-maker has a large connexion and employs a great number of hands, of course he requires a proportionate capital. 29 BLACKING-MAKER Forty years ago, hundreds of persons obtained a living by at- tending at the corners of streets and under gateways, with the apparatus and materials for blacking shoes ; and the sound of " Black your honour, 15 " Shine your honour," met the ear at every turn. The grimy varnish the shoe-blacks made use of was a com- pound of train-oil and lamp-black, which was spread upon the shoes without much previous trouble being taken to remove the dry dirt, as the mixture would cover all. Shoes or boots thus treated, bore their blushing honours thick upon them till the Blacking became dry, when they looked worse than ever. This state of things was not to last : a new Day broke upon the world, to astonish men with his lustre, and the pavement of the metropolis glittered with his ebon light. Barbers, as we have endeavoured to shew in the proper place, were always great men ; but in no age of the world did individuals of this ancient fraternity gain so much glory by benefiting mankind as at the latter part of the eighteenth century. Sir Robert Arkwright, to whom we are indebted for the great improvements in the manu- facture of cotton, was a barber ; and Mr. Day, who has contributed so much towards polishing the inhabitants of Great Britain, and the world in general, was a member of the same profession. It is said that Mr. Day obtained the receipt for making Blacking from a soldier, that accidentally called at the shop to ask relief, stating that he had staid a day or two beyond the time allowed in his leave of absence, and that his money being spent, he had no means of joining his regiment, and that nothing but fatigue and punishment awaited him, unless he could get a lift on a coach. This story had such an effect on the benevolent hair-dresser, that he presented the soldier with a guinea. The poor fellow was so astonished at the amount of the gift, that he exclaimed, " God bless you, sir, how can I ever repay your kindness ? I have nothing in the world but this" — pulling out a dirty piece of paper from his pocket — " it is a receipt for making Blacking ; it is the best that was ever seen ; many a half-guinea I have had for it from the officers, and many bottles I have sold ; may you be able to get something for it to repay you for your kindness 30 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. to the poor soldier/' Mr. Day tried the receipt, and finding the Blacking to be very superior to any in use, commenced manufacturer on a small scale. The demand increased so much, that he removed to larger premises. This benevolent action was the foundation of the splendid fortune he now enjoys. In addition to the magnificent manufactory erected in Holborn, which is certainly an ornament to that part of the metropolis, Mr. Day has for his town residence, a princely mansion in the Regent' s-park. Mr. Warren, also, has a Blacking establishment of considerable magnitude in the Strand ; and the late H. Hunt, Esq., M. P., carried on an extensive business as a Blacking-manufacturer in Blackfriar's-road. There are many others engaged in this business ; but the large establishments only seem successful. The receipts for making Blacking are a secret, and of course none of the makers take apprentices. BLACKSMITH. — See Smith. BLEACHER. There is no art that has been so greatly improved, or that has derived so much benefit from the modern discoveries in chemistry, as that of Bleaching. Forty years ago the art of Bleaching or whiten- ing yarn, linen cloth, &c, was a tedious and disagreeable process, requiring a great deal of time and considerable expense. The labour, time, and expense are considerably abridged by the new system ; nor is the material to be whitened so much deteriorated as by the old. But as the ancient mode of Bleaching is still practised in some parts of the kingdom, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of the process, that persons not conversant with the business may the better appre- ciate the modern improvements. In bleaching linen in the old way, the first process is steeping the cloth to be bleached in a large tub filled with clean water, where it remains for nine hours, when the water is changed. This process must be repeated till the water is not in the slightest degree tinged BLEACHER. 31 with the colour in the cloth, then rinse, wring, and lay it out to bleach ; when it has been spread upon grass three days, and is dry, each piece is taken up by the selvage and laid carefully in the bucking tub ; upon this a proper lye, prepared from wood ashes, is poured, sufficient to cover all the cloth ; when this is done put in another layer of cloth, pouring on more lye, and continue placing the cloth and pouring the lye till the bucking tub is full. The lye is poured on the cloth hot, but not boiling : the remainder of the lye is boiled : and thus the lye in the tub, by being constantly taken out and replaced by the boiling lye from the copper, gradually becomes in a boiling state. This process continues for ten hours, and is called bucking. If the cloth does not assume a proper degree of whiteness after the first bucking, the operation must be repeated. After each bucking, the cloth is taken to the bleaching grass, where it ought to lie for forty-eight hours. This bucking and bleaching must be performed as many times as is necessary, according to the nature of the cloth. The next process is called the milking, or the souring. The milk is placed in large vessels till it becomes sour ; when the cloth is quite dry and ready for the milk, let a great tub for the milk be placed half way in the ground, which nearly fill with the sour milk; soak the cloth in it, and press and keep it down with heavy planks or weights, so that it may not be raised by the fermentation that will take place in the acid liquor, in which the cloth must steep for forty-eight hours, and in some cases for a longer time. Then take it out of the acid and spread it on the ground, and water it well, to take away the acid ; when this is done wash it well with soap ; you must then put it in the bucking tub and renew the process of bucking, and when bucked it must be laid out on the grass, where it must be constantly watered in the day time to prevent its getting dry : this operation must be repeated six, seven, or eight times successively, until you perceive the cloth is of the colour you desire it ; and, according to the old directions for bleaching, " you must milk, then bleach, then wash, then soap, and buck by turns, till you attain your end :" for it is impossible to propose a certain rule, because of the great variety of cloth : only this must be observed, that each time you buck you must spend twelve hours, during all which time you ought to be constantly lading or pouring the lye into the tub, according to the former directions, for otherwise you may chance to burn the cloth, especially when the lye grows hot. The last time the cloth is taken from the milk, you 32 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ought, instead of the usual washing or rinsing, to lay it in an open cistern, where people with clean feet should tread upon it for half an hour ; that done, wash the linen in clean water till you perceive the water is colourless ; then having made the bucking tub very clean, lay the cloth therein as you did at first, and steep it in warm water for an hour ; let that water off, and steep it for another hour in water of a greater heat ; rinse and wring it well, that it may be properly cleansed from the soap and the acid, and be prepared for receiving the starch and the blue, which is the next process. The starching and bluing is precisely the process that a laundress would employ in getting up linen : when the cloth has passed through the starch it is fit to send to the folders; there it is folded, glazed, and made up into the piece, and the work is finished. The introduction of improved machinery was the first advance made in the art of Bleaching. Substituting the dash-wheel for treading with the feet, served to lessen the labour ; but the tedious and complicated repetitions remained the same, till the power of the oxmuriatic acid was proposed to be applied to the art of Bleaching by Berthollet. The first person that carried the discovery into actual use was Mr. Hall, of Nottingham. He discovered that oxygen had an affinity with the colouring matter contained in yarn or cloth, and that by applying the oxmuriatic acid with the alkaline lixivia, a per- manent white could be obtained in a much shorter space of time than by the old method of alternate applications of strong lye and exposure to the air. The new system was tried and found to succeed beyond expectation ; and there is scarcely an instance upon record where an art that had remained stationary for centuries, made such rapid strides to perfection. Complaints were indeed heard in the infancy of the discovery, that the cloth sustained great injury by the new method of bleaching. Some of the complaints were, no doubt, attributable to the prejudice with which every improvement is assailed on its first application ; and if there was some justice in the com- plaints, the great improvements that have been made since the first discovery of the effects of the application of oxmuriatic acid, have gradually led to what may now be considered perfection ; and it is beyond a doubt that cloth sustains less injury by the present method of bleaching, than it did from the great wear and liability to accident that necessarily attended the old method. By the improved mode of bleaching, the cloth is soaked for eight or nine hours in warm water, and afterwards boiled in a strong lye BLEACHER. 33 made from potash and lime. This preparation opens the parts or pores of the yarn, and removes all the soluble parts of the colouring matter. The bleaching liquid can be made either strong or weak, accord?- ing to the texture of the cloth. Bleachers, unless in a ver}' large way of business, do not prepare the oxmuriatic acid for the purpose of bleaching, but purchase it from the chemist in a proper state for use. Its strength is tried by dropping a given quantity of it into a tincture of cochineal; and by observing its effect on the tincture its strength is known. The cloth is exposed to the action of the bleaching liquid and the alkaline lye alternately, till it appears suf- ficiently white. From the volatile nature of the acid, it is necessary that it should be used in a close vessel : that which answers the purpose extremely well, and is now greatly in use, was invented by Mr. T. L. Kupp : it is thus described by himself in the Memoirs of the Manchester Philosophical Society ; and the description is doubly useful, as it not only gives an accurate idea of the construction of the apparatus, but also the method of using it. " It consists of an oblong deal cistern, made water-tight, and the dimensions of which are adapted to the quantity and size of the cloth intended to be bleached at once. This cistern is covered by a lid, which has a rim that goes within the cistern, and fits it with tolerable accuracy, but may, if thought necessary, be farther secured with pitch. Opposite each other, in a line running lengthwise in the middle of the cistern, and at a distance equal to one-fourth of the length of the cistern, are placed two upright axles of beech- wood or ash, one of whose extremities turns in a wooden step or socket, fixed in the lid, above which they project with a square termination for a handle or a pulley to be slipped upon them. . Upon each axle is tightly fastened, by sewing to itself, a piece of strong canvass, one end of which, from the top to the bottom, is left projecting a little. To these pieces of canvass, the ends of the web of calico, &c, to be bleached, may be fastened by wooden skewers, and either axle, on being turned by the handle or winch slipped on the square end at the top, will then have the calico wound upon it, and by putting the winch upon the other axle, the web will be transferred to that axle. The axles are taken out of the cistern to fasten the cloth upon them ; when they are replaced, the cistern is filled with bleaching liquor : and as by turning the winch, every part of the web is stretched in succession between the two axles, the whole will c 3 34 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. be equally bleached, which is an advantage that cannot be obtained by simple immersion. While the cloth is winding upon one of the axles, the ready motion of the other might cause it to become slack, and wind unequally; to prevent this, the axle from which it is drawn, has a small pulley slipped upon its square extremity, and a cord with a moderate weight attached, causes sufficient friction to make the winding regular. When the bleaching liquor is exhausted, it is let off by a spigot and faucet even with the bottom of the cistern. On each axle near the bottom of the cistern is a plain cylinder of thin wood, the diameter of which is at least equal to the diameter of the cloth, when entirely rolled upon either axle ; its use is to present a shoulder upon which the cloth may rest, and be pre- vented from slipping down. " Experience must be the workman's guide, in determining how long the cloth must be worked, and teach him to know the effect which a given quantity of bleaching liquor will produce on a certain number of pieces ; but this knowledge, with the use of the test liquor, is acquired without difficulty. " This apparatus may easily be adapted to the bleaching of yarn ; for example, if the cylinder we have described as being situated near the bottom of each axle, to prevent the cloth from slipping down, be removed to a .situation just under the lid, and be perforated with holes in all directions, and tapes or strings, to support the skeins, be passed through these holes, the skeins hanging down towards the bottom of the cistern, may be revolved as if a web was on the axles, and as the motion communicated to each skein will be equal, no entanglement will occur. Several axles fitted up in this manner, might be connected by pulleys and bands, and turned by a single winch. To fill the cistern, a short pipe is fastened m the centre, or any other convenient part of the lid ; and a pipe from the cask in which the bleaching liquor is made, passes through this pipe to the bottom of the cistern ; and by adapting stop-cocks to the tubes, the transfer may be made without allowing any gas to escape." When the cloth is properly bleached by being immersed a suffi- cient number of times in the liquid, it is well rubbed with soft soap, and washed in warm water ; it is afterwards steeped in warm water containing a slight portion of sulphuric acid, which not only increases the whiteness of the cloth, but takes away the disagree- able odour of the oxmuriatic acid. When the cloth has been steeped a few hours it is well rinsed in clear water, and exposed to BLEACHER. 35 the air for a few days, and frequently watered; by this means every trace of the acids that have been used in bleaching are re- moved, and the cloth is ready for starching and folding as in the old prooess. BOOKBINDER. Bookbinding is the art of securing the leaves of a book be- tween two covers, to protect them from injury, and to prevent their getting loose from each other. It is a business that requires a great degree of strength and ingenuity, which will be seen by the perusal of the following description of the process of binding the sheets, as they come from the printers, for the purpose of forming them into a book. When the sheets are brought to the Bookbinder he proceeds to fold them to the size required, taking care to place the sheets in their proper order,, by observing the signature at the bottom of each sheet. This is very easy work, but requires neatness and care : it is frequently done by women. When a work is contained in two or three sheets of paper, it is called a pamphlet, and is merely stitched together, with or without a wrapper : this is the whole process of the business called stitching. The sheets for a volume are placed as evenly as possible over each other, when the Bookbinder holds them with one hand and with the other beats them with a heavy hammer on a large stone, till the leaves lie closely together ; they are then placed in a sewing-press, where bands formed of cord or packthread are placed at equal distances from each other, and to these every sheet is separately sewn. The places where the bands are placed are quite visible after the book is bound, if the back is not quite smooth, as the raised parts of the back are caused by the projection of the bands : where the back of the book is quite smooth, the bands are inserted between incisions made in the sheets with a saw. When the sheets are stitched to the bands a strong glue is passed over the whole of the back, and the shape it is intended to take is given with the hammer. The covers, formed of milled board, of the thickness required, are now to be attached to the back by means of the bands, which are cut to the proper length, and their ends drawn through holes 36 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. previously made in the covers, and they are opened and spread out at the ends, so that no projection beyond the surface may be seen when the work is finished ; they are then glued to the milled board and hammered down as flat as possible. The book is then placed in a press, and a machine called a plough is used for cutting the edges of the leaves perfectly smooth; after which the covers are cut to their proper shape with a pair of shears : the edges of the leaves are then coloured. Those of books that are bound in the common way, are merely sprinkled, by dipping a hog's hair tool into a water- colour preparation, of red, green, or blue ; the brush is held in orfe hand and the hairs of the brush struck with a stick by the other, when the colour flies from the brush and falls in -spots upon the space to be coloured. The colours used for this purpose are, generally, blue, red, and green. When the edges of the books are marbled, the process is the same as is used in marbling paper. See Paper Staining. When gilding is required, a thin adhesive size is placed upon the work, which is left to dry, and the gold is bur- nished in the usual way. The edges of the leaves being finished, the head-band is added ; which is an ornament formed by winding silk of two or three colours round a piece of folded paper ; this is attached with glue to each end of the book, which is now ready to receive its outward covering. Leather of various sorts is used for this purpose : Russia, Morocco, Calf, and Sheep, are the sorts of covering most in request. The best work is bound in Russia and Morocco leather ; Calf is most in use for regular binding ; Sheep is only used for the cheapest work. The leather is cut to the shape required, and moistened with water ; the edges are pared down as thin as possible upon a stone used for that purpose ; a coating of strong paste is then given to the covers and the back, and the leather is strained tightly over it, and doubled carefully over the edges. This is the most particular part of the art of Bookbinding, as no after exertion will make the work look well if there are inequalities on the surface. After the leather is stretched upon the milled board, the back is rubbed with the folding stick or burnisher, till it is as even as the sides ; when the whole is smooth the book is put between boards to dry. After the work is taken out of the press, two leaves of plain or ornamental paper are pasted over the inside of the covers. Whatever ornament the leather is to receive is now to be done. Many Bookbinders produce a sort of marbling in the leather, by using various acids, which are poured upon the BOOKBINDER. 37 leather and suffered to run together, without any particular attention being paid to the form of the marbling. If the book is to be highly ornamented by gilding, the Binder glazes that part where the orna- ments or letters are required with the white of an egg diluted with water; this size he lays on the work with a small pencil or piece of sponge, and when dry he slightly oils it, and la}^s on it pieces of gold leaf. The tools that produce the figures or letters are applied hot. When the gliding is finished, the superfluous gold is rubbed off with a cloth that is preserved for that purpose alone, as the wipings contained in the cloth are of great value after the cloth has been used for a considerable time. The letters and ornaments are engraved in relievo on the points of punches or on the edges of circles of brass. The circles or wheels are attached to a handle, and are rolled over the work ; thus the line they form may be continued for any distance required. The punches are pressed perpendicularly on the work. The gilding being finished, the whole of the surface is polished with the polishing iron, and the work is then complete. Velium binding is used for most kinds of stationary work. Mr. Palmer, in 1800, obtained a patent for an improvement in binding books, particularly large account books, by sewing the leaves at the back with links of metal. Where this process is used, there is no occasion for the ordinary stitching. In no case does stationary work receive support at the back from the outer covering, as the latter would, if attached to the former, prevent the book from opening freely, or lying flat when opened. The sheets are therefore sewn with waxed thread, and the backs are lined with coarse canvass or slips of leather, which are sufficiently wide to be attached to the covers. The art of Bookbinding is greatly improved in the ornamental part since the introduction of embossed covers. These are pro- duced by deeply engraved steel plates or dies, into which the leather is forced by pressure, the damp used being a strong paste, which when dry, prevents the figures from sinking. Prayer books, annuals, albums, &c. are ornamented in this style From the brief description here given of this business, it will easily be perceived that the youth intended to become a Book- binder will require strength more than education. The jour- neyman Bookbinder is continually employed either in beating, cutting, or pressing ; that part of the work which is not quite so 38 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. laborious, which is done by that class of workmen called finishers, is the most unwholesome, from the heated atmosphere they are obliged to work in, and the charcoal fires which in most shops are used for heating the tools with which the gold is attached to the leather. The premium required with an apprentice is about 50/. The terms vary according to the situation of the master or the indul- gence required by the parents of the boy. Journeymen earn from 30*. to 36s. per week ; but if they are upon piece-work, and are clever hands, they can earn considerably more. It requires capital to set up in this business in a respectable way, as the tools, presses, &c. are expensive; and if the connexion be among booksellers, it is usual to give credit. By referring to the plate, the reader will observe a man cutting the edges of the leaves of a book with the instrument called the plough ; the book is in the cutting press. Another man is employed in finishing, that is, ornamenting the back and covers of a book with letters, lines, or devices in gold. The sorts of tools used in this work will be seen by those hanging near him and those in use. At the back is the press screwed up with books in it. BOOKSELLER. The dismemberment of the Roman Empire, and the continual struggles for dominion between the rival powers in every part of the world, that had been subjected to the Roman sway, caused such general devastation and confusion, that men had but little leisure or inclination to cultivate the arts of peace. The leader of a band of warriors cared little for the destruction of the most valuable manu- scripts, and had not the religious establishments been held sacred by all parties, every vestige of ancient learning would have been swept from the earth. The little learning that was left at this period was entirely confined to the clergy; they alone knew the value and became the sole collectors of books in every country; and whatever may be the demerit of the monks and friars of the present day, it is quite certain they were of great service during the period called the dark ages ; and it is to the various religious fraternities we BOOKSELLER, 39 owe the revival of learning, when the states of Europe became more settled. Before the art of printing was discovered, there was no other way of obtaining a copy of a book than by making a transcript ; and the nobleman or gentleman that required a copy of a book that was deposited in the library of a convent, was obliged to employ a clerk to transcribe it. But few persons were capable of under- taking such a task, and those that had the power expected to be liberally paid for their trouble ; so that men of wealth only could become possessors of books. In the course of time persons em- ployed themselves entirely in making transcripts, many of which they embellished with pictorial illustrations : these copies were made for sale; and long before the art of printing was invented, the foundation of colleges and schools had introduced so great a desire for the possession of books, that the copying of manuscripts for sale became a business, which gave employment to a number of well educated persons. After the invention of the art of printing, the sale of books of course increased prodigiously. In many cases the printer was also the translator and Bookseller ; but, in a short time, the demand for printing became so extensive, that the printer had but little time to attend to the sale of books, and that business fell into other hands. Persons that were not printers became Publishers and Booksellers ; and such is the extent to which this business is now carried, that the trade in books has become divided, and may be classed as follows : L The wholesale Bookseller and Publisher, who purchases the copyright of a work from an author, has the book printed at his own expense. When a certain number of copies are ready for sale, he sends a copy of the work to each of the wholesale Booksellers, that they may put their names down for any number of the new publication they choose to take, at the price named by the publisher : this is called subscribing a work ; and, by this means, no sooner is a work printed than it is distributed to the trade. Publishers also undertake the management of the printing and sale of any work that an author may wish to publish, and yet retain the copyright. It is to the wholesale Booksellers we owe the publication of those voluminous and expensive works that require too much capital to carry them on for any one person engaged in trade to undertake them. The wholesale Publishers of the metropolis have open 40 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES accounts with almost every retail Bookseller in the kingdom : their accounts are settled at stated periods ; but if the retail shopkeeper takes a great deal of ready money, he deposits a portion of it with the Publisher, who, in retura not only procures him any books he may require, but pays orders for money, bills, &c, in short, acts as the banker of the retail Bookseller. 2. Publishers that confine their attention to the sale of par- ticular works, such as bibles, prayer books, and religious publica- tions ; Law Booksellers, Medical Booksellers, Publishers of works on education and children's books. Others publish pocket books and almanacks ; and if an order is sent to a general Publisher by a retail shopkeeper in the country, for any book published by the second class of Publishers, a person called a collector is sent for it, whose sole business it is to collect books from the various publishers to make up the country orders. 3. The Publishers of books which are sold in parts or numbers. This important branch of the Bookselling business has been carried on about sixty years, and has gradually increased in the number and respectability of works, and amount of capital embarked in it, till it rivals the sale of the earlier establishments. This branch of Bookselling is called the Number Trade, from the persons engaged in it publishing the most expensive and valuable works in small portions, called parts or numbers, at regular intervals ; thus afford- ing an opportunity to purchasers who cannot afford to lay out a large sum at once in the purchase of an expensive work, but who can pay for it by small advances as the work proceeds. This mode of publishing was greatly decried by the publishers of whole works, some years ago ; but sending out works in numbers or parts is found to be so beneficial to the public, and tends so greatly to the diffusion of knowledge, that the societies, composed of persons of the highest ranks in life, that are engaged in the publication of works to advance the species of knowledge they particularly advo- cate, have adopted this mode of sale; and the largest Publishers have in many instances followed their example; by this means thousands of volumes of an important description have been pur- chased by a class of readers that would otherwise never have had an opportunity of reading them at all. 4. Publishers and sellers of small works that are brought out at stated periods. These works are known by the name of Periodicals. The most respectable works of this description are the Annuals ; BOOKSELLER. 41 such as the "Forget me not/' " Landscape Annual," and other elegant publications of the same kind. The superb and expensive engravings from original pictures by the first masters, with which they are embellished, and the beauty of the printing, paper, and binding, justly entitle them to the highest admiration. The Reviews, published quarterly ; among others are the Edinburgh, the Quar- terly, and the Westminster. The Magazines, published on the first day of every month ; and the weekly cheap publications ; at the head of which stands the Penny Magazine, the Saturday Magazine, the Mirror, Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, &c. Persons unac- quainted with the Bookselling business can form no idea of the immense sale of the periodicals, particularly the low priced pub- lications. 5. The retail Bookseller, whose business consists in selling to the public the various works published by the wholesale Booksellers. It is not to be supposed that the retailer can keep in his shop copies of every work that is published; he only selects those as stock that are the most popular and are most likely to find a ready sale ; but he can easily procure for his customer any work that is published by writing for it to his wholesale Publisher. Retail Booksellers in the country, and many residing in London, combine the business of Stationer with that of Bookseller. Among the retail Booksellers may be classed the dealers in foreign books : also the dealers in old books. From the foregoing sketch of the Bookselling business, the reader will be able to judge in some degree of the importance of the trade, as far as it regards the number of persons engaged in merely selling books : but he can form no idea of the multitude of persons that obtain a living by assisting in their formation, in consequence of the public taste for reading. Happily, the appetite for knowledge grows by what it feeds on, or Authors, Artists, Engravers, Printers, Type Founders, Paper Makers, Bookbinders, Tool Makers, and persons engaged in a variety of other trades, would starve : nor is the benefit derived from this business confined to persons imme- diately engaged in it, but extends to every class of the community. To quote from an old work on this subject : "It is by the diffusion of knowledge by books that all species of tyranny and oppression can be successfully resisted ; it is by the diffusion of books that mankind become acquainted with their moral and religious duties, and it is also by books that men generally become distinguished for 42 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. their intelligence, probity and worth : for where the diffusion of knowledge by books has not taken place, there we most commonly find the relative and social duties at a very low ebb. This brief outline of the Bookselling business will be sufficient to shew that a great number of persons must be employed in every class of the trade. A youth desirous of becoming a Bookseller and Publisher of the first class, should have a good classical and commercial education, a clear and comprehensive understanding, and a gentlemanly appearance and address, as he will in the course of business occasionally come in contact with the most talented and influential characters in the community. The premium given with an apprentice in the first-rate houses varies from two to five hundred pounds. It is not advisable to place a youth with a first class Publisher, unless he has the prospect of coming into possession of considerable property when out of his time, as, without a good capital, it will be almost impossible for him to enter into business with a chance of success, whatever talent he may possess ; and he will either have to become a retail Bookseller, or an assistant in a wholesale house, at a salary quite inadequate to the expectations he has had a right to form from his education and the station he has previously held. The first class of Publishers ought to, and in many cases do, combine the attainments and sentiments of a gentle- man with their commercial pursuits : they feel that they are conduits through which the effusions of genius are to flow for the cultivation of the taste and manners of the community ; and they hare a con- sciousness of the moral responsibility they incur in the publication of works that may have a tendency to benefit mankind, and in the refusal of those which they conceive have not that tendency ; the temptation of profit, by pandering to the vitiated taste of a large portion of the community, cannot make the respectable Publisher deviate from the course of honour and rectitude. It is sentiments like these that should be instilled into the mind of a young man during his apprenticeship; and cruelly does he descend when, instead of entering upon such high and important duties, he becomes the mere tier up and director of parcels, or the vender of trifling publications behind a retail Bookseller's counter. The youth intended to become an apprentice to a retail Bookseller, should have a good education, a lively, obliging disposition, and a genteel address. Bookselling is not a laborious business, nor does it require great bodily strength ; the premium given with an appren- BOOKSELLER 43 tice varies from fifty to one hundred pounds. In the country a youth is frequently bound to a Bookseller, Printer, and Stationer ; when he is out of his time, if circumstances should prevent his setting up in business immediately, he can generally procure res- pectable employment as a shopman or journeyman. The capital he will require to commence business, will depend upon the stock he has to purchase and the extent of the business. Five hundred pounds is considered a fair capital for a retail Bookseller and Stationer. In making these remarks we are aware that there are numerous examples of men that have made large fortunes as Publishers and Booksellers without previous apprenticeship or having any capital to commence with. These are exceptions to the general rule, that may be found in every business ; but there are few persons in decent circumstances who would wish to expose their children to the trials, temptations, and sufferings which those fortunate individuals have had to wade through ; and while we are dazzled with the brilliant result in individual cases, we often forget that hundreds have trod the same slippery path and sunk under the attempt, ending their career in misery and disgrace. There are some persons that are advocates of this sort of chance work, and would throw a youth into the ocean of life without compass or rudder, or even a plank to support him. Such parents or guardians must have the feelings of the ostrich, who buries her eggs in the sand, careless whether they are hatched by the vivifying influence of the sun, or trodden to pieces by the passing traveller. In the introduction to this work we promised to give occasionally biographical sketches of men that have rendered themselves conspi- cuous in various trades ; and we cannot select a more interesting or instructive life than that of Lackington, whose portrait will be found among those selected to form the frontispiece for this work. In selecting Lackington as an example of the triumph of perse- vering industry over adverse circumstances, we may be accused of selecting a character that is too far removed from the present time to give a correct idea of the difficulties and privations that the trades- man has now to surmount. In answer to this remark, it may be said with truth that the chill grasp of poverty is the same in all ages : and tnough there are many men that have died recently that have worked their way to fortune from very small beginnings, few have had sense and candour enough to plainly state the occurrences in 44 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. their life that, step by step, led to this fortunate result Lackington, on the contrary, in the account of his own life states those gradual advances with precision : and a selection of those parts of his book that relates to his success in business cannot fail to be useful as well as entertaining to every class of readers that could be interested in a work of this sort. Lackington' s book was entitled, MEMOIRS OF THE FORTY-FIVE FIRST YEARS OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LACKINGTON. The father of Lackington was apprenticed to a shoe-maker, at Wellington, in Somersetshire, but displeased his father by marrying a woman without a shilling, who supported herself by spinning wool into yarn. She lived at home after her marriage, and the future Bookseller was introduced to the world beneath the thatch of the cottage of her mother at Wellington, on the 31st of August, 1746. When Lackington had attained his fourth year, fortune seemed to smile on his unfortunate parents ; but, alas, the father of Lackington was haunted by a demon which rarely abandons when when once it has obtained a firm hold of its victim : fame, fortune, nay, the nearest and dearest ties are dashed to the earth by the drunkard. This vice may so transform the husband, that his once affectionate wife may turn from him with loathing, and his children hail his death as a release. The feelings of Lackington were so forcible and natural upon this subject, that they cannot be given better than in his own words. " About the year 1750, my father having three or four children, and my mother proving an excellent wife, my grandfather's resent- ment had nearly subsided, so that he supplied him with money to open a shop for himself. But that which was intended to be of very great service to him and his family, eventually proved extremely unfortunate to himself and them ; for, as soon as he found he was more at ease in his circumstances, he contracted a fatal habit of drinking, and of course his business was neglected ; so that, after several fruitless attempts of my grandfather to keep him in trade, he was, partly by a very large family, but more by his habitual drunk- enness, reduced to his old state of a journeyman shoe-maker Yet so infatuated was he with the love of liquor, that the endearing ties of husband and father could not restrain him ; by which baneful habit, himself and family were involved in the extremest poverty. BOOKSELLER. 45 So that neither myself, my brothers, or sisters, are indebted to a father, scarcely for any thing that can endear his memory, or cause us to reflect on him with pleasure. But to our mother we are indebted for every thing. ' She was a woman, take her for all in all, I shall not look upon her like again.' Never did I know or hear of a woman who worked and lived so hard as she did to support eleven children : and were I to relate the particulars, it would not gain credit. " Out of love to her family she totally abstained from every kind of liquor, water excepted ; her food was chiefly broth, (little better than water and oatmeal,) turnips, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, &c. ; her children fared something better, but not much, as you may well suppose. When I reflect on the astonishing hardships and suffer- ings of so worthy a woman, and her helpless infants, I find myself ready to curse the husband and father that could thus involve them in such a deplorable scene of misery and distress. It is dreadful to add, that his habitual drunkenness shortened his days nearly one half, and that about twenty years since he died, unregretted by his own children ; nay, more, while nature shed tears over his grave, reason was thankful : thankful that the cause of their poverty and misery was taken out of the w r ay. Read this, ye inhuman parents, and shudder ! Was a law made to banish all such fathers, would it not be a just, nay, even a mild law ? I have my doubts whether children should not be taught to despise and detest an unnatural, brutal parent, as much as they are to love and revere a good one." His mother for a time spared a trifle from her hard earnings to pay two-pence a week for Lackington' s education, under the super- intendance of an ancient dame, who took great pride in her scholar ; but as the boy grew older, he was obliged to stay at home to nurse the younger brothers and sisters. When he was about ten years of age he was engaged by a baker to cry pies about the town, and was so successful that he was of great assistance to his master. But some youthful frolics caused him to run away from this employment, and he had no other resource than to return to his miserable home, and sitting down by the side of his father, work as a shoe-maker ; the elder Lackington giving his son all the instruction he could during the intervals of ebriety. In a rambling fit the father and son went to work at Taunton ; here a worthy man that employ ed them offered to take young Lackington as an apprentice. This was gladly assented to by both father and son. With this master he 46 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. served his time, and during his apprenticeship became a follower of the celebrated Wesley, and at last became a strict member of the Wesley an Society. Without entering into any discussion of the reli- gious tenets of the Wesleyans, it must be evident that their founder, by his exertions, aroused the minds of the supine and ignorant in many parts of the country, creating a desire for knowledge which is continually increasing ; and if Mr. Wesley did no other good he certainly was the avant courier of the much talked of March of Intellect of the present time. Lackington, with thousands more, gained this advantage. To quote his own words : " The enthusiastic notions which I had imbibed, and the desire I had to be talking about religious mysteries, &c. answered one valu- able purpose ; as it caused me to embrace every opportunity to learn to read, so that I could soon read the easy parts of the Bible, Mr. Wesley's Hymns, &c, and every leisure minute was so employed. " In the winter I was obliged to attend to my work from six in the morning until ten at night. In the summer half-year, I only worked as long as we could see without candle ; but notwithstanding the close attention I was obliged to pay to my trade, yet for a long time I read ten chapters in the Bible every day : I also read and learned many hymns, and as soon as I could procure some of Mr. Wesley's tracts, sermons, &c. I read them also.'" After Lackington was out of his time, he went to reside at Bristol, and worked at his business. Here he continued his connexion with the Wesleyans, but was tempted to rhyme on worldly subjects, and even turned this generally unprofitable accomplishment to advantage. He observes in his life : " It was singular enough, that about this time, although I could not write, yet I composed several songs, one of which was sold for a guinea ; some were given to the Bristol printers, who printed them, and the ballad singers sung them about the streets, on which occasion I was as proud as if I had composed an opera." It may be necessary to observe that he lived with a young man named Jones, who acted as the amanuensis of the poetical shoe-maker, and to the credit of both Jones and Lackington they spent all the money they could spare in the purchase of books. Sometime after this, at the suggestion of a master that he worked for, Lackington taught himself to write. In the year 1770 he married a young woman in humble life : this did not appear to be a very prudent step in a pecuniary point of view ; but let him speak for himself- — BOOKSELLER. 47 " We bep.i our wedding at the house of my friends the Messrs. Jones's, and at bed-time retired to ready furnished lodgings, which we had before provided, at half-a-crown per week. Our finances were but just sufficient to pay the expenses of the day ; for the next morning, on searching our pockets (which we did not do in a careless manner) we discovered we had but one halfpenny to begin the world with. But we had laid in eatables sufficient for a day or two, in which time we knew we could by our work procure more, which we very cheerfully set about, singing together the following lines of Dr. Cotton : " ' Our portion is not large indeed, But then how little do we need V " Unfortunately for this happy pair, though they were frugal and abstemious, Mrs. Lackington had bad health, and was obliged to remove to a purer air than Bristol ; and Lackington, in the hope of earning more money for his support, by having a better price for his work, determined upon coming to London where he arrived in August, 1773, having just two shillings and six-pence in his pocket. He was fortunate in procuring employment the day after his arrival ; in a month he saved sufficient money to pay the expenses of his wife's journey to London, and she found the air of the metropolis more agreeable than that of Bristol, and as they both found plenty of employment at a fair price, he began to feel wants that gave em- ployment to others. He states, that " Having now plenty of work and higher wages, we were tolerably easy in our circumstances, more so than we had ever been, and we were soon enabled to procure a few clothes. My wife had all her life before done very well with a cloth cloak, but now I prevailed on her to have one of silk. Until this winter I never found out that I wanted a great coat : but now I made that important discovery." In the following November he received the information of ten pounds having been left him by his grandfather. His account of the journey into the country to receive this legacy is highly characteristic. " So totally unacquainted was I with the modes of transacting business, that I could not point out any method of having my ten pounds sent up to London, at least, no mode that the executor of the will would approve of; for being such a, prodigious sum, that the greatest caution was used on both sides, so that it cost me about half the money in going down for it, and in returning to town again. 43 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. This was in extremely hard frosty weather (I think some time in December) ; and being on the outside of a stage-coach, I was so very cold, that when I came to the inn where the passengers dined, I went directly to the fire, which struck the cold inward, and I had but a very narrow escape from instant death. This happened in going down. In returning back to town, I had other misfortunes to encounter. The cold weather still continuing, I thought the basket warmer than the roof, and about six miles from Salisbury, I went back in it. But on getting out of it, in the inn-yard at Salisbury, I heard some money jingle, and on searching my pockets, I discovered that I had lost about sixteen shillings, two or three of which I found in the basket, the rest had fallen through on the road ; and no doubt the whole of w r hat I had left of my ten pounds would have gone the same way, had I not (for fear of highwaymen) sewed it up in my clothes. " With the remainder of the money we purchased household goods, but as we then had not sufficient to furnish a room, we worked hard, and lived still harder, so that in a short time we had a room furnished with our own goods ; and I believe that it is not possible for you to imagine with what pleasure and satisfaction we looked round the room and surveyed our property. I believe that Alexander the Great never reflected on his immense acquisitions with half the heart-felt enjoyment which we experienced on this capital attainment. " ' How happy is the man whose early lot, Hath made him master of a furnished cot. ; " After our room was furnished, as we still enjoyed a better state of health than we did at Bristol and Taunton, and had also more work and higher wages, we often added something to our stock of wearing apparel." With the command of money his love of books returns : — " Nor did I forget the old book-shops : but frequently added an old book to my small collection : and I really have often pur- chased books with the money that should have been expended in purchasing something to eat ; a striking instance of which follows : " At the time we were purchasing household goods, we kept our- selves very short of money, and on Christmas-eve we had but half- a-crown left to buy a Christmas dinner. My wife desired that I would go to market, and purchase this festival dinner, and off I set BOOKSELLER. 49 for that purpose ; but in the way I saw an old book-shop, and I could not resist the temptation of going in; intending only to expend sixpence or ninepence out of my half-crown. But I stumbled upon i Young's Night Thoughts' — forgot my dinner — down went the half-crown — and I hastened home, vastly delighted with the acquisition. When my wife asked me where was our Christmas dinner ? I told her it was in my pocket. — ' In your pocket,' said she, ' that is a strange place. How could you think of stuffing a joint of meat into your pocket V I assured her that it would take no harm. But as I was in no haste to take it out, she began to be more particular, and inquired what I had got, &c. On which I began to harangue on the superiority of intellectual pleasures over sensual gratifications, and observed that the brute creation enjoyed the latter in a much higher degree than man. And that a man, that was not possessed of intellectual enjoyments, was but a two-legged brute. " I was proceeding in this strain : ' And so,' said she, ' instead of buying a dinner, I suppose you have, as you have done before, been buying books with the money V I confessed I had bought * Young's Night Thoughts :' ' And I think,' said I, f that I have acted wisely, for had I bought a dinner, we should have eaten it to-morrow, and the pleasure would have been soon over : " * But in the volumes of the mighty dead, We feast on joys to vulgar minds unknown.' Should we live fifty }^ears longer, we shall have the Night Thoughts to feast upon.' This was too powerful an argument to admit of any farther debate; in short, my wife was convinced. Down I sat, and began to read with as much enthusiasm as the good doctor possessed when he wrote it ; and so much did it excite my attention as well as approbation, that I retained the greatest part of it in my memory." The following is Lackington's account of his commencing business as a Bookseller : — " Sometime in June, 1774, as we sat at work in our room, Mr. Boyd, one of Mr. Wesley's people, called and informed me that a little shop and parlour were to be let in Feather stone-street ; adding, that if I was to take it, I might there get some work as a master. I without hesitation told him that I liked the idea, and hinted that I would sell books also. Mr. Boyd then asked me how I came to D 50 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. think of selling books ? I informed him that until that moment it had never once entered into my thoughts ; but that when he pro- posed my taking the shop, it instantaneously occurred to my mind, that for several months past I had observed a great increase in a certain old book shop ; and that I was persuaded I knew as much of old books as the person who kept it. I farther observed, that I loved books., and that if I could but be a Bookseller, I should then have plenty of books to read, which was the greatest motive I could con- ceive to induce me to make the attempt. My friend on this assured me, that he would get the shop for me, and with a laugh added, 1 When you are Lord Mayor, you shall use all your interest to get me made an Alderman. 5 Which I engaged not to forget to perform. " My private library at this time consisted of Fletcher's Checks to Antinomianism, &c. five volumes ; Watts's Improvement of the Mind ; Young's Night Thoughts ; Wake's Translation of the Apos- tolical Epistles ; Fleetwood's Life of Christ ; the first twenty numbers of Hin ton's Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences ; some of Mr. Wesley's Journals, and some of the pious lives published by him ; and about a dozen other volumes of the latter sort, besides odd magazines, &c. To set me up in style, Mr. Boyd recommended me to the friends of an holy brother lately gone to heaven, and of whom I purchased a bag full of old books, chiefly divinity, for a guinea. " 6 How must he struggle in the shades of night, To break thro' poverty's dark mists to light ; Oh, what a task before he gains his end !' " With this stock, and some odd scraps of leather, which together with all my books were worth about five pounds, I opened shop on Midsummer day, 1774, in Featherstone-street, in the parish of St. Luke ; and I was as well pleased in surveying my little shop with my name over it, as was Nebuchadnezzar, when he said, 1 Is not this great Babylon that I have built V " Notwithstanding the obscurity of the street, and the mean appearance of my shop, yet I soon found customers for what few books I had ; and I as soon laid out the money in other old trash which was daily- brought for sale. " At that time Mr Wesley's people had a sum of money, which was kept on purpose to lend out, for three months, without interest, BOOKSELLER. 5 J to such of their society whose characters were good, and who wanted a temporary relief. To increase my little stock, I borrowed five pounds out of this fund, which was of great service to me. " In our new situation we lived in a very frugal manner, often dining on potatoes, and quenching our thirst with water, being absolutely determined, if possible, to make some provision for such dismal times as sickness, shortness of work, &c. which we had been so frequently involved in before, and could scarce help expecting to be our fate again. My wife foreboded it much more than I did, being of a more melancholy turn of mind. " I lived in this street six months, and in that time increased my stock from five pounds, to twenty-five pounds. * This immense stock I deemed too valuable to be buried in Featherstone-street ; and a shop and parlour being to let in Chiswell- street, No. 46, I took them. This was at that time, and for fourteen years afterwards, a very dull and obscure situation, as few ever passed through it, besides Spitalfield weavers on hanging days, and methodists on preaching nights ; but still it was much better adapted for business than Featherstone-street. " A few weeks after I was settled in my new shop, I bade a final adieu to the gentle crafty and converted my little stock of leather, &c. into old books ; and a great sale I had, considering my stock ; which was not only extremely small, but contained very little variety, as it principally consisted of divinity ; for as I had not much know- ledge, so I seldom ventured out of my depth. " I went on prosperously until some time in September, 1775 r when I was suddenly taken ill of a dreadful fever ; and eight or ten days after, my wife was seized with the same disorder. " At that time I only kept a boy to help in my shop, so that I fear, while I lay ill, my wife had too much care and anxiety on her mind. I have been told that, before she was confined to her bed she walked about in a delirious state ; in which she did not long continue, but contrary to all expectation died, in a fit of enthu- siastic rant, on the 9th of November, surrounded with methodistical preachers. " She was in reality one of the best of women ; and although for about four years she was ill the greatest part of the time, which involved me in the very depth of poverty and distress, yet I never once repented having married her." " I continued in the above-mentioned dreadful fever many weeks, d 2 52 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and my life was despaired of by all who came near me. During which time, my wife, whom I affectionately loved, died and was buried, without my once having a sight of her. " What added much to my misfortunes, several nurses that were hired to take care of me and my wife, proved so abandoned and depraved as to have lost all sense of moral obligation, and every tender feeling for one who to all appearance was just on the point of death : several of these monsters in female shape robbed my drawers of linen, &c. and kept themselves drunk with gin, while I lay unable to move in my bed, and was ready to perish, partly owing to want of cleanliness and proper care. Thus situated, I must inevitably have fallen a victim, had it not been for my sister Dorothy, wife of Mr. Northam of Lambeth, and my sister Elizabeth, wife of Mr. Bell in Soho. " These kind sisters, as soon as they were informed of the deplor- able state in which I lay, notwithstanding some misunderstanding which subsisted between us, and prevented me from sending for them, hastened to me, and each sat up with me alternately, so that I had one or the other with me every night ; and, contrary to all expectation, I recovered. But this recovery was in a very slow manner. " As soon as I was able to inquire into the state of my affairs, I found that Mr. Wheeler, sack and rope-maker in Old-street, Messrs. Bottomley and Shaw, carpenters and sash-makers in Bunhill-row, had saved me from ruin, by locking up my shop, which contained my little all. Had not this been done, the nurses would no doubt have contrived means to have emptied mv shop, as effectually as they had done my drawers. " The above gentlemen not only took care of my shop, but also advanced money to pay such expenses as occurred ; and as my wife was dead, they assisted me in making my will in favour of my mother. " These worthy gentlemen belong to Mr. Wesley's society ; not- withstanding they have imbibed many enthusiastic whims, they would be an honour to any society, and are a credit to human nature. I hope that I never shall recollect their kindness without being filled with the warmest sentiments of gratitude towards them. " I never had any opportunity of returning Mr. Wheeler's kind- ness. But Messrs. Bottomley and Shaw have received many hundred pounds of me for work, and are still my carpenters, and BOOKSELLER. 53 ever shall be as long as I shall live near them, and have a house to repair." After his recovery he paid his addresses to a Miss Turton, the housekeeper from whom he rented the shop and parlour, and after a short courtship they were married, and for the first time in his life Lackington became a housekeeper : — u lam now, in February, 1776, arrived at an important period of life. Being lately recovered from a very painful, dangerous, and hopeless illness, I found myself once more in a confirmed state of health, surrounded by my little stock in trade, which was but just saved from thieves, and which to me was an immense treasure." At this period he began to relax in the strict formula of religious duty, required at that period from the members of the Wesleyan Society ; this brought on remonstrances and complaints, and in the end produced a total separation of his connexion. Lackington was fortunate in having drawn two capital prizes in the lottery of life ; both his wives were exemplary characters. Of his new wife he writes thus : — " My new wife's attachment to books was a very fortunate cir- cumstance for us both, not only as it was a perpetual source of rational amusement, but also as it tended to promote my trade ; her extreme love for books made her delight to be in the shop, so that she soon became perfectly acquainted with every part of it, and (as my stock increased) with other rooms where I kept books, and could readily get any article that was asked for. Accordingly, when I was out on business, my shop was well attended. This constant atten- tion, and good usage, procured me many customers, and I soon perceived, that I could sell double and treble the quantity of books, if I had a larger stock. But how to enlarge it, I knew not, except by slow degrees, as my profits should enable me ; for as I was almost a stranger in London, I had but few acquaintances, and these few were not of the opulent sort. I also saw that the town abounded with cheats, swindlers, &c. who obtained money and other property, under false pretences, of which the credulous were defrauded, which often prevented me from endeavouring to borrow, lest I should be suspected of having the same bad designs. " I was several times so hard put to it, for cash to purchase parcels of books which were offered to me, that I more than once pawned my watch, and a suit of clothes, and twice I pawned some books for money to purchase others. 54 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, " Soon after I commenced Bookseller, I became acquainted with what Pope calls * the noblest work of God,' an honest man. " This was Mr. John Denis, an oil-man in Cannon-street (father of the present Mr. John Denis, Bookseller). This gentleman had often visited me during my long illness, and having seen me tranquil and serene when on the very point of death, he formed a favourable conclusion that I too must be an honest man, as I had so quiet a conscience at such an awful period. Having retained these ideas of me after my recovery, and being perfectly well acquainted with my circumstances, he one day offered to become a partner in my business, and to advance money in proportion to my stock. This confidential offer I soon accepted; early in 1778 he became partner; and we very soon laid out his money in second-hand books, which increased the stock at once to double. " I soon after this proposed printing a sale catalogue, to which,, after making a few observations, Mr. Denis consented. This cata- logue of twelve thousand volumes (such as they were) was published in 1779. My partner's name was not in the title-page, the address was only * J. Lackington & Co., No. 46, Chiswell-street." This partnership was not of long continuance. Mr. Denis thought Lackington proceeded too fast in his purchases, and they separated, but still continued to take an interest in the welfare of each other ; Denis frequently assisting his late partner with the loan of money. After this period Lackington determined to sell books for ready money only. Though this system of doing business is carried on by many large drapers, wine merchants, and others, at the present time, it is still sufficiently difficult to establish a business upon this principle; but at the time Lackington commenced this system he stood alone, particularly as a Bookseller. The reasons for his adopting this mode of doing business and the result, are stated as follows : — " It was some time in the year 1780, when I resolved from that period to give no person whatever any credit. I was induced to make this resolution from various motives : I had observed, that where credit was given, most bills were not paid within six months, many not within a twelvemonth, and some not within two years. Indeed, many tradesmen have accounts of seven years' standing ; and some bills are never paid. The losses sustained by the interest of money in long credits, and by those bills that were not paid at all ; the inconveniences attending not having the ready money to lay BOOKSELLER. 55 out in trade to the best advantage, together with the great loss of time in keeping accounts, and collecting debts, convinced me, that if I could but establish a ready-money business, without any excep- tions, I should be enabled to sell every article very cheap. " ( Let all the learn'd say all they can, 'Tis ready-money makes the man.' " When I communicated my ideas on this subject to some of my acquaintances, I was much laughed at and ridiculed ; and it was thought, that I might as well attempt to rebuild the tower of Babel, as to establish a large business without giving credit. But notwith- standing this discouragement, and even You, my dear friend, expressing your doubts of the practicability of my scheme, I deter- mined to make the experiment ; and began by plainly marking in every book facing the title the lowest price that I would take for it ; which being much lower than the common market prices, I not only retained my former customers, but soon increased their numbers. But, my dear Sir, you can scarce imagine what difficulties I en- countered for several years together. I even sometimes thought of relinquishing this my favourite scheme altogether, as by it I was obliged to deny credit to my very acquaintance ; I was also under a necessity of refusing it to the most respectable characters, as no exception was, or now is made, not even in favour of nobility ; my porters being strictly enjoined, by one general order, to bring back all books not previously paid for, except they receive the amount on delivery. Again, many in the country found it difficult to remit small sums that were under bankers' notes, (which difficulty is now done away, as all post-masters receive small sums of money, and give drafts for the same on the post-office in London) and others to whom I was a stranger, did not like to send the money first, as not knowing how I should treat them, and suspecting by the price of the articles, there must certainly be some deception. Many unac- quainted with my plan of business, were much offended, until the advantages accruing to them from it were duly explained, when they very readily acceded to it. As to the anger of such, who, though they were acquainted with it, were still determined to deal on credit only, I considered that as of little consequence, from an opinion that some of them would have been as much enraged when their bills were sent in, had credit been given them. " In the first three years after I refused to give credit to any 56 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. person, my business increased much, and as the whole of my profit (after paying all expenses) was laid out in books, my stock was continually enlarged, so that my catalogues in the year 1784, were very much augmented in size. The first contained twelve thousand, and the second thirty thousand volumes . this increase was not merely in numbers, but also in value, as a very great part of these volumes were better, that is, books of a higher price. But notwith- standing the great increase of my business, I still met with many difficulties on account of selling books cheap ; one of these, I confess, I did not foresee : as the more convinced the public were of my acting strictly conformable to the plan I had adopted, the more this objection gained ground, and even to the present day is not entirely done away. This difficulty was, in making private purchases of libraries, and parcels of books, many of my customers for several years had* no objection to buying of me because I sold cheap, but were not equally inclined to sell me such books as they had no use for, or libraries that were left them at the death of relations, &c. They reasoned (very plausibly, it must be confessed) thus : 6 Lack- ington sells very cheap ; he therefore will not give much for what is offered him for sale. I will go to those who sell very dear ; as the more they sell their books for the more they can afford to give for them.' " This mode of reasoning, however specious it seems at first, will on due reflection appear nugatory and erroneous, for the following reasons : H I believe no one ever knew or heard of a covetous man that would sell his books cheap: But every one has heard of such characters selling very dear ; and when a covetous person makes a purchase, is it likely that he should offer a generous price ? Is he not when buying influenced by the same avaricious disposition as when selling ? And on the other hand, I cannot help thinking (I am aware of the inference) that one who has been constantly selling cheap for a series of years must possess some degree of generosity ; that this disposition has prevailed in me when I have been called to purchase, and when libraries or parcels of books have been sent to me, thousands in the three kingdoms can witness. And however paradoxical it may appear, I will add, that I can afford to give more for books now, than I could if I sold them much dearer. For, were I to sell them dear, I should be ten times longer in selling them ; and the expenses for warehouse-room, insurance from fire, together BOOKSELLER. 57 with the interest of the money lying long in a dead stock, would prevent my giving a large price when books were offered for sale. " But it did not appear in this point of view to the public in the more early stages of my business, until being often sent for after other Booksellers had made offers for libraries, and finding that I would give more than they had offered, it was communicated from one to another, until it became publicly known ; and the following method which I adopted some years since, has put the matter beyond the shadow of a doubt. " When I am called upon to purchase any library or parcel of books, either myself or my assistants carefully examine them, and if desired to fix a price, I mention at a word the utmost that I will give for them, which I always take care shall be as much as any Book- seller can afford to give ; but if the seller entertains any doubts respecting the price offered, and chooses to try other Booksellers, he pays me five per cent, for valuing the books ; and as he knows what I have valued them at, he tries among the trade, and when he finds that he cannot get any greater sum offered, on returning to me, he not only receives the price I at first offered, but also a return of the five per cent, which was paid me for the valuation. " But to such as fix a price on their own books, I make no charge (if in, or very near town), either taking them at the price at which they are offered to me, or if that appear too much, immediately declining the purchase. " This equitable mode, I have the pleasure to find, has given the public the utmost satisfaction " The novelty of Lackington's plan of doing business, added to his buying large quantities of books in quires at a very low price, getting them bound, and selling them at a small profit, produced a torrent of business ; and so great was the demand for the works inserted in his catalogue, that it gave him such a command of money as enabled him to become the largest purchaser in London, frequently buying, and paying for, upwards of 5000/. worth of goods in a morning. This great success did not make him forget his original obscurity ; to use his own words : — " As the first king of Bohemia kept his country shoes by him, to remind him from whence he was taken, I have put a motto on the doors of my carriage, constantly to remind me to what I am indebted for my prosperity, viz. " ' Small profits do great things.'* d3 58 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. " And I assure you, Sir, that reflecting on the means by which I have been enabled to support a carriage, adds not a little to the pleasure of riding in it. I believe I may, without being deemed censorious, assert, that there are some who ride in their carriages, who cannot reflect on the means by which they were acquired with an equal degree of satisfaction." The reading of this industrious Bookseller was extensive, and his judgment of the value of books was astonishing. He thus explains how this knowledge was attained : "It has been asked, times innumerable, how I acquired any toler- able degree of knowledge, so as to enable me to form any ideas of the merits or demerits of books ; or how I became sufficiently ac- quainted with the prices that books were commonly sold for, so as to be able to buy and sell ; particularly books in the learned and foreign languages. Many have thought that from the beginning 1 always kept shopmen to furnish me with instructions necessary to carry on the business ; but you and all my old friends and ac- quaintances well know that not to have been the case; as for the first thirteen years after I became a bookseller, I never had one shop- man who knew anything of the worth of books, or how to write a single page of catalogue properly, much less to compile the whole. I always wrote them myself, so long as my health would permit ; indeed I continued the practice for years after my health was much impaired by too constant an application to that and reading ; and when I was at last obliged to give up writing them, I for several catalogues stood by and dictated to others ; even to the present time, I take some little part in their compilation ; and as I ever did, I still continue to fix the price to every book that is sold in my shop, except such articles as are both bought and sold again while I am out of town. I have now many assistants in my shop, who buy, sell, and in short transact the major part of my business. " As to the little knowledge of literature I possess, it was acquired by dint of application. In the beginning I attached myself very closely to the study of divinity and moral philosophy, and thus became tolerably acquainted with all the points controverted between divines ; after having read the great champions for Christianity, I next read the works of Toulmin, Lord Herbert, Tindal, Chubb, Morgan, Collins, Hammond, Woolston, Annet, Mandeville, Shaftesbury, D'Argens, Bolingbroke, Williams, Helvetius, Voltaire, and many other free-thinkers. BOOKSELLER. 59 u I have also read most of our English poets, and the best trans- lations of the Greek, Latin, Italian, and French Poets. " I have also read with great pleasure, and I hope with some benefit, most translations of the Greek and Roman authors in prose ; History, Voyages, Travels, Natural History, Biography, &c. " At one time I had a strong inclination to learn French, but as soon as I was enabled to make out and abridge title-pages, sufficiently to insert them right in my catalogues, I left it off for what appeared to me more pleasing as well as more necessary pursuits, reflecting that as I began so late in life, and had probably but a very short period to live, (and I paid some regard to what Helvetius has as- serted, viz, that " No man acquires any new ideas after he is forty- five years of age,") I had no time to bestow on the attainment of languages. " I therefore contented myself with reading all the translations of the classics, and inserted the originals in my catalogues as well as I could ; and when sometimes I happened to put the Genitive or Dative case instead of the Nominative or Accusative, my customers kindly considered this as a venial fault, which they readily pardoned, and bought the books notwithstanding. "As I have indefatigably used my best endeavours to acquire knowledge, I never thought I had the smallest reason to be ashamed on account of my deficiency, especially as I never made pretensions to erudition, or affected to possess what I knew I was deficient in." The following extract shews not only the envy and ill feeling- that his success occasioned, but also the continual care that he took to live within his income, and the gradual increase of his enjoyments : — " The public at large, and booksellers in particular, have beheld my increasing stock with the utmost astonishment, they being entirely at a loss to conceive by what means I have been enabled to make good all my payments ; and for several years, in the beginning of my business, some of the trade repeatedly asserted, that it was totally impossible that I could continue to pay for the large numbers of books which I constantly purchased ; and ten years since, being induced to take a journey into my own country, with a view to the restoration of my health, materially injured by intense application to catalogue-making, too much reading, &c, during the six weeks that I retired into the west, Mrs, Lackington was perpetually in- terrogated respecting the time that I was expected to return. This 60 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. was done in such a manner as evidently shewed that many pretended to think that I never intended to return at all. " How great was their surprise, when, as a prelude to my return, I sent home several waggon-loads of books which I had purchased in the country. " As I never had an} r part of the miser in my composition, I always proportioned my expenses according to my profits ; that is, I have for many years expended two-thirds of the profits of my trade ; which proportion of expenditure I never exceeded. " * He is rich,' says Bruyere, 6 whose income is more than his expenses ; and he is poor whose expenses exceed his income.' " If you will please to refer to Dr. Johnson's " Idler" " for the progress of Ned Drugget," you will see much of the progress of your humble servant depicted. " Like Ned, in the beginning, I opened and shut my own shop, and welcomed a friend by a shake of the hand. About a year after on such occasions I beckoned across the way, for a pot of good porter. A few years after that, I sometimes invited my friends to dinner, and provided them a roasted fillet of veal: in a progressive course, the ham was introduced ; and a pudding was the next addition made to the feast. For some time a glass of brandy and water was a luxury ; a glass of Mr. Beaufoy's raison wine succeeded ; and as soon as two-thirds of my profits enabled me to afford red port, it immediately appeared : nor was sherry long behind. "It was some years before I discovered that a lodging in the country was very conducive to my health. Gay's lines were then repeated : " ' Long in the noisy town I've been immured, Respir'd in smoke, and all its cares endur'd.' " The year after, my country lodging by regular gradation was transformed into a country -house ; and in another year, the incon- veniences attending a stage-coach were remedied by a chariot. " Here (although scarcely out of the smoke of London) I strutted backward and forward in my garden, and the adjacent fields ; and felt myself as great, and as happy, in repeating the following lines, as ever Jemmy Thomson was in writing them : ' Hail, ever pleasing solitude ; Companion of the wise and good £ BOOKSELLER. SI ' (You may be sure, my dear friend, that I included myself in that number.) " Surrey next appeared unquestionably the most beautiful county in England, and Upper Merton the most rural village in Surrey : So now Merton is selected as the seat of occasional philosophical retirement. " But I assure you, my dear friend, that in every step of my pro- gress, envy and malevolence has pursued me close. " When by the advice of that eminent physician, Dr. Letsom, I purchased a horse, and saved my life by the exercise it afforded me ; the old adage, ' Set a beggar on horseback, and he'll ride to the devil? was deemed fully verified ; but when Mrs. Lackington mounted another, " they were very sorry to see people so young in business run on at so great a rate P The occasional relaxation which we enjoyed in the country, was censured as an abominable piece of pride ; but when the carriage, and servants in livery ap- peared, ' they would not be the first to hurt a foolish tradesman's character ; but if (as was but too probable) the docket was not already struck, the Gazette would soon settle that point.' " It seems that at last they have discovered the secret springs from whence I drew my wealth ; however, they do not quite agree in their accounts, for although some can tell you the very number of my fortunate lottery ticket, others are as positive that I found bank notes in an old-book, to the amount of many thousand pounds, and if they please, can even tell you the title of the very fortunate old book that contained this treasure. But you shall receive it from me, which you will deem authority to the full as unexceptionable. I assure you then, upon my honour, that I found the whole of what I am possessed of, in small profits, bound by industry, and clasped by economy." Lackington's method of keeping his accounts may be read with interest and profit to the young tradesman. It will shew him how a very large business may be managed, and the cost and profit of every article be set down, without any complicated process : — " The open manner of stating my profits will no doubt appear r strange to many who are not acquainted with my singular conduct in that and other respects. But you, Sir, know that I have for fourteen years past kept a strict account of my profits. Every book in my possession, before it is offered to sale, is marked with a private mark, what it cost me, and with a public mark of what it is to be 62 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sold for ; and every article, whether the price is sixpence or sixty pounds, is entered in a day-book as it is sold, with the price it cost and the money it sold for ; and each night the profits of the day are cast up by one of my shopmen, as every one of them understands my private marks. Every Saturday night the profits of the week are added together, and mentioned before all my shopmen, &c. ; the week's profits, and also the expenses of the week, are then entered one opposite the other, in a book kept for the purpose ; the whole sum taken in the week is also set down, and the sum that has been paid for books bought. These accounts are kept publicly in my shop, and ever have been so, as I never saw any reason for concealing them, nor was ever jealous of any of my men's profiting by my example and taking away any of my business ; as I always found that such of them as did set up for themselves came to my shop and purchased to the amount of ten times more than they hindered me from selling. By keeping an account of my profits, and also of my expenses, I have always known how to regulate the latter by the former. * To live above our station, shews a proud heart ; and to live under it discovers a narrow soul.' Horace says, " * A part I will enjoy, as well as keep, My heir may sigh and think it want of grace ; But sure no statute in his favour says, How free or frugal I shall pass my days. I get and sometimes spend, and at others spare, Divided between carelessness and care.' " And I have done that, without the trifling way of setting down a halfpenny-worth of matches, or a penny for a turnpike. I have one person in the shop whose constant employment is to receive all the cash, and discharge all bills that are brought for payment, and if Mrs. Lackington wants money for house-keeping, &c, or if I want money for hobby-horses, &c, we take five or ten guineas, pocket it, and set down the sum taken out of trade as expended ; when that is gone we repeat our application, but never take the trouble of setting down the items. But such of my servants as are intrusted to lay out money are always obliged to give in their accounts, to shew how each sum has been expended." When he had acquired a large fortune, and was accused of avarice for continuing in business, he answers in the following manner; BOOKSELLER. which shews that he, among other gratifications, had the happiness of supporting his aged mother : " To deny that I have a competence, would be unpardonable ingratitude to the public. But to insinuate that I am getting money for no good purposes, is false and invidious. The great apostle St, Paul, who was an humble follower of Christ, thought he might be permitted to boast of himself a little. " It is now about five years since I began to entertain serious thoughts of going out of business, on account of the bad state of health which both Mrs. Lackington and myself then laboured under ; and having no desire to be rich, we adopted Swift's prayer : " ' Preserve, Almighty Providence ! Just what you gave me, competence, Remov'd from all th' ambitious scene, Nor puff 'd by pride, nor sunk by spleen.' But it was then suggested by several of my friends, that as I had about fifty poor relations, a great number of whom are children, others are old and nearly helpless, and that many had justly formed some expectations from me : therefore, to give up such a trade as I was ia possession of, before I was absolutely obliged to do it, w ould be a kind of injustice to those whom by the ties of blood I was in some measure bound to relieve and protect. " These, and other considerations, induced me to waive the thoughts of precipitating myself out of so extensive and lucrative a business ; and in the mean time I apply a part of the profits of it to maintain my good old mother, who is alive at Wellington, in Somersetshire, her native place. I have two aged men and one woman, whom I support : and I have also four children to maintain and educate ; three of these children have lost their father, and also their mother (who was my sister.) In November, 1794, died my brother Philip, who, together with his family, had long been supported by me ; he left a wife, and three very small children, without a shilling. Many others of my relations are in the same circumstances, and stand in need of my assistance." Perhaps there is no triumph so great, or that affords so much satisfaction, as that of honest exertion over the chilling gripe of poverty. Lackington, before he retired from business, was deter- mined to revisit his native place in his own chanot, and never was 64 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. conqueror more rapturously received. He thus describes his journey, and the motives that led him to undertake it : u It being immaterial what part I travelled to : and as I had not for a long time seen my native place, and perhaps might not be fur- nished with another opportunity, we resolved to visit it. " Accordingly in July last, 1791, we set out from Merton, which I now make my chief residence, taking Bath, Bristol, &c. in our way to my native place, Wellington. " In Bristol, Exbridge, Bridge water, Taunton, Wellington, and other places, I amused myself in calling on some of my masters, with whom I had about twenty years before worked as a journeyman shoe-maker, I addressed each with, ' Pray, Sir, have you got any occasion ?' which is the term made use of by journeymen in that useful occupation, when seeking employment. Most of those honest men had quite forgot my person, as many of them had not seen me since I worked for them : so that it is not easy for you to conceive with what surprise and astonishment they gazed on me. " Alteration ! alteration ! Oh, what a wonderful alteration !' — Collins. For you must know that I had the vanity (I call it humour) to do this in my chariot, attended by my servants ; and on telling them who I was, all appeared to be very happy to see me. " And I assure you, my friend, it afforded me much real pleasure to see so many of my old acquaintances alive and well, and tolerably happy. " At Taunton and Wellington, it seemed to be the unanimous determination of all the poorer sort, that I should by no means be deficient in old acquaintances. Some poor souls declared that they had known me for fifty years (that is, years before I was born) ; others had danced me in their arms a thousand times ; nay, better still, some knew my grandmother ; but, best of all, one old man claimed acquaintance with me, for having seen me many times on the top of a six-and twenty round ladder, balanced on the chin of a merry-andrew ! The old man was, however, egregiously mistaken, as I never was so precariously exalted ; my ambition, as you well know, taking a very different turn. But that was of no consequence ; all the old fellow wanted was a shilling — and I gave it him. No matter (as Sterne says) from what motive. I never examine into these things. BOOKSELLER. 65 " The bells rang merrily all the day of my arrival. I was also honoured with the attention of many of the most respectable people in and near Wellington, and other parts : some of whom were pleased to inform me, that the reason of their paying a particular attention to me was their having heard, and now having themselves an oppor- tunity of observing, that I did not so far forget myself, as many proud upstarts had done ; that the notice I took of my poor relations and old acquaintance merited the respect and approbation of every real gentleman. w They were also pleased to express a wish, that as soon as I could dispose of my business, I would come down and spend the remainder of my days among them. Those ideas were pleasing to me, and perhaps may be realized : I wish it may be soon." Perhaps the best written passage in the book is the visit to the father and mother of his first wife • " I had for seven years past supposed that the parents of my first wife were dead; and on inquiring after them of Mr. Cash, at Bridge- water, he confirmed the report. However, as we passed through North Petherton, being but a mile from the place where they formerly lived, I could not help stopping to find out the time when they died, and what other particulars I could learn relative to them ; but, to my very great surprise, I was informed that they were both living at Newton, two miles distant. On this information I gave the coachman orders to drive me there, but still could scarcely credit that they really were alive. But, O my dear friend ! it is utterly impossible for me to describe the sensations of Mrs. Lackington and myself on entering " ' The cobwebb'd cottage, With ragged wall of mouldering mud" which contained them ! " 4 Then poverty, grim spectre, rose, And horror o'er the prospect threw.' There we found two " * Poor human ruins, tottering o'er the grave.' The dim light on our entrance seemed a little to flash in the socket, and every moment threatened to disappear for ever ! while their ' pale wither' d hands were stretch' d out towards me,' trembling at 6G THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. once with eagerness and age. Never before did I feel the full force of Shakspeare's description, " ' Last scene of all That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness, and mere oblivion : Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." From such a state of poverty and wretchedness, good God, deliver every worthy character. M The old man is ninety years of age, and the good old woman eighty. The old man's intellects are much impaired ; he for a moment knew me, and then his recollection forsook him. " The old woman retained her senses and knowledge during the whole of the time we were with them. " On inquiry we found, that what little property they had pos- sessed had been all expended for some years. " Amidst this dreary scene, it was some alleviation to learn that their pious son had given them weekly as much as he could afford from his own little family, and I have added enough to render them as comfortable as their great age can possibly admit of. But for 3 r our sake and my own, I will drop this gloomy subject ; which to me proved one of the most affecting scenes that ever I experienced in the whole course of my life ; and I believe that had I not afforded them relief, the dreary scene would have followed my haunted imagi- nation to the grave." Lackington died at Budleigh Sulterton, Devonshire, in the seven- tieth year of his age, leaving the property he had accumulated among his numerous relations. It is impossible to read the life of this fortunate individual without being struck with the great advantage of an early religious educa- tion, even in a temporal point of view. Lackington, when a youth, with an evil example constantly before him in the person of his father, was so well taught by his truly respectable mother, that he saw the evil effects of inebriety in its full magnitude, and when he became a young man, though a poor journeyman shoe-maker, wan- dering from place to place in search of employment, he was, we have been assured by persons that knew him at that period, always neat and cleanly in his appearance, a man of strict veracity, and seldom guilty of drinking to excess ; it was to his sobriety, perseverance, and punctuality, that he was mainly indebted for his success, and BOOKSELLER. 07 he owed all these good qualities to the instruction and example of his excellent mother, who had herself her temporal reward in living to witness the success of her son, and to partake in his good fortune. BRAZJER AND BRASS-FOUNDER. Brass is a factitious metal, made by mixing due proportions of copper and zinc : these are so intimately transfused into each other as to form one homogeneous yellow metal, which, by due attention to its formation, can be wrought into a vast variety of articles with the greatest facility. The Brazier works this metal with the hammer. The brass he uses is made softer than it could be procured by the transfusion of the zinc and copper, as pure brass is not malleable unless it is hot ; but to render it fit for the Brazier's use, it is mixed with lead : in this state any kind of vessel, candlesticks, kitchen furniture, fire irons, &c. can be formed with it. Brass will never rust ; it easily cleans, and always retains its colour when polished. Those who keep shops for the sale of brazen articles, though they are not working Braziers, are called by the same name. Brass-founding is one of the most important trades in the king- dom. The Brass-founder casts every variety of ornamental and useful articles from brass ; such as stands for lamps, gas-burners, finger-plates for doors, handles and ornaments for furniture, decora- tions for harness, &c. This business is divided into a number of branches ; some work entirely upon gas-fittings, others on harness work, and others for upholsterers ; they all work upon the same principle, and only attach themselves to particular businesses, because they are not furnished with moulds and instruments proper for other articles. Thus, if a Brass-founder that w r orked upon harness work were asked to produce a set of finger-plates for doors, he would refuse the work, not because he was ignorant of the way in which it is done, but because he has not the proper moulds, nor, unless he chose to go into that branch of business, would it be worth his w r hile to make them. It is not the Brass-founder's business to form the model from which he works ; that is supplied 68 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. him either by the draughtsman or the modeller. The Founder has to make a mould from this model, melt the brass, and pour it into the mould, and to clean and polish the work after the cast is taken. The Founders are an incorporated company of the city of London, and have their Hall in Founder' s-court, Lothbury. The fraternity of Founders was incorporated by letters patent of James I., in the year 1614, by the name of the Master, Wardens, and Com- monalty of the mystery of Founders of the city of London. This company by their charter have the power to search all brass weights and brass and copper wares in the city of London, and within three miles thereof; and all makers of brass weights within that distance are obliged to have their several weights regulated by the company's standard, and marked with the company's mark ; and such weights as are Avoirdupoise are sealed at Guildhall, those of Troy weight at Goldsmiths'-hall. The boy intended for the business of a Brass-founder should be strong, robust, and active, so that he may not only be able to lift heavy weights, but also to endure heat and the fumes of the metal. It would be advantageous to a youth apprenticed to this business to be taught drawing, as it would in many instances enable him to form his own designs, and by this means invent patterns which other Founders have not. The earnings of the journeyman Brass- founder are about thirty-six shillings per week. It requires a con- siderable capital to commence master in a respectable line of business. . BREWER. Brewing is the operation of preparing ale, beer, or porter, from malt. This is a very ancient art, and in almost every country there is a peculiar method of brewing. It is now, however, univer- sally acknowledged (and the acknowledgment is warranted by the quantity consumed, and the immense capital employed in the business, particularly by the principal Porter Brewers of London,) that the beer brewed in England is superior in quality to any other beer in the world. Beer was drunk by the Egyptians, according to BREWER. 69 the earliest historians ; and the inhabitants of the frigid north so enjoyed the strengthening and exhilirating draught that they could think of no better enjoyment for the shades of their heroes that had departed this life, than that of carousing in the halls of Valhalla, the Scandinavian Paradise, drinking beer out of the skulls of their enemies. The process of Brewing is as follows : A given quantity of coarsely ground malt, sufficient for one brewing, is placed in the mash tub. This is a large vessel, which has a false bottom, pierced with small holes, and placed about eight or ten inches above the true bottom. There is an opening on each side of the mash tub between the true and false bottom. On the one side, by means of a pipe and cock, water is conveyed into the tub; and on the other a cock or spigot and faucet is placed to let off the wort. When the malt is put into the mash tub it of course rests upon the false bottom, the holes being too small to let much of it through them : water at a proper heat is then let into the tub through the pipe ; this forces its way through the holes of the false bottom, and the Brewer has to stir the warm water and the ground malt well together, so that the sweet matter of the grain may be extracted. To effect this object the Brewer uses long poles, formed at the end something like an oar, and it is from this that the stirring is sometimes called rowing. When the malt and water has been sufficiently stirred, the mash tub or tun is covered, to prevent the heat escaping. The wort is then left to settle some time, when it is drawn from the tub by means of the spigot, and runs from the mash tun into a copper for boiling ; the malt being still left in the tun on the upper side of the false bottom : with this malt more hot water is mixed, and it is again mashed, so that there is little of the sweet matter left in the grain. This wort is also allowed to run from the tun into the boiler and mix with the first wort, when they are boiled together. While the wort is boiling it is mixed with a certain -quantity of hops ; the stronger the wort is, the more hops it requires. When the wort and hops are boiled sufficiently, the liquor is drawn out into a number of shallow vessels, called coolers, where it remains till it is sufficiently cool to be put into the working tun. The proper temperature of the wort when removed from the coolers is regulated by the strength and quantity, and by the season in which it is brewed. When the liquor is placed in the fermenting, or, as it is usually called, the working tun, it is well mixed with a sufficient portion of yeast ; and 70 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. is then left to ferment. This process occupies some hours, till the yeast ceases to rise. The beer is then fit to be conveyed into casks or barrels, and the brewing is completed. This is the general description of Brewing ; but persons that attempt to brew without practical knowledge will find that there are a number of particulars to be attended to in the process that can not be easily described in writing. The Brewing for a private family on a small scale is con- ducted in a very different manner from that of a common Brewer ; and the large Porter Breweries differ greatly from the process used by the common Brewer : we shall therefore endeavour to give a brief description of the proportionate quantities of malt and hops used in the preparation of malt liquor under the names of Ale, Porter, or Beer. Ale is either pale or brown : the pale ale is brewed from malt, very slightly dried; the brown ale on the contrary is prepared from malt that is so highly dried that it may be said to have become brown by roasting, and it imparts a rich brown colour to the ale. To make a strong brewing of excellent ale the malt and hops should be used in the following proportions : To forty bushels of pale malt put fifty pounds of hops. The malt should be mashed in tun-barrels of water at 170°; this should be well raked and stirred for about forty minutes ; the mash tun is then to be covered, and the wort allowed to stand about an hour, when it should be drawn off and more water poured into the tun to wash away the wort left from the previous mash : both the liquors are to be mixed with the hops and placed in the copper to boil. The whole is then placed in coolers, and fermented as before described. This quantity of malt and hops ought to produce one hundred barrels of ale at 100 pounds gravity. Neither the saccharine matter of the malt nor the quality of the hops are quite extracted by the production of this quantity of strong ale ; they will yet by a third and fourth mashing produce a pleasant table ale, the strength of which will be propor- tionate to the quantity of water used in mashing : the water for mashing must be used at a higher degree of heat than that used for the strong ale. Burton ale, Kennet ale, Edinburgh ale, and many others, are brewed upon the foregoing principle ; but the quantity of malt and hops varies according to the strength and flavour required. The cause of the effervescence in the fancy bottled ales, is their BREWER. 71 being bottled before the ale is quite cool, and the additional quantity of yeast which is mixed with the fancy ales in fer- mentation. Porter. — This pleasant and wholesome liquor is the common beverage of the inhabitants of the metropolis ; and in consequence of the immense capital employed by the Porter Brewers in their extensive premises and stupendous machinery, the inhabitants of London are supplied with this liquor of a better quality and at a lower price than the inhabitants of any other part of the kingdom. This malt liquor derives its name from the following circumstances : " Before the year 1730, the malt liquors in general use in London were ale, beer, and two-penny ; and it was customary for the drinkers of malt liquors to order a pint or tankard of half-and-half, that is, half of ale and half of beer, or half of ale and half of two- penny. Jn the course of time it became the practice to order a pint or tankard of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, of beer, and of two-penny. Thus the publican had to go to three casks and turn three cocks for a pint of liquor. To avoid this trouble and waste, a Brewer of the name of Harwood conceived the idea of making a liquor which should partake of the united flavours of ale, beer, and two-penny : he did so, and succeeded, calling it entire ; and on the old signs about the metropolis the words ' entire butt beer' may sometimes still be seen. It was a very nourishing beverage, much relished by porters, and as it was extensively patronized by the members of that ever thirsty fraternity, it was in compliment to them called porter." Mr. Richardson, in his Treatise on Brewing Porter, has given such minute directions and such an accurate account of the quantities of the different materials used in brewing porter, that persons in- terested in brewing that beverage, and who may require information, are referred to that work. It would be useless to occupy a number of pages to describe a process that not more than twenty or thirty Brewers are engaged in even in the metropolis ; and their breweries are on a scale of such magnitude that it would require a very large fortune to enter into competition with them. It is supposed by many persons that the Brewers of London use deleterious ingredi- ents in their porter to give it an intoxicating power, to clarify it, or give it a head. That such means have been practised prejudicial to the public there can be no doubt ; but it was formerly done by the publican to a much greater extent, after the beer was deposited in 72 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. his cellar, than it was by the Brewer. Such is the severity of the excise laws at this time, that neither party has the same power of doing it without running great risk of detection ; and it is supposed that there is less adulteration of beer at the present time in London than at any former period. The writer of the excellent article on brewing porter, inserted in the " British Cyclopedia," concludes his treatise in the following words : " In the above outline we have studiously avoided any allusion to what are usually denominated the sophistications of the London Brewers. There is no doubt of the fact that porter, as it is retailed by the publican, contains several ingredients that are at the first view of a startling character, and when the reader is informed that copperas is a common ingredient in the manufacture of heading, he may be led to suppose that it must be productive of the most mis- chievous consequences. But the danger is only imaginary, the copperas, as it is termed, being only a sulphate of iron, of which many mineral waters that are drunk with great advantage at our fashionable watering places contain a much larger quantity. That green copperas is used in preparation of porter by the publicans of the metropolis, there can be no doubt ; but with all its faults London porter is a aecidedly wholesome beverage, and well would it be for the moral character of the inhabitants of our vast metropolis if more of malt liquor were consumed and less of ardent spirits ; the one tends to lull if not to soothe the animal passions, the other tends to inflame them." It will be evident from the above sketch of Brewing that it is a business which does not require a long apprenticeship to understand it sufficiently well to carry on a small concern. It is a chemical process that any person with a common understanding may make himself acquainted with ; and if he devote his attention to the im- provement of the particular kind of malt liquor for which the brewery may be famed, his talents are appreciated and rewarded. The large breweries employ a great number of persons; many of them are employed as porters, or labourers, or carmen; they are called Brewers, but they only do the drudgery of the brewhouse. The real Brewers, that is, the men that attend to mashing and tunning, boiling, &c. are paid high wages The clerks and others employed in a brewery are paid in proportion to their talents and responsibility. The Brewers are an incorporated company of the city of London. BREWER. 73 Their hall in Addle-street is a very commodious building. The company obtained their charter of incorporation from King Henry VI., in the year 1438, by the name of the Master and Keeper or Wardens and Commonalty of the mystery or art of Brewing of the city of London. This charter of incorporation was after- wards confirmed by Edward IV., in the year 1480, with the addi- tional privilege of making by-laws. The arms of this company are annexed. BRICKLAYER. The Bricklayer's art consists in laying bricks evenly on each other and cementing them together with mortar to form the walls of houses or other buildings. From the great quantity of brick work done in London and the environs, and the great improvement in almost every department of the builder's business, it would be reasonable to conclude that some improvement would take place in the art of Bricklaying; but this does not appear to be the case during the last fifty years, as few modern brick erections can compete either in workmanship or material with some executed long previous to that time, namely, the entrance to Cardinal Wolsey's intended college at Ipswich, the ancient buildings at Hampton Court, Barbers' Hall, Monkwell-street, and, to come nearer to our own time, the ball-room now used as a conservatory at Kensington Palace, and some of the houses on the south-west side of Hanover-square. The power of E 74 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. laying the greatest quantity of bricks in the snortest time seems to be the chief quality required in a Bricklayer of the present day ; this hasty work, with the indifferent quality of the bricks, is the reason why many of the modern buildings shew such early symp- toms of decay. Harrison, in his survey of London observes, that the Tilers and Bricklayers were a very ancient fraternity in the city of London, but were not incorporated as a company till the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Their charter of incorporation is dated in August, 1586; they are styled the Master, Keepers, and Wardens of the Society of Freemen of the mystery or art of Tilers and Brick- layers of London. As Brickmaking is described in the following article, it is only necessary to state the sorts used in different kinds of buildings. The bricks most used for fronts of houses in London, are called gray-stocks ; where the bricks cannot be seen, place-bricks are used. In a very excellent work called the " New Practical Builder," published by Kelly, of Paternoster-row, a remark is made upon the use of the gray-stocks in building, which shews the reason why red bricks, which were so much coveted in ancient buildings, are not in request at the present time. " Grey-stocks are the bricks that are most used, and this not only because they are cheaper, but in most cases, where judgment is preferred to fancy, they will have the preference. We see many beautiful pieces of workmanship in red brick ; but this should not tempt the judicious architect to admit them into the front walls of buildings. In the first place, the colour itself is fiery and disagree- able to the eye, and in summer it has an appearance of heat which is very disagreeable ; for this reason it is most improper for the country, though more frequently used there, from the difficulty of getting grey. But a further consideration is, that in the fronts of most important buildings there is more or less stone work ; now as there should be as much conformity as possible between the colour of the wall and the several ornaments which project from it, the nearer they are of a colour the better they range together, and if we cast our eyes upon two houses, the one of red and the other of grey brick, where there is a little stone work, we shall not be a moment in doubt which to prefer ; there is something harsh in the transition from the red brick to stone, and it see'ms altogether unnatural ; in the other the grey stocks come so near the colour of stone that the BRICKLAYER. 75 change is less violent, and they sort better together : hence also the grey stocks are to be considered as best coloured when they have least of the } r ellow cast, for the nearer they come to the colour of stone, when they are to be used together with it, the better. Where there is no stone work there generally is wood, and this being painted white, as is commonly the practice, has yet a worse effect with red brick than the stone work ; the transition is more sudden ; but on the other hand, in the mixture of grey bricks and white paint, the colour of the bricks being soft, there is no violent change." it cannot be expected that in a work of this nature we should write a treatise on the Art of Building. The following are the sorts of work a Bricklayer is called upon to do : but if he require more information, he will do well to refer to the " Practical Builder." Walls are laid either in English bond or Flemish bond. Where the whole length of the brick appears in a wall, it is called a stretcher, where the end of it only is seen, it is called a header; and the dis- position of bricks in a building where there are alternate courses of headers and stretchers, is called English bond; the headers serving to bind the wall together in a longitudinal direction, and the stretchers to prevent the wall splitting crosswise or in a transverse direction. Flemish bond consists in placing in the same course alternate headers and stretchers, thus — A disposition, which the author before quoted thinks decidedly inferior to the English in every thing but appearance. " Walls," e 2 76 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. he observes, 4< of this kind consist of two faces of four-inch work, with very little to connect them together, and what is still worse, the interior face often consists of bad m brick, little better than rubbish." Bricks placed either in English or Flemish bond are cemented together with mortar, composed of lime, sand, and hair, mixed together. In commencing a building the Bricklayer forms the foundation, either by digging sufficiently deep to find the solid earth, or by laying large stones in parts where the clay is soft or the ground is not firm. Very large buildings require piles to be driven to form a foundation. In working up a wall it is not proper to work more than four or five feet at a time, as all walls shrink immediately after building, from the great weight placed upon the soft mortar, which will of course. give from the pressure: thus the wall should be brought up to the same height in all its parts, to prevent its sinking in one part more than another. The mortar should be carefully made, as the stability of the building greatly depends upon it. In slaking lime no more water should be used than is required to reduce it to powder, and but a small quantity should be slaked at one time. Sand and hair should be well incorporated with the lime in making it into mortar. Ornamental cornices and niches in brick work are the most difficult parts of the Bricklayer's business. For cornices and the arches over windows, and other fine work, the best bricks, either of red or white, are used ; and in order that they may lie close together, so as the mortar shall appear only as a fine line, care should be taken to smooth the surface of each brick on a rubbing stone. This is a rough-grained stone, about 20 inches in diameter ; and is generally fixed upon a block of wood, or old shutter, forming a bench, techni- cally called a banker. Bricklayers, in most parts of England, are Tilers ; that is, they cover the roof of the building with tiles as well as erect the walls. Slates have been very much introduced as a covering for roofs in some places ; but this forms a separate business, and the workman is called a Slater. Slates are dug from quarries and cut into blocks of various sizes ; these are again cut into thin square pieces, according to pattern. The Westmorland slates were formerly held in the highest estima- mation, but the Welsh slates are now preferred. We cannot afford BRICKLAYER. 77 space to give the names of the various sizes of slates ; they are known by the names of Ladies, Countesses, Duchesses, Welsh, Rags, Queens, Imperials, and Patent Slates. Slate is greatly to be preferred to tile in the covering for a house, as it is not only lighter, but, from its being less porous, the weight does not so increase by being exposed to damp weather, the great cause of the falling in of the roofs of old buildings. Dr. Watson the celebrated Bishop of Llandaff, made several experiments to prove the relative fitness of tile and slate as a covering for buildings : and his remarks are of considerable importance to builders, as they will enable them, in forming a roof, to suit the strength of timber to the sort of covering intended for it. The effect of frost is very perceptible in tiled houses, but it is scarcely felt in slated ones ; for good slate imbibes but little water. The Bishop relates that he " took a piece of Westmorland slate and a piece of common tile, and weighed each of them carefully; the surface of each was the same, about thirty inches square; both the pieces were immersed in water for ten minutes, and then taken out and weighed as soon as they had ceased to drip, and it was found that the tile had imbibed about one- seventh part of its weight of water, and the slate had not imbibed a two-hundredth part of its weight. Indeed the wetting of the slate was merely superficial, while the tile in some measure became saturated with the water. I then placed both the wet pieces before the fire ; in a quarter of an hour s time the slate was become quite dry, and of the same weight it had before it was put into the water ; but the tile had only lost about twelve grains of the water it had .imbibed, which was as near as could be expected the same quantity that had been spread on its surface, for it was this quantity only that had been imbibed by the slate, the surface of which was equal to that of the tile. The tile was left to dry in a room heated to 60° of Fahrenheit, and it did not lose all the water imbibed in less than six days." The various sorts of tiles are described in the article on Brick and Tile making. 78 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, BRICK-MAKER. If the antiquity of an art were the test of its usefulness to man- kind, this humble pursuit might vie with any. Brick-making was one of the earliest trades on record after the flood ; and as the sons of Noah were perfectly acquainted with the art, we may fairly sup- pose that bricks were in use before that event took place. The bricks with which Babel was built were burnt in kilns. Specimens of bricks of a very superior and peculiar make, that have been dug up at Babylon, are now to be seen in England. The Egyptians were famous for the exercise of this art ; and we have several buildings now standing that were erected during the time that the Romans held sway in Britain ; such as the Roman Pharos or light- house within the walls of Dover Castle, the ruins of Richborough, Porchester, and Sandwich, and other places, where the Roman brick- work may be seen as perfect as it was the first year of its erection. The Roman bricks are oblong, about seventeen inches in length, eleven in breadth, and about two inches thick; and it is quite certain that we have not the power of making bricks at the present day that will at all bear comparison with those found in the Roman buildings, either for shape, durability, or colour : and though Brick- making may be said to be one of the humblest of the mechanic arts, yet great research has been employed in analyzing the qualities of brick earths, and preparing it for working, with a view of im- proving the manufacture of an article upon which the stability of our buildings so much depends, and which yields so much to the revenue. Though these inquiries and experiments have been pur- sued by men most competent to the task, they have not been attended with any great practical benefit. Brick-making is carried on with great facility in all parts of the environs of London. No sooner is the earth found at all fit to be converted into bricks, than a mill is erected to work the clay : sheds are built, and the busy throng soon convert the green surface of the earth into long rows of unburnt bricks. The clay is prepared and rendered sufficiently soft by being ground in the mill, which is turned by one or more horses, as seen in the plate. In some cases it is tempered by being worked and BRICK-MAKER. "9 trod upon by persons employed for that purpose : where superior bricks are required, the latter process is decidedly the best. When prepared the clay is brought in small lumps to the moulder, whose business it is to mould the brick. By looking at the accompanying plate, the moulder will be seen standing under a shed ; he is in the act of throwing a lump of clay into a square mould. Having thrown the lump of clay into the mould, he presses it with his hands till every part of the mould is full. He then scrapes the superfluous clay from the top of it with a stick, and, turning the mould on one side, he forces the brick from it by pressing the back of it with a board made for that purpose. He then throws sand over the mould to absorb the damp from the clay, and proceeds in the same way to form other bricks. When the bricks are formed they are taken from the moulding board by a woman, who places them carefully on the boards on the flat barrow, so that they do not touch each other ; when the barrow is covered it is wheeled away by a bdy^ who takes the bricks to the pile. He places them edgewise upon it, at a short distance from each other, so that the air may have a free passage between each brick. When the pile is finished, and it seldom exceeds three or four feet in height, it is covered at the top with straw and tiles, to protect the bricks from rain, or the direct rays of the sun, which would dry them too quickly and cause them to break. When the long piles of bricks {see the engraving) have remained in the field long enough to dry, they are ready for burning. The size of the moulds for making bricks is regulated by act of Parliament, and is the same in every part of the kingdom, 9£ inches in length, 5 inches in breadth, and 2 J in depth : they are this size when moulded, to allow for their shrinking while burning either in the kiln or the clamp. When bricks are burned they are about 8^ inches long, 4^ inches wide, and 2 \ inches thick. Some bricks shrink more than others ; this arises from the quality of the clay as well as the heat to which it may be exposed in burning. Bricks burned in clamps, from their exposure to the atmosphere or the internal heat of the clamp, are not so equal in size as the bricks burned in a kiln. A clamp of bricks are many thousands piled upon each other, with flues running in various directions, which are filled with small cinders from sea coal ; above these are layers of bricks, upon which cinders are strewed ; and then another layer of bricks : in this way the cinders are distributed about half the height 80 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. of the clamp. The bricks are piled in such a way that there is a thorough draught of air round each brick. When the pile is finished, the cinders are ignited, and left to burn ; and in a few hours the fire spreads itself over the whole pile ; it is a smouldering fire, without flame, and no great deal of smoke ; but it must be evident that, in a large mass of bricks, the wind or change of weather will act upon them so as to cause inequalities of heat : it is for this reason that though the bricks, when piled up before they are burned, are all alike, yet, when sorted, they have been found to be more or less burned, and are called by different names, and are of a different value. Those that are the least burned and are light and crumbly, are called common place bricks ; those that are properly burned, the best grey-stocks ; and the next in succession, second grey-stocks ; with these bricks the greater number of the buildings in the metropolis are erected. There is a better sort of bricks, which are also burned in clamps: these are called marls, and greater care is taTcen in burning them. Those that are of a pale yellow hue are the best ; they are called firsts, and are used as outing bricks for the tops of doorways, windows, &c. ; and likewise for the outside of the walls of churches or public edifices, intermixed with stone work. The second marls are used for the same purpose, but are not quite so equal in colour. Red stock-bricks are made in the country of pure clay, and are burned in kilns. A red brick is made at Hedgerly, near Windsor, that will stand almost any degree of heat : it is used for stoves, furnaces, &c. and is only 1 J inch thick. There are also Dutch bricks, paving bricks, Flanders bricks, and others, but those before described are most used in buildings. The persons employed by each moulder are called a gang. The moulder is paid so much per thousand, and finds his own assistants. It frequently happens that a whole family forms one gang ; when this is the case, and trade is brisk, their earnings are considerable. It is very laborious, dirty work. There are no apprentices to this business ; poor boys that are hired to attend a moulder, soon learn to mould and pile bricks, which is the only part of the art of making bricks, after the clay is prepared, where any sort of skill is required. Ti.es are always burned in kilns. Plane-tiles and crown-tiles are about 10J inches long, 6 inches BRICKMAKER. 8? broad, and 1|- inches thick ; ridge-tiles are 12 inches long, 10 inches broad, and 2 inches thick ; pantiles have each surface both concave and convex ; they are usually 14^ inches long, 10 inches broad, and » 2£ inches thick. BUTCHER. The business of a Butcher consists in purchasing, killing, dressing, cutting up and selling cattle, sheep and pigs. The Carcass Butcher attends the different cattle-markets to pur- chase beasts or sheep. Great judgment and experience is requisite in the selection of live cattle, that will be ultimately profitable to the Butcher when killed and cut up into joints for his customers. The Carcass Butcher buys the beast while standing, calculating its value at so much per stone ; but he has no convenience for weighing the animal while alive, and must therefore be able to judge of its weight and quality from its size and appearance : if he errs in his calculation, he suffers a loss when he weighs the meat out to those that purchase it when killed. When the bullock is killed, skinned, and dressed, the Carcass Butcher sells it to the retail Butcher, either by the car- cass or the quarter. The offal, that is, the skin, entrails and horns of the animal, is sold to the skinner, who generally contracts for them for a certain time at a given price ; the entrails and the feet are sold to the tripemen and cow-heel dressers. Retail Butchers in London, sometimes attend the markets and purchase cattle, slaughter, and dress it for their customers ; but by far the greater number of the retail Butchers purchase their meat from the Carcass Butcher, as it requires less capital, and the business is done with less risk, though not attended with so much profit as when the Butcher slaughters his own cattle. Pork Butchers confine themselves to dealing in pork. A great number of pigs are killed in the country and sent to London for sale. The Pork Butchers buy them of the salesmen, and retail them to their customers. Porkmen also make and sell sausages, made with either beef or pork ; the meat is cut small with a chopping-knife, and in London, so great is the sale of sausages by the porkmen, that many of them have a steam-engine erected to work the machinery used in cutting £ 3 82 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the sausage-meat. Pork-sausages are seasoned and made up in the same manner as they are made in various parts of the country ; thus in London we have Epping, Norfolk, and other sausages. The country Butcher purchases his beasts and sheep in many in- stances from the spot where they are bred ; he rides round to the different farmers in the neighbourhood where he resides, and pur- chases as many beasts or sheep as he requires ; these he kills, and dresses, and attends the nearest market on the different market-days as a retail Butcher. The country Butcher deals in pork, as well as sheep and cattle. There is no great capacity or education required in order to become a good Butcher : any strong healthy boy, with a common under- standing, that has no dislike to a laborious, dirty employment, may learn the art of killing and dressing any animal in a short time. The London Butchers require some skill in dressing carcasses for sale, particularly calves ; and a quick, clever boy will perform this business with more neatness and with greater rapidity than a dull youth will. Though this is a dirty business, it is by no means an unwholesome one, if we may judge from the hearty appearance of the boys em- ployed in this business in the metropolis. The premium given with an apprentice to a retail Butcher is from 30/. to 50/. according to the respectability of the master. Journey- men Butchers that are employed either in the slaughter-house or shop are paid from sixteen shillings to a pound a week, board included. Journeymen to Carcass Butchers are paid so much per head for the cattle they kill. The capital required to commence business as a retail Butcher in London entirely depends on the part of the town, and the sort of customers the new beginner is likely to have If it is a cheap cutting neighbourhood he must make a profit by a quick return of money ; he must sell inferior meat at a very small profit ; in that case no credit is given and he can go to market frequently with the money taken in his shop. This is a hard laborious way of getting a living, but it may be done with very little capital. The Butcher who succeeds another in a regular, steady business, fre- quently pays a considerable sum for the goodwill of the shop, and if he serves respectable, regular customers, he sends in his bills half yearly. As he must go to market with ready money, he will require a good capital — say from five hundred to a thousand pounds — to enter into business respectably. The company of Butchers of the City of London appears to be of BUTCHER. 83 great antiquity, for in the 26th year of the reign of Henry II, they were fined for setting up a guild without the king's licence. Their present charter was not granted till the third of James I. ; it is dated the 16th of September, 1605, and by letters patent incorporates them by the name of " the Master, Wardens, and Commonalty of the art and mystery of Butchers of the city of London." The arms of the company are annexed. BRUSH-MAKER. All persons that can appreciate the comforts arising from clean- liness must acknowledge their obligations to the Brush-maker. He makes all sorts of brushes for scrubbing or polishing floors — hair- brooms, hearth-brushes, clothes-brushes ; and in some cases works in the highest branches of the trade, not only making brushes for house- painters, but the more delicate pencils for artists. It is impossible to give a better idea of the manner in which the Brush-maker works, and the tools he makes use of, than may be learned by looking at the engraving. The Brush-maker is working at a bench which is firmly fixed to the ground. At the top of the bench is screwed a strong iron ring or staple, and the knife which the Brush-maker uses has a hook at the end of it, which is placed in this staple ; the workman holding the handle of the knife with one hand and the piece of wood in the other, makes it take any shape he pleases in a very short time. If the juvenile reader will look at a scrubbing-brush or common shoe-brush, he will see that the piece 84 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. of wood is of nearly the same shape as that which the workman is cutting. The wood thus shaped has afterwards a number of small holes drilled through it at regular distances from each other ; in these holes the hair is placed and tied fast together with fine brass-wire, and whilst the wire holds, it is impossible for the hairs of a brush to get loose : if that breaks the hair comes from the holes in many places, and the brush is spoiled. It is only in the most common brushes that the wire is to be seen, all others have a piece of veneer or very thin board glued over the wire, making the brush not only more sightly and pleasant to the hand, but also greatly contributing to its strength from the protection it affords to the wires. All brushes are made upon this principle, from the scrubbing-brush for floors, to the delicate silver-wired tooth-brush. The hair used for making brushes is hog's bristles, which is sorted for various sorts of work. An immense quantity of bristles are imported from many parts of Germany and Russia, and we never use a brush but we contribute to the revenue of the country, as bristles pay a heavy duty. Whalebone is now used for brushes, and by an unexperienced eye is scarcely to be distinguished from bristles. The bone is split very fine, and the fibres are strong and flexible ; but it is not so durable as hair. When the hair or whale- bone is to be inserted in holes drilled in the stock, it is cut to the same length and tied in the middle with fine copper or brass-wire ; iron- wire is sometimes used, but if the wet gets to it, it soon becomes rusty and breaks ; the hair is then doubled and the centre part of it inserted in the holes of the stock, where it is fastened with a cement made of pitch and rosin, and the wire is passed from one hole to another all over the back of the brush as before stated. Hair-brooms and hearth-brushes are not formed quite in the same way. The stock in which the hair is to be inserted is much thicker and not pierced through , the bristles are tied with string and some of the hot cement is poured into the holes, in which the hair is then placed ; when the cement is cold, the bristles are tightly fastened, and will not fall out, unless the broom is exposed to great heat, which will soften the cement and cause the hair to come out. The brushes used by painters are cemented together with glue, and tied round the handle, on the inside with iron-wire, and on the outside with fine string. There is great nicety required in arrang- ing and tying the hair for painter's tools, or the still finer brushes required by the portrait and historical painter. A badly formed BRUSH-MAKER. 89 brush may do great injury to the most delicate and important part of a picture. This trade, like many others practised in London, is divided into several branches. The persons that make hair-brushes, tooth-brushes, or clothes-brashes, never make common hair-brooms. Birch and heath-broom making is a distinct business in which there are a great many persons engaged. Some of them have large estab- lishments, and trifling as the trade may appear, considerable capital is embarked in it. Brush-making does not require any great degree of strength, nor any extraordinary ingenuity to become fully master of it. It is an in-door business, and the journeymen are pretty constantly employed, as it is a business that is always in request ; nor does the variations of fashion greatly affect it. From 30/. to 40/. is about the sum usually given with a boy that is apprenticed to this business. The journeyman can earn from 25$. to 30s. per week. Where there is a large business it requires a considerable capital, but 300/. will enable a Brush-maker to set up in a very respectable style. Many Brush-makers not only serve retail shops that deal in brushes, measures, yokes, Tunbridge-ware, matting, and other arti- cles, but have shops of the same kind themselves ; in this case they require more capital, according to the amount of stock they keep by them. BUTTON-MAKER. Buttons are in such general use in male attire, that there can be little surprise at the number of persons that are employed in making them. The common metal buttons are principally made in Bir- mingham ; and the military regimental buttons, and those upon which armorial bearings are required, are made in London. The metal with which the buttons are to be made is first cast in small ingots, then flattened into thin plates or leaves at the flatting-mills, after which it is cut with punches into small round pieces by means of a fly-press; and, if the punches are engraved for that purpose, the „ metal will readily take any impression, either raised or sunk. The fiat gilt-button is merely punched, and the shank soldered to it ; it 86 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. is then handed over to the polisher and gilder, after which it is placed on cards and forwarded to the button and trimming-sellers for sale. The concave-buttons, which are fashionable at the present time, are cut with convex punches, on which is raised any pattern required. In the dye upon which the punch falls, is sunk the reverse of the pattern on the punch, so that every stroke of the fly-press produces the pattern on the thin round plate of metal. The plate thus pre- pared makes the cap of the button : the lower part is formed of another plate produced in the same way in another press, where the punch is flat, without figures, or merely containing the letters, on the underside of metal-buttons : to this plate is soldered the eye or shank made of wire. Formerly a button called the gold-twist button, was much worn, and it is now used in embroidered court-dresses : the moulds of these buttons are first covered with silk in the same manner as that of com- mon buttons ; this being done the whole is covered with a thin plate of gold or silver, and then wrought over in different forms with pearl and gimp ; the formef is a kind of thread composed of gold wire and silk twisted together, and the latter, capillary tubes of gold or silver, about the tenth of an inch in length ; these are joined together by means of a fine needle filled with silk thrust through their apertures, in the same manner as beads or bugles. All buttons covered with silk, mohair, or cloth, are made upon moulds. Moulds are made from horn, bone, or wood, and are formed with great facility in a lathe, which not only turns the mould to the proper shape, but also pierces it in the centre. BUTTON AND TRIMMING SELLER. In provincial towns the draper not only sells woollen cloth to the tailors or others, but also the buttons, lining, and trimming, required in making a coat or any other garment. In London the draper sells the cloth only, and the Button and Trimming Seller supplies the tailor with buttons, buckram, silk, twist, and all other articles he requires. This is a profitable and regular business, where a shop- keeper has an extensive connexion among the tailors. Youths are apprenticed to this business, but they have little to learn beyond the BUTTON AND TRIMMING SELLER. 87 price and quality of the various articles sold in the shop. The boy should be able to write a fair hand, and have had a common educa- tion ; the premium required with an apprentice is about 50/., in some cases more, where the master is in a large way of business. This money is not spent uselessly ; it is true the youth will not learn how to manufacture any article whereby he can obtain a living, but he will learn how to buy and sell to advantage, and in most cases, during his apprenticeship, he becomes acquainted with a great number of tailors, among whom he may be able to form a connexion for himself at a future period. CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER. English travellers that have visited Rome, Florence, and other Italian cities famous for their splendid buildings, however they may praise the elegance of the Italian palaces for their style of architec- ture, magnificent proportions, and interior decorations of their halls, corridors, and apartments, generally complain of the vacant, gloomy effect arising from the scarcity of furniture, and have arrived at the conclusion, that however skilful the architect, builder, or decorator may be, the abilities of the Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer must be called into action before there can be any thing like comfort or splen- dour in the habitation. The article of furniture called a Cabinet, is an elegant set of * drawers, shelves, desk, and secret recesses, all contained in an outside case, and inclosed in the front by folding doors ; every part of which was required to be so finely executed, and was so very superior to the work that the Joiner was ordinarily called upon to perform, that the workmen capable of undertaking the task became distinguished by the title of Cabinet-makers ; and as the same men were called upon to execute other articles of furniture, such as tables, chairs, bedsteads, &c. that were to be made from the most expensive wood, the makers of such articles became known by the general name of Cabinet-makers. When an elegant cabinet is formed, the drawers are in many instances lined with velvet, and the recesses inclosed with splendid curtains The artizan that performs this sort of work is called an Upholsterer ; and as furniture 88 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. will always show to most advantage when it is complete, those masters that employ a number of men to make up furniture for sale or to order, and have a splendid stock in their ware-rooms, consisting of sofas, couches, ottomans, bedsteads, chairs, tables, and other articles, combine the two trades, and are called Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers. The increase of civilization and refinement in this country cannot be made more apparent than by comparing the furniture in common use at the present period, with that which was in use a century ago. At that time the chairs, tables, and other articles of furniture in the houses of the nobility were ponderous, solid, and expensive ; large sums were spent in carving and decorating them, but they possessed none of the lightness, elegance, and comfort of the furniture of the present time. The greatest improvement, however, has taken place in the furniture used by the middling and even the lower classes of society : this is in a great measure to be attributed to the introduc- tion of a particular wood, called mahogany, that was totally unknown in England sixty years ago. This wood is now so generally in use, that the history of its introduction cannot fail to be interesting to the reader, nor can it be better given than by extracting an excellent article on this subject that appeared in an early number of the Penny Magazine : — " The universal employment of mahogany for articles of furniture, the prices of which do not operate as a prohibition against their use in general society, has been produced by the large application of capital to the commercial speculation of bringing mahogany logs to this country from the West Indies — and, further, by the invention of machinery for cutting those logs into thin layers, called veneers, by which operation the finest wood is brought within a reasonable cost. Now observe what commercial enterprise and mechanical ingenuity will accomplish in a comparatively small period. Some piece of mahogany furniture is now, probably, found in every house in England ; — a hundred and eight years ago the wood was unknown here. A physician of the name of Gibbons, who resided in London, received in 1724 a present of some mahogany planks from his brother, a West India captain. Dr. Gibbons was then building a house in King-street, Covent-garden, and he desired his carpenter to work up the wood. The carpenter had no tool hard enough to touch it ; so the planks were laid aside. The doctor's wife, after the house was finished, wanted a candle-box, and the mahogany CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER. 89 was again thought of. A cabinet-maker of the name of Wollaston was applied to ; and he also complained that his tools were too soft. But he persevered, and the candle-box was at length completed — after a rude fashion no doubt. The candle-box was so much ad- mired, that the*physician resolved to have a mahogany bureau; and when the bureau was finished, all the people of fashion came to see it. The cabinet-maker procured more planks, and made a fortune by the numerous customers he obtained. From that time the use of mahogany furniture went forward amongst the luxurious ; — and the drawers and bureaus of walnut-tree and pear-tree were gra- dualty superseded in the houses of the rich. To shew the present extensive use of mahogany in this country, it may be sufficient to mention that in 1829 the importation of this wood amounted to 19,335 tons. " The common mahogany (called by botanists Swietenia maha- goni) is one of the most majestic trees of the whole world. There are trees of greater height than the mahogany; — but in Cuba and Hon- duras this tree, during a growth of two centuries, expands to such a gigantic trunk, throws out such massive arms, and spreads the shade of its shining green leaves over such a vast surface, that even the proudest oaks of our forests appear insignificant in comparison with it." A log of mahogany has been cut at Honduras, measuring seven- teen feet in length, containing upwards of five thousand superficial feet, and weighing fifteen tons. Rose-wood, tulip, maple, satin-wood, oak, and walnut, are all used by the Cabinet-maker, for making superior articles of fur- niture, either in solid pieces, or in thin slips, called veneers. Before the wood comes into the hands of the Joiner or Cabinet-maker, it is cut into planks of the length and thickness required. The process of sawing and cutting veneers will be described under the head of Sawing and Veneering. There are so many articles of furniture made by the Cabinet- maker, and their forms are so varied, that it would be useless to describe the way in which chairs, drawers, &c. are made at the present time, as the fashion may be completely changed in a month, and the description of their present form of no value. If the Cabinet-maker has not sufficient knowledge of the art of drawing and perspective to enable him to design an article of furniture previous to his forming it, however cle\er he may be as a 90 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. workman in fine wood, he is after all only a superior joiner. It is therefore necessary for all persons that desire to obtain eminence as Cabinet-makers and Upholsterers, to learn to draw. They will find it most to their advantage to commence their studies by copying drawings of fragments from the antique ; whether they are capitals of columns, finely shaped vases, or candelabra, their elegance of form and just proportions cannot fail to improve the taste and knowledge obtained by drawing. Such subjects will be of infinite service when an original design is required. When the student is so advanced that he can copy drawings, he may proceed to draw from the subjects around him, and he will soon .find that if he wishes to copy two sides of a cabinet, bedstead, or any other object, he will be obliged to have recourse to the rules of per- spective. This can only be acquired by taking lessons from a master, or by studying the rules laid down in one of the many treatises on this art. Martin, in his work on Cabinet-making, forcibly inculcates the necessity for the Cabinet-maker having some knowledge of geometry and mechanics. " As it is the fashion of the present day to resort to a number of contrivances for making one piece of furniture serve many purposes, — a bed by night, a chest of drawers by day — it becomes necessary on this account, as well as on many others, that the complete Cabinet-maker should be acquainted with the principles of mechanics, which will not only enable him to calculate with certainty the effect of any combination of contrivances he may choose to introduce in works of this nature, but will save him the mortification, and his customers disappointment, in case of failure, arising either from a want of a due proportion of strength in places where it is required, or from a redundance where less would have answered the purpose. In this power of calculation consists the most striking difference between the man who is acquainted with the principles of his art and him who is not. In the work of the former you will ever find that substance is given to such parts only as require strength, as he well knows that where any part of an article of furniture is heavier than its use requires, it carries with it the means of its own destruction.'" When an article of furniture is designed, and the design approved by the customer, the Cabinet-maker gives it into the hands of the workman, who from the small drawing prepares working drawings of the size of the article required; from these CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER. 91 the inferior workmen produce the various parts which the superior hand has to join together : the tools he uses for this purpose are the same as those used by the carpenter and joiner, under which head they are so minutely described, that there is no necessity for intro- ducing the description here. If the article is not cut out of the solid wood, but is what is termed veneered, the solid part of the work is formed with deal, elm, beech, or some cheap wood, the outside of which is covered with very thin slips of the more expensive wood, which, as has before been observed, is cut by a machine at the saw mills. The veneer is sometimes not more than a sixteenth part of an inch thick : it is first cut to the shape required, then planed down to fit the surface of the wood to be covered, to which it is fastened by strong glue. The article veneered in this way is kept under a heavy pressure till dry ; it is then finely planed, and if there are any sinkings or roughnesses it is made smooth by using pumice or fine sand paper, and afterwards polished. In some cases the veneer is inlaid ; that is, a dark edge of rosewood is enlivened by introducing a thin line of satin-wood ; or light wood is inlaid with rose, tulip, or coral wood : these are all thin veneers cut to the shape required. The Bedstead-maker works in the solid. The foot-posts only of a four-post bedstead display any particular workmanship ; all the other parts of the bedstead are formed by an inferior workman. Common mahogany posts are turned; the most valuable are first turned and afterwards carved. Chair-making is also a distinct branch of this business, and the workmen employed in it are called Chair-makers, as they are seldom employed in any other work. The workman that makes the frame, legs, and back of the mahogany chair, does not form the bottoms ; which is made by nailing thick webbing placed at equal distances at the bottom of the frame ; over this is placed a strong canvass ; the seat is well stuffed with horse-hair, and covered with a finely woven cover of the same material. The person that performs this work is called a Chair-stuffer. Sofas are sometimes stuffed and covered in the same way. Rose-wood chairs have generally cane bottoms. This work is performed by another workman, called a Caner. The more common chairs, such as those made in imitation of rose-wood, with cane bottoms, are generally made of beech and afterwards stained to resemble different coloured wood. 92 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. When the Bedstead-maker has found the bedstead the Upholsterer proceeds to make the curtains, tester, with the drapery hanging from it, and also the valance, which goes round the bottom of the bed. Like the Cabinet-maker's, the Upholsterer's work, is continually changing, according to the alterations of fashion. Great taste is required in the disposal of drapery, so that it may hang in elegant curves or festoons. An Upholsterer is often required to cut out carpets, which he performs in the following manner : After having cleared the room of its furniture, he commences by tracing a chalk line on the border, and marking the mitres correctly in the angles of the room ; paying particular attention to the fire-place and those parts of the room most exposed to the light. He then proceeds to cut the mitres of the carpet border, beginning at the fire-place, and endeavouring as correctly as possible to match the patterns at each mitre ; in order to do this he must sometimes cut more or less of the border to waste ; he then takes up a length of the carpeting, and tacking it to the border at one end, he forces it with the strainer at the other, where he tacks it again, taking care as he proceeds to match the pattern. When the room is completely covered, the Upholsterer marks the several pieces so that tjiey may afterwards be joined together correctly, and in this state the carpet is taken back to the Upholsterer's shop, to be stitched together by women employed for that purpose. The most important part of the Upholsterer's work is that of arranging draperies for window curtains, which, in some instances, are formed of the most costly materials. The Upholsterer has, in the first instance, to make a design of the form of the curtains, with their pendant draperies, which he imagines will best harmonize with the style of the decorations of the room and the furniture it contains. When the pattern is agreed upon he proceeds to cut out the curtains and drapery, which are made up by women, and when completed the Upholsterer attends to hanging them properly, by fastening them to the cornice, which is placed over that side of the room where the windows are seen. There are a number of works published containing elegant patterns for the use of Upholsterers. There are so many articles made by the Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer, that we must content ourselves with the brief sketch here given, which will be sufficient to shew the kind of work an apprentice to a Cabinet-maker will be engaged in. If the youth has CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER. 93 the prospect of a good capital at the expiration of his apprentice- ship, it will be advisable to select a master for him that works for the upper classes of society, as he will then have an opportunity of seeing the best articles of furniture and the most elegant upholstery, which in an inferior shop he can only see through the medium of prints ; he will also be initiated in purchasing a number of articles which the workmen in common shops are totally unacquainted with : but let him be apprenticed to whom he may, it has been shewn that it is of great importance that he should learn to draw well enough to put any of his own designs on paper in true perspective, and also be able to colour them. Boys who have no expectation of becoming possessed of property to enable them to go into business when they are out of their time, will have to attend to some of the many working departments of this business, so that they may be able to get their living as journeymen. Apprentices of the first class pay a premium of from 100/. to 200/., the latter class from 30/. to 40^. A journeyman Cabinet-maker earns abput 3tfs. per week, and when on piece-work considerably more. The wages of an Upholsterer is about the same. The tools of the Cabinet-maker are very nu- merous, and some of them very expensive ; these they have to find themselves, and also to keep them in repair ; which reduces their wages two or three shillings per week. Bedstead-makers, Chair- makers, Sofa and Chair-stuffers, and every other branch of this complicated business take apprentices to their separate trades. The journeymen all earn about the same amount of wages as the journeyman Cabinet-maker. CALENDERER. — (See Cotton Manufacturer.) CALICO-PRINTER. The elegant art of Calico-printing, which imparts so much beauty to female attire, owes its present approach to perfection to the labo- rious and scientific experiments of modern chemists. 91 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Cotton, though but recently introduced into England, as an article from which the cheapest clothing for both males and females can be made, has been used for that purpose by eastern nations from the earliest periods. The simple Indian loom, and the mode of using it was well known to the earliest writers on this subject ; and that the art of staining and printing various patterns on the cloth, much in the same way as it is now executed in England, was known to the Egyptians in the time of Pliny, may be seen from a passage in his Natural History : " There exists in Egypt a wonderful method of dying. The white cloth is stained in various places, not with dye stuff, but with substances which have the property of absorbing colours. These applications are not visible upon the cloth, but when the pieces are dipped in a hot cauldron containing the dye, they are drawn out an instant after dyed. The remarkable circum- stance is, that though there be only one dye in the vat, yet different colours appear on the cloth, nor can the colours be again removed." It has been stated by many writers that the Indian chintz colourers produce the whole of the patterns and colours on the cloth by means of the pencil ; but this is erroneous, for they have from the earliest period used blocks and stencils to produce the pattern, and they use the pencil only to apply the colours. The application of chemical and mechanical art in printing and dying cotton cloth has made the manufacture of England famous in every part of the world ; and this ornamented material is so generally attainable, that the female servant of the present time is attired in calico which, from elegance of pattern and splendid colours, would, sixty years ago, have been considered an appropriate dress for a duchess. In the process of printing on calico the first person that is employed is the Pattern-drawer : he must not only produce an elegant design, but it must be of a nature that can be executed with facility, taking into consideration the peculiar mode of printing and colouring required in this art ; artists unacquainted with this business might invent the most superb patterns, which it would be impossible to execute, from the colours they would probably introduce being chemically opposed to each other. When the pattern is drawn, it is engraved either upon wood or copper : if on wood it is generally cut on sycamore, or if a very delicate pattern, on box ; if on copper it is generally on a large plate, the whole width of the stuff to be printed. The plate is made cylin- drical by being turned upon a large roller. The mode of engraving, CALICO-PRINTER. 95 both on wood and copper, will be fully explained under the head of Engraving. The cylinder is made to turn round by machinery; and as long as the plate is filled in with the proper ink, it will make the impression on the cloth that passes under it. The great use of the cylinder plate is, that the pattern is never ending. In some instances where three or four colours are to be produced upon the cloth, the pattern is engraved upon a flat copper about a yard square ; the mordant or paste which forms the ink is spread all over the plate, and as it passes under a scraper called by printers the doctor, the paste is taken from the flat surface of the copper and only left in the engraved parts ; the cloth is then passed through a press in the ordinary way of copper-plate printing, which produces the impression. When the blocks are used in printing, it is their surface which takes up the colour, and a slight pressure is sufficient to remove the colour from the block to the cloth. By referring to the article upon dying the reader will find the term mordant fully explained ; therefore it will be only necessary to state that the term mordant is applied by dyers to certain substances which it is necessary to use upon the cloth before the colour is applied to it, otherwise the colour will not adhere but will fly off when the dyed cloth is exposed to the air or passes through water. If it is necessary to use a mordant when the whole piece is to take one colour, it becomes more so when it is required to take a number of different tints ; and as the various colours used in dying have a greater affinity to one mordant than another, the Calico-printer has to study the mordant that is most likely to fix the particular colours he is about to use according to the pattern before him. Alumina or alum is much used as a mordant. The oxide of tin, perroxide of iron, and other substances are used for this purpose ; but it would greatly exceed the limits of this work to enter into the various chemical combinations by which the mordants are made to act with the various colours. There are other chemical combinations which are called dischargers of colour. Thus, in printing the common red and white pocket- handkerchiefs, in. imitation of bandana, the handkerchief is first dyed in one colour, a Turkey red, with the assistance of the alum mor- dant to fix the colour : but if citric acid is applied according to pattern it will dissolve the mordant, and the Turkey-red will be intermixed with white spots or flowers according to the pattern 96 * THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Citric acid, tartaric acid, protochloride of iron, sulphate of iron, and chloride of tin, are all used as discharging substances, of course mixed with other substances, according to the colour to be discharged. Other substances are used by Calico-printers, called pastes ; these are used for the purpose of protecting part of the cloth from being affected by the dye in which the cloth is dipped. The blue paste has the power of reviving or restoring the blue colour to indigo after it has been deprived of its oxygen. It is evident that the mordants which discharge colours and resist pastes, cannot be applied in a perfectly liquid form to the cloth to make them answer their various purposes, but must be mixed with some substance to give them the consistence of printing ink ; thus in using the alumina or alum mordant, the solution of alum and the acetate of lime in water, could not be applied to make flowers of Turke} r -red adhere to a white ground, as the liquid would not fill up the engraved parts of the plate ; but if the solution is made into a paste by mixing it with gum and pipe-clay, it has the proper consistence, and will adhere to the engraved parts of the plate while the polished surface is cleared by the scraper called the doctor. We cannot better describe the process of printing than by shewing the following pat- tern, which is supposed to be black 3*nd white cotton. The white flowers are cut in the plate, and the ink used to fill in the plate is a paste which will prevent the logwood dye from adhering to the parts intended to be left white ; this process finished, the cloth CAUCO-PR1NTEK. is entirely covered with the alum mordant which fixes the logwood dye to the cloth ; after the cloth has been plunged into the dye, it is rinsed in hot bran and water, which will remove any tinge that the white part may have received from the dye penetrating the paste. It is impossible within the limits of this work to name the variety of colours that may be applied to calico : persons that require infor- mation for practical purposes will of course apply to those works that treat solely on this interesting art. The most modern treatise on Calico-printing, and that which combines the greatest chemical knowledge with the plainest practical directions for producing a number of beautiful patterns of various colours, specimens of which are inserted with the letter-press, will be found in a valuable monthly publication called, " Records of General Science :*' the article on Calico-printing commences in the number for January, 1835; it is written by Dr. Thomson, Regius Professor of Chemistry, in the university of Glasgow. The above sketch of the art of Calico-printing will be sufficient to give the reader an idea of the business, and he will see how dependent we are upon each other's exertions in almost every pursuit or calling. The draughtsman, engraver, chemist, coppersmith, machinist, and dyer, with numerous other trades connected with those enumerated, must all be called into action before the Calico-printer can proceed to work. Calico-printing is a profitable business both for master and journeyman; but to make it so to either, the business should be on a large scale. Extensive, airy premises, near a plentiful supply of good water, is absolutely necessary. The number of hands and the extensive machinery required in this business renders a large capital indispensable. The premium with an apprentice varies according to the branch of the business the boy is desirous of entering upon. If a genteel youth with good expectations is apprenticed to the principal of a Calico-printing establishment, the premium is expected to be liberal. 98 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CARD-MAKER. Antiquaries differ as to the origin of playing cards. Some suppose they were invented by the Spaniards in the twelfth cen- tury; others have traced their invention to about 1390, when Charles VI. reigned in France. This monarch being hypochon- driacal and subject to fits of melancholy, every means were taken to divert his mind, and a painter for this purpose is said to have invented cards. It is certain that in the accounts of the royal treasurer of that period the following article occurs : " Paid fifty-six shillings of Paris to Jaquenin Gringonneur, the painter, for three packs of cards, gilded with gold and painted with divers colours and devices, to be carried to the king for his amusement." From the price paid for the cards, and the gilding, &c. described in this entry, there can be no doubt but great part of this sum went to reward the ingenious contriver of the cards. It was some time before this amusement for his melancholy majesty became generally known; but we find that cards were so much in demand in the reign of Edward IV. of England, that the Card-^makers of London petitioned that monarch to prohibit the importation of foreign cards, as it materially injured their business. By some it is supposed that the method of cutting the blocks for making the court-cards, gave the first hint for the cutting of wood type used in printing : if so, it is to the art of card-making that we owe the present general diffusion of knowledge. Others attribute the origin of the wooden type to Faust, who was at an early period of life employed in cutting blocks for the illumination of missals and other religious works, At all events, either the numerous figures required for cards or for books, occasioned the method to be devised of cutting them on a block of wood, from which numerous impressions could be rapidly produced. The idea once caught, the application of it to the production of alphabetical characters seems too obvious to be missed. In making playing cards at the present time, more strength than ingenuity is required ; but considerable practice is necessary before the requisite manual dexterity is obtained. The process is as follows : CARD-MAKER. 99 A coarse outline of the court-cards is cut on a block ; from this an impression is taken with a blue water-colour on a sheet of paper for forming the fronts of the cards. The various sorts of paper of which a card-board is composed are then placed alternately in the manner called by the trade "mingling." The whole being then given to the paster, he takes the first sheet, and laying it down, the printed side underneath, proceeds to cover the upper side with paste ; on this a plain sheet is placed forming the inside of the card- board, this being pasted on, the next layer consists of two sheets, which are laid on the inside sheet, and the paste applied as before, of course the inner faces of these two sheets are untouched by the paste, these form the backs ; a sheet of insides succeeds ; then two sheets for fronts ; followed by insides and backs, and so on till a sufficient quantity being pasted is put into a press, and submitted to a powerful pressure. After a sufficient time has been allowed, it is separated and hung up by pins to dry. This part of the process is dirty and laborious ; the brush, when charged with paste, weighing not less than six or seven pounds, which the workman has to keep in motion two-thirds of the day ; and the management of the work in the press, and carrying it afterwards from the pasting place to the upper parts of the manufactory where it is hung for drying, requires considerable bodily strength. The painting which succeeds is likewise sufficiently laborious. The colours are applied through perforated patterns in the manner called stencilling ; but the brushes are large, and it being absolutely necessary to the neatness of the work that the circular motion in which they are worked should proceed from the action of the wrist only, the painful inconvenience of the labour is at lirst considerable. The colour being properly dried, the polish is given either by passing through rollers or by glazing with a flint, after the manner of calico glazing. This is a very laborious operation, but it is never performed by the regular workmen ; for though it requires skill as well as strength, it has always been done by men not brought up to the trade, and who indeed are not considered as belonging to it. The process of cutting, which follows, is entirely free from the inconveniences attached to the other two principal branches of this manufacture, being perfectly dry and clean. It requires no great exertion of strength, but much practice is indispensable to acquire the necessary rapidity. The boards are first cut into slips, or, as f 2 iOO THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. they are termed, traverses, containing five cards each, and afterwards into single cards ; the whole are then sorted, as to quality, &c. and put into packs, (generally by females) which completes the process. Another branch of the trade is, making cards for writing or print- ing on. They are called blanks, or message cards. They appear to have originated from the custom of writing a message on the back of a playing card instead of sending it verbally, by which the incon- venience arising from defect of memory, or inattention on the part of the person employed, was guarded against. But as so using one card rendered the pack useless, it was found expedient to make them blank for the purpose. They were then called message cards, from the use to which they were applied, and they still retain the name though the practice, except as regards invitations, has ceased. Of course, after the account of the process employed in making playing cards, the reader will be at no loss to see how much of it applies to this article. Cardboards for drawing and other purposes are all made in the manner before detailed. The term of apprenticeship is seven years, and large premiums are not required. The average earnings of the workmen are, perhaps, about two pounds weekly. The arms of the Card-makers are annexed i 0 ♦ * The trade, as regards playing cards, is confined by Act of Parlia- ment to London and Dublin ; and a considerable capital is necessary to carry on a business of much extent. The Playing Card-makers were incorporated in the reign of Charles I. ; they stand eighty- third in the order of precedence of the city companies ; they have neither hall or livery, but the terms of admission being low, com- pared with most other companies, many persons who, not having CARD-MAKER. 101 the freedom otherwise, are compelled to purchase it, resort to this company : so that though designated as that of a particular calling, it may, and does consist of almost all others — not, however, being peculiar in this respect, as most, if not all the companies are in the same situation — a circumstance, we think, going far to prove that such bodies have long outlived the purposes for which they were originally established. CARMEN. There are a number of persons engaged, and large capitals are employed, in this business. Carts, drawn by one or more horses, stand regularly to be hired in the vicinity of the docks and near the warehouses by the side of the river, at so much per day, hour, or by the job ; and as the owner of the Cart is by law answerable for any damage done to goods through bad carriage, he is obliged to select honest, careful, steady drivers ; men that are versed in this sort of business, and who understand the forms of delivery at the docks or warehouses. The Carts are all numbered as directed by Act of Parliament; so that any Carman committing an injury or misbehaving himself is easily detected and brought to account for his conduct ; the master being accountable for any damage done through the negligence of his servant. By an act of common council, passed in the reign of Henry VIII. the Carmen of London were constituted a fellowship ; and by letters patent of James I. in the year 1606, they were incorporated with the fraternity of fuelers under the denomination of wood-mongers, with whom they con- tinued till 1668, when the latter having been convicted by Parlia- ment of mal-practices and dreading the consequences, threw up their charter, on which the Carmen were, by an act of common council, reappointed a fellowship of the city by the name of the " Free Carmen of the city of London." They are governed by a master, warden, and assistants, under the direction of the court of aldermen, but have neither hall, livery, nor arms. 102 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CARPENTER AND JOINER. The Carpenter is the person that, under the superintendence of the architect or builder, prepares and frames together the larger woodwork of a building, such as the bond-timbers that tie the angles of the building together, the rafters, girders, flooring, roof, &c. The Joiner performs all the work that requires greater nicety of hand ; such as the wainscoting, doors, staircases, mouldings, &c. Both Carpenter and Joiner, to be eminent in their profession, require some knowledge of geometry and mechanics to enable them to construct figures, and to judge of the pressure of one part of a building upon another ; so that by a true mechanical arrangement they may make the resistance equal to the pressure in every part. It cannot be expected that in a work of this sort we should be able to enter minutely upon the construction of every part of a building where the exertions of the Carpenter or Joiner are required ; but we shall endeavour to give a brief outline of their several employments ; in doing which an opportunity will be afforded of explaining the technical terms used in building, and describing the tools used by Carpenters and Joiners : and, as the same tools are used in many other trades where wood is the material to be worked upon, it will prevent the necessity of repeating their description when those trades are introduced to the notice of the reader. When a building is to be erected, the timber to be used in its erection is first sent to the saw pit or saw mills, to be cut in pieces of various thicknesses, which, when so cut, are called scantlings, a term that means their dimensions as to breadth and thickness without reference to their length. The operation it undergoes after it is thus cut (and it is not till the wood has been reduced to scantlings that it comes into the hands of the Carpenter) may be divided thus, — that which relates to the work upon the several pieces, and that which relates to the joining or connecting the several pieces with each other. The first head, or preparation of the several pieces, is called rebatting, which is the mode of diminishing the width of a square piece of timber to a certain depth on one edge, thus taking off a CARPENTER AND JOINER. 103 rectangle of the whole width, and less than the depth of the original piece ; a mode much used in door-cases and casement windows, in which the rebate forms a kind of ledge for the door or casement to stop against ; and grooving or ploughing, by which a narrow channel is excavated out of the thickness of the timber ; the groove is either square, forming an equal section with the whole depth, or wider at the top than at the bottom; which is called a dovetail groove. Timber may also be sunk, where the piece is formed like a wedge> or rounded or bevelled in various shapes, a term that is employed where the section forms a figure without right angles. Previous to entering upon the particular description of the various ways of connecting the several pieces together, it will be necessary to explain what is meant by the terms mortise and tenon. Mortise is the hole or bed made in a piece of timber to admit that portion of another piece called the tenon : thus in the annexed cut, 1 is the tenon, 2 the mortise : or where the simple mortise and tenon are required in forming a frame of timber, they are made at the end of the wood thus : The tenon is that part of the beam which is cut to fit into the mortise ; the flat ends of the beam on each side of the tenon are called the shoulders of tne tenon. The reader unacquainted with mechanics or carpentry, will easily perceive that this simple joint at the end of two pieces of timber, would only hold them together while there was no unequal pressure, but if a heavy weight was placed against the upright post it would throw it out of its perpendicular 104 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. position, and as there is nothing to tie or bind the mortise and tenon to each other, they would come apart ; but if the mortise had been cut wider at one end than the other, thus — and the tenon formed to correspond with it, thus — they would be so tied together, that the tenon would break before the pieces could be separated, — this is called dovetailing. Another mode of fixing timber is by fox-tail wedging, and is executed by making in the piece forming the base a deep mortise, and cutting away the sides of the mortise towards the bottom till it is much larger than the top. The tenon is cut from the perpendicular piece so as to fit the upper part of the mortise ; four small wedges are then fixed in the bottom of the tenon, and when the perpendicular piece is driven to the bottom of the mortise, the wedges will split the tenon and fill up the mortise to the breadth of the widest part. The annexed cut shews a section of the fox-tail joint : 1 is the perpendicular piece from which the tenon is cut ; 2 is the horizontal piece in which the mortise is cut; 3 are the wedges which cause the tenon to fill up the enlarged mortise. Having thus explained the mortise and tenon, persons unac- quainted with Carpentery may see that the joint may be varied at pleasure, according to the weight that the timber has to bear. CARPENTER AND JOINER. 105 When the timbers are all prepared they are joined together with iron bolts and screws. Mr. Martin, in his carpentry, observes, with respect to joining timbers endways, "Butting joints are fixed together with bolts, having a screw and nut at each end ; one of these nuts must be square and the other round, and t^ie round one must have notches close on its edge ; the bolt is let into each piece perpendicularly to the joint, and the nuts must be sunk from one side across the grain until the ends of the bolt are enabled to pass the interior screw, which is formed on purpose to receive the exterior one. The square nut is first put in, after which one end of the bolt is firmly driven into the bore made to receive it, and screwed to the nut ; the notched nut is next put in and the bolt also in its place ; after this one piece may be turned round upon the other till the joint is quite close ; and two dowels should be introduced, one on each side of the bolt, one piece should be driven as close to the other as the nut will permit, and then with a narrow pointed turn- screw and a mallet the nut may be forced round till the joint is entirely closed." It would require a much larger space than it is possible to afford in a work of this sort to describe minutely the whole of a building from the foundation to the roof : suffice it to say that by a proper application of the mortise and tenon and the iron work by which they are fastened, the horizontal and perpendicular timbers forming the partitions for the different apartments are joined together. The most difficult part of the Carpenter's art is the construction of roofs, and a description of this important part of a building will be sufficient to shew the sort of work that a Carpenter is called upon to perform. By the roof we do not mean to include the outer covering of tiles or slates, but the timber frame-work upon which they are placed. The Carpenter that would construct a roof upon true mechanical principles must first consider the strength of the walls upon which the roof is to be placed. The remarks on roofing from " Isaac Ware's Complete Body of Architecture," will give as much general Instruction upon the construction of this important part of a building as can be necessary in a work of this sort : — " The great caution is that the roof be neither too heavy or too slight, but of the two the over weight is more to be regarded than too much slight- ness, the roof being intended not only to cover the building but to press upon the walls, and by that bearing to unite and hold all f 3 106 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. together ; this it will not be massive enough to perform if too little timber is used, but in practice the great and common error is on the other side by loading the roof too much, and he will do the most acceptable service to his profession who will shew how to retrench and form a roof of the same dimensions of equal utility with a smaller quantity of timber ; he will thus take off an unnecessary load from the walls, and a large and useless expense to the owner." The forms of roofs are various ; the three principal kinds are, the flat, the square, and the pointed ; to these we may add the pinnacle roof, the double ridged, and the mutilated roof ; the latter is, by some architects, called the Mansard roof, after the name of a French architect, its inventor. The most simple form of a roof is that of two rafters meeting at the top, thus — but a very slight observer will see that the rafters, having no other support than the walls, will be very likely, when the roof comes to be covered, to thrust the walls down by their lateral pressure upon them : to remedy this a beam was introduced, called the tie-! earn, into which the ends of the rafters were inserted, thus — The sole o31ce of the tie-beam is to prevent the rafters from pushing out the walls ; the weight upon which is greater since the introduction of the tie-beam than it was before ; but the pressure is now perpendicular, which, unless carried to excess, is rather calcu- lated to strengthen than weaken the walls of a building. The tie- CARPENTER AND JOINER. 107 beam is of use also in carrying the ceiling of the apartments, and in some cases it is made to bear floors ; but the less the tie-beams are strained the better, as it is the overstraining this very important part of the roof that occasions the falling of the whole building. The tie-beam seen in the cut is supposed to be short — tying together a roof of not more than sixteen feet span ; but if the beam is required to be twice that length, without any support from the centre of the building, it will be liable to bend downwards in the middle from its own weight ; to remedy this a support is required, which is afforded by the introduction of the king-post, marked a in the annexed cut. A common observer, unacquainted with the principles of carpentry, would suppose, from looking at the roof, that the tie-beam supported the king-post, whilst in reality the contrary is the case. The king- post appears to be a pillar resting on the beam, whereas it really operates as a string ; and an iron rod of one-sixteenth the dimen- sions of the king-post would answer the same purpose. The king- post is sometimes mortised into the tie-beam, and pins are put through the joint ; but the best method is to connect the tie-beam and the king-post by an iron strap, resembling a stirrup, which is fastened at its upper ends into the king-post, and passes round the tie-beam : here the beam plainly appears to hang in the stirrup, and the beam can at all times be restored to its exact level by raising or sinking the iron stirrup. Having found how the rafter may be prevented from thrusting out the wall by the tie-beam, and how the latter may be strength- ened when it bends with its own weight, by the introduction of the king-post, it will be necessary also to strengthen the rafters, as they will also be much longer if the tie-beam is of greater length, and they will of course have to carry a much greater weight of external covering : to give the rafters support, the end of the king-post is wider than the centre, and shaped with an oblique shoulder as seen at c in the cut ; the braces are mortised into the edge of the rafters at their centre, and also into the projecting parts of the king-post : the braces are very powerful in resisting compression, while the king- post is equally so in resisting extension ; and the rafters being thus reduced to half their former length, have now four times their former relative strength. It may be useful to state the names of the various parts of a roof in the annexed cut : a the king-post, b the tie-beam, c c the rafters, d d the braces, e the iron stirrup. 108 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. This brief explanation of the principles upon which simple roofs are constructed, will be sufficient to shew the judgment and skill required in the workman: but a great deal more is required when the roofings for theatres, churches, and other large buildings are to be formed. Roofs have been constructed sixty feet wide, though there has not been in them a piece of timber more than ten feet long and four inches square. The roof is, in fact, that part of the building that requires the greatest degree of skill, and where the exhibition of science is more wanted than in any other part. The framing of a large roof is considered by the scientific Carpenter as the very touchstone of proficiency in his art, and there is nothing that tends more to show his fertility of judgment and his knowledge of the principles of his profession. The practical Car- penter unfortunately, however, is generally ignorant even of the elementary principles of mechanical science ; and too frequently our most experienced Carpenters have no other knowledge of their business than what arises from experience and natural sagacity : under such circumstances, what can we expect but that works framed by those who possess only superficial knowledge of their profession, should either tumble down or fall into premature decay ? The tools required by the Carpenter are the following : — The adze : seen at 1 in the annexed cut, with this he smoothes the pro- tuberances and inequalities of beams or rafters that are too large to allow of planing. 2 the axe, used for cutting pieces of timber to the size and shape required. 3 the plane, by which he makes the rough pieces of timber smooth. 4 and 5 are the plane irons or cutting tools of the plane. 6 is the gage, by which he marks the distances on the timber. The mallet, the hammer, chisels, and saws, are too well known to require description. The plate will shew a Carpenter employed at the bench, planing a piece of timber, CARPENTER AND JOINER. 109 while a Joiner on the opposite side of the bench is engaged in joining moulding together. The Joiner requires a much greater number of tools than the Carpenter, as almost every moulding requires a different plane-iron ; the annexed cuts will give an idea of the planes named a plough and a smoo thing-plane. The gouges, chisels, and saws are all of a finer description, as the work requires a proportionate degree of attention and ability. Staircases, balusters, and hand-rails, all which require to be set out upon geometrical principles, and executed with the greatest precision and care ; elegant doors, door-cases, wainscoting, cornices, shutters, &c, are all the work of the Joiner. He also forms columns, niches, 110 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and other work exhibited in shop-fronts, churches, or other public buildings, and it is scarcely possible for a man to be a practical Joiner that is not sufficiently acquainted with geometry to form the geometrical lines for working drawings of the subject under his hand. The Italian architects, Serlio and Andrew Palladio, bestowed great attention on their designs on Carpentry, and may be said to be the founders of the modern mode of architecture. Palladio's book was translated in 1670, by Godfrey Richards, an English- man. There are a number of other excellent works upon Car- pentry and Joinery. The following are the most useful : — " Moxon's Mechanical Exercises," the second edition of which ap- peared in 1693 ; " Halfpenny's Art of Sound Building," 1725 ; " The Carpenter's Companion," by Smith, 1733 ; " The British Carpenter," by Francis Price, 1765; " The Builder's Treasury," and other works upon the same subject, by Batty Langby, 1741 ; " A Complete Body of Architecture," by Vare, 1768 ; " The Practical House Carpenter," by Pain, 1791 ; and " The Carpenter's New Guide," by Peter Nicholson, whose works upon Architecture, par- ticulary on Carpentry and Joinery, have been more read and bene- ficially studied than those of any other writer. It would take up too much of the space of this work to enumerate all the writers upon mechanics connected with the art of building within the last twenty years. From the preceding observations on Carpenters' and Joiners' work, it is evident that the youth intended to become a Carpenter, should have a better education than is usually bestowed upon boys that are apprenticed to this business. Carpenters' work, as has been shown, requires strength and ingenuity. The premium required with an apprentice to a Carpenter and Joiner, in the common run of business, *s from forty to sixty pounds ; and it is desirable that a boy should be apprenticed to a master that understands both Carpentry and Joinery, as he may frequently be able to obtain employment in one branch when he cannot in the other. The Carpenter and Joiner find their own tools when they work as journeymen ; it costs a con- siderable sum to fit up a chest of tools, in some cases upwards of forty pounds, and there is a continual expense in keeping them polished and sharpened fit for use. The wages of a journeyman Carpenter or Joiner in London, is about thirty shillings per week, or five shillings per day, when they work from six o'clock in the morning CARPENTER AND JOINER. Ill to the same hour at night : in the summer time they obtain thirty five shillings per week, by working from five o'clock in the morning, till seven at night. It is a matter of surprise that, in a business like this, there is not something like a proportionate payment for a journeyman according to his usefulness and ability : or that in cases where that system is acted upon the journeymen themselves do all they can to resist it. It cannot be supposed that the value to the master of the uneducated man, who has no other knowledge of the work he is doing than what he derives from the pattern placed before him, and who requires continual superin tendance to prevent him from falling into error (and this is the case with fifteen workmen out of twenty even at the present time), we repeat that such a work- man's time cannot be so valuable as that of the intelligent Carpenter, who has devoted his leisure time to the study of the principles upon which the most intricate branches of his business are performed, and who is capable of executing work placed before him without any directions. Yet it has been the system upon all occasions for the men to combine to produce an equalization of wages. The idea has never been promulgated, to our knowledge, but would it not be more con- sistent for the trade to appoint competent workmen to sit as a board of examiners of the different workmen, and to class them according to their proficiency in their art ? Would it not hold out an induce- ment for gradual improvement, as the workman that was rejected at one period, need not be shut out from offering himself for ex<- amination as often as he pleases ? The expense of this regulation would be trifling among a large body of workmen, and would tend greatly to increase their usefulness and their respectability. The capital required to become a master Carpenter must be com- mensurate with the extent of his business. In places where building is going on briskly a clever workman is frequently taken by the hand by the proprietor of the building, and assisted by advances of money or immediate payments. The journeyman whose good con- duct and knowledge of his business has gained him support of this kind, may push his way without capital. Numbers of the greatest builders in London at the present time became masters in this way ; but the capitalist will always have the most advantageous employment. The Carpenters were a very ancient fraternity of the City of London, they were incorporated by letters patent of Edward IN., in the year 1344, by the name of " the Master, Wardens, Assistants, 112 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and Commonalty of the Mystery of the Freemen of the Carpenters of the City of London." The Carpenters' Company of the City of London, at the present time, either care so little for their civic privileges, or are not sufficiently numerous to support their cor- porated honours, that they have not possession of their hall, which is situated in London Wall ; it is an elegant building, the ceiling of the dining-hall is magnificent. The building has for many years been let as a carpet warehouse. The arms of the Company are -annexed. CARPET-WEAVER. The art of weaving carpets is carried on to a great extent in England at the present period, as they are now so generally used, not only by the more affluent classes of society, but by the middle, and even the more humble classes \ indeed there are few decent journeymen mechanics who have not a carpet of some kind to spread over their apartment on particular occasions; and it. is scarcely possible to go into the parlour of a tradesman or shopkeeper without finding the floor carpeted. This general demand does not tend to increase the price of carpets ; on the contrary, such is the simple construction of the loom, and the process of weaving carpets is so easily taught, that the supply keeps pace with the demand, and the manufacturers compete with each other in the, elegance of their patterns and excellence of their workmanship. The engraving will shew the form of the loom, and the manner of sitting to work at it ; CARPET-WEAVER. 113 and the following description will enable the reader to comprehend the process of weaving. The loom, as will be seen by the plate, is placed upright ; the perpendicular frames are strong enough to bear two large rollers placed horizontally ; to the upper roller the warp, which are the threads that go lengthwise, is fastened in a small groove made in the whole length of the roller. The warp can be continued to any length ; the end of each of the threads of the warp is fastened to a groove in the bottom roller, which the workman turns round till the threads are drawn sufficiently tight to work upon. The warp in this mode of weaving is all one colour, and the pattern is formed by the woof, or yarn that goes across the warp. Before the Weaver commences he prepares a number of small spindles with woollen yarn of the different colours required in the carpet. The more colours it contains the greater number of spindles he will require, and as this will cause an extra quantity of work, it will be easily seen why the patterns that contain a number of colours are most expensive. The warp is divided into portions containing ten threads, and before the Weaver begins to use any of the spindles containing the woollen yarn, he refers to the pattern which is kept constantly before him. Every square on the pattern is divided into ten equal parts, corresponding with the threads of the warp, and between these parts the pattern and colours are correctly traced, and the Weaver, taking up one of the spindles with the ground colour, works it in and out of the threads of the warp, and over a long piece of iron wire of the requisite thickness. Ladies that have worked upon canvass with cruels of different colours, and have made the raised edges of urn rugs, or tea-pot stands, will have no difficulty in comprehending this process. When the Weaver comes to a fresh colour in the pattern, he takes up the corresponding colour on the spindle, and so on till he has worked the pattern entirely across the warp. When the work becomes too high for him to proceed conveniently, he winds it round the bottom roller ; and in this way he proceeds till the carpet is finished. The reader will observe that we have been speaking of the weaving of that sort of carpeting called Wilton or Brussels ; they only differ from each other in a trifling degree. In the Brussels carpeting the wire over which the woof is worked is drawn out when it is completely covered, leaving the woollen yarn in small loops ; but in Wilton, or other carpets that are required to be shaggy, the 114 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. wires are made thin and sharp at one end ; so that when they are drawn out they cut the loops and leave the work a sort of shag. In Scotch or Kidderminster carpeting the pattern is formed by the double warp, as in other weaving. The warp is of the colours required, which seldom exceed four, and are often less. The woof, which is also coarse yarn, is thrown between them. Carpet-weaving is a good business for the master that can command a large capital : it is a laborious, and not a very healthy employment for the workmen. The journeymen can earn from twenty-five shillings to two pounds per week, according to the work they are employed upon. CARVER AND GILDER. The trades of a Carver and Gilder on wood are generally com- bined in name but not in practice, as there are but few picture-frame makers and Gilders that know any thing about carving. When gothic architecture had attained perfection, which it may fairly be said to have done in the beautiful style called florid gothic, it began to decline by the introduction of what is called the perpendicular gothic ; in this style the windows, buttresses, piers, in short, every part of the building was divided into parallelograms, or a succession of oblong panels : this chequer work would have looked exceed- ingly tame had not each end of the panels been ornamented by carving. The ornaments of Henry the Seventh's Chapel at West- minster, will shew the quantity of work that was required from the Carvers, both in wood and stone, when that style of archi- tecture prevailed. The reformation of the Church that so quickly followed the completion of the elaborate chapel before mentioned, put a stop to this style of building. When the excitement that so great a change caused had subsided, and building began to revive, the baronial castles were either taken down or remodelled ; the weapons of war, which formed the principal ornaments of the banqueting hall of the feudal chief, gave place to elegant pilasters carved in oak, and from their capitals were suspended carved fruit and flowers, executed with such boldness and fidelity, that the works of Grinlin, Gibbons, and others, justly excite admiration at the CARVER AND GILDER. 115 present time: and if it were suddenly to become the fashion to adopt that style of ornament, a new race of workmen must be found, as we have no Carvers on wood at the present time that would be able to compete with the ancient specimens, or even those that are to be seen in many of the city churches constructed after the fire of London. At the present time carving is beginning to revive ; the ornaments for the corners of large picture-frames, frames for looking-glasses, and other work that a few years ago was executed in composition, are now carved in soft wood. Martin, in his Circle of the Mechanic Arts, makes some just observations on the state of the trade twenty or thirty years ago : " Carving in wood has long been in the back ground as a branch of the arts, nor can this be wondered at when the methods in which it is commonly taught is taken into considera- tion. A boy, with very little education and no previous knowledge of drawing, is bound apprentice to a Carver, and he is expected to go to his bench and follow the beaten track of those who are ac- quainted only with the practical part of the trade, and who can give no reasons for the rules which their experience suggests. Among the men that are at all capable of instructing the boy in a proper manner, there are very few who will take much concern or trouble about the business; they are indeed sometimes generous enough to teil him that it is only by gaining a competent knowledge of drawing and modelling that he can succeed ; and advise him to devote his leisure hours to this purpose — a sacrifice which a youth is seldom inclined to make — and therefore at the end of seven years he is sent into the world as a Carver, with as little knowledge as those whom he has been obliged servilely to imitate during the whole of his apprenticeship. This ignorance might have been fully obviated if the youth had been previously instructed in drawing and model- ling ; by means of which a person would attain a much higher degree of perfection in the art of carving in two years, than those that have practised for twenty without these advantages." These remarks are as just now as they were then; and it is from the workmen having only the power of re-producing certain patterns which have probably been invented and modelled for them by an artist, that the same pattern prevails not only in every looking-glass or picture frame, but in every other article where carving is introduced. The boy that would become a good Carver should be taught to draw, in the first place, simple designs in scroll work or arabesque orna- 113 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. merits. When he has sufficient command of the pencil to copy drawings correctly, he should copy every large veined leaf he can obtain, observing them in every direction, and placing tnem in situations to form groups, either for centre or angle pieces; when he can thus draw leaves and tendrils with accuracy and spirit, he may proceed to model a leaf in clay, and he will be astonished to find how much easier it is to imitate nature by this means than he imagines. He must first temper the clay with his hand till it is soft and ductile, moistening it with water when requisite ; then pressing the lump to a board he will mould the mass into the general form of the leaf with his fingers ; then with wooden tools or scrapers, which he may easily make out of short pieces of wood, he will take out the hollow parts of the leaf, leaving the fibres in bold projections. If the youth wishes to preserve this model, he can have the clay baked ; if not, he must let the surface of the clay get sufficiently dry, so that oil may be rubbed over it ; common plaster of Paris may then be poured over it, which, when set, will form a mould for as many of the same kind of leaves as may afterwards be required. It is in this way that the moulds for composition ornaments are made. In proceeding to carve on wood, a drawing of the subject must first be made upon the block, which is cut from lime-tree. The Carver then proceeds to get the rough masses out first, with the proper tools formed of steel, precisely in the way he modelled in clay ; and here may be seen the advantage possessed by a person that can model in clay over one who cannot. He can produce any number of patterns, and invent and combine pleasing groups, and may thus defy competition among the inferior workmen who have not this knowledge of the true principles of the art of carving. There are various sorts of gilding, such as gilding metal, which is called water gilding, and will be described under the proper head. The person designated a Carver and Gilder is a Gilder on wood, and it is his business to spread leaf-gold upon picture-frames, moulding, and furniture, where it may be required ; the gilding on wood is divided into oil gilding and burnished gilding. Oil gilding is a very simple process. In some boiled linseed-oil, which may always be bought ready prepared at the colour shops, mix a sufficient quantity of the best Oxford ochre, by grinding it finely on the oil stone ; the ochre need not be supplied in so large a quantity as to become a paint, but merely to give the oil a body ; this may be preserved for use, and the longer it is kept the better it CARVER AND GILDER. 117 will be, provided the air is kept from it. The work to be gilded must first be scraped and well rubbed with pumice stone or fine sand-paper, and afterwards have a coat or two of white lead and linseed-oil ; when this is dry, polish it with the pumice stone to take off the inequalities of the surface, and then, taking some of the gold size previously prepared, try a little of it on the wood : and if the white paint is not seen through the gold size, it is too thick and must be thinned with a little linseed-oil : spread this size over the whole of the work, and let it dry for a few hours. In order to ascertain its fitness for receiving the gold, the work must be touched with the end of the finger, and if the size is dry enough to make the finger appear to stick to it, it is what is called tacky ; in this state it is fit to be gilded : but if the size comes off easily without sticking, it is not sufficiently dry. If the reader refer to the plate he will see a Gilder in the act of laying on the gold upon a frame that has been properly sized : with one hand he holds the cushion, which is merely a flat board covered with soft leather ; at the bottom of the board a small loop or strap is nailed, through which the thumb is placed : the Gilder then blows a few leaves of gold out of the book upon the cushion, and with a small knife, shaped like a palette knife, he can spread them as he pleases upon the leather, and cut the leaves into pieces of the size he requires for the work. The Gilder should be particularly careful while standing to work to avoid any draught or current of air, as that will prevent the gold-leaf from lying flat upon the cushion, and will either prevent the cutting of it or will blow it away from the tip, causing a waste of time and metal. The paper hood placed round three sides of the cushion will protect the gold in a great degree from the draught while it is upon the cushion ; but that can have no effect when the gold is taken from it with the tip. The engraving will shew the cushion, the knife, and the brush with which the gold is applied to the work ; this is called a tip, and is formed by putting a few fine hairs between two pieces of card: when the tip is used it is generally slightly rubbed on the cheek of the Gilder, and by this means it imbibes sufficient moisture to take up the gold from the cushion. When the work is entirely covered with the gold, it must be gently pressed with a small silk bag filled with cotton, and the loose gold brushed off with a fine hog's hair brush ; and if any places are seen where the gold has not adhered to the size, it will be better to touch them with a little 118 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. japanner's gold size ; then cut the gold-leaf to the dimensions required and as the size will dry quickly the gold may be applied almost immediately. This sort of gilding is very durable, and well calcu- lated for outside work, as it will stand the weather ; and is much less expensive than burnished gilding. Burnished gilding is executed in the following manner: the moulding or frame to be gilded is first whitened a number of times with fine whiting mixed with strong size ; one coat of which must be allowed to dry before another is laid on ; and while each coat is wet the hollows and grooves of the moulding must be carefully cleaned out and kept sharp and clear with gouges and small chisels, so that the number of coats of whiting may not spoil the shape of the moulding or the ornaments of the frame. If the whiting is laid on properly the work will not require much polishing ; if it is rough or spotty it must be rubbed with pumice and water till the whole is reduced to a fine surface. During the process of polishing but little should be done at a time, or the water will penetrate the coats of whiting and make them thin, and the gilding in those parts will look poor. The strong size used by Gilders is made in the follow- ing manner : take a clean saucepan, of any size most convenient, fill it nearly with water, and when it is heated as much as the hand can bear keep putting in cuttings of parchment, pressing them down with the hand till the saucepan is nearly full ; then let them boil an hour or two, and the parchment cuttings will produce a strong size ; pass it through a hair sieve, and it will be fit for use. Too much should not be made at a time, as it soon gets stale, and then it is of no service. This size does for all the previous work. The clear size is made from parchment cuttings that have been washed clean ; the water is kept clear, it is not boiled so long as the strong size, and is strained through finer sieves. Burnished gold size is made by taking one pound of pipe clay, and putting it into an earthen pan full of water : when soaked pour off the water and grind it on a stone with a muller ; when it is finely ground put it into a pan, and take half an ounce of the best black lead, and the eighth of an ounce of mutton suet, and pound and grind the fat and the lead together ; then put it into another pan, and grind half an ounce of the best red chalk, to which put a proper quantity of the pipe clay and the other materials, and grind them well together : any quantity may be made by observing the above proportions. The top of the size should be kept moist if a large CARVER AND GILDER. 119 quantity is wanted by pouring water over it now and then, when it will always be ready for use. When the mouldings have been properly prepared by the whiting, and afterwards polished, wash them over with a mixture of stone, ochre, and fine size. When this is dry, make the surface even by rubbing the work over with fine sand paper : this must be applied lightly. The mouldings being now prepared for the gold size, take a piece of it about twice the size of a walnut, and dissolve it in about half a pint of water, with which brush the work twice over : those parts that are intended to be burnished should have a third coat. The gold is now placed, as in oil gilding, on the cushion, and cut into pieces of the shape required. Before it is laid on the work, about eighteen inches of the moulding must be wetted with a large swanquill brush, and the gold laid on while the work is in that state. When this is finished wet another portion, and so on until the whole is covered with the gold leaf. When the whole is dry and the superfluous gold is brushed off, proceed to burnish the parts that are intended to appear bright with an agate burnisher. Where composition ornaments are made use of, they are procured from the makers, a few of whom reside in London. If the ornaments are hard and dry they will become sufficiently soft by being wrapped in a damp cloth for a few hours. They are fastened to the frames with glue or strong size. For a description of the leaf gold see the article Goldbeater. Gilding is a profitable, and not a very laborious business, it carving is not added to it. A common education only is required for a youth that is to be apprenticed to this business. If the boy is quick and clever during his apprenticeship he will learn to do a number of things in his business which will be profitable when he becomes a master ; such as picture cleaning, print restoring, &c. which in many instances are done by the Gilders of picture frames, though they do not properly belong to their business. The premium required with a boy that is boarded in the house is about 40/. A journeyman can earn from 30s. to 36s. per week ; and it does not require much capital to commence business as a master, provided he can obtain ready money work. If he has to give credit, of course he must have a capital according to the amount of the work he does upon credit, as workmen's wages and part of the material he uses must be paid for in ready cash 120 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CHASERS. — See Goldsmith. CHEESEMONGER. Like all other trades that consist of merely buying and selling, the business of a Cheesemonger is only profitable to those who deal extensively, particularly at the present period, when every pursuit that is supposed to yield certain profit upon the employment of capital, without requiring previous knowledge of the business, is entered upon without due consideration, and not only to the ruin of the speculators but also to those who are obliged to enter into com- petition with them. The Cheese-factor or provision merchant, purchases cheese, butter^ and bacon from every part of the British Empire, or indeed from any part of Europe where he can purchase with advantage, and sells it to the retail dealers of the metropolis. If a provision-merchant is doing well, that is, pursuing a steady trade and realizing a profit without overcharging the retailers, a number of persons that have money think it would be a good speculation, as it is called, to embark in the same trade, and they rush into it : money will procure goods, but the difficulty is to find customers ; the regular, steady shopr keepers do not like to change factors without a motive ; goods are offered at a low price, and the old factor finds his connexion is declining, to retain which he too sells without profit ; this for a time makes the retailers successful, and they soon begin to compete with each other, when the profit is reduced in proportion to the prices. It may be said that during this time, the public are gainers, though we doubt much if they are in the long run. But this work is not intended to treat of the gain of the public, but of the loss or gain of particular trades ; and there is no retail shopkeeper that has realized a little property by the steady pursuit of fair trade, but must see that great competition in the wholesale trade invariably leads to ruinous competition among the retailers. It therefore follows that they would be studying their own interests by adhering to a steady CHEESEMONGER. J21 regular course of trade rather than by the encouragement of greedy speculators, who, without slaking their own thirst, pollute the fountain that others have to drink from. There is no great deal of talent required in a retail Cheesemonger : he should be a judge of the articles he deals in, and be able to cal- culate the market, that is, the probable increase or decrease of price at particular periods, so that he may not overstock himself with a particular article at a season when he may reasonably suppose it will fall in price. Many retail Cheesemongers import butter from Holland ; and some purchase the produce of whole dairies from the dairy-men of the midland counties of England, giving a certain price per pound from one half-year to another ; by this arrangement the retailer can calculate upon the supply, and the price to the public is regular. Speculation and agricultural distress have in a great measure altered this mode of business ; the butter is now sent from the country in flats to Newgate-market, and sold to the retail shop- keepers by the butter-salesman, who returns the money at stated periods, deducting a commission for selling it : thus, neither the farmer, retailer, or the public, can at all calculate upon the price, as that entirely depends upon the demand from day to day. A great quantity of salted butter and bacon comes from Ireland ; the latter is now so well cured that it is quite equal to the bacon from any part of England, and as it is sold cheap, the importation of Irish bacon is a great advantage to the labouring part of the population. It is not usual to take apprentices in this business ; indeed there is so little to learn that a much less time than seven years would suffice to teach all that is required in this business ; the boys that are employed as errand boys, as they grow up become shopmen. Shopman to a Cheesemonger is a dirty, laborious employment, and the wages are not very good. A small capital will enable a person to get into this business ; but as has been before observed, the profits of the trade at the present time are so small, that unless he does a considerable business it is scarcely worth following. G 122 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. Chemistry is an art that teaches how to perform certain physical operations by which bodies that are discernable by the senses, or that may be rendered so, and that are capable of being contained in vessels, may, by suitable instruments, be so changed, that particular determined effects may be thence produced, and the causes of these effects understood by the effects themselves, to the manifold im- provement of various arts. The artisans that first discovered the means of separating metals from the ore, of melting, combining, and moulding them ; and those persons who first observed the properties of plants, and extracted their vegetable substance- for medicine or any other purpose, were the first Chemists. The progress of chemistry has been gradual ; every century having produced some elucidation of that which was before considered either as a phenomenon or not at all understood. To enter into a history of the chemical discoveries made in every country at various periods, would occupy many volumes. The practice of this art led many of the ancient Chemists into the most visionary speculations : thus the art of mixing or transfusing the essence of one metal or substance into another, for the purpose of forming gold, was the favourite science of the ancient Chemists ; another class occupied themselves in forming the elixir vitae, or liquor of life; but these visionary pursuits or speculations, useless as they were for the furtherance of the objects for which the experiments were made, were wonderfully beneficial in discovering the properties of many substances, not only in their primitive state, but when combined with others, and laid the foundation of the improved state of chemical knowledge. The Chemist has two ways of becoming acquainted with the properties and structure of bodies, viz, by decomposition and com- bination : by the former the various parts that form the mass are separated ; and by the latter the separate elements may be re-com- bined with others, so as to form a new body, with different properties and effects. It is impossible for any one person to have a knowledge of this extensive science ; nothing that we eat, drink, or wear, or e ven the air we breathe, but is capable of being chemically analyzed. CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. 123 The philosophical Chemist, takes an enlarged view of the ope- ration of the laws of nature upon particular bodies, and seeks for proof of the truth of those laws by observing the affinity or opposition of substances to each other, and endeavours to unite two opposite qualities by introducing others that have an affinity to both. Experimental Chemists are men that only act upon the knowledge already gained, to produce by decomposition or combination certain substances whose properties are well known, and have already been beneficially applied to the furtherance of some of the arts necessary for the health, comfort, or pleasure of human existence ; having at the same time a desire to increase their knowledge by the application of any new means which the practice of their art may lead them to. Such are the Chemists of the present day ; and it is to them we owe the great improvements in our arts and manufactures. Dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing, enamelling, and many other arts owe all their superiority to the labours of the practical Chemist. Fire, air, earth, and water — are all made subservient to various purposes, that persons ignorant of chemical science can have no idea of. Those Chemists that direct their attention to the study of the phenomena that are found in the atmosphere are called meteorological Chemists. They explain the causes of rain, hail, snow, and mist ; and tell the nature and properties of the different substances or fluids : while those that study the operations of nature beneath the surface of the earth are called geological Chemists. " There is a chemistry- of the mineral kingdom, which comprises metallurgy and assaying, and the examination of all the inorganic substances, as stones, salts, metals, bitumen, waters ; a chemistry of the vegetable kingdom, which analyzes plants and their immediate products ; and a chemistry of the animal kingdom, which studies all substances derived from living or dead animals. This last is subdivided into physiological chemistry, which considers the changes produced in animal substances by the operation of life ; pathological chemistry, which traces the changes produced by disease or organic defects ; therapeutic or pharmaceutic chemistry, which teaches the nature and preparation of medicines, shows the means of preserving them, and exposes the pretensions of empirics ; hygietic chemistry, which acquaints us with the means of constructing and arranging our habitations, so as to render them healthy, of examining the air which we must breathe in them, guarding against contagious diseases, g 2 124 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. choosing wholesome food, discovering the influence of occupation, fashion, and custom on the health." Chemistry is of great use in the preparation of the various drugs or compounds obtained from different substances, and used as medicine. Park, in his Esssay on the Study of Chemistry, has a beautiful appeal to all persons engaged in the healing art, on the necessity of acquiring a knowledge of chemistry : " Are you a prac- titioner of medicine and have acquired great and deserved reputation in your profession ? If you are not a Chemist you must recollect many painful disappointments, and must have witnessed very unex- pected results from the effects of medicine, when two or more powerful remedies have been administered in conjunction. A slight knowledge of chemistry would have informed you that many of the formula oi the pharmacopoeia which are salutary and efficacious, are rendered totally otherwise if given with certain other medicines. It is necessary for every student in medicine to make himself master of the chemical affinities which subsist between the various articles of the materia medica ; this will inspire him with professional confidence, and he will in a great measure be as sure of producing any particular chemical effect upon his patients as he would if he were operating in his own laboratory. Besides, the human body is itself somewhat analagous to a laboratory, in which, by the varied functions of secre- tion and absorption, composition and decomposition are perpetually going on ; how, therefore, can a medical man ever expect to understand the animal economy if he be unacquainted with the effects which certain causes chemically produce ? Every inspiration we take, and every pulse that vibrates within us, effects a chemical change upon the animal fluids, the nature of which requires some chemical know- ledge to perceive and understand. Many thousand lives have been lost by poison, which might have been saved had the medical prac- titioner a proper knowledge of chemistry ; and though the operation of many of the poisons upon the system may be well understood, nothing but a knowledge of chemistry can enable the practitioner to administer such medicine as will counteract their baneful effects." Every substance in nature is an object of chemical investigation. The labours of learned men that have practised this most beneficial and useful art in early ages have only been the stepping stone to their successors. The Chemists of' the present day have not only made great discoveries, but they have also simplified the science of Chemistry by the introduction of proper terms for every combination CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. 125 of the various substances. A slight description of the way in which modern Chemists have divided and named the component parts of the four grand divisions of nature — air, fire, water, and earth — will, it is presumed, be useful and interesting to every class of readers. AIR. The atmosphere in which we breathe was formerly considered a simple element, but it is now known to contain two gases, both of them of the highest importance to the preservation of the life and health of every thing upon the earth. Those gases are called oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen gas is a light substance, without any sensible colour, taste, or smell ; it is elastic, like all airs ; that is, it can be pressed into smaller bulk by a weight or pressure on it, but on this being removed it regains its former bulk : this it will do under all circum- stances, and hence it and other airs have been called permanently elastic. But what renders oxygen gas famous is, its power of sup- porting animal life. It forms a fifth part of the air we breathe, and without its pressure we could not exist for half an hour. All animals in some way or other, breathe it, or take it into their bodies, and hence it has got the name of vital air. By this breathing, it is taken up by the lungs into our blood ; and if a man or animal were con- fined into a small space, so that he had only a limited supply of air, the moment he had exhausted all the oxygen, he would begin to gasp and pant, and in a very short time would die like one suffocated. Oxygen is also necessary for the support of combustion, or the burning of inflammable substances. It is from a constant current of this gas going to our grates that the coals blaze out and afford heat and light ; for without free access to air, and a supply of oxygen, no substance will continue to burn. Now, pure oxygen, such as may be collected in a jar or phial, makes substances burn much brighter than they will do in the common air, which, as we have said, contains only a fifth part of this gas. If you take a small taper or candle, and tie it to a wire, and dip it into a jar of oxygen, you will perceive the light immediately to become ten times more brilliant than before. If you blow out the flame, and immediately immerse it, the taper will rekindle with a sudden burst of flame ; but as the gas in the jar is gradually consumed, the brilliancy of the flame ceases, and at last the taper is extinguished when no more 126 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. oxygen remains to feed it, If a bit of phosphorus be put into ajar of this gas, and set fire to with the point of a red-hot wire, the flame is of the most dazzling* brightness. Such is the power of oxygen in promoting combustion, that even metals may be burned in it. Thus instead of the taper, if you introduce a piece of thin iron wire coiled up, with a small bit of lighted charcoal or touchwood on one end, it will burn with a bright light, throwing out a number of brilliant sparks. A little sand should be put into the bottom of the phial, otherwise the intense heat of the iron will crack and melt the glass. In this instance, the oxygen unites with the metal, and forms a brown oxide of iron ; and as a proof that the gas is thus consumed, if, when introducing the wire you cork up the jar at the top, so as to prevent any air from rushing in, you will find that, after the combustion, if you reverse the phial into the water-trough, and take out its cork, the water in the trough will be forced up by external pressure, to supply the place of the oxygen. In all cases of com- bustion or burning of bodies, then, the oxygen enters into some new combination with these, and disappears as a gas. Nitrogen gas, or azote, is incapable of supporting combustion and animal life ; but by being mixed with the oxygen gas it neutralizes the latter, so that it becomes fit for respiration. Nitrogen forms a part of all animal substances. It appears to be favourable to plants, as they grow and vegetate freely in this gas : it seems to be the substance which nature employs in converting vegetables into animal substances, and to be the grand agent in animalization. It is not our intention to enter deeply into the examination of the various gases that are found in atmospheric air, formed by vapours that rise from the earth, marshes, or stagnant pools ; it is sufficient to observe that those fluids form but a trifling portion of atmospheric air. The proportions of the different gases found in the air we breathe, is calculated to be in every hundred gallons of air, about 21 parts of oxygen and 79 parts of nitrogen. A very easy experi- ment will prove the calculation to be correct : a lighted taper will not burn a moment in nitrogen gas ; if immersed in oxygen gas it burns with a splendour too great for the eye to endure ; but if four measures of nitrogen gas and one of oxygen gas are put into a jar inverted over water, and a lighted taper put into such mixture, it will burn exactly the same as it does in the atmospheric air. CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. 127 FIRE. Fire, or the matter of heat, is called by Chemists caloric, and is indispensable to the existence of man : it is with fire that in every country he prepares his food, that he dissolves metals, vitrifies rocks, hardens cla} r , softens iron, and gives to all the productions of the earth the forms and combinations which his necessities require. Caloric is derived from the rays of the sun, by combustion, by friction, by the mixture of different substances, and by means of electricity or galvinism. If it is asked what is the cause of caloric, or heat, it may be answered that it at present is one of those mysteries of nature which man at the present time has not the power of demon- strating. Philosophers that have used the greatest ingenuity and research are divided in their opinions : some have considered heat to be produced by motion among the particles of bodies, and that it has no existence independent of motion ; others suppose it to be a really distinct substance, which exists independent of every other. The effects of caloric upon other bodies incline the Chemists of the present time to the latter opinion. Park, in a note on this subject, observes, that in order to give precision to chemical language, it was necessary to find a term to distinguish the matter of heat from its effect, for whenever caloric becomes a fixed body it loses its property of affording heat. Nothing can be more evident than that caloric may exist in many substances without producing any of the effects arising from the agency of fire. Caloric is divided by Chemists into free caloric, and latent caloric : — the former is sensible heat, such as the application of fire to water ; the latter immediately imbibes a portion of the free caloric which continues to increase till it evaporates in steam. Latent caloric is that which gives no sen- sible heat to the temperature of bodies in which it exists : thus wrought iron, though quite cold to the touch, contains a large portion of latent caloric, and if it be briskly hammered for some time on an anvil it will become red hot by the action of this species of caloric which, by the percussion of hammering, is now evolved and forced out as sensible heat. While chemically combined with the iron it only tends to give it maleability and ductility, without affecting its temperature. Latent caloric exists in every substance that we are acquainted with. 128 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. WATER. This fluid is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen in the propor- tion of eighty-eight parts by weight of oxygen, and twelve of hydrogen, in every one hundred parts. We cannot go into a detail of the proof that these two gases are the component parts of water ; suffice it to say that Chemists can demonstrate it by experiment. In the brief observations on caloric, it is stated to pervade all things. There is a great portion of latent caloric in water, and when the temperature of the atmosphere is sufficiently low to deprive the water of its due proportion of caloric, it becomes ice. Near the poles water is found in this solid state, and is as hard as marble ; and the block may be made to take any shape by using the proper tools. Water also becomes solid by being combined with lime, as may be seen in mortar and cement. It also becomes solid when combined with alkaline and metallic salts. The use of water to every animal for the support of life and health is too-w r ell known to require comment. EARTH. This is the last of the four grand divisions of nature, and the study of the component parts of our globe opens a vast field of observation to the philosophical and practical Chemist. The sub- stances called earths are bodies that are incombustible and unal- terable by fire. To a cursory observer, the earths appear to be infinitely diversified, so much so, that he would probably think the different kinds innumerable; but notwithstanding the varied ap- pearance of the surface, or as far as we can penetrate it, the interior of the globe on which we dwell, the whole is divided by Chemists into nine primitive earths, and as three of these occur but seldom, the variety which is produced by the other six becomes still more remarkable. The nine primitive earths are silica, alumina, zircona, glucina, yttria, barytes, strontites, lime, and magnesia; the last four are called alkaline earths, from their having many of the properties of alkaline. Silica is a white earth without smell, and insipid to the taste ; it endures the strongest heat without alteration, but when mixed with soda or potash, it becomes fusible, in a strong fire, into glass. CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. 129 Silica is found in most solid mineral substances, particularly in gravel, sand, quartz, and flint, of which it forms nearly the whole substance; it is also the chief ingredient of the granite rocks, which constitute the most bulky material of the solid parts of our globe. Alumina is a pure clay, soft to the touch, adhesive to the tongue, emits a peculiar odour when moistened, forms a paste with water, has great affinity with colouring matter, will unite with most acids, and acquires great hardness and contracts in the fire ; it is soluble in caustic, potash, or soda. Alumina is distributed over the face of the earth in the form of clay, and from this circumstance has acquired the name of argil ; it is called alumina from its being the base of the salt call alum. This earth, on account of its apti- tude for moulding into different forms, and its property of hardening in the fire, is used in various ways — for making brick, earthen ware, crucibles, &c. ; but the alumina which is made use of for these purposes is seldom pure, as it is taken from the earth as clay without any previous preparation. Alumina is employed for numerous purposes by the dyer and calico-printer, as we have shewn in the articles upon both of these trades. Zircona is a peculiar earth, which has been found only in a mineral called zircon : it is seldom to be met with, and is so little known that it is not applied either in medicine, arts, or manufactures, Glucina is only found in a beautiful mineral called enclase, and in the precious stones, the emerald and the beryl. Glucina, when separated from the stones which contain it, is a soft, light, white powder, without taste or smell. This earth is not found in sufficient quantities to be employed in the arts, Yttria is a peculiar earth found in a black mineral called gado- linite, found at Ytterby, in Sweden. Barytes is always found united either with the sulphuric or the carbonic gas. When pure it is of a greyish white colour : like the alkalies it has the power of changing vegetable colours, and the property of making oil unite with water. It is used as a medicine, and is useful as an agent in chemical tests. Many years ago Mr. Hume made a colour from this earth. It is the only white for painting that never changes, and is known by the name of permanent white. Strontites was discovered by Dr Hope, about the year 1791, in a mineral brought from the lead mine of Strontian, in Argyleshire, and g 3 « 130 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, has been found with the same metal in but small quantities any where else. Strontites is more abundant when in union with sulphuric acid. At the present time it is applied to no particular purpose. Lime. This useful and well known earth is never found pure ; it is always in a state of combination, generally with an acid and more frequently with the carbonic acid, as in chalk, marble, and limestone ; it is also found in vegetables, and is the basis of animal bones. Magnesia is a very soft light earth, with little taste or smell, unalterable in fire and almost insoluble in water. This earth is never found in a state of purity, but always in combination with some acid. Pure magnesia, and also the sulphate and carbonate, has important uses in medicine ; calcined magnesia is a most effectual antidote to mineral poison. These are the names and qualities of the nine primitive earths : they are often found combined wonderfully with each other in various minerals, forming by an unknown process rocks, stones, gems, &c. We cannot enter further upon this very interesting art; those that wish to commence their studies in chemistry, would be bene- fited by possessing " Park's Chemical Catechism," in which the elements of the art are stated so plainly, that a learner will find no difficulty in comprehending them. Thus far we have treated of Chemistry as an art ; we have now to speak of it as a trade. The Chemist is the maker of the various medicines which are sold to the retail Druggist and the Apothecary, by whom they are sold to persons requiring them. The exact strength and quality of every article used as medicine is accurately denned by the College of Surgeons, and the working Chemist pro- duces them for sale according to the rules which are printed in a book, called the " Pharmacopoeia." The place where he works is called a laboratory ; this apartment is generally constructed with an open chimney, so that if an explosion should take place, the ignited materials may find a ready escape. The furnaces, retorts, stills, and other apparatus, are too numerous to be described in this work. The apparatus shewn in the plate is a copper still and worm tub, marked a a ; the table and blow- pipe at B ; retorts and other apparatus are seen on the table where the Chemist is employed. This will give the reader some idea of CHEMIST AND DRUGGIST. 131 the expensive apparatus required by a working Chemist. A youth apprenticed to this business should have a liberal education, a retentive memory, and a persevering" disposition. The premium required upon becoming a pupil or apprentice to a practical Chemist is liberal, but entirely depends on the sphere in which the Chemist moves and the degree of estimation his talents as a Chemist can command. The wholesale Druggist imports all the drugs that the working Chemist or retail Druggist may require. The retail Drug- gist usually styles himself a Chemist and Druggist, and in some cases the Chemist really does keep a Druggist's shop, and sells by retail the medicines he makes in his laboratory. The Druggist is only the mixer and compounder of the various chemical preparations, according to the rules laid down in the " London or Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. There was formerly great interest and exertion used by the Apothecaries' Company to have the superintendence of the Druggists of London, but the latter successfully resisted the attempt, and it was decided in several cases that came before the judges, that the Apothecaries' Company had no jurisdiction over the sellers of drugs, who are only liable to the visitation of the Members of the College of Physicians, who alone have the power of examining the articles the Druggists deal in. CHILD-BED LINEN WAREHOUSE-KEEPER. This is a pleasing and profitable business, and can be carried on by females. The variety of articles that are required by both mother and child when the latter is first introduced to the world, affords employment for a great number of respectable girls and women, who are paid for their services according to their ability ; the shop-keepers seldom troubling themselves to make up any article they sell. They purchase the material, cut out the work, and give it out to the various persons they employ. There are few apprentices to this business ; the young persons that are shopwomen in Child-bed Linen warehouses being selected for that purpose from among the number of the persons that are employed as workwomen who happen to possess a pleasing address, and are neat and respect- able in their personal appearance. : 132 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CHINA AND GLASS DEALERS. China and Glass-dealers are very numerous in London and the provincial towns ; they are called China-men, from their originally selling the porcelain vessels manufactured in China : but the por- celain manufactured in our own country is now so beautiful, and the painting and gilding so much superior to the foreign porcelain, as far as regards the design and workmanship, and nearly equaling the foreign china in the splendour of colours, that there is very little imported at the present time. The manufacture of the articles the China-man deals in will be given under the heads of Potter and Glass-manufacturer. Suffice it to say that the tea and dinner services, vases, &c. are purchased at the wholesale warehouses, either in town or country, and sent home in large open baskets called crates. The shopkeeper displays the various articles he deals in, to attract the attention of customers, and obtains a respectable living by the profit arising from their sale. There is very little to learn in this business, and with the assistance of a strong errand boy to take home the goods pur- chased at the shop, this is a business that can be carried on by females as well as by men. CHINA PAINTERS. Some of the specimens of English porcelain are very highly em- bellished with beautiful landscape scenery or heraldry. The value of the painting on a single plate in some cases amounts to five pounds : this painting is not executed with the ordinary colours, but with the mineral substances used in enamel painting. It is however highly necessary for the China Painter to be able to draw and paint in the usual way, or he would never be able to produce the beautiful effect frequently seen in china painting ; as he cannot see the colouis he applies while painting, he has to exercise great judgment in the application of the mixture that is to produce colour after it has been CHINA PAINTERS. 133 brought out by fusion in the kiln. For a further account of this mode of painting, see the article Enamel Painter. For the mode in which the common blue dinner services and tea sets are coloured, see the articles Potter and Porcelain-manufacturer. CIDER SELLER. The quantity of cider sold in the metropolis and other large towns during the summer months, and the daily consumption in some of the midland counties, renders it necessary to give a brief account in this work of the manufacture and sale of an article that affords the means of living to so many persons. Cider is a liquor made from the juice of apples ; its quality depending upon the sort of fruit from which it is made, and the manner of making it. Large orchards are planted in Herefordshire and Gloucestershire for the produce of apples for cider. The apples should have a red skin and a yellow fibrous pulp ; when the rind and pulp is green the cider will always be thin, but when the apples are quite ripe and drop from the trees, they are in a fit state for making cider ; they are then gathered and taken to the mill to be ground, where they are reduced as nearly as possible to a pulp or mass without lumps, which is exposed to the air for a few hours before it is pressed ; the pulp is then put into a sort of box or trough, the top of which is attached to the end of the screw of the press ; the screw is turned with a long lever, and the juice runs from the bottom of the press into tubs or tuns, where it remains a sufficient time for fermentation to take place. The vinous fermentation takes place at various periods, according to the state of the weather and the condition and quality of the fruit. The clear liquor is then racked off into proper casks, when, if it remain bright and quiet, a bottle of French brandy is added to the barrel, and the cider is made ; but if the fermentation recommences after it is in the barrel, and a scum rises to the top, it must immediately be racked off again, or the cider would be spoiled. Among the precautions used to prevent excessive fermen- tation is stumming, which is fumigating the cask with burning sulphur : this is done by burning a rag that is impregnated with 134 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sulphur in the cask, when it is about half full of the new cider, then by rolling the cask about, the gas will become incorporated with the liquor. The cider is sent to London in casks to the Cider- dealers, who sell it either in barrels or bottles to the publicans of the metropolis, who in turn retail it to the public. CLOCK-MAKER. In a commercial country like England, where almost every useful member of the community finds full employment for his time, it is of the greatest importance to have a machine for the admeasurement of the seconds, minutes, hours, and days, of which it is composed ; and therefore we cannot wonder that the desire for obtaining so useful a machine should be general. Great learning and research has been used to discover the ancient history of dials, clepsydra or water-clocks, sand-dials, &c. The Babylonians are said to be the first people that invented sun-dials. The dial of Ahaz, mentioned by Isaiah, must have existed many centuries before the Christian era. That the Greeks had sun-dials we have a positive proof, as there is an ancient Grecian dial in the British Museum, of the form of which the annexed cut will give a correct idea ; the Greek inscription informs us that it was made by " Phaedrus the son of Zoilus, a Pseonian." In the English translation of Professor Beckmann's History of the Mechanic Arts, he observes that it was not " until late in the fifth century of the Roman era that the first sun-dial was introduced into Rome; and although that was calculated for another meridian, and CLOCK-MAKER. 135 was, consequently, incorrect in its new situation, it, nevertheless, con- tinued, for ninety-nine years, to be the only instrument by which time was regulated in that celebrated city. At a later period a machine was invented at Alexandria, termed a clepsydra, or water-clock. This was, in fact, nothing more than a basin filled with water, which was emptied in a certain number of hours, through a hole in the bottom, into another vessel, in which it rose around a graduated scale of the hours : or, more simply still, a conical glass, with the scale marked on the sides ; and which, being perforated at the base, denoted the hour as the liquid subsided. But these, unartificial as they were, served the purpose of ascertaining the time with tolerable accuracy ; and to them may be traced the origin of that still common instru- ment the hour-glass. Various improvements were occasionally made in them, of the ingenuity of which we may form some idea from the description that has been given of one sent as a present to Charlemagne, in 807, by the Caliph Haroun Alraschid, which is said to have contained the figures of twelve knights, who, guarding as many doors, opened and shut them according as the hours revolved, and struck the time upon a metal bell This, indeed, has been con- sidered as the origin of our modern clocks ; but the manner in which it is mentioned in the Annales Francorum, clearly shows that it was merely a water-clock of uncommon construction. There is also a very ingenious modern machine, known under the name of a water-clock. It consists of a cylinder divided into small cells, and suspended by a thread fixed to the axis in a frame on which the hours are marked. As the water flows from one cell into another, it slowly changes the centre of gravity of the cylinder, and puts it into motion. It is supposed to have been invented in Italy, about the middle of the seventeenth century. " Both the period of the discovery and the name of the inventor of clocks moved by machinery, are uncertain. It has been ascribed to various persons, in Europe, even so early as the ninth century ; but, after a minute investigation of their several claims, there seems little doubt that the instruments of which they were the contrivers, were nothing more than some improvement, such as that already mentioned, on the water-clock, and that the origin of the present invention is not older than the eleventh century. About that time, clocks moved by weights and wheels certainly began to be used in the monasteries of Europe. But still, it seems probable that we are indebted for them to the Saracens, from whom, indeed, in the early 136 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ages, all mathematical science appears to have emanated. They were at that period, no doubt, rude in their construction ; and the numerous directions found in the ancient records of convents, for their regulation when out of order, would lead us to conclude that they must have been very imperfect in their operation. They pointed out the hour, indeed, by an index ; and it also seems that they emitted a sound ; but it does not clearly appear whether the latter is to be considered as a regular annunciation of the hours in progressive order, or only an occasional notice to the monks for the performance of their duties, according as the clock might be regu- lated, or struck, by the sacristan. The writers of the thirteenth century speak of them as being then well known ; and they had become so common in the time of Chaucer, who died in 1400, that he alludes to them as a poetical simile for the crowing of a cock : — " ' Full sikerer was his crowing in his loge, As is a clock, or an Abbey orloge.' 1 " The oldest clock of which there is any account, in this country, was erected in the year 1288, on a building called the clock-house, at Westminster. It was intended for the use of the courts of law, and it is a singular fact, that the expense was defrayed out of a fine imposed upon the chief justice of the King's Bench for altering a record of the court. It was considered of such value, that, in the reign of Henry VI., the care of it was intrusted to the Dean of St. Stephen's, with a salary of sixpence per day ; and it was still existing in the time of Queen Elizabeth. The clock-house was standing so late as 1715, when it was pulled down to make room for the buildings in Palace-yard ; and a memorial is still preserved on its site, of the former existence of the clock, in a dial, inserted in the second pediment of one of the houses opposite Westminster- hall, and on which is this remarkable motto ' discite justitiam moniti / which appears clearly to relate to the circumstances of its erection. For the credit of the judge — Radulphus de Hengham — it must not, however, be omitted, that the alteration made by him in the record of his court was solely with a view to mitigate a penalty imposed on a poor defendant. " Mention is also made of a great clock for the cathedral of Canterbury, which was erected in the year 1292, at an expense of CLOCK-MAKER. 137 thirty pounds. The most ancient clock now existing in England is that of Hampton-court palace, the date of which is 1540. " Leland gives an account of an astronomical clock, also made in England, in the reign of Richard II., by Richard de Wallingford, who, from being the son of a smith, raised himself, by his learning and ingenuity, to the dignity of Abbot of St. Albans. It not only told the hours, but the position of the sun and the fixed stars, the course of the moon, and the rise and fall of the tide; and it appears that it continued to go in Leland' s time, who was born in the latter part of the reign of Henry VII. : it was called by the inventor by the quaint name of Albion, sc. All-by-one. " Clocks were, however, for a long time confined to monasteries ; and it is remarkable, that the records of their general use, on the continent, are by no means of so earty a date as that of those we have already described as publicly known in this country. The poet Dante, indeed, who was born in 1265, mentions them in the Paradiso; and his allusion is, plainly, to a clock which struck the hour • — " * Indi come horologio che ne chiami, Nel hora che la sposa d' Idio surge, Amattinar lo sposo, perche P ami.' But the first public clock known to have been put up in Italy, was erected on a tower of the palace at Padua, early in the fourteenth century; that of Bologna was not fixed until 1356, nor that of Venice until 1497. In Spain, the first clock of which we have any account was made for the cathedral of Seville, in 1400. In France, we read in Frois- sart's Chronicles, that in the year 1332, the Duke of Burgundy removed from Courtray to his capital at Dijon, a famous clock, which struck the hours ; and which was so large, that it was carried on cars. The first great clock at Paris was erected on the palace in 1372. It was made by a German; and we may conclude from that fact, and from the circumstance of a protection being on record as granted, in the reign of -Edward III., to three Dutchmen, to exercise the art of Clock-making in England, that it flourished at an earty period in Germany : there is not, however, any certain account of a public clock having been erected in that country before the year 1395, when one was put up at Spire, the works of which cost fifty-one florins. 138 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. " The invention of pendulum clocks is due to the ingenuity of the seventeenth century ; and the honour of the discovery is dis- puted between Galileo and Huygens. Becher contends, in his work de nova temporis dimetendi theoria, published in 1680, for Galileo; and relates, though at second-hand, the whole history of the inven- tion ; adding, that one Trefler, clockmaker to the father of the then Grand Duke of Tuscany, made the first pendulum clock, at Florence, under the direction of Galileo Galilei, and that a model of it was sent to Holland. The Academy del Cimento also expressly declared, that the application of the pendulum to the movement of a clock was first proposed by Galileo, and put in practice by his son Vincenzo Galileo in 1649. But, whoever may have been the in- ventor, it is certain that the discovery never flourished till it came into the hands of Huygens, who insists, that, if ever Galileo had • entertained such an idea, he never brought it to perfection. The first pendulum clock made in England was constructed in the year 1662, by one Tromantil, a Dutchman. " Towards the close of the fifteenth century, clocks began to be used in private houses ; and about the same time mention is first made of watches. It appears that they were originally formed in the shape of an egg, or at least of an oval, and that catgut supplied the place of a metal chain, whilst they were commonly of a smaller size than those used until of late years. Of the latter, proof is afforded by the will of Archbishop Parker, dated in April, 1575, in which he bequeaths to the Bishop of Ely, his staff of Indian cane with a watch in the top. That some of them were repeaters, is also proved by the fact, that Charles XI. of France, having lost his watch in a crowd, the thief was detected by its striking ; yet the art of making these must have been' afterwards lost, for we find it mentioned as an improvement in the reign of Charles II., and a patent was obtained for it in that of James II." Since clocks have become so common as to be considered articles of household furniture, the art of making them has not been con- fined to one department of mechanics, but has become divided into various branches, so distinct from one another, that the maker of one part is frequently unacquainted with the operations of the other. Since the time that clocks became an article of our manufacture, requiring various tools and engines for facilitating their construction, the subdivision of the art into various departments was a natural consequence, which has been found to contribute to expedition and CLOCK-MAKER. 139 cheapness. A finisher of a clock has now no need to cast or cut his wheels himself, much less to make the springs, &c. That man is called a Clock-maker who finally adjusts and puts together the spring, wheels, pinions, &c. which forms the clock ; and the parties that make the various parts are called by the names of the parts they are employed upon, thus we have Clock-wheel cutters, &c. A person totally unacquainted with mechanics would, upon looking at the wheels of a clock, suppose it to be difficult to com- prehend the principle upon which such a complicated machine is made to act with such continued regularity ; but a very short explanation will be sufficient to shew this principle, and afterwards an inspection of the works of a clock will enable any person of common intellect to tell the use of every wheel ; it is therefore rather with a view to general information, than for the information of the Clock- maker, that we have entered upon the following description of the construction of a pendulum clock. If any person has observed the rollers placed over the counters in large shops, from which the shopman draws the string to tie up the parcels he sends out to his customers, he will remember that it is formed thus — now, if a stout string were wound round this roller, and a weight attached to the end of the string, it is quite evident that the weight would, when left to itself, soon reach the ground, at the same time turning the roller a number of times in its descent ; and if a hand were placed upon the axis of the roller, as seen in the cut, that would turn round as many times and with the same velocity as the roller; now if a check were contrived to counteract in a great measure the effect of the weight, and make the weight descend 140 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. slower or faster, as circumstances required, a clock would be formed. The weight hanging from the roller is then the great moving prin- ciple : and this must move a certain number of wheels, to shew the seconds, minutes, and hours, if required. It is a principle in mechanics, that if two wheels of equal size are made to act upon each other, that the movement of both will be equal ; but if a wheel one inch in diameter is made to act upon a wheel half the size, both of them having teeth or cogs cut on their edges, and those teeth placed the same distance from each other, it is quite evident that only half the teeth are required to go round the small wheel that is necessary to go round the large one, and that if the wheels are set in motion the small wheel must go round twice as fast as the large one : on the same principle, a wheel only quarter of an inch in diameter should revolve four times while the large one turned lound once. The reader will now perceive how motion can be given to the roller, and how that motion can be made to communicate to other wheels, giving them a quicker or slower motion according to the size of the wheel : this is the principle of clock-work. If a roller be placed between two metal plates, and a chain wound round the roller and a weight attached to the end of the chain, sufficiently heavy to drag it down, of course the roller will turn round till the chain is unwound. It is this chain that is required on the cylinder of the clock ; and it is the winding this chain round a roller that is commonly called winding up the clock. If it were determined that the roller should go round but once in twelve hours, there must be some means adopted to retard the motion of the cylinder. Let a wheel like the one in the cut, with seventy-two teeth or cogs in it, be firmly fixed to the cylinder, so that one cannot move without the other ; at a proper distance above this roller round which the chain is wound, another roller is placed, but much smaller than the bottom one, to the spindle of which a small wheel is attached, having CLOCK-MAKER. 141 only six teeth in it ; these teeth must be the same size as the teeth in the large wheel : if the two wheels are placed so that the teeth of one will fix into the other, it is plain that if the large wheel turns round the small wheel must also turn, and as there are twelve sixes in seventy-two, if the large wheel goes round once in twelve hours? the small wheel will go round twelve times in the same period, or in other words will revolve once an hour. This principle may be and is carried out to minutes and seconds in clocks. With all this ap- paratus there has been nothing described to prevent the clock from running down as fast as the weight could drag it ; this in a clock is prevented by the action of the pendulum. Galileo, a celebrated Italian philosopher, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth century, discovered that a steel bar suspended and set in motio.i, vibrated a certain number of times before it ceased to beat, and the t the vibrations were made at nearly equal times. This led him tc improve the instrument by decreasing the thickness of the bnr and hanging a weight near the bottom of it ; by this means, so correct was the movement of the new instrument, that it enabled Galileo to make many of his astronomical observations by it, The steel bar was by him called a pendulum; the pendulum was first applied to regulate the machinery of clock work by Huygens, and it only required the escapement to prevent the chain from leaving the cylinder according to the movement of the pendulum and the clock was complete as we now find it. Machinery equally simple is made to act upon an iron hammer which strikes upon a bell to tell the hour. Clock-making is generally divided into a number of branches— the Wheel-cutters, Dial-makers, Hand-makers, Chain-makers, &c. Some of the principal Clock-makers for churches do the whole of the work upon the premises. Journeymen in this business earn from 36*. to 21. per week. The youth intended to be a Clock-maker should have a decent education and a persevering disposition : the employment is wholesome and agreeable. The premium required with an apprentice is about 40/. J42 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CLOTHES SALESMAN. Next to food, in a climate like ours, clothing is the most to be desired ; and if money can be found, clothing of every kind can be had in London at a moment's notice. The shops that are known by the name of clothes warehouses generally deal in men's apparel, either new or second-hand. The mode by which they obtain a supply of the latter will give us an opportunity of stating how that numerous and well-known class, the Jew collectors of old clothes, obtain a living. There is certainly no class of persons more bene- volent to their brethren in distress than the affluent sons of Israel ; nor do they (though obliged by law to contribute their full portion to the poor rates) ever suffer the poorest member of their com- munity to apply for parochial relief. The number of holidays, including the sabbath, that the Mosaic law enjoins to be kept holy, prevent the Jews from embarking into a variety of businesses that are open to the Christians, and they are therefore obliged to have recourse to barter to procure a subsistence. To supply them with money for this purpose a fund has been formed by the opulent Jew merchants, from which any poor Jew can borrow as much as he requires for the day. With money to purchase, the itinerant Clothes-dealer walks all the morning through the streets of the metropolis, crying " Clothes sale, clo," inviting every person he sees to bring out whatever they have to sell, however old ; and bad indeed it must be if the Clothes-merchant will not purchase it : when he has collected all he can for the day, he sorts the articles he has purchased ; those that are so worn out that they would not even be an acceptable present to an English beggar, he takes to the Clothes Fair, which is held every day in the year, Saturdays and Sundays excepted, in or near Cutler-street, Houndsditch. At this place are buyers for the foreign and Irish market, who find a vent for articles of clothing which are thought to be utterly useless in England. Having disposed of the wwst part of his day's purchases he proceeds to Rag Fair, near Little Tower-hill, with the remainder ; here the small shop-keepers attend to purchase from the collectors, and the numbers and earnestness of those that attend to buy or sell are not exceeded by the persons that attend the Royal Exchange CLOTHES SALESMAN. 143 for the same purpose. If the Jew Clothesman has any garments left for which he cannot obtain a sufficient price in Rag Fair, he takes them to the more respectable second-hand clothes shops, where, having obtained the money, his day's business is nearly over ; he calculates his cash, pa} S back the amount he borrowed from the fund, and the surplus is the profit of his day's labour. If a Jew is fortunate enough to purchase clothes that by any means can be made to look " as good as new," he has no occasion to visit Rag Fair, as he can generally find a purchaser for them without that trouble. The Second-hand Clothes-sellers purchase most of their stock from gentlemen's servants, or from tailors that contract to make three or four suits of clothes per year, at a certain sum, and receive the worn clothes back again. The Ready-made Clothes-sellers in the leading streets sell new clothes only ; they are obliged to keep extensive stocks, to suit their many chance customers. They generally employ a number of inferior hands, who make up the articles at a low price. The clothes trade is said to be profitable in all its branches ; and many persons are employed as shopmen, who are paid according to their ability, either as salesmen or inviters, a modern name for that class of the community formerly known by the name of barkers, that is, men that stand in the street to persuade the passers by to come into their shops to purchase clothes. There are no apprentices taken, in this business. CLOTHIER. The business of a Clothier is to make cloth from wool, and like many other businesses it is divided into branches. All the trades connected with cloth-working will be found under their separate heads. The origin of the art of spinning and weaving wool into cloth is lost in remote antiquity. Professor Beckmann states, upon the authority of Varro, that sheep were introduced into Greece by Her- cules ; and that it is probable the first attempts to manufacture wool in Europe were made by the Athenians, Among both th« THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Greeks and Romans, spinning was the chief employment of the women : their rites of marriage directed their attention to it, and the distaff and the fleece were not only the emblems but the objects of the most important duties of a wife. The machinery employed in weaving, though perhaps rude in its construction, was in principle similar to that still in use ; and the process of fulling and preparing the cloth, seems to have resembled the modern practice in every material point, except that of shearing the knap, with which the ancients do not appear to have been acquainted. The chief seat of the Roman manufacture was at Padua, and that city, even at the present time, retains some of its ancient celebrity for the superiority of its workmen. The woollen manufactory of Britain is very ancient. Gervasse, the English historian, who wrote about the year 1202, assures us that the art of weaving yarn was well known to the Britons, and states that it was so general, and withal so excellent in workmanship, that the art of weaving seemed to be a peculiar gift bestowed upon them by nature. Harrison, in his History of London, states that in the year 1329, the art of weaving woollen cloth was brought from Flanders into England by John Kemp, to whom the king granted his protection, and at the same time invited over fullers, dyers, &c. to carry on that manufacture. But we have written documents extant, sufficient to prove that it must have been only a revival of the art, for we find incorporated companies of weavers, in various parts of the kingdom, long previous to that period. In the year 1140, the weavers of Oxford paid one mark of gold for their guild ; the weavers of London, 16/. ; the weavers of Winchester, one mark of gold for their guild, wit h permission to elect an alderman ; the fullers of Winchester 6/. for their guild. These notices indicate that fraternities of weavers were not only at that time common in England, but that the manu- facture of cloth must have been of considerable extent and antiquity when it had given rise to guilds established by law. We are certainly indebted to foreign nations, particularly the Flemings, for our knowledge of the art of improving the wool and dyeing the cloth after it came from the loom. For many ages there was no great improvement in the woollen manufacture : the introduction of Spanish wool enabled us to produce woollen cloth equal to that of any other country ; but as we had not then brought our mechani- cal powers to act in the manufacture of broadcloths, we had no CLOTHIER. 145 decided superiority ; but such is the advance, by the introduction of machinery, within the last fifty years, that we are enabled to pro- duce cloth of a texture and quality at a price that defies competition, and our woollen trade by this means has become one of the staple trades of the kingdom. Formerly the wool, when shorn and washed, was scribbled, combed, or carded by hand ; it was then distributed among various persons, many of them living at a great distance from each other, for the purpose of having it spun ; and however we may pride ourselves upon the introduction of machinery, it is impossible not to look back with regret at the time when so many thousands of women and children got a living by this wholesome and innocent employment, which brought comfort and enjoyment into the sequestered village, instead of the alternate debauchery and misery incidental to the employment of masses of workmen in large towns. The editor of the British Cyclopaedia, one of the ablest advocates of the modern system of machinery, declares, " that formerly the spinning was per- formed in distant counties, and much time and money sacrificed in the transmission of the material. The warping was slowly performed by hand, and the abb or shoot placed on the guiles by the same tiresome process. The parts of the woik which followed the weaving, such as shearing, dressing, and finishing, were likewise all performed by manual labour. By regular and gradual steps machinery has been invented for the whole of these operations ; and, though human labour has been thus abridged, the manufacture gives employment to a greater number of hands than at any past period ; and, whilst the very lowest description of labourers are now as well paid as the majority of them formerly were, new and superior classes of work- men have been created, who, without the introduction of machinery, would have been left in the general low condition of the cloth-makers in former times. By machine spinning a greater evenness is given to the threads ; and in shearing and dressing by mechanism less injury is sustained by the cloths, and, with equal durability, more beauty in the appearance is obtained. The whole work is under the eye of the master; he can have the several divisions of it pre- pared in quantities to suit each other ; he knows exactly when the goods can be ready for the market ; and a degree of despatch is given to the whole proceeding which enables the capital employed in it to circulate with a rapidity heretofore deemed impossible " While the wool remains in the state in which it is shorn from the H 140 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. back of the sheep, it is called the fleece. The fleece is divided into several sorts of wool of different degrees of fineness: — L The wool of the back and neck, called the mother wool. 2. The wool of the tail and legs. 3. That of the breast and belly : these are called prime, second, and third. The first process after the wool is sorted and washed, is that of either batting or scutching the material so as to separate the fibres from each other, to divest them of the knots, dirt, or other substances which will generally be found even in the finest wool. Batting is performed by hand and is merely beating the wool for a certain time with flat sticks called bats ; this is a better mode of separating the fibres than scutching, but the latter process has the advantage where time is an object. It would be impossible without the assistance of plates (which cannot be introduced in a work of this size) to convey an idea of the stupendous machinery by which the wool is combed, carded, and spun ; even the weaving is now done by machinery, and the intro- duction of the power-loom has thrown thousands of hand-loom weavers out of employment, and so reduced the earnings of those few that continue to weave in the old way, that they can scarcely procure a subsistence by their industry. When the cloth is woven it is given to the fuller to be cleansed, to the dyer to give it a permanent colour, and the presser and packer send it to the woollen-drapers, by whom it is retailed to the consumer. We shall have to advert to many branches of the woollen manufac- ture, when speaking of the businesses connected with it : thus, under the head of Weaver, will be described the mode of producing narrow cloths by hand-looms ; when the Worsted-manufacturer is noticed, the ancient trades of spinner and wool-comber will be de- scribed, and a detailed account of dyeing cloth will be given under the article Dyer. Great attention has been paid to the breed of wool in this country for the last five and twenty years. In addition to the high premiums offered by various agricultural societies for the improvement of the wool, by attending to the breed of sheep, a distinct society has been formed for this purpose, with the view of ascertaining how far the climate of England is favourable to the growth of Spanish and other sheep ; and also to ascertain what breed can be reared in England that will give the greatest quantity of the finest wool, and the com- parative value of each breed of sheep. The labours and experiments CLOTHIER. 147 of this society has done much towards bringing the wool of England to an equal fineness with the best wool of Spain or any other country. A specimen of the rapidity with which an article can be manufactured in this country was given a few years ago, when the late Sir John Throgmorton sat down to dinner dressed in a coat which on the same morning had been wool on the back of the sheep. The animals were sheared, the wool washed, carded, spun, and woven. The cloth was scoured, fulled, sheared, dyed, and dressed, and then by the tailor's aid made into a coat between sun-rising and the hour of seven p. m., when Sir John Throgmorton sat down to dinner as the chairman of an agricultural meeting with this proof of the speed and excellence of British art upon his back. Notwithstanding other countries have adapted the English ma- chinery in the manufacture of cloth, our exportation of woollen goods is continually increasing. We have not only worked up the wool shorn from our own greatly augmented flocks, but we import large quantities from Spain, France, Prussia, Saxony, and many parts of the Continent of Europe. The Cloth-worker's company is one of the twelve principal com- panies of the city of London. They were incorporated by letters patent of Edward IV., in the year 1482, by the name of the " Fra- ternity of the Assumption of the blessed Virgin Mary of the Shear- men of London," which was confnmed by Henry VIII., in 1528; they were afterwards re-incorporated by Elizabeth, and she changed their title to that of " the Master Wardens and Commonalty of Freemen of the art and mystery of Cloth-workers of the city of London." Their arms, crest, and supporters are annexed. 148 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. This is the last of the twelve principal companies ; they have con- siderable estates in their possession, and their hall, which is magnifi- cently fitted up, is in Mincing-lane, Fenchurch-street. COACH-MAKER. The travelling-machine, called a coach, is said to have been first invented by the Hungarians : but this must rather be taken as their re-introduction at a late period of the dark era when all traces of Roman civilization had become nearly banished from Europe : for we have undoubted proof that the luxurious Romans were perfectly acquainted with the use of wheel-carriages, not only as chariots of war, but for the convenience of travelling. And in the paintings .upon the walls of some of the buildings at Herculaneum, carriages may be seen something like the modern post-chaise ; they were drawn by two horses, and the postillion sitting upon one of them. In an article on this subject in the " Penny Magazine," the writer observes, " That in the long period of barbarism which accompanied and fol- lowed the fall of the Roman empire, the traces of this and almost every other luxury were effaced, and little remained in the shape of a coach but the war chariots, which were still employed by some nations in their battles. There is, however, little delay in the in- troduction of luxuries, when the possibility of indulging in them is obtained ; and the edict of Philip le Bel proves that women at least used carriages at an early period ; though the state of the roads throughout Europe would prevent their general adoption, except in ceremonial processions, or in the neighbourhood of large towns. Even in the streets of cities the passage of a carriage must have been dis- agreeable and difficult from accumulated mud or dust ; and to this cause probably may be attributed the extension of London to the westward, as the convenience of river passage would induce noble- men and wealthy citizens to build near the Thames, rather than be compelled to wade from their city residences to their country houses through the unpaved streets. In addition to the inconvenience, it was at first thought disgraceful for men to ride in coaches, unless in cases of illness or infirmity ; but this is always the case upon the introduction of any new species of luxury. The time is still within COACH-MAKER. 149 the memory of old persons when umbrellas were scarcely ever used but by females, and when the few gentlemen who carried such a luxurious novelty were ridiculed and even insulted by those who a few years later were glad to avail themselves of the same con- venience. 4 " In the fifteenth century coaches appear to have been used in pro- cessions, or other public ceremonies, rather as an ornament than a convenience, if we may judge from the clumsy form of the vehicle. The entrance of the ambassador Trevasi into Mantua in a carriage, is noticed as early as the year 1433 ; and that of Frederick III. into Frankfort in a covered coach, in the year 1475. It is a curious contrast to the rapidity with which new inventions are now adopted, that nearly a century elapsed before the covered carriage was intro- duced into England. Stowe, in his ' Chronicle,' under the year 1555, mentions the introduction in these terms : ' This yeare Walter Ripon made a coach for the Earle of Rutland, which was the first coach (saith he) that ever was made in England. Since, to wit, in anno, 1564, the said Walter Ripon made the first hollow- turning coach, with pillers and arches for her majestie, being then her servant Also, in anno 1584, a chariot throne, with foure pillers behind to beare a canopie with a crowne imperiall on the toppe, and before two lower pillers, whereon stood a lion and a dragon, the supporters of the armes of England.' This chariot throne was used by Queen Elizabeth in 1588, when she went to St Paul's cathedral to return thanks for the delivery of her kingdom from the Spanish Armada. At this time coaches were so rare, that all her majesty's privy council and attendants accompanied her on horseback, but they appear to have become numerous before the end of Queen Elizabeth's reign. In 1600, four coaches accompanied an embassy to Morocco, through the city of London, and that of Russia, in the same year, mustered eight. A French mission of congratulation on the accession of James I., three years later, rode in thirty coaches from the Tower Wharf to the ambassador's dwelling in Barbican, and returned to their lodgings in Bishopsgate-street in the evening, to the admiration of the citizens. " But the coaches of the sixteenth century were far from being the elegant vehicles now in use ; and the common stage or hackney coach is perhaps more comfortable than the royal carriage of Queen Elizabeth, which must have been something like the lord mayor's carriage of the present day, divested of its glass windows, and laid 150 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES* upon the axle without springs, like a waggon. When/ in addition to these circumstances, we consider the state of the roads in those days, we shall not be surprised that even queens, on long journeys, preferred a pillion on horseback behind one of their officers — a mode of conveyance now abandoned to farmers' wives in remote villages.' 1 The Coach-maker manufactures every kind of vehicle for travelling with speed and convenience, whether known by the name of coach, chariot, landau, travelling-carriage, post-chaise, chair, gig, tilbury, or cabriolet ; and as it is only persons in affluent circumstances that can afford to keep them for their own use, they are liable to change of fashion, both in their shape, size, ornaments, and name, like most other articles used by that class of the community. The long ranks of hackney-coaches and chariots that stand for hire in the streets of the metropolis and other large towns, are generally carriages that have become unfashionable, and are sold by the Coach-makers to the proprietors of hackney-coaches. The cabriolet and omnibus are vehicles recently introduced, and are strong machines, built expressly for continual running ; they will carry considerable weight with great rapidity, and therefore require lightness combined with solidity This business, like many others, is divided into several branches, which will be noticed under their separate heads ; but the person that is known in the trade by the name of a Coach-maker, is the workman that fits up and adjusts the variety of articles that the several branches produce, particularly if he makes the wood-work or frame of the carriage. Carriages of all kinds should be adapted to the work they have to perform. The light and elegant vehicle that conveys a duchess to the palace on court-days does not require the solidity or strength of a stage-coach ; nor is a carriage that is built for running in the streets of London made in the same form as the travelling carriage that has to encounter the deep ruts and large stones of the continental roads. The Coach-maker's invention is continually on the stretch to improve on the vehicles required for different persons; and the man that can produce a carriage that is elegant, in its appearance, and at the same time has the requisite strength, is ackowledged to be the best Coach-builder. When a new carriage is ordered upon a particular construction, the Coach-maker produces a rough draught of the alterations or improvements, which is put into the hand of a draughtsman, called COACH-MAKER. 151 the coach-pattern-drawer, who reduces every part to a scale, and produces a neat finished drawing of the front, side,-section, and back view of the carriage ; this is submitted to the inspection of the party for whom the carriage is to be made, and if no alteration is required, the Coach-maker proceeds to build the carriage according to the drawing. A rough drawing, on a large scale, of the several parts is next made, and the workman from this forms the patterns by which he saws the wood for every part of the body of the carriage. It cannot be expected that we should describe minutely the exact length and breadth of every piece of timber he uses ; suffice it to say, that his work requires all the accuracy, strength, and neatness of a joiner's, the materials and tools being nearly the same in making the frame of a carriage. When the body is formed, the top and the upper part of the sides are covered with leather prepared by a currier expressly for this work : the top of the coach is covered with one piece fastened at the edges. The lower panels, which are wood, are painted three or four times with common oil colour, till the pores of the wood are entirely filled up ; when this is dry a body of colour is laid on at several times, being suffered to harden between each application of the colour ; when the whole is quite dry it is rubbed to a perfectly smooth surface with pumice-stone and water, after which the fine yellow or the colour required is laid on ; this, when dry, has two coats of varnish ; upon this the Herald-painter emblazons the arms or cypher, or other ornaments ; when the Herald-painter's work is dry, it is again varnished and polished, and the body of the coach, as far as the exterior is concerned, is finished : the inside of the body of the coach has now to be lined ; the upper part, sides, and cushions, with cloth ; the elbows and part where the back leans against with morocco ; the holder and trimming is, with an article called coach- lace, made by the livery lace- weaver : the work in the inside of the coach is performed by that branch of the trade called Coach-trimmers. Though the word four-wheeled carriage conveys an idea, to a person unused to the business, of a carriage complete, to a Coach-maker it conveys no such meaning; every part has a separate name, and what he calls the carriage is the under part only or frame, with the wheels on which the body is placed ; it is the carriage that bears the stress of the whole machine, and of course every thing depends upon its strength. Felton, in his work on the Art of Coach-building, has entered at great length upon the construction of various sorts of carriages, and the Coach-builder requiring information upon this part 152 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. of his business, would do well to study that authors work : he observes, " that it should be well proportioned according to the weight it is meant to support, always allowing rather an over than an under proportion, to avoid the risk of accidents. Proper appli- cation of iron-work to support the pressure is a thing materially to be attended to, and great care should be taken that there are no flaws in it. The timbers, which are of ash, should be of young trees of the strongest kind, free from knots, and perfectly seasoned before they are used ; and, as many parts of the framing are obliged to be carved, it is best to select such timbers as are grown as nearly as possible to the shape required ; the workmanship must be strong and firm, and not partially strained in any of its parts, as it is liable to much racking in its use The timbers throughout are much lessened or reduced for the sake of external appearance, which appearance is assisted also with mouldings, edgings, and carvings. All four-wheeled carriages are divided into two parts, the upper and under-carriage ; the upper is the main one on which the body is hung ; the under-carriage is the conductor, and turns by means of a lever, called the pole, acting on a centre pin, called the perch-bolt. The hind wheels belong to the upper part, the fore wheels to the under. The track in which the wheels of every carriage are to run is generally the same, except when intended for particular roads, in which waggons and other heavy carriages are principally used ; these leave deep ruts, in which light carriages must likewise go, or be liable to accident. All four-wheeled carriages should have their hind and fore wheels roll in the same track. The ordinary width of the wheels is four feet eight or ten inches ; that of waggons or carts generally measures upwards of five feet, to which chaise wheels intended for the country must be adapted. It is immaterial to what width wheels are set that are used for running upon stones. The perch is the main timber of the carriage ; the transome bars are the cross pieces to which the springs are attached. The springs are made by the Coach-smith, whose business is quite separate from that of the Coach-maker, and will be described under the article Smith. When the large Coach-makers take apprentices to be brought up to a knowledge of the general business, rather than to the following a practical part of it, the premium is high. The premium to a Coach-painter, is about 30^. ; to a Coach Herald-painter, from 40/. COACH-MAKER. 153 to 60/.; Coach-trimmer about 40/. Coach-makers take boys as apprentices to any branch of the business that is done on the premises, taking care to have them instructed by persons in their employ. This business requires large premises, and employs a considerable capital. The Coach-founder, Coach-painter, Coach-currier, and Coach- harness-maker, will be found under the heads of Founder, Painter, Currier, &c. &c. The Coach-makers became an incorporated company of the city of London by letters patent of Charles the Second, by the title of " the Master, Wardens, Assistants, and Commonalty of the Company of Coach and Coach-harness-makers of the city of London." It is governed by a master, wardens, and assistants : the number of this company in the order of precedence is seventy-nine. COAL-MERCHANT AND RETAIL COAL-SHOPS. Coal is a mineral too well known in England to need description. It is the grand cause of our national wealth, and has bestowed greater riches on England than ever the gold mines of the New Worl(J did on Spain. Geologists have made a calculation as to how long a time this great source of our national prosperity will last ; but as the period is very remote when even according to their sombre predictions such an event is likely to happen, we shall not enter upon the subject, but endeavour to give a concise view of the British Collieries at the present period. The celebrated French geographer Malte Brun gives the following animated description of our coal mines, and as it comes from a foreigner it will be free from the charge of national egotism and partiality in describing the pro- ductions of our native land. " It is to the coal-mines that Great Britain is indebted for its manufacturing power, which, although colossal, must otherwise have been insignificant. The labour of man has been superseded by this wonderful agent. The productive power of the country has been increased more than a hundred-fold ; and among the monu- ments of English genius those are not the least worthy of admira- tion by which the same substance has been made conducive to the various purposes of civilization. h 3 154 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. " The three principal coal districts in England (and three only are of any importance) are the great northern districts, including all the coal-fields north of the Trent and in Scotland; 2d, the central district, or Leicester, Warwick, part of Stafford, and Shropshire ; 3d, the western districts, which may be subdivided into the north- western or North Wales, and the south western or South Wales, Gloucester and Somerset. The coal deposits rest on limestone and sand-stone, and extensive iron ores are situated near the carboni- ferous strata : thus all the great iron works of England have been established within the limits of the coal country, because, it is only within these limits that the fuel and the flux necessary for melting the ore are easily obtained. Copper and zinc are found in the transition and primitive series ; but it may be remarked that they are of secondary importance." The process of forming a coal-shaft and bringing the coal to the earth, will be found under the head of Mining. Our business in this article is to shew how it comes into the hands of the merchant and the retail dealer, and through them to the public. The northern coal district is intersected by three considerable rivers, in conse- quence of which the whole district possesses an easy, cheap, and expeditious mode by which its produce may find its way into the general markets. The three rivers are the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees, each of which is well adapted for this purpose. The Tyne is the most important of the northern coal rivers ; and in its course from Newcastle to the sea at Tynemouth are numerous rail-roads covered with coal-waggons, all hurrying to the banks of the river, where ships are waiting to receive their contents. When a ship has received its freight it is towed out of the river and proceeds to its destination. The coal, on being brought from the pit, is sold or consigned to an agent called the Coal-fitter ; this person sells the cargo to the merchant or ship owner ; and, as the writer in the " Penny Magazine" observes, " the intervention of such a class of men is an economical and beneficial arrangement to all parties, and renders it unnecessary for a Coal-owner to leave his works and attend the shipping port in search of buyers ; at the same time it prevents the ship owner leaving his ship in order to seek a cargo at the pit." We must now suppose the ship laden with coals has entered the pool of London, as that portion of the Thames is called between Deptford and London-bridge. The captain or owner of the coals is COAL-MERCHANT AND RETAIL COAL-SHOPS 155 obliged by law to give notice of the arrival of the ship to the authorized factors at the Coal Exchange ; and the notice must fully declare the name of the captain as well as the name of the ship and the port to which she belongs, with the quantity and name of the coals she contains. These coals must be sold publicly at the Coal Ex- change ; the time of sale is between twelve and two, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, every week, and there is generally from forty to fifty ship-loads sold every day to the numerous Coal-mer- chants who attend the Exchange for that purpose. The principal Coal-merchants of London have extensive wharfs on the banks of the river, and many of them are owners of a number of barges called lighters ; and when they have purchased a ship-load of coal, it is taken from the ship to the lighter by men called Coal-whippers, or Coalheavers, the crew of the vessel not being employed for this pur- pose. When the lighter is full it is allowed to float with the tide to the wharf of the owner. There are a great number of persons in London that are called Coal-merchants who have no wharf or stock of coals : they extend their connexion as widely as possible among coal consumers, whether they are private families or small shops, and take orders at the market price, according to the statement in the daily papers, which orders he agrees to deliver within a certain time. When a Coal-merchant receives an order he takes it to the wharf and transfers it to the Coal-owner, who forwards the coals to the party, allowing the agent that brought the order a certain profit upon each ton. The business of a Coal-merchant, or as he should rather be called Coal-agent, is a respectable and profitable employ- ment ; he has only to seek for orders, and receive the money for the coals when delivered, or at the time agreed vipon by the purchaser ; he keeps neither clerks, porters, nor carmen ; and a person with a decent capital, who is careful in keeping and forming a connection, may realize a handsome income without much trouble and with but little risk. The retail Coal-shed-keepers are quite a different class of tradesmen ; theirs is a profitable business, but a very laborious and dirty one. They purchase coals of different qualities and prices, mix them together, and sell them to poor people who can aftbrd to purchase only a very small quantity at a time. Before the recent alterations in the mode of selling coals, great abuses were practised upon the poor by many of the retail Coal-sellers, both in the quantity and quality of the article. They sold inferior coals at the best price, and 156 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. also made bad measure. The practice of breaking the coals so small was also a great disadvantage to the purchaser, which is quite done away by selling them by weight. As this is a mere buying and selling trade there is nothing to be learned in order to be able to follow it but the usual routine of business, and of course no one is required to serve an apprenticeship to it. In the year 1306 sea coals appear to have been extensively intro- duced into London, and were used by dyers and brewers in such large quantities, that the smoke was thought to infect the air to the great danger of the health of the inhabitants, and a proclamation was issued by Edward L, prohibiting their use in London under very severe penalties. Sir Richard Whittington, the famous Lord Mayor of London, in 1397, is said to have made the principal part of his fortune as a dealer in coals. Antiquaries have even gone so far as to question the truth of that part of his history connected with the cat, and declare that the cat seen in the portraits of the worthy knight was the carved figure-head of a vessel called a cat, which was at that time used in bringing coal from the Tyne to the Thames. In the year 1665, one year before the great fire, complaints were made to the lord-mayor and aldermen that the dealers in coals so monopolized that article by purchasing the ship-loads before they arrived in the Thames, that they charged what price they pleased for coals, to the great injury of the poor inhabitants of the city of London : to remedy this evil the city companies agreed to purchase each a certain quan- tity yearly, between Lady-day and Michaelmas ; these were to be properly housed, and were to be vended to the poor at such times and price as the lord-mayor and court of aldermen by written pre- cept should direct, so that the coals should not be sold at a loss. The quantities to be purchased by each company for this laudable pur- pose is here inserted, as it will not only shew the extent of the remedy, but also the means of the several trading companies at this period. CHALD. CHALD. Mercers - 488 Masons - 22 Grocers - 675 Plumbers 19 Drapers - - 562 Innholders - 45 Fishmongers - 465 Founders 7 Goldsmiths - 525 Poulterers 12 Curriers - - 11 Skinners - - 315 COAL-MERCHANT AND RETAIL COAL-SHOPS. 157 CHALD. CHALD. \f prrlinnt Tailors lrlCl v. 11 till it X ClUvl O _ 750 Cooks - 30 Flafop nlashprs - 578 Coopers - 52 Salters - 360 Tilers and Bricklayers 19 Jronmonp'Prs - - 255 Bowyers - 3 Vintnprs - ▼ lllvllvl O _ 375 Fletchers - 3 Clnth-workprs - - 412 Blacksmiths 15 Dyers - 105 Apothecaries 45 Rrpwprs - - 104 Joiners - 22 TiPathprspllers - 210 Weavers - 27 Pewterers 52 Wool men 3 Cutlers 75 Wbodmongers - 60 White Bakers 45 Scriveners 60 Wax Chandlers 19 Fruiterers 7 Tallow Chandlers - 97 Plasterers 8 Armourers 19 Brown Bakers - 18 Girdlers - 105 Stationers 75 Butchers - - 22 Embroiderers 30 Saddlers 90 Upholders 9 Carpenters - 38 Musicians 6 Cordwainers - 60 Turners - 13 Barber Surgeons - 60 Glaziers - 6 Painter-stainers - 12 An act was also passed at this period prohibiting merchants from meeting the vessels, or contracting for their cargoes before they arrived in London, inflicting a penalty of five shillings for every chaldron so bought or pre-contracted for The quantity of coal consumed in Great Britain amounts annually to upwards of fifteen millions of tons ; and the persons employed in the trade, according to the returns of Mr. Buddie, when examined before a recent parliamentary committee on the coal trade, is as follows : — Pitmen, and above-ground workmen employed in the collieries 21,000 Keelmen, boatmen, casters, and trimmers, - 2,000 Seamen - 15,000 Coal-whippers, lightermen, coalheavers, and carmen 5,000 Coal-factors, merchants, and agents - 2,500 45,500 158 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Thus there are forty-five thousand five hundred persons employed in this trade from the Northern branch only, and it is calculated that taking the inland collieries and the exportation trade into the account, the coal-trade gives direct employment to upwards of two hundred thousand person COFFEE-HOUSES AND SHOPS. When coffee was first introduced into England it was some time before it got into general use; at length it became a fashionable beverage, and a few houses were opened where gentlemen were in the habit of taking coffee while they glanced at the few daily papers then published, made parties for the day, or met each other to transact business. In a short time the principal taverns also sold coffee, and adopted the more fashionable name of Coffee-houses; and there is now scarcely a respectable part of London where a coffee-house and tavern is not to be found. In the neighbourhood of the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, there are a number of Coffee-houses, where business of different kinds is trans- acted. At the well-known Coffee-house called " Garraway's," sales by auction of estates to an immense amount take place, nearly every day : the room in which the sale takes place is hired for the day by the auctioneer, and the company that attend have generally to wait below in the Coffee-room till the particular sale in which they are interested commences. Here coffee, wine, and other refreshments are served by waiters to those that choose to call for them. Other Coffee-houses such as the "Jamaica," "South and North American," &c. are frequented by merchants, captains of ships, and others interested in commercial affairs, connected with the West Indies, or America. Many Coffee-houses are supported by a considerable number of subscribers, who pay a certain sum per annum for the convenience of having their letters directed, parcels forwarded, and other services. All the establishments of this sort require a considerable capital, and it is considered a highly respect- able business, particularly where a Coffee-house and Tavern are combined: here elegant dinners are dressed for parties and indi- viduals ; and the prices charged at those houses prevent their being COFFEE-HOUSES AND SHOPS. 159 visited by persons to whom the outlay would be an object of con- sideration. The waiters in such houses frequently realize consider- able property* Coffee-shops, as they are termed, to distinguish them from the establishments we have just described, are among the greatest con- veniences for the inhabitants or visitors, in the middle or more •humble classes of life, to be found in London. Twenty years ago there was no such accommodation : the single man, who had merely a sleeping apartment, and was obliged to attend to his regular employment at an early hour of the morning, had no other means of procuring a breakfast than by taking it in a public-house ; where he was expected afterwards to become a customer for beer and spirits, or he was not a very welcome visitor at breakfast-time. The traveller of confined means had no other alternative than to breakfast at the inn where he slept, however high the charge, or resort to the tap-room. Now, in every part of the town, houses are opened for the sale of tea and coffee, with proper eatables, which can be had in any quantity, at all reasonable hours of the day ; and many of these new establishments are fitted up with great taste and elegance ; most of them are neat and clean, and conducted with great order. The working mechanic is now no longer bound to the public- house, where he frequently entered to breakfast only, but was induced by company to remain the whole of the day. In the Coffee-shops the morning and evening papers, cheap, and in some shops, the higher priced periodical publications, are taken in. Men who have no other time to read have here an opportunity of feeding their minds and bodies at the same time ; and it is the opinion of the writer of this article that the establishment of houses of refresh ment of this nature has mainly contributed to the great improve ment of the mind and manners of the great body of working mechanics of London. This, as has been before observed, is a business but recently introduced; yet it appears to be one that will be permanent and profitable, and the money taken in some of these places of public accommodation is astonishing. It is a light, clean, quiet business, in which a female may find profitable employ- ment as well as a man : there are no late hours, or drunken broils ; and a good house of this sort is in every way preferable to a public- house. The capital required to enter into business is comparatively trifling, but is of course regulated according to the number of daily 160 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. customers. Many persons who have established a business of this sort that would now sell for three or four hundred pounds, began business in their own parlour, with only half a pound of tea and a pound or two of coffee. COOK. In a place so noted for good living as England, it may reasonably be supposed that the office of Cook is held in high estimation in every part of the kingdom. In public establishments, colleges, noblemen's families, inns, hotels, &c. Men-cooks, who have been regularly apprenticed to the art and mystery of Cooking, are always employed. We shall not attempt to enter into a lengthened description of this universally esteemed art, as all persons have a general idea of the business required from the Cook, viz. : the dressing of different kinds of food in a variety of ways, either by boiling, roasting, stewing, &c. ; it may therefore suffice to say, that from 80/. to 100/. is required as an apprentice-fee in this business; and that a Cook who is active and observing, and exercises his ingenuity to please the tastes of the person or persons that employ him, generally receives high wages, and makes a considerable sum by perquisites. CONFECTIONER.— (See Pastrycook.) COOPER. The business of a Cooper is to make vessels for the safe keeping of liquids. Those vessels are made of different kinds of wood, oak being generally used for the larger vessels. Where the staves are required to be of great length and thickness, they are cut before COOPER. 161 they are imported into England from the Baltic, and are sold to the Cooper by the stave-merchant who imports them. Staves are sent here cut to the lengths required for various sorts of vessels, and are sold under the following designations : viz. pipe staves, five feet, six inches in length, two inches thick, and six inches wide ; hogshead staves, four feet long ; barrel staves, three feet, six inches ; there are also long and short headings of various sizes. The stave-merchant sorts them for the Cooper, according to the quality required, calling them best and seconds. There are a vast quantity of staves im- ported from Canada; but though they are finer in the grain and make up better to the eye than the staves of the north of Europe, they are not found to be so durable. The Cooper could apply wooden hoops to most kinds of vessels, but as iron is so cheap in England, and worked with such facility, it is, in many cases, substi- tuted for wood. Iron hoops are best for large thin staves, but for smaller vessels the iron hoops are so liable to rust that they eat into the wood, and some thin staved vessels are quickly destroyed by them. Few of the continental casks are bound with iron ; the vine- growers have an objection to placing their wine in casks with iron hoops, fancying the iron imparts a disagreeable flavour to the liquor. Before the Cooper commences making a vessel, he selects staves that are well seasoned and thoroughly dried in a kiln. The Butt-cooper is confined to working for brewers or distillers ; the principal tool used in his branch, is a small adze similar in shape to that used by the carpenter; the handle is only ten inches long; he also uses a small axe. With these tools he shapes staves according to the size of the vessel he is about to make. The hoops, also, for the different vessels, are all of ascertained dimensions, which gives the Cooper an idea of the number and sort of staves he requires to form a vessel. The Rundlet-cooper works principally for distillers and makers of various cordials that are sold in small quantities ; he uses the same tools as the Butt-cooper; but the staves and other materials, not being so large or thick, his tools are not required to be so heavy as those used by the Butt-cooper. The Dry-cooper is employed in making sugar hogsheads, and other casks for the conveyance of dry goods ; his work is not required to be so exact as the Rundlet-cooper's. Sugar hogsheads are used for packing clothing, hats, and other commodities that are sent to the West Indies, and are returned filled with sugar. In time of war, the 162 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Dry-cooper is employed in making casks for the conveyance of me- dicines, in a dry state, for the use of the army. The White-cooper makes all the wooden vessels required in household concerns, dairies, or private breweries ; such as pails, washing-tubs, churns, small mash-tuns, &c. The White-cooper makes use of many different kinds of hoops and staves ; iron hoops he purchases by weight, ready milled and fit for use. Many vessels made by the White-cooper are bound with wooden hoops, such as those generally seen round washing tubs ; these are usually called white hoops, and are rended out of ash wood. The White-cooper executes all repairs of vessels made of wood, that are used in a private family. The White-cooper generally keeps an open shop for the sale of those vessels required for domestic purposes. The Wine-cooper is employed in drawing off, bottling, and packing wine, repairing wine-pipes, &c. Every branch of this business affords nearly constant employ- ment. The premium required with an apprentice is from thirty to fifty pounds, according to the business of the master. This trade is under very strict regulations, made by the journeymen for their own protection, to prevent too many persons entering into it. Every master Cooper is bound to take only a certain number of apprentices. Journeymen earn from thirty shillings to two pounds per week. It does not take a large sum to enter into business as a White-cooper. The master Butt-coopers are generally the agents or superintendants of the cooperage in large breweries. The Coopers became an incorporated company of the city of London by a charter granted them by Henry VII. in the year 1501, under the title of " the Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the Company of Coopers of London and the suburbs thereof." In the succeeding reign they were empowered to search and guage all beer, ale, and soap vessels within the city of London and two miles round its suburbs, for which they were allowed a farthing for each cask. Coopers' Hall is a large building, situated in Basinghall- street ; in this hall the state lotteries used formerly to be drawn. 163 CORK-CUTTER. Cork-cutting, although an insignificant business of itself, and by no means a cleanly one, is, notwithstanding, of very general utility. The Cork-tree, from which cork is obtained, grows in abundance in various parts of Europe : its timber is harder than oak, and closer in the grain ; but is rarely or ever used in this country, and therefore its qualities are but little known. This tree grows to the height of forty or fifty feet, and is covered with a fungous bark of considerable thickness, which being taken off by perpendicular and horizontal incisions (the tree itself not suffering by its removal) will in a few years be succeeded by a new bark, which will also be as the former, fit for use. The bark when taken from the tree, is made into a convenient heap, and immersed in water, loaded with heavy weights or stones, in order to make it lie flat, or shew an even surface ; after which the outward coating is charred, when it becomes fit for use. The tools required by a Cork-cutter, are knives only, formed peculiarly for the purpose, and made of well tempered steel, of a sharp keen edge, in order that they may cut perfectly clean. Corks are used for the stopping of glass bottles of all sizes ; bungs are a larger description, and made of inferior or coarser cork, for barrels, casks, &c. Burnt cork makes an excellent black, and is much esteemed among painters. ' Cork is used for the inner soles of shoes, or boots, to prevent the damp from penetrating to the feet in wet weather ; and is a most excellent preventive against cold. It is also used by young persons learning to swim ; a certain number of diminished square pieces being affixed to a cord, which is placed across the breast, enables the learner to make any exertions he may please without fear of sinking. The workmen in this branch are generally paid so much per gross, according to the sizes, which are various : a good workman may obtain about thirty shillings per week ; the premium required for an apprentice would be inconsiderable, unless he were to reside with his master. 164 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. CORN-CHANDLER. At the corner of almost every bustling street in London may be found a Corn-chandler. His business is to sell hay, straw, and corn by retail ; he attends the different markets to purchase hay and straw as cheap as he can, and sells it to those persons that keep single horses, or hackney-coach or cabriolet drivers. Many persons in London that keep a horse for their business cannot afford to purchase a large quantity of hay or straw at a time ; the Corn- chandler will sell him a single truss of either, and as small a quantity of corn as he may find it convenient to purchase. Corn-chandlers generally sell split peas, groats, flour, and seeds for birds. This is a clean, profitable, and healthy business ; but as it consists in merely buying and selling, the success of the Corn-chandler depends chiefly on his judgment of the quality of the article he deals in, and in making calculations upon the rise and fall of the markets. It is not usual to take apprentices in this business. CORN-FACTOR. The Corn-factor, like the coal-factor, is generally an agent between the buyer and the seller. When a quantity of corn is imported, or ship loads of corn are sent coastwise from any part of England, it is generally consigned to a Corn-factor, either in London, Bristol, Liverpool, or other large towns ; the Factor introduces samples of the corn upon his stand or counter in the corn market, and sells it for the best price he can procure ; an order for the delivery of the corn from the ship or warehouse is then given to the buyer, and the money is transmitted to the late owner of the corn : by this means the grower of the grain is saved the trouble and expense of attending distant markets, incurs no risk in the sale from not knowing his customer, and, as the Corn-factor is generally a person of credit and respectability, whose living depends upon the punctuality of his dealings, the employer has little reason to suppose that the Factor CORN-FACTOR. 165 will not do the best he can with the property entrusted to him for sale, particularly as he is paid a per centage according to the price he obtains for the corn. There are many persons that act as Corn- factors who deal largely for themselves; these are known by the name of corn-dealers, and make their money by buying at one market and selling at another ; or, if they are large capitalists, by buying when the price is low and keeping the grain in warehouses till a rise in the price enables them to bring it into the market and realize a considerable profit. The market days at the Corn Exchange, Mark Lane, are Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Monday is the day on which the most business is transacted. CORSET-MAKER. It is impossible for the fair daughters of Eve to distort their figure, by dress, so as to look otherwise than handsome in the eyes of those who are bound by nature to love and protect them. Yet, as the most valuable gems may be improved in appearance by setting, if placed in the hands of a skilful workman, or greatly deteriorated if improperly treated, so the fairest of all forms may be injured in appearance, and in reality, if too great a sacrifice is made to the caprice of fashion. It would be a curious and interesting subject to trace the dif- ferent styles of dress the ladies of Europe have appeared in from the time of Charlemagne to the present period but at the present time we have only to do with the business of a Stay-maker. This trade only fifty years ago was a more masculine employment than it is at present. The ladies of England, indeed of Europe, then wore stays little inferior in point of weight to the modern cuirass, and, had it been necessary, would hare been found nearly as useful as a defensive armour : thick strips of whale-bone placed as nearty together as possible between linings of stout buckram, this again covered with leather or thick jean on the outside, and frequently lined on the inside with leather or stout prunella, were the materials of which they were made. These stays were fitted so closely to the shape that it required great force to lace a new pair of stays, to the evident injury of the health and appearance of the party that wore them. At length some ladies of cultivated understanding, with 166 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sufficient strength of mind and station in society to lead the fashion, determined to release themselves from the trammels that fashion had imposed upon them. One of the ladies who set the example was the amiable Duchess of Devonshire, who dressed in stays of a moderate thickness, made so that the body should have all the benefit of their flexibility. Dropping the filthy and disfiguring powder and the cumbrous hoop, this lady must have appeared at the time a being of no earthly mould, when moving among those ladies that adhered to the ancient costume. Not many years afterwards, when the French Revolution commenced, it became the fashion for ladies to approach, as near as the climate would permit, to the ancient Grecian costume ; and as the zone was worn across the pit of the stomach, the waist and stays of the ladies were reduced to the smallest possible dimensions ; the easy, flowing white drapery did not require the aid of stiff, hard stays to make it sit well on the figure, and hundreds of men that had reckoned on a sure livelihood in the trade they were bred to, found their occupation gone. When the Spanish patriots called upon England to assist them in driving an invading army from their country, the ladies at once became enamoured with the Spanish costume, which required a graceful display of the figure ; longer waists, terminating in a peak in front, were again introduced, and the Stay-maker was again called into action, and has from that time found some employment ; but the materials are much finer, and the form more elegant, than the ancient stays. It is still a subject of regret that the fashion of confining the waist within so small a compass should have continued at the present time, particularly as it is totally opposite to all ancient or modern ideas of female elegance in a natural state, and the painter or sculptor that would represent the goddess of beauty as if she had been moulded in modern stays, would justly incur the derision of all beholders. At the present time females are more employed in stay and corset making than males; and as it is a light, clean employment it affords work to a great number of individuals. Those that keep shops have generally a great number of stays ready made up, so that a customer may be supplied without having to wait while they are made. The attendants in a Stay-maker's shop are generally women. A number of Stay-makers have no shops, but work in a private connexion ; they sometimes take female appren- tices, but the premium required is not very high, nor do they often serve more than four years. 167 COTTON MANUFACTURE. There can be little doubt but the thin gauze-like vests of the Roman ladies, and even the more effeminate of the Patrician inha- bitants of the eternal city, were made of fine cotton, imported into Italy from India, by way of Egypt. These habiliments are fre- quently mentioned by the later Roman poets ; and Virgil in the following lines evidently alludes to the cotton plant : — " Of Ethiop's hoary trees and woolly wood Let others tell ; and how the Seres spin Their fleecy forests in a slender twine." Dryd. Virg. Georg. 2. There are many species of the cotton plant already known, and their number is continually increasing from the researches of Botanists. The Gossipium herbaceum, or common herbaceous cotton plant, is the species most cultivated. This species is divided into annual and perennial plants : the first is herbaceous, rising scarcely to the height of eighteen or twenty inches ; it bears a large yellow flower with a purple centre, which produces a pod about the size of a walnut ; this, when ripe, bursts and exhibits to view the fleecy cotton, in which the seeds are securely embedded, It is sown, and cultivated, and reaped with as much regularity as corn. The harvest, in hot countries, occurs twice a year ; in cold countries only once. This species is a native of Georgia Persia, and was at one time cultivated in Sicily and Malta with great success. Vast tracts of land in America are made to produce cotton of the finest quality. There is another species called Gossipium arborem, or the Cotton-tree. In some countries it grows about five or six feet high, but in others upwards of fifteen feet ; the leaves grow upon long hairy foot stalks. There is another species to which Linnseus has given the name of Gossipium rcli- giosum : this is cultivated in the Isle of France and in various parts of the West Indies. There are two varieties of this species ; in one the colour of the cotton is of the purest white ; in the other it is a pale yellow brown, and it is from this cotton that nankeens are made. It grows luxuriantly in China, whence we import the cloth 168 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. called Nankeens. The annual herbaceous plant is the most profit- able to the cultivators. The Georgian cotton still obtains a much higher price than that which is produced in any other part of the world. Some species of plants are more productive than others ; but, if properly cultivated, the cotton-plant will produce nearly three hundred pounds of picked cotton per acre ; it will grow in almost any situation, and is propagated by seed. When the season is favourable, the cotton is fit for pulling about seven or eight months after it has been sown, and the proper time for gathering the cotton may be easily known by the spontaneous bursting of the seed-pod. In the east they take off the whole of the pod, but in America the seeds only of the cotton are taken away, leaving the husks empty : the first method is the most expeditious to the gatherer ; but though taking the cotton from the husks requires more time at first, it is brought away clean, with the exception of the seed, and requires very little time in dressing afterwards. The cotton is always gathered before sun rise, as soon as possible after the pods burst, as exposure to the sun injures its colour. The cotton-shrub is pro- ductive for about six years, and after that time it is removed to make room for fresh seed or young plants. The separation of the cotton from the seed is a very troublesome operation, when performed by hand, as it is in India, where machinery is little used and where human labour is so cheap. A man can only pick about a pound of cotton in a day ; the use of a machine called a gin very much facilitates the process ; and in America, where mills are erected, and propelled by steam engines or horses, eight or nine hundred pounds of cotton can be cleansed in a day, and only five persons are required to attend to the cotton and the machinery. When the cotton has passed through the mill it still retains some portion of the husk or the seed; this is removed by passing it through a winnowing machine. After it has passed through the win- nowing machine it is gathered up in bags for the European markets. The elasticity of cotton is amazing ; it may be packed by ma- chinery into a fiftieth part of the space in which the most skilful packer can reduce it by manual exertion. Large screws are erected at many sea ports where cotton is shipped, for the purpose of bringing the bales into the smallest compass, to save freight. Cotton can only be imported into England as raw material, in which state it comes to us from the Levant, South America, and the West Indies. COTTON MANUFACTURE. 169 Before we proceed to describe the process of manufacturing the raw cotton into cloth, it will be interesting to glance at the mode by which this operation is now performed in India, the place famous its manufactory of fine muslins from cotton for many centuries. The cotton is first carefully picked by hand, then beat with rods to separate the fibres of the cotton ; the cotton- wool is spun into fine threads by the distaff and spindle, as flax is for linen at the present time ; this yarn is then woven in an Indian loom, which is the most simple instrument that can be imagined : it is described by Martin as consisting of two bamboo rollers, one for the warp, and the other for the woof, and a pair of geer ; the shuttle performs the double office of shuttle and batten, and for this purpose is made like a netting-needle, and of a length something exceeding the breadth of the piece he works upon. This apparatus the weaver carries to whatever tree affords a shade most grateful to him, under which he digs a hole large enough to contain his legs and the lower part of his geer, he then stretches his warp by fastening the bamboo rollers at a due distance from each other on the turf by wooden pins, the balances of his geer are fas- tened to some convenient branch of the tree over his head, two loops of the geer, in which he inserts his great toes, serve instead of treadles, and the long shuttle which also performs the office of batten draws the weft, throws the warp, and afterwards strikes it up close to the web: in such looms as these are made those admirable muslins, the delicate texture of which the European has never equalled with all his complicated machinery. The manufacture of cotton cloths was unknown in England till the latter end of the sixteenth century. Before this time the only cotton cloth introduced came from Calicot in India, and from this circumstance it has retained the name of calico to the present day. For a long time after the raw cotton was introduced into England, it was thought too soft and weak a material to be used by itself; the warp was always of linen and the woof cotton ; but in the course of time when the batting by hand, and the spinning of the cotton became more known, cloth made wholely of cotton was manufactured in Lancashire. When the exportation of cotton from India to Europe and America became more extensive, cotton cloths became more in request, and a great portion of the poor inhabitants of Lancashire and the adjoining districts were employed in spinning cotton with the distaff and spindle exactly as it is now i 170 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. performed in India, or as it was executed by the females of Greece in the days of Ulysses. As the demand for the manufactured article continued to increase, the supply of yarn by the spinners was not equal to the demand of the weavers. Mr. Guest, in his history of the Cotton Manufacture, states, that " the weavers whose families could not furnish the necessary supply of weft had their spinning done by their neigh- bours, and were obliged to pay more for the spinning than the price allowed by their masters, and even with this disadvantage very few could procure weft enough to keep themselves constantly employed. It was no uncommon thing for a weaver to walk three or four miles in a morning and call on five or six spinners, before he could collect weft enough to serve him for the rest of the day; and when he wished to weave a piece in a shorter time than usual, it was necessary to quicken the exertions of the spinner by a bribe either of a new ribbon or new gown. Nor could the difficulty in procuring a suffi- cient quantity of thread, notwithstanding the large number of spinners, be easily conceived, when we know that by the most diligent application the spinner could not produce more than a pound of thread per day. The goods then manufactured were strong and coarse compared with those of the present day ; little or no thread finer than from sixteen to twenty hanks to the pound, each hank measuring 840 yards, was then spun; and it was subject (as may be readily conceived) to great inequalities, its evenness entirely de- pending upon the touch and skill of the spinner. The great demand for cotton goods made a number of mechanical men bestow some attention to the improvement of this branch of the manufacture : spinning jennies, as they were termed, were introduced ; and one invented by James Hargreaves, a plain, industrious, illiterate Weaver, in 1767, soon came into general use. Martin's description of the jenny, as first introduced, is as follows : " The first jenny consisted of eight spindles, all worked together by a band from one wheel, and the machine was provided with an apparatus which held all the eight threads at once in the same manner as the spinner held the cotton between his finger and thumb. The cotton was at this period prepared for spinning by hand cards ; these were small square boards, upon which a sheet of leather, furnished with wire teeth, was stretched ; the carder held one of these in each hand, and putting the cotton between them he combed it from one card on to the other ; when the fibres were sufficiently combed, they were by COTTON MANUFACTURE. 171 dexterity of hand rolled up into short soft rolls, which were called cardings ; these were of the thickness of a candle, and from eight to twelve inches long, possessing little strength or tenacity, the slightest force being sufficient to pull them asunder. One end of this roll being held between the finger and thumb of the spinner, and the other twisted round the point of the spindle, was rapidly drawn out during its revolution, and formed a coarse soft thread called a roving : this operation of twisting and drawing was afterwards repeated, and the roving was converted into a smaller, firmer, and longer thread ; to this operation the term spinning was more particularly applied, the first, called roving, being considered preparatory. The reader will easily perceive by this description that with this machine it was necessary to employ persons to attach the cardings to the spindles. Hargreaves afterwards added to the number of spindles, and pro- duced thread with such rapidity as to alarm the minds of the multi- tude, who broke into his house and destroyed his machine. In consequence of this opposition he removed to Nottingham, and superintended the erection of a mill, and the management of it after it was built. The jealousy of the hand-spinners still pursued him, and as the jennies upon his model were extensively introduced throughout Lancashire, the inhabitants of that county, in 1779, destroyed all the jennies which worked more than twenty spindles. At this period, when the indignation of the spinners threatened to annihilate the machinery invented for the improvement of the cotton manufacture, an humble individual, totally unconnected with the trade, introduced so great an improvement in the machinery in every department of cotton spinning, that cotton, from being an article scarcely known a century ago, is now the most flourishing staple trade of the kingdom. This individual was the late Sir Richard Arkwright. He was born at Preston, in Lancashire on the 23d of December, 1732. His parents were poor labouring people, and, as they had a family of thirteen children, it may reason- ably be supposed that they could not afford to pay for the education of their children. Richard Arkwright was at an early period of his life apprenticed to a barber, and continued in this humble occupa- tion till about the year 1760, when, being of an active mind, he determined to quit the monotonous occupation of a shaver of beards, and commenced business as an itinerant hair-merchant, purchasing from those that had a redundancy of that article, and dressing and selling again to the barbers that required it for making wigs. His i 2 172 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. success in after life brought out a number of the peculiarities and indications of his future greatness ; and we are assured by some of his biographers that he not only dressed the hair in a superior manner, but that he had a superior method of dyeing it; and to the advantage he gained by this piece of exclusive knowledge, may perhaps be traced his future efforts for increasing his means by mechanical inventions. The half sedentary and half active life of a barber is favourable to the attainment of information in humble life ; almost every person that comes into the shop enters into conversa- tion with the barber, and if the information he obtains by this means is sometimes incorrect, he has abundant leisure to ascertain it from books, if he has the power of procuring them. It is certain that whatever learning Arkwright possessed, he picked up during his apprenticeship. Among the customers that came to the shop, was a person who had the means and the power of reading the newspaper most circulated in that part of the country, and he sometimes came to pass an hour or two with Arkwright. It happened that the per- petual motion was once the subject of their discourse, and the great reward offered by Parliament took such hold of the mind of the barber, that he could for a length of time think of nothing else ; and shortly after he became a hair-merchant, he proceeded to put this favourite project into execution ; for this purpose it was necessary that he should have some cog-wheels, and he was recommended to Kay, a watch-maker, of Warrington, as a person that could supply them to him. Arkwright and Kay became acquainted, and were very intimate with each other. At this time the spinning jennies, made by Hargreaves, began to be extensively used, and the searcher after perpetual motion turned his attention to their improvement. Having communicated his ideas to Kay, who was to be the partner and principal workman, the two friends travelled together to Preston, with a model of their new engine, where the only patron they could get was a Mr. Smally, who is said to have been a liquor merchant : but so poor was the reward for ingenuity in Preston, that Arkwright was obliged again to leave his native town, and betook himself to Nottingham, being determined to leave Lancashire, from a dread of the hostility of the people against any person that introduced machinery for spinning cotton. Messrs. Wrights, the Bankers of Nottingham, having examined the model, were so convinced of its utility, that they became the patrons of Arkwright, and agreed to advance him the sums of money neces- COTTON MANUFACTURE. 173 sary to enable him to go on with his experiments; but as these gentlemen found the amount required larger than they had expected, Mr. Arkwright applied to Mr. Need of Nottingham, who desired him to carry the model of his machine to Mr. Strutt, of Derby, his partner in the stocking patent, by whose report he would be guided. Mr. Strutt, a man of great mechanical skill, seeing at a glance the merit of the invention, and how little was required to render it com- plete, told Mr. Need that he might with great safety close with Mr. Arkwright. In the year 1769, therefore, Mr. Arkwright obtained his patent for spinning with rollers ; and Mr. Need and Mr. Strutt became his partners in the concerns to be carried on under it. Mr. Arkwright afterwards erected works at Cromford, in Derbyshire ; and acquired a great fortune. It has been said, he enriched himself at other men's expense and ingenuity ; but though much attention had been paid to the invention of machines for spinning cotton, before Mr. Ark- wright engaged in it, it had hitherto been unsuccessful ; and the perfection to which he brought them, overcoming numerous difficul- ties, shows him to have been a man of great genius and unwearied perseverance. CURRIER. The Currier receives the hides from the tanner, for book-binders, coach-makers, harness-makers, saddlers, and shoe-makers ; he is a preparer of leather ; and the trade is of great antiquity ; inasmuch as the first covering used by men were skins. Currying is done by two different processes, either upon the flesh or upon the grain. In dressing leather upon the flesh, for shoes, &c, the first operation on the skins is steeping them until they are thoroughly wetted : the flesh side is then shaved on a board of hard wood, placed upon a block, firmly fixed on the floor. The Currier stands to his work with a knife, which has two fine edges, and which is about twelve inches long and five inches wide. Different sized knives are made to perform different work. One end of the knife has a straight, the other a cross handle, upon its plane: the cross handle is fixed between the workman's knees, and while 174 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. in that position he turns the edges to an angle with their first position. By the means of a piece of polished steel, similar to that with which a butcher sharpens his knives and calls a steel, the knife is kept constantly in order ; and by a smaller steel which the Currier holds between his fingers, and which he passes along the knife, the point within, and side without, the grooves are formed by the turned edge as occasion requires, and, as they become worn, they are again renewed. The skin being prepared is thrown over a beam with the fleshy side outward, the Currier keeps it in its position with his knees, as he leans over the beam ; the knife is applied hori- zontally to the skin, and by repeated downward strokes, it is brought to the required thickness or substance. After it is shaved, it is immersed again into the water ; and rubbed upon a stone. Scouring is performed by rubbing the hair side with pumice, or any other strong grit, by which means a surface is introduced upon the leather called bloom ; the hide is then taken into a shady drying place, where oils are applied to the sides, and a larger quantity to the fleshy side than the hair side. The skin being quite dry it is again grained, and is fit for waxing, which is performed by rubbing it well over with a brush dipped in a composition of oil and lamp black, until it becomes completely black ; it is then sized, dried, and tallowed. After a few more trifling operations this is called waxed leather. Leather curried on the hair side, which is called black in the grain, undergoes nearly the same process as the foregoing, until it is scoured, blacked, grained, and oiled ; when it is made fit for the shoe- maker. In London, Leadenhall-market is the leading deposit for butt or sole leather ; and the principal dealers in those articles make their purchases there. The Curriers' trade is exercised under a licence from the Board of Excise, which is annually taken : and they must describe in their entry every room in which they deposit leather, as well as the vats and other vessels they have in use ; and all hides not having the duty mark, are liable to seizure. Apprentices to this trade have to pay but a small premium, as the uusiness itself is far from being an agreeable one : it will also be taken into consideration whether the proprietor be a large manu- facturer or not : but it mostly happens, the journeymen take the apprentices under their management, and make their agreement accordingly CURRIER. 175 The journeyman can earn when the trade is good two pounds or thereabouts per week, but at present his average earnings do not exceed thirty shillings. The annexed cut represents the arms of the company, who were incorporated 12th June, 3 Jacobi. CUTLER. The manufacture of cutlery was, for many years, a profitable business; but of late, from the extensive supplies made by the large manufacturers of Birmingham, Sheffield, &c, the prices of good cutlery are reduced to within one half of what they were. Cutlery now consists of immense varieties, and the manufacturing Cutler does not, as heretofore, restrict himself to the manufacture of knives, forks, scissars, penknives, razors, &c, but he makes also the edge tools used by cabinet-makers, carpenters, &c. Though the art of the Cutler generally comprises all those articles denominated edge tools, it was formerly more confined to the manufacture of knives, forks, scissars, penknives, razors, and swords. Knives and swords have been in use from the earliest periods ; but forks are comparatively of modern invention, they appear to have had their origin in Italy, 176 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and to have been introduced into this country about the latter end of queen Elizabeth's reign, or in the beginning of James the First, and were not common until after the restoration : in early times, at the entertainment of a sovereign, the guest who sat nearest to a joint, held one part with his fingers, while he carved the other with his knife. The chief art in this business, consists in softening hardened steel, by the application of a heat not greater than that which was employed in hardening it; for this purpose it is gradually heated, more or less, according to the temper required, and cooled again, either gradually, or rapidly, this making no difference; after which the steel is found to be softened, or tempered, exactly in proportion to the heat which it has undergone. While the steel is tempering, its surface displays a succession of colours, supposed to arise from a commencing oxidation, in proportion as it becomes more and more heated, which the workmen in this metal have ingeniously taken advantage of, as serving to denominate the degree of temper required. The first colour is that of a light straw ; this being produced by a small degree of heat, indicates the highest or hardest temper ; to this succeeds a yellow, then a brown, afterwards a reddish blue, then a light blue, and lastly a full deep blue, passing into black ; which being the other extremity of the series, denotes the lowest degree of temper, and a hardness only a little superior to what the piece of steel would have acquired, if, when heated for the purpose of being hardened, it had been allowed to cool gradually, instead of being plunged into cold water. The old method of tempering, which is even yet practised by some, is to lay the articles on a clear coal fire, or hot bar, until they shew the requisite colours ; but small things which are to be blue, are com- monly blazed ; that is, by dipping them first in oil, or melted grease, and then holding them over the fire until the oil has evaporated. The following shows the mediums of temperatures, at which the colours make their appearances. Viz. 430° to 450°, the several tints of straw colour, fit for razors, and such instruments as have a strong back and fine edge. 470° a full yellow, proper for penknives, &c. 490° a brown yellow, a proper temper for shears, scissars, &c. 500° the first tinge of purple, the temper for pocket and gardeners' knives. 530° shows a purple, the proper temper for table and carving knives. 550° to 560° different blues, for watch springs, swords, and where elasticity is required. 600° corresponds with black and the lowest degree of temper. CUTLER. 177 A journeyman Cutler could easily earn two guineas per week at the trade : but at the present time, if he gets thirty shillings it is about the average ; therefore the premium for a working apprentice w r ould not exceed ten pounds, but the premium for the town-selling Cutler, would probably be upwards of fifty. The annexed cut represents the arms of the company, who were incorporated in the beginning of the reign of Henry V. Six swords, salterways proper. DENTIST. The profession of healing, preserving and drawing teeth. — See Surgeon. DISTILLER. ) Distillation is the art of separating the volatile and spirituous from the fixed and watery parts of fermented liquors. When a fluid which has undergone the vinous fermentation is exposed to the action of heat, the vapour which arises from it is, when collected and condensed by the reduction of its temperature, i 3 178 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. again converted into a fluid : but, the fluid thus obtained is found to have different properties to that from which it was derived, and it receives the name of spirit. This spirit consists of water and a peculiar fluid called alcohol. Alcohol, in combination with more or less water, and flavoured by the aroma of the different substances from which it is obtained, forms brandy, rum, Geneva, and all the various descriptions of spirit known in commerce. The art of the Distiller consists in selecting the most convenient mode of heating the fermented fluid, and of condensing the vapour it affords, while he prevents the intermixture with his products of whatever would injure their flavour. To accomplish these purposes, although they are apparently simple, it is found that great care and skill are required. The distillations performed by the chemist with the retort, the alembic, the lamp furnace, the pneuma to-chemical and Woulfe's apparatus, for obtaining gaseous and volatile products in general, are essentially the same as the distillations conducted for the com- mercial purpose of obtaining spirit ; but the scale is different, the chemist having his whole apparatus so completely under his eye that he can adjust the heat and other circumstances with much nicety. In using, for example, when he has vapour to condense, the lamp furnace, a wet sponge placed upon the beak of the retort will suffice : but the commercial Distiller requires, for the purposes of condensation, a large convoluted tube, passing through an immense body of water, which must be constantly renewed : the difference of scale, therefore, requires more than a mere enlargement of the apparatus, and there has in fact been found ample scope for improvements in the art. The quantity and excellence of the spirit produced by the French, in consequence of the alterations they have made in the old method of distilling (the improved form of which, by Saintmarc, we shall presently describe,) have deci- sively shewn the value of the new plans, which may be adopted without the disadvantage of increasing the first cost or complexity of the apparatus. They consist in the application of Woulfe's apparatus to this purpose. Wine being put into the boiler, and into all the intermediate receivers between the boiler and the worm, the tube from the boiler plunges into the wine of the first receiver, to which it communicates sufficient heat to raise its contents in vapour : this vapour has the same effect on the wine of the next receiver ; and after the continuation of the same process through as DISTILLER. 179 many receivers as may be thought proper, the whole of the vapour finally extricated is condensed in the usual way by passing through a worm. By this truly ingenious apparatus spirit of various degrees of concentration may be obtained at one operation, ac- cording as the product of the first, the second, or any other re- ceiver is taken ; the consumption of fuel is extremely small, the product excellent, as well as greater in quantity than by any other means ; and by using water instead of wine, in the boiler, the possibility of an empyreumatic taste is prevented. In distilling from grain an oil is apt to come over, which injures the taste of the spirit : it is usual to keep it back by adding a little sulphuric acid to the wash. The comparative salubrity of the spirit or Geneva made in Holland is notorious, and it has been supposed that nothing like it can be produced in this country ; but it appears to be entirely the result of the care they take in their processes. They use the most perfect grain, and use it only when perfectly malted, aware that a fourth part more spirit is obtained from such grain than from that of which the germination has been checked too soon, or suffered to continue too long. The best Hollands is prepared from wheat, which is the fittest grain for this use, and is more pro- ductive than barley; but rye yields about one-third more spirit than wheat, and is more extensively used in Holland. The fermentation is continued about three days : the first dis- tillation is extremely slow, and the observation of this point is essential; the second distillation or rectification is done with juniper berries. The most rigid cleanliness is observed, and the vessels are cleansed with lime water instead of soap, which would give the liquor a urinous taste. They use the rye grown on calcareous soil, and never, if they can avoid it, that of fat clayey ground: it is Prussian rye they employ. A little malt added to rye improves the flavour but not the quality of the spirit. The substances from which spirit is obtained are usually barley, wheat, oats, rye, sugar, or molasses. In countries where the grape ripens in the open air, wine is distilled for this purpose : hence the superiority of the brandies of France ; the spirit afforded by good wines containing the finest aroma of all the products capable of yielding alcohol. When grain is used it is malted according to the usual process, like barley for brewing ; and the fermentation is conducted in the same manner. After fermentation, the fluid intended to be distilled is called 180 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. wash, and it is ready for the still. A still consists of a boiler, which contains the wash; and a tube, in passing through which the vapours are condensed : the tube is convoluted, in order that it may have a great length in a moderate compass, and it is thence called the worm. The boiler formerly used was a cylinder, the height of which was in general one-half greater than its diameter ; but the French, who have always been foremost in the improvements which this art has received, have introduced a much superior form. The height of the boiler has been considerably diminished, its width augmented, and instead of being cylindrical it widens upward gradually to within about three or four inches of the top ; there the sides are curved into an arch, and become narrower ; hence its form is in fact similar to that of a common tea-kettle, and the top is of the same diameter as the bottom. To the boiler is fitted a conical head, in the interior of which, round the lower edge, is a channel, destined to receive the liquid condensed against the sides, and which, instead of returning to the boiler, is conveyed into the worm. In the old con- struction the head communicated with the worm by an inclined tube of very small diameter ; but now the tube in this situation is as wide as the head, and diminishes in diameter as it approaches the worm, into which it opens. Another important difference between the im- proved boiler and the old one, consists in the shape of the bottom: the old ones were flat; this is concave. By this means the heat received is nearly equal at every point directly exposed to the fire ; and, as the bottom is convex within, the sediment from the wash falls round its edge, where, from its resting on the brickwork and not receiving the direct heat, it is not liable, from being burnt, to give an empy- reumatic taste to to the spirit. Two inches of the circumference of the bottom rest on brickwork. In the old construction of the furnace the heat was applied only to the bottom of the boiler ; and a further loss was sustained by placing, as is still common in furnaces generally, the centre of the grate under the centre of the boiler ; without reflecting that the stream of air towards the chimney always carries the heat and flame in an oblique direction towards the end of the boiler. At present the end of the grate next the chimney is not placed farther back than the middle of the boiler, and the heated air is conducted round the boiler before it passes off, by which the whole mass of fluid in the boiler is heated at once, and the heat may be maintained with great regularity, while a much less quantity of fuel DISTILLER, 1S1 will suffice. The worm is generally made of tin or pewter, and is the same as that in common use, except that at the commencement where it is connected with the beak of the head of the boiler, it is wider than they were formerly made, and tapers gradually towards the discharging extremity. The reason of this is evident, because vapour, only partly condensed, requires more room than where the whole is fluid. The refrigeratory is kept constantly filled with cold water ; and this is effected by a tube which descends and opens nearly at the bottom of it, and brings a supply of cold water from a greater elevation ; while another tube conveys the hot water with equal rapidity from the top. By this means the condensation is so complete, that the spirit discharged exhales little or no odour. With respect to the usual mode in which distillation is conducted in the great public distilleries, the most interesting account that has been communicated to the public, is that contained in the deposition of James Forbes, of Dublin, who was for many years concerned in a large distillery. It is from the appendix to the Fifth Report of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the Fees, &c. received in the Public Offices of Ireland ; which report was printed by order of the House of Commons. " The corn is first ground, then washed with water, and the worts, after being cooled, are set for fermentation, to promote which, a quantity of barm is added to them, and they become wash ; the wash is then passed through the still, and makes singlings, and these, being again passed through the still, produce spirits ; the latter part of this running, being weak, is called feints. When singlings are put into the still, a small quantity of soap is added, to prevent the still from running foul ; a dessert spoonful of vitriol well mixed with oil is put into a puncheon of spirits to make them shew a head when reduced with water : this iV only done with spirits intended for home consumption, and no vitriol is used in any other part of the process. In this distillery, the former prac- tice was to use about one fourth part of malt, and the remainder a mixture of ground oats and barley and oatmeal; latterly the custom has been to use only as much as would prevent the mash vat from setting. He had found that malt alone produced a greater quantity of spirits, than the mixture of malt and raw corn of the same quality with that of which the malt had been made. He generally put from fifty to fifty-four gallons of water to every barrel of corn of twelve stone (fourteen pounds to the stone). Each brew- 182 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ing was divided into three mashings, nearly equal : the produce of the two first was put into the fermenting backs ; and the produce of the last, which was small worts, was put into the copper for the purpose of being heated, and used as water to the next day's brewing, when as much water was added as would make, with the small worts of the brewing, fifty-four gallons to each barrel of the corn. The mash vats were so tabulated, that he always knew the quantity of worts which would come off, at each mashing. Their strength he ascer- tained by Saunders's saccharometer, and at the above proportions he obtained from a mixture of the two first worts, an increase of gravity from twenty pounds to twenty two pounds per barrel, of thirty six gallons, above water proof, at the temperature of about 88°. The small worts gained at the same temperature about six pounds. The grain, after the last worts were off, retained nearly the same bulk as when put into the mash vat : the whole of the grain was put in at the first mashing ; he never knew any grain to be added to the second mashing. The worts of the first and second mashing were run through the mash vat and under back, in the latter of which a correct guage might be taken of them. He usually commenced brewing at six o'clock in the morning : the first worts were run off into the under-backs, and required from an hour to an hour and a half, to be forced up into the cooler ; the second worts came off at the end of two hours from the discharge of the first, and required about the same time to pass into the coolers. The small worts were generally let off late at night ; and being then, or early on the following morning, put into the copper to be used for the next brewing, were seldom shown in the coolers. He thinks that any decrease of the worts by evaporation whilst in the coolers, n.ust have been very inconsiderable; and that a correct guage of the worts may be taken in the coolers as well as in the under-backs. The quantity of wash in the backs was found to be nearly corres- pondent with that of the strong waters which had been on the mash vat, and in the cooler. The fermentation of the worts was produced by means of yeast, and was in general so contrived as to be apparently kept up for the time allowed by law (six days) : he has, however, usually had his wash ready for the still in twenty- four hours from the time in which it was set. Backs are renewed in two ways ; either by additions made to them from other backs in the distillery, each supplying a certain portion of wash to the back which is next before it in the order of fermentation, whilst the DISTILLER. 183 newest and least fermented wash is replenished by worts, or, when the fermentation is down, by an entire substitution of worts. He has ordinarily, in the course of work, charged a 500 gallon still with wash, and run it off in twenty to twenty-three minutes : he has seen a 1000 gallon still charged and worked off in twenty-eight or thirty minutes. " He understands that it is now the practice of some distillers, to heat the wash nearly to the state of boiling before the still is charged with it; by which means he believes the process to be accelerated by three or four minutes. He has seen a 1000 gallon still charged with singlings, and worked off in from forty to fifty minutes, and thinks a 500 gallon still requires nearly an equal time. Feints from pot ale (the name given to completely fermented wash) usually are run off in from six to seven minutes, making allowance for every delay : about six charges of spirits may be run off from a still of 500 gallons' contents, each charge estimated at 150 gallons. The feints were always put back into the pot ale receiver. Twenty gallons of feints is the usual quantity run from a 500 gallon still charged with singlings ; he thinks there is more spirit extracted from feints than from pot ale ; there was no delay between one charge of pot ale and another, or between one of singlings and another ; the still could be cleansed in less than one minute ; it very rarely occurred that the ordinary accidents which happened to the still delayed the work to any considerable degree. The still is never charged with wash beyond about seven-eights of the still, nor with singlings beyond about four-fifths exclusive of the head. The estimated produce (according to which the duty may be charged) is one gallon of singlings from three gallons of wash, and one gallon of spirits from three gallons of singlings, but it is very frequently somewhat more. Previous to the regulation (of excise) which took place in June, 1806, from a still of 540 gallons, which is charged with 2075 gallons of spirits weekly, he has frequently drawn 530 gallons in one week, and thinks 500 gallons to be a fair average. He usually made spirits about fourteen per cent, above proof, by Saunders' hydrometer. Spirits exported by him from twelve to fourteen per cent, above proof, by Saunders' and Hyatt's hydrometer, were charged in London at from twenty- four to twenty-six gallons per cent. Before he sent them to the Custom-house he either reduced them with water, or drew them at that strength from the still. To every six gallons of strong 184 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. spirits, one gallon of water was added at the distillery, which reduced them to the strength usual for exportation. The reduced spirits are permitted to the King's warehouses, and the Distiller given credit for a decrease of stock equal to the quantity so per- mitted ; by these means he has one gallon of private spirits to dispose of for every gallon of water mixed with the spirits exported ; besides this, the Distiller draws back the allowance given in lieu of the malt duty on every gallon of water added : when he warehoused spirits with the intention of afterwards using them for home con- sumption, he left them at their full strength." The absence of improvement in the process of distillation, as well as in the apparatus for effecting it, in this country, may be chiefly traced to the shackles which have proceeded from the regulations of excise, adopted and enforced for the protection of the revenue. Whether those regulations may have been indispensably requisite to that end, is, perhaps, very questionable ; but it is quite certain that they have had the effect of restraining those extensive improvements in this branch of science and business, which have been almost universally accomplished, where the inventive genius of our countrymen has had free scope in the application of its powers to practical results. This is especially visible in a com- parison of the means employed in France for the improvement of this branch. With an unlimited supply of the grape, a material certainly calculated to afford one of the finest spirits, they are enabled, almost at will, to effect such improvements in its quality as result from changes of process, and the adoption of superior apparatus ; since, although in some respects under certain revenue regulations, they are not enforced in a manner calculated to pre- judice the exercise of talent, whether mechanically or chemically applied to the art. A still has lately been brought forward, which is stated to be coming into extensive use, and to comprise all the advantages of perpetual distillation without its disadvantages; uniting moderate cost, the employment alike of a single vessel and a single operation, and the most perfect facility of management, with great economy of time, fuel, and other items of expense ; and, which must be a primary object with all Distillers, with the pro- duction of a fine and potent spirit. It has been introduced by two French gentlemen, M. Alegre, and M. Saintmarc ; and is patented in this country in the name of the latter. On a view of the plans and descriptions of this apparatus, there seems little reason to DISTILLER. 185 doubt its powers and advantages, as described ; and assuming the truth of the facts stated with regard to those powers as proved in practice, the invention is entitled to great praise, and must effect an extensive revolution in distillation ; both in this country and its colonies. The laws which relate to the management of a distillery are numerous and important ; we subjoin a brief abstract. By 43 Geo. III. c. 69, every Distiller or maker of low wines or spirits for sale, or exportation, within England, shall take out a licence, which shall be charged with the yearly sum of 10/. ; and every rectifier of spirits within England, shall pay for such licence a duty of 51. ; and such licence shall be renewed annually before the end of the year, on pain of forfeiting, if a common distiller, 200/. ; if a molass dis- tiller or rectifier, 30/. By 24 Geo. III. c. 41, no person shall be deemed a rectifier or compounder who shall not have an entered still capable of containing, exclusive of the head, 120 gallons, which shall have suitable tubs and worms, and be used for rectifying British spirits for sale. By 19 Geo. III. c. 50, and 26 Geo. lit c. 73, every such Distiller shall cause to be put up in large characters, over the outward door of every place used for making or keeping of British made spirits, the words Distiller, Rectifier or Com- pounder of Spirituous Liquors, on pain of 100/. ; and if any person shall buy any such spirits of any person not having such words over his door, he shall forfeit 50/., &c. &c, DYER. Dyeing is a chemical art which has for its object the extracting of the colouring particles from such substances as afford them, and transferring them to certain stuffs of wool, silk, cotton, or linen. No art has profited so much from the improvements of modern chemistry, as the art of Dyeing has ; and it cannot be, nor ought it to be for- gotten, that while we owe much to the discoveries of our own countrymen, and the application of those discoveries to the useful arts, the art of Dyeing is highly indebted to the national operations of the French chemists. The origin of this art seems to be of high antiquity ; a circumstance 186 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. which renders it impossible to say to whom or to what it is to be attributed: conjecture, therefore, is all we can pretend to. As most of the materials from which colouring matter is derived are, of them- selves, either of dark and disagreeable colours, or else destitute of any particular colour, it is probable ' that, even in the earliest ages, the love of ornament, which is natural to mankind, and which is founded on the love of distinction, one of the most active principles of the human mind, would induce them to stain their vestments with various colouring ingredients, especially with vegetable juices. But the means of imparting permanent dyes to cloth, and affixing to its fibres such colouring materials as could not easily be washed out by water, or be obliterated, or greatly changed by the action of air, or of certain saline substances, to which they are liable to be exposed, and which are necessary to render them clean when soiled, was an art whicii required the knowledge of principles not within the reach of untutored men, and only to be obtained by gradual investigation and the lapse of a considerable portion of time. According to Pliny, the Egyptians had discovered a mode of dyeing, somewhat resembling that which we use for colouring printed linens : the stuffs, probably after having been impregnated with different mordants, were immersed in vats, where they received various colours. The Phoenicians seem to have a strong claim to the invention of this art, and they held a decided pre-eminence in the practice of it for many ages : their purple and scarlet cloths were sought after by every civilized nation ; and the city of Tyre, enriched by its com- merce, increased to an amazing extent. But her career was stopped by the vanity and folly of the eastern emperors ; under whose do- minion this opulent city had unfortunately fallen. Desirous of monopolizing the wearing of the beautiful cloths of Tyre, these tyrants issued most severe edicts, prohibiting any one from appearing in the Tyrian blue, purple, or scarlet, except themselves, and their great officers of state. To this injudicious restriction, is to be attributed the destruction of the Tyrian dyes : for under the impolitic restraint imposed on the consumption of the Phoenician cloths, the manufac- turers and Dyers were no longer able to carry on their trade ; it grew languid, and expired : and, with the trade, the art itself also perished. It is generally supposed from the name, that the Tyrian purp'e, so much celebrated among the ancients, was discovered at Tyre and that it contributed not a little to the opulence of that DYER. 187 celebrated city. The liquor, which was employed in dyeing the purple, was extracted from two kinds of shell-fish, one of which, the larger, was called the purple, and the other was a species of whelk. Each of these species was subdivided into different varieties : which were otherwise distinguished, according to the places where they were found, and as they yielded more or less of a beautiful colour. It is in a vessel in the throat of the fish, that the colouring liquor is found. Each fish only afforded a single drop. When a certain quantity of the liquor had been obtained, it was mixed with a pro- portion of common salt, macerated together for three days, and five times the quantity of water added. The mixture being kept in a moderate heat, the animal parts which happened to be mixed with it separated, and rose to the surface. At the end of ten days, when these operations were finished, a piece of white wool was immersed, by which means they ascertained whether the liquor had acquired the proper shade. Various processes were followed to prepare the stuff to receive the dye. By some it was immersed in lime water ; and by others it was prepared by a kind of fucus, which acted as a mor- dant to give it a more fixed colour ; alkanet was used by some for the same purpose. The liquor of the whelk did not alone yield a durable colour. The liquor from the other shell-fish served to increase its bright- ness ; and thus two operations were in use to communicate this colour. A first dye was given by the liquor of the purple, and a second by that of the whelk; from which it was called by Pliny u parpura dibapha," or purple twice dipped. The small quantity of liquor which could be obtained from each shell-fish, and the tedious process of its preparation and application to the stuffs, raised the price of purple so high, that in the time of Augustus, a pound of wool of the Tyrian purple dye, could not be purchased for one thousand denarii, equal to about thirty-six pounds sterling. Among the Greeks, the knowledge of dyeing must have been very imperfect, and little assisted by science ; for the art of dyeing linen appears not to have been known in Greece, before Alexander's invasion of India, where, according to Pliny, they dyed the sails of his vessels of different colours. The Greeks seem to have borrowed this art from the Indians. India seems to have been the nursery of the arts and sciences, which were afterwards spread and perfected among other nations. Accidents which had a tendency to improve the art, could not fail to 183 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. be multipled rapidly in a country rich in natural productions ; requiring little labour for the support of its inhabitants ; and the population of which was favoured by the bounty of nature, and sim- plicity of manners, till it was opposed by the tyranny of succeeding conquerors. But religious prejudices, and the unalterable division into castes, soon shackled industry ; the arts became stationary ; and it would seem, that the knowledge of dyeing cotton in that country (for silk was then unknown, or at least very scarce) was as far advanced in the time of Alexander, as it is at the present period. The beautiful colours, which are observable in some Indian linens, would lead one to suppose, that the art of Dyeing had there attained a high degree of perfection ; but the Indian processes are so com- plicated, tedious, and imperfect, that they would be impracticable in any other country, on account of the great difference in the price which is paid for labour. It is unquestionably true, that European industry has far surpassed them in correctness of design, variety of shade, and facility of execution ; and, if we are inferior to them with respect to the liveliness of some colours, it is only to be attributed to the superior quality of some of their dyes, or perhaps to the length and multiplicity of their operations and processes. In our own country, however, the art of Dyeing made no considerable progress till about the beginning of the seventeenth century. But before that period our cloths were sent to Holland, to be dressed and dyed. This, however, was probably practised only in the case of particular colours. The dyeing of woollen and silken goods, has indeed long since attained a considerable degree of excellence ; but the manu- factures of cotton, owing to the small attraction of that substance for colouring matters, have been very deficient in this point. Till within these few years, the colours employed in the dyeing of fustians and cotton-velvets were few ; and, even at this day, many of them are fugitive. But it must be allowed that great improvements have been made within these few years, from the application of chemical principles, and by a diligent investigation of the nature of colouring substances. There is, howover, still much room for the improvement of the art, but this can only be effected by the practical Dyer ac- quiring chemical knowledge, an acquisition now happily placed within the reach of every Dyer, who is capable of reading and understanding the English language. It will not be necessary for our present purpose to enter into a minute examination of the various theories that have been advanced DYER. 189 of the nature of colours ; at the same time it may be proper to make a few observations on the common properties of colouring substances. In explaining the cause of colour, and the nature of colouring particles, two great inconveniences have arisen. First, from an attempt to illustrate the action, which the particles of colouring substances have on the rays of light in consequence of their density and thickness, without having any means of ascertaining this, and without any regard to the attractions which result from their chemi- cal composition : in comparing the colouring particles to mucilages and resins, from some very faint resemblances ; and in attempting to explain their colouring properties by conjectures, formed respecting their component parts, while these properties ought rather to be as- certained by direct experiment, than explained by an imaginary com- position. It was also departing from true theory, to ascribe to laws purely mechanical, the adhesion of the colouring particles to the substances dyed, the action of the mordants, the difference between the true or durable, and the false or fugitive dyes. Bergman seems to have been the first who referred the phenomena of dyeing entirely to chemical principles. Having dyed some wool and some silk in a solution of indigo, in very dilute sulphuric acid, he explains the effects he observed in the operation, by attributing them to the pre- cipitation, occasioned by the blue particles having a greater affinity for the particles of the wool and silk, than for those of the acidulated water. He remarks that this affinity of the wool is so strong, as to deprive the liquor entirely of the colouring particles ; but that the weaker affinity of the silk can only diminish the proportion of these particles in the bath ; and he shows that on these different affinities depend both the permanence and intensity of the colour. This is the true light in which the phenomena of dyeing should be viewed ; they are real chemical phenomena, which ought to be analyzed in the same way as all those dependent upon the actions which bodies exert, in consequence of their peculiar nature. It is evident that these colouring particles of bodies possess chemical properties, that distinguish them from all other substances : and that they have attractions peculiar to themselves, by means of which they unite with acids, alkalies, metallic oxides, or calces, and some earths, principally alumen, or pure clay. They frequently precipitate oxides and alumen, from the acids which held them in solution ; at other times they unite with the salts, and from super-compounds, which combine with the wool, silk, cotton, or linen. And with these their union is 190 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. rendered much more close by means of alumen, or metallic oxide, than it would be without their intermedium. The difference in the affinity of the colouring particles for wool, silk, and cotton, is sometimes so great, that they will not unite with one of these substances, while they combine very readily with another ; thus, cotton receives no colour in a bath which dyes wool scarlet. A piece of stuff was prepared, the warp of which was wool and the woof cotton, which went through the process of fulling, that they might be certain that the wool and the cotton received exactly the same preparation; but the wool took the scarlet dye, and the cotton remained white. It is this difference of affinity which renders it necessary to vary the preparation and the process, according to the nature of the substance which is intended to be dyed of a par- ticular colour. And these considerations ought to determine the means to be pursued for the improvement of the art of dyeing. It is highly proper to endeavour to ascertain what are the constituent principles of the colouring particles. And, in this inquiry, the most essential circumstances are, to determine the affinities of a colouring substance; first, with the substances which may be employed as menstrua ; secondly, with those which may, by their combinations, modify the colour, increase its brilliancy, and help to strengthen its union with the stuff to be dyed ; thirdly, with the different agents which may change the colour, and principally with the external agents— air and light. The Practice of Dyeing. — As a general principle, processes per- formed in a great manufactory are more advantageous than those which are insulated, since, from the sub-division of labour, each workman, occupied with a single object, acquires celerity and per- fection in his employment, by which means the saving of time and , labour becomes very considerable. This principle is particularly applicable to the art of Dyeing, as the preparation which remains after one operation, may often be advantageously employed in another. A bath, from which the colouring matter has been nearly extracted in the first operation, may be used as a ground for other stuffs, or, with the addition of a fresh portion of ingredients, may form a new bath. The galls which have been applied to the galling of silk, may answer a similar purpose for cotton or wool. From this it is evident that the limitations under which the art of dyeing labours in some countries, must tend to obstruct its progress and improvement." DYER. 191 A dye-house should be situated as near as possible to a stream of water, and should be spacious, and well lighted. It should be floored with lime and plaster ; and proper means should be adopted to carry off water or spent baths, by forming channels or gutters, so that every operation may be conducted with the greatest attention to cleanliness. The size and position of the boilers are to be regu- lated by the nature and extent of the operations for which they are designed. Excepting for scarlet and other delicate colours, in which tin is used as a mordant, in which case tin vessels are preferable ; the boilers must be of brass or copper. Brass, being less apt than copper to be acted on by means of chemical agents, and to com- municate spots to the stuffs, is fitter for the purpose of a dyeing vessel. It is scarcely necessary to say, that it is of the greatest consequence that the coppers be well cleaned for every operation ; and that vessels of a large size should be furnished at the bottom with a pipe and stop-cock for emptying them ; there must be also a contrivance above each copper to support the poles for the purpose of draining the stuffs which are immersed, so that the liquor may fall back into the vessel, and prevent waste. Dyes for silk, where a boiling heat is not necessary, are prepared in troughs or backs, which are long copper or wooden vessels. The colours which are used for silk, are extremely delicate. They must therefore be dried quickly, that they may not be long exposed to the action of the air, and that there may be no risk of change. For this purpose, it is necessary to have a drying-room heated with a stove. The silk is stretched on a movable pole, which by the Dyers is called a shaker. This is hung up in the heated chamber, and kept in constant motion to promote the evaporation. For pieces of stuffs, a winch or reel must be used, the ends of which are supported by two iron forks which may be put up at pleasure in holes made in the curb on which the edges of the copper rest. The manipulations in dyeing are neither difficult nor complicated. Their object is to impregnate the stuff to be dyed with the colouring particles, which are dissolved in the bath. For this purpose, the action of the air is necessary, not only in fixing the colouring parti- cles, but also in rendering them more vivid ; while those which have not been fixed in the stuff are to be carefully removed. In dyeing whole pieces of stuff, or a number of pieces at once, the winch or reel mentioned above must be employed. One end of the stuff is first laid across it, and, by turning it quickly round, the 192 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. whole passes successively over it. By turning it afterwards the contrary way, that part of the stuff which was first immersed, will be the last in the second immersion, and by this means the colouring matter will be communicated as easily as possible. In dyeing wool in the fleece, a kind of broad ladder with very close rounds, called by the Dyers of this country, a scraw or scray, is used. This is placed over the copper, and the wool is put upon it for the purpose of draining and exposure to the air, or when the liquor is to be changed. To separate the super-abundant colouring particles, or those which have not been fixed in the stuff, after being dyed, it must be wrung out. This operation is performed with a cylindrical piece of wood, one end of which is fixed in the wall, or in a post. This operation is often repeated a number of times suc- cessively, for the purpose of drying the stuffs more rapidly, and communicating a brighter lustre. When, after a certain quantity of fresh ingredients is added to a liquor, and it is stirred about, it is said to be raked, because it is mixed with the rake. In dyeing, one colour is frequently communicated to stuffs, with the intention of applying another upon it, and thus a compound colour is produced. The first of these operations is called giving a ground ; when it is found necessary to pass stuffs several times through the same liquor — each peculiar operation is called a dip. A colour is said to be rosed, when a red colour having a yellow tinge, is changed to a shade inclining to a crimson or ruby colour ; and the conversion of a yellow-red to a more complete red, is called heightening the colour. In addition to these general remarks, we might give more minute details of the different operations which are employed in dyeing; but, as we cannot presume that they would be of much advantage, we shall not indulge in useless descriptions. Although the mani- pulations of dyeing are not very various, and appear extremely simple, they require very particular attention, and an experienced eye, in order to judge of the qualities of the bath, to produce and sustain the degree of heat suited to each operation ; to avoid all circumstances that might occasion inequalities of colour, to judge accurately whether the shade of what comes out of the bath suits the pattern, and to establish the proper gradations in a series of shades. We shall here make a few observations on the qualities and effects of different kinds of water, which may be considered as one of the most essential agents in the art of dyeing. It is almost unnecessary DYER. 193 to remark, that water which is muddy, or contains putrid substances, should not be employed ; and, indeed, no kind of water which possesses qualities distinguished by the taste, ought to be used. An apprentice to the common Dyer would not require a greater premium than 10/.; but to the Dyer who understands the various chemical processes as before enumerated in the d3 r eing of the fine cloths, it would be more, and the wages, as a matter of course, would be apportioned accordingly. The arms of this company, who were first incorporated by a special charter of Henry VI., are annexed. A chevron engrailed, between three woolsacks. ENGINEER. The occupation of an Engineer is of great importance to society. It embraces pre-eminently canals and their attendants, reservoirs, locks, basins, aqueducts, tunnels, bridges, docks, and buildings in water, cutting and forming roads, &c. To make an expert Engineer requires considerable talent in the individual, joined to great personal firmness, and cautious enterprise. He should be a mathematician of the first order, with a ready aptitude of extending its powers to practical purposes ; experienced in local nature, with science at command competent to assist and improve her. The cutting of canals is in point of importance the first in order of his pursuits, and is of a very early date : for we find the Coridians, K THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. a people of Asia Minor, projecting an undertaking of this nature: they wished the isthmus which joined their territory, to connect itself with the continent. Basins and canals were formed in Bcetia, says Strabo, supplied by the lake Copais. The great river Euphrates was connected with the Tigris, by means of a canal. A branch was also formed by Trajan, near Coche, to join the same river. The Greeks, as well as the Romans, formed the design of making the canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, which joins Achaia, for the pur- pose of obtaining a passage by the Ionian sea. A similar plan was projected between the Euxine and Caspian seas. The Roman generals were fully impressed with the utility of canals, of which they executed many, as the ruins now existing demonstrate. They connected the Rhine with the the Josel, and also the former river with the Moselle. Savary says, the canals in Egypt amounted in number to eighty, but they were more for the purpose of irrigation than communication. The Nile was joined to the Red Sea by an artificial channel ; the work was commenced by Necos, who was fol- lowed by Sesostris and Darius ; but the latter relinquished the un- dertaking on the information reaching him that the Red Sea, being so much above the level of the land in Egypt, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to prevent tne overflowing of the banks, and consequent inundation of the country. Under Ptolemy II. the undertaking was completed. Its width was upwards of one hundred cubits, reckoning twenty-two inches to each cubit; and its depth sufficient to allow of the navigation of the largest vessels. By this canal, India was enriched with the commerce of Egypt, Persia, and the coast of Africa. China, in her institutions hostile to art, has nevertheless encouraged the making of canals ; and, their convenience having aided in sup- plying a ready transit of her commodities, she has, more from canning than a wish to develop the powers of the human mind, intersected her country with them. The canal which runs from Canton to Pekin is in length upwards of 800 miles, and was exe- cuted about 700 years since : it has no locks, tunnels, or aqueducts, and when stopped by mountains, or other impediments, a rolling bridge is resorted to, and sometimes inclined planes. These rolling bridges consist of a number of cylindrical rollers which turn easily on pivots, and are sometimes put in motion by a windmill, so that the same machinery serves a double purpose, that of working the mill, and drawing up vessels In this manner they draw their vessels from the canals on one side of the mountain to the other ENGINEER. In Europe, the nursery of science and the arts, to which in a great measure must be referred the successful completion of all great works, artificial rivers have abounded. In the year 1666, Louis XIV. gave directions for constructing a plan to connect the ocean with the Mediterranean, by the canal of Languedoc. This was a bold undertaking, if it be considered that all the details connected with it were to be created ; every thing was new. Francis Riquet was the Engineer, and he lived to complete it. This canal is upwards of 64 leagues in length, and is furnished with 104 locks. It runs through rocks in some places of 1000 paces in extent : in others it passes valleys and bridges by means of aqueducts of vast height. It joins the river Garonne, near Toulouse, and terminates in the lake Tau, which extends to the port of Cette. It was begun by forming a large reservoir 4000 paces in circumference, and 24 feet deep, which was supplied by water issuing from the mountain Noire. In Germany and the low countries, canals form the principal means of communication between one place and another. The canal of Bruges runs to the sea at Ostend, and is extended to Ghent, Brussels, Antwerp, and many other places. It is in depth sufficient to allow of merchantmen coming to the warehouse of its owner. These canals pass into the very streets of the above named towns ; indeed in all Flanders and Holland, in towns of any importance, the streets are intersected by the canals. In the line of the canal, the street is sufficiently wide to admit of two commodious roads on its sides, which are not unfrequently planted with double rows of trees. Canal navigation in England may almost be said to have been commenced by the late Duke of Bridgewater, in the year 1759; since which time, the internal commerce having increased with the development of the industry of the people, canals have been cut in all directions, and afford a ready transit to every populous part of the island. The Engineer intrusted with the making of a canal, should be regarded as having so much of the projector's interest at stake, that the fullest confidence should be placed in him. The preliminaries to an undertaking of this nature, consist in forming a minute survey of every part of the country through which the line of the canal is proposed to pass ; and this should be done in the first instance by the principal Engineer. All the great heights should be accurately noted and ascertained ; memorandums should be taken of all objects within the districts through which it is intended to pass ; rivulets 196 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and mill-streams marked so as easily to be referred to ; and the breadths of the various summits or ranges of high and low land that are to be passed accurately ascertained. When a survey is so far accomplished, a rough sketch or map should be prepared, laying down to a scale every principal object within the proposed line. This map will enable the projectors to see the various obstacles to be encountered in the work. When so much is accomplished, the advisable height of the summit-level of the canal must be ascertained in order to find the number and fall required in the several locks necessary to be constructed on its line. The proposed summit-level should be traced along the hills and ranges of high land, to see how far it is practicable to reduce it to the required height by filling up the low land with the excavated earth, or by deep cutting or tunnelling. When the summit-level is finally determined on, and the line of the proposed canal, all springs and rivulets which rise or above or cross this line should be traced, and the quantity of water they discharge accurately guaged. This part of the work is of the greatest import- ance, as it may be turned to considerable account in affording a supply of water to the line in its neighbourhood. In setting out the canal a good spirit level with telescopic sights is required for tracing the levels, and when traced they are marked particularly by what is termed a bench mark, which is no more than stakes driven into the ground at usually the distance of every two or three chains, with their tops exactly projecting above the earth so much as to ascertain the top water level. After this line shall have been thus traced, and the bench marks fixed, it should be accurately revised, arid all sudden bends in its course rectified, so as to produce an easy undulating curve. It would be desirable to get the line as straight as possible; but ranges of high land, and property of particular descriptions, sometimes intervene, which prevents it. In such cases, as in the former for instance, it is often found more desirable to bend the line than to have recourse to deep cutting or tunnelling : in the latter description may be included gentlemen's parks, gardens, &c. ; and where canal acts protects such property, the line must of course vary so as to pass round them. The width and depth of canals vary in reference to the boats intended to work in them , thirty-feet is a good width at the summit level ; and it is sometimes varied with us to as low as 1 8 feet. In Holland they make theirs from 50 to 70 feet, and sometimes more. The Bruges canal is 80 feet wide and 16 feet deep. Tne slopes to ENGINEER. ii)7 the sides of canals are of considerable importance, and this con- sideration has given rise to many speculations, which have added very little to the stock of information already collected. The prac- tice in our canals is to so apportion the side slopes that 1 foot in depth will give a horizontal base of one foot and a half. The depth of the water must be in some measure deduced from the nature of the soil to be cut through, and the draught of the boats to be em- ployed on it. The average depth of our canals is between four and eight feet, and the banks are made one foot higher than the water is intended to stand in them. The fall given to a canal, in order to produce a stream or velocity in the water, varies with the local diffi- culties to be overcome ; and since inland navigation is determined to a precise point or place, the navigator calculates little upon the velocity of the stream downwards, knowing that, if it were made great, what he might save in going down would be lost in returning. Four inches in a mile is conceived to be a good fall for a canal « eighteen feet upon the summit level, and seven feet at bottom, and four feet deep. The velocity of the stream in such a canal is seventeen inches in a second at the surface, fourteen in the middle, and ten at the bottom. From such a deduction it will not be diffi- cult to extend the calculation to canals of greater or less dimensions, This conclusion is, however, only true of a straight river flowing through an equable channel ; and as our canals are seldom straight for a mile together, but vary their course as frequently as change of place presents new difficulties, it follows that the banks of the canais will be more often in a curved direction than a straight one, the velocity being greater near the concave than the convex side ; a cir- cumstance probably occasioned by the centrifugal force accumulating the water in that side. When a canal is accurately marked out, and the bench marks firmly fixed, if it be found difficult to keep the bench marks in their places, holes must be dug to supply their places, and the bench marks put up as the excavating proceeds. When the works have arrived at this state, calculations should be made of stuff wanted, or to be spared upon the line, in order to its being removed with as little labour as possible. The top soil and turf removed, allows of the canal line being easily worked upon. To the ground-men, excavators, or navigators, as they are called, the digging is let, at per cubic-yard, according to the nature of the soil to be excavated, and the distance it is to be removed. 198 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES* Their tools consist of (if in a clayey or loamy soil) a grafting tool, the handle of which is rather long with a narrow blade of iron, forming the segment of a circle, with its concave side turned inwards, firmly rivetted to the handle, and very thin at the lower end : the size varies to the caprice of the workman : they are usually about ten or eleven inches long, and six or seven inches wide. In some soils, gravel for instance, the same kind of tool is called a shovel ; its blade is ground away till its lower end approaches an apex, the diverging sides from which form the slant ones, and make nearly an equilateral triangle. They have also a scoop to throw water, pick- axes, and wheelbarrows. The latter differ materially from the com- mon machine of that name : it is framed of ash, the two sides form the handles, and also diverge away and admit the wheel between their opposite ends. Into the side two stout feet are framed and cross braced : the whole is fixed together by stout bearers mortised into the sides. The bottom is commonty lined with inch elm boards, and the sides slant all round, and are about six inches deep. The wheel is usually of cast iron, very light, and its edge not more than an inch in thickness. The beauty of the barrow consists in its lightness, and should not exceed forty pounds in w r eight, including the wheel, The labourer wheels the soil away in his barrow by a kind of tram road made of planks, these being easily adjusted to any position. A canal is said to be performed by level cutting when the natural state of lands through which it has to pass is tolerably level, and approaching to a good summit level to the next locks, both above and below it. When a line is to be cut through such grounds, nature is said to favour the undertaking ; and it is, perhaps, truly said, for in Flanders and Holland the canals require no other con- sideration than in performing them in this way ; and in them few locks are required, as a good summit-level may be accomplished by embankments, which are there called dikes. These, in countries like Holland, are of great consequence, and are commonly made wide and handsome, planted with rows of trees on their sides, and sometimes even paved ; they are in fact, the high roads of communication between one part of the country and another, and afford to the public the greatest accommodation, in giving them a dry and com- modious road throughout the year, which could not otherwise be easily obtained in such swampy lands, which are more than half the year overflown by the swelling of the Rhine, and the consequent increase of water in the canals. ENGINEER. 199 The Dutch have the credit of having invented the compost or puddling : it is true, their canals are all so lined, and indeed without it, in canals such as theirs it would be totally impracticable to pre- vent their leaking. Their embankments or dikes, are sometimes raised twelve feet, or higher, above the neighbouring land, and the top water-level reaches within two feet of the top of the dike. The difficulty of keeping in the water, in such high embankments, must be great, where nothing but earth is applied for the purpose; but the Dutch puddle appears to make a complete barrier. Canals of great traffic must be furnished occasionally in their course with passing places. They consist in giving an increase of breadth to the water-way of the canal, so as to admit of boats resting by the way, without incommoding the navigation; every canal has them, and the only precautions are, that they be made in as convenient places as can be, to promote the convenience of the traffic : hollow and low places are generally selected as the most eligible, and near to the locks and basins if possible. By such places being formed, the public derive accommodation, as it admits of a ready transit of pro- duce and industry to the inhabitants in its neighbourhood. Reser- voirs to canals, in most cases, are indispensable, in order to the keeping up a supply of water in its line : they are artificial collections, getting their water from every source in their neighbourhood ; their size must be regulated by the quantity of water they are intended to contain, and that by the line of work which it may be intended to supply. They shoidd be placed in such situations so as to contain an equable quantity throughout the year, and so contiguous to the canal, as to admit of an easy communication with it at all times. Wherever the reservoir is to be constructed, all the variations of the ground's surface should be exactly noted down ; the nature of the soil proved, in order to ascertain, if bad and porous, where and in what quantity lining and puddling may be required for it. The water flowing through all springs, brooks, and rivulets, which it is determined to divert, to supply the reservoir, should be exactly guaged, and also the depth of the rains which usually fall. All such particulars being ascertained, the excavation may be commenced ; the same process is to be followed as has been recommended for the same kind of work in canals. The sloping of the banks is made rather more oblique than is practised for canals, commonly to every foot in depth a horizontal base of two feet, and, if the excavation be in a strong clay, the horizontal base is made as much as three feet. 200 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. The lining is performed in a similar manner to the way pointed out for such work in canals. Every reservoir should be furnished with a guage, indicating exactly the quantity of water that it can supply, &c. ; if the guage be a wooden post fixed in the reservoir, it might be accurately divided, so as to show, by its divisions, the water iost by evaporation, or taken from the canal ; and this guage would exhibit at once how the supply kept pace with the consumption. In the event of an excess of water flowing into the reservoir, which circumstance should always be anticipated in its construction, many plans have been suggested for disposing of it ; the most usual way, however, of pro- viding for a ready exit to such excess, is to form a weir or weirs, sometimes called tumbling bays ; frequently at the corners, if the form of the reservoir be square ; if round, or a compound figure, at such places as is best adapted to its ready discharge. It will appear quite obvious, that the size and number of the tumbling bays must be regulated by the estimated quantity of water they may be called upon to discharge, or the greatest inconvenience may follow ; as in the event of their being too small or too few in number, in great swells of the springs arising from unusual rains, &c, the sides of the reser- voirs may be overflown, to the destruction of its banks, and perhaps to the effect of blowing up and carrying away the canal works in its neighbourhood. The construction of a tumbling bay consists in forming a vertical syphon in the embankment of the reservoir, composed of well wrought masonry or brickwork, properly cemented, to which a horizontal communication is opened by the side of the embankment of the reservoir. The bottom of the syphon should enter a culvert, con- structed in a similar way, which culvert or drain should be arched above and below, and be built upon an easy descent, so as to pro- mote a ready discharge of its contents. The culverts are frequently carried under the bottom of the reservoir, in which case it will be essential to keep them sufficiently low to admit of the lining being thick enough to secure its water-tight qualities. In cases in which rivulets or other streams are diverted to the supply of the reservoir, a somewhat different construction will- be required than when it is fed by springs. This difference principally consists in an alteration of the approach by which the water is to enter. Such water is pre- viously collected into a branch, or, as it >s termed, a feeder, which is in fact a canal of smaller dimensions than the principal one. The ENGINEER. 201 feeder is constructed so as to promote a current in its waters to the head of the reservoir, where it enters by a weir or gates ; the sides and piers whereof should be formed of masonry, built on a piled foun- dation. In carrying up the work, which should be laid with large stones, well joined, let the walls lie battering back from the line of their base, somewhat curved, to their whole height. Let the tops be coped with granite or free stone, dovetailed together, and well cramped. The bottom of the weir should be formed by an inverted arch of masonry, well bedded in strong clay, or puddle compost. The gates should be made of good sound oak, with lower and upper sills, framed with rails, and well braced, and secured in and to the stone sides with strong iron cramps. An iron upper rail should traverse the top side of the whole. The gate or weir should be in height a few inches above the summit-level of the reservoir, that the water from the feeder may flow over the bar of iron attached at the upper sill. The reservoir thus constructed, supplies the canal by means of a pipe of cast iron, or other metal, or stone. This pipe is fur- nished with a cock, which works in an endless screw, and is so ad- justed as to be easily turned by the overseer of the reservoir. Locks, or pound-locks, come next to be described, in the consider- ation of which many important circumstances develop themselves ; and primarily, the barriers by which the water is kept to its summit- level. In the several reaches on its line they also operate as toll-bars for collecting the tolls payable on navigating it : they are placed as fre- quently in the line of the canal as the several levels require them, and make a kind of step in the line throughout its course. Pound-locks have been a great desideratum in canal making among the moderns ; as, by the making them properly, waters are pent up in the reaches between them, supplying the means of navigation through high and low lands, from one part of the kingdom to another. In setting out a lock care ought to be taken to get the falls as equal as possible ; and this can only be achieved by taking previous care to adjust duly the summit level of the canal. The lock comprises of itself a cham- ber and two pair of gates ; the former is made of length and width adequate to admit one or more boats at a time, either in ascending or descending the canal. This is effected by letting the water out of the chamber, if boats be ascending, by opening the lower gates ; but it is not usual to keep the lower gates of a lock shut, so that a boat or boats coming up the canal can be immediately towed into the lock ; which, when in this state, is said to be empty, although it contains' k 3 202 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. as much water at least as is in the lower reach of the canal. When boats have thus entered the lock, the lower gates are loosened, and the paddles of the upper gates are gradually raised, which admit the water to rush into the chamber of the lock : the velocity of the stream soon closes completely the lower doors ; and when they are shut, the upper gates as regularly open, when the water has completely filled the lock ; which it does in a very short time, and becomes at rest between the lower gates and the upper reach of the canal. The tolls being paid to the overseer of the locks, the boats are towed out, and if no others are waiting to descend the canal, the upper gates are again closed, and the lower ones opened, when the lock empties itself and regains its former state. It will be perceived, that the upper line of the canal will lose its waters in proportion to the working of the locks; hence it becomes desirable to make these as small as possible ; and it is also of importance that they should be of the same size throughout the line of the canal, that the loss of water at each lock may be equal, in which case the supply to be anticipated may be correctly ascertained. In the approaches to all locks, both above and below them, there should be made resting places, provided with oaken piles driven down close to the embankments (which they may be made to support), with their upper ends crossed by strong whaling boards of oak, bolted with iron bolts to the heads of the piles. If the whaling boards have large iron rings fixed in them, the bargemen will have the advantage of making fast their barges to them during the time they may have to wait for passing the lock. Twenty-five tun boats consume, in ascending a lock of eight feet rise, 163 tuns of water, and in descending the same 103 tuns: now, if this estimate be correct, it would enable an Engineer to make very accurate calculations of the loss of water in all his several locks on the proposed line of canal. That more water should be lost in ascending a lock than in descending, appears probable, although the same space requires filling in both cases ; but it does not appear so obvious, how so great a difference as sixty tuns can tike place ; this, however, could be settled by reference to the draft of the boat em • ployed, as we know that it displaces as much water as its cubical contents, if it be adequately laden : all these are investigations that press seriously on the consideration of the Engineer. In some canals, reservoirs have been made, to collect the waste water of the lockage ; to which a steam engine has been erected, that pumps the water, after having emptied itself into the reservoir, back again into the upper part ENGINEER. 203 of the canal. There has been also another similar expedient recom- mended to remove the same inconvenience, under the appropriate designation of side ponds. A side pond, or ponds, consist in forming', on the right and left of the chamber of the lock, a number of projecting cisterns, varied gradually in their elevation, beginning a small dis- tance from the bottom at the lower end of the lock, and stepping up to the upper end or head of the lock, provided with paddle doors. These cisterns, in capacity, are made so as to contain all the water, or nearly so, that passes the upper gates in a boat or boats ascending or descending the lock. When the chamber of the lock is full, the highest paddle doors are opened, and the water empties itself into the cisterns right and left, and so on until all the cisterns are full ; observing to shut the doors of the cisterns ere the water retires in the lock ; and this is done till the chamber of the lock is so emptied as to allow of its lower gates being opened. When the boat ascends or descends the canal, it will be seen by this plan, that very little waste or consumption of water by lockage can accrue, except that which must necessarily escape, by allowing a sufficient quantity in the bottom of the lock to keep the boat afloat and level with the lower level of the water of the canal. A lock is supposed to be constructed twelve feet deep, sixty feet long, and six feet wide; and it is calculated that the quantity of water required to fill such a lock, to enable it to pass a boat, is 432 cubic feet ; and in ascertaining what water may be necessary for supplying the canal, it is found that there will not be above 800 cubic feet for each , and hence it is added, it will be necessary to save five-sixths of the whole ; to do which ten cisterns are directed to be made, each of which must be one foot deep, and each have a surface of 360 feet superficial. The aperture or entrance to the lowest cistern must be one foot above the level of the water in the lower part of the canal, and eleven feet under the level of the high water ; the second cistern two feet above the level of low water ; and the third three feet, and so on. Basins are formed near towns to which the canal has a communi- cation, in order to make a commodious place for the boats to unload their cargoes and to take in fresh ones. Their size varies according to the importance of the town, or to the trade carried on at it. Sur- rounding the basin, a spacious area of ground should be gotten, to admit of warehouses, cranes, toll-houses, and other stowage for goods being built, with adequate space for all the vehicles employed in the trade, to receive the means of ready transit in their business about 204 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the basin. Convenient approaches should be formed to the wharfs for carts; and also roads, with the shortest and readiest way in and out when laden or unladen. The toll-house should be placed near the principal entrance to the basin, and should consist of two or more rooms for the keeper, with an office and weighing-bridge. The con- struction of a basin consists in forming a chamber or head, sufficiently capacious to admit of boats resting in it, with room to load, unload, and retire. The size, as before observed, must be commensurate to tne number of boats expected at the basin. The embankments should be level with the wharfs, on contiguous ground, and about one foot higher than top water level. All the embankments are faced by walis of stone-work or brick-work, and the top should be coped with large blocks of granite. A basin must also be provided with a weir, syphon, or waste gate, in order to discharge the water constantly flowing into it from the upper reaches of the canal by waste of lockage, &c. Aqueducts are frequently employed on a canal, for the purpose of carrying it over rivers, or between two opposite ridges of high land. For this latter purpose, they were often con- structed by the Romans, to convey water for their baths and foun- tains, as the ruins of many, that are still in existence, fully demon- strate. But the Roman aqueducts were never intended for any other purpose than the conveyance of water for use ; hence they were con- fined in their dimensions, and were little more than long narrow walls, with a void through them as a passage for the water. The aque- duct at Chapanost, near Lyons, is raised upon arches of masonry, on the tops of which is a narrow channel for the water, arched over at top, the size of which is six feet high and three feet wide, lined inside with a facing of strong cement about six inches in thick- ness, which is quite perfect even at this time. There is another at Montpelier, which passes the river Garonne, and crosses the valley, of a similar construction. Louis le Grand ordered an aque- duct, which is built after the same manner, and which conveys the water to Versailles. They are also numerous in every part of Italy, and wherever else the Romans extended their power ; but since the discovery of Galileo, which demonstrated the important effects of the weight and pressure of the atmosphere, aqueducts in the Roman manner have become useless ; as his discoveries showed that water would not only elevate itself to the syphon line, but might be raised to about thirty-four feet above that line, by the means only of the atmospheric pressure. We will notice one more such erection nearer ENGINEER. 205 home — the stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, for crossing the river Dee, in which are employed nineteen ponderous pillars of stone, at fifty- two feet distance from each other, the centre of which is one hundred and twenty-six feet high. On the tops of these pillars the aqueduct is supported; which is composed of cast-iron, three hundred and twenty nine yards long, twenty feet wide, and six feet deep, formed of massy sheets of cast-iron, cemented and rivetted together, having on its southern side an iron platform for the horse or towing path. It will be necessary to observe, that every aqueduct ought to be provided with stop-gates at the most convenient parts of its length, as well as syphons or other means to drain off the water, when required, for repairs or accidents. The stop-gates will be necessary to effect this purpose, and provision should be made for their erection in the beginning of the work. They are usually placed at the approaches or wings of the aqueduct. Tunnels, or subterraneous passages, are become familiar, as a means of conveying canals through ridges of high ground and mountains ; they are also formed as roads through hills and under the beds of great rivers, to keep up easy communications between parts otherwise inaccessible, except by circuitous routes. Perfora- tions for this purpose were not unknown to the ancients, for we find the Romans frequently making them in order to carry forward their aqueducts. For this purpose they were not required on a large scale ; but although small, they gave rise to the practicability which, to the ingenious, was a sufficient stimulus to create the means of performing greater undertakings ; and which has now been acquired and effected through the multiplied local impediments which have presented themselves to inland navigation. The first subterraneous canal or tunnel ever made for the navigation of boats, was at Baziers, on the Languedoc canal, in France ; and it is believed the first in England was at Worsley, by the late duke of Bridgewater, intended to establish a communication to his coal mines only. However, there are now almost as many tunnels as canals ; and the business of making them is so well understood, that they are set about with as few preliminaries as the cutting of a canal. Bridges have continued to be erected through every succession of time ; and are a leading point in developing the progress of science and the arts, as they appear generally well or ill contrived in propor- tion as these have advanced. Arcuation, within these last fifty years, has received certain deductions, arising from mathematical investiga- 206 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. tions, which has ranked it very high among the late discoveries made in science. It has now been shown, that the voissoirs of an arch can be given that form, in relation to the whole matter surrounding them, as to produce an equilibrated figure : and this discovery has so far ex- tended itself, as to illustrate the principle by a table, which sets forth its quantities to every species or degree of curvature. The bridges to which the attention of Engineers was formerly called, were simple buildings applied to the purposes of a canal ; they were constructed, most frequently, of wood, and their beauty consisted in making them light and strong; but at the present improved period, the whole arrangement of bridge-building falls under the immediate inspection and management of the Engineer. Bridges, called swivel bridges, are sometimes made use of for passing canals. They are much more expensive, and may be easily put out of order by the want of attention in using them : they consist of a platform of wood covered with planks, which is made about half as long again as is required for the passage. One end of the platform is made light and the other heavy, for the purpose of counterpoise ; and the additional weight to the heavy end is pro- duced by means of stowing large stones or pig-iron upon it, so that the bridge, when in its place or at rest, may attain an equi- librium. At a point of about one-fifth of its length from the heavy end, a round plate is fixed, with an iron axis or pin standing up to enter a hole in the platform, which is prepared to receive it ; on this pin the bridge is suspended, and constitutes also its centre of motion. In order to prevent impediments in turning the bridge round, a number of iron balls, two inches and a half or three inches in diameter, are let into the round plate, both above and below, to act as rollers to lessen the friction on the plates. The banks are formed with a kind of recess to receive the bridge when moved from across the canal. The two ends of the platform, in order to allow of this horizontal motion, are struck into two arcs, the centre of which is the axis or pin in the centre of the friction plates. At Brussels, and in other parts of Flanders, they have draw- bridges composed wholly of iron : they are somewhat similar to our drawbridges, except that they are raised by a cast iron wheel with cogs ; this wheel is about three feet in diameter, and is firmly fixed in the bank, and, by being turned by the handle, raises the platform. It takes up much less room than our draw or swivel-bridge, and answers every purpose. There are nine or ten to be seen at ENGINEER. 2C7 Brussels, constantly in motion, as ships or craft are passing up the canal. Some of these iron bridges are cut in two in the centre, with wheels in each bank, so that by working the wheels a few degrees a ship may pass the canal, by its masts entering through the space left by raising the two platforms. These kind of bridges are made necessary from the great width of the canals in comparison with ours. The occupation bridge, at Rotterdam, is of this last description, and consists of two separate segments,, each supported independently ; and*, when up for the craft to pass, a void is made between the meeting of the segments, by which the masts enter. The convenience of such a bridge is obvious, as the towing can go on without removing the line ; foot passengers also can pass by the bridge whilst in motion, as the opening between the meetings is never so wide but a person may step over it. The canals in Flanders, Holland, and every part of France, abound in ingenious light bridges : their drawbridges are on a plan the Engineers of this country seem to have no idea of: some there are over streams one hundred and twenty feet wide, moved with more ease than our little ones of twenty feet are by balance beams. Docks, from being at first only a simple contrivance, as arsenals for the purpose of building or repairing single ships, have been ex- tended to a magnitude in capacity competent to contain whole fleets. In splendour, the docks created in London, and at many of the out-ports, are a monument which excel the famous port (Piraeus) in Greece, or Alexandria in Egypt, as much, or more, than we have excelled the Greeks and Romans in all the facilities to naviga- tion, and the grandeur of our naval arcitecture. The Greeks and Romans no doubt far surpassed us in all the elegancies of taste and invention in the fine arts : in these arts, they have com- bined and given form to matter, which could have resulted only from a higher degree of feeling, united to juster notions of nature, than the coldness of our climate and habits can perceive, or hardly give power to copy. But, if we are behind in the fine arts, which, as mere copyists, we must be contented to be ; in supplying all manner of facilities to commerce (in which we excel all nations ancient and modern), in erecting the immense docks and warehouses inland, which we have done to receive and house safely the produce of the world, and to an extent adequate for that purpose, we have formed a monument at once of our genius, wealth, and skill, which will be as famous in the page of science as the monuments of 208 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Athens and Rome are now in the volume of the arts. A dock consists in the first place of a basin commensurate to its intended purpose. A canal communicates therewith, supplied with an entrance lock and gates. The building of a dock embraces all the skill applied to buildings in water. The embankments are to be traced out in the same manner as is done for canal lines, by setting up bench marks to indicate the plan upon the ground. The whole of the embankments of a dock are supported by strong walls of stone or brick ; and, as the docks for ships require a great draught of water, they must be made in depth adequate to allow of ships of burden riding in them in safety : in consequence of which, the depth of the docks must be great in comparison of canals. The London Docks are upwards of twenty feet deep. The erection of beacons and lighthouses is a branch of the royal prerogative. The king has this exclusive power, by commission under his great seal. He can order them to be erected, not only upon the royal demesnes, but upon the lands of the subject; which power of the crown is usually vested by letters patent, in the office of the lord high admiral. And if the owners of the land, or any other person shall destroy them or take them down, he shall forfeit and pay 100/., and in case of inability to pay it, be ipso facto outlawed. By statute, 8 Eliz. c. 13, the corporation of the Trinity House were empowered to set up any beacons or sea marks wherever they might think them necessary, and in them now almost the whole business, respecting the management of beacons, lighthouses, &c, is vested. The beacon is a simple contrivance, of very early origin, as we find frequent mention made of such objects, not only in the scriptures, but in ancient history, and particularly in the early part of our own. Beacons consisted chiefly in erecting on high places works whereon were fixed barrels containing pitch or other combustible matter; which, by night, operated as a warning, by being lighted, and by day they gave notice of the approach of the enemy, by the volumes of smoke emitted. By the discovery of gunpowder, such expedients have been discontinued : as rockets and other contrivances are found to answer the purpose infinitely better. A lighthouse is a different kind of building to a beacon, inasmuch as it fequires greater constructive excellence in the erection, Its use is chiefly to warn mariners, when navigating in the night, from approaching too near certain parts of the coast known as dangerous, either by rocks, shoals, or currents ; and it is also a land mark by ENGINEER. 209 day. These structures are of great national importance, and, as such, cannot receive too much attention, either in forming them in the most substantial manner, or supplying them with the best light. A lighthouse, as now erected, consists of an upright shaft of masonry or brickwork, built hollow in the inside, in which are winding stairs leading to its summit. The top is generally surmounted with a cornice of stone, with a space left sufficiently large to admit a single person safely to walk round upon it. On the top of the whole fabric is erected a lantern, often from twelve to fourteen feet high, and six or seven feet in diameter, in the inside of which is a frame, to which are suspended, in various angles, and in as many elevations, a number of lamps and reflectors ; the lamps vary from ten to as many as fifteen in some lighthouses. Such a body of light, and that reflected with the greatest power, on an immense height, as they most frequently are, creates a surprising effect, which is discovered at sea by mariners when many leagues off, and enables them safely to shape their course accordingly. The Eddystone lighthouse was erected by the late Mr. Smeaton ; and in this is employed, perhaps, more ability than in any similar structure in existence, arising out of the difficulty of erecting anything in such a perilous situation. Mr. Winstanley began a lighthouse on the Eddystone rock in 1696. He was four years in finishing it, which was formed wholly of wood. The following notices respecting his operations may not be unac- ceptable. The first summer was spent by Mr. Winstanley and his people in making twelve large holes in the rock, and fastening as many irons to hold the future work. In the course of the next summer, a solid body or round pillar, twelve feet high, and fourteen feet in diameter, was completed. In the third year it was increased to sixteen feet in diameter from the foundation, and the whole building was raised, which was eighty feet to the vane. In the fourth year, the diameter of the pillar was encompassed in a new work, four feet in thickness, and the building raised forty feet higher, when the light was exhibited. This building was almost wholly of timber, and it did not meet with any accident till 1703, when, standing in need of repair, Mr. Winstanley came to see it ; and having been among his friends pre- viously to going off with his workmen to view the repairs, the danger was intimated to him, and that one day or other the light-house would be overset. He replied, " he was so well assured of the strength of his building, he should only wish to be there in the greatest storm that 210 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ever blew under the face of the heavens, that he might see what effect it would have on the structure." Mr. Winstanley was but too amply gratified in his wish ; for, while he was there with his workmen, that dreadful storm began, which raged the most violently upon the 26th of November, 1703, in the night ; and, in all the accounts of the kind with which history furnishes us, we have none that exceeded this in Great Britain, or one that was more injurious or extensive in its de- vastation. The next morning, November 27th, when the violence of the storm had in some measure subsided, so that it could be seen whether the light-house had suffered by it, nothing appeared standing; but, upon a nearer inspection, some of the large irons whereby the works were fixed upon the rock ; nor were any of the people, or any of the materials, ever heard of afterwards. The next light-house, built on the Eddystone, was by Mr. Rud- yard : it was finished in 1709, and was destroyed by fire in 1755. It was now deemed eligible to erect a superior building if possible, and not one so likely to meet with its destruction, either by the violence of the sea, or the effect of fire, as both the former had been destroyed by one or the other. Mr. Smeaton was employed, and, contrary to the received and popular opinion, that no building could be made to stand except one formed of wood, he showed a contrary design, and boldly projected a light-house of stone. He himself says, " He should endeavour so to form it and put it together, that, by a similarity of construction, no man would be able to tell him at what joint it should overset ; for at any given height the uppermost course being completed safe, it would become more so by another being laid upon it ; and though that upper course were somewhat less in weight, and in the total cohesion of its parts, than the former, yet every course, from the first foundation, was less and less subject to the heavy stroke of the sea." This building was well formed to resist the effect of both wind and water, and these acting on it oc- casionally in a most tremendous way. The light-house is wholly of cut masonry, about sixteen feet in diameter at bottom, and diminishing upwards conically : it is seventy- three feet six inches in height, measuring from the rock on which it stands to the top of the cornice. Mr. Smeaton chose a curve for this structure with its concavity turned outwards, and the judiciousness of such a choice is now fully established. From the top of the cornice to the base of the lantern, is seven feet six inches, and from thence to the summit of the ball, seventeen feet six inches, which ENGINEER. together make a total height for this structure of ninety-eight feet six inches. The origin of iron or rail roads may be traced back to the year 1680. About that period coal came to be substituted for wood as fuel, in London and other places : the consequence was, that at the mines the greatest inconvenience accrued in conveying the coal from them to the ships, as well as immense expense in horses and ma- chinery for the purpose. To remove this evil, waggon roads were made, consisting of wooden rails or ledges, which the waggons were formed to move upon ; from which improvement it was found, that a single horse could easily draw a waggon on these rails, which previously required three or more horses to be employed to effect by the common roads : and it was also drawn more quickly, arising from laying down the frames upon an easy descent, which was always done. In 1738, this invention was further improved by substituting cast-iron railways instead of the wooden ones ; but, owing to the old fashioned waggons continuing to be employed, which were of too much weight for the cast-iron, they did not completely succeed in this first attempt. However, about the year 1768, a simple contrivance was attempted, which was to make a number of smaller waggons, and link them together ; and, by thus diffusing the weight of one large waggon into many, the principal cause of the failure in the first instance was removed, because the weight was more divided upon the iron. In 1797, these roads having impressed the minds of intelligent men as of great importance, numerous essays appeared, setting forth their utility, and as many plans for rendering them of permanent con- struction. The young gentleman intended for this business, is generally articled for a certain number of years, and a stipulated sum is paid according to the respectability of the Engineer whom he is to be articled to ; such amount may be from one hundred and fifty to five hundred pounds. For the working Engineer or Viceman, a premium of thirty pounds is the usual amount for the apprentice. The work- men obtain from thirty to thirty-six shillings, and some superior ones as much as two guineas per week^ and more. 212 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ENGRAVER. Engraving is, generally speaking, the art of depicting by incisions in any matter or subject, but more particularly on plates of metal, blocks of wood, &c, for the purpose of producing certain impressions from them, which are called prints. The trade is divided into several branches or classes, according to the matter on which it is performed, and the manner of execution : as 1st, engraving on stone for seals, signets, &c, which is called gem sculpture ; 2d, die-sinking for coins, medals, &c. called medallurgy ; 3d, on copper and steel plates, after various modes, as line engraving, etching or engraving, by the aid of aqua fortis, mezzotinto engraving or scraping, aqua tinta engraving, stipple or dot, which is a manner of engraving in imitation of chalk ; we have also engraving on wood, on steel, on glass, and lastly, by means of fluoric acid, on stone, called lithography, &c. The art of Engraving is of high antiquity ; it originally consisted of rude delineations, expressed by mere outlines, such as those which Herodotus describes as having been traced upon the shields of the Carians. Bezaleel and Aholiab are mentioned in the book of Exodus as " filled with wisdom of heart to work all manner of work of the Engraver." The art of engraving seals or signets is also very ancient, and was practised by the earliest nations of antiquity. The earliest writers mention engraved seals and seal rings as among the most esteemed decorations of great personages ; and there are still many of their works remaining, equal to any production of the latter ages. Engraving, as now practised for the multiplication of copies by the means of printing from engraved plates and blocks of wood, is an art chiefly of modern invention ; having its origin no earlier than the middle of the fifteenth century ; and was unknown till after the inven- tion of the art of painting in oil. The most ancient mode of obtaining prints or impressions on paper, appears to have been from engraved or carved wooden blocks ; therefore, engraving on wood for this purpose bears the palm of antiquity. For this invention we are indebted to the brief-maklers, or manufacturers of playing cards, who practised the art in Germany about the beginning of the fifteenth century. To the same source may be traced the first idea of moveable types, which appeared not long after ; for the brief-maklers did not confine them- / ENGRAVER. 2T3 selves entirely to the printing and painting of cards, but produced also subjects of a more devout nature ; many of which, taken from the scriptures, are still preserved in German libraries, with the ex- planatory text facing the figures : the whole engraved in wood. On the invention of moveable types, that branch of the brief-makler's business, so far as it regarded the making of books, was gradually discontinued ; but the art itself of engraving upon wood continued in an improving state ; and towards the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, it became the custom of almost all the German painters to engrave copies of their designs on wood as well as on copper. Hence the freedom and artist-like character of the old Engravers. The works of Albert Durer, in this style of engraving upon wood, are justly held in the highest esteem. Besides Germany, Italy, France, and Holland, have produced many eminent artists of this description ; but for boldness of conception, and for spirit in the execution, the works of Christopher Jagher, who worked under the direction, and engraved from the works of Reubens, who, doubtless occasionally assisted him, stands pre-eminent. The invention of that species of the art which is distinguished by the appellation of chiaroscuro engraving, appears also to be justly claimed by the Germans, being first practised by Mair, an artist of that country ; one of whose prints bears the date of 1499. Many admirable works of this kind have been produced in France; and in Italy, Parmigiano, Titian, and other great masters, have practised it with the greatest success. In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from engraved copper-plates first made their appearance. The earliest date known of a copper plate is 1461 ; but however faulty the print may be in respect to drawing, or defective in point of taste, the mechanical part of the execution of it has by no means the ap- pearance of being one of the earliest productions of the graver. There are also several other prints in select collections, evidently the work of the same master, in which the impressions are so neatly taken from the plates, and the engravings so clearly printed in every part, that, according to all appearance, they could not be executed in a much better manner in the present day, with all the conveniences which the copper-plate printers now possess, and the additional knowledge they must necessarily have acquired in the course of three centuries. We may therefore fairly conclude, that if they were not the first specimens of the Engraver's workmanship, they were much less the first efforts of the copper-plate printer's ability. 214 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Engraving in mezzotinto was invented about the middle of the seventeenth century, and the invention has generally been attributed to Prince Rupert : but the editor of Parentalia, asserts that Sir Christopher Wren was the first inventor of the art of graving mez- zotinto ; which was afterwards prosecuted and improved by his royal highness, Prince Rupert. Engraving in aqua-tinta was origi- nally the invention of Le Prince, a French artist. His process was for a long time kept secret ; and his prints, it is said, were at first sold for drawings. Engraving on Copper. — The most ancient, as well as the most legitimate and beautiful mode of practising the art, is that which is called line engraving, or engraving proper ; and is the art of cutting lines upon a copper-plate, by means of a steel instrument called a graver or burin, without the use of aqua fortis. This was the first way to produce copper-plate prints that was practised, and is still much used in historical subjects, portraits, and in finishing land- scapes. The tools necessary for this art, are the graver or burin, of which there are various sorts, a scraper, a burnisher, an oil stone, a sand bag, or cushion for supporting the plate, an oil rubber, and some good charcoal. The graver is an instrument made of tempered steel, of the form of a quadrangular prism, about one-tenth of an inch thick, fitted into a short wooden handle. They are square and lozenge shaped. The first are used in cutting broad strokes, the other for fainter and more delicate lines. In making the incision, it is pushed forward by the hand in the direction of the line required. The scraper is a three-edged tool, also of steel, about six inches long, having three sharp edges, and is used for rubbing off the burr or barb raised by the graver. The burnisher is about three inches long, and is used for softening or reducing lines that are too deep, or for burnishing out any scratches or holes in the copper : it is formed of hard steel, rounded and polished. The oil-stone is for whetting the gravers, etching points, &c. The sand-bag, or cushion, about nine inches diameter, is for laying the plate upon, for the conveniency of turning it in any direction, but is seldom used by artists. The oil rubber and charcoal are for polishing the plate. As great attention is required to whet the graver, particularly the belly of it, care must be taken to lay the two angles of the graver, which are to be held next the plate, fiat upon the stone, and to rub them steadily till the belly rises gradually above the plate ; otherwise it will dig into the copper and then it will be impossible to keep a point, ENGRAVER. 215 or execute the work with freedom. For this purpose the right arm must be kept close to the side, and the fore-finger of the left hand placed upon that part of the graver which lies uppermost upon the stone. In order to whet the face, the flat part of the handle should be placed in the hollow of the hand, with the belly of the graver upwards, upon a moderate slope, and the extremity rubbed upon the stone till it has an exceeding sharp point. When the graver is too hard, as may be known by frequent breaking of the point, it should be tempered by heating a poker red hot, and holding the graver upon it, within half an inch of the point, till the steel changes to a light straw colour ; then put the point into oil to cool ; or, hold the graver close to the flame of a candle till it be of the same colour, and cool it in the tallow. Be not hasty in tempering, for sometimes a little whetting will bring it to a good condition, when it is but a little too hard. To hold the graver, cut off that part of the handle which is upon the same line with the belly, or sharp edge of the graver, making that side flat, that it may be no obstruction. Hold the handle in the hollow of the hand, and extending the fore finger towards the point, let it rest on the back of the graver, that you may guide it flat and parallel with the plate. To lay the design upon the plate, after you have polished it fine and smooth, heat it so that it will melt virgin wax ; with which rub it thinly and equally over, and let it cool. Then the design which you are about to lay on, must be drawn on paper with a black lead pencil, and laid upon the plate with its pencilled side to the wax : then press it, and with a burnisher go over every part of the design, and when you take off the paper you will find all the lines which you drew with the black lead pencil upon the waxed plate, as if it had been drawn on it ; then, with a sharp pointed tool trace the design through the wax upon the plate, and you may then take off" the wax, and proceed to work. Let the table or board you work at be firm and steady ; upon which place the sand- bag with the plate upon it, and, holding the graver as before directed, proceed in the following manner : — For straight strokes, move the right hand forwards, leaning lightly when the strokes should be fine, and harder when you would have them broader. For circular or crooked strokes, hold the graver firmly, moving your hand or the plate as you see convenient. Learn to carry the hand with such dexterity, that you may end the stroke as finely as you began it ; and if you have occasion to make one part deeper or blacker than another, do it by degrees ; and take care that your strokes be not 216 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. too close nor too wide. In the course of your work scrape off the roughness which arises with the scraper, but be careful not to scratch the plate ; and that you may see your work properly as you go on, rub it with the oil rubber, and wipe the plate clean, which takes off the glare of the copper, and shows what you have done to advantage. Any mistakes or scratches in the plate may be rubbed out with the burnisher, and the part levelled with the scraper, polishing it again lightly with the burnisher or charcoal. Having thus attained the use of the graver, according to the foregoing rules, you will be able to finish the piece by graving up the several parts, and advancing gradually with the stronger till the whole is completed. The drypoint, or needle (so called because not used till the ground is taken off the plate), is principally employed in the ex- tremely light parts of water, sky, drapery, architecture, &e. After all, in the conduct of the graver and drypoint, it is difficult to lay down rules which shall lead to eminence in the art, Every thing seems to depend on the habit, disposition, and genius of the artist. A person cannot expect to excel very much in engraving who is not a good master of design, and he ought to be well acquainted with perspective, the principles of architecture, and anatomy. He will by these means be able, by proper gradations of strong and faint tints, to throw backward and bring forward the figures, and other objects of his picture or design, which he proposes to imitate. To preserve equality and union in his works, the Engraver should always sketch out the principal objects of his piece before he under- takes to finish them. In addition to the rules already given, we may observe that the strokes of the graver should never be crossed too much in the lozenge manner, particularly in the representations of muscles or flesh, because sharp angles produce the unpleasing effect of lattice work, and take from the eye the repose which is agreeable to it in all kinds of picturesque designs. There are exceptions to this rule, as in the case of clouds, the representation of tempests, the waves of the sea, the skins of hairy animals, or leaves of trees, in which this method of crossing may be admitted. In managing the strokes, the actions of the figures and of all their parts should be considered ; and, as in painting, it should be observed how they advance towards, or recede from the eye ; and the graver must, of course, be guided according to the risings or the cavities of the muscles or folds, making the strokes wider and fainter in the light, and closer and firmer in the shades ; thus the figures will not ENGRAVER. 217 appear jagged, and the outlines may be formed and terminated without being cut too hard. However, though the strokes break off where the muscle begins, yet they ought always to have a certain connexion with each other, so that the first stroke may often serve, by its return, to make the second, which will show the freedom and taste of the artist. In engraving the muscles of the human figure, the effect may be produced in the lighter parts by what are called long pecks of the gravers, or by round dots, or by dots a little lengthened, or, what would be better, by a judicious mixture of these together. With regard to the hair, the Engraver should begin his work by laying the principal grounds, and sketching the chief shades with a few strokes, which may be finished with finer and thinner strokes to the extremities. In the representation of architecture, the work ought not to be made too black, because as the edifices are usually constructed with stone, marble, &c, the colour, being re- flected in all sides, does not produce dark shade, as is the case of other substances. Where sculpture is to be represented, white points must not be put in the pupils of the eyes of the figures ; nor, as in engraving after paintings, must the hair or beard be represented as in nature, which makes the locks appear flowing in the air; because, as is evident, in sculpture there can be no such appearances. Mezzotinto Engraving, or Scraping. — This art, which is of modern date, is recommended by the ease with which it is executed, especially by those who understand drawing. Mezzotinto prints are those which have no strokes of the graver, but whose lights and shades are blended together, and appear like drawing in Indian ink. They are different from aquatinta ; but as both resemble Indian ink, the difference is more easily perceived than described. Mezzotinto is applied to portraits and historical subjects, and aquatinta is chiefly used for landscape and architecture. The tools necessary for mez- zotinto scraping are the grounding tool, burnishers, and scrapers. To lay the mezzotinto ground — lay the plate, with a piece of flannel under it, upon the table ; hold the grounding tool perpendicularly, lean upon it moderately hard, continually working your hand in a right line from end to end, till you have wholly covered the plate in one direction ; next, cross the strokes from side to side, afterwards from corner to corner, working the tool each time all over the plate in every direction, almost like the points of a compass, taking care not to let the tool cut (in one direction) twice in one place. This done, the plate will be full, and would, if it were printed, appear L 218 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. completely black. Having laid the ground, take the scrapings of black chalk, and with a piece of rag rub them over the plate; or the plate may be smoked with candles. Now take the drawing, and after having rubbed the back with red chalk dust mixed with flake white, proceed to trace it on the plate To form the lights and shadows, take a blunt needle and mark the outlines only, then scrape off the lights in every part of the plate as clean and smooth as pos- sible, in proportion to the strength of the lights in your drawing, taking care not to hurt the outlines. The use of the burnisher is to soften the extreme light parts after the scraper is done with ; such as the tip of the nose, forehead, linen, &c, which might otherwise, when proved, appear rather misty than clear. Another method by mezzotinto scrapers, is to etch the outlines of the original, and the folds in the drapery, making the breadth of the shadows by dots, which having bit to a proper depth with aquafortis, they take off the ground used in etching, and having laid the mez- zotinto ground, proceed to scrape as above described. When the plate is ready, send it to the copper-plate printer and get it proved. When the proof is dry, touch it with white chalk where it should be lighter, and with black chalk where it should be darker ; and, when the plate is retouched, proceed as before for the lights ; and for the shades use a small grounding tool; prove it again; and so proceed to prove and touch till it is entirely to your mind. Aquatinta Engraving. — Aquatinta is a method of producing prints very much resembling drawings in Indian ink. The principle of the process consists in corroding the copper with aquafortis, in such a manner that an impression from it has the appearance of a tint laid on the paper. This is effected by covering the copper with a powder, or some substance which takes a granulated form, so as to prevent the aquafortis from acting where the particles adhere, and by this means cause it to corrode the copper partially and in the interstices only. When these particles are extremely minute and near to each other, the impression from the plate appears to the naked eye exactly like a wash of Indian ink ; but when they are larger, the granulation is more distinct: and, as this may be varied at pleasure, it is capable of being adapted with success to a variety of purposes and subjects. Wood Engraving. — The art of engraving on wood is not only of very aiicient date, but is a legitimate, beautiful, and artist-like mode ot operation, fo e production of prints, particularly for books. ENGRAVER. 219 Engraving on Steel is performed in nearly a similar way to en- graving on copper. Engraving on Stone is a recent invention. It is cheap, and, when well performed, produces impressions of great beauty in imitation of chalk, mezzotinto, pen and ink, and even of etching Engraving, or etching on glass, is performed by laying on a ground consisting of a thin coat of bees-wax, and drawing the design therein with an etching needle. It is then to be covered with sulphuric acid, sprinkled over with powdered fluor spar, or fluoric acid. It must be taken off after four or five hours, and cleaned with oil of turpentine. The premium for an apprentice or pupil to an Engraver will vary with the talent of the master ; for, if he is a man very high in the profession, the amount of five hundred pounds or thereabouts is sometimes expected ; but in the minor branches much less sums are required. FACTOR OR BROKER. Factors are employed by merchants residing at other places, to buy or sell goods, negociate bills, &c, on their account ; and are entitled to a certain allowance for their trouble. A supercargo differs from a Factor in this : the business of the former is limited to the care of a particular cargo ; he goes along with it, and generally returns when his business is completed : but the latter has a fixed resi- dence, and executes commissions for different merchants. A Factor's power is either absolute or limited. Though intrusted with ample discretionary powers, he is not warranted to take unreasonable or unusual measures, or do any thing contrary to his employer's in- terest ; but it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge his proceedings, to prove that he could have done better, and was guilty of wilful mismanagement. When a Factor's power is limited, he must adhere strictly to his orders. If he exceed his power, though with a view to his employer's interest, he is liable for the conse- quence. For example, if he gives credit when not empowered, for the sake of a better price, and the buyer proves insolvent, he is liable for the debt. A Factor has no power to give credit unless authorized : but if the goods consigned be generally sold on credit L 2 220 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. at the place of consignation, the Factor will be vindicated for selling at the usual credit, unless expressly restricted. Although opinion will never justify the Factor for departing from orders, necessity sometimes will. If he be limited not to sell goods under a certain price, and the goods be perishable, and not in a situation for being kept, he may sell them, to prevent the destruction, even under the price limited. A Factor is never warranted to deal on trust, except with persons on good credit at the time. If the employer challenge the debtors, it is incumbent on him to prove that their bad circum- stances were known at the time of sale ; and the Factor would be vindicated, if he trusted them at the same time for goods of his own — a circumstance which has occurred, though the Brokers of London are interdicted from dealing on their own account. If the Factor sell his employer's goods on trust, and, after the day of payment is elapsed, receive payment from the purchaser for a debt of his own, he becomes liable in equity for the debt. In case of insolvency, the Factor ought immediatel}' to lay attachments, and advise his employers ; and he cannot withdraw his attachments, nor compound, debts without orders. If a Factor sells goods be- longing to different merchants, to the same person, and the buyer proves insolvent, they shall bear the loss in equal proportions ; and, if the buyer has paid part before his insolvency, without specifying for which, the payment ought to be distributed in equal proportions ; but if the days of payment be fixed, and part of the debts only due, the payment ought to be applied, in the first place, to such debts as were due. If he makes a wrong entry at the Custom-house, and the goods be seized in consequence thereof, he must bear the loss, unless the error be occasioned by a mistake in the invoice, or letter of advice. The owner bears the loss of goods seized, when attempted to be smuggled by his orders ; but the Factor complying with an unlawful order, is liable in such penalties as the laws exact. If a Factor saves the duty on goods due to a foreign prince, he shall have the benefit, for, if detected, he bears the loss. If a Factor sells goods bought by his employer's orders for his own advantage, the employer may recover the benefit, and the Factor shall be amerced for the same. If a Factor receives bad money in payment, he bears the loss ; but if the value of the money be lessened by the government, the employer bears the loss. A Factor is not liable for goods spoiled, stolen, or destroyed by fire. If a Factor receives counterfeit jewels from his employer, and sells them, the employer is liable to indemnify FACTOR OR BROKER. 221 him for any penalties he may incur. If a Factor be ordered to make insurance, and neglect it, and the subject be lost, he is liable to make it good, provided he had effects in his hands. If a Factor buy goods of his employer, his bargain shall be binding on the employer. Fac- tors having obtained a profit for their employers, ought to be very cautious how they dispose of it ; for if they act without commission they are responsible : and even in the case of a merchant remitting goods to his Factor, and some time after drawing a bill on him, which the Factor, having effects in his hands, is supposed to accept ; if the merchant fails, the goods in the Factor's hands are seized for behoof of the creditors, and the Factor, it has .been thought, must answer the bill notwithstanding, and only rank as a creditor for the sum, which, by his acceptance of the bill, he was obliged to pay. In case of a Factor's insolvency, the owner may reclaim his goods ; and, if they be sold on trust, the owner (and not the Factor's credi- tors), shall recover payment of the debts. The above is principally applicable to Factor's residing abroad, and acting for merchants, or to supercargoes going a voyage to dispose of a cargo, and afterwards returning with another to their employers ; but it is likewise the practice of merchants of the greatest credit in the commercial world, to act mutually as Factors for each other. . The business thus exe- cuted is called commission business, and is generally desirable by all merchants, provided they have always effects in their custody, as a security for such matters as they transact for the account of others. Those who trade extensively in this manner, have current as well as commissioned accounts constantly between them; and draw on, remit to, and send commissions to each other, only by the intercourse of letters, which, among men of honour, are as obligatory and autho- ritative as the bonds and ties of law. The allowance given to Factors by the merchant, is also called commission. A Factor's commission in Britain in most kinds of goods, is 2% per cent : on lead and some other articles, 2 per cent. In some places it is customary for the Factors to insure debts for an additional allowance, and in that case they are accountable for the debt when the usual term of credit is expired. Factorage on goods is sometimes charged at a certain rate per cask, or other package, measure or weight, especially when the Factor is only employed to receive or deliver them. The usual apprenticeship fee to the business of a Factor, is one hundred pounds ; but this, as in almost every other case, depends upon the connexion and trading of the employer. 222 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES FAN MAKER. The custom which prevails among European ladies, of wearing fans, was borrowed from the East, where the hot climate renders the use of them almost indispensable. In the East they chiefly use those of large size, and made of feathers, to keep off the sun and flies. In Italy and Spain they have a sort of square fan, suspended in the middle of their apartments, and particularly over the tables : these, by a motion given them, which they retain a long time on account of their perpendicular suspension, help to cool the air and drive off insects. In the Greek churches a fan is put into the hands of the deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in allusion to a part of the deacon's office in that church, which is to keep the flies off the priests during the celebration of the sacrament. Fans are now to be obtained at the haberdashers' shops, but are so little used as to be nearly or quite obsolete. FARRIER. Farriery may, with strict propriety, describe a very useful and important employment, i. e. the shoeing of horses. Shoeing is a method of preserving (heir feet ; for instance, when young horses are first taken from the field, their hoofs are observed to be cool, sound, and tough : but they are no sooner introduced into the stable, than their hoofs are greased or oiled two or three times a week ; and if they are kept much in the house standing upon hot dry litter, without being frequently led abroad, and without having an opportunity of getting their feet cooled and moistened in wet ground, their hoofs grow so brittle, dry, and hard, that pieces frequently break off, like chips from a hard stone ; and, when driving the nails in shoeing, pieces will split off, even although the nails are made very fine and thin. If these same horses with brittle shattered hoofs are turned out to graze in the fields, their hoofs in time will become as sound, tough, and good, as they were at first. F AEEI IE 1BL o FARRIER. 223 The Chinese are said to account a small foot an ornament in their women, and for that purpose, when young, their feet are confined in small shoes. This, no doubt, produces the desired effect ; but must necessarily be very prejudicial to them in walking, and apt to render them entirely lame. This practice, however, very much resembles our method of shoeing horses ; for if we looked upon it as an advan- tage to them to have long feet, with narrow low heels, and supposing we observed no inconvenience to attend, or bad consequences to follow it, we could not possibly use a more effectual means to bring it about than the method already described. In shoeing a horse, therefore, we should in this, as in every other case, study to follow nature : and certainly, that shoe which is made of such a form as to resemble as near as possible the natural tread and shape of the foot, must be preferable to any other. But it is extremely difficult to lay down fixed rules with respect to the proper method to be observed in treating the hoofs of different horses : it is equally difficult to lay down any certain rule for determining the precise form to be given to their shoes. Grass shoes, or tips, are short pieces, sometimes placed on the toe in horses turned out to grass in summer ; at which time it is necessary to guard the fore feet, which otherwise become broken away. They should be looked at oc- casionally, to see that they do not become indented into the soles of the feet. When the roads are covered with ice, it is necessary to have the heels of a horse's shoes turned up, and frequently sharpened, to prevent him from slipping and falling ; but this cannot be done without frequently moving the shoes, which breaks and destroys the crust of the hoof where the nails enter. To prevent this, it is recommended to those who are willing to be at the expense, to have steel points screwed into the heels, or quarters of each shoe, which might be taken out and put in occasionally. To do this properly; first, to have the shoes fitted to the shape of the hoof; then to make a small round hole in the extremity of each heel, or in the quarters, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, or more, in pro- portion to the breadth and size of the shoe : in each of these holes a screw is to be made ; the steel points are likewise to have a male screw exactly fitted to that in the shoes. Care must be taken that the screw in the points is no longer, when they are screwed into the shoe, than the thickness of the latter. The steel points are to be made sharp ; they may either be made square, triangular, or chisel pointed, as may be most agreeable ; the height of the point 224 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. above the shoe should not exceed half an inch for a saddle horse; they may be made higher for a draught horse. The key or handle for screwing them in or out occasionally, is made of sufficient size and strength ; at the bottom of the handle a socket or cavity must be made, properly adapted to the shape of the steel point, and so deep as to receive the whole head of the point that is above the shoe. To prevent the screw from breaking at the neck, it is necessary to make it of a gradual taper : the same is likewise to be observed of the female screw that receives it, that is, the hole must be wider in the upper part of the shoe than the under part ; the sharp points may be tempered or hardened, in order to prevent them from growing blunt too soon; but where they become blunt they may be sharpened as at first. These points should be unscrewed when the horse is put in the stable, as the stones will do them more injury in a few minutes than a day's riding on ice. A draught horse should have one on the heel of each shoe, as that gives him a firmer footing in drawing on ice ; but for a saddle horse, when points are put there they are apt to make him trip or stumble. When the shoes are provided with these points, a horse will travel on ice with the greatest security and steadiness, much more so than on causeways or turnpike roads, as the weight of the horse presses them into the ice at every step he takes. The apprentice fee to a Farrier or Shoeing-smith, as here described, will not exceed thirty pounds, in London : but when the master is tolerably acute, and not only gives the medicines prescribed by the Veterinary Surgeon (which see), but performs some of the ordi- nary operations about the horse, as bleeding, rowelling, blistering, and poulticing, he becomes a more useful tradesman, and requires a larger premium ; for he sometimes gives into studying the theory of the Art Veterinary, in books, by dissecting, and attending lec- tures, which enables him to assume the character of a man of science. The apprentice should follow the same course of study and close application, if he would rise in the world, and do justice to his em- ployers, by a successful practice. The manner of carrying out such a course of self-education, and consequent advancement, is well laid down in chapter 1 of Mr. Hinds's volume of Veterinary Surgery, to which we are mainly indebted for the foregoing account. 225 FILE-MAKER. Many useful tools have been invented for performing mechanical operations, which consist of a number of wedges or teeth, which may be conceived to stand upon, or rise out of a flat or curved metallic surface. When these teeth are formed upon the edge of a plate the instrument is called a saw, but when they are formed upon a broad surface, it constitutes what is denominated a file. The comb-makers use a tool of this description, called a quonet, having coarse single teeth, to the number of about seven or eight to an inch. Fine tools of this description are called floats. When teeth are crossed they are called files ; and when, instead of the notches standing in a right line, a number of single teeth are raised all over the surface, it is called a rasp. Files are cut upon the surface with a sharp edged chisel. In rasps, the tooth is raised with a triangular punch. The file is adapted for working metals, but the rasp is more fitted for wood, bone, and horn. Files are distinguished by being single or double cut. The single-cut file is simply cut once over, and is employed for filing brass, and the softer metals. A second course of teeth is cut to form the double cut file, crossing the first diagonally. This kind is best suited to iron and steel. The steel employed for files requires to be very hard, and in con- sequence undergoes a longer process in the conversion. It is said to be doubly converted. The very heavy files, such as smiths' rub- bers, are made of the inferior marks of blistered steel : the more delicate kind, such as watchmakers' files, of cast steel. The steel is previously drawn at the tilt, into rods of suitable size. The flat arid square files are made wholly with the hammer and the plain anvil. The process is altogether curious, and worthy of note. Two workmen, one called the maker and the other the striker, are required in forging heavy files. The anvil is provided with a groove for the reception of bosses or dies, which are used for the purpose of forging the half-round and three-angled files. The half-round boss contains a hollow which is the segment of a sphere, less than half a circle. That used for the triangular files has a hollow con- sisting of two sides, terminating in an angle at the bottom. In forging the half-round file, the steel is drawn out as if intended to make a fiat file : it is then laid in the die, and hammered until the under side becomes round. The steel for the triangular file is tilted l 3 226 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. into square rods. The part to form the file is first drawn out with the hammer, as if intended to form a square file ; it is then placed in the die with one of the angles downwards, and by striking upon the opposite angle, two sides of the square are formed into one, and consequently a three-sided figure produced. By successively pre- senting the different sides to the action of the hammer, the figure is rendered still more complete. In forming the tangs of most files, it is necessary to make the shoulders perfectly square and sharp ; this is performed by cutting into the file a little on each side with a sharp instrument, and afterwards drawing out the part so marked off to form the tang. After forging, and previously to their being ground and cut, the files require to be annealed. This process is generally performed by piling up a great quantity together in a furnace for the purpose, and heating them red hot ; suffering them afterwards to cool slowly : on the whole a very objectionable method, since the surface of steel when heated red hot in the open air is so liable to oxidation. A superior method of annealing is practised by some file-makers, and, since hardness in a file is so essential a property, it ought to be generally adopted. This method consists in placing the files in an oven, or trough, having a close cover, and filling up the interstices with sand. The fire is made to play on every side of the vessel, as gradually and uniformly as possible, till the whole mass becomes red hot : the fire is then discontinued, and the whole suffered to cool before the cover is removed from the trough. Another evil, however, may arise from keeping steel red hot, even in a close vessel, for too great length of time. It assumes a kind of crystallization, under which its tenacity is much impaired. Steel annealed in this way is perfectly free from the scaly surface which is acquired in the open air ; and if each corticle be perfectly surrounded with sand, and the cover not removed before the steel is cold, the surface will appear of a silvery white colour. If the steel be sus- pected of being too kind, from containing too little carbon, powdered charcoal may be employed instead of sand, or sand mixed with charcoal. In this case the files should be stratified alternately with the charcoal, in order that the extra conversion may be uniform. The next thing is to prepare the files for cutting, by making the surface to contain the teeth as level as possible. This was formerly effected by means of files, and the process is called stripping. The same is still practised by the Lancashire File-makers, and by others not having convenience for grinding. The greatest quantities of FILE-MAKER. 227 files, however, are ground to prepare them for cutting. The stones employed for the purpose are of the sand-stone kind, the texture of which is compact and sharp, but rather rough. They are of as great diameter as can be used with convenience, and about eight inches broad over the face : when used the surface is kept immersed in water. The grinder sits in such a position as to lean over the stone, while its motion is directly from him. Its surface moves at about the same speed as those used in grinding cutlery. Since the object in grinding files is to make the surface as even and flat as possible, and as this cannot be done so completely upon a small stone, the stones of the File-grinder are laid aside when they are reduced to a certain size, and are employed for grinding other articles. Though grinding is by far the most expeditious method, it does not give that truth to the surface which can be effected by filing. If the price of the articles would admit, however, it would be well to render the surface more even by the file after grinding. If the surface be not flat, it is obvious that when the file is used for filing a large surface, those teeth in the hollow parts of the file would not be brought into action. It is from attention to this circum- stance, and to the care in annealing and hardening, that the Lan- cashire File-makers have generally excelled. These are, however, confined to the small articles, since large files would not pay the pro- cess. It would be inexcusable to omit other curious particulars. The tools of the File-cutter consist of an anvil placed upon a block, of such a height that the man sits at his work. He has a piece of lead, alloyed with tin, on which he lays the files when one side is cut. The chisel and hammer are of such size and cut as the files require. He is also provided with a leathern strap, which goes over each end of the file and passes round his feet, which are intro- duced into the strap on each side, in the same manner as stirrups are used. The File-cutter, therefore, sits as if he were on horse- back, holding his chisel with one hand, his hammer in the other ; at the same time he secures the file in its place by the pressure of his feet in the stirrups. Great pains ought to be taken in preparing the edge of the chisel. It is, in the first place, hardened and tem- pered by heating it gradually till it appears of a yellowish brown ; it is next ground, very true to form the edge, which is afterwards finished upon a Turkey stone with oil. It is not required to be very sharp, the bottom of the tooth requiring to be rather open, to prevent the file from clogging with the substance to be filed. The 228 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. edge is also required to be very smooth, in order that it may slip easily upon the surface of the files ; this is also facilitated by slightly greasing the surface. From this advantage the worker, after making one tooth, is enabled by feeling only to form at its proper distance the succeeding tooth, by sliding the chisel close up against the back of the preceding one. In the double-cut files, the first set of teeth, which the workmen call up-cutting, are, previous to cutting the second course, filed slightly upon the face, in order to allow the chisel to slide freely. The single-cut file is more durable than the double-cut, and ought to be preferred for all purposes excepting for iron and steel. The same method is employed in cutting the rasp. The workman is, however, guided completely by his eye in regulating the distance of the teeth from each other. The rasp ought to be cut in such a manner, that no one of the teeth may stand opposite to another ; this not only allows the rasp to cut faster, but makes the surface either of wood or any other substance much smoother. The operation of simple file-cutting seems to be of such easy performance, that it has for almost two centuries been a sort of desideratum to construct a machine to perform that which is not only done with great facility by the hand, but with wonderful expe- dition. We are told that a lad, not very much experienced in the business, will produce, with his hammer and chisel, nearly three hundred teeth in a minute. William Nicholson obtained a patent in the year 1802; premising that the principal requisites in a machine for file-cutting are, that the metal from which it is manu- factured should be steadily supported, and the chisel adapted to the face without any unequal bearing. The American machine consists of a bench of well-seasoned oak, the face of it being planed very smooth, and a carriage on which the files are laid, which moves along the face of the bench parallel to its sides, and carries the files gradually under the edge of the cutter, or chisel, while the teeth are cut. The carriage is made to move by a contrivance somewhat similar to that which carries the log against the saw of a saw-mill. The lever, or arm, which carries the cutter, works in the centre of two screws, which are fixed into two pillars, in a direction right across the bench. By tightening or loosening these screws, the arm which carries the chisel may be made to work more or less steadily. There is likewise a regulating screw, by means of which the files may be made coarser or finer ; also a bed of lead, which is file-maker. 229 let into a cavity formed in the body of the carriage, somewhat broader and longer than the largest size files. The upper face of this bed of lead is formed variously, so as to fit the different kinds of files which may be required. When the file or files are laid in their place, the machine must be regulated by the screw, to cut them of a due degree of fineness. This machine is described as being so simple, that, when properly adjusted, a blind person may cut a file with more exactness than can be done in the usual method with the keenest sight ; for, by striking with the hammer on the head of the cutter, or chisel, all the movements are set at work ; and by repeat- w ^4ing the stroke with the hammer, the files on one side will at length be cut ; then they must be turned, and the operation repeated for cutting the other side. This machine may be made to work by water as readily as by hand, to cut coarse or fine, large or small files, or any number at a time ; but it may be more particularly useful for cutting the very fine small files for watch-makers. Three things are strictly to be observed in hardening files ; first, to prepare the file on the surface so as to prevent it from being oxydated by the atmosphere when the file is red hot, which effect would not only take off the sharpness of the tooth, but render the whole surface so rough, that the file would in a little time become clogged w r ith the substance it had to work. Secondly, the heat ought to be uniformly red throughout, and the wafer in which it is quenched fresh and cold, for the purpose of giving it the proper degree of hardness. Lastly, the manner of immersion is of great importance, to prevent the files from warping ; which in long, thin files is very difficult. The first object is accomplished by laying a substance upon the surface, which, when it fuses, forms as it were a varnish upon it, defending the metal from the action of the oxygen of the air. Formerly, the process consisted in first coating the surface of the file with ale grounds, and then covering it with pulverized common salt. After this coating becomes dry, the files are heated red hot and hardened ; then the surface is lightly brushed over with the dust of coke, when it appears white and metallic, as if it had not been heated. This process has lately been improved, at least so far as relates to the economy of the salt, which, from the quantity used and the increase of duty, had become a serious object. Those who use the improved method do not consume above one fourth the quantity of salt used in the old way. The process consists in dissolving the salt in water to saturation, which is about 230 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. three pounds to the gallon, and stiffening it with ale grounds, or with the cheapest kind of flour, such as that of beans, to about the consistence of thick cream. The files only require to be dipped into this substance and immediately heated and hardened* The grounds, or the flour, are of no other use than to give the mass con- sistence, and by that means allow a larger quantity of salt to be laid upon the surface. By this method the salt forms immediately a firm coating. As soon as the water is evaporated, the whole of it becomes fused upon the file. In the old method, the dry salt was so loosely attached to the file, that the greatest part of it was rubbed off into the fire, and was sublimed up the chimney, without pro- ducing any effect. Some File-makers are in the habit of using the coal of burnt leather, which doubtless produces some effect ; but the carbon is generally so ill prepared for the purpose, and the time of its. operation so short, as to render the effect very little. Animal carbon, when properly prepared and mixed with the above hardening composition, is capable of giving hardness to the surface even of an iron file. The carbonaceous matter may be readily obtained from any of the soft parts of animals, or from blood. For this purpose, however, the refuse of shoe-makers and curriers is the most convenient. After the volatile parts have been distilled over from an iron still, a bright shining coal is left behind, which, when reduced to powder, is fit to mix with the salt. Let about equal parts, by bulk, of this powder and muriate of soda be mixed together, and brought to the consistence of cream, by the addition of water : or mix the powdered carbon with a saturated solution of the salt, till it becomes of the above consistence. Files which are intended to be very hard, should be covered with this composition previous to hardening. By this method, files made of iron, which in itself is unsusceptible of hardening, acquire a superficial hardness sufficient to answer the purposes of any file whatever. Files of this kind may be beat into any form, and in consequence are rendered useful for sculptors and dye-sinkers. The mode of heating the file for hardening, is by means of a fire, similar to that employed by common smiths. The file is to be held in a pair of tongs, by the tang or tail, and introduced into the fire, consisting of very small coke, pushing it more or less into the fire, for the sake of heating it regularly. When it is uniformly heated, of a bright red colour, it is fit to quench in the water. An oven is commonly used for the larger kind of files, into which the blast of FILE-MAKER. 231 the bellows is directed, being open at one end, for the purpose of introducing the files and the fuel. After the file is properly heated, for the purpose of hardening, it should be cooled as quickly as possible ; this is usually done b} r quenching it in the coldest water. Clear spring water, free from animal and vegetable matter, is best calculated for the hardening of files. When files are properly hardened they are brushed over with water and powdered coke, when the surface becomes clean and metallic. They may likewise be dipped into lime-water, and dried before the fire as rapidly as possible ; after which they should be rubbed over with olive oil, in which is mixed a little oil of turpentine, while warm, and then they are finished. In the operations of filing, the coarser cut files are always to be succeeded by the finer ; and the general rule is, to lean heavily on the file in thrusting it forward, because the teeth of the file are made to cut forwards. But, in drawing the file back again, for a second stroke, it is to be lifted just above the work, to prevent its cutting as it comes back. The rough, or coarse-tooth file, called a rubber, serves to take off the unevenness of the work left by the hammer in forging. The bastard -toothed file, as it is technically called, is to take out too deep cuts and file strokes made by the rough file. The fine-toothed files take out the cuts, or file strokes, which the bastard file made, and the smooth file those left by the fine file. A journeyman File-cutter, who is any way industrious, may earn from thirty to thirty-five shillings per week; and the premium required with an apprentice seldom exceeds ten pounds. FILIGREE WORKER. Filigree working is a kind of enrichment on gold or silver, wrought delicately in the manner of small threads or grains, or both intermixed. It was formerly much more employed than at present, in the manufacture of small articles, which served more for show than for use; such as vases, needle-cases, cases to hold jewels, and small boxes ; particularly shrines, decorations for the images of saints, and other church furniture. This art, however, is of great antiquity, and seems to have been brought into Europe from the East, 232 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Among church furniture, we meet with filigree work of the middle ages. The Turks, Armenians, and Indians, make at present some masterpieces of this sort, and with tools that are exceedingly coarse and imperfect. There is no manufacture in any part of the world that has been more admired and celebrated than the fine gold and silver filigree of Sumatra. The surprising delicacy of this work is the more extraordinary, as the tools are rudely and inartificially formed by the pandi, or goldsmith, from any old iron he can pick up. When you engage one of them to execute a piece of work, his first request is usually for a piece of iron hoop, to make his wire- drawing instrument with ; an old hammer head, stuck in a block, serves for an anvil, and a pair of compasses is often composed of two old nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted in a piece of preeoo, or earthen rice-pot, or sometimes in a crucible of their own making of ordinary clay. In general, they use no bellows, but blow the fire with their mouths, through a joint of bamboo ; and if the quantity of metal to be melted is considerable, three or four persons sit round their furnace, which is an old broken quallee, or iron pot, and blow together. At Padang alone, where the manufacture is more considerable, they have adopted the Chinese bellows. Their method of drawing the wire differs little from that used by Euro- peans : when drawn to a sufficient fineness, they flatten it by beating it on their anvil ; and when flattened, they give it a twist like that in the whalebone handle of a punch-ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood with a flat stick. After twisting, they again beat it on the anvil, and by these means it becomes flat wire with in- dented edges. With a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire, and thus form a leaf or element of a flower in their work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and cut off till they have gotten a sufficient number of leaves, which are laid on singly. Patterns of the flowers or foliage, in which there is v not much variety, are prepared on paper, of the size of the gold plate on which the filigree is to be laid. According to this, they begin to dispose on the plate the larger compartments of the foliage, for which they use plain flat wire of a larger size, and fill them up with the leaves before mentioned. To fix the work, they employ a glu- tinous substance made of the red hot berry called boca sago, ground to a pulp on a rough stone. This pulp they place on a young cocoa-nut, about the size of a walnut, the top and bottom being cut off. After the leaves have beei all placed in order, and FILIGREE WORKER. 233 stuck on bit by bit, a solder is prepared of gold filings and borax, moistened with water, which they strew over the plate ; and then, putting it in the fire for a short time, the whole becomes united. This kind of work on gold plate they call carrang papan ; when the work is open they call it carrang trouse. In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a card, or soft kind of wood, and stuck on as before described, with the sago-berry ; and the work, when finished, being strewed over with their solder, is put into the fire, when, the card or soft wood burning away, the gold remains con- nected. If the piece be large they solder it, at several times.. In the manufacture .of badjoo buttons, they first make the lower part £at, and having a mould formed of a piece of buffalo's horn, in- dented to several sizes, each like one-half of a bullet mould, they lay their work over one of these holes, and with a horn-punch they press it into the form of a button. After this they complete the upper part. When the filigree is finished, they cleanse it by boiling in common salt and alum, or sometimes lime-juice; and in order to give it that fine purple which they call sapo, they boil it in water with brimstone. The manner of making the little balls with which their works are sometimes ornamented, is as follows : they take a piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and smooth, they make in it a small hole, which they fill with gold dust; and this melted in the fire, becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at finishing and polishing the plain parts, hinges, screws, and the like ; being in these as much excelled by the European artists, as these fall short of them in the fineness and minuteness of the foliage. FISHMONGER. As a tradesman whose business is to buy and sell a commodity nearly in an unaltered state, the vender of fish is engaged in a very laborious occupation. Yet has it an agreeable as well as arduous period daily, in the very early hour that he is enabled to retire from business, owing to the equally early hour at which he commences, and the assuidity with which he endeavours to sell out his morning purchases as dinner-time approaches. This done, he is left with sufficient leisure to contemplate on the profits of the day, and to 234 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. work off his remainders at reduced prices, if any such there be ; for he must not have, or affect not to have, remaining any fish of one day to be brought forward on the next ; although he may preserve them in ice, and certain fish — as salmon, are not at all deteriorated by the postponement. Such is the public taste ; and, considering the danger which attends a meal made off stale fish, we must allow that taste to be directed to a very proper end ; namely, the preservation of health. From earliest times, the nutriment to be derived from fish, has been an object of great solicitude with all wise governments, especially in an island-kingdom like this, under which we live so happily and securely ; not only as a delicate food, which is calculated to sustain great multitudes of people, from the exhaustless stores amidst which we are placed, but as finely restorative to weak and decayed consti- tutions, in a medical point of view. With the story of Jonah, and his three days' seclusion in the great fish island, the reader is doubtless acquainted, through the medium of a faulty translation from the origi- nal Scripture ; but, when he is informed that whales are physically excluded from the coasts of ancient Nineveh, he will then conclude that the alleged miracle was none, but a natural occurrence. The calling of some of the Apostles proves they were fishermen, and that fishing was a pursuit eighteen-hundred years ago, or much more ; though we hear little of fish from Roman writers, who were nowise addicted to naval affairs, yet the island of Sicily, Messina, Naples, and the whole gulf of Venice, were even at that time the active scenes of the fishermen's toils. But neither those places, nor any other part of the world, is furnished with more, nor with so great variety of fish, as the coasts of Great Britain, if we except our own Newfoundland cod-fishery during the summer months. This species of fish, in three or four varieties, however, we procure nearer at home, in winter, when it is more desirable : our maiden monarch having braved the proud Dane, by spring fishing for cod, with armed busses, up to his scarcely yet unfrozen Iceland, anno 1595 — 1602. But the heavy ships so named, which could alone keep those seas, were then built on the south shores of the Baltic ; and when we ceased to purchase them, the Englishman permitted others to catch his fish, and vend it along his own coasts. The purchasers were the first Fishmongers, or dealers in fish ; from whom the Dutch derived great profits, many of the earliest mongers being Netherlanders. The trade so conducted, was at its highest pitch in the reigns of James I. FISHMONGER. 235 and Charles I. ; and the spring and fall catch of herrings, proved a mine of wealth to the Hollanders, who created a fair at Yarmouth on each occasion. Fishers and their craft have, in all ages and nations, received pas- sive protection over all Europe, or enjoyed an apocryphal neutrality during war, unless acting covertly ; but bickerings having ensued among themselves, so early as 1403, England, France, and the Netherlands' government, made a treaty of neutrality as regarded fishing boats, which was afterwards renewed in 1521, and much later. At those periods, however, so little were our own means of effec- tually pursuing the vast shoals that frequent our coasts, that in 1351, the Spaniards were allowed to " freely and safely fish on the coasts and in the havens of England and Bretagne;" and again in 1553, Spain engaged to pay 1000/. per annum, for twenty-one years, for leave to fish on the north coast of Ireland unmolested. Doubtless this last, as well as some of the preceding concessions, were obtained with a view to the herring-fishery in particular ; a manifestly great and important branch, that forms, even at this day, an event in the Fishmonger trade, replete with a quick return and a profit (though small) quite adequate to the additional labour which the excess of business demands. Yet is the herring season at present uncertain ; and the exact coasts, where the shoals shall emerge from great depths, ever varying. Even their first appearance in September, off Bergen in Norway, and their entrance into the Baltic in April, are no longer the fixed haunts which those polar shoals were wont to frequent. Our patriot consolation is, that they have not omitted to visit our north-eastern coasts, whereby a part (the uppermost and largest) is propelled through Pentland frith, to the Irish sea and St. George's channel, where some actually came to the shore (circa 1780 — 99), and were detained by landsmen. The great bulk of those shoals pass along the east coasts of Scotland, and down the English chan- nel, always bearing away S. W. to the Atlantic. Pilchards appear to be the truest to nature of any migratory fish, rising in shoals, only off the western coasts (Cornwall, &c), and never swerving from this habitude since earliest antiquity. These never reach the London market in the fresh state ; but so early as 1524, they are spoken of as a great delicacy, pickled, under the name of pickarel. The pil- chard is but a variety of herrings ; as is the sprat. Dealers in this plenteous and cheap article of life, abound in the fugitive state ; many of whom rise, through a meritorious industry, to 236 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. take shops, and pursuing the same course, acquire good property, and maintain a respectable station in society. Indeed, none of the city companies excel the Fishmongers' in these respects ; as witness their most stately hall near London Bridge, and the many noble and high political characters who have deemed it an honour to enrol their names on the list of its livery. They were incorporated in 1433. Almost every dealer, of extensive connexions, or whose premises lie at a dis- tance from Billingsgate, keeps a light two- wheel vehicle, with a horse capable of measuring his distance over the ground — homeward par- ticularly. These contrive to reach the market and get a rest, ere the bell rings for opening — 4 o'clock ; when the attendance is most nu- merous, and expectation a tiptoe, as to what may turn up for sale ; and the object of all being to make their purchases and start off, the inte- rest is very great, the bustle aught but genteel, and the clamour ex- cessive. At a wide board sits the salesman, each supplied with lots, in baskets, of all the kinds he has for sale, just brought ashore from the smacks consigned to him, and lying within call. Business begins with a statement, or an eulogy on the quality, freshness, size, or scarceness of some one lot, and the price mentioned appears to bear some relation to the commendation he is enabled to bestow. As this is usually an excessive sum, he himself bids backward — termed Dutch auction. " 'Tis worth 40s. ; now, who is going to say 35*. ? I want 30s. for the lot." " Well, well, 28s. ; take them away ; bring more lots, my man ; I must have an advance for the next." This, which is usually delivered quickly, may give some idea of doing business at Billingsgate-market, where the choicest articles are dis- posed of at wholesale only : and, when we state that it lasts four hours and no more, what there is of bustle and confusion in that short space may be conceived ; it cannot be described ; it must be witnessed, for no chamber cogitation can bring to the mind any thing so mixed up of the comic, the serious, the interested, the careless, and the business-like character to be found at this far-famed mart for fish of every description, from the most distant shores of Britain — some by overland carriage. This last-mentioned boon to inland towns was settled by an act of Parliament, procured and contrived by the Society of Arts in 1762; and which act works admirably. Many Fishmongers expend considerable sums in fitting up ele- gant shops, with expensive reservoirs and icy receptacles for their fish, that altogether vie with the plate-glass and brass-frame fronts of the more high-sounding trades, but substituting for those costly FISHMONGER. 237 materials, the equally dear marble slabs, milled lead, bulks, &c. Surely, never was aught to be compared to these and those in ancient or in modern times, unless here, and now, in this great metropolis of the first of empires. If 300/. be required for such a purpose, as a commencement, the young tradesman will require as much more to go to market with ; for he cannot buy at Billingsgate on credit, without paying dear for the accommodation ; nor can he hope to sell the costlier articles at the dear times, when the town is full, and parlia- ment sitting, without giving credit : he must make two prices for the two descriptions of customers. Apprentices on a liberal scale, we do not hear of to this trade ; unless it be of some relative's son, on whom such a tie for a term of years, is designed rather as a restraint upon juvenile aberrations, than with the hope of teaching him a business that may be acquired profoundly in a few months. He will have to distinguish fresh from stale, or faddee, by the dull eyes and livid gills of the latter, as compared with the bright films and lively red of the good fish. He will soon know the difference between the firm flesh, white belly, and glistening backs of prime fish, and those others which may have been detained at sea, or lingered on the land, until the flesh is become flabby, the belly has a reddish tinge, and the back is dull as distemper in painting, and dry as chips : he will find little occasion for lifting such a fish to the olfactory, that tell-tale of decay, besides the per- sonal danger of such an appeal, at Billingsgate. As to salmon, that prince of fish, he will know the Scotch from the Gloucester, and both from Thames salmon, by the long mark along the sides ; he will know that grilse are not salmon ; and that such a fish having been detained from the day of spawning in fresh water, is stunted in growth, and void of the flavour found in those which have visited the sea in due season. He will soon acquire the knack of comparing the two together, and coming to the safe conclusion, that if the real salmon be worth Is. 6d. per pound, its mockery is dear at 9d. Mackerel season he well knows has two ends, the beginning and the termi- nation ; at first, a fish may be worth 2s. 6 d., and at last its exact likeness to the view, is scarcely saleable at a groat. He will ascer- tain by inference (what he ought never to find out by practice), that if he go to Billingsgate at 6 or 7 on a Monday morning, he will catch no fish worth carrying home ; and that he might as well go to bed again, as pretend to buy, after that hour, any goods fit or proper for decent show, in a respectable money-making neighbourhood. 238 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. FLAX DRESSER. The article of Flax is an excellent commodity, and the cultiva- tion of it a piece of good husbandry. It will thrive in any sound land, but that which has lain long fallow suits best ; and it must be well ploughed, and laid flat and even. The seed should be sown in a warm season, about the middle or end of March, or at farthest the beginning of April ; and if wet weather happen, weeding will be necessary. The best seed is that brought from the east country, which, although dear, yet easily repays the charge ; this will last two or three crops, when it is advisable to renew the seed again. Of the best seed, two bushels may serve for an acre ; but more must be allowed of home seed, because it grows smaller. When grown up, it ought not to be gathered until it is fully ripe ; for, if pulled before the blossom falls, it hackles away almost to nothing ; and though in appearance it is very fine, yet it has no substance, and the yarn spun out of it is weak and ouzy ; it not only wastes in the washing, but the linen made of it grows extremely thin in the bleaching. The pluckers should be nimble, tie it up in handfuls, set them up until perfectly dry, and then house 6hem. Flax pulled in the bloom, proves whiter and stronger than if left standing until the seed is ripe ; but then the seed will be lost. When the flax has been watered, and twice swingled (swingling is performed by taking up the flax in handfuls and beating it with a rod, or a flattened and smooth stick, in order to free it from the bran), it is then to be hackled, in a much finer hackle than that used for hemp. Hold the strike of flax stiff in your hand, and break it well upon the coarse hackle, saving the hurds to make harder cloth of. This done, the strike is to pass through a fine hackle, and the hurds coming from thence saved for middling cloth, and the tear itself for the best linen. But, to dress flax for the finest use of all, after being handled as before, and laying three strikes together, plat them in a plat of three rows, as hard and close together as possible, joining one to the end of another until you have platted as much as you think convenient ; then begin another plat, and add as many several ones as you think will make a roll ; afterwards, wreathing them hard together, make up the roll ; which done, put as many as you judge FLAX DRESSER. 239 convenient into a trough, and well beat them. Next open and unplat them, dividing the strikes very carefully from each other, and then strike it through the finest hackle, whereof there are three sorts. Great care must be taken to do this gently and lightly, lest what is hackled from thence should run to knots ; for if preserved soft, like cotton, it will make very good linen, each pound running at the least two yards and a half. The tear itself, or finest flax, will make a strong and very fine Holland, producing, at the lowest estimation, five yards in the pound. The hackle is a tool with which the flax is combed into fine hairs, and consists of long iron or steel pins, called teeth, regularly and strongly fixed in a piece of elm board. FRUITERER AND GREEN-GROCER. Although but a modern trade, compared to many others, yet has the business of catering vegetables and fruits for great people and large feasts, become of vast importance within these few years ; in proof whereof we may quote the very high prices at which early productions are bought up, at their first appearance in Covent Garden market. Before we turn to our authorities in this respect, the unremote period when man}' of our most familiar garden pro- ducts were introduced, may be stated. Thus, the apricot and melon (those termed musk melon) are first mentioned in 1524 ; though we do not distinctly understand, that either was attempted to be grown in England until the year 1578, when gardening came into fashion with certain great folks, who sought in this manner to gratify the taste of " the Queene's Majestie." Melon seeds are mentioned as a novelty, among the importations from Florence in the year 161 1. Between those years only, there were introduced from Belgium, the currant and gooseberry, with salads and various other garden roots ; mulberries came from Italy in 1609 ; tulip, rose, peach, and tamarisk in 1592. So that the story told by Higden, of King John being choked by a peach-stone in 1216, must be erroneous; and we are inclined to the opinion of more veracious writers, who state that the puny monarch's death is attributable to eating pears ; for we find these and apples mentioned frequently in the earliest records extant : 240 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. indeed, so low was the state of cultivation with us three centuries after this event, that we meet with a reproachful couplet, dated 1525, which states that " Hops, Reformation, bays, and beer Came into England all in one year." The Greengrocer must therefore be referred to the latest of those dates, as being a distinct trade ; for we understand King James I. to have granted the charter of incorporation to certain gardeners, in the third year of his reign, 1605; but this document being either worn out or mislaid, his son Charles I. (1634) renewed the same, extending its privileges to * the gardeners of London and six miles round it." The title of " Greengrocer" then must be referred to much later and more genteel times, and was probably called for by the new circum- stances in which the dealers in greens were placed. Not being growers, or gardeners, but buying their wares of these latter in gross, or large quantities, the derivation of the name appears to have been strictly legitimate, and quite natural at the same time. In its early days, this business must have been a very humble one ; and so is the commencement of every individual tradesman in it ; but these invariably proceed to increase their sphere of action, and make considerable property by their trade. The Greengrocers rose fast into importance, as dealers in what was then considered, and is still termed, foreign fruits ; meaning thereby those tender products of other and milder countries, which here re- quire the skilful gardener's greatest care, and the aid of artificial heat, to bring to perfection ; including grapes, pine-apples, and the like. For, the bold assertion, that grapes ever grew open in England, suf- ficiently ripe to make wine in quantities, is alike untrue and absurd : the express of apples must have been intended, when the bibulous heroes of antiquity talked of making their wines, which we in these more rational times term cider. Some of our modern Fruiterers of the highest grade, do now deal in wines — i. e. home made wines, of currants, gooseberries, raisins, elder, and numerous other fruits. The Greengrocers of the markets also turn over good round sums during the currant season, in catering for families who manufacture their own wines of English fruits, as is done by many with enviable suc- cess. They have, also, other seasons when particular products may come to market in greatest profusion : thus we have the pea season, FRUITERER AND GREENGROCER. 211 the gooseberry season, the plum season — and, more generally, the spring season — when most of the tender culinary vegetables are in greatest request, at satisfactory remunerating prices. These seasons, by the great briskness of trade, and consequent quick returns, make ample amends to the Greengrocers for the compara- tively dead season of winter — when frost may nip, or refuse to give up the still inhabitants of the gardens — when the lament of " froze out gardeners" admonish us, that the wares they would gladly raise were frozen in y and thus bespeak higher prices for such table vege- tables as may first reach the markets and the consumers. Then it is, that the skill of the Market Gardener is displayed in its most pleasurable pursuits : he catches the earliest relaxation from the ice- bound state of his beds ; he courts each ray of sunshine as the great luminary traverses back again from its extreme south declination ; he transplants his tubjrs and his roots into sunny borders and favourable aspects ; he covers them at night, opens them by day, and defends them from adventitious harm — and all this what for ? For no other reason than to be first in the market ; whereby he and his friends, the Greengrocers, may realize the highest prices, and a handsome requital for all this extra labour, skill, and outlay in wages, rent, and seed, besides the chances of defeat from adverse causes. Who then shall say, that the trader who incurs so much risk to ad- minister to the longing tastes of the great, the munificent, and the table voluptuary, is overpaid by any of the following prices ! They are selected from the Covent Garden-market returns, during a period some months antecedent to September, 1835, and the prices are such only as were actually paid for each. January — Broccoli, 2s. and 2s. 6d. per bundle ; kidney beans, 4s. per hundred ; new potatoes, 2s. 6d. per lb. ; sea-kale, 3s. Gd. per punnet; nonpareils, 1/. 10s. per bushel; pines, 8s. per pound; cucumbers, 10s. the brace ; pears, 18s. per half sieve ; parsley, fennel, thyme, 3s. per half sieve. February — Pears, per half sieve, 21. and some 12s. per dozen ; cucumbers, 12s. to 18s. per brace ; Asparagus, 7s. per hundred. March — Peas, forced, 21. per punnet ; goose- berries, 2s. Gd. per pottle ; strawberries, 6d. per oz. April — Peas, 12s. to ]/. per half sieve; kidney beans, 2s. 6d. per hundred. . Many of these early products are brought by those Market Gar- deners who keep Newgate-market, whence they principally find their way by means of higglers, or middle men, to Covent Garden, which is the oldest of the two ; the former having been built in 1 70 1 M 242 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES* for the greater convenience of the citizens, when Shepherd' s-market gave place to the present Mansion-house, which they then erected on its site. The Greengrocer takes no apprentices, unless the children of laborious persons. The Fruiterer, singly so termed, deals not in greens, but only in the finest fruits of our own and foreign countries ; and he it is who stands highest as to dealings and property, almost every one whom we have visited having risen to eminence by dint of his own industry and judgment. Every one began business on a small capital, or succeeded a parent who had been the architect of his own fortune ; they have, also, evolved out of the conjoint trades of Greengrocer and Fruiterer, casting off the former as not quite so compatible with their new views, and improved situation, probably in some leading genteel thoroughfare. We observe, that these give credit to their customers of the higher classes, to a large extent, and for indefinite periods ; their shops, also, become the fashionable lounging places for the great and titled ones, and the places of assig- nation for supposed casual rencounters. Some 500/., or more, are required to start in such a concern, when the shopkeeper must also contract his trade much within ready money bounds ; it is only when success has crowned his endeavours in some degree, that he can fur- nish large dinner parties, routs, taverns, and anniversary feasts upon credit, for, on none of these occasions would he get paid on delivery. Yet must not the new beginner despair of getting forward in the world, even without any capital whatever; and by industry alone acquiring property enough to " extend his sphere of action f n for we have, in the course of a long life, witnessed many such successful Greengrocers and Fruiterers, who not only did this, but made what is well termed moderate fortunes. Let one instance suffice — Our friend, Mr. Wm. Stonchapel, after various efforts at shopkeeping, with a coal-shed, &c, none of which succeeded, found himself in debt near 100/. borrowed money; when a thought of dealing in greengrocery came over his mind. Without a shilling for starting afresh in this new concern, he had recourse to his tried friend for a further loan ; and, although it amounted to no more than three guineas, he not only repaid this sum in a fortnight, but went on to liquidate the whole debt by instalments, with interest and grateful- ness, at the end of another such season. Having done so much in a short time, the calculating reader may reckon up, how long it would FRUITERER AND GREENGROCER. 243 occupy such a man to accumulate enough to retire from his green- shop, and enjoy his best days in moderation. Such an occurrence ought to act as a stimulus to exertion in others, and teach them not' to relax, though fortune frown awhile ; they may also learn from this example, to avoid a similar catastrophe to that which befel our friend. Having mistaken his way upon some quite ordinary occasion — for he now dealt in many other articles — poor Stonchapel was over- whelmed by the fall of a few scores of culm, which cost him his reason, and ultimately his existence. FISHING-TACKLE MAKER. In London, this calling is confined to the preparation and sale of tackle for gentlemen anglers in our fresh water streams and preserves ; and is withal an elegant and pleasant pursuit, inasmuch as most people take as much delight in getting read}' their rods and baiting their hooks, as in catching and landing their prey. But in the country, at or near sea-ports, the fisherman requires other and stronger tackle to meet the ruder elements he has to contend with, as well as the strong inhabitants of the deep it is his fate, or his choice, to encounter for his daily bread. Fish-hook making is the chief occupation of the sea-tackle maker: he makes those in abundance for the Newfoundland cod- fishery ; and obtains a character for tem- per, strength, and efficiency, in this respect, that happily creates for him a name and a resort, highly creditable to him as a tradesman, and insuring him a profitable return, a handsome living, and perhaps a fortune. Some even bequeath their celebrity to posterity ; and we ourselves recollect the high character borne by " Seths' hooks," in the days of our first voyagings : these, also, get up the other big tackle for coast fishermen, as nets, the long seine for mackarel, her- ring, sprat, and pilchard catching, and wicker works for taking lob- ster. So do many tradesmen in town obtain a name for goodness of tackle, neatness of finish, and subtilty of imitative bait, that obtain very high prices occasionally — a rod and its accompaniments fre- quently fetching a ten-pound note, when mounted in a high style. Yet is not gaudiness of tackle so desirable to the habile angler, who rather seeks to avoid observation of his prey, by wearing unadorned clothes ; and even then keeping out of sight, by throwing for shy m 2 244 THE COMPLETE COOK OF TRADES. fish at right-angles with the sun, casting his line up the stream and drawing across it farther down. On the other hand, gaudiness of bait is most desirable as the summer advances, to tempt the old fish to bite which have become shy through frequent disturbance, and the escapes effected by some of them from bunglers, who merit the re- proach urged against them by the uninitiated : u A rod and line, with a fool at one end, and a fish at the other, is the patient angler's coat of arms." During some ages we know of certain towns and districts being celebrated for fishing-tackle: — thus Bridport, for net cordage and ropes; Bristol, for sea-fishing hooks ; and until the year 1833, for fresh-water tackle, what place could vie with Crooked-lane, Cannon- street ? Sweet tortuous wynd, equally redolent of birds and bird cages ! Then, there was Izak Walton, with his " Complete Angler ;" a work which the facetious Charles Cotton be-noted and travestied w ith poetic scraps, soon after the author's decease in 1683 ; and the illustrators of the day just past enriched with fine engravings, in every style of excellence and mode of execution, from major to minor, and senior to junior. The work of patient Izak and his commentator is supposed to have called forth the talents of celebrated, artists in the enrichment, by burin and cold point, in biting, etching, scraping, and cutting, not less than 293 pictorial designs ! Yet was " honest Izak," or " cunning Izak" — for he had a dozen of endearing epithets bestowed upon his name — by trade a sempster, previous to becoming a Fishing-tackle maker, near Temple Bar. And there stands the same shop still, unpulled down of mortal hands, in the self-same state and profession, with the gilded fish in front — and long may it continue, say we. Almost every angler can make some part of his tackle in tolerable good trim ; and many more — men of close observation, know how to adapt their bait to peculiar waters and the passing seasons. Some pass their instructions in humble poesy, or didactic couplets, adapted to the months and seasons, in imitation of Cotton : — thus, in Septem- ber, Senox Devon says " Wash roes of kepper ; till the next spring wait, And with the paste thereof make deadly bait" Another time, he tells us how, in May, " At Walton eel-fair, the first sunny-day, See myriad fry ascend in search of prey." FISHING-TACKLE MAKER. 245 At an earlier period of the } 7 ear we learn, that " Anglers may throw (an hour at noon), The line for jack, pike, chub, and roach ; But really, Sirs, it is too soon — The floating ice forefends approach." In March we are told, by the same authority, " Trout, perch, and pike, now court the sunny ray, Then spin a bleak, and thus your toils repay." The mode of performing this cunning trick in angling, is not generally known ; we shall therefore give, from the pen of an adept, his manner of preparing the tackle " to spin a bleak? " As few prepare their tackle according to our understanding of what is proper, and the art of angling is better acquired than taught, we content ourselves with giving directions how to prepare for ' spinning a bleak,' as it is termed. The minnow and roach are favourite baits for trout, and when pro- perly managed, as follows, certainly tempt the largest fish. A small triple hook on one stem, is to be mounted on a piece of Indian grass, two inches long, with a noose at the other end. Then, with a needle draw the noose through the minnow, from the vent through the mouth. Slip over the noose into the minnow's mouth, a small bit of lead, perforated for that purpose ; draw up the hooks close to the vent, so as to hide the stem, and sew up the mouth of the minnow. Take about two yards of Indian grass, with a noose at each end of it, and two swivels, mounted about two inches apart, very near to the noose, which is to be attached to that near the minnow's mouth : fasten these to your lines, and the minnow, by the aid of the swivels, will spin, when drawn through the water. " Cast your minnow up the stream, and draw gently down on the opposite side, and then pull across the stream. Pike will take all sorts of fish, but the bait should not exceed four inches in length : it is true the large bait will tempt most, but it is the small bait, that will take more certainly. Remember, to fish fine, and to fish far off, are among the best elementary principles of good trout angling." Tackle-makers for fresh-water angling, are usually adepts in fly- fishing, retired from practice. The trade may be begun with a very middling sum, and 200/. would furnish a tolerable shop and com- mand a trade, provided the master work at it himself. Thirty or forty pounds is thought sufficient premium with an apprentice in London. 246 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. FLOOR CLOTH MANUFACTURER. Painted cloths, to be employed in domestic affairs, are not of very ancient invention ; though now deemed indispensable to British summer comfort, as a covering for floors of rooms and passages, also stairs, tables, and some description of seats for places of much rude resort. At present, our manufactories are of great magnitude, the upper parts mostly built of wood, feather-edged, for conveniency of hanging up to dry the more elaborate works ; but they were formerly, within recollection, small in comparison, having been built mostly by Netherlanders, who brought the art to this country; and we still retain most of their formal patterns. The original idea was derived from the tapestry, which covered the walls of great persons in pro- fusion, previous to the fifteenth century ; and was easily transferred to the floor, after being coloured with oil paint, invented by John d'Eick, at Bruges, about 1410. The tillet, or little cloth, for enca- sing glazed stuffs intended for a foreign market, was the first approach towards pattern floor-cloth painting; having depicted on each, in stencil, the device and name of the maker, the arms of his city, and other assurances of genuineness. As intimated, floor-cloths were much narrower than at present, scarcely exceeding a yard in width ; for, when required much larger, several breadths were sewed together previous to painting, or laid down subsequently with a lap over. Now, however, cloths without seams are made of many yards square, some by the floor-cloth manu- facturers, whilst others purchase the fabric from the Scotch and other factories. For weaving these cloths, a loom is required of adequate width, certainly, but differing very little in construction from the ordi- nary looms for narrows, though bearing some resemblance, at first sight, to the carpet-loom described in page 113. The floor-cloth is invariably made of hemp- thread ; unless, as sometimes happens, cus- tomers send their old carpets to be painted. " Floor-cloths of any width without seam," first introduced about 1790, had a very alluring sound, and was thought highly of at the time, as a great improvement of the art, as it got rid of the unsightly stripes occasioned by the seams wearing. A much greater capital was thus required for car- FLOOR CLOTH MANUFACTURER. 247 rying on the works ; and the more so, as a good age is required for each piece, almost a whole summer being required for the painting its several coats, and another for hardening (u e. drying), the ground and pattern, ere it can be shown. Three or four years outlay is thus incurred, and then the goods usually depart the premises upon a long credit. An excise duty, also, burthens the article, and bespeaks the necessity of an apparently high price — say 5s. 6d. per square yard, for ordinary patterns. The cloth intended to receive the paint, being distended, the first colour or priming is laid on all over, sufficient to fill the pores, when it is put by to dry — nailed to a lofty board of its own extent. Both sides having been thus served, it hangs until this firsting is fit to receive second coats ; and thus the painting of the ground is repeated, according to the value of the intended work : it is taken down after some weeks of high summer weather, for the purpose of receiving the pattern, which is usually applied to one side only. If this pattern be an ordinary one of two colours only, the one must hang to dry, before the second is put on : if more complex, the time of finishing is further protracted. For this purpose small pieces of thin metal plates are used, in which the required patterns are cut out ; and being laid down and painted over upon the cloth, so much of the pattern is left in the interstices as the draughtsman designed. When the second set of stencilled metal plates are applied in like manner, the pattern is seen to come out. The colours used in floor-cloth painting are prepared and mixed with uncommon care, every manufacturer having certain exclusive notions of his all-perfection in this respect. There does not, how- ever, any secret exist ; except as regards taste in the patterns, added to great attention to the state of the different coats, proper industry, and employing none but the best first white lead and primest tur- pentine in every department. This lead should also be of mature age before mixing ; for, what it may lose in weight is amply made up in the superiority of the colour afterwards. None can commence business as a floor-cloth manufacturer with less than 2000/., sup- posing he hire premises already built : but one of those stupendous erections is now within view of the writer's residence (brick built indeed) which is said to have cost all that sum in carrying up : it is therefore the first of its kind. The apprentice fee, for learning " the whole art and mystery " of this trade seldom amounts to a hundred 248 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. pounds. There are usually a number of labourer-apprentices on the premises. Journeymen earn about 38s. per week, very few more ; but in winter these do not find full employment. FLORIST. Dealers in flower-plants, cuttings, roots, and seeds, are growers also; and they exhibit their productions when blowing, and take drawings from them in that state : from either of these patterns, or upon the bare word of honour of the vender, are the prizeable sorts set forth and sold by catalogue, some of them with high sounding pompous names, seemingly to designate superior beauty, and certainly commanding large prices. But this whole article on floriculture, or the propagation of flowers, and the sale of them, belongs to the gardener's pursuits in the first instance, and to the seed shop in the sequel. Therefore, see Gardener, and Seedsman and Florist. FLOWER-MAKER (ARTIFICIAL). A very pretty agreeable trade, truly, for a female to follow, though many men-professors of artificial flower making are found in West- minster ; being usually the masters of large concerns, or haply married to some celebrated female artist, himself no mean hand at imitating those beautiful productions of our gardens. Indeed, the finest specimens of this art ever exhibited at court or Almacks, were those of males ; if all that we see of superior workmanship do not receive the master's hand in the rougher elements; whilst we are com- pelled to acknowledge, that the Parisian gentlemen infinitely excel our native work people of either sex. One very celebrated character (for good or for bad) who exercised this trade in the days of our youth, and made a great noise through the nation, occurs to our recollection at this moment. This is Mr. Rynwick Williams, a most excellent artificial Flower-maker in his day, who was charged by the daughters FLOWER-MAKER (ARTIFICIAL). 249 of a respectable gentleman in St. James's-street with having wounded one of them, without cause as without motive, so far as appeared. Poor Williams was cried down by the press, acquired the cognomen of monster, was convicted and punkshed ; though doubts remained of his identity to the time of his death, which even that dread event did not contribute to clear up, but the contrary. The materials used by Flower-makers are all apparently of small price, but many — as wire of several sorts, coloured tissue paper, silk, persian, and cotton, thread of the same, flos, &c. ; to these add the tools, and punches, for cutting out leaves, with those leaves in multitudinous part preparation, and we have enumerated the stock in trade of a Flower-maker. At least such is the case with those who manufacture only ; whilst they who keep a shop, seldom exhibit a large stock out of season ; so that the chief outlay of the manufac- turer, consists in wages, and in the subsistence of his household during the dead parts of the year. At the meeting of Parliament, and consequent resort of the gentry of both sexes to London — connected as this event is with routs, balls, and concerts, play-goings, and the opera, visitings, state din- ners, and court days — the artificial Flower-makers find all hands in strict, and even midnight request. The demand is then very urgent, the prices paid for any excellence is of the most encouraging nature, and exertions are made, that subsequently surprise even those who have been engaged in contributing to them ; for those flowers pass severally from hand to hand, until completed by the chief workman, or woman, adjusting them according to his or her fancy. What ! exclaims the inquiring reader, does not the Flower-maker follow nature ? Though artificial, are not these close imitations of the real flowers ? Let us answer, candidly — no : although some study the real flower, and so closely follow nature, as often to deceive the actual Florist's eye, yet do most Flower-makers outstrip, and sur- charge the finest products of the earth, sometimes, in order to pro- duce effect in the crowded ball-room, or to obtain admiration in the ante-chamber of royalty. What can excel the wonderful structure of the passion flower, for example, beautiful, evanescent, and aston- ishing as it is ! Kindly admonitory and reminiscent of the greatest event in history, none look upon it for the first time in any other light than the work of man's hands, adroitly exercised in the most delicate and fantastic manner, to steal conviction of the truth from the mind of the admiring beholder. But the real flower would be m 3 250 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. naturally too small to attract notice on the towering head dress of a stately female ; wherefore, the artist invariably constructs his flower of a dimension never seen on earth beside. Then again, in working up the factitious representative of the most tonish flower of the present day, how is it possible for the artist to transgress his original where nature herself outstrips herself in gaudy vagary — need we name the dahlia ? the great, flaunting and ever variable Babylonish flower of flowers, so much run after with such small reason, by our fancy florists all over the kingdom. When at work, the Flower- makers sit at a table, having before them, in separate compartments or saucers, the prepared materials adapted to the particular work in hand. The stalk is represented by a wire or wires, grouped so as to afford a sufficient number for the intended branches, petals, &c. The lower part being covered by spirally carrying up slips of some appropriate material — usually green, the leaves are attached singly to the wires, by threads of silk or cotton being twisted evenly round their base, being also of green, or party-coloured, agreeably to nature. The petal, pistil, and bud of the flower itself, is not unfrequently a composition of white wax, or paste and paper, or tiffany rolled up ; and these, as well as the leaves, are sometimes partially painted, tip-stained, striped, and the like. A delicate bloom or flos is cast over the work as required, in some cases, and is held by gum. Most flowers, when finished, re- quire a touch from the master-hand upon being dispatched to the shop. Haberdashers and milliners deal in artificial flowers largely ; most of those in the city proper, are country travellers, who dispatch these to all parts per order ; and many among them do export great quantities of artificial flowers to the East and West Indies, America, and all our dependencies in the several quarters of the world. Whoever, therefore, produces the best examples of workmanship in " the season" before described, are most likely to receive the best orders for the country or foreign trade. Herein is another source of gratification to our philanthropic minds and hearts ; for, whereas the French were wont to counteract us abroad in all works of fancy and of fashion, in former years, and in this one among others, we now see them shut out from any direct competition — except on the European continent, and their artists find vent for most of their labours through British commerce, and by means of British capital. An appropriate adjunct trade to this, is the getting up oi' feathers FLOWER -MAKER (ARTIFICIAL). 261 for head-dresses ; as, the nodding plume for court, the elevated ostrich feather imitated, and the more natural bird of paradise, in reality. As the work is carried on in nearly the same manner, we need not detail minor variances, the same hands being employed in making flowers and feathers in most shops. The feathers are usually bought at the East India Company's sales, those of the Hudson's Bay Company, or of Russia brokers — or rather the jobbers in feathers, raw, who buy at those sources. Extensive orders for feathers are frequently in course of execution, whenever a grand occasion presents itself : these are commonly, an installation of knights, a coronation, or a full-dress display at court; when noblemen and field-marshals must mount their feathers, or be excluded from appearing there by the written laws of etiquette. So of most other commanders ; and some regiments are ordered appointments of the most expensive kind, in this article particularly ; which descend through every grade of officers down to the most subaltern, and include those self-esteemed dignitaries — the drum-major, and music master's band. Apprentices learn those arts tolerably, in some two or three years, which is the usual term of serving to make the required proficiency , which again mainly depends on the taste and application of the in- dividual, and the opportunities allowed for such attainments as are suited to the trade. With these, even menial servants have been known to make good workwomen ; but with young women of respect- able connexions not less than 20/. are required, and we observe several instances mentioned of double that sum being given as a fee. Women earn about 1 5s. per week in the season ; a reduction of one-third, for which they are indebted to French interference within these few years. FRINGE-MAKER. Tassels and bell-pulls, with furniture laee, are articles usually combined under the same head, in the London trade. These are all- made of worsted of various colours, and ever varying patterns, to meet the taste or the evanescent whims of female minds, with whom nearly all the shopkeepers' business is transacted. They also pre- pare, of 'the same material, krewels for embroidery, for making linen* 252 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. knotting, and other ladies' work, and also the canvas drawings, samplers, and other matters for such works. Some of those Fringe- makers manufacture part of the articles on the premises, in the city; others order them from the manufacturers of each, as also trimmings, bindings, braiding, &c, after designs furnished according to the taste of their customers ; and, though the business appears of trivial import compared to more ponderous employments, is nevertheless great, extensive, and money -making. So pointedly is this the case, that we never knew more than one failure in the course of thirty years' acquaintance with persons in this trade ; and that was mainly attributable rather to the unfaithfulness of an assistant and a relation, than to any want of a profitable business. • Most of the fringes are made by the hand, women being employed in producing those rich appendages of bed and curtain furniture. The hell-pulls are manufactured with a kind of jack, in the manner of rope-making, having also a cord or string in the centre of the party-coloured worsted, of which they are made. Several Fringe- makers carry on the minuter parts of the manufactory on their own premises, and some employ the turner to produce the small wooden bobs of tassels and bell pulls, which being covered with worsted, add vastly to the richness of the former, and constitute the substan- tial lower appendage of the latter. From these premises it will be seen, that the sum required for starting in this trade will depend entirely upon the extent to which a young beginner may lay himself out, for carrying on the actual making at home, or otherwise. If the latter, and he is content to keep shop merely as a buy-and-sell tradesman, it is evident that the minor sum of 300/. to 500/. will suffice; if he take credit for wool, for dyeing, and spinning, and making up the principal part of his goods, in- deed, this has been the scale on which many have commenced business under our own notice, though all subsequently expanded their views, as the means increased of extending their connexions, and with these the actual manufacture. Apprentices require absolutely but little more than the ordinary qualification for conducting this business, together with some taste and an obliging disposition : the sum paid with such for a seven years' tutelage is about 30/. to 60/. where liberal treatment is stipulated for ; but boys who are put apprentice to the more laborious details of the manufacture seldom can afford any fee whatever. Yet, from among these, one here and there of industrious habits, and saving disposition, makes his way into life and liven FRINGE-MAKER. 253 respectably. Journeymen work by the piece in general, and mostly contrive to make out a Saturday-night's bill of 30*. in summer ; a few somewhat more ; their wives and children also earn their liveli- hood at it. FULLER. He is an indispensable adjunct of the clothier's trade (p. 143), taken collectively ; for wool could not be spun without being combed in oil ; nor would it take the dye when woven, unless divested of the oil. This is the proper business of the Fuller ; or, as he is provin- cially called, the Tucker. By a similar conversion of terms, his place of work — invariably a water wheel* machine — is called fulling-mills, or tucking-mills : and the operation is termed milling, which so discharges the grease, and renders the article milled of a closer tex- ture, filling up the pores, and causing the fibres so to coalesce as to render the cloth impervious to water, in some degree — similar to the felting of hats, described farther on. Opposed to the cloths which underwent this operation, was a species called Irish frise, declared by statute to be unworthy of being fulled. The same law enacted, that no English w oollen cloths be exported unless so fulled or milled — 50th Edw. III. chap 7 ; and twenty years after, viz., 1 397, Blackwell-hall was established, as a depository for all woollen goods sent to the fac- tors in London, where certain rigid examinations proved and marked all the defects ; among which the process of " shrinking," a minor kind of fulling by hand, formed the principal test of a faithful manu- facture. In 1603, Raleigh urged the king to prohibit^ the exportation of woollen cloths undressed, i. e. not milled and dyed, whereb}' 400,000/. were annually lost to the nation. Five years after, the first project for dressing and dyeing our own cloths, was set a foot by Alderman Cockayne : but it was not until 1667, that one Brewer, a Netherlander, brought the art into England, together with his work- men and their tools, and successfully pursued both branches of dressing — for, unless the material be well cleansed, it receives the dye but scurvily, or imperfectly. Any kind of substance or matter, which is of a detersive nature, is fitted for discharging the grease and carbon acquired by cloth in 254 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the process of weaving. Some of these, however, leaving permanent effects behind, tending to deteriorate the goods, or to reduce the fabric to rottenness, are not now used, as acids, strong lyes, &c. ; of those which remain, urine, black soap, and fuller's earth, are the prin- cipal kinds employed by the Fuller with complete bleaching effect ; and urine being the most easily and cheaply procured, invariably takes precedence of the others at the mills. If it be urged against this article, that it renders the material " harsh to the touch," that the cloth when brought to market " does not snap" between the fingers, on trial, we say, use less of it then, and that no stronger than is just sufficient to effect the first part of the deterging process, and quickly after get the cloths into soap. That urine was very eariy employed in such service, we learn by inference from the later Roman history, when we are told it was an object of taxation under the Em- peror Vespasian. His son Titus, subsequently the conqueror of Jerusalem and scourge of Gaul, having reprobated the tax as un- worthy of so great a king, the wily old gentleman thrust some of the money so accruing at his son's nose, inquiring whether he discovered any scent of urine in the precious metal it brought into his treasury — a sensible and intelligent rebuke, that many of our modern young gentlemen manufacturers would do well to meditate upon. Soap is that article which completely rids the cloth of its harshness, but has long been too sparingly employed in fulling the inferior cloths, owing to the heavy excise impost under which it has groaned for fifty years previous to the year 1833, when the duty was remitted. What our ancestors substituted for soap previous to 1520, when it was first made in England (at Bristol), is not readily to be surmised ; unless they had already discovered the saponaceous property o{ ful- lers earth. This is indeed, a valuable commodity in scouring cloths, stuffs, &c, to be procured only in this country, as is believed, and was therefore v sedulously guarded against exportation, until some recent free trade enactments of our ultra-liberal public economists. When the cloths reach the mill (supposing these to be serges, long ells, or Ockington whites), they are laid out singly on the floor at full length. The Fuller then takes a bowl, and sprinkles it from end to end with urine; in doing this, the pieces are much trodden upon by the workmen feeding the mill-troughs, which lie contiguous; and into which very heavy pointed rammers fall upon the goods, by means of the mill-wheel raising them up alternately. Thus fully saturated, the pieces are taken up singly, and the end dropped into FULLER. 255 the trough ; the whole is drawn in by the action of the rammers, while the man is proceeding to draw forth the piece already therein which he now hangs up to drain. Into the troughs is introduced, from time to time, a portion of soft soap, or black soap ; and the quantity is increased, and the milling repeated, for the better descrip- tion of cloths. In this latter case, quantities of fuller's earth supply the place of soap, and for broad cloths is considered indispensable to their stoutness and subsequent brilliancy. In this desirable respect much also depends upon the water employed, its impregnations from iron, chalybeate, saline, or sulphuric springs ; some of these imparting a rusty colour, to drabs in particular, and never allowing the ma- terial to take black deeper than corbeau : others cannot turn out blues brighter than marine, nor green of a true grass hue, but approaching the terra vert, and the emerald. After the process of fulling and dyeing, the dressed cloths are carried to the racks, erected in airy fields, by the Fuller, and then pricked on the tenter hooks and stretched to their utmost bearing, in width mostly, but likewise in length. This is considered as tucking, in the west of England. The sun exerts its power, and if rain come down while the pieces are on the racks, as often happens when the goods are wanted early in spring, the workmen go round and rap the face of the cloth with a yard measure or smooth stick, taking care to hit flat lest he unfortunately break a hole with the point. At times, the pieces are taken down in consequence of continued wet weather, and contrivances are resorted to for promoting their fitness for the next process — pressing. The fulling was formerly carried on quite distinct from any other branch of the woollen manufacture of piece goods ; the several choice manufacturers of west-country cloths, go through this important part of the labour on their own premises ; but whichever plan they adopt, the journeyman Fuller obtains good wages for the times in which we live ; though he suffers considerably for the want of constant and regular employment. They scarcely bring away more than 28s. per week in full work ! How different from the days of our youth, when we have seen the country folks on market-day, extremely loth to open their panniers until 8 o'clock struck, that " the blue apron men" might have fair play in the choice of delicacies for the table. The blue apron was then " the flag," or insignia of the tucker trade, to which a tie of scarlet listing seemed an indispensable addition. The capital of a Fuller would consist chiefly in the erection of his 258 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. mills ; unless he rent these of some former Fuller proprietor, or water company. Add to this, the outlay for wages, horse and cart, soap, earth, &c, during six months, with a three month's return, we should say a good stroke of business might be done with a 1500/. capital ; that is to say, supposing his plant is rented, and his discounts of bills received on settlement of accounts be not cramped. Apprentice fees paid by respectable parents, vary from 30/. to 60/. ; but certain journeymen of the higher grade take apprentices, their own sons and others. In the latter case a few pounds suffice, or none at all, in the present day. Besides the foregoing original and extensive mode of fulling, quite another, upon a small scale prevails, as to woollen caps — the sturdy opponents at one time of felt hats (see that article, farther on), and worsted stockings. This is performed with feet or hands, and a wooden machine or rack, armed with teeth of wood, or those of horses and bullocks. In this process soap, either green or mottled, and fuller's earth, are employed : the latter is chiefly used for stockings that are knit, as they are thereby rendered less liable to run, should a stitch happen to drop in the stockings. Hand-loom stockings receive no fuller's earth, and are therefore more supple and soft to the wearer; though not so strong, they have a finer face. FURRIER. As its name imports, this trade consists in preparing the skins or pelts of furred animals, and converting them into muffs and tippets, and the boa for ladies' necks ; also fur trimmings, furnished to tailors for gentlemen's winter clothes, ladies' habits, mountings for soldiers' caps and helmets ; and to the robe-maker, ermines for the state mantles of peers and peeresses. The chief trade lies in the first named articles, and those for military display, and are mostly made of natural colours or black-dyed skins : caps for boys, also, are got up with these latter low descriptions of fur, and for men who would look boyish ; others are got up cheaply for working men, or such as would imitate travellers from abroad. Beaver, either real or the imitative kinds just alluded to, have the greatest run ; the dyeing being effected by placing the skins face to face, after paying over the fur with dye stuff, and stamping on them with the feet a FURRIER. 257 considerable time. Other colours are mostly patterns, some of which are sewed in, and others are stained on, by a sort of block-printing process, on fair or colourless skins. Besides our own fur skins of every kind, taken in the winter months, the furrier purchases those of foreign countries, and those of our own settlements in Canada and Hudson's Bay ; the bare enumeration whereof is somewhat astonishing : these are, beaver, racoon, wolf, wolverene, bear, marten, otter, minx, cat, fox ; the total number whereof from the two countries just named, alone amounted to 350,000 a year, for many years in succession. In addition, they also dress the furred produce of warm countries, as the lion, tiger, hyaena, leopard, panther, jaguar, &c. ; many of which are ingeniously imitated by factitious impressions of colouring matter, by a process that is deemed a grand secret, but is merely the block patterns just alluded to. Some of them, as the bears' hides, are also converted into hammer-cloths for carriages, and holster caps for soldiers' pistols. Great quantities go to the hat-makers, including those which come home damaged. The great number of animals thus destroyed yearly, would seem to argue a defalcation in the supply at some future period : but then, we have Russia and the South-sea trade to rely upon for making good the deficiency that is so very likely to accrue ; whence the trade need not despair of drawing immense numbers, though at an advanced price, when our national sources fail. The Furrier's art is very ingenious. The even surface of muffs, for example, is greater than the animal could pride itself upon during life ; the skin being first cut up and assorted, all those pieces of a given length, or staple, are put together, and the face being turned downwards, the skin parts are brought to match, however shapeless. Expert sempstresses join them together, so that when turned up and dressed all in the same direction, the whole fur assumes an even and regular appearance, as if it had grown originally in that form. Sometimes, the Furrier' art is exhibited in rendering nature somewhat outre, by spotting the ground of any given colour with its opposite, by introducing small locks of white or black fur from other animals, at formal distances from each other. After these and other freaks of fancy have been indulged in at will, the lining and stuffing is performed without art, if not with great ease. Of Furriers who keep open shops we may say, that they comprise about one half the number in London ; and considering the im- 258 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. mensely large dead stock they constantly keep on tne shelves, together with the dull and lifeless state of the trade in summer, the Furrier requires 1000/., to make a beginning. For, although he may and can, with this aid, obtain long credit at the Companies' sales, yet he must give as much to haberdashers, milliners, and others ; and all this after he has worn out some months of his own accep- tances in manufacturing the articles, and this accompanied by a ready money outlay, both heavy and long continued. An apprentice's fee, to learn the whole mystery, is from 30/. to 50/. GARDENER. Like many other pursuits that have been described in the course of this publication, there are many gradations in the calling of a Gardener. Generally, this name would convey an idea of his trade who cultivates the choicer productions of the earth, in a circumscribed space; this would include the kitchen and flower-garden, the nur- sery, the fruit-orchard ; and what is called, in the neighbourhood of large towns, the Market Gardener, one who raises vegetables and the " foreign fruits" for sale in such towns. See our article, titled, Fruiterer and Greengrocer. That was an account of a merely buy-and-sell trade ; this should instruct the reader as to what he has to perform who cultivates the garden. It behoves him to make selections of the best seeds that are any where to be found, to look about him and to make inquiries for fresh sorts of every kind, from the lowly spinach and creeping strawberry, to the glowing peach, melting pear, and wine giving apple trees ; for excellence is as often attained, by introducing and cultivating some monster of the wilderness, as by sticking to old sorts, and suffering these to dwindle in-and-in their own ground, in hopes of vieing with the antique apricot, which boasts of more stone than flesh. He must learn the seasons that are best adapted to his particular situation, for sowing succession crops, and early sorts in warm borders, in conformity with the climate ; and these he must plant out, cover from frosts, and hoe assiduously, in order to carry first to market the primest productions of his grounds. In this way only can he hope to attain that celebrity as a Gardener which is ultimate profit ; and obtain at market those very high prices we often see. GARDENER. 259 with equal pleasure and surprise, quoted at Covent-garden as his well-earned remuneration for so much labour, care, and outlay, as is always risked in the production of them. See p. 241. In the selection of his fruit trees, it is incumbent upon him to be most circumspect ; he must study the habitudes of all, and attend to the grafting himself. His attention to the health of his garden must be unceasing, as must the extermination of insects, the turning down of weed-seeds ere they flower, and the preparation of a fine compost for dressing the tops of his beds ; we presume he has already renewed the fructifying powers of his tuber beds with a warm under dressing of stable dung, and ridged in at intervals, where necessary, some good spit dung. These, and a hundred other precautions, he will have to adopt with much assiduity and no small labour, forecast, and communication with other Gardeners at a distance, ere he can presume to hope for full success to his undertakings. In addition, we hear it said, with much truth, that an eligible situ- ation, with the choice of a proper soil, should be the leading objects of the Gardener's care ; as, on these fundamental principles his future success chiefly depends. The soil should consist of loose hazle earth, similar to that which is under the turf of rich pasture lands ; and at least, the depth of three spades : otherwise, low-rooted trees are the consequence, and these, with shrubs, plants, &c, will decay as soon as their roots have penetrated the too shallow surface, and thereby be prevented from flourishing. The manure generally used is horse and cow-dung mixed together ; but the dung of hogs is much better, and will go farther than either. The dung of sheep, pigeons, &c, being of a hot, light nature, is made use of for enriching cold, moist, heavy land ; whilst the dung of oxen or hogs, is proper to be applied to a light, dry soil. Tanners' bark, after it has been laid up and rotted, is good for cold, stiff lands, provided it is not placed too near to the roots of the trees and plants. &c. Malt dust is of great service, for improving and enriching barren ground; but the sweepings of the streets, or the cleansings of water courses, are much superior. The dung of fowls of any kind, should be kept in the open air some time before it is used ; it will then be beneficial to asparagus, strawberries, and various sorts of flowers. Covent-garden market is the principal in this metropolis for vege- tables, fruits, and flowers ; and a grand, and very interesting display of their different varieties may be seen in the highest perfection while in season. 260 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Apprentices are rarely taken by Gardeners, who mostly employ labouring men to perform the manuring, digging, &c. ; the sowing and planting, being generally done by the Gardener himself, or a leading workman. The wages of the workmen average from sixteen to twenty shillings per week ; the leading men half as much more ; a great deal of care being required of them, and much confidence reposed in their integrity. Some of these, too, who may be born of ordinary rural parentage, acquire a competent knowledge of the Lin- naean system of nature, as taught by Willdenow and Dr. Turton ; and deliver themselves to ladies and gentlemen promenaders, in good set Latin terms, of the various orders, genera, classification, and va- rieties of the plants undergoing inspection. They also mark the intro- duction of exotic shrubs and flowers ; speak familiarly of the Siberian, Australian, Chilian, and American novelties and varieties, and obtain substantial praises — in the shape of silver rewards. And this is trade. Furthermore, these men usually get promoted to the well paid service of some rich gentlefolks, among whom the maintenance of an excellent garden in all its splendour, is now a very usual and com- mendable fashion. Many of our London tradesmen — all, we believe, who can afford it, and have the proper taste, keep a Gardener and assistants ; and we must add our own testimony of the cheering fact, that we know three booksellers, our neighbours, who keep between them twenty work people in their suburban gardens. GAS FITTER. Improvements in lighting our streets and houses, have given birth to this elegant trade, which had no existence till within these last few years. That is to say, elegant as regards the articles furnished, and fitted up; in the accomplishment whereof, the oil, the grease, and consequent smudge, incur a good portion of uncleanness. The production of gas, and its application to other purposes than mere illumination, is altogether one of the wonders of this wonderful age. No one now is astonished at the inflammable matters contained in coal, being brought under subjection ; nor were we (of this pen) at all doubtful of the result of his endeavours, when Mr. Winsor first set afoot his speculation for forming gas-companies ; for the experi- ment was quite common to us when at school, Mty years ago, of GAS FITTER. 261 making a similar flame, upon a small scale, issue from the stem of a tobacco pipe. Small coal being pounded and crammed into the bowl, and this covered with clay, putty, or dough, was placed in the fire ; in the course of five minutes, the contents would give out its gas ; and this, issuing by the hole in the stem, upon being ignited, usually gave light for some half an hour or more, and is even now no unin- structive experiment for amusing the junior members of our family on cold winters' evenings. The inventor just named, had doubtless seen and practised this experiment in France, where their supply of coals is limited ; he offered his discovery to the Hamburghers, where they have still less of the prime material ; though both might have been induced to " stew " their fire-wood, in which similar gas resides ; but they could ill spare their favourite fuel for such a purpose Besides which, the gas so procured, was fully charged with an acetous acid, that affected the eyes of the beholders; and remained but a few years longer until it was converted to its proper use — the making of pyrolignous vinegar, principally by another Frenchman, named Monge. Oil, also gives out a gas that is delightfully brilliant, and less offensive than that from coal; the sublimation of the vapour from whale- oil dripping is obtained by semi-deflagration in a close vessel ; and on the evaporation of the gas therefrom through a tube, it is capable of being illuminated at the orifice, however distant that may be. The earliest and most simple contrivance of this sort, and consequently the rudest we find depicted in Vol. 2, of Mr. Badcock's Philosophical Recreations, 1816. It may be looked upon as the earliest attempt at obtaining gas from oil, and was at first adapted to none but domestic purposes. Since then, however, Hull, and some other towns in the north, are lighted entirely by oil-gas. Annexed is the representation of Mr. Badcock's portable oil-gas lamp, a. It is formed of cast iron 262 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. with a close flanged top, b> screwed or bolted down, c, and capable of being lighted at d. In the top is an orifice, tubed, and having a gas-pipe welded on at d, sufficiently long for its required purposes ; this may be from three to ten feet in length, when the boiler does not exceed half a gallon; and is supposed to be but a rough and diminutive representation of the more extensive fittings to gas works for towns. At the upper part of the boiler enters an iron pipe, e, descending midway into it, and having a valve at the lower orifice to prevent the escape thence of the ascending gas, when disengaged by the action of the fire below. The supply of oil is furnished to this tube by a funnel-shaped top,/, suffering it to drip slowly, yet capable of acceleration, when deemed requisite, into the boiler. The apparatus being placed over a moderate fire, and kept at a steady heat at the bottom of the boiler only, the operation is begun by discharging very email portions of oil constantly into the iron-pipe, e. The more gas that may be required, the more intense must be the heat to keep up the supply, taking care that this amount at no time to a red heat. In principle the same, the more extensive works, whether of oil or coal, with their miles of communication, upon entering our dwellings require some degree of neatness to be displayed in forming the burn- ers ; some elegant houses, shops, and places of public resort, demand that this be done with appropriate beauty and ingenuity ; this con- stitutes the Gas-fitter trade. Whether the gas be supplied by oil or coal works (the latter in London is universal), the proprietors are very properly heedful that no waste ensues to their property, by more being consumed upon any premises than is contracted for ; thus, there are burners of 4/., 5/., and 6/., per annum, and several of these on some occasions — many on others, as in places of public entertainment, churches, chapels, and the like. Therefore, it becomes the Fitter to ascertain before he begins, what supply pipe he will want to enter the building ; so that he brings in enough for all his expected purposes — and not such a superabundance as to injure the property of his friends, the gas- work proprietors. For they are, and must necessarily be his friends, in whom resides the power and the inclination to recommend him to much business ; some gas- work proprietors, indeed, will undertake to contract for the whole expenses of the first fitting up a customer's lights, and they then become the actual employers of the individual Fitter. After having fixed upon the proper position of his lamp, the Gas- GAS FITTER. 263 fitter conducts his supply-pipe to it with much subtlety, so that its course may not be recognised. Here, entering one branch, it descends to the burner or burners placed at the extremity, and the gas issuing out of numerous pin-hole perforations therein, at its circular orifice, they exhibit a large body of flame, apparently an inch or more in diameter. Its expansion to the full width of the circle of pin-holes, is kept up by a burner lamp-glass applied to the outside of the flame, so as to conduct the air up through the centre thereof. This was an old philosophical contrivance, called the Argand lamp, as applied to oil and wick burners. In fact, the principal endeavours of the Gas- fitter is, to make his work resemble that old mode of lighting, to which we had been familiar from our earliest days. His fittings therefore consist of bright brass tubes, connected by foliated dead- gilt work, curved, and finally voluted, in the highest style of finish. When finished, his work has a very imposing appearance ; and some elaborate works at the door-way of large taverns and public buildings excite admiration, and will bear looking at again and again, by the sober citizen and the unfrequent visitant from the suburbs. They thus form the main attraction to the first gaze of customers, whom it is desirable to entrap into a purchase of the wares within. Yet is the Gas-fitter's trade less profitable than heretofore, owing to the great numbers who have recently come into the business from the other branches of brass-workers. Almost every Gas-fitter is his own master, seldom employing their apprentices when out of their time : the earnings are very unequal, depending as they do upon the seasons when lights are most in requisition — namely, autumn and winter. We may state the average at 150/. per annum. Appren- tices are taken with premiums of 20/. to 30/., by the few topping masters who keep open shops. GROCER AND TEA-DEALER. Those shopkeepers who acquired the name of Grocers, are dealers in sugar, spices, plums, coffee, and tea. The Tea-dealer is seldom a separate trade, unless dealing at wholesale only, and is therefore classed here with the Grocer, to which the calling naturally belongs, and will do so as long as sugar is required with our morning repast 264 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and afternoon indulgence. How the Grocers came by thier appellation is not hard to guess — in the absence of direct information. We find them incorporated by this name, by Edward III. in 1345; when it was probably quite a new one, and therefore genteel for the age ; as we learn, that they had been hitherto described as pepperers, or dealers in spices. But as these exotics would be required in small quantities only at some antecedent time, the extension of their trade in proportion to the increase of population and of luxurious living combined, enabled the pepperers to deal more largely, or in gros (12 dozen being a gross), they therefore assumed to be Grocers. In France, the Grocer is still termed epicier, and very seldom marchand grossier. Whatever may have been the case in ancient times, the grocery business at present is one of very great extent ; witness the immense importation of sugar, tea, and spices, from our settlements abroad ; the great number of shops, all of which are doing extensive trade, and mostly realizing a good property, if not fortunes. The Grocers' Company is rich and respectable, as their Hall, near the west front of the Bank of England, fully attests. Formerly, the Grocer sold the articles in which he deals much in the same state as he bought them. Of late years, however, we find that he breaks or grinds his coarse sugars in a wooden mill ; he grinds to powder and mixes also a variety of warm spices, ready for the use of families and confectioners ; he also adapts his teas to the various tastes and pecuniary means of his customers, and by thus converting one set of substances into another, is in fact a part manufacturer. Journeymen in this trade, are either shopmen or clerks, and re- ceive annual wages, in some degree bearing upon the quantity of business done, or the quality of their customers. At the west end of town, shopmen obtain from 40/. to 60/. a year, with board ; in the city not so much, unless in the great thoroughfares, or the individual be left in trust of large property, or confidence is reposed in him for the management of some vital interests in the concern. The ap- prentice fee given by respectable persons to a topping Grocer varies from 40/. to 100/. Notwithstanding the trade is more laborious than at first sight may appear, and requires unceasing assiduity in the master and mistress, scarcely any is so certain of making large re- turns and fair remuneration. Much depends upon the choice of a good thoroughfare, in a populous neighbourhood. Not more than 400/. to 600/. is required for a tolerable beginning, especially if the shopkeeper can contrive to do a ready money business, which the GROCER AND TEA DEALER. 265 Grocer usually accomplishes, by taking a small profit, whilst buying his goods also with ready-money, or a very short credit. It is no uncommon thing for sugar to be retailed at a profit of half-a-crown the hundred weight for raw, and at a halfpenny per pound on the finest loaves : the intermediate lumps, or ill refined, afford a better account. This last is not only more profitable to the Grocer, but is also more economic in use, and therefore more advantageous to the consumer than the raw sugar, as it goes farther in sweetening. At least, such we observe is the practice upon a large scale among our •neighbours at Rotterdam, Helvoet, and perhaps all over the kingdom of the Netherlands. Tea is an article that, in this respect, added to a tolerable judg- ment in tasting and selecting, is most likely to pay the Grocer a handsome profit, because of its heavy price, and the runnings after which the vending of an admired article occasions. Astonishing as the consumption of tea now is, yet may it be considered but a modern luxury — though rendered by custom an almost indispensable neces- sary of life. Thirty-four millions of pounds per annum, paying an ad valorem duty double the importation value of the commodity, is altogether an astounding quantity for even such a people as this to consume — extensive and magnificent as is the empire of Britain at the moment when we write. But this state of the tea trade is not intended long to continue ; the Chancellor of the Exchequer having obtained an act for laying on a duty of 2$. \d. per pound on all teas whatever, without regard to their value, from the 1st of July, 1836. Thus, says a co temporary, " the indigent, the poor man, and the temperance people, who drink tea which wen t at the company's sales for something less than Is. fid. the pound, will pay a duty of 140 per cent., while the noble, the rich, and luxurious, whose tea at first hand would cost about 6s. per pound, pay a duty of 33 per cent, only" — vide Senex's Almanack, for 1836, page 72. A monstrous disproportion, which the same author tells us, he " urged upon the minister to avoid, by charging a minim duty on black teas, which are mostly drank by the poor, and double upon the greens, which are invariably drank by the better sort ;" and we can readily believe that his philanthropic hints might have been adopted with advantage to the community at large, and quite favourably to the government finances : for, almost every Grocer is daily witness to the fact, that people in the ordinary walks of life frequently buy fanciful articles at their shops, merely because they are dear and genteel. Not only N 266 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. is this the fashion with teas — of the green and nervous kinds (very unfit for the constitution of working people), but also as regards the preference of finest loaf-sugar before lump, of muscatels, before Valentia raisins, and so on all through the whole genera of spiceries. In those respect s, and others, the Tea-dealer of the present day has a difficult card to play ; first, owing to the fluctuations which such changes effect in the value of his stock, and in the opinions of his cus- tomers ; second, the influx of a very inferior species of teas, picked up at Whampoa, Singapore, and other unaccredited places, by the new free trade ships, which swarm the eastern seas, since the abrogation of the East India Company's right to trade in this almost indispensable article of life. A good deal of instruction may be derived from the fact, which we do not set down lightly, or without duly appreciating the source of our intelligence, that the higher quality teas at the great mart of Canton, in September, October, and November, 1834, were selling at depressed prices, whilst those of the inferior descrip- tions were up in price. What is the inference to be drawn from this statement? Why, shortly this, that an extensive mixture and adul- teration was going on in the country, which must embarrass and put to a nonplus the best tasters and selectors of teas among our brokers and dealers at home. Consumers in England are little aware of the price of teas at Canton, where they are mostly sold for silver, by weight ; though vast quantities of British goods are annually sold there per contra, which may give to the transactions somewhat the semblance of barter. Souchong teas of the very best quality, are there packed by the Hong merchants at about Sd. the pound, bohea, considerably lower ; whilst here and there a few choice samples — generally small packages, were bought at an advance by the com- pany's officers : these acquired the title of private trade teas at the great sales, and were frequently bought out of the hands of their proper owners, by the superior biddings of certain brokers of refined taste. GLASS-MAKER. Although the glass-blower, or he who manufactures the material into vessels, ornaments, &c. chiefly comes under notice in a casual visit to the glass-house, yet does the production of the material GLASS MAKER. 267 itself claim prior notice here. Its great importance, and the veil of secrecy with which the art of compounding glass was long enveloped, demand this priority ; whilst the former has augmented in no com- mon ratio, and the secret mystery of such a production by fire from any and every natural substance, is now known to the diligent in- quirer, as the last change that can be effected by this means: The principle of glass-making, as a trade, is no other than the vitrifica- tion of a fixed salt and sand by the action of fire ; while we know that straw submitted to the blow-pipe's power, is alone capable of being reduced to glass ; that from wheat straw being of a limpid, colourless kind, whereas barley straw is of a yellow, topaz colour. Bricks employed in our buildings, assume the nature of glass, nearly, when the heat is high ; every kiln containing a few, or more, which present the vitrified surface, at least. Hence we are brought to understand more intelligibly the passage in the Book of Exodus (chap. v. verse 10) regarding the allowance of straw to the Israelitish brickmakers ; namely, that it was introduced to the mass, to give the bricks su- perior hardness, upon being submitted to the action of fire. Moses, we may therefore be assured, knew the principle of making the brittle transparent substance now termed glass ; though not in such perfection as mankind subsequently attained; the improvements made from time to time being distinctly marked in the historic page. Of these, the vitrification of simple straw, just mentioned, is the most recent ; the blow-pipe itself being of very modern invention, somewhat about the last decade of the last century, by Bergman, the chemist. Furthermore, by the help of this little tube — which can be bought for a shilling, the flame of a candle or lamp may be pro- pelled on any substance, so as to produce the effect of the hottest furnace or most intense fire ; with this advantage, however, that the operator can walch the progress of decomposition. He may observe, rock crystal and quartz converted into transparent glass, at a heat below 2500 degrees ; whilst opal and flint become enamel, or opaque glass. Mr. Despretz tells us, that blue sapphire, talc, emerald, lapis-lazuli, are converted into glass of several hues ; whereas gold and diamonds are volatilized by the same heat. Augmenting the power by combining an oxygen and hydrogen light, the blow-pipe causes platina and brass-wire to burn with a green flame; copper melts without burning, but iron burns with a brilliant light. Making of glass was discovered more than once, each time by pure accident, as we are led to believe; each had, therefore, good n 2 263 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. claims to the honour of being a discoverer. The most distinct is that which attributes it to the stranding of a Phoenician vessel on the coast of the river Belus, laden with alkali, probably barilla, from the east coast of Spain. Pliny relates that the crew going ashore to dress their provisions, employed some lumps of their alkali lading to support their kettles. On removing these, portions of the sand underneath were found vitrified into fantastic shapes ; and these being taken to Tyre begat the usual train of inquiries — as to how the phenomenon was brought about. This induced the earlier glass manufacturers to send to the same coast for their sand. Spying through portions of lumps, to view the prisms of light, would natu- rally occupy the first possessors of the Syrian sample ; so that the magnifying powers of the convex lens became known at Rome in the first years of the Christian era : Seneca, who died for his phi- losophy, and despication of Nero, was well acquainted with the sub- ject. Archimedes had formed his celebrated sphere of the same material two hundred years before that epoch ; and two hundred years after it, we find glass defending the windows of a Greek church from the elements. In England, glass was first applied to such a purpose at Bishop's Wearmouth, in Durham, 674 ; but we have reason to doubt whether the French masons" possessed the art of making glass, notwithstanding they knew how to make the windows. In 1 180, mention is made of glazed windows as a great luxury brought from Italy to England. But it was not until 1557, that the manu- facturing of glasses took place in this country, at Crutched Fryers. Fine flint glass, equal to the Venetian, was first made in the Savoy- house, Strand; but glass plates were not made here until 1673, at Lambeth, under the auspices of the Duke of Buckingham. We were, however, long confessedly behind the foreigner in this as in many other departments of manufacturing industry ; a deficiency that was at length surmounted, after considerable delay and ex- pense, by Sir Robert Mansell, admiral of the Mediterranean fleet to James I., who granted him a patent for making and importing glass ; and never was patent better worked out to its proper end. This gentleman's glass house was then in Broad -street, but afterwards removed to Goodman's-field, to make room for the excise office. He sent the celebrated letter-writer, James Howel, Esq., to hire workmen (each of whom he titles signior) at Madrid, Alicant, Valentia, and other places in Spain. By these means, added to the indefatigable nature and genius of our countrymen, we reached as much perfection GLASS MAKER. 289 m the art of glass-making as our continental rivals. Owing, how- ever, to the impolitic heavy duties on glass, the public were deprived of the advantages we possess, of finding on our own shores the best materials, and turning them to account of the arts and sciences in which the use of glass is indispensable. At length, inquiry was set afoot (1833) into the policy of con- tinuing the heavy duties, which not only doubled and trebled their amount to the public — whereby every sixpence per pound duty became a charge of one shilling or one shilling and sixpence to the ultimate purchaser, but acted as a bar to competition ; for, it was found that the number of glass-houses in the united kingdom was only — of broad glass, 2 ; crown glass, 28 ; flint glass, 59 ; plate, 2 ; of bottle glass, 39 ; and that these were charged with duty in cwts. —broad, 5,304 ; crown, 103,902 ; flint, 75,771 ; plate, 12,270 ; bottle, 316,365, cwts., a quantity, though great in itself, yet nought considering the extent to which the trade might be carried, were the understood monopoly which now exists as to prices, broken down. The duty was reduced on flint-glass in 1835, to twopence per pound, " which we accept as a great boon conceded to our wants and wishes," says a cotemporary economist, *' as it enables the fair traders to compete with the numerous smugglers, who undersell them, with an inferior article :" vide Senex's Recreations, for 1836, p. 72; a very little annual work of much and multifarious import. Glass is formed by combining in a state of fusion fixed alkalies with silica, and the occasional addition of litharge (or, extract of lead), oxide of iron, or manganese. Flint glass is formed by fixed alkali, calcined flints, and the litharge, or the oxide of lead. Crown glass is made of the same fixed alkali and siliceous sand, with oxide of iron for a green tinge, or oxide of manganese for a purplish tinge. Bottle glass consists of lime fused with silica and alumina, with the iron and manganese. Of these, the most fusible is the flint glass, and the least fusible is the bottle glass. As before intimated, these ingredients may be varied, simplified, or mixed ; and are so altered in several instances — each maintaining his own to be the best pos- sible product ; whilst some trash has been turned out by certain makers, down to the time at which the duty was reduced, of no in- trinsic value — besides the drawback to be obtained upon exportation. Hereupon, the new act very properly provides, that no glass under the value of fivepence a pound, shall be entitled to the drawback. From other sources we learn, t\\dX flint glass is now made of 100 270 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sand, 6 red-lead, and 3 pearlash, with a little manganese to correct the colour. To this intelligence (which we very much respect) must be added calcined flints. Plate glass is made of 43 sand, 26 carbonate of soda, 4 of quicksilver, 2 nitre, and 25 broken glass ; whence 75 of glass is evolved, after process. Crown glass is made of kelp 110, sand 50. Bottle glass is formed of soap-boiler's waste and river sand ; or, of sand, lime, clay, and sea salt. But, as regards this last common sort, the inquiries just referred to, as set afoot by government, the astounding fact came out, that a Mr. E having discovered the means of giving to glass made of these very common ingredients a pale hue, so as to resemble the better sorts, the excise interdicted his manufacture, unless charged to the higher duty. Without attempting to penetrate the secret of the very ingenious chemist just named, we may be allowed to observe, that by the em- ployment of an oxide, tolerably strong, of arsenic and manganese, the desired transparency may be attained. And, before we quit the subject of ingredients proper to be used in glass making, we may observe, instructively, that the medical chemist too often finds his preparations turn to glass, contrary to his intentions, and much to his surprise. This only happens when heat is directed to be employed, and this is carried too high. Among the disappointments thus incurred, we may adduce that which attends the mixing a celebrated " fever powder," called Dr. Jameses. As the base of this nostrum consists of antimony y ordered to be calcined over a slow fire, with the addition of decomposed salt ; if the heat be raised too high, the whole be- comes to the operator a caput mortuum — it is, in effect, glass — brought about by the amalgam. It was thus the chemists of old imagined a philosopher's stone, with some approaches towards the making of gold, when they had only converted the red oxide of lead to an inert mass, inapplicable to any useful purpose. Whatever the materials used, they should be ridded of all ex- traneous matters, the sand washed clean, and picked free from its impurities. They are then conveyed to the furnace in pots made of tobacco-pipe clay, which perfectly resist the operation of the fire. The furnace in which the glass is fused, is built of a round form, and has several openings, one of which is large, to admit the supply of fuel : others are intended to receive the pots for keeping the glass in a state of fusion, while the workmen lade out the contents. But the prime business of the Glass-maker is, to see that the fusion has been carried to its full extent ; for which purpose unceasing atten- GLASS MAKE. 271 tion, and a high degree of heat is necessary, and this, also, is propor- tioned to the kind of ingredients. Some of them we have stated ; all, indeed, that are in ordinary use in this kingdom ; but our re- cently increased intercourse with the celestial empire of China, bring us acquainted with a curious vegetable glass, a silica, which the reader will observe is one of the bases of European glass. In Oc- tober, 1835, Mr. Gray, in the Philosophical Magazine, gives an account of specimens of coral, in his own collection, known to some of the English residents at Canton by the name of the Glass Plant. The details are so curious, that we cannot resist the pleasure of taking some notice of them. It appears to Mr. Gray to be most nearly related to Gorgonia, although it differs widely from that genus by its axis consisting, not of a single calcareous stem, but of a con- geries of almost innumerable siliceous filaments, slightly twisted together in the form of a rope. The crust, bearing the polypes, surrounds the mass of siliceous filaments, and a thin portion of it probably envelopes each of the component filaments of the rope, as it may be termed : the bark is of a leathery substance : its outer surface is sandy, &c. Towards the lower end of the stem the crust is discontinued, and this part is embedded in a species of sponge, which, however, is independent of the coral. This coral is peculiar as being the only body, the animal nature of which is undoubted, that is yet known to secrete silica or sand ; the spicula and axis of all other corals that have yet fallen under Mr. Gray's observations being purely calcareous. The best sand for glass making is found at Lynn, Norfolk, and near Maidstone, we are told ; there are also large quantities brought from the coasts of Devon and Cornwall. Indeed, we may repeat the fact, that every sand affords the means of making glass, that which gives out a shining spicula being the best. Flint, sandstone, granite, quartz, having all a specific gravity of 2*66, upon being reduced to the state of fine sand, offer the means of making excellent glass. Mica, felspar, and talc, already contain the elements of glass; and the first mentioned is found in such large plates as to be used for glazing windows in India and China. Blowing. — When the ingredients are completely fused, usually a labour of two or three days, a portion of the melted material is taken out at the end of a tube about two feet and a half long, which is dipped into the pot, and turned about until the workman finds ad- hering enough for his purpose. He then rolls it about on an iron plate, the better to unite the lump ; he then blows through the tube 272 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. until the lump at the extremity swells into a bubble, resembling a bladder : he now rolls it again on the smooth iron-plate, with the avowed intention of giving it a polish, or smoother surface, and blows again till the bubble is distended to very near the required size. If a bottle is to be formed, the melted mass at the end of the tube is put into a mould of its exact size, and the neck is brought outside,, turned over and cut off by the application of cold water. Some of these moulds are exceeding curious, are formed in two parts like forceps, and some have figures, or letters, sunk into the metal of which they are made, and these come off upon the bottles. All this species of work is termed round-blowing. If it be an open vessel-^- as a tumbler or drinking glass, the melted bubble is opened and widened with an iron tool ; after which, being again heated to pre- serve its ductility, it is whirled about by a circular motion, until it is distended to the required size. If a handle or foot be required,, these are formed separately,, and stuck on in the melted state. Table glass, is that commonly known as a window glass." It is formed in a similar manner to the round glass, but larger ; the opposite parts of the bubble receiving the blowing pipe of a second workman, and both together work it into an immense globe, by the same system of blowing, rolling, and heating. One of the workmen then dilates the mouth of the globe until it becomes a regular plani- sphere, and the table of glass is formed as we see it sent to the shops in crates. When it has been cooled on a copper-table sufficiently, the glass is returned to the annealing furnace, which is kept at a low heat, gradually dying away for twenty-four hours. Crown glass is the best of the window kind, that made at Ratcliffe-cross being called London-crown ; besides which there are the Bristol-crown ; the New- castle glass, which is the worst of any, but made in the greatest quantity, being speckled, greenish, streaked. Plate glass is the most valuable kind, being cast on plates of copper with an iron border, and made of great substance. All ex- crescences or bubbles that may occur are removed by passing a roller swiftly over the plate, after the specks have been removed. There are but two makers of plate glass in this kingdom, who main- tain the same prices, and do thereby leave an opening for the con- stant importation of the French manufacture, which excels the British. Colour is sometimes given to plate glass, the most common being a pink or purple tinge. This is imparted by the addition of man- GLASS-MAKER. 273 ganese in large quantity. Other oxides impart colours that may tie rendered more or less intense, according to the amount introduced, as well as by submitting the article to fusion a second time ; thus oxide of cobalt affords a green tinge ; of iron or copper, grass green ; of gold, red; alloyed gold, purple ; silver or antimony, yellow ; zinc and arsenic, is white. From what has been said of the art of blowing, it will be seen that glass is one of the most ductile bodies known ; so that exhibitions of glass-making specimens are almost always to be seen in some of our great thoroughfares. Here, they blow small articles for the visitors, and the art is shewn in a variety of fine works — as hair, garments, &c. If a thread of glass be drawn out, and fastened upon a reel, the whole that may be in the pot can be wound off ; and by cutting the threads of a certain length, a sort of feather is produced in the glass. These threads are capable of being drawn much finer than the finest cotton threads from Mr. Houldsworth's factory. Glass may be destroyed by strong fluoric acid ; by the same means pic- tures, words, and figures, are drawn permanently on this beautiful article of our manufactures. Its great and varied uses, besides those of defending our dwellings from the elements, for keeping our drink or passing these to our mouths, are many and valuable. It defends the liquors within from the action of lightning without ; it contributes , to make artificial electric shocks ; it enlarges our vision when simply concave and convex, and extends this a great way towards the dis- tant heavens, when the crown and flint sorts are combined ; and those enclosed in a tube, we term telescopes. Unfortunately for the manufacturers of this most useful article, a heavy impost acts like an incubus upon its extensive employment —a revenue of half a million being more than the exigencies of the state warrant the finance minister in giving up. A remission of two-thirds the duty on flint glass, leaving only about twopence per pound, during the session of 1835, has given the trade a fillip, and proves what might be achieved, could glass be made and sold free of any duty. Workmen obtain large wages, when they are at work, which is always during winter, but seldom in 6ummer ; clever persons who stick hard to it, obtaining from 3/. to 41. per week. But there are good numbers who moisten their lips too often, and thus render themselves unfit for producing the finer-wrought articles in the round glass department — which is the best. As soon as the duty K 3 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. was reduced, as aforesaid, we found several scores of men put on, who hitherto knew very little of blowing ; these, therefore, receive inferior wages per week — the others working by the piece. Boys who are apprenticed to learn the whole arcana of the art, were for- merly endowed with very high fees ; this, however, was at a time when the number of those who knew how to make the flint glass of prime quality, might not amount to a hundred throughout the king- dom. Now, on the contrary, that so many dabblers are to be found ; many gentlemen making glass, and blowing it, by way of entertaining experiment ; we think from 401. to 60/. quite enough to be given as an apprentice fee, to the most liberal part of the trade. Owing to the great sums which were required to pay the excise, the capital required to set up in the glass trade was enormous : it was accord- ingly accomplished by an association of two or three, in companies. If a beneficent administration could be induced to forego the impost altogether, a very pretty business might be entered upon with 1000/. — as things now stand, five times the amount is required. Glass-grinding and polishing is only a branch of plate-glass casting. When the plate-glass comes from the manufactory, it is scarcely transparent, presenting but a rough opaque surface. It is then ground with sand, and polished with emery, and putty formed of tin and lead, calcined. Some large consumers of plate glass, as the Messrs. Seddon, of Aldersgate-street, purchase their plates in the rough, and polish them upon their own premises : according to the quantity of labour bestowed will be the degree of brilliancy produced on the surface. Glass-cutting. — This is another branch of the glass trade in London, and is performed by grinding, on circular stones, fantastic devices on decanters, glasses, and the like, which greatly enhances the cost of those articles. It is a business of great labour, is easily learnt, for the execution of ordinary work, though some is executed of very high finish and costly price. GLAZIER. His business is to cut out table glass into squares or panes, and to fix these into wooden frames, termed sashes; which he performs by the aid of a small piece of diamond, fixed firmly in the point of GLAZIER. 275 a piece of wood, which cuts the glass into the shapes required. These, being secured with tin pegs to the groove or moulding in the sash, are further retained and rendered weather-tight by means of pulty — an adhesive matter, that is made by mixing and kneading together linseed oil and whitening; the action of the atmosphere, and principally of heat, soon renders putty as hard and impervious as the glass itself. Formerly, the Glaziers' art extended no farther than fixing his little panes of common glass in frames of lead, usually soldered to- gether lozenge wise ; a mode of defending our houses from the ele- ments that is now nearly extinct in large towns, unless in some churches, in green-houses, and the cottages of our peasantry. The melting of solder — a term of art, which is the shibboleth of the trade in London, naturally approximated the Glazier and the Plumber trades ; accordingly we find the two exercised by the same person, when neither is carried on upon the most extensive scale, and we as frequently meet with " Painter " added to the two others, but always on a minor scale. Employment is very precarious for journeymen in autumn and winter ; and the apprentice fee given with boys who aspire to no higher occupation, is merely nominal, or some 20/. to 30/. ; but the principal Glazier will expect from 40/. to 60/., with the sons of substantial parents, who look forward to doing a large scope of business. GOLD BEATER. The art of reducing masses of gold to such a film as to cover, at the rate of 1 grain to 7 square inches and give the appearance of solidity to the inferior metal, leather, wood, &c. underneath, is toler- ably well known in theory, but the minuter particulars very little Owing to the extreme scarcity of the precious metals, it was prac- tised at a very early period, and chiefly upon the interior of their buildings, by the Romans during the consular government ; after- wards, we find it decorating statues and the capitals of Corinthian pillars out of doors, and that this gold was much thicker than that used upon in-door work. Brazen horses, richly gilt, were found in the ruins of Herculaneum, early in the eighteenth century, which 276 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. had been set up there at a period antecedent to the Christian era, and are now to be seen in the Portici palace, near Naples. Gold leaf at present is made as thin as it can be extended, as may be inferred from its price — 100 leaves of 3j inch square or 30 feet run, being vended for 6s. If laid together, two hundred and forty-thousand leaves are said to measure an inch in thickness. Gold is exceedingly ductile when pure, and pale withal ; the alloy ren- dering it harder, in order to augment its brilliancy : the purest is termed green gold, in the trade ; the other and most admired, though less durable, is called yellow-gold. Whichever is to be worked, is first melted with some borax, and being cast in bars, is then forged, at a welding heat, into a long plate : after being rolled at the flat- ting-mill, to the thickness of paper, the leaves are cut out, of equal size and weight ; and afterwards annealed, by being submitted awhile to great heat, until the pieces become ductile, when the heat is gradually reduced to mere warmth, the whole operation occupying several hours. As much of the after soundness of the gold-leaf de- pends upon the judgment and care with which the annealing is con- ducted, a master-hand is required in the process. The leaves of gold, after being interleaved with vellum and beaten with a heavy hammer, are next placed between folded membraneous leaves, that open five inches square. Gold Beater's skin is the name given to that membrane, after it has been used by the workmen : it is found serviceable in defending scabious ulcerations from the action of a harsh atmosphere ; and as the preparation thereof is reckoned a secret, known to a few only, we shall proceed to describe the mode in which it may be prepared. The skin is gut of oxen ; and the last or rectum, being the only straight part, is alone employed. The gut is first soaked in water a day, and then washed in weak solution of lime, slit open, and both surfaces scraped smooth and cleared of the extraneous matters found thereon. It is then stretched on a frame-work, ten inches clear, lap- ping over and adhering, by the strength of its own gelatine, to the frame. Here the gut is suffered to dry gently until a& tight as a drum-head. The framed gut undergoes a dry brushing, and another damp one. When they are again dry and fit for use, the skins are cut out, and made up book fashion. After the leaves have been once beaten, and reach the extent of near four inches each, they are taken out of the vellum, cut into four parts, and replaced in the membrane just described. As the plates GOLD BKATER. 277 are originally 150 in number, they now count 600, and the mem- brane-book containing these, is thrust into a parchment case, open at both ends ; this being again covered with a similar case, drawn tight over the first, in a contrary direction. Hereby the escape of small particles of gold is prevented, and the work kept firmly in position, as the beating proceeds. When the gold extends to the edges of the skin-book r which the workman ascertains by the feel,, when he takes off the covering to loosen his work, as he does occa- sionally, the leaves are taken out, again divided into fours, and re- placed to undergo a third beating with a hammer, weighing ten pounds — the first two having been those of sixteen pounds and twelve pounds respectively. The beating is performed by the workman holding the short handle with his thumb uppermost ; the consequence is, that the levator muscles are remarkably protuberant in all those workmen, if the whole arm, and the deltoid integuments of the shoulder be not instructively developed in them. The state of at- mospheric exclusion, however, in which they deem it indispensable to work, occasions any thing but ruddy countenances. Machinery has been introduced to perform a part of this beating ; but is not supposed to work correctly enough to be extensively employed. When the gold-leaf, by dint of beating, again extends to the edges of the skin-leaves, they are taken out singly, and the jagged edges cut off by means of a two-cut instrument, made of sharpened cane, set at a guage of 3f inches, and called " small gold," in the trade ; whilst others are cut at inches ; and a third, called " large gold," 3f inches, when the work will square to this size. Much patching and mending of the leaves is found necessary, and some leaves come out shattered too much to admit of amendment. All these fragments, of course, are preserved for melting up again. The gold books, in which the goods are sent forth, hold twenty-five leaves each; they are formed of old printed books, well besmeared with bole armenic, to prevent adhesion. The trade of a Gold-beater has been a very brisk one of late years, owing to the increased taste for such an adornment, and the reduced charges of the workmen who are employed in applying it, with the greater facilities recently given to the modes of gilding. On entering into business, the young tradesman will have occasion for a capital proportioned to the business he lays himself out for, and the credit he will be constrained to give to those who use large quantities of gold-leaf, as the carver and gilder, coach-maker, bookbinder, house- 278 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. decorator or painter, leather-gilder, and the like ; for, if he depend upon the ready-money dealings of those minor tradesmen whose consumption is small, he will frequently stand still for want of orders. Yet must he begin upon a middling scale, with a sufficiency of cash to go to market for his gold, in the first instance, at the lowest prices : the Goldsmith-refinery to whom he may apply for his bars, will thus be fully assured of the trust- worthiness of his new customer, and in the event of an influx of business, he may confidently reckon upon all-sufficient aid from this quarter. About two-hundred pounds may suffice for a first attempt, but five or six times that sum will be re- quired for doing any thing like a stroke of business ; and even then the refiner must be requested to discount the bills of tradesmen, with which some of those above enumerated will pay their accounts, since they receive such from their employers. The apprentice-fee is not commonly a heavy one ; say from 20/. to 50/. for those who expect subsequently to work as journeymen, who earn from 2l. to 3/. per week. If the parents or guardians entertain higher notions of the ultimate station in life of their protogee, they will of course shew their liberality in this particular, as tending thereto in no ordinary degree. GOLDSMITH AND SILVERSMITH. Properly speaking, Goldsmith would signify only a worker in gold ; one who by his art brings the metal out of the mis-shapen lump into form and shape, producing patterns the most elegant and recondite, or plain and simple ; at other times ponderous and massy for the side board, or light and trivial, designed as ornaments for the person. This is correct, so far as it goes ; but by a conventional sort of language, the term is extended to the manufacturer of those silver articles, also, which are made to assume the same patterns as those of gold. What is more, when those silver goods are formed with the hammer like gold ones, as candlesticks, cups, salvers, ewers, basins, fruit dishes, and the like, the practice has long been, to gild them all over, so that they pass off, upon the unpractised eyes of common observers, for solid gold. Cream jugs, salt cellars, and a few other utensils, are only gilt partially on the inside; whilst the GOLDSMITH AND SILVERSMITH. 279 Church communion plate, the maces of beadles, and of state officers, are almost invariably made of silver, doubly gilt, all over. Doubt- less, he who works only in silver — is a Silversmith ; but when he would pass off his more elaborate works for gold, in the manner just described, then does he become in effect — a Goldsmith. The silver fork and spoon-maker is a genuine Silversmith, and so is he who cuts the beading on them. But machinery having superseded the hammer and tool work in many of these respects, by powerfully stamping out the beading patterns and impressions which were formerly executed by hand labour, very little is now done ; and the society of beaders no longer find occasion to cogitate on the interests of their craft, or pass resolutions about keeping up the prices. Several other branches of Silversmiths divide their trades into distinct species, as the watch- case maker ; and the silver planisher, who hammers out the bumps and bulbs that occur in various family utensils, planishing it all over so as to appear like new, though antique-fashioned. Some of these keep an immense quantity of table plate, which they let out to hire on great populous occasions. So early as 1363, an act of parliament required that " Goldsmiths' work of silver be of the legal standard," cap. vii. ; and the like attention to purity was enjoined to the Gold- smiths, by the 2d Henry VII. " that they get their silver work touched, in order to prove its fineness," a d. 1423. This test, by the touch, is performed, at the present day, and gives a ready proof of degrees of purity for most ordinary purposes : the method of touching is not generally known in the trade. Touch needles are small bars made of compound metals, the proportions whereof are accurately marked on each. By rubbing the article under examination, and two or more of the needles on a touchstone, close to each other, the different strokes thus made are compared together ; and, according to the resemblance in colour of the com- pound metal needles, or either of them, with the article under exami- nation, will be its fineness or otherwise, as the case may be. But the professed Goldsmith, who maintains an establishment of great magnitude, is the master-hand; he who undertakes to find the costly metals on which those workmen operate, is the trade with which we have now to deal. " Goldsmith and Jeweller," is the usual designation which they take and receive, as they are in fact, all of them dealing in jewellery, trinkets, pearls, rings, watches, and the like. But, as we shall in the sequel, return to the Working-jeweller and the Watch-maker, no more need be said of them in this place, 280 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. further than to observe, that although the Watchmaker is a com- pletely separate trade, not so the Jeweller, who works upon the jewels sent to him by the pre-eminent Goldsmith to manufacture, after having employed the Lapidary in cutting them. Not only does the Goldsmith deal in jewels, but also undertakes to set those of his customers ; pearls in large quantities, which enter into the compo- sition of every elaborate necklace, are bought by him with very long bills of exchange. Our Goldsmiths in town are reckoned among the first class of trades, if they be not also the very first of this class. We find them incorporated previous to 1327, when they were recognized as the sole money-changers of the realm ; that is to say, whenever the coin was found deteriorated in quality, or clipped in weight, they changed it for current coin, on receiving the difference : they acted similarly with the moneys of other realms, much of the Scotch King's (James I.) depreciated money finding its way into their melting pots. They also became recipients for the safe keeping the cash and valuables of others, who engaged in the subsequent wars at home, or travelled abroad upon their occasions. Hence, in the succeeding ages, they be- came bankers in effect, taking in money at a low interest, and lending it out at higher rates. Their trade increased under the impulses of the Elizabethan era ; and it received a new one by an improvidence of the second Stuart. Charles I. having forefended the Goldsmiths the practice of melting his depreciated coin, in 1627, much money belonging to merchants was sent to the royal mint for safe keeping ; but the same short-sighted monarch asserted himself to be Cambium Regis, broke faith with the public creditors, and spent those deposits in civil war, 1640. This threw back the business more determinately into the Goldsmiths' hands ; and thence originated the system of banking, nearly as practised at this day, though now divided into two distinct trades. Yet do the Goldsmiths and the Bank of England still transact one large branch of business alike, and upon precisely the same terms. This consists in the purchase of bullion, or foreign coin, brought home by the merchants who trade to countries where the precious metals are the national produce of the inhabitants' /Perilous research in the bowels of the earth. Silver bars are mostly made from Spanish dollars ; and these as well as gold, are brought to the proper English standard, and marked with the refiner's de- vice or initials, who has had the care of melting them. Some of these pass in other countries without further examination, like coined GOLDSMITH AND SILVERSMITH. 281 money ; and those of gold were the first issues of gold for paper, by Mr. Peel's Act, in 1820; the coined guinea being some years later m re-appearing. Every day has its standard price of the precious metals made known, and every tide brings home the foreign moneys, or the ingots and bars return again ; or, the former are soon reduced to one or the other form at the refiners' melting-houses, the principal of which is that of Messrs. Brown and Co., in Wood-street, where, indeed,, all the refining business for the Bank of England is performed. Gold bars are cast of several sizes, of an oblong square ; ingots are brick- shaped nearly, with one broadside a little contracted, for convenience of packing, and invariably weigh the value of 700 guineas each, at the Bank. This branch of the Goldsmith trade is termed refining, though the workman does not in fact refine, but reduces or alloys the fineness of the gold (mostly Spanish and Portuguese) to the English standard, which is a low one. Some Goldsmiths, who are money- changers, do not melt all their foreign coin, but reserve the same for sale to those who are about to visit foreign parts, where the coin of those countries may be required of them. Out of those massive lumps, or others of more convenient size, the working smith, whether in gold or in silver, forms his work, in certain cases, after they have undergone the action of the flatting-mill. They are then cut out in squares or other shapes, in some accordance with the intended article to be manufactured. In this state they re- ceive, from a powerful machine, in general, some portion of the pattern embossed, as may be considered necessary, the hammer and punches being finally employed in giving to them the required designs. These are always tasty, and sometimes original, as in the case of a racing eup, for example, whereon some ingenious workmen draw and hammer out devices of horse-racing", with appropriate back grounds, that would not disgrace the pencil of a Ward. On this point, why should we disguise the name of Knight, as he among the workmen who gave us much delight at the happy boldness of his designs, and astonished us more with the rapidity of execution, and the effect produced ? The bowl of this kind of utensil, or trophy, is first formed by bringing the rims together, and joining them with silver solder and the aid of a blow-pipe ; the figures are then finally Irought up and finished, the ground is polished, and the cup is then solden to its stem or pedestal. Before the final polish is put on the goods, they are sent to Goldsmiths' Hall to undergo examination, and 282 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. to receive the Hall marks indicating that they have passed the test, and the duty is charged : if not found sufficiently fine, the articles are broken and returned. The charge of manufacturing such an article as that above faintly described, is usually the exact value of the silver by weight, seldom more : for spoons and similar articles the charge of making the most tasty is about half the value of the weight of silver : between these two extremes there are several gra- dations of charge, according to the difficulty of execution, and style of performance. Like a good number of other signs of the times in which we live, the taste for massive services of plate, and the means of gratifying it, so far from declining in consequence of the asserted badness of these times, is rather upon the increase — decidedly so since the termination of the revolutionary French war in 1815, which was a season of depression with all these workers in the precious metals. Not unfrequently, orders for services of plate, amounting to 2000 ounces, are received and finished within so short a space as to surprise casual inquirers. Many such orders reach us from foreign courts, as occasion presents, and have been known to amount to five times that weight ; one of these, in a state of completion, intended for the Queen of Portugal, having been carried off from the manufacturers' premises in Ave Maria lane, and causing much dismay to the city police, about thirty-six years ago. Every ambassador to foreign courts receives from our government an outfit of plate, &c. to a good amount, the better to maintain the dignity of the first empire on earth : these usually amount to 2000/., or much more. Large sums are required for a commencement in the trade of a Goldsmith, so that he may purchase his precious metals with ready cash, or with the addition of simple interest in case of a large order coming in, or of a sudden influx of trade: the refiner then makes ad- vances of his metal for the manufacture, charging, therefore, according to circumstances and mode of repayment. Not less than 3000/., thence to 6000/., are required to carry on trade, and execute an order of magnitude, even when he may have acquired the confidence of his brother tradesmen by the only proper means, namely, a due exhibition of his property, and proofs of his trustworthiness, to some man of long standing in one or other of the branches in which he deals. However he may manage to get into credit, it is quite clear that this will be especially necessary to him at one time or other, provided his business expands beyond his ready money capital; GOLDSMITH AND SILVERSMITH. 2s3 when he will discover that good credit, well maintained, has no bounds, and his acceptances pass like bank notes, and for bank notes, to any amount; whereas, his money capital, if he be without such an aid, is circumscribed within its exact extent; and then, any sudden at- tempt to break through his old rule of doing business, is regarded with suspicion by some, and doubts by all. The apprentice-fee is usually about 200/. with a young gentleman, to the most liberal part of the profession ; but workmen manufacturers take boys with one- tenth, or a fifth of that premium, where these are expected to work close, and long hours. Such journeymen earn 40$. to 3/. per week ; those who have attained great proficiency, more than double as much when in full employment. The Goldsmiths' company are very rich ; their new Hall, in Foster-lane, a palace. Mourning ring makers are in effect working Goldsmiths, employed by the Goldsmith proper. They are a branch distinct from every other, thirty-four in number, and no more in the metropolis. Work comes to these from all parts of the realm for execution. GROUNDER AND GIRDLER. Under the latter name, in the city of London, a company exists of some antiquity, and no little importance in war time. The making of belts or girdles, of sufficient strength, materials and workmanship to sustain the sword and cartouche- box, to sling the musket and at- tach the knapsack, must always prove highly essential to the soldier. To effect this desirable end, the Grounder's business is to deprive the flesh-side of skins of their redundancy, so that nought remains but the ground or strength; whilst the Girdler cuts them up of proper lengths for going over the shoulders, or around the waists of the soldiery, some of these being preserved and worked of the natural colour, as buff or white, and soft, whilst others are stained black, are hard and shining. One of our regiments, the 8th, received the name of Buffs, and " Old Buffs," from the circumstance of this colour being given to their belts, in a superla tive manner ; if it were not taken, also, as the insignia of the anti-Jacobite party in this country, who wore " blue and buff;" which is a livery of several of our Whig families at the present day, nor was it relinquished by some of them when they changed sides. Of successful Girdlers we may adduce the 2«4 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. happy example of Sir James Esdaile, and his partner Hamet, after- wards Sir Benjamin, who made princely fortunes in the large premises at the corner of Chiswell-streetand Bunhill-row, and were succeeded by Messrs. Law and Co. The number of persons exercising these trades is far from nume- rous, though each employ a good number of hands ; the Grounders being chiefly in Tooley- street, where, indeed, most of those who work in the skin trade always reside. Another large shop of Grounders is to be seen at the back of St. Giles's church, abutting upon Soho- square. These workmen work by the piece, and are very much in request at times, as they also prepare the buckskin and doe for gloves and breeches; but those of them whom we approached, boasted too much of their carousals, which accounts, in good measure, why they forget to " take care for a rainy dayP A complaint that is so general, we lament much, has not been counteracted by coercion ; unless we agree to consider that a punishment, and a very appro- priate one, which consists in the periodical pinching of the organs of digestion. An apprentice-fee of 20/. or 30/. is expected to this latter branch ; and a sum of 300/. will enable an industrious, well- taught man to set up in trade. TheGirdler stands somewhat higher in all respects ; and if he join in a contract for the supply of govern- ment, a much larger sum must be raised for the occasion. GUN-MAKER. Bv the word gun, the musket or hand-gun is meant to be described. It was an invention consequent upon the discovery of gun-powder, and invention of artillery, or the great gun, about 1 330. The musket is mentioned not until 1521. The application of the gun-lock was not known until the time of Cromwell, the match having been used In the preceding war between that redoubted general and King Charles ; even the bows and arrows of our troops were still an arm of warfare in the year 1640. Fowling-pieces of various calibre and length, others of immense size for wild duck and swan shooting, as well as pistols, come within the consideration of the trade of gun* making. Nor must we omit entirely due notice of the bayonet, a fit adjunct of the warlike musket, and its proper substitute, after the exhaustion of the soldiers' supply of ammunition. These were GUN-MAKER. 285 originally large knives, stuck into the girdle, and subsequently affixed to the ends of long pikes, with u hich the mariners of Bayonne (1300 — 1400) were wont to resist the ntrusion of pirates aboard their rich merchant vessels, then the largest in the world of com- merce. Their removal thence to the ends of muskets was an obvious improvement, which we owe to Francis I. of France — that country, to whose boasted troops they proved so signally disastrous in the hands of Britons, from the day of Dettingen to that of Barossa. The trade of gun-making is divided into several branches, and each branch is subdivided among several classes of workmen. The Gun-forger requires large premises, large fires, and several distinct gangs of operatives ; for, whilst to one set is reserved the production of the barrel in the rough, another prepares the breech, and a third party forge the pieces which are to constitute the future lock. When the barrels are turned out to the borers, the business of these, as their appellation signifies, is to render the bore smooth, even, straight, and uniform ; to give to fowling-pieces the bell mouth, more or less expanded, that the shot may spread destruction among the feathered race. On the length of the barrel depends the distance to which the shot may be propelled ; its force and precision being regulated by the due adaptation of the chamber to the barrel, 'point blank and range, denoting, first, the distance at which line-musketry is said to do execution (60 yards) ; the latter verging some degrees on chance, or the yager's aim, at which, so his instructors tell him, he ought to kill for certain, viz. 120 yards ! When the barrel and breech are properly formed within, they are welded together, the touch-hole perfected, and filing or rough polishing is commenced. This kind of reduction is performed by machinery, and must not be carried so far as to reduce the thickness below a certain standard for military use, which are required to with- stand heavy charges, and constant, repeated firing : the nicety with which the respective weights are preserved for each description of service, is surprising. But the manner of making the barrels must be described. Each requires a piece of iron, drawn out flat, about two feet in length, according to the size of the intended instrument. This oblong piece of metal, by repeated heating and hammering on a small cylindrical anvil, or mandril, assumes a hollow form ; the edges of which being brought by the hammer to a lap over, are welded together upon the anvil, a few inches at a time. Much nicety is required in this part of tiae operation, that the barrel may withstand 286 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the strong trials to which it is subsequently subjected : the work is. seized from the fire on the instant it acquires the white or welding- heat, and the hammer is passed up and down the heat, with gentle rapidity, the better to accomplish the purpose intended, effectually and neatly. Sometimes the barrel is forged in two or three separate pieces, and the tubes welded together at the ends, the heaviest being placed at the breech ; but, whichever mode is adopted, the whole presents a level continuous surface, as even as if cast in a mould. Another fancied improvement is the twisted barrel, which is effected by placing the heated tube in a vice, and applying to the end a square iron with a cross handle; the whole is thus twisted into a spiral form. All the several portions and fibres being hereby brought round in support of each other — including the welded joint, is sup- posed, by connoisseurs, to give a greater strength, and to produce a sweeter piece in actual use than the common barrel. Pistol barrels, inasmuch as they invariably go in pairs, are made by two at a time, and afterwards cut asunder at the muzzle, when ready for breeching. This operation is performed by the breechers welding the two parts together, after regulating the chamber or hollow thereof, as mentioned above, the length, the bore, and the chamber having a scientific coadaptation to each other, the muzzle being cut off in conformity hereto. The boring has been already effected, by placing the simple barrel in a strong oak bench, with a tenon let into a groove running the whole length of the two beams that form the bench. A crank is got up in front of the muzzle, whilst the breech is made fast by an iron slider and screw. The boring bit, having two cutting edges, is then turned into the barrel, which is pressed forward by a heavy wheel, until the bit is found, by admeasurement, to have cut its way to a proper depth. This first bit being but a small one, others of larger dimensions are then applied in succession, till the required calibre is attained. Polishing is the next process to which the gun-barrel is subjected, and was formerly carried to the highest pitch of brightness ; a custom that has passed away within our recollection, to the great comfort of the soldier, the sportsman, and all who engage in dealing destruction round by means of this fearful instrument. The piece is now bronzed, or browned, rather. After being filed smooth, it is polished with the smooth iron, then with oil and emery, or iron ore, until it presents a smooth surface to the eye and touch. In order to produce the browning, the piece is rubbed all over with diluted vitriolic acid, GUN-MAKER. 287 which produces a coat of rust ; this being rubbed off and oil applied, the colour remains, and it is then rubbed dry and polished by means of bees-wax on a stiff brush. Some barrels are striated by the workman employing part nitrous acid, which contains gas, and is slightly wiped on in stripes, and after it has bit the metal, the weaker acid is applied over the whole surface. Proving the barrels is evidently an indispensable precaution; the principal part of them being made at Birmingham, where their proof is not conducted upon the most accurate principles, whilst in London, the Whitechapel Company, incorporated by royal charter for proving arms, proceed in this momentous matter with equal in- tegrity and skill. Those barrels which are furnished to government to be used in war, are proved in the same manner, under the in- spection of an officer, called the proof -master : this is called " Tower proof," and the pieces so approved of and passed receive the Tower mark. It consists in loading each barrel with a ball of its own size upon as much powder as the ball weighs. The proving is carried on at early dawn, in certain suburban grounds, prepared for receiving the shot, and well calculated for obviating accidents. One trial is deemed sufficient proof for passing ; and it falls within our sphere to know, that of late years, the pieces are got up with the requisite fidelity to government orders. Rifle-barrels are those made with furrows the whole length of the bore ; whilst the breech, instead of being welded on, is screwed into the barrel, after the charge has been deposited in the former. By this contrivance, the bullet makes its escape with less freedom, when fired, is steadied in its passage out, and is, therefore, sent with surer aim to the destined object. Bullets that have been furrowed in their exit, as these invariably are, also inflict more aggravated wounds on the victims of a sanguinary warfare, than those of the ordinary fusillade of the rank and file soldiery ; therefore it is, that the bearer of a rifle gun in the field of battle seldom receives mercy when he is overtaken in his solitary career, lying perdue behind some tree, or bush, or projecting land, as he is wont. He effects his murderous aim more securely, by long practice at the sights ; which are t wo small projections from the upper surface of the barrel, one on the muzzle, termed the back sight, the other six inches forward, having a notch in the middle. When the eye can bring the back sight in a line with the front sight, and both bear upon the object, its fate is no longer doubtful. 288 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Gun-locks, ever since their invention, have been a subject of much solicitude with marksmen, with governments, and the makers, who long vied with each other for the superiority; and we heard of D. Egg's, of T. Mortimer's, and of Jack Manton's make formerly, with as much reverence as they deserved. But simplicity of construction appears most desirable for every-day use ; the tender springs going off inadvertently in careless hands, or under uncommon circum- stances, sometimes to the loss of life by the bearers, or their com- panions. The hair spring is still more tender, and scarcely bears a touch from unpractised hands. The ordinary lock in use consists of divers parts, put together on the side of the gun, and retained by several screws to the gun-stock. These parts are, 1st, the cock that holds the flint; 2d, the pan, to hold the priming, which is con- nected with the touch-hole, where the charge is communicated with ; 3d, the hammer, which opens and shuts with a spring upon the powder, against which the flint strikes ; 4th, the trigger, which acts by way of laver to the hammer, and keeps it to a stiff half-cock, or brings it to a full cock ready for letting off on the least pull at the fulcrum. Parts of the lock and springs are scribed in to the butt of the gun-stock : the stocks are made of walnut-tree, its being that wood which is least liable to warp in any season or clime. So great was the demand for this wood towards the latter end of the revo- lutionary war, that the produce of walnuts was visibly decreased, so that we have recourse to our neighbours of the continent for supplies of this veritable luxury. Gun-maker, as a term, would be most properly applied to those who take the barrels just bronzed, and the locks, in unconnected parts, from the smiths proper, and place them upon the stocks, which are prepared by another set of hands ; whilst those who form the barrels and bore them, describe themselves correctly as Gun- smiths. The Gun-maker in London, who makes but a few pieces a year, of costly materials and gaudy inlays, seldom makes any ordinary barrels himself, but buys these from the Birmingham smiths ; when he will prove and polish, and make and mark them for his own town-made goods, or rather as being such as he himself would make, and guarantee the performance of, according to the price paid. Prices, indeed, vary greatly, even where appearances may be similar, and ordinary judges scarce discern the difference; a good fowling-piece of 50*. value being not unlike another that is sold at 10/ GUN-MAKER. 289 The journeyman Gun-srnith, in the country, earns not more than the generality of workers in iron, varying from 26s. to 36s. per week; whilst those who make them up, or fit the parts together for use, and are properly Gun-makers, can get from 35s. to 42s. weekly. In London, the same workmen, good hands in full work, seldom fall below 40s. and a few obtain near 3/. a week. In London, the ap- prentice fee to a principal maker is considerable, and has no bounds with those who have obtained patents, or a great name — like those mentioned in the last page ; that is to say, provided the young man's connexions and prospects in life give hopes that he will become a master, and open a shop and forges on his own account. In this event he will require not more than 500/. for a commencement, as he will not be expected to give any credit. HABERDASHER AND HOSIER. Each of those trades merge in the other, occasionally ; the Haber- dasher of small wares, as he is denoted, necessarily dealing in stock- ings or hose ; whilst our Hosiers seldom confine their dealings to the wares which clothe our legs, as their name would imply. These are the shopkeepers of the stocking -trade weaver, of whom they pur- chase the article, and sell by retail to the public. Scarcely any more notice is required for the Hosier ; but the Haberdasher trade is one of great importance and antiquity, having been incorporated in 1451, under the denomination of Hurrers and Haberdashers ; afterwards they acquired the distinctive appellation of Haberdashers and Mil- ainers, the latter being derived from Milan, in Italy, the capital city of the people who gave the fashion to the head-dress and coiffure, now termed millinery. The Haberdasher deals in all sorts of clothing, and materials for making them up ; though the tailor has effectually taken the clothing of the men out of his hands, since the fashion of tight fitting began to prevail. In his shop are to be found every requisite for ladies' dresses, of the most exquisite kinds — leaving the more ordinary, and barely useful, to other hands. Here are also to be purchased dress trinkets, and whatever may please the taste, or set off the female form, in silks, laces, brocades, velvets, ribbons, fashionable attire, scents 290 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and paints, spangles and all sorts of devices to adorn the court-going lady, or in displaying her person in the ball-room, at the concert, or on the wedding day. Many Haberdashers and Milliners entertain work- women, who study the fashions, and reduce the piece goods into the required forms, and in some cases, administer to the due affixing of the dresses on the persons of their fair customers, on high occasions. These women are termed " dressers," and supersede the attendance of the hair-dresser, formerly so indispensable, by placing a wig of false hair on the head of the votary of fashion ; unless the lady may have failed to crop her own natural ringlets, and then these are simply thrown in a careless manner over the forehead, ears, and shoulders. Large fortunes have been saved by tradesmen of this calling, some within the writer's own knowledge. The possessions of the company of Haberdashers are numerous, and produce a large income ; and one of them, a mild and beneficent Christian, named John Aske, endowed a school for boys, and an asylum for aged men of this company, at Hoxton, in Shoreditch parish, which is now standing, with his effigies in front — a lasting monument of the soundness of his head and the goodness of his heart. Of all the numerous articles to be found at the Haberdasher's — and some are said to sell u everything," pins and needles ought to raise in us a few reflections on the relative importance of one of the smallest instruments ever brought into use by mankind. The manufacture of them was afterwards divided into the needle-maker and the pin-maker, which we purpose to describe hereafter. Pre- vious to the 15th century pins were unheard of; they are casually mentioned in a prohibitory statute of 1483, and in 1543 were the subject of a long series of legal enactments, to so much purpose that in three years after we find that pins were made, headed, shanked, pointed, and coloured in the same manner as in the present day. The sale of these little articles by the Haberdasher is immense. As the Haberdasher must purchase much of his stock with ready money, and some of his goods lie heavy from season to season, he will require a larger capital compared to his returns than some other t rades with equal show ; but then, he may limit the number of articles in which he may choose to deal, when he must also avoid giving credit to a large extent. He cannot do much with less than 400/., though double is required for beginning business on a tolerable scale, unless he buy his silks, flannels, laces, ribbons, tambours, &c. at credit, which is ruinous. Apprentices to extensive dealers give from 25/. to 50/. fee. 291 HATTER. England may be considered the country of hats, in several points of view. Almost every man possesses a hat proper, which is not the case in any. other country of the world : we make them of a better form, finer, costlier, and more stately (adding considerably to the appearance and height of the wearer) than other countries, including France : we also manufacture the article for every foreign market, our immense colonies taking vast numbers, and even in the American States, the English make obtains a decided preference. The shape, or fashion of the hat, underwent various modifications ere it assumed the present round or oval shape ; the cocked hat, which prevailed for about a century after the revolution, only now ob- taining a place at court, and courtly parties, as matter of etiquette. Previously thereto, the felt-hat of the parliamentarians was a slouch that of the cavalier party was more erect, or buttoned up on one side, surmounted with a feather, for militar}' purposes. The first hat (rightly so called) was of this kind, and was worn by Charles VII., king of France, on occasion of his taking possession of Nor- mandy, in 1449. In England, it was the subject of an Act of Parliament, in 1482 (22 Edw. IV. cap. 5), along with caps and bonnets, but appears still, from the tenor of the Statute, to have been made of sheep's wool only. The price of hats was regulated by another statute, seven years after, by which " no Hatter or capper shall sell any hat of the best above the price of 206?. nor any cap of the best above 2s. Sd. under a penalty of 20s. (4 Hen. VII. chap. 8.) By this it would appear, that the gentry wore the cap of richer ma- terials than the hat was then made of, namely, silk, and gold tassel ; indeed, we have reason for believing, that the new fashion was intro- duced by foreigners, against whose innovation an Act of 2 Elizabeth being found insufficient, another was framed and passed in the 13th of her reign (1571), which shews that the narrow principles which then regulated trade, manufactures, and commerce, were of a piece with those by which her domineering majesty ruled her Parliament, her generals, her statesmen, her relatives, and her lovers. By this law it was enacted, that " Every person above seven years old, should wear on Sundays and holidays a cap of wool, knit, made, thicked, o 2 292 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. and dressed in England, or forfeit for every day's neglect 3*. Ad? chap. 19. Yet did the hat, from its greater durability and graceful- ness, as well as being well calculated for keeping off cold, wet, and the sun's rays, make its way into general use ; so much so, that in the year 1638, a royal order prohibited the " importation of any hats or caps made of beaver, or the making of such by any but freemen of the company of hat-makers, " to whom the king (Charles I.) had lately granted a charter of incorporation." And the prohibition has been further confirmed by subsequent Statutes in more settled times. Women are understood to have worn the woollen cap at one period, with a flap or cape behind, and to have modified the material and shape in every possible manner that an exuberant fancy, accompanied by fastidious taste, could devise. At times they have returned to the oval beaver hat, changing the colour at will ; and, at this moment, our horse-women, on road or fieW, find this the best form and material adapted to these health-giving exercises. In ail . ages and countries some covering or other for the head has been found indispensable, as seem best suited to the climate and seasons ; the hot folded turban, in the scorching countries of the East, being extremely injudicious, as causing the cranium to soften, and the capacity of the head to contract. So much was this found to be the ease, that certain ancients, in exploring the field of a battle fought between Greeks and Persians, two centuries preceding, could dis- cern the nation to which any skull belonged by its substance and durability. In our East India possessions, the hat, or military " cap," is so vitally necessary, that any one uncovering out of doors at noon, is struck dead by the sun's rays — the misfortune thus incurred being termed " Coup de soleiV* Caps of every varied material are still worn by our workmen and children, as well as occasionally by a few persons of better condition who may have visited the cap- wearing countries of the continent, and there admired every deformity of fashion and mode of action ; but no decent person can be tolerated here in good company, if he come to a feast, or the public meeting, or the Royal Exchange, so disfigured. Those who may be in such cir- cumstances as to be debarred from a good hat, and those who wear the cap incessantly, seem distinctly marked out as the less fortunate part of the population of any country; and the country itself as the least prosperous, where the proportion of caps to hats is greatest. In Sweden, nearly two centuries ago, a servile war broke out, the HATTER. 293 partizans of the court and nobles being termed " the Hats," those of the lower orders " the caps." Anciently, slaves wore neither, as is inferred from Dr. Kennett's Antiquities; for, upon granting freedom to those unfortunates who had been born in thraldom, a cap was given to each, and the manumission was completed by shaking hands : hence it was we learn, that a cap became the symbol of liberty. Hat also obtained the name of castor, the Latin for a beaver ; of whose fur the surface of hats is made, as well as that of many other animals ; that from the back being preferred, and of those killed in winter the largest quantity is obtained. Felt hats are the same, and acquired this name from the manner in which the material, or body of the hat, is united without weaving. Some of these are not covered with any beaver or other fur, and are then considered as merely felt hats. Our soldiers were furnished with such when the army wore none but cocked hats ; and they were then formed of great substance, to resist sword cuts and other harm. Besides the coats of almost every furred animal, hats are made of lambs' wool, dogs' hair (for carmen), seal wool, monkey stuff, camels' hair, goats' hair, and cotton. These are worked separately ; and, as it is found necessary that the fibres should be minutely divided, each article undergoes a process, more or less tedious of accomplishment, termed bowing, from the resemblance the principal instrument bears to the bow of violin players. Most people know the form of this instrument, but the Hatter's bow is triple its length, and, instead of hair, is furnished with a string made of spun sheep's gut, tightly strained, and passing over a bridge near each end, where the gut is fastened. The work- man holds in his right hand the bow-pin, a short stick with a knot in it, with which to vibrate incontinently the string of his bow, when he is bowing : he works at a hurdle, or thin boarded bench, with several longitudinal chinks to suffer the dust and dirt to pass through, as he separates these from the fur. Some hurdles are made of plaited wire, and are most esteemed for clearing the work, but liable to go out of repair. He is also provided with a basket of square wicker work, linen cloths and brown paper, all which are requisite to his operations. The workman begins by shovelling the material to the right hand of the hurdle, which has a boarded rim ; and holding the bow, its whole length, at the left extremity of the heap, he twangs the string with his pin, and its vibration causes the fur, &c. to ascend in the air and 294 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. fly towards the left of the hurdle, alighting on paper in an even manner, *aymg the filaments in all directions. With some materials, this operation requires repetition, until the clots are all reduced, and the whole batt lies in an even homogeneous manner. A batt is quan- tity sufficient for making half the thickness of one hat. This he now presses down all over with the basket ; which is termed hardening, and is, in reality, the first process of felting. The batt is next placed between cloth, and pressed with the flat hand and the basket in all directions on both sides, until the filaments connect with each other as closely, and more minutely, than woven cloth. The felt thus prepared is next to be brought into a hollow conical shape. This is accomplished, by placing on the batt a sheet of paper with two of its corners folded down, so as to meet and form a point ; then, turning up over it two sides of the batt until they meet, and are joined at the edges by intermixing the jagged projecting filaments, and platting the junction with the hands. Hereupon, another batt of the same conical shape is drawn over the first, the outer one being the most approved of the two. The adhesion of the two batts is completed by the subsequent working ; and when the outer batt is consider- ably finer than the inner one, the retailer terms it a " plated hat." Sometimes the coarse batt is considerably shorter than the finer one, scarcely descending to the edge or brim. Whichever mode is adopted, the felt in this state is moulded with the hands a considerable time on the hurdle, the cloth on the outside being repeatedly wetted to ensure its flexibility, whilst the paper which remains within the cone prevents the inside from felting to- gether, as would otherwise inevitably happen. Basoning follows next in the making of the coarser kind of hat ; the bason being a piece of cast iron, or mixed metal, on which the felt is drawn ; the joinings are made good and smoothed by means a little more forcible than merely platting them with the hands. Working the felts is then effectually performed in a wet state, at an erection they term a battery, nearly cauldron shaped, of iron at bottom, and boarded to the top, with a wide flange. Several men work the felts together at the same battery, constantly dipping them into the almost boiling liquid below. The component parts of this liquid differ greatly, according to the materials worked in it ; some manufacturers em- ploying only weak sulphuric acid, to facilitate the felting and contraction in size, both which it is well calculated to effect ; others use beer grounds, wine lees, or chamber lye. This part of the pro- HATTER. 295 cess is also found to bring forward any imperfections, as knots or extraneous substances, which the workman picks out with a bodkin, and adds more fur on such parts as suffer in thickness by this kind of subtraction. The goodness of the hat depends greatly on this part of the workman's operations ; for, if not moulded sufficiently, or in a slovenly manner, the felting is incomplete, small ridges may be detected on passing the fingers along the surface, and it admits the rain, besides going out of shape at any rough treatment it may receive. Similar defects may be detected when the process has been hastened improperly, by the addition of sulphuric acid (i. e. oil of vitriol) in too large quantities ; as is done when the makers would get up a merely cheap article, and thus raise the nap prematurely : oatmeal is cast into the liquid as soon as this effect has been pro- duced ; but, although the acid is thus killed, its destructive property has already done its evil work. At this period, beaver for the nap is laid on upon the whole outer surface of the yet conical hat, and upon the upper face of the edge or brim, which is now turned up of the required width, to suit the fashion in vogue, or " according to order." At top, the point of the cone is re-turned inwards, and outwards again at the centre, until it becomes flattish, with circular wavy ridges. This the workman now turns up on the plank of his battery, all soaking with hot liquid, soft and plastic ; he proceeds to reduce the inequalities of the top by turning it round briskly, platting down, and stretching out the point of the cone. Blocking, which succeeds next in order, effec- tually completes this part of the workman's intentions, after the hat has been drawn tight over the block ; when the whole is turned round rapidly to expedite the formation of the crown, and to produce that beautiful junction of the crown and sides, so much admired by the wearer. Being still upon the block, a string is passed round the hat, and forced down tight, until it reaches the brim, which be- comes puckered by the operation ; however, these inequalities are also reduced by rubbing down, platting and pulling out the edges, in which the assistance of a copper instrument, called a stamper, is found available : clean water only is employed in this part of the process. The nap is now raised by means of a carding instrument ; more beaver is applied where required, and the hat having assumed nearly its proper form in the grey, is now to be dyed. To this end it is submitted awhile to a mordant, produced by boiling hcematoxyli lignum (logwood) in water; and afterwards immersed in the dyeing 296 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. vessels, charged with a saline solution of such very great strength* as frequently to injure the nap, and, indeed, the whole fabric. So much for the most injudicious, though the most general practice, in the manufacture of hats. This saline solution is made of blue vitriol and green copperas, with a small portion of agaric of the oak, or oak bark. Stiffening succeeds, and is effected by means of liquid glue, ap- plied to the inside of the hat, hot and thin. Previously, however, beer grounds are passed all over the inner surface, to prevent the glue from penetrating to the outer surface, and thus injuring the nap and finishing. Besides which, the grounds not only add to the stiffening and colour of the goods, but the admirable gloss also, when dry, while resisting the escape of the glue. Substitutes may be found for both these materials, by following the practice of the Flemish and French makers, who employ a solution of gum instead of glue, and the lees of wine for those of beer. The under surface of the brim is then stiffened, after placing the crown in a case called a stiffener ; in this state the whole is lowered into a circular hole, so that the brim rests on the board all round, which opens to receive the crown of the hat, bodily. Finishing denotes, that the "stuff hat" we have been describing, though still a deformity, is nearly ready for sale, and for wear. Being first exposed to the softening properties of steam, the hat is drawn upon a block, to which it is tied round with cord, as before, at the junction of the brim, and in this state undergoes a variety of dressing, that consists in brushing and ironing the still moist hat with a heavy hot iron, which at the same time stiffens the hat, raises a gloss, brings out the nap, and increases the colour. In the course of this part of his work, the maker cuts round the brim, by means of a sharp knife, after brushing back the beaver nap, that it may afterwards come well out to the edge. Lining and binding is subsequently the business of females ; and, we are forward to confess, is well performed, the remuneration being adequate to all the moderate wants of an indus- trious and somewhat respectable set of workwomen. They work by the piece, in general ; and, we hear, obtain from 9s. to 13s. per week, in proportion to cleverness and activity. Those stuff hats are worn of various colours — as black, white, and drab, for men and boys, and fetch not less than a guinea each, in ready money, for the best. When intended not to be black, the naps put on partake of the nature of the colour; when rabbits' fur is HATTER. 297 put upon the whites, the fur of hares and other coloured animals upon the drab hats. Women's stuff hats do not receive so much working and stiffening as men's, children's less than either. Light- ness, pliability, and resistance of the penetrating rains of our climate, are deemed all-desirable qualities in our head coverings. Hat-makers, so called, who keep shops, differ greatly in their occupations from those who are the real makers or manufacturers ; the former keeping shop in some well-frequented thoroughfare, the latter living in roomy premises, less obvious to strangers, whilst maintaining an immense establishment, each employing a large capital, and incurring a great outlay in the first instance. He cannot com- mence making on a tolerable scale with less capital than 1000/., though three times that sum is evidently engaged in many manu- factories under our eye — in the borough of South wark particularly. The shopkeeper Hatter, who is generally one that has worked at the actual making, more or less, might begin business in a tolerably good thoroughfare with 200/. ; or three times that sum if he proposes to give credit to great people for indefinite periods, whilst he himself usually makes his purchases at certain limited terms of credit. Journeymen manufacturers of beaver hats get wages by the piece, or quantity they turn out, which varies greatly according to the demand and the season of the year. Finishers consider 50$. or 3/. a week very good trade, but they could accomplish much more if employment were full : those who take the hat in its first stages, can seldom make up a Saturday-night's account above 40s. Be- sides this, the business is naturally one which requires much drink, and this should be of the diluent kinds ; but the strongest is usually preferred. Silk hats consist of a nap-woven fabric, glued on upon the worn out bodies of beaver, or else a shape made of paper, and are vended exceedingly cheap, compared to the rival beaver, which they success- fully imitate. The making of this kind has been lately adopted by the original beaver hat manufacturers ; but the wages obtained by the workmen are deplorably low, on the generality of goods — seldom above 20*. to 25$. per week. The Hatters were an incorporate body, like every other art and mystery in London, for the regulation of their trade, and the due and faithful performance of the same ; a mode of governing our manufacturers, which was rendered necessary in the early periods of English history, to prevent the intrusion of slovenly workmen, and o 3 298 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, to encourage apprenticeships to expert masters. Such a rule of governance, however, no longer applies ; wherefore these, with all other municipal corporations, are about to undergo abrogation, the first act of Parliament for that purpose having become law about the time this sheet goes to press ; so that we shall find no further occasion to notice the circumstance of incorporation hereafter in the case of other trades, which may have once been so incorporated in former times. IRON FOUNDER. Iron foundering has of late years become a trade of considerable importance, in consequence of the immense consumption of cast-iron in the fabrication of railroads, bridges, millwrights' work, &c, which the improvements in and about London fully demonstrate. For small useful articles, cast-iron is almost invariably introduced, and in most instances with success ; from the methods now used for annealing, and producing almost any temper that may be required. The num- ber of foundries in London at the present day, compared with those of thirty years back, will be a convincing proof of the great utility of this most useful metal. The sand used by Founders is of a soft yellowish nature, which being frequently worked becomes quite black by the use of charcoal dust, which it is necessary to powder or strew over the internal part of the moulds previous to pouring on the liquid metal. The flask in which the mould is formed, is made either of iron or wood, in depths, or layers, fitted together with sockets and pins ; so that they can be turned over or lifted apart, as often as is requisite. The pattern being inserted in the lower half of the flask, is rammed closely with sand ; when the upper half is placed over, and rammed with sand also : after which, the pattern is withdrawn, the mould cleared of all accidental breakings of angles, &c. and dusted over, when the metal is ready to be poured. Besides these, there are castings in loam, which consist of curved pipes, and other circular formed patterns, which cannot in the usual way be moulded in sand. The pouring has frequently been attended with very fatal accidents, from wet or foul air getting into the empty moulds, when kept long IRON FOUNDER. 299 standing ; in such case the fusible metal will fly or blow up, re- sembling innumerable small brilliant sparks, like stars, and severely burn the men upon whom they happen to fall : and it will so con* tinue to fuse while there is any metal left in the mould. Accidents of this kind have happened in large castings, when the roof of the foundry has been blown off, and several of the men killed. Founders are excluded from benefit societies, in consequence of the dangerous nature of the trade ; in lieu thereof, they have established a fund amongst themselves, to which, whilst at work, they subscribe, and receive a stipulated sum weekly, in case of accident, or sickness, which they call a trade club. The journeymen obtain 36s. per week ; and the premium for an apprentice would be from 20/. to 30/. IRONMONGER. As the name imports, the monger is he who is engaged in buying and selling iron goods, with certain others of copper, brass, and sometimes tin ware. These are understood to be " Furnishing Iron- mongers," and " Hardwaremen," among whom the vending of do- mestic utensils, furniture, implements, tools, and ornamental articles, is a main object of trade; they also take orders for executing particular articles and contrivances in all those metals, and employ the manufacturers in each kind. They also keep up an active cor- respondence with the Birmingham, Sheffield, and Carron iron-workers and founders, and their agents in town, as well as for the more fan- ciful and ornamental small wares of the two former, with those of Warrington, &c, as well as the more humble shoe-nail manufacturers of the incomparable Helper. Of the importance of the trade in articles made of this most ser- viceable of metals and its concomitants, scarcely any thing more need be said, further than to state, that its amount equals that of the boasted staple commodities of the realm ; that its application and employment in every possible manner to aid the arts of life, that contribute to the convenience of mankind, is unbounded ; its ductility, endurance, malleability, and salutar}' properties, universally acknowledged ; and that, nearly the whole quantity converted to the use of civilised man in three quarters of the known world, undergoes 300 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. its processes in the united kingdom of Britain. How much happier should we feel, in concluding this rapid sketch, if the love of truth did not compel us to acknowledge, that vast quantities are also made for the express purpose of enabling our fellow men to destroy each other, in the form of muskets, cannon, bullets, bombs, and the like. Some of these are produced by the hammer {see Gun-maker, p. 284), others from the foundry and very brittle (see p. 298), but capable of being subjected to the effects of hammering, by only submitting the articles to a low blue heat. In this manner is this metal con- vertible and reconvertible to several purposes, until its final disap- pearance from the earth ; in every state bearing the same character of being the lightest and hardest metal yet known, except tin. The fact is worth notice, that the properties of British iron were so little known two centuries ago, that King Charles I. announced by procla- mation, in 1630, that it was as good as any of the foreign produc- tions for making tools. At present, " shear steel" is reckoned the fittest for this purpose. Notwithstanding all this, and the evidence thereof daily passing before our eyes, yet is the full employment of iron as we now see it, but of comparatively modern adoption. We ourselves recollect the importations from the Baltic increasing yearly, until they reached their maximum of a million pounds sterling per annum ; we recollect the first fires lighted at Merthyr Tydvil, a place now of sufficient import- ance to send a member to parliament, and producing enough iron to supplant nearly the whole importation from Sweden, whither we un- derstand we have actually sent some manufactured material. More- over, our ancestors knew so little the true interests of the state and nation as to forefend the smelting of iron ore, other than near the banks of the Thames and Wandle, where the Romans had formed establishments, lest the works might exhaust the woods. So little knowledge had they of the power of pit coals, so late as the reign of Elizabeth, though they were sold below 5s. the chaldron. The Iron Masters in the large districts meet quarterly to settle prices — at Birmingham, Dudley, Stourbridge, Walsall, and Wolver- hampton — viz. Jan. 5, April 5, July 5, and Oct. 5. Journeymen Ironmongers, are either clerks or porters ; the former receiving salaries of 60/. to 100/. per annum, with board and lodging; but varying according to the magnitude of the concern, in both re- spects ; even the humblest among the latter usually rendering himself so useful by his ready knowledge of the immense variety of articles IRONMONGER. kept in the warehouse, that such men are not to be readily replaced by an every-day application for employment. Apprentices' fees vary between 50/. and 100/., though we hear of one case much higher, which effected no ultimate good, however, and might have been spared, with profit. For a beginning in trade, no certain sum can be named, as this will be regulated according to the number of arti- cles in which the individual proposes to deal : thus, he may circum- scribe his prospects to those of prime necessity, and manage with four or five hundred pounds, and add to the number upon credit, re- lying upon his activity to answer the bills that will be drawn upon him ; but, if he desires to serve builders and others, who take long credit, he will stand in need of so much more as this may amount to : in this case, as in all others, if the new Ironmonger succeed to an established business, he must obtain from his predecessor's repre- sentatives a very long time for paying so much of the valuation as exceeds the capital he may himself command. JEWELLER. Like those in many other trades, the operatives in this art diverge off into other collateral branches; he who is employed in setting precious stones, and reducing them from their rough to a more bril- liant state, in bracelets, brooches, necklaces, &c, often working upon rings, scent-boxes, and other small trinkets in gold and silver. These all equally take the name of Jewellers. We have seen, when treating of the Goldsmith's trade (page 280), that those great shopkeepers deal in this article, and take the name of Jewellers also, employing journeymen or sub-masters in this branch, some of whom are merely lapidaries, or cutters and polishers of diamonds. One of the most celebrated Goldsmiths of modern times, Mr. D. Jefferies, published a work on Diamonds, with tables of their relative value; a book which the young Jeweller of respectability should consult, as to many ingenious statements and deductions which it contains. We may also add, instructively to the rising generation, that this gen- tleman and his partners were ruinously involved in trade debts, by the inconsiderate extravagance of the Prince of Wales, their best customer. 302 THE COMPLETE BOOK OP TRADES. The admiration of brilliant, and therefore precious stones, is coeval with earliest record. The Israelitish historian, speaking of those which adorned the breastplate of his brother Aaron ; and in Egypt they were so plentiful as to be introduced into the drinking cups of the last voluptuary monarch of that country. Cleopatra is even said to have conciliated the Roman general, by pledging him in a solution of pearls ; an assertion we are willing to credit as a denotation of effeminacy, but could never conceive in what manner a mere antacid is to be made agreeable to the palate, even in the celebrated Diagari tun of My reps, for such a fop as Marc Anthony. Jewel is the generic name applied to all precious stones, of which the diamond takes the lead in general estimation, and was anciently termed adamant, meaning hard. These, as well as pearls, are sold by carat weight, of four grains each. JefFeries supposes the value of diamonds of the small sizes usually found, to be settled at a medium of 2/. per carat ; then, to find the value of those of larger dimensions, he directs us to multiply the square of the weight by 2, and the product is the value required. How the value increases by such a mode of reckoning, is by no means astonishing to those who are in the habit of trying the amount of figures in an ascending ratio ; and when we add the further information, that we have here spoken of diamonds in the rough only, those which are cut and polished being double in value, a sum of 5,000/. or 10,000/. for a diamond of 20 or 30 carats may not appear extraordinary. By this mode of compu- tation the assigned value of those of any tolerable size — a hen's egg, for example* will reach some hundred thousand pounds. One of these, named " the Pigot diamond," from the unhappy gentleman who obtained it in India, at the estimated price of a prime race-horse, was disposed of in England by way of lottery — no man rich enough being sufficiently bold to purchase the gaudy oriental, during a lapse of fifty years. Its cuttings are asserted to have brought 10,000/. These small particles, being set in wood, are employed in cutting glass — see Glazier, p. 275 : the dust produced by the same operation is again employed in making farther cuttings, and in finally polishing the bauble itself. In Portugal, the royal incumbent of the throne, rejoiceth in a diamond weighing 1680 carats, or 12oz., valued according to Jefferies's tables, at 220 millions sterling : worthy of remark is the fact, that during half a century its possessors have been mad, foolish, or females ; and that these are every where recognised as the natural allies of this country — happy England, where jewels abound JEWELLER. 303 Id England we first read of such an extravagance in Madox's ac- count of the Exchequer, an issue of 143/. " Jewels for the Queen's M'tie, viz., 11 rich garlands with emeralds, pearls, sapphires, and gr'nites (garnets) " a sum equal to 455/. of our money. It was not for many centuries thereafter we find other names applied to such- like precious stones; which by their extreme hardness were found susceptible of high polish. These were amethysts, rubies, &c. ; and of later years we read of an inferior sort of Brazil diamonds, also Cornish diamonds, and cairmjorm, or Scotch diamonds. So late as 1638, Charles I. was thought guilty of a most wanton piece of extravagance, in making the purchase of " a pendant diamond, cut faucet- wise, weighing 21 carats, for 8000/." Jt was sarcastically said, afterwards, that the King never paid the bond which he had given to Sir Paul Pindar for his precious commodity. But, let us mark the improvements that took place in the commerce of diamonds in the small space of one century. In 1732, an act of Parliament, 6 Geo. II. cap. vii. states that England, more particularly London, being now become the great mart for diamonds, this act allows the free importation of precious jewels in the rough, duty free. From the same authority we deduce the fact, that they were sent hither to undergo the skilful operations of our workmen. These had been mostly French emigrants — driven hither by the revocation of the Edict of Nantz, in 1685; whereby, not only this, but many other ingenious arts were transferred from that priest-ridden country to this. The Jewellers from France took up their residence mostly in Clerkenwell, extending to the new parish of St. Luke's, St. Giles, Cripplegate, to Soho and St. Martin's-le-Grand. In the year 1734, there was a glut of diamonds in the trade, Portugal having imported no less than three millions, thirty-six octaves, and five quintals. Even now, the descendants of those French emigrants are our prin- cipal workmen ; but we had recently to witness a display of an im- proved taste in the manufacture of small gold articles, by those other emigrants from Spain who have been driven from their homes by another infatuated, short-sighted, and ungrateful monarch, Ferdi- nand VII. To our perception, the tools employed by the working Jeweller, have the appearance of a very ancient contrivance. He sits at a board, to which a skin or skins of leather are fastened, hanging loose on his lap, to catch the filings and small pieces of the precious metals, which would otherwise fall on the ground. Even with this contri- S04 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. yance the sweepings of the floor are periodically found replete with valuable dust, that undergoes a washing from the filth, and is recon- vertible into bits of the precious metals. His tools are numerous, for the various kinds of work, consisting of files of several kinds, drills, and a drill-bow of very rude make ; a hammer, pliers, crucibles. Some Jewellers are employed only in cutting the precious stones, and these acquire the name of Lapidaries (from lapis, a stone) ; others have been termed wire-drawers, from the quantity of gold- wire required by them ; but we learn, that only in very large shops is any one man kept to either of those branches alone. The em- ployment of the blow-pipe for fixing the jewels, is also the work of one particular hand ; and as it is an instrument of modern introduc- tion, greatly facilitates the operation, and requires much nicety in its application, it is considered somewhat of a secret : it was spoken of page 267, is the easiest and simplest contrivance ever invented, and the means of employing it in many ingenious experiments, may be learnt by consulting a little book, emphatically entitled v The Blow Pipe." Besides the board at which the workman is in the habit of sitting, he has another — the drawing bench, where he draws out his wire to any degree of fineness that may be required, which is sometimes as fine as hair. For this purpose, a portable flatting-mill is set up against the bench, consisting of two iron rollers, that work against each other by means of a single winch. The flatting, or drawing, in London, is usually performed, partly at a public mill, driven by horse power. The wire, which is to be drawn finer and finer, is wound upon a bobbin ; and running off* by a narrow slit or ketch, through a conical hole in a piece of iron that is directed to any given width of the rollers, at length comes away, by repetition, of the size re- quired. Whatever the wire may retain of an undesirable flatness, is amended by its being again wound off on another bobbin, fixed to one of the iron rollers, and running rather stiff. At his board, the Jeweller requires, for finishing his work, besides the fore-mentioned tools, certain gravers, knife tools, scrapers, spit-stickers, brass stamps, straining weights, ring sizes, spring tongues, crucibles, boiling-pans, piercing-saws, shears, &c. Some of these tools are strictly applicable to single branches of the trade; and among them is the watch-jeweller, who sets the jewels in the works of the better sort of chronometers, and drills the holes in which the axes of certain wheels are destined to act. JEWELLER. 305 Working Jewellers mostly carry on business on their own account, having the very costly material of large orders intrusted to their safe keeping and execution, in whole or in part, certain men being more adroit than others in some given department. These earn from three to five guineas a week, where their connexions with the " Gold- smith and Jeweller" of the shops, before spoken of (p. 279) is tolerably extensive, and their own particular excellency is pretty well recognised. Those working masters sometimes give employ- ment to journeymen, who earn as much as themselves, nearly ; with others, not so clever, who work at some 25s. to 35s. a week. Unless in very depressed times, the trade is a tolerably brisk one, and whatever may be earned is well paid for, compared to some other fancy trades. An apprentice may be placed out, with views more or less expanded towards the foregoing scale, with a sum varying from 25/. to 60/. : he ought to have some taste, much steadiness and application to business, and keep aloof from the many insidious seductions by which he is sure to be surrounded. LACE-MAKER. We meet with several articles made in this country termed lace, as gold-lace, the furniture-lace, spoken of at p. 251, and the sort called pointy which women work over the fingers ; but the actual makers of thread-lace, which is here contemplated, are invariably women, or girls working in a sort of schools, whither they are sent to learn the art. Not only these, but the men and their wives who direct such establishments, have the cognomen " Lace-maker," ap- plied to their trade or calling : but, if any males be really occupied handling the bobbins, or tambour-needle, as we hear, all good men ought to lament the misapplication of the masculine powers to so truly feminine an employment, and should call aloud for a reform of manners in this respect. Two sorts of Lace maker come now to be considered, as forming distinct and separate trades ; these are, first, the Bone Lace-maker, known also as French lace and blonde, Mecklin or Brussels, and more humbly pillotv-lace, so called from the pillow (rolled up tight) at which the women work : second, we have the British Lace-maker, that is to say, tambour, Nottingham lace or 306 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. bobbinet. This latter, and some of the first, it was long the fashion to wear without any pattern worked on the net, as it prevails now in France, among the middling classes : with us it obtained the name of quilling, and was, at one period, crimped or puckered for frills. In whatever way lace may be worn, it contributes to set off vastly the natural charms of our fair countrywomen; but we think differently when it adorns ladies who either wear artificial colour, or whose des- tiny has thrown them into existence under the torrid zone ; when we observe, the features appear as if cast into relief, amid the exceeding white foliage of the surrounding fabric. First, as to bone-lace, which is made on the cushion or pillow. This was invented by the Germans, and soon superseded the existing taste for the Italian or point lace above alluded to, which was a pro- duction of the convents, mostly ; thence the art travelled into France, and upon the persecution of the Protestants there, they brought it into England. Some of them settled in Devonshire, where it long maintained the name of Honiton lace, or Exmouth lace, from the places of manufacture, and where it still flourishes, as well as in Buckinghamshire. In tms county, particularly at Newport Pagnel, the greatest quantity is produced; the women sitting at their cottage doors, with the well-recognized cushion on their laps, and the bobbins hanging thereon, shew the close and busy interest they take in the progress of their work. Very fine white linen-thread is the material mostly in vogue with them ; but it is also made of coloured or black silk and thread, and cotton is sometimes introduced. Those threads are wound round the heads of bobbins made of bone, or hard wood ; and being fastened to the first row of pins that are thrust into the cushion, they are then successively twisted over each other, and round other pins, so disposed as to work out the most enviable patterns. The places of these pins are already denoted by holes punctured in slips of paper or parchment, the drawing of which appears to constitute the chief claim to admiration ; though the execution thereof faithfully displays a considerable share of ingenuity. As often as the work- woman reaches the bottom of her pattern, it is loosened, and she recommences at its uppermost part, repeating the same until a suf- ficient length is accomplished. The value of the work rises in pro- portion to the time occupied in the performance, which again depends upon the width and complexity of the pattern. In this manner, a fine piece of work is often turned out many hundred-fold more costly than the value of the material employed, and so great as to astonish LACE-MAKER. 007 the less reflective observer. Remuneration to the actual workwomen, however, is extremely inadequate, in all ordinary cases ; and it is only when one succeeds in excelling her companions, in her style of twisting the bobbins, so as to effect the eyes or openings which con- stitutes the beauty of the lace — that she can afford to live comfort- ably. There are a good number of dealers in the article who reside in the lace districts, who principally purchase it when made, and dispose of the same to the London Lacemen and Haberdashers ; and who require a capital of some two or three hundred pounds, in order to commence operations — vending their stocks at regular intervals in town, mostly for ready money, or to applicants on the spot. Secondly, we have the manufacturer of British lace. This is either made by hand, while the net is stretched on a frame — whence it is named tambour ; or in a machine, almost peculiar to the town of Nottingham, whence its name is derived ; but this also receives its finish in a long frame, from the hands of the needle- woman. Tambour work, as implied, consists in stretching out the plain bobbinet on a large square frame ; and is accomplished by the worker dragging the thread, with a hook, through the meshes of the bobbinet, so as' to form various fanciful and grotesque patterns ; in which* by the way,, a very clumsy taste is usually displayed, that serves but to set off, by comparison, the delicate touches (if we may be allowed to borrow from the painters' art) of the pillow-lace people. The tambourer, however, works incomparably faster than the rival tradespeople, and sells at very mediocre prices the imitative lace ; besides which, these attach to the edges of their lace a kind of finish, in imitation of the point edging, which is a production of the Nottingham loom, and is termed pearl. Our tambourer also executes larger works than laces, but bearing the same character; some of them stupendous dresses for ladies, likewise mantellas, simple collars, caps, and the more extended veil and pelerine. All these, nearly, are done in cotton- thread, white ; though a few are wrought in black, and fewer still in colours, of silk. Some young ladies are apprenticed to the tambour working, for two or three years, and usually pay from 10/. to 20/. for complete instruction in the art; though a much shorter time, and a less fee might suffice to form an accomplished hand at it. But very many give only their labour, gratis, for a certain period ; whereby they find themselves proficient in only one or two branches of the art, and have to make further progress towards perfection, self-taught, 308 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. LADIES' DRESS-MAKER Undoubtedly, the female part of our families claim our tenderest care, and we seek to teach some of them how they may choose the ready means of obtaining a future competency, or assist their hus- bands in providing for their own offspring, should such happiness await them. The Mantua-maker is similar to the Dress-maker, save the gen- tility of the term, and that the former implies a garment that nearly fits the body — as they wore their gowns in that far-famed fortified city of Italy in former times — when England fetched all her fashions from afar, in preference to the exercise of native taste at home. On the other hand, dress-making came from France, i.e. Paris ; and in our younger years we heard of the fashions that were imported thence, displayed on the person of a doll (grande poupee), they were wont to bring over, monthly, for our edification ! Happily for us, those times are past ; we have fashion, and taste, and whim enough of our own, and it should seem, a little to spare for exportation to those immense transatlantic possessions, with which France or Italy have little intercourse. See p. 250, for an iteration of the same commer- cial views ; in addition to which, the Lace-makers of the preceding article, and the Drapers of that which is to follow this, may be ad- duced in further proof of our having supplanted our rivals in trade, as regards these feminine fancies, and the practical application of the fine arts to ease, convenience, and comfort : comfort ! a thing un- known in France, even as a word, by translation, or imitation. The whole empire of female dress is in the hands of the Dress- makers, a few of whom, strange to confess, are still French, or, what is worse, pretend to be so. An instance of this strange desire of appearing to be something else than the reality, took place about the time of the Buenos Ayres mania (1805 — 7). A lady Dress- maker, who had resided at Paris with her husband, John Lancaster, both natives of Sal ford, returned full of fashionable notions in dress; she seated herself on the throne of la mode, dictated laws of dressing for court, for la dance, le promenade, pour la ceremonie miptiale, and published a seven-shilling monthly " Gazette of Fashions. 1 ' What could she do more ? She added an h to her name ; and every ladies' dress-maker. 309 body knows that h has no force, unless people choose to become per- verse; she also removed one of the vowels a step, and spelled herself Madame Lanchester. Certainly, she well understood her business, was tolerably handsome, unlike a French woman, and possessed em bon point — also unlike the French ; but her laceman, Mr. W. James, of Wood-street, her drapers, Messrs. Jeremie, in the Strand, her flower-maker, in Tavistock-street, all conspired to pronounce her Madame Lanshestre ; and so she lived, and published, and dictated several years ; and so she died, commercially. She was the Bonaparte of her day in dress, as he in dressing his ranks: none stood before her undismayed, for years. Not only must the Dress-maker possess taste, she must also fol- low whither the stream of fashion flows ; her fancy must be quick in catching, appropriating, and altering the passing mode, ever changing, ever new, among the higher circles — whence her profits arise. She confines not her attentions to the body-dress alone : her cares extend from the coiffure and arrangement of the flowers, the jewels, and the coronet, and descends to the feet also, with the spangled deco- rations of the shoes. She thus possesses the option of recommending any article that may be invented for setting off the female figure to advantage, and should use it with discretion, or she loses her repu- tation in the circles of fashion. If such articles are sent to her upon approbation, she knows how to lay on a profit proportioned to the length of credit the purchaser may be addicted to taking. Her ap- proval of a new pattern from the great cotton manufacture, and its consequent adoption by some distinguished female, forms a memo- rable epoch for the inventor, who straightway perceives his notions of the becoming and tasteful decoration of his countrywomen, borne by them like trophies through the land. Some of those newly in- vented patterns we have known to last a long time, namely, a whole summer ; and one of these — which was indeed no pattern (i. e. no drawing) at all, lasted two or three seasons, and was ultimately transferred upon paper. We owed it to Bennett and Co., of Merton, it is believed. They termed it splash ; and it consisted of sprinkled colour from a large brush, which disseminated the particles in the air : at their descent upon the calico, the general and equal diffusion thereof being intercepted by a scanty coat of corn, the ears scarcely touching each other — left the desired splashy appearance. It was one of those droll conceits which struck the fancy of the lady Dress- maker above mentioned ; and the manner of effecting it continued 310 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. secret nearty three months. Many economical ladies purchase their own materials, and take them to the Dress-makers to be made up; the cheap, good, and tasteful shops of Swan and Edgar, of Dyde and Scribe (or Harding's), and Grafton House, offering the ready-money means of doing this at a moderate rate. In the city, are Todd's, in Fore-street, Woolmer, in Barbican, Ellis, Ludgate-street, Palmer, at London-bridge, and a score of others, dealing at moderate profits for ready-money. Of the sum required to begin business in this line, no adequate notion can be formed. Nothing, beyond patronage and some friendly advance of cash, proceeding from several sources, perhaps some of them interested in the promotion of their own views in trade ; at others the small savings of hard, long, and midnight toil. Some few, allured by the fascinations of all-promising matrimony, join their exertions and means together for the laudable purpose of producing a happy commercial effect. Too often, however, these ladies or their husbands get entangled in negotiable acceptances, always too short dated, and the usual commercial catastrophe generally ensues. Workwomen get but little wages at this occupation, being driven to great straits between the seasons, unless they go to the watering places with their employers in summer. Young women frequently study the practice of the fashions under some celebrated artiste, with the view of setting up business in the country ; whilst others seek for instructions at the same source to qualify themselves for filling the office of ladies' own maids in families of distinction. We have known a premium of 50/. given with a young lady of fourteen years old, to be found with first rate board and lodging for three years : the hours of work are usually very late, and the attention excessively close, during this period. LINEN-DRAPER. A very genteel, if not an elegant business. The Linen-draper reckons among his customers the most distinguished of our modern belles, the mothers of families, and the families themselves : his taste is constantly exercised in catering to theirs, and he thus forms his notions of la mode in accordance with the best models. His care is not confined to linen goods alone, formed of flax, nor to the cotton LINEN-DRAPER. an •fabric, which we find was introduced to Europe from India, about the middle of the 18th century only ; and it long bore higher prices, whether plain or printed, than its ancient rival, which it was destined to supersede as an outer garment for our fair countrywomen. This distinction, the cotton-goods acquired, by reason of the splendid colours of which they are susceptible, compared to those meagre tints which could be imparted to linen. Silks, merinos, flannels, and a variety of other materials, in every possible variety of colour, width, pattern, or mode of application, " ever changing, ever new," also constitutes part of the Linen-draper's dealings. A great variety of other goods likewise enters into his views, that might rather be con- sidered haberdashery (see p. 289) ; whilst the Haberdasher, on his part, not unfrequently introduces among his stock, the beautiful printed muslins and Scotch cambrics, that are so much admired by the fair wearers, while they excite the envy of the foreign manufac- turers, who can in nowise compete with the British artists — especially in prices. How these advantages have been obtained, as well as some curious particulars respecting the cotton-plant, may be learnt by turning to pages 167 — 173 ; indeed, it behoves young persons in this business to imbue their minds somewhat with knowledge in general, and with information as to their own articles in particular, lest they be left in the back ground of intellect, in their intercourse with the better ranks of society, with whom they may be said to mingle, or at least become familiar. In show and effulgent display, especially at night, our Linen- drapers' shops of the metropolis far exceed those of any other trade. To effect these objects, in addition to his own tasteful exhibition of his goods to public gaze and admiration, our Draper calls in the aid of the brass-worker, in whose frames are set costly squares of plate- glass externally, and of looking-glass in the sides, the ceiling, and wherever the goods, the passing scene, and the shop itself, may be refracted and reflected to infinity : at night, the gas-fitter's art is again put in requisition, to conduct the means of affording a re- splendent light on all the magic scenery around. A description of this art, and some observations on the Brass-worker, will be found on turning to p. 263. And, no wonder that they should make such sumptuous displays to attract attention, as no business extant is so liable to excite popular regard, and those runnings after the female mind is addicted to, under the mixed notions of cheapness, superior taste, or goodness ; insomuch that, whatever shop takes the lead, or 312 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. «« has the run" is sure to make the fortune of its proprietors, if the delusion or the reality, can be sustained for a good length of time : some one or two of these in each quarter of town is always to be found, in spring and summer particularly. In one place they claim one of those recommendations, in another place the contrary ; for, it is quite clear all three cannot exist together, as the cheapest shops consist of job goods, those made for sale, like the fellow's razors that were never intended to shave. Or they are old shopkeepers, of the last year, and can display no new evidence of a refined taste. From 300/. to 500/. a day is no uncommon sum to be taken at one of those shops which have the run, whether that arise from goodness of the fabric, a fine taste, or the less reputable assumption of " selling off," which is too often a mere pretence. One of these, in Bishopsgate-street, kept by Benjamin Coombe, some years ago, announced his mode of doing business with the pithy nota bene, " nimble nine-pence is better than slow shilling." Another (name uncertain) did the sarn^ in a couplet, alluding to his job goods and meagre capital — " Cheap come, cheap go, Short shanks, nimble toe." The usual manner of replenishing his stock, is for the Draper to walk round, on Saturdays, to the wholesale houses, and agents of the country manufacturers ; that being the implied market-day, when those houses prepare to make exhibitions of their new arrivals, and the town printers, also, expose to a favoured few their latest efforts to please the fair. When any of these novelties receive the sanction of some lady of the haut ton, or fashionable Dress-maker, they are considered a hit, and consequently have a run for a while. As a consequence of so much fluctuation, the failures in this trade are more frequent, and numerous, and total, than in any other. They give salaries too limited at the cheap shops to assistants, who are expected to dress well ; the consequence whereof, is, frequent de- tection of small acts of pilfering, that are seldom brought before the public eye ; and which may be partly ascribed to another indiscreet practice of the employers, who are generally of the cheap shop de- scription of Drapers : this consists in a systematic plan of cajoling their sillier customers, and obtaining much higher prices from the mild, unsuspecting, and confiding portion of female purchasers, pro- fessedly to compensate for the small profits made by others. But many of those all cheap shopkeepers, are themselves mere tools in LINEN-DRAPER. 313 the hands of certain wholesale concerns, who make " irregular pur- chases " without inquiring whence they may have come ; though they are prescient (as appeared at the justice-room) that they bought the stocks of failing tradesmen, who had not paid, and intended not to pay, for the goods so sold at ruinously low prices. The whole subject has been handled, much in detail, and with the requisite temper and ability, in " the London Tradesman" (p. 185 — 244), a volume published on the heels of several such scandalous disclosures, with the names of the parties, major and minor actors in those frauds, sufficiently explicit for the purpose of beaconing the fair- dealing tradesman from such wayward courses. Quitting those kind of persons, who, to speak true, were the vic- tims of a depressed state of trade, and years of declining prices, from which it was found difficult to emerge, we return to the fair trader. One of these would need from 500/. to 1000/. to make a commencement in business ; though it requires quite as much to erect, and fit up, a palace-looking shop any thing like those above faintly described ; for, its very appearance would insure any extent of credit; and if he condescend to cut in prices, and it prove a hit, the quickness of his returns will soon not only reimburse that outlay, but enable him to meet any demand, as well as to take discount upon all his purchases . this advantage is, itself, in some cases, sufficient profit. Apprentice fees vary to the extremes, from 20/. to 60/., and twice this sum, oc- casionally; whilst the far greater number make their way, as prize- able shopmen, without having any premiums to give, besides their innate shrewdness, industry, and aptitude for making sale of goods, to customers who may be discovered eyeing favourably the capti- vating dresses displayed before them. In the wholesale line, some warehousemen are found most proficient in making sales to the re- tailers, as well as reporting opinions on matters of taste, collected from all sources ; and find their services duly appreciated by their employers, in the shape of very handsome salaries. It were well, if the recipients forgot not the oft extended munificence ; better still, if they endeavoured to return double-fold the princely payments we have witnessed, or heard confessed to by the parties themselves, in this business. One of these, certainly the most apt we ever knew, five and thirty years ago, thus served most efficiently, the large linen house of Brown and Co., Cheapside, at a salary of 100/. a year. His tact, his perception of good men, his quickness, taste, and accuracy, were altogether unmatchable — wonderful ! His salary was advanced, p 314 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. trebled ; it reached to ten-fold ; and it was afterwards found, that the man whom all good tradesmen admired, required time to relax, that he might expend his superabundance : he turned giddy, lost his equi- librium, resorted to theatres, drank and smoked (prohpudor /), and on Saturdays was seldom in time at warehouse : " We have not seen M — to day," observed Mr. Brown to the assembled retailers one market-day, somewhat vexatiously — " when we gave him a hundred a year, he was worth a thousand to us, but now that he has a thousand he is not worth half a hundred." The lesson carries its own moral. LOOKING-GLASS MAKER. Already has the making of plate-glass been described (p. 267). It becomes a reflective mirror by laying on tin foil at its back, so as to obstruct the rays of light from passing through ; the better sort having also a coat of quicksilver interposed to render the obscuration most effectual. But the process takes place inversely, by laying first the tin- foil on a smooth stone table ; and on being floated with the quicksilver, the glass is shoved along its surface. This is now pressed down, by lead weights being placed along its whole extent, and the oxydation of the tin by the mercury secures the desired adhesion of the whole amalgama to the glass, and produces the full effect we daily witness. Glasses of all dimensions so silvered by him, it is the business of the Looking-glass maker to fit into frames, to decorate the houses of the affluent, to shew the self-investigator into the fitness of her or his habiliments, and sometimes to deck out the elegant shops mentioned in pages 310, 313. Nor could the perruquier carry on business conveniently without looking-glasses ; nor the simple tonsor satisfactorily prove that he had done de- cently by his customer's frontispiece, unless he were furnished with the all-convincing glass. All ladies " study the glass ;" and some young men have been detected smiling on their own smirkish features. One of these is mentioned in ancient lore, as having drowned his person in viewing it by help of water. In addition to silvering the glass, our tradesman must understand the art of making the frames ; and he is thus in effect a carver and gilder ; a trade which the reader LOOKING-GLASS MAKER. 315 will find described, much at large, at pages 114 — 119, and to which he should now turn his attention. The silvering of glass, as a separate trade, is not known to us ; and if not at first combined with that of a Carver, is usually learnt in after life : the table and its appurtenances are costly articles, and the liquid metal is required in abundance, though it is not very dear in peaceable times. MACHINIST. England is, without doubt, the country of machinery ; mechanical contrivances being applied to every possible operation of our manu- factures, where they can be introduced. Whether this course of things has been imposed upon us by necessity, or that it has arisen from the genius and tendency of men's minds, is a question that lies too wide from our purpose to admit of being discussed here. We owe the prevalence of machinery to both circumstances, perhaps, united with our habits of industry, of study, and love of research, added to the great quantities and rarity of our wools, which we, in early ages, produced almost exclusively. When other materials came among us, to employ the loom-engine, as flax, silk, and finally cotton, the demand for machinery to work them into thread and cloth, and lastly, to dress, to dye, and to impart figures to the respective fabrics, would increase, as it did, and our manufacturers were well able and willing to repay the trouble and talent of ingenious Machinists. Hence arose the great encouragement given to clever workmen in this highest order of mechanics ; some curious particulars whereof are narrated in preceding pages (viz. 144, 5, and 166 — 9). The principle of loco-motion given to carriages and vessels by machinery, was tolerably well known at an early period ; but the application of steam, to obtain the primary movement, is of compara- tively modern invention. We are indebted to Jas. Watt (Boulton and Watt) for the first development of the power of steam, as erected at Soho, near Birmingham, with a lever and piston ; the same which had been invented by Savary, Newcomen, and Cranley, jointly, about sixty years preceding. And why should we deny, by inuendo, the just claims of earlier inventors, or resign to the assumptions of cer- p 2 316 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. tain Americans within our own recollection, the honour of having first navigated the waves by steam ? In 1 663, we find the Marquis of Worcester propounded " A Century of Inventions," one of which was a method of raising water by steam power ; whilst long antece- dent thereto, as appears by Rymer's Fcedera, 1607, Messrs. Jere- miah Wildgose and A. Armstrong, obtained a patent from King James I. " for a contrivance by which vessels might be propelled against wind and tide." This was effected by means of an upright axle, which was turned by force of a wheel, having numerous longitudinal narrow wings, that opened on hinges, only a little, and thus separately caught the wind at one side, and as regularly shut fast on the other. The power and the action being thus obtained, their ultimate con- nexion would be neither a work of exceeding great ingenuity, nor a matter worthy of wonderment with reasoning men ; our astonishment is rather raised at the delay that took place in the consummation effected by Mr. Watt, and others. Great opposition to the erection of mills for expediting labour, or indeed any mechanical means for saving time, wages, and hand- work, was always experienced, and is even now maintained by many narrow minded people. Even so early as 1663, " a Dutchman erected a wind saw-mill on the Thames, off Durham -yard ; whereby with the sole attendance of one man and a boy, as much work was sawed as twenty men could perform in the usual way. But it was soon put down, lest our labourers should want employment " says Anderson (vol. 2, p. 48). In our time we have seen saw-miils fired ! and Captain Lud riotously destroying mill-work, until friend Cartwright gave the rogues a warm reception, at his Rawstorn-mills, and cooled the midnight ardour of the infatu- ated rabble. If that hackneyed argument were good for aught, all smoke-jacks should be broken, lest turnspits fail of a job, and none wear stockings unless such as are knit by the hands. Whilst we write this article, all the power of mechanics now going is found in- adequate to produce a sufficiency of woollen, cotton, or silk goods, equal to the demands made for them by actual customers from abroad, with money in hand to pay for the same — according to the M. P.'s for Sheffield and Staffordshire ; and we find, that at the new town of Ashton, where a manufacturer of that name lost his life by a road- side assassination four years before, new mills are now in course oi erection, which when finished will employ 9000 additional pair ot hands. No question, we owe our greatness as a nation to our manu- factures, and our superiority in them, to our machinery, our coals. MACHINIST. 317 our iron, and the bent of our national genius. If an arbitrator were Tequired to settle which of the two people was entitled to pre-emi- nence in the latter respect, English or French ? we should appeal to the present Pasha of Egypt, the most sagacious monosophist of these times ; who a few years since invited to his territory the younger Mr. Galloway, the Machinist, of Holborn and West Smithfield ; and to express his satisfaction at the success which has attended his erections of mills in that country, his highness lately conferred upon our countryman certain military honours (according to eastern eti- quette), and created him a " beloved bashaw." These, we may conclude, are far from being empty honours. His father, who stands at the head of his profession, is also a dis- tinguished member of London's common council ; and as he hath given the public an extensive list of the articles manufactured by Machinists, we cannot convey a clearer idea of this trade, than by copying the same for the reader's edification. These are — machinery constructed for experimental and scientific elucidation ; steam en- gines, both of condensing and high pressure, to any required power; digesters, chemical apparatus, philosophical and gas-light machines ; conductors for protecting buildings from lightning, as well as when alighting on ships' masts ; pumps, both atmospheric and forcing ; machines for soda and artificial waters ; syphon, air, and fluid cocks ; syringes ; garden-engines ; fountains ; hydrostatic, hydraulic, and hydro-mechanical presses ; screw-makers' engines ; wheels, cylinders and boring bars ; stamping and cutting presses ; saw-mills ; portable iron forges ; mill r work, and large framing in wood and iron ; turning lathes ; lead and pewter pipe moulds ; all sorts of turning in iron, steel, and a long enumeration of other works, scarcely complete the list of philosophical contrivances executed by the Machinist. For, his genius for invention may be said to be inexhaustible : he is fre- quently called upon to construct some new, and hitherto unheard of implements to carry into effect the discoveries of others. To facili- tate his operations a great number of appropriate tools become necessary, some of which are peculiar to this trade ; and after all is finished in the rough, they must be submitted to the action of the turning lathe ; a powerful machine, carried by a steam-engine, that gives the final finish, and that accurate co-adaptation of the parts to each other, which is so requisite in all works of this kind. By its means, cylinders, both interior and exterior, are turned and bored ; plain surfaceg are smoothed ; cones, globes, and every other figure 318 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ;hat the skill and ingenuity of the workman are called upon to de- vise, are all subjected to the all-powerful aid of this indispensable machine. What sum may be required to commence business with, it is im- possible to say; most of those we have met with being the architects of their own fortunes, and making their entry on the notice of the world as constructors of a single piece or two of machinery ; all fur- ther progress in trade being in a manner forced upon them by the celebrity of their first efforts ; so truly has it been said, that the true mechanical genius is inexhaustible, or in other words, is applicable to all things of its kind. Upon the talents of such a man being re- quired, he experiences no difficulty in obtaining assistance to carry on the requisite preparations : first, in the shape of loans from his employers, to pay wages : second, in large credits for iron, for coals, and some tools ; and when the work is somewhat in progress, he is naturally entitled to an " advance," or portion of the whole charge, contract, or expected price. This is the usual mode of proceeding, even where the Machinist has been permanently established many years. We have known a Machinist take his first job at a high weekly payment , and execute it so faithfully, and so justly propor- tioned, as to stand undilapidated for a quarter of a century, without evidence of failure down to this hour : what is more, as much power is let out as brings, annually, above one-third of the whole original cost : they are iron works. We recollect Earl Dundonald, then Lord Cochrane, working in West-street, Smithfield, at certain machines of his own contrivance; and in 1812, we saw the Earl Stanhope (an universal genius) arm in arm with our acquaintance John Scott, a Machinist of some promise, of St. Andrews, Blackfriars. These are the sort of persons who foster the arts, and artists, in their earliest efforts, to good purpose. Workmen, who are hard labourers, earn from 25s. to 36s. a week ; better artizans about double those sums, and one who is capable of superintending an elaborate work, rather more. Out of this latter class proceed the future masters, occasionally. The premium with a young man of respectability, we apprehend, should be not less than 150/., but we find no case in point to rest on. 319 MARINER. An occupation that is so conducive to our commercial prosperity, and so vitally necessary to our existence as an independent nation, has need of being well performed. Accordingly, from the earliest times, much care has been bestowed in " keeping up our navy meaning not only the ships and their outfit, but the seamen and their commanders, with due regard to their capability, their health, and moral energies. These matters have always engaged the best at- tention of our wisest governments, who gave encouragement, in various ways, to rearing young seamen in the merchant service : first, by giving bounties and draw-backs on goods navigated by ships carrying a certain proportion of apprentices : second, by excepting them from liability to impressment : third, by securing their services to their respective masters for the whole of their terms — usually seven years : and fourth, by stipulating that boys on their second voyage should keep a log, and on their third start commence taking lunar observations. In this way, many gp>od and intelligent Mari- ners were annually added to those steady men who were qualified to act as masters of merchantmen, capable of navigating them to any quarter of the globe, particularly in those seas which they might have once visited. Hence arose the propriety of Mariners of good talents acting in the subordinate capacity of mates, to qualify them- selves for taking the chief command abroad. At times, however, the mate possesses more of the peculiar knowledge of the voyage under performance, than the master himself; who has usually good sense enough to pay due deference to the local acquaintance of his second in command with the coasts, winds, lights, currents, rocks, and ap- proaches, they may be r then visiting. But we have witnessed one case of the contrary feeling ; in which a little mutiny saved the ship from running upon the gaskets — maugre the lights, and the roaring of the breakers : an hour before day-light, in November, wind W. by N., after four days beating about in the Bay, it could be no treat to find the barque within half a cable's length of certain destruction, through the obstinacy of one man. Notwithstanding this, the doc- trine (as such) is not tenable for an hour. A boy with some degree of tact for the sea, who may delight in being afloat, and possess a 320 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. steady desire to acquire general learning — figures, decimals, mathe- matics — will make a good Mariner ; for he will find occasion, at some hour of his life (it is much else) when he will stand in need of prac- tising all he knows. Beyond all things, he must read every book he can obtain that may conduce to a knowledge of the art in which he has embarked r as a case in point, of extensive reading, we- may ad- duce the present assistant-librarian at Greenwich, our old messmate, Robert Holland, who has devoured more musty tomes than any man of his class, afloat or ashore. If the young Mariner begin with ac- counts of voyages and travels, that have been conducted to a suc- cessful issue, he will acquire confidence ; if he read narratives of shipwrecks and misadventures, before he has himself experienced some blowing weather, he may be scared from his purpose ; yet will he learn from such works how to conduct his ship ? s company in cases of the like peril, or hardship, or endurance, should such befal him. The art of navigation he will learn from oral instruction on board, if he have not acquired the first principles at school: Moore's Epitome, he must become familiar with; " Hamilton Moore, new-cut,^ as we have heard his redoubted volume denominated, a thousand times. Ah, who but Hamilton Moore, and his incipient " Voyage to Ma- deira !" unless, indeed, his assistant and successor, W. Norie. Our young Mariner will study astronomy scientifically ; he must read its history, and will learn the difficulties that attended the ob- servations of the early astronomers, from the time that Hipparchus was induced to commence his " Catalogue of Stars " by an acci- dental mirage; and Cassiopeia added to their number, until they gave his name to a constellation (1572), down to the time (1704), that the indefatigable John Flamsteed, placed above 2000, most of which had been wrongly calculated by Tycho Brahe ; to whom > however, the world is greatly indebted, for so much as he did teach. The aspirant for nautical celebrity will thence learn, that the Englishman just named raised his country in the admiration *>f surrounding nations, as the seat and residence of the most enlightened astronomers and navigators the world has yet cherished : he will learn and sigh at the treatment the first astronomer royal received from two enlight- ened men, his friends, whom we have hitherto read and thought of, with mute reverence, approaching to awe. Yes, Flamsteed, in his let- ters to Sharpe (his modest coadjutor),, lays open the unworthy mode by which Sir Isaac Newton obtained his unfinished Catalogue of Stars, and the garbled manner in which Dr. Edmund Halley sent it to press, MARINER. 321 contrary to the express wishes of its accurate author, to satisfy the indecent haste of a set of courtiers, whom Dr. Swift termed . But the Rev. John Flamsteed, though not a polished man, spoke less severely, when he wrote down Halley, the asserted calculator of a comet, as "a malicious thief," and exulted, when (in 1714), upon change of dynasty and politics, he brought the remainder of the piratical edition to his observatory, and committed the whole tri- umphantly to the flames. Young Mariners must study the Nautical Almanac, annually put forth by that great astronomer's successors, wherein he will find the daily positions of the stars set down ; and he ought to recollect, that the recently discovered planets, which we owe to the labours of Herschel 9 were not brought down by the great Toy to be seen at Slough, but by a 5 foot reflecting telescope. He must also study the history of the Mariners' compass, in which the natural history of the magnet bears a principal part ; and this will bring him to notice the variation of the needle, which at an early period veered to the eastward of north ; he will find that it returned W., gradually, until it pointed due north in 1657. Subsequently, the vari- ation westward continued to increase until 1818; since which time, we find the needle again returning towards the true north, which it will jeach about the middle of the next century, it may be presumed. These changes account, in some measure, for the acknowledged improve- ment in our climate. Further, he should learn the French, as a language of much intercourse ; Spanish, if he sails to the countries settled by that once-powerful nation ; and so of any other he may visit, as well as to hail and be hailed by ships of other nations. He will find he carries no more tonnage for learning all these things, and a thousand others ; nor go aloft, nor take in an eerie with a tittle more danger of capsizing, though his head be filled with all the boasted knowledge of the people ashore : they will all stand him in good stead at some time or other of his life. Laws have been made for regulating merchant-seamen from time to time, adapted to the age and circumstances which called them *brth; but from those of Oleron, by Richard I. 1194, we scarcely find any so efficient as those of the session of parliament, 1835. True, we had one which compelled the crews of ships carrying guns to fight the corsairs, or relinquish wages, and freight, and any pretended ransom insidiously accorded to them upon quietly submitting to piratical plunder ; but the three acts of the late session placed the merchant-seaman on a better footing as regards that service, and p 3 322 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. with respect to the royal navy. Chapter 19, repeals and consolidates former acts, ten in number, and provides for the long called-for re- gistration of seamen. But the whole tenor of the new act has been so well and summarily delivered by an annual co temporary, that we feel pleasure in quoting his words : " The design of this act, as clause 43 declares, is to keep the whole of our seamen like a well- regulated family, within call of home, or at least within claim ; to give them effectual and speedy redress in cases of oppression ; to see that especial care is taken of them in disease, and to secure their money and effects in case of death. Our consuls will, also, have the opportunity of inquiring into the proximate circumstances at- tending any such disappearance from among the crew, as must re- strain much of that coarse conduct of man to man we frequently have to deplore. The act has, likewise, a sane regard to any future manning of the royal navy ; taking precautions to secure their wages and effects in the event of impressment, that unavoidable infringe- ment upon ' the liberty of the subject,' without which our mari- time sway is lost, and our overweening public speechifyers, it is suspected, would lose at least one topic of oratorical lamentation.'* The second act (chap. 56) provided a rule for the admeasurement of vessels, hitherto liable to mistakes ; the third permitted sailors in the royal navy to claim their discharge after a limited service, viz. five years ; unless then in actual service ; when each man is entitled to an advance of pay, therefore, of one-fourth his original rating. Mariners receive wages dependant on their usefulness on board ; the classes in the royal navy being, first, able ; second, ordinary ; and a third of the former only are required to two-thirds of the latter. When once a man has been rated able, he continues upon it, but getting old and stiff, he is quit of more active duties — the fore-mast, perhaps, and retires to the after guard. In war time, when men are scarce, these hardy veterans being free from impressment, pick up large wages, sometimes six or eight pounds a month. The master Mariner can only be said to commence trade, when he is able to pur- chase a share in a ship ; which share must be proportioned to its size, and his means. Great facilities hereto are found in the owners' known wish to give the master an interest in the welfare of the bottom. In general acceptation he has the title of captain, whilst seamen, who affect uncommon familiarity, speak of him, aside, as the skipper, as they would also of the captain of a man of war, especially after a successful action. 323 MASON. Stone-mason would more properly designate the trade we come now to describe, one who works only in .that material, and not the Bricklayer^ as careless people deliver themselves, that trade having been already treated of, at pages 73 — 78 ; though our most stupendous buildings, here in England, are now, with bad taste, the joint work of both. If any honour is derivable from antiquity, the Masons' calling has claims of the highest degree ; the Pyramids of Egypt and city of Thebes, in the upper country (lately visited), being proofs extant, authenticated to have their origin at least 1200 years ante cedent to the Christian era. Also, as regards the practitioners in the art of building, and the art itself ; kings, and many truly great men, hare in all ages sought to perpetuate their names, by stupendous stone-erections, as the walls of Rome, by Romulus, a.c. 720 ; the Picts wall, eighty miles in extent, by Adrian, a.d. 120; and more recently, a palace fit for a prince, by the company of Goldsmiths, in Gutter-lane, and a palace ill adapted to any purpose, by the puissant prince, George IV. at Westminster. But it was in Italy where the truly great men each had his palazzio, his villa or country seat, upon which he, or some of his ancestors, bestowed all his skill and much of his patrimony. Here it was also, that many fine poets and painters turned their versatile talents to raising inimitable structures, to per- petuate the remembrance of their taste, as much as to secure the comfortable residence and receptacles of the elaborate canvass and finished statues they had produced. Titian* s villa is still an object of admiration, though his paintings are dispersed among an ardent and munificent class of dilletante over all Europe ; and the varied pur- suits of another great builder, equally admirable in all, were thus spoken of by a strong writer in " The Pursuits of Literature," Mich. Angelo, whose hand the gods direct; Sage, poet, painter, sculptor, architect. Our present style of architecture is confessedly that of the Grecians, if the seven orders measured out for us by Palladio and others, were really in use among that polished people. Of this, however, we are certain ; first, that they improved greatly in taste upon the Egyptian 324 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. style : second, that many fine buildings remain, executed in the happiest series of proportions, from the Tuscan basement of prisons and market-houses, and the Ionic rus-in-urbe residences of retired statesmen, to the lotus-leaved capitals of the Corinthian order, which adorns the Athenaeum and the Parthenon to this day: third, we per- ceive the era of its introduction into Rome, and recently saw immense examples brought up from Herculaneum ; fourth, at a later period 1 , the Grecian style served as models to their Arab conquerors, who could ill preserve its unities, and produced the sombre gothic, or Saracenic ; and fifth, we trace these infidels into Spain, where they were the sole architects of Christian temples, then through France, into Germany and England ; in all which countries they stipulated with their employers for freedom of conscience, and freedom from 1 proselytism, terming this privilege " free to come and free to go," whilst teaching the first principles of Geometry to apprentices and fel- low-craftmen, in schools. This was the origin of the moral institution* now termed Free-masonry ; the practical schools having ceased soon after the completion of St. Paul's church, a century since. The candidate for architectural fame should study those matters, if he hope to succeed in the highest departments of his trade : he should read with attention, after the first years of his apprenticeship, when he is supposed to have acquired the first principles of architecture ; and no better book, certainly none of higher aim, can be put into his hands, than Mr. J. Billington's Architectural Director; a trans- lation, in part^from the stupendous and costly Italian work of S , and replete with accurate pictorial representations of the buildings and styles they are intended to illustrate. Although the trade of a Mason appears a very laborious one, it only is so to those who do the drudgery, the cutting of the stones being performed by ordinary workmen, who do scarcely any other work ; for which they receive 3 s. or 3s. 6d. a day,, and are called stone-cut- Urs ; whereas, those who square the stones, adjust them in their positions, and. cut the well-known cramp, termed a Lewis, are the real Masons : these latter earn 4s. Sd, or 5*. 6d. per day, and understand generally, or at least practise, the rules of geometry. Some men work by the piece, charging per job, per square, or cubic foot. Those who are employed upon carved work, as the frize, capitals, &c. or assist the sculptor in reducing his block to form, receive consider- ably more. He who carves inscriptions, is well paid. The Lewis just mentioned, is a hole sunk in every large stone of a buildings MASON. 325 some two or three inches deep, and wider at bottom than at the surface ; or rather it is the iron instrument, of three parts, which goes into the hole, so made, and fits into it by each of the two outer pieces of the Lewis having a dovetail swell at the base, that fits the socket when the middle or straight piece is driven in : a pin that passes through the whole, is also the receiver of a strong iron loop, by which each stone is pulled up by the labourers to any height, and is so held in position, until deposited fairly in its place by the Mason. All buildings of magnitude and importance are executed in stone ; or a facing of this prime material conceals from view the mean and vulgar brick front ; others require only the entablature and coins to be of stone, when the bricks exposed are usually red rubbers ; but when common stocks are used, the intervals of the Mason's work is concealed with compo, a species of plaster front composed of well ground stone, which soon sets. This compo or tarrass, is also used Vy the Mason in closing the joints of one stone with another. He also constructs and lays the window cells of all buildings, the hearth- stones and chimney-pieces, and copings — erects tombs, mausoleums, and grave-stones, the steps and ascent to houses. These he exe- cutes in every variety of stone and marble, according to order ; the kind in most general use being Portland stone, though not always the best adapted to bridge building. In proof hereof, witness the bridge across the Thames, at Blachfriars ; which was quarried under adverse circumstances, it is asserted, of a septennial return of some saline impregnation, which exposure to the air does not then neutralize. Granite, therefore, has since been preferred for this purpose, at the Waterloo, Southwark, and London bridges, and well repays the augmented expense of fetching and working. This is brought from Scotland and from Dartmoor, in Devonshire ; the four immense blocks standing at the stairs of new London-bridge, being from the quarries of the last-mentioned vicinity, as is also the thirty foot single-stone Waithman monument, in Farringdon ward : the High Tor company is said to have done their utmost, as to length, in this latter production. At Bath, they have less difficulty in forming their stone, which assumes much the appearance of chalk, when first submitted to their tender chisels and carpenters' saws, \>ut becomes solid, with a fine grain, upon long exposure to the at- mosphere : this quality imposes upon the Bath Masons the neces- sity of employing bricks in running up their chimneys, and supports 326 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. for their beams. Much stone comes from Yorkshire, and bears that name, but is inapplicable to buildings, though sometimes employed in floorings, sinks, and drains. All these facts and attendant circumstances, it behoves the Stone- mason to be well acquainted with, if he would rise superior to the generality of his profession : if he learn pencil-drawing, or to sketch figures, to take elevations of buildings, or otherwise acquire a taste for the arts that seem connected with, or proceed out of, his stone- trade, he bids fair to become a sculptor or statuary, an architect of the first class, or surveyor of buildings — of which there is one ap- pointed to every district ; for, we have known, in the course of a long life, of one or the other of those transmutations in his sphere of action, attend every Stone-mason of studious habits, with whom it has been our happiness to be acquainted, or have habitually noticed as a neighbour. MERCER. We might have been content to refer the Mercer of the present day to the Haberdasher of small wares, who is a most extensive dealer, as observed elsewhere (p. 289); but that the trade continues still distinct in a few wholesale houses, and that they are in fact, silk manufacturers, or operative broad-weavers' employers. We shall find occasion to speak of these latter under the head of " Weavers," in the sequel, and at present confine ourselves to describing what is the business and occupation of a Mercer. In the reign of Edward EQ. by his eharta rnercatoria (1328), we first hear of " the mer- chandize called merceries," which consisted probably in many small wares, toys, haberdashery, &c. The word is French, and so was the trade originally ; he who followed it being described at one time as un Mercier menu,, at another time, ten marchand de soyeries, or a dealer in silks, and, under this title, nearly, were the Silk-mercers of London, incorporated by Richard II. in 1393. At this time the wearing of silk was regulated by sumptuary laws, which directed them to be worn by persons of property, who all appeared at court dressed in the article ; whilst those of distinction had silk beds, cur- tains, and e ther costly trappings. Mercers' Hall is a venerable building in Cheapside, of the same MERCER. 327 era, restituted After the great fire. At that period, their business consisted in procuring the silk-manufactures of Greece, and subse- quently of Italy (1460), until the art was brought into France of weaving broad silks, or stuffs, as they were called, in the grey. In 1504, a law, which prohibited the importation of silk ribbons, yet allowed of any such tissues wider than those used for girdles. At this period of history, certain Mercers of London kept their agents (since termed " buyers " in other trades), who bought at Paris the silks manufactured in the south of France ; and among these was Mr. Boleyn afterwards Sir Thomas, of Cheapside, and paternal grandfather of Queen Elizabeth. The knight is said to have married a French lady of the gay court of Francis I. where his daughter Anna was born and brought up. Other accounts say, she was born at Hoxton, in his country-house, or Grange, there; which is now standing, in tolerable preservation, within an enclosed space of some four or five acres, with a high coped wall, still called the Grange- walk. From her many accomplishments, her beauty, and modesty, Anna Boleyn became a favourite at the English court, in the retinue of Queen Katherine ; and, subsequently, the wife of King Henry VIII. one of the mothers of one of his children, and one of the many vic- tims of his wrath, lust, caprices, and suspiciousness. Another his- torical fact may be here not unaptly mentioned, as redounding to the honour of the early Mercers ; one of the profession, William Caxton by name, having introduced the newly discovered art of printing into England, about the same period. About the year 1620, the first gleams of a silk manufacture began to shed a feeble light on this country ; first, by the report brought back by Mr. Hobbs, from India, as to the supply that might be ob- tained there of the raw material ; and second, by the successful at- tempt, made in this year, to manufacture plain broads, or three-single, in London ; for, we had hitherto small means of throwing the fila- tures, and imported from Pisa and Florence, the organzine and lee- gee of Italy, at great prices. But mark the rapid progress of British industry, ingenuity, and perseverance ! Exactly one hundred years had passed away in making improvements in this manufacture, when we learn with pleasure, the silk goods of England obtained a decided preference in Italy, over those produced in that country. For Keys- lar, a German traveller, tells us, " being at Naples, he found that a tradesman who would highly recommend his silk stockings and the like, protests they are right English make." The abundant impor- 328 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. tations from India, of the raw material at a moderate price, and the invention of Mr. Lombe's machine, with the aid of steam-power, have at length enabled this country to excel all others in the fabrication of silks of every description. At the present day, our Mercer is a wholesale dealer in silk piece goods ; he is also the master silk- manufacturer, purchasing his raw silk by bales at the East India company's sales, or those of the free-trade importers from the com- pany's dependencies in that quarter: he also imports from Italy the superior silk of that country, either raw or thrown, and gives out warp and wroof to the Spitalfields weavers. He buys the India silk at a long credit of nine months, saving the deposit, the Italian at ninety days after sight; and with tolerable management, without which, indeed, no business can prosper, he may contrive to make a return annually about five times the amount of his capital, without other inconvenience than what procuring discounts of his customers' bills will occasion, for his trade is almost confined to shopkeepers, Haberdashers, and Drapers, His velvets will go mostly to Tailors and Court-dress makers ; and although the most costly article he deals in, is not ever the most profitable, unless made to order, with a prospect of immediate sale, and settlement off hand. Figured-work for decorating a palace or a noble mansion, is usually required in ferge quantities ; but this kind of goods he also had better make to vrder, than keep by him ; and after all, the trade in plain piece goods, as gros de Naples, sarsnets, &c. is the safest trade he can push, un- less at any time he can see his way clear before him, in any other branch. We have known a broad-silk manufacturer commence making with very limited means, but then he sells to the Mercer in small quantities, at short credit and a low profit ; whilst the shop or warehouse of the Mercer will appear but scantily supplied though 2000/. worth of goods be stowed upon the shelves ; and if he give as great amount of credit as he takes, while the lengths of time may average the same, he must be especially on the alert with his Dyer and Thrower, to prevent being delayed in the return of his goods, otherwise, he will require a large augmentation of his capital. Ap- prentice fees are rather high, say 100/. or 150/. ; though they have little to learn beyond weighing off the skeins, keeping accounts against the weavers, acquiring a knowledge of the quality of goods, the markets, the seasons, and to acquire (if he do not already pos- sess) some taste as to colour, patterns, and the opinions of people of fashion 329 MERCHANT The term, as such, is conventional in some respects, denoting" that the parties deal by wholesale : thus we have Coal-merchant, Timber- merchant, Wine-merchant, Hop-merchant, though the persons so designated do not import the articles, but buy of the importer, who is the only real Merchant ■ it is either derived from mercata, a market, or mare, the sea, whence he brings his goods (or merchandize) for sale. The Merchant appears seated at the very head of the trading genus : he is placed, as it were, on the actual pulsation of the nation's commercial prosperity, carrying abroad and selling its productions, and superinducing the creation of more. He is thus interestedly cognisant of the actual state of trade in those ports and countries he is particularly connected with ; and his word may be taken when he asserts, that not a sea-worthy vessel of any considerable burthen, remained unhired (not taken up) in the river Thames, during the month of January, 1836, when the Spring trade is supposed to com- mence ; a most cheering fact, that bespeaks the thriving state of our foreign trade, utterly unlike the period antecedent to 1832, when the India and China trades were successively laid open to general com- petition. With his ships, or those he hires, the Merchant seeks new markets, or vents, for our own wares, and brings away return cargoes from those he visits, or sends to; for in one way or the other did our Merchants of old transact business in such cases, the latter being effected by means of a confidential clerk, or factotum on board, who thence obtained the title and powers of supercargo. He was also empowered, in some instances, to alter the destination of the vessel, from port to port, " in search of a market." In the supercargo, we usually behold the future Merchant, trading on his own account; and, indeed, it was a common practice among our earliest Merchants to allow, not only these, but other members of their household, to send out small ventures, according to their means. The well-known story of Whittington's cat, is not altogether a fable. The goods thus obtained, either in barter, or bought with the proceeds of his own: sales, were further taken, in some instances, from one port or country to another, and there sold, or part sold, for cash and bills, or exchanged 2 u 330 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. for other goods, always at a profit ; the ship then returned home, after a long absence, rich in goods, in "variety, and often in bullion; for the bills would be sold on the exchange of the country for cash, when no goods worth purchasing offered instead. Wherever this might happen, the " balance of trade," concerning which so much is said, and so little understood, is declared to be against such a country, and in favour of England : on the contrary, when our Merchants send out money to buy goods, as is usual in all smuggling trans- actions, the balance of trade is against us, and the exchange con- sequently high. The mode of proceeding just described, obtained from our French neighbours the anomalous term, M caravane trade but by us is described as " trading from port to port." It prevailed mostly in the Levant sea, among the Greek islands, and along the shores ot the Mediterranean, earlier than the year 1605 ; and in its operation, the Marseilles Merchants nearly extinguished our rich Turkish company more than once, previous to 1744. At this period, the mo- nopoly of that company being rescinded, as regarded their costly charges upon the adventurers, who were compelled to subscribe to their regulations, that once celebrated port dwindled into a French watering-place, whence few vessels are now fitted out, and those of small tonnage, as being best adapted to the depth of water at the shallow inlets visited by them. In fact, our vessels, which were necessarily of large tonnage, could not enter such places ; whilst it is self evident they were indispensable to safe voyaging along the piratical coasts of Barbary, and across the Levant, with its terrible winds, which the ancients termed, " the giant Typhon," from some resemblance they were supposed to bear to that lubber, the turbu- lent son of Juno, who warred against his putative father, and nearly succeeded in overturning the conclave assembled at Ida. In this puerile manner we find the early mariners accounting for natural phenomena, previous to the reception of the Copernican system and discovery of the mariners' compass. This manner of conducting trade, per mare, however, is almost every where discontinued, being rendered unnecessary by the establishment of Factors, Brokers, and agents, in every port of consequence ; many of those which were so established having been supercargoes, or clerks with the Merchants at home. This was the case, within our own knowledge, as regards those who first received consignments from here, at several of the newly emancipated states of South America, our conquests in the MERCHANT. 331 Mediterranean, and in the East, Many consuls, likewise, who are appointed by government to reside with the new republics, transact mercantile agency ; as do, invariably, those who reside here from the several states of Europe, the accredited ministry of both being purely commercial : those residents, on both sides, are chosen from among the most eminent Merchants, and still retain that enviable character. Consignments of vessels and their cargoes to settled Merchants from the shippers abroad, are managed and disposed of, at a per centage, and charge for all disbursements ; and this is effected in detail by produce-brokers, employed by the consignees ; these Brokers being termed Oil-brokers, Russia-brokers, &c. according as their business, connexions, and talents, may lie in the produce of any given class of importers, or countries, or consignees' connections abroad. This latter class of agents is, also, employed by the Merchants who are their own adventurers, as described elsewhere (pages 219 — 221). Another distinguished class of Merchants are those intelligent agents to Lloyd's, one of whom is appointed by the committee in every port of consequence, to take care of the interests of the subscribers, to correspond with the " master at Lloyd's, and communicate shipping intelligence ; they receive consignments, transact agency business, and effect insurance of ships and cargoes. These are properly termed Merchants, and do, in fact, transact mercantile business on own ac- count, notwithstanding the existing British law to the contrary. The extent of an entire volume would be insufficient to explain fully the nature and interests of mercantile affairs ; and, indeed, has occupied more than once a large volume of 1200 close pages, that of Gerard Malynes being the earliest (1686); and that of Thomas Mortimer, a new edition, edited by W. Dickinson and others (1819), the best of its day. Dr. M'Culloch has also essayed a " Commer- cial Dictionary," of still greater magnitude ; but the subject is far from being exhausted by those bulky tomes, though aided by several more authors. Dr. Smith's fallacious book on the " Wealth of Nations," is deservedly gone down to oblivion ; a fate to which it was consigned, in great measure, by the writer of chap. 7 of the * London Tradesman, a Treatise on the Rationale of Trade and Commerce, by several Tradesmen," but revised throughout by Mr. Badcock, who was one of the writers in Mortimer's Dictionary. That book should be read by every one who carries on, or would conduct to a happy issue, an expanded commercial intercourse, at home or abroad . To young traders it has proved (we know) a most invaluable present 332 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. as respects shielding them from loss, dangers, and the pitfalls of commercial speculations ; and, as a work plainly conducing to pros- perity, to a respectable standing in society, and a due understanding of the interests of trade in general, we would recommend the perusal of this volume to all classes of commercial men. At an early period of our commercial prosperity, incorporations of Merchants were found beneficial, in the protection they afforded each other in the countries to which they traded. Thus, we had the Turkey Company, who maintained their " factory " at Smyrna ; and the Pera of Constantinople, a Portugal company, a Russia company, who had similar quarters at the capital ports of the respective countries : but each Merchant bought and sold on his own separate account ; whilst the East India Company traded, on a joint stock and money raised on bonds, to that country, where they have pos- sessions in territory of vast extent, and a population subject to their sway of some fifty millions of people. A more enlightened policy, however, broke in upon our legislature after a lapse of two hundred years, as to exclusive trading ; and every let or hinderance to car- rying on a free-trade, unshackled by the restrictive rules, the fines on commencement, and dues to the heads of the companies, were all successively abolished, after many a struggle; to the great contentment of our Merchants, and the advancement of exports and imports, quite equalling the predictions of its chief advocate, Mr. Huskisson. But, unhappily, an accident deprived us of this truly enlightened minister, before he could witness the realization of his own well-grounded hopes. Yet, let us add, he experienced a grating opposition from the deep prejudices of others, and the short-sighted policy of his coadjutors in office, which thwarted his views, and they remained blind to his demonstrations to the latest moment of their verification. Merchants, then, have great need to store their minds with general knowledge, by which alone they can hope to arrive at a sane con- clusion on topics of such vital importance as that just now adverted to. The young Merchant must, at any rate, acquire particular infor- mation of the interests, productions, government, tariff, and maritime laws of the countries to which he sends: the books above men- tioned, with those of recent travellers, will instruct him concerning these matters. If he receive consignments from abroad, he must understand the moneys, weights, language, course of exchange, and wants of those countries in which he has found favour; together with their peculiar styles, and the trade phrases employed in doing MERCHANT, 333 business ; books upon which subjects have been published by Mr. Keesan and others, that are very instructive. True, he may employ a translator, trastagano, or foreign clerk ; but the advantage of per- forming this and the cash operations himself, is evident. We have witnessed the defect painfully exemplified, upon the arrival in Lon- don of a much esteemed correspondent, and have ourselves supplied the medium of communication between the parties. French is the language of general intercourse, and is spoken throughout Europe ; but the German prevails in the ports of the Baltic, with its dialects in the Netherlands. The Spanish is understood all along the op- posite coasts of Africa, as well as those which lie on the Atlantic, so far as the Cape of Good Hope, exclusively, where Dutch is the language of the commonalty. But the English is known in every port of the globe, and has been cultivated by the better sort of merchants greatly, since the vast extension of our commercial relations, which we saw with exultation take its rise with the war of the Revolution in France, and has continued advancing ever since, with short exceptions. A British Merchant should bring himself acquainted with every thing that appertains to shipping, their outfit, insurance, and the laws by which navigating the seas is regulated : he should under- stand what is the duty towards himself of the master and crew. To this end he will not neglect to read the article Mariner, a few pages higher up (pages 319 — 322). He should be guarded against the tricks and misrepresentations of surveyors, when he would hire ton- nage of ship-owners ; and he may turn to, and read with profit, at pages 320, 321, what is said of the Mariner's occupations. He will learn the advantages and disadvantages of underwriting, by turning to the " London Tradesman," together with the whole arcana of the establishment at Lloyd's ; and if he can be so happy as to converse with the master y he will discover in Mr. Dobson the beau ideal of a real English mercantile character. As to capital, there are no bounds to the sum that may be employed in an extensive concern ; even to an extent that may conduce to its own final defeat ; whilst, on the other hand, we have been astonished upon the -winding up of some large concerns, at the smallness of the sum carried into it by the partners ; that of Bogle French, Burrows and Co., for example, which was found to have been sustained in high credit with no more than 12,000/. Young gentlemen who require apprenticeship, or being placed "under articles" to an eminent Merchant, give a premium of 200/. or 300/., for four or five years ; but then, an over-indu'gent parent 334 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. should not allow the means of his son's keeping a horse during the whole period, as the pair are very likely to shy at the sight of a count- ing-house ; nor should he frequent the play-house until the last year of his term, nor keep gallant company at any time. Scarcely any trade requires more severe and exact study than this, as is apparent from its nature, and the variety of speculations into which the love of en- terprise must lead him His time, in seeking for a course of study, will be much economised by referring to the " London Tradesman," before spoken of (at p. 331), wherein the respective writers on commercial matters are characterised^ for his guidance. He will there find observations on trading correspondence, and the art of letter writing, on the authors who have written pro forma invoices, bills, &c. ; those on law, on cambism, and the operations in exchanges. He will be incited, in the perusal thereof, to emulate those Merchants who have gone before him, in attaining civic honours, rank, titles, and the highest offices in the state, for themselves or their children. Among the list of those who have so risen in our own happy country may be named Sutton, and Gresham, and Guy ; the munificent founders of the Charter-house, the Royal Exchange, and the Hos- pital that bears the name of Guy, in the Borough of Southwark ; three, only three examples, out of as many score monuments of suc- cessful trading to be met with in the metropolis of the British em- pire. We have already spoken of John Aske (p. 290) ; Sir T. Boleyn (p. 327); and J. Lackington (p. 44). As to dignities of another sort, we shall not be deterred by minor considerations from mentioning the names of those who have risen to titles, through the honourable and successful pursuit of trade — mostly as London Merchants. The entire list is a long one. From — Coventry, Sir John, Mercer, Lord Mayor, a.d. 1425, have descended the Earls of Coventry. Brown, Sir Stephen, Grocer, Lord Mayor, a.d. 1438 and 1448, proceeded the Viscounts Montacute, one of whom was slain in a duello, near Lincoln's Inn. Rich, Sir Richard, Mercer, Lord Mayor, 1441, descended the earl- dom of Warwick and Holland, which terminated in the civil wars. Legg, Thomas, Skinner, Lord Mayor, who married a countess, we have the Earls of Dartmouth. Capel, Sir William, Draper, Lord Mayor, a.d. 1503, ancestor of the present Earl of Essex, and of the first commentator on the text of Shakspeare. MERCHANT. 335 Dormer, Ralph, Mercer, Lord Mayor in 1529 ; his descendant created Baron Dormer, 1615. Holies, Sir William, Lord Mayor 1539; created a baron and mar- ried a Pelham — Clinton : creation as D. Newcastle, dated 1756. Osborne, Sir Edward, Cloth-worker, Lord Mayor 1583; Dukes of Leeds, 1694. Cranfield, Sir Lionel, Merchant, after Lord High Treasurer to James I. ; created Earl of Middlesex ; and his grandson Cran- field Sackville, by George L, Duke of Dorset, in 1720. His descendant, Lord George Sackville, a gallant soldier and learned man, was accused by Prince Ferdinand, commander of the al- lied army, of not bringing up the British horse in time ; where- upon he joined the opposition, accused the minister of malver- sation, and charged the Duke of Bedford with having sold the peace of 1763; subsequently declared the Marquis of Granby incapable of commanding an army, and Sir William Draper, but a temerarious Adjutant-general. The minor limbs of the then administration he scattered like chaff; showing irrefragably that the Lord Chief Justice Mansfield had sworn fealty to the Pretender : and all this he did by letters written for the Public Advertiser anonymously, under the signature of Junius; a,name which for forty years was the terror of the opponent party, the admiration of all elegant scholars, and whose collected produc- tions served as models to political scribes of every hue, from the high-flown tory to the low-bred jacobin of the days that are past. He sat in the House of Lords as Lord Germaine, after calling out several of his calumniators in the House of Com- mons : he was a stickler for coercing the Americans, and so gratified George III. that he was made secretary of state for Colonial affairs. Child, Sir Josiah, Goldsmith and Banker, who wrote several trea- tises on Trade (1688 — 94), making an octavo volume, worthy the study of every Merchant ; he died very rich, and the heiress of his family became the wife of Lord Southampton towards the end of the last century. Baring, John, Francis and Charles, brothers, and descendants from a Dutch cloth-maker, spelled Behring, in which trade we our- selves knew the first and third brothers, the first-mentioned particularly, at St. Leonard's, near Exeter. The second brother was a Cambist of great eminence ; and Sir F. Baring is known 336 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. all over the world for his money transactions. A daughter of one brother married the first Lord Ashburton (olim, John Dunning, remarkable for his forensic stentorian powers) ; and the son of another was lately created a Lord, by the same title, by reason of its having become extinct with its sole possessor. MUSIC-SELLER. One who is a publisher of songs, operas, &c. A dealer in music - books and instruments, and a manufacturer of the latter, are branches of the trade comprised in the business as carried on by large concerns in town. The parties so engaged have a fine shop or shops for ex- hibition, in some large thoroughfare, with workshops in the suburbs, where the once expensive piano forte, the anthem-breathing organ, and other elaborate instruments, are constructed or built, of uncom- monly well-seasoned woods. Here, also, are manufactured the stately harp (arp davo, of the Welsh), the barrel-organ, so inscrutable to clowns, the bass-viol, and its many representations, downwards, in size, as upwards in the gamut; also, among many others of this kind, that " box of sweet sounds JEriel," the JEolian-harp, so called of him, who was said, in the ancient theogony, to preside over the winds. But, however we may dispute the fabulous interference of JEolus as a teacher, there is good reason for believing, that the first modulated sounds were produced by action of the air on distended chords ex- posed to its currents. The same persons seldom manufacture, but buy of the respective artizans, that other hind of instruments, the origin of which is attributed to the grandson of the windy personage *ust mentioned — Cephalus by name. This musician is represented to us as a kind of trumpeter, bugler, or trombone hero; he was, besides, a near relation of the garrulous old Ithacan king, Ulysses ; who was also a trumpeter — of his own exploits, in a crazy half-decked barque, among the Ionian isles. Flutes, fifes, oboes, clarionets, bassoons, and the intermediate vox humane, now seldom used, even in country church music, have each their separate and favourite makers, which a short experience teaches the Music-seller how to appreciate. Of flutes, the English, or lip-flute, is the most simple, inasmuch as it approaches, with the exception of the lip, to the ancient shepherd's MUSIC-SELLER. 337 reed, depicted by Greek sculptors, as conducting their Io Pecan pro- cessions in honour of Apollo. Notwithstanding all these seeming objections to the common flute, we have attended, in the days of our childhood, to the sweet notes of the ancient pipe, fitted into the head of his walking-stick, and blown occasionally for the amusement of his young friends, in country excursions, by Mr. Edward Score, of Exeter. Mr. Score was not only a Book and Music-seller, but emi- nent as first violin at the Exeter concerts. Of this instrument we read somewhere — Deftly his oaten reed the shepherd swain, Attunes to rural maids in guileless mood, And Cheers the lonely vale and upland wood With notes that vie with Philomela's strain. Besides which, Mr. Bainbridge, of Holborn, has long been employed in manufacturing a superior English flute, in the use of which he gives instructions to pupils, that together bid fair to revive the taste for this sweet and simple instrument. But the reader, who may be led into admiration of the most simple wind instrument heard among a civilized people, has some right to inquire, in how much the present penman is qualified to give an opinion on the point, and a character so high to an apparently insignificant tube ? He shall be told ; and must remain satisfied with an anecdote — a real occurrence. It was about the year that British subjects began the deadly strife which separated one portion of the empire from another, when a nurse- maid led (or dragged) some two or three brats abroad for an airing. She was a native Devonian ; and he who writes these lines, might have been in her right-hand, if not in her left, or running alone : he was emitting some discordant responses to the identical pipe of the friendly gentleman above named, the sounds of which had some time ceased to vibrate on his ear, when a tall gentleman, bending as he walked, with hurried step, and right-hand supporting his chin, de- manded, " Is that child crying or laughing ?" " Noa, zur (replied, the ruddy rustic), " he's a zinging, zur, that's all." Well might he exclaim, in some note of astonishment, his utter dislike of such music ; for it was the performer's primal voluntary— while his auditor and judge was William Jackson, the composer of twice " Twelve Can- zonets," and other pieces. This gentleman is mentioned in another page, with proper reverence: Dr. John Wolcot, who wrote under the assumed name of Peter Pindar, Esq., penned the words of some Q 338 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. of Jackson's songs ; and there remain still, unappropriated, many metrical scraps in " Peter's Portfolio." The Doctor also played a superior violin, more ad libitum, as he chose to speak of his free- doms ; but we have heard him in concert, pleasingly correct and close to the text. The Music-seller is also a publisher of the compositions of others, and ought to possess some taste for poetry ; and also feel the sublimities of such composers as Purcel, Corelli, Handel, Haydn, Cramer, Mozart, and Pleyell. If he relish the bold touches of Der Freischutz, he may lament that none averted the catastrophe of Carl von Weber ; nor need he doubt the goodness of his own heart, should he sigh over the fate of that wonderful man. He may then aspire to emulate a Muzio Clemen ti, a Michael Kelly, and a Dibdin, by hitting off a piece of his own, occasionally. For, herein lies the main advantages of his driving a profitable trade who does not happen to be capitalist enough to manufacture the instruments above enume- rated, that require immense stocks of costly woods to lie seasoning for years. Because, in this case, he is constrained to purchase them of the actual makers, respectively ; some of whom restrict themselves to getting up a certain instrument or two, to the exclusion of all others — as the piano, the organ, or its pigmy imitator, the seraphine. This instrument is a novel and successful attempt to combine great power with much commodiousness, a vast compass of tones with angelic sweetness of sound; comprising alike all the stops and swells required for church chaunting, with the bursts of the glorias, as well as the devotional fugues that possess so exalted a dominion over the soul in chapel service. Large profits are allowed to the venders by the makers of these and every other musical instrument, although, like a Broad wood, or a Crang Hancock, he may get up and sell an invention of his own, exclusively ; and in all cases where a display of an accurate judgment may be required in the choice of a superior piece of workmanship, the Music-seller is well entitled to extra re- muneration : in this respect, seeing that a poor instrument is worth nothing, a bad one less than nothing, the selection of one that is void of defect must be most desirable to the purchaser ; therefore, the apparently immense profit of thirty per cent, or more, is not too great, upon taking so much pains, and exercising the requisite pro- ficiency in his trade. If our Music-seller and publisher aim at accomplishing this pro- fitable portion of his trade, he should not teach any instrument, lest MUSIC-SELLER. 339 he offend a very sensitive portion of his customers; but, if he attempt to show off the superior properties of those he endeavours to make sale of, to honourable, noble, and accomplished customers, it is quite clear that he ought to have attained a certain proficiency in the art, to do this with credit to himself ; else his playing, as well as publications, and his judgment in those respects, will stand him in little stead at the time of trial ; when both will be put to the test by critics of emi- nence, who hold the purse-strings of his profit, but, like other mean pretences, will soonest fail him when most required. Thus, if a poet and a composer offer him the manuscript copy of their joint production, at once the evidence of their learning, taste, skill, study, and genius, how is he to feel and appreciate that these are the genuine effusions of the Muse, unless he himself possess a refined taste, derived from the study of the elder masters in the art, to form a tolerably correct judgment of. the entire work ; that is to say, of the poetry, and the adaptation of the music to express the author's meaning and inten- tions with proper fire ; and, vice versa, when a poet would write words to suit some favourite strains already composed. Doubtless he will, at an early period of his career, become ac- quainted with the old composers before named, and the peculiar beauties of their works (operas), whence many of our moderns draw, incompunctiously, as from free-wrought mines of wealth; and thus enable himself to judge of the degree of originality any new work may possess, in addition to its agreeableness, which will conse- quently govern him while bargaining for the purchase of the copy- right. The importance of such previous advantages may be seen and felt by any discerning man in the trade, who will take the trouble to examine into the progress of publication in former cases. He will learn with surprise, that the nucleus of many a fortune has been made by a single successful piece ; and mark the importance that attaches to copyright exclusiveness, by the results of several actions at law carried on for their defence. We formerly noted an entire family subsisting genteelly in Catherine-street, on the sale of HandeVs score alone; the plates whereof remainedin their hands (the Burchells), and impressions were in constant demand long after the copyright had ceased, according to the letter of the law. Those were the times — the good old times — when the spirit of such a right was respected as the uti possidetis of the trade. Who does not recol- lect the run of Charles Dibdin's Poor Jack, about the year 1790 ? The author-printer-publisher-singer, is said to have cleared 1,000/. Q2 340 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. by this three-page song. " I kept no accounts, Sir," said Sans Souci, at the table of a mutual friend in Ave Maria-lane, "it might have been as much, but my theatre swallowed up all, and left poor Sans Souci sans six sous." Never shall we forget the indescribablelook of inward anguish with which this ejaculation closed. Although the express moment was while the table-cloth departed, he seemed sorely galled by indigestion, as he permitted the words to escape, sinistral ; for time had taken liberties with the masticatores on that side, and he might be observed to deliver his " six-hundred songs" from the same un- wonted orifice. His " professional life" was then going on in the shilling-number mode of publication ; and he had just before heard of its want of success, from his bookseller, Mr. C. Law. Tom Moore received 500/. yearly from his publisher, F. Power, for his Melodies and other pieces ; so said the last mentioned, about 1817. Preston gave John Davy 1 00/. for his " Bay of Biscay O," a few days after its publication; apparently a good round sum, but not beyond its value, as the event proved ; and which, evidently, ought to have been appreciated before the day of publication, by a wary tradesman, lest some other Music-seller, more pre-cognoscent of intrinsic value, might interpose with a similar offer. Poor Davy ! We knew something of him while a pupil of " William Jackson, of Exeter," as he was always termed, with the adjoined locus in quo. His early history is told, with pleasing minuteness, in Richard East- cott's " Sketches of Music ;" to which our duty bids us add, that Davy died of neglect, near St. Martin's church-yard, in silent misery — for he was provokingly reserved. " Silent merit," in such cases, is unfathomable, and usually disastrous, though during the even course of life so very commendable in those we prize. In Sir John Hawkins's History of Music, and Dr. Burney's version of the same, we read of many such musical prodigies falling into disasters, but none, like Davy, in the midst of a large music-loving population. Eastcott was a vicar-choral, Jackson, organist of Exeter Cathedral, down to the close of the last century. The latter sweet composer, and amiable and learned man, was the inventor of some new and unexpected com- binations in music. He published a series of literary essays, entitled " Thirty Letters on various Subjects," a few of them on musical criticism, that at a distance of forty years continue to claim the ad- miration of mankind ; he also left behind him considerable manuscripts which remain in his family still unpublished. With all those cir- cumstances and facts, the Music-seller should become intimately MUSIC-SELLER. 34 1 acquainted, if he be desirous of carrying on his business in high re- spectability, obtain the good opinion of his more discerning customers, and avoid printing much borrowed trash by second-rate and third-rate composers ; the publishing of which seldom pays profit sufficient to reimburse him for the superior care they require, like puny bantlings, to obtain a short-lived place in public estimation ; whereas the production, occasionally, of a piece of merit enough to make its way through all obstacles to its reception into general favour, will attract notice to his establishment ; and the gentry will drop in daily during the season, to inquire after any new productions of the same hand; and thus the happy publisher obtains a resort to his shop, which includes the certainty of present and future sales, and of course brings along the desired profits. If the publisher requires the elegant accomplishments just recom- mended to his cultivation, no less do the makers of musical instru- ments stand in need of some acquaintance with the exact sciences. In addition to an accurate and cultivated ear, and a sound judgment as to the vibratory qualities of wood and metal, he should also be acquainted with the science of pneumatics and practical mechanics. He should, moreover, play sufficiently well to try the power and adjust the tones and stops of his own instruments, at least. Musical Instruments. — A bare enumeration of the various in- ventions for producing modulated sounds, is not our intention; suffice it for the present to observe, that they seem to have nearly exhausted the ingenuity of man ; that they may be divided into three kinds, viz. wind instruments, stringed and pulsatile ; that the drum, cymbals, and gong belong to the latter class; the trumpet is the more obvious of the first-mentioned, and the piano forte, the finest and most copious of all the stringed instruments, if it be not equal to the organ — in all things but the service in which either is chiefly employed. Of both these, we come to say a few words presently, according to our plan of treating those subjects; after premising, that the fingering of an organ is precisely the same as that of the piano-forte, so far as relates to the number and situation of the keys ; but, on account of the great quantity of holding notes in organ-music, the fingers are never kept down, wherefore (says Greene) it would be found highly detrimental to piano-fortists generally to practise on the organ, as they thereby run the risk of impairing that delicacy of touch which is requisite in fingering lightly the keys of the piano. Exceptions, doubtless, are to be found, of professors who play upon 342 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. both with equal excellency, those named in the preceding pages par- ticularly. We have known some musical prodigies who could perform, in a masterly manner, upon several instruments of the different con- structions, on the same day. So much versatility, however, is not always desirable in any science where proficiency in any one department is required, as in this of music ; whilst it seems to be the only one in which the precocious buddings of genius can be safely encouraged to unfold themselves to full maturity. Piano-forte music is the same with that of the spinnet and harpsi- chord; both of which instruments this one has completely driven out of fashion ; having accomplished this much in tenor twelve years after its introduction; which was shortly before 1770, by Zuis, of Princes-street, Hanover-square. The piano is of German origin, and the name is derived from its equal command both of softness and strength of tone. The grand piano y as its name imports, possesses those powers in a superior degree, and its price sometimes reaches so high as seventy guineas. The square piano is the same in force, but of more com- modious form. We shall not descend to the minutiae of the manu- facture, but, as regards the principle upon which the piano is con- structed, we may observe, that this consists in producing a sound by the blow of a hammer upwards, which is raised by the depression of the handle end, by a counter lever. A free action is given to the lever, so that, upon the hammer striking the strings, it reverts at once to its original position. The strings are made of wire, which is still brought from Germany, as our artists have not yet found the means of giving a due temper to the home manufacture : these are stretched across bridges the whole length of the instrument, and made fast over the pins at one end, whilst at the other they turn upon a set of pegf , tightly, by means of the tuning-hammer. Some of these wires are shorter than others ; those lying on the right are also the thinnest, and comprise the upper notes ; those towards the left increasing gradually in length, and being larger, give the lowest notes. The trade of a Musical Instrument-maker is very profitable, and the manufacture of the piano-forte particularly extensive, great numbers being exported to all parts of the world. So much is this the case, that the large concern in Cheapside, lately the firm of Cle- menti, Banger, Hyde, Collard, and Davis, retained a clerk (John Walker), who was wholly employed in making sale of the piano upon Change, and shipping the orders so received. According to the extent to which a young tradesman would lay himself out lor doing MUSIC-SELLER. 343 business, must be the amount of capital brought into it. He who manufactures this instrument alone requires some five or six hundred pounds to lie dead in seasoning wood : the sum is not great, as the quantity used of this material is very small indeed, compared to the price charged for the article. Add, half as much for the other materials he would require, and as much more for the outlay in wages, ere he can bring any instruments into sale, and we come at the sum of 1,000L, as that which would be indispensable to him for the occasion. We must take into account, that he will have high wages to pay ; all the workmen being required to possess great accuracy of adap- tation, and some of them display no little talent. Some receive from 40s. to 50s. per week, while others make a Saturday-night's bill of double those amounts ; and one here and there rises to the dignity of master, without adding, perhaps, either to his profits or his com- forts : we hear of those who have perilled thus far fruitlessly, with sincere regret. Apprentice fees are high to this department of mu- sical instrument making, and depend upon the degree of celebrity the master may have attained to : would he learn the whole arcana of making the piano, a hundred guineas would scarce suffice : if he is to acquire an insight of one department only, from some good workman, a fourth of that fee may be considered enough. The Music-seller, who opens shop under the circumstances, and in accordance with the views sketched out at the head of this article, would require a similar sum with the manufacturer of piano-fortes ; whilst it is clear that if he aim at both, he must possess both sums ; i.e. 2,000/., and even then content himself with carrying on only a second-rate business. Then, again, if he intend to undertake the making of any other instrument, he must increase his capital, in the ratio of the required outlay for materials and wages. Whether it be advisable thus to expand his manufactory at first, is a consider- ation rather without the scope of our subject: unless he were to ask our opinion as to its propriety, we should not feel disposed to inquire into his pecuniary means ; yet is it upon duly weighing the money supports he is likely to command, that a decision upon this point is to turn ; for, upon the amount of these will depend the credit he shall obtain for his raw materials : wages, in every case, form the chief drag upon his capital. The brass instruments, the triangle, &c, he may buy of the Birmingham makers, at a six months' running credit, and a settlement by bill of exchange. Violins of Dutch make, and German iiutes and fifes, he may purchase of the importers, who take 344 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the name of Toy-merchants ; the two last-mentioned always very good, and quite common box, which require but his own name to be burnt on them, after he has approved and given them age, and softened their tones, as was formerly the case with the Prosser, the Cahusac, and the Longman makes. But the best of all those kinds are of the true London manufacture. Who, for example, could hope to pro- duce a six-keyed flute, like Potter's patent ? Who, the key-bugle of Greenhill's invention? Who notwithstanding the expiration of the said patent-right. Who, although Greenhill was obliged to remove to town from Birmingham, ere he could hope to obtain patronage for his new contrivance for cheering travellers on the road, warning t hem to be aware, keeping the coachman to his duty, for steadying the four-in- hand pull, and awakening the turnpikemen. These, and such like exclusive makes, the shopkeeper Music-seller must purchase of the manufacturers; his chief care being to obtain the best of their kinds; not to overstock himself, but to keep as many as he can on " sale or return " terms ; than which, a more agreeable and safe mode of doing business, both as regards maker and vender, does not prevail in this metropolis. For, the shopkeeper keeps no dead stock ; he has no outlay, but pays as soon as he receives money for an instrument, less by the discount, or allowance ; on the other hand, the maker takes his money when his goods find a vent; and if he produce an article few choose to buy, upon his head (or his purse) let the al- legation lie of having busied himself about a thing people cannot approve. With the same precautions, our Music-seller will do well to deal in all or any of the other instruments before mentioned, as well as the drum, tabor, and tambourine, guitar, hautboy, clarionet, bassoon. French-horn, and serpent, which are usually got up by dif- ferent makers, each claiming some degree of pre-eminence for his name or make. NEEDLE-MAKER. Scarcely any other instrument, tool, or piece of manufacture, possesses so much interest as the simple needle. Whether this universal feeling is impulsed by its extreme minuteness (as we NEEDLE-MAKER. 345 caress minikins of the animal kind — children, dwarfs, poodles) or whether by the numerous uses to which needles are capable of being applied, is hard to tell. For, not only have we in prospect to speak of the needles used by sempstresses, tailors, bookbinder-women, breeches- makers, shoe-binders, hat-liners and binders, and the fine-draw T ers of woollen-manufacture, but those, also, which assume a more substan- tial shape, or otherwise serve some curious purpose, as the tambour- lace needle, the needle of magnet touch, sail-makers' needles, and that immense needle (in effect) of varied magnitude, employed by seamen in splicing, in bending sail, and making fast the over-hand knot, and by them ycleped marling- spike. All come under the term acus* by the ancients ; who thus described the Opus Phrygium ; a country, by the way, where the dames were all rural ladies, seldom " coming to town " (of which indeed they had none), but minding their works with exemplary assiduity, and sticking to the point-lace making, spoken of at p. 305. Upon that occasion we came to the safe con- clusion, that those women employed the eye-needle, from a single mention of the acuum theca, which hung at the fair ones' sides ; leaving the reader no alternative for supposing otherwise, than that no dame (madame or belle-dame), damsel, or other person, would wear a needle- case unless she found abundance of needles to deposit therein. The story is not a true one, then, that we had no needles here in England till 1545, they were made by a native of India (i.e. China). Soon after this period they were made at Long Crendon, in Buckingham- shire, by one Christopher Greening and his three children ; and we have reason for thinking, that the manufactory was shortly after brought to nearly as much perfection as it ever has or will attain. Upon its being taken up by the Birmingham makers and others, greater expedition has indeed been infused into the production of countless numbers of all the sorts and sizes, chiefly by the intro- duction of machinery in the polishing and pointing branches, whereby the prices were reduced considerably, and now keep very low. In 1754, the then manufactory of needles was described by W. Owen, very nearly as it is carried on at the present day, and as it had been performed long before his time. It is, as most people know, a very common little instrument made of steel, pointed at one end, and perforated with an eye at the other ; used in sewing, embroidery, tapestry, &c. Needles make a very considerable article in commerce; the con umption amounting to numbers almost incredible, owing to their astonishing cheapness. We have seen immense packages of Q3 346 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the common sort sold at 1*. lO^d. to 2$. 2d. per thousand needles ; and the venders seemed content when the auctioneer's (Wood) hammer realized those sums. In the preceding article (p. 342), we took occasion to notice the pre-eminence which German steel-wire still possessed over the English ; the same preference extends also to needle-wire, our best needles being made from Hungarian wire, which comes to us by the way of Trieste. Therefore it was, that the law laid a countervailing impost upon importation, of lis. 6jd. per doz. M, on foreign needles. The sizes run from No. 1, the largest, to No. 25, the finest, and the best makes are marked with a C ; meaning Whitechapel, where alone were long time made the best sorts, though these are now made every where they choose so to denote their spurious ware. In making needles, the first thing is to wire-draw the metal to the required fineness, giving to it a heat at each passage between the rollers. Lard, or some such greasy matter, is smeared over the wire, to give it the required ductility; an expense and labour which we apprehend might be saved, by suffering the work to cool slowly at the fireside. The steel thus reduced to a fine wire, is then cut in pieces of the required lengths, and one end flattened on the anvil, to form the head and receive a punch for the eye, on a block of lead: they are then turned with incredible dispatch, and receive another punch on the other side, which brings away any burr that may re- main from the first puncture. The whole is then dressed with a file: at the head, a groove as far as the eye, on each side, is made to admit of the thread's passing more easily along with the needle in its operations ; turning it round, the point is given, and the polish all over. The work is then heated on an iron plate, with a return or bend ; and upon acquiring sufficiently the hardening process, they are cast into water at a critical moment, which should nearly com- plete this part of the process. If not so, the heating is repeated over a slow fire, to anneal or give the proper temper to the making ; and, as this occasions a certain twist in almost every individual needle, each undergoes the hammer on a grooved anvil. Polishing is the next process to which the needles are subjected. To do this, they take twelve or fifteen thousand needles, and place them in little heaps against each other, on a piece of new buckram, sprinkled with emery dust, and more of the same dust is laid over them. Oil is then sprinkled over the whole, the buckram is closed, the ends made fast, and the parcel is submitted to the effects of a NEEDLE-MAKER. 347 heavy rolling instrument, being continued on the polishing table. A thick planking, charged with heavy stones, is first laid on the parcel of needles, which secures even pressure, and two men were wont to work the roller forward and backward, for a day and a half, or two days, incessantly : the effect is an excellent polish, as well as affording good proof of the temper ; many are broken and many more bent, and both are rejected as unworthy. To get rid of the smudge of oil and emery, hot water and soap are repeatedly applied ; the alkali of the latter being found completely detersive of the grease. Bran, a little moist, in a round box, then receives the needles : and being suspended in the air, motion is given to these, until both bran and needles become dry : repetition is found necessary, more than once, in dry bran. Pointing again takes place, by the workman holding an indefinite number in his hand, while pressing the points on an emery stone-wheel, and rolling them as this runs round. This operation concludes the making, and nought remains but to " paper up" in quarter thousands. One maker, Mr. W. Bell, of Walsal, produces a needle from cast- iron wire ; but this we should consider no improvement, nor the patent with which that manufacturer is vested worth any more than the parchment on which it is engrossed. The mode of rendering cast-iron malleable, by regulating the heats, had long been known, when that gentleman's document became public. This was the prin- ciple of Dudley and Goodwin's patent cast-iron horse shoes, which occupied much of our attention fourteen years ago ; a time that is quite conclusive, we apprehend, of the claims of Mr. Bell, or any other cast-iron patentee, whether he be annealed or not. But another, and a veritable improvement, as to time and expense, is the new method of hardening the needles in oil, or grease of any sort, in which they are immersed previous to being put into the fire. When there, the flaming of the oil at the moment of its being ex- hausted, is the signal that heat sufficient has been applied to obtain the desired temper ; whereas, by the old process, the degree of heat was a matter of guess work, and frequently failed, in whole or in part. The journeymen employed in this department are always tolerably habile, from long practice ; they are " chemists by rule of thumb," as William Nicholson described such workmen in iron as Fred. Accum, the ungrateful despoiler of his labours ; yet they obtain but middling wages, or the small master attends to the heats himself, and thus effects a saving of some 30*. a week. The other workmen are 348 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. mere labourers, at little more than half that weekly remuneration ; women and children are also employed in papering up the needles fit for transit, &c. What fee would be given with an apprentice to a first- rate master, must depend upon the parents ; and these would regu- late their munificence by the degree of respectability of the business carried on; some Needle-makers also getting up other articles than these : we consider 20/ or 30/. sufficient. The commencement in business may be achieved with a very middling capital, say 200/. ; or it may extend to ten times that sum. OILMAN. He deals in an infinite variety of articles for domestic use, as well as the main one whence he derives his commercial cognomen. The oils sold by him are of several sorts, as, first, train oil for lamps, and soft soap ; second, linseed oil, for house-painters and medical applications ; and the " sweet oils," as, third, Florence, salad or nut oil, for the table ; fourth, rape oil, which obtains the term " droppings," and is used for oiling the stones on which Carpenters and other workers in wood sharpen their tools : the last mentioned is that kind employed by our Wool-combers for softening their wools, in order to obtain those fine flakes the spinners are wont to pass over their fingers in forming the yarns. Consult Fuller, p. 253. This, and a fifth kind, from the palm tree, for soap-making, as well as the first-mentioned (derived from fish), are chiefly vended at wholesale to the cloth manufacturers, soap-boilers, and lamp-con- tractors (a calling now considerably abridged), by the Oil Merchants. These are the importers of oil, or who buy of the South-sea adventurers, &c. and keep large stocks until the rise which takes place in winter, when the demand is " brisk" and the consump- tion greatest. This was formerly a capital article to job in, an advance in price more or less being certain, previous to the adoption of gas- light illumination for our streets ; very much resembling the sure game played by the great dealers in hay and straw for a London market, which invariably nets a profit of 10, 20, ad 50 per cent., some- times considerably more : both parties require roomy outskirt premises for their stores ; the former for his casks and his leagers, if not for boiling, and the latter for his numerous stacks. Another set of job- OILMAN. 349 bers in oil are the refiners, who bring the lowest kind of whale and seal oils to the transparent, scentless state of the finest spermaceti. The feculence is carried down, and made to subside, by introducing to the oil washed sand, and giving the casks considerable agitation, and then rest ; hereupon, subsidence to a considerable amount takes place^ and of course the supernatant oil being less in quantity, its price is thereby enhanced, in the first instance. But the smell, the fetor, so repugnant to ailing stomachs, still remains : let the oil be treated, as before, with agitation, and time for subsidence allowed ; but, instead of sand, the detergent property is now to be sought in charcoal, or the charred wood of the pyrolignum makers, fresh, and well kept from atmospheric influences. The charcoal is to be previously pounded in water, wholly submerged, free from air and light ; on this process being concluded, the floating water is to be poured off, and the resi- duum introduced to the clear oil immediately, and it will be found at the bottom, charged with the fetid particles which the agitation has caused it to neutralize, and the subsidence to carry down. We feel a high gratification in making this communication to our readers, of a supposed secret, but which we were the first to publish to the world in the days of early manhood. Some length of practice will, perhaps, be found necessary to arrive at perfection in this art ; and, among other things, a further employment of the washed sand may be thought proper, in some cases. Another species of oil-merchants deal mostly in sweet oils, and a few leading articles of foreign produce, termed dry saltery ; which they retail to the oil shops, through the agency of a town traveller, one who walks all over London at certain given periods, on a com- mission of some half per cent. It is observable, lhat the farther removed from the centre those shops may be, the greater the number of trifling articles do they keep for sale. Let us enumerate a few, after premising, that the vastly amusing variety is seldom entered upon in the first instance ; but seem to be ordered in with the view of suiting the exigencies of the particular neighbourhood, and might, with equal propriety, be extended to legs of mutton or a polyglot Bible. V ide licet, gunpowder and shot, brick-dust, brushes, brooms, blacking, candles, soap, indigo, and soda ; matches, gum, glue, and whitening ; salt, pickles, fire-wood, flints, brimstone, blacklead, stamps, poor-man's plaster, quack pills, scouring paper, Glauber's salts, starch, bees-wax, lamp-black, size, ochre, chalk, sand, vitriol, freestone — and what not ? , 350 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES Colourman is a very common adjunct to the Oilman's trade, as he deals in turpentine and all sorts of paints. These he grinds for the lesser order of Painters ; and, with some, it constitutes the chief branch of this truly multifarious trade. Yet may a tolerably fair stock be laid in with less than 300/. ; and as the new beginner will sell mostly for ready money, while he takes a running credit with the Merchant, he may soon spread out his dealings, so as to infringe upon the proper businesses of his neighbours. Apprentices are seldom taken,, unless to enure youths to habits of industry, and keep them from gadding ; but boys of good families put to a respectable tradesman, should be endowed with a 30/. fee at least. OPTICIAN AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. Mathematical knowledge is so intimately connected with the doctrine of optics, that it were a waste of words to attempt a separate consideration in this place ; where the making of the tools which are to assist practical philosophers in their studies, is the subject of investigation. Besides this, if it be not a confirmation of our views, the business of an Optician and of a Mathematical Instrument-maker, when conducted upon an enlarged scale, are ever combined in the same shop. The master-mind, which is devoted to the production of optical instruments, as telescopes, spectacles, microscopes, has great need of mathematical precision in their construction ; in mea- suring the focus of an object-glass, for instance, and adapting the distance and concavity of the sight-glass aright, so as to catch and multiply the reflection of the object. To his treatise on light and colours, Sir Isaac Newton gave the title " Optics ;" whence, telescopes adapted to this purpose are called achromatic, in the trade ; whilst the others, that produce their effect from direct and ordinary rays, are termed common reflecting telescopes. Of these, it is worthy of remark, that one of five foot is found more effective than those ex- cessively large instruments of which we hear and read, but only one have seen, viz. that at Slough, near Windsor ; the owner of which had the candour, or felt the necessity of acknowledging its general inutility for particular observation, however it might be serviceable in making an extensive sweep of the heavens. This astonishing large toy, of forty feet, and made with a sheet-iron case, was erected OPTICIAN AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 351 by the first Herschel (as intimated at p. 321), under the patronage of King George the Third ; yet did that distinguished astronomer, and giant Optician, bring down none of his famous discoveries, as the planet Uranus, or Georgium Sidus, and the constellation Tele scop ium Herscheli, with a glass of greater magnitude, of size or frame, than a five-foot reflector. How they manage these matters at the Dorpat Observatory, and other continental monstrosities of the like make, we have no means of knowing. George Adams, the Mathematical Instrument-maker, of Fleet- street, stands pre-eminently high in our estimation, as the most ac- complished practical Optician of the days that are past. He was moreover, a good man ; kind, independent in thought and action ; unsordid, unlike some of his cotemporaneous successors, and, unlike some of them, a candid and intelligent author of various books con- nected with the arts in which he was engaged. A bare history of this gentleman would give a better idea of the trade, and its conso- nant pursuits, now under consideration, than any dogged description of the instruments in which he dealt, or high-flown elogise on the excellent state of improvement in which his optical instruments, in particular, were got up. To explain his ideas on the subject, and to shew what he had done for his art, Mr. Adams wrote (in 1786) an " Essay on Vision," which was afterwards enlarged, and formed a thin octavo volume. Its reception, though far from being a warm one, caused an immediate resort to his shop for spectacles, of the higher orders, and best informed persons from all parts. He gave advice, as the phrase goes, on the treatment of the eye, with a view to its preservation ; and in 1796, we ourselves received instructions from him, as to the economical management of sight, which has ever since stood us in good stead, practically, to the present hour. Need the fact be told, that he took no fee? No; he was not in the guinea- trade, as the Medical and Surgical Satirist terms it; nor did he make sale of a pair on the occasion ; those we then wore had been bought at Shuttleworth's, near St. Paul's, or at Bleuler's, next door, and the disinterested author of an Essay on Vision pronounced these to be all that could be desired. Afterwards he produced " Essays on the Microscope," in quarto, which was very well received ; next, " Essays on Electricity and Magnetism," octavo ; " Astronomical and Geo- graphical Essays," octavo ; " Geometrical and Graphical Essays," octavo; and lastly, his opus optimus, in the form of lectures, w On Natural and Experimental Philosophy," five vols, octavo. S52 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. All this, coming from a tradesman, who was in hourly attention to his shop, and to his workmen, proves the activity of his mind amidst every pressure from without ; and their reception also shewed, that his literary labours were thought useful and consistent. The profits were commensurate to his wishes ; and they realised large sums, at his decease, for copyright. That event happened soon after 1800, rather unexpectedly : his works passed into the hands of Jones, in Holborn, whose name appears to two of them, as having taken cara of the reprints ; whilst the quarto Essays on the Microscope re- ceived some large additions from Mr. Kanmacher, of Apothecaries Hall; a gentleman of education, and^ varied ability, in whose hands the copy rested at the author's death. Indeed, we are led to apprehend, from the intimate acquaintance with the subject of optics displayed in the new matter, that the same pen had been originally employed in this and some of the preceding pieces of Mr. Adams. This sort of circumstance, however, upon which some sensitive persons express themselves too acutely, is very commonly practised by most literati; indeed, we should say, that the best books in our language are those which have been subjected to friendly revision previous to publica- tion. An example of the manner in which that gentleman would handle any subject he might take in hand, may be seen, by turning back to pages 41 — 66, where our coadjutor has inserted a tolerably lengthy " life of Lackington, formerly of Finsbury-square, bookseller :" this farrago of vanity and meanness, of boasting and servility, re- ceived from the hand of the same Mr. Kanmacher, a friend of the autobiographer, not only its last touches, but all that could render such a subject acceptable to the public : its sale was immense; for the murky hero of his own tale was expected to have made certain trade disclosures, as well as some which related to the sect of Chris- tians he had repudiated in the days of his prosperity, but to which he again reverted when life was on the wane. The Opticians were incorporated, as a trade, by Charles I. 1630; which marks the period when they first became of any consideration in this country. But, at that time, as now, most of the larger in- struments were imported from Holland ; and they acquired no higher title here, than " The Worshipful Company of Spectacle-makers" Of this very ordinary contrivance, for aiding the eye-sight in the common occupations of life, vast numbers are manufactured in this country, and are of all prices, from sixpence the pair, with temples, for green and white glass, to the pebble of as many shillings, in steel OPTICIAN AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER. 353 or tortoiseshell frames. The largest holder of the first mentioned species of spectacles, is Mr. Martin, of Gracechurch-street ; and he who manufactured the better sort on the largest scale, in our time, was the late Mr. John Holmes, of Nichols-square, Aldersgate-street, where we have noticed eight or ten men busily employed. Generally speaking, the Optical Instrument-maker is employed in making telescopes, microscopes of the different structures, as well as spec- tacles, reading-glasses, eye-glasses, and opera-glasses. The frames of ordinary metals are made at Birmingham, Walsal, Sheffield, and other places, whilst the Optician executes very little more of the work than fitting in the glasses, after these are grinded. This work he executes by grinding convex glasses on the brass concave sphere, and his concave glasses upon a convex sphere of the same metal, with sand, and emery, and putty, in the manner described at p. 274, for plain glass. Similarly is performed the grinding of telescopic glasses; the object-glass being composed of three glasses, each of several degrees of thickness, one of which is crown glass and two of flint glass, or for other purposes, two of the former and one of the latter: these contrivances prevent the appearance of the objects from being inverted, and adds to the distance of the focus, which increases the powers of the lenses, the sight-glass being necessarily adapted thereto. On this co-adaptation of the glasses to each other, depends the magnifying powers of each individual instrument. We first read of these powers in the works of our countryman, Roger Bacon, in the thirteenth century. Soon after its close, Alhazon, an Arabian, gave the first hint for making spectacles; and in 1313, Spina, a citizen of Pisa, first made public the mode of constructing these; but in this matter, as in all others, the rivalry of the two cities induced the Florentines to claim this honour for Salvanus Armatus, by insidiously recording a prior claim on his tomb. For the invention of telescopes we are indebted to Janssen, a spectacle-maker of Walcheren, in 1590; and shortly after, Galileo made one by which he discovered Jupiter, and the spots on the sun : the principle upon which the construction effected so much was in this guise. First, to obtain such an image of a distant object by means of a lens or mirror, and then to give to the eye some assistance for viewing that image as near as possible. But, in proportion as the magnifying power was extended, the field of vision was narrowed, and the necessity arose of increasing the size of the object glass. That of Sir W. Herschell, before spoken of, is 48 inches in diameter. 354 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the thickness in every part of it is 3^- inches, and its weight previous to grinding was 2118 pounds. The reflecting telescope was invented by Mr. James Gregory, of Aberdeen, whither some people send to purchase them ; but they are manufactured in London, at Wapping, and sent to Aberdeen, where they undergo examination and approval, no doubt, and are marked with sanction of the well-known name. We must also notice another similar, but less allowable practice, of the German importers marking their instruments with such names as Dollond, Jones, Gilbert, and other enviable makers. Peter Dollond was the inventor of the achromatic telescope ; so called from its power of representing colours. Lastly, the kaleidoscope claims notice, from its singularly grotesque configurations, and vivid mul- tiplication of certain coloured scraps of glass enclosed within its tube. Such an instrument was described by Bradley, of Hampton- court, early in the last century ; and Dr. Brewster described it as made by him, in his Journal : he obtained a patent for the invention, notwithstanding the prior claim of old Bradley, which seemed to our perception a very odd mode of shewing his superior perspicacity ; the consequence was, that every ingenious fellow made kaleidoscopes plenty, in despite of the parchment injunction, which is now expired — and so is the Doctor's Journal. The Mathematical Instrument-maker constructs all kinds of instruments that are required for mathematical purposes ; among these may be enumerated quadrants and sextants ; globes, orreries, gunters, and sliding scales, compasses, and the Mariners' compass ; parallel rules, micrometers, sacchrometers, thermometers, barometers, sun-dials, sectors, air-pumps, and the whole apparatus required in experimental philosophy. He ought to possess a mathematical turn of mind, for plodding and getting up those and the like kinds of in- struments ; and should become acquainted with the theory and principles upon which they are constructed, as well as the practical use of them, as also that of any similar invention which he may be employed to implement for the contrivers. As the mechanics em- ployed by the master understand little of the purposes to which their work is to be applied, he should be a thoroughly good judge of work in general, which extends to an infinity of articles. All the operatives in this trade, or rather assemblage of trades, obtain excellent wages, according to each his particular proficiency ; some so low as 30s. in the inferior departments, while full of employ- ment ; others approach to 40s., and a few earn considerably more in OPTICIAN AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 355 topping concerns, where a good genius and much accuracy of adjust- ment is required. But where only one article is made, and that in considerable numbers, as in the case of the Wapping manufactory of telescopes, adverted to in the preceding page, there we find the precise work of each man is so distinctly set forth for him, that he performs his task with the exactitude of a piece of machinery, and as he exerts no extraordinary talent, and is constantly employed, requires not high wages. Eighteen men actively engaged there in producing the article of telescopes only, is strong evidence of the superiority of this country in manufacturing an expensive instrument like this for all the world nearly : most of these are brass mounted ; indeed, we saw no other; and of every size, some on pedestals, &c. also made of brass, reached to ten, fifteen, twenty guineas, and more, at trade prices. The commencement of such a concern, with so great an outlay for wages, weekly, is hardly to be contemplated ; young beginners usually circumscribing their views to a more humble trade at first; so that aught less than six or eight hundred pounds for a telescope- maker, or half as much for a spectacle manufacturer, like that before mentioned, but on a small scale, would be considered a bagatelle not worth naming. As many thousands as three or four, are indis- pensable for a general Mathematical and Optical Instrument-maker, who should hope to vie with the names mentioned above — as Jones, Adams, Trough ton, &c. &c. Apprentice-fees are high in every de- partment of these trades, where the youth or his friends entertain well-founded hopes of his becoming a master of workmen ; but not so in cases where he has no further prospect than working at the bench for his weekly wages. PAINTER. Let us enumerate the several classes of Painters as they arise here : — 1. House-Painter, is the most extensive, as he spreads his colour over a whole house, inside and outside, and completes the builders' labours. 2 The Sign-Painter writes the words on the labours of the last- mentioned in front, on the posts, or on separate boards : some 356 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. he gilds, and brings out his letters by giving each a relief in brown or black, called shading. 3. The Grainer, who admirably imitates the grains of woods, marbles, &c. : his is a separate calling. 4. The Herald-Painter, who depicts the owners' arms on carriages of the gentry, their cyphers, and other devices. 5. The Portrait-Painter, Landscape, Scenic, or Historical-Painter, i. e. the Artist. The first, second and third, although separately denominated, and the work actually performed by different men in detail, yet do they all range under the same head, or master, who is the sole employer in jobs of any magnitude. We have seen, that the small house Painter takes his colours of the oil-man (page 349) ; but the Painter on a large scale, grinds his own colours, purchasing his crude materials in the rough of the dry-salter and oil-merchant ; and usually has some compound paint, or distemper, of his own sup- posed clever exclusive invention and proprietorship. Jn any other respect, the House-Painter's trade requires no manner of ingenuity to execute it in perfection ; by taking little paint upon his brush, and carrying it up and down the work according to the grain thereof ; and this with the points of the hairs, so as to leave all the surface smooth, and of an homogenous colour. One quality of the head he ought to possess in perfection ; namely, that of great steadiness, upon his elevation in front of a high building, or while reaching out of some window, or over a parapet, or where the area lies perdue below ; also, when the sun, in zero, shines upon his well be-papered cranium, and compels recourse to the oft replenished porter-pot, he finds the cerebral functions cease, his dimmed eyes forget even their late lack-lustre, and he descends to rise no more. Here lies great cause for reflection, as well as for taking heed how a Painter sacrifices to the jolly penates, the John Barleycorns of his droughty acquaintance, before he strikes his ladder for the day. To this catastrophe he would the more assuredly tend, if, in the course of mixing and handling his colours, he do not carefully abstain from too close contact with the very deleterious compound of turps (turpentine) with the white lead, whence a noxious effluvium arises; but, whether by one means or the other, or with the addition of oil, or verdigris, he imbibes, takes up, or absorbs, into his bodily system, any of these, his limbs become paralyzed, he loses strength, and becomes a walking mummy ; unless he previously loses firm hold of PAINTER. 357 the frail supports of his person while at work, and he finish his career in the twinkle of an eye. Our duty towards the reader would have been performed imperfectly, but for this friendly premonition. The Painters of the present day, however, perform the principal part of the operat ion of grinding by means of mills, carried by horse power ; which lessens the labour, truly, but still much remains of danger from the tippling carelessness of most of the men, though every one of them says he is perfectly aware of his danger, and well apprized of the means of prevention. These are, cleanliness of the person, particular^' of the hands, and averting the head — the olfactory* upon pouring on the turps upon the white lead ; changing clothes, linen and locality, after the work is over, &c. adds to the security from the paralytic attack ; from which even a visit to the Bath waters cannot always relieve him, let Dr. Davis say what he may think proper on the occasion. We should hear with perfect indif- ference, the usual parting remark to one of those afflicted poor painters : — " You have had the benefit of the Bath waters, my man, and nothing more can be done for you;" for, we have inquired in vain for one successful case of such a paralysis from the use of those celebrated waters. There, we have often seen long strings of such poor creatures, crawling to the bath, and have found numerous other painters in London who had tried them, without the desired effect. Without painting, the wooden parts of our buildings would be liable to premature decay on the outside, and fail of that neat, healthy, lively, and cleanly appearance internally, which we enjoy in a superior degree to any of the continental nations. The Painter's work also covers a multitude of sins of carpenters, L e. their omis- sions, cracks and nail-head perforations, which the Painter previously fills with putty ; and, when a couple of good coats have been added to the priming, a soap-washing may be employed at any time, with scrubbing, to restore its first and wonted freshness. This kind of painting, is far from being a difficult trade to learn. Apprenticeships, therefore, are not absolutely necessary, unless to obtain the freedom of the Company and of the City ; advantages that are now passing away while we write. See, on this point, some pertinent remarks at page 297-8. Then, as now, we were far from misappreciating the value of such incorporations, at an early period of our commercial prosperity. By the 24th of Elizabeth (1582) the Painters and Stainers were erected into a trading company; and we are content to apprehend the institution beneficial at the time, when the appli- 358 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. cation of oil-paint to houses was in its infancy ; its invention % and use on a small scale, being ascribed to a Netherlander in the pre- ceding century — see above, page 246. To the honour of this company of tradesmen, we may notice, that the celebrated William Camden was the son of one of their members ; and not disdaining to own his origin, and his progress through a state of poverty and other obstacles, to become head of the Herald's College, on Dowgate-hill ; and after, principal King at Arms, as well as a great favourite at the courts of Queen Elizabeth and James I. ; he was pleased to bequeath (in 1633) to this Company, a gold cup, bearing those facts on its sides, to be used in his remembrance for ever; whilst the Company, no ways backwards, on their parts, ordered a well-drawn portrait of our English Strabo, as he was often deno- minated, to be hung up in their Hall. And there both are to be seen, in Little Trinity Lane, doing equal honour to the memories of the giver and recipients. Thither let all industrious scholars repair, who labour under the like straits, and strive to surmount their pre- sent difficulties, by whetting their wits on the "Remains of Camden, the renowned," on his " Letters to de Thou and others," and on his great work " Britannia," a chorographical description of these kingdoms which has never been surpassed. Sign Painter. — Most mere house-painters undertake to paint- sign boards (doing it by deputy), and some of them can and do write them tolerably well ; although, as must be apparent to every perambulator on our streets, these signs exhibit specimens of every degree of excellence. The art of Sign-painting requires practice, to learn the mode and shape of letters, of forming, and so disposing the several words as that they shall produce the required effect on the beholders — those who look round, to observe and to acquire infor- mation as to the trade, or the name, or the articles to be sold ; in all which points, the Painter and his employers desire to make an impression on the passers by, whom they would thereby intrap into making a purchase of the wares within. None of these ends can be accomplished, that is plain, unless this be done in a neat un- bungling manner. To achieve this in the proper manner on all occasions, our young Sign Painter cannot do better than study the mode of disposing his words, and more striking lines, observed by the Letter-press Printer in the composition of his title pages. See how the principal words are expressed in large capitals, those in the nominative being largest, in order to strike the reader; PAINTER. 359 secondary words being smaller, and second titles formed of Italic letters. The author's name is usually formed of smaller roman capitals, and his faculty and fellowships (if he be honoured with any) also of Italics. Example: — THE PAINTERS' AND VARNISHERS' SURE GUIDE, By J. C. Tingry, a work proper to be put into the hands of every young man connected with the Arts. N. B. Beware of counterfeits ; there being imitators abroad, who assume to be original authors, whilst purloining the works of others. By the way, Mr. Tingry has been so robbed ; a real ingenious and practical author, of much experience, who gave to the world the result of his labours for twelve shillings, has been thus disserviced ; parts and portions of his work purloined (not always the best), by a sort of jack-daw compilateur, who has inflated his compost to a forty shilling volume, and put his own comical name to the thing as the real original author. Sign Board Painters, in general, are sadly deficient in their ortho- graphy, or rather were so, as we think we can perceive indications of improvement in this respect ; as indeed is quite necessary in this lowest degree of schooling. How the defect first prevailed is easily solved. When learning to read and write was attained with diffi- culty, working people thought it no shame for their young families to grow up without even these small particles of education ; and the boys of each succeeding generation were placed out to trades, for which their previous habits totally unfitted them ; the parents having little means of forming a proper judgment on a matter of so much importance. But now, that this much, at least, is within the reach of every man, we may venture to say, that whoever dares to write a line for public exhibition, as a Painter or otherwise, without being able to spell every word aright, ought to be Hogged on the spot, and * wear a paper cap, as a sign that his education is scarcely commen- surate with his professions. Another reason why Sign Painters devolve remiss of their orthography, is found in their garrulity, 360 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. which ever abridge th the sound common sense and reason that ought to be exercised on such occasions. How comes it that the best among them, the first painter of letters in London, should nail up aloft, a sign board of four words, with as many false concords in it ? During thirty years, in St. James's-street, there stood, in gold upon black, " His Majesties Gun Maker." Now Majesties being plural, did not agree with the pronoun his; and if their Majesties required such an instrument, one a piece would be absolutely necessary. However we might bandy the offence backward and forward, we may not uninstructively add, that the whole might have been avoided by a small alteration in the reading, thus, " Gun Maker to his Majesty." While we write, a worker in the plastic art, living at Nine Elms, is said to give his customers no favourable notion of his researches among the choice specimens of antiquity, by having a sign board which announces that he is a " Muddeler to the trade." Another example may suffice: Walking lately into the premises of a Sign Painter, we found him busy at a board, poised easel fashion : it told of the education of young ladies, was rather more wordy than usual, and contained two or three anomalies. Upon these being pointed out, he of course gave them correction (as, who does not defer to the doctor?), but rebuked his good wife for permitting him to make such egregious blunders in grammar. The Sign Painters must amend their jargonics in this particular ; and, as to depicting portraits or animals, since the attempt is invariably ludicrous, let them re- linquish the avocation altogether, until they have studied the art spoken of in the next portion of this chapter. A House Painter may commence business upon 200/. with a good prospect of success in London; but in remoter parts, this trade is commonly mixed with the Glazier (page 275) and Plumber. The Sign Painter, however, or writer, is a journeyman or master solus, who works for several, indeed any body; and thus obtains almost full employment, at a large payment per job, and knocks up 3/. or 41. or more weekly, if he be a good hand. So does the Grainer, or rather has done, when fewer hands were to be found who could execute fairly those apparently slight touches which please the eye so much, while they deceive us into a belief that we look upon marble, mahogany, stone, &c. We remember a neighbour of this trade, who was said to earn five or six pounds per week in summer; PAINTER. 361 and we believed the assertion, for he appeared to live up to the mark, at least one entire summer. But the reader must note the sequel. This very fortunate tradesman, who wrought, as it were, in the mines of Golconda, became enamoured of the play, spouted Shakespeare, and mouthed his parts like a Stentor, to the utter neglect of Graining and Gilding; the consequences were, loss of energy, forget- fulness of his duties, poverty, rags, and all but starvation. House Decorator. — This is a branch of the preceding, or is carried on as a separate trade by an ingenious master, who well understands how to employ the appropriate talent in gilding the cornices, coins, and mouldings, in striking out bold patterns on the pannels of rooms, doors, &c. and picking out in colours some ancient carved ceilings, pilasters, and the like ; other men (plasterers) float the walls of some large public buildings, and raise emboss-like patterns on ceilings for the Decorator. Many a tolerable fortune is made in this line ; but some of them have been lost by speculations in " running up" rows of houses in some of the new vicinages, which bear no other vestige of the unfortunate circumstance, perhaps, than the foolish man's name stuck up at some two or three corners of streets, and those of his sons Edward, William, Frederick, at those of the adjoining alleys. As a specimen of the mode of commencing business, with less than a hundred pounds, we are enabled to annex hereto, a copy from the original announcement of a journeyman who could execute the whole himself: " House Decorator and Painter. — Noblemen and Gentlemen about to beautify their Mansions, may have their house and orna- mental painting, gilding and graining, executed in a very superior, or in a moderate style, on reasonable terms, for ready-money payments, by Geo. Goose, of Hoxton. *** For an exemplar of his temperate style of finish, he is kindly enabled to refer to Mr. P. Anguish, Conservative Tavern, Holborn ; where the interior fittings up, on a tolerable scale, in G. G.'s cooler style, may be seen, at any hour of the day ; and where Letters may be addressed to him — Postage free? Herald Painter. — Totally different from the preceding; they know not each other; resembling much (to use a pun) the disso- nance of two kinds of deer, buck and stag; which neither live nor layre in similar places, nor eat at the same hours, have no habitudes in common, nor die alike, nor afford room for the same physiological observations on cutting up. All are painters, however, for they do R 362 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. paint; and most of them depict buck for stag, and vice versa. Others, going a step farther, advise the putting up, for a sign of the White Hart (a six-year old stag), the horns and body of a buck, palmated, gilded, caparisoned. The Herald and Coach Painter, are the same in trade, though some youths pay peculiar attention to Coats of Arms, which appear on the family carriages of our gentry; and these partake in good measure of the genius and accomplishments of the Artist — of whom we come next to speak. . This is not exactly a trade, but a high accomplishment, in one of the most endearing of the Fine Arts ; the source of good incomes to many, and of honour to some — if the Royal regards, and titles of distinction, be worth any thing. A fine genius is indispensable to his making a figure in the pursuit of the fame and fortune, which awaits the young artist who relies upon his pencil for a living ; to this he must add great perseverance, devotedness to his profession, and industry; which qualities, by the way, always attend a real genius in every pursuit of life ; even the Mathematician, doited as he seems, entertains profound reverence for his science of quantities. He will receive much encouragement to labour hard in his vocation, by reading the Lives of the Painters who have gone before him, together with the Treatises some of them have submitted to the world, on the perfection of their much loved art; both will be rendered still more instructive by his studying hard the chef d^ceuvres of each artist, as his views, his struggles, his opinions, remarks, and very misfortunes, are detailed by his biographer in varied and melancholy succession. The two works of Felibien, his Vies des Peintres, and sur la peinture, should precede all others ; Walpole's Anecdotes, Houghton Hall, and the whole of his works, are full of taste and vertu. The works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, his Lectures, and Life by Mr. Farrington ; Opie's Lectures, and Richard- son's Treatise, may all be studied with advantage; as may the two volumes of " Letters from a young Painter abroad," by the last named, a publication of surpassing merit for the junior student. We recommend to him strongly to imbibe and enter into the spirit with which these Letters were written ; the filial attachment, brotherly love, and expanded notions on all the subjects touched upon, being all worthy of serious consideration, if not of imitation : the expression of friendly feelings often reach the heart through the medium of the mind. PAINTER. 363 When Richardson wrote those Letters (vol. I.) he resided at Rome, Naples, &c. whence they are severally dated. His father's family being numerous, the writer appears to have stood still, occa- sionally, for want of funds ; for he accepted the gratuitous offers of English gentlemen making the grand tour of Europe, as was the fashion. These letters, then, were converted into a source of profit ; being collected from the members of his family to whom they had been addressed, and published in the periodical form; and the profits, which seem considerable for the age (1746), were transmitted to him as the means of his continuance in Italy, that he might send home more communications of the same kind. Yet did this author pro- duce no magnificient work of Art himself, having made portrait painting his principal pursuit ; the patrons of the art restricting their munificence within narrow bounds, until a much later period, when George the Third instituted a Royal Academy of Arts. In like manner did Reynolds struggle for want of a patron, in his early years ; as West would have done, but for the king's discern- ment, or his kindness. Opie, the son of a blacksmith, near Truro, in Cornwall, was brought into notice by the writings, or the purse of Dr. Wolcot ; and Sir Thomas Lawrence was the son of a livery-stable keeper, at Bath. Such examples ought to inspire the young artist, and teach him not to relax, though impediments awhile retard his progress to the summit of his profession. Many of the best painters also studied some other of the fine Arts which bear analogy to their own. Titian's Villa is a monument of his taste ; and the works executed under the direction of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, are spoken of with raptures by all persons of learning and observation. His was an almost universal genius. The satiric author of Pursuits of Literature (Mr. D. Matthias), speaks of him as — Mich. Angelo, whose hand the gods direct ; Sage, Sculptor, Painter, Poet, Architect. He died in 1564 (aged 89), when the art had scarcely yet revived, except in very few instances, of which he was a most notable one. Pope Julius II. had been Michael's early patron and adviser ; and this, as well as every other art, was about the same era, mainly indebted to the Medici family for the perfection to which they shortly after arrived. Early genius in this art should be encouraged, as it may be relied upon as a sure indication of future celebrity ; but no r 2 364 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sum, without this prelude, is sufficient to render any youth more than a dauber, a mere follower in the distance. Some five hundred and twenty Painters in the different departments of the art com- posed the Catalogue recently laid before the public, and among this long list, forty-three are ladies : the number of very fine drawings, intended to be engraved for the beautiful annual publications of the present refined period, appears to have added to the number of Painters. PAPER-MAKER. At one time, a very great secret was supposed to be involved in the manner of manufacturing paper, and happy did the urchin school-boy think himself, who, during the holydays, had been down to the paper-mills (always down) and there made a sheet of paper with his own hands. The great importance of the article, in being the immediate vehicle for the conveyance of intelligence, learning, knowledge of the world, and all things that it inhabit, besides keeping the accounts of moneys and goods, are tolerably well appreciated all over the habitable globe ; this may have thrown around the paper- mill a halo of reverence, to which in no other view the subject is entitled. The bare circumstance of linen-rags, fabrics, cotton, ropes, yarns, being reduced to a watery pulpiness, and after being spread out, and the water drained off, the sheet dried and sized to prepare it for receiving ink, did not, because it could not, contain matter of admiration for any cunning fellow of a dozen or fifteen years old. Paper is made of various materials, besides those above named, that from the Egyptian reed bark, being the oldest on record; this plant, biblus or papyrus, gave to the article its general name of paper. Some plants afforded leaves that served for writing on ; whence the term folia, codex, liber, tabula, &c. : in India, leaves are still used for writing manuscript theology ; though our merchants and others obtain the rag paper from England, and the printers there employ a paper made from the silk refuse and rags of the country : they also make a cotton paper there ; and still farther East and by North, the wary Chinese manufactured paper from the like sub- stances, many centuries antecedent to the twelfth, when the present PAPER MAKER COPPER PLATE PRINTER. PAPER-MAKER. 365 mode of manufacture was discovered in Europe. The most ancient manuscripts on paper extant are of the 11th century, viz. 1050 and 1095, and these are composed of oriental cotton. Whichever material the rags may consist of, they are first de- prived of their dust, by a kind of winnowing, within a cylinder formed of wire. They are then assorted according to their different qualities, each for its respective purpose; after which, the rags are placed in a cistern, perforated, so that the water which is admitted for the purpose of washing them, may run off with the impurities. When sufficiently cleansed, a cylinder about two feet long, thickly set with iron spikes, placed in the cistern, being whirled round with great velocity, by machinery, the rags are ultimately reduced to the last state of fibrous incoherence — to a thin pulp of enviable whiteness, speckless and smooth. This pulp is next warmed in a copper, and thus becomes ready for the making, being kept warm for that purpose. The mould by which the sheets are to be made, consists of iron wires* extended at a distance from each other, in a frame, such as we may observe in a sheet of common paper, when held up to the light. The workman holds the frame in both hands, plunges it into the vat of warm pulp, and draws it out quickly ; hereupon the water runs away between the wires, whilst nought remains but the pulp adhering thereto, which thus forms a sheet of paper. Another workman, called the coucher, receives the mould from the first man, and turns on the sheet upon a felt or woollen cloth. In this manner they proceed, using a pair of mould frames for greater expedition sake, laying alternately a sheet of paper and a layer of the cloth, until they have made six quires of paper — denominated a post. This done, they with further assistance lift off the whole to the press. After this operation, a third person separates the sheets of paper from the cloths or felts, and when several posts are off, these are again submitted to the action of the press : this is again repeated, and the sheets having attained some degree of tenuity, are hung up on lines to dry. The size, which is now to be applied, in order that the paper may stand ink, is made from shreds and parings, collected from the skin- ners and parchment-makers, as mentioned at p. 371 ; which are dissolved by heated water, and a small quantity of allum is added immediately previous to immersing the sheets therein : this salt has the effect of hardening the paper, but we observe that this part of the process is often overdone. As soon as a press full has been thus 366 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. tub-sized, the sheets are again submitted to pressure, the super- abundant size issues forth, receives an uncouth name, and finds its way again into the tub. This done, the paper is once more hung up thinly, to dry, and according to the season, or the artificial warmth, a short time renders it fit for making up. In the first place, the torn and imperfect sheets are laid aside ; and another heap, formed of sheets not quite perfectly free from imperfections, and therefore termed retree, or inferior by about a shilling per ream, is laid out. These, as well as the perfect, are pressed, counted into quires, and pressed again. The whole process takes up about three weeks, when the paper, if designed for printing on, is fit for the Stationer ; writing- paper requires more time to be occupied in each stage of its process than other qualities, and is infinitely improved by keeping so long as six or twelve months. An excise duty, which amounts to 2^d. per pound nearly, is charged on all the papers above the packing sorts ; the amount whereof is ascertained at the end of each twenty-eight days, and payment of the whole is required before the expiration of the next period of days. The commissioners of excise, not unfrequently allow of an extension of the time of payment ; and some makers, who may be pre- sumed to work close up to the means their capital and credit allow of, habitually require " time." On some such occasions* the Paper- maker, over anxious to make sale of his goods, finds himself pressed into a corner by the wholesale Stationer, and sacrifices to his neces- sities, as the readiest means of keeping his mill going. This sinistral operation comes in further corroboration of our maxim against the impolicy of overtrading. Upon the whole, paper is now much cheaper than formerly, the fine printing papers especially ; this is owing to the greater quantity of the prime material (rags), which can be brought into use, by the improvements in bleaching, and improved expedition in the manufacture by machinery. Bleaching of linen> cotton, &c. by means of the sulphuric acid and manganese leys, had been long known to us ; but when the fabrics came to be worn, the injured texture gave way, and either dropped into holes on the backs of the fair wearers, or vanished in the washing tubs. The French cotton manufacturers and printers of Rouen, Lyons, &c. sent their rival commodities to the great European marts of Leipsic and Frankfort ; and, by reason of the enviable whiteness they were enabled to attain, while preserving the texture of their fabrics, the colours put on by them exhibited a clearness of the blues PAPER-MAKER. 367 and greens, and an effulgence in the pinks and yellows, which left the English printers far, far behind. We either lost the market en- tirely, or kept it to the end of the last week (the 6th) and exchanged or sold at an under price, while the French traders went a packing with the moneys. In like manner as the remedy was applied to those articles in their preparatory state, so it happened to the rags of both kinds, when they were required white for the Paper-makers' use* When either were submitted to the leys, ruin ensued : the bleached rag paper cracked upon being folded ; a newspaper printed on it scarcely lasted out the day, and severe losses were the consequence. Chaptal, a manufacturer and practical chemist, whom the emperor converted into a count, instructed his people to place the articles requiring le proees blanchissant, lightly piled, on certain little joists, or beams fastened across a wide boiler ; and the whole to be covered down tight. The fire is then to be gradually lighted up ; whereupon, the leys at bottom (made very strong of manganese, salt, and the acid,) send up their detersive vapour among the fabrics ; the carbon, dirt, colours, and filth, hereby disengaged, fall among the lej r s, no more to rise, and a short grassing, sprinkling, and sunshine, completes the bleaching. Of course, the strength of the leys would be proportioned to the difficulties sought to be overcome by the process. Well worthy of remark is the fact, that a patent was taken out by a Manchester manufacturer, for this mode of bleaching by steam, some months subsequent to its having been made public in England, by the editor of the " Complete Pocket Book," published annually, by Peacock, of Salisbury-court (1800). An action, brought by the patentee against a fellow townsman, for infringing his right, of course fell to the ground. Those circumstances are replete with instruction to persons desiderating patents. Garrow was counsel for defendant, who learnt his mode of bleaching from the book. As said, paper was usually made in single sheet moulds ; the invention being ascribed to the Netherlanders, or the Italians. The size termed foolscap was the most general, was made by the Dutch particularly for the English market ; and being adorned with a Bri- tannia (as at present) derived its name from the cap of liberty the figure is represented as bearing upon a pole. Quantities constantly reached us from Rotterdam, so lately as our own times ; and the Dutch family of Band, migrating thence, and settled at Maidstone, were long the primest makers of foolscap known in England. But 368 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the improvements in machinery having extended its benefits to paper-making, the moulds are discarded from our large establish- ments ; and paper is now made of almost incredible lengths, receiving its first pressure, and complete consolidation, at coming off. It is then rolled around a solid wheel, of convenient magnitude ; and the whole bulk is cut down upon, by a species of saw: the inequalities in sizes are subsequently to be reduced in the cutting press. This machine, itself, costs some 600/. or more, according to width ; it was the invention of a Frenchman, and patented to Messrs. H. and S. Fourdrinier ; who, during the existence of their exclusive right erected many of these for makers all over the country. The effect of those two great improvements has been, the more ready production of better articles, at same prices as formerly paid for inferior goods. A plant of a paper mill, which should cost 2000/. in the laying out and erecting, would not be the most extensive of its kind, for making first class paper ; and would require as much more for the purchase of rags, &c, for paying wages r and meeting the ex- cise charges, which return upon the maker with tide like precision. Much oftener, however, the mill is rented, or partly so, by the young beginner, or he obtains assistance from some capitalist associate in his trade. What may be accomplished after a lapse of years, is quite another consideration. Apprentices to the mere working de- partment pay little premium ; the journeymen earning no more in general than steady and skilful workmen in other handicraft trades, i.e. from 21s. to 36s. per week. A few, however, excel the generality, and some become masters ; but, when they do so, it is done upon a small scale, and the exertions made are equal to those of the topping manufacturers, on account of the hampering collections of duty, which these needy makers can neither surmount nor postpone. At other mills, they make none but the ordinary kind of papers, for packing, and milled-boards ; in these, we find the wages are lower, the original set out considerably less. Taxes on knowledge. A case has thus been distinctly made out, that the excise duty charged upon the paper at the mill, acts like a drag upon the wheel of the manufacturers' exertions, in getting out his goods for sale, and making the much desired quick return. Besides which, he must charge the interest of money employed in the outlay for duty, with some profit upon the transaction ; for he takes an ac- ceptance of his customers at several months' date, and has to pay his banker for converting this into cash. So that the Stationer, upon PAPER-MAKER. 369 reviewing his purchase, finds that he has repaid the Paper-maker something very like 4d. per pound for the duty, &c. &c. Again, when he sells his printing papers to the publishers of books, at six months' credit, he charges for warehouse room, for interest, for in- surance of the taxed article while in his possession, and other risks; as the Bookseller does, while the book is at press, lying in his ware- house, &c. ; and all these accumulated charges being put together, the works of learning, instruction, and of knowledge, in the propa- gation whereof the paper has been employed, are enhanced double fold. These are the true " taxes on knowledge," which a sane review • of the premises would have dcitated to the Ministers a reduction of, previous to any other. But, to consider a Tax on Newspapers as a tax upon knowledge, is one of the most preposterous assumptions that could enter the head of a false logician. What knowledge does a newspaper — any paper contain ? What, taking the whole together ? — Police news, speeches in parliament, wars and rumours, from Canton and Cracow — Mr. Editor's " few observations " — what knowledge is in that, or any of these things 1 Truly none. Better be without suck knowledge than with it, so far as the pursuits of trade are concerned; but, to say, that tradesmen generally are bettered by a perusal of newspapers, shews a woful want of due consideration concerning the interests of trade. Mer- chants, Brokers, Ship-owners, and the like, require the latest intelli- gence that affects their commerce ; and this they obtain at the coffee- house, at Lloyd's, and on 'Change : the larger concerns can afford three or four times 71. a year, for as many daily papers ; politicians can do no less ; whereas, poor patriots must remain content to pick up as much information at the tavern, or pot-house, as their means will afford. Moreover, some of the most clamorous wights could not afford even the twopences which their expected repeal would allow them to lay out, if they could spare so much. In our younger years, when Jacobinism stalked the land, and politics were cheap as dying speeches, those were ever the least amiable tradesmen who dealt most in polities : they frequently failed in both pursuits, so contrary and incongenial were they found. Then, in the event of a total repeal, what sort of news may we expect from the sort of gentlemen who have favoured us with their samples of the unstamped, appro- priately termed, " twopenny trash," by an act of parliament, at a time antecedent to their birth. Supposing for a moment, if the period be not too long — suppose the politics of the redoubted H r 3 370 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Hetherington and J. Cleave to be all we could wish, how have they handled any topic? Like scholars, capable of teaching what they would utter; like men of instruction, who would inform the mind and make better the heart ? By no means; but more like garrulous chatterers of the tap-room, who seek to fill the ears of their com- panions with big sounding phrases, meaning nothing. PARCHMENT-MAKER. This is necessarily a rural occupation, requiring to be situated on a stream of water, far removed from the genteel residences of honour- able do-nothings. Parchment is made from the skins of sheep, goats, &c, and is used for writing deeds, bills of indictment, and petitions to parliament, that require more thumbing than paper can bear, without deterioration; also, for binding books of accompts, classic books, and others occasionally, when the former is termed for- ril, the latter membrana. Many old missals of the Romish Church, monkish histories, family annals, and surveys of estates, still remain among us, of very ancient execution ; those of the latter descriptions, bearing dates antecedent to the Conquest, being more intelligible than they of a later period, because of a less corrupt Latinity than prevailed after that event, and the consequent ingraftment of Norman- French upon the previous Saxonish dialects* Vellum is the skin of calf, and is made in the same manner as parchment. Both are drawn to a proper thinness in the green state ; and, after soaking in lime water, are extended on boards. Here the flesh-side undergoes a grounding, as described at p. 283, by means of powdered chalk and pumice stone. The drawing, soaking, and chalk applications, are repeated, with a view to get rid of the grease which is contained abundantly in the reta miicosus, and communicates to the " true skin" and cuticle : this latter receives one turn of the knife only. The workman then stretches the skin to dry in the sun, nailed on a board ; being done enough, it is then cut out with a sharp knife, placed on the summer, or horse, to be again pared and smoothed with the stone ; a dual-operation that is repeated, and finally com- pleted on a bench covered with a sack that is filled with flecks, a sort of elastic bed. PARCHMENT-MAKER. 371 The parings, or refuse, are sold at a good price per pound, for making size, or glue. Drum-heads are made in the same manner, from abortives, or at least very young sucking calves, called slunk by the workmen. The demand for every kind of parchment and vellum is brisk; and a good trade may be driven with the Stationers, who are the manufacturers' only customers, if we except the few drum, kettle-drum, and tambourine head-makers, among the musical instrument people. In our younger years, the manufacturers were in the habit of visiting London, and the large towns, with their summer makings, for sale; now, however, the rolls of skins are forwarded per carrier, canal, steamer, or railway, and they draw bills at three months' date for the amount agreed upon, obtaining cash for the same, perhaps, at some neighbouring bankers. Which mode of doing business, by the way, and obtaining a profit, by this description of capitalists, is their only proper and legitimate course of business ; a sure game, at which they cannot fail to realize profits, come what come will. A parchment plant, with the requisite water, will cost three or four hundred pounds outlay — though we have seen some very beggarly set outs, at far less expense : and this, with his residence and family establishment, cash enough to pay poor journeymen's wages, and credit with the Skinner for his prime material, the skins, would be the " capital " required for a young Maker's commence- ment in this trade, let Adam Smith, or any other Smith, say what he may to the contrary. In some cases, the plant, &c. may be rented J and if not, an interest equal to rent must be reckoned upon so much capital as it costs. PATTEN-MAKER. Although once a trade of so much importance as to receive incor* poration from the King (Charles II.), in 1 670, it h now dwindling down daily, the clog and paraboue taking its place; so do the former Patten-makers become mere Clog-makers in towns, where the old patten,„with its iron ring, is less indispensable than in rural districts. The trade consists in adapting a piece of wood to the shape of the sole of the wearer's shoes, and fastening ears, or patten ties, to each side of the instep ; the difference between a clog and a patten being 372 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. principally denoted by the latter having an iron at the bottom, the former has not. This is a very poor [trade, unless the workman is an adept at fitting ill-formed feet with the toe-covered clog, and then he may earn some 30s. a week, besides the rent of his shop, which ought to be in some visible situation. In Scotland, they put on an affec- tation of surprise at the sight of a woman from England, wearing pattens ; but, with as little reason as they of the South should ex- press astonishment at seeing a Scots lassie threading the mazes of a church pathway with bare feet. PAWNBROKER. Lending of money is far from being a disreputable employment , whilst the manner of conducting the affair is what alone renders it so. The Pawnbroker's trade is fenced in and guided without by several acts of parliament ; and, truly, the lower orders of them required as much, since their object is clearly to obtain more interest than the law contemplated ; viz. 201. per cent. But the wording of the act, which enabled them to take interest only by half crowns, permitted them to grind the sixpenny and shilling pawners with the same in- terest as if either had borrowed a half-crown ; viz. a halfpenny per week. So that sixpence interest for a year is thus charged for six- pence borrowed, or cent, per cent. ; and sixpence for a shilling, which is fifty per cent. This conduct strikes particularly at the very poorest persons, and cries aloud for remedy. When they lend three shillings on an article, the interest comes to double that of half-a-crown ; and we once saw an instance of a ticket for 2s. 7d., which enabled the Pawnbroker to charge the same for the penny as he does for the half-crown. Commentary on such transactions would be thrown away. Sharp, creditable, trustworthy boys, are put to this occupation for three or four years, at a small rising salary, after the first year ; though we have known 30/. fee given with an apprentice, without any adequate reason for such a seven years' bondage, or any ad- vantage to be derived from all the information that is to be obtained in such a situation. With a thousand pounds capital, a profitable business may be carried on, though much larger sums are usually employed. PEN-MAKER AND QUILL MERCHANT. The ingenuity of our artists has recently divided this trade into parts, one of them wholly unknown to our fathers. In the years of our juvenility, the bare thought of managing to make even a tolerable pen, was supposed to include a good portion of cleverness, if not of commercial genius, promising mighty things ; the attainment of excellence in this respect was said to ensure the youth's reception into that sanctum of commercial concerns, the " counting-house ;!' a thing certain and decisive of future promotion, of ease and comfort through life, if not of aggrandizement, wealth, and honour. But, mark the instability of all human acquisitions ! no sooner do we arrive at the end of a thirty years' career at pen-making — from the goose- wing — some half-dozen well pointed tools being materially necessary to each day's occasions, than we hear of an everlasting pen — one that requires not nibbing, nor admits the cure that is to be inflicted by a pen-knife ; one made of metal— iron, steel, tin, all imitative, in shape, point, slit, elasticity, and external appearance, of the old well- known quills of goose, swan, and raven, all which it has nearly superseded. Originally, we of this country could furnish enough quills for our own purposes ; but later times, and the activity of our commerce, subjected the English market to foreign supply, our own provinces being found inadequate to the increased demand. We imported vast quantities of quills from Hamburgh, Rotterdam, &c, and these were clarified, or Dutched ; some were made into pens for us ; but latterly they underwent both processes in this country, to a very great ex- tent. We brought quills from Russia, which constituted a very undesirable addition to our imports from that quarter. Morden, and another, invented steel nibs, which were shod upon the quill-pen in the style of horse-shoes: they were adopted by the bankers, and seemed everlasting. This appears to be the first impulse given to the general adoption of the metal instrument, that records the operations of trade, binds the recreant debtor in manual bonds, and gives the final touch to the marriage contract. Perry came next, and improved upon his own Perryian pens ; he improved again, and is followed by thousands more in every variety of base, or shaft, and holders, but all preserving the old nib and shoulders. Some have a fountain, or 374 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. receptacle for ink, which is destined to retain the liquid, until its ex- haustion below requires a fresh supply from above. But neither the fountain, or the metal pen, is originally of modern invention ; such an one being described in Owen's " Dictionary of Arts," vol. 3. p. 2379, as being made of silver ; and a delineation thereof is given in plate 196, fig. 2, of that very able work — i.e. able for the age in which it appeared, viz. 1755. Whether Perry obtained a patent for his invention is not worthy of inquiry, after the exposition just made, but he vows the vengeance of the law against another asserted plagiarist, C. Knight, who also says he is a patentee of pens. But such patents are scarce worth the materials on which they are written, as we have shewn elsewhere (p. 367), which follow the principle of former inventors, and change only some immaterial addendum, or merely employ a different ma- terial, as in the present case. Let the many makers of metal pens, if they are wise, pay little regard to such assumed patents, and new inventions ; but rather renew their efforts to excel them in utility ; and take with them this our testimony to the great value of their labours, whatever the exact shape they send them forth ; for, with a kindly predilection for the fountain pen, we must say all others are to our hand-writing the same in use and in effect. Whosoever of our cotemporaries may attempt to rob our ancestors of the honour of this invention, yet we, in common with all persons engaged in swift and continuous writing, must hail it as an instrument that is mainly conducive to those pursuits ; and, as connected with the advantages of the new writing fluid, and the naptha lamp, appears to have contributed, in no ordinary manner, to aid our studies and shorten their duration. To preserve the metal pens in their pristine state for an indefinite period, let them be dipped into water and wiped dry, whenever the day's work may cease : by this means alone, we have found a metal pen of capital temper and point last an uncommon time — even over four or five quires of note-paper, closely written. PENCIL-MAKER. The smaller size hair-brushes used by Painters obtain the term pencil; but those we have now in view are made of wood, having a groove into which black-lead is introduced. The lead itself, or PENCIL-MAKER. 375 plumbago, is a dark shining mineral, found on the Malvern hills, and in Cumberland ; whence great quantities reach London ; and the latter produce is sold by monthly exhibition, or vent, from the depot underneath the chapel, in Essex-street, at various prices. Its value is regulated by its evenness and solidity, qualities which are bettered by age, and which some makers extend to indefinite periods. For- merly, Mr. John Middleton was the most celebrated maker in this respect ; but at present Messrs. Brookman and Langdon manufacture the most desirable surveyors' pencils ; and these necessarily command astonishingly high prices. Needless, perhaps, would be the task of pointing out the numerous impositions that are daily practised upon the public in this very necessarj r article; rank deceptions, which are also sought to be carried further home, by affixing to them the most respectable names — forged. A pencil of a penny price, and another value a shilling, have frequently the same appearance, externally. The Maker who should lay himself out for the superior trade, it is obvious, would require a large capital to buy in and mature his stock of lead — say 1000/. ; though we may rest assured, upon the view, that some Makers do not employ a tenth of that sum. Num- bers of the Jews make lead pencils of a deceptious character, buying their sophisticated lead and wood (cedar) of certain middle men among their own people. PEWTERER. The metal employed in this trade bears some relation to brass, in- asmuch as it is a factitious mixture of two other simple metals. — See p. 67. Both are likewise capable of being cast into form, and are sub- sequently vjorked up with the hammer ; both sets of workmen also turn their work in a lathe, wherever the rotundity of the particular article admits of employing this most useful machine. Pewter is composed of tin and lead, or lead and the regulus of antimony, in pro- portions of ten, twelve, or fourteen of the softer to one of t he harder metals ; the superior brilliancy of the latter, however, gives to this commixture the preference, when the price is not stinted. We also hear of pewter being compounded of all three of those simple metals ; but mix them how they may, and though zinc be added, the poisonous nature of all, whether separate or combined, cannot be denied : the 376 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. tin, the least objectionable of all, in a state of fusion, emits sulphur- ous vapours, and the filings thereof being cast into a lambent flame, or deflagrated with nitre in a crucible, sends forth a sensible smell of garlic— a true evidence of arsenic being present. Let these poisons repose how they may in our utensils, when the contained liquids are employed cold, the proportion of 20 or 25 per cent, of tin (if the pro- portions ever reach so high), cannot divest the lead of its deleterious nature, especially when used with acetous acid. Spoons, plates, &c. give out the sugar of lead (sacch. plumbi) whenever vinegar is applied to the salad, to cucumber, to oysters, or to meats — with fatal consequences. As to the other compound, in which antimony bears so great a share, in the newly so-called "German silver," the case is not ren- dered one whit better. For, in whatever manner the workmen are engaged in melting, forming, or handling any of these metals, together or separately, they lose health, become pale, experience visceral derangement and intumescence, or fall into paralysis — in the degree that their contact, or exposure to the melting fumes, may be more or less. The Pewterers were a chartered company in London, a d. 1474, 13 Edw. IV. Their compound metal was regulated by stat. 19 Henry VII.; and the stamping of measures made by them in several successive reigns ; all these latter descriptions, however, were digested into one act, in 1835, cap. 63. After the plate, dish, or other utensil, is cast and turned in the lathe, it is then planished with a hammer of case-hardened steel, with a broad polished face. Mugs and pewter pots are fully polished in the lathe; the bottoms, handles, and lips, being subsequently soldered in by the blow-pipe, and a light of rushes. Plates, for the engravers of music notes, are also got up by the Pewterer; and after being cut and punched by the artist, are sent back again to be finally planished by the hammer. This latter appears to be the most legi- timate way in which those mixed metals may be safely employed. Good wages are obtained by journeymen, according to ability and steadiness — say from 26*. to 36s. per week. If the master restricts his trade to making a few articles only, as pots or beer mugs, he may begin business with 200/.; but, in proportion as he augments his moulds (which are of copper), and his customers, and his credits, a capital of eight or ten times as much will be required. Apprentices' fees to this very profitable business, are from 30/. to 60/. to acquire the whole areana. 377 PHYSICIAN. Always addressed as " Doctor," the Physician should be a learned man at least, if not a practical one ; but the term is often abused, in being applied to the Apothecary, the dispensing Druggist, and working Chemist, most of whom are any 'thing but Doctors, or learned. Surgeons, therefore, despise the appellation, as applied to their acquirements, though some of them are occasionally elected to the College of Physicians, as are some (more skilled than the gene- rality) of those of the three first-mentioned trades: all are then dubbed M.D. (satirically termed dubs), and take guinea fees for their golden opinions. But, before this dispensation is granted, the applicant must have studied effectually at Oxford or Cambridge three years ; and this, indeed, constitutes the only claim most of them possess of being licensed to practise, t. e. to give advice upon paper, to the Apothecary and others (for money), what ingredients they shall put together, in order to promote the recovery of sick persons. For the practice of medicine has been described as " but an uncer- tain art, at best not one among the whole race knowing for a cer- tainty of anything that can drive away disease, nor of any medicine which will act upon any two persons alike : this, they say, arises from the idiosyncracy, or peculiarity of every one's constitution, which frequently turns aside the powers of active medicines — usually the most active, into wrong channels, and thus disappoints the hopes of the prescriber. If, then, learned men, who have employed years of close study in the investigation of nature, and its workings; who have examined the structure of the frame, the functions of the blood-making part of the system, on which life depends as by a thread ; who have seen and watched patiently (interestedly ?) the progress from health to disease, and observed how this has been overcome, and ease and vigour slowly restored — if such men, so educated in comparative affluence, cannot make sure of arriving at the same end by the same means, twice together, how much less can those whose acquisitions in either respect are nought, if not naught, pretend to take the curative art out of such hands, and perform miracles upon all alike ! The Apothecary and Druggist may, per- chance, by mixing up the prescriptions of Physicians, come at the 378 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES* purpose for which each is intended, and he may imitate the same in similar cases, when " called in ;" but he works at random, and until lately, could scarce do more than construe the printed forms of the College, if so much ; nay, these very forms (pharmacopoeia) were curtailed of half their fair proportions, as being inert, harmful, or im- miscible, within our own period ; whilst the far-envied fellows could scarcely write a clinical prescription, without the aid of Graves's Conspectus, or Elliot's little book, " From waistcoat pocket drawn insidious, 1 ' until John Ayrton Paris was drawn by them from the depths, the abyss of Sir Humphry Davy's copper country, to teach them phar- macologics, for 500/. a year. And there the doctor is now, Easter Term, 1836, reading to their sapiencies, " Lectures on the art of Prescribing," for said annual fee ; whilst his other book on Prophy- lactics, or the art of self management, is left to the public choice and public preference ; yet is it only fair to add, that Dr. Paris is toler- ably well known to have cleared by the two books something like 10,000/. 3 per cents; whilst it would be acting unfairly towards our patrons, the public, not to notice that the last edition of his Pharmacologia (the 6th), appears curtailed (among others) of the notice he had bestowed upon that sovereign pectoral, tussilago, as it stood in his third edition, both of which books are now before us. We forbear to ascribe motives to the omission ; but recommend po- tentially to persons affected with incipient pulmonia (tussis) to omit sending for Doctor Paris on the occasion, and send rather to Covent Garden for three-penny worth of coltsfoot leaves, and give to the afflicted in the form of tea. Verbum sat. From all that has been said, parents who aspire to bring up their offspring to the learned professions, are compelled to afford the means of laying in a store of that indispensable ingredient, or to relinquish their hopes of success in it, and send the boys to plough in other waters, less troublesome than the laboratory. Two thousand pounds are necessary to this end, though ever so economically husbanded, from the time he matriculates with alma mater, to the auspicious moment he is to announce on plate of brass, to the surrounding neighbours, the long expected information, that here lives DR. LUTETIU& KNOCK AND RING. Strong objections exist against sending young gentlemen to the PHYSICIAN. 379 Scotch universities to obtain the requisite diplomas, independent of the cheapness of education there, and consequent personal associations, that must not be overlooked. The degrees are obtained with too great facility, to confer much honour on the recipients ; sometimes they are granted to utter strangers, without any other recommenda- tion than an " epistola" in lingua latina, from a friendly hand (or two) and a 3/. 17s. 9d. aureum comes to, postage included. At Edinburgh, it is true, they require from their own students a printed " Tentamen pro gradu Doctoris /" but they make no difficulty in dispensing with this necessary proof, in regard to the strangers, who seek, with cash in hand, to obtain the honour, in consequence of their celebrity, as they say. If such Scotch Doctors attempt to practise in London, they are put down by an old act of parliament ; they succeed with great difficulty in the provinces, or " go to Bath," and in our foreign possessions, the people in authority say they " know the difference." In town, they must not write prescriptions, and therefore sell their own medicines ; and we know of more than one has sunk his degree, and practised apothecarially, with obstetrics, extensively : we applauded the measure, as displaying good common sense in an amiable manner, and daily witness with pleasure the complete success of so wise a determination. Even M n (the canvasser quack), disdains the M.D. of his own province ; and we take his word, though it will not pass him through the Old Bailey, unsconced, unscathed, undisrobed of his pretended universality. So did John Hunter, for a very different reason. Never have we seen one of those eschewed diplomas, having no curiosity that way ; further than a distant sight, in dingy envelope, of that evoked to Dr. Brodum, an actual mountebank, about the time of our driving him forth. That those low-bred fellows, with the preux Dr. Solomons, and other Jews, Germans, &c. should write bad English, is excusable in them ; but* we can scarcely forgive the facultied students from Edina, who do not condescend to spell the vernacular tongue aright, however drearily they may be allowed to deliver themselves of cogi- tations deep, anent our human ills, Let Ballantine, jun., amend their aberrations in this respect, as he is wont : further, we have to complain, that they write English, as if their compositions were a loose rendering of Scotch-French. 380 THE COMPLETE EOOK OF TRADES. PIN-MAKER. Trivial and unimportant as this little instrument of female attire may appear on a transient view, yet the immense quantities manu- factured in this country, compensates in some measure for the meanness of the thing itself. What our belles employed previously to the introduction of pins, is not difficult to guess, and in fact we are told that wooden pins — " skewers,' 1 adorned the mouchoir and secured the waist, previous to the time of Henry VIII. Bone, ivory, and box, prevailed in the higher circles before 1543, when those of wire were introduced, and first made at Gloucester and Bristol. At these places, about a dozen manufactories are now going on, em- ploying nearly 2000 persons of all ages, who manufacture and send to London some 26,000/. worth annually. They are also made of the best qualities in London ; and in Suffolk, and elsewhere, upon a small scale. To be a " citizen and Pin-maker," was reckoned no small honour, within our recollection ; the trade having been incor- porated in 1636, and most of them congregating in the neighbour- hood of London-bridge. By the regulations to which the Pin-manu- facturers were subjected, they doubtless arrived at the pre-eminence our goods enjoyed over the French and other makes—and still enjoy, to the entire exclusion of the foreigners, whenever the two come in contact. We may be said to supply about nine- tenths of the whole civilized world. The superior excellence of English pins consists in the stiffness of the wire, and its blanching; in the heads being firm and well turned, and the points accurately filed. To attain so much perfection this little instrument is passed through the hands of eighteen different work-people ; which is a mode of apportioning the division of labour, French Pin-makers seem to have formed inadequate notions of, as indeed we have observed to prevail in other manufac- tories. The French make may be distinguished from British, by being angular pointed ; and yet were we compelled to notice in silence, certain commendations passed upon a few that had been recently brought over by a family of distinction — distinguished also for a silly servile admiration of all things French ! The fact should be made known, both far and wide, that the puncture of a French pin PIN-MAKER. 381 is very liable to become a dangerous canker : they blanche with a poisonous material in France, and in Germany. Men, women, and children, all work at pin-making, and at very moderate earnings, excepting the man who has the chief direction of the people, a foreman earning two to three pounds a week. Ac- cording to the extent that any one may lay himself out for doing business will be the capital required for a commencement ; but a tolerable business may be set a going in London with 200/. PLASTERER AND HOUSE FINISHER. Somewhat resembling the Painter, in many respects, and identi- fying himself with the House -decorator, in others (see p. 359), the Plasterer may be considered as the House-finisher, so far as the masonry is concerned. His business is to lay on mortar of several degrees of tenuity and fineness till he arrives at the top coat, which is to receive the colour, that he or the Painter-decorator is to lay on. As to the lath and plaster partitions, which divide the apartments of small dwellings, these scarcely call up an effort of the art ; fronts of the same materials are now, we believe, wholly abandoned in this country ; but the chiefest display of the Plasterer's art is in making the stucco mouldings, the cornices, and ceilings, of large decorated dining-rooms, halls, chapels, and floating these latter with so much trueness and solidity, as to assist, in a material manner, the trans- mission of sound. Prices differ greatly, even to the extremes, for those several works ; journeymen employed in the common buildings earning from 21s. to 28s. a week, whilst the more ingenious operative in full work, obtains double those sums. The master Plasterer usually carries on one or other of the trades above alluded to, of which the Plastering is but an adjunct. What the extent of those prices ought to reach, as between the master Builder and his employers, paying due regard to the fluctuation in the materials for such curious and cunning work- manship, we find set down, with good discrimination, in the "Builders' Lexicon," by Mr. J. Bennett ; a work which comprehends all the branches of building, wages, and materials, and upon the authority whereof, estimates may be safely and fairly made out, so as to afford the fair and proper profit between man and man. 332 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. While speaking of the Lexicon of this architect, justice, and the regard we bear to the interests of our readers, compels us to notice a still more recent publication in the periodical form, begun by the same Mr. Bennett, entitled " Geometrical Illustrations," which go to explain, by familiar diagrams, the principles of the science : the author is said to have applied his whole mind to the work ; and we have reason for believing the assertion as well as for bearing this testi- mony to the practical utility of these illustrations. PLUMBER. Derived from plumbum, lead, the trade is at once deduced from the material employed. Under the article Painter (p. 357), we have noticed the danger to health which is to be apprehended from the volatilized fumes from lead ; and the same remarks apply to , the casting of sheet-lead, pipes, and melting of solder, which constitute the trade of a Plumber. Sheet lead is cast on a table, erected near the boiler — termed copper, and as much lead is allowed to issue as will make the sheet of a> certain required thickness per foot super- ficial # . these are 5, 5j, 6, 6j, 7, 7^, 8, 2\. lbs. each, respectively. But when the sheets have been rendered more compact, by being compressed between the rollers at the mill, those weights, per foot, descend in the scale of numbers whilst the price is thereby enhanced : it acquires more lasting powers by the operation. Besides this, and casting his pipe-lead, the Plumber's business is to join these together when required of greater extent than he makes them ; to attach the cock at one end, and the coburg at the other, to service pipes from the main and leaders in the streets. He makes cisterns for holding the water thus conducted into premises, erects water-closets, lines the kitchen sink, and watering troughs of certain trades ; he fits his sheet-lead to rain-gutters, and channels ; covers the pent-house, inserts slips into various ledges of buildings, or between brickwork ; and is employed in covering the entire roofs of domes, and churches of the higher orders of architecture. He also covers with lead the coffins of our better bred gentry ; to whom must be conceded this final whim of disappearing in a more costly material than their modest neighbours. In London, and other large towns, this trade is con- ducted solely ; but in the suburbs and smaller places, painting and PLUMBER. 383 glazing is connected with plumbing, as joint trades, by the same master; journeymen who are clever in either branch being employed in performing the details. Some of the better workmen and masters execute figures in statuary, whilst others introduce to their casts some tolerably good and durable designs itl bas relief. These men earn best wages, which approach to 40*. per week, ordinary journey- men near 30*. Many of the latter description are usually found upon the tramp about town, and are fain to reduce the charges of odd jobs much below the old standard prices. For example, the making a joint (of two ends of pipe together,) and the like, which was formerly half-a-crown, is now a shilling only, solder included. Although a small pottering business might be commenced with a much less sum, we cannot perceive any Plumber in town who has less than a thousand pounds employed — the superstructure, probably, of many a year's successful application. When a very large job pre- sents itself to a young tradesman, he can, by making the proper re- presentation to his lead-merchant, obtain an extension of credit commensurate to the undertaking. As he will then also require the aid of a better description of workmen than ordinary* the outlay for extra wages has also to be provided for : this, if it be a parish affair, or getting up the works of some eminent manufacturer, must be stipu- lated for when the bargain is struck ; the great profits on Plumbers' work easily admits of a good allowance as interest for such advances. About 20/. is sufficient apprentice-fee for lads who are intended for journeymen ; but five times that sum is required for such as expect to become masters : the acme of British energy, however, is supposed to be attained, when one of the former, by his perseverance, industry, and frugality, can emerge from his paternal obscurity and carry on a successful business on own account. POTTER. So many and various are the branches of this trade, that we must remain content with giving one general notion of the whole, by stating, that the goods produced by the Potter, are compounded of clay, earth, and grinded stone, baked in cases of the same, which are submitted to the action of fire in the furnace. The stone, or flints, 884 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. are previously calcined, ground fine in water, and the finest particies mixed with due proportions of clay — the best of which is carried from the coast of North Devon into Staffordshire, as Coal-port, Stoke upon-Trent, and the Potteries. The wheel and the lathe are mainly conducive to expedite the business of the pottery ; the former, being best adapted to large works, is turned by a labourer, the lathe is kept in motion by the foot of the workman. After the compounded clay is brought into working trim, smooth and plastic to the touch, it is taken in lumps proportioned to the articles in hand, and dabbed on the centre of the rotatory table. As this whirls round, the work- man forms the hollow of the vessel with his finger and thumb, con- tinuing to increase the cavity, while he proportions the outside by the other hand. When mouldings are required, the patterns of such are pressed against the vessel, while the wheel is carrying it round at a great rate sculptures in bas relief are moulded into the required shapes and attached to the vessels. This is considered the acme of the Potters' trade, the very large vases which receive such, being also made into moulds, at two, or three, or more makings, and fastened together. In the production of these higher specimens of porcelain the Saxons excelled all Europe early in the 17th century, it having been previously imported from China only about a century before : afterwards we heard much of the French manufactory at Sevres : but, for the last half century, the works in England appear to have sur- passed every other, in either quarter of the globe, for every species of earthenware, pottery, or porcelain, call them which we like. But no space that could be spared in a miscellaneous publication, like the present, would be sufficient to do adequate justice to the subject ; sufficient for us to say, that this country supplies seven-eighths of the civilized world with this species of manufacture, to which our command of machinery, and the means of keeping it a going, mainly contributes, both as to price and quantity. For instance, one wheel, for grinding calcined flints, in the neighbourhood of Coal-port, mea- sures a hundred yards in circumference. Many more of less dimen- sions are kept in activity at various places ; of course, the plants are more or less extensive, and the capitals employed vary in the ex- tremes ; so do wages differ according to the capabilities of the work- people, from those of bare subsistence to the highest remuneration the journeyman could hope for. 385 POULTERER. As the name imports, this trade consists in buying and selling poultry — fowls, ducks, geese, wild-fowl ; to which has lately been added a dealing in game, by act of parliament, which was previously carried on surreptitiously. Thus hares, rabbits, eggs, and other corresponding articles of delicate food enter into his speculations. Almost the only secret of this calling consists in buying cheap and selling dear ; taking care to have the articles young, early in the season, and fed up to the mark. In the London district, this latter point is not at all difficult of attainment, as the great feeders, as they are called, keep constantly large numbers in a state of forwardness, of every kind, especially of geese, that cormorant, towards Michael- mas, turkeys at Christmas, and barn-door fowls at all seasons. Of the former, we some few years since saw two thousand or more at Stratford, Essex, in various states ; some being declared " fit for the spit," (being under orders) by a given day, named ; while others would be ready by a certain feast day, as was asserted, whereas some could not come on until my Lord-Mayor's day, when it seems destruction awaited the whole establishment, with all that could be collected in the mean time. One of those collectors, who rejoiced in the cognomen of Charley Gibletts, was pointed out as the most ad- mirable of his humble vocation. Apprenticeship to this calling would be so many years thrown away; nor do people of property embark in it as a speculation, most of those who have made their way to independence by pursuing it, having been the architects of their own fortunes. Among others, the late Sir Charles Flower may be named, as having commenced the nucleus of his distinction, as a small dealer in the Minories ; a lucky spot, we infer, from the circumstance of the late Mr. William Lane, the Minerva publisher, having obtained his earliest golden egg- in the same vicinage. Indeed, Leaden hall-market is always the scene of much poultry business, and so is Newgate-market, mostly in the wholesale way ; whither country folks, dealers, and collectors, consign large quantities of poultry, and every other species of such delicacies for the table, to be sold at a commission by the Poultry- salesmen. In this respect, care should be taken, that the parties s 386 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. sending up are known to the salesman, lest errors should arise as to real ownership ; as we recollect a case, which we defended, about ] 823, of some 300 pigeons coming up which had been withdrawn from a dove-cote in Essex, and caused a troublous journey thither to three of our neighbours, all together. In this market, the late Mrs. Ann Prisley is said to have realized a good fortune, as a sales- woman ; Mr. Bowles is distinguished as having built the immense mansion near White Conduit-house ; and Mr. Bewley, the Standard, in Shoreditch parish. In France, they rear great quantities of poultry, only a few of which reach this country ; but their eggs form an article of importa- tion from Gravelines, Honfleur, Havre, and other points, amounting to a thousand millions annually. Of this very agreeable and luscious edible, we also draw good quantities from Ireland ; where they begin to collect their eggs undiscoloured, by adopting a cleaner housing for their fowls. The paucity of the Poulterer's trade in Scotland, is very remarkable : so late as 1818, we sought for such a shop in vain, through the streets of Edina, and only found a few grouse at Ambrose's hotel ; notwithstanding we are well assured, that fowls and cock-crowings formed no mean part of the auguries and announcements at old Athens, and other eastern countries, to which Scotch writers assert their own manners much approximate. PRINTER. Amidst the galaxy of multifarious discoveries and inventions of our own times, and the earnest these afford us of a still further pro- gress in the road to perfection, we cannot look back upon the mere taking off an inked impression from words or letters, cut in relievo, as any great exertion of an inventive mind, or as exhibiting the sur- prising genius of the first Printers. In our opinion, therefore, the rude contrivances of Guttemberg, of Coster, and Faust, merit little of the admiration people are in the habit of bestowing upon them, uninstructed as they were in taking distinct impressions, in the making of ink, or applying the same types to various compositions ; whilst, to Peter Schoefler belonged the honour of inventing fusil types and its concomitants — the chase, locking it up, working off PRINTER. 387 at press, distribution, and setting up fresh forms, in close unison with the former, and for the furtherance of the work in hand. This editio princeps, upon which Peter and his wife's father, John Faust, were engaged, when the latter got imprisoned by the Sorbonne doctors, for selling his fac simile Bibles, was no other than Cicero de OJJiciis, which after years of labour bears the date of 1465 ; and, it is worthy of remark, that Nicholas Jen son, from the same office, who betook himself to Venice, produced in nine years after SchoefFer's invention as fine a specimen of printing as any we have since had from all the boasted offices of Europe: this book is Justin, 1 vol. folio, 1470, without pointing or capitals ; which obtained for him the endearing epithet of the " divine Nic. Jenson," from the black-letter dogs of the Roxburgh Club. By the way, Aldus Manutius, of the same city, introduced the comma and semicolon, some fifty years after the in- vention : he and his family rivalled the divine Nicholas. We cannot, then, refrain from thinking, that an art which could be brought to perfection in so short a space, required no great stretch of creative ingenuity in any of its stages. But, when we look at the effects the art of printing has produced in the world, viz. an universal spirit of inquiry — new modes of thinking and acting — the discovery of new worlds — the dispersion of the dark mildew of Romish superstition — the amelioration of the constitution of the human race — and the invention of other arts, we confess to its claims upon our admiration in these respects, and sub- scribe to the encomiastic testimonies, however extravagantly pursued, of the gentlemen just adverted to, as having nearly exhausted panegyric in their annual laudatory assemblies. But we quarrel not with the lay amusements of the church, though the glossy, yellow, wire-wove paper of our moderns deserve reprehension. Ne'er be it ours to frown on classic toys, Black-letter dogs, or hoary seventh form boys, Whose works, if none can read, yet all admire The paper ; just five-shillings every quire. In one glaz'd glare, tracts, sermons, pamphlets vie, Whence hot-press'd fleeting nonsense claims a dignity. Printing was introduced herebyCaxton (see p. 327), and carried on by him in the Abbey of Westminster; where a few insignificant tracts only were produced ; as was the case also with Wynkin de Worde, another black-letter Printer of romaunts and histories, s 2 388 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Thence the art was carried to the abbey of Tavistock, where they gave the world " Bocthius Consolationes Philosophia" without date; little cognoscent that they thereby contributed to the subse- quent overthrow of their order. Here, it is worthy of remark, to the honour Of the brethren of that house, that while the country was overrun with Norman-French jargon, they there still preserved the Saxon language in its ancient purity ; as appeared in 1353, when our law courts returned to the use of the vernacular tongue, by an act of parliament, 26 Ed. III. Here also, it is believed, was preserved the Saxon volume of Domesday Boke, or lesser survey, until the dispersion of the religious persons there, and the transfer of their lands and houses to the Lord Russel (Bedford) ; when it is presumed some among them took it to Exeter, where the Abbot of Tavistock had a house of rest (now called Bedford-circus) at least, there the MS. was found, within our own scope of memory, among the books of the Cathedral, in the chapel of the B. V. Mary. See Stukeley, Itineranium Curiosum, where is to be seen the earliest mention of this treasure, lying unheeded. It was afterwards brought to light, and forms part of the 1st vol. of Domesday, ordered to be printed, by a vote of the House of Commons, at the press of the late Mr. John Nichols. The task is quite refreshing, thus to give the due meed of commendation, to persons long since departed, who were, perhaps, too harshly treated by posterity. Of the same period we read, " At the dawn of literature in England, Caxton says, that people of condition strove to evince their gentility, by the adoption of * new and hitherto unheard of words; whilst some blamed the Printer personally, for that he in his " translacyons had used over- curyous termes, which could not be understood of comyn people." In 1631, a dictionary of hard words by H. C gent., shewed " that Latin words and their derivatives strengthened and obscured the English language" — vide Bee's new Dictionary of Slang. Printing is divided into two departments, or separate sets of workmen ; he who actually works off the sheets, and who is the printer, being called a pressman, from the machine at which he works ; while the other, who puts the types together correctly, is the compositor, and both are Printers' men. The joint labours of these are required to turn out a good job ; as it is quite certain that the greatest care of the compositor would be thrown away if the pressman did not work off the forms in an even, clear, and work- manlike manner. But the compositor is not to be relied upon, in>- PRINTER. 389 plicitly ; not exactly through want of care or of capacity for the task, but from his too much haste, his desire to rid out a good deal of work, that he may be enabled to make a good Saturday-night's bill, and the original error of dropping the letters into the wrong compartments in distributing old matter. The act of picking up the types singly, and placing these side by side, agreeable to the copy, is little more than a mechanical operation ; and may be well performed by a youth moderately skilled in the language of the copy he works upon; but it must not be denied, that he will ever turn out the best workman at case, who is the most critically conversant in the particular art, science, language, or subject, that may be put into his hands to compose. So thought the late Mr. W. Bowyer. and some other benevolent members of the Stationers' Company, who gave by will, for ever, annual bequests to workmen who best un- derstood Latin, Greek, &c. Besides all which, the compositor who sets up foul copy, i. e. full of error, must make it readable ere it goes to the editor ; he should also possess some taste for pointing, introduce all the necessary commas, to narrative matter, at least ; if he do not rise higher when the author becomes argumentative, or would demonstrate a metaphj^sical notion, let us suppose, whilst he is as careless as was Edmund Burke, or derange the idiom, as did David Hume. Many writers use a redundancy of capitals, which demand curtailment ; as do certain provincialisms of some otherwise clear-headed men, chiefly evinced in a jumble of the re- flective verbs, or in the discord of precedent, antecedent, and relative pronouns, which are found so very difficult of reconciliation in living languages, whenever a flowing diction is attempted. In large printing-offices, this labour usually devolves upon one person, who necessarily attains to some expertness in it ; as he goes over the proof with pen in hand to correct its errors, literal and lin- gual, while a boy (his reader), reads to him aloud the original copy ; it may be presumed that they both acquire, in time, some portion of the subject taught by the author, especially in the happy event of a reprint or two. Hence will be seen the propriety, if not necessity, of some early ground-work education, which is not only required for performing properly this highest operation of the printing-house, but as an absolute defence against young men falling into that sort of smattering which becomes so disagreeable to his friends, when gar- rulous old age may have elevated him to the chapel's dictatorial seat; a situation, by the way, though far from rendering him more amiable, 390 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. is a very proper one to be maintained among a large number of operatives ; who in him find a compressive character well calculated to repress their minor aberrations, which obtain him the title of " Father," together with a portion of respect. The manner of putting the types together, and preparing the forms for press, must be seen to be understood ; and being seen, the whole system can easily be comprehended by an ordinary mind. Usualty, a boy requires three months' teaching to acquire the art of composing a page by himself; practice does the rest, in general, and requires at least two-thirds of his term of apprenticeship before he can work as companion with an expert workman — for they always work double (or in companionship) upon book-work. Seven years are quite necessary to be occupied in learning the book-printing trade; and a sum of fifty pounds at least is proper to endow his indentures of apprenticeship, from parents of respectability, to a master who affords him an equally respectable home — though we have witnessed three times as much in one notable instance. Boys are usually placed under the the tutelage of some steady man in the office, who receives a tolerable gratuity for the trouble, and the amount of their earnings for a given period. With those instructions, and other verbalisms that he acquires daily, accompanied by the Printers' Grammar, or history of printing, the apprentice may acquire a taste for the art, probably an enthu- siasm for its prosecution to greater perfection than it has hitherto attained ; for, seeing what we have seen, in one short eventful life, what rational soul can say how much remains undiscovered ? Thus, ornamental printing— the last thing of yester's date — affords ample scope to the young man of taste, with leisure and unguentum aureum q. s., to display his genius, if he imagines he has any fancy. Let him remember that " Every impediment in fancy's course, Is but an incentive to more fancy." Let him study Johnson's History of Printing, and contemplate the immense labours of that very ingenious man, with the pictorial effects produced by him with an assemblage of moveable types. Yet was the whim no new one : a certain Mr. Ruffy, working in the office of Baines, in Leeds, produced a map of England, formed in a similar manner, about 1823 ; and remoter still, we observe from William von Haas, Basle, XIL Cartes geographiques, executees en Caracteres PRINTER. 391 mobiles, en perfection, 1791. These, however, maybe considered as little more than the exuberantia of a prolific art, which is doomed never to rest in its advances towards perfection : even while we write, there lie in sight forty-three authors who have written volumes near a hundred in its praise, or in explanation of its progress; whilst in the Annates Typographical of what passed regarding it antecedent to 1500, M. Maittaire (the emendator), occupied 8 vols, quarto, 1719 ; the industrious Panzer, 1 1 vols. 8vo., and one4to., " Conspec- tus Mbnamentorium Typographicorum, Seculi XV.," in Nor ember g, 1797. Enough we apprehend, to satisfy the most craving curiosity, without recurring to the remaining forty- one. Our attention has been mostly directed towards the book printing offices, whence issues substantial literature, and, in the commence- ment whereof, a thousand pounds would avail the new tradesman ineffectually, with all the credits and appliances of which he may bo able to avail himself ; but much smaller offices are frequently seen to rise up, on a comparatively small and fragile foundation — which, by good management, go on to swell and increase in trade to a very great magnitude ; and this seems to our mind the just reward of the great personal exertions the master is obliged to make during many of the best years of his life. Jobbing-offices, where hand-bills, posters, and circulars, catalogues, and shop-bills are executed, afford a very handsome living, especially if the Printer has the address, the in- terest, or the good-luck to obtain the parish business, or that of some large Auctioneer. We observe a placard in the counting- house of one of these, which well deserves general imitation ; and seeing the number of casual customers, who give their orders incon- siderately, or alter their intention, it were well if all would imitate neighbour Passenger's manifesto : " A deposit must bo left with every order at the time it is given," is a distinct announcement, that applicants must pay for their own errata. The Printers' trade belongs to the company of Stationers. Journeymen's earnings are seldom below 30$. a week, whether at press or case ; and, when a steadily conducted office is full of works, we should think little of any man who does not make a Saturday's bill beyond this sum ; the latter class especially, who ought to average near two guineas each, under similar circumstances, and not standing still for copy, or the return of letter through the de- tention of revises from heedless authors, compilers, or editors, of which there are several degrees. 392 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Printing Copper-plate impressions, is an entirely different trade from the foregoing — which is termed letter-press. When the en- graving has been cut, or bit, upon the plates, as described at pages 212 — 219, these are to be inked, and wiped off clean, while lying upon a charcoal brasier. The impression is then taken off upon damp paper, by its being passed under a roller press ; gently does it best, when accomplished with best ink, and the price paid per 100 bears strict proportion to both, as the best or stiffest ink occupies more time in wiping off. Whether the plates in hand be of copper or steel, or the graving be a picture, or simply some writing of words only, the process is similar; but the earnings of the men and masters differ greatly, according to the care and skill required for its execution. The supply of work has been extremely irregular for several years past, depending as it does upon the comparative briskness of trade in so many other branches. The consequence has been a general depression in price for all but the best work, which cannot be scamped over; and ordinary workmen could scarcely count more than a guinea a week until recently, in an office of tolerable good standing. Better workmen get out 30*. and upwards. The apprentice-fee is scarcely more than 20/. to learn working-off ; but, with a boy of good parent- age, the sum is usually double. In making a choice, the parents have great cause to avoid the more bibulous portion of the trade ; drink being the curse of the journeyman, and a plague to the masters. A small trade may be commenced with a couple of presses, a man, and a boy, with all the et ceteras of blankets, ink, and fittings up, with two-hundred pounds. Early payment for jobs, such as these offices would turn out, is usual ; when an under price only is paid. RECTIFIER, Or compound Distiller ; he purchases the malt spirits of the Dis- tiller, and proceeds to run these over again, mixed with juniper, aniseed, or other materials, with which he means to flavour the pure spirits. With these additions, the trade of rectification is the same as the Distiller's ; a designation usually taken by those who thus alter the flavours only — see pages 177 — 185 Nor should we have noticed this division of that trade, after the elaborate account there WEI IE US ILWm,H(^IHIT 0 RECTIFIER. 393 given, but for the additional information we feel it our duty to sub- mit, as to the valuable manufacture of brandies which has lately been pursued in London with a success proportioned to the importance of the object sought to be attained. Flavour, mellowness, and a due strength without fieriness, comprised all that could be desired to produce a British brandy that should compete in the home market with the foreign. To effect the first, an ordinary spirit drawn from buckwheat is obtained ; the mellowness is drawn from the best Ja- maica rum redistilled, but divested of its oleaginous quality and fire, by working from a spirit largely diluted with water into water again, whereby the essential oil would at one operation be doubly separated. The usual malt spirit (a a) makes up the article at this moment advertised as " Brandy equal to the French ;" and so it may be made, but requires age to complete the mellowness that is so much admired in the Cognac, Medoc, and other Bordeaux spirits. A very large capital is indispensable in this particular pursuit, seeing that the duties are required to be paid upon the main articles before the rectification is begun ; and then is to be added the time which is indispensable to its further amelioration. We would say, that 20,000/. should be brought into such a concern, to pursue it with sufficient vigour to a successful issue. ROPE-MAKER. Hemp is the prime material employed in the manufact ure of ropes every where, and in this country is exclusively in use. Its superior strength, manifested in actual service at sea, its great plenty, ductility, and facility of conversion, gives to hemp this preference over all other substances ; though flax, hair, willow bark, and some grasses, are occasionally found in ropes — a strand or two of the first-mentioned being introduced to distinguish government stores ; also, to make the smaller goods, denominated cord, and twine, as well as thread. Of the grass-rope, brought from the Levant, we have experienced the relative value ; having lain in the Tagus safely, with a stream cable made of this commodity, with a stiffish breeze down the river; but with a sharp look out for the land sharks, who then attempted to " knee it up," with the hope of catching the night watch a napping, s 3 394 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. These foreign ropes pay a duty upon importation, equal to the impost upon the like value of hemp. Rope-yarn is spun in a long walk ; at one end whereof is a wheel, turned by another hand — boy or woman. The spinner, who carries a portion of dressed hemp round his middle, attaches one end of two threads to two spindles of the wheel, which is then set a going at an equal turn : he retires backward from the wheel, spinning out both his threads until he reaches the farther end of the walk. He makes fast and commences anew. When a quantity of yarns are done, a few are brought together and made into a strand by turning any number in a jack-wheel, the workman as before going down the walk and keeping the yarns separate. Several of these strands make a rope, and many such ropes constitute a cable, for holding safely the largest ships at anchor. In this case the yarns and strands are payed with tar ; the final making being delayed until the required quantity of yarn for that purpose is got ready, and reserved in im- mense large rolls. This operation, when the work to be achieved is a first-rate best bower-cable, is really a sight worth going to Ports- mouth to witness ; the taking up on men's shoulders, and stowing it away, being not the least curious part of the performance. The ropery of our royal dock-yards is a covered building of several hun- dred yards in length ; excluding light and air nearly, so that the large square openings at the end, appear like circular specks, or most distant of the heavenly bodies. The Bridport cordage bears the most prizeable character, from the superior care taken in the manufacture ; next to this stands the London make, and then Hull, from the same cause. A considerable sum is required for the erection of a rope- walk and warehouses, though the former may be an uncovered one. Add to these the purchase of the material, always heavy priced, with payment •of wages, and we should say from one to two thousand pounds might be engaged in the first outlay. Notwithstanding we observe certain minor concerns, where they work the smaller articles for traders, dealers, and warehousemen, who usually pay ready-money, are set a going for a fifth part of such sums. Journeymen earn from 26*. to 32*. a week, in these busy times, at the merchants' yards, and the ordinary hours of working ; in the royal dock-yards, when they work extra tides (or hours), the earnings are higher. 395 SADDLER. In a nation so decidedly equestrian as ours, and excelling all others past and present in our breed, rearing, training, managing, and riding of horses, we feel less occasion, and no inclination, to recur to them for examples or for authorities, as to cavalry equipments. Of these, the saddle is the most eminently serviceable, both as regards the ease and security of the rider, and affording comfort to the animal under him; for, not only ought this defence of the loins and shoulders to fit the individual horse, and defend the parts from unequal pressure and friction, but its prominences — the pummel and can tie — should be adapted to every department of service in which it may be re- quired; and above all things, the entire saddle must not be too muck of it for the service to be performed. All the ancient representations of horses mounted, appear without saddles ; not alone the pictorial copies, but those more substantial and beautiful imitations of life itself, that are to be found in Italy : 1, That of Marcus Aureleus, of Corinthian metal, removed to the capitol at Rome ; and 2d, That of Nonius Balbus, in marble, rescued from Herculaneum, and placed in the Portici palace, near Naples. A faithful copy of the first is to be seen at Charing Cross, with Charles the unfortunate on his back. Of the utility of saddles for the various services in which horses are employed, we need not speak. Even the pack-saddle, made wholly of wood, iron-braces, and a stuffing of wool in a woollen lining, must be obviously indispensable to a country but partially enclosed, and ill supplied with roads adapted to wheel-carriages. So late as our own times have we seen a carrier's pack-horses going off, weekly, a journey of forty-four miles, displaying no little skill on the part of the carriers' in the act of loading. As every one knows, the Saddler's labours are preceded by those of the Saddle-tree maker, formerly a branch deemed of the utmost import- ance to a due adaptation of particular saddles to. awkward backs ; as the roach-back, hollow-back, close-ribbed horse, long washy flanked animal, deep-chested, high-mounted, narrow-withered, and other contraries in make, shape, and consequent mode of going. While none but the ordinary back presents itself, any tolerable workman may bring up a quantity of saddle-trees that will suit all alike with 396 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. the help of the Saddler's skill ; and in this way we hear of immense quantities of saddle-trees* being manufactured and sent up from Birmingham, at moderate prices and tolerably good ; whereby the bold tone and extravagant notions of the town Tree-makers, has been considerably lowered of late years, though they are still re- quired in extraordinary cases. Formerly, we have known the Saddlers standing still for the trees, while the Tree-makers have been at play, industrious^ expending their over-paid earnings, an evil that exists no longer in the same degree; at least, no such complaints now reach our ears, as that of a ship's sailing, and leaving behind an investment of saddles of some extent, already bespoke and very much needed at our Eastern dependencies — whither large quantities are sent annu- ally. Indeed, the export of this article of British manufacturing industry always was great to every quarter of the world — save France and Germany; and- appears rather upon the increase at all points, in proportion to the increase of population and civilized habits in the several countries where a love of horse-exercise prevails — L e. every where inland. The Saddler (sometimes falsely spelled Sadler), is near akin in his operations to several other trades. He works with the awl and waxed thread, upon leather, like a Shoemaker ; he bears affinity to the Tailor, inasmuch as he sews with the eye-needle, housings, caparisons, and horse-clothing — some clever few calling themselves Horse -Tailors. He produces bridles, stirrups, girths, surcingles, holster-cases and caps ; fitting up the metal work of the Lorrimer, or Bit and Stirrup-iron-maker ; he also applies the buckles, studs, bars, and brasses of the Founder to his own proper work. Most journey- men work by the piece ; charging so much per saddle for covering, so much for lining, &c. and in this way earn from 35*. to 45$. a week in full work ; some of them working common saddles at their own houses, of which there is always great plenty to be had by skilful men. These take apprentices — in whom is required neither great strength or superior skill ; and they expect a 20/. or 25/. fee, when the youth is to live in the house. But the master Saddler, who finds capital and keeps a shop for the sale of his goods, or who manufactures alone for exportation, requires three times as much with the sons of respectable parents. According as he may lay himself out for transacting business and giving credit to his custo- mers, will be the capital required for commencing business, say from 1000/. to 3000/. ; although we have noticed some industrious, clever SADDLER. 397 men, setting up and succeeding in business with very small portions of the smaller sum. On this latter scale, nearly, two notable instances of success in this trade present themselves to our notice, which almost run parallel; not exactly in the manner that a Plutarch would wish to draw, but certainly such as any curious person may contemplate profitably. Birnie and Laurie ; both were Saddlers, both Scots, as may be discerned by the (ie), that is, the terminse of both names; and, what is more to our purpose, both waxed warm upon small beginnings, and rejoiced in the circumstance, and both became knights, magis- trates, and dispensers of justice in the metropolis. Though both belonged to the county, one successfully sought the civic honours, whilst the other politically frequented the court ; yet they agreed in a particular manner of inquiring after delinquencies, which agreed not with Peake's rules, nor with any other's — not even their own. That they imbibed conservatism is not astonishing, seeing that radi- cals buy no saddles, and that those who so long kept the seat at the head of affairs, were the only ready-money customers in the land, on a large scale. Another anecdote, equally instructive, of a third Saddler, named Duncke is deserving of a place here. He was of Dutch extraction, and made a princely fortune at his shop in Cheap- side ; here dying, he bequeathed his property to a daughter, on con- dition that she married a journeyman Saddler, who should take his name. These combined circumstances induced a young gentleman of family to lay aside his condition, and to engage as a journeyman with old Duncke' s successor ; in due time he paid his addresses to the lady, and married her in 1749. Hence proceeded the family of Duncke, Earls of Halifax, one of whom was joint secretary of state during the Bute administration, in the early years of George III : he it was who signed the illegal warrant for arresting the celebrated John Wilkes, and was afterwards cast in damages 5000/. for that stretch of authority. In addition, his co-joint secretary, Lord Egmont, was constrained to fight a room duello with the irritated anti-North Briton ; but which of them got wounded, whether both or neither, How oft they reloaded, how often gave fire, Boots not a tradesman in this place to inquire, Since cudgels or fists might fulfil each desire. More to our purpose, however, is the fact, that Wilkes became Chamberlain of London, with 3000/. a year. 398 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. As might be expected, the Saddlers were early erected into a cor- porate body, having associated for the protection of their trade in its purity, unsullied by clumsy operatives, in 1190; and they received their charter from Edward I. about a century thereafter. They have still a fair Hall in Cheapside, near Foster-lane ; whilst next door is the shop, formerly that of old Duncke, now in possession of Townes and Son, agents for the sale of the celebrated roller-girth — an im- provement we never proved the utility of, because we could not obtain an inspection without previous purchase. It is mentioned approvingly in the " Grooms' Oracle," p. 54. SAWYER. He is employed by the Carpenter, the Cabinet-maker (see above, pages 87, 102), and the Cooper (p. 160), to cut wood into the required boards, planks, and battens, for their respective operations. This he performs by placing the tree or timber, on strong tressels, usually laid across the sawpit ; and being assisted by the Pitman, whilst the Top Sawyer, or chief, stands upon the work, they conjointly work a long coarse saw along the line marked out for the cut. Their earnings vary extremely, unless constantly employed, in a covered yard during winter, by the Cooper, at a weekly salary, usually amounting to 35$. Oftener, however, they choose to depend upon jobbing about for different masters " upon the call ;" at which sort of game, they either find * nothing stirring," and literally starve awhile, or make such astonishing sums at piece work, as to set their heads a madding with the fumes of the stomach; they become broil- some, drink unaccountably, fight any body or thing, pawn their tools by scores, and, when Tuesday comes round, find themselves under the necessity of kicking the master, for an advance. On these occa- sions, the masters who have work in hand, supplicate the men to resume the job, and thus become the beggars ; which they may do in vain, if they have suffered the ungrateful wretches to run in debt, or the publican is importunate for payment of his scores. Who would be a Sawyer ? Or, being one, would not work out his own reformation in time ? »J©A.3T IB TLJ E IL ID) IE M* . 399 SHIPWRIGHT. Of the importance of this art to a maritime nation, some notion may be formed by referring to the articles Merchant, Mariner, and a few others, in which the interests of our foreign trade have received consideration. If his part of the outfit be not performed with faithful- ness and skill, ultimate disaster and total loss may ensue ; if the Ship- wright be restricted in the outlay for repairs, what should happen but that the vessel part her timbers, or break her back, in the first adverse weather she may meet with, upon a lee shore : we have, in fact, seen such things and heard of more, that go near to harrow up the most afflicting recollections of villainous Surveyors. Looking at a ship of great burthen, we may safely conclude, that the art of building such an one was not attained in perfection until ages of trial and experiment were passed away, of numerous disappointments and loss of life, through ill contrived construction, had been experi- enced. The stories we read concerning the ship Argo and her com- mander Jason, of the Grecian and Persian fleets, and the guarda costas of our own King Edgar, must be received with due allowance for the comparative notions of the narrators, who had seen nor heard of aught resembling those exhibitions in their own times. So late as the reign of Elizabeth we bought ships of large tonnage ready built ; the ship money raised under a swindling pretence by Charles I. ought not to deceive the inquirer ; and it was not until the wicked ministry of his two sons brought this nation into collision with the Netherlander, that we can be said to have had a navy, fit to cope with the foe. Our wonder now is, that such undertakings as the discovery of Captain Davis's Straights (1585), in a small barque or two, and the weathering of Cape Horn (1740), should have at all succeeded in vessels of such diminutive burthen. When a ship is commenced building, this is done by laying down a strong, solid, well-connected series of heart of oak base, the whole length of the intended structure, peaked at both ends ; that towards the water receives the stem, and cut water; at the hinder extremity is inserted the stern-post: the whole is the vessel's keel. Into its sides are morticed the ribs, like those of the human body in its back bones ; and these being carried up by a gentle curve to the required 400 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. height, according to the proportions previously designed in the plan or model, are covered lengthwise with the timbers, which are fastened to the stem and stern, fore and aft. Inside the ribs, is another strong thick lining, of the same material, termed the ceiling ; and throughout its whole length, the three component parts of the ship's sides are further held in tight coincidence by bolts innumerable, of wood, iron, or copper, passing entirely through, and being clinched inside, with a counter-sunk head outside : on the workmanship of these fastenings depends the ultimate strength of the vessels ; to which the beams across (forming the decks), and the knees, with their clamps,- that keep those above and below, with their respective rib, in immobile position, contribute their might. Into the keel, the masts, three in number for large ships, viz. fore, main, and mizen, are stept, or sustained, by additional blocks of timber ; whilst the bowsprit of such a ship is inserted at the fore- mast, below, and is supported upon the stern head. This may be considered the outline of ship-building in general, to which there needs much more to be done ere it can be launched into the water, when the labour and expense are supposed to have reached half their extent. But a subject that is worthy of occupying much more space than can be afforded here, and has filled immensely large tomes, must necessarily be abridged of its fair proportions ; the reader who has the leisure, the inclination, or the necessity of informing himself further, is referred to the separate Treatises on Naval Architecture, to which the war of the revolution gave occasion. Among these, none more elaborate is to be found than that of Mr. Charnock, in 3 vols. 4to, price nine guineas ; an elaborate deduction of its history, with large delineations of numerous models, which appeared under the auspices of that true patriot and lover of learned lore, Earl Spencer. As first Lord of the Admiralty, it may be said, he could do no less than countenance such a work ; but Lord Spencer, with truest tact for authorship, did more — he did, indeed, what all writers require who undertake an extended, a deep, distant, or remote re- search — he advanced poor Charnock 500/, and put his name down for fifty copies of the work. As a natural consequence, hereupon appeared another publication, bearing the name of its publisher, Steel, on Tower-hill, in 1 vol. 4to, with a large roll of copper-plates, price ten guineas. This was the dawn of ship-building, as a science, at the termination of the last century. From that period, a better order of things has prevailed : a society, or association of scientific SHIPWRIGHT. 401 men was then established, which keep in view the promotion of naval architecture, by the adoption of models that should combine the required strength and commodiousness with the indispensable fast sailing upon all tacks, as well before the wind as within a few points of its eye. To this end the frequent trials ordered by the Admiralty Board contribute in an eminent manner. Men of war of all rates, frigates, and brigs, are ordered out in summer time to take a chase down channel and back to Portsmouth ; and according to what they may thus be found capable of achieving, such is the character they are subsequently destined to bear in the books and in the minds of the Mariners, to whom is confided the task of carry- ing ships into danger, and bringing them off with as little damage as the nature of the service would warrant us to expect. That a com- parative success herein would depend entirely upon the capabilities of the ship in going, in trimming, and answering the tacks, as well as in these being known to the master, appears to us a self-evident proposition. Hence the advantages of studying the proportions of good sailers; and this is our apology for dilating, more than is our wont, on the practical philosophy of ship shape, to which of course the quantity of mast and rigging must be adapted with skilful hands. Apprentices to Shipwrights are of two degrees: 1st, Those who are intended to perform the operative, or hard work, under the directions of the quarter men, and who seldom are endowed with more than nominal fees; 2d, Others, operatives also, but who may be looked upon as second only to the builders, or constructors of certain allotted portions of the structure, termed quarters; and 3d, The quartermen, or builders, who are the master- wrights, acting under the principal master builder, or superintendent of the whole undertaking. In merchants' yards this latter is the proprietor himself ; in government yards, he acts by an appointment from the Somerset House nobs. Caulking the ship is the final business of the work- men, previous to and subsequently to her launch into the water; and is a term supposed to have been derived from the sport of falconry, as indeed are many other terms in common use, from some favourite pursuit or other. It consists of driving oakum, or unravelled ropes, into all the seams between the planks of the ships, by means of caulking-irons and a heavy maul: this prevents leakage, as well as the friction of timbers together, that gives out a discordant music when new ships first put to sea; so that, when the joint is a 402 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. close one, presenting no chasm, the caulker rams away with the broad iron until he has produced one; when the seam is an open one, as in the case of old ships, come from hot climates, the oakum is driven in with a grooved iron, A small portion of tar renders the oakum supple in the first instance, and the whole is as hard as the timber itself, when the workmen pay the whole over with a mixture of melted pitch, tallow, and tar, and she ships glibly through the water, answering every tack with precision. But, when time has caused the caulking to work out or decay, or a voyage across the equinoctial line has melted the pitch until it runs like water, the labours of the caulkers aboard are required to repair the wear and waste thus created. At the first safe anchorage place they reach, all hands are employed in scraping her bottom, the ship being hauled down for that purpose, to get rid of the marine adhesions near the water streak, (termed carbuncles), which impede her course, and the caulkers pay her over anew, as low as they can reach. Coal-tar, (so obnoxious to all insects) the produce of our numerous gas-works, is now generally substituted for the mixture above-mentioned; and the excellent sheathing of copper, that is now applied to all our large ships, together combine to keep the bottoms tolerably clean. SHOEMAKER. Lads who are bound apprentices to the gentle crafty should be of industrious habits; and if they be not exposed to the contamination of evil example, we see no reason why they should not pass into society with as little imputation against their character as handi- craftsmen of any other trade. Shoemakers love to call theirs " the trade," whilst working they consider " going to trade," by way of pre-eminence; and really, if the whim please them, and they will insist upon the indispensability of their craft to enabling those of any and every other to set about their respective avocations, we see no help for the concession. Every body's out-door comforts, we must allow, depend on the Shoemakers' exertions; even the soldier cannot march upon his destructive errand unless his feet are defended from the injuries of the roads. We recollect reading the disasters attending the ill-shod army of reserve assembled at Dijon, SHOEMAKER. 403 which crossed the Alps to conquer Italy ; and, at a later period, the British under Graham, in the Isla de Leon, were placed in a similar plight ; when every snob in the army was put in requisition to make up and mend for their brethren in arms, while some misunderstanding prevailed between the contractors, Messrs. Bell and Co., and the makers at home. The art of making a shoe is easily learnt — i, e. in some sort or other; but the mode of turning out work in a masterly manner is known to a chosen few only ; of these latter prizeable workmen, such as would be tolerated by a Hoby for example, probably not more than 1,200 could be found in London ; the remaining 15,392, who are computed to infest the metropolis, include every degree of effectiveness until we arrive at the lowest grade, that scarcely excel those produced in the remote regions of Ireland and Scotland, and take the same name as the dialect of the two countries, viz. brogues. Shoes, as we wear them at present, with soles, heels, and upper- leathers, quarters, vamps, welts, and insoles, closed and fastened together by strong sewings of, first, waxed-threads for the bottoms, and second, of silk for the uppers, we owe to the ingenuity of the Moors of Spain ; and the city of Cordova in Andalusia being the seat of the most celebrated artists, it gave cognomen to the article, the makers, and the craft. Accordingly, Cordouaniers, being corrupted to Cordwainers, was the name by which Shoemakers were known here at a very early period, and is the name by which they were incorporated in 1410: they were regulated by a statute of King James L, were placed upon the livery, and built a fine Hall in DistafF- lane. Cordwainer is still the name under which those of the gentle craft rejoice, while throwing the opprobrium 11 Shoemaker," to the wall, as worthy only of a Smith, or Horse Shoemaker. The boot and shoe-making trades are essentially the same, though some men addict themselves more to one branch than another ; the Boot-maker being considered the highest, as those who make men's shoes are superior to women's men. Other subdivisions are ob- servable among the craft ; as the closers, in which many wives are employed ; and binding the quarters, which is wholly a female occu- pation ; some men do little but block the legs of boots, and in every large shop one man does nought but cut and give out work — he is the cliquer, or foreman of the party, or clique of a certain shop-of- work. He has need to be well acquainted with the qualities of leather ; to know, in particular, what kinds are properly tanned, as 404 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. upon this indispensable preparation depends his work standing the racket of adverse seasons, and indeed of his customers' preserving their health, when snow and melting sleet assail their feet ; when, too, little will avail the Lest of hose, the hardiest constitutions, or the liquid fire endeavours of their possessors, to keep up the stamina by strong potations ; for, the upper parts too often acquire a morbid heat, when cold applied at the lower extremities drives it thence ; of which fact, the cunning Cheapside Hosier appears to have been well aware, when he issued his wintry warnings to heedless passers-by in the form of thumb-sized admonitions, thus — Feet keep warm, heads keep coolish, Come to Romanis, don't be foolish. Shoes are not always made of leather, even in this country. In China, layers of thick paper compose the soles ; in France, the pea- santry scoop out the body of a piece of wood, to make the much- decried sabot. But, with all due deference for such idigenous English feelings, we never experienced greater comfort than was often found in the wooden-soled shoe, under adverse circumstances ; as, upon sallying forth after the workmen of a dreary winter morn, up and down a soft homestead, or about the garden, or at first stables, saddling own nag, &c. We now use, not only the leather of cat tle, calf, and sheep, but those of horse, dog, deer, and goat ; the latter being termed Morocco, from the country whence it was originally brought and sold, dearly, but now reduced by English arts, and the plentiful substitution of a roan, bronze, or imitative sort : Spanish is also an imitative Morocco, of deer skin, dyed black ; and we have lately a black dyed buff, for ailing legs and bunioned toes. For women's domestic wear, they likewise use stuffs, broad-cloths, jeans, lasting, nankeen, and satin for their boots, above the vamps : women mostly manufacture these latter, in parts, with the men. Of all those kinds of shoes and light boots, immense quantities find their way to the British dependencies abroad, to the new South American States, and to places independent of the other European powers who may be considered adverse to British commercial as- cendancy. And, truly, if we take a review of the productiveness of this trade, the amount of the tax on leather, and other articles con- sumed in its varied manufactory, to the number of hands, male and female, old and young, who are emplo} r ed in the several processes which conduce to its production, as well as those who are busied in SHOEMAKER. 405 the transit and sale of shoes, we cannot but contemplate the article as one of the primest importance, in a national point of view. If the number of Boot and Shoe-maker men, who inhabit London and its vicinity, was truly stated by the unionists, in 1833, as we believe, at 16,592, or 1 for every 75 inhabitants, then the number for the whole kingdom will be 331,840 men ; and, if these earn 1/. each in the country, and 1 1. 10s. a week in the large towns, as they ought, then the earnings of the gentle craft, may be taken at 497,760/. per week, or an annual clear receipt of 25,883,520/. From this total we feel little disposed to deduct the odd figures ; or, if this be done by way of barely admitted argument, the women's earnings being added will more than compensate such a reduction. What, let us ask, have 258 members of the House of Lords, got to counter- balance this vast income ? What, but the pride of ancestry, and the meagre delights of exclusive enjoyments ? Not, most certainly, the comforts of Saturday-night, nor the extatic delights of Saint Monday ! Delights, ever returning, ever new ; Pleasures of winning and of spending too. Vast numbers of shoes are made in the country parts for the London market: the Stafford and Northampton manufactories were long time celebrated for quantities; in the long war, many towns in the remoter provinces — Ireland, Cornwall, &c. sprung up out of the necessities of the times. In London and elsewhere, the number of small masters who make no shew, nearly equal those who keep shops ; and hence will be seen the facility with which a tolerable fit may commence business on a small scale ; or another with a more extended connexion (of 75 individuals, let us say) who will pay him on delivery, may make a tolerable living. Upwards we notice several gradations, in which some two to five hundred pounds may be expended in the outfit ; the apprentice fee, of course, will bear some proportion to the insight which the youth expects to obtain of the interests of the trade, or of the actual mauufactory, and the treatment stipulated for him. From ten to twenty pounds to a shop of work would be a proper sum with a hard-working in-door apprentice ; though most of them are taken with less, or nothing ; whilst fifty or sixty pounds are expected at those exalted shops which we see frequented by the topping gentry; and the youth must be one exhibiting some little breeding, or regard for the ob- 40 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. ser vances of decent life. These latter qualifications, however, he should not exercise upon trivial occasions, lest he acquire some undesirable nickery, such as was applied to a certain Bond-street maker, formerly, and now attaches to his issue, in the Bas villc de Calais, couched under the mock title of " Emperor of Morocco." Rather let our youngster emulate the acquirements of such (so called) snobs as Robert Bloornfield (author of the Farmer's Boy), William Holloway (Peasant's Fate), and some others who have made a good figure in the literary world ; whilst Preston preaches politics, and numerous others inculcate unceasing disputations, some teach Sunday scholars their lessons, or hold forth from their hastily erected pulpits — all seeking to impart portions of those cogitations on our fallen state, to which their constantly sitting posture naturally gives rise. SILKMAN. — See Haberdasher. Mercer. SMITH. Blacksmith is the name taken by the incorporated company of London, who were so constituted, a.d. 1471 : and is taken as inclusive of all the workers in iron within the verge of the city's authority. Their Hall is on Lambeth-hill, and their members highly respectable. Those who file their works, acquire the distinction of being Bright- smiths, vulgarly Whitesmiths ; whilst some receive a designation agreeing nearly with the articles manufactured by them — as Lock- smiths, Grate-smiths, Printers'-smiths, Coach-tyre, Jack, Saw, and Anchor-smiths. At Birmingham and Sheffield they divide off into more ramifications, even to the finite parts of very small articles. Of one of these a very detailed and interesting description will be found above; at p. 225, file-making recently occupied one of our coadjutors, extending through several pages bis curious particulars. The Far- rier, or Horse-shoe-smith, also received notice from the same hand, at pages 222 — 4; Gun-maker, at p. 2S4 ; Machinist, p. 319; Engineer, p. 198; and Cutler, p. 175 ; therefore shall we find less SMITH. 407 occasion to enter into certain minute matters which appertain to some one or other of these, and apply to several others. The forge, the hammer, the bellows, and anvil, are common to all Smiths ; but they vary in size considerably, as do the number of workmen which are required for completing the larger works : that is but a small trade where only one sledge hammer is required besides the fire-man and his hand-hammer. The Anchor-smith is that branch wherein the greatest powers, manual and mechanical, are deemed necessary, not less than eight or ten sledge-men at a time, expending their whole strength upon each heat. For the more secure and easy turning the anchor or its parts to the fire, and thence to the anvil, this immense instrument of ships' safety is suspended b} r chains from the roof of the building, where we observe with astonishment the facilities for moving the entire anchor of several thousand pounds weight, when at length it comes to receive the final fluke which is to complete the work. Strangers have reason to express their wonder, how it comes to pass, that the sledges, as they whirl round the heads of the Anchor-smiths, do not cause the destruction of one or more at each round ; and then, at last, when the sharpness of the musical clangor, tells distinctly that the work is nearly done we noticed with a painful pleasure, the exhausted Anchor-smiths prostrate on their backs, and in a minute afterwards appeared the beerman, with his cans up-yoked, to serve out every man his much desired potation, for the renovation of his strength. Our attention is now directed to the last heat of a first rate anchor ; the time some fifty years since, and the place is Plymouth dock- yard. Heats have been spoken of; they are of several degrees, according to the service for which they may be required. They acquire the terms — " blood red heat, a white heat, and welding heat." The first, or blood-red, is required when the article has been brought into proper shape, and wants only some additional hammering to reduce small inequalities. White-heat is the most general, and without which that ductility would not be obtained that enables the v/orkman to give it the proper form. A welding heat, is still softer, and is required when two pieces of iron are to be joined together. But, when cast iron is required to be altered in form, a heat less intense than the welding pitch is properest; or if the article is cast steel, its malleability is found at a still lower heat — termed blue. Iron railings are now invariably made of cast-iron, whilst the connecting rails are 408 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. made of hammered iron. Most of the massive and exquisitely formed wrought-iron gates to public buildings are composed, in like manner, of the two kinds of workmanship, the straight parts being cast, the more diffuse parts of the pattern are wrought. At the eastern entrance of St. Bartholomews Hospital, is as excellent a specimen of gate construction as just now occurs to our recollection. Journeymen, at this last-mentioned kind of jobs, earn from thirty to forty shillings per week; but second-rate hands, in the same shops, much less. Every branch of the iron trade is extremely brisk all over the kingdom ; and the price of iron, in bars, pigs, and sows, has been upon the advance during the years 1834 and 1835. This last circumstance proves the demand to be great, though the employment may be mostly in the heavy branches. As to the sums required for commencing business in a trade of such very extensive ramifications, no adequate notion can be formed; but as a general Smith, in a crowded neighbourhood, where the man could turn his hand to bell-hanging, and all the lesser jobs, he might make a beginning with a hundred pounds. Apprentice fees are very low — strength being the most requisite qualification: we find 20/. have been given, where the master undertook to find his apprentice the full term of his indentures. SOAP BOILER. It is more than probable, that the employment of ash leys in cleansing greasy cloths, wools, and other such materials, was tolerably extensive at an early period of history ; and, as the principle upon which the coagulum is obtained that constitutes the article we call soap, consists in mixing greasy substances, as tallow and oils, with commensurately strong leys, the discovery of soap-making may be fixed at a very remote age of the world. Wood ashes would, of course, offer itself as the very first kind which mankind would avail themselves of for extracting the ley ; even within our own time, we have seen cottagers casting the ashes of their hearths into water, with a view of rendering it more detersive for their periodical washings: nor was the addition of a little lime to sharpen its pro- perties unknown to those humble persons. Our manufacturers may SOAP BOILER. 409 have obtained at this source a knowledge of the value of such a lixivium ; experience and the desire of making improvements, brought them acquainted with the superior quantity of salt which resided in the smaller woods than in large trees, and, more abundantly in wormwood, barilla, and finally in kelp; whilst the application of high and long continued heat, doubtless was coeval with the earliest attempts at soap-making — most assuredly of soap-boiling ; and this, with the additional aid derivable from agitation, they might learn from the manner in which churning acts upon cream in its conversion to butter. This agitation, indeed, is found so mainly conducive to the required graining, as the workmen call the coagu- lation, that certain ingenious persons have recently precipitated such a separation as to obtain soap without boiling ; at any rate, say the happy innovators, much less time is taken up in the entire making when the boils are accompanied by a great deal of stirring and mixing. As usual in this country of machinery, a rotatory motion is given the crutch or staffs, for the better effecting this purpose with less of manual labour ; and finally, as regards improvements, we shall have to notice presently, the introduction of a new substance to soap- making, hitherto unthought of, and as appears to us one of the most extraordinary that could enter the mind of speculative man to try. Soap is made at two boils. The first consists of alkaline ley, and tallow, if for hard, or oil for soft soap. When the coagulation attains the desired stiffness, the exhausted leys are drawn off, and a fresh supply is added ; whereupon the second boil effects the making, the churned soap resting on the surface : thence it is ladled off into boxes, or shapes, and subsequently cut into bars by wires. The tallows and oils employed are of various qualities ; and as these may be more or less pure, so will the produce be fine white or mottled, soft, yellow, or brown ; the yellow containing a portion of rosin in its composition, whilst the mottled is effected by adding a very strong ley at the second boil, or by mixing sulphate of iron, or in- digo, or manganese, at the same stage of the manufacture. Under " Oilman," p. 348, one species of unctuous substances have been enumerated ; to these may be added every other that the industry or ingenuity of man can bring into vise, and has submitted to the action of the leys. In France, where the abundant production of fat, tallow, and the like, suits not the genius of the people, such matters have been introduced to the Boilers as almost staggered belief — until recently; among others, we hear of woollen rags and T 410 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. refuse, with the horns and hoofs of animals, being boiled down, and producing a villainous soap for ordinary use, such as denoted the trail of the wearers, and distinguished their manufactures by some- thing else than the patterns. Of the trades in which soap is exten- sively employed, we have already spoken, in the articles Bleacher (p. 34), Dyer (p. 185), Clothier (p. 143), Fuller (p. 253) ; and have now to congratulate the lovers of their country with the cheering fact, that a beneficent administration have managed to reduce the duties upon this prime article of our manufactures, our comforts, and cleanliness, so as to bring it into more extensive use. Hitherto, about 13 cwt. of prime tallow, with the addition of the alkaline ley, was found to produce a ton of soap ; but we seem des- tined to experience a considerable revolution in those proportions, by the discoveries of Mr. J. C. Sheridan, a Belgian, who has suc- ceeded in converting flints into soap. He takes those of the common black sort, calcined and reduced to powder by wet grinding ; then mixes it with the usual leys, and boils until it attains soporification. The soap so obtained, is added to the present tallow soap, after this is made ready for pouring into the frames. The mixture requires to be well crutched, and the result is a soap of most excellent quality. Mr. Sheridan obtained a patent for his very valuable discovery ; but what he will require of other makers for machines, or what the new crutching wheels (alluded to above) will cost in the erection, we have no present means of stating. In other respects, the commence- ment of this manufacture could not have been contemplated with less tjian 2000/. — or twice that sum for a tolerably large concern, previous to the reduction in the duties ; owing to the monthly out- lay for excise charges, which operated upon this article much in the same onerous manner as those upon paper were always felt. See page 369. The master and his principal man are those alone who need un- derstand the art of making, all other workmen being merely labourers at 1 8$. or a guinea per week. Apprentice fee, to learn the arcana of the trade, has been 200/. or more ; though an ingenious man may acquire the method of making, by repeated experiments, quite as good an article as is commonly vended : we say this, because we have known a case in point, and although the man was confessedly no adept at any other chemical process ; neither did he pay the excise impost, nor receive visits from its officers more than once : it was his last boil. This trade was incorporated in 1638: but, as a body, never took an eminent station in the city. SOAP BOILER. 411 When soap is required of particular whiteness, as the Windsor soap, the curd is washed with clean water, repeatedly, previous to pouring into the frames : whereas, when yellow or mottled is to be made particularly hard and detergent, fresh strong leys are renewed as long as the soap will take up any of its alkaline qualities. spinner; A very humble, but nevertheless important branch of manufac- tures, receives several names, now a-day, according to the means used for reducing the various materials into threads or lines, by twisting. These are 1st, silk; 2d, cotton; 3d, hemp, flax, and nettle thread; 4th, linen; 5th, wool, hair, &c. The first is termed silk- throwing, and the manufacturer a Throwster ; the second is now invariably brought into the thread state by the cotton mill machinery or jenny (see p. 171); the third species are worked damp, and are spoken of at p. 3J3 ; whilst it is of the linen and wool-spinning we here come to treat, as performed single-handed, with one wheel. This mode of thread-making is of very high antiquity, as we fre- quently read in Holy Scriptures of cloths, and the curious work- manship bestowed upon garments. Meanwhile the early Grecian historians, speaking of times still more remote, and of nations who buried their heads in obscure tradition, record transactions that refer to the female use of the distaff and spindle, as well as of the people leaving their looms to run after certain wine drinkings, called Io Bacchce — when the suppositious demi deity of drunkenness was natalized. In fine, the art must have descended to all posterity and colonies of nations from the time they covered themselves with any thing more supple than the skins of beasts ; although we have noticed in our time certain persons wear jerkins of sheep skin with the wool on, and waistcoats made of fallow-deer skin, with the hair still adhering, and the white frill throat of the animal very aptly placed at the breast of the man. This latter fashion prevails in the rural districts of our own island ; whereas, we have only ob- served the former among the Andalusian shepherds of the Sierra Morena. Spinning by the distaff and spindle is performed sitting, the flax t2 412 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES or other material being fixed on a long stick. The Spinner draws out a thread, which she attaches to the spindle pole, and when a suf- ficient quantity has been thus spun, she slips it off, and recommences with attaching another thread to the pole When wool is to be spun, the Spinner stands to her work, running backward as the threads become twisted by the agitation she gives to a tall wheel which carries round the spole ; then running forward she permits the thread to coil up on the spole to a certain bulk, as she repeats her goings and comings. These spoles go to the Weaver, and are placed in his shuttle, for woof and warp weaving; but another set of women spin for Stocking- makers, and their worsted threads go to the Dyers, are much finer and looser spun than the former. Happily for the poor people who are engaged in the production of woollen threads, this art is still free from the effects of machinery, and the very poor weekly earnings of four, five, or six shillings (working whole nights) are yet awhile secure in their hands. They receive their wool, in a fine state of preparation, called slivers, from the Woolcombers of the stocking districts, to whom it is returned, by weight ; but this does not prevent others from purchasing their own wool, and knitting the worsted of their domestic produce into stockings. STATIONER. This trade bears some affinity to the Paper-maker, Bookseller, Printer, and Parchment-maker, with all of whom large dealings exist, or one or the other is conjoined with Stationery. When the concern is conducted at wholesale only, the Stationer has generally connexion with some paper-mill — in whole or in part, either by direct coparceny or by making advances, by supplies of rags, or by taking off large makings at a contract price. We have already shewn how much the Paper-maker who works to the extremity of his capital is straitened by the excise duties (p. 375) ; and is a circumstance of which the great wholesale Stationer never failed to take advantage, by postponement, rebatement, &c, but which grievance is likely to be greatly abated by the newly proposed reduction of one half the said duties. Besides those co-existent trades, the Stationer also branches off into the Law- STATIONER. 413 stationer the Paper-stainer, and Paper-hanging maker; and the whole of those mentioned form " the company of Stationers," who were incorporated in the reign of Queen Mary (1557), and have a handsome Hall near Ludgate-street. They are a trading company, are endowed with some rentals, and administer certain clauses in Acts for the protection of copyright — all which contribute to swell their revenue. They also possessed several asserted privileges of exclusive publications — well suited to the era of their institution, but at total variance with the spirit of their own law : these were, 1st, a Patent Latin Grammar ; 2d, Tate's Version of the Psalms; and 3d, the printing of Almanacks, to the exclusion of all improve - ments, and an adherence to dogmas and forms of exposition, that had been long exploded and were always considered ridiculous. But the first was set aside by the more familiar accidence of the Eton schoolmasters ; the second was laid open by John Reeves, as the third had been " by Thomas Carnan of St Paul's Churchyard, who after an expensive suit at law and equity, dispossessed the company of their pretended privilege, which they had usurped for two cen- turies — a convincing proof that truth and justice can alone stand the test of an English court of justice." These words, nowise cabalistic, petrified the company's exclusive loyalty ; their mainstay conjuror, Francis Moore, devolved jacobinical without becoming more intelligible ; and other almanacks, marked by common sense, soon taught their committee that the public was no longer to be cajoled, when the government withdrew the stamp duty, and a host of competitors hereupon enlivened the Stationers' shops with a better description of annual calendars, that by com- parison go near to disprove the Company's assumed infallibility. In addition to these, the retail Stationer sells most of the lesser books of instruction, copy-books, account-books, and every article necessary for writing and correspondence — as ink, wafers, wax, pens ; and if he lays himself out for the higher orders of literature, he is styled a Bookseller as well as Stationer. At the outskirts of town, and in country places, he also adds various other articles to those of his proper vent ; he is a Bookbinder, a vendor of quack medicines and sometimes a Printer. The working Stationer earns about 30*. a week, or more ; if he commence business, he must adapt his ex- pectations of a trade to the capital he can command ; but the concern must be a small one where less than 300/. are within reach ; though ten times that sum may be profitably engaged in the erection of a 414. THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. wholesale trade in London. To this latter kind of establishment an apprentice fee of 100/. or 150/. is proper, whilst the operative is content to take 20/. or 30/. with a seven years 9 apprentice. STATUARY. He is employed in the very highest order of the arts, of which sculpture, or cutting figures out of marble, is considered the apex. A statue may be a single figure, or compounded of many ; either to commemorate a certain man, or to depict an historical transaction. The material may be one, or various, and is generally of stone or marble; though the term sculpture applies as much to figures in wax, lead, wood, bronze, &c. ; whilst, for every such design, a model or mould made of clay is required, which the Sculptor prepares as the pattern to work after, or to make the matrix which it is intended to cast from. Hence it must be apparent, that an artist who would become proficient, should have studied the productions of the ancients, and the recent Sculptors of Italy ; where the art has been carried to its highest perfection, and is still maintained in a masterly manner — Praxiteles being the oldest, and Canova (recently deceased) the most modern of those masters whose works an artist is bound to examine critically, to copy, and to imitate. Nor must he neglect those of our own country who have done honour to the pursuit, and to the happy island of their birth : Chan trey, Bacon, and Westmacott, afford models worthy of being studied, ere the young artist visits the great schools of Italy. These he will find annually emulated at the exhibitions of the Royal Academy at Somerset House — in the month of May ; but he will not fail to have perfected his taste by attending the lectures delivered during winter at the same place ; where he will also find opportunities of drawing from the life, afforded by the munificent resort thither of a discerning British public during the said carnival of taste and vertu. To Paris he may repair at an early period of his career, during vacations in his other studies, viz. those of the languages and the writings of the ancients. He will there make drawings of the productions of the celebrated David and others, in the Luxemburgh palace, taking especial care to compare and make notes of his opinions concerning the merits of those and i STATUARY. 415 these of his own country : those in Westminster Abbey, St. Paul's church, the British Museum, and in the galleries of various noble persons who have vouchsafed to bestow princely sums on the works of art, are ever open to his inspection and imitation from the first day of hrs entering upon this sublime study. In forming his style, or points of admiration, he must avoid vain prattlers on the arts and specimens at any time under examination, paying little attention to the viva voce opinions of women or Frenchmen, if he would attain the sublime : both are too wordy for forming a genius, avec trop oTopinionatrete, to allow the young artist to think for himself, which he must do, seeing that he had better to greatly err, than follow tamely any given master, however excellent. Martin, Fuseli, and Barry (in painting) may be adduced as examples of excessive de viations, attracting admiration. In his visits to the galleries, he would also do well to avoid using a prejudiced description of them issued forth falsely as the work of Mr. Westmacott, having for title " The Galleries of Art :" of this publication we read such criticisms in the Edinburgh Magazine (Blackwood), for December, 1824, and the European (M'Donough), for Sept. Nov. and Dec, same year, as to harrow up deep feelings of indignation against impositions so glaring and imbecility so apparent, as almost to make us sigh again for the censor's rod. Readers of experience will observe, that we have herein kept an eye to the corresponding arts of design and painting ; as the study of works in piano, which attempt to deceive the spectator into the conceit that they stand in relievo, cannot well be separated from the consideration of those in actual relief. In this manner were they viewed by a very correct teacher of the last age — Mr. Richardson — whose Lectures on Art, with those of Sir Joshua Reynolds, require long and ardent attention, ere our young artist can hope to make his diffi- cult way into public estimation, and obtain a patronage equal to his exertions in endeavouring to deserve it. Some artists become pro- ficients in each of those sister arts; Michael Angelo, for example, spoken of in a former page (323). Modelling in clay is the fit precursor of the chisel and mallet, as it is also of casting statues ; to perform this portion of the task requiring all the knowledge, taste, and previous preparation, that aids the Sculptor in bringing out the figures from the block. Therefore it was, that we were led to deliver a contemptuous opinion (at page 360), of one who writes himself up as " muddeler to the trade meaning thereby, probably, that he 416 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. furnished designs for mouldings, key-stones, and the like inferior works of the Stone-mason ; but shewing at the same moment that he had undergone none of the severe studies recommended in the last pages ; or that, if he had attempted the thing, this had been undertaken without the indispensable preparation of learning how to spell the vernacular tongue, much less those of France, Tuscany, and Roma antiqua, in which the finest specimens of vert u are de- scribed. The reader may spare us the pain of repetition, by turning to the article " Mason," pages 323 — 326, to Carver, page 114, to Architect, page 11, and Plasterer, 382 ; between all which arts there exists an obvious affinity of study, of preparation, and of pro- fitable pursuit. We might have increased the list of those trades that require expertness in the arts of design, and some degree of genius in youth towards forming even a commonly successful practitioner; these are the Engineer, Shipwright, Machinist, and Engraver; and have now to add, regarding the whole series, that one true and never-failing denotation of real genius for his art, in a young aspirant for fame, will be discovered in the enthusiasm with which he will pursue the details of his profession and apply them to other arts ; they will enter into his thoughts at night and waking reveries by day ; he will abandon all his former modes of recreation, or time killing, unless so far as these can be made subservient to his now sole pursuit, the only mistress of his mind and heart : above all, he eschews slothful habits, stewing over the fire, inordinate gormandizing and lying late a bed ; indeed, this latter was ever the surest sign of genius in all the instances brought under our notice, the all-pos- sessing consciousness of excellence allowing of no compromise with the emolliences of the pillow and bolster. The Statuary having drawn his design, and submitted this to the approbation of his patron, or employer — if he fortunately have se- cured such an one — he proceeds to model the same in clay. In these first steps lies considerable difficulty, or intense study ; any moderate working Mason being capable of blocking out the figure from this model, whilst more able hands finish the whole, under the immediate superintendence and chisel-help of the master. See pages 323 — 326. Indeed, we might say, that the chief art lies in the modelling, the actual monument which we see set up being but the copy, measured off and adjusted by help of the rule, compasses, and clippers. Statues, however, have been produced from the drawings, without the intervention of a model. These figures are seldom made from a STATUARY 417 single block, much less so the more elaborate monument ; but the torso or trunk in one piece, the head and limbs in others, and the whole held or fastened together by plaster of Paris, as well as a con- cealed clamp of metal, let in, at the juncture of an extended limb, &c. A clamp, or style, is usually let in to the centre, upon raising a statue on an exposed summit, or top of some building, to steady its position. In this manner, all colossal figures, of whatever material, are got up ; as the celebrated Apollo, of brass, at Rhodes, which cost Chares twelve years' labour, dividing into several parts, upon being overturned by an earthquake. It was 86 feet high ; but all statues which exceed the original by twice or thrice, equally obtain the term colossal: such is the bronze Achilles in Hyde Park. All those which are put up in public places, to be viewed at a distance, are larger than life — or once and a half : for example, Johnson, Jones, and Howard in St. Paul's Church. Those in large buildings, churches, and halls, seldom exceed the natural size, unless the place or position be very extensive ; whilst the Romans, Greeks, and other pagans, preserved the memory of their great men, whom they deified, in little, usually bronze. For example, we possess a Mercury of this material, evidently deposited by the Romans in Britain, which is 3~ inches in height ; whilst the statue of Lord Erskine, in Lincoln's Inn Hall, is of the first-mentioned class, and is withal a very chaste production of the chisel, well worthy the study of a young artist. From what has been said, it must be evident that a large sum should be laid out in fitting a young man for such pursuits, even allowing that he has a genius for the thing, which is indispensable he should be able to prove ere he can be admitted to the school and lectures at Somerset House, and he obtain the countenance and patronage of some munificent person ; though we have known certain enthusiasts succeed, without either these or a master ; whilst others have been content to set up the eazel, clean the brushes, lay on the grounds, and perform other drudgeries of some great painter's studio, and turning thence to the Sculptor's shop have commenced cutting at once in the most admirable style of excellence. From 300/. to 500/. would be the proper fee to be given with a young man of parts, and school attainments, as pupil to an habile pro- fessor. 41« THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. STOCKING- WEAVER. Viewed as an article of extensive manufacture, as it is of universal wear and of profitable exportation, the making of stockings is a trade of the highest consideration in this country ; not only as regards the original bent and aim of the loom Weaver, who got up worsted stockings only, but also the more astonishing production of cotton goods, beyond all calculation and all estimate. If the former material be deemed desirable in cold seasons and cold countries, no less are the cottons sought after with avidity by the people of milder climes and the less exposed occupations. Although silk hose be the native production of French industry, our cotton stockings were ever found superiorly acceptable to the ladies there, and in the Netherlands ; so of all the warmer countries of Europe, and wherever else British commerce may penetrate among any people who observe the com- mon decencies of life. Under the article Fuller, pages 253 — 6, and Haberdasher and Hosier, p. 289, stockings are mentioned as forming one object of trading ; the manufacture by hand-loom weaving forms the subject of a separate history, possessing great merit and a very familiar knowledge of its details : it was published by Mr. Sutton, of Nottingham, during the contests of the workmen and their employers about twenty years since, and is highly worthy the perusal of every one who would trace our manufactures from their earliest efforts, through various difficulties, and from district to district in the south, until they became fixed, as it were, to their present locations in the Midland counties— Leicester, Derby, and Nottingham shires. The art of weaving stockings was suggested by the use of the re- cently invented knitting needles, to a student at Oxford : both consist in forming an indefinite number of little knots, called loops and stitches, with the consequent meshes, by a series of plexus from side to side. Woven stockings are manufactured on a machine made of finely polished iron, of a very complex and ingenious construction. Not only stockings, but by means of some additional machinery to the original frame, or engine, ribbed worsted pieces for breeches, open work, curious lace aprons and handkerchiefs of various materials, are made in nearly a similar manner. The workman who can earn above 30s a week must be a good hand, and apply himself very closely to trade ; STOCKING-WEAVER. 419 he ought to possess a loom of his own, if he would avoid paying the rent of one ; and if he early take a wife, or have a few children, he will not long find these lie heavy on his hands, especially if they be healthy, and actively pursue the making, in these busy times. A loom is worth sixty or eighty pounds at good second-hand, the original cost being nearly double as much. This article, then, or any number of them, will compose the stock in trade of a Weaver ; add to which, the purchase of the raw material for giving out to the respective work people, and the capital requisite for commencing business may be adapted to the costliness of the particular fabric he may choose to adopt as his leading article. Of these, wool is the original ; and the principal Stockingers are Woolcombers by trade, giving out their wools to be spun, and the yarns to work people, to be woven at prices adapted to the fineness of the thread. The system of giving out is also adopted in respect to cotton goods and to silk stockings ; threads for these being thrown or spun in mills or jennies, as described higher up, pages 171 — 173. From these circumstances it must be evident, that a trade may be carried on in stocking-weaving from the smallest to the largest amounts. STONE-MASON.— Mason. Statuary. STRAW-HAT MAKER. Wholly a rural business in its preparatory state, as straw platt, the actual Straw-hat Maker is as completely a business of large towns. In London, it is most extensive, in the spring and summer months, the great dealers also connecting the foreign straw, Leghorn and Tuscany, hats with our native productions ; and the bare sight of a wholesale warehouse, filled as these usually are, with scores of dozens of each kind exposed for sale and for packing, is as gratifying as wonderful. When we consider the original small cost of the raw material, and that very high prices are obtained for straw hats of the finest qualities, we have indeed good cause for admiration mixed with 420 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. applause at the good effects of so much industry. Braiders or platters (women), find work all the year round nearly, and average about 10s. weekly ; those who sew the plat into shapes, who are the real makers, earn nearly the same sums, but these do not find steady employment. They also cleanse, bleach anew, and make up again, great numbers of those hats to a more modern taste. After being made, the blocker puts the hats on a wooden block of birch or oak, and with hot irons subjects the hats to pressure. Hereupon the goods are a second time exposed to the fumes of ignited sulphur, that gives them an enviable whiteness, which the Leghorns can never attain. The dealers in platt, who carry on their purchases much in the same manner as the dealers in lace {see p. 305), have need of some capital in winter time ; but they generally contrive to make every pound of ready money to represent two upon credit. This stretch, however, the first spring month soon sets at rest : none of them grow rich, though all drive a good profitable trade, vending their purchases in London for the most part. SURGEON. To ordinary minds, the whole series of professors of the curative art, seem all of the same genus, capable of the same operations, and equally conversant in the employment of the proper medicines at the proper times, as applied to their genuine purposes, in due propor- tions, and skilfully mixed. But, saving their prejudices, it is not every man who wields a pestle is capable of dispensing the drugs he is in the habit of thumping, nor are his coloured water glasses a passport to the sick chamber ; neither is he a Doctor indubitably, who is so dubbed by a parchment authority, or by vulgar acclaim, any more than that fool is a wit who happens to grin wider than his fellows. Mankind have a good deal to be disabused of in this re- spect. We mentioned certain points under the article Physician, to which the reader must refer. Surgery, according to Cornelius Celsus, in Re Medicina, is that branch of the art which teaches how to remove or to prevent disorders by the application of external remedies, by the use of the hands and employment of instruments. He adduces phlebotomy, issues, &c. • but we should add, as our ex- SURGEON. 421 plication of the controversy, that wherever change of structure has taken place — i. e. all cases of lesion, of tumour, anchylosis, enlarge- ment, fracture, luxation, and concretion, together with the preparatory and corresponding medicines, belong to the Surgeon ; constitutional disorders to the Physician, who knows, by parity of reasoning, when the secretions cease to proceed in their proper course, and learns by practice how to restore lost function in these, and give the desired tone to the nervous system. The Physician, however, is frequently under the necessity of groping in the dark, or to act upon conjecture; and herein he depends mainly on the strength of the patient's con- stitution to bring him about, rather than upon any rules of art ; whereas, the Surgeon has the evidence of his senses, as well as his judgment, to guide him in his operations : his method of cure depends upon the known mechanism of the body, which he has derived from post mortem examinations, the dissection of entire subjects, or long continued scrutiny into the construction of certain parts. Thus, we have known young gentlemen apply themselves in succession to the structure of the knee (patella), to the hip-joint, to the ear, the brain, the eye, &c. To the curious investigations of the lecturer whom they attend at the Theatre of Anatomy, they add deep cogita- tions of their own, and retire thence to their studies to pursue the immediate topic of inquiry into its farthest ramifications, upon parts, subjects, and drawings, all ready at hand : in case of the last-men- tioned part, the eye, they procure those of recently slaughtered sheep from some neighbouring killing Butcher's, inasmuch as the vitreous humour (as well as the Dellucid) is dried up by much sickness, and the refracting lens anduretina go on to dissolution im- mediately after death. In this latter respect, and many others, the examination of the • animal structure, as it is found in those that are sent for our suste- nance, and other large quadrupeds, possesses many advantages over the same sort of disagreeable labour bestowed on our own species ; there is less danger from the effluvium, from the chances of morbific puncture, besides offering larger and more obvious developments of the minor parts of the system — as the nerves and minute glands, for example. In both these parts of the system, has the writer of this article made some discoveries — as he apprehends, and submitted the same to public notice and public approbation, precisely as they were obtained by dissecting the horse. To this course he was led by his own natural bias for the study, and the reflection that, only in the 422 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. last century was the practice of human anatomy introduced publicly ; for he had not then heard how much the old practitioners were in- debted to mere comparative anatomy for their skill; nor was he cognisant of the fact that Eustachius records his discovery of the thoracic duct (yalvula Eustachii) to have been made in the horse, first ; as was that of the facteals, sixty years afterwards, by Aselli, also in the horse. The faw glands through which these pass to the mesenteric canal, have been depicted in the larger work of Mr. Hinds — Veterinary Surgery, p. 92; and we hear Mr. Dewhurst hold forth occasionally on the same interesting topic — " Comparative Anatomy," in which the Professor seems to be quite at home, in pleasing style. Finally, the Surgeon must be an expert anatomist, if he would know how to perform any operation of any kind, or is desirous of ascertaining beforehand the structure of the parts on which his medicines are to act. He will be called upon, occasionally, to examine the state of the main canal in those unfortunate persons who have destroyed life by taking poisonous substances : he will there perceive the inflammation of the fine villous coat of the stomach, or a perforation at its most dependent part, or the total extinction of the pylorus orifice, or large abrasions of the outer surface of the intestines — and pronounce accordingly upon the proximate cause of dissolution. He will obtain some of the contents of the stomach or great gut, to ascertain specifically by what means so much ruin has been effected ; so that he has need of early instruction in pharmacy, though Surgeons generally eschew the exhibition of many medicines. How unlike every Apothecary, and many Physicians ! those working traders, who pour in tbeir mixtures with mischievous assiduity till the last moment of their customers' existence. In all those particulars we see good reason for placing the avoca- tion of a Surgeon much above the other species of so called doctors, most of whom are any thing but doctis, or learned. Therefore it is, that we must thus early apprize the young aspirant after the honour and practice of relieving mankind from their bodily afflictions, that he must assiduously apply himself to studying the languages — as French, Italian, German, that he may read in the originals the journals of medicine, and learn at the genuine sources whatever improvements and discoveries may be made in the several countries, connected with the sciences ; for, notwithstanding the masterly position this country stands in, as regards the several branches of practical phi- losophy, the industry and frequent success attending the researches SURGEON. 423 of eminent foreigners, entitle their labours to an early and patient revision. There is another light in which this recommendation will be found hereafter not unprofitably adopted ; and, although the pre- caution may at first sight savour of little more than a mere judicial decision, yet does it tell us as plain as words can, that the man (or men) who assumes the labours of others as his own, is not to be implicitly trusted in any other particular. Thus it happened with regard to some valuable discoveries made by Professor Oersted, in magnetism, a few years since. As these were announced in Copen- hagen, from time to time, they were taken up by M. Arago, at Paris, and published by him in his journal, as original experiments first made by him, without any mention of poor Mr. Oersted, or but a casual notice of his prior claims. Several public libraries offer to the student the complete means of accomplishing his wishes in these respects, at a moderate charge. The professions of Physic and Surgery scarcely admit of being considered separately, and not only trench upon each other, but would in some difficult cases be allowed to change hands, advan- tageously to the patients : the first would be 'profitably displaced by the second, wherein change of structure might be detected : whilst a dislocation, which may have dwindled down to an incurable constitutional affection, becomes a medical case. The real Surgeon is seldom addicted to much physic-giving. Bleeding, scarification, and cupping, were formerly distinct operations in the hands of Sur- geons only; but since these latter were combined, with obvious propriety, and other means of drawing internal ills to the surface have obtained place, the practice is got into other separate hands. Persons who are mere Cuppers, after having acquired considerable expertness by much use, obtain some insight as to particular cases* and the restorative tendency of their art — one of the most eminent or the most remarkable, even adds a little caricature to his mode of operating, that frequently excites the risibility of the pupils ; and another has devolved into a visiting apothecary, though we should much rather hear of his staying at home to receive the visits of ple- thoric patients who may be sent to him for depletion. For, those half-bred gents of the shop seldom remain content with physicking all human ills; but when they once travel out of their proper confines, think nothing of reducing a luxation by bolus and draught, or re- storing a paralysed limb by applying an unction to the extremities. Foote termed this mode of treatment " extreme unction." But it is 424 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. when the same class of practitioners, after trying all they know, despair of recovering their patients, and declare " nothing more can be done" for the unhappy persons, that their last sad advice becomes doubly dangerous, if attended to ; we have, however, great pleasure in stating that one Druggist has candidly ceased to pay visits in con- sequence of such a blunder, and another seems almost convinced that he ought to follow the example of his and our neighbour. Not only do those inefficients come under the proper censures of the Surgeon, but the detection of quackery generally; as he is the practitioner who is most likely to be called in when poor folks are suffering under the torments of some poisonous mixture. Tne first exposure of this kind was made by Mr. Adair, about 1780 — 90 ; but he failed to notice a much earlier piece of rank charlatannerie put in practice by no less a person than the father of physic. The celebrated Hippocrates is said to have sworn voluntarily before the immortal gods (of his belief), that the doctrines he taught his pupils were those by which he cured his patients ; an effort to obtain practice which has'not been surpassed by the affidavits sworn to in aid of other medicists before the magistrates at Guildhall or Bow- street in our day. We also observe, that the admirers of Cullen's Nosologia, who deprecate the humoral system of Herman Boerhaave, do yet adopt the treatment that is consonant thereto, in all their writings — whether these be penned for the printing-office, or for guinea fees: the objectors were quacks. Boerhaave was an anatomist of Leyden, whither all students were wont to repair, previous to British ascen- dency in those branches : London is now the best school in the world for anatomy, physiology, and chemistry, deficient though it confess- edly be in therapeutics and obstetrics. Besides Adair's book, we have an exposure of the materials used by modern quacks in Paris's notes to his Pharmacy ; and the " Phi- losophical Recreations," of Mr. Badcock, vol. 2, gave the recipes of about a score of the most prevalent advertised medicines at the time it was sent forth, viz. 1815 : These latter expositions were accompanied by familiar remarks ; and we owed to the same pen (in Nov. 1833), the first denouncement, in the columns of the Weekly Dispatch, of Morison's universal imposture, which has since then received a salutary check in the criminal courts. Quackery consists, not so much in retaining the mode of treat- ment in any series of cases a secret, for all M.D.s do this — more or less, else how is it that one of them has more success than another* SURGEON. 425 and how does it happen that some accoucheurs are said to be un- lucky, when we know that they are bunglers ? But quackery does consist in administering the same remedy, blindly, and in large quantities, to various and discordant disorders, and to all constitu- tions, ages, and at all seasons, alike, and in persisting in the nefa- rious traffic after detection, conviction, and punishment. The calomel practice of the late Dr. Curry, was nearly akin to that of the advertising quacks here alluded to; and the frequent recom- mendation of the pi I hydrargyri nigris, by the amiable and dis- cerning Abernethy, gave evidence of his firm reliance upon a well known chemical preparation, preferably to the unmanageable ravages of vegetable poisons; for, all active medicine is poisonous in its de- gree, and requires more skill in its direction than falls to the share of the Morison and the Salmon tribe who vegetate on English credulity with a vengeance. Under the article Physician (p. 37f>), mention is made of those M.D. members who practise in the colonies ; and to that informa- tion we have now to add, that all medical practitioners appear to acquire, in those distant possessions, the title of Doctor, upon very slight grounds indeed. One of them, who is just now arrived in London from his native island, speaks of the operation for cancer being made by doctors as quite common at Barbadoes, meaning to say, that the two branches of the ars medendi are there combined. Dr. Abel Stuart, or Stewart (for he writes his name either way) proposes to cure cancer without cutting, by an application which never fails; and hereunto heproduceth his printed testimonials. He employs an escharotic, as usual in such cases, and has reduced malig- nant tumours from the lip, eye, back, and leg of male patients, and breasts of females, supplying new granulations without an eschar. These promises, put forth in a small tract, though highly cheering, are not without precedent. The same course was pursued as regards another Surgeon-doctor (M'Donald), practising in Surrey; one of whose grateful patients advertised him into notice, some five and twenty years preceding, by stating his " Case of Cancer," in a shilling tract, which had been trimmed into form by the present penman. Now, though neither doctor proceeded in this affair agreeably with the rules of the London College, we can see no other safe way in which they could make known their success in eradicating this most painful lesion of the secerning vessels ; nor should we deny to any man of previous acquirements and studious 3 i 426 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. habits, this or any other means of making public his just claims upon public approbation. By the way, since the last lines were written, we find that the fellows of the College of Physicians have relaxed a little their rigid rules, and admitted among their number some fifty practising Physicians as members, who had no other recommendation to the honour than sheer merit. The original low state of Surgery may be inferred from the early incorporation of the practitioners in this distinguished art with the Barbers, who had their Hall in Monk well-street, in 1430 ; from which time to the middle of the last century, mere Barbers practised bleeding and drawing teeth by prescriptive right — whilst some went a little further, and a few got quite ludicrously out of their depth, as advertising Surgeons for curing " certain dis- orders." In the time of Cromwell, the Surgeons built a hall in the Old Bailey ; they enlarged it, and obtained an act of Parliament in 1746, through the instrumentality of Mr. John Ranby, Surgeon to the King. In consequence, to them were delivered for dissection the bodies of malefactors ; a manifest advantage that, coupled with immediate demonstration, gave to the London students great oppor- tunities of Studying anatomy in the most approved manner. Here did Sir Charles Scarborough deliver lectures on the art from 1658 to 1675 ; and hence were the meetings of the Surgeons transferred to Lincoln's- inn-fields, upon their obtaining a new charter at the commence- ment of the present century. This hall is now a stately building, which has been the scene of many a keen dispute, as to management, ill agreeing with the inscription on the pediment that rises above the six massive columns in front. Finally, the "Collegio Regalis Chirurgorum," found themselves under the necessity of appealing to royal authority (i. e. ministerial), to quench the fire of their dis- putes by fresh enactments, and we have cause for believing party rancour is nearly at an end. Very large sums are expended in the education of youth for this profession, varying according to the number and celebrity of the lecturers he may think proper to attend, and the years of genteel subsistence he may require for perfecting him in those pursuits. The terms of those lectures may be obtained at the Medical Book- sellers' shops, contiguous to the hospitals, and commence annually in autumn. To carry out the information thus acquired to its prac- tical end, it is quite clear the pupil will require the proper funds at the proper seasons; but if these be supplied profusely, jso as to SURGEON. 427 excite a wish for unhallowed pleasures in a boy who may hitherto have lived under a degree of rural restraint, he is usually lost to his studies until his pockets and credits are exhausted, and he applies at home for fresh remittances in vain. Next comes the tug of getting into practice ; and here he finds his prospects intercepted by the many pretenders before alluded to, as " Surgeon Accoucheurs," as they style themselves, but whose certificates of attendance upon lectures and hospitals have been obtained by payment of the fees principally. And then, provided they may have devoted their time to learned instructors, what signifies the application of minds so ill prepared for instruction as some of those practitioners whom we see riding in their coaches ! Two of them — half-brothers, as we believe, were menial boys, up to manhood, in the shop of a Linendraper, at the East end of London ; whilst a third lies under a protracted prosecution of the Apothecaries' Company, for having imposed upon them a false document of his education, which was in fact that of a livery servant ! All three are further remarkable for the number of law-suits in which they have engaged. The Surgeons' Instrument-Maker, is really a Cutler {see p. 175), who devotes himself to the making of such instruments as are particularly required for manual operations, as the forceps, bis- touri, lancets, and the like. One of this trade is usually settled near each of the hospitals ; whilst one of them, Long, of High Holborn, has for forty years applied himself chiefly to such as suit the Veteri- nary Surgeon, TAILOR. Incorporated at an early period of our commercial prosperity, the Tailors' Company always preserved a tolerably high standing among their fellow-citizens. The first charter bears date 1299 ; but that upon which they relied was granted to them by Edward IV. in 1480, under the denomination of " Merchant Tailors ;" " because (says one of their apologists) they dealt in so great a variety of articles as to entitle them to rank with other Merchants who trade beyond sea ;" for, in addition to broad cloth and narrows, their most staple articles, they dealt in trimmings, stay tape, twist, buckrams, 428 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. silk facings, velvets, buttons of mohair, metals, &c., chamois, thread and needles, with gold and silver lace. Indeed, the Tailors' bills, in which each of those articles formed an item, were made out (within our memory), in as detailed a manner as those of the pharmacian Apothecary and petty-fogging Attorney of the day that is passing away. Their motto — Concordia parva res crescunt was, in this respect, well verified ; for they agreed as one man in the minuteness of their charges ; in carrying out these to the highest extent, so as to become objects of censure ; in the extent of their credulity, as to their faith in persons they had themselves transformed into gentle- men out of the commonest materials ; and in the consequent pre- cariousness of their own payments, when these became due. This state of things, however, extended not to the entire trade ; for, whilst the body of Tailors, as a company, are as respectable as any other body of tradesmen, the secondary and minor masters, who struggle through years of hard labour to get forward in the world, are noto- riously uncertain in their returns to the Woollen-draper and Mercer with whom they deal. On the other hand, many Tailors were always men of property, and some rich ; the possessions of the Company are large and productive, and many are the public characters who have condescended to enrol their names as members of the Tailors' Com- pany ; among others Sir Robert Peel, who was head of the short- lived Tory administration, which aimed at stemming the torrent of reform in the abuses of the state. To him and his friends the Tailors' Company gave a grand consolatory dinner at their magnifi- cent Hall in Threadneedle-street (1835), which reflected honour on their cooks and wine purveyors, and afforded the better dressed part of the British public an opportunity of expressing the moderate sentiments with which they were then newly imbued. Not only are the Tailors thus formidable in their strong hold in the city proper, but also by their numbers, there being in the whole district of London and its environs, no less than 14,552, above the age of twenty, according to a radical census taken in 1833-4, for the use of the operative associators of that period. A formidable number, be it added, to embroil in any scheme for disturbing the public peace, as hath happened within our own memory, and ante- cedently, as we read in " An Essay on the Genius and Writings of Foote, by Jon Bee, Esq." It therein appears that, on the decease of any member of the Royal family, journeymen Tailors become entitled to double wages, with TAILOR. 429 some other privileges — as they choose to consider any abridgment in the hours of labour ; but that, on the decease of the Duke of York, brother to King George III. disagreements between the men and their masters arose which led to rioting, and finally to victory on the part of the workpeople. Soon after this settlement, Mr. Foote brought out a burlesque play, entitled " The Tailors, a Tragedy for Warm Weather," which had a mighty run, and gave so much dis- pleasure to the men that they proceeded to the theatre, Haymarket, and dismantled the house. This ought to have operated as a warning to the facetious manager; but satirists are seldom reclaimed from their propensity by aught but personal correctives. So it subsequently happened to Mr. Foote, we find: his parleys with the Tailors and promises of withdrawing the play being a hollow treaty on both sides — for the master Tailors warmly caressed the author-manager for the cauterizing castigation he had given to their rebellious sub- jects. On one occasion, the wit received an invitation to dinner at Merchant Tailors' Hall, and so amused the court of assistants there, that they naturally kept up the joviality to a late hour: Tailors are not more continent than other men, when the wine is good and glee is going its rounds. At length the hour of departure came — " the witching time of night" — Foote ordered his coach ; and after counting heads, replied to their repeated calls upon him for some further joke — " something funny, Mr. Foote, as you know how," his biographer tells, he gravely concluded with, " Gentlemen, I wish you both a very good night, for I perceive there are just eighteen Tailors left." It was his last invitation to their symposium ; as the wicked wight plainly alluded to the old saying of " nine Tailors making one man." The joke was not onty ill-timed, but untrue also (as Mr. Bee fur- ther observes), as had been painfully proved upon himself and his theatre during the recent rebellion, when they stood up to Sir John Fielding's Bow-street runners and the military, in the most heroic manner. Neither must we forget that on occasion of a strike for wages during the German war, some six or seven-hundred Tailors were constrained to enlist in the regiment of horse then raising by Colonel Elliot (afterwards governor of Gibraltar) : and, being light men, they were clothed in short jackets for the first time. Their remounts, too, were lively close ribbed horses, and the men were instructed to rise on the stirrups while cantering and cutting (0). The regiment was soon extolled as adroit, dexterous, bold, adven- turous, effective. It was ordered to join the allied army under Prince 430 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Ferdinand, spoken of at p. 335 ; but having been misled by insidious guides within a day's march of camp, the regiment found itself em- broiled with treble numbers of French horse, planted to intercept them. Never was fairer trial of skill. M Elliot's light horse" covered themselves with a glory that day never to be forgotten. Eulogy was exhausted on that occasion : songs were written and sung in praise of the Tailors' regiment, which lasted to our times. One good effect was produced by the contest, respecting royal or court mournings, which lasted to our own period, and is even now felt in its operations. The legislature passed an act for regulating their trade, and fixed the ordinary wages at 4s. 6d. per diem, with double for periods of court mourning. But the better class of work- men never failed to obtain more, by a proper understanding of mutual interests, and the more extended time which is allowed to some of these for completing the garments put into their hand ; as must happen when the customers disdain to stint the masters in their prices, and expect the cut and finish to be executed in a su- perior manner. Slop work, women's waistcoats and seams, and boys' work, are altogether a different species of make, and is known at first sight by clumsy button-holes, and a general misfit. It was to this latter description of workmen, who were jealous of each other, who entirely objected to female Tailors, and would restrict the number of apprentices, that we owed a late turn out, which proved instructively unavailing, and was utterly disastrous to their funds. Never was defeat more signal : the hopes and endeavours of the inferior workmen were fully exposed, and the old regulations operate upon them very properly to their discomfiture. The bare reflection on the* circumstance of any man being declared " a dung," for working " too fast," is harrowing to the manly feelings of our nature ; for such a charge is of little less importance among Tailors than would one of highway robbery if made in another place. We now find the best men little restricted as to wages, in consequence of this and other annoyances, added to the fact, that those among the men who are fondest of " standing up for their rights," as they call it, are least sedulous in performing their duty aright : they ap- pear to substitute the one for the other — balefully for themselves and those around them. They are also the most garrulous of their class, the most bibulous, domineering, and fumigating of those whom they meet at the public house. When a call is made at their ' houses of call," the master is not bound to employ the men who TAILOR. 431 stand in rotation upon the books there, longer than a quarter of a day, and any untoward person, or ordinary workman, gets the sack after the first garment is got out of hand — and this is the manner in which such a man may be said to punish himself. Beer drinking, snuff-taking, and pipe-smoking, are equally self-punishers ; our astonishment is excited when such belching narcotians are admitted into a shop by the more decent and orderly part of the trade ; or, being admitted, do not feel the silent monitions of better conducted persons. A clean shirt of a Monday morning is indispensable to the trade throughout the kingdom, and forms a clause in the regu- lations, if not in the act of Parliament ; but really, the fellow whose untanned hide exudes the united flavours of tobacco and gin at every pore in the dog days, ought to put on a fresh flesh bag with every ounce of the noxious weed he puffs or snuffs, and every quar- tern of max he gulps down, burning as it goes, and singeing as it assimilates with and rages in his corporeal system. How is it pos- sible a pair of hands so guided can take a neat stitch, or pull his threads home, so as to make a genteel seam ? Tailors do not stand alone in these objective particulars ; they only stand pre-eminent, seeming to invite others by holding out an extensive example, that is imposing by its numbers, and fascinating by the tidy external ap- pearance of the perpetrators. The foreman, who is usually the master in small concerns, is the cutter out to the measures taken from the persons of the customers; he is also the finisher, and waits upon the higher orders of the gentry when the suits are commanded to be fitted on, as well as when the orders are first received. In the large houses there are several of these who take the lead in such affairs ; the other journeymen merely sew the seams together of the clothes that are thus cut out to their hands ; but, as was said before, these divide off, naturally, into good, ordinary, and indifferent workmen. Others again are found more expert in one given department, as the cut and make of breeches ; others become excellent fits in gaiter-making, some are more adept at waistcoats, whilst a few never descend below the coats. This latter most important garment it is usual for a man to complete in two days, but when required for the better description of customers, the master or foreman assigns a longer period for the work, and in some of the highest gentry orders the workman is permitted to " take his own time," so that he continues working for three or four days on it, and the stitches cannot be detected by any ordinary stretching 432 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. of the seams asunder. Capital hands demonstrate their superiority when at work, by a certain twist of the wrist, and je ne scai quoi turn of the elbow, that distinguish them from the ordinary dogged workmen, women, and boys ; but the which mannerism to our per- ceptions seemed, at the first view, as nothing more than the innocent display of superior knowingness, very becoming in Tailors. But how is this? Have we not said that the Tailors of these times are a most respectable set of tradesmen? and now we would be understood as saying that some of the men deserve reprehension, while a few extort the smile only. Some great Tailors, as Stultz, or Davison, those of Cork-street, Burlington-gardens, Sackville-street, employ hundreds of workmen each, keep their carriages and amass fortunes; whilst several have become members of the legislature, by being armj r clothiers only, as Mr. John Maberly, Mr. Gilpin, and others. When the army is to be augmented and clothed, these gentle- men take on immense numbers of workpeople of both sexes, waistcoat and breeches seams being assigned to the females, while the men finish off the suits at the shops — at Paul's Chain, Bedford-court, and elsewhere, to the tune of a battalion a week, officers, non-com- missions and bands included. At least, such was the case in the early periods of the revolutionary war, and whenever expeditions were fitted out against our threatening foes, to teach them the British modes of balancing accounts with plumed steel. With a view to facilitate the culling out of such immense quanti- ties of clothing, upon which would seem to depend the march of armies in proper order > did the very ingenious Machinist, mentioned at the bottom of p. 318, invent a contrivance by which a score suits might be cut out in as little time as hitherto was occupied in pro- ducing one only. A similar inference was drawn from the actual absence of shoes at p. 403, ante ; but neither remark would weaken the other, since, however well-defended the feet might be, a French brigadier general would be confoundedly puzzled to ascertain why British troops came into the field of battle without their well-recog- nised scarlet jackets ; whilst his rank and file might be deceived into a belief, that John Bull had " buffed it," like the candidati mi/ites of the Roman emperors, for the purpose of grassing them with fists instead of bayonets, perhaps owing to the scarcity of steel, in this iron age of railway and machinery. Tailors have less occasion to study fashions now than was for- merly imperative upon those who came within the vortex of bon ton TAILOR. 433 owing to the spread of good sound sense, and the establishment o. right English feeling among us ; so that a proper fit, which does not always imply a tight fit — and the graceful adaptation of quantity to the person, is now nearly all that is required from a fashionable Tailor. Notwithstanding the many vain attempts that are made, by captivating pictorial representations, published occasionally, and a few outbreakings of over-dressed gentry, such as we have described is the existing fact, as regards the thoroughbred of the ancient stock of " real old English gentlemen." Of this most enviable class of the public in Britain, we read some pithy remarks in " Millers Origin of Ranks," published in the sixtieth year of the last century, and earlier still in Sir Thomas Smith's work u On Dignity and Titles," in the reign of Edward VI., to both of whom the reader who is fond of research may refer with profit ; but to him who prefers studying things as they are, or rather the status quo ante, we present a short extract from the word gentleman in Bee's " Dictionary of Varieties." " Gentleman. Gamblers denominate themselves gent, if not Esq., even when detected and had tip ; but the bills of indict- ment dub them labourers every man ; yea, labourers at the tread- mill. Tailors are the most blameable of all tradesfolk ; for 'tis they who transform blackguards into gentlemen. None can be considered a true English gentleman by us who has not stored his mind with English lore, nor unless he spells every word rightly, and can form a sane off-hand judgment upon every subject that is brought upon the carpet." p. 86. Owing to the great extent of credit taken by the gentry, who dress much, fashionable Tailors require very large capitals ; but then, they lay on an adequate profit for such indulgence, and most of them have threaded their way to eminence through many a toilsome maze. In the city of London proper, the time of payment is generally better understood ; and bills of exchange may safely pass on occasion of large settlements — when the Tailor maybe truly considered a Mer- chant. They there manufacture largely for a foreign market, as well as for old customers who may be sojourning out of Europe : and in this circumstance we again see good legitimate reason why the body should assume to be " Merchant Tailors," and not (as said) in servile imitation of the French, who have exported no clothes whatever, it is believed, since the hour this nation awoke from the reveries of French dominance over fashions, fripperies, and numerous other assumptions of superiority, equally well-founded. But what u 434 THE COMPETE BOOK OF TRADES. says the old saw ? " Marchand qui perd ne pent rire nor will we, Britons, though winners at all the games afloat and ashore, weep at French presumption. Apprentices to little masters pay a small premium, but agreeing in some measure with the domestic comforts the master may be ca- pable of affording. If he be a capital workman, capable of cutting and sewing in prime style, though not yet risen to eminence, the boy should be endowed with a fee of 20/. to 30/. ; if one of tolerable good connexions, double those sums ; but the primest in the city, as well as those fortunate masters who reside at the court end of town, would require a hundred pounds with a youth who aspires to be- come a master at the termination of his servitude. Some of these, however, find themselves constrained to struggle hard, with little capital, for years, to get into adequate notice. Others, again, are known to emerge from obscurity and rise to com- parative affluence, by some lucky accident, or fortunate connexion with the favoured domestics of those distinguished families who take the lead in la mode for the passing day. One of those leaders of fashion, of dashing manners, who bore for cognomen the unenviable title of Beau Brummel f is supposed to have made the fortunes of more than one fashionable Tailor by his patronage, though he is said to have paid them for no personal clothing during his dealings : the countenance of the Prince Regent seems to have constituted the Beau's easy passport to their ledgers as well as the books of other tradesmen, who desired to push their wares into royal notice ; unti[ at length the poor Beau found it most convenient to retire to Bou- logne, upon a very mediocre entretienment : Ce qui suit fait du bruit ; mais nous sommes muet. Tailors may learn French with advantage ; for the beau monde affect it, whilst the haut ton tend more to Italian. In the city, we are told, the fortunate adventure of another "knight of the thimble," as our friends are occasionally familiarized; the which, as it led to his present exalted station, ought to inspire our junior readers with hope, and instil perseverance during their strug- gles. Mr. O. Bennett had been some time in business, when Al- derman M. Wood was elected Lord Mayor. The Alderman and Tailor had been known to each other in their earlier years ; at least so far as a young man of twenty-five (a commercial traveller) might be supposed to be acquainted with another of scarce twenty, a Tailor, soliciting orders. The young one, also, sung a good song — very TAILOR. 435 good indeed, we understand ; which we consider no mean mode of introducing such an one to the notice of his hearers, when all hands and feet, and loud cheerings applaud his modulations. The young Tailor, in this conjuncture, asked the future statesman for his favours ; for the embryo Alderman had pressed the young clothier for more music : he sung to note, and received for promise " When I am Lord Mayor, you shall make my liveries." The period would seem a distant one ; but Wood was on his way to London, whither Obadiah also soon repaired. In process of time, he took occasion to claim fulfil- ment of the old promise ; it was granted, and was succeeded by other orders of a similar nature, together with a great and deserved access of trade ; and we now see, with unmixed pleasure, the advancement of the former juvenile vocalist to the honours of a topping city Tailor. Anciently, the incorporated trade were called the Tailors and Linen Armourers (1327), according to Madox, in Firma Burgi . they acquired the appellation of Merchant Tailors in 1466, from their numerous dealings, says the same author ; and are incorporated as a company having privileges in many cities besides London. TALLOW CHANDLER AND MELTER. In point of time, the operation of melting must precede that of candle making. The best London tallow is required for making best store candles ; and is procured by rendering, or melting, the accumulation of fat from the sheep and oxen slaughtered for our use in the highest perfection, near the markets of the metropolis. Hence the term Melter for that tradesman who lays out his premises for this sort of rendering, and casting into casks ready for the Candle- makers' use, the prepared tallow, freed by straining from its sordes, its adventitious particles and membranaceous envelopment. When heat has separated the unctuous fat from these matters, they.areput into a press, hot, and the cake produced is found a most nourishing food for dogs, and when mixed with meal, for pigs, ducks, and geese, &c. These cakes obtain the name of greaves. A second sort of tallow admits, also, of kitchen-stuff, i. e. dripping, scrapings, and flaire of the inferior animals ; including the adipose fat, which resists all attempts to give it solidity sufficient to make tolerable candles, u 2 436 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. even in winter time ; for they blaze unsteady at every movement in the atmosphere, gutter, and run down in channels, and soon consume ; so that they are any thing but cheap after all — to the working Cord- wainer, for example, who insists that " he requires the largest flat double-wick candle of any other tradesman going." Such candles, also, spit while burning, like Mrs. Lapstone in her tantarums, owing to the salt which has been introduced to the viands, and resist the Melter's art to extract, as is done by subsidence. Seldom have we obtained more than a casual view of a melting-house ; but the advice shall not be deemed ill placed which suggests, that the residuum above spoken of, as derived by straining and pressure from the membranes that are found abundantly in slaughter-house fats, should be reserved, impressed, and introduced hot to these " kitchen fat *' meltings, while equally hot; whereby the salt particles would be carried down, and the whole product bear a higher character in the market. Water must not be introduced into the best tallow, which is intended for the first dip, as this also occasions a crackling noise in burning : better still, we hear of an improved make, in which the wicks are first cased with wax, and subsequently dipped in the tallow If the Mel tor does not take sufficient care with his tallow he is constrained to sell at an under price to the Soap-boilers of various degrees, who mix it with the Russian, or the produce of the horse-slaughterers' yard. But in general, the two trades named at the head of this article are carried on together, and the adaptation of the several sorts, to each other, is easily managed. Much depends upon the cotton wicks, their kinds and preparation. Formerly, the Smyrna and Turkish cottons prevailed, to the supposed exclusion of all others ; but provided the cotton be well and evenly twisted, and divested of extraneous matters as well as knots, no matter the country ; otherwise the candle when made will burn un- steady, and gutter, whenever any of those matters consume and descend destructively, forming what our sempsters were wont to denominate " a thief in the candle." At present, however, we have reason for believing that those thieves (at least) are banished the land. We owe to the machinery of the first Sir James Graham (father of a late Lord of the Admiralty), the new order of things in this respect. About the year 1809, the reader may judge our sur- prise at meeting with Sir James's commercial traveller, Mr. Jonas Binns, who carried no other document of his solicitations among the trade than a ball of cotton in his pocket, by way of sampler : the TALLOW-CHANDLER AND MELTER. 437 article of cotton-wick is now purchased at one third the price it bore at that period. In consequence of this reduction, together with the low rates of Butchers' fat, and the recent relaxation in the excise duty, the price of candles has fallen from 1$. per pound to 6d. within that period. The introduction of gas-light within our premises, though not adding aught to the public health, or the real elegance of our rooms, has contributed to keep down the consumption of tallow for this purpose; as hath also the still farther improved and more preferable light, termed the naphtha lamp. As some venders make a great secret of this kind of burners, we may as well inform the general reader in this place, that this ma- terial is no other than the spirit drawn from the naphtha and coal tar found in the exhausted retorts of gas works. It is used like any other spirit or spermaceti chamber lamp, at an expense less than one fifth of any other brilliant light, and is to be bought at any of the large Oilmen and Dry-salters in London, and some Druggists, as Price and Co., Thames-street, Griffiths, on Clerkenwell-green, Jones, in Leadenhall-buildings, &c. We purchase it without odour, at a small advance ; but when sold unrectified, it presents a villanous fetor resembling the escape of coal-gas. The rectification is carried on at Cassell's works, Mill-wall, Poplar. Candles are made by two methods : the first and most ancient is the dip, the origin whereof hides its head in the clouds of antiquity. The method of casting candles in moulds is of modern invention, being ascribed to Mr. Lebrege, a manufacturer at Paris, early in the eighteenth century. To make the dips, the cotton wicks are disposed in numerous rows upon sticks, suspended aloft over the vat. The dipper then bends down several broaches of sticks into the liquid fat below, gently raises these up, and proceeds with others, alternately, until the making assumes the required size and weight. Moulds are made in pewter or tin cylinders, the shape of the de- sired candle, supported inversely in a wooden frame. Seeing the advantages now possessed by the Glass-maker {see p. 266), and those others which he expects, we entertain hopes that the cylin- ders may hereafter be formed of that material — as was formerly the case. Each of those cylinders is furnished with a wick, stretched through its centre, and the melted tallow, of the best quality, only, being poured in, soon cools and sets, and the making may be then pronounced complete. Rushlights, as the name imports, are made of rushes, split, in- 438 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. stead of cotton wicks, and while the excise impost lasted were exempt from taxation. So were they also made by cottagers and small farmers, for domestic uses, and are supposed to be the abori- gines of the art of candle-making. The Tallow Chandlers were in- corporated by Edward IV. who granted them a charter in 1462 ; they have a hall on Dowgate-hill, and belong to the livery. Previous to that period they were connected with the Grocers ; but this unseemly assimilation underwent entire disruption by force of common notions of the decencies of life. Melting is the most profitable branch of the business, but is withal the most noisome. If one would commence this trade with spirit he should possess 800/. at least, the Butchers who furnish him with fat, requiring immediate payments ; the prices at the markets of Leadenhall and Newgate being settled and set forth twice weekly, when they cash up. In country towns, the two trades of Tallow Chandler and Soap-maker are combined, if some other trades be not also added, and then a similar sum would be required. Apprentices to either trade are mostly working lads, entitled to or- dinary wages when their term expires; but when men of substance, whatever be their views, apprentice boys to this trade, fifty pounds is the least premium they can bestow. TANNER. This is another of those creating trades, which owes to the en- lightened policy of our statesmen the abrogation of certain fiscal laws laid on in the worst of times ; which laws went far towards de- stroying the manufacturers' energies, and operated balefully upon the superiority of the articles produced. In the days of our youth, the announcement of a Chancellor of the Exchequer sounded like the approach of a plague to us Egyptians, and the annual opening of Lord North's budget operated like a Pandora's box ; nor were the people permitted to take more than a glance at its bottom during the domination of his successors, until within these few years, that the behests of hope have been substantially realized, in the removal of burdens that pressed on the trading vitals of the nation. The Tanners felt the weight of the excise impost sorely, inasmuch as the article in which they deal required much time in bringing to perfec- TANNER. 439 tion; and all their outlay, was necessarily made with ready-money. Capital thus absorbed, what remained to pay the duties, as the still- recurring monthly charges came round for payment ? They conse- quently hurried the process through all its stages, and the generality of hides went to Leadenhall-market imperfectly divested of the all- pervading gelatinous grease ; whereby numbers of the poorer con- sumers annually suffered through pulmonary, renal, or hepatic com- plaints, brought on by wearing such spongy " brogues " as they were alone capable of purchasing. In vain did the exalted pensioners who devoured the taxes contribute towards alleviating the sufferings of the poor in piercing cold seasons : the primary evil ought not to have been forced on them, when there would have been nothing for the givers to alleviate. In the meantime, the necessity of the case became so flagrant, that the labours of many philosophical Chemists were applied to the means of shortening the duration of the process ; whilst some foreign journalists and experimentalists — Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others —mistaking the object, exhausted patience in their investigations respecting the principles of tannin. Pressure seems to have promised the most desirable acceleration of tanning, and the patent of Mr. W. Ronalds, of Hammersmith, dated 1818, gives assurance that this can be accomplished in a few weeks, which formerly occupied as many months. Happily, the recent abrogation of the duties has rendered all this dispatch less essential to the Tanner ; whilst the reduction in the price of shoes, amounting to 12 or 15 per cent, on the working man's wear, together with a drier defence in his labouring avocations, is found to act as a serious addition to his comforts, while it also renders less requisite the counter stimulants that enter by the mouth, and add to the morbid susceptibility of the viscera just now adverted to, with that of the whole of the main canal. The Bark, in which strongly resides the principle of tannin, is generally that of the oak ; though that of any other tree which has the astringent property, as well as the wood itself, when chipped, or ground or sawed into dust, would answer the purpose, in a degree propor- tioned to its bitterness. But, previously to being submitted to the restringent powers of the tan-pit, the skins are soaked in lime water, from twelve to thirty hours, according to their weight. This loosens the hair and other extraneous matters ; which, after the skins have acquired a dryness and semi-putrefaction in the smoke-house, are cleared away with crooked fleshing knives upon a wooden horse of 440 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. corresponding shape. The fibrous reta and fleshy matters thus sepa- rated, having necessarily attained the first stage of putrefaction, renders this part of the process somewhat dangerous to the operatives engaged in it ; but they obtain the desired corrective by the strong inhalations from the subsequent preparation of the tan pit. Pre- viously, however, the hides are immersed in water slightly impreg- nated with vitriolic acid (acidum stdphuricum), whereby the pores are distended, and the whole skin appears thicker, or raised, which renders it still more susceptible and absorbent of the tannin that is next applied. The hides are now removed to the tan pit, and disposed one upon another, with a layer of bark between each ; the pit is filled with ooze, or old bark water, and the skins or hides remain a few days, or four or five weeks, according to the bulk of each. At the end of this time, the skins are worked into afresh preparation of bark and ooze, which completes the treatment for the lesser goods in a few days ; but the hides of ox, horse, and the like, require two or three months b this second stage, besides a repetition or two, for very stout &ins. When they would ascertain whether the barking is sufficient, an incision made at some unimportant corner, shows in how far the tan has penetrated. Drying, pressing, and preparing for market follow ; but happily the attendance of the excise officer, his notices and stampings, are now superseded. As to the lighter kind of goods, the process differs in no great de- gree as to the principle, though some undergo more handling and more frequent removals than others. The stout calves' skins, and others of nearly the same substance, that are employed for upper- leathers, &c. go to the Curriers to be blackened — see p. 173. Coach Curriers also require a peculiar species of hide for their use, and pay high prices for the selection of such as suit their purposes. Very considerable capitals are engaged in the tanning business, principally because they buy raw skins at a short credit of three days, and sell at a long one of as many months. This however does not prevent our observing truly, that large fortunes are almost in- variably made out of it, on the long run. Labouring journeymen obtain large weekly wages, where business is brisk— that is from 26s. to 34$. per week ; and those who are placed in the direction of any department of the yard, still more, according to their stations. Boys apprenticed to this trade as workers, ought to have attained the age of fifteen or sixteen, and possess some strength before they TANNER. 441 Zee put out ; unless they are intended for the counting-house, and scientific departments of the concern ; in which latter case, a pre- mium of good sterling amount is requisite, say 50/. to 100/. or more, according to circumstances, and expectations on either side. TEAMAN. Such is the simple title assumed for their trade by many dis- tinguished dealers in London — indeed, the most distinguished. They are generally those who deal in tea only, and maintain close con- nexion with some Tea-broker ; if that Broker be not himself in some instances the tea vender, who applies to and receives a commission from the old country dealers all over the kingdom ; those dealers who, theretofore, were in the habit of giving their orders to " the re- presentatives " of the Twining, the Garrett, and other large actual purchasers at the Company's sales. This sort of interception of the former course of trade, was of course loudly complained of at the outset ; it threw the old modes of dealing into new channels, which would thus struggle for preference, on the grounds of low charges versus superior tasting. This would bring us (could we afford space) to inquire respecting the pretensions of the two parties to the preference of country dealers — viz. a mere brokerage, on lots bought per catalogue, with a variety of incidental charges — which fall heaviest on low priced teas — or, the old mode of dealing, in which a moderate profit is put on the teas, for tasting and outlay ? We will not decide the dispute here, as cheap tea is the object sought for by some dealers, rather than good tea, and rough rather than fine flavoured tea. This system of tasting is what constitutes the acme of the great Teaman's trade. He procures samples from the respective breaks of teas intended for sale, and according as he may display good taste in his selection, so will be his success in pleasing the palates of his wholesale customers, and their customers, the consumers. One great Teaman, of Fenchurch- street, a few years since, was so celebrated in this respect of pleasing the palates of his friends, and was withal so determined a purchaser of " private trade " teas (see p. 266), that the ruder elements of the sale room evinced their ire by uncouth annoyances ; so much as to shake the gen- ii 3 412 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES, tleman's nerves — already shook by the practice of tasting too many strong teas. Hereupon his nearest relations foolishly set on foot a fortnight's costly investigation of his sanity ; which his best friends established to the satisfaction of a jury, and he thereupon returned to his shop to give them a proof. This consisted in turning his back upon the latter, and extending a tame forgiveness to hjs accusers. Large sums are required for making purchases at the great peri- odic tea sales ; unless these be made by the Broker (as above), and then he obtains of his principals the deposits which the terms of sale express shall be paid : these were some time called " first prompt." By the way, we do not expect that these periodical sales of tea will wholly pass out of the hands of the East India Company, in consequence of the interdiction which was lately laid upon their imports and exports by act of Parliament. At Calcutta, Singapore, Canton, &c. their agents announce their intention of making advances in cash, to enable Merchants to purchase cargoes (of teas, indigo, sugar) for England; on condition, that the goods go to their ap- pointed warehouses in London, by way of security; and if not sold, or the loan repaid within six months, they have then the option of selling for redemption of the debt and interest. In this manner, we see, the entire cargoes would pass under the same locks ; and, what is to prevent the company from becoming, by the same management, the depositories of India produce, of every kind, as heretofore ? TINMAN. Cornwall was the country of tin ore from the remotest antiquity, to which the Phoenicians resorted, from the ports of Tyre and Sidon, at a period antecedent to the Jewish history. They gave to this group of islands the name of Cassiterides, Cassis meaning tin; but they traded no farther eastward than the Isle of Wight ( Fectis), so far as we can collect from Sanchoniatho ; nor sought for any other commodity than the much-desired cassis, unless such were casually presented to their curiosity by those of their people who might be induced to settle here, and secure themselves a home while collecting the ore. Phoenician colonies, language, manners, and arts, are thus distinctly traced, without disturbing the researches of the Rev, Richard Polwhele, the very industrious historian of these south- TINMAN. 443 western parts — vide "Views of Ancient Devon, &c." 4to, 1786. In fact, the article has always, and every where, formed a desirable article of commerce, by reason of the many valuable services to which it might be applied ; but especially and most extensively in forming domestic utensils, and those of ornament, for the warm countries 01 the East, and the southern parts of the new world. At the earliest period of South American independence, we have been favoured with the sight of an order for tin goods for those parts, amounting to some 5000/. ; an amount that has been nowise uncommon to the twenty- five years which have succeeded the time of that occurrence — so we understand from best authority. In the days of our youth, a trade prevailed with the Dutch for tin in blocks (conical) ; which were supposed to find their way to India or China, in some other manner, as none could be found who had met with those blocks in the East : but we infer that they went into Germany, where their small supply of tin contains much iron, which could not be separated from it ; for, when the trade for Bohemian block tin was intercepted by our own manufactures, then did the Dutch demand for tin blocks decrease. Yet is the tin of that country much inferior to the English, on ac- count of this mixture with iron ; nor were they discovered until a.d. 1263, a circumstance that much alarmed the then Duke of Cornwall. Similarly in 1640, some tin having been found in Bar- bary, the King (Charles I.) issued a prohibitory law ; as appears by the Stannary Laws (so called from stannum, latin for tin) collected by Price, in a thin folio volume, early in the last century. He and the old alchymists placed tin under (2£) Jupiter, jovis, optimus, and ascribed to it anthelmintic powers. Of late years, a little tin ore was found in Banda, one of the Malacca Isles, and in the peninsula of India ; though nowhere in a pure state, but in the two stannary counties of England. Tin plates, from which all our large goods are worked, are in effect block tin, i.e. iron plates covered with tin ; the natural affinity that exists between the two metals causing the iron to take up a certain portion of the tin — according to quantity, leaving the surfaces well defended by the all-pleasing metal. The manner in which this is performed is two-fold : either, first, by applying the tin in a state of fusion to the iron, also hot, merely wiping the tin smoothly all over the inner surface, generally, of culinary vessels ; or, secondly by the cold process. The first acquires the term tinning ; and is well worthy the tinkers (mostly gipsies, Egyptians, or Bohemians), 414 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. who professed the art, along with that of fortune-telling, as well as that of living in the open air upon the live produce of hedges, rabbit- warrens, and hen-roosts. Tinning, however, proved itself an extremely evanescent process, even in copper tea-kettles; and much more so, with great danger to the families who partook of greasy viands cooked in such untinned copper vessels; as witness the sudden de- cease of a company of gourmands, at Salt-hill, towards the wane of the last century, after partaking of fish which had stood in a corroded copper pan the preceding night. Block tin consists of two plates of tin and one of malleable iron, all rolled to a desirable thinness, and brought together with the iron in the middle, by any method which should exclude oxydation by the action of atmospheric air. This was effected in the old way, by first covering the cleaned iron plates with tallow, and immersing these in melted tin, when the tallow would consume as the iron took up the coating of tin. Others floated the tallow on the surface of the liquid tin. These acquire still the term whited iron. An improved and more scientific method, however, has superseded the old process, whereby a saving of time, tallow, and the fusion of the tin, is effected. Thus, the iron plates having been rolled to the required substance, are immersed together in a trough of water impregnated with sulphuric acid ; and being there scrubbed with a hard brush, to get rid of any loose particles on the surface, they are brought together, two tin to each iron plate, piled and pressed — always under the water. Adhe- sion and oxydation immediately take place, with absorption of the tin by the iron, at an uncertain period. Of this, however, we may be assured — the affinity is strong and inseparable; inasmuch as the plates have no sooner undergone the final operation of one more rolling, than the edge of any cut made by the Tinman's shears, presents no appearance whatever of the iron plate, which we know resides in the centre, and gives strength, substance, and durability to the goods that are made from those plates. Tin also amalgamates readily with other metals. We have seen, while considering the Looking-glass-makers' trade (p. 314), in how much tin foil oxydizes the mercury employed on that occasion, while cool : it will likewise mix with any other metal, in fusion ; and mav again be separated by eliquation, when a low heat only is ap- plied. It is moreover the most wholesome of metals, standing free from the grave (though just) charges which a sense of duty induced us to bring against pewter, at p. 375. TINMAN. 445 Our Tinman polishes his plates upon an anvil, previous to cutting them into shapes with his large shears ; thereupon hammering these into the forms required for making such utensils as saucepans, meat- covers, cannisters, milk-pails, and the more capacious domestic bath; an article, let us add, of absolute necessity in most families who study their health, live numerously in towns, and fare too sumptuously for their well-being, unless they submit to complete immersion — hot or cold, as the beneficent Creator, through his organs of the faculty may direct : the price of such a piece of domestic comfort is about six guineas, or with a stove at the foot nine pounds. Pontoons of tin plates were also furnished to the Engineers' department of our armies during the late war, to enable them to pass across rivers upon their destructive errand. When the ends of two pieces of tin work are to be fastened together, this is done by soldering, much in the 6ame manner as Plumbers' work is done, with the addition of pow- dered rosin being cast along the joint, and the iron grazing tool melting the solder upon the conjunction of the two ends. And this course the Tinman pursues although the tin is not of the stoutest plates, which we have mostty kept in view, but of a thinner sort, all tin, vulgarly termed lattin in the Western counties. Of this latter kind the minor articles are formed ; but of the names, sizes, and uses, of these, we confess ourselves quite unable to give a fiftieth part. In truth, tin is employed in almost every way in which it can be tortured to be introduced ; to give an idea whereof, it maybe sufficient to ob- serve, that the foreign order of 5000/. spoken of in a preceding page (443), occupied a little volume of foolscap paper, of 16 or 18 leaves in 4to, closely written on both sides. Further, that the commercial travellers who traverse this kingdom, and other states of the world, for orders, do so with pattern books of no mean dimensions, con- sisting of pictorial representations of the articles they are instructed to sell. To effect so much, the great manufacturers in London employ some 200 men each, or more, on very large premises, besides certain works requiring to be brought up by the hammer, which they give out to sub-masters in separate shops. Immense capitals are employed in those great concerns, which seem to have grown up with the occasions that gave new vigour to our vastly extended commerce; out others of a small extent are strewed all over London, doing an adequate stroke of business upon apparently small beginnings ; • robably not more than 100/. or 200/. We lately witnessed the retirement of one such Tinman, " with a tolerable competency " (as 443 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. he said), who began business upon a small scale. The happy man, and contented Christian, who could thus easily and reasonably be satisfied with the moderate behests of fortune, resided close to the confines of the city some twenty-five years before he retired. It was there that he gave instruction, in his handicraft employment, to his poor townsman, Richard Carlile, of Ashburton ; on whom he failed to inculcate the sound maxim of Horace to another artist — Sutor ultra crepidam : but no ; Richard must needs turn political quack, under Sherwin, and preach and praise Tom Paine-ism, with all his pigmy powers, into disrepute ; until at length Jacobinism fell below par, and lies, laid low, in the same sepulchre as the pope and the pretender, Ned Lud, Captain Rock, Boney, and other disturbers of society. Business is very brisk in the tin trade, journeymen earning from 30$. to 40«. per week, and some better workers more ; a few articles that are got up with uncommon good taste, and any newly invented pattern, paying well the superior ingenuity of those who strive to become adepts. We have had opportunities of seeing, that this de- scription of men assemble occasionally to consult as to the prices of such work. A boy, therefore, who is bound apprentice, and turned into a large shop to make his way at random, is likely to be lost for want of particular instruction ; hence we conclude, the parents or guardians would do well, rather to choose a second-rate shop, where the workmen are but few, and the articles turned out of it are of every possible kind : these ever make the best workmen, whilst the sons of old wary Tinmen usually get into the habit of undertaking to execute best work. The premium with a working-man's son is 20/. or 30/. ; if placed in the house of a master, as one of the family, double those sums, or more. The Tin-plate Workers were incorporated in 1670 ; they meet sel- dom, and have no hall. Some tin shops deal in brass articles on a small scale. Britannia-metal articles are made by the Tinman. It is a pleasing composition of tin, regulus of antimony, copper, and zinc. Teapots and spoons are the chief articles ; the former being turned in a lathe, after the desired form has been given to the several parts ; whereupon, these are joined together with the aid of the blow-pipe and solder, so as to resemble silver patterns. We had this amalgam, nearly, from the Germans, after whom it obtained the vulgar name of tootenaeg,m& a still more sciential mixture is termed German silver. Turn to p. 376, for some further observation on this so-called silver. 447 TOYMAN. Merchant was formerly the appendant to the material dealt in, and very properly so ; for never perhaps at any time, or in any other case, were there such a variety of articles, of such apparently dis- cordant application and tortuous origin, displayed to sight as were to be met with at the Toy-merchants , — that of Child's, for instance, near old London Bridge. The Oppenheims were also large dealers in these multitudinous productions; and so were the Champante and Whitrow, of Aldgate; but those houses dealt in every thing besides, which unravelled the puzzle not a whit — but the contrary. Every possible portable production, coming of the ingenuity of man, was received into the ivarehouse: our wonderment was often excited at the ingenuity that could bring so many things together ; while this was even surpassed by admiration at the memories of the ware- housemen, who could so readily find any given article in the chaos amid which their persons were often imperfectly visible. The toys at that time were, moreover, all of foreign make; the figures of imitative beings usually betraying their Dutch origin : the towns on the Elbe and the Weser also sent our merchants vast numbers of toys, the manufactories at Aitona being still very prolific. But mark the instability of all human institutions ! The first irruption of the French revolutionary hordes into Holland, begat a scarcity of Dutch pill-boxes for our Apothecaries and quack medicine venders; which turned the ingenuity of men's minds here towards providing a succedaneum; and, notwithstanding a partial return to the old chips and nests during the British campaign in the Netherlands, our manufacturers brought in a beautiful paper commodity in their stead, at a very small advance in price. We now, also, make the oval chips and nests at the same rates as the foreign competitor — viz. at Is. 9d. per gross, or less for scamped work. As happened with this simple article, so fared it with all the other toys hitherto produced by our neighbours. According to the wise decrees of that domineering statesman, Napoleon Bonaparte, his poor Dutch bondsmen were decreed to pay and feed his troops without any income from trade, (1803): they could not smuggle their toys out of the vigilantly- watched " kingdom of Holland and of course they could not come 448 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. in to this place of universal consumption : ergo, no money went to the Dutch Toymen, and we laid it out among ourselves. We cre- ated Toymakers innumerable, of the thousand and one descriptions; and now that the incubus which long laid on the imports is removed, l>y the punishment of that arch Solomon, we discover that we can do business enough at home, and supply three-quarters of the globe besides, without Dutch aid, or French interference, or German auxiliaries. The Altonese needle-cases at three a penny, and jointed dolls, are the last products of the Danish workhouse at that place, in the manufacture whereof we have left them exclusive possession. We will not attempt an enumeration of the multitudinous articles that compose the show in our Toy-shopkeepers' windows, and stalls of the "fair keepers." Not that the subject is unworthy notice, or beneath the scope of this pen ; for, nothing connected with trade must be so spoken of ; but the assemblage is surpassing comprehen- sion, the pele mele dazzling to the eyes of juveniles and adults alike. We will therefore address ourselves to one article — the whip, and its makers; for, whilst one set of workpeople confine their attentions solely to this small production, another address themselves wholly to peg-tops, a third to wooden dolls, and so on. One of this latter avocation, whorn we saw at tavern dinners formerly, as a glee singer, had no other name that we ever heard, than John Dolly. Sometimes, however, we found "Mister Dolly would favour the company with a solo." The first of Toy-whip-makers in London, as to number produced, and quality, is Mr. Josephus Gamble, a worthy person of great obesity (in adipose fat); bibulous, gastronomic, and arthritic, a whip-handle in such hands assumes the relative appearance of zj tooth-pick. These whips are made of the common withy- rods, cut into convenient lengths for handles, which are coloured, banded with paper fillets, or of leather, and armed at the end with an adequate lash, the largest being platted. Each rod affords whip handles of four or five different sizes; the smallest, having but a single slip of leather attached to it, obtained the character of halfpenny goods. The next size handle is better coloured, with the addition of party coloured spiral paper slips, and a double thong twisted lash — these are penny whips; and so on of the rest. But, when we arrive at the more dignified sixpenny whip, we perceive it made of a handle turned in the lathe, with a whistle in the gripe, where it is also enlarged with leather: the lash is of the first order, made of many thongs, platted in the first style, and attached to the handle of a keeper TOYMAN. 449 which affords it full play when in use upon the backs of school-boys or unwilling horses ; for we cannot get rid of the notion, that these better description of whips are employed in actual service by the dandies of the vast continent of America, where we know live entire nations who are all horsemen, to a man, and indeed to a woman. At least, such is the fact, if we may trust the relation of Debrizhofer, whose history of the Abipones (who occupy the unexplored wilds lying between the back woods of the Brazils and those of Peru) fill three large octavo volumes. Is any reader incredulous on these points? Then let him reflect, that the single Whip-maker above named, has executed one order, at Midsummer, 1836, for this one kind of whip, intended to go to that quarter of the world, which he says loaded a four-wheeled waggon, in nine weeks. We do not mention the amount, for an obvious reason ; prices having undergone depression in this as in every other article of manufacture ; though the underworkers always produce an inferior article, in this as in most other trades. Those in the whip line are fourteen in number, in London, who all, except one, were pupils of Mr. Gamble. It is to be presumed they each turn out as much work as their old master ; and as to prices, these were, formerly, a large discount from cent, per cent, off the full nominal prices, to the large toy warehouses, at which all parties remained content for years ; in this way, the fourpenny whip obtained a guinea per gross, the sixpenny, \L 10s.; but at present the first fetch but 10s. the best 15*. per gross. All through this exposition the reader will keep in mind, that we speak of one branch only of this wonderful new trade, little known in England previous to the French war upon Holland, and apparently an insignificant occupation to boot ; we will, therefore, venture upon a computation of the whole work done by all the Toy Whip-makers in London, for a year. One man, two women, and two children we observed, on the occasion before referred to, finished, sent in, and obtained payment for 12 gross, or nine pounds worth of whips in one week, at the foregoing low prices. Now, estimating the outlay for materials, thus — handles, \l. 10*., skins, 18$., coloured-paper, glue, string, 10s. — total 21. ISs. Wages — man, 21. 10$., woman, ]/. 7s., children 10s. — making 4/. 7s. and leaving for profit \L 15s. But we must not, in endeavouring to arrive at a safe conclusion for the entire trade, multiply these sums by the whole number of makers, as the earnings very seldom reach so much, and sometimes fail entirely; we may, therefore, be allowed to take the year round at one third, or 450 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. three pounds weekly, i.e. 45/. worth of toy whips of every descrip- tion, between the whole trade. We thus arrive at the just con- clusion, that the earnings are 2340/. yearly ; which affords support to fifteen little shops of work, with a family in each, who clear 3/. per week for their subsistence, for making toy whips only. More may be found besides those, we doubt not, for we will not affect to know every thing on the subject, and we do know that there are some manufacturers of the article at Birmingham and elsewhere. What, then, is the whole amount of all the many toys made in this country, of articles that are demonstrably super necessary ? Let us reclcon the Tunbridge ware, toy -books at one farthing to twopence, all the " twopenny trash," valentine letters, and pretty pictures in paper frames and glazed ; and estimate the whole at 250 such articles as the whip, we then come to the result, that this country manufac- tures 583,000/. worth of toys, of which for labour only the work- people receive annually 308,600/. in direct payment. Apprentices are taken to most of those manufactures by the several arts masters, without premium; and we apprehend they usually creep into business upon very small sums for the commencement. TRUNK-MAKER. In effect a Box-maker, this tradesman uses the tools of the Car- penter, and joins together his six-sided work, by dove-tailing or nailing, and secures the whole with cramps. These latter the work* man usually adjusts upon the corners and edges, after having at- tached to the box a covering of leather, the hairy skin of goat, horse, or seal ; all which go on wet, and are attached by glue as well as nails in abundance ; and, when dry, the junction of the lid is cut along with a sharp knife. Those clamps are sometimes made of brass, are very numerous, and fastened with nails of the same metal. Besides which, some trunks are studded all over with similar nails, as well for ornament as for use ; the owners initials being sometimes set forth by this fanciful disposition of those studs; and we can perceive good reason for such a denotation of ownership, in the case of many such being mixed together — as happens in large schools, and in the poop-cabins of ships, on distant sea-voyages. Some trunks TRUNK-MAKER. 451 are bound with metal fillets and other caparisons, as are the oaken liqueur cases of marine captains. All these augmentations increase the necessity for very much hammering on the part of the Trunk- maker ; so much so, as to become a nuisance, reducible into a pro- verbial saw. Thus we hear any troublesome neighbour described as one " noisy as a Trunk-maker, who takes good care you shall not forget his being in existence, and no starter at trifles." Formerly, the junior-minded persons of our acquaintance, in want of a toast with their potations, gave " all friends round St. Paul's, not forget- ting the Trunk-maker meaning, we apprehend, that he would not permit the friends round about should forget him. And there, the fathers' sire, sons and grandsons, had infested the spot at the corner, by the name of Bryant and of Seabrook, for a century or more : they were of the same family (it is believed) though opposed in trade ultimately, and dividing by a kind of offshoots ; one of the former name being located at the corner of the Old Bailey and Ludgate-hilL What is more to our purpose, they were respected as good trades- men ; and one of each name of the last twigs, was known to us personally, as candid, straightforward, boon companions, at the commencement of this century. The Trunk-maker is not only thus a Joiner, but his trade partly resembles that of the Saddler, as he joins together the leather of which portmanteaus are wholly formed, with awl and wax-thread externally, and with the eye-needle and thread internally. Some of these, and the trunks, are also divided and subdivided into com- partments, for the reception of certain articles, of silver plate usually, as well as other things ; viz. Surgeons' instruments, swords, medicine- chests, tea and dinner services for campaigners, mathematical, che- mical, and experimental apparatus, and the like. The lesser boxes of these he covers with a fish skin, called shagreen, or with morocco; furnishing each article of his manufactory with locks and keys. In- deed, this latter appendage was always deemed indispensable to the covered packing trunks for the East India trade, in the days of our youth; the trunks themselves, after serving the first purpose of conveying safely their contents to the far-distant land, being found an article of profitable export — usually realizing 300 per cent. Books and stationery, we observed, were always ordered to be packed in such black leather trunks as we have been speaking of ; but they were found insufficient defences in the high climates, as re- garded the light and more tasteful articles of exportation thither : 452 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. greater capacity also was required in some instances ; and our " Trunk and Packing-case makers " had recourse to the Tinman for an internal lining. These linings were formed of the exact shape of the case, and the flange at top was turned in and soldered down. Nothing could be more secure. We have seen packages, which went down in the Abergavenny, Indiaman, Captain Wordsworth, 1807, after lying nearly a year in the sea, off Portland, opened dry — though sadly out of condition. Journeymen earn ordinary wages of 4s. or 4*. 6e/. a day ; those who may be employed in the front shop usually 30$. a week, or more, if capable of taking orders, and making sales occasionally. The ap- prentice fee is nominally about 20/., or double for an indoor accom- modation at the master's table. The credits at this trade are not very extensive, as to amount or time, either pro or con ; but a public situation being indispensable, some 300/. or 400/. will be re- quired to make a suitable beginning. The mere Box and Packing-case maker, is a very profitable trade, when the connexions are extensive among exporters and wholesale houses, in and near the city proper, as well as in the Borough. Jn truth, there is not a better trade going, among all those branches where the saw, the nail, and hammer, form a conspicuous means of attaching wood to wood. In the conjunctive courts and alleys, that lie between Queen-street and Old Change, many are the small for- tunes which have grown up under our own observation, during a forty years off-and-on residence ! Rather we might have said — the retiring competency for the vale of life, that most suitable term sig- nifying enough, and comporting nearly with the right English feeling — comfort. TURNER. Turning is a species of sculpture, cut upon any material, circu- larly only, by means of a lathe, or other rotatory machine. Thus, the Jewellers drill bow, and the Potter's wheel, are but modifications of the all-convenient lathe, which was a contrivance known to all antiquity with which we are brought acquainted. Pliny describes the vases that were then, and are still, the admiration of the virtuosi, TURNER. 453 as being formed by the powers of the lathe; but we must be allowed here to correct one very prevalent error, which has been copied by some of the most distinguished Encyclopedists, respecting the figures in relievo, which we see and admire on those vases. It appears, at first sight, impossible in the remotest degree, that such devices should be cut by a rotatory machine ; and we now know, that in all the Etruscan works of old, these medallions, figures, and representations, were formed and prepared separately, and attached to the vessels afterwards — as is done in the porcellane manufactories of the present day, as related at p. 384. Scarcely an ingenious trade is carried on among us, that is not indebted to the assistance of this invaluable rotatory machine, in some shape or other, for its perfectibility — most of them directly so. These are (besides the professed Turner), Pewterers, Engineers, Braziers, Brush-makers, Glass-grinders, Gun-makers, Machinists, Opticians, and many more mentioned in the course of these pages. Turning is performed by putting the substance to be turned upon two points, as an axis. It is then whirled round by a string coming from the wheel, and passing round the work, or its attachment; while an edge tool, held in a steady manner to the outside of the substance to be turned, cuts off those parts which lie farthest off the axis, and makes all the parts truly concentric to that axis. The prin- ciple is the same, whatever be the substance requiring the circular form and pattern, whether hollow or solid. Ivory, box, metals, stone, and woods of every degree of hardness — from the broomstick whip- handle of the Toy-maker, mentioned higher up (p. 448), to the more durable mahogany and beech pillars of the Bedstead-maker or Up- holder below. When the woods only come under his hand, the Turner's lathe is formed of wood ; but the harder materials require that it should be formed of cast-iron. The triangle bar lathe is best adapted to the ordinary sized goods, as well as for gentlemen who amuse themselves with this elegant and agreeable in-door amuse- ment; some of whom become quite adepts at it, making presents of their work to friends, or sending their productions to some charitable bazaar or fair. Some of those lathes, of the better sort, come very expensive; the stock of woods, too, should be equal to the whole consumption of the year, lest the Turner be laid under the necessity of purchasing a supply at the wood yards. In this way about 150/. or 200/. may be occupied by a man who works on his sole account, with a single 451 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. apprentice ; but if he extend his views, and employ a journeyman and two apprentices, more than double that sum will be required for the commencement, as his man will require 30s. a week, at the least, if he possess any taste, with industry. Tunbridge ware, box, and toy work in general, appears to afford as good or better remuneration, upon the long run, than the very large work. The most prizeable work is the ivory Turner's branch, who requires from 25/. to 40/. with an apprentice : his stock is usually very heavy, as well in the crude material as in the finished goods. TYPE-FOUNDER. Letter-founder, would be quite as good a designation for a person of this trade ; and, when the art of cutting the punches for sinking the matrices was in two or three hands only — the Caslons and Fry, in London, names signified less than things. Under the article Printer, the introduction of fusil types by P. Shoeffer, and their propagation in England by W. Caxton, are periods sufficiently marked in the history of letter- founding Since then, the art has been progressing, and we know not whether we have yet arrived at any thing near perfection ; therefore see that article at pages 38G— 391. Type is a compound metal of lead and regulus of antimony ; each maker professing to have a more perfect admixture of those metals than others : some are found more durable, others too brittle, breaking off in use, others too soft, others of unequal temper, and so on. The cutters of punches, are few in number, compared to the Casters or Founders ; and on them depend entirely the shape and neat turn of the letters, as well as their ranging well together when the form is made ready for press. It was at one time the great secret of the foundry, only exercised by the masters, most of whom were self-taught in the art of cutting, punching, and trimming their work. This was the case with the first Thomas Caslon, with Andrew Foulis, of Glasgow, and others, but is now exercised by good numbers in London, Sheffield, &c. At the last mentioned place, Bacon and Co. carry on an ex- tensive foundry, from which a remarkably pretty bourgeois letter issues, that now appears on our table in a neatly printed duodecimo. The Glasgow foundry is lately removed to London, in part, having TYPE-FOUNDER. 455 the character of sending forth a durable letter. This, however, seems a less desirable quality than was supposed a few years since, before the adoption of stereotype casting ; an improvement, by the way, which was first essayed at Glasgow, by Foulis and Tilloch, as appears by the claims of the latter set up in his Philosophical Magazine ; a few years before his decease {circa, 1806 — 8). Certain uncouth samples of the first plates, accompanied that statement, which ascribed the actual workmanship to one Ged, of their office ; and we feel bound to place entire reliance on those claims to priority, to the utter derangement of Mr. Didot's pretensions, as set up for the Paris discovery ; although to the younger branches of the Frenchman's family, certainly belongs the honour of having brought stereotype founding to perfection, as now carried on here and in every populous and literary country in the world — it is believed. Having mentioned Foulis and Tilloch's foundry, we may be al- lowed to add, that they turned out a very handsome fount of Greek type — or rather two, one serving for notes, as is usual ; also, that their successors produced a still finer, clearer, and more beautiful modernized-faced fount ; with which were printed Dalzel's two volumes of Analecta Grseca, notwithstanding the vituperative asser- tions of the controversialists, who maintain that the Scotch literati are wot finished Greek scholars. And this brings us to notice the JEschylus, 1 vol. small folio, the largest Greek work we believe ever printed beyond the Tweed : let justice be done. In the " Pursuits of Literature," 8vo, corrected edition, we read with pain the following severe animadversions, on " a transaction that seems unwarrantable;" but we must enter, thus early, our protest against the book in question being considered " a magnificent edition" — our copy falls far short of the sixth-form school-books just mentioned — very far. Mundell excelled Foulis, in every respect (paper, type, correctness, matter), as greatly as the publishers of Paternoster-row do those of Cheapside. Though now some high imperial critics chafe To think, not JEschylus himself is safe. Go to his text : revise, digest, compare, With Porson's shrewdness, or with Valknaer's care : But, is the learned page once out of sight ? S me Scotch-Greek swindling Printer* steals your right. * Note. — " Mr. Person, Greek professor at Cambridge, lent his 456 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Stereotype, or solid type printing, we have seen, was essayed long before the first attempt of Didot ; the thought had entered into the heads of several speculators — if their word i to be credited; and one of them made the first step towards it, in what he thought proper to term logography. This was Mr. John Walter, projector and proprietor of the Times daily paper, about 1793 ; who then had a little publishing shop in Piccadilly, where he issued the first spe- cimen of the art, in " The Devil on Two Sticks in England," 6 vols, 12mo. This was a satirical work, by the late Mr. C , who sub- sequently obtained so much notice, as Dr. Syntax, and Johnny quce genus. Walter's improvement went no further than the casting together certain short words of frequent recurrence; as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and the commonest terminations of verbs; nor did he appear to have uniformly introduced even these, much after the manner of those from whose occupation he borrowed his term — the Roman logographi, or lawyers' clerks, who leave their de- cipherers much to imagine, and to insert their meaning, by dashes. The main difficulty to be got over, in obtaining the mould entire from the face of the page of type, was certainly achieved by Didot. His mould is made of plaster of Paris, and came off perfect from new or clean type, after it had been allowed to dry so far as to be readily disengaged ; whereas, most of our bunglers employed old letter, clogged in great measure with ink and dust, and they hurried the process. It remained to the perspicacity of the Lord Stanhope, spoken of higher up (p. 318), who was likewise the inventor of a letter-press which bears his honoured name — to penetrate the French- man's secret, or rather, to invent anew the means of obtaining the perfect moulds. His foundry was planted at Camden Town, where his director, Andrew Wilson, casted an oblong Pocket Dictionary, manuscript corrections and conjectures on the text of ^Eschylus, to a friend in Scotland. His corrected text fell into the hands of the Scotch Printer, Foulis ; and, without the Professor's leave, or even knowledge, he published a magnificent edition of ^Eschyius from it, without notes." — Vide p. 156, P. L. But Porson nor Foulis stand alone in those respects : we have proofs of more than one galling transaction similar to this, occurring nearer to St. Paul's — u surpassing in turpidity, though in effect the same." We allude to the allusion in the text; but will not consent to call either a case of " Literary Piracy," fit to be heard at nisi prius. TYPE FOUNDER. 457 and an octavo Ainsworth, for the trade of Booksellers, and the art might be pronounced from that hour established in England. It re- mained for the discernment of the Syndics at Cambridge to discover the applicability of this art to perpetuating correctly-read pages of their several Bibles and Prayer Books. They accordingly invited over Wilson to instruct their Printer, Richard Watts, in the secret of casting the heavy pages of their books; and this was done in a masterly manner, at a vast expense, greatly to the honour of the University. Other Printers gradually adopted the new art ; but among the first, one Brightly, of Bungay, got an insight of the Cam- bridge foundry, and turned it to account in printing sixpenny tracts there ; and what redounded to the puerility of the accident, those tracts did not profess to support the thirty-nine Articles of the Syndicate. In effect, the Type Founder and Stereotype Founder proceed separately; we know of none who undertake both ; they may even be considered, and feel themselves opposed to each other; inasmuch as the more books were cast in plates the less necessity would exist for the moveable types, and vice versa. Accordingly, the plates are cast by almost every individual printer of books ; but we hear of no defalcation in the business of the original Type Founder; rather the contrary, both seem to flourish joyously at the success of the other. The Type or Letter Founder, has need of large premises ; he em- ploys a great many in cutting, casting, and trimming the letter fit for use; and if he mixes his own metals, as is usual with most Founders, his views and his capital must be further extended. His credits are seldom shorter than twelve months for entire founts to the Printers, who usually pay him in their own bills, or in those long- winded ones they are in the habit of taking from their customers, the Booksellers, when they come to large settlements. A running credit for sorts, also exists with the Printers, for six or twelve months, that are then settled for by bills. In all this we see the absolute necessity of one thousand or two thousand pounds being brought into a concern of any magnitude ; though treble that amount is employed in some ; and even these sums drive the master occa- sionally to seek for discounts, to meet the heavy demands of Satur- day-night, added to his commercial engagements. Journeymen Casters earn from 32s. to 40s. a week ; the Matrix- makers obtain more than twice as much in full-work, when they stick to it — agreeable to their proficiency in this initial of the art. x 458 THE COMPLELE BOOK OP TRADES. Those who trim the letter have need to attend closely to their work, and then they seldom make a Saturday's bill of less than three guineas. Boys who may be apprenticed to this trade, are endowed with small sums of 30/. or 50/. each — if any at all ; unless forming part of the family of some clever workman, or possessing an opening genius for cutting, or sinking (as 'tis called), he creeps into the best departments of the trade, as it were. Formerly a hundred pounds was deemed too small an apprentice fee, to a trade that is now apparently laid open. Those in the city belong to the Stationers' Company. UPHOLDER. The y were formerly Upholsterers — meaning the same thing ; but under the first name were incorporated in London a.d. 1627, and soon after built themselves a hall in Leadenhall- street. The trade is one of multifarious occupations, employing all those handicrafts and trades who contribute to fit up the inside and to furnish the dwelling-house ; the only part of which the Upholder performs him- self, being to stuff chairs, sofas, and beds, and seeing to the wadding or other contents. For the due performance hereof, they were regu- lated by act of Parliament — 1st, To stuff their beds with one sort of dry pulled feathers, without admixture, under penalty of forfeiting the same ; 2d, The wadding for quilts, to be of clean wool, or stocks, without using any horse hair therein. Laws such as these, however, are rendered nugatory by the new order of things, and improved notions rising up among us, or deduced from a more extensive prac- tice and more enlightened views. As to horse-hair, we have laboured hard in our vocation to prove its superior wholesomeness over the emollient destrustiveness of feathers, as became our duty ; and can readily imagine how such an enactment as that just quoted would fall into deserved oblivion. Although the Upholder's proper craft is to fit up beds and their hangings, yet he concerns himself about every thing that pertains not only to the bed- room, but every room in the house ; and even the decorative part, treated of above at p. 361, enters into his depart- ment in these our times. Some of our modern Upholders make it a part of their trade to rent large houses of the nobility and gentry, UPHOLDER. 459 and fit tnem up, fill them with furniture and every requisite for house-keeping, and let them out by the week or month to families occasionally sojourning in town : one or two domestics are always included in the letting, and sometimes an entire set who can be relied upon for taking proper care of the goods left in charge. He can furnish wines too, if required, and firing may be sent in, or mal£e a part of the bargain. By less direct means the Baker, Butcher, Grocer, may be profitably recommended ; and if the party coming- in be a new-married couple, and their friends, passing the honey-moon in town, who H desire to spare no expense," the pickings and cheese- parings, and candle ends, afford a good harvest. The Upholder, under such circumstances, resembles much the Haberdasher, who provides every thing for the personal appearance of his customer, as the former does for his domestic comforts. But then, they wofully change places, when accident, or the wayward operations of old time requires our tradesman to assume another department of his business — which is that of an Undertaker : his holiday suit is then changed to sables, and the house he has now to let consists of a few feet of elm plank — with perchance a thin coating of sheet-lead, as antici- pated at p. 382. In the ordinary routine of business the Upholder employs the Bedstead-maker, Bed-pillar Turner, Cabinet-maker, Looking-glass- maker, Carver and Gilder ; he buys of the Woollen-draper, Mercer, and Linen-draper, the materials for fitting out his beds, bed- ding, coffin-covers, &c. as well as many other trades, mechanics, and the like, including the porters who understand best the transit of this description of fragile merchandise. They who deal in second-hand household furniture, term them- selves Brokers, from another avocation that some of them follow, viz. distraining the goods of dilapidated housekeepers, whose entire furniture, they set a value upon and seize for the landlord, tax- gatherer, plaintiff's Attorney in fieri facias, and such like adverse takings. From the function then exercised they acquire the further title of " Sworn Appraisers ;" acting under a license from the Stamp O/fice, of 125. cost. Respectable Broker-Upholders, however, never meddle with the distresses of the poor and needy; confine their painful though voluntary duty in this way to the rich and high-flyer delinquents, and never execute with hostile hand the wholesome law of the land, which places the property of the debtor at the mercy of the creditor. How truly has it been said, that he who borrows money of an onerous x2 460 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. creditor is the slave of the lender. Whereto we may add that other maxim, proper to be kept in mind by every tradesman, " Borrowed capital operates like a millstone around the neck of the debtor." Young men apprenticed to a genteel Upholder should be endowed with a sum not less than 602. whilst 150/. is more proper for a first- rate concern. The working men who move the goods about, and who for the most part have been operatives in one or other depart- ment of Upholstery, earn from 255. to 305. ; a confidential person capable of fitting up a house, nearly twice as much, weekly : integrity and a suitable comportment, are qualities highly requisite in persons who are admitted to so many familar visitings as these are, to every part of a dwelling ; for the Upholder's avocation do not entirely cease when a house is once inhabited. VETERINARY SURGEON. A book, under this title, was published in 1826, by Mr. J. Hinds, himself a Veterinary practitioner, Anatomist, and Chemist, of high repute : and the present penman considers it no mean boast, that he is greatly indebted to that volume for the earliest rudiments of his art, and for several years of after instruction he is bound in chains of never ending gratitude to the enlightened author of it. To this book we shall find occasion to call attention hereafter, in pursuance of our plan of exposition of the rights, interests, and rationale of the calling which we proceed to treat of, as is our wont. What a Surgeon is, or ought to be, has been sufficiently discussed in a preceding article. It will be there seen that the earliest students in the theorv of human diseases, arrived at the desired end — enough for their purpose, by the post mortem examination of quadruped subjects ; the animals sent for the sustenance of man, for his plea- sures, and his necessities, served also to instruct him how to alleviate human ills, by observing the formation, structure, and economy of these more humble beings. Veterinarius, among the Romans, was a stable-keeper, or post-horse man, who, according to the fashion of the times, would see to the shoeing and otherwise caring for the well-being of his property. Hence the French adopted the term for their " Ecole royale Veterinaire" which was established at Lyons about the middle of the last century, and subsequently at Paris and VETERINARY SURGEON. 461 at Toulouse. They further endowed those establishments with an annual graut of 250,000fr. and were believed to be far advanced beyond other nations in reducing to rules the mode of curing the ills of horses; at any rate, they further assumed their patients to be military ones in all unexplained cases, directed their whole energies to the army, and educated their eleves with military precision, calling them together by beat of drum, and punishing slight transgression by drills. One of these drills was a close attendance and exercise at " driving" the nails into the hoofs of dead horses, placed in a vice ; a part of the art of shoeing, in which, by the way, the French never did excel. Another drill consisted in reciting aloud certain portions of the Elemens de Vart from each others' manuscripts ; for we find Mr. Bourgelat speaking of M the obligation laid upon the pupils to employ their precious time in writing out considerable volumes on the different parts of their art" — vide Discours Prelimi- naire to his Maliere Medicale. But although this obligation which the rules of the schools laid upon the scholars, be one sure method of making boys follow their exercises with industry, it by no means makes them ready men, after they come into practice ; it is in fact to learn by rote without thinking — very unlike English, though quite conformable to the French character. We have now lying before us the Elements of Mr. Bourgelat, who was director of the schools — a printed copy brought by us from Alfort, which is pencil-marked with the semi-sectional recitations, or daily exercises, set to the scholars there. The tasks appear to have been anything but alluring; and the boys, who are still kept at it, go through their duty in a somewhat dogged manner. We observed a much more appropriate French punishment for small offences, or want of attention in school hours, in the interdiction that is laid upon the offenders not to enter the ball-room, whither all resort in the evening ; so they loiter outside, viewing la danse with longing eyes, and feel it a real punishment, sui generis. These remarks we thought proper to make here, inasmuch as our first veterinary instructors were brought from that source, viz. Mr. Vial de Sainbel, who had the character of being the most expert Veterinary Surgeon the school at Lyons could offer to the notice of certain inquirers after exotic talent, and another or two, of whom more anon. The object sought by this introduction was, a better system of treating diseases in the horse, principally, but having a view to those of other cattle; the promoters obtained ministerial 462 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES patronage, and a grant of 3000/. a year for their undertaking; Mr. Vial (or Sainbel, as he chose to be designated), was appointed the first schoolmaster under the pompioso of " Professor," and their building in Pancras Fields was denominated " the College.'" In these consisted their primary blunders, the previous one of rejecting the experience of Sir Sidney Meadows, and his nephew, Mr. Strick- land Freeman, being conclusive upon all the subsequent mismanage- ment. Sainbel proved himself but a mediocre Savan, and died of chagrin; he had been outstripped in veterinary research by the ardour of several pupils — as Boardman, B. Clarke, and above all by D. Blaine, who sought to succeed him ; but the committee, still seeking for remote talent, selected " Mr. Edward Coleman, of Guy's Hospital, a young man who had devoted mucji time and industry in the study of comparative anatomy," i. e. the dog. Since that period, the vaunted college has been under his control, working out his purpose, without producing a page of report, transaction, or affected discovery ; though each has been often promised, and frequently de- manded by the public press, and more than once by the present penman. One result of so much exposure of imbecility was, the subtraction, in 1825, of one half the government allowance, viz. 1500/. a year. Every one interested in veterinary matters has been long convinced, that all the talent is not concentrated at the College, but the contrary ; those able persons just named having derived no advantage from the ascendency of Mr. Coleman, or his second, whilst we ascertain that the public is indebted for the best published treatises on the veterinary art to scientific gentlemen, who never entered of the college, under any of its phases. Of these we may notice as distinguished, those of /. Clarke, his awte-cotemporary Osmer, the valuable James White, and Blaine (who also published quack medicines for dogs, &c). Also, W. Youatt, sometime partner in trade with Blaine, and /. Hinds, before spoken of (p. 224) ; to which we may add, that the latter is likewise the author of " the Groom's Oracle," being dialogues on conditioning and preserving the health of horses ; besides some curious observations " on Blood " and blood-horses, in the new edition of Osmer' s Treatise. Of these two authors it would be unjust not to notice the fact, that the Veterinary Surgery (see p. 460), of the last-named served for basis of the vol. by the first-mentioned, which is entitled " the Horse," but without a name, other than, " a Society for promoting knowledge," that does not exist, as such. VETERINARV SURGEON. That excellent popular writer and pharmaceutist, James White, we know, entered himself of the college, simply for the purpose of quali- fying for a regiment (the first dragoons) : the learned B. Clarke did not so qualify; while those other quakers (the Harrisons) did; and, although not versed in physicking, one of them was said to have taught to the army operatives, the new principles of shoeing, for which the nation is supposed to be indebted to him in the sum of half a guinea per diem, pension : yet, to our perception, no man than he looked less like a shoeing smith, unless it be his brother. From those premises it seems quite clear, that the Coleman diploma, with all his human aids, does not confer talent, nor render qualified the mere possessors of such a document as he hath to bestow. His book on the " Foot of the Horse," could not compete with that by Mr. Strickland Freeman, before adverted to, except in its showy plates; not alone because Mr. Freeman and his uncle, Sir Sidney, had paid attention to French teachers, but by reason of their having carried to the task, much zeal for the horse, accompanied by the indispensable scholastic qualifications of English gentlemen. Neither of those works, nor both combined, excelled the two octavos of Gib- son for real utility, nor the folio of Lafosse, the elder, for laborious display of Part Hippiatrique. By the way, the Manual Hippia- trique of the last Lafosse was translated into English by Mr. Badcock (assisted by Mr. White), in 1801 ; but possessed little more merit than exhibiting a new classification of glanders — that everlasting subject of solicitude to the French practitioners — la Morve, which they (at any rate) are destined never to cure ; for, by a standing law, that has survived every other prejudice there, they destroy every glandered horse, and even " all that may even be suspected thereof." The young man who makes choice of this profession has need of previous school-education : Latin and French are indispensable to a due exercise of the art, as they are to the acquirement of the first principles — even though he may not study Vegetius, or read Vir- gil's Georgics in the originals. He should entertain some taste or admiration of horses and horse-exercises, proportions, capabilities, and adaptation to the various kinds of labour it has to perform ; a species of qualification we ourselves can hardly suppose any body in England to be without, in some degree ; and the more a youth has to do among horses, the more likely he is to commiserate their ailments, and to watch the operation of the remedies — happy for the 464 THE COMPLETE BOOK OP TRADES. animal if he do nbt apply these too abundantly. This latter, how- ever, is an error of ignorant persons only, which a veterinary edu- cation wears away ; but the half-taught puppies of the stable-yard are ever more mischievous than the utterly stupid. The son of a livery or post-horse keeper, of a Farmer, or of a Farrier, is most likely to form a good Veterinary Surgeon, especially if he has been placed out with a Chemist or Druggist, in his junior years, learning to mix and make up, while still maintaining his access to the parental establishment. We have known many successful practitioners proceeding from a similar preparative tutelage. Some notable in- stances in proof occur — 1st, Mr. White, wbo was the son of a com- mon Brewer of eminence, near Exeter, and articled to a Chemist there ; but finishing with Battley, of St. Paul's Church-yard, and entering the Pancras College in 1794, he published an abridgment of Coleman's two expensive volumes for 4s. in 1800 ; 2d, Mr. Fen- wick, whose father was a Farrier of the old school, near Oxford- street ; than whom we scarcely ever met with a college Vet. more habile, candid, or intelligent; 3rd, Mr. Hinds, son of a Farrier in Whitechapel, who had been attached to Sir JefFery Amherst's regi- ment, upon the old regime ; both father and son preceded the establishment at Pancras in point of time, in the march of intellect, in successful practice, and the son — in public utility, as an author, clear, intelligible, and searching. To a young man, the value of such notices we know become available as he proceeds in his veterinary career. They may receive some recommendation to persons of a certain persuasion, that they are also promulged from the chair at Pancras ; Mr. Coleman having greater opportunities than any man of estimating the talent and tact of pupils originating in the fore- mentioned occupations, and of comparing these with those of a mere pestle and mortar education, taking himself for an exemplar of the latter. Yet must our aspirant not neglect to enter himself of the Pancras College, nor of showing devotion to his teachers there — as this constitutes his passport to more profitable honours, by the exhibition of his diploma to gaping joskins, to stage-coach, and other horse proprietors, perad venture to some commander of a regiment ; as his papers may then stand him in good stead, should he fail in real talent. As soon as he leaves col- lege he must commence de novo, by unlearning the prejudices there taught : he must re-examine the doctrines of Messrs. Coleman, Stewell, and Co. — laugh at their reveries, and despise their ex- VETERINARY SURGEON. 465 clusiveness — for, they have from that moment shut the college gates against him. No more need he attempt to enter there : he may not even subscribe his three guineas towards its support ; nor look at the library, except through the windows from the adjacent fields ; nor attempt to take a peep at the preparations, some of which he himself may have taken the pains to get up, or which may have been placed there originally with the design of cajolling the soft parents and guardians of youth, who may hie thither to make their twenty- guinea offerings in November, annually. In addition, our youth must be furnished with the means of living and lodging his year out at College ; he will have to purchase sub- jects, instruments, and books, and to subsist in most things upon the same terms as the gentlemen he will meet at the hospital lec- tures of the human teachers — to which he obtains free access. One year suffices to entitle him to examination for passing ; but he will require another year to finish him for practice, though not for pro- ficiency ; he should attend the lectures of Mr. Youatt, or whatever clever man else may present himself as a teacher, hold frequent conversations with his cotemporaries, on the principles and details of their art, and read all that comes in his way of books pertaining to the matter in which all are so deeply interested. He may thus prepare himself for the routine of passing, should he unfortunately possess but a shallow pate — a misfortune much to be deprecated, but which a plentiful supply of cash will not always remedy — but alas, the contrary. The whole amount of outlay, may thus be gathered from surrounding circumstances, rather than be set down dogmatically ; but we may venture to say, that a sum of 300/. is indispensably necessary to be appropriated to the first year, with all its imperfections, and as much more for the second. WATCHMAKER. Under the article Clock-maker (pages 134 — 141), are traced, with minuteness sufficiently for our purpose, the history of the dis- covery of time measurers, shewing the principle upon which the works are set agoing, so as to keep time in the admirable state of perfection we find them at this day. As every one knows, the works of the lesser machine are carried by a spring and regulator, the larger x 3 466 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. by two weights and a pendulum ; a modification of this latter was applied to the watch, at a troublous epoch, by Dr. Hooke, about 1658* Whoever says that the Doctor's discovery was not complete until thirty years later, lies — under the imputation of robbing this country of the honour, and giving it to a foreigner, Huygens ; for Hooke 9 8 contrivance was shewn to, and received one or two commands from, Charles II. at his first coming home to us. One of these bears the following inscription ; " Robert Hooke, invent. 1658. T. Tompion, fecit, 16." We can neither understand, nor relish, this mauky affec- tation of candour on the part of our former friend : Huygens' work, De Horolog. Oscillat. published in 1673, says not a word on the subject ! After him, Thomas Tompion was celebrated as the best Watchmaker in Europe : he gave the general name of timepiece to table clocks and dials ; and his name appeared on a medallion over his shop in Cornhill, until very lately. Yet was Tompion nothing but a Farrier, originally ; that trade which has produced so many and such various geniuses in other arts : viz. Opie, the Painter ; Bedder, the calculating child (who began with the horse-shoe nail proposition) ; and a more practical person we have our eye upon at this moment, who is the brightest physiologist of the age in which we live. Sir Thomas Lawrence, also, we believe, was brought up at the heels of the horse. Tompion was patronized by Queen Mary If. when he most needed protection, i. e. during his first struggles, and he died in 1713. From his time to the present, England is celebrated, and London of course, as producing the best watches in the world : the exportation is immense in amount, owing to the very high prices which are obtained for watches of superior workmanship and curious contrivance, for nautical purposes in particular. These obtain the distinctive appellation of chronometers, from chronon, time, and meter, measure. We may justly attribute the enviable eminence this country has arrived at in making those time measurers, to the early care taken by government to appoint a Board of Longitude (1714), to contribute all its powers towards discovering the exact means of arriving at that ultimate desiderata of exact circumnavigation ; and seeing, that an accurate admeasurement of time constituted the main instrument in accomplishing so desirable an end, a sum of 20,000/. was placed at the disposal of the board, to be laid out in procuring the best chronometer. By act of 12th Queen Anne, 2000/. might be given in making experiments — which was done ; portions to be awarded, WATCHMAKER. 467 at discretion, of the whole sum; being 10,000/. if made within one degree; 15,000/. for two-thirds of a degree ; and 20,000/. if made within half a degree. Another act, to the like end, passed in 1753, and we find the competitors had been many, Mr. John Harrison having been awarded 1,250/. for his improvement, out of the first sums. Subsequently we find Mr. Zachary Mudge, of Plymouth, received a sum equal to the capital reward for his timepiece; and the names of another Harrison and of Upjohn were among the com- petitors whom the Board of Longitude — now increased in powers and scientific aid — thought proper to commend and to reward with minor sums. To those powerful incentives to exertion on the part of our artists, together with the constant encouragement to the production of su- perior workmanship, occasioned by the munificent orders of the English nobility and gentry, we are willing to ascribe our present pre-emi- nence as Watchmakers ; notwithstanding the lets and hinderances to which the trade has been subjected, at more than one period since the date last quoted. We refer to the distressing era which closed the American war, when the trade was at a low ebb, in consequence of the equally low state of people's pockets, and means of purchasing aught but the absolute necessaries of life, added to the predominance of our rivals the Dutch, French, Swiss, and German makers, in all the countries to which they then had access, by sea or land. The subsequent periods deserve retracing, so far as this very Interesting trade is concerned; for it carries along in its consideration, the progress of many other species of British manufacture, which might be said to stand indebted for their present ascendency to the very low state pf depression to which, unhappily, they had been re- peatedly subjected. Restrictions, that were clearly impolitic in their tendency — taxes, onerous in their operation — curbs upon industry, by means of municipal and exclusive rights, were among the less obvious as well as the most lamentable of the causes referred to ; inasmuch as these were imposed, or permitted, by pretended phi- lanthropists, anti-national governments, and short-sighted but well- meaning politicians, who cared for nought so well as number one. Since the introduction of the Watchmakers, and of similarly fine workers in metals, noticed higher up (p. 303), these trades had gone on upon a progressively increasing scale, as to numbers and quantity of work turned out : we find, also, that the parishes and precincts in which they had been located, flourished yearly as to - 468 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. respectability, substantiality of buildings, and extent; insomuch* that the daughter church of St. James, Clerkenwell, outgrew her mother of St. John's, quintuply, by that time Mr. Pitt conceived the notion (1797), that watches deserved taxation as such, as well as the precious metals in which they were encased. This policy re- sembled that which sought to lay a tax upon boots as well as the leather of which they were made — upon wearing hair powder, as well as the powder itself — upon beaver-hats as well as the beaver — upon retail shops, as well as every article in them — upon windows as wtll as the glass of which they were made — cum cceteris paribus. This was the policy of deterring people from using the taxed article ; because, said Pitt, every man now wears hats, watches, boots, powder, &c. &c, and this is the best means I can think of, for arriving at the pockets of the consumers, and extracting their contents. Upon that occasion, however, the Watchmakers were " up and stirring, as one man meetings, speeches, petitions, deputations, remonstrances, and representations, followed each other to some purpose. War and its taxes had already thrown overboard the taste for expensive watches, though the working man still wore his mere turnip, to give him precarious notice of his hours and minutes of attendance ; and great numbers of Watchmakers felt the loss of trade, acted upon by the adverse state of successive seasons, and consequent high price of provisions. Probably, they might not have retrenched fast enough, their habits of liberal, if not expensive living. One of those deputations, finding their oratory made little impression upon the minister and his secretary, found themselves driven to make a demonstration of no equivocal character : three sacks of Pawnbrokers' duplicates, made up in family packets, were exhibited in Downing-street, to the astonished George Rose, who presently ' comprehended that workmen who were so circumstanced could not suffer further privations, without danger of being driven to despe- ration ; and the tax was abandoned, after the cunning ex-purser had ascertained the genuineness of a parcel of the poverty-stricken wares thus submitted to his sober judgment. Hereupon, the trade in common runners increased greatly, for our foreign possessions, for our army and navy, and others who were gaining by prices, by em- ployment, or by prizes obtained through the war ; the dealers and exporters, too, became more numerous, and less exacting than hitherto ; for, notwithstanding the manufacturers were so ill paid as to starve over their work, the old prices — from 30/. to 36/. per dozen WATCHMAKER. 469 — were long obtained, though not worth above 20/. market price. Thus, a taste for wearing a watch being once diffused to its full extent, a better state of trade in general gave the means of obtaining a better article to each individual. As the influence of the arch-enemy, Buonaparte, declined, the ports of Europe opened to us the old sources for a better trade ; best watcjies increased in demand every where ; for neither these or their common work was found to stand the racket, in those which inundated us at the close of the war, from France, and particularly NeufchateL At this place they seem to have been all Watchmakers ; an agent from thence, M. Jeanjacquet, having resided in London, for the trade sale of watches sent from that prolific manufactory ; very neat work, and altogether very pretty flat watches, as these un- doubtedly were, they soon got out of repair and out of repute. We certainly owe to the French makers not only this very desirable flatness — which is effected partly by the sunk wheel, and some other improvements of a similar cast ; but then, the all-important sound- ness and accuracy is English, and nothing but English. And how is this effected, but by superior encouragement given to workmen who excel in the several departments, and principally in the final one of putting the parts together — which is the real Watchmaker's trade ? Yet is not flatness every where in repute. We remember an opinion was once prevalent, that this form was incompatible with correct going ; and so think, at this day, our customers in certain parts of the Levant those watches which are got up for " the Tur- key trade " being particularly round, globose, or ball fashioned. As just intimated, the several parts of a watch are got up by individuals who work at one only, and of course excel in the make him who would undertake many branches, as they do in France and some other countries. Indeed, at an early period, the watch was made from the beginning to the end by one person only, as was the case probably, with all infant inventions, the greatest skill being displayed in the final adaptation of the parts of such a complicated machine to each other. Large quantities of movements are made at Birmingham for the London trade common work, and sold at shops which deal in nothing else but Watchmakers' tools and materials ; but the best are always forged in London. This is done in solid metal at first, the Movement-maker cutting the teeth singly, in very few instances, by a table, or circular plate, marked off with the exact distances ; but the machine is preferably and almost universally 470 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. employed, being more even and exact than the eye can follow after any scale : to this machinery may be referred the reduction in price of watches in general. Besides these, we have the Cutter, Fusee-cutter, Watch-spring- maker, Case-maker, Enamel ler (of the face), the Chain-maker (mostly females), Cap-maker, Chaser, Cock-piercer, Gilder, Key-maker, Gold Key-maker, Watch-jeweller, Slide-maker, Pendent-maker, Scape- ment-maker, Springer, Liner, and many other infinitely small occu- pations. When the whole of any given size, or required goodness, are brought together, the Finisher proceeds to adapt them, and to regulate the time of going. For this latter occupation a considerable degree of perfection in mathematics is necessary, much patience, and something of an originally ingenious disposition. For an apprentice fee to such a master, from 50/. to 1 00/. is a proper fee ; unless to some house of very great fame, from which the apprentice may hope here- after to derive some small portion of celebrity — by refraction, as it were. But to the branches mentioned above, very little beyond nominal fees are required, unless the arts-master be much celebrated, or the branch a very profitable one ; in almost every other respect we would repeat what is said of the Jeweller's trade, at p. 305. A Watch manufacturer, who employs finishers, could do no good with aught less than 1000/., but five times as much with 3000/. WATER PROOFER. A trade that is comparatively modern, stands in need of minute description ; a task we hope to accomplish clearly in a few words. Towards the close of the last century we heard, for the first time, of an establishment for performing an operation of this nature upon wearing apparel, which should render it impervious to rain, and even render it capable of retaining such a volume of water as might be poured into a sack prepared for this purpose. No secret could be made of the fact, that the ordinary India rubber of the shops, or caoutchouc of the French Chemists, was the substance which, being skihully managed, could impart this very desirable quality to cloths, silks, &c. submitted to its effects ; but the means of reducing such a stiff elastic gum to the liquid form, was known to few, besides some scientific men, though published in the very respectable journal WATER PROOFER. 471 of W. Nicholson, which work (we lament to say) was long treated with unaccountable neglect. We had taken much pains in the announcement, also. It had been for several years formed into beau- tiful catheters, bougies, pessaries, &c. for medical purposes, with manifest advantages, by the aid of some powerful menstrua; attempts the most unjustifiable were had recourse to, for the purpose of sup- pressing a general knowledge of this proper menstruum, by denying its efficacy, and in one case by destroying the pages that referred to it in the scientific journal just named. Scarcely sufficient for the ends of English justice were the sureties taken for the appearance of the culprit (Fred. Accum) ; though they paid the amount of the forfeited recognizances upon his running from his bail to Prussia, whence he had evolved a scientific Blacksmith some few years before. The case of this foreigner was alluded to in a former page. Meantime, a factory for rendering such articles waterproof, was set up at Chelsea, by Suardy, Ackerman, and Co., and another at Holloway, by Duke and Ingram ; the latter being still in action, near Shoreditch, and both were attended by commensurate success ; for the process of this latter firm was found to defend the articles submitted to it from the insects produced by warm climates in our manufactures. In consequence, government, the East India Com- pany, and others, sent various commodities to undergo the defensive agency of Duke and Ingram's waterproof process — such as horse- clothing, saddle-linings, brushes, &c. The great coats of the city watchmen, and out parishes, were under process at the time of our visit. Of the material which could produce this last described effect, we profess to know nothing, beyond the circumstance of its possessing a strong bitter taste, according to our notion, upon a casual exami- nation on the premises. But as to the manner of applying a thin coating of the India rubber, less mystery existed ; the principle being, to liquefy the gum, so that it might be laid on with a kind of painter's tool, and thus prevent the entrance of wet or the escape of air. This might be accomplished by dissolving the India rubber in very strong spirits, considerably above 62°, the maximum of our fiscal standard, to which very few resins, or gummastic, are found to submit entirely. But none was found to act so powerfully and completely as the spirit obtained from the naphtha and tar which were found deposited in the gas-work reservoirs, in an offensive abundance ; so much so, that the gas companies were constrained by law, to cask up this their empy- reumatic product and start it into the tides below the river reach — 472 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. at the Nore, for example, lest they kill the fish of the minor outlets of the streams, as we have seen occurring upon a tolerably large scale. This practice is still continued, as regards the residuum ; whilst it must be clear, that the naphtha and super nata must form a very prolific carriage-cost crude material for the spirit-makers, near large towns, that are lighted up by the coal-destroying process for pro- curing gas. We took occasion to speak of the rectification of this spirit higher up {see p. 437), together with one of its appropriate uses in giving indoor light. At length, in 1823, a patent was obtained for waterproofing as applied to cloth principally, by a Mr. Macpherson, of Glasgow ; the main novelty whereof consisted in gumming together two portions of any thin fabric, by which a coating of the India rubber solution was interposed between the two, and so effected its desired end, since water nor air is found to penetrate its slightest film. The patentee relied strongly upon his invention of pressing the cloth while damp, and thus filling up the reticular meshes ; besides offering a neater article for subsequent conversion into garments, as greatcoats, overalls, and the like. Our opinion of the value of such patents has been delivered in preceding pages (347 & 367). We will not repeat a word; but add, that the patentee's right expires in June, 1837, and we apprehend he is not in a condition to carry out another action for its protection. Capital uncertain ; but we reckon, that the only factory we ever saw, was fitted up, and the stock of India rubber, or cutchuc y as the Indians call it, with the tools for cutting it up, vessels for containing the solution, presses, tubs, brushes, spirit, &c. might cost 800/. ; the larger ones, we think, 4000/. If an apprentice should be taken, his instruction will be worth 250/., now ; in seven years time, not more than 50/. For much of the interesting matter contained in this article we are indebted to the third volume of " Senex's Gentleman's Recreations ;" the preceding vols, whereof, were quoted higher up, with proper marks of approbation. (See p. 265). WEAVER. If that information be worth any thing, the reader may learn* from Madox's Firma Burgi, that the Weavers and the Bakers were the two WEAVER. 473 most ancient fellowship guilds in London, having in King Henry the First's reign (1 100 — 1 135) received immunities, for, an annual ferme, or rent, paid into the Exchequer ; and, that the corporation of the city of London, disputing their rights, were vanquished at law — such as was then, and in succeeding times, administered. Henry II. stated the ferme to be two marks yearly (1 168 — 9) ; and also enjoined the Mayor of London, that if any cloth were found to be made of Spanish wool mixed with English, he should see it burnt. Whence we infer, tha' Spanish might be used entire, but not the warp and woof of different wools, as is now done in North country cloths. Not only in London, but at Exeter, Winchester. Oxford, and Bristol, were the Weavers formed into guilds at the earliest periods ; and we find, at a very remote period, workmen and women travelling from one place to another; and others, to learn new improvements, and to teach other persons ; of these, figured serges, twilled stuffs, and plush, were long considered the three most desirable things to be practised by a town- ship or people. This practice of tutelage and instruction, which begat a most strict observance of the terms of apprentice, was more strictly enforced in the time of King Edward III. who, in 1331, gave an impetus to our woollen manufactures they had hitherto been deemed little susceptible of. Seeing the great profit and advantage enjoyed by the Netherlanders in the manufacture of English wool, he invited over certain manufacturers from those parts, where the Earl of Flanders oppressed the operatives. And first, we find in the Foedera (lately reprinted by order of Parliament), " A Letter of protection to Hans Kempt, of Flanders, to come over and teach his art to our people ; the King hereby taking the said Kempt, his family, goods, servants, and chattels, under his royal protection." Thereupon, the like protection being promised to all other woollen- cloth Weavers, Dyers, and Fullers, parliament sanctioned the same; with what effect the reader may learn, partly, by turning to the articles at pages 186 and 253, added to the important information, that seventy families of Walloons came over in the same year and settled in England ; where they were caressed by the King and the people, who saw the future advantages to the country from their introduction and establishment here. Two of them, from Brabant, settled at York in 1336 ; it being deemed expedient to distribute the trade to various parts of the kingdom. Next year, Edward issued a sump- tuary law compelling his subjects to wear English woollens, and another to prevent the exportation of wool to certain places in 474 THE COMPLETE DOOK OF TRADES. Flanders ; whereby he so much distressed their manufacturers, that great riots, and some bloodshed, frightened the work people, and con- strained many of them to seek for that protection in England they could not find at home. The task is gratifying and consolatory, thus to search the working a by which so great a staple was established in this country ; notwith- standing we find the King's necessities, arising out of his wars, com- pelled him to permit the exportation of wool, by special orders. But an " English mob," a very headstrong combination of dregs, full feeding, and restlessness, rose upon the foreign workmen in London, and would have wreaked a bloody vengeance upon them, in 1344; whereupon, the King commanded the Lord Mayor to seize and im- prison the rioters, bring them to justice, and see execution done. To crown all his triumphs, Edward slew his old commercial enemy, the Earl of Flanders, who foolishly served in the French army which the English overthrew at Cressy, in the neighbouring county of Picardy, a.d. 1346. Hereby, the friendship and trading between the manu- facturing and sea-port towns of Flanders and the English, became more firm than ever ; Edward causing his protection to extend over that country, issuing a coinage of nobles, half and quarter nobles, for the mutual convenience and interchange of the two countries. This, however, was not a state of things commercial destined to last for ever : our sway over Flanders, which extended at one time from Antwerp to Ostend and Tournay into France, was loosened by the impolicy and weakness of succeeding kings, until the line ended in a female. Elizabeth appears to have regained an ascendency in that part of the Netherlands to which the woollen trade had migrated ; she also gave consistency to the prosecution of the manufactory in England, which had been revived, after years intestine discord, by her grandfather, Henry VII. Various have been the vicissitudes of the woollen manufacturers from that era to the present time, when the demand is equal to any quantity that can be produced ; though surpassed in amount by the machinery-weaving of cotton goods, as observed elsewhere, p. 169. Various notices connected herewith, will be found under Clothier, p. 143 — 6. Woollen, linen, and silk, are all woven upon the same principle, in a loom, by hand and the feet, differing only in some of its appliances, and making ready the warps. These the workman extends horizon- tally on the loom, by one end, whilst the remainder of the length is passed tightly round a roller, or beam, reaching across the whole "WEAVER. 475 width of the loom ; then, the treddles being pressed down by the feet alternately, the alternate threads of the warp are similarly de- pressed, whereby these make a sharp angle with those which, in turn, are raised up. The woof is then passed quickly through the in- terval, and causes the mesh we observe, in all this kind of fabric ; the action instantly is altered by changing the pressure of the feet from the one treddle to the other ; whereupon, the woof is returned again as before, so quickly as to obtain the term shoot, for the action and the woof also ; in some western counties, the little long hollow contrivance which contains the woof (in small portions) being there called the shuttle or shootle. In this manner, thread after thread is added to the length, and every one is pulled tight upon the fore- going, by a wired frame or batten, which is placed so as to receive each thread between each wire : on the evenness of the pull given to this frame depends the smoothness of surface and goodness of the work. Thus, is it easy to perceive, that weaving done by hand must excel that by machinery, inasmuch as the workman can adapt his pulls to any inequalities in the thickness of his threads ; whereas, the pressure by machinery must be the same throughout. Such is the argument of the Hand-loom Weavers : but we are bound to observe, that the complaint may be obviated by employing only such threads as are without inequality. Narrow Weavers are those who produce ribbons, tapes, ferrets, &c. and is a very meagre employment ; whilst the Silk Weavers of piece goods, as sarsnets and gros de Naples, are said to be in the broad way, of which we have already spoken at pages 326 — 8. Stocking- maker (p. 418); and Carpet-weaver (p. 112), also bear some relation to that which is commonly distinguished as the Weaver of silk, woollens, linen, as the case may be. We have, also, the Gold- lace Weaver, a trade in which very good wages were formerly ob- tained from the master " Gold and Silver Laceman and Embroiderer," who gets up the epauletts and other gaudy appointments of our mili- tary officers. Weavers" Hall is situated in Basinghall-street, in a gloomy court which bears its name. Here is a good portrait of the Earl of Leicester, who probably pleased his mistress (Elizabeth), by joining this fa- voured company. It now bears the appearance of a practising Attorney's office, " with pink-tyed papers wide spread out " Upon passing the Municipal Reform Bill for London, some curious dis- closures respecting the management of this company are looked for ; 476 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. as it is almost the solitary case in which the inquiries of the com- missioner (Sir F. Palsgrave) could be successfully eluded ; but we apprehend, that no superior cunningness on the part of their clerk can ultimately rescue their affairs from the searching powers of the new municipality. We noticed the approach of this new order of things at a former page (297), and will not subject the reader to a repetition. The Weavers' trade bears some relation to the Spinners' described above, p. 411. Journeymen Weavers earn from 30*. to 40s. a week, when in full work. His employer is the Clothier, before described. The ap- prentice fee is from 30/. to 50/. though we have known 100/. given with a young gentleman of good expectation. WHEELWRIGHT. In London, at an early period, we may be assured, the use of wheel carriages were well known, the Roman Caesar describing the two-wheel vehicles (chariots) with which the Britons attacked his cohorts, as being fiercely conducted in the onset. Boadicea, their queen, mustered her forces — her wheeled vehicles, in this neighbour- hood, and in aftertime her successor fell fighting among many thousands of his countrymen, at the twenty-fifth mile from Hyde Park Corner ; for there the tumuli now are (two out of five) in which the bodies of that eventful day were heaped; and there, upon three of these repositories of the dead being opened and spread, were found certain evidences of wheel tire. The poor naked savage whom they exhibited at Rome, Cassibelanus, was styled a king, and received his name from the conquerors, who compounded it of Bellans, bellantis — a fighting man, and Cassio, the Phoenician for tin, as explained at p. 442. Except this manner of employing wheel carriages, dreadful in its purpose and terrible in its effects, we have reason for believing that the pack-saddle mode of carriage could alone be adopted in the narrow roads of our ancestors, (vide p. 395 for an illustration,) down to a very remote period. Accordingly, we observe the company of Wheelwrights only re- ceived their charter of incorporation so late as 1670, from the hands of (the ministers of) the gracious monarch, Charles II. when an im- proved state of the roads and of wheel carriages had grown up, very WHEELWRIGHT. 477 different from what appears to have been the state of both early in his father's reign. In 1629, Charles I. issued a proclamation, commanding more attention to one by the late King James, for the preservation of the public roads of England — [James had called them his roads,] whereby " no common carrier, or other person whatsoever, shall travel with any waine (waggon), cart, or carriage, with more than two wheels, nor with above the weight of twenty hundred ; nor shall draw any such carriage with above five horses at once." After reading this notable piece, let the reader look around at our carriers' waggons of twelve to sixteen ton each, drawn by eight or nine horses; and our town carts, in which two ton and a half is regulated as a small load, and is paid for at an under price per distance: two horses ply in these. Finally, nought can be effected in the transit of persons or goods but by aid of the Wheeler's art, whether this be performed in the heavy lumbering vehicle, the Costermonger's cart, or that brilliant display of purely and solely English genius and workman- ship, the mail and stage coach. Wheels are made of various sizes, according to the purpose to which each is to be applied, but the principle is the same nearly in all ; viz. a centre or nave, receiving one end of each spoke, of wh'ch there are eight, that diverge off equally, having their outer end let in by mortice holes to the felloes (four in number), that form the rim, or actual wheel. To effect his purpose more readily, the Wheeler has a well-contrived hole sunk in his workshop, to receive one half of his wheel, nearly ; which there rests upon the nave, capable of being turned round as required for applying the tire, or iron rim that is to defend the wood work from the wear and tear of the roads. This tire is put on burning hot, the better to obtain a secure rest, by destroying any inequality that may remain on the wood; besides which, as iron contracts upon cooling, this method causes the pieces which form the felloe to draw closer together, end to end: to effect this purpose the better, our Wright and his men have no sooner driven home the required nails than they cool the tire with water, which not oniy promotes greater contrac- tion, but augments the hard temper of the iron, and renders it more durable. Among the asserted improvements in wheel making, one was, the employing of two felloes only in making the rim ; another, the making it of bent timber partly, instead of scooping those segments of a circle entirely out of the solid wood, as is still practised for the very heavy waggon fore wheels, and some hind wheels. But a real and 478 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. manifest advantage was obtained, by making the whole iron rim in one piece, and applying it wholly hot, briskly battering it on the previously-adapted felloes, by means of many hands ; and then f cooling it suddenly by an immediate turn in a trough of water, the whole piece of workmanship was quickly converted to one entire, almost solid mass, as if grown together. Such wheels not only last onger and are more secure from accidents, but they travel easier, and make less noise than the old method, which stood in need of frequent repair. This is a hard-working business, requiring much strength in the actual operatives, who earn from 24*. to 30s. per week. Apprentice fees with these, are scarcely worth naming ; but in cases where the youth is expected to become a director or master, some 25/. to 40/. The rural Wheelwright, who also constructs carts and purchases his tire, may commence business with 150/.; but in London, where the stock of wood is of some extent, the single rim and other tire is con- structed and applied, not less than 500/. would be requisite. Our greater Coach-builders are their own Wheel-makers. Whilst we yet write, a retrograde step has become general as regards the outer rim : this consists in omitting to form it into one entire ring, though the ends come close to each other : neither are these applied hot. WINE MERCHANT. One branch only of the class " Merchant," before described (p 329), yet deserves separate notice ; as much from the assumption of the title by the persons who are not Merchants, but dealers, as well as the new course of trade many of them have marked out, that was unknown in our younger years. In addition, we have Wine- makers and vendds of an article that comes not from the grape at all, nor from any fruit which grows on vines, whence the term vinum or wine is derived. These are the British wines, made from cur- rants, elder berries, apples, certain flowers, and even the root parsnip ; besides those which are made from dried fruits, imported here from the Mediterranean, a practice that began about 1635, when a patent issued for making them upon payment being made of 40s. per annum to the Exchequer ! The like sum, per ton, was by Charles I. also levied pn imported wines, in 1638 ; and the short-sighted monarch WINE MERCHANT. 479 undertook the regulation of the prices of every species of .wine, wholesale and retail ; whence we learn, that those produced in France were less esteemed than those of Spain and Portugal, by above 50/. per cent. When, however, in process of time, national policy dic- tated excessively high import duties on the French products, these became more fashionable, and seemed to comport more with the stomach and health of the English gentry, as the inroads upon their pockets were carrried on more vexatiously ; the crying result of this un-English feeling conveys to our notions a kind of felo de se. In 1668 French wines sold for 1*. a quart, Spanish, at 2*. maximum; the duty on brandy, &c. was Is. per quart. Much has been said respecting the cultivation of the vine in Eng- land, at a remote period; we ourselves being of opinion (insisted upon elsewhere), that the mention of wine by ancient writers must have been a clerical error for the expressed juice of some more fleshy fruit than the vine produces. But a recent writer, who appears to nave well and closely studied the subject, assures us that he has found the vines growing luxuriantly and in sufficient abundance, in the long, narrow, sheltered district, indistinctly termed the South Hams of Devonshire. What is more, he is about to carry into ope- ration the result of his labours, in those parts, where the latitude is no greater than circa, 50° N. Mr. Bamford has succeeded so far as to rear, in sheltered situations at Hendon (which lies in 51° 41), various samplers of cuttings collected by him along the Rhine border, in Champaign and in Spain, where he imagines the country nearly resembles that to which he means to remove, viz. the sout h of Devon. At least, such is the intelligence rumour brings us of his forthcoming statements, which he is about to give the public shortly in a well- written 8vo. volume. In addition to this pleasing information, we can further congratulate the truly patriotic portion of our country- men with the consummated fact, of the vine having been cultivated on British territory, with a success, and to an extent sufficient to warrant the sanguine hopes of our being able, at no distant period, to supersede the necessity of laying out our substance with the two foreigners of the Peninsula, and the never-grateful Simia who lies on our southern channel. We used the word " necessity," under the conviction that we cannot submit to the disuse of wine in great measure, however we may differ in taste, as to its complexion, its potency, its invigoration, or its enlivening qualities. The countries of Australia are here plainly indicated, and the neighbourhood of 480 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. Sidney is that favoured spot, where we understand some hundred acres are now, and long have been under vine culture ; the farmers there mostly affecting to grow from dwarfs, whilst Mr. Bamford and others distinctly prefer training their vines to very great lengths, speak with raptures of the rocky supports adopted near Dartmouth, and gives high commendation to the plan of carrying long branches over the apex of buildings by means of adventitious weights, ap- pended to their woody extremities at certain seasons. We willingly turn our backs upon the growers of Southern Africa, who care so little for their trade as to send forth, not only the wines, but the aloes and other products, in such a reproachable state of unfitness, as to render the term " Cape aloes, and Cape ivine " bye words for inferiority. Why do they not draw a brandy spirit from their own grape- skins and buck-wheat, for the conservation of the grape juice? 2d, Why not raise lightning conductors in their grounds? and, 3d, Why do they not exhale in open vessels the too great hu- midity of their wines, when the grapes are gathered in the hurricane season? But those boors, in general, appear insensible to any thing but quantity, a quick return, and small outlay. * Our " Wine Merchants " generally, are nothing more than dealers in spirits, wine, and beer, purchasing the first of Distillers, the latter from the Brewers, their wines, and foreign spirits, and rum, from the importers or real Merchants. Before passing from hand to hand, these are coloured, corrected, lowered, and the sherries sweetened with sugar of lead; a deadly poison, when the doctoring is given it too potently, and always injurious to health, however trivially ap- plied. The dealers serve cider nearly the same sauce ; and when this is carried with a tolerably high hand it receives the name and character of wine. British wines are produced by a very different class of persons ; nor are they retailed by the Merchants of the gin shops before alluded to ; who usually transmogrify their own rum gin, and compounds, fine down their own wines, double colour their own brandies and rum, and sell most of those articles at a less price per gallon than the spirit, &c. stands them in at first cost. Yet, notwithstanding all these things, those dealers invariably make tolerable fortunes, most of them contrive to build stately mansions all over London, to which the appropriate name of gin palaces has been happily applied ; whence it is believed the indwellers could not be satisfied with a less imposing title than Merchant comes to. One of them writes upon his chariot, " By gin I won thee," outdrives WINE MERCHANT. 481 the nobility and gentry on his way to Croydon church, and when he visits his town palace, endangers the limbs of his gaping admirers by the unrestrained impetuosity of his steeds. Most of those si- ft omme Merchants keep carriages ; and, where these have been ac- quired through industry, we see no reason for reproach; but there is no such thing as making a calculation of the income arising from a large return, as the venders then obtain greater profits per gallon than the small dealers can reckon upon. So much is this fact known and acted upon, that several of these usually combine to make their purchases in gross, and divide large quantities between them. Some twenty-five years ago, nine of these, so associated, gave to one of their articles the title of " No. 9 gin;" but four or five only remain, the remainder, blinking No. 9, having dwindled down to Merchants, save the mark ! Among the Wine Merchants of the gin shops, almost every man assumes to be the maker up of some secret preparation — generally a bitter ; others make up a compound for winter, as hot flash ; this latter is the expressed juice of some fruit, with ginger and spirits : the bitters they boast of, are usually a tincture of gentian, rue, or chamomiles, or some other low-growing plant, which gives the pro- duct an earthy smack. Some of our real Wine Merchants visit the countries of the vine, as Oporto, Xeres, &c. for the purpose of making their purchases, or of establishing connexions, or they keep agents there. We have met with these at Bordeaux, also, who contract with the Brandy-distillers of Medoc, Cognac, and parts adjacent, for nearly all they produce, and give better prices than the natives choose to pay. Indeed, we never drank a good drop of brandy in France, but what was intended for the English purchasers, and even then it stood in need of age, and colouring to give it the expected taste. We may say the same of their wines ; the French vin ordinaire being the most execrable stuff a Briton can imbibe withal, or entrust with the safe keeping of his inward man. To conclude, while speaking of the French, we must observe, that we never met with poorer tradesmen for trans- acting business than those of France — Paris in particular : the Bor- delais shopkeepers may be set down a shade better. 482 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. WIRE-DRAWER. This is not a trade we should have taken and considered as one deserving separate notice, but for the opinions of others ; having already spoken of drawing wire by the Jeweller (p. 304) ; by the Needle-maker and Pin-maker (380). We shall now refer the reader to those heads of information at the pages indicated. The machinery is the same, nearly in all cases, whether gold, silver, brass, copper, or iron. Silver-wire and gold-wire, so called, are the same, with the addition that the latter is a ductile silver covered with gold of the same temper. It is thus performed : a bar of silver being covered with thinnest gold and passed through the flatting-mill, at its perforations, smaller and smaller, until it is drawn of the required fineness, and it is all equally gilt, though drawn out as fine as a hair. What is more, these threads (so to speak) appear much more brilliant than the original gold. But to render it proper for needle- work, the fine wire is flattened between two steel-faced wheels, and is then winded round steel or linen thread, completely covering this, though three or four times its own proper weight. If this depart- ment of the trade be in brisk state, a good man may earn his two guineas a week. Those who work at iron and brass, average from 24s. to 30s. The Wire-worker, is a maker of bird-cages, meat-safes, garden- partitions, flower-stands, glass-defences, and the like kind of reti- cular works, in endless variety, too numerous to particularize here, but withal very curious. These trades were mostly seated in Crooked- lane, City, until the recent alterations at London Bridge; and the most extensive works to which we have had access are those of Mr W. West, of St. Mary le Strand, a tradesman of much suavity, and not more prizeable for his intelligent manners as regards his own trade in particular, and the philosophy of the thing generally, than he is remarkable for his attachment to radicalism pure, Burdett and Henry Hunt, alive or dead. During our inquiries, we never spent an hour more at our repose, than in silent attention to the political adversaria of this benevolent man. 483 WOOLCOMBER. Formerly wool was prepared for the Spinner by carding ; but now it is combed, by being thrown upon iron combs that are fixed near a stove to keep them warm. The oil thus maintains a degree of fluidity, and keeps the material supple for conversion into slivers, such as we have seen drawn out from time to time by the Spinner. To this article the inquiring reader should now turn, for acquiring a more distinct notion of the whole process, at p. 41 1-12 ; as well as to Clothier, Weaver, and other trades which bear affinity to the woollen manufactures. The mode of performing this work is ascribed to the inventive faculties of an Armenian bishop, Blaize by name, who was a Comber in the year 316 ; nor do we see any reason for with- holding our belief in the justice of this ascription, merely because the man happened to be a bishop ; for men of the cloth in those eastern countries, and those of the Greek church in particular, do even now attempt to perpetuate their benevolent labours for the service of their disciples. We have heard of one recently, who having no food of his own wherewith to sustain a famishing convert and his mother, actually stole a sheep from an unbelieving Sheikh, with the pious hope of preserving one of his own flock. When the wool has been washed in the trough, the Comber wrings it by means of two sticks, one of which is fixed, and over which he twists one end, and the other end to a stick which he turns round until all the water is wrung out. He then throws out his fleece in small slight parcels, dropping on each a very little rape oil, and ul- timately places the whole together in a bin tightly compressed. He then proceeds to place the wool on one of his combs, the steel brooches of which are triple, and are constantly heated in a charcoal pot; he then combs the wool from one comb to the other repeatedly, drawing out the flakes, or slivers, to a great length, sometimes ex- tending to four or five feet each. When the worsted is required to be worked particularly white, it is blanched by the burning of sulphur in a close room, where the wool is subjected to the action of the smoke arising from the destruction of the sulphur. When work is brisk, the men earn from 18s. to 25s. a week, but very few in this droughty trade choose to labour as long as they may, y 2 484 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. preferring the ale shop to their own. The consequence is, that no premiums are given with boys to learn an art that is easily acquired, and requires no ingenuity or strength in the execution. The master Woolcomber is a profitable trade ; he is also the chief of the operative Stocking-makers, in the country where this manu- facture is carried on ; see the article, p. 418 ; and in the estimate of his required capital, both these considerations ought to make up the total — say from 200/. to 400/. When he takes in the wool of others to comb, as is the case in some counties, he requires no stock of his own, and less capital suffices, by so much. 4. 485 INTRODUCTION TO THE TABLE. Besides those trades, occupations, and callings, which have here received superior attention, as requiring lengthened details, a good number still remain unmentioned, or come within the scope of some other correlative trade ; the Watchmaker, for example, and the Tool-makers' Tool-maker, whose adjuncts, with their numerous rami- fications, stand in need of bare mention only. Furthermore, the perambulator of our Metropolitan streets may observe daily, that certain trades divide themselves off from the generality of their brethren, by insisting upon the superiority of some one particular manufacture or commodity, to which they may choose to confine their dealings, or to call exclusive attention, because of its greater perfection, profitableness, or other cause of preference; this then becomes a new trade by name, though not in reality. But all these required naming, with references to the correlative trades in par- ticular; so that the work, as a whole, might present a complete analysis of every trade pursued in this Metropolis. This has been achieved in the annexed table ; which nearly ex- plains its uses at a single glance. True it is, that part of the in- formation it contains may be found in the body of the work ; but the proprietors were of opinion, that a recapitulation at once so clear and practicable, which should refer to the pages where the details are given, could not fail to be acceptable to the reader. They there- fore adopted the subsequent pages, adapting it to the present times, and now offer the whole as additional information derived from one. who has been all his life engaged in such and similar investigations. In the course of our own inquiries, we some years since discovered this gentleman preparing a classification of trades, professions, occu- pations, and callings ; a work of great ingenuity, as it was also one of great research — of its kind ; though we have not gone the length of printing more of it than answered our views of analysis and index. In most cases, the sums set down are to be taken with a con- siderable latitude, and wholly dependent on the reasonings assigned 486 THE COMPLETE BOOK OF TRADES. in several of the preceding articles. Nothing is more common, in practice, than for apprentices to be received without any fee what- ever — the motives, or no-motives whereto, concern not us ; it hap- pens (not quite so often) that very large sums indeed are given with boys, having no other earthly object that we could perceive, than the ostentation of giving, or the expectation of securing an ill- judged emollience, that long experience has taught us to value as nought — or something worse. We ever found those boys making the best men who had some difficulties to struggle with of a pecuniary nature. As regards the capitals required to commence business in the respective trades — neither have we here set down the extreme sums ; but those, firstly, with which the young beginner may manage to start in life upon a small scale, and requiring careful financiering ; placed secondly, in juxta-position with those larger ones, with which he would find himself quite at ease, or be capable of extending his con- cern to a desirable pitch of respectability. Nothing herein contained, however, is meant to deter any one from accepting the gratuitous bequest of a good trade (like old Beedle's) which should cost no more than the legacy receipt stamp to step into it ; nor to counsel any one as to laying out superfluous capital in unnecessary " capital premises " upon dear ground, in the midst of a dense population — like the floor-cloth manufactory, of which they lately carried up the last stone, in the centre of London city, being the first of its kind on those grounds. The figures refer to the pages in the body of the work, in which the reader will find the subjects treated of at large ; those of bare mention only being included in (parentheses), but which will be found on all occasions profitable to be consulted. 487 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALLINGS, SHEWING THE APPRENTICE FEES USUALLY GIVEN (WHEN ANY), AND THE SUMS REQUISITE FOR COMMENCING BUSINESS IN EACH : WITH REFERENCES TO THE PLACES WHERE ANY OF THESE ARE MENTIONED IN THE PRECEDING PAGES. TRADE, PROFESSION, OR CALLING. Pages where Mentioned. Academy or Seminary - Accountant and Arbitrator - . - Accoutrement and Belt-maker - 283 Agriculturist - -" I Agent : viz. (See also, Broker, Factor, Sales- man). 1. Army ------- 2. General ------- 3. Navy - • 4. Irish Linen Apprentice Fee. 5. Shipping and Custom House - Anchor Smith 407 Appraiser, Furniture-broker, and House- agent ------ 8, (459) Apothecary - - - - - -5, (131) Architect, or Surveyor (which see) 10, (323), (416) Artist - 15, (362) Ass-skin Pocket-book-maker. Attorney at Law [with stamp duty] - - 12 Author and Editor - - - - - Armourer (See Brazier). Auctioneer - -- -- -- 8 Aurist (and see Surgeon) 15 Backgammon Table-maker (See Chess-board). Back-maker - - - - -16, (161) Bacon-dealer and Smoker (and see Factor) Baker, Bread and Biscuit - - - - 16 , Biscuit (fine), and Fancy Bread - 18 , Gingerbread ----- 19 See Muffin, Cook, Confectioner. Barrister (and see Counsellor) - Band-box and Hat-box-maker - - - - Banker - 20, (280) Barber, Hair-dresser and Cutter (and see Wig-maker) ----- 24, (426) Basket-maker ------ 21 ■ , French and Dutch — and Turnery Warehouse - - Bead, Feather, and Flower-manufacturer Bedstead and Wooden Chair-maker 91 Bed, Mattress, and Palliasse-maker - Beef a-la-mode shop - £ £ 25 to 100 50 to 100 100 to 200 100 to 200 20 to 50 50 to 100 20 to 50 10 to 30 100 to 500 150 to 500 100 to 250 250 to 350 250 to 500 50 to 150 10 to 5 to 10 to 15 to 10 to 25 10 25 30 20 250 to 500 5 150 to 250 5 to 5 to 5 to 15 to 15 to 20 to 20 10 15 50 25 30 Capital Required. £ £ 250 to 500 200 to 300 500 to 2,000 1,000 to 100 to 100 to 250 to 150 to 3,000 500 250 1,000 300 100 to 300 250 to 500 500 to 1,000 500 to 1,000 100 to 250 500 to 1,000 150 to 250 100 to 250 200 to 500 100 to 200 100 to 150 1,000 to 1,500 20 to 30 5,000 to 20,000 25 to 40 to 100 to 100 to 50 to 200 to 80 to 100 100 200 250 150 500 150 4SS A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALLINGS. TRADE, PROFESSION, OR CALLING. Pages where Mentioned Beef-steak and Chop-house - See Publican, Tavern, Coffee-house. Bell-Founder (Sec Founder, Brass). Bell-hanger (See Locksmith). Bellows-maker ------ Bill-sticker. Bird-cage-maker, or Wire-worker, which see. Biscuit Baker (See Baker). Blacking-maker, cake or liquid 29 Blacksmith, i. e. Anchor-smith, &c, &c. - (15), 406 , Cast-iron (See Founder, Smith, and Wheelwright). Blackwell-hall f. (See Cloth-worker, Factor). Bleacher ----- - 30 (366) Blind (Venetian), or Spring and Roller, maker and TranspareneyPainter, and Ornamenter Block-maker, for ships - ,'Hat & Wig, & Skittle-pm-maker Blue (Indigo) manufactory — with Starch Boarding-school (See, also, Academy, School- master) male and female. Boat Buildei (See Shipwright) - - - Bobbin-skein- wire-manufacturer. Bobbinnet-maker - Bombasin-manufacturer, with Crape - Bone-collector and Dealer - - - - - Bookbinder, of Calf-work - - - 35 , of Sheep-work ----- , Of Account-books, or Vellum- binder -------37 Bookseller (unmixed) - - - 38 Bookseller and Stationer's-shop 4 Book-publisher (and see Pamphlet-shop) - 40 Boot-maker ------- 402 and Shoe- maker (shop) - 402 Tree-maker (See Last, Heel, &c). Bottle (flint) maker (stone) and Jug-maker - Warehouse, or Wharf - - - - - Bottled Ale and Beer-cellar, with Cyder Box and Packing-case-maker - (102), 450-2 Brandy-merchant (See Wine). Brace-maker, with Gaiters, &c. - Brass Founder, Coach, Cabinet, &c. (See Founder, Lamp) ----- 68 See also Coppersmith. Bricklayer or Builder ----- 73 Brick-maker -- - - - - -78 Breeches-maker (leather, &c.) with Gaiters - Brewer, of Ale and Table-beer 70 1 0 f Porter 68, 71 Bridle-cutter, or maker - Brokers, viz. (and see Agent Factor, Sales- man) 219 — , Exchange, generally - 219 , Furniture ----- 459 , Insurance ----- 331 , Ship - - 331 , Spirit ------ , Stock ------- , Sugar - " Apprentice Fee. 5 to 10 20 to 30 15 to 25 100 to 150 25 to 50 100 to 200 20 to 30 200 to 300 5 to 10 50 to 100 15 to 25 100 to 200 20 to 30 20 to 40 25 to 10 to 20 to 30 150 to 300 15 to 30 50 to 100 10 to 25 20 to 40 20 to 30 15 to 25 20 to 30 5 to 15 10 to 20 25 to 50 15 to 25 50 to 150 100 to 250 15 to 30 100 to 250 15 to 50 100 to 200 100 to 200 100 to 200 100 to 150 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALLINGS. 489 TRADE, PROFESSION, OR CALLING. Pages where Mentioned. 441 Broker, Tea ------ , Timber ------ Brocade Weaver {See Silk Weaver). Broom (birch) maker, and Turnery-wood vender Brush and Mop-maker, (and see Tooth-brush, Turnery) --83 Buckram-stiffen er ------ Bug-destroyer - - - - Builder {See Bricklayer, Carpenter) - 10, 323 81 82 82 86 85 - 86 - 87 93 (366), 93 Butcher, Carcase , Cutting ----- , Pork {See Porkman) Button and Frog-maker, of silk, mohair, &c. — — — Maker, of metal - - - - and Trimming-seller, to Tailors - Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer Calenderer and Glazer {See Hotpresser) Calico Printer and Bleacher - - 30, Capillaire and Colour-maker - Card and Paste-board-maker - Card, playing, maker - Carman ------ Carpenter and Joiner - - - Carpet-manufacturer or Weaver Warehouseman - - - - 100 98 101 102 112 Carver and Giider of Frames {See Looking- glass) - 114, (416) Cat-gut Spinner, and Bladder-preparer - Cement-manufacturer - - - - - Chaser, of Silver and of Gold - - - 120 Chess-board, Draft, and Backgammon-board- maker ------- Child-bed Lin en- warehouse - - - - 131 Chimney-sweeper - - - China and Earthenware {with Glass) man - 132 See also, Porcelain-manufacturer. Mender and Rivetter ----- Gilder {See Spirit-gilder) - - - 132 Chandler's shop {See Huckster, Tallow, W r ax). Cheesemonger, Bacon and Butterman - - 120 Chemist (or Chymist), with Druggist - - 122 Chocolate-maker - - - - Clasp-maker, for books - - - - - Cider-cellar - - - - - - -133 Clay-figure-maker or Sculptor (which see, also). Clock-maker, House, Church, and Turret - 134 < , Musical ----- wooden, and moving Figure-maker Clothier and Factor of Cloth (woollens) - - 143 See W T ooller:-draper, Weaver, Dyer. Cloth-worker and Presser (including fine- drawing and packing), called provincially Cropper, Dresser, &c. - Clothes-shop, of ready-made garments - - 142 — » of eld slops arid second-hand - 142 Coach-builder or maker ----- 148 Master {See Hackney, Livery, Post- chaise, Stage-coach) - - - - - 150 Painter, with Heraldry - (152), 361 See also, Currier, Founder, Harness, Lace-ma- ker, Wheeler, Ironmonger, Trimmer, Plater. Apprentice Fee. £ £ 150 to 250 25 to 50 5 to 15 20 to 20 to 10 to 25 25 to 50 25 to 50 25 to 40 20 to *60 30 to 100 50 to 100 20 to 50 10 to 25 20 to 50 25 to 50 50 to 100 25 to 50 15 to 25 25 to 50 10 to 20 25 to 100 5 to 20 20 to 30 50 to 150 10 to 25 10 to 15 25 to 50 15 to 20 15 to 25 25 to 100 20 to 30 25 to 50 100 to 150 25 to 50 Capital Required. £ 100 to 100 io £ 250 200 10 to 200 100 to 200 to 300 300 500 to 1,000 300 to 1.000 100 to 500 150 to 350 300 to 600 200 to 300 150 to 500 300 to 600 200 to 500 100 to 150 250 to 1,000 100 to 150 50 to 600 250 to 500 250 to 500 50 to 25 to 200 to 150 to 50 to 200 to 15 to 150 to 150 100 500 250 150 400 25 500 10 to 20 100 to 300 to 50 to 20 (o 150 to 100 to 25 to 25 100 to 500 500 250 30 500 250 50 50 500 250 to 500 200 to 400 25 to 100 500 to 1,000 50 to 150 490 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALLINGS TRADE, PROFESSION, OR CALLING. Pages where Mentioned. Coal-merchant - 153, 6 " Crimp (See Factor). — — Dealer, also called " Merchant " - 153, 5 Shed, with Fire-wood - - - - 155 Coffee-roaster ------ House-keeper ----- 158 and Tea- shop-keeper - - - 159 Coffin-maker and Undertaker - Furniture maker. Colourman (See Oil). Comb-maker and Horn-presser - Confectioner (See, also, Pastrycook) - Conveyancer and Money Scrivener ' Cook and Confectioner - - - - - 160 Cook-shop-keeper (and see Ham and Beef) - See, also, Beef, Tavern, Tripe. Cooper (and see Wine) - - - - - 1G0 Copper-plate Printer - - - - - 392 See Engraver. Copper-smith ------ Cork-cutter and Burner - - - - 163 Corn-cutter, or Chiropedist - - - - - Corn-dealer or Chandler (and see Factor) - 164 with Hay, Straw, &c. Apprentice Fee. 165 167 and Coal-measure maker Corset (also, Corsea) maker (See Staymaker) Costermonger ------ Cotton-manufacturer - - - - (93), Counsellor - Cow-keeper (and see Milk, Dairy) - Crape-dresser ------ Cropper (See Cloth-worker). Currier, with Leather-dresser - - - 173 of Coach Leather - - - - - Curiosities, Dealer in, Pictures, Medals, &c. - Cutler (and see Surgical, Sword) - - - Cyder Merchant ------ Decorater (House) of the interior - - 361, 175 381 177 94 Dentist Designer, Draughtsman, or Painter, for 1. Patterns for Calico Printers, for Damasks, for Embroiderers, Orrice Weavers, &c. - 2. for Paper-hanging-makers and Carpets 3. for China, Porcelain, &c. - 4. Books with Prints, or Artist - Diamond Cutter - - - - - - - Setter, for Glaziers ----- and Pearl-maker, Artificial - Distiller of Malt 177 Molasses and Compounds, and Rec- tifier - - - - - - - -392 Drawing-utensil and Colour-preparer - - - Doctor of Civil Laws - - - - - Doll-maker, of Wood (and see Wax) Dress and Pelisse-maker - - - Druggist ------ Drug Grinder. Drum, Tambourine (and see Music). Dry-salter (Dye-woods, Potash, &c ) - Dyer and Scourer - - - - - Dyer of Woollens, Cottons, Silks, <&c. - 408 308 131 190 185 £ £ 100 to 250 10 to 15 15 to 30 15 to 25 25 to 75 150 to 250 25 to 75 25 to 50 10 to 25 15 to 30 10 to 15 15 to 30 15 to 30 20 to 30 25 to 40 25 to 40 25 to 40 15 to 50 30 to 50 100 to 200 30 to 50 25 to 30 15 to 30 50 to 100 20 to 30 10 to 15 40 to 80 250 to 500 50 to 200 300 to 600 5 to 10 20 to 50 50 to 150 100 to 250 25 to 40 50 to 100 Capital Required. £ £ 500 to SU0 25 to 12 to 100 to 250 to 15 to 150 to 50 to 300 to 500 to 300 to 40 to 100 to 50 to 250 25 150 500 180 250 150 500 750 500 200 500 150 100 to 500 50 to 60 50 to 100 250 to 500 100 to 200 100 to 300 12 to 25 1,000 to 3,000 100 to 1,000 250 to 500 300 to 600 400 to 800 10 to 250 200 to 500 250 to 1,000 150 to 300 150 to 500 100 to 50 to 25 t o 100 to 100 to 50 to 50 to 150 100 50 250 150 100 100 2,000 to 6,000 500 to 1,500 200 to 400 250 to 506 10 to 20 50 to 200 250 to 500 750 to 1,500 150 to 300 250 to 1,000 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, !, AND CALLINGS. 491 TRADE, PROFESSION, OR Pages where Apprentice Capital CALLING. Mentioned. Fee. Required. Dye-sinker - - Drawing-master (See Schoolmaster). Eating-house (See Cook-shop, Ham). Earthenware-shop (and see China) - Edge-tool warehouse (See Tool,Hardwareman). Embroiderer, with Spangles, Bugles, &c. Enameller, or Dial-plate-maker - Engineer (Civil) - 193, (315) Engine-tool and Lathe-maker, or Machi- nist ------ (453), 315 Engraver, of Copper-plates : Historical - - 212 , of Maps and Charts - - - 212 , of Aqua or Mezzotinto Scraper - 217 , on Silver ; as Arms, Initials, &c. - , on Wood ----- 218 , Seal 219 See, also, Gun, Music, and Writing. Factor, viz. (and see Agent, Broker, Sales- man) - - - - - - - 219 1. Bacon and (salt) Butter - - - 119 2. Cheese 120 3. Hop (and see Hop-merchant) - 4. Cloth, or Black well-hall (and see Clo- thier) ------- 144 5. Coal 6. Corn and Flour (and see Mealman) - 104 Fan-maker, or Mounter - - - - 222 Stick Carver or maker - - - - - Farmer (and see Agriculturist) - Farrier or Ferrier, or Smith, &c. - - - 222 \* See, also, Veterinary Surgeon. Feather Warehouse, or,'Dealer in. Feather-maker (See Flowers, &c.) - - 251 Fell-monger (and see Wool) - - - - - Fellowship (See Porter). Figure, Block and Sign Carver - File-cutter, or maker ----- 225 - 231 243 243 233 238 246 Filigree-worker Fine-drawer (See Cloth-worker). Fish-hook-maker, &c. - - - - Fishing-rod and Tackle Shop - - - Fishmonger ------ Shell-fish and Stall-keeper - Flatting-mill - - Flax-dresser - - - Floor-cloth manufacturer - - - Florist 248 Flower and Feather-maker (and see Bead) - 248 Founder, Iron ------ , in Iron and Brass, for Bells, Cocks, Cabinet-work, &c. - 68 See, also, Brazier, Type, Plater. Fringe, Lace, and Trimming-manufacturer, for Liveries, Furniture, Carriages, ser, Calenderer, and Glazer (and see Mangier) - 93 Hour-glass-maker - House Painter ------ 355 Ornam enter (See Decorator) - 361, 381 Huckster, or Chandler's-shop - 348 ■ Oil-shop - - - - Indigo (See Blue). Ink-maker, for writing (and see Printer) Insurance-office Company, against loss by Fire Same includes Lives, Annuities, &c. See also Brokers. Innkeeper (See also Tavern) - Iron Founder - - - - - - 298 Ironmonger, Furnishing— -for domestic use - 299 -, Working, or Whitesmith (See Smith). , Dealer in Bars, &c, or Steel-yard and Wharf - - - ' - - " - 300 -, Cast-iron Grates, Fenders, Boilers, Ranges Apprentice Fee. £ £ 5 to 10 150 to 200 20 to 40 40 to 80 20 to 50 5 to 10 15 to 30 j Coach-makers' -, Tron-hoop, or 20 to 30 50 to 100 25 to 50 Nail and Wire- warehouse Isinglass Cutter ------ Italian Warehouse (See Oilman) - - - - Jack maker (roasting) (acting by weight) , smoke maker. , spring maker. Japanner and Varnisher (and see Papia) Japan and Tea Tray Warehouse - Jeweller, shop, with Rings, Pastes, Diamonds 301 ( Working 303 Jobber, principally ot Woollen Goods - Job Warehouse ofCJottons, Hose, Woollens Joiner (and see Carpenter, Box-maker) - - 192 Knife-case, and Portable Desk-maker - See Writing desk. Lace Weaver, of Gold and Silver, Plain, Orrice, &c. ------ See Gold Laceman ; and for Silk, &c, See Fringe, which includes Frog, Tassel, and Bell-pull. Laceman, or Dealer in British - 305 Lace Manufacturer - 305, (345) , Dealer in Foreign (See H aberdasher, Milliner) Ladies' Dress maker - - - >- - 308 Lawyer (St e A tt 0 n le v. O nvevancer, Counsel- lor, Doctor of ( ivil Law.) - - - - 12 20 to 30 40 to 60 50 to 70 100 to 200 25 to 60 15 to 30 20 to 30 15 to 30 40 to 80 20 to 50 Capital Required. £ £ 50 to 150 200 to 500 300 to 600 500 to 2,000 100 to 500 100 to 300 200 to 400 150 to 350 20 to 25 100 to 200 30 to 60 100 to 200 25 to 50 to 1,000,000 • 400 to 1,000 300 to 600 1,000 to 4,000 150 to 350 500 to 800 250 to 500 10 to 100 500 to 1,000 100 to 200 50 to 250 to 500 to 100 to 150 to 300 to 100 to 100 to 100 500 1,000 150 500 1,000 300 250 100 to 150 300 to 600 250 to 500 49-1 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALLINGS. TRADE, PROFESSION, OR CALLING. Pages where Mentioned Lamp-lighter ------ Maker ------ (Brass) maker, for Carnages, &c., called Brass Finisher - - - - - Land Surveyor ------ Landscape Painter (See Designer, Painter, &c.) Lapidary - - - - - 301, Last, Heel and Patten-wood maker Lath-render, or maker. Leather Cutter (and see Currier) Dresser, or Seller for breeches, fyc. Letter-copying Machine (See Writing-case and Pocket-book maker). Letter-founder (See Type-founder). Lighter Builder - - - - - Linen Draper (See Haberdasher) Looking Glass Maker (See Carver and Gilder) Loom Maker ------ Machinist - - - - - Malster ------- Mariner ------- Mason (See Bricklayer) - Mathematical Instrument Maker (See Optician) Mercer (See Haberdasher and Linen Draper) Merchant ------ Miller Mill Maker ------ 437 304 173 310 314 315 319 323 326 329 MillWright - - - Moss Maker Music Seller - - , - Needle Maker - Net Maker - Notary - - - - Nursery Man - Oil Man - Optician - Packer - - - - Portrait Painter Paper Hanging Printer Paper Maker - - - Parchment Maker Pastry Cook (See Confectioner). Patten Maker - Pawnbroker Pattern Drawer Pen Maker - Pencil Ma^er - - - Perfumer - - - Peruke Maker (See Barber). Pewterer * Physician - - - Pin Maker - Pipe Maker - * Plasterer and House Finisher Plaster of Paris Figure Maker Plane Maker - Plumber - Potter - - - - Poulterer - Printer (Letter Press) Printers' Smith (See Smith). 336 344 348 350 362 364 370 371 372 373 374 375 377 380 - 381 382 383 385 386 Apprentice Fee. £ £ 20 to 30 25 to 50 50 to 100 20 to 40 5 to 10 25 to 50 40 to 60 10 to 20 20 to 60 15 to 25 10 to 20 15 to 30 10 to 20 100 to 150 10 to 25 10 to 20 10 to 30 20 to 30 50 to 100 20 to 40 20 to 30 20 to 30 10 to 30 10 to 20 20 to 50 10 to 20 30 to 60 10 to 30 20 to 80 20 to 70 Capital Required. £ £ 100 to 300 100 to 250 200 to 250 to 50 to 50 to 500 to 250 to 400 300 100 100 750 500 100 to 500 500 to 1,000 50 to 150 100 to 200 100 to 3,000 100 to 500 500 to 5,000 100 to 500 50 to 200 100 to 400 10 to 60 1,000 to 2,000 100 to 1,000 50 to 150 500 to 2,000 200 to 500 £00 to 2,000 400 to 600 100 to 300 2,000 to 6,000 5 to 100 20 to 100 500 to 2,500 20 to 150 50 to 1,000 100 to 500 150 to 2,000 150 to 20 to 100 to 50 to 50 to 150 to 1,000 to 10,000 50 to 200 200 to 5,000 500 70 1,000 300 200 2,000 A TABLE OF TRADES, PROFESSIONS, AND CALL INGS. 435 TRADE, PROFESSION, OR Pages where Apprentice Capital CALLING. Mentioned. Fee. Required. £ £ £ £ 10 to 100 50 to 1,000 5 to 30 50 to 300 10,000 to 30,000 20 to 50 50 to 200 20 to 60 100 to 2,000 25 to 50 300 to 3,000 Sailor (See Mariner). 10 to 30 500 to 1,500 100 to 3,000 100 to 300 10 to 30 10 to 40 100 to 800 5 to 30 50 to 500 Scourer. 10 to 50 100 to 1,000 10 to 30 500 to 10,000 - 402 10 to 20 100 to 2,000 20 to 60 100 to 500 Silkman (See Haberdasher and Mercer). 400 to 3,000 10 to 50 100 to 2,000 Smith (See Cutler, Engineer, Gun-maker, and - 406 20 to 30 250 to 500 10 to 20 20 to 100 Soap Boiler (See Oilman) - 408 50 to 200 1,000 to 5,000 Spinner ----- - 411 1,000 to 5,000 Spectacle Maker (See Optician). 500 to 1,000 20 to 150 200 to 700 300 to 500 Stay Maker (See Corset- maker). Stocking Weaver - - - 418 Stone Mason (See Mason). Straw Hat Maker - - 419 10 to 30 50 to 500 50 to 100 1,000 to 5,000 Surgeon (See Physician ) - 420 Surgical Instrument Maker - 427 - 427 20 to 30 50 to 500 Tallow Chandler and Melter - 435 Tanner (See Currier) * - 438 20 to 100 200 to 1,000 Tassel Maker. Teaman ----- - 441 100 to 500 20 to 30 100 to 500 30 to 100 100 to 5,000 - 4 47 . 450 5 to 20 200 to 500 - 452 25 to 40 150 to 200 of Ivory and Silver. Type Founder • - - 454 500 to 10,000 Upholder cr Upholsterer - 458 60 to 150 200 to 1,000 20 to 50 100 to '500 Veterinary Surgeon - - 460 Watch Maker (See Clock Maker) - 465 50 to 100 500 to 3,0 )0 - 470 Weaver (See Clothier) - 472 * 30 to 50 Wheelwright - - 476 150 to 500 Wire Drawer - - 432 Woolcomber - - 483 200 to 400 LONDON : B.VLNE BROTHERS, PRINTERS, GRACECHURCH STREET. GETTY CENTER LIBRARY iililllL 3 3125 00139 4135