MM 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PRACTICE AM ART Of 
 
 BY 
 
 DR. HERMANN VOGEL, 
 
 TEACHER OF PHOTOGRAPHY AT THE ROYAL TECHNICAL ACADEMY AT BERLIN; 
 PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY AT BERLIN ; EDITOR 
 OF THE “ PIIOTOGRAPHISCHEN MITTHEILUNGEN MEMBER OF 
 THE INTERNATIONAL JURY OF THE PARIS EXHIBITION OF 1867 ; HONORARY MEMBER 
 OF THE NATIONAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED BY THE AUTHOR, AND ESPECIALLY 
 ADAPTED FOR THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 
 
 BY EDWARD MOELLING. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 BENERMAN & WILSON, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 1871 . 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, 
 
 By BENERMAN & WILSON, 
 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
 
 CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE GERMAN EDITION. 
 
 Three years have elapsed since the first part of the work which 
 has now reached its conclusion appeared before the public. 
 
 Many things combined to retard its completion. Particularly 
 the void which I found in our knowledge of Photo-Chemistry, 
 Photographic Optics, Practice, and ^Esthetics. These very cir- 
 cumstances cause in me the desire to attempt, so far as is in my 
 power, to remedy this defect. 
 
 I laid aside my pen, after a few sheets had been written, in 
 order to carry on, for several months, experiments in chemistiy 
 and optics, and investigations of a technical and aesthetic character. 
 I had to create first the material for many chapters of this book 
 before I could write them. I need only refer to my works on 
 Sensitizers , on the Photo- Chemistry of Chlorine , Bromine , and 
 Iodide of Silver , on their Changes in the Bath , on Silver Tritu- 
 ration, on Collodion , on Microphotography , on Testing Object 
 Glasses , on the Carbon Printing Process , on Photometry , on the 
 Principles of Illumination, on the Construction of the Atelier, and 
 on Perspective in Portrait Photography, not to mention many 
 smaller publications ; and this must be my excuse for requiring so 
 much time in laying my book before the public. 
 
 On the other hand, I was frequently interrupted in ny labors. 
 The International Exhibition of 1861 called me to Paris; the ex- 
 pedition to observe the solar eclipse of 1868 called me to Aden, in 
 Arabia ; the Photographic Archaeological Expedition of the same 
 year required my presence in Upper Egypt. The manuscript of 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION. 
 
 ray book was my companion. Some chapters were written in 
 Paris, others on the Red Sea; some on the Nile, and before the 
 last sheet leaves the press, I follow the kind invitation of the 
 American photographers and cross the Atlantic. The correction 
 of the proof I had to leave to others. Many errors in printing and 
 in the arrangement remained necessarily under these circumstances 
 uncorrected. I crave for them the leniency of the public. 
 
 Want of space prevented the discussion of the Photolithographic 
 and Woodbury Processes, as well as Positive and Negative Re- 
 touch. For the study of the latter, I recommend the excellent little 
 work on Retouching, by Grasshoff. 
 
 For the third part, The Photographic ^Esthetics, I implore the 
 mild judgment of the professional artist. It is not my purpose to 
 enter into discussions whether photography is an art or not. I 
 start from the fact established by experience, that a sharp and 
 faultless portrait or landscape picture does not satisfy us, when the 
 laws of art, the observance of which is the cause of our pleasure 
 in the works of the drawing artist, have been neglected. 
 
 So far as these laws are applicable to photography, I have en- 
 deavored to illustrate them by examples. In this branch the pro- 
 duction of proper illustrations offers great difficulties. Only a few 
 could be taken from the articles of Robinson, published in the 
 “ Mittheilungen.” For the majority I am indebted to the art 
 establishment of A. Seemann, in Leipzig. 
 
 Dr. H. YOGEL. 
 
 Berlin, April 15, 1870. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 
 
 I have endeavored to lay down in this book not only the 
 formulae, a description of the different apparatus and manipula- 
 tions which are necessary for the mechanical production of a pho- 
 tographic picture, but I have tried also to elucidate those art 
 principles which we must follow when we wish to make an artistic- 
 ally beautiful picture. 
 
 Unless we treat the pose and illumination in an artistic manner, 
 the best of chemicals and the most exquisite lenses will fail to pro- 
 duce a beautiful picture. To speak of these principles is for a 
 Photographic Handbook a necessity, particularly as at present 
 portraiture is the most important branch of photography, and is 
 likely to remain so. 
 
 The description of positive and negative retouching I omit, as 
 they have been treated in so excellent a manner by Mr. Ayres.* 
 
 In the American edition I have tried to adapt the Handbook to 
 the wants of the American photographic public, and prize it indeed 
 as a great favor that, thanks to the honorable invitation which I 
 received to visit this country, I was enabled to inspect personally 
 the American photographic establishments, and to appreciate 
 them. 
 
 I shall feel happy if my work should receive as many friends 
 as I had the good fortune to meet during my brief stay in the 
 United States. 
 
 Dr. H. VOGEL. 
 
 Philadelphia, August 12, 1870. 
 
 * How to Paint Photographs. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A careful study of the history of invention will show but few 
 periods as rich in new ideas and facts as the past hundred years. 
 
 With the rise of the explaining natural sciences — chemistry and 
 natural philosophy — commenced a new era by applying the dis- 
 coveries to actual life and industrial pursuits. Thus originated 
 the steam engine , gas , sulphuric acid , the manufacture of soda , 
 beet-root sugar , the manufacture of ultramarine , not to mention 
 numerous other things in which the physical or chemical action 
 of heat was used in a new form. 
 
 In an analogous manner we see another of the natural forces, 
 formerly unused, enter as an active agent into our industry, — elec- 
 tricity. Weber created the electro-magnetic telegraph; Jacoby the 
 galvanoplastic process. 
 
 Finally, the present age brought forth an art in which the chemi- 
 cal action of light is the principal agent. This art is Photography. 
 It has existed only twenty-five years, and still we ma} r say that no 
 invention of this century has since its first appearance experienced 
 such a gigantic development and exercised so powerful an influ- 
 ence on our social, artistic, and scientific relations as this one. At 
 first a mere method of taking portraits, its application has now 
 extended to almost all the branches of human knowledge and 
 science. It supplies a natural self-print in the widest sense of the 
 word, — it furnishes the naturalist with faithful representations of 
 animals, plants, and minerals ; the geographer obtains from it the 
 basis from which to develop his maps ; it makes for the engineer in 
 a few moments faithful copies of the most complicated machinery, 
 and reproductions of his drawings and plans, which would occupy 
 
Vlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the time of the most skilful draughtsman for weeks ; it supplies 
 him with an authentic foundation for the construction of plans and 
 maps ; it is employed successfully in lithography, and porcelain 
 painting ; it serves the artist for multiplying his productions, and 
 places copies of inimitable truthfulness at a moderate price within 
 the reach of all; it is as important an auxiliary for developing a 
 taste for art in the people as the invention of printing is for the 
 dissemination of knowledge. 
 
 Let us briefly consider how this art developed itself. There are 
 many inventions which originated by accident, by the favor of the 
 moment ; as instances, we may mention gunpowder, the deflection 
 of the magnetic needle by the galvanic current, and the telescope ; 
 but others required years of thoughtful study and experiment be- 
 fore they could take their place amongst the inventions. Photog- 
 raphy belongs to the latter class. 
 
 It was long known that chloride of silver would turn dark on being 
 exposed to light. It was also known that paper, the skin, &c., 
 when wetted with a solution of silver, would be discolored by the 
 light of the sun. But only in the beginning of this century the 
 idea was conceived to use these facts for the production of pictures 
 by the agency of light. 
 
 Two Englishmen, Davy and Wedge wood, made the first experi- 
 ments of the kind in the year 1802. They placed a piece of paper 
 in a solution of silver, brought it into contact with an opaque ob- 
 ject — for instance, a silhouette — and exposed it to sunlight. All 
 that part of the paper not covered by the silhouette turned brown 
 by the action of light ; the balance of the paper remained white ; 
 thus a white picture on a brown ground was produced. This was 
 the first light picture. 
 
 Unfortunately these pictures were not permanent. The part 
 which remained white soon darkened by the action of diffused 
 light, and finally the picture disappeared by the influence of the 
 same agency to which it owed its origin. 
 
 Davy photographed in this manner the image of the solar 
 microscope. 
 
 Almost simultaneously with Davy and Wedgewood, a French- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IX 
 
 man, by the name of Niepce, entertained the idea of making pic- 
 tures by the agency of light. • 
 
 From the year 1814 he worked incessantly; he experimented for 
 years, but approached only step by step to the desired end, — the 
 production of permanent pictures by the agency of light. 
 
 While by the method of Wedgewood and Davy only flat objects, 
 which could be placed in close contact with the sensitive paper, 
 such as leaves, drawings, &c., permitted of being copied by the 
 process, M. Niepce aimed to obtain representations of all kinds of 
 objects in nature, — portraits, landscapes, &c. By the aid of the 
 camera obscura, which the physicist Porta invented in the six- 
 teenth century, he succeeded in this. 
 
 Wedgewood had already the idea to fix the charming pictures 
 of this instrument on his paper, but it was not sensitive enough. 
 Niepce resorted to another preparation sensitive to light, — namely, 
 a solution of asphaltum in oil of lavender. With such a solution 
 he coated a metal plate and exposed it for hours in the camera. 
 The places which had been exposed to light became insoluble, and 
 in the after-treatment with ethereal oils remained on the plate and 
 formed a picture. 
 
 By this process Niepce produced imperfect light pictures as far 
 back as 1826 — the so-called heliographs — but the production was 
 too difficult and complicated to give it great practical value. 
 
 In the year 1829 Niepce joined Daguerre, who was working in 
 the same direction. The two labored together until the year 1833, 
 when Niepce, full of grief over his twenty years of unsuccessful 
 toil, died. Daguerre became the sole heir of his ideas, and a few 
 years after Niepce’s death the great problem, to produce by the 
 agency of light a permanent picture in an easy and practical man- 
 ner, was solved. In the year 1838 he placed the first proofs of his 
 process before the three members of the French Academy, — Hum- 
 boldt, Biot, and Arago. 
 
 The excitement was immense ; everybody was anxious to learn 
 how these pictures were made. Arago induced Daguerre to pub- 
 lish his invention, and the Government granted him a pension of 
 six thousand francs. At the same time a pension of four thousand 
 
X 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 francs was granted to the son of M. Niepce. On the 19th of 
 August, 1839, tfie secret of the production of these pictures -was 
 given to the world in the public session of the Academy. The con- 
 course was enormous. All the votaries of science and art of Paris 
 were assembled in the Palais Mazarin. Thousands, who could not 
 gain admission, besieged the doors. The busy newspapers soon 
 spread the news of this discovery throughout the world, and in a 
 few years disciples of the new art could be found in all the princi- 
 pal cities of Europe and America. 
 
 Daguerre accomplished his purpose in a way very different from 
 Niepce and Wedgewood. 
 
 He employed as the sensitive substance the iodide of silver, 
 which he produced by exposing a plate of silver to the vapors of 
 iodine. The light impression which such a plate receives in the 
 camera is at first invisible, but as soon as the plate is exposed to 
 the vapors of mercury the picture appears with all its details. 
 
 This is a cardinal point in Daguerre’s invention. While all the 
 preceding experimenters tried to obtain a visible picture through 
 the action of light only, he impressed the plate with a latent image, 
 which only became visible by a secondary operation, — the develop- 
 ment. In this manner light was only required for a short time to 
 obtain a picture, and now it became possible to apply photography 
 to living or moving objects. 
 
 While the new art — called Daguerreotypy, in honor of its in- 
 ventor — held its triumphal march through Europe, there lived in 
 England a rich private gentleman, by the name of Fox Talbot, 
 who pursued the same object as Daguerre, but in a totally different 
 manner. About the time when Daguerre presented his first pic- 
 ture to the members of the Academy, Talbot made a communica- 
 tion to the London Royal Society about a method to reproduce 
 pictures by the aid of light. Following the experiments of Wedge- 
 wood, he took paper impregnated with common salt, and allowed 
 it to float on a solution of silver. This paper, containing chloifide 
 of silver and the nitrate of the oxide of silver, was placed in con- 
 tact with a copper-plate engraving and exposed to sunlight; it 
 proved much more sensitive than that employed by Wedgewood. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XI 
 
 The light penetrated the white places of the engraving and dark- 
 ened the corresponding parts of the underlying sheet. A white 
 picture on a dark ground was the result, — a negative. 
 
 The operation was then repeated ; the negative took the place of 
 the engraving, a piece of prepared paper was placed under it,* and by 
 exposing them to the sunlight a fac simile of the original print was 
 produced. This operation can be repeated at pleasure, and thus a 
 number of positive copies can be obtained from a single negative. 
 
 By this invention of Talbot photography entered the ranks of 
 the reproducing arts. 
 
 After the discovery of Daguerre had become known, Talbot also 
 tried to take pictures on paper by means of the camera. He floated 
 the paper on a solution of iodide of potassa, and again on one of 
 nitrate of silver ; when it had become impregnated with iodide and 
 nitrate of silver, it was exposed in the camera. In this manner a 
 latent picture was obtained in a short time, which could be made 
 visible by employing a development ; for this purpose Talbot took 
 a mixture of gallic acid and a salt of silver. The gallic acid re- 
 duces the salt of silver, and metallic silver finely divided forms a 
 black precipitate, covering all the parts which have been exposed 
 to light. A negative was thus obtained from which positives could 
 be made in the manner described above. This process was pub- 
 lished in 1841. 
 
 Talbot’s pictures, however, compared with those of Daguerre, 
 were so primitive and imperfect, that his process was merely con- 
 sidered as a curiosity, and attracted little attention. The rough 
 texture of the paper was fatal to the delicacy which could be pro- 
 duced on the polished and mirror-like plates of Daguerre. 
 
 Soon, however, this was changed. 
 
 Niepce de St. Victor, a nephew of Nicephore Niepce, the friend 
 of Daguerre, following the example of Herschel, substituted for the 
 paper, glass plates, and made them the bearers of the sensitive film 
 of iodide of silver. He coated these with albumen containing 
 iodide of potassium, immersed them in a silver bath, and thus ob- 
 tained a very sensitive and homogeneous film on which he could 
 
Xll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 take pictures much more delicate than those on paper ; but still 
 this process offered great difficulties. 
 
 In the meantime gun-cotton was discovered by Schoenbein and 
 Boettcher. It not only proved itself a substitute for gunpowder, 
 but was also employed in the healing art. It was found that this 
 substance was soluble in a mixture of alcohol and ether, and that 
 the solution, called collodion, left a transparent film after evapora- 
 tion, which rendered important services as a sticking-plaster. 
 
 Legray, in 1850, was the first who tried to use this solution of 
 gun-cotton, as bearer of the sensitive salts of silver, in place of 
 albumen, after the manner of Niepce, but did not succeed. Archer 
 and Fry, in England, were more fortunate. Their experiments 
 were rewarded with complete success, and in 1851 Archer pub- 
 lished a complete description of his new collodion process , which 
 as to the beauty of its results was in no way inferior to the albu- 
 men process of Niepce, but far surpassed it in simplicity and cer- 
 tainty. Archer covered plane glasses' with collodion containing 
 salts of iodine in solution, immersed them in a silver bath, and 
 thus obtained on the glass a delicate film saturated with sensitive 
 iodide of silver. This plate, when used in the same manner as 
 Talbot’s paper, gave a negative of extreme sharpness and delicacy, 
 and excellent positive pictures on paper could be produced in any 
 quantity desired by the method described above. The discovery 
 of Daguerre was now completely superseded. The collodion pro- 
 cess spread rapidly, and in course of time was more and more im- 
 proved, and is at present the one exclusively used. 
 
 Its rapid introduction is due partly to its delicacy, its easy exe- 
 cution, and partly to the advantage that the collodion pictures can 
 be multiplied in a much simpler manner than the plates of 
 Daguerre. 
 
 These circumstances alone, however, would not have been suf- 
 ficient to give it the precedence over the process of Daguerre, as 
 the collodion plates produce at first only a negative picture. It 
 became necessary, therefore, to find a simple and easy way of 
 printing positives with all the details contained in the negative, 
 and this was finally reached through a special preparation of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Xlll. 
 
 Talbot paper. The latter was covered with albumen, which Niepce 
 had already successfully employed in the preparation of negative 
 plates, and thus the albumen paper was made a medium for the 
 production of excellent positives. Collodion for the negative and 
 albumen paper for the positive process form now the most im- 
 portant bases of our photographic pictures. 
 
 Besides these successive improvements other circumstances con- 
 tributed materially to the rising importance of photography. 
 
 The optical apparatus which served to produce the pictures in 
 the camera were improved. Petzval invented the double objective 
 in 1841 , which combines extreme intensity of light with correct 
 drawing. 
 
 It permitted the taking of objects with vei’y short exposure, and 
 now portraiture w T as brought to its high state of perfection. 
 
 Simultaneously with this, photographic chemicals were produced 
 of great purity and cheapness. The qualities of those already in 
 use became better known, and the imperfect ones were replaced by 
 more efficient ones. 
 
 Fizeaut, Claudet, and Gaudin discovered the greater sensitive- 
 ness of the mixtures of iodide and bromide of silver. Goddard 
 also introduced mixtures of iodide and bromide of silver into the 
 collodion process. 
 
 Herschel suggested the use of hyposulphite of soda, which re- 
 moves the sensitive salts of silver from the photographs, and thus 
 fixes the picture in a permanent manner. 
 
 Fizeaut introduced the gold toning bath, which removes the un- 
 pleasant color and makes them more permanent. 
 
 It is owing to these and other numerous discoveries that photo- 
 graphic operations have become so easy and practical, that any 
 moderately skilful person can become an expert in a short time. 
 The consequence has been that an immense number of people de- 
 voted themselves to the new art in the expectation of making 
 money rapidly and without trouble. 
 
 The introduction of the carte de visite style made photography 
 popular, and the public rushed to the galleries, which sprang up 
 everywhere like mushrooms. In the same manner did the manu- 
 
XIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 facture of photographic apparatus and chemicals gain in im- 
 portance. 
 
 Optical establishments were started for the exclusive production 
 of photographic lenses. Cabinetmakers devoted their whole at- 
 tention to the making of photographic cameras, picture frames, 
 and pi’esses ; and other accessories required special factories to 
 supply the growing want. At present millions enjoy directly and 
 indirectly the fruits of the beneficial invention of Daguerre and 
 Talbot. 
 
 Many of their followers are now simultaneously investigating 
 the hitherto unexplained physical and chemical processes of this 
 art, to find new branches for its use, and to do away with the im- 
 perfections which still exist. Every day new suggestions are made, 
 and a large number of photographic journals are published to 
 register the new discoveries and to announce them to the world. 
 It is not at all impossible that a new and more perfect process may 
 supersede that of Talbot in the same manner as he supplanted 
 Daguerre. Quite a number of interesting experiments have already 
 been made by Niepce de St. Victor, Becquerel, and Poitevin, to 
 produce photographs in their natural colors, the fixing of which, 
 however, has not yet been accomplished. More important and suc- 
 cessful are the experiments to replace the expensive salts of silver 
 required by the present process by cheaper materials. 
 
 Herschel employed first the salts of iron, Niepce de St. Victor 
 and Burnett the salts of uran, and Mungo Ponton the chromates, 
 as sensitive substances. The trials hitherto made have already 
 produced remarkable results. 
 
 Poitevin’s Carbon Printing Process particularly deserves in our 
 opinion the greatest consideration of all the recent methods of 
 printing. It is based on the sensitiveness of chromate of potash. 
 
 The aim is now to increase the productiveness of photography 
 to an unlimited extent by combining it with lithography and metal 
 plate printing. Fizeaut was the first who tried to prepare a da- 
 guerreotype plate with acid, and thus make it suitable for copper- 
 plate printing. As early as 1844 he furnished such heliographs. 
 Fox Talbot succeeded in transferring the photographic picture on 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XV 
 
 steel, and made a photographic steel-plate engraving. Poitevin 
 tried to produce photolithographs, a process which has recently 
 been highly improved by Osborne, Toovey, James, Asser, Lemer- 
 cier, Burchardt, and others. The problem to reproduce line 
 drawings has been solved and is already generally employed. The 
 rendering of the half tones, however, still offers difficulties, for the 
 removal of which numerous investigators are zealously at work. 
 
 While this work is leaving the press, we are informed of a new 
 and important discovery in this respect — the Woodbury Photo- 
 Relief Printing Process — which seems to pave the way for a great 
 revolution in our photo-mechanical printing processes. At the 
 same time we receive samples of new photographic optical instru- 
 ments, invented by Busch, Steinheil, Ross, Dallmeyer, and Zent- 
 mayer, which increase the usefulness of photography in a wonderful 
 manner. 
 
 An appendix to the Handbook will report the particulars of these 
 new discoveries. In these pages I only intended to give a com- 
 prehensive picture of the gradual development of photography. 
 
 H. YOGEL. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction, vii 
 
 PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Arrangement of the Gallery, 17 
 
 The Glass-house, 24 
 
 Criticism of the Tunnel Atelier, 25 
 
 Size of the Atelier, 34 
 
 Of the Glass — Ventilation, ......... 36 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE MANIPULATIONS THE NEGATIVE PROCESS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Preparatory Manipulations 37 
 
 Rules of Precaution, .......... 37 
 
 A. Preparations in the Glass-house, 38 
 
 The Camera, .......... 43 
 
 Use and Construction of the Camera Tube, .... 49 
 
 Description of Photographic Lenses, ...... 51 
 
 1. Spherical Aberration, ........ 55 
 
 2. Chromatic Aberration and Dispersion of Color, ... 55 
 
 Curve of the Surface of the Picture, 56 
 
 Distortion, ........... 57 
 
 Field of View and Amount of Light of a Lens, .... 59 
 
 Description of Photographic Objectives, 62 
 
 1. The Simple Achromatic Objective, or the so-called Landscape 
 
 Lens, 63 
 
 2. The Portrait Objective, 65 
 
 3. The Orthoscopic Lens, ......... 70 
 
 4. The Triplet Lens, 70 
 
 5. Steinheil’s Aplanatic Lens, ........ 72 
 
 6. The Globe Lens, the Pantoscope, and the Zentmayer Lens, . 73 
 
 On Testing Objectives, .......... 76 
 
 The Stereoscope, ........... 79 
 
 The Panoramic Apparatus, 81 
 
 Preliminary Work in the Laboratory, ..... 84 
 
 1. Preparation of the Collodion, 84 
 
 Pyroxyline and Plain Collodion, 85 
 
 Iodizing Salts, 87 
 
 B 
 
xviii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Action of the Iodizing Salts, 
 
 Permanence, .... 
 
 Solubility, .... 
 
 Photographic Qualities, 
 
 Preparation of Salted Collodion, 
 a. Ordinary Collodion, . 
 b Equivalent Collodion, 
 
 2 The Nitrate of Silver Bath, 
 
 3. The Developer, .... 
 
 4. The Intensifier, .... 
 
 5. The Fixing Solution, . 
 
 6. The Varnish, .... 
 
 7. Glass Plates, .... 
 
 SECTION II 
 
 Photographic Operations, 103 
 
 1. The Cleaning, .......... 104 
 
 2. The Dusting, 106 
 
 3. The Collodionizing, ......... 106 
 
 4. The Sensitizing, .......... 108 
 
 a. The Sensitizing in the Bath, ...... 108 
 
 b. The Sensitizing in Dishes, 110 
 
 5. The Exposure, 112 
 
 6. The Development, 113 
 
 7. The Intensification, ......... 115 
 
 8. The Fixing, 116 
 
 8a. The Intensifying after Fixing, 117 
 
 9. The Varnishing, 117 
 
 Succession op the Different Operations in the Negative and 
 
 Positive Processes, . • 119 
 
 91 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 100 
 100 
 101 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Care of the Photographic Apparatus and Chemicals, . . . 121 
 
 “ Photographic Lenses, 121 
 
 “ Cameras, 122 
 
 “ Glass Plates, 123 
 
 “ Collodion, 124 
 
 “ Silver Bath, 126 
 
 “ Developer, ......... 130 
 
 “ Intensifier, ......... 130 
 
 “ Fixing Bath, 130 
 
 “ Varnish, 131 
 
 “ Finished Negative, 131 
 
 The Positive or Printing Process, 132 
 
 A. The Silver Printing Process, 133 
 
 Preparations, . . . . . . . . . . .134 
 
 The Positive Silver Bath, . . 134 
 
 The Toning Bath, 136 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Normal Gold Solution, and the Consumption of Gold, . . . 139 
 
 1. Alkaline Gold Toning Baths 139 
 
 a. Borax and Phosphate of Soda Bath, .... 139 
 
 b. Chloride of Lime Bath, ....... 140 
 
 2. Neutral Gold Baths, 140 
 
 a. With Chalk (after Davanne), 140 
 
 b. With Carbonate of Soda, 140 
 
 3. Acid Toning Bath, ........ 141 
 
 Acetate of Soda Bath, ........ 141 
 
 4. Bhodan Gold Bath, 141 
 
 The Fixing Bath, 142 
 
 The Paper, ........... 142 
 
 The Practice of the Silver Printing Process, 143 
 
 Sensitizing the Paper, ........ 143 
 
 The Printing, 145 
 
 The Printing of Vignettes, ....... 146 
 
 The Printing of Imperfect Negatives, ..... 146 
 
 The Washing, 147 
 
 The Toning, 147 
 
 The Fixing, 148 
 
 The Washing after Fixing, 149 
 
 The Finishing, 151 
 
 Care of the Utensils and Chemicals in the Positive Process, . . 153 
 
 Care of the Negative, ........ 153 
 
 “ Paper, 156 
 
 “ Positive Silver Bath, 157 
 
 “ Sensitized Paper, 162 
 
 “ Toning Bath, ........ 163 
 
 “ Fixing Bath, ........ 163 
 
 B. The Carbon Printing Process, ....... 163 
 
 The Use of Dr. Vogel’s Photometer, 169 
 
 Johnson’s Improved Pigment Printing Process, .... 175 
 
 Different Photographic Processes, 178 
 
 Permanent Sensitive Negative Plates and Positive Papers, . . 178 
 
 a. Permanent Negative Plates (Dry Plates), .... 180 
 
 1. The Process with Gallic Acid and Gum, . . . 181 
 
 2. The Resin Dry Plate Process 184 
 
 b. Permanent Positive Papers, ....... 186 
 
 Collodio-chloride of Silver, 187 
 
 Collodion Paper, 188 
 
 Transfer Paper and Transfer Pictures, .... 189 
 
 Positive Pictures Printed Directly on Glass, Porcelain Pictures, 
 
 and the Reproduction of Negatives, 192 
 
 Printing by Development, ........ 195 
 
 Enlargements , ............ 196 
 
 1. The Indirect Copying Process, 196 
 
 2. The Direct Copying Process, ...... 199 
 
 Enlargement by Development, 201 
 
 Microphotography , ........... 203 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stereoscopic Pictures , .......... 206 
 
 Instantaneous Pictures , . . . . . . . . . .211 
 
 Tent Work and Photographic Excursions, . . . . . .213 
 
 Applied Photography, 218 
 
 I. Photographic Reproductions, 219 
 
 II. Photographing of Models, Ornaments, Statues, Works of Art, 
 
 Machinery, &c., 227 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY, OR PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 AESTHETICS. 
 
 Photography and Truth, 232 
 
 On Light and Illumination, ......... 239 
 
 Of the Perspective, 251 
 
 Arrangement, ............ 265 
 
 Lines and Outlines, ........... 275 
 
 Dresses and Draperies, .......... 280 
 
 The Arrangement of Human Figures, 286 
 
 Characteristics, ........... 291 
 
 The Treatment of the Public, 298 
 
 I illing up the Picture, Accessories, and Backgrounds, .... 302 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. WAodbury Photo-Relief Printing Process, ..... 315 
 
 II. Albert’s Process (Lichtdruck), 315 
 
 III. Photographic Optics, 316 
 
 On the Absorption of Light in Wet or Dry Plates, . . . 316 
 
 IY. Practice of Photography, ........ 316 
 
 Reproduction of Drawings Without the Camera, .... 316 
 
 The Reduction of Silver Residues, ........ 318 
 
 On Technical Errors, 319 
 
 Errors in the Negative Process, ....... 320 
 
 Original Errors, 320 
 
 Faults in Cleaning and Polishing, 320 
 
 Faults in the Collodion, 321 
 
 Faults in the Nitrate Bath, 322 
 
 Errors in Exposure, .......... 323 
 
 Errors in Development, ......... 323 
 
 Errors in Intensifying, 323 
 
 Errors in Fixing, .......... 324 
 
 Faults that Appear in Drying, 324 
 
 Faults in Varnishing, 324 
 
 Errors in the Positive Process, 324 
 
 Errors in Printing, .......... 324 
 
 Errors in Washing, 325 
 
 Errors in Toning, 325 
 
 Errors in Fixing, 325 
 
 Errors in Washing After Fixing, 326 
 
 Errors in Finishing, 326 
 
 . 327 
 
 Index, 
 
THE 
 
 PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 The photographer, like every other artist or mechanic, requires 
 for his labors a place where he is protected against the influences 
 of the weather. 
 
 These labors are of various kinds, — partly mechanical, as the 
 cutting and cleaning of plates ; partly chemical, as the prepara- 
 tion of collodion, silvering of paper, developing, intensifying, 
 fixing, and washing ; partty physical and optical, as the focussing 
 and exposing; and, finally, partly artistic, as the posing of the 
 sitter, the arrangement of the drapery, the illumination, and the 
 negative and positive retouching. It is evident that these opera- 
 tions cannot all be carried on in the same room, particularly as 
 some of them demand diametrically opposite conditions for their 
 success. The taking of the model requires much light, while the 
 preparation of the plates must be carried on in almost total dark- 
 ness. 
 
 Every photographer needs therefore a suite of rooms, which 
 however frequently appear reduced to two, — the studio and the 
 dark-room. 
 
 In assigning proper localities to the different work to be per- 
 formed, particular attention should be paid to separating those 
 branches which are in their nature antagonistic. 
 
 The silver bath should not be evaporated in a room where prints 
 are being mounted. The plate while being fixed must not be ex- 
 posed to the danger of being sprinkled with the developer, not to 
 mention a hundred other precautions. 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The necessity for a division of labor and space increases with 
 the magnitude of the establishment, in order that each particular 
 kind of work may be carried on independently. 
 
 A drawback to the proper arrangement of photographic ateliers 
 is generally met with in the fact that they are located in the upper 
 stories of houses, which were originally designed for other pur- 
 poses. The consequence is that they must accommodate them- 
 selves to the already existing proportions, and this can only be 
 done by sacrificing many advantages. 
 
 We find therefore the greatest diversity in the arrangement of 
 photographic galleries. Only one principle in the above stated 
 necessity of a division of labor seems to be persistently carried 
 out, namely, the separation of the negative and positive processes. 
 
 As examples of the arrangement of a gallery, we will give two 
 practical illustrations. The one is the photographic atelier of the 
 Royal Academy of Industry at Berlin, the other the atelier of 
 Rabending & Moncklioven at Vienna. Any one who desires to 
 arrange an establishment will find in these descriptions a guide, 
 although local conditions will often compel a modification of these 
 plans. 
 
 The photographic atelier at Berlin (Fig. 1) consists of a glass- 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 ffftfflffff x T - T ' 
 
 house, A, 32 feet long by 22 feet in width. The height of the front 
 glass wall or sash is 10 feet 6 inches ; the rear wall is 16 feet high. 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 19 
 
 The roof is only glazed for a distance of 16 feet. The atelier 
 itself does not face exactly north, but north-northwest, conforming 
 to the building on which it is erected. In the summer-time the 
 afternoon sun shines on the glass-house, an evil which can only be 
 partially remedied by awnings and curtains. 
 
 The curtains are arranged according to the system of Loescher 
 & Petsch, which appears the most rational and has already been 
 adopted by several Berlin photographers. It consists of side 
 curtains which can be moved in a vertical direction, and top-light 
 curtains which move parallel to the inclination of the roof. A 
 section of the side curtain is represented in Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 
 represents one of the top-light curtains with the cords for moving it. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The curtains are 2 feet wide and overlap each other like the 
 shingles of a roof, in order to exclude the light completely (see 
 Fig. 2.) The guides are thin wires, df, on which the iron rods, E, 
 which carry the curtains, slide. 
 
 It is easy to darken the whole atelier, to make openings of 2, 4 T 
 or 6 feet in width, and of any suitable length, and to modify the 
 direction of the entering rays in various ways. 
 
20 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The cords for the side curtains pass over the rollers r, r, r, r, 
 which are fastened near the roof to the board M, and at the floor 
 to L ; the cords can be tightened by the screws g, g. The wires 
 d , d, of the side curtains, hang down loosely, while those of the 
 roof admit of tightening by the screws q , q (see Fig. 3). The 
 cords of the top curtains pass through porcelain rings, Z, Z, which 
 are fastened to M and L. 
 
 The curtains are made of very opaque double blue material. 
 
 The above system was especially designed for portraiture, which 
 however is not the class of work done at the Academy ; still it does 
 excellent service in the taking of plastic objects. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Immediately adjoining the glass-house, and on the same floor 
 with it, is the copying-room, K (see Fig. 1), with a window facing 
 N. N. W., and a top-light one-half the size of that which covers the 
 atelier. A sliding door leads to the latter, which is opened when 
 it becomes necessary to remove the camera to a great distance from 
 the object which is to be taken ; by this arrangement the apparatus 
 can be removed 45 feet from the opposite wall of the glass-house. 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 21 
 
 The width of the copying-room is only 14 feet ; the length and 
 height are those ,of the atelier. The top-light is, for copying pur- 
 poses, a little too high. In order to bring the frames nearer to the 
 light a movable platform of wood has been constructed, which by 
 mechanical means can be elevated to a height of 8 feet, or lowered 
 at pleasure. 
 
 The copying-room is divided in two parts. The back part, i?, 
 serves as a dark-room, where the papers are placed in the frames, 
 and where the progress of printing is examined. The fresh copies 
 are also kept in this room. The front part serves for exposure. 
 A side door, t , leads to the roof, where, when necessary, the work 
 can be carried on in the open air. 
 
 Immediately adjoining the copying-room, but a little higher 
 situated than the latter, and connected with it by a staircase, are 
 the rooms for the further manipulation of the paper prints. 1st. 
 The wash-room, V. 2d- The finishing-room, B. The former con- 
 tains two troughs lined with asphaltum. They are 5 feet long by 
 2^ feet wide. They rest on the tubs, T. One of these troughs is 
 for washing the fresh copies ; the other for washing the fixed 
 prints. An opening carries the wash water with the silver con- 
 tained in solution into the tub, T. Another opening, which can 
 be closed, leads the waste water into the street. 
 
 The tub T receives the water containing soda, and T' those 
 which are free from this substance. 
 
 The tables, S, $, are for silvering paper ; the toning is done in 
 the light part of the copying-room. 
 
 The adjoining space, A, is used for mounting, retouching, and 
 rolling the pictures, and also serves as a store-room for paper, 
 chemicals, &c. 
 
 We now proceed to describe the apartments devoted to the 
 negative processes. Here we have, first, a small laboratoty with 
 top-light, A, in which the chemicals are mixed, the baths and other 
 substances tested. Evaporations, and all other chemical processes 
 are also carried on here. 
 
 In the room next to the furnace are two places for evaporation, 
 G , G ; the one for liquids containing silver in solution, the other 
 for the solutions containing chlorine (gold solutions, &c.). 
 
 The reduction of the silver residues of the different melting pro- 
 cesses is finally done in the lai’ge laboratory of the Institution. 
 
 D , D is the dark-room for the preparation of the plates. By a 
 curtain, M, it is divided in two parts, and a space, T , T, is par- 
 titioned off in the centre for the preparation of dry plates. 
 
22 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In D' the plates are cleaned, and all the work connected with 
 it is done here. 
 
 (7, 0 is the table with the silver bath, H the developing, and R' 
 the fixing trough. They are separated by a partition, and each 
 trough consists of two parts. From the left part the rinsing waters, 
 which are rich in silver, are carried in a tub underneath the table ; 
 the right hand part serves for the final washing, and the waste water 
 is carried off 1 into the gutter. The width of each of the four troughs, 
 which are lined with asphaltum, is 2^ feet. Gas and water-pipes 
 run of course through the whole establishment. 
 
 P are shelves for plates. 
 
 The dark-room communicates with the atelier by the entry, 0, 0. 
 
 Perhaps it would have been better if the laboratoiy, L , had been 
 taken for the dark-room, but the arrangement of the building would 
 not permit it, and the peculiar construction of the basis on which 
 the atelier was constructed caused unusual difficulties in the proper 
 distribution of the different localities.* 
 
 Fig, 4. 
 
 a, Rctouching-room for positives; 6, staircase; c, saloon; d, counting-house; e, negative- 
 room; /, room for negative retouching; g, waiting-room for the servants; h, mounting-room; 
 n, laboratory ; o, entry ; v, copying-room ; w, glazed gallery. 
 
 The gallery of Rabending & Monckhoven has the advantage of 
 being built for photographic purposes. 
 
 * It will be noticed in Fig. 1 that the various rooms are not on the same 
 level, and communicate by steps with one another. 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 23 
 
 It is a two-story building, in the second story of which the glass- 
 house is situated. It stands perfectly free, being surrounded on 
 all sides by a spacious yard. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 a, Toilet room ; 6, staircase ; c, store-room for paper ; d, plate-room ; e, dark-room ; /, entry ; 
 g, enlarging-room ; h, glass-room ; n, tunnel. 
 
 On entering the building, the elegant corridor, o, leads to the 
 waiting-room, c, next to which is a smaller waiting-room for ser- 
 vants, g. To the left is a room, ??, the laboratory, next to which the 
 staircase leads into the second story to the glass-house, h. Back 
 of the glass-house and facing south is a room, g , for enlargements ; 
 next to it is a dark space in which the apparatus is placed. In 
 the same room is a closet for the small unvarnished negatives in- 
 tended for enlargement. 
 
 The ordinary work of the positive process is carried on in an 
 adjoining building which is connected with the main edifice by the 
 glazed gallery, w. Probably an enlargement of the establishment 
 made this addition necessary. 
 
 The glazed gallery, which is open on one side, can be used for 
 copying in the open air in bad weather. Not far from the positive- 
 room is a smaller one, /*, for negative retouching. The retouching- 
 desk, p (Fig. 6), which is placed near the window, is made of a 
 large plate of ground glass as wide as the window. Below this 
 plate is a mirror, s, almost of the same size, and placed nearly 
 horizontal ; the mirror reflects the light of the skjr on to the ground- 
 glass on which the negatives are laid. The plate is covered with 
 suitable boards in such a manner that only that part of the nega- 
 
24 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tive which is to be retouched is illuminated. The mirror is sur- 
 rounded by a transparent casing. 
 
 The other apartments on the first floor, 
 the separate purposes of which can be 
 seen from the description, are all devoted 
 to the different branches of the positive 
 process. 
 
 The laboratory for the negative pro- 
 cess, e (Fig. 5), adjoins the atelier in the 
 second story. The light enters through 
 reddish yellow windows. Next to it is the 
 store room for negatives. 
 
 THE GLASS-HOUSE. 
 
 The glass-house is that part of the pho- 
 tographic establishment in which the picture is taken. 
 
 We have given our readers in the foregoing descriptions the ar- 
 rangement of the gallery in two different kinds of glass-houses, 
 which in their construction differ materially, and are, so to say, the 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 types of two different systems. The one is the atelier with north 
 front, of which the Berlin atelier is a specimen ; the other the so- 
 called tunnel atelier. In the former the apparatus is placed with 
 
TIIE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 25 
 
 the model in the same glazed space. The visional direction of the 
 apparatus generally coincides with the longest diameter of the 
 room. The principal glass wall runs exactly from east to west, and 
 serves as a support for a more or less steep and wider glass roof. 
 
 The model is generally seated at the side. 
 
 Fig. *1 represents the interior of such an atelier, after the Ameri- 
 can and Berlin model. 
 
 The tunnel atelier consists of two essentially different parts, — a 
 dark one in which the apparatus is placed, and a glazed one for 
 the model. Fig. 8 represents the exterior of Monckhoven’s tunnel 
 atelier. It is a peculiar structure, with a very wide glass front 
 facing north, about 26 feet in length, and an eastern glass side of 
 about 11 feet in width. Adjoining the glass roof is a covered 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 a 
 
 space for the background, and a low and rather dark space, the 
 tunnel, for placing the apparatus. 
 
 The person is placed in such a manner that the part which is to 
 be portraj^ed is turned towards the north — i. e., the face is turned 
 towards the broad glass roof. 
 
 The steepness of the roof facilitates the running down of rain 
 and snow, and the high back wall acts as a protection from the sun. 
 
 CRITICISM OF THE ATELIER TUNNEL. 
 
 Experience has proven that in all constructions of ateliers the 
 principle of excluding direct sunlight, and of working with the 
 diffused light of heaven, is found to be the best. 
 
26 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The reasons for this we shall explain in the second part of this 
 book. 
 
 To exclude direct sunlight the glass surfaces face the north as 
 much as possible, and to obtain the largest amount of diffused light 
 the glass-houses are erected on the tops of high buildings, or in 
 places where the horizon on the glass side is free from objects 
 which would obstruct the light. In cities this is not always pos- 
 sible, and frequently a considerable portion of the vault of heaven 
 is cut off from view. The light which is reflected from buildings is 
 not always useless, but its intensity is a different one. Sometimes 
 it is lighter (when reflected from a white wall) or darker, and this 
 circumstance becomes an annoyance when the light is to be dis- 
 tributed properly by an arrangement of curtains. 
 
 Not only the quality and quantity of light is essential in the use 
 of a glass-house, but also the direction in which it strikes the sitter 
 has to be taken into consideration. 
 
 In the second part we shall give three photographic portraits as 
 illustrations, taken with front-light, top-light, and side-light, and it 
 will be noticed that front-light is the most unfavorable, while side- 
 light is the most favorable. Leaving the explanation of this point 
 for the aesthetic portion of our work, we will only mention that 
 nobody should take a portrait exclusively with side-light, but that 
 in the best portraits from the most celebrated ateliers this light pre- 
 dominates. From this standpoint we cannot advocate a construc- 
 tion like Monckhoven’s in which the front-light predominates ; it 
 would appear more useful when, as shall be explained further on, 
 the side-light could be widened and the front-light made narrower. 
 
 For the better understanding of the distribution of light in an 
 atelier, we must explain the main principles of illumination in a 
 glazed space. 
 
 We take for instance a room which receives its light through a 
 window from the clear blue sky. Experience teaches us that the 
 light in such a room is very unequal in different places ; the further 
 an object is removed from the window the darker it will appear, 
 and vice versa; but, besides the distance from the window, the 
 position towards it becomes of importance. A point close to the 
 window will appear darker than one equally far removed, but 
 opposite to it. 
 
 Let us explain the cause of this appearance. Excluding direct 
 sunlight, the sky is the only source of light which illuminates the 
 objects in the room, and an object will be lighter in proportion to 
 the number of rays it receives from the sk}\ 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 27 
 
 Taking for instance the point a (Fig. 9), which is opposite a 
 circular window, the latter receiving a cone of rays of the size of the 
 diameter of the window. We take a second point, a'; this point is 
 illuminated by the cone 6, a r , c, which is considerably smaller. Still 
 more pointed appears the cone which illuminates the point e, and 
 thus it is explained why a will appear brighter than a', and a ' 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 brighter than e. The opening of the cones of rays, or the angle 
 which is formed by drawing lines from the point in question to- 
 wards the window, gives us a criterion of its relative brightness. 
 I call this angle the angle of light. 
 
 When we take a point on the wall containing the window, the 
 angle will be reduced to a line,' and would be absolutely dark if it 
 did not receive light by reflection. 
 
 It is evident that not only the wall in which the window is, but 
 also every other point in the room receives this reflected light from 
 walls, floor, and ceiling. Every point in the room, the wall with 
 the window excepted, is struck by two different masses of light. 
 
 ls£. The direct light of the sky, the quantity of which is pro- 
 portionate to the extent of the effective spherical surface of the 
 vault of heaven. 
 
 2d. The reflected light of the walls, &c., &c., the nature of which 
 is more complicated. 
 
28 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Let us look aside for the present from the reflected light and 
 consider the action of direct sunlight. The illumination produced 
 from this source wo will call, for the sake of brevity, the direct 
 brightness. 
 
 The direct brightness of a point in the room is, as has been ex- 
 plained above, dependent on its position to the window, and on the 
 size of the latter. 
 
 For the better explanation of this point we will start from the 
 plainest proposition, and consider the brightness of a point directly 
 opposite to a small round window. The larger the window, the 
 larger will be the angle of light. Suppose the angle of light should 
 be small, then the brightness of a point will be proportionate to 
 the surface of the window. In similar figures, the surfaces are 
 proportioned as the squares of similar lines, and accordingly the 
 brightness would be proportioned as the squares of the diameters 
 of the windows. 
 
 A window twice as large, be it round or square, will give for 
 the same point four times as much light, and one of tlmee times the 
 size nine times as much. With larger window openings the increase 
 of brightness by increasing the opening is not so marked. We take 
 for instance a point, a (Fig. 10), which is opposite the opening, c, &, 
 
 in the otherwise darkened glass-house. Half the angle of light 
 would be, in this case, a, and when we increase the opening succes- 
 sively to twice the size, o or three times, o b ", and four times, 
 
TIIB ARRANGEMENT OP THE GALLERY. 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 0 b the angle of light at a will be increased by the piece a', a", a'", 
 which, as will be seen by the figure, increases less rapidly than the 
 size of the window-opening. We can draw from this at once a 
 practical conclusion. 
 
 If in a glass-house of 32 feet in length, a person, a (Fig. 11), is 
 placed 5 feet from the glass side and 4 feet from the background, 
 and the glass side is open from 
 g to /i, we will have a criterion 
 of the amount of light which 
 the person receives b} r con- 
 structing the angle h, a, g. 
 
 The portion of the vault of 
 heaven which is cut by the 
 angle h , a, g , determines the 
 brightness of the point a. 
 
 If the length of the atelier 
 should be 24 feet instead of 32 
 feet, that is, if it terminated 
 at i, then the brightness would 
 be determined by the angle i, 
 
 <2, <7, all other circumstances 
 being equal. A glance at the 
 figure will show that the angles 
 t, a, g , and ft, a , gr, are not very 
 different — i. e., that in this es- 
 pecial case the extension of 
 the glass wall by 8 feet beyond 
 
 1 (by the piece f, h) would not 
 secure any great advantages, 
 particularly as the light which 
 
 strikes the glass side h , t, under a very oblique angle, is for the 
 most part reflected. Suppose we take two points, a and a ' (Fig. 
 8), the distances of which from the small window are different. 
 
 As we increase the distance from the window we decrease the 
 angle of light. 
 
 A simple mathematical consideration leads to the result that the 
 brightness of two points, which are located opposite a window, de- 
 creases at the same ratio as the distances from the window increase. 
 
 When we remove an object twice as far from the glass side of 
 the atelier, we must, in order to secure the same brightness, open 
 the curtains twice as wide, in order that the light-giving glass sur- 
 face be four times as large as when the object is near the glass 
 
30 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 side, or we must extend the time of exposure fourfold in order to 
 secure the same result. When the window is very large the bright- 
 ness will not decrease quite as rapidly with an increase of the dis- 
 tance — i. e., at twice the distance the brightness will be a little 
 more than one-fourth, at three times a little more than one-ninth. 
 
 From the above considerations we may draw a practical conclu- 
 sion and answer a question which of late has been asked quite 
 frequently, namely : “ Which is the most practical , a high or a low 
 atelier ?” But we have to answer another question first: For 
 what purposes is the atelier intended? 
 
 An atelier may be perfectly adapted to the taking of single 
 portraits, while it may be unsuited to the taking of groups or re- 
 productions, and vice versa. Ateliers like Tteutlinger’s or Adam 
 Salomon’s, are excellent for taking single portraits, while they are 
 unsuited to taking groups. 
 
 The reason of this is easily explained. In copying large paint- 
 ings or drawings we require a uniform illumination over the whole 
 of the original, while with a single portrait the reverse is the case. 
 The head, which is the principal object, should be lighter, while 
 the other less characteristic parts should be kept in half shadow. 
 These are ai’tistic qualities which in a high degree are visible in 
 the portraits of Adam Salomon, and less strikingly in those of Carl 
 V. Jageman in Vienna. 
 
 If we should try to take a group under the same conditions of 
 illumination, onty one person would appear properly lighted, w T hile 
 all the rest would be in half shadow and scarcely visible. 
 
 To answer therefore the above question we must consider first 
 the purpose for which the atelier is constructed; and I will take 
 the simplest case first, — the construction of an atelier for single 
 portraits. 
 
 Suppose we have an atelier (Fig. 12) about 25 feet high, and in 
 it an object, for instance a person, a', h\ 5 feet high. Above the 
 person is an opening, 5, c, in the glass roof of a given size. The 
 distance of the head from the roof would be equal to 20 feet, and the 
 distance of the floor = 25 feet ; hence the brightness of the two 
 would be as 400 to 625 = 16 to 25, or nearly as 2 to 3. 
 
 Suppose, further, we have an atelier 10 feet high, all other con- 
 ditions being equal. In this case the head, k , would be 5 feet dis- 
 tant from the floor, and the feet, a y = 10 feet ; the brightness of the 
 two would be as 1 to 4. 
 
 It shows how important these differences are. In the first case, 
 in a bright atelier, the head receives only one and a half times as 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 31 
 
 much light as the feet; in the second case four times as much. 
 What is the consequence? In the former case we have slight con- 
 trasts of light and shade, while in the latter they are very strong. 
 
 In a portrait the head 
 is the principal object ; 
 the head should receive 
 the main light. A con- 
 trast of light and shade 
 between hands and feet 
 in the proportion of 2 to 
 3 is not sufficient to mark 
 brilliant contrasts in the 
 picture. A difference of 
 1 to 4 gives much more 
 effect. From this stand- 
 point a low atelier has 
 the advantage for taking 
 single portraits. As an 
 example of such low ate- 
 liers I would mention 
 those of Adam Salomon 
 and Reutlinger in Paris. 
 
 The case is quite different when we take groups or drawings ,. 
 where an illumination which is equally divided over the whole sur- 
 face is desired. High ateliers are in this case desirable. But we 
 can, in a low atelier, produce the same effect when the glass roof 
 is sufficiently wide, or of a width equal to the group. 
 
 When, on the other hand, we wish to obtain in a high atelier 
 the same effects as in a low one, we will do well to place the persons 
 under screens or curtains, which are placed at a height of about 10 
 feet above them. 
 
 While explaining these principles we, for the present, do not 
 take into account the light which is reflected from the walls, nor 
 the amount of light lost by reflection in passing through the win- 
 dows. Any one who has read the preceding directions attentively 
 will find no difficulty in solving different problems in regard, to the 
 brightness of a given point in the atelier. For small openings of 
 light it is easy to calculate the brightness of a point in the room 
 according to the formulae given hereafter, but with larger glass 
 surfaces the construction of the angle of light will give the best 
 criterion. 
 
 For this purpose a drawing of the atelier (or a part of the same 
 
32 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 containing the point in question, and the area of glass surface 
 transmitting the light) is made in ground-plan and vertical section, 
 and the angle of light is constructed both in the vertical and hori- 
 zontal plane. 
 
 From the above principles a criticism on the construction of the 
 atelier follows as a matter of course. 
 
 Let us take as an example the atelier (Fig. 11) which has a 
 northern front. It is 32 feet long and 16 feet wide; it shows 
 closed walls and a glass front, h , g. The scale is given. Suppose 
 a person be at a, 5 feet from the window and 4 feet from the rear 
 wall, the glass side to be open from g to h, or 28 feet. We will 
 get the effect of the 28 feet glass side by constructing the angle 
 A, a, g. Suppose we take instead of the long glass side, g , /i, an 
 inclined one, g, k, of only 8 feet in length. The angle, k, a, g, will 
 be exactly as large as the angle /?,«,</, or the small glass side of 
 only 8 feet will admit as much light as the large one , g, h, of 28 
 feet in length. 
 
 Even a glass side, g, l , of only 5 feet in length, would give as 
 much light on a person at a, and be unprofitable only in so far as 
 seen from A (where the apparatus has been placed) ; a part of the 
 field of view would be cut off by the edge l. 
 
 We have shown that for taking the picture of a person at a the 
 large glass side of 28 feet in length can be replaced by a much 
 smaller one placed at an inclination, the size of which need only to 
 be 8 feet, without detriment to the brightness of the illumination 
 What holds good for the side applies xoith equal force to the roof . 
 The surface of 28 feet in length can be replaced by an inclined one 
 of only 8 feet. 
 
 When we construct an atelier with such a glass side and an 
 analogous roof, we will have a space which apparently equals in 
 brightness the large atelier of 32 feet in length. 
 
 Such an atelier would resemble the following figure. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 The parts not shaded are glazed ; the others are dark ; the appa- 
 ratus would stand in the dark parts, T, T ; the person would be 
 at a, near the glass side. The depth of the glass roof we have 
 taken at 12 feet. For single portraits this would not only be suf- 
 ficient, but for most cases in excess, and only in exceptional cases 
 the whole roof could be employed. 
 
 Starting from simple principles of illumination we have reached 
 an atelier construction which has often been adopted, although in 
 different proportions. It is the so-called tunnel atelier , and we 
 have shown that for taking single portraits , observing the explained 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 33 
 
 conditions , it answers every purpose in regard to the quantity of 
 light as well as a large north front atelier. For amateurs and 
 small photographers, but only for these, such a building would 
 answer every purpose. 
 
 The best position for the side is due north. In this way the 
 side light is, as the main light, most effectually excluded from the 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 direct rays of the sun. The roof must be protected by awnings 
 from the direct sunlight. Where the saving of room is an object, 
 the depth can be reduced to 16 feet. Such an atelier would an- 
 swer for single portraits, and would recommend itself on account 
 of its cheapness; still it has disadvantages when compared with a 
 north front atelier. In the first place, the person always receives 
 the light from the same side. In the above instance from the right, 
 while an atelier fronting north admits of illumination from right 
 or left by placing the person so as to face east or west. 
 
 This disadvantage is not of great moment. In all of Reutlinger’s 
 pictures the light comes from the right-hand side. 
 
 A greater disadvantage shows itself when the person is not, as 
 we have proposed, seated near the glass side, but is removed from it. 
 
 Suppose a person is placed at b (Fig. 11 ), twice as far from the 
 glass as a, we will see by drawing the lines b, /?,, and 6 , /c, the light- 
 effect which the two sides < 7 , /? , and g, 1c will produce ; and here it 
 becomes evident that the angle h, b, g is much larger than &, b, < 7 , 
 or that for a point removed from the glass side the illumination is 
 in a north front atelier much more favorable. 
 
 In a tunnel atelier we are confined to the space in the imme- 
 diate neighborhood of the light, while a north front atelier permits 
 of greater depth, and the latter gives not only a greater space for 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 artistic arrangement , but also a decidedly better light for taking 
 groups. 
 
 The advantages of a north front atelier are easily understood 
 thei’efore. 
 
 SIZE OF THE ATELIER. 
 
 What dimensions shall we give the atelier? 
 
 We have to consider, first, another point, — i. e., distance. 
 
 We need, for a picture of carte de visite , or for one of half size, 
 lenses of different focal length, and also a different distance from 
 the apparatus to the object. The longer the focal length of an 
 objective, the greater must be the distance between the model and 
 the camera. In a tunnel atelier this can be accomplished by ex- 
 tending the tunnel. In a north front atelier, where the apparatus 
 stands in the glass-house, it is necessary that this should have the 
 proper length, provided that we cannot remove the apparatus into 
 an adjoining apartment. 
 
 The length of a glass-house, where no adjoining rooms are at 
 the disposal of the operator, should not be less than 20 feet. 
 
 The smallest width, when we do not wish to be cramped in our 
 operations, should be 10 feet. In such a room standing figures, 
 for which the greatest distance is necessary, could be taken only 
 of card size. For standing figures of larger size such an atelier 
 would not be sufficient. For such figures in cabinet size at least 
 24 feet would be necessary, and for 8£ by 6^ plates at least 30 feet 
 would be required. 
 
 For busts, &c., a shorter distance would suffice. 
 
 Groups, which besides the height extend in breadth, require still 
 larger distances than standing figures, and want besides a corres- 
 ponding width. An atelier 40 feet long and 20 feet wide would 
 however answer almost all requirements. The height of the glass 
 side we would recommend should not exceed 10 feet (Adam Salo- 
 mon, whose light-effects are so much praised, has an atelier 8 feet 
 high). The glass roof must ascend to the rear, like a. desk, in 
 order to shed the rain-water. I would recommend for a distance 
 of 10 feet an ascent of 2 feet. The depth of the glass roof itself 
 should be nearly equal to the depth of the atelier. The lighting of 
 the shadows will thus be under perfect control by opening more or 
 less the top curtains. 
 
 Fig. 14 gives the outside view of Milster’s atelier in Berlin. It 
 is 32 feet in length and 23 feet in width. Above, the iron rods 
 are visible on which the awning is fastened. 
 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GALLERY. 
 
 35 
 
 Back of this is a smaller glass-house, G, (7, of a very simple con- 
 struction, and 10 feet high, for printing purposes. 
 
 The main atelier should be constructed of glass and iron. It is 
 expensive, but it is solid. The printing-room may be made of 
 glass and wood. The platform, P, is for printing in the open air. 
 For the interior arrangements the curtains require the most careful 
 attention. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Only in exceptional cases the photographer will have to use the 
 whole glass side and the roof to light his sitter; generally he will 
 have to reduce the light by means of curtains. Formerly simple 
 curtains, which moved horizontally on rings and wires, were con- 
 sidered* sufficient. Lately, however, more complicated systems 
 have come into use. 
 
 White and lace curtains are superfluous. The latter do not pre- 
 vent the light from entering, but only modify it. The same effect 
 is produced with dark curtains by narrowing the opening through 
 which the light enters. We would remark, in conclusion, that the 
 curtains must be carefully handled. In damp weather the cords 
 should be slackened to prevent their snapping, and even the most 
 perfect arrangement will still leave something to be desired. 
 
36 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The American ateliers are generally verxy high , and, in this re- 
 spect, well suited for taking groups and drawings. For the taking 
 of single portraits, however, they are inferior to low ateliers. We 
 know very well that there are high skylights in America in which 
 splendid single portraits have been made, but it does not follow 
 by any means that the high skylight is advantageous for taking 
 single portraits. We refer to what has been said previously on this 
 subject. 
 
 OF THE GLASS. 
 
 For the glazing of the atelier a good and as nearly colorless glass 
 as possible should be selected. It must be free from manganese. 
 Glass containing the latter substance will in course of time turn 
 yellow and obstruct, in a measure, the passage of the actinic rays. 
 This is the reason wh}’ in many ateliers the light gets worse from 
 year to 3 r ear. 
 
 Blue glass is not to be recommended. Mr. Gaffield has shown 
 that blue glass obstructs the passage of the chemical rays to a 
 much larger extent than white glass. 
 
 Ground-glass is also sometimes employed for glazing the sky- 
 light. The roof of Adam Salomon’s atelier, for instance, is glazed 
 with this substance. It absorbs about 50 per cent, of light, while 
 white glass will absorb only about 5 per cent. 
 
 To the photographer who does not know how to manage his cur- 
 tains in order to produce the best effect, we would recommend to 
 cover his skylight with ground-glass. It modifies and mellows the 
 effect of too strong a front-light. Ground-glass also is advantageous 
 to prevent reflexes of sunlight in certain parts of the atelier which 
 are exposed to direct sunlight. Ordinary glass, however, by being 
 covered with a thick starch paste, will act similar to ground-glass. 
 A wash of warm water will easily remove this covering. 
 
 To keep the glass clean on the outside is of great importance. 
 When the rain does not perform this duty the glass should fre- 
 quently be washed. A hose attached to the water-pipe is very 
 serviceable for this purpose. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 Frequent change of air is necessary. For this purpose the 
 atelier of the Academy is provided with four small windows, be- 
 low the side light near the floor. (See Fig. 15.) Besides, the rear 
 wall of the atelier is provided with four large openings at its 
 highest point (ventilators). 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 37 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 THE NEGATIVE PROCESS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE PREPARATORY MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 Rules of Precaution. 
 
 A piece of paper and a lead-pencil are sufficient for a draughts- 
 man to reproduce or to make the picture of any object. He spreads 
 the paper, he points his pencil, and all his preparations are made. 
 The work can commence. 
 
 It is quite different in photography. Even to make the smallest 
 and least important picture requires a quantity of apparatus — ■ 
 camera, tripod, lenses, plate-holder, dishes, bottles, basins, and a 
 number of solutions — silver-bath, developer, fixing-bath, &c., and 
 the preparations, which, for the draughtsman, are made in a few 
 seconds, may, for the photographer, require hours. He has, how- 
 ever, the other advantage, that the taking of the picture will be ac- 
 complished in a few minutes, while a draughtsman would have to 
 work hours or days, and then he would have but one picture, while 
 the photographer will have a plate from which he can produce 
 hundreds or even thousands of prints. 
 
 The preparation is therefore the main thing in photography, 
 and it must be made with the greatest accuracy and cleanliness on 
 the one side, and with presence of mind, knowledge, and taste on 
 the other, if we expect to realize a satisfactory result. 
 
 What advantage is there in the best collodion, and the cleanest 
 and most carefully prepared plate, if the person represented is 
 illy posed or badly illuminated? What advantage, on the other 
 hand, is the most tasty arrangement when the silver-bath refuses 
 to work properly? And what shall I do with a plate prepared with 
 
38 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the best material, clean and perfect in every particular, and the 
 object represented be ever so beautiful, if the lens does not work 
 properly, or the focussing has been carelessly performed, and the 
 picture looks distorted and does not possess sufficient sharpness ? 
 
 Each separate branch of the preparatory work, and there are 
 many of them, must be carried out with the greatest care. Nothing 
 must be forgotten, and nothing must be considered as being of 
 little moment. And whoever does not go to work, in this respect, 
 with the greatest and most conscientious care, will never become a 
 great photographer, but always remain an incompetent. 
 
 I would advise beginners in particular not to attempt to take a 
 picture until they feel fully convinced that all the apparatus and 
 chemicals, from first to last, are in a normal state and read}' for 
 use. How often has it happened to me, with my scholars, that a 
 plate has been coated with collodion and has become dry because 
 the dipper was not handy? How often has an exposed plate been 
 spoiled because the developer was not handy or had not been made 
 at all, not to mention numberless other “accidents.” 
 
 The preparations are, according to the nature of the work, very 
 different. They are different for the negative and different for the 
 positive process, different for the carbon print, and different for the 
 silver print, or the enamel process. We will first consider the pro- 
 cess on which all the others depend, — i. e., the negative process. 
 
 A. PREPARATIONS IN THE GLASS-HOUSE. 
 
 The preparations in the glass-house are twofold: 
 
 1. The arrangement of the object which is to be taken; 
 
 2. Arrangement of the optical apparatus. 
 
 The arrangement of the object which is to be taken is sometimes 
 very easy, as the placing on a board of a print to be copied. 
 Sometimes, however, the arrangement may offer great difficulties, 
 for instance, with a living object which has a will of its own and 
 generally will offer some resistance, not to speak of the fact that it 
 has to be placed in the most pleasing position according to its in- 
 dividuality; that it has to be property lighted and must be brought 
 in harmony with the surrounding objects, even if these should con- 
 sist only of a few pieces of furniture. We must also take into 
 account, that the optical apparatus must be in condition to take 
 in the whole arrangement with the greatest possible sharpness and 
 within as short a time of exposure as possible. The picturesque 
 and the optical standpoint have both to be considered (very often 
 the one or the other is overlooked). 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 39 
 
 The artistic standpoint will be fulty considered in the sesthetical 
 portion of this work ; at present we will only take the mechanical 
 arrangements into consideration. 
 
 When I focus a lens sharply on an} 7 object, say, for instance, a 
 person, I will find that other objects, back or at the side of the 
 sitter, appear also in the picture, materially influencing the beauty 
 of the same. 
 
 These are either entirely left out by placing the object in front 
 of a monotonous gray or more or less dark wall, which is called the 
 background, or the accessories are so arranged that with the main 
 object the} 7 form a harmonious picture. 
 
 The backgrounds are either made of cloth (the so-called “back- 
 ground cloth,” w'hich is expressly woven for this purpose), or they 
 are painted on canvas or shirting with oil-paint, which is laid on as 
 homogeneous and dull as possible. The background stuff is best 
 placed on a frame analogous in its construction to the frames of 
 the painters, which can be tightened by means of wedges, as cir- 
 cumstances may require. 
 
 The background may be hung on rails, E, E , and the upper 
 part provided with rollers, i?, i?, as is represented in Fig. 15. 
 
 Such backgrounds are easily pushed aside provided the atelier is 
 wide enough. The atelier must have as many rails as backgrounds, 
 as every background has to run on its own rail. 
 
 Small ateliers require different arrangements. The background 
 is placed on rollers and moved from place to place as required, or 
 the background is not mounted at all, but rolled up like a curtain. 
 All the backgrounds in Reutlingcr’s atelier are arranged as curtains. 
 Six to eight such curtains, one behind the other, and parallel to 
 each other, are placed at the spot where the sitter is placed. But 
 the backgrounds suffer by being rolled and unrolled so frequently, 
 particularly when they are painted with scenic or landscape effects. 
 The wider the background the better it will be for the arrangement. 
 
 In regard to the employment of painted backgrounds full direc- 
 tions will be found in the resthetical portion of this work. 
 
 For the suitable arrangement of the model other objects are 
 necessary, according to the nature of the same, such as pillars, 
 balustrades, furniture, curtains, &c. But most photographers do 
 too much of a good thing. They have a complete furniture store 
 in their ateliers. Eminent artists will get along with the simplest 
 accessories. All such objects should be so arranged that they can 
 be placed in position in the shortest time, and be removed again 
 at a moment’s notice without any noise or confusion. 
 
40 
 
 THE PRACTICE OE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Generally the sitters are in a hurry and wish to be taken in a 
 short time, even if the time of the photographer should not be 
 especially occupied. 
 
 With this simple arrangement, however, the original is not 
 sufficiently prepared. An important point is that during the ex- 
 posure perfect steadiness should be secured. With lifeless objects 
 this is easily accomplished ; they are placed on a solid foundation 
 and fastened to it. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 With a living model the ease is entirely different. No one can 
 sit absolutely still. Every pulsation causes an imperceptible 
 motion, and just at the moment of exposure, when the model is 
 conscious that on his steadiness success depends, the spirit is most 
 willing, but the flesh is weakest, particularly the most important 
 part of all the flesh, — the head. Nothing can prevent this evil 
 but the use of the head-rest, against which the public obstinately 
 protests, but upon the employment of which the photographer must 
 just as obstinately insist. It should not be brought into use until 
 all the other arrangements are finished, and everything is ready for 
 the taking of the picture. Then the “rest” should be adapted to 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 the sitter, and not vice versa. The person who tries to force the 
 sitter to the head-rest is guilty of “cruelty to animals,” and is a 
 sinner against good taste in the bargain. It is self-evident that 
 this necessary evil must not be visible in the picture, a circumstance 
 which often very sadly ties the hands of the photographer in making 
 his arrangements. 
 
 Fig. 16 shows the construction of the head-rest generally used in 
 the United States, and which is called “Wilson’s Improved Rest.” 
 
 For standing figures the rest 
 requires great firmness, and 
 the American pattern seems 
 to be preferable, and all that 
 is required. The joints should 
 be frequently examined, and 
 care should be taken that 
 everything moves easy and 
 without noise. Frequent 
 cleaning and oiling is advisa- 
 ble. The American rests of 
 less complicated and cheaper 
 form ai’e familiar to all, known 
 as Scovill’s, the Tuscan, &c. 
 For the copying of paintings 
 and engravings, an easel is generally used. 
 The form is very well known. But for photo- 
 graphic purposes the easel would not be very 
 practical. Generally they stand inclined, and 
 the picture, of course, has the same inclination, 
 and when we wish to avoid distortion, the 
 camera has to be inclined to the same 
 extent. For work requiring great ex- 
 actness this is not sufficient, and it is 
 preferable to employ a vertical stand on 
 which a movable drawing-board can be 
 fastened. 
 
 Fig. 17 represents such an arrangement. It consists mainly of 
 the board, R, with the ledge, r, r, which serves as a rest for oil- 
 paintings or drawing-boards. It can be moved in a vertical direc- 
 tion, and by the binding-screw, K , kept in position so that plates 
 of different size can be firmly held. By a cord passing over rollers 
 and worked by the handle, F , the whole is easily raised or lowered. 
 
42 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Drawings should be fastened to a drawing-board, which is 
 placed on the ledge, r, r, and kept in place by the screw, K. 
 
 The whole apparatus is easily moved from place to place in the 
 atelier wherever the illumination is the most favorable. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 For copying plans, where absolute mathematical precision is re- 
 quired, the camera should be firmly connected with the stand which 
 carries the original in such a manner that the}' cannot change their 
 relative position to one another. 
 
 When the object has been duly prepared the arrangement of the 
 optical apparatus is next in order. 
 
 Accordingly as we wish to get larger or smaller pictures of an 
 object, the optical apparatus has to be removed or brought closer 
 to the original, and therefore it should be easily removable. 
 Hence the apparatus is generally placed on a stand. But as the 
 different objects vary greatly in their height and breadth, the stand 
 is supplied with a vertical and horizontal motion. 
 
 The construction of the stand is more or less massive according 
 to the size and weight of the apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 show two of the forms most generally in use. 
 Fig. 18 is better adapted for lighter cameras, while Fig. 19 (the 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 4 $ 
 
 American Optical Company’s '‘''Perfect ' 1 ' 1 camera-stand) answers for 
 heavier ones. With the latter the vertical movement is accom- 
 plished try a handle and rack 
 
 sharpness to the whole figure. 
 The stands with rollers require 
 a point which is driven in 
 the floor to give them steadi- 
 ness. In bringing the stand 
 in position the beginner should 
 take notice that in moving the 
 bar in a vertical direction the 
 picture on the ground-glass 
 will move in the same direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Ii'on stands have also been 
 introduced; but generally these 
 are too heavy and ruin the floor 
 or the carpets. Arrangements 
 have also been made by which 
 the rollers can be fixed in posi- 
 tion and give perfect stability 
 to the apparatus. 
 
 The camera, in order to 
 secure exact focussing, should 
 be connected with the stand as 
 closely as possible, so that the 
 position will not change. A 
 camera which is merely placed 
 on the stand, is easily moved 
 and often gives rise to faulty 
 pictures. This is particularly 
 
 the case with light instruments. Heavy ones will stand firm by 
 their own weight. 
 
 movement. The binding screw, 
 is to keep the apparatus in any 
 given position. The inclined 
 position of the board is gener- 
 ally only employed in portrait- 
 ure. It enables the operator 
 to secure more nearly equal 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 THE CAMERA. 
 
44 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The photographic camera is one of the simplest optical instru- 
 ments. It consists of a box which is often formed of a pair of 
 bellows only. The end, which is turned towards the object, is fur- 
 nished with a lens called the objective, and the other end is pro- 
 vided with a plate of ground-glass, which latter can be moved 
 nearer to or further from the objective. The box or the bellows 
 serve to produce a dark space. It is necessary that this should be 
 absolutely dark, a circumstance of which one must satisfy oneself 
 in buying a new instrument bj r placing the head inside the camera, 
 excluding all outside light by a cloth, and looking carefully for 
 cracks which might admit the light. 
 
 To obtain a sharp picture the plate of ground-glass is brought 
 more or less near to the objective. For this purpose the back part 
 of the camera, 7? , can be provided with guides, s, s, which run in 
 grooves parallel to each other. The screw, r, serves to fix the 
 ground-glass at the desired distance from the objective. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 When the part, h, is brought very near to the objective, the pro- 
 jecting board, s, will prevent the operator from bringing his face 
 very closely to the ground-glass, and make perfect focussing rather 
 difficult. It is more convenient to pull out the front part, r, which 
 moves in grooves inside of s, s. When the picture has been focussed 
 tolerably sharp on the ground-glass, the finishing touches are given 
 by either the rack movement on the lens itself, or by a rack move- 
 ment at the rear end of the camera. 
 
 The screws a and b (Fig. 21) should be loosened; the back part, 
 m, which carries the ground-glass, is now moved ; a is screwed 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 45 
 
 tight, and with the rack movement, Z and t , the fine adjustment is 
 made. Finally, the whole arrangement is fixed by tightening the 
 screw b. In this way our German camera boxes are made. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 The English cameras, to facilitate focussing, are provided with 
 an endless screw, which moves the object-board 0 (Fig. 20). The 
 screw is worked by a crank. This arrangement is very handy, but 
 admits only of limited motion. 
 
 A better arrangement than any of these is applied to the boxes 
 made in New York by the American Optical Company. The front 
 part of the frame of the camera box is made fast to the platform, 
 and the focussing is done with the back part of the frame, w'hich 
 runs on metal guides attached to the sides of the platform. An 
 approximate focus is thus obtained, and the exact focus is secured 
 by means of a short focussing screw which works in a groove in 
 the centre of the platform. A clamping screw fastens the whole 
 rigidly in place when the focus is obtained. This arrangement 
 may be seen in Fig. 23a. 
 
 When the focussing has been accomplished, the ground-glass, 
 S, S (Fig. 20), is turned back and in its place the plate-holder is 
 pushed, carrying the sensitized plate. The sensitive plate must 
 occupy exactly the same position which the ground-glass has occu- 
 pied before, or the picture will lack sharpness. 
 
 To find out if a camera works correct^ in this respect, the lens 
 is removed and through the hole a rule is introduced. The distance 
 between the ground-glass and the front of the camera is noted 
 down ; next a plate-holder with a plate of glass is put in position ; 
 the shutter is opened and the distance between the glass and the 
 front of the camera is noted down. When the two exactly cor- 
 respond the plate-holder is correct. Sometimes the ground-glass 
 
46 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 admits of slight movement by means of the so-called double swing- 
 back. This motion is of advantage for the sharp focussing of 
 
 Fig. "la. 
 
 such objects which have an inclined position to the axis of the in- 
 strument. 
 
 The swing-back is a great help in focussing accurately and in 
 getting the correct figure on the plate without trouble, and is 
 applied to the American Optical Company’s boxes. Very often 
 the figure is too high or too low upon the plate. A vertical motion 
 of the back of the camera, one way or the other, will obviate this 
 at once. So when more or less of one side or the other is needed 
 in the picture a lateral motion or swing at once secures it. The 
 back is then secured in place by the clamps and screws as shown 
 in Figs. 21a and 23a. 
 
 The construction of the plate-holder is easily understood from 
 the cut (Fig. 22). The sensitive plate is placed in the frame, B , 
 and rests on the silver wires, d , d. The lid, D, is now closed and 
 the spring,/', presses firmly on the plate and keeps it in position. 
 The shutter, H , remains closed and is only opened when the plate- 
 holder has been placed in the camera and everything is ready for 
 the exposure. 
 
 The wood of the holder is apt to become warped, being frequently 
 moistened by the drippings of silver solution from the plate. The 
 wood should be well oiled and varnished, and the different pieces 
 should be joined crossways, one upon the other, and all the different 
 parts well dovetailed together. 
 
 In Europe the shutters of large plate-holders are frequently pro- 
 vided with hinges, which admit of their being bent over ; the 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 47 
 
 American plan, where the shutter can be removed entirely, is 
 preferable. 
 
 In the bottom of the holder a little cavity is placed, made water- 
 tight with pitch, to collect the silver drippings. Such a holder, 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 22a. 
 
 Fig. 226. 
 
 unless it is carefully wiped every time it has been used, is liable to 
 get spoiled by the silver solution enter- 
 ing the wood. The solution decom- 
 poses in the wood, and the products of 
 decomposition are by capillary attrac- 
 tion carried to the collodion film where 
 they cause moss-like spots. The au- 
 thor, to avoid this, places the lower 
 part of the plate-holder for five minutes 
 in melted parafine. This preserves 
 them for years. It has also been rec- 
 ommended to paint the corners with 
 negative varnish. Such a paint, how- 
 ever, would have to be repeated 
 monthly. 
 
 The sizes of the holders vary con- 
 siderabl}'. In order to place plates of 
 different sizes in the holder, they are 
 furnished with inserting frames or 
 “kits,” which are provided with silver 
 wire corners on which the plates rest. 
 
 I must again express my preference 
 for the American boxes. The holders 
 in them are supplied with improved 
 glass corners, which are impervious 
 
48 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 to all action of the solution. Moreover, they are made of such a 
 shape (see Figs. 22a and 226) that they bind the wood frames to- 
 gether so that it is impossible for the solution to get to the wood 
 at all. Another advantage is the reversible corner (Fig. 226), 
 which is familiar to all my American readers and need not be 
 described here. These corners are far preferable to the silver 
 wires. 
 
 Then there are the sliding holders, by which two, three, or more 
 pictures can be taken on the same plate. On a broad board, L, L 
 
 (Fig. 23), the holder moves 
 in a groove in a horizontal 
 direction. Three points, 
 /, /, y, which catch with 
 springs in notches, serve 
 to keep the plate in a fixed 
 position. The so-called 
 “carte de visite camera” 
 is so constructed. 
 
 For beginners it may be 
 necessary to call attention 
 to the fact that the camera 
 must not be moved while the ground-glass is removed, and the plate- 
 holder put in its place. And that the shutter, FT, must not be 
 pulled until the holder is in its place. When all this has been done 
 
 Fig. 23a. 
 
 the cover is removed from the object-glass, but without shaking 
 the camera. 
 
 Alluding to the American boxes again, Fig. 23a represents 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 49 
 
 another kind of sliding box, and is known on the American Opti- 
 cal Company’s catalogue as the “Imperial” box. In it the frame 
 holding the plate-holder is made to slide laterally on a platform, 
 which platform again may be moved vertically, proper catches 
 being furnished to fasten both in position. In this way the plate 
 is moved over the field of the lens, allowing the operator to take 
 several positions on one plate and even to change the sizes. In- 
 ternal diaphragms are supplied to effect the changes in size. 
 
 USE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE CAMERA-TUBE. 
 
 The objective consists of a tube containing either single or com- 
 pound lenses and stops. The size of the tube depends on the size 
 of the lenses, the distance which they require to be apart, and the 
 position of the stops. 
 
 Fig. 24 shows a very general mode of mounting. It represents 
 a Busch portrait objective with separate central stops, D , Z>, which 
 are placed in the slit at X; the 
 flange, i?, is screwed to the front of 
 the camera-box. The back lens is at 
 H, and the front lens at r. With 
 the cap, ( 7 , the lens is covered or 
 uncovered. By the rack and 
 pinion movement, T , the fine ad- 
 justment in focussing is made. 
 
 The front piece, which is screwed 
 on at r, serves not only for carry- 
 ing the cover, but excludes also 
 side-light. The fault of this con- 
 struction is the detached slops , 
 which easily get lost. 
 
 Fig. 25 represents a landscape tube, by Ross, without cover. 
 The simple lens is placed at H; the stops are permanently fixed 
 and consist of a disk, $, with different 
 sized apertures. By turning the same, 
 the dimensions of the stop are easily 
 changed ; a black disk, r, with an open- 
 ing equal to the size of the largest stop, 
 closes the tube in front. 
 
 There are other tubes in the market, 
 where the front lens can be used as a 
 landscape lens. To this class belong the 
 “ cone ” objectives, as shown in Fig. 26. 
 
 4 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 H 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
50 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The back lens, H, is as large as the front lens. This lens has a 
 movable mounting, and can either be entirely drawn out or brought 
 more or less closely to the other lenses, to lengthen and shorten 
 the focus. The stops consist of rings, which are placed inside the 
 tube at D, the front part, (7, having been previously removed. 
 This front part, by being screwed in a reversed position to the 
 mounting, forms, when all the other parts are removed, a landscape 
 lens at D (see Fig. 26), with stops and cover. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 JJ 
 
 The inside of the tubes should be perfectly black. When these 
 surfaces reflect light, we will have spots on the plate at once. The 
 tubes are generally screwed to separate boards or fronts, which are 
 easily detached from or placed on the camera. 
 
 For the purpose of exact adjustment of focus, the stop with the 
 largest opening is generally used. Only a part of the picture be- 
 comes sharp, and to remedy this, stops with smaller openings are 
 introduced after the focussing has been done. When we wish to 
 extend the sharpness as far as possible to the margin of the plate, 
 we use a very small stop. To see the image on the ground-glass 
 more distinctly, a cloth, which is thrown over the head, is of ad- 
 vantage. A focussing-glass enables the operator to focus with 
 much more certainty. To what degree of fineness the ground-glass 
 has been ground is of much importance, for all imperfectly ground 
 glass is frequently a source of error. Focussing is much easier 
 with an objective giving fine illumination and in clear weather. In 
 cloudy weather, and with lenses that do not have much light, it 
 is sometimes rather difficult. 
 
 A precautionary measure, which, particularly in bright weather, 
 should be observed, is the exclusion of all extraneous light from 
 the objective. Every objective acts not only as a lens, but also as 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 51 
 
 a window, and admits a great deal of diffused light, and this causes 
 either fogging of the whole plate or interferes with the brilliancy 
 of the picture. This diffused light is easily discovered by placing 
 the head under the focussing-cloth, the ground-glass having pre- 
 viously been removed. The camera, with lenses of large opening, 
 will appear very light. To exclude this foreign light a box is used 
 which surrounds the objective, and has only an opening in front, 
 which can be opened and closed by a lid. 
 
 Claudet and Bingham place the whole apparatus in a kind of 
 tent which moves on rollers. The arrangement appears very 
 clumsy. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVES (TUBES) AND LENSES. 
 
 The form of lenses which are used in the optical department of 
 photography will be explained by the following figures. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 
 
 Numbers 1, 2, and 3, are thicker in the centre than on the margin. 
 They are called convex lenses. Numbers 4, 5, and 6, are thinner 
 in the centre than on the margin, and are called concave or dis- 
 persing lenses. We distinguish biconvex (No. 1), plano-convex 
 (No. 2), concavo-convex (No. 3), also biconcave (No. 4), plano-con- 
 cave (No. 5), and concavo-convex (No. 6). The connecting lines 
 of the centres of the spherical surfaces, which form the surfaces of 
 the lenses, are the axis of the lens. Any plane which is placed 
 through the axis of the lens, is called a main section. 
 
 The collecting lenses have, within certain limits, the faculty of 
 collecting to a point the rays, which proceed from a point, provided 
 that these points are situated on the axis or near it, and provided 
 that the angle which the rays form with the axis is not too large. 
 When, under these conditions, a bundle of rays, parallel to the 
 axis of the lens, falls on a lens, the rays will be united in a point 
 back of the lens, and this point is called the focus, and the distance 
 between the focus and the lens is called the focal distance. The 
 
52 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 rays, which proceed from a point on the axis or near to it, are also 
 united in a point hack of the lens, and it is easy to calculate its 
 distance from the lens. If, for instance, the focus is = P, the dis- 
 tance of the point of light = a, and the distance of its image = x , 
 it follows that — 
 
 -1 = 1 __ 1 
 
 x P - a 
 
 For instance, a lens has a focal length of 10 inches and is 120 
 inches distant from an object, then — 
 
 a = 120 inches, P = 10 inches ; 
 
 hence — 
 
 ap 120 X 10 1200 
 
 a—P ~ 120 — 10 ~ TTO = 10 -9 inches ; 
 
 hence x is, i. <?., the distance of the image from the lens — 10.9 
 inches. When the distance, a, is greater than 100 times the focal 
 length, the image and the focus will nearly coincide. 
 
 When we direct a lens to very distant objects, we will get in the 
 focus of the lens a small reversed image of the olbject. 
 
 When the object is brought nearer to the lens, the image will ap- 
 pear further removed from the lens. The exact spot is easily found 
 by construction and calculation. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 When we take the lance, A , we will find that all the rays pro. 
 ceeding from it. which travel parallel to the axis, will pass through 
 the point, P. The rays which pass through the optical centre, O, 
 of the lens do not change their course. The point where the rays 
 proceeding from a or b cross each other determines the location 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 of the image a', b'. When lens and object are parallel to one 
 another, the image will also be parallel. When the object is in- 
 clined to the lens, the image will also be inclined, but in a reversed 
 position. 
 
 These circumstances must be well observed in focussing with 
 the camera obscura. The lines a, o, and 6, o, which pass through 
 the optical centre of the lens are called side axes in regard to the 
 points a and b. All objects, the distance of which is more than a 
 hundred fold the length of the focus, will form their image in the 
 focus of the lens. When we move the lens closer to the object, the 
 image will move out of the focus, and when we move the lens still 
 closer, and to within twice the length of the focus, the image will 
 also be removed twice the length of the focus from the lens or 
 object, and the image will be equidistant from the lens in opposite 
 directions. When we go still closer, the image will remove still 
 further from the lens, or more than twice the focal distance, and 
 more than the distance of the object itself. The size of the picture 
 depends on its distance from the lens. When the same is = x 
 the distance of the object = a its size = G then the size of the 
 picture will be 
 
 Hence the image will become larger as we approach closer to the 
 object. Hence, also, we can make larger or smaller pictures of the 
 same object by bringing the optical apparatus closer to, or by re- 
 moving it further from, the same. 
 
 When the object is removed further than twice the focal length 
 of the lens, its image will be less than the “ natural size.” When 
 the distance of both is equal, or the object is twice as far removed 
 from the ground-glass as the focal length, then the image will be 
 of equal size with the object. This fact is important in copying 
 when a copy is to be made of the same size as the original. The 
 camera has to be drawn out to equal the distance of the object. 
 When the object is moved still closer, we will get magnified pictures. 
 
 We can, therefore, with any lens, make larger or smaller pictures 
 of the same object, and it would appear as if we could with a lens 
 take pictures of any size to suit our pleasure. This, however, is 
 not the case, as a lens, similar to our eye , can only take in a limited 
 field of view at one time. 
 
 When w r e close one eye we overlook with the other a field of 90® 
 circumference of angle, but we must turn the eye a little. So, 
 also, every lens takes in a limited field only, which is called its 
 
54 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 field of view. When we move a photographic apparatus far away 
 from the model, the whole figure, of a person, for instance, will ap- 
 pear in the picture. When the apparatus is moved closer, the pro- 
 portions become larger; we no longer see the whole figure, but 
 only three-fourths of it ; and when we go still nearer, the head and 
 chest only will appeal’. 
 
 Large objects, when they are wanted entire in the picture, should 
 be far removed from the camera. But of such objects only small 
 pictures can be made. 
 
 With the increase in the length of the focus, the distance of the 
 object from the lens remaining the same, the size of the picture 
 will increase, and hence we select for large pictures lenses of long 
 focus. When a is the distance of the object, Q its size, p the length 
 of focus, x the distance of the picture, then the size of the picture 
 is B — 
 
 When the distance is very great, then— 
 
 i. e., the sizes of the pictures are proportioned as the focal lengths. 
 
 A lens of 1 inches focus is placed opposite to a person 5 feet 
 high at a distance of 8 feet, then the size of the picture — 
 
 5 feet X 1 inches 60 inches X 1 inches 
 B = — = — — , = 4 1 inches. 
 
 8 feet 96 inches 
 
 The field of view of a long focus lens is, when the proportions of 
 the radii are equal, no larger than that of a short focus lens. 
 
 The production of pictures by a lens proceeds only under certain 
 conditions in a regular way, which conditions have already been 
 indicated above, and which become still more easily understood by 
 the mathematical development which is given with it. 
 
 1. That the rays strike near the axis. 
 
 2. That they form only a small angle with the axis. 
 
 3. That they are monochromatic, or that they all possess the same 
 index of refraction. 
 
 These conditions can easily be maintained in telescopic or micro- 
 scopic lenses, but it is much more difficult with a photographic lens. 
 In the latter the rays form very often a considerable angle, some- 
 times as large as 45°, and this gives rise to a whole line of 
 errors, which only partially can be overcome by optical means. To 
 these errors belong — 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 55 
 
 1. SPHERICAL ABERRATION. 
 
 When a single lens (a so-called landscape lens) is attached to a 
 camera, and when we remove all the stops, we cannot obtain on the 
 ground-glass a picture which can be called absolutely sharp, for 
 such will always show blurred and ill-defined outlines. The picture, 
 however, will become instantly sharp when we cover the front of a 
 lens with a disk in the centre of which a hole has been cut, or in 
 other words, a stop. The cause of this want of sharpness is the un- 
 equal refraction of the marginal rays as compared with those of the 
 centre. The margin of the lens is, so to speak, a prism with a much 
 stronger refracting angle than the centre. As the dispersion which 
 the rays sutler increases with the refracting angle of the prism, it 
 follows that the marginal rays will intersect the axis nearer to the 
 lens than the central rays. 
 
 The focus of the marginal rays will, for instance, be in f 2 3 , while 
 the focus of the central rays will be in f 1 (Fig. 29). 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Hence, if the ground-glass has been placed at f 1 , the marginal 
 rays, which have intersected the axis at / 3 , will form a circle of 
 dispersion. The diameter of this circle is called the transversal or 
 lateral aberration. It is easily understood that this must be dif- 
 ferent in two lenses of equal opening and different focal length , and 
 it must be the larger, the shorter (with the same opening) the focal 
 length is. And it is also easily understood that with two lenses of 
 equal focal length and different opening, the transverse aberration 
 will be largest with the largest opening. 
 
 2. CHROMATIC ABERRATION OR DISPERSION OF COLOR. 
 
 The white light suffers in its passage through refracting mediums, 
 not only by the refraction, but also by the dispersion of color, the 
 cause of which is that the apparently monochromatic white light 
 consists of rays of different quality, which partly distinguish them- 
 selves by their different effects on the retina and chemicals, and 
 
56 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 partly by their different refractions. Red has the least refraction ; 
 violet the greatest. The dispersion of color is most beautiful in 
 the passage of white light through a prism, and then it gives rise 
 to a colored band — the spectrum — in which the seven principal 
 colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, are distin- 
 guished. As a lens, however, is analogous to a system of prisms, 
 such a dispersion of color must necessarily also take place in the 
 passage of white light through a lens, and as violet light is more 
 refrangible than red, it follows that the violet rays will intersect 
 the axis closer to the lens (after having passed through it) than 
 the red. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Hence, when a bundle of parallel rays of white light passes 
 through a lens, the rays will not, after having been refracted, be 
 united in a single point, but will, according to their different re- 
 frangibility, be placed at different distances from the lens on the axis 
 of the same. The violet ones being the nearest to the lens, the red 
 ones the farthest, and instead of having a single point, the focus, 
 which would result with the employment of a monochromatic light, 
 we will have a line of differently colored foci. (See Fig. 30.) 
 
 This error is overcome by the employment of two lenses, which 
 are made of different kinds of glass (crown and flint). Nearly 
 every photographic lens is made of these two kinds of glass ; but 
 even with one kind of glass, by suitably selected forms of lenses, 
 the chromatic aberration can be tolerably well avoided, as is the 
 case with the Zentmayer lens. 
 
 CURVE OF THE SURFACE OF THE PICTURE. 
 
 When a camera with any kind of an aplanatic lens is sharply 
 focussed on an object, it will be noticed that it is not possible to 
 get all the different parts of the picture sharply defined on the 
 ground-glass at the same time. It is either sharp at the margin 
 and poorly defined in the centre, or vice versa. This error is not 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 57 
 
 caused by spherical aberration, for it occurs with all perfectly 
 aplanatic lenses — that is, lenses which have been corrected for 
 spherical aberration ; but the cause of it is the curve of the image. 
 
 The picture does not lie on a plane like the ground-glass, but on 
 a more or less curved surface, and by moving the ground-glass, 
 only that part of the picture will appear sharp which touches or 
 intersects the ground-glass. The arrow in Fig. 31 represents such 
 a picture. When the ground-glass is placed at a, a, only the central 
 pait will appear sharp. When we place the ground-glass at 6, 6, 
 only the points of the arrow will appear well defined. 
 
 Fig. 31 . 
 
 These errors are avoided by suitable curves in the lenses, by 
 combinations of lenses, and by stops. 
 
 DISTORTION. \ 
 
 When we focus, with a single lens with front stops, sharply on a 
 square, A, the resulting picture will not appear as a square, but 
 with curved sides, almost as a barrel, B. The lines are curved 
 outwards. When we substitute a lens with the stop in the rear, 
 the curves will be reversed, as in C. 
 
 This is the case with all single lenses, but not always to the same 
 ■extent. It is based on the fact that the marginal rays of the field 
 of view strike the lens under a larger angle than the central rays, 
 and consequently suffer a greater refraction. 
 
 But in this refraction, according to the position of the stops, the 
 marginal rays are either brought nearer to the centre of the field of 
 view, as is the case with a front stop, or they are removed from it, 
 as is the case when the stop is placed behind the lens. 
 
 This distortion becomes more prominent with the increase in the 
 
58 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 size of the field of view. It is particularly annoying in copying 
 drawings, or taking architectural views. When single lenses are 
 used for this purpose, the central part only can be employed. The 
 distortion is dependent on the form of the lens. Amongst all the 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 B 
 
 
 J L~ 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 B 
 
 simple forms of lenses, the meniscus tens, when its concave side is 
 turned towards the object, shows it the least. It increases rapidly 
 with a plano-convex lens, the plane side turned towards the object, 
 and still more so with a biconvex lens. With single lenses the dis- 
 tortion can be reduced to a minimum by giving the proper form to 
 
 the glass, but it never can be 
 avoided entirely. This is only 
 possible by a combination of 
 lenses with so-called central 
 stops. Imagine two lenses, 
 A, B , at a certain distance 
 from one another, and be- 
 tween the two, in the centre, 
 the stop, D. In regard to 
 the front lens this arrange- 
 ment will act like a back- 
 stop, and will cause the dis- 
 tortion noticed at G (Fig. 
 32 ), while, with regard to the 
 second lens, it will act like a * 
 front-stop, and cause distor- 
 tion similar to B. But as 
 both distortions are in oppo- 
 site directions, they will balance each other, and the result will 
 be a correct image like A. 
 
 Such double objectives with central stops are the Globe, Zent- 
 mayer, Ross Doublet, and the new Aplanatic lenses by Steinheil. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 59 
 
 The portrait tubes of Petzval are similarly constructed, but as 
 the lenses are very unequal, a considerable distortion remains. 
 
 FIELD OF VIEW AND AMOUNT OF LIGHT OF A LENS. 
 
 By the term, that a lens is strong in light, we mean its capability 
 of giving a more or less bright picture. This depends— 1, on the 
 surface of the lens ; 2, on its focal length ; 3, on the loss by re- 
 flection and absorption which light suffers in its transit through the 
 body of the glass. 
 
 The larger the surface of a lens the greater will be the quantity 
 of light which it is capable of receiving. However, the surface 
 contents are proportioned to the square of the diameter, or, as it is 
 generally called, the opening. Hence, the amount of light of two 
 lenses will be proportioned, other things being equal, as the squares 
 of their openings. 
 
 When the focal distances of the lenses are different, they will 
 give of the same subject pictures of different size. When, for in- 
 stance, a lens of 6 inches focus gives of a man a picture of 3 inches, 
 then a lens of 12 inches focus will represent a man as 6 inches high 
 in the picture. The quantity of light which proceeds from the sub- 
 ject and falls on the lenses is necessarily the same, provided the 
 openings are equal. But with increased size of the picture the 
 quantity of light is spread over a larger surface. When the same 
 quantity of light is distributed over a surface of two or four square 
 inches, then the quantity of light on a square inch of the latter sur- 
 face will only be half as great as on the former. 
 
 But the surface contents of two similar figures are proportioned 
 as the squares of similar located lines — for instance, as the squares 
 of their heights. But as the size of a figure in the picture is pro- 
 portioned to the focal length of a lens, it follows that the surface 
 contents of the same are as the squares of the foci, and as the 
 amount of light is just the reverse of their surface contents, it fol- 
 lows further: The amount of light of two lenses is proportioned as 
 the inverse ratio of the squares of their foci. Opening and focus 
 are, hence, the main elements for judging the amount of light which 
 a lens has. The direct proportions of the former, the indirect pro- 
 portions of the latter form the criterion. 
 
 When we wish to compare two lenses in this respect, we have to 
 divide first the opening, o, by the focus, f. and find the square of 
 the fraction. 
 
 The fraction ~ is called the relative opening. Of the import- 
 
60 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ance of the same we shall have something more to say in a future 
 chapter on testing the objective. 
 
 This calculation holds good only for lenses with full opening. 
 When, however, lenses are used that have stops, the size of the 
 stop has to be substituted for the opening of the lens, and we can 
 only compare front-stop with front-stop, and back-stop with back- 
 stop. 
 
 The brightness of a picture, however, is not equal in all its parts. 
 The eye alone tells us that the brightness of the image decreases 
 from the centre towards the margin. 
 
 This circumstance is easily explained. Let us consider the sim- 
 ple case of a lens with a front stop. The diameter of the rays, 
 
 g , g, which pass through 
 the lens parallel to its 
 axis, is of the same size 
 as the opening of the 
 stop B. The diameter 
 of the oblique bundle of 
 ■0 rays is equal to the di- 
 ameter of the stop mul- 
 tiplied with the cosinus 
 of the angle of incidence, 
 or equal to B cos. x, or, 
 for instance, for an angle 
 of 60° — ^ B, and as 
 the brightness is proportioned as the square of the opening, the 
 brightness of centre and margin will be proportioned as 1 to 4. 
 
 With increased obliquity of the rays towards the lens the bright- 
 ness of the margin of the picture will correspond in gty decrease, 
 and this is the reason why it becomes so prominent in wide-angled 
 lenses. 
 
 To this must be added, that rays falling obliquely on a lens lose 
 a considerable amount of light by reflection from the surface of the 
 glass, and that this loss of light increases with the increase of 
 obliqueness. 
 
 This causes, in short exposures, the apparent under-exposure of 
 the margin. Sometimes this is of advantage, when it is desirable 
 to concentrate the main light on a characteristic object located in 
 the centre of the plate, as, for instance, on the head in portraiture. 
 It becomes very annoying in pictures of buildings, landscapes, and 
 drawings, however. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 61 
 
 The above-mentioned reflections from the surface of the glass 
 manifest themselves otherwise unpleasantly as they produce the 
 so-called light spot (ghost) and secondary pictures. 
 
 When light falls on a lens, a part of it is reflected from the sur- 
 face, another part enters the lens, passes through it, and on the 
 back surface another reflection takes place. The reflected rays 
 strike the front surface, are again thrown back, and are now by the 
 back surface partly reflected, partly refracted, and thus a secondary 
 picture is formed, which of course is very feeble and of little effect 
 in short exposure, but which will make itself felt and seen with a 
 long one. The focus of the secondary picture is dependent on the 
 curve of the lens. Generally it is quite different from the principal 
 focus of the lens, and the consequence is that the secondary picture 
 does not appear sharp on the ground-glass when the lens is in focus, 
 but only as a bright spot next to the bright object. With an in- 
 creased curve of the surface of the lens the reflection will increase, 
 and also the brightness of the secondary picture. By reducing the 
 size of the stop, the sharpness of the secondary image increases 
 (particularly in such lenses as the Globe lens), and when the front 
 lens is struck by direct sunlight, or is turned to the bright blue 
 sky. 
 
 When the focus of the secondary picture is infinite, then it will 
 appear as an image of the stop, and will be distinctly noticeable as 
 a bright spot in the centre of the picture. When, in such a case, 
 we move the stop forward, the spot will become smaller and better 
 defined, and the reverse takes place when we remove the stop back- 
 wards. The latter proceeding enables us sometimes to avoid or to 
 reduce its evil effects. 
 
 We have still to explain what we mean by the expression, the 
 field of view of a lens. 
 
 When a lens is screwed to a large camera and focussed on a dis- 
 tant object, we will notice on the ground-glass a bright circular 
 disk. The diameter of the disk is independent of the size of the 
 stop. When we compare lenses of unequal construction and equal 
 focus, we will find that this similar image is of very different size. 
 The angle, under which this picture is seen from the optical centre 
 of the objective, is called the field of view of the lens. 
 
 When a b is the diameter of the round picture, and c d equal to 
 the focal length, then is the angle, a, d, b , the field of view. 
 
 Of the round picture only a portion will appear sharp — namely, 
 the central part, and the sharpness will extend further towards the 
 margin as the size of the stops decreases. 
 
62 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The practical size of the picture is, hence, for a given stop, 
 always smaller than the field of view. This size, as well as the size 
 
 of the field of view, is also determined by the angle, d, formed by 
 lines drawn to two diametrically opposite points of sufficient dis- 
 tinctness. 
 
 We have explained in the previous chapter the shortcomings of 
 our lenses. We have demonstrated that these shortcomings, in the 
 face of the exacting demands which are made upon a photographic 
 lens, can only partially be overcome, and not entirely removed, and 
 all our photographic lenses, even those of the very best construction, 
 will leave something to be desired. 
 
 The qualities expected in a photographic lens are, 1. A great 
 amount of light, to enable us to take, in the shortest space of time, 
 the picture of a dark or a moving object. T.his can only be accom- 
 plished by a large opening and short focus. 2. Great sharpness 
 even to the margin, a quality that can only be secured by the em- 
 ployment of small stops, and just the opposite condition to what is 
 required in the first case. 3. A large and plain field of view. This 
 requires very oblique rays of light, for which the spherical aberra- 
 tion and the curvature of the picture can only be corrected with 
 great difficulty. 4. Freedom from distortion. 5. Absence of 
 chemical focus. 6. Equal intensity of light over the whole field of 
 view. 7. Depth, or equal sharpness for objects which are at un- 
 equal distances from the camera. 
 
 All these conditions can only be fulfilled with difficulty and not 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVES. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 63 
 
 at the same time, and this is the reason why we have no universal 
 lens answering all purposes. For this reason also, we are compelled 
 to employ different lenses for different work. 
 
 Most lenses conform, in a degree sufficient for practical purposes, 
 to the condition mentioned under Class 5, but only partially to the 
 other conditions. 
 
 The portrait objective fulfils condition No. 1, a large amount of 
 light, but the others only imperfectly. The triplet objective and 
 the Steinheil aplanatic lens fulfil condition No. 4 (correct draw- 
 ing); they excel the portrait lens in regard to condition No. 3, the 
 field of view, and No. 7, but are inferior in regard to the amount 
 of light. The pantoscope and the Zentmayer lens excel all others 
 in field of view and depth (No. 7); are the equals of the previous 
 ones in regard to No. 4 (correctness), but inferior in the amount 
 of light. The Dallmeyer landscape lens answers the same condi- 
 tions as the Steinheil lens, but is inferior to it in correctness of 
 drawing and the amount of light. The Eoss doublet fulfils the 
 conditions similar to the latter, and are correct in drawing. Depth 
 is only found in instruments with a small opening. The most 
 perfect is the pantoscope, and the least so is the portrait lens. It 
 is not to be wondered that we find so many different constructions 
 which perform so well in one direction and do so little in another. 
 
 To describe all these constructions would be out of place in a 
 work of this kind. We will only refer to those which we consider 
 the most important and which we have tried practically. The 
 manner of testing lenses we will explain further on. 
 
 1. THE SIMPLE ACHROMATIC OBJECTIVE, OR THE SO-CALLED LAND- 
 SCAPE LENS. 
 
 This simple objective is the oldest photographic lens in existence. 
 Its forms are very different, but are always an achromatic combina- 
 tion, consisting of a pair of lenses cemented together, and with a 
 front-stop. Skilled photographers very often remove single lenses 
 from a system, and use them with proper front stops for landscape 
 work, where a little distortion is of trifling importance. The almost 
 plano-convex front lens of a portrait combination is very often used 
 for this purpose by reversing it and placing stops in front. For 
 many purposes this is sufficient. There are many photographers 
 who make reproductions with such a lens. The distortion becomes 
 only perceptible when the field of view is taken too large. Within 
 an angle of 15° it will hardly be noticed. 
 
64 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The lenses which were first introduced in the market under the 
 name of landscape lenses had the following form : 
 
 Fig. 7, / represents flint-glass ; c, crown-glass. The stop, B, B , 
 is generally one-fifth of the focal length distant from the lens. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 I E 
 
 We meet with this lens in many ateliers. Besides this form there 
 are many others which, in regard to field of view, size of picture, 
 and correctness of drawing, yield better results. 
 
 One of these is in the form of a meniscus, 77, consisting of a 
 concavo-convex crown-glass and a convex-concavo flint-glass lens ; 
 both are cemented together with Canada balsam similar to the old 
 lenses. 
 
 A third form, which gives still better results, is Dallmeyer’s 
 landscape lens. 
 
 This combination consists of three lenses cemented together. 
 The central one is made of flint-glass, and the two outer ones of 
 
 two different kinds of crown-glass. 
 The stop is placed at about one. 
 tenth of the focal length from the 
 lens. Instead of several stops, 
 which can be changed according to 
 the wish to increase the sharpness 
 towards the margin of the field, the 
 Dallmeyer lens is provided with a 
 circular disk with different sized 
 holes ; the disk is fastened to the 
 tube. 
 
 The distortion of this lens is less 
 than any of the other forms, also the curve of the picture ; both are 
 favorable to the size of the field of view, and give the further ad- 
 vantage that with rather large stops sufficiently sharp pictures can 
 be obtained. The opening of the smallest stop is one-tliirtieth of 
 the focal length. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 65 
 
 2. THE PORTRAIT OBJECTIVE. 
 
 The Landscape objective was, in the earlier days of photography, 
 almost exclusively employed. It suffices for landscapes, where the 
 objects are at rest, where light is at one’s disposal, and where a 
 little distortion does not amount to much. For this class of work 
 the landscape lens is employed to this day. The opening of such 
 a lens, however, is small, under the most favorable circumstances 
 one-twentieth of the focal length, and the consequence is a propor- 
 tionally small intensity of light, which becomes particularly an- 
 noying when we wish to take interiors, rooms which are only par- 
 tially illuminated. A person in the glass-house had to sit in front 
 of such a lens for several minutes, and this circumstance compelled 
 the early photographers to place their models often in the open 
 air, and even in direct sunlight. That in .this way no artistically 
 perfect pictures could be made is self-evident, and it became 
 soon necessary for portrait photographers to have a lens that 
 would work with a large opening, and hence have a large amount 
 of light. 
 
 The invention of such a lens by Petzval, in Vienna, in the year 
 1841, was an event in photography, as by it portraiture became a 
 possibility. 
 
 The invention of these lenses is no accident, but the conse- 
 quence of a thorough theoretical calculation. Voigtlander, in 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Vienna, made the first lens according to Petzval’s directions, and 
 Martin, in Vienna, took the first daguerreotype with short ex- 
 posure. 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 This Portrait lens is a double objective with central stop and 
 two unequal lenses. 
 
 The front lens, A, consists of a biconvex crown, and an almost 
 plano-convex flint-glass lens, which are cemented together with 
 Canada balsam. 
 
 The back lens, B , consists of a piano-meniscus of flint, and 
 a biconvex crown-glass lens, c', which are separated by a ring. 
 
 Between the two the central stop, B, is placed, which has to be 
 smaller in proportion as we wish to push the sharpness of the 
 picture to the margin. In this general form, all the portrait lenses 
 coincide; only the new Dallmeyer portrait lens differs from it by 
 the reversed position of the back lens. Otherwise we find varia- 
 tions with different opticians in regard to focal length of the sep- 
 arate objectives, A and J3, the distance and size of the same, the 
 position of the stops, &c., which materially influence the qualities 
 of the lens. 
 
 A comprehensive exhibit of these differences the table on page fit 
 is intended to furnish, which contains, the result of the measure- 
 ments which have been made in the celebrated optical establish- 
 ment of Herr E. Busch, in Rathenow, with different portrait objec- 
 tives of 36 lines diameter : 
 
 The effect of the two combined glasses is given in a great 
 measure in the explanation in the previous chapter on the errors 
 of lenses. 
 
 The front lens is almost entirely aplanatic, and would, if employed 
 by itself in the original position, yield without stop a sharp but 
 much curved picture. 
 
 The front lens of a Voigtlander carte de visite lens of 68 milli- 
 metres diameter will give a picture at 330 millimetres focus. The 
 addition of a second lens produces a shortening of the focus and 
 an increase of light. ♦ 
 
 In the above-mentioned Yoigtlander objective, by adding a back 
 lens, the focus is reduced to 230 millimetres and the intensity 
 of light, without taking the absorption of light by the glass into 
 consideration, is increased in the reversed proportion of the square 
 of the focus — i. e., in the proportion of 529 : 1089, or, approximately, 
 1 : 2 . 
 
 The more closely the lenses A and B are brought together the 
 shorter the focus will become, and consequently we will have a cor- 
 responding increase in the intensity of light. But we observe that 
 at the same time the curvature of the picture and the spherical 
 aberration for oblique rays increase. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 67 
 
 
 OO. 
 
 O. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Front lens. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Equivalent focus in inches, 
 
 22.34375 
 
 20.125 
 
 17.9219 
 
 15.750 
 
 13.5469 
 
 11.3906 
 
 Back lens. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Equivalent focus in inches, 
 
 35.46875 
 
 31.9219 
 
 28.375 
 
 24.822 
 
 21.2915 
 
 17.750 
 
 Double objective. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Equivalent focus in inches, 
 
 15.250 
 
 13.729 
 
 12.0469 
 
 10.6875 
 
 9.2041 
 
 7.6875 
 
 Distance of the two objectives. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Measured from the highest 
 points of the two exterior 
 convex surfaces, . . . 
 
 6.833 
 
 6.180 
 
 5.550 
 
 4.900 
 
 4.375 
 
 3.800 
 
 Measured from the mount- 
 ings, 
 
 6.700 
 
 6.030 
 
 5.361 
 
 4.690 
 
 4.020 
 
 3.350 
 
 The diameter of the objec- 
 tive is proportioned to the 
 equivalent focus nearly as 
 
 1 : 5 
 
 1:4* 
 
 1 : 4 
 
 1 : 3£ 
 
 1 : 3 
 
 1 : 2J 
 
 The diameter of the objec- 
 tive (3 inches) divided by 
 the focal length, . . . 
 
 0.1967 
 
 0.2185 
 
 0.2490 
 
 0.2807 
 
 0.3259 
 
 0.3902 
 
 The squares of the above 
 quotients, 
 
 0.0387 
 
 0.0477 
 
 0.0620 
 
 0.0789 
 
 0.1062 
 
 0.1523 
 
 When the light of the sys- 
 tem of lenses, 00, is taken 
 as /, then the other sys- 
 tems will be 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.232 
 
 1.602 
 
 2.039 
 
 2.744 
 
 3.935 
 
 Abbreviated, 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 
 2 
 
 2f 
 
 4 
 
 The intensity of light ex- 
 pressed in seconds might 
 be expressed in the follow- 
 ing manner, when a given 
 picture, for instance, a 
 carte de visite, should be 
 made with all the lenses at 
 onceand all thestops being 
 equal, the time would be 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 14 r 6 r 
 
 10 
 
 S', S" (Fig. 38) are two oblique bundles of rays, parts of which 
 pass completely through the front len^. Those parts, however, 
 which, according to the explanation already made, would cause 
 spherical aberration, are cut off by the mounting, F , F. The 
 mounting acts as a stop, and by increasing its length a propor- 
 
68 • 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tional quantity of oblique raj's is excluded. It is easy to see 
 that when the lenses A and B are far removed from one another 
 the oblique rays, 8 , 8, will be almost entirely cut off by the mount- 
 ing ; it follows that when the lenses are far apart the field of view 
 will be reduced in size. 
 
 Consequently the distance of the two combinations is of much 
 importance. In the commercial lenses which give much light, as, 
 for instance, Mr. Ross’s carte stereoscopic lenses, and also his rapid 
 lenses for taking children’s pictures, the two combinations are 
 closely moved together, and the picture is very bright, but much 
 curved ; when we bring it on the ground-glass without resorting to 
 stops, only a small portion of the picture will appear absolutely 
 sharp. 
 
 In the larger objectives, which, comparatively speaking, give less 
 light, the distance between the two objectives is much greater, the 
 focus is longer, but the picture is larger, darker, and less curved. 
 
 Of equal importance with the distance of the combination is the 
 form. The separation of the crown and flint-glass lenses by a ring 
 is peculiar. 
 
 The achromatic rays which have been refracted by the front lens 
 strike the flint-glass lens,/', and suffer so much dispersion that the 
 rays of the axial bundle, 8, emerge almost parallel, the oblique 
 rays, 8', 8", diverge considerably ; hence, it follows that for the 
 axial rays, the change in the distance of the two lenses, f and c', is 
 of trifling importance when compared with the oblique rays. 
 
 When the ring is too small the margins of the picture will be 
 deficient in sharpness, and the picture will be too much curved. 
 
 An objective which gives a picture of great curvature, and de- 
 ficient in sharpness at the margin, can often be improved by 
 changing the ring in the back lens. This of course requires great 
 care and many experiments. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 On the other hand, the distance between the two lenses has 
 great influence on the achromatism ; the blue rays, on leaving 
 the flint-glass, diverge more than the yellow ones, or proceed 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 69 
 
 apparently from a point nearer to the second, lens, f , c , Fig. 38, 
 than the latter. By increasing the distance of the two glasses, or 
 what is the same, by increasing the size of the ring, we increase 
 also the length of the chemical focus as compared with the optical 
 one. 
 
 We meet with a peculiar construction of the back lens in Dall- 
 me 3 7 er’s new objectives. 
 
 The form is approximately the same as in the old objectives, but 
 the position is reversed — i. e., the flint-glass lens is back, and the 
 crown-glass lens is in front ; the distance of the two is variable, as 
 the distance between flint and crown-glass lenses can be regulated 
 by a screw movement. 
 
 With larger distance the marginal rays will fall on the lens nearer 
 to its centre, where the dispersion is less ; but with a shorter dis- 
 tance the rays will strike nearer the margin, where the dispersion 
 is greater. The lens is so constructed that in the latter case the 
 spherical aberration is almost entirely removed When, by the 
 screw movement, the lenses are removed from each othei , a con- 
 siderable spherical aberration is produced, and instead of one focus, 
 a number of focal points, /', /", make their appearance. (See 
 Fig. 29, p. 55.) 
 
 The ground-glass can be moved a little without interfering par- 
 ticularly with the sharpness of the picture, and securing, at the 
 same time, depth of focus. Experience has taught us, however, 
 that this supposition is not entirely admissible ; at all events, the 
 advantages gained by this screw movement are immaterial. 
 
 Besides the form, the size of the back lens exercises considerable 
 influence. The lens is generally made wider than the front lens. 
 This is the case in a striking manner in the conical objectives. By 
 increasing the size of the back lens the effectual part of the bundle 
 of rays, S', increases likewise, and which, with smaller lenses, is 
 cut off by the mounting, F, F. The consequence is greater bright- 
 ness of the margin of the picture, but also, as has been shown above, 
 more spherical aberration of the oblique rays. 
 
 The portrait objective is nearly free from distortion. 
 
 As an example we give the result of an examination of "V oigt- 
 lander’s carte de visite objective: 
 
 Practical field of view 
 
 Diameter. Focus. Field of view. with full opening. 
 
 68.5 millimetres, 230 millimetres, 43° 50', 22° 10'. 
 
70 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. THE ORTHOSCOPIC LENS. 
 
 For the copying of drawings, or for taking views of architectural 
 objects, it is of advantage to have an instrument which will give as 
 flat a field as possible. The Orthoscopie lens calculated by Petzval 
 meets these requirements. Formerly this lens, besides those we 
 have described above, was in general use ; now, however, the 
 Triplet has generalty taken its place. 
 
 The Orthoscopie consists of a large concavo-convex front lens, 
 A, with cemented crown and flint-glasses, and a combination of 
 
 lenses, B , the back lens, at the same 
 time acting as a dispersing glass. 
 This latter combination consists of a 
 biconcave flint and a concavo-convex 
 crown-glass lens. 
 
 The stops are generally arranged 
 at the back of the lens. 
 
 A drawback to this form of lens is 
 the distortion ; the straight lines are 
 generally curved inwards; this cir- 
 cumstance makes it less suitable for the copying of drawings and 
 the taking of architectural objects than the Triplet. 
 
 4. THE TRIPLET LENS. 
 
 The Triplet objective owes its name to its construction. It con- 
 sists of three systems of lenses, two achromatic collecting lenses 
 and a smaller dispersing lens placed between them ; the diameter 
 can be more or less modified by central stops. 
 
 When two equal collecting lenses are combined to a doublet, 
 with central stops, we will get, a picture which has the advantage 
 over the Orthoscope of being free from distortion and having greater 
 intensity of light than a single lens of the same focal length, but at 
 the same time the picture would be much curved. To remedy this 
 defect Sutton introduced a concave lens between them. This lens 
 acts as the dispersing one ; it makes the rays diverge, and conse- 
 quently the focus becomes longer. 
 
 The more converging oblique rays passing through the margin 
 of the intermediate lens, which latter has greater dispersing pow°er, 
 will experience, consequently, a greater lengthening of the focus 
 than the axial rays which pass through the centre of the lens. 
 
 The marked curvature of the picture is almost entirety obviated 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 by this arrangement. The original triplet of Sutton was symmet- 
 rical. Dallmeyer deviates in many 
 respects from Sutton’s directions, 
 and his triplets have a small front 
 lens, A , and a larger back lens, B. 
 
 The stops, D, are in front of the 
 middle lens, Z. 
 
 The whole system gives, with 
 the full opening, pictures which are 
 sharp in the centre ; as, however, 
 the full opening is proportionally 
 larger than in a portrait objective, 
 the lens gives not quite as much 
 light. To extend the sharpness to 
 the margin, the use of stops is 
 necessary. 
 
 The Triplet lens covers a larger 
 and flatter field than most portrait 
 lenses, and when correctly constructed it is free from distortion. 
 The lens is frequently employed for the copying of drawings, archi- 
 tectural objects, and landscapes. 
 
 The deficiency in light makes them undesirable for portraiture. 
 Dallmeyer states that by removing the middle lens the tube can be 
 used for portraiture. This would shorten the focus considerably 
 and increase the intensity of light, but the field would appeal ^ ery 
 much curved, and the picture would not be equal to one taken with 
 
 a common Portrait lens. 
 
 Lately Dallmeyer and also Busch have made experiments to in- 
 crease the “ light ” of these lenses by increasing the size of the 
 middle lens, and in this way an objective has been constructed 
 which retains the large and flat field of view of the ordinary tiiplet, 
 but which possesses a greater intensity of light, and thus ap- 
 proaches nearer to the Portrait lens. Busch’s improved Triplet is 
 known under the name of the Universal Triplet (so called because 
 it is adapted to so many different purposes). 
 
 This Universal Triplet, on account of its large field, does good 
 service in taking groups. A condition for success, however, is a 
 good light. 
 
 To show a comparison of the old and new triplet lenses, we give 
 below the result of several experiments : 
 
72 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 
 Diameter 
 
 
 Field 
 
 Size 
 
 Relative 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 front 
 
 of 
 
 middle 
 
 Focus. 
 
 of 
 
 view. 
 
 of 
 
 picture. 
 
 size 
 
 of 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 lens. 
 
 lens. 
 
 
 
 stop. 
 
 
 Dallmeyer’s ") 
 Triplet, > 
 No 1, j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 to. 
 
 18.5 to. 
 
 207 
 
 70° 40' 
 
 44° 30' 
 
 0.027 
 
 Slight distortion. 
 
 Busch’s 1 
 Universal V 
 Triplet, j 
 
 64 to. 
 
 50.5 to. 
 
 390 
 
 72° 
 
 45° 
 
 f Full 
 
 -< open- 
 ly ing. 
 
 Draws correctly. 
 
 The middle lens is in the older triplets smaller than yL of the 
 focal length, and in the Universal larger than £ of the focal length. 
 The Universal cannot be used without the middle lens. 
 
 5. steinheil’s aplanatic lens. 
 
 We possess, in the Triplet lens, an objective which combines, 
 with correct drawing properties, a tolerably flat field and consider- 
 able intensity of light ; but we cannot deny that these results are 
 reached by a rather complicated process. The three.lenses consist 
 each of two glasses, each of which has two surfaces, so that in all we 
 have twelve surfaces, to be ground and polished. The large num- 
 ber of surfaces reflects or absorbs a considerable quantity of light. 
 
 Steinheil, in Munich, attempted the construction of a lens which, 
 being simpler in composition, should, in regard to its intensity of 
 light, flatness of field, and correctness of drawing, equal the Triplet. 
 Thus originated the Aplanatic objective, which, in a remarkable 
 manner, fulfils all these conditions. 
 
 Steinheil’s Aplanatic consists of two flatly curved symmetrical 
 lenses, A , B (Fig. 33). Each separate one is composed of two 
 cemented meniscus lenses, consisting however of glasses of differ- 
 ent refracting power. The construction is the result of careful cal- 
 culations by Dr. Steinheil, which so far, however, have not been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 The Aplanatic gives, with the full opening of the focal length), 
 a sharp picture of the size of § of the focal length, and can, with 
 good light, be used for portraiture, the same as the Universal Trip- 
 let ; but it is slower than an ordinary portrait combination. What 
 the lens is capable of doing will be best explained by a statement 
 of the result of an examination by a committee of the Photographic 
 Society of Berlin. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 73 
 
 SteinheiVs Aplanatic Lens , No. 3. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Focus. 
 
 Size of 
 picture 
 for 
 
 portraits. 
 
 Land- 
 
 scape. 
 
 Field of 
 view. 
 
 Practical 
 size of pic- 
 ture with 
 0.026 stop. 
 
 Kemarks. 
 
 19'" 
 
 10K" 
 
 6J2" 
 
 10 w 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 ( According to the state- 
 j ment of price-list. 
 
 43 m. 
 
 296.6 m. 
 
 6" 
 
 
 65° 20' 
 
 43° 20' 
 
 t According to the report 
 } of the commission. 
 
 6. THE GLOBE LENS AND THE PANTOSCOPE. 
 
 The lenses which we have described so far, have only a moderately 
 laro-e field, which, under very favorable circumstances, may extend 
 to 60°. Such a field may be sufficient for most landscape and 
 architectural purposes, but it is inadequate when the photographer 
 has only a short distance between the lens and object at his dis- 
 posal, a case of frequent occurrence in streets or interiors. 
 
 Harrison & Schnitzer, in New York, constructed a lens which is 
 distinguished from former lenses by a very large field of view. 
 The lens is a double objective, A 
 B , with symmetrical, strongly 
 curved crown and flint glass 
 lenses, the outer curves of which 
 form a sphere; the lens is pro- 
 vided with stops, D. 
 
 The stops are a necessary part 
 of the objective. While the pre- 
 viously described lenses, Portrait 
 lens, Triplet, and Aplanatic, will 
 give sharp pictures without any 
 stop, the Globe lens will show so 
 much spherical aberration as to make the picture useless. 
 
 The consequence is that it is inferior in light to the previously 
 described lenses, but excellent in other respects. 
 
 The small stop excludes a large quantity of light which strikes 
 the open front lens, and only a small portion which falls nearly 
 vertical on the lens is able to exercise any effect. 
 
 The annexed figure will illustrate the course of such a bundle 
 
74 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 of rays. The oblique bundles, L 7, and N J, after being refract- 
 ed by the front lens, pass 
 through the centre of the ob- 
 jective and strike the points 
 B and E ; being here again 
 refracted, they leave the lens 
 parallel to their line of inci- 
 dence. 
 
 The original Globe lens 
 of Harrison showed only an 
 angle of 75°. 
 
 The Ross Doublet shows 
 equal capabilities; its con- 
 struction-, however, is different from that of the Globe lens. 
 
 Busch, in Rathenow, has constructed an instrument similar to 
 the Globe lens, which surpasses the latter lens in the size of the 
 picture, and the picture shows the astonishing angle of 90° (field 
 of view 105°). The picture which such a lens furnishes is twice as 
 long as the focus of the lens. 
 
 The arrangement of the lens is similar to the Globe, but the ex- 
 ternal surfaces are not in the same sphere. 
 
 In a still more perfect manner Mr. Zentmayer has accomplished 
 the same object by a combination of two strongly convex simple 
 crown-glass lenses. This Zentmayer lens is, 
 particularly in America, whore it originated, 
 very generally employed where a short distance 
 and large field of view are required. 
 
 The back lens is smaller than the front lens; 
 the front lens can be used again as back lens 
 of the next larger combination, an advantage 
 which landscape photographers will fully ap- 
 preciate. 
 
 Any variety of combinations and series of 
 f° ca I lengths might be constructed on the 
 above principle; but the plan adopted is as follows: The most 
 complete set consists of six lenses, the focal lengths of which 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 are — 
 
 I, 
 
 II, 
 
 III, 
 
 5.333 inches. 
 8 “ 
 
 12 “ 
 
 IV, 
 
 V, 
 
 VI, 
 
 18 inches. 
 27 “ 
 
 40.5 “ 
 
 These may all be successively arranged in the same mounting, 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 75 
 
 giving combinations with focal lengths and circular fields at 90°, 
 as follows : 
 
 Lenses I and II give a focal length of 3.55 inches, and field 1 inches 
 diameter. 
 
 Lenses II and III give a focal length of 5.33 inches, and field 10£ 
 inches diameter. 
 
 Lenses III and IV give a focal length of 8 inches, and field 16 
 inches diameter. 
 
 Lenses IV and V give a focal length of 12 inches, and field 24 
 inches diameter. 
 
 Lenses V and VI give a focal length of 18 inches, and field 36 
 inches diameter. 
 
 Thus, with six lenses and one mounting, five different instru- 
 ments may be successively adjusted in as many minutes, the 
 mounting being so arranged as to fit in the camera either way. 
 To pass from one focal length to the next longer in the series, it is 
 only necessary to take out the smaller lens and put in its place the 
 second size above. Thus, to change 8 inches into 12, lens No. Ill 
 is replaced by No. V, and the mounting reversed. A little shutter, 
 close to the central diaphragm, serves for “exposing” in place of 
 a cap; and a diaphragm plate is arranged with three holes for each 
 combination, a large one for focussing, a middle one for quick 
 work, and a small one to secure extraordinary sharpness ; for it is 
 one of the merits of this lens that a large stop may be used for 
 focussing, and a small one thrown in for the exposure, with not 
 only good, but the very best effect. 
 
 The decrease in the intensity of light towards the margin is a 
 great disadvantage of the objectives with a very large field of view; 
 the margins are frequently under exposed when the centre has re- 
 ceived its full exposure ; this becomes particularly apparent when 
 the centre of the field contains bright objects, while the margins 
 are occupied by darker ones. 
 
 In employing these instruments we have to observe, also, that 
 the perspective is frequently exaggerated ; the nearer objects ap- 
 pear too large, while those at a distance are too small. 
 
 As the latest in this line we must mention Dallmeyer’s Recti- 
 linear lens. This lens consists of two achromatic meniscus lenses, 
 A and B, with a stop between them. The position of the stop has 
 been selected in such a manner that the bright spot in the centre 
 (ghost) is avoided. 
 
76 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Rapid Rectilinear lens, lately constructed by Pallmeyer, re- 
 sembles the older Steinheil lens so much that it may be considered 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 Ary 
 
 a copy of the latter, in which Dallmeyer has only made a few 
 changes. 
 
 ON TESTING OBJECTIVES. 
 
 The general method amongst photographers is to take with a 
 new objective a few trial plates. Such trials are very valuable ; 
 still the result is always one-sided, as it gives information only in 
 regard to the size of the picture, the sharpness towards the mar- 
 gin, and the difference between visual and chemical focus, also in 
 regard to distortion. The intensity of light is only superficially 
 ascertained, and as for the size of the picture, this in itself forms 
 no criterion of the value of an objective. 
 
 We often hear the remark, that a portrait objective, which gives 
 a figure twice as high as the diameter of the lens, must be a good 
 one. 
 
 It is only necessary to examine the price-list of the opticians in 
 order to find out that the size of the picture, with objectives of the 
 same opening, varies considerably. So, for instance, the 3-inch 
 lens by Busch (page 67) gives in 
 
 Focus. Price. 
 
 System I, 
 
 a picture of 7 X 9 
 
 inches, 
 
 12 inches, 
 
 46 
 
 dollars. 
 
 “ II, 
 
 u 
 
 6 X7i 
 
 tt 
 
 1 o 7 tt 
 
 51 
 
 tt 
 
 “ III, 
 
 tt 
 
 4f X 6£ 
 
 it 
 
 q 2 tt 
 
 60 
 
 tt 
 
 “ IV, 
 
 tt 
 
 H X 51 
 
 ti 
 
 >7 7 it 
 
 ‘ 1 0 
 
 70 
 
 tt 
 
 If we would take the size of pictures as the test, the first should 
 be the best. The last, however, which gives the smallest picture, 
 is the most expensive. 
 
 In what consists the difference? 
 
 It is in the focus. With equal opening , the shorter the focus the 
 greater will he the intensity of light of a lens. This shows how im- 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 11 
 
 portant it is to ascertain the focal length of an objective when we 
 wish to judge of its quality. When the focal length is known, we 
 can form an opinion of the intensity of light. 
 
 The intensities of light are , with equal opening , the reverse of 
 the squares of the foci. 
 
 When we take, for instance, No. IY and No. I for comparison, 
 the strength of light is proportioned as 12 2 to Iff — i. e., as 144 to 
 59 t 2 6 9 0 , or almost as 2| to 1. 
 
 Hence System IY has 2^ times the intensity of light of Sys- 
 tem I, and in this consists its superiority (see table, page 67, on 
 the relation of intensity of light in the different systems, and the 
 time of exposure necessary for each one). The focal lengths, how- 
 ever, are generally only approximately stated in the different price- 
 lists. Many persons think that focal length is the distance between 
 the ground-glass and the back lens, when the system stands in 
 focus, or what is the same, projects a sharp picture on the ground- 
 glass. This is correct only for the simple lens, but not for a com- 
 pound combination. 
 
 For a combination of lenses, the focus, and the distance of the 
 ground-glass from the back lens, are two entirely different things. 
 
 For an example, I will select the Steinheil lens. Its focus, ac- 
 cording to the price-list, is 10£ Parisian inches, or 0.276 metre. 
 According to my measurements it was 0.296 metre. Similar dis- 
 crepancies happen frequently, and as it happens very often that one 
 does not know, by the focus, whether the distance of the back lens 
 from the ground lens, or the actual equivalent focus, is meant, the 
 importance to determine the length of focus becomes evident. Dif- 
 ferent methods have been recommended. I have tried them all, 
 and consider the following the simplest and most reliable. 
 
 The objective which is to be tested, is placed on a long camera; 
 a strip of black paper, of about four inches in length, with parallel 
 sides, is cut out, and afterwards divided again lengthways. The 
 one piece is pasted on a board, or on a piece of Bristol board ; the 
 other piece is pasted on the ground-glass ; both are pasted in a 
 vertical direction. The objective is now focussed on the black 
 strip, and the camera is moved backward and forward until the 
 image on the ground-glass corresponds exactly in size with the 
 piece pasted on to it. To make the upper line of the image exactly 
 correspond with the same line on the ground-glass, it will only be 
 necessary to fasten with a string the board carrying the black 
 paper to a nail in the wall, and to raise and lower it until the lines 
 coincide ; when the lower lines likewise coincide, the instrument is 
 
78 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 removed from the camera without changing the position of the 
 latter, and the distance between object and ground-glass is ex- 
 actly ascertained ; by dividing this distance by four we get at the 
 equivalent focus of the lens. 
 
 It is advisable to paste a piece of paper with small print on it 
 upon the black strip, as it facilitates focussing. 
 
 When we know the focal length, we can draw a very nearly cor- 
 rect conclusion in regard to the intensity of light. 
 
 The opening is divided by the focal length, and the square of 
 this figure is found. So is, for instance, the fraction for — 
 
 Voigtlander C. de Visite. 
 
 68.5 
 
 230.4 
 
 Auzoux 3 inch. 
 
 Busch’s Portrait Triplet. 
 
 Steinheil. 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 43.5 
 
 350.5 
 
 390 
 
 303.06 
 
 Or expressed in simple figures — 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 3 7 < t 4* 6 
 
 The squares of these figures are — 
 
 I 1 J_ 
 
 11.3 21 36 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 Theoretically, the intensity of light of the different objectives 
 will bear the same relation. Practically, there are many exceptions 
 to this rule ; the more or less fine polish, the color and form of the 
 glass, play an important part. 
 
 The author had two Dallmeyer stereoscope lenses of the same 
 focus and opening, but the one had much less intensity of light 
 than the other. But, until we possess an exact process for deter- 
 mining the intensity of light, the above calculation will give ap- 
 proximately this important factor. 
 
 As important as the determination of the focal length is for 
 finding the intensity of light, so also it serves to determine the ex- 
 tent of the field of view. The lens is screwed to a very large 
 camera in order that the circle of light may be completely visible 
 on the ground-glass. 
 
 The diameter of the circle should be exactly measured, and trans- 
 ferred to a piece of paper (see a, 5, Fig. 35). In the centre a ver- 
 tical line should be erected, d, c, its length being the same as the 
 focal length of the lens, and we next construct the triangle, a, d, b . 
 The angle at d is the field of view of the lens. This angle is easily 
 measured with a protractor. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 79 
 
 The possessors of trigonometrical tables do not require this 
 construction, but can determine the angle from the radius of 
 the circle of light and the focus. The tangent of half the angle of 
 the field of view is equal to the radius of the circle of light divided 
 by the focus. 
 
 When we take a picture in which the whole circle of light is 
 visible, we will find that only the central part is sharp and fit for 
 use ; but by substituting smaller stops the sharpness will extend 
 further and further towards the margins. How far the sharpness 
 is useful for practical purposes depends entirely on individual 
 opinion. Some photographers are in this respect extremely 
 pedantic, while others are satisfied with moderate results. 
 
 The nature of the object also (whether portrait, landscape, or 
 reproductions) plays an important part. When we desire to deter- 
 mine how large the actual practically useful field of a lens is, we 
 have to find out the extreme points where the sharpness is still suf- 
 ficient, and then apply a rule and ascertain the diameter of the 
 practically useful surface. 
 
 When we execute the same construction as above, we will find 
 the practical angle of the field of the picture. 
 
 The introduction of stops has of course a considerable influence 
 in extending the field ; and in comparing the performance of two 
 objectives, the sizes of the stops must not be overlooked. It is, 
 however, incorrect to measure the size of the stop only. In order 
 to get a correct guide, the size of the stop should be divided by 
 the focal length of the respective objective. 
 
 The size of the picture is only to be considered when the instru- 
 ment is nearly in focus with the ground-glass. It is quite different 
 when the picture is removed from the focus. A carte de visite 
 lens, for instance, will give in its focus a picture of about three 
 inches ; but an object three inches long, placed in the focus of the 
 lens, would if projected on a screen, or on the ground-glass, be 
 five feet long. The size of the picture is, hence, only relative, 
 when expressed in definite terms, while the angle of the picture re- 
 mains, under all circumstances, the same. 
 
 To test for focal differences, see the chapter on microphotography. 
 
 THE STEREOSCOPE. 
 
 When we look with both eyes at a near object, the view which 
 each eye obtains of the object will be different. The left eye will 
 see more of the left side, and the right eye will see more of the 
 right side of a body. Both views combined produce the effect of 
 
80 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 solidity. In 1838, Wheatstone tried to produce a similar effect by 
 looking at two pictures, one of which represented the object as it 
 would appear to the left eye, the other gave the right-eyed view : 
 and his experiment was successful. He saw the plain figures solid. 
 The figures employed by him w r ere drawn by hand, and consisted 
 of lines and circles. The construction of pictures representing 
 complicated objects, as landscapes and persons, offered greater 
 difficulties ; and such pictures became only possible by means of 
 photography. At the same time a handy instrument for viewing 
 these pictures was invented by Brewster, which he called the 
 stereoscope, an instrument which, at the present day, is found in 
 every drawing-room. Stereoscopic pictures and cartes de visite 
 rival each other, and both of these articles have become an incen- 
 tive for the photographer to furnish the most perfect productions 
 for the lowest price. 
 
 Brewster’s stereoscope consists of two prismatic pieces of glass, 
 L L ' , which, when attached to each other by their bases, would 
 form a biconvex lens. Both the prismatic glasses 
 are mounted in a piece of wood in such a man- 
 ner that the points are opposite to each other, 
 and that both correspond to the position of the 
 eyes. When we now look at a stereoscopic 
 picture, through these glasses, by bringing them 
 close to the eye, and placing the picture at a 
 distance where the objects appear plainest, the 
 two pictures will appear as one, and give a per- 
 fectly plastic impression. 
 
 The coalescence is explained by the fact that 
 the lenses act like prisms — i. e., divert the lenses of the eye in the 
 direction of the refracting edges. 
 
 Suppose that a and a' are two corresponding points in the stereo- 
 scopic picture, and L and L' the lenses (Fig. 46), then the rays a b 
 and a b' will be so diverted that they will appear as if they pro- 
 ceeded from a single point, a". 
 
 In order that this appearance may take place in a normal man- 
 ner, it is necessary that the pictures should be mounted at a proper 
 distance from each other. A trial will soon establish the necessary 
 distance. As the stereoscopic glasses are lenses, they act at the 
 same time as magnifiers ; they enlarge the picture. Lenses have the 
 effect of placing the objects at the distance of most distinct vision, 
 and as this distance is different in different individuals, it follows 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 81 
 
 that the distance of the glasses from the picture depends on the 
 individuality of the observer. 
 
 For this purpose stereoscopes have been made where the glasses 
 can be moved, or where the picture can be brought nearer to or 
 removed further from the glasses. 
 
 Generally the picture is near the focus of the lens with which we 
 view it ; it is essential also that the focal length of the lenses with 
 which we view a stereoscopic picture, should be of nearly the same 
 length as those with which the picture was taken. When this 
 is not the case a wrong stereoscopic effect will be produced, and 
 this causes the exaggerated perspective in pictures which have 
 been taken with lenses of very short focus, and are viewed with 
 lenses of only slight magnifying power. 
 
 Stereoscopic pictures are either taken with a camera with two 
 objectives, the distance between them being about the same as the 
 distance between the eyes (2^ inches), or they are taken with a 
 single objective by placing the camera first in the position of the 
 right eye, and then the left. 
 
 For very distant objects, the distance has to be increased in order 
 to recover the plastic effect; in landscapes this amounts sometimes 
 to as much as several feet. For near objects excessive distance 
 exaggerates the prominent points, and in case of a person, the nose 
 or hands seem to project several feet from the body. 
 
 THE PANORAMIC APPARATUS. 
 
 The generality of photographic apparatus has only a very 
 limited field of view, and does not admit of taking a view of con- 
 siderable lateral extension, such as we frequently meet with at the 
 seashore or in the mountains ; for instance, the panorama of the 
 Rigi, or the Faulhorn. Martens, an engraver in Paris, conceived 
 the idea of taking such pictures with a rotating camera, which 
 would successively take in the whole horizon. 
 
 He constructed, in 1847, a camera with a cylindrical daguerreo- 
 type plate ; the plate remained stationary while the camera with 
 the objective revolved ; the light acted on the plate through a 
 small slit. It is easily demonstrated that, in spite of the revolving 
 motion of the camera, the picture of the same object must always 
 be projected on the plate in the same spot. The image of a point 
 lies always on the straight line which is drawn from the point 
 through the centre of the lens. 
 
 When a is such a point, and o the centre of the objective, P, P, 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 
 the cylindrical plate, then the image of the point will be on a line, 
 
 a 6, drawn through the plate from o. 
 When now the objective is moved 
 around its centre (as is indicated in 
 the figure by the dotted lines), then 
 the image of a, according to the prin- 
 ciple stated above, will still remain on 
 the same line, a b (because a and o do 
 not change their positions), and will 
 fall again on the point b of the plate, 
 and notwithstanding that the objective 
 moves constantly, all the points of the 
 object will be sharply defined in the 
 picture. 
 
 The above holds good only, of course, 
 when the rays do not form too large 
 an angle with the axis. To prevent 
 this, a diaphragm with a narrow slit is 
 placed opposite the lens, the opening 
 of which is parallel to the axis of rotation, and which moves simul- 
 taneously with the objective. 
 
 The fault of Martens’ apparatus is the cylindrical plate, the prep- 
 aration of which in the ordinary collodion process offers great 
 difficulties. 
 
 Brandon introduced in its place a plane plate, which, during the 
 rotation, rolls itself, so to speak, off the cylindrical surface of the 
 image, following the motions of the objective. 
 
 The mechanism, to execute the motion in an exact manner, 
 differs widely, and the opinions vary considerably as to which 
 manner of construction is the most practical. 
 
 Generally the camera, C, Fig. 48, with the objective, o, is placed 
 on a horizontal metallic plate, 8, S; the camera rests on small 
 wheels and revolves around an axis which passes through the op- 
 tical centre of the objective. 
 
 The wheels are moved by clock-work. The plate-holder runs in 
 a movable groove, as in a carte de visite camera. A cord wound 
 around the disk, 8, S , the ends of which run off in the direction of 
 the tangent, and which are fastened to the ends of the plate-holder 
 at a, causes the latter to move, and to occupy successively the 
 positions which, in the annexed figure, are illustrated in three 
 phases, — beginning at K\ K', centre at A, K , end of motion at 
 K", K". 
 
OF THE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 83 
 
 The pictures obtained with this apparatus are evidently projec- 
 tions on a cylinder unrolling itself. The vertical lines are repro- 
 duced vertical, but the horizontal ones, unless they coincide with 
 the horizon of the apparatus, are represented as curves. 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 When we take a house front or a street with this apparatus, the 
 top lines will appear as an upward curved line, while the base lines 
 will be curved in the opposite direction, which effect becomes more 
 unpleasant when the line is very long and far removed from the 
 horizon. 
 
 For architectural views this apparatus can only be used to a very 
 limited extent, and a wide-angled lens is decidedly preferable. 
 
PRELIMINARY 
 
 FORK IN THE LABORATORY. 
 
 The chemicals necessary for the different photographic processes 
 are generally mixed beforehand ready for use. The especially im- 
 portant mixtures are the collodion , the silver bath , the developer , 
 the intensifier, and the fixing solution. These fluids are absolutely 
 necessary before one can commence to work, and they must be in 
 such a condition that we can rely on their good qualities. In their 
 preparation, preservation, and treatment the greatest care is neces- 
 <rnd particularly the greatest cleanliness is to be observed in 
 the preparation of the collodion and nitrate bath. When a mistake 
 has been made it will manifest itself in every plate, and success 
 becomes impossible. The utmost care is therefore the more neces- 
 sary, as even the smallest homoeopathic quantities, which can hardly 
 be traced by analytical tests, when present in the collodion or in 
 the bath, are apt to make all photographic success an illusion. 
 
 The author knows hundreds of photographers, who, either from 
 carelessness or ignorance, neglected to clean a funnel, and, without 
 suspecting it, ruined their collodion or nitrate bath, and who after- 
 wards had ten times as much trouble to restore their chemicals 
 to working order, as it would have taken to give to the funnel the 
 most thorough cleaning. 
 
 1. PREPARATION OF THE COLLODION. 
 
 The great care which has been recommended above refers par- 
 ticularly to the preparation of the collodion. A silver bath is 
 easily mixed, and it can be used at once if the old bath should 
 refuse to work. A new collodion, however, can, under most favor- 
 able circumstances, only be used successfully a few days after it 
 has been mixed. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 85 
 
 The photographic collodion is a solution of pyroxyline in a 
 mixture of alcohol and ether, with which certain salts are mixed, 
 the so-called iodizing salts ; it serves to produce the sensitive film. 
 
 When a glass plate is coated with this collodion, a film containing 
 a combination of collodion and this iodizing salt will xemain on the 
 glass ; when this plate is now dipped into the nitrate bath, the salts 
 of iodine and bromine will decompose, and iodide and bromide of 
 silver (which are verj T sensitive to light) will take their place on 
 the film, while a combination of nitric acid with a base will- remain 
 in the bath. 
 
 We will first consider the properties of pyroxyline (gun-cotton). 
 How it is made I will not explain here, for I hardly think that 
 a photographer will attempt to make it himself, as there are plenty 
 of sources from which to get a good and reliable article. 
 
 The recently introduced papyroxyline made from paper, is chemi- 
 cally identical with gun-cotton, and possesses the same qualities. 
 
 PYROXYLINE AND PLAIN COLLODION. 
 
 Pyroxyline is soluble in different substances, as, for instance, in 
 acetic ether. On evaporating the solution it remains as a white 
 powder. 
 
 The best photographic solvent is a mixture of alcohol and ether, 
 from which the collodion on evaporation separates as a transparent 
 glutinous film. The properties of this film vary not only with the 
 kind of pyroxyline empk>3 r ed, but depend also on the qualities of 
 the solvents that have been used. The more rapidly they evaporate 
 the more firm will he the film, and with slow evaporation the film 
 will be correspondingly soft. 
 
 With an excess of ether the film becomes strong and cohesive, 
 contracts easily, and does not adhere firmly to the glass ) it can 
 often be removed entirely from the plate without tearing it. 
 
 With an excess of alcohol the film is tender and tears easily. 
 This is the case to a still greater extent when the collodion contains 
 water. 
 
 When to a good collodion water is added, a precipitate will be 
 formed, which will redissolve on shaking. The collodion is now 
 slimy ; the film seems transparent, netted, and very tender. These 
 faults will show themselves when we employ an alcohol contain- 
 ing much water ; to obviate it, we have to increase the proportion 
 of alcohol. Here, however, another drawback manifests itself very 
 soon : the ether evaporates and the remaining collodion yields as 
 
86 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tender films as before 5 such a collodion can be improved again by 
 adding ether to it. 
 
 How much alcohol and ether are necessary depends on the raw 
 material. For cotton which shows a tendency to give a slimy and 
 rotten film, much ether and £ — T > 3 alcohol should be taken. For 
 cotton which has been prepared at a high temperature, and with a 
 mixture containing much sulphuric acid, and which, in consequence, 
 gives a firm, structureless, rapidly drying, and easily contracting 
 film— i. e., a parchment-like collodion— more alcohol than ether 
 should be used. 
 
 The strength of the alcohol is very important. For slimy collo- 
 dion the alcohol should be absolute, while for a pai’chment-like 
 sample the alcohol may contain water. Hardwich recommends for 
 the latter, when the alcohol is absolute, 2 parts alcohol to 1 ether. 
 
 For hot seasons and climates a collodion with alcohol is to be 
 recommended, as it will otherwise dry too rapidly. Sutton recom- 
 mends, for hot countries, a pyroxyline which will dissolve in pure 
 alcohol, the so-called alcolen. It is made at a high temperature 
 (80°), but, according to Hardwich, the alcohol not only acts physi- 
 cally, but also photographically. It increases the sensitiveness and 
 the intensity. r J he former is only up to a certain limit increased 
 by the addition of alcohol; when this limit is exceeded a diminu- 
 tion takes place ; but it is different with the intensity, which, par- 
 ticularly in warm weather, with a collodion containing much ether, 
 is very feeble. 
 
 The porous character of the film certainly exercises an influence 
 here. 
 
 In Germany we generally take for plain collodion one-half alcohol 
 and one-half ether. Both must be neutral and free from essential 
 oils. The cotton is weighed out, say, for instance, 20 grammes ; 
 to this is added 500 grammes alcohol of at least 95°; better still is 
 absolute alcohol ; and when the cotton is perfectly saturated with 
 alcohol, 500 grammes ether, of a specific gravity of 0.125, is added; 
 the bottle is now well shaken, until all the cotton has dissolved ; it 
 is now placed for at least a week in a cool place for settlement ; 
 when the collodion has become perfectly clear, it is decanted off. 
 I generally keep on hand plain collodion containing two and four 
 per cent, of gun-cotton. The former is for ordinary collodion; the 
 latter is added to give any desired consistency. When all has dis- 
 solved, this mixture is tested with litmus paper, to see if it has an 
 acid reaction ; should the latter be the case, it has to be neutralized 
 with a pinch of carbonate of soda. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 87 
 
 Collodion must be kept in the dark in well-corked bottles. Ac- 
 cording to its preparation it will keep for a shorter or longer space 
 of time. Its keeping qualities depend in a great measure on the 
 nature of the cotton. 
 
 Half-decomposed pyroxyline, which has been made from old 
 linen at a high temperature, will not keep long even if it should 
 work well at first. To test plain collodion for its keeping qualities, 
 it should be well shaken with dry carbonate of potash; if it is good, 
 it must remain colorless for the first two hours ; if it turns lapidly 
 brown, it will not keep long. 
 
 The ether also has something to do with its permanence. It is 
 often ozonized, and liberates iodine from the metals ol iodine that 
 have been added. 
 
 Such collodion will work very intense at first, but it will not 
 keep. In oxidizing, aldehyde and acetic acid will be produced, 
 which also act injuriously. 
 
 IODIZING SALTS. 
 
 The plain collodion, which is the bearer of the picture, may be 
 mixed at once with the sensitive salts of silver, which in this case 
 remain suspended in the collodion. This, however, is not generally 
 done, but the iodide and bromide of silver are formed in the film 
 by adding the iodine and bromine metals to plain collodion, and by 
 dipping the plate coated with this mixture into a solution of nitrate 
 of silver, by double decomposition iodide and bromide of silver are 
 precipitated in the film itself. The addition of the metals of iodine 
 and bromine to plain collodion is called iodizing, and the salts 
 which are employed are called the iodizing salts, and the collodion, 
 after being mixed with these substances, is called iodized collodion, 
 or often simply salted collodion (the former expression is, in so far, 
 incorrect, as not only iodine, but also bromine metals, are added to 
 the collodion).* 
 
 We will now consider a little more closely the properties of the 
 iodizing salts and the salted collodion. It is evident that of the 
 numerous iodine and bromine metals only those can be used for 
 salting collodion which are soluble in alcohol and ether. 
 
 The following are employed : 
 
 Iodide of potassium (K I), atomic weight = 166.12, is a salt free 
 from water, which crj r stallizes in cubes ; it melts easy at glowing 
 
 * The reason why the salts of bromine are 
 be explained further on. 
 
 also added to the collodion will 
 
88 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 heat; when the temperature becomes higher it evaporates; it is 
 easily soluble in water; at 12° C, 1 part of iodide of potassium is 
 dissolved in 0.135 water. The solution of iodide of potassium dis- 
 solves iodine in considerable quantities. It does not dissolve 
 readily in alcohol; 1 part KI requires from 40 to 60 parts of 
 strong alcohol, according to Hardwich 180 parts of absolute 
 alcohol. In its crystallized state, it does not change in the light ; 
 dissolved in HO, it soon turns yellow in the light, and iodine is 
 liberated. Its reaction is alkaline. Dissolved in 5 to 10 HO, no 
 reaction is perceptible ; but when a piece is moistened with HO, 
 and placed on violet litmus paper, the latter will after a while as- 
 sume a wine color (that this change of color does not take place at 
 once is probably owing to a decomposition). Hardwich states 
 that the pure salt changes color in the light ; when this is not the 
 case, it is owing to the presence of a free alkali. 
 
 Bromide of potassium, atomic weight 119.12, crystallizes, free 
 from water, in cubes, the same as iodide of potassium ; is perma- 
 nent in the air ; melts at a red heat ; dissolves very readily in 
 water, but very slowly in alcohol, so much so that it will pre- 
 cipitate under double decomposition, when a saturated alcoholic 
 solution of iodide of potassium is replaced by the solution of one 
 of the bromine metals, for instance, bromide of cadmium. Accord- 
 ing to Hardwich, an ounce of collodion, containing ether and 
 3^ alcohol, will only dissolve £ grain of bromide of potassium. 
 Iv Br dissolved in 10 parts of water has a neutral reaction; but 
 when pieces of it are moistened with water, and laid on pieces of 
 litmus paper, its reaction is decidedly alkaline. 
 
 The difficulty with which iodide and bromide of potassium dis- 
 solve in water renders their employment in iodizing collodion 
 rather difficult; it happens not unfrequently that they will crys- 
 tallize out of the solution, particularly at low temperature, and form 
 precipitates, which in the photographic practice give rise to spots. 
 I employ them only exceptionally. 
 
 Iodide of sodium (Nal + 4 HO), atomic weight = 186, crys- 
 tallizes with 4 atoms of water in small spear-shaped crystals ; de- 
 composes in the air. It dissolves very easily in water, and quite 
 freely in alcohol; 100 parts of alcohol of 95 per cent, will dissolve 
 at 15° C, 8.33 parts of iodide of sodium. On account of its solu- 
 bility, it is preferable to iodide of potassium. In its other qualities 
 it is very similar to iodide of potassium. A great deal of the Nal 
 of commerce is almost free from water. 
 
 Bromide of sodium (NaBr -f 4 HO), atomic weight = 139, 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 89 
 
 crystallizes containing a certain amount of water ; it is not influ- 
 enced by exposure to the air ; dissolves readily in water, slightly 
 in alcohol, but better than bromide of potassium. The solubility 
 of the pure salt is not known. In the presence of iodide of cad- 
 mium 100 parts of alcohol at 95° will dissolve (according to the 
 amount of cadmium) 0.8 to 1.3 iodide of sodium. 
 
 Unfortunately iodide of sodium, as well as bromide of sodium, 
 when purchased commercially, are very seldom pure, and occasion, 
 when employed photographically, many inconveniences. 
 
 Iodide of ammonium (NH 4 I), atomic weight = 145, is a very 
 unstable salt, which generally is half-decomposed when purchased ; 
 it readily parts with iodine and becomes yellow. When fresh its 
 reaction is alkaline; it dissolves in alcohol much more readily than 
 K I and Nal, and must be kept in a dark place. Its impurities 
 are very often Am OCO, and S 0 3 . The yellow mass is made 
 white again by shaking with ether, or by adding a drop of sulphate 
 of ammonia; its solubility in alcohol has caused its general em- 
 ployment in photography. 
 
 Bromide of ammonium (NH 4 Br), atomic weight = 98; it is 
 made by the direct action of ammoniacal gas on bromine ; nitrogen 
 escapes and NH 4 Br remains. It is a more constant salt than 
 KH 4 I, and dissolves more readily in alcohol than KI and Nal. 
 100 parts of alcohol at 95° will dissolve 3 parts of N H 4 Br. 
 
 Iodide of lithium (Li I -f 6 HO) contains, according to Ram- 
 melsberg, 6 equivalents of water ; is deliquescent in the air, and 
 turns yellow ; dissolves readily in water and alcohol. It is only 
 rarely employed for iodizing. 
 
 Bromide of lithium (Li Br 2 ) ; its qualities are not very well 
 known. It dissolves, like Li I, readily in alcohol, and is only ex- 
 ceptionally employed. 
 
 Iodide of calcium (Cal) and Bromide of calcium (CaBr) form 
 salts easily soluble in water, which readily decompose in the air by 
 parting with carbonate of lime. 
 
 Iodide of zinc and Bromide of zinc form white crystals, which 
 become liquid when exposed to the air; are soluble in water and 
 alcohol, and decompose readily. They are not often employed in 
 photography. The inclination which Zn I possesses to form double 
 salts is interesting; we mention the N H* + Znl and Kal + 2 
 Zn I. 
 
 Iodide of cadmium (Cdl), atomic weight = 182.7 ; it is obtained 
 by heating cadmium foil with iodine and water ; the solution yields, 
 on evaporating it, large six-sided plates. It can be fused, and is 
 
90 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 free from water ; under the influence of light it easily turns yellow ; 
 dissolves readily in alcohol and water, and forms plates which have 
 a lustre like mother of pearl; its reaction in solutions is acid ; ex- 
 posure to the air does not change it ; it shows a tendency to forming 
 double salts. 
 
 Ka I Cd I + 2 HO} 
 
 Am I Cd 1 + 2 HO C according to Croft. 
 
 Na I Cd I + 6 HO) 
 
 Combined with oxide of cadmium, it forms iodic oxide, which is 
 decomposed l^y alcohol. 
 
 Bromide of cadmium (Cd Br + 4 HO), atomic weight — 171.7; 
 it is obtained in the same way as iodide of cadmium ; crystallizes 
 with four equivalents of water in needle shape, which decompose 
 in the air; is easily soluble in water and alcohol, and melts and 
 sublimes at a high temperature; it is apt to form double salts. 
 
 K Br + 2 Cd Br + HO also Ka Br + Cd Br 
 and Na Br + 2 Cd Br + 5 HO (Croft). 
 
 These double salts have not been exactly determined as yet, but 
 the photographic practice seems to indicate that great solubility 
 in alcohol and greater permanence are the characteristic features. 
 This is the reason why mixtures of cadmium and alkaline salts are 
 preferred for iodizing collodion. Of all the iodizing salts those of 
 cadmium are the most permanent. They would be employed ex- 
 clusively if their acid reaction would! not somewhat impair the 
 sensitiveness of the preparations^ 
 
 ACTION OF THE IODIZING SALTS. 
 
 When different kinds of collodion are mixed with different 
 iodizing salts in equivalent proportions, we find very marked dif- 
 ferences in their action, which we cannot expect a priori , and 
 which relate, on the one hand, to the fluidity, on the other hand, 
 to the permanency and sensitiveness of the preparation. Of im- 
 portance are: 1, the physical actions which the salts exert on the 
 collodion. It has been found that the alkaline iodizing salts 
 (potassium, sodium, ammonium, and lithium) make the collodion 
 limpid, while the others (Cd I, Zn I, Cd Br) make the collodion 
 thick (some collodions, which have been prepared with an excess of 
 sulphuric acid, become, on the addition of iodide of potassium, 
 first very thick, and then all at once very limpid). 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 
 
 91 
 
 We notice a similar tendency of making collodion very fluid in 
 some of the alkline carbonates, which are frequently added to 
 the iodizing salts. There are only four salts used in photography 
 which have an acid reaction, namely, iodide and bromide of cad- 
 mium, and iodide and bromide of zinc. The others, which have 
 been mentioned above, have an alkaline reaction. It is self-evident 
 that for the former a thinner, for the latter a thicker collodion 
 should be selected — i. e., one which contains more or less pyroxy- 
 line. 
 
 2. Permanence In regard to permanence, collodion prepared 
 
 with cadmium stands at the head of the list; it keeps a long time 
 without turning yellow, while alkaline iodizing salts, in solution, 
 decompose rapidly, and the collodion turns first yellow, next red, 
 and becomes very limpid. The least stable salt of the kind is 
 ammonium, next follows iodide of lithium, and finally iodide of 
 cadmium. The bromine metals do not decompose as easily. The 
 cause of the red color is the oxidation of the alkaline metals, on 
 the one hand by ozone, which is frequently contained in the ether, 
 on the other hand by nitrous acid from the pyroxyline. Sometimes 
 the impurities of the salts are the cause, because they contain alka- 
 line carbonates. The permanency of the collodion is increased 
 when several salts are used for iodizing it; it is probably due to 
 the formation of double salts, which resist decomposition longer (see 
 above, iodide of cadmium). In a similar manner do the salts of 
 bromine promote permanence (Hardwicli) ; the effect is particularly 
 good with collodion containing iodide of ammonium.* 
 
 3. A third point is the solubility of the salts. Iodide of potas- 
 sium, for instance, dissolves only very sparingly, and can only be 
 used under certain conditions. A collodion containing equal 
 parts of alcohol and ether (the former of 0.816) will bear for every 
 120 parts, 1 part of iodide of potassium (Hardwicli); but when we 
 add iodide of cadmium, a more soluble double salt will be formed, 
 consisting of almost equal parts by weight of both the salts. 
 Bromide of potassium dissolves still more sparingly. Collodion 
 
 * Concerning the preserving action of the salts of bromine, the author had 
 a curious experience. He prepared two samples of collodion ; both contained 
 the same amount of iodide of cadmium and iodide of sodium, but to the one 
 he added bromide of sodium ; the collodion containing bromine turned red in 
 a few days, while the collodion containing iodine only, preserved its yellow 
 color for three months. On examination it was found that the bromide of 
 sodium contained sulphuric acid. The same collodion prepared with bromide 
 of cadmium kept splendidly. 
 
92 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 containing 4^ ether and 3? alcohol will not take more than £ grain 
 per ounce of bromide of potassium (Hardwich). A precipitate is 
 easily formed when we add bromide of cadmium to collodion con- 
 taining iodide of cadmium. This is a second reason for rejecting 
 K I and taking the more soluble sodium and ammonium salts. 
 
 Li I and NH 4 I dissolve very readily ; but their tendency to 
 decomposition destroj’s the permanence of a preparation containing 
 them ; and they are not very easily obtained pure. Of the salts of 
 bromine, the best and most soluble is bromide of cadmium ; the 
 next is bromide of ammonium, to which the author gives the 
 preference.* 
 
 4. Finally, the photographic qualities have to be considered. 
 These differences do not show themselves much with freshly iodized 
 and pure collodions, which have been mixed with equivalent quan- 
 tities of different iodine and bromine salts. Observe that a fresh 
 iodide of potassium gives a stronger picture than iodide of am- 
 monium, and the latter gives apparently a stronger picture than 
 iodide of cadmium. The inferior intensity of the iodide of cadmium 
 collodion pictures is probably explained by the acid reaction of the 
 nitrate of cadmium oxide, formed in silvering. In course of time, 
 however, the collodions will change, those containing K I and 
 N II 4 I changing the most rapidly ; they become less sensitive and 
 turn red and limpid, but will give, with extended exposure, suffi- 
 ciently intense pictures. 
 
 The change in photographic sensitiveness takes place much more 
 rapidly, simultaneously with an increase of the intensity , in the 
 presence of organic substances, such as nitro-glucose, grape-sugar ; 
 also with collodion which has been prepared at a high temperature 
 and in a very diluted state. 
 
 One often finds that a collodion at first turns red, but becomes 
 afterwards lighter. This is explained by the formation of organic 
 reducing bodies, which absorb the iodine, which causes the yellow 
 color. 
 
 It only remains to explain why generally a mixture of iodine and 
 bromine salts is employed for salting the collodion. 
 
 In order to get a clear understanding about the main point — the 
 
 * The solubility of bromide of sodium is much increased by the presence of 
 cadmium salts. According to two experiments, 30 parts of alcohol contain- 
 ing 0.7 iodide of cadmium and 0.7 iodide of sodium dissolved 0.233 bromide 
 of sodium. While 80 parts of alcohol, containing 1.0 iodide of cadmium and 
 0.4 iodide of sodium, dissolved 0.317 bromide of sodium. With 1.4 iodide of 
 cadmium 0.4 bromide of sodium was dissolved. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 98 
 
 sensitiveness of the collodion — I undertook a number of special 
 experiments. I prepared three different kinds of collodion, to 
 which were added equivalent quantities of chloride of cadmium, 
 bromide of cadmium, and iodide of cadmium. They were sensitized 
 as usual, and a white plaster of Paris cast, partially covered with 
 black drapery, was “taken” with the different collodions. All the 
 three plates w r ere exposed equally long and developed with a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron. 
 
 The collodion containing iodine gave a very intense picture of 
 the white plaster, but the drapery looked weak, and the outlines 
 were indistinct. 
 
 The collodion containing bromine gave a clear but weak picture 
 of the plaster, and did not show a trace of the drapery. 
 
 The chlorine collodion did not show a trace of the picture.* 
 
 According to the above the pure iodide collodion is photographic- 
 ally the most sensitive. 
 
 To complete the experiments a mixed collodion was examined. 
 
 Three different kinds of collodion were prepared: 1, a pure 
 iodine collodion ; 2, a collodion containing as much iodine as No. 
 1, and besides 1 of a bromine salt; 3, a collodion with as much 
 iodine as No. 1, and also ^ of a chlorine salt. With these chemicals 
 the plaster of Paris cast and drapery were taken under similar 
 circumstances. 
 
 The iodine collodion gave again a very intense but rather 
 “ washed ” picture of the plaster, and very little detail in the black 
 drapery. 
 
 The bromo-iodized collodion and the chloro-iodized collodion 
 gave a less intense, but a clearer picture of the plaster, and much 
 more detail in the black drapery. Some dark folds in the latter, 
 which were scarcely visible in the picture taken with iodized col- 
 lodion, became plainly visible with the mixed collodion. 
 
 Hence, it follows, 
 
 Pure collodion mixed with iodine is more sensitive for strong 
 lights (plaster, &c.); mixed collodion is more sensitive for feeble 
 lights. The latter is consequently employed when we wish to secure 
 details in the shadows. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SALTED COLLODION. 
 
 The plain collodion must be mixed with the metals of iodine and 
 
 * This does not prove the photographic insensibility of the chloride of silver 
 collodion, as with longer exposure a picture would certainly be the result. 
 
94 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 bromine. Many photographers add the latter to the oily liquid. 
 This is impractical; generally the salts contain small traces of im- 
 purities, which settle only very slowly from the collodion and 
 necessitate a tedious decantation. 
 
 It is therefore much more practical to dissolve the salts of iodine 
 and bromine by themselves in alcohol, and to add them after a care- 
 ful, if possible, double filtration, to the decanted plain collodion. 
 
 Such a solution of the salts of iodine and bromine in alcohol is 
 called an iodizer or sensitizer. 
 
 Of especial importance is the selection of the sensitizing salts. 
 As for the formulae that have been recommended for this purpose, 
 their name is legion. It is not my intention here to furnish a col- 
 lection of formulae, although amongst the many recipes there are a 
 great many good ones. When we try the collodions of different 
 manufacturers and photographers, we will notice in their qualities 
 very perceptible differences. 
 
 Some work soft, others weak — i. e., they furnish pictures with 
 much detail in the shadows, but few high lights; others work hard, 
 but brilliant. 
 
 Some will yield an intense, others a thin picture. And still all 
 these widely different collodions will give good results in the hands 
 of a person who knows how to handle them. 
 
 It is possible to secure with a feeble working collodion a brilliant 
 picture by an illumination rich in contrasts ; and, vice versa , when 
 we have a collodion which yields too much contrast, we may, by 
 proper illumination, secure a harmonious picture. Also by the 
 proper selection of the developer many errors may be equalized. 
 
 But any one who intends to apply the same manner of working 
 to all the different collodions, will condemn much as bad which, in 
 more skilful hands, would secure good results. 
 
 On the other hand, we cannot deny that, especially in this article, 
 considerable capital has been made out of the ignorance of pho- 
 tographers, and collodion with the strongest sensitizers — lately 
 even casein and rubidium — have been recommended as the pho- 
 tographer’s “philosopher’s stone.” 
 
 On the presence of bromine depends the sensitiveness for dark 
 rays — i. e., details in the shadows and softness ; while on the 
 presence of the salts of iodine depends the sensitiveness for bright 
 rays — i. e ., the intensity of the high lights ; from this the conclusion 
 has been rather rashly drawn that collodion works softer according 
 to the proportion of bromine which it contains; but this is cer- 
 tainly not the case. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 
 
 95 
 
 Late experiments of the author have demonstrated that a collo- 
 dion containing two equivalents of iodide of cadmium and one 
 equivalent of bromide of cadmium works softer and is more 
 sensitive than a collodion containing double and four times the 
 quantity of bromide of cadmium in proportion to the iodide of 
 cadmium employed. 
 
 When the amount of bromine was still further increased (three 
 equivalents Cd Br and one equivalent Cd I), the resulting collodion 
 showed great sensitiveness for feeble rays, but the high lights were 
 pale ; it worked soft, but very weak.* 
 
 But, according to my own experiments, the quantities of the 
 iodizing salts act just as strange. I have made two collodions, 
 the one twice as stronglj 7 iodized as the other was ; the former 
 proved more sensitive and gave a more intense picture than the 
 latter. 
 
 For testing collodion nothing is better than a plaster of Paris 
 cast surrounded by black drapery. 
 
 For comparative experiments , the most exact coincidence in regard 
 to light , silver bath , and developer , is of the greatest importance. 
 
 The following is the formula most generally used by myself: 
 
 a. ORDINARY COLLODION. j* 
 
 15 grains, 1 part of iodide of cadmium, 
 
 7£ “ £ “ iodide of sodium, 
 
 7J “ £ “ bromide of ammonium, 
 
 465 “ 30 “ alcohol, 
 
 are dissolved and filtered. 
 
 After filtration, 1 part, by measure, of the filtrate is mixed with 
 3 parts, by measure, of plain collodion, containing 2 per cent, of 
 pyroxyline. 
 
 When the raw collodion has been left to settle until it becomes 
 perfectly clear, and the sensitizing solution has been well filtered, 
 the collodion may be used after three days. The time which 
 iodized collodion will keep is variable. When the pyroxyline 
 which has been employed has a tendency to decomposition, the 
 collodion will soon turn red ; so also when the salts are impure. 
 It is most difficult to obtain the iodide of sodium pure. 
 
 * 1 equivalent of iodide of cadmium corresponds with about 18 parts by 
 weight. 1 equivalent of bromide of cadmium corresponds with about 17 parts 
 by weight. 
 
 f This is the collodion which is known as “ Dr. Vogel’s Collodion.” 
 
96 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 b. EQUIVALENT COLLODION. 
 
 1 can recommend, on the strength of my latest investigations, as 
 a collodion of good keeping qualities, the following : 
 
 18 parts of iodide of cadmium are dissolved in 270 parts alcohol. 
 
 17 “ bromide “ “ “ “ 270 “ “ 
 
 2 parts, by measure, of the iodide of cadmium solution, are 
 mixed with 1 part, by measure, of the bromide of cadmium solu- 
 tion, and 9 parts of plain collodion containing 2 per cent, of 
 pyroxyline. 
 
 This collodion contains for 2 equivalents of iodine 1 equivalent 
 of bromine ; hence its name. It will keep for years. 
 
 Generally, freshly mixed collodion will soon turn yellow, even if 
 the sensitizing salts are colorless. Collodion containing salts of 
 cadmium remains white longer than an}*- other. Some collodions 
 have a tendency to fogging previous to their turning yellow. This 
 can be avoided by making the nitrate bath acid, or by adding to 
 the collodion a few drops of tincture of iodine (which will at once 
 impart a yellow color to it). A collodion rich in alcohol is more 
 apt to fog than a collodion rich in ether. 
 
 Some collodions will settle very slowly; after standing for 
 months they will still give streaked and spotted plates. This is 
 particularly the case when they have been 
 made at a low temperature. Such collo- 
 dion must be filtered: this is a tedious 
 operation, which has to be performed with 
 an apparatus especially designed for this 
 purpose. The apparatus has a funnel, T , 
 Fig. 49, which fits exactly into the neck 
 of the bottle ; the funnel can be closed 
 by a ground-glass stopper, s ; washed cot- 
 ton is loosely packed around the glass 
 tube, r. The collodion is placed in the 
 funnel and drops slowly into the lower 
 bottle, while the air from the same es- 
 capes into the upper one by the small 
 glass tube. The upper stopper, s, prevents 
 the evaporation of the collodion. 
 
 How to use and how to take care of the 
 collodion will be explained in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 * 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 
 
 97 
 
 2. THE NITRATE OP SILVER BATH. 
 
 The functions of the bath are to make the collodion film “ sensi- 
 tive ” — i. e ., to change the iodine and bromine metals into iodide 
 and bromide of silver. 
 
 In former times a diluted solution of silver 1 : 16 to 1 : 20 was 
 used for the sensitive bath, and it is in fact suitable for that pur- 
 pose still. But it is not advisable, however, to work with so weak 
 a solution of silver, for the perfect sensitizing of the plates pro- 
 gresses only very slowly, and if the collodion contains a great deal 
 of iodine and bromine, this will retard it still more ; besides the 
 bath loses with every plate a certain quantity of silver, and will 
 soon be exhausted when the original percentage is very small. 
 
 Another point is to be observed, — the solubility of iodide of silver 
 in a solution of nitrate of silver. This causes the so-called “eating 
 away ” of the film in a newly made bath, and to prevent that, we 
 either place into a freshly made bath a coated plate, and let it re- 
 main in it over night, or we add at once a salt of iodine, which 
 causes the formation of iodide of silver, and lessens the capacity 
 of the bath to dissolve it out of the film. 
 
 I alwaj^s use for the bath the neutral crystallized nitrate of 
 silver ; I never employ the fused nitrate, as it frequently contains 
 silver combined with nitrous acid, which often gives rise to great 
 annoyances. 
 
 I dissolve 
 
 100 parts of nitrate of silver in 
 1000 <l distilled water, 
 
 and add 25 parts of a solution containing 1 part of iodide of potas- 
 sium in 100 parts of water. I never add acid to the bath only when 
 a plate prepared in it appears veiled ; diluted nitric acid is then 
 added drop by drop (1 part of nitric acid, 5 parts of water); but 
 only just enough to make the veil disappear. I do not add acetic 
 acid to the bath, as it is apt to give rise to the formation of crystals 
 of acetate of silver ; these are very sparingly soluble in the bath 
 solution, and precipitate themselves on the plate in the form of 
 spears, grains, or spots. The addition of sugar of lead, the metals 
 of bromine, and similar salts, which has frequently been recom- 
 mended, is perfectly superfluous. 
 
 3. THE DEVELOPER. 
 
 As developer for the negative process, a solution of sulphate of 
 iron is now generally employed. This precipitates the silver from 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 its solutions as a fine metallic powder, and this precipitate is formed 
 also when we pour an iron solution on a collodion plate which is 
 still wet from adhering silver solution , The precipitate forms 
 only on those parts of the plate on which the light has fallen, and 
 thus creates the picture. 
 
 In order that the precipitate may not form too rapidly and cause 
 irregular deposits over the whole plate, a diluted and acid solution 
 of sulphate of iron is used. 
 
 To give acidity to the developer, acetic acid (so-called glacial 
 acetic acid) is generally used. 
 
 Pictures with half tones require a concentrated developer, while 
 for reproductions, without half tones, a diluted solution of iron is 
 preferable. 
 
 Take 
 
 a. As developer for portraits and landscapes : 
 
 3 parts of sulphate of iron, 
 
 3 “ glacial acetic acid, 
 
 100 “ water. 
 
 When we work with an old nitrate bath, we must add two parts 
 of alcohol. It is not necessary to use distilled water ; spring-water, 
 which is not too strongly charged with mineral matter, or river- 
 water, will answer. 
 
 b. Developer for reproductions (line engravings) : 
 
 2£ parts of sulphate of iron, 
 
 3-4 “ glacial acetic acid, 
 
 100 “ water; 
 
 with an old bath use alcohol as above. 
 
 In place of sulphate of iron the sulphate of the oxide of iron and 
 ammonia is sometimes used ; 5 parts of sulphate of iron correspond 
 with I parts of the sulphate of the oxide of iron and ammonia. 
 Its keeping qualities are its recommendation ; it will keep for a 
 long time, while the ordinary sulphate of iron developer has to be 
 prepared fresh every three days. 
 
 4. THE INTEN SIFIER. 
 
 In most cases the developed picture is too weak for printing pur- 
 poses ; its strength must then be increased by intensifiers ; this is 
 done by pouring on the plate silver solution mixed with a reducing 
 substance, as, for instance, sulphate of iron, or pyrogallic acid. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 
 
 99 
 
 From this mixture silver in a powdered state will precipitate and 
 fall on the silver deposit of the picture and increase its intensity. 
 
 As principal intensifier a mixture of acid solution of silver com- 
 bined with a reducing liquid is used. For the latter a solution of 
 pyrogallic acid is generally liked in the presence of acid ; it works 
 slowly, very clean, and gives a heavy film. But, like the developer, 
 when dissolved in water, it will not keep long, as it absorbs oxygen 
 and turns brown. The alcoholic solution, however, will keep for 
 years. As the weighing of pyrogallic acid is more troublesome 
 than measuring it, I generally prepare a stock-bottle for that pur- 
 pose : take 
 
 1 part of pyrogallic acid, 
 
 10 parts of alcohol. 
 
 Dissolve and filter. When well corked this solution will keep for 
 an indefinite length of time. For use, 4 cubic centimetres* are 
 diluted to 100 centimetres with water. Immediately before use it 
 is mixed with an equal volume of the following silver solution : 
 
 2 parts of nitrate of silver, 
 
 3 “ citric acid, 
 
 100 “ water. 
 
 This solution will keep for two weeks. 
 
 In summer-time, or when the pyrogallic acid (which sometimes 
 happens) is more energetic, it will be advisable to take 4 parts 
 of citric acid instead of 3. In winter-time, when the reduction 
 should prove too slow, the quantity may be reduced to 1 part. For 
 the reproduction of line engravings, the intensifier should be kept 
 very acid, in order to keep the lines clear. 
 
 The iron intensifier deserves the same recommendation as the 
 pyrogallic acid. In the hands of inexperienced persons it is apt to 
 give rise to spots ; but it has the advantage that it does not require 
 a washing of the plate before intensifying, and when the propor- 
 tions are correct it works more rapidly. 
 
 We take the above developer (see above) and mix it with an 
 equal quantity of the annexed solution of citrate of silver : 
 
 2 parts of nitrate of silver, 
 
 3 “ citric acid, 
 
 2-3 “ alcohol, 
 
 100 “ water. 
 
 * 1 cubic centimetre = 17 minims. 
 
100 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The other numerous intensifies, which have frequently been 
 recommended, we cannot mention here ; many of them are interest- 
 ing, but they have not proved themselves as possessing the same 
 practical advantages as those which we have mentioned above. 
 Some of them, which are valuable for some especial branches of 
 photography, we will mention further on. 
 
 5. FIXING. 
 
 From the developed and intensified picture we must remove the 
 sensitive material, iodide and bromide of silver — on the one hand, 
 in order to make the plate transparent ; on the other hand, to pro- 
 tect it against further changes through the influence of light ; we 
 take either a solution of 
 
 1 part of hyposulphite of soda, 
 
 4 to 5 parts of water, 
 or, 
 
 1 part of cyanide of potassium, 
 
 25 parts of water. 
 
 The solution of “ hypo.” will keep for several days. The solution 
 of cyanide of potassium decomposes rapidly, and is transformed 
 into potassium formate. 
 
 In the atelier, where an abundance of water is constantly at 
 hand, we use hyposulphite of soda; but where the supply of water 
 is limited, when travelling, &c., we use cyanide of potassium. 
 
 The latter also dissolves the silver of the picture, and destroys, 
 when it is not quickly removed by washing, the delicate half-tones 
 of the picture. 
 
 6. THE VARNISH. 
 
 The finished picture requires a covering to protect it against 
 injury by mechanical influences. 
 
 Formerly a concentrated solution of gum Arabic was used for 
 this purpose. This would be sufficient when only a limited number 
 of prints are to be taken from the negative, and when the plate is 
 not to be kept for any length of time. Plates which must be kept 
 should be covered with a solution of a rosin in alcohol, consisting 
 principally of shellac. There are as many varnish recipes as there 
 are collodion formulae ; but nowadays it is generally best to buy 
 the varnish ready made from the stockdealer. 
 
PRELIMINARY WORK IN THE LABORATORY. 101 
 
 For those who wish to prepare it themselves, I publish the 
 following formula : 
 
 3 parts of white shellac, 
 
 3 “ sandarac, 
 
 40 “ alcohol of 95°. 
 
 In his excellent work on retouching, Grasshoff recommends the 
 following varnish : 
 
 2^ parts of sandarac, 
 
 £ “ camphor, 
 
 1 “ venitian turpentine, 
 
 | “ oil of lavender, 
 
 15 “ alcohol. 
 
 The addition of turpentine and ethereal oil gives toughness to the 
 varnish. This varnish, without shellac, is excellently adapted to 
 negatives to be retouched with lead-pencil. Very often it is too 
 thick and has to be diluted with alcohol of 95°. 
 
 Sometimes the varnish will injure the collodion film ; this is pre- 
 vented by an addition of one per cent, of water. 
 
 T. GLASS PLATES. 
 
 The glass plate forms a most important substratum for carrying 
 the collodion film in photography, and are used in enormous quan- 
 tities. They require some preparation before they are suited for 
 the delicate manipulations of the photographic processes. Condi- 
 tions for their employment are, 
 
 a. vis nearly as possible perfect transparency , so as to permit 
 the light to pass through unchecked in the printing process. The 
 white and clear plates always have the preference over green glass, 
 or that full of bubbles. 
 
 b. Smoothness. — Glass plates which are not absolutely level, will 
 not make perfect contact with the plane of the picture in the 
 camera, and still worse in the printing-frame. In the latter they 
 are apt to break. 
 
 c. Cleanliness of the surface. — We generally find two kinds of 
 photographic glass in the market — the so-called Rhenish glass and 
 plate-glass. The former is a more greenish and not always exactly 
 plane and smooth kind of glass ; it is made in the same wa} r as 
 window-glass; it is first blown and afterwards flattened out. The 
 other is blown also, but it is afterwards ground, in order to give it 
 a perfectly plane surface. 
 
102 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 For smaller pictures, the ordinary glass is good enough, par- 
 ticularly when in its manufacture attention has been given to 
 flatten it with great care, and to store it in a clean place. 
 
 But when we require very plane plates, the much more expensive 
 plate-glass should be taken ; for instance, for large pictures and re- 
 productions, which have to be mathematically correct. The surface 
 of the glass requires attention. The ordinary Rhenish glass is 
 harder than plate-glass, and less exposed to injury from mechanical 
 or chemical causes. Glass resists chemical influences much less 
 than is generally supposed. Pulverized glass, when boiled with 
 water, gives out a considerable quantity of salt ; even when a small 
 quantity of water is evaporated on a glass plate, we notice some- 
 times that the surface is attacked by it. Solutions of salt exercise 
 a still greater influence, and we frequently notice that drops of 
 water, which have dried on the glass, and salt solutions, leave an 
 indelible stain. 
 
 We must convince ourselves that the plates are of suitable size , 
 and will fit in the plate-holder. 
 
 The photographer buys his plates generally of suitable size, and 
 very often they are packed with pieces of printed paper between 
 them. This is a bad practice, for the printer’s ink is apt to leave 
 greasy spots on the plate, and sometimes the print can be read on 
 the glass by breathing on it. Strips of blotting-paper, for separat- 
 ing the plates from each other, are much preferable. 
 
 The rough edge must be removed, as it would tear the cloth in 
 cleaning the plates, and is apt to injure the hands ; this is easiest 
 done by drawing a flat file over the edge, or by rubbing the edges 
 of two plates against each other. The splinters should be removed 
 at once, as the}’’ will scratch the glass. 
 
 The greatest cleanliness in the treatment of glass plates is a con- 
 dition of primary importance. 
 
 All the plates require very careful cleaning. The nature of the 
 cleaning is partly chemical, partly mechanical. 
 
 The plate is dipped for a few hours in a solution of either 
 
 1 part of raw nitric acid, 
 
 1 “ water, 
 
 which is kept in a dish ; or, 
 
 1 part of bichromate of potash, 
 
 1 “ English sulphuric acid, 
 
 12 “ water. 
 
 The latter mixture is recommended by M. Carey Lea. It destroys 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 103 
 
 organic substances with great energy. Attention should be paid, 
 however, to the fact that crystals of chromate of alum are apt to 
 form and settle on the plates ; when this takes place the mixture 
 must be renewed, as it has become useless. 
 
 I generally use nitric acid. 
 
 When a plate is to be used at once, it should be rubbed carefully 
 on both sides, stroke by stroke, with a rag dipped in the acid ; after 
 resting for a few minutes, it should be well washed with water, 
 assisting with the hands. 
 
 The plates in order to drain are placed on pieces of blotting- 
 paper, and finally rubbed dry with a towel or Canton flannel, which 
 IS KEPT EXCLUSIVELY FOR THIS PURPOSE. 
 
 Some operators recommend cleaning the plates with caustic pot- 
 ash or cyanide of potassium. A solution of the strength of about 
 1 : 10 is rubbed on the plate with a linen swab ; the plate is then 
 washed and dried as described above. 
 
 A number of cleaned plates must be ready before photographic 
 operations are commenced. 
 
 This cleaning should be done with the greatest care , as a plate 
 which is not previously well cleaned can never be brought in the 
 proper condition by rubbing it with chamois leather alone. 
 
 It must not be neglected to clean the rough edges also ; this is very 
 often overlooked and causes stains and dirty margins in the pictures. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 When the preliminary work which has been described in the 
 previous chapter has been performed in the laboi'atory and in the 
 atelier, the execution of the process may commence. But we must 
 first convince ourselves that nothing is wanting. 
 
 Nothing happens more frequently to the beginner than that one 
 thing or another has been neglected or overlooked. A plate has 
 been cleaned, collodionized, sensitized, and exposed ; but the de- 
 veloper is not ready ; or clean glasses are not handy ; or the inten- 
 sifier has to be made : the plate dries, the film contracts, and the 
 previous four or five operations go for nought. 
 
 Having a care to see that everything is in order, is of the 
 utmost importance in portraiture , for the model as well as the 
 
104 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 photographer suffer from neglect. The former would have to go 
 again through the disagreeable operations of posing, placing the 
 head in the head-rest, sitting still, &c., and this is, for the public, 
 little calculated to form an attraction. 
 
 The first work in making a photograph is the cleaning of the 
 glass plate. 
 
 1. THE CLEANING. 
 
 We suppose that a number of plates, which fit in the plate-holder, 
 and have been exposed to acid, washed in water, and dried with 
 the towel, as described above, are at hand. Both sides should be 
 examined by breathing on them ; the least impurity will show 
 itself by an unequal adhesion of the breath. 
 
 When both surfaces appear to be equally clean, the one which is 
 most smooth should be selected for the reception of the picture. 
 In the common glass, the two surfaces vary ; the one which has 
 been undermost in the oven, in flattening it, appears covered with 
 numberless small specks, while the other is smoother. One side 
 only requires to be finely polished, as only one side is collodionized ; 
 but the reverse side must not become dirty either, as the dirt would 
 be transferred to the silver bath and injure subsequent plates. 
 
 The first step in the final cleaning consists in breathing on the 
 plate and rubbing it with a perfectly clean towel , which is used for 
 no other purpose whatever. 
 
 The towel is spread on a clean table ; the plate is placed on it, 
 and to avoid touching it with the fingers, is held by turning one 
 end of the towel over the corner of the plate ; we now breathe upon 
 it and rub it with the other end of the towel, of which a ball or pad 
 has been formed. 
 
 The principal conditions for success are clean hands and a towel 
 which has been washed with soda only. When the whole plate has 
 been once rubbed over, not to forget the corners and edges, the 
 plate should be examined by breathing on it, and by examination 
 in reflected light. When the plate still shows spots, the respective 
 places must be rubbed over again ; when this fails to remove them, 
 the plate has not been properly treated in the preliminary cleaning 
 process, and must be returned to the acid. 
 
 It is perfectly useless to rub a plate with leather, when the breath 
 and towel have failed to clean it ; leather will only impart to it a 
 higher polish. 
 
 The success of each separate cleaning operation should be ascer- 
 tained by breathing on the plate. 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 105 
 
 When the plate appears homogeneous, the final polishing should 
 be given to it with chamois leather pads. It is placed in a clean- 
 ing-vice, R (Fig. 50), which, 
 according to the size of the 
 plate, can be regulated by 
 screws ; a little alcohol is 
 poured on the plate and 
 briskly rubbed over it with 
 the pad No. 1 ; the plate is now polished with pad No. 2, and is 
 finished when it takes the breath equally, showing a blue color. 
 
 Some prefer to take old collodion instead of alcohol ; on account 
 of its containing ether, it removes easily the last ti’aces of grease. 
 
 The cleaning is an operation which has to he performed with 
 skill, judgment, and care. The beginner generally commits the 
 error that he tries to clean with the leather pads, plates which have 
 not received sufficient care in the acid hath and preliminary wash- 
 ing. This is time and labor wasted. Dirty hands and towels, a,nd 
 dirty cleaning-rags, often cause much trouble. 
 
 Cases where the dirty coat-sleeve draws a line over the cleaned 
 plate occur every day. Many forget also the careful cleaning of 
 the edges and corners. 
 
 Very large plates are cleaned in sections. When the plate has 
 been cleaned with the towel, the whole plate is rubbed over with 
 large leather pads ; and when the breath indicates spots which are 
 not clean, they are treated separately. 
 
 Plates that have been used once before, and which are coated 
 with varnish, are placed in a solution of soda. After a few hours 
 the varnish film is removed. They are washed with water, next 
 with a little acid, then again with water, and finally they are treated 
 like a new plate. 
 
 From plates that have been spoiled only a very short time ago, 
 the film is easily removed by rubbing them over, and washing 
 them afterwards with water, when they are fit for use again. Plates 
 on which the collodion has dried should be placed in acid. Old 
 plates, which have been used over and over again, become finally 
 useless; no cleaning will restore them. Many plates are irrepaiably 
 destroyed by scratches — for instance, by carelessly placing them 
 in the acid, by placing them flat on a table (the latter should never 
 be done). The remedies which are frequently recommended to 
 facilitate the cleaning, such as tincture of iodine, may do in ex- 
 ceptional cases, but for every-day use I do not feel like recom- 
 mending them. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
106 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the United States a coating with albumen has been recom- 
 mended in place of the tedious cleaning processes described above. 
 On the washed plates, still wet, a Altered solution of the white of 
 one egg in one quart of water is poured. The plate is left to dry 
 in a room free from dust. The plates will keep for a month, and 
 are as good as the ones obtained by careful cleaning. The albumen 
 solution must be prepared fresh every day. 
 
 2 . THE DUSTING. 
 
 When a plate has been rubbed with the leather pads it generally 
 becomes electrical, and attracts dust and fibres, which, if left on 
 the plate, would spoil both collodion and nitrate bath. The plate 
 is left on the drying-rack for a few minutes ; it loses its electricity ; 
 it is now dusted off very carefully with a camel’s hair brush (the 
 duster). 
 
 It is best to hold the plate by one corner, in the left hand, in a 
 vertical position. 
 
 The duster should not be laid on the table , but hung against the 
 wall. I he dusting should be done in the room next to the dark- 
 room. 
 
 3 . THE COLLODIONIZING. 
 
 The covering of a plate with an even film of collodion requires 
 some practice. The beginner should try his skill on worthless 
 plates with old and useless collodion. 
 
 The glass plate (Fig. 51) should be held with the right hand 
 perfectly horizontal by the upper left corner (a) ; a pool of collodion 
 is poured on the centre of the plate ; when a sufficient quantity has 
 been poured on, the plate is gently inclined, that the collodion may 
 first flow to the corner b , next to a , then to c, and finally to d. It 
 is now inclined gently, by moving the plate in its plane, around d. 
 Under d the neck of the collodion bottle is placed to receive the 
 excess of the fluid. The plate is now gradually, and while moving 
 it constantly with a rocking motion, returned to the vertical posi- 
 tion. The collodion evaporates while draining from the plate, and 
 unless the plate be moved to and fro, it will dry in streaks (diagonal) 
 in the direction of the drainage. The motion should alwaj^s be in 
 the plane of the plate. 
 
 It is also important that the collodion does not collect on the 
 back of the plate ; by evaporation it causes unequal dicing of the 
 film, and besides imparts impurities to the bath by pieces of collo- 
 dion becoming detached and floating in the bath. The collodion 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 should not touch the fingers holding the plate, as it will dissolve fat 
 from the skin, which may cause dark streaks in the picture. 
 
 The plate should he kept in constant motion, and the collodion 
 bottle should be closed again at once , a circumstance which is always 
 neglected by beginners. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 To operators, who desire to work very clean, we would recom- 
 mend to collect the collodion which drains from a plate into a 
 separate bottle ; this prevents impurities from getting into the 
 supply-bottle, such as dust from the plates, &c. 
 
 When the collodion becomes thicker, and the last drop has ceased 
 to fall, care becomes necessary. When the lower corner has dried 
 so far that the collodion will tear, then the moment has arrived for 
 placing the plate into the silver bath. When the plate is dipped 
 too soon, the film will become weak and peel off in washing. When 
 it is dipped too late, the upper parts, which have become too diy, 
 will either not become sensitive at all, or only superficially, and a 
 dry border will be formed, which will show itself after silvering. 
 It shows of course on the upper margins of the plate where the film 
 is thinnest. 
 
 The coating of larger plates is somewhat more difficult. They 
 cannot be held in the hand ; they have to be supported in the 
 centre ; a corked bottle answers very well for this purpose. 
 
 We do not recommend the pneumatic holders; they very often 
 fail, and the loss of a plate is the result. 
 
 Large plates are silvered also b} 7 placing them on a towel ; the 
 towel is formed into a ball ; the plate is placed on it, and the collo- 
 
108 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 dion is poured on the plate ; it requires some nice balancing to coat 
 the whole plate evenly, and the beginner is likely to spoil a few 
 plates before he becomes an expert ; but it enables the operator to 
 coat the whole plate without leaving out a corner, and for large- 
 sized plates it is to be recommended. 
 
 It would not do to place the plate on the hand ; the warmth of 
 the hand would cause a more rapid evaporation of 
 the collodion, and dry spots, where the fingers had 
 supported the plates, would be the result. 
 
 Collodion bottles, constructed especially for pour- 
 ing collodion, have been made, and in America they 
 are known as the “ Cometless ” Collodion Bottle. The 
 mouth is covered by a large cap, lc , to exclude dust, 
 and the excess- of collodion is Collected in the funnel, 
 b , from whence it flows through a side opening back into the bot- 
 tle, a. They are very good. 
 
 4. THE SENSITIZING. 
 
 Before we commence coating a plate, we must have the silver 
 bath ready and in good condition; for, we have stated above, that 
 the plate must be dipped at the moment it has reached a suffi- 
 cient degree of dryness. Loss of time makes the result doubtful. 
 The purpose of placing the coated plate into the bath is to trans- 
 form the salts of iodine and bromine into iodide and bromide of 
 silver. Although this process of decomposition is a very simple 
 one, still there are some mechanical difficulties which sometimes 
 prevent the production of a perfectly homogeneous film of these 
 salts. 
 
 The collodion film is alcoholic ; the bath is watery. Both repel 
 each other at first, as grease and water would do, and this is the 
 difficulty in getting the bath to flow perfectly even over the plate. 
 Where the flow of the bath has beentchecked for a moment, streaks 
 are the results. Several methods have been suggested to avoid 
 this. We will describe at first, 
 
 a. THE SENSITIZING IN THE BATH. 
 
 The bath is a narrow glass trough corresponding in its shape 
 with the form of the plate a (Fig. 53). The filtered silver solution 
 is poured into it. The bath is generally placed into a wooden box 
 of convenient form, and placed in an inclined position. The box, 
 K, is provided with a lid having a slit, S, in it. The sides of the 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 109 
 
 bath, front and back, must be curved to prevent the tender collo- 
 dion film from touching them. 
 
 Porcelain baths are inferior to glass; their opacity pi events us 
 from examining the sides and the fluid to see whether everything 
 is perfectly clean, not to mention the occasional peeling off of the 
 glazing. 
 
 India-rubber baths , on account of the resinous organic matter 
 contained in them, will in course of time affect the bath injuriously. 
 
 For lowering the plate into the bath an instrument, made either 
 of glass or silver wire, called a dipper , is used ; the lower end is 
 bent so as to form a hook on which the plate rests. Glass dippers 
 are easily broken. The best are those made of silver wire. 
 
 Gutta per cha dippers are objectionable for the reasons mentioned 
 above, when speaking of India-rubber baths. 
 
 Whoever wishes to use India-rubber goods (they are advan- 
 tageous for travelling photographers, as they are not liable to 
 breakage), should take care that the solution does not remain 
 longer in contact with it than is absolutely necessary; they should 
 also be washed very frequently. 
 
 For the purpose of sensitizing, the plate is placed on the dipper; 
 the corner by which the plate has been held (see Fig. 51) being 
 downward; the plate is lowered into the bath with a steady motion. 
 Any interruption in this steady movement will produce lines, which 
 cross the plate horizontally, and become visible after development. 
 
 The alcoholic collodion film repels at first the watery bath, and 
 the latter runs off* the plate in greasy lines when it is removed from 
 the bath shortly after immersion. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 h 
 
110 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The plate is moved up and down in the bath until the greasy 
 lines disappear ; when this has taken place, and not before, the plate 
 is ready for exposure. With a concentrated bath, and in warm 
 weather, the sensitizing progresses very rapidly ; with a low tem- 
 perature and a weak bath, the process is slow. A plate which has 
 been exposed too soon will show r , in the place of the greasy spots 
 and lines, black spots and lines, when the developer is poured on. 
 
 The plate, when it is removed from the bath, is placed in the 
 same position on pieces of clean blotting-paper, the top of the plate 
 resting against the wall. In the intervening time, while the plate 
 is draining, we place into the lower corners of the plate-holder 
 small pieces of clean blotting-paper, not omitting, however, to wipe 
 the corners first very carefully ; and, finally, we place the plate into 
 the plate-holder, taking care that the four corners are in their 
 proper places, and that the corner which left the bath last occu- 
 pies also the lower corner in the plate-holder. 
 
 All these operations must he performed in the dark-room with a 
 non-actinic light ; it should also be avoided to bring the plate too close 
 to a bright gaslight. 
 
 The greatest cleanliness of the hands and all and every object 
 which comes in contact with the plate is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Ihe sensitizing should be done on a table from which, excepting 
 collodion, all the other chemicals are excluded, particularly hypo- 
 sulphate of soda. 
 
 b. THE SENSITIZING IN DISHES. 
 
 This has the advantage that a very small quantity of silver bath 
 will be sufficient ; on the other hand, there is the disadvantage, that 
 the scum has to be removed from the bath before every immersion 
 of a plate ; alter it has been used it has to be poured into a bottle, 
 while in the upright bath the solution can be kept. 
 
 Ihe sensitizing in dishes is more suitable for amateurs and 
 small establishments ; for large ateliers it is unpractical. 
 
 The dishes are made of the same material as the baths— -glass, 
 porcelain, and gutta percha. We prefer the glass dishes (see a, 
 Fig. 54) for the negative process. 
 
 The bath solution is filtered into the dish until it covers the 
 bottom about one-quarter of an inch ; the scum is removed by 
 di awing strips of writing-paper over the surface until they appear 
 to be free from dirt; the coated plate is now placed vertical in 
 the dish, the corner by which it has been held in coating being 
 downward; the back of the plate touches the side of the dish. The 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 plate is now lowered, with a very steady motion, until it becomes 
 entirely submerged, the coated side being downward. 
 
 The upper margin of the plate is seized with a hook of silver or 
 hone (Fig. 54, a), and moved repeatedly up and down until, when 
 
 viewed in reflected yellow light, the greasy lines have all disap- 
 peared ; the plate is finally removed from the dish in a vertical 
 position and placed on strips of blotting-paper to drain off the 
 superfluous solution. 
 
 When the quantity of fluid in the dish is too small , air-bubbles 
 will collect under the plate and cause round spots when the developer 
 is poured on. 
 
 The sensitizing does not progress as evenly with this method as 
 in the hath, and very often streaks and lines will be formed, par- 
 ticularly with certain kinds of collodion. 
 
 In such cases it is preferable to immerse the plate with the collo- 
 dion film uppermost. 
 
 For this manipulation a plentiful supply of bath solution is neces- 
 sary. The plate is placed vertically in the dish as described above, 
 but at the same time the dish is moved in order to hasten the flow 
 of the liquid over the plate ; when this is neglected we get very 
 often a plate covered with curved sensitizing lines. 
 
 With this method the plate becomes sensitized very rapidly, as 
 the alcohol can readity rise to the surface. The dish is moved until 
 the greasy lines have all disappeared ; the plate is lifted out with a 
 rapid motion, so as to wash off small floating particles (pieces of 
 collodion film, &c.). Otherwise we proceed as has been described 
 above. 
 
 This method requires more practice, but in the hands of a skilful 
 operator it gives the cleanest plates. For large plates this method 
 is generally employed. 
 
 To facilitate the immersion, half-covered dishes have been con- 
 structed (Fig. 54, left figure) ; when such a dish is placed in a ver- 
 tical position, the solution collects in the covered part, and by 
 rapidly lowering it, the whole plate will be quickly overflowed. It 
 should be so arranged that the wave of the bath flows first over the 
 thickest part of the plate containing the most alcohol, because here 
 the repelling action is the strongest. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
112 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In regard to draining, &c., proceed as directed above. 
 
 The bath, which is kept in dishes, should always be carefully 
 skimmed previous to preparing a plate : the dish should be kept 
 carefully covered. 
 
 The best temperature for a bath is 66° Falir. In hot summer 
 weather, the bath is improved by placing it in a tub of cold water. 
 
 5. THE EXPOSURE 
 
 Before placing the plate-holder with the plate into the camera, 
 we should cast a glance over the object to be taken, and also on 
 the ground-glass, to see if everything is in order. The ground-glass 
 is next replaced by the plate-holder, taking great care that the ap- 
 paratus does not change its position in the least. With equal care 
 must the shutter of the plate-holder be drawn, and particularly for 
 long exposures it is advisable to throw a black cloth over the shut- 
 ter and plate-holder ; when this has been done, the cap is removed 
 from the lens as gently as possible so as to avoid moving the in- 
 strument. 
 
 How long shall I expose ? is the question which we hear from 
 every beginner, and sometimes the experienced operator is doubt- 
 ful on this point. 
 
 The time of exposure depends on the chemical intensity of the 
 light , the brightness of the object to be taken , the amount of light 
 which the lens has , and on the size of the stops employed. 
 
 Many circumstances have to be taken into account at the same 
 time ; experience is the only guide ; the only criterion which the 
 photographer can employ is the examination of the picture on the 
 ground-glass. According to its appearance after the picture has 
 been sharply focussed and the proper stop inserted, according to 
 the brightness which it shows on the ground-glass must he regulate 
 the time of exposure. 
 
 For portrait and landscape photographers, it may here not be 
 out of place to call attention to the enormous differences in the in- 
 tensity of light in the different seasons. With a clear sky the light 
 is at 12 o’clock, noon, on the 21st of December of the same intensity 
 as at 6^ o’clock in the evening on the 21st of June. Similar differ- 
 ences exist for all seasons. The study of the chemical meteorology 
 is by no means of secondary interest. 
 
 During exposure due care should be taken that the apparatus is 
 not shaken ; moving to and fro must be avoided ; the objective 
 should be protected against extraneous light. 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 113 
 
 A box surrounding the objective or fastened to the stand will 
 accomplish this. 
 
 This precaution is particularly necessary when the atelier is ex- 
 posed to direct sunlight, or when we work with much top-light. In 
 handling the plate-holder the vertical position should be maintained 
 as much as possible. 
 
 It must be remembered that the plate is placed wet into the 
 plate-holder ; that the solution will collect on the lower margin ; 
 and when we reverse the position, the solution which has collected 
 at the bottom will run back over the plate and generally produce 
 stains. 
 
 The principal thing is to operate rapidly. The plate, particularly 
 in warm, dry weather, will only keep moist for a short time ; it is 
 therefore necessary that every preparation should be taken before- 
 hand, so that the plate may pass through the different stages rap- 
 idly and without any delay. 
 
 6. THE DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The exposed plate is carried into the dark-room and placed in its 
 original vertical position. Having satisfied ourselves that the devel- 
 oper, intensifier, fixing-bath, and clean glasses are all in their proper 
 position, and the light in the dark-room being not too strong, the 
 plate is carefully removed from the plate-holder, seizing it in such 
 a manner that it is inclined towards the corner which was lowest 
 in the plate-holder. It will easily be observed that at this lower 
 corner the surplus liquid has collected. This liquid must not run 
 back over the plate, as it may cause streaks and stains, as has been 
 explained above. The developer is therefore poured on the upper 
 corner, with an even sweep, that it may cover at once the whole 
 plate ; a part will run off on the opposite corner and take with it 
 the silver solution which may still adhere to it. 
 
 For the beginner it will be difficult to pour the developer evenly 
 over the whole plate, as the watery developing solution is repelled 
 by the alcoholic collodion film, and in the places where the flow of 
 the wave has been arrested, lines will show themselves — the so- 
 called developing lines — which no subsequent flowing with the de- 
 veloper will remove. 
 
 Neither must the developer be dashed on to the plate too ener- 
 getically, as that generally produces a bright spot. By pouring the 
 developer on too rapidly, the silver solution is removed from the 
 place where the developer strikes the plate, and the picture-forming 
 
 8 
 
114 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 material is reduced in quantity ; the pouring of the developer must 
 be practiced before perfect results can be expected. 
 
 It is further to be observed, that the upper margin, upon which 
 the developer is poured, must be coated with a film sufficient^ 
 strong to resist the shock ; for this purpose I recommend placing 
 the thickest part of the film (the part from which the collodion 
 has been drained back into the bottle) uppermost into the plate- 
 holder, and by following the above directions it will come in the 
 proper position in the development. 
 
 When the developer covers the plate, the picture becomes visible. 
 When this takes place too rapidly, then the plate has been over- 
 exposed ; when it takes place very slowly, the plate is under-ex- 
 posed. With a normal development the high lights appear first ; 
 in a portrait, for instance, the white linen (shirt-bosom), &c., 
 next the face and hands appear, then the light vest or pants, 
 the furniture and draperies, and finally the dark coat. The ap- 
 pearance of the picture should be watched with the greatest care; 
 the developer should be moved in every direction, and fresh solu- 
 tion should be added when necessary. The dark shadows must be 
 watched (particularly the folds in a dark coat in a portrait, or the 
 foliage in a landscape) to see if all the details come out properly. 
 It is of course necessary to be perfectly familiar with the original 
 in order to judge correctly. When, in spite of long-continued 
 development, the details in the shadows do not appear, then the 
 plate has been under-exposed, and no subsequent operation will 
 remedy this defect. 
 
 An over-exposed plate will show all the details in the shadows, 
 but the contrasts which constitute the beauty of a picture are 
 wanting. The plate is monotonous and yields similar prints. 
 
 The transitions from light to shade are, in an under-exposed 
 plate, generally too abrupt, or, as the photographers call it, they 
 are hard. 
 
 Long experience is the only thing which will enable us to decide 
 certainly when a plate has received the proper exposure. 
 
 When the plate has been fully developed, the developer is washed 
 off, the back of the plate is washed with the hand, and the plate is 
 examined by transmitted light. When the plate is faulty, no 
 further operation is necessary; the plate is simply cleaned and 
 used over again. When, however, it appears clear and transparent 
 in the shadows, with sufficient detail in the dark parts, soft in 
 the half-tones, sharp, and free from spots, then it should be inten- 
 sified. 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 115 
 
 1. THE INTENSIFICATION. 
 
 This is generally done with a solution of pyrogallic acid ; the 
 experienced operator will succeed, however, with the ordinary 
 iron developer. 
 
 With a brilliant, intense light, some collodions will give pictures 
 which do not require any strengthening ; hut in many cases we 
 cannot well do without it. 
 
 A small quantity of the watery pyrogallic solution is poured into 
 a clean glass, and an equal quantity of a solution of nitrate of silver 
 is added; the mixture is at once poured upon the plate; b} r moving 
 it to and fro the liquid will spread over the whole plate, leaving 
 no spot uncovered ; after a little while the intensifler is poured 
 back into the glass, while at the same time the plate is examined 
 by transmitted light. The spots on the back of the plate, which are 
 easily removed with the finger, must not mislead us. 
 
 When the plate has reached the necessary density (the deter- 
 mination of which is purely a matter of experience), the intensifier 
 must be washed off at once; if the plate has not reached the neces- 
 sary density, the intensifier is poured on again, provided that the 
 liquid is still clear ; a brownish tint does not hurt. 
 
 If it has become turbid, it must be rejected, and a fresh solution 
 of pyrogallic acid and silver is poured on. 
 
 Sometimes a bluish precipitate will form in the shadows ; when 
 this takes place it is an indication that the intensifier is not suf- 
 ficiently acid. 
 
 When the plate has reached sufficient density, and has been 
 washed thoroughly, it is ready for fixing. 
 
 When we intensify with iron solution, equal to twice as much 
 nitrate of silver solution should be mixed with the iron, and poured 
 upon the plate, after development, without previous washing. 
 
 The intensification progresses as rapidly and comfortably as with 
 the p3 7 rogallic acid solution. Sometimes, however, the intensifier 
 does not mix readily with the developer which may still remain on 
 the plate ; the liquid containing the most alcohol will repel the one 
 containing the least ; this must be remedied by giving an equal 
 quantity of alcohol to both. When this is neglected, spots are 
 likely to result. 
 
 With landscapes and portraits intensifying is comparatively an 
 easy work. With reproductions, however, as for instance copies 
 of drawings, it requires more time and great care. The fine lines 
 
116 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 become easily veiled, or the plate is unequal, when the intensifier 
 has not covered the whole plate equally. 
 
 The place on which the intensifier is poured becomes first 
 generally a little darker, a circumstance which in portraiture can 
 be turned to advantage by pouring the liquid on the head, and 
 thus giving to it additional density. 
 
 The beginner should remember that the intensifier makes the plate 
 only denser and richer in contrast , but does not add to the details. 
 It is, hence, useless to try to improve an under-exposed plate by 
 intensifying it. 
 
 Concerning intensification, after fixing, we will speak further on. 
 
 8. THE FIXING. 
 
 When the intensified plate has been washed (sufficiently to re- 
 move the remnant of silver solution), and when the back has been 
 rubbed clean, a solution of 
 
 1 part of hyposulphite of soda, 
 
 4 parts of water, 
 or, 
 
 1 part of cyanide of potassium, 
 
 25 parts of water, is applied. 
 
 Either solution dissolves the iodide and bromide of silver out of 
 the film by forming double salts. 
 
 The cyanide of potassium affects the plate a little, because it dis- 
 solves in the presence of oxygen the gray silver, forming the out- 
 lines of the picture. 
 
 This is of advantage for plates where the intensification has been 
 carried on too far, but for thin negatives it is a disadvantage. In 
 the latter case close watching is necessary, and when the last trace 
 of iodide of silver has disappeared, the plate should be washed at 
 once with water. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda does not affect the plates, but its action 
 is slower than that of cyanide of potassium. When the solution is 
 old or very diluted, in flowing it unevenly over the plate, it is apt to 
 form black lines, the so-called fixing lines. 
 
 It is necessary to wash the fixed plates thoroughly in water to 
 remove the soda, or it will afterwards decompose in the picture 
 and cause its destruction. 
 
 Plates which have been fixed with cyanide of potassium are 
 easier washed. The proper point is ascertained by placing a drop 
 of the water, dripping from the plate, on the back of the hand and 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 117 
 
 tasting it. The smallest quantity of cyanide will indicate itself by 
 imparting to the water a bitter taste. 
 
 (Poisoning is not to be feared unless a person is exceedingly 
 careless ; but the liquid should not be tasted until the plate has 
 been washed for some time. Be very careful.) After fixing, the 
 washed plate is placed on clean blotting-paper to dry. 
 
 8 a. THE INTENSIFYING AFTER FIXING. 
 
 It has frequently'' been recommended to postpone the intensifica- 
 tion until after the plate has been fixed. When we attempt this in 
 the ordinary manner, with silver salt, we will find that, unless the 
 plate has been washed very carefully after fixing, the plate is apt 
 to become spotted. 
 
 This circumstance makes this mode of intensification objection- 
 able. 
 
 For intensification after fixing, a number of peculiar metal salts 
 have been proposed, which, with the metallic silver of the picture, 
 cause peculiar decompositions, and form pictures of different com- 
 position, which offer greater resistance to the passage of chemical 
 rays. The chloride of mercury w r e mention particularly, also a 
 solution of iodide of mercury in iodide of potassium, also a mixture 
 of red permanganate of potassium and the oxide of uranium. 
 These methods may be of advantage for especial purposes, as, for in- 
 stance, the production of negatives for the photo-litliographic pro- 
 cess. For the ordinary photographer, however, the silver intensi- 
 fier is preferable, the more so as the permanence of the plate pro- 
 duced by the other methods has not been established as yet. 
 
 Of particular importance, however, are these changes in the 
 chemical composition of the film, for the email or enamel process. 
 
 9 . THE VARNISHING. 
 
 The delicate picture on the collodion film would soon be ruined 
 by mechanical injuries (scratches, &c.), if we did not provide it 
 with a covering offering more resistance. 
 
 Such a covering is the varnish. The loose particles of the film 
 on the margins of the plate are first removed ; the plate is warmed 
 over a lamp, and the varnish is poured on exactly as the collodion 
 is poured on in coating a plate ; the excess of varnish is poured 
 back into the bottle, and the plate is placed on paper and left to 
 dry. The back of the plate should be kept clear from varnish, as 
 it will produce unequal drying of the film. 
 
118 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 If the plates are too hot, when the varnish is poured on, the 
 plate is apt to become streaked ; if too cold, the film will appear 
 dull and less transparent. 
 
 Sometimes the varnish will eat away parts of the film ; this takes 
 place when it contains too much alcohol and dissolves the collodion 
 film. One per cent, of water added to it will remedy this. 
 
 Beginners generally make mistakes in varnishing. Glad to have 
 finished a plate so far, they become careless in this last finishing 
 operation, and spoil many a plate in varnishing. 
 
 After varnishing and drying, the backs of the plates are carefully 
 cleaned and put away in boxes or closets, secured against dust and 
 moisture. 
 
SUCCESSION OF THE DIFFERENT OPERATIONS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 
 
 I. NEGATIVE PROCESS. 
 a. PREPARATIONS. 
 
 Placing plates in acid. Washing and drying. 
 
 Filtering the silver-bath and removing the scum. 
 
 Making the developer , intensifier , and fixing solution. 
 
 Dipper , plate-holder , clean glasses , and filtering-paper should 
 always be in readiness. 
 
 Preparation of the model and the camera ( focussing ). 
 
 b. OPERATIONS. 
 
 Cleaning the plates (with breath and towels , chamois , and alcohol). 
 
 Dusting (the duster not to be placed on the tables). 
 
 Pouring the collodion (the collodion must not be shaken, and the 
 bottle must be re-closed immediately). 
 
 Drying the film (until the last drop commences to congeal, and 
 the film on the corner, where the collodion has been poured 
 off, tears in patches). 
 
 Immersion in the silver-bath (the corner by which the plate has 
 been held, should be immersed first, and when the silvering is 
 done with a dish, the liquid should be scummed before every 
 immersion). 
 
 Moving the plate in the bath (until the greasy lines have disap- 
 peared). 
 
 Talcing the plate from the bath and draining on clean blotting-paper. 
 
 Placing pieces of blotting-paper in the plate-holder. 
 
 Placing the plate in the holder. 
 
 Closing the holder. 
 
120 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Carrying the plate to the atelier (holding the holder vertical). 
 Readjustment of the focus (to see if anything has been changed). 
 Placing the holder in the camera (without shaking). 
 
 Opening the shutter (carefully). 
 
 Exposure (opening and closing the lens without shaking the 
 camera). 
 
 Closing the shutter (easily). 
 
 Carrying the plate to the dark-room (vertically). 
 
 Pouring the developer into a small glass (as directed). 
 
 Taking the plate from the holder (cautiously). 
 
 Pouring the developer on the upper corner of the plate (moving 
 the plate and controlling the development). 
 
 Short washing. 
 
 Intensifying (continually watching, by transmitted light). 
 
 Short washing. 
 
 Fixing. 
 
 Long-continued washing. 
 
 Drying. 
 
 Warming the plate. 
 
 Varnishing. 
 
 These are the twenty-eight consecutive operations which have 
 to be performed with perfect accuracy when we wish to obtain a 
 perfect picture. 
 
 For the convenience of the practical worker, we add the opera- 
 tions of the printing process, although they are especially explained 
 further on in the book. 
 
 II. POSITIVE PRINTING PROCESS. 
 a. PREPARATIONS. 
 
 Filtering and scumming. 
 
 Cutting albumen paper. 
 
 b. OPERATIONS. 
 
 Sensitizing (in a dark-room). 
 
 Drying (in a dark-room). 
 
 Cleaning the negative. 
 
 Preparing the negative. 
 
 Placing the paper and negative in the printing -frame (in a dark- 
 room). 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 
 
 121 
 
 Printing (placing the frame in diffused or sun-light). 
 Examining the prints (in a place not too light). 
 Washing (in four waters). 
 
 Toning. 
 
 Placing the prints in water. 
 
 Fixing (for 10 minutes). 
 
 Placing the fixed prints in water. 
 
 Continued washing. 
 
 Drying (on strings or with clips). 
 
 Trimming , mounting , removing spots , rolling. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS AND THE CHEMICALS. 
 
 In the previous chapter we have especially explained the practice 
 of the negative process, the arrangement of the apparatus, the 
 composition of the chemicals, and all the precautions and little 
 tricks which are necessary for the successful practice of the various 
 photographic processes. 
 
 If the relations, under which the respective operations are carried 
 on, would always remain the same, it would hardly be necessary to 
 add anything to the previous chapter. But all things in this world 
 are subject to endless variations, and this general law extends of 
 course to photographic apparatus and chemicals. Unfortunately, 
 these changes are generally for the worse instead of for the better, 
 and necessitate a constant mending and doctoring to keep the re- 
 spective articles in their proper condition. The labor necessaiy to 
 accomplish this end, we will condense under the title care, and we 
 will commence with 
 
 THE CARE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. 
 
 Of all the necessities of the atelier, the photographic lenses ap- 
 pear to be the most lasting, excepting of course their liability to 
 breakage. However, they are also exposed to danger, particularly 
 through the influence of dust. This substance penetrates through 
 the slit for the stops into the interior of the tube, collects on the 
 lenses, and absorbs of course a portion of the light. Openings 
 through which dust can penetrate should be kept closed as much as 
 possible. The objectives should occasionally be taken apart, and the 
 
122 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 surfaces of the lenses should be cleaned with soft leather. Some- 
 times the interior black mounting of the lenses suffers ; the black 
 coating rubs off, becomes glossy, and gives rise to unpleasant re- 
 flections. The bright spots should be brushed over with a solution 
 of shellac to which lampblack has been added. 
 
 It must be remembered that flint-glass is softer than crown-glass, 
 and must be handled with greater care. 
 
 CARE OF THE CAMERAS. 
 
 The photographic cameras, as well as the lenses, are exposed to 
 the injurious influences of dust. Frequently, when the bellows are 
 pushed in, a quantity of dust escapes from the interior, which col- 
 lects on the plate and gives rise to holes and spots. Frequent 
 dusting with duster and bellows is here necessary. 
 
 The plate-holders are the most exposed to injury and destruction. 
 The silver solution from the moist plates drips from the plate, 
 collects on the holder, penetrates into the wood, and causes de- 
 composition. Many peculiar organic substances are thus formed, 
 which dissolve in the liquid which drips from a new plate, and on 
 long exposure penetrate into the collodion film, and on development 
 give rise to the so-called “ mossy ” spots. 
 
 This phenomenon manifests itself most frequently with compo- 
 sition corners, as these offer to the silver solution a wider road into 
 the interior of the wood than corners of solid glass or silver wire. 
 The lower corners of the plate-holder are particularly exposed to 
 this influence. 
 
 To prevent the saturation of the plate-holder with silver solution, 
 it is best to dip the lower corners of the holder into melted 
 paraffine. 
 
 The perfectly efry and clean corners of the plate-holder should be 
 dipped for five minutes in melted paraffine; this preserves the 
 wood to an extraordinary degree. 
 
 When we wish to prepare old plate-holders in the same manner, 
 the silver solution, which has previously penetrated into the wood, 
 must first be removed ; for this purpose the lower corners of the 
 holder should be immersed for from five to ten minutes in hot 
 water ; after this they should be carefully washed under a spigot, 
 dried, and afterwards immersed in melted paraffine. 
 
 When the holders have completely cooled, the superfluous paraf- 
 fine should be scraped off. 
 
 Remele recommends, in place of paraffine, the varnishing of the 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 123 
 
 holder. This mode of preservation, however, has to he repeated 
 monthly, and it only forms a substitute where paraffine is not 
 accessible. 
 
 The utmost cleanliness is necessary for the preservation of the 
 plate-holder. After every exposure, the adhering liquid should be 
 removed with blotting-paper, and the holder should be frequently 
 washed under the tap. 
 
 New holders give trouble very often by the detachment of small 
 particles of wood or varnish, and do not become perfectly reliable 
 until all these particles have been brushed away by continued 
 practice. 
 
 All the wooden parts of the apparatus should be provided with 
 brass strips to prevent warping. 
 
 In hot summers the very best of apparatus will warp. Placing 
 moist blotting-pads inside the cameras, or covering them with moist 
 cloths or blankets, is the best remedy, and it is particularly recom- 
 mended to landscape photographers. 
 
 CARE OF THE GLASS PLATES. 
 
 Fresh plates are generally stored away with layers of paper be- 
 tween them. But even the best paper is not clean enough, and 
 leaves an impression on the plate when it remains sufficiently long 
 in contact with it. 
 
 For preserving clean plates, plate-boxes are in general use ; the 
 grooves should be as clean as possible, and the space between the 
 plates should be ample. We very often find plate-boxes in the 
 market which are high enough and wide enough, but in which 
 the grooves are so narrow that the plates get broken by forcing 
 them in. 
 
 Plates that have been cleaned, and are not used the same day, 
 should be rubbed over with leather before they are used. 
 
 Cleaned plates for travelling should be packed with margins of 
 pasteboard, when no plate-boxes are at the disposal of the photog- 
 rapher. Such margins are easily made, and the centre of the plates 
 will be protected. 
 
 Great care should be taken not to scratch the plates. They 
 should never be laid flat on the table, and they should only be 
 rubbed with cloths which are perfectly free from dust. W e should 
 never forget to clean the rough margins. Plates that have been 
 used once before require a different treatment. 
 
124 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 When the picture on being developed proves useless, the plate 
 should be cleaned at once, dried with a towel, and be polished. 
 
 Plates over which the chemicals have been poured should never 
 be allowed to dry. By permitting salts or even water to dry upon 
 them, they may become affected to a degree that even an immersion 
 in acid or caustic soda will fail to clean them. 
 
 Fixed plates, that have not been varnished, should be placed at 
 once into nitric acid. 
 
 Tarnished plates, that are unfit for use, should be placed for 
 tw r elve hours in a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda ; they 
 should then be washed, and when the film has become perfectly 
 loose, the plates should be placed for a short time in acid previous 
 to being cleaned. By the abrasion of the corners of the plates, a 
 deposit of glass-sand will form at the bottom of the dishes, which 
 will scratch the plates ; it is, therefore, better to place flat pieces of 
 wood at the bottom of the dishes, and to let the plates rest on 
 them. 
 
 When immersing and when removing the plates care should be 
 taken not to scratch them. 
 
 CARE OF THE COLLODION. 
 
 Collodion forms the basis of the photographic negative pictures ; 
 it is for the photographer of more importance than the paper for 
 the draughtsman. It not only acts mechanically by fixing the sen- 
 sitive film to the glass, but also chemically by containing besides 
 the indifferent pyroxyline a whole line of products of disintegration, 
 which have a material influence on the chemical and physical prop- 
 erties of the film. 
 
 The care of the collodion is consequently of much importance for 
 the photographer who desires to secure equal results always. 
 
 The changes which iodized collodions suffer manifest themselves 
 by a change of color, first yellow and then red, and by a decrease 
 of sensitiveness. In these changes free iodine, which remains dis- 
 solved in the collodion, separates from the liquid, and gives rise 
 to the formation of free nitric acid in the bath, which will impair 
 the sensitiveness of the plate. 
 
 The salts of cadmium have the least tendency to turning the col- 
 lodion red, while the salts of ammonium have the greatest. While 
 the collodion turns red, it becomes more fluid, and finally so limpid 
 that it does not secure a homogeneous or tenacious film. 
 
 It has been recommended to shake collodion which has turned 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 125 
 
 red, with carbonate of soda, respectively with metallic cadmium, 
 and to let it settle. These bodies will absorb the iodine and restore 
 the bright color of the collodion, but at the same time the plates 
 will have a tendency to fogginess, probably in consequence of the 
 formation of alkaline salts, which are partially soluble in collodion, 
 for instance Cd I and Cd 0. 
 
 It is much more preferable to mix the red collodion with cadmium 
 collodion. The latter will remain white for months; it is somewhat 
 thick, and by mixing it with red collodion we will get the desired 
 consistency and color very often. 
 
 Anyone who works with cadmium collodion exclusively will very 
 seldom or never complain about red collodion. For other mixtures, 
 which have a tendencj" to turning red, it is recommended to pre- 
 serve the plain collodion and the iodizer separately. 
 
 In this case the fluids are mixed in such quantities as experience 
 has taught will be consumed in a short space of time. 
 
 Besides the disengagement of iodine a change in the proportion 
 of alcohol and ether takes place, as well as the introduction of im- 
 purities, such as dust, &e. 
 
 The excess of collodion which has been poured on the plate is 
 generally returned to the bottle. But this excess has lost a part of 
 its dissolving media by evaporation, and of course more of the 
 fugitive ether than of the less fugitive alcohol. 
 
 Hence, what is poured back into the bottle is thicker and richer 
 in alcohol. With very careful management this does not matter 
 much ; under favorable circumstances a bottle of collodion can be 
 used all but a very small remnant. And if this remnant should be 
 too thick, it should be diluted with ^ or ^ of a mixture of 3 parts of 
 alcohol to 5 parts of ether. 
 
 But much more annoying than this loss of fluidity is the accumu- 
 lation of dust and other impurities. Small traces of dust are washed 
 into the collodion-bottle with the excess which is returned from the 
 plate ; with every plate this quantity is increased, and finally the 
 collodion will work uneven. 
 
 This is more frequently the case when travelling, where we have 
 to contend more with dust than at home ; the annoyance is in- 
 creased also with larger plates. 
 
 The rough corners of the plates exercise a very injurious influence,, 
 as they form receptacles for dust and other impurities, which is 
 only too easily overlooked and returned to the collodion. It hap- 
 pens quite frequently that the grooves of the plate-boxes are filled 
 with impurities, all of which help to spoil the collodion. 
 
126 
 
 THE PRACTICE OE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 All these evils can be avoided returning the excess of collodion 
 to a separate bottle ; this collodion is by no means useless ; it 
 should be left to settle for a week or so, and the pure liquid can then 
 be decanted and used. 
 
 That the neck of the collodion-bottle should always be kept clean 
 is a matter of course. A bell-glass should be placed over the stock- 
 bottle. When no special collodion-bottle is employed, the neck of 
 the bottle should be kept perfectly clean by wiping it with the 
 finger, and the first few drops should be thrown away before pour- 
 ing the collodion on the plate. 
 
 The bottle should be corked immediately after the plate has been 
 collodionized. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE SILVER-BATH. 
 
 A correctly prepared silver-bath can be kept in good order for a 
 long time with careful treatment. The conditions are to keep it as 
 nearly as possible free from mechanical and chemical impurities. 
 The former present themselves very soon in the shape of detached 
 pieces of the film and dust. 
 
 Frequent filtering is consequently a matter of course, and still it 
 does sometimes happen that this does not purify a bath, but has 
 just the contrary effect. A photographer of my acquaintance tells 
 me of such a case. He unfortunately employed a filtering-paper 
 containing a large quantity of the salts of sulphuric acid.* These 
 are thrown into the bath and give rise to the formation of sulphate 
 of silver, which attaches itself in needle-shaped crystals to the plate, 
 and causes spots. 
 
 A very pure filtering-paper should be selected. Sometimes a 
 greasy film remains on the surface after filtering. In dishes this 
 does not escape observation as easily as in the bath. The film 
 should be removed with strips of writing-paper, which are drawn 
 over the liquid. 
 
 If a silver-bath did not suffer any other damage in the prepara- 
 tion of the plates than the loss of silver, it would be possible to use 
 it to the last drop, similar to a positive bath ; but this is unfortu- 
 nately not the case. 
 
 * To test the paper for these substances, it is necessary to soak it in water, 
 to pour off the clear liquid, and to add a solution of nitrate of baryta; when 
 the salts of sulphuric acid are present, a precipitate of sulphate of baryta will 
 be formed. 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 127 
 
 Every collodion contains, besides the salts of iodine and bromine 
 and pyroxyline, also the organic products of decomposition. With 
 every plate a quantity of these, as well as alcohol and ether, is left 
 in the bath, and after a while it will contain, besides the salts of 
 silver, the salts of cadmium, alcohol, and ether, the organic pro- 
 ducts of decomposition from the collodion and iodide of silver, and 
 acetic acid, formed by the oxidation of the alcohol. 
 
 No wonder then that it changes rapidly ; that it soon ceases to 
 yield strong and vigorous plates, and furnishes weak negatives in- 
 stead. Finally a point is reached, where the iodide of silver, which 
 has collected in the bath, collects on the plates and gives rise to 
 pinholes. This occurs particularly in summer-time with a high 
 temperature. 
 
 When such a bath is tested for the amount of silver which it 
 contains, it is generally found to be very rich in that substance, 
 having often not lost more than one-half per cent, apparently. 
 
 It is evident that such a bath could be restored to its former 
 usefulness if we were able to remove the above-enumerated im- 
 purities. 
 
 Want of sensitiveness is occasioned by the amount of acetic acid 
 which forms in course of time in the bath from the alcohol and 
 ether. This can be remedied by neutralizing the bath. Formerly 
 the oxide of silver was frequently used for this purpose. This, 
 however, should be rejected, as its action is too slow. Carbonate 
 of lime is not to be recommended either, when it is employed in 
 excess, as is generally the case, for it precipitates a portion of the 
 silver. The best remedy is to employ pure carbonate of soda. 
 
 One part is dissolved in ten parts of water, and this is added 
 drop by drop to the bath. A precipitate is formed which, on agi- 
 tating the liquid, will disappear again completely ; a second drop 
 is added, and so on until the precipitate will no longer disappear 
 on shaking the bath. 
 
 When the bath is now tested, we will find that its reaction has 
 become slightly alkaline. It is filtered, and to the filtrate one or 
 two drops of diluted nitric acid ai^e added (one part acid to five 
 water) ; a plate is now taken, and if it shows any fogginess, more 
 acid is added, until the plate becomes clear. 
 
 This method of testing appears somewhat complicated, and some 
 may think that litmus-paper would answer as well ; but this is not 
 the case. With the latter we often get too much acid in the bath. 
 
 When an old bath commences to yield weak negatives, which be- 
 sides have a tendency to show lines and streaks, it generally contains 
 
128 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 organic substances. In such a case the addition of soda would not 
 do much good, for it would not remove the organic substances. 
 Photographers usually neutralize the bath, and place it afterwards 
 in the sun. This is very good when we have plenty of sunlight ; 
 unfortunately, however, this is not always to be had, and the per- 
 fect purification is slow, requiring sometimes a whole day. 
 
 Under these circumstances permanganate of potash, which was 
 first proposed by Dr. Jacobson, is preferable; it was first tried by 
 Mr. E. Crooks. 
 
 This splendid preparation has lately been brought into the 
 market in beautiful black crystals, which, when dissolved in water, 
 impart to it an intensely deep red color. The solution itself is 
 sensitive to light , and decomposes slowly, forming a brown pre- 
 cipitate (peroxide of manganese). Organic substances discolor 
 the liquid rapidly ; the former oxidize, and the permanganic acid 
 is reduced to peroxide of manganese, 
 
 Mn, 0 7 = 2 Mn 0 2 + 0 3 , 
 
 which separates with brownish color. This decomposition takes 
 place already in filtering through paper. 
 
 This property of destroying organic bodies makes this substance 
 very valuable in removing organic matter from the bath. One part 
 of the permanganate is dissolved in fifty parts of water. This solu- 
 tion is added drop by drop to the bath which is to be restored. If it 
 contains much organic matter, the first drops will almost immedi- 
 ately be discolored ; the solution should gradually be added until 
 the last drop is no longer discolored, and the bath assumes a slight 
 rose tinge, which will last for about a minute (after a longer period 
 the tinge from the permanganate will always disappear.) 
 
 When a great deal of organic matter has accumulated in the 
 bath, a brownish color will be perceptible beside the rose color ; 
 the former is occasioned by peroxide of manganese. 
 
 The bath is now filtered. When only a little of the permanganate 
 has been used, it will generally work well without further addition. 
 
 When a large quantity has been added, the potash will act as a 
 neutralizer, and one or more drops of nitric acid have to be added, 
 until all tendency to fog has disappeared. 
 
 It should be observed that, by the treatment with permanganate 
 of potash, the organic substances have been oxidized, but not 
 destroyed. 
 
 The latter can only be accomplished by evaporation and the 
 melting of the solid residue. 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 129 
 
 This is best done in a porcelain dish over a Berzelius (alcohol) 
 lamp, or a gaslight. 
 
 As soon as all the water has evaporated, the silver salt becomes 
 a tough mass, from which reddish fumes escape. The gray color 
 is caused by precipitated metallic silver. The dish is now allowed 
 to cool ; the solid salt is dissolved in a little water placed on the 
 fire, and when it boils, a few drops of nitric acid are carefully 
 added. The cloudy mass on being heated will all at once become 
 as clear as water. 
 
 Evaporate once more to dryness, and heat carefully to the melt- 
 ing-point ; let it cool, and now dissolve the salt in ten parts of water. 
 When the bath gives veiled pictures, acid should be added, as has 
 been described above. 
 
 Another impurity of the bath is an excess of iodide of silver, 
 which forms most readily in a high temperature. Iodide of silver 
 does not separate as easily from a warm solution as from a cold one. 
 When the crystals are large, they form a mealy covering, and the 
 plate will show numerous yellow spots after development; when 
 they are small, they give rise to pinholes. 
 
 To remove iodide of silver, the bath should be diluted with thrice 
 its volume of distilled water, and well shaken. The iodide of silver, 
 which is only slightly soluble in the diluted bath, precipitates 
 almost entirely. It will only be necessary to filter the liquid, and 
 to evapoi’ate it down to the original volume. Very often the bath 
 contains an excess of iodide of silver, without a material admixture 
 of organic substances ; in this case it should first be diluted, filtered, 
 and melted, and if necessary treated with the permanganate. 
 
 In the presence of organic substances, the iodide of silver will 
 separate much more rapidly than without it. 
 
 Another method to restore a bath which precipitates iodide of 
 silver, consists in adding to the bath a fresh solution of silver, free 
 from iodine, and of the same strength as the bath. In warm 
 weather this will answer for a short time only. It is best to pre- 
 vent the precipitation of iodide of silver by maintaining the bath 
 at a low temperature. This can be done by cold water or ice, or, 
 when neither is handy, by wrapping the bath in a dark, wet cloth, 
 and exposing it to a current of air. 
 
 These are the most important methods of taking care of the 
 bath. One impurity, however, cannot be removed by them, i. e ., 
 the products of the decomposition of the salts of iodine, the salts 
 of cadmium, and alkalies combined with nitric acid ; when these are 
 present in perceptible quantities, not one of the methods mentioned 
 
 9 
 
130 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 for restoring the bath will work satisfactorily, and it will always 
 produce pictures weak and without delicacy. 
 
 In such a case it is always best to remove the iodide of silver, as 
 has been explained above, by diluting it with thrice its volume of 
 water ; next to evaporate it to the strength 1 : 6 or 1 : 8, and to use 
 it as a positive bath. This is much more rational than the ordinary 
 way of throwing such baths into the waste-barrel for reduction. 
 
 The practical photographer will do well to have always two silver 
 baths on hand (one for present use, the other as a reserve in case 
 an accident should happen to the first), and very often it is prefer- 
 able to make a new bath, as generally speaking a “ doctored ” bath 
 does not work as well as a new one. 
 
 CARE OF THE DEVELOPER. 
 
 The protosulphate of iron in solution will soon turn red, in con- 
 sequence of the formation of an ineffectual oxidized salt. Such a 
 red solution contains consequently a less quantity of the active salts 
 of iron than one that has been freshly prepared. This is an advan- 
 tage when we have to develop pictures without half tones. For 
 this purpose an old developer is to be preferred, but for plates with 
 half tone, as for instance portraits, a freshly made developer is the 
 most advantageous. When a developer has to be kept for a long 
 time, as in travelling, sulphate of iron and ammonia should be 
 taken instead of protosulphate of iron. 
 
 CARE OF THE INTENSIFIER. 
 
 Watery pyrogallic solution oxidizes rapidly when exposed to the 
 air ; it should be prepared fresh every day (see page 115). The so- 
 lution of silver and citric acid will keep for more than a week. 
 Citric acid appears, however, to be liable to decomposition, and is 
 apt to cause bluish veils on the negative ; an addition of 1 per cent, 
 of fresh citric acid will remedy this. 
 
 CARE OF THE FIXING BATH. 
 
 Solution of cyanide of potassium should be prepared fresh every 
 day. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda solution will keep longer. Continued use 
 and acids will cause decomposition. It should be prepared fresh 
 every four or five days. 
 
OPERATIONS IN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PROCESSES. 131 
 
 CARE OF THE VARNISH. 
 
 Varnish is subject to similar changes to the collodion. It becomes 
 thick by the evaporation of the alcohol, and dusty by the varnish 
 which is poured back from the plate into the bottle.* It is advis- 
 able to pour the excess of varnish from the negative into a sepa- 
 rate bottle. It can be diluted with alcohol, filtered and used like 
 fresh varnish. On the eating away of the collodion film see above 
 (page 118 ). 
 
 CARE OF THE FINISHED NEGATIVE 
 Will be explained in the chapter on the positive process. 
 
 * It is well to dust the plate, previous to varnishing, with a camel-hair pen- 
 cil, and loose pieces of collodion film at the edges of the plate should he re- 
 moved. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 The pictures which are taken with the camera obscura are on 
 glass ; when we look at them by holding them to the light they ap- 
 pear negative, while by reflected light and with a dark background 
 they appear positive. 
 
 The silver which covers the high lights appears by reflected light 
 grayish-white or bright, while the uncovered transparent shadows 
 show the dark background and appear dark, hence the whole pic- 
 ture appears positive. 
 
 On account of the heavy deposit of silver on our negatives the 
 finer details are not visible in the lights. When, however, the ex- 
 posure has been short, and no intensification has been resorted to, 
 we will get a picture with good details, which in America is called 
 an “ ambrotype.” 
 
 These ambrotypes were much in vogue in the early days of the 
 collodion process. The gra} 7 color, however, the reversion of right 
 and left, and their liability^ to become broken, brought them soon 
 into disfavor, and the public gave the preference to paper pictures, 
 which are made by placing a sensitive paper under a negative and 
 exposing it to light. 
 
 The operations necessary for this purpose are called the printing 
 or positive process. 
 
 There are two kinds of printing processes : 
 
 1. The direct printing process, where the exposure to light is 
 continued until the print has reached the desired intensity. 
 
 2. The indirect printing process , or printing by development, 
 where the paper is illuminated for only a short time, and the pic- 
 ture is afterwards brought up to the necessary intensity by devel- 
 opment. This latter process is analogous to making a negative, 
 and can also be employed in making transparent positives on glass. 
 
 The direct printing process is the one which is generally practiced. 
 
 From drawings, direct copies can be taken by the aid of the ani- 
 line process. Pictures can be made in gold, silver, and pigments ; 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 133 
 
 the negative can be reproduced on stone and metal, and prints can 
 be taken from the latter. 
 
 Generally, we understand, when speaking of a photographic 
 printing process, a method of producing a picture by the direct 
 action of light on a sensitive piece of paper. I may mention also 
 the production of silver, iron, or uranium pictures, and the pig- 
 ment or carbon pictures. 
 
 Of all the different printing processes only one has firmly taken 
 hold in practice ; it is the silver printing process, or the production 
 of a picture on paper which has been treated with a solution of the 
 salts of silver. 
 
 Of all the different processes it is the easiest to manage, yields 
 with the simplest means the most brilliant effects, and would be 
 perfect if the results were permanent, or if the gases containing 
 sulphur would not affect the silver prints in a similar manner in 
 which these gases affect metallic silver, by turning it into a sulphate, 
 which makes them look yellow. 
 
 Lately the carbon printing process, on account of the permanence 
 of its results, has been employed for the production of pictures 
 where permanence is the main object, and it is probable that its 
 importance will be more generally acknowledged before long. 
 
 A. THE SILVER PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 The principles of this process have already been explained in 
 the chapter on paper. The machinery which is necessary is of a 
 very simple character. 
 
 The negative is ready ; it is necessary to bring the same in close 
 contact with the sensitive paper, and to expose it to light. The 
 light passes through the negative from all sides ; a print can only 
 reproduce itself as a print, when the distance between the paper 
 and the negative film is equal to 0. When the distance is greater 
 the print will appear as a diffused circle of light. The picture will 
 not be sharp. To secure this intimate contact, presses, called print- 
 ing-frames, are used, and this has given to the process the general 
 name of printing process. 
 
 The printing-frames consist of a wooden square a a, in which a 
 piece of plate-glass has been inserted, and a cover, D, which is di- 
 vided in the centre and supplied with hinges. This cover is pressed 
 against the negatives by the springs attached to the crossbars, e e 
 (see Figs. 55 and 56). 
 
 The negative is first placed into the frame with the film upwards ; 
 
134 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 on this the sensitive paper is placed ; a piece of felt or a paper cush- 
 ion is laid on top of it; next comes the cover, D; and the whole 
 is held in place by the springs and crossbars, e e. 
 
 Fig. 55. Fig. 56. 
 
 In place of the springs, wedges are sometimes used ; these are 
 less liable to breakage. 
 
 For small plates, such as carte de visite negatives, the plate-glass 
 can be dispensed with. This is of advantage, for it will always ab- 
 sorb some light. Meagher, in England, has constructed printing- 
 frames in which the negative rests on bands of India rubber. This 
 prevents the breakage of negatives which are slightly curved, — a 
 circumstance that frequently takes place when the negative is 
 placed on plate-glass. 
 
 PREPARATIONS. 
 
 The Positive Silver Bath. 
 
 For the sensitizing of the picture-bearing material a solution of 
 silver, the positive bath, is used, similar to that in the negative 
 process. 
 
 The strength of the latter was formerly taken very high, 1 part 
 of nitrate of silver to 4 — 5 parts of water. Recently, however, 
 weaker solutions have been employed. We take now 1 part of ni- 
 trate of silver to 8 — 10 parts of water. To take still more diluted 
 solutions is not advisable. Some kinds of albumen paper are only 
 imperfectly coagulated by diluted silver solutions ; 1 part of the 
 organic substance is dissolved in the bath, imparts to it a brown 
 color, and makes it useless. 
 
 Even in concentrated solutions, as 1 — 8 or 1 — 10, this does some- 
 times happen. 
 
 In such cases the bath should be strengthened. Alkaline baths 
 are more apt to turn brown than acid ones, and a remedy recom- 
 mends itself, i. e., to make the bath acid by the addition of a few 
 drops of nitric acid. Papers that work well do not require this. 
 
 Other additions to the silver bath, as citric acid, tartaric acid, &c., 
 are superfluous. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 135 
 
 The question whether strong or weak silver baths are preferable 
 was much discussed a few years ago. 
 
 At first sight it would appear as if a weak bath would be more 
 economical, but in many respects this is an error. Every sheet of 
 albumen paper, no matter whether it is placed on a strqng or a weak 
 bath, absorbs a certain quantity of silver, which is equivalent to the 
 amount of salt it contains, and which is transformed into chloride 
 of silver; another part forms an albuminate of silver, and still 
 another is absorbed mechanically. It is probable that the last- 
 named quantity is smaller with a weak than with a strong bath (an 
 analysis on this point is not at hand). 
 
 It is, however, a question whether the employment of a weak 
 bath is advisable for the sake of this problematical saving. 
 
 A weak bath is soon exhausted ; it becomes poorer with every 
 sheet floated, and soon the amount of silver will be reduced to a 
 point where it is no longer sufficient for sensitizing, and weak and 
 dull pictures will be the result. 
 
 A strong bath loses also by being used, but not nearly in the 
 same proportion as a weak one. It can be used almost to the last 
 drop without serious inconvenience. 
 
 A weak bath necessitates long sensitizing; a strong bath sensi- 
 tizes rapidly and furnishes sheets which, particularly in dull 
 weather, will print much more brilliant than those which have been 
 floated on a weak solution. 
 
 Any one who desires to work with a weak bath should take notice 
 of what has been said above ; from time to time he should test the 
 strength of the bath (see below the test for nitrate of silver), and 
 fresh nitrate should be added frequently to maintain the standard. 
 
 Strong baths do not require this care. 
 
 The consumption of silver in the positive process is of particular 
 interest. This depends on different factors ; partly on the amount 
 of salt, partly on the thickness of the albumen film ; sometimes the 
 length of floating exercises an influence ; finally, the more or less 
 rapid removal of the paper from the bath, and the strength of the 
 latter, have to be taken into account. 
 
 It is no wonder then that the consumption of silver is stated so 
 differently by different observers. 
 
 Davanne and Girard state the amount at 3.T6 grains per sheet 
 of IT X 22 inches. Spiller states 3 grains, and Hardwich states 
 not quite 2 grammes. 
 
 As these reports differ so widely, Mr. Meicke made a number 
 
136 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of experiments, in the Berlin Academy, to determine the consump- 
 tion of silver. 
 
 500 cubic centimetres of silver bath of the strength of 1 : 8 were 
 made, and from 20 to 25 sheets were floated on it ; the bath was 
 tested by Voxel’s method for the loss of silver. 
 
 The remnant of the bath was again increased to 500 centimetres, 
 and restored to the strength of 1 : 8, and from 20 to 25 sheets were 
 floated on it. 
 
 In this manner the bath was strengthened five times in succession, 
 and used over again. 
 
 The result was, 
 
 From the fresh bath a sheet consumed 2.61 grammes. 
 
 “ “ once strengthened bath a sheet consumed 2.46 “ 
 
 “ “ twice “ “ “ “ 2.38 “ 
 
 “ “ thrice 4 ‘ “ “ “ 2.00 “ 
 
 “ “ four times “ “ “ “ 2.17 “ 
 
 We deduct from this the curious result that the consumption of sil- 
 ver is less in an old and strengthened bath than in a new one con- 
 taining the same amount of silver, and that the absorption of silver 
 decreases with repeated strengthening. 
 
 The cause of this may be sought in the fact that the combination 
 of the alkali with nitric acid increases with every sheet, and exer- 
 cises a peculiar influence on the absorption of silver. 
 
 The average consumption is 2.4 grammes of silver per sheet of 
 paper. 
 
 In the atelier of Hirsh Nickel, perhaps the largest establishment 
 in Germany for reproductions, the average amount of silver con- 
 sumed per sheet is equal to of an ounce, or 2.38 grammes. 
 
 The Toning Bath. 
 
 The printed picture has an agreeable violet color ; it would, how- 
 ever, soon disappear when exposed to the light, as the darkening 
 of the salts of silver would continue, and turn the whole sheet into 
 a homogeneous black. To make it permanent the unaffected salts 
 of silver have to be removed by a fixing agent, such as hyposulphite 
 of soda. 
 
 This imparts to the pictures an ugly yellow color. To obviate 
 this, the prints are treated with a solution of gold. They are toned. 
 The reduced silver of the picture acts on the solution of gold ; 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 137 
 
 chloride of silver is formed, and metallic gold takes the place of the 
 silver. 
 
 The silver picture is partially changed into a gold picture, and 
 the more completely so, the longer the action is continued. This 
 has a great influence on the color of the picture ; when it has 
 been toned for a short time, the color is brownish ; longer toning 
 imparts to it a bluish or slaty tint. The color of these toned pic- 
 tures is but little affected by the fixing bath. The toning process 
 makes the pictures not only more beautiful, but also moi'e durable. 
 Gold is much less subject to atmospheric influences than silver, and 
 a toned picture resists the action of the atmosphere much better 
 than an untoned one. 
 
 Next to the duration of the toning process, the reaction of the 
 gold bath exercises a marked influence on the color of the picture. 
 An acid gold solution imparts to the pictures a brownish color ; a 
 neutral solution produces a violet tint ; and when the bath is alka- 
 line, the resulting picture will be a bluish violet. Which color is 
 the handsomest or the most suitable is purely a matter of taste, 
 and we find baths of very different reactions in common use. The 
 one recommends this, the next recommends something else. 
 
 An important point further is the concentration of the bath. A 
 strong bath acts so energetically on the prints, the color changes 
 so rapidly from brown to blue, that it is scarcely possible to watch 
 the changes. With a strong bath, irregular precipitates are apt 
 to form in consequence of the influence of reducing organic sub- 
 stances. It is well to employ very diluted gold solutions, particu- 
 larly when these precipitates commence to show themselves. Gene- 
 ralty it is well to take 1 part of gold to from 1000 to 2000 parts of 
 water. 
 
 Gold is a metal which is very easily reduced from its solutions. 
 The action of light alone is sufficient to precipitate brown or red 
 powdered gold from a gold solution. When the water contains 
 only a minute quantity of organic matter — and that is generally 
 the case — the reduction will take place even in the dark. It is no 
 wonder that the diluted solutions of gold, which we employ in the 
 form of toning baths, suffer decomposition so rapidly, although we 
 ascribe to the acid toning bath an unlimited usefulness. 
 
 The fact is the latter are the most permanent, the neutral ones 
 are less so, and the alkaline the least. 
 
 The latter sometimes lose, in an hour after toning, their yellow 
 color and their usefulness. 
 
138 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 According to the investigations of Davanne and Girard, this is 
 explained by a peculiar action of the alkalies. 
 
 When a gold solution is mixed with an alkali, or a salt of an 
 alkaline reaction, a mixture will be formed consisting of 
 
 Au Cl, + 4 Na 0 = Au O a Na 0 + 3 Na Cl. 
 
 The salt of gold will readily be reduced bj^ the silver. After a 
 short time, however, the loosely combined oxygen will combine 
 with the NaCI, particularly in the -presence of an excess of a free 
 alkali, and a subchlorate of soda and a peroxide of gold and soda 
 will be formed.* 
 
 Au 0 3 Na 0 + Na Cl == Au 0 Na 0 + Na 0 Cl 0. 
 
 The peroxide of gold and soda is in the presence of an excess of 
 an alkali so constant that it cannot be reduced by silver. 
 
 When such a bath is mixed with hydrochloric acid, it turns 
 yellow, and chloride of gold is formed. Every bath which has been 
 neutralized by alkalies has to suffer this change. When, however, 
 no alkalies are present in excess, or when they are neutral, they 
 maintain their toning power, as the acid salt of gold which is formed 
 remains reducible in the absence of an excess of an alkali. Only 
 v the toning action is somewhat changed. 
 
 In a bath which has not been decomposed only one atom of gold 
 will be precipitated in the place of three atoms of silver. 
 
 Au 0 3 + 3 Ag — 3 Ag 0 -f Au. 
 
 While in a decomposed bath, one atom of gold will take the place 
 of one atom of silver.. 
 
 AuO + Ag = AgO + Au. 
 
 In the latter case the precipitate is more plentiful ; the picture 
 retains in such a bath more vigor than in one containing an oxide 
 of gold, in which the intensity is always somewhat reduced. A 
 bath of the former composition is more suitable to the toning of 
 under-printed pictures. 
 
 A peculiar kind of toning baths are the so-called soda baths ; 
 they are made by adding drop by drop a gold solution to a solution 
 of hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 * The translator is not quite confident that he has given exactly the proper 
 chemical nomenclature ; the symbols will, however, explain. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 139 
 
 A double salt is formed consisting of hyposulphite of soda and 
 an aureous hyposulphite, which acts analogous to an alkaline bath ; 
 but even with an excess of hyposulphite, it remains reducible. 
 
 These baths are used after fixing, while otherwise the toning 
 precedes the fixing. 
 
 The tones are not so pleasant as the ordinary gold bath. The 
 color is decidedly brownish, and the pictures require a second fixing 
 to give them permanence. 
 
 The double salt of Rhodan gold and Rhodan ammonia gives 
 better results. 
 
 What has been said above will suffice to make the chemical pro- 
 cess of toning understood. We will now give a number of practical 
 formulae. 
 
 NORMAL GOLD SOLUTION, AND THE CONSUMPTION OF GOLD. 
 
 We use for the gold bath, solutions of a certain strength of 
 chloride of gold and potassium. This salt, when purchased from 
 the trade, is generally pure, is not influenced by the atmosphere, 
 and is much easier kept than the constantly moist chloride of gold. 
 As a normal gold solution we use 
 
 1 part of chloride of gold and potassium, 
 
 50 parts of water. 
 
 Of this solution we take a certain quantity for immediate use. 
 
 On a sheet of paper (17 X 22), about 0.01 gramme metallic gold 
 will be precipitated, besides a certain quantity of the fluid will be 
 taken up by the paper, containing about 0.01 to 0.015 gramme of 
 gold ; so that on an average every sheet of paper requires about 
 0.03 gramme of the gold salt. But, including all the losses, we 
 have to calculate double the quantity of gold, or 0.06 gramme, 
 equal to 1 grain of gold for every sheet of paper. 
 
 1. ALKALINE GOLD TONING BATHS. 
 a. Borax and phosphate of soda hath. 
 
 For every sheet of paper 
 
 3 parts of normal solution-, 
 
 1J “ borax, or phosphate of soda,. 
 
 previously dissolved in 
 
 200 “ water. 
 
 The borax solution can be kept on hand in a stock-bottle, and 
 it will only be necessary to measure the proper quantity. 
 
140 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Borax and phosphate of soda are salts with an alkaline reaction ; 
 they reduce the bath in exactly the same manner as a free alkali 
 would. The weak boric and phosphoric acids which become free 
 have no marked influence. 
 
 The bath will keep only for a short time ; it should always be 
 made fresh. When the temperature is low, it is advisable to warm 
 it before use.* 
 
 b. CHLORIDE OF LIME BATH. 
 
 Many photographers add to their bath a solution of chloride of 
 lime. It makes the bath alkaline and produces black tones. The 
 chloride of lime bath is made by adding to a bath of acetate of soda 
 0.03 gramme f of chloride of lime. The mixture should be 
 thoroughly shaken, and should be used after three hours. The 
 bath gives black violet tones. 
 
 NEUTRAL GOLD BATHS. 
 
 a. With Chalk {after Davanne ). 
 
 A sheet of paper will require 
 
 3 cubic centimetres of normal solution,! 
 
 200 water, 
 
 chalk, or carbonate of lime, as much as can be placed on the point 
 of a knife. 
 
 The mixture has to be shaken for about five minutes and then 
 filtered. The solution will look yellow when freshly made, but will 
 become colorless after a few hours, without, however, losing its 
 toning properties ; but it will tone slower. Pure carbonate of lime 
 is preferable to chalk, as the latter contains organic substances 
 which decompose the gold salt. 
 
 b. With Bicarbonate of Soda. 
 
 Gold solution and water should be taken as above, and a solution 
 of bicarbonate of soda should be added drop by drop, stirring the 
 liquid constantly, until blue litmus-paper is no longer reddened. 
 This bath does not keep ; with an excess of soda the bath becomes 
 alkaline, and the tones become black. As mistakes are apt to 
 
 * The author generally uses the borax bath. 
 J A cubic centimetre is equal to 17 minims. 
 
 f Half a grain. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 141 
 
 occur in making this bath, we give the following formula of Mr. 
 England : 
 
 3 cubic centimetres of normal gold solution, 
 
 3 “ “ “ a solution of crystallized bicarbonate of soda, 1 : 50, 
 
 200 “ “ “ water. 
 
 The mixture should be used half an hour after it has been pre- 
 pared ; the bath does not keep, and should always be prepared fresh. 
 
 3. ACID TONING BATHS. 
 
 The Acetate of Soda Bath. 
 
 For every sheet of paper 
 
 3 cubic centimetres of normal solution, 
 
 2 grammes* of crystallized acetate of soda, 
 previously dissolved in 
 200 grammes of water, 
 
 should be taken. 
 
 The bath should be used twenty-four hours after it has been 
 made, and it is only necessary to strengthen it from time to time 
 with a few drops of normal solution. The bath gives brownish 
 tones. 
 
 4. RHODAN GOLD BATH. 
 
 I do not recommend hyposulphite of soda baths. Amongst the 
 many that have been suggested, I have not found a single one 
 which has given me satisfaction. But the Rhodan gold bath de- 
 serves to be recommended. 
 
 It yields the richest gradations in tone that a bath is capable of, 
 according to the length of toning. The fixing with “hypo ” changes 
 the tone a little. 
 
 The pictures do not require as much overprinting as with other 
 baths, a considerable advantage in dark and cloudy weather. The 
 picture is washed after printing, and placed in the following toning 
 bath : 
 
 Gold solution, 3 cubic centimetres. 
 
 Sulpho-cyanide of ammonium, . . 20 grains. 
 
 Previously dissolved in, ... 100 grains of water. 
 
 The picture turns at first pale and reddish, but finally becomes 
 warm and brilliant, and passes from brown to violet, and finally to 
 
 A gramme is equal to 15.434 grains. 
 
142 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 black. This bath consumes a little more gold, perhaps as much as 
 2 grains per sheet of paper. 
 
 The bath is kept, and can, by adding from time to time a few 
 drops of gold solution, be used over and over again. 
 
 The proportion should be kept in the above toning bath (3 cubic 
 centimetres of normal gold solution contain 0.06 of the gold salt). 
 As for the formula to be selected, we must refer to what has been 
 said above in regard to the neutral, alkaline, and acid bath, which 
 will give the reader sufficient information. It would be superfluous, 
 and a torment for the beginner, to give him more formulae to select 
 from. Any one who likes black tones should select the carbonate 
 of soda or chloride of lime bath. To any one desiring brown, I 
 recommend the acetate gold bath, and for purple violet the borax 
 or chalk bath. I generally employ the former. 
 
 THE FIXING BATH. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda is used for fixing prints ; cyanide of po- 
 tassium is not admissible, as it affects the pictures very much. The 
 Rhodan ammonium has never been used much, partly on account 
 of its high price, partly also because it necessitates the use of two 
 fixing baths. 
 
 Take a fresh solution of, 
 
 2 parts of hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 4-5 “ water. 
 
 Solutions that have been used previously will decompose rapidly, 
 and the pictures are apt to turn yellow. 
 
 THE PAPER. 
 
 In the photographic practice of the silver printing process the 
 albumen paper is most generally employed. It is very seldom made 
 in the atelier, but is generally bought from the dealer. 
 
 Its quality is, even with the same mode of manufacture, very 
 variable. The white of egg shows in winter different qualities 
 from what it does in summer. 
 
 The tendency to change in this least stable substance is so great 
 that it is almost impossible to furnish always the same quality, and 
 the complaints about the albumen paper will continue as long as 
 the silver printing process lives. 
 
 Some papers discolor the silver bath in consequence of the dis- 
 solution of a part of the organic substances ; others turn yellow a 
 short time after sensitizing, tone badly, and become spotted in the 
 fixing bath. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 143 
 
 The number of these faults is legion, and their origin is by no 
 means perfectly understood.* Experience has taught us that albu- 
 men paper works better when it is not too dry, and that imperfect 
 papers yield better results with a concentrated bath than with a di- 
 luted one. It is recommendable to place the paper for twenty-four 
 hours in a damp place, previous to sensitizing. The blisters, which 
 are apt to make their appearance on fixing, particularly in summer- 
 time, are by it avoided. It is a mistake to try to preserve albumen 
 paper with chloride of calcium in closed boxes. 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF THE SILVER PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 In the practice of the printing process a perfect negative is sup- 
 posed to be at hand. The back of it should be carefully cleaned. 
 If the latter is much covered by the retouch, it is well to varnish 
 the same similar to the front. The cleaned negative is placed into 
 the printing-frame. The pieces of plate-glass are carefully cleansed, 
 the negative is placed on top of it, and the sensitized paper, per- 
 fectly dry, is placed on the negative. 
 
 SENSITIZING THE PAPER. 
 
 The printing bath should be filtered into a clean glass or porce- 
 lain dish. A strip of writing-paper should be drawn several times 
 over the bath to remove the scum ; the paper should now be placed 
 on the bath. This work does not require an absolutely dark room, 
 as the paper is not sensitive enough to be influenced much by dif- 
 fused daylight. 
 
 The paper should next be cut into pieces of suitable size (when 
 a large quantity of prints is to be made it is advisable to sensitize 
 whole sheets) ; the albumen surface should be touched as little as 
 possible in cutting ; the paper should be folded with the albumen 
 side upwards, and the fold should be cut from the outside with the 
 scissors. This avoids the soiling of the paper with rust, which is 
 afterwards apt to give rise to black spots. The greatest cleanliness 
 of the tables, on which the silvered and unsilvered paper is placed, 
 cannot be too often recommended. 
 
 The paper is placed on the bath by seizing it on two opposite 
 corners ; the central part is lowered until it touches the bath, and 
 
 * The manufacturer is not always to be blamed, for very often the fault lies 
 with the photographer. 
 
144 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the whole sheet is gradually let down on the liquid. The movement 
 must not be interrupted, as streaks and lines would be the conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Air-bubbles under tli$ paper will frequently prevent the proper 
 sensitizing of the paper ; to remove them the paper should be lifted 
 by one corner ; the bubbles should be removed by a glass rod, and 
 the paper placed on the bath again. 
 
 The duration of the floating depends on the strength of the bath, 
 the temperature, the albumen, and it is very variable. In sum- 
 mer three minutes, in winter four minutes, are generally sufficient. 
 A sand-glass is very convenient for timing. Great care should be 
 taken to prevent the solution from touching the back of the paper , 
 as this invariably gives rise to spots. When the paper is sensi- 
 tized it should be carefully removed from the bath by lifting it by 
 one corner, and placed in a dark room to dry. At IT 0 Fahr. 
 the paper dries very rapidly. When the temperature is low a lamp 
 will often very materially assist in drying, but great care should 
 be taken not to scorch the paper. The dried paper should be ex- 
 amined carefully, as sometimes at the corners, sometimes in the 
 centre, damp spots will be found ; these stick to the negative, and 
 many an excellent plate has been ruined by it. 
 
 The dried papers should be treated, in regard to handling them, 
 even more carefully than the unsensitized albumen paper. It should 
 be placed into a clean box, and carried in this to the printing-room. 
 A condition for a sharp picture is the intimate contact between 
 negative and paper ; this can only be reached by strong pressure. 
 With curved plates we run the risk of breaking them ; even with 
 level plates we run this risk, when, as is often the case, glass 
 splinters or grains of sand are present in the copying-frame. The 
 paper should be placed with the sensitive side flat against the nega- 
 tive ; a piece of oilcloth should be placed on this ; and then a pad, 
 consisting of soft paper or felt, should form the final layer ; the 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 145 
 
 cover is now laid on, the springs are fastened, and the printing 
 may commence. 
 
 Some papers curl up in drying, and do not lay smoothly in the 
 printing-frame, particularly when they are too dr} r , or when the 
 pi'inting is done in a cold room ; when this is the case it is well to 
 place the paper, after silvering, in a cool place, or place behind it a 
 piece of cardboard ; next open one side of the frame, and draw 
 the paper straight; then open the other half of the frame, and 
 draw the other side straight. The frame should not be exposed 
 to the light until we feel fully convinced that the contact is perfect. 
 
 The fuming with ammonia is in almost universal use in the 
 United States. It has the advantage, that a diluted bath (1 salt 
 of silver and 20 water) will work well, and yield good pictures. 
 Fumed paper will also print more rapidly. In the dry atmosphere 
 of many parts of the United States the fuming with ammonia has 
 the other advantage, that a certain amount of moisture is imparted 
 to the paper. The dry silvered paper is placed, for from ten min- 
 utes to half an hour, in a closet, on the bottom of which a dish 
 with ammonia has been placed. 
 
 In Europe we employ the fuming process very seldom. 
 
 THE PRINTING. 
 
 When all the frames have been supplied with paper they are 
 placed in the light. They should be so arranged that plates of 
 equal density are placed together. It will then only be necessary 
 to examine one frame from time to time, and from the result we 
 can judge of the rest. 
 
 The exposure is much longer than when making the negative. 
 With dense positives, and dark or cloudy weather, it may take days, 
 and sometimes the paper will turn yellow before the print is finished. 
 A tolerably good judgment can be formed, by watching the edges 
 of the paper which protrude from under the negative ; these become 
 bronzed, and the negative picture commences to show as a posi- 
 tive. But to be perfectly informed in regard to the progress of the 
 work the prints should be examined from time to time ; the frame 
 is taken into the room, and in a place that is not too light, one-half 
 of the back is opened, the print is examined, the lid is closed again, 
 and now the other half is examined in the same manner. Care 
 should be taken not to move the paper , in order that on closing the 
 lid it will resume its original position. 
 
 The print is finished when the finest details in the high lights 
 
 10 
 
146 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 have become visible , when the protruding corners have become 
 bronzed , and when the intensity of the whole print is a little in 
 excess of what is desired in the finished picture. 
 
 The latter is necessary, because some intensity is always lost in 
 toning. Experience only can determine the proper degree to which 
 printing may be carried ; it depends also on the character of the 
 negative, and the kind of gold bath that is to be used. 
 
 PRINTING VIGNETTES. 
 
 To produce pictures in which the background gradually changes 
 from dark to white, it is necessary to cover the negative with a 
 vignette frame. This consists sometimes of a glass plate which is 
 bright in the centre, and becomes gradually darker towards the 
 margin, or simply of a piece of pasteboard, in which a hole has 
 been cut corresponding with the figure on the negative. This piece 
 of pasteboard is placed on the printing-frame. By removing it 
 further from the negative the gradation of tone will become more 
 gentle and gradual, but the pictures print also slower. 
 
 Care should be taken that the pasteboard does not change its 
 position ; side-light also should be excluded, as it may give rise to 
 undesirable discolorations. It is best to nail the pasteboard on to 
 the printing-frame. When large quantities of prints are to be made, 
 vignette- frames of sheet-iron are advantageous. When white paste- 
 board is used, it should be blackened. Vignetting is of great ad- 
 vantage when the background is faulty. 
 
 PRINTING OF IMPERFECT NEGATIVES. 
 
 The printing rules which we have given will suffice for a perfect 
 negative, which has brilliant but not too dense lights, and shows 
 details in the shadows. But we frequently have weak negatives, in 
 which all the details in the lights have made their appearance 
 before the shadows have gained sufficient strength. 
 
 These are best printed under a piece of green glass. Experience 
 has taught us that with a feeble light the contrasts become stronger, 
 or, what is the same, the shadows become darker and the lights 
 brighter. 
 
 Another way is to cover the back of the negative with varnish in 
 which a little dragon’s blood has been dissolved. This varnish will 
 weaken the light similar to the green glass. On the other hand, 
 we may have strong hard negatives, in which the shadows would 
 be completely burned up, if we would print until the details appear 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 147 
 
 in the lights. We can then help ourselves by covering the black 
 surfaces when they have reached sufficient density, by suitably cut 
 pieces of pasteboard (masks). Small portions of the lights, that 
 are too dense to print properly, can be brought out by condensing 
 light on them with a lens. 
 
 f 
 
 THE WASHING. 
 
 The prints are taken from the frames and placed in a dark-box ; 
 but not in the same one in which the sensitized papers are kept. 
 When all the prints are finished, they should be treated in the fol- 
 lowing manner: 
 
 To keep prints till the following day is only advisable when we 
 are sure that the paper will not turn yellow. 
 
 The paper absorbs from the bath a considerable quantity of 
 nitrate of silver; of this only the smallest portion is reduced by the 
 light, and in the printed picture a considerable quantity of free 
 nitrate of silver remains. By decomposing the gold this substance 
 would act very injuriously on the toning bath if it were permitted to 
 remain.* The nitrate is removed by washing. Gutta-percha dishes 
 will answer for this purpose ; they are less liable to breakage than 
 porcelain or glass dishes. It should , however , be a rule to use these 
 dishes for no other purposes , and the washing should be done on a 
 table where an admixture with other chemicals, particularly hyposul- 
 phite of soda , is not to be feared. The sheets are placed, one after 
 the other, with perfectly clean fingers , into a dish which is filled 
 with clean water; each sheet should be perfectly wetted; generally 
 the water turns milky in consequence of the separation of chloride 
 of silver. After ten minutes the prints are removed from the first 
 dish into a second one, and the milky liquid is poured in the barrel 
 for silver residues. The same is done with the water of the second 
 dish. When they have been washed in five or six changes of water, 
 or when the water no longer appears milky, the washing may be 
 considered complete. It is not worth the trouble to save the water 
 from the last two washings. The washing should be done in a 
 dimly lit room, otherwise the whites may suffer. 
 
 THE TONING. 
 
 The picture should be toned as soon as the washing is finished.f 
 
 * When nitrate of silver is mixed with chloride of gold, chloride of silver 
 and metallic gold will be formed, and oxygen and nitric acid will become free. 
 
 f Pictures which remain for a long time in water (say about twelve hours) 
 often suffer decomposition and tone unevenly. 
 
148 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The toning hath should be placed in a dish which is solely devoted 
 to this purpose; the bath should be warmed a little in winter-time. 
 One print after another should be immersed in the bath, with clean 
 fingers, and while agitating the bath constantly. It is necessary 
 that the gold solution wets the pictures equally, otherwise unequal 
 toning will be the consequence. The change of color in the jftctures 
 is readily noticed ; soon after immersion they assume a brownish 
 violet tint, they next turn violet, violet blue, and finally blue or 
 slate color. As soon as the desired tone has been reached (violet 
 or violet blue is probably the most generally liked), the pictures 
 are taken from the bath and thrown into a dish of water. The 
 toning should also be done in a semi-dark room, otherwise the 
 whites may suffer. Daylight is better than lamplight (but when we 
 are compelled to use lamplight, the lamp should be placed as close 
 as possible to the dish). The most practical way is to place three 
 dishes alongside of each other. To the left a dish with the pictures 
 in water, in the centre the gold bath, and to the right another dish 
 with water. No more pictures should be thrown into the bath at 
 once than what we are able to control, otherwise we run the risk of 
 overtoning. Pictures on plain paper tone more rapidly than those 
 on albumen paper. For the former a very dilute gold bath, or one 
 which has been partially exhausted by being previously employed 
 for albumen prints, should be used. 
 
 THE FIXING. 
 
 The fixing should be done in a dish especially devoted to that 
 purpose. One by one the prints are taken from the water and 
 placed into the fixing solution. The dish should be moved in order 
 that the liquid may flow at once over the print. Great care must 
 be taken to keep the fingers free from soda solution, as a toned 
 print, which has been handled with “soda fingers” previous to 
 fixing, will invariably show spots. Many use wooden forceps for 
 “handling” the unfixed prints. 
 
 The pictures assume an unpleasant tone in the soda bath, very 
 brown when the time allowed for toning has been very short, at the 
 same time they become paler. Beginners must not be deceived by 
 this. The tone improves after washing and drying, and finally 
 the intensity becomes the same which the pictures showed in the 
 toning bath. The latter can be used as a guide. The duration of 
 the fixing process is at least five minutes. Until the fixing process 
 is finished the whites in the pictures will appear mottled or cloudy. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 149 
 
 THE WASHING AFTER FIXING. 
 
 In the. fixed picture a considerable quantity of hyposulphite of 
 soda remains. If this substance were permitted to stay in the 
 paper, decomposition would soon take place; the sulphur would 
 combine with the silver, forming sulphate of silver, and the piint 
 would turn yellow. The thorough washing, the peifect iemo\al of 
 hyposulphite of soda, is hence very necessary. The simplest way 
 to accomplish it is by using frequent changes of w r ater. F 01 an 
 atelier the following can be recommended. A (Fig. 58) is a cistern 
 of Japanned tin, with a double bottom ; the upper one, B , is per- 
 forated with holes, like a sieve ; H is a syphon with its opening at 
 the lowest place of the box; R is a pipe, either provided with small 
 openings, or tubes, a, a, a, a; this pipe is connected with the water 
 supply pipes, or with a reservoir; the size of the syphon, iT, should 
 be selected sufficiently large, or of such a diameter, that the box is 
 twice as rapidly emptied of its contents, as the pipe R is capable of 
 filling it. The fixed pictures are first placed in a dish with clean 
 water. The vessel, A, is now filled with water, and the pictuies 
 are placed in it one by one w r hile the water is soon flowing ; as 
 the vessel is filled to the top line of the syphon, the latter com- 
 mences to act, and in spite of the constant addition through the 
 pipe, R , empties the box in a few minutes ; as soon as this is done 
 its action ceases. The vessel is filled again with water, and the 
 process repeats itself. By such an arrangement it is possible to 
 wash pictures perfectly in from one to two hours, according to 
 quantity; care should be taken that the prints do not stick together , 
 when this takes place soda is apt to remain in the paper in spite of 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 repeated washings. To avoid this sticking together, a rotary mo- 
 tion is given to the water by placing the supply tubes, a, a, a, in 
 an oblique direction, as showm in the figure. The pictures will float 
 
150 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 in the direction of the current, and when the size of the prints is 
 not large, this arrangement will answer. But when we have large 
 prints, personal inspection from time to time, and removal by hand 
 is necessary; the washing should also be continued as long as 
 possible. 
 
 In large establishments the prints are generally washed for a 
 whole night. 
 
 Mr. Schade, in Sorau, recommends a constant tilting of the wash- 
 box by an electro-magnetic arrangement. 
 
 Sometimes the prints will stick to the sides of the box ; to pre- 
 vent this small holes are made into the lower side of the pipe, i?, 
 and the water which runs down on the sides of the box will remove 
 the prints which stick to them. 
 
 To ascertain if the washing has been carried far enough, the 
 iodine starch test of the author is employed. When the washing 
 is finished, the pictures are separated under water, and a portion 
 of the last water is taken from the box. For the purpose of testing, 
 two test-tubes of equal size, and perfect^ clean, should be selected; 
 in each an equal quantity of a solution of iodide of starch* should 
 be filled ; to the one tube fresh water from the reservoir is added ; 
 to the other an equal quantity from the last water in the wash-box. 
 It remains only necessary to shake both tubes well, and to hold 
 them against a piece of white paper in order to ascertain if in one 
 of the tubes a discoloration has taken place. The greatest clean- 
 liness of the hands and test-tubes is necessary. Even with a 
 millionfold dilution, the presence of soda can be detected. When 
 the test shows that soda, or even a trace of it, is still present, the 
 washing should be repeated. When we wish to test finished pictures 
 by this method, we must soak them first in water, and then test the 
 water as described above. The washed pictures are dried, hung 
 back to back on clean cords in a place free from dust. 
 
 Some operators place the prints between blotting-papers; here 
 it sometimes happens that with imperfect washing the blotting- 
 paper becomes gradually saturated with the soda and causes yellow 
 
 * Iodide of starch is made as follows : 1 grain arrowroot is mixed with a 
 few drops of cold water ; next about 100 parts of distilled boiling water are 
 poured on it, and afterwards 20 parts of chemically pure saltpetre are added 
 to make the paste keep. To the solution of starch 20 grains of a wine-yellow 
 solution of iodine in iodide of potassium solution is added (a bit of iodine 
 thrown into a solution ot iodide of potassium, 1 : 20, will furnish this in a few 
 seconds). This will give a blue solution of iodide of starch which will keep 
 for about four weeks. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 151 
 
 spots on the pictures. Frequently fresh blotting-paper contains 
 soda, as this substance is often added to the paper pulp after bleach- 
 ing. To test paper for soda, the above described solution of iodide 
 of starch should be dropped upon it. A discoloration will indicate 
 at once the presence of soda. At any rate the drying-paper should 
 be changed very frequently. 
 
 THE FINISHING. 
 
 The dried pictures are cut to the proper shape ; it is best to use 
 a sharp steel knife, a glass table, and glass ruler or form. Right 
 angled and round or oval guides are used ; very seldom oblique 
 angles. This will easily be understood by drawing a straight line, 
 a 6, when we erect on it with the guide a vertical line, c d : and 
 when we place the guide* to the right and left of c d , it has to fit 
 exactly. With smaller sizes, as, for instance, cartes de visite, a 
 glass plate of the exact proportions is often used to cut by. The 
 cut pictures are pasted on Bristol-board to give them more fiim- 
 ness. The u mount ” very often contains soda ; in doubtful cases 
 a test for soda should be made with iodide of starch in the manner 
 described above. 
 
 The board may be either sized or not ; the latter are sometimes 
 preferred on account of cheapness, when great quantities of piints 
 have to be furnished. The pictures are pasted very easily, but have 
 the disadvantage that they will draw a great deal in drying ; this 
 can be avoided by carefully dampening the back of the mount pre- 
 vious to pasting the print on it. 
 
 Very often the mounts are tinted ; pale colors should be se- 
 lected ; care should also be taken that the signatures, and other 
 printed matter, does not contrast too glaringly. When the tint is 
 laid on too heav 3 r it is an impediment to pasting. Asa mounting 
 medium common paste is most generally used. It should always 
 be used fresh, and the addition of salts, as for instance alum, should 
 be avoided ; such addition frequently spoils the pictures. 
 
 An addition of alcohol to the paste is said to prevent the latter 
 from turning sour. It is necessary that the paste be perfectly ho- 
 mogeneous. It should be stirred, and afterwards, while still hot, 
 squeezed through a cloth or fine muslin. Mounting requires prac- 
 tice, but the necessary skill is easily acquired. Many operators 
 use a solution of gelatine for mounting, but I do not find it as 
 convenient as common paste. The mounted pictures are left to 
 
 * By a guide a “ right angle,”' L, is meant. — Translator. 
 
152 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 dry. When the mounts have not been sized it is best to place them 
 between blotting-papers and boards, as it facilitates the rolling. 
 The rolling gives smoothness to the pictures. The rolling presses 
 used for this purpose are generally imperfect in construction. The 
 price is so low that little can be expected. 
 
 The press consists of a steel plate* (Fig. 59), on which the 
 mounted picture with the picture side downwards is placed ; it is 
 pushed between parallel cylinders a, b ; parallelism is secured by 
 the screws K. Before placing the plate between the rollers the 
 adjustment is carefully made by examining the distance with the 
 eye. 1 he plate is now placed in position, the rollers are screwed 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 together by turning the wheel g, and plate and cylinders are care- 
 fully cleaned. To ascertain if everything is clean and in good work- 
 ing order a piece of white Bristol board is passed through. The 
 pictures are placed on the plate perfectly dry, otherwise they will 
 stick. The retouches should be laid on before rolling. For small 
 sized pictures, small presses with smooth rollers and without a 
 plate have been made ; they are very convenient. 
 
 Large pictures should be as smooth as possible previous to being 
 
 * In order to show the cylinder and cogwheels the plate has been omitted 
 in the illustration. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 158 
 
 placed in the press ; a slight moistening of the mount previous to 
 placing the picture on it, and drying between blotting-paper under 
 pressure, will secure this result. 
 
 In the Excelsior Press of the Scovill Manufacturing Company, 
 N. Y., which is in common use in America, the steel plate is dis- 
 pensed with. This reduces the cost very much, and makes a very 
 desirable press. The gearing shown in the figure below makes the 
 adjustment very easy, and it is a very good press. 
 
 Fig. 59 a. 
 
 After the pictures have been rolled, many photographers give 
 them a lustre by waxing. The common cerate is used for this 
 purpose ; a small quantity is placed on the picture, and well rubbed 
 in with a small piece of woollen cloth. The depths become more 
 prominent, the whole picture appears more brilliant, the retouch 
 becomes invisible, and moisture is excluded. 
 
 CARE OF THE UTENSILS AND CHEMICALS IN THE POSITIVE PROCESS. 
 
 Care of the Negative. 
 
 Negatives are the photographic printing plates, and the photog- 
 rapher has to bestow care on their preservation in proportion to 
 the number of prints which he expects to take from them ; this be- 
 comes the more difficult, as on the one hand the material is the most 
 fragile in existence ; on the other hand the printing surface, i. e., 
 the varnished collodion film , offers, when compared with a litho- 
 graphic stone or a copper-plate, a very soft and easily injured sur- 
 face. When we add to this the almost indispensable negative re- 
 touch, which, in the shape of India ink or oil paint, is placed on 
 the glass or on the varnished surface, and which can be rubbed off 
 
154 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 with the finger ; and when we consider further, that for the prints a 
 paper is used, impregnated with one of the most caustic substances 
 — nitrate of silver — which, of course, exercises its influence on the 
 varnish, we cannot help feeling surprised that a negative actually 
 lasts as long as it does. Let any one touch a negative, from which 
 a dozen prints have been made, with the point of the tongue, and 
 he will be surprised how strongly it tastes of nitrate of silver. 
 
 This circumstance alone indicates chemical changes in the nega- 
 tive during printing. The silver salt is partly absorbed by the 
 varnish, the latter becomes colored by 7 the light — generally yellow- 
 ish — and, with a large edition, the last prints appear harder than 
 the first impressions. 
 
 With a weak negative this may sometimes be an advantage. 
 Another change, but a much more dangerous one, is caused by 
 moisture. Mr. Stiehm communicated to the “ Mittheilungen ” the 
 result of an experiment which showed, in a characteristic man- 
 ner, the influence of moisture. He placed damp blotting-paper on 
 a negative, and twelve hours afterwards it showed cracks. These 
 cracks, unfortunately, appear too often on their own account, and 
 spoil many a beautiful negative. They happen most frequently 
 w r ith plate-glasses, and we once heard the remark that they only 
 happen with them. My experience teaches me, however, that other 
 glass is equally liable to this fatality, although not so frequently, 
 and I feel convinced that moisture is the main cause of its origin. 
 It has happened to me, that of a number of negatives, w T hich were 
 made at the same time and under similar circumstances, some, which 
 had been handed to the printer, became cracked, while the others, 
 which remained undisturbed in the closet, showed no such ten- 
 dency. And here the fact established itself that a negative which 
 had been kept in a very damp place showed this tendency soonest ; 
 and, further, that gross carelessness of the printer, who had em- 
 ployed imperfectly dried paper, caused the balance of the injury. 
 Too much license is given to the printer. In no place is strict sur- 
 veillance more necessary 7 than here ; they hold in their possession 
 the treasure of the photographer, and how do they treat it ? I 
 have noticed myself that in printing-frames, which were removed 
 at the beginning of a shower, the pad at the back of the negative 
 had become moistened, and still the printer did not consider it 
 worth his while to replace it by a dry one. 
 
 The consequences of such carelessness are easily imagined. 
 They 7 may not manifest themselves at once, but after the twentieth 
 or fortieth impression the varnish will show cracks. Most pro- 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 155 
 
 prietors have no idea how many negatives are totally destroyed by 
 grains of sand insinuating themselves into the printing-frame ; or 
 how many films are scratched by careless handling. 
 
 These circumstances explain the variable permanency of the 
 negatives in our galleries. 
 
 Some photographers preserve their negatives in plate boxes ; this 
 method can only be recommended when the boxes are made of dry 
 and well-varnished wood. It is much better to keep them in airy 
 closets in a dry room, and I consider it as advantageous that the 
 closets are removed a little from the wall, so as to permit a current 
 of air to circulate around them. 
 
 I have noticed that leakage in the roof admitted water into the 
 negative storeroom ; it manifested itself as a damp streak along 
 the wall, w r hich, while covered by the closet containing the nega- 
 tives, was not noticed until finally the moisture penetrated through 
 the wooden partition of the closet, and became visible. The result 
 w r as that some valuable negatives were lost by cracking of the film. 
 I must also mention another characteristic circumstance. The au- 
 thor noticed that the plates which were made in the moist climate 
 of Aden showed an exceedingly tender film, while, on the other 
 hand, those that were taken in the desert showed no such delicacy. 
 In the production of the negative, moisture plays an important 
 role as regards permanency. The author’s experience leads him 
 to reject a caoutchouc solution previous to varnishing as unre- 
 liable ; on the contrary, it makes the film more tepder. 
 
 It has been recommended to treat the negative to a solution of 
 gum Arabic, 1 : 30, previous to varnishing. But such plates are 
 not insured against cracking either. 
 
 The restoration of cracked negatives offers other difficulties ; 
 the method which has frequently been suggested, of exposing the 
 film to the vapors of alcohol and ether, by placing it on a dish con- 
 taining these two fluids, has been frequently recommended ; but it 
 is not always successful. The cracks do not alwa} 7 s bear the same 
 character ; many of them are thrown up, like the burrows of a mole. 
 
 The latter will disappear almost completely when we place the 
 negative over a dish containing a little alcohol. The varnish be- 
 comes soft in twenty-four hours, and the outlines of the cracks 
 coalesce. 
 
 The negative is warmed afterwards in order to harden the varnish. 
 
 Another kind of cracks are the so-called hard lines ; they are not 
 elevated, but depressed ; they can be partially removed by rubbing 
 
156 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 them over with gray silver powder (silver precipitated by sulphate 
 of iron). 
 
 Some will disappear by pressure with the finger-nails ; but the 
 vapors of alcohol will not obliterate them. Warming of the plate 
 will sometimes remove them completely ; but unfortunately they 
 will reappear after a while. 
 
 Under such circumstances a process which enables us to multiply 
 negatives becomes for the photographer absolutely invaluable. We 
 will consider such a method in one of the subsequent chapters. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE PAPER. 
 
 The photographic paper, which is stored in a dry place, will keep 
 for a considerable period. It seems almost as if albumen paper, 
 which has been on hand for some time, would give better results 
 than fresh paper. 
 
 In the albumen film itself changes take place in course of time ; 
 gases are developed, and, sometimes, the products of decomposi- 
 tion may affect the process injuriously. It is, for instance, an es- 
 tablished fact that good albumen paper, which had been sent to 
 America in soldered tin boxes, on its arrival proved worthless ; 
 but after being exposed to the air for some time it yielded good 
 results. This circumstance seems to make the keeping of albumen- 
 paper in an airy room advisable. 
 
 Another circumstance which influences the paper very much, is 
 the state of dryness of the albumen surface. 
 
 When the latter is very dry, for instance, in the heat of the 
 summer, we notice that the paper repels the bath as if it was greasy, 
 and the paper becomes covered with blisters ; when placed in the 
 wash-water, on leaving the fixing solution, these blisters sometimes 
 disappear again, and at other times they break and spoil the picture. 
 
 They can be avoided by placing the paper twenty-four hours 
 before use in a damp cool place, a cellar, for instance. 
 
 If blisters still make their appearance, the paper should not be 
 placed in water at once after leaving the fixing solution, but should 
 be immersed in a solution of hypo twice as weak as the fixing bath, 
 next in one four times as weak, and finally washed in water. 
 
 The above-mentioned facts demonstrate that the paper should 
 possess a certain degree of moisture in order to secure good results. 
 
 This refers to silvered paper also. When we place silvered 
 paper in a box with chloride of calcium, the latter will deprive it 
 of all its moisture ; it will keep white for a long time, but it will 
 fail to give satisfactory results. 
 
THE POSITIVE OB. PRINTING PROCESS. 157 
 
 The turning yellow of silvered paper is an evil which in summer- 
 time gives much trouble to the photographer ; it shows itself par- 
 ticularly with papers that have been made with old and fermented 
 albumen ; the yellow color disappears in the gold and fixing baths 
 partly, particularly when we add to the latter a one-thousandth 
 part of cyanide of potassium. Still pictures taken on such paper 
 lack brilliancy. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE POSITIVE SILVER BATH. 
 
 The positive bath is not liable to near as many accidents as 
 the negative bath. Microscopic quantities of organic substances 
 or acids will affect the latter to some extent, and sometimes make 
 it useless. The positive bath is not affected by impurities in such 
 small quantities. It is evident that the impurities must increase 
 with every additional sheet of paper, as the nitrates which are 
 formed by double decomposition pass into it ; still they do not seem 
 to hurt, but on the contrary exert a beneficial influence, as the ab- 
 sorption of silver from an o'id bath is less than from a new one. 
 
 Organic impurities also pass from the paper into the bath. The 
 condition of the albumen used on the paper is quite variable; on 
 some papers it is laid on fresh, while in other cases it is first sub- 
 jected to fermentation. Its chemical properties are not the same, 
 and so it happens that some papers impart so much organic matter 
 to the bath that after a few sheets have been silvered it will turn 
 brown. In this state it is unfit for use, as the paper cannot be 
 evenly sensitized upon it. 
 
 Fortunately we possess in the permanganate of potash a remedy 
 which will restore a bath so discoloi'ed instantly. 
 
 The method is the same as described above, when speaking of 
 the negative bath. 
 
 Formerly a bath which had turned brown, was exposed to sun- 
 light ; this led to the same result, but the process was much slower. 
 
 Besides its strength, we have to consider the reaction of the 
 bath. A neutral bath is in the most favorable condition. 
 
 But it happens frequently that a bath, which is neutral when 
 new, turns gradually acid, when the albumen-paper has an acid re- 
 action ; in this case the bath is apt to turn brown, and the pictures 
 are gray and weak. Testing with litmus paper, and the addition 
 of a little solution of soda, will easily remedy this. To keep a bath 
 neutral, the addition of the carbonate of the oxide of silver is very 
 good ; it is put into the stock-bottle ; it is easily made by adding 
 a little carbonate of soda to the bath. Some papers will stand an 
 
158 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 alkaline silver bath without detriment ; these papers generally con- 
 tain a certain quantity of free acid. 
 
 Some manufacturers intentionally add organic acids to the albu- 
 men, for instance, citric acid ; it produces a more reddish tone, 
 and keeps the silvered surface white for a longer time. 
 
 I do not think that such additions are advisable. A portion 
 of the acid enters the bath, and seems to impart to it a red color 
 under certain circumstances. 
 
 A bath with an alkaline reaction sometimes attacks a film which 
 is easily soluble. A weak acid, such as acetic acid,* is the best for 
 neutralizing it. 
 
 Another change in the bath is produced by the loss of the silver 
 salt. 
 
 With a very strong bath (121 per cent, and more) this circum- 
 stance does not amount to much, for even when the amount of silver 
 has been reduced as low as 5 per cent., the bath will work well, 
 provided the paper is of good quality. 
 
 Otherwise the deficiency of silver soon manifests itself by the 
 weakness of the prints. The shadows do not appear vigorous ; the 
 lights are gray, and the picture is monotonous ; sometimes it will 
 cause the peeling of the albumen film. It is therefore absolutely 
 necessary that the bath should be tested from time to time, and 
 fresh silver salt added according to circumstances. 
 
 For this purpose instruments called hydrometers are used; they 
 are placed in the bath and sink into the liquid according to the 
 specific gravity of the same ; they are provided with a scale divided 
 in degrees, and by noticing the degree indicated by the surface 
 line of the liquid in which the hydrometer floats, the percentage 
 of silver salt contained in it can be ascertained by consulting a 
 property prepared table in which the degrees of the hydrometer 
 are converted into per cents of silver. 
 
 If the indications of this instrument were reliable but little objec- 
 tion could be raised against its use ; but it is well known that the 
 indications are influenced in the highest degree by the presence of 
 alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and different salts, to such an extent 
 that the test not only becomes useless, but even worse, because the 
 wrong indications mislead, deceive, and produce errors of the most 
 fatal kind. These experiences make the introduction of a reliable 
 silver tester a necessity. 
 
 * According to a statement by Mr. England, a brown bath is restored by 
 boiling it from 10 to 15 minutes. The organic matter separates with a part of 
 the silver. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 159 
 
 Gay Lussac gave us such a method in the so-called triturating 
 process with chloride of sodium. A solution of chloride of sodium 
 of a given strength is added to a silver solution until no further 
 precipitate of chloride of silver takes place. The quantity of the 
 chloride of sodium solution necessary to precipitate all the silver 
 determines the quantity of the latter. Unfortunately this method 
 has a drawback ; the cloudy appearance of the liquid makes it very 
 difficult to ascertain the precise moment when the precipitation of 
 chloride of silver ceases. The following method of the author is 
 free from this error. 
 
 This method is based on the peculiar action of iodide of potas- 
 sium on solutions of nitrate of silver on the one hand, and nitric 
 acid on the other hand. When iodide of potassium is added to a 
 solution of nitrate of silver, a precipitate of yellow iodide of silver 
 will be formed ; when iodide of potassium is added to a thin solu- 
 tion of starch paste and nitric acid, containing a small quantity of 
 nitrous acid, iodine will at once be set free, which imparts to all of 
 the liquid a deep blue color. 
 
 When we add a solution of iodide of potassium to a mixture of 
 the solutions of nitrate of silver, nitric acid, and starch, the two pro- 
 cesses will take place simultaneously, iodide of silver will be formed 
 as a precipitate, and free iodine, which in the presence of starch 
 paste imparts to the liquid a blue color. But so long as a free salt 
 of silver is present in the solution, this blue color will disappear at 
 once on agitation, and the liquid will assume a pure yellow color. 
 When we continue to add the solution of iodide of potassium drop 
 by drop, we will soon arrive at a point where the blue color no 
 longer disappears on shaking the liquid, but remains permanent; 
 this indicates that all the free salt of silver has been precipitated, 
 and from the quantity of iodide of potassium solution which was 
 necessary to produce this result, it is easy to determine the quan- 
 tity of silver which has been precipitated. The point when all the 
 silver has been precipitated is ascertained by the blue color, with 
 surprising exactness ; a single drop of iodide of potassium in excess 
 suffices to give to all the liquid an intense and permanent blue 
 color. (When iodide of silver is present in large quantities the 
 color will be more green than blue.) 
 
 To employ this method practical!}', a solution of iodide of po- 
 tassium, which contains in 102:1.4 cubic centimetres exactly 10 
 grammes chemically pure dried iodide of potassium, is prepared. 
 One hundred cubic centimetres of this solution will precipitate ex- 
 actly 1 gramme of nitrate of silver; hence, when we take for a test 
 
160 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 1 cubic centimetre of silver solution, each cubic centimetre of iodide 
 of potassium solution will indicate one per cent, of silver salt. 
 
 This solution is carefully poured into a Mohr’s spring com- 
 pressor burette,* avoiding air-bubbles (the burette is divided in 
 ! cubic centimetres). The burette is placed into the holder, S; 
 the spring compressor, h, is opened by pressing the button, &, and 
 the liquid is allowed to run out until the lower curve of the surface 
 of the liquid touches the point 0 (zero). It is necessary that the 
 spring should at first be opened to the full extent, in order to expel 
 the air and old solution which may have collected in the lower part 
 of the tube. This must not be overlooked. 
 
 When this has been done, the cleaned and dried pipette, p , is 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 dipped into the solution of silver which is to be tested ; f the air is 
 sucked out with the mouth, and when the tube is nearty filled, the 
 upper opening is quickly closed with the dry index finger; the 
 pipette is taken out of the solution, and by lifting the finger gently 
 
 * These spring compressors are very convenient ; the operator can at his 
 pleasure allow the liquid to run out drop by drop or in a stream. 
 
 f It is self-evident that the pipette must be perfectly clean and free from 
 old solution, otherwise it would mix with the new solution and change its 
 character. In practice it is sufficient to fill the pipette, empty the contents, 
 and fill it again ; by repeating this operation twice or three times, the solu- 
 tion will be clean enough for all practical purposes. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 161 
 
 the fluid is allowed to run out until it reaches the point i. The lower 
 end of the pipette, which holds now exactly one cubic centimetre, 
 is held against the side of the glass G ; the fluid is forced into 
 the glass by blowing in the upper end of the pipette. Instead of 
 the glass a test-tube may be used ; the latter is more convenient for 
 shaking. (The small remnant of the fluid which may remain in the 
 point of the pipette is of no account.) 
 
 With a second similar pipette, about 1 or 2 cubic centimetres of 
 nitric acid are taken from the bottle F ; for strong solutions a little 
 more ; for weak ones somewhat less. 
 
 The contents of this pipette are also emptied into the glass G , in 
 the manner described above, and finally 10 to 15 drops of starch 
 solution are added. Now the test may commence. The burette 
 should be examined once more, to see that the exact quantitj' of 
 fluid is contained in it. The glass is lifted up high with the left 
 hand. The spring compressor is opened carefully, and a few drops 
 are allowed to flow into the glass ; when the silver solution is 
 strong, a yellow precipitate will be formed at first, which will after- 
 wards change to blue; when the solution of silver is weak, the blue 
 color will show itself at once, but will disappear again on shaking 
 the glass. In the former case, the iodide of potassium solution 
 may be added more freely ; in the latter case more caution should 
 be exercised. The glass, a, should be constantly shaken to mix 
 the fluid thoroughly. 
 
 Finally the blue color will disappear more slowly ; great care is 
 now necessary, as a single drop may suffice to produce a blue or 
 green color, which will not disappear again on shaking. The spring 
 compressor is now closed, and the height of the fluid is read off the 
 scale ; when this indicates, for instance, Tf. ; then the silver solution 
 contains per cent., or in 100 cubic centimetres grammes of 
 silver. It is not at all difficult to observe one-tenth of one per cent, 
 on the scale. Those who are not accustomed to work with burette 
 and pipette will handle them at first rather awkwardly; but a little 
 practice will soon give them the necessary confidence. 
 
 With strong silver solutions it is advisable to add, near the close 
 of the operation, a few drops of starch solution, particularly when 
 the color is not very decided ; with brown positive baths the color 
 is always somewhat dirty ; still, with a little extra care, the deter- 
 mination is not difficult.* 
 
 * For strong solutions (positive bath) one-half cubic centimetre is sufficient 
 for a trial. But the degrees of the burette which are obtained must be mul- 
 tiplied by two. 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 When with pure silver solutions the blue color appears dirty 
 at the start, or not at all, then the starch paste is spoiled, or the 
 nitric acid does not act. The former is easily made again ; the 
 latter will act when a few pieces of sulphate of iron are added (see 
 below). If the operation should fail from the above reasons, or 
 from want of skill of the operator, it is very easy to repeat it. 
 
 The burette and the iodide of potassium solution should be 
 closed with well-fitting corks when not in use. A pound of iodide 
 of potassium solution will, according to the strength of the solutions 
 to be tested, suffice for from 30 to 50 tests. 
 
 Starch paste is made by boiling about 25 cubic centimetres of 
 distilled water, and adding to it \\ grammes of arrowroot flour. 
 Before using it the paste must be cooled in cold water. 
 
 The prepared nitric acid is also easily made by adding to two 
 ounces of chemically pure nitric acid one grain of sulphate of iron. 
 In the presence of the salts of copper, salts of mercury, or hypo- 
 sulphite of soda, this test is not applicable. In photographic prac- 
 tice, the latter substance onlj r is likely to interfere. 
 
 The above-described apparatus is known as Vogel’s Silver Tester ; 
 for sale by the stockdealers. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE SENSITIZED PAPER. 
 
 It is a general complaint amongst photographers that some 
 papers turn yellow very rapidly after they have been sensitized. 
 A positive remedy for this evil has not been found as yet, but it is 
 certain that it can be partially obviated. 
 
 1. By keeping the paper in a very dry place. Drjdng boxes and 
 tin cases with chloride of calcium have been recommended ; but 
 I must caution against their use ; they preserve the paper, but 
 the paper prints badly; the cause of it is that the printing pro- 
 cess — which is a chemical decomposition — can only take place 
 in a normal maimer in the presence of a certain quantity of 
 moisture. 
 
 2. By placing at the back of the sensitive paper, in the printing- 
 frame, a piece o S waxed paper. In the printing process, gases are 
 developed which exercise a reducing influence ; these are absorbed 
 by the pad (consisting generally of felt or blotting-paper), and 
 cause the paper to turn yellow rapidly. A piece of wax paper will 
 prevent this. 
 
 3. In order to make the silvered albumen paper more permanent, 
 it has been recommended to sensitize it on a bath containing sugar. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 163 
 
 Simpson recommends to a 200 gramme bath, 1:12, 1 to 3 
 grammes of sugar. It is said the paper will keep white for months. 
 
 Ost recommends, for the same purpose, the addition of citric 
 acid. 
 
 He uses the following bath : 
 
 Nitrate of silver, 
 Water, 
 
 Citric acid, 
 Alcohol, 
 
 . 1 part. 
 
 12 “ 
 
 . 1 “ 
 
 . 1 « 
 
 4. Mr. Baden writes, that when ordinary albumen paper is 
 washed, after it has been silvered , and all the free nitrate of silver 
 is removed, it will keep white for a long time, and by fuming it with 
 ammonia, it can be made as sensitive as carbonate of silver paper. 
 
 The author has tried this process and found that it worked 
 excellently. 
 
 CARE OF THE TONING BATH. 
 
 The toning bath is not very permanent ; this is owing to the 
 unstableness of the salts of gold. Alkaline toning baths must al- 
 ways be made fresh immediately previous to using them. Acid 
 toning baths, and those containing rhodan gold, will keep longer; 
 they should be strengthened from time to time. But here also a 
 freshly made bath is preferable. 
 
 The residues of the toning bath are filled in large bottles or jars, 
 and from time to time a little solution of sulphate of iron and hy- 
 drochloric acid are added ; the gold is precipitated in the form of a 
 brown powder, and can be collected and reconverted into chloride 
 of gold. 
 
 This process is not adapted to rhodan gold baths or those con- 
 taining hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE FIXING BATH. 
 
 The fixing bath does not keep well ; it should be frequently re- 
 newed, as with prolonged use decomposition will take place, and 
 sulphate of silver is formed, which causes the prints to turn yellow. 
 
 B. THE CARBON PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 To the description of the silver printing process we will add the 
 process for making carbon, or rather pigment pictures. 
 
 They have only recently been made in large quantities. As 
 regards their ability to resist chemical influences, and also the 
 
164 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 choice of color (the maker can give to the gelatine film, which is 
 the foundation of the picture, any color he chooses to take) they 
 offer considerable advantages over the silver prints, which advan- 
 tages would perhaps make themselves still more felt, if the process 
 was less complicated. 
 
 I suppose that the principle of the process is known, and pro- 
 ceed at once to a description of the mode of printing, as first prac- 
 tically introduced by Mr. Swan in Newcastle, and simplified by 
 the author of this book. Its peculiarity consists in the production 
 of a film of gelatine, on which by exposure an invisible picture, 
 insoluble in hot water, is formed ; the picture becomes visible by 
 dissolving with hot water those parts of the film w'hich have been 
 pi-otected against the light. But as in this washing operation the 
 delicate parts of the print are apt to be injured or swept away, 
 it is necessary to transfer the gelatine film previous to the “ devel- 
 opment” to another surface, and as this produces a reversed picture 
 a second transferring becomes necessary. 
 
 Pigment paper is the material upon which the prints are made. 
 It is a paper coated with colored gelatine, and can be bought of 
 the stockdealers ; two kinds are mostly used, the so-called purple 
 black and purple brown. It should be kept in a place which is 
 neither damp nor too dry. In a very dry place the gelatine film is 
 apt to break. 
 
 Sensitizing of the Paper . — The sheet which is to be sensitized is 
 placed upon a glass plate, and the printing surface is gently rubbed 
 with a soft clean linen cloth. It should be avoided as much as pos- 
 sible to touch the paper with the hands or fingers.* After being 
 cleaned it is seized by two corners, and dipped into the sensitizing 
 solution, and by drawing it through it it is skilfully turned, and 
 left in it for three or four minutes with the printing surface upper- 
 most. This must be done by lamplight. The sensitizing solution 
 consists of — 
 
 30 parts bichromate of potash. 
 
 900 parts cold water. 
 
 The solution will not keep for a long time, and it is best not to 
 make more than what is necessary for immediate use. For a sheet 
 of pigment paper about 250 cubic centimetres of solution are neces- 
 sary. The solution is thrown away after being used. The neces- 
 sary temperature is about 66° Fahr. Two pieces of paper can 
 be placed at once into the solution, but they must be kept sepa- 
 
 * With fresh clean sheets the rubbing is unnecessary. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 165 
 
 rated. When deep boxes are used the paper can be placed in them 
 vertically, and a larger number can be sensitized at once, but they 
 must be kept about one-half of an inch apart. When the paper 
 has been taken out of the bath it is hung up to dry, by fastening 
 two corners to strings stretched in the dark-room. The drying 
 temperature must not exceed 78° Fahr. ; when it is higher the gela- 
 tine is apt to run off. In this case it would be better to place the 
 sheets on nearly horizontal boards. The drying requires from six 
 to twelve hours. Paper which has been sensitized in the evening 
 is ready for printing the next morning. In dry weather the paper 
 will keep for several days, in damp weather only twent 3 r -four hours. 
 It is best to place the sensitized paper into a book with a "weight 
 on it ; it must, of course, be kept in the dark. 
 
 Exposure of the Paper . — To make a print, the perfectly dry paper 
 is placed with the negative into the printing-frame, always, of 
 course, by lamplight. 
 
 The exposure was formerly the most difficult part, but the intro- 
 duction of the photometer has surmounted this difficulty, and made 
 it even more simple than the silver process, as not all the frames, 
 but only the photometer, has to be examined. A person not expe- 
 rienced in the use of the photometer will do well to make some 
 trials with it before printing a picture (see below, page 170). 
 
 Gumming . — The exposed paper does not show a trace of the pic- 
 ture*. It looks as black as before. The picture appears only after 
 immersion in hot water. If this were done at once a picture with- 
 out half-tones would be the result (see above). To avoid this the 
 gelatine film is transferred to another paper in the following man- 
 ner : After exposure, the corners of the picture are fastened with 
 clamps to a plate of glass ; this is done by lamplight ; the printing 
 surface must be uppermost. The surface is next coated with an 
 even layer of caoutchouc solution, applying it with a camel’s-hair 
 brush ; the picture is now hung up to dry. Care should be taken 
 that no part of the solution insinuates itself between the glass and 
 the paper, or touches the under side of the paper, as this some- 
 times will spoil the picture. After about a quarter of an hour the 
 “ gummed ” pictures are dry and ready to be mounted on the caout- 
 chouc paper. 
 
 Mounting . — The gummed sheet of pigment paper is placed with 
 the gummed side upon a sheet of caoutchouc paper which has been 
 spread upon a smooth table. The paper is pressed from the centre 
 towards the margin to exclude air-bubbles. This operation re- 
 quires great care. It is best to bring first one edge of the caout- 
 
166 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 chouc paper in contact with one edge of the gummed paper ; when 
 both margins have been smoothly joined together by passing over 
 them with the finger-nail, the balance of the sheet of pigment 
 paper which has been held suspended is gradually lowered and 
 pressed into contact. When this operation produces a fold the 
 sheet of pigment paper can be drawn off, and when it has been re- 
 gummed and dried the operation may be repeated. 
 
 Suitable caoutchouc paper and caoutchouc solution are for sale 
 by the stockdealers. 
 
 It must be observed that the two surfaces will onty stick together 
 when the caoutchouc film is perfectly dry. 
 
 The margins of the two papers are now trimmed with a large 
 pair of scissors in such a manner that the margin of the caoutchouc 
 paper protrudes a quarter of an inch. 
 
 The two papers are placed on the plate of a good rolling press, 
 the caoutchouc paper being uppermost ; on the top of the latter a 
 piece of felt is laid, and on this again a piece of pasteboard; the 
 whole is now passed thi-ough the press. 
 
 The pressure of the press should be very strong ; for larger sizes 
 it must be increased in proportion. Passing it through the press 
 once will be sufficient. 
 
 Washing . — The papers are placed, with the caoutchouc paper 
 uppermost, for one or two hours, in cold water ; this is done in the 
 dark-room. The water should be changed frequently, or continu- 
 ally renewed by letting it run on the paper from a spigot. 
 
 Developing . — After the prints have been washed for at least one 
 hour they are placed into the tin developing dishes ; the water should 
 be of a temperature of from 90° to 100° Fahr. Sometimes the 
 prints show a tendency to curl up as soon as they touch the water ; 
 this does not matter, but the print should be turned from time to 
 time, so as to bring all the parts in equal contact with the water. 
 In from three to five minutes the pigment paper can be separated 
 from the caoutchouc paper ; the proper moment is easily ascertained 
 by placing a corner of the print between the thumb and index fin- 
 ger, and rubbing the paper gently in opposite directions ; when the 
 papers separate the two corners are seized with the hand and gently 
 pulled apart, however, leaving the paper always immersed in water. 
 As soon as they are separated the paper upon which the pigment 
 film was at first , and which very often shows a negative, is thrown 
 out. The other paper is placed into a second dish, containing water 
 of a temperature of about 104° Fahr. The pictures remain in this 
 until all the unchanged gelatine and all the chromates have been 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 167 
 
 dissolved out, and the print has become plainly visible. If any of 
 the papers should fail to show a picture they must be placed in hot- 
 ter water. 
 
 A picture which has been somewhat over-printed, and which ap- 
 pears too dark, may, according to circumstances, be placed in water 
 heated to 110° to 113°, and even 134° Fahr. ; by continued washing 
 with increase of temperature we have a means of bleaching. A 
 picture, however, which has been much over-printed, cannot be saved 
 by any washing or increase of temperature. 
 
 Under-exposed proofs may be perfectly developed, and slightly 
 washed in water of 100° Fahr. A much under-printed picture 
 cannot be saved by any after-treatment. It is best to commence 
 the washing with the weakest prints. 
 
 As soon as the print has been perfectly developed it is placed in 
 clean cold water, which must be frequently renewed; finally, it is 
 syringed with water, and hung up to dry. 
 
 Developing-pans of the annexed shape, made of tin, are very 
 well suited for work in small quantities. But the larger the dishes 
 are the better it is. One of the pans is intended for lukewarm, the 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 other for warm water. They are heated either by alcohol or gas. 
 It is convenient to have a thermometer in each pan. It is consid- 
 ered the most convenient to keep the lukewarm water in the right- 
 hand pan, and to transfer those pictures which do not develop per- 
 fectly to the left-hand dish, containing water of a higher tempera- 
 ture. Besides the above, two other dishes, containing cold water, 
 are necessary. 
 
168 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The sooner the pigment paper is separated from the caoutchouc 
 paper the better will it be for the picture ; it is advisable, therefore, 
 not to place more than from four to six pictures at once into the 
 lukewarm water, that they may not soak too long before being torn 
 asunder. The pictures should not rub against each other. 
 
 Transferring. — The picture on the caoutchouc film has the right 
 and left reversed ; it is also of an ugly yellow color, which makes 
 a second transfer necessary. Swan performed this operation in a 
 very tedious manner with gelatinized paper. The author demon- 
 strated that this was unnecessary trouble, and introduced the fol- 
 lowing very simple method. Plain paper, as smooth and white as 
 possible, is dipped for one or two minutes in cold water ; it is dried 
 between blotting-paper, in order to remove its gloss ; on this the 
 dried and developed picture is laid with the picture side down- 
 wards ; the hand is gently passed over it to press it to the paper. 
 
 It is now placed in the rolling press, exactly in the same manner 
 as described above when treating of caoutchouc and pigment paper. 
 The moist paper faces upwards ; on top of this Bristol board is 
 placed ; felt is unnecessary. 
 
 Passing it once through the press with strong pressure is suffi- 
 cient ; it is next hung up to dry. The pressure of the rollers must 
 be very even, otherwise wrinkles will be the result. 
 
 Tanning. — The picture is placed in a solution of chromate of 
 alum after drying it for half an hour — strength 1 : 300 ; time, 1 
 minute — and is again left to dry at a temperature of 10° Fahr. ; 
 this will require three-quarters of an hour. 
 
 Separating. — When the picture is dry, a fine sponge or piece 
 of flannel is taken and moistened with benzine ; the print is placed 
 upon a plane surface, and the paper is dexterously rubbed over 
 on both sides with the moist sponge. 
 
 The plain paper with the picture attached to it will now easily 
 separate from the caoutchouc paper by detaching one of the corners 
 and gently pulling them asunder. If the paper should stick at 
 some places a little more benzine must be applied; this, however, 
 will not happen when at the beginning the paper has been well 
 moistened with benzine. When, in separating the paper, it is dis- 
 covered that small particles of caoutchouc remain on the surface, 
 the} r should be rapidly removed by gently passing the sponge over 
 them ; it is always well to rub the moistened benzine sponge over 
 the surface of the picture after the caoutchouc paper has been re- 
 moved, even if no remnants are noticeable on the print. It is as 
 easy to separate a large picture as a small one. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 169 
 
 Frequently the picture will roll off on its own account, owing to 
 the peculiar action of the benzine. If it should happen that parts 
 of the picture stick to the caoutchouc, then it will be necessary to 
 throw the print for ten minutes in a dish of benzine ; after that the 
 separation will be easy. 
 
 Gutting and mounting is done as usual, but very carefully, as the 
 moist prints are very easily injured. 
 
 The caoutchouc brush should be kept in a bottle containing ben- 
 zine, otherwise it will not keep soft and pliant. 
 
 Sometimes small blisters will make their appearance during the 
 washing operation ; they are caused by small holes in the paper, or 
 by air which has remained between the two varnished surfaces, or 
 also by insufficient pressure in the press. When the first-mentioned 
 circumstance is the cause, then the blisters will disappear on drying, 
 and no injury will result. When they are caused by air-bubbles or 
 insufficient pressure, they can be made harmless by pricking them 
 with the point of a needle from the back of the paper. Sometimes, 
 however, a very annoying bubble will show itself, which will either 
 ruin the print, or which can only be removed after mounting by 
 erasing and retouching. By placing the two gummed surfaces very 
 carefully together before placing them in the press, by long-con- 
 tinued washing before developing , and by rolling them with a sure 
 and slow pressure, the bubbles can be avoided almost entirely. 
 
 Pictures which are technically called vignettes, are not so easily 
 made on pigment paper as on silvered paper. 
 
 The felt which serves for the rolling of the caoutchouc paper must 
 not be used in the transfer process. 
 
 The greatest care and attention in not exposing the sensitive 
 pigment paper to light is necessary, both before placing it under 
 the negative and in all the following manipulations which precede 
 the development in hot water. 
 
 It should always be remembered that the sensitized pigment paper 
 is much more sensitive to the influence of light than silvered paper. 
 A want of care in this respect is generally punished by a complete 
 failure of the whole operation. I mention this, as I know of nu- 
 merous instances where persons have lost many pictures because 
 they did not observe the necessary precaution in this respect. 
 
 THE USE OF DR. VOGEL’S PHOTOMETER. 
 
 This instrument consists mainly (1) of a semi-transparent paper 
 scale ; the transparency of this scale decreases gradually from one 
 end to the other ; (2) of a sensitive chromate paper, which will retain 
 
170 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 its sensitiveness for weeks. The paper is exposed under the scale 
 in a similar manner as a piece of silvered paper is exposed under 
 a negative. 
 
 The chromate paper is made by dipping plain photographic paper 
 in a solution of one part of red chromate of potassium to thirty 
 parts of water; the papers are, when dried, ready for use. 
 
 The dry paper is cut into strips of suitable size, and the pho- 
 tometer box, T, is filled with them. When the lid, Z>, of the box is 
 closed, a spring,/, presses the strips against the transparent scale. 
 The scale is fastened to the glass lid, D, and can be held in contact 
 with the box, I 7 , by the hook, Z. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 When the apparatus is exposed the light will pass through the 
 scale and darken the strip of paper underneath it. This darken- 
 ing progresses from the most transparent to the least transparent 
 end of the scale, and the progress increases in rapidity with the 
 increase of the intensity of the light. 
 
 On the scale black numbers are painted, in order to ascertain 
 how far the action of the light has extended. The opaque num- 
 bers do not permit the light to pass through them ; the chromate 
 paper, which gets darkened around them, will show a white number 
 on a brown ground. 
 
 When the photometer is now examined by lamplight it will be 
 easy to ascertain (by examining the strip of chromate paper) how 
 far the action of the light has extended , as the last visible number 
 on the chromate paper will indicate it. 
 
 To ascertain the proper printing time of a negative we must 
 proceed in the following manner : A plate containing, for instance, 
 four cartes de visite negatives is exposed to the light simultaneously 
 with the photometer ; when the instrument has, for example, reached 
 the number 10, one of the four pictures is covered with a piece of 
 black paper, which is placed between the negative and the pigment 
 paper; the same operation is repeated when the number 12 has 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 171 
 
 impressed itself on the chromate paper, and so on when it has 
 reached 14 and 16 ; in this manner the different pictures have been 
 respectively printed to 10, 12, 14, 16. 
 
 The picture is developed and examined to see which part shows 
 the proper intensity. The degree of the photometer, for this part 
 of the picture, is the proper degree for the whole negative. 
 
 Sometimes the proper printing degree lies between two of the 
 numbers employed, for instance at 13 or 15 ; when this is the case 
 the picture marked 12 will be a little too light, while 14 is a little 
 too dark ; if all the pictures are either over or under printed, the 
 experiment has to be repeated again with respectively higher or 
 lower numbers. 
 
 With large pictures, landscapes, &c., a similar experiment as with 
 a carte de visite negative is made by covering successively pai'ts of 
 the landscape, taking care, however, that characteristic parts — 
 bright lights and dark shadows — occur in every part. 
 
 A number of negatives are arranged according to their density; 
 the practical photographer will easily classify them by looking 
 through them ; they are assorted in three classes — weak, medium- 
 dense, and dense ; the photometer degree for each class is deter- 
 mined by actual experiment, and all the pictures are printed ac- 
 cording to the result. 
 
 A new negative is closely examined with the eye, and compared 
 with a negative the printing degree of which is known, and the 
 printing time is regulated accordingly. 
 
 When a negative should offer difficulties in determining its den- 
 sity, an experiment is easily made ; a characteristic part of the 
 picture, under which a strip of sensitive paper has been placed, is 
 exposed to the light simultaneously with the photometer ; the strip 
 is gradually covered, when the photometer has respectively shown 
 the numbers 10, 12, and 14; the strip is then transferred and de- 
 veloped, and examined, in order to see which part has been exposed 
 the proper length of time. 
 
 After a few experiments of this kind, and after working for a 
 short time with the photometer and the pigment printing pi-ocess, 
 the e}"e becomes so well trained that a glance at the negative is 
 sufficient to indicate the necessar}' photometer degree. 
 
 For the purpose of printing on a larger scale the following method 
 is the most practical : All the printing-frames which one intends 
 to use are filled in the dark-room with paper ; they are exposed to 
 the sunlight simultaneously with the photometer; when this instru- 
 ment indicates the printing degree of the weak negatives, the latter 
 
172 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 are taken up and carried into the dark-room, or they are reversed 
 and covered up; and so on with the medium-dense ones and the 
 dense ones. The whole operation will in fine weather only take a 
 few minutes. The photometer must be watched very closely, in 
 order to arrest the printing process at the very moment when it 
 has progressed far enough. When all the frames have been taken 
 into the dark-room they are refilled with fresh paper, and the pro- 
 cess begins anew. When the saving of time is an object, and 
 where not a minute is to be lost, three photometers, one for each 
 class of negatives, should be employed. 
 
 The next thing to be taken into account is the sensitiveness of 
 the pigment paper; American paper, for instance, is twice as sen- 
 sitive as English paper. 
 
 When the photographer receives a paper the sensitiveness of 
 which differs from that with which the photometer degrees have 
 been determined for his negatives, a new experiment becomes 
 necessary, and the result — the difference in sensitiveness expressed 
 in photometer degrees — can easily be added to or deducted from 
 the negatives, as the case may be. 
 
 By a single trial (as described above), the degree of a single 
 negative is determined for the new paper. When for the old paper 
 the degree of a negative is, for instance, 12, and for the new 
 paper, say 14, it only remains to add simply the difference, 
 14 — 12 = 2, to all the known degrees of the old negatives, and 
 they will by this simple process be correctly timed for the new 
 paper. 
 
 When the new paper has a lower degree, 10 for instance, then 
 the difference, 12 — 10, is deducted from all the known degrees. 
 
 The photometer paper is prepared in the following manner : 
 
 A sheet of plain Rives or Steinbaeh paper is cut up into eight 
 equal parts, and immersed by lamplight for three minutes in a 
 solution of 
 
 1 part of bichromate of potash, 
 
 30 parts of water. 
 
 It is the same solution with which the pigment paper is sensitized. 
 The strips are completely immersed, and hung up to dry. 
 
 Paper prepared in this manner, kept in dry, clean wooden boxes, 
 from which the light is excluded, will keep for at least four weeks 
 without change. 
 
 The photometer paper should be made before the pigment paper 
 is sensitized in the liquid ; after it has served for the latter purpose, 
 it is no longer fit for the photometer. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 178 
 
 The paper is cut into strips of suitable size to fit into the pho- 
 tometer box; the fingers should be perfectly dry while handling it. 
 The first and last strips are thrown away. The strips are laid one 
 by one into the open photometer box ; the press board is placed in 
 position, and the lid is closed with the spring. The upper glass 
 lid is now opened, by lamplight, in order to ascertain if everything 
 is smooth and even. The papers must be firmly pressed between 
 the strips of tin. When everything is not smooth and even, it is 
 easy to make it so by means of a piece of white paper, which is in- 
 troduced from the glass lid, and smoothed with the finger. All 
 this must of course be done by lamplight. 
 
 When everything is in proper order the box is closed and hooked. 
 
 So prepared, the photometer with the lid closed is placed in po- 
 sition simultaneously with the covered printing-frames ; next the 
 cover is removed from the frames, the lid of the photometer is 
 opened, and the exposure begins. After a short time, say from 
 one to five minutes, according to the -weather, the frames are 
 covered again, the lid of the photometer is closed, and the latter is 
 carried into the dark-room, where a lamp is burning. 
 
 The instrument is here opened and examined, in order to see 
 which figures have appeared. No. 2 appears first, bright on a 
 brown ground, next 4, then 6, &c.; the higher figures of course 
 much paler. In order to ascertain how far the action of the light has 
 progressed, it is necessary to protect the eyes against bright light. 
 
 The open instrument is held below or at the side of a bright 
 flame, at about the distance of eighteen inches, in such a manner that 
 the rays fall vertically upon the yellow paper. With the eye pro- 
 tected against the light, -we glance over the paper (in the direction 
 of the figures from 2 to 25). When held in this position it is easy 
 to discern the figures. But not only should the attention be di- 
 rected to the figures, but also to the index hands and letters, as 
 they materially facilitate the recognition of the slightest light effect 
 on the paper. Turning the instrument gently from side to side 
 will soon enable one to ascertain the most advantageous position. 
 
 After a few experiments the necessary expertness is readily ac- 
 quired. 
 
 It must be observed that when one steps from a light room into 
 a dark one, that at first nothing will be noticed, but the eye soon 
 accommodates itself to the dim light, and we are able to recognize 
 all the details. 
 
 Similar things occur when we try to read the photometer, and 
 when the eyes are dazzled by bright light. 
 
174 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 When the observation is over, the photometer is returned to its 
 place amongst the printing-frames ; the lid is opened, the frames 
 are uncovered, and the exposure is continued. After one or more 
 minutes, the photometer is carried back into the dark-room, and 
 re-examined, having previously covered the frames, observing all 
 the precautions enumerated above. When the desired degree has 
 not been reached, the exposure is continued. The time which has 
 so far elapsed, and the figures which have been observed, serve as 
 a guide for calculating how much more time may be necessary to 
 finish the print. 
 
 Exceeding the number by a single degree does not amount to 
 much, as the error is easily remedied by longer development. 
 Under-exposure is worse. 
 
 When we have negatives of different degrees, we have first to 
 remove those of lower degree, or we may cover them up, and con- 
 tinue the exposure of the balance until their proper degrees have 
 successively been reached. 
 
 When all the prints have been made, the frames are carried into 
 the dark-room ; the frames are supplied with fresh paper, and the 
 upper yellow colored strip is taken from the photometer by press- 
 ing upon it loith the thumb of the left hand; this lowers the spring 
 lid; both ends of the strip are now pulled from under the tins; the 
 remaining strips are smoothed down, and after closing the instru- 
 ment, it is ready for another exposure. The upper yellow strip is 
 thrown away. 
 
 Photometer observations require the same qualities, which every 
 silver printer should have when he wants to make silver prints: 
 
 1. An eye which can discern slight light effects. 
 
 2. Care in regard to the photometer paper. The latter is more 
 sensitive than silvered paper, and should be treated with the same 
 cleanliness ; it must not be exposed to bright daylight. Particularly 
 in clear weather great care is necessary. 
 
 If, through carelessness, the paper becomes affected by daylight, 
 it loses part of its sensitiveness. We must also remark that in the 
 lower degrees the instrument rises very rapidly; in the higher 
 ones much slower. 
 
 It is further to be observed that the paper scale must be firmly 
 pressed against the yellow strip, as much so as the silvered paper 
 has to be firmly pressed against the negative. 
 
 The paper scale must not be touched with the fingers, and must 
 be kept dry. The glass should always be cleaned previous to 
 using the instrument. 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 175 
 
 I mention the following degrees, for a negative of medium den- 
 sity, as determined by trial, for different kinds of pigment paper : 
 
 Paper by Swan (brown-black), 
 
 “ Rowell (gray-black), 
 
 “ Beyrich (purple-black), . 
 
 “ Beyrich (purple-brown), . 
 
 15 degrees. 
 
 11 “ 
 
 12 “ 
 
 16 “ 
 
 Johnson’s improved pigment printing process. 
 
 Until recently the process of Swan was considered the most per- 
 fect in use, and justly so when the results which it produced were 
 taken as a criterion. Only one thing remained desirable,— a greater 
 simplicity in the manipulations. This has been accomplished by 
 the very interesting method of J. R. Johnson. 
 
 The first advantage which this method offers is the lessening of 
 the number of the necessary pieces of apparatus, and simplifying 
 them. A box 14 inches square and 12 inches deep contains all the 
 apparatus necessary for making pictures 9x1 inches. It contains 
 two dishes of japanned tin provided with grooves, two flat dishes 
 of the same material, a stand for plates, several plates of opal glass, 
 some plates of tin or zinc, a bottle with bichromate solution, another 
 with cement (see below), a thermometer, and a japanned box with 
 pigment papers. No strong pressure or rolling press is necessary ; 
 neither a large assortment of dishes, &c. 
 
 The trough or the plate box is filled with water of a temperature 
 of about 100° Fahr., which temperature can be maintained by 
 placing an alcohol lamp under the dish ; a flat dish is next filled 
 with cold water. An exposed sheet is placed for a few seconds in 
 the cold water, with the picture side downward. At first it will 
 curl inwardly, next it will become flat, and would, if left in the 
 water for a longer period, hurl outward. At the moment when it 
 has become perfectly flat , and before it has time to curl outward , 
 it must be removed from the water. 
 
 In the meantime a metal or glass plate (ground-glass is the 
 handiest, as with it it is easier to test the result) is rubbed with a 
 solution of wax, or better, stearine in alcohol •, on this plate is laid 
 the sheet with the picture side downward. Jo avoid air-bubbles, 
 this operation is best performed under water. The paper is next 
 brushed over with a wet, soft camel’s hair brush, in order to bring 
 it in perfect contact with the plate. All the plates are prepared in 
 this manner. When we proceed in the above-described manner, 
 
176 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the sheet will remain a little less than one minute in the cold water, 
 which is not sufficient time for the gelatine to become completely 
 soaked with water. After the paper has been placed on the plate, 
 it will absorb all the adhering water, and will adhere firmly to the 
 glass without the aid of a caoutchouc solution. 
 
 The wet paper will, however, adhere with the same facility to 
 any other smooth surface which is impenetrable to water , as, for 
 instance, canvas prepared for oil paintings, wood, stones, metals, 
 &c. If the glass has not been coated with wax or stearine , the pic- 
 ture will remain attached after development , and form a charming 
 transparency or opalotype. The fatty film prevents, however, a 
 perfect cohesion of both parts, and makes a future separation pos- 
 sible, which takes place at the second transfer. 
 
 The reader will already notice several advantages: the expensive 
 caoutchouc solution, which has to be coated on two different sur- 
 faces, is omitted ; also the unpleasant benzine vapor is avoided. 
 The operations are easier and more rapid, and the press is useless. 
 I must mention another great advantage. As the surface of the 
 paper which is attached to the glass is afterwards the picture 
 surface, it will present either a dull or glossy appearance. The 
 former when ground-glass, the latter when polished glass has been 
 used ; and it is, therefore, in any one’s power to produce dull or 
 glossy prints at his pleasure. 
 
 However, let us return to our subject. The pigment paper, which 
 has been laid on the glass in the above-described manner, will in a 
 few minutes be ready for development. The plates are placed one 
 after the other in the grooves of the trough containing warm water, 
 until the latter is completely filled. In the meantime the paper on 
 the first plate has separated itself from the gelatine film. The 
 paper is lifted off with great care, in order that the gelatine film 
 may remain firmly attached to the glass, and the latter is returned 
 to its groove. When the paper has been removed from all the 
 twelve plates, the development of the first plate will be complete ; 
 it is washed in cold water, placed in another box also provided with 
 grooves, and left to dry. When the last plate has so far progressed, 
 the first one will be ready for transfer. For this purpose the plate 
 is dipped in cold water, and under the surface of the plate a piece of 
 gelatine paper is laid, which thus comes in contact with the picture 
 on the glass. Both are now lifted out of the water ; the paper is 
 brushed over, as described above, in order to make the contact 
 perfect, and is now left to dry for an hour. Commencing at one 
 
THE POSITIVE OR PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 177 
 
 corner, the paper is carefully detached, and as the picture readily 
 separates from the glass, a perfect picture is obtained. 
 
 Instead of empk>3 T ing gelatine paper, which in order to make it 
 insoluble has to be treated subsequently with alum, the plate may 
 be dipped at once into a weak solution of gelatine to which has 
 been added a small quantity of chromate of alum. Swan has also 
 recommended this for the last transfer of his prints ; or a resinous 
 cement can be substituted for the gelatine, as will be described in 
 the simple transfer process. 
 
 Within one hour a dozen plates can be got ready for the final 
 transfer, and all the operations may be carried on in an ordinary 
 room, the windows of which have been darkened. 
 
 Sufficient has been said now about the simplified process, with 
 double transfer, by which with ordinary negatives a picture is ob- 
 tained in the proper position. I will now describe a simplified 
 process, with single transfer, by which with correct negatives we 
 obtain pictures in a reversed position. It is evident that for a 
 number of existing negatives this process is inadmissible ; but its 
 extraordinary simplicity and effectiveness recommends it w T hen 
 negatives are particularly taken for this purpose, or where the re- 
 version is of no importance. 
 
 The pigment sheet is sensitized and exposed, as has been de- 
 scribed above. A sheet of fine paper is dipped in a solution of 
 white shellac in liquid ammonia. This is the above-mentioned 
 cement. This paper is next laid on a glass plate, a piece of block 
 tin, or any other similar surface, and pressed to it with a camel’s- 
 hair brush. When this is partially diy, the exposed pigment sheet, 
 which has to be a quarter of an inch smaller than the transfer 
 paper, is dipped in water to which a little ammonia has been added, 
 and laid on the transfer paper, which remains on the plate. It is 
 brushed fast, partially dried, and developed as before ; next it is 
 washed and dried. The margin is loosened with a pen-knife, and 
 the perfect picture lifted off. Nothing can be more simple and 
 effective than this process. 
 
 Simpson, in speaking of it, says: “ The method is in fact simpler, 
 easier, and much quicker than the ordinary silver printing process.” 
 It is further interesting to know that Johnson employs an ingenious 
 method of sensitizing the paper and quickening its drying by simply 
 floating it for a short time on a five per cent, solution of chromate. 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 PIGMENT PRINTS ON ALBUMEN PAPER. 
 
 Instead of employing shellac, transfers can be made with coagu- 
 lated albumen paper. Grasshoff and Jean Renaud coagulate it 
 themselves by dipping it for a few minutes in strong alcohol, and 
 drying it. It is self-evident that for this process a very cheap paper 
 may be used. The moist coagulated albumen paper is placed on a 
 glass plate, albumen film uppermost. Next the exposed pigment 
 paper, which has been soaked in cold water, is pressed to it in order 
 to expel air-bubbles. The pictures are placed for an hour in a 
 press ; finally they are dipped in hot water in order to separate the 
 sheets. The picture adheres to the albumen paper. The picture 
 sheets are placed at once in lukewarm water, and developed in it. 
 The development must be done by lamplight. The dried pictures 
 are tanned, washed, and finished as usual. 
 
 Jean Renaud has recently published a communication on the 
 coagulation of the albumen film with alcohol. Experience has de- 
 monstrated that alcohol dissolves the resinous sizing of the paper. 
 Marbled stains are thus formed on the transfer paper, and when, 
 after the transfer, the operation was carried on in water of too high 
 a temperature, blisters would form on the picture. Jean Renaud 
 has removed this difficulty in a simple manner. 
 
 The exposed pigment sheet is placed in a package of slightly 
 moistened blotting-paper. While the sheet becomes pliable, the 
 albumen paper is placed in a large cylindrical glass filled with 
 strong alcohol. It is instantly pulled out again, and placed, drip- 
 ping wet with alcohol, on a glass plate, the albumen film being up- 
 permost. The pigment sheet, which in the meantime has become 
 pliable, is placed on the albumen paper, gone over with a roller, 
 and is for a few moments pressed well in a press. It is next devel- 
 oped in hot water. 
 
 This method has many advantages : a saving of alcohol, which 
 can be used to the last drop; the facility of preparing the albumen 
 paper at the moment when it is needed; the prevention of blisters, 
 even when boiling water is employed ; the saving of time, for when 
 the sheets have only been moistened completely with water, we 
 may place them one above the other and press them so as to be 
 able to develop them immediatel}*. 
 
 If pigment paper has been over-exposed, or become insoluble by 
 too long-continued drying, the prints may still be saved by placing 
 the pressed papers, previous to the development, for a short time, 
 in a solution of cyanide of potassium (one part cyanide of potas- 
 sium to one hundred parts of water). 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 PERMANENT SENSITIVE NEGATIVE PLATES AND POSITIVE PAPERS. 
 
 In the previous chapters we have thoroughly discussed the 
 collodion negative and the silver and pigment positive printing 
 processes. These methods are sufficient for carrying on the most 
 essential photographic objects. There are, however, circumstances 
 under which the execution of these processes offers difficulties. 
 The negative process requires a dark-room for the preparation of 
 the sensitive plates, which the travelling photographer has not 
 always at his disposal. It furnishes wet plates, which dry rapidly, 
 and after a short time become useless. It has been tried to obviate 
 this difficulty by making permanent sensitive dry plates, which 
 can be prepared at home, and carried along on an excursion. 
 Such plates should retain their sensitiveness for a long period, and 
 should not require development until after the return home. 
 
 Permanent sensitive positive paper has also been prepared, 
 which, when bought ready made, obviates the unclean work of 
 silvering, and is not liable to the danger of turning yellow in the 
 printing-frame. 
 
 Very great efforts have been made to produce permanent dry 
 plates and permanent sensitive papers, which, as regards certainty 
 and beauty of the results, should be equal to the wet process. 
 Every day new dry processes and new sensitive papers make 
 their appearance. It is doubtful which method is the best. So 
 much, however, is certain, that the production of dry plates, as 
 well as sensitive paper, is still very unreliable, and in spite of the 
 greater expenditure of care and time, which the preparation of 
 these bodies makes necessary, success cannot be guaranteed in the 
 same measure as with the wet process. 
 
 While in practicing the latter a truly pedantic cleanliness is a 
 conditio sine qua non , it is still more so in the dry process. 
 
180 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 a. PERMANENT NEGATIVE PLATES (DRY PLATES). 
 
 The above-mentioned common fault of negative plates getting 
 spoiled by the drying of the silver solution is obviated by simply 
 washing the plates after silvering. It is best to use distilled water 
 for this purpose, which must be absolutely pure and particularly, 
 free from alkaline reaction. We obtain in this manner, after letting 
 them stand for a short time, plates coated with a dry film of yellow 
 iodide of silver, which, when exposed and developed in the manner 
 described below, will yield a picture. It has been noticed that 
 the degree of sensitiveness of such plates is very small, and an 
 exposure four times as long as in the wet process is necessary. 
 The cause of this is the great transparency of the dry plates. A 
 plate saturated with a solution of nitrate of silver absorbs almost 
 all the actinic light which falls upon it, while a washed plate allows 
 a considerable portion to pass through it, which of course is lost 
 for the formation of the picture. It is, therefore, necessary to pre- 
 pare the plates with .a strongly iodized collodion, which, on account 
 of the large quantity of salt contained in it, will form a denser film 
 of iodo-bromide of silver; this absorbs the light more completely; 
 or else the back of the plates should be covered with an opaque 
 pigment. It should further be observed, that with such washed 
 plates the sensitizer is deficient ( i . e., the body which imparts sen- 
 sitiveness to the slightly sensitive pure iodide of silver), and that 
 from this cause alone the action on iodide of silver is of less inten- 
 sity. For this purpose it has been tried to replace the wet sensitizer 
 of the silver salts by a dry one. As such, all bodies absorbing 
 iodine can be used. Particularly tannin, gallic acid, and certain 
 resins have been recommended. I distinguish, therefore, amongst 
 dry processes, the tannin, resin, gallic acid, and other processes. 
 With solutions of these sensitizing bodies the washed plates are 
 coated and left to dry. By coating the plates with such a preserva- 
 tive they not only become more sensitive, but also more permanent. 
 
 The necessary washing, and coating of dry plates w ith a preserva- 
 tive make the labor somewhat complicated. The development is 
 still more troublesome ; the dry plate must first be prepared for 
 receiving the fluids by soaking in w'ater respectively in a silver solu- 
 tion. The too energetic sulphate of iron developer is apt to give 
 rise to fogs and spots, and the preference is given to the slower 
 acting pyrogallic acid, respectively a solution of sulphate of iron 
 with the addition of organic substances, which have the peculiarity 
 of retarding the chemical reducing process, — for instance, gelatine. 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 181 
 
 The oldest dry process is that of Taupenot; it consists in the 
 employment of an albumen film, which is silvered afterwards. The 
 albuminate of silver takes here the part of the sensitizer. 
 
 It is not my purpose here to give a description of all dry pro- 
 cesses which have been practiced. So I shall confine myself to the 
 description of two which I have worked successfully. 
 
 1. THE PROCESS WITH GALLIC ACID AND GUM, BY RUSSELL 
 MANNERS GORDON. 
 
 Well-cleaned plates should be selected and coated, previous to 
 collodionizing them, with a solution of albumen ; 1 part albumen 
 and from 12 to 15 parts of water are well shaken, left to settle, 
 filtered, and sufficient ammonia is added, until it smells slightly of 
 this substance ; the plate is placed horizontal, the fluid is poured 
 on it, and the albumen distributed over it with the aid of a piece 
 of card-board, in such a manner that a clear margin of the glass 
 about a sixteenth of an inch wide remains. The excess of fluid is 
 poured off on one corner. 
 
 The plates which have been coated in this manner have little 
 tendency to become spotted. Such a coating has also been recom- 
 mended for the ordinary wet process, particularly when the plates 
 are old, and have been used repeatedly. 
 
 The albumenized and dried plates can be kept for a long time in 
 a place free from dust. To convert them into dry plates they are 
 coated with a good collodion, such as is used in the wet process 
 (I use my equivalent collodion, see page 96). Gordon recommends 
 the following especially : 
 
 Ether, 
 
 Alcohol, . 
 
 Iodide of cadmium, 
 Iodide of ammonium, 
 Bromide of cadmium, 
 Gun-cotton, 
 
 240 parts. 
 
 240 “ 
 
 3 “ 
 
 1 “ 
 
 3 “ 
 
 6 “ at most. 
 
 The silver bath must, under all circumstances, be of a strength 
 of at least one to twelve, and should be as neutral as possible. 
 The time of immersion in this bath is ten minutes, or when the 
 collodion containing the largest percentage of dry salts is employed, 
 the time should be fifteen minutes. 
 
 The washing is done in two upright baths filled with distilled 
 water, and placed side by side. Plates that are washed under a 
 running stream are apt to become streaky. When the plates are 
 
182 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 taken out of the second bath they should be placed for two hours 
 in a comparatively large quantity of distilled water, or they may be 
 dipped successively in four baths filled with distilled water. After- 
 wards thejr are washed again with ordinary hydrant water under 
 the spigot. r I hey are then rinsed with distilled water from a wash- 
 bottle, and coated with the following solution : 
 
 I. Gum arabic, 
 Rock candy, 
 Water, 
 
 II. Gallic acid, 
 Water, 
 
 20 parts. 
 
 5 “ 
 120 “ 
 
 3 « 
 360 “ 
 
 No. II should be prepared in a warm place ; it is mixed with No. 
 I in the given proportions, and filtered before use. Air-bubbles 
 must be avoided. 
 
 Every plate requires 15 grammes (23 4 grains) of the gum pre- 
 servative. 4 grammes (62 grains) of it are taken to remove the 
 water, the remaining 11 grammes (110 grains) are left on the plate 
 for about a minute ; the liquid is then poured off, and the plate is 
 drained. 1 he latter operation is much more easily performed bj^ 
 placing the corners in small glass tubes which are fastened to boards. 
 
 The tubes are filled with blotting-paper, which can easily be re- 
 newed without injury to the plates, as they rest only with one cor- 
 ner on the tubes. The latter should have a diameter of about a 
 quarter of an inch. When these glass stands are not at hand small 
 tumblers may be employed, which, in order to give them more 
 firmness, are fastened to the table of the drying-room ; the upper 
 corners of the plate rest against glass surfaces ; it is well to num- 
 ber the plates after they have been placed in position. 
 
 The drying-room is a large wooden box or a kitchen closet, which 
 can be closed against the light, provided with shelves so as to per- 
 mit the placing of several rows at the same time. On the top is a 
 chimney, bent twice at right angles, similar to the chimney of a 
 magic lantern. In damp weather a tin vessel containing hot water 
 is placed in the centre of the drying-room ; in summer-time this is 
 generally unnecessary. The usual time for drying the plates is 
 from ten to twelve hours ; the film will then appear transparent, 
 and the backs of the plates must be coated with a film of pigment. 
 
 To prepare eight stereoscopic plates it is necessary to take : 
 
 Burnt terra sienna, divided in water, 100 grammes (3 oz., 231 gr. avoirduDois.) 
 
 Dextrine, 30 grammes (1 oz., 25 grains). 
 
 Glycerine, 2 grammes (31 grains). 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 183 
 
 A trace of carbolic acid or creosote will prevent the mixture 
 from spoiling. It is filled in tin tubes, such as are used for artists’ 
 colors, so as to be always ready for use. The backs of the dry 
 plates are brushed over with this color. It is always well to leave 
 a narrow margin around the plate, in order to prevent the pigment 
 from touching the picture side. After drying, the plates can be 
 packed away. 
 
 Exposure in the Camera . — The dry plates are exposed two or 
 three times as long as the wet plates. Dry plates can stand long 
 exposure without detriment. Generally, want of success is caused 
 by too short an exposure. Too long an exposure can be remedied 
 by a suitable development. 
 
 Development . — The pigment is removed from the back of the plate 
 with a wet sponge ; the margin of the negative is coated for about 
 one-eighth of an inch with a thick solution of caoutchouc in ben- 
 zole or chloroform 5 it is then immersed in a bath of ordinary watei, 
 and rinsed twice with distilled water in order to remove the pxe- 
 servative. It is now developed with the following developei . 
 
 I. Gelatine, 
 
 Glacial acetic acid, 
 Water, 
 
 II. Sulphate of iron, 
 Water, 
 
 10 parts. 
 160 “ 
 1120 “ 
 
 25 “ 
 500 “ 
 
 For use, one part of the gelatine solution is mixed with three 
 parts of the iron solution. For every plate take about 30 gi amines 
 (I oz., 25 gr.),and add two drops of a solution of nitrate of silver 
 (1 : 16). The percentage of silver is increased by always adding 
 two drops more until all the details make their appearance. 
 
 Intensify with an ordinary citric and pyrogallic acid solution. 
 For instance : 
 
 Pyrogallic acid, ^ parts. 
 
 Citric acid, ^ 
 
 Water, 480 “ 
 
 The fixing is done with hypo. The negative is subsequently 
 subjected to a supplementary treatment with pyrogallic and acetic 
 acids (and silver) ; the object of this is rather to change the color 
 of the precipitate than to increase its thickness. 
 
 Fog can be reduced to a minimum when to every ounce of so- 
 lution of gum ten drops of glycerine are added. By this modi- 
 fication the film does not become transparent after drying, and 
 
184 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 works almost like a wet plate. It has, however, the drawback that 
 it will only keep for two weeks. 
 
 Ihe leader will notice that this is rather a tedious and laborious 
 process. 
 
 Ihe lesin dry process is simpler. The preservative (any resin, 
 for instance colophonium) is added directly to the collodion, and 
 the plate is silvered and washed. 
 
 Abbe des Pratz was the first who introduced this process. Mr. 
 England practiced it afterwards, and lately Mr. Harneclcer, in 
 Briezen, has made it a specialty. 
 
 2. THE RESIN DRY PLATE PROCESS OF HARNECKER. 
 
 A well-cleaned glass plate is coated with common collodion, to 
 which for every 100 grammes (3 oz., 231 gr.) one-half a gramme 
 of resin gr.) is added. When the last drop, after pouring off 
 the excess, has become dry, the plate is dipped in a good working 
 silver bath : 
 
 bllver > 15 parts. 
 
 Water, . . , . 130 “ 
 
 Nitric acid, .... 2 drops for every 4 oz. of solution.* 
 
 The most suitable temperature is 65° Fahrenheit; the time of 
 sensitizing 5, 8, and 10 minutes. The medium time is generally 
 the best. The silver plate is first well washed with filtered distilled 
 watei, and next thoroughly washed with ordinary water. Finally 
 it is linsed with distilled water, and placed on one corner to dry, 
 at a temperature of not less than 70° Fahrenheit nor more than 
 100°. When dry the plates are ready for use. 
 
 The exposure is, according to the intensity of the light or the 
 age of the plate, twice or three times that of a wet plate. Fresh 
 plates are much more sensitive than old ones. 
 
 Ihe plate is, previous to the development, placed into a dish 
 containing filtered distilled water (it is best to make the water 
 slightly acid). The dish should be moved to and fro, and the plate 
 soaked in it for from five to ten minutes. It is then taken out and 
 placed in the same silver bath in which the plate has been origi- 
 nally sensitized. It is raised and lowered from eight to nine times, 
 and developed like any other wet plate. 
 
 * I give above the original receipt, but believe it would be well to add to 
 the silver bath one-quarter per cent, of the dry salt of iodide of potassium. 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 185 
 
 The developer consists of: 
 
 Sulphate of iron, . 
 "Water, . 
 
 Glacial acetic acid, 
 Alcohol, . 
 
 . 1 part. 
 
 . 220 parts. 
 
 3 “ 
 
 . 4 to 5 parts. 
 
 Intensified with the following solutions : 
 
 a. Pyrogallic acid, 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5 parts. 
 
 Water, . 
 
 
 
 
 . 2560 “ 
 
 b. Nitrate of silver, . 
 
 
 
 
 . 15 “ 
 
 Water, 
 
 
 
 
 . 720 “ 
 
 Glacial acetic acid, 
 
 
 
 
 . . 32 “ 
 
 Fixed with a solution of hyposulphite of soda. The develop- 
 ment can also be made by pouring the above iron solution over the 
 soaked plate. It is moved for a few seconds over the plate, poured 
 back into a glass, and then are added two, or at most three, drops 
 of a silver solution, consisting of: 
 
 30 parts of silver dissolved in 120 parts of water, and mixed 
 with the following fluid : 
 
 30 parts of citric acid dissolved in 720 parts of water. 
 60 “ alcohol. 
 
 The picture becomes visible at once, and the plate can be washed 
 after the fluid has been poured over it several times, and the image 
 appears clear and perfect. After washing with ordinary water, the 
 picture is reintensified with p}Togallic acid ; but the acid must be 
 used without the addition of silver in order to avoid fogging. 
 After the pyrogallic acid has been poured off and on several times, 
 citrate of silver is added for intensifying. If care has been taken 
 in the preparation of the plate, not to have the collodion too dry 
 before the plate is dipped in the bath, and it is left immersed suf- 
 ficiently long, and afterwards well washed, a satisfactory result is 
 certain, particularly when pictures in the open air and landscapes 
 are taken. 
 
 The development can be made at any time after the exposure. 
 
 As regards the numerous other dry processes, such as the tan- 
 nin, gelatine, coffee, tea, which are always tried over and over 
 again, and always recommended, I must refer the reader to the 
 photographic periodicals whose province it is to report the progress 
 made in this direction. 
 
 To any one who desires to work any of these processes, I must 
 recommend once more the greatest care and cleanliness in the 
 
186 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 treatment of the preparations. A slight impurity, which in the wet 
 process would perhaps be passed by unnoticed, may cause a perfect 
 failure in the dry process. Many dry plate pictures owe their ill 
 success solely to the employment of distilled water which was not 
 perfectly pure. But apart from this, the tedious mode of preparing 
 dry plates will frighten a great many. Time is money ; and very 
 often the packing and unpacking for an excursion of the necessary 
 apparatus and chemicals of the wet process offers much less dif- 
 ficulty and loss of time than the preparation of a number of dry 
 plates. The dry plate process will only then become practically 
 useful, when such plates can be prepared at not too high a price 
 for the trade, so as to save the photographer the trouble of making 
 them himself. 
 
 b. PERMANENT POSITIVE PAPERS. 
 
 Mr. G. Wharton Simpson, of London, the well-known editor of 
 the “Photographic News,” recommended a paper four years ago, 
 which had been coated with a collodion containing chloride of silver, 
 in place of the albumen paper. 
 
 Such paper yields prints as beautiful as those on silvered albumen 
 paper, and has besides a peculiarity which escaped the notice of the 
 inventor — i. e., that it keeps for an unusual long time. Papers 
 which are made in this manner, provided they have been properly 
 prepared, have been kept for weeks without change, while silvered 
 albumen paper turns yellow in from one to three days. 
 
 Obernetter, in Munich, was the first to make such a chloride of 
 silver collodion paper for the trade. It yielded excellent results, 
 but unfortunately the surface proved very delicate, and the paper 
 had a tendency to curl in the wash water. Later, Carrier, in Paris, 
 and Ost, in Vienna, have furnished similar preparations; the latter 
 has published his process in a pamphlet, an extract of which I 
 will give below. Quite recently a permanent albumen paper of 
 different composition has been brought out by Schaeffner & Mohr, 
 in Paris. It is called carbonate of silver paper, and is made sen- 
 sitive by fuming with ammonia.* The treatment it requires is the 
 same as ordinary silvered albumen paper, while the collodion papers 
 require a somewhat different management. The carbonate of silver 
 paper has the advantage over collodion paper on account of its 
 being cheaper, more durable, and offering greater resistance to 
 mechanical injuries. 
 
 * Probably this paper of Schaeffner & Mohr is nothing but silvered and 
 washed albumen paper. 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 187 
 
 It is evident that a chloride of silver collodion film can be used 
 not only on paper, but also on glass, wood, enamel, &c., and this 
 circumstance enables us to produce the pictures on almost any 
 given materials, either by preparing their surfaces directly with 
 collodio-chloride of silver, and then passing them through the 
 copying process, or by finishing the picture on the collodion paper, 
 detaching the film, and transferring it to the desired object. 
 
 COLLODIO-CHLORIDE OF SILVER. 
 
 Ost uses two kinds of collodio-chloride of silver in the prepara- 
 ' tion of his papers : 
 
 Collodion No. 1. 
 
 Plain collodion (containing 1J to 2§ per cent, of gun-cotton), 500 parts. 
 Chloride of magnesium, 4.5 “ 
 
 To this collodio-chloride of magnesium the following solution is 
 added : 
 
 Nitrate of silver, II parts. 
 
 Water, 16 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 40°, 16 “ 
 
 The nitrate of silver is first dissolved in the given quantity of 
 water, the alcohol added, and the solution thus formed is poured 
 into the bottle containing the collodio-chloride of magnesium. 
 This must be done in a dark-room, and the solution well shaken. 
 To the milky collodio-chloride of silver thus obtained, the following 
 substances are added while it is being constantly shaken : 
 
 Citric acid, ....... 4 parts. 
 
 Dissolved in water, 8 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 40°, 8 “ 
 
 Collodion thus prepared will keep for weeks. 
 
 Collodion No. 2. 
 
 Plain collodion (as above), . . . 625 parts. 
 
 Chloride of magnesium, .... 3.75 “ 
 
 To which is added the following solution of silver : 
 
 Nitrate of silver, 16 parts. 
 
 Water, 16 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 40°, 16 “ 
 
 To this is added the same solution of citric acid as above. 
 
188 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Both collodions are left to stand quietly for a few days ; they 
 are then decanted from the sediment and ready for use. 
 
 COLLODION PAPER. 
 
 As a foundation for this collodio-chloride of silver, a kind of 
 glazed paper had better be used, which Ost prepares as follows : A 
 gelatine albumen solution is spread with a broad brush as evenly 
 as possible on plain photographic paper. This is brushed away 
 with a badger’s-liair pencil, and left to dry. The dried sheet is 
 coated a second time, dried, pressed, and finally brushed, after 
 which it shows a fine and glossy surface. 
 
 The gelatine albumen solution is prepared as follows : The white 
 of twenty eggs is beaten to a froth and cleared by settlement. The 
 clear solution is mixed with an equal volume of a lukewarm gela- 
 tine solution, which has been cleared by settlement (1 part gelatine, 
 4^ parts of water), and in this mixture 3 to 4 pounds of white of 
 baryta and one-half a pound of (feather white ?) must be stirred. 
 The solution must be poured on while it is warm. 
 
 The coating of the paper with collodion is very easily done by 
 fastening the paper with two drawing pins to a smooth wooden 
 foundation, and pouring the collodio-chloride of silver on it in the 
 same manner as on a glass plate. The paper is first coated with 
 collodion No. 1, and left to dry by suspending it with slips; it is 
 next coated with collodion No. 2, the excess of which is poured 
 off on the corner opposite to the one from which the first solution 
 has been poured off; after it has been dried again the paper is 
 ready for use. 
 
 Obernetter’s prepared paper is an article of trade. The time of 
 printing with this paper is but half as long as for albumen paper, 
 and is therefore particularly recommended for winter use, and also 
 for enlargements. 
 
 Before toning, the prints are washed with ordinary water (5 to 10 
 minutes) in order to remove the greater part of the free oxide of 
 nitrate of silver. 
 
 I. Dissolve in 1$ litre (8^ pints) of distilled water, 
 
 Sulpho-cyanide of ammonium, 40 grammes (1 oz., 180 gr.), 
 Hyposulphite of soda, 4 grammes (62 gr.). 
 
 II. Dissolve in 1J litre (3^ pints) of distilled water, 
 
 Chloride of gold, 2 grammes (31 gr.), 
 or in place of it 3 grammes (46 gr.) of gold salt. 
 
 These two solutions will keep for any length of time. For use, 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 189 
 
 equal portions by volume of the two solutions are* mixed and may 
 be used at once for toning. In this way one is enabled to make 
 without scales, quickly, a small quantity of gold toning bath, suf- 
 ficient for a few pictures. An exhausted bath is strengthened by 
 adding a few drops of chloride of gold solution. When the copies 
 have reached the desired tone (2 to 10 minutes), they are washed 
 and fixed in the following carefully compounded solution : 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda, 40 parts. 
 
 Common water, 1000 “ 
 
 From 5 to 10 minutes are sufficient for fixing it. The washing 
 is done as described above. 
 
 It is advisable to moisten the prints previous to mounting, as 
 this will prevent curling ; or it is still better to mount them while 
 moist. Ity passing them through the rolling press, with strong 
 pressure, they obtain their full beauty. 
 
 To make these pictures less liable to mechanical injury, Ost 
 recommends the following varnish as a covering for the finished 
 pictures : 
 
 Benzine, 2 pounds. 
 
 India-rubber, £ ounce. 
 
 Mastic, ........ 1 “ 
 
 Canada balsam, i “ 
 
 TRANSFER PAPER AND TRANSFER PICTURES. 
 
 As foundation for the transfer a photographic paper which has 
 been coated with a gelatine solution of 1 : 13 serves well. The 
 paper is coated with collodio-chloride of silver in the same manner 
 as a negative plate is coated with negative collodion, with this dif- 
 ference, however, that the coating is repeated when the first film 
 has become dry ; the excess is allowed to run off from the corner 
 which in the first draining was uppermost. In this way greater 
 evenness is obtained. The paper will keep for months. 
 
 To produce a picture, the paper is exposed under a negative, 
 washed, toned in a bath of Rhodan gold, after Obernetter’s process, 
 and fixed. These operations are no doubt well known and handy 
 to most photographers. It is different with the transferring opera- 
 tions, which Mr. Ost describes as follows: 
 
 The Transferring . — After the last washing, the pictures, owing 
 to the contraction of the rather strong collodion film, show a tend- 
 ency to curl, which would be rather inconvenient for the transfer. 
 
190 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 This inconvenience is easily obviated by drawing the pictures 
 singly and rapidly through warm water ; they become flat at once, 
 and will remain in this condition if they are placed in a second 
 dish filled with cold water. Such an operation will require, for 
 several hundred pictures, but a few minutes. 
 
 When we wish to transfer to glass or paper, the photograph is 
 laid with the picture side on glass-paper,* and immersed for half a 
 minute in tolerably warm water; the paper can then with the 
 greatest ease be drawn off the collodion film (which contains the 
 picture). The glass-paper with the collodion film is placed on a 
 plate of glass, which should be a little larger than the paper, and 
 with a broad varnish-brush the gelatine which still adheres to the 
 collodion is removed, by the aid of warm water. The operation 
 occupies but a few seconds. A Bristol boardf is laid on a piece of 
 clean blotting-paper, and about a teaspoonful of thin boiled gelatine 
 of the following proportions is poured upon it : 
 
 Fine gelatine, 1 ounce. 
 
 “Water, k . 25 “ 
 
 The glass-paper with the collodion picture is lifted from the glass 
 and pressed, with the picture side towards the Bristol board, on 
 the surface of the gelatine ; the varnish-brush is passed several 
 times over the glass-paper, by which operation the excess of gela- 
 tine will be squeezed out, and by seizing carefully the glass-paper 
 at one corner, it is gently lifted from the Bristol board. The col- 
 lodion picture has now been transferred to the board. Slight 
 wrinkles which the film may still show will disappear after drying. 
 
 For this purpose the finished pictures are laid on large sheets of 
 paper, which have previously been saturated with a hot solution of 
 one part of lard and one part of wax ; the sticking of the glazed 
 Bristol board, to the corners of which the gelatine solution adheres 
 will thus be prevented. 
 
 Such sheets prepared with fat can be used for years. 
 
 The transferring to glass is done in the same mannejj only sub- 
 stituting glass for Bristol board, and selecting strongly exposed 
 pictures. 
 
 In the transfer great care is necessary in order to avoid air- 
 bubbles between the collodion film and its foundation (Bristol 
 
 * Glass-paper is a paper which has been brushed with a good copal varnish, 
 which imparts to it a glass-like transparency. 
 
 t If glazed Bristol board is used, the picture will show after drying a 
 glass-like lustre. Ordinary board interferes with the beauty of these prints. 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 191 
 
 board, glass, porcelain plates, &c.). After a short practice the 
 necessary skill is acquired. 
 
 It must further be remarked, that, in order to have warm water 
 constantly at hand during transferring, the following arrangements 
 must be made : An iron tripod of about three inches in height is 
 placed on the work-table, and on the former is put a glazed kettle 
 (such vessels can be obtained at any house-furnishing establish- 
 ment) ; the kettle should have a diameter of from nine to ten inches, 
 and a depth of about three inches ; it is half filled with water, and 
 is heated by an alcohol lamp. The water is used for the drawing 
 off, for the cleaning of the pictures from gelatine, for keeping the 
 broad brush warm and wet, and also for heating the gelatine. 
 
 Transferring to oval or round Porcelain Plates . — Transferring to 
 oval or round porcelain plates differs in so far as the binding me- 
 dium is not gelatine, but copal varnish. 
 
 When we wish to make a brooch on porcelain or an enamelled 
 plate, the picture intended to be transferred is cut in such a man- 
 ner that on every side it will be a quarter of an inch larger than 
 the plate. It is placed with the picture side on the glass-paper, 
 and is now freed from paper and gelatine by means of warm water, 
 in exactly the same manner as in the previous process ; the mar- 
 gins and surface of the porcelain plate are now brushed with light 
 copal varnish, which has been considerably diluted with chloroform ; 
 about one part of varnish to five or six parts of chloroform. This so- 
 lution is kept in a well-corked bottle. Only small quantities should 
 be taken out for use, as the chloroform evaporates very rapidly. 
 
 The varnish is laid on with a medium sized fish-brush ;* it should 
 be done in quick and even strokes ; the brush must contain only 
 very little varnish, and not be more than half wet. The varnished 
 plate is placed on the corner of the table; the collodion film is 
 pressed on and freed from the glass-paper; the protruding end of 
 the film is laid around the edge of the plate, and by drawing it 
 tight the wrinkles are removed as much as possible. A further 
 smoothing is produced by rubbing first gently, and afterwards 
 firmer, with fine cotton, such as is used for filtering collodion. 
 
 It cannot be denied that a certain amount of practice is requisite 
 in order to be able to transfer with varnish on medallions, and in 
 the beginning the attempts will frequently result in failure ; if, how- 
 ever, the operator has overcome the first difficulty and gained some 
 
 * The above expression refers probably to the shape of the brush, being 
 similar to that of a fich tail. — Translator. 
 
192 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 experience, it will be found that the process works rapidly and 
 without trouble. Ost sa} 7 s : “ I transfer about forty medallions in 
 an hour without spoiling a single one.” 
 
 On the unsuccessful plates the collodion film adheres firmly to the 
 porcelain, and can only be removed perfectly with great difficulty. 
 The best way of cleaning these is to let them lay over night in 
 caustic soda. 
 
 Objects whose form prevents stretching cannot be transferred 
 with copal varnish, as the collodion film is contracted by the 
 varnish, and gets full of wrinkles. 
 
 The transferring on vases, dishes, goblets, glasses, cups, bottles, 
 &c., which have to be frequently washed while in use, cannot be 
 done with gelatine, as this dissolves readily in water. An insoluble 
 transfer photograph can be obtained on them if albumen is em- 
 ployed in the place of gelatine. For this purpose the white of seve- 
 ral eggs is beaten to a froth and cleared by settlement ; the de- 
 canted and limpid albumen is used instead of the gelatine solution. 
 The collodion film adheres very well to this substance. 
 
 Objects ornamented in this manner with photographs are finished 
 by gradually heating them to about 190° Fahrenheit, at which 
 temperature the albumen coagulates and becomes insoluble in 
 water. 
 
 POSITIVE PICTURES PRINTED DIRECTLY ON GLASS, PORCELAIN PIC- 
 TURES, AND THE REPRODUCTION OF NEGATIVES. 
 
 The white of four eggs is beaten to a froth with four ounces of 
 water, left to clear, filtered through a cloth, and spread on well- 
 washed glass plates. The coating is made more even by the aid 
 of a glass rod, and the plates are left to dry in a place free from 
 dust. They will keep for months. In order to prepare them, they 
 are first coated with Collodion No. 1, and after they are dry, with 
 Collodion No. 2 (see page 187) ; they are dried again and printed 
 in a printing-frame under a negative, which is backed by black 
 cloth. It is easy to control the printing, as the picture becomes 
 visible through the glass. The prints must be vigorous. The 
 plates are washed, toned, and fixed in the same manner as collo- 
 dion paper (see above), and thus a fine transparency will be ob- 
 tained which resists mechanical injury without varnish.* 
 
 If this operation is repeated, a new negative can easily be made 
 from the positive. For this purpose, however, a very intense print 
 
 * This process can of course only be used with flat negatives. 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 
 
 193 
 
 is required, and the best way will be not to tone at all a positive 
 prepared with this intention, but to fix it at once, by which it ob- 
 tains a brown and non-actinic color. 
 
 If an enlarged print is desired, the positive is to be treated as 
 stated below. 
 
 Monckhoven published a short time ago some extremely im- 
 portant remarks about the reproduction of negatives b} r means of 
 collodio-chloride of silver. He says: 
 
 u I have latterly paid a great deal of attention to the chloride of 
 silver process, and will now give some of my discoveries, which 
 will enable the photographer to successfully produce new negatives. 
 
 “ I formerly believed that plates prepared with collodio-chloride 
 of silver ought to be over-exposed in order to obtain vigorous re- 
 sults. But I soon found out my error, and at the same time I 
 made a discovery the practical importance of which will be evident 
 to every one. 
 
 “The same unforeseen phenomenon of solarization appears with 
 the chloride of silver plates as with the iodide of silver plates, and 
 in such a manner that if a plate of this kind has been exposed too 
 long to the action of light, all the shady parts acquire by reflection 
 the well-known metallic lusti'e, while by looking through them the 
 red tint will be noticed, in which all the details will gradually dis- 
 appear. This is the beginning of solarization or over-exposure. 
 
 “The light acts on chloride of silver (with excess of nitrate of 
 silver) in exactly the same manner as it does under the same con- 
 ditions on iodide of silver, i. e., up to a certain point. When that 
 point has been reached a retrograde action sets in. 
 
 “ I have now tried to avoid the solarization of the chloride of 
 silver plates, or at least to defer it, and I succeeded in this by ex- 
 posing them to the vapors of ammonia. 
 
 “ If a chloride of silver plate is cut in halves, the one exposed 
 to the vapors of ammonia , and both printed under a negative, the 
 difference is very perceptible ; the one will be solarized very soon, 
 while the other will give a vigorous picture without the appearance 
 of solarization. 
 
 “ After these theoretical explanations, I will now state my mode 
 of working. 
 
 “ I prepare separately the following solutions : 
 a. Normal collodion — 
 
 Gun-cotton, 1 part. 
 
 Ether, . . . . . . . . 32 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 32 “ 
 
 13 
 
194 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 I let it settle thoroughly, ancl only use the portion that is entirely 
 clear. 
 
 b. Chloride of magnesium, .... 1 part. 
 
 Alcohol, 38°, 8 parts. 
 
 After the chloride has dissolved, the solution must he filtered. 
 
 c. Nitrate of silver in powder, .... 20 parts. 
 
 Distilled water, 30 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 56 “ 
 
 The silver is first dissolved in water, the alcohol then added, and 
 finally filtered. 
 
 d. Citric acid in powder, . . . . .18 parts. 
 
 Boiling water, 18 “ 
 
 Alcohol, 128.6 “ 
 
 The citric acid is first dissolved in boiling water and the solution 
 filtered after the alcohol has been added. 
 
 “For compounding the collodion a brown Rhine wine bottle is 
 taken, for in such it will keep white in open light. It is filled with 
 600 parts by measure of normal collodion (a), and 50 parts by 
 measure of chloride of magnesium solution (5). This is well 
 shaken, and 60 parts by measure of silver solution (c) added ; the 
 bottle is closed and shaken for a few minutes. 40 parts by measure 
 of the citric acid solution ( d ) is now poured in; it is shaken again, 
 and the collodion put away for eight or ten days, for it improves 
 with age. 
 
 “ I must call the attention of the reader to the fact that he must 
 strictly observe the above-mentioned formulse, for the preparation 
 of collodio-chloride of silver must be carried on with exactness. 
 If too little silver is present, the collodion is insensitive to light ; 
 too much' silver produces crystals on the surface of the plate. In 
 the former case silver, salt is added ; in the latter chloride of mag- 
 nesium. 
 
 “ This collodion has an opalescent color. It will not form a pre- 
 cipitate if it has been correctly prepared. 
 
 “ The plates, after being carefully cleaned, are coated with albu- 
 men which has been diluted with its own volume of water ; they are 
 then well dried and collodionized. The collodion must be poured 
 on very slowly in order to obtain a thick film. This is much better 
 than to provide the plates with a double film of collodion, as, unless 
 this is done with extraordinary skill, the second application of col- 
 
DIFFERENT PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES, i 
 
 195 
 
 lodion will partially dissolve the first. Before exposing the chlo- 
 ride of silver plates, they are subjected to the vapors of ammonia. 
 
 “ The ammonia is placed in a watch-crystal, which is placed at 
 the bottom of a box provided with horizontal grooves. The plates 
 are laid three or four inches above the glass containing the am- 
 monia ; they are exposed for three minntes to the vapors, left for 
 half an hour in the air, and placed in a printing-frame with the 
 negative. 
 
 “ Toning and fixing is done according to the directions given 
 above.” 
 
 About the reproductions of negatives by means of the camera, 
 see the chapter on Enlargements. 
 
 PRINTING BY DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 As we have before observed, the direct printing process has, by 
 the excellence of its results, maintained its precedence over the 
 printing with development, in spite of its slowness. There are 
 however, cases where, under certain circumstances, a preference is 
 given to a sensitive process. For instance, in making enlarged 
 pictures with feeble light, also for the production of prints in great 
 quantity, where cheapness is of more importance than beauty. 
 For such purposes several methods have been tried, and specially 
 prepared papers have been employed. Very beautiful results are 
 obtained on collodion paper. It is, however, only suitable when 
 freshly prepared. Such a preparation does not offer any difficulty 
 now, as the ready made pollodio-ehloride of silver, as well as gela- 
 tine paper, are easily obtained through the trade. 
 
 For the production of developed pictures on collodion paper , 
 Obernetter recommends : Printing until the outlines of the picture 
 become visible ; next immersion in the following solution : 
 
 Water, 1000 parts. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid, ...... i “ 
 
 Citric acid, i to J “ 
 
 When the picture has developed with sufficient vigor, it is washed, 
 toned, and fixed, the same as ordinary collodion paper pictures. 
 (Monckhoven’s printing process and printing by development fol- 
 lows below, under the chapter “Enlargement with Development.”) 
 
ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 The photographer is often called upon to furnish an enlarged 
 positive from a small negative. This can be accomplished by dif- 
 ferent methods. 
 
 Every lens forms a reduced image of an object when it is removed 
 further from it than twice the focal length. When an object is 
 nearer to the lens than twice its focal length, the image formed by 
 the lens will be enlarged. 
 
 A person five feet high, placed at the distance of twenty feet 
 from a carte de visite lens, will have an image of three inches in 
 height projected on the ground-glass, and vice versa , this same lens 
 can produce a life-size picture from the small negative at a distance 
 of twenty feet. The brightness of such an enlarged image decreases 
 with the increase of surface, and it is evident that the negative 
 which is placed at the focal distance from the lens must be bril- 
 liantly illuminated if we wish to obtain a bright optical image, and 
 this illumination should be the more intense the larger the desired 
 picture is to be. 
 
 For a moderate enlargement, six to eight times. 
 
 1. THE INDIRECT COPYING PROCESS 
 
 Will be sufficient. With the ordinary chemicals a transparent 
 positive is made of the size of the original; this can either be done 
 with the camera or with collodio-cliloride of silver.* From the 
 positive an enlarged negative is taken. 
 
 Two cameras are used for this purpose ; the fronts are placed to 
 face each other, and from one of the cameras the lens is removed. 
 The objective of the second camera will project into the first 
 camera; the latter serves merely as a proper receptacle for placing 
 the negative and to exclude side-light. The negative, which has 
 already received the necessary retouch, is placed in the plate-holder 
 of the first camera, and kept in position by small pieces of wax, 
 
 * Honckhoven gives the preference to collodio-chloride of silver. 
 
ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 197 
 
 and the plate-holder is placed in the camera. The whole system is 
 best placed on a long and very solid stand, opposite to a window, 
 with an unobstructed view of the sky. 
 
 I generally make such work in the glass-house. The base of the 
 stand is placed in an inclined position, and the light, with the ex- 
 ception of a space ten feet square, is excluded. I place the stand 
 with the cameras opposite this opening. 
 
 It is advisable to exclude all superfluous light. When the back 
 of the negative receives light, it will look partially positive, owing 
 to reflection. This of course may give rise to a false effect, and it 
 is better to cover a black cloth over the space where the two 
 cameras are joined together. And the light which passes through 
 the transparent margins of the negative also exercises an injurious 
 influence. The negative acts like a kind of window admitting 
 diffused light into the camera, and disturbs the clearness of those 
 parts which should remain transparent in the picture which we de- 
 sire to produce. 
 
 To obviate this, an opaque mask is placed in front of the 
 negative, in which an opening has been made sufficiently large to 
 illuminate the picture. Window bars and other dark objects in 
 the visual line of the apparatus are disturbing elements ; to make 
 them harmless, a piece of fine ground-glass is placed in front of the 
 negative in order that the light must first pass through the former 
 before reaching the negative. The back shutter of the plate-holder, 
 in which the negative rests, is prevented from shutting by some 
 simple contrivance. 
 
 A correct drawing lens of short focus is selected as an objective. 
 Carte de visite lenses of four inches focus, triplets, or aplanatic 
 lenses, answer for this purpose. The bellows of the back camera 
 must of course admit of sufficient extension when a large picture 
 is desired. 
 
 Card and triplet objectives should be fastened in a reversed 
 position to the camera (the back lens being front). If we desire, 
 for instance, a picture nine times magnified, we place the apparatus 
 in such a manner that we receive a positive which has been magni- 
 fied three times ; by repeating the operation without changing the 
 position of the apparatus, and substituting the magnified positive 
 in place of the original negative, we will get a picture which is 
 3 x 3, or nine times as large as the original negative. It is only 
 necessary to focus once, after which the proper stops can be in- 
 serted. The exposure should not be too short. The developed 
 positive should show by transmitted light the same delicate details 
 
198 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 in light and half tone as a fine paper print taken from the same 
 negative would represent. A fully exposed positive, soft and very 
 sharp , is absolutely necessary for enlargements. 
 
 The beginner must not think that he has succeeded when a clean 
 positive plate has been produced. Before proceeding further, he 
 should examine it very carefully in order to ascertain if it is rich 
 in detail. Sir H. Davy says, expose the positive until it shows a 
 slight precipitate in the bright parts. Intensifying is unnecessary. 
 When a good positive has been obtained, the enlarged negative is 
 made from it in the same apparatus. Another way is to make a 
 positive on collodio-chloride of silver by the direct process, which 
 has been described above. But aside from focussing, which with 
 enlargements requires some patience, the work with the camera is 
 the most convenient. 
 
 It is of much advantage to know the equivalent focus of the 
 objective for the purpose of focussing (see directions). If this is 
 known the negative and ground-glass can be placed at about the dis- 
 tance of the equivalent focus, which will save a tedious adjustment. 
 For pictures of original size the distance of the original (negative) as 
 well as the collodion plate, for instance, is about equal to twice the 
 length of the focus. For enlargements the distance of the original 
 is less than twice the focus. Meagher, in London, has constructed 
 a camera with long bellows, which, in the centre of the bellows, has 
 an arrangement for placing the objective, and in the front part of 
 which the negative is easily inserted. All the parts are easily brought 
 nearer or further removed by endless screws, and sharp focussing 
 causes no trouble. Any one who has to work much in this branch 
 will do well to make marks on his camera, which indicate how far 
 the same has to be drawn out for different enlargements. 
 
 The avoidance of any shaking of the apparatus during exposure 
 is absolutely necessary. Any, even the slightest motion shows in 
 the enlargement in a heightened measure, and produces a want of 
 sharpness. Care should be taken to have a solid basis, and run- 
 ning about, and opening and shutting doors, &c., must be avoided. 
 Sometimes a vibration is caused by the opening of the objective. 
 
 I am in the habit of altogether dispensing with a cap, and admit 
 or exclude the light with a small piece of blackened pasteboard, 
 which is placed in front of the negative, and can easily be taken 
 away for the purpose of exposure. I have still to remark that it 
 is advisable to subject the transparent positive, which has been ob- 
 tained in the first operation , to careful retouching before we take 
 a new negative from it. In this manner negatives can be made, 
 
ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 199 
 
 which, even in an artistic view, surpass the original. From an en- 
 larged negative the positive is made in the usual manner. 
 
 2. THE DIRECT COPYING PROCESS. 
 
 The enlarged image is projected at once upon sensitive paper , 
 and either printed completely or brought out by development. In 
 the latter case a feeble light will suffice ; in the foimei a "very in- 
 tense illumination of the negative is necessary, and this is accom- 
 plished by the rays of the sun , which either directly, or with the 
 aid of a reflector, fall vertically upon the negative. In both cases 
 the rays are concentrated with the aid of a large condensing lens. 
 Enlarging apparatus has been constructed for this purpose. 
 
 Dependence upon solar light is generally a great drawback to 
 this kind of work, particularly in northern latitudes, wheie the ia^s 
 of the sun possess but feeble power. For such regions the em- 
 ployment of a printing process with development will recommend 
 itself. 
 
 In selecting the negatives for enlargement it must be observed 
 that every, even the smallest, fault is magnified, and hence such 
 negatives must be real ne plus ultras as regards sharpness, clear- 
 ness, softness, and purity of the glass. It is customary to employ 
 negatives for the direct copying process, which have not been var- 
 nished, as the delicate impurities which are suspended in the var- 
 nish exercise an injurious influence, besides the great heat of the 
 concentrated solar rays is apt to soften the varnish. 
 
 For moderate enlargements a long camera of large dimensions 
 is sufficient ; for larger sizes it is better to use a dark-room which 
 has especially been constructed for this purpose, but unless there 
 is a great demand for these pictures its construction will not pay. 
 
 In order to give the reader an idea of an enlarging establishment 
 I will publish below the description of Monckhoven’s apparatus. 
 
 The same is placed in a dark-room of from 13 to 16 feet in 
 length ; the window faces almost south ; in front of it is a mirror 
 constructed entirely of iron. By a rack and crank movement such 
 a position can be given to the latter that the reflected lays will 
 fall almost horizontally on the condensing lens of the solar camera. 
 The movement of the mirror is very convenient. It is only neces- 
 sary to move it about every 20 seconds, in order to keep the rays 
 constantly in the same direction. 
 
 Fig. 63 represents the solar camera with the sideboards removed 
 so as to show the interior arrangement. 
 
200 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 The lens A B is the condenser, the diameter of which varies ac- 
 cording to the power of the apparatus. Its curve is so calculated 
 that its spherical aberration is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 At the distance of its diameter a second lens is placed, very thin 
 and of the form of a watch crystal, which compensates perfectly 
 the spherical aberration of the first lens. It follows that the field 
 of illumination is not, as in the old apparatus, stronger on the 
 margins of the negative than in its centre, but perfectly even over 
 the whole surface of the original ; for every separate point of the 
 margin is penetiated only by a single bunch of rays, and thus, in 
 the dialytical apparatus, the margins of the enlarged pictures are 
 rendered as sharp as the central parts, which is not the case in the 
 old apparatus. 
 
 Ihe oiiginal picture, II /, is so cut down that only the part which 
 is to be enlarged remains, and is placed into the conus of rays. 
 Formeil) the great heat which was concentrated on the negatives 
 was apt to break them. By introducing the arrangement illustrated 
 in the figure this is obviated. 
 
 The negative may be of an} r size, and its enlargement on a sheet of 
 given dimensions, sensitized with chloride of silver, always requires 
 the same space of time. Hence, when we have a negative of one- 
 fourth, one-third, or card size, and wish to enlarge it to a bust 
 pictui e of life size, on a double sheet of one metre, the time re- 
 quited will be the same as if the whole figure were enlarged on a 
 sheet double the size. 
 
 The objectives are of peculiar construction, and are provided 
 with central or back stops, which intercept the diffused light with- 
 out detriment to the light of the condenser. 
 
 The objectives are movable, and admit of the enlargement of 
 any negative between one-fourth and one-half size, on albumenized, 
 
 Fig. 6ft. 
 
ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 201 
 
 or salted paper, &c., as well as on collodion. Other objectives 
 can be combined with the apparatus, which admit of the enlarge- 
 ment of negatives of {, &c., sizes, with the same rapidity and 
 completeness. 
 
 The American enlarging apparatus is much simpler than Monck- 
 hoven’s. It consists of a large box, which, by a rack and pinion 
 
 Fto. 64 . 
 
 movement, is directed towards the sun. The condensing lens is 
 placed at d; the rays of the sun fall vertically upon the latter. 
 The mirror (which alwa 3 7 s absorbs light) is, therefore, omitted as 
 useless. The objective is placed in the box at b in such a manner 
 that a cone of light is concentrated upon it. 1 he negative c is 
 placed in a frame in front of the objective (between d and &). This 
 frame can be moved with a rack movement for the purpose of focus- 
 sing. The picture is projected on a movable drawing-board at the 
 back of the box. Through a small door at the side the printing 
 process can be watched. Mr. Roettger, in Philadelphia, manufac- 
 tures these. 
 
 ENLARGEMENT BY DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 There are two different ways of obtaining a large positive from 
 a small negative. The direct enlargement , and the production of 
 a large negative on collodion or paper, which is well retouched and 
 printed in the ordinary manner. 
 
 The small negative which is to be enlarged is placed in the appa- 
 ratus ; the enlarged image is projected on sensitized bromo-iodized 
 
202 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 albumen paper. The exposure in the apparatus requires from fif- 
 teen seconds to several minutes, in fact until the feeble outlines of 
 the picture appear. The following bath is necessary: 
 
 White of egg, beaten to a froth, and cleared, . 100 parts. 
 
 Distilled water, 
 
 . 1000 “ 
 
 Iodide of potassium,. 
 
 . 15 “ 
 
 Bromide of potassium, 
 
 . 15 “ 
 
 Or, 
 
 Se ™ m . 1 ounce. 
 
 Iodide of potassium, 10 grains. 
 
 Bromide of potassium, 6 “ 
 
 The paper is floated on this bath for three minutes, dried, and pre- 
 served in a closed portfolio. 
 
 For sensitizing it is floated for three minutes on the following 
 silver bath : 
 
 Distilled water, 1000 parts. 
 
 Nitrate of silver, 70 “ 
 
 Glacial acetic acid, 70 “ 
 
 While still moist, the paper is dipped in a bath of: 
 
 Distilled water, , 1000 parts. 
 
 Citric acid, 4 “ 
 
 Pyrogallic acid, 2 “ 
 
 The picture develops in a few minutes ; it is then placed in a 
 
 bath of hyposulphite of gold, and left in it for five minutes, and 
 washed. 
 
 The composition of the fixing bath is : 
 
 Water, 1000 parts. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda, 100 “ 
 
 Chloride pf gold, ^ “ 
 
 Generally speaking enlarged pictures are inferior in beauty to 
 those which have been taken directly. In America I have seen 
 the best solar enlargements. 
 
MICROPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Every naturalist knows how tedious it is to draw the enlarged 
 pictures of different objects which we see under the microscope, 
 and how much such copies often vary from the originals. 
 
 These circumstances have for a long time induced such men as 
 Bertsch in Paris, Highley in London, Curtis in America, and 
 Kellner in Germany, to employ photography for making pictures 
 of microscopic objects, and they have succeeded in producing 
 splendid “ microphotographs.” 
 
 The process which these gentlemen employ has only partly be- 
 come known to the public. 
 
 Bertsch and Highley used a kind of solar microscope or magic 
 lantern, where the screen is replaced by a sensitive plate. Such 
 apparatus was exhibited in the Industrial Exhibition in London. 
 The price was about three hundred and fifty dollars. Although 
 such apparatus produces excellent results, still its use is attended 
 by many difficulties. 
 
 One is compelled to carry the object from the observing apparatus 
 to the photographic apparatus, and it is often extremely difficult to 
 find the place of the object which had previously been observed. 
 
 The author tried to dispense entirely with the expensive appa- 
 ratus, and to take directly the pictures which the observing micro- 
 scope reveals. 
 
 As an example, he placed the mica of South Burgess, which is 
 so curious on account of its Asterismus, on the stage of a Schick 
 microscope, and placed the instrument horizontal. In this position 
 he combined it with a small photographic camera; the latter had a 
 simple achromatic lens (a so-called landscape lens) of about four 
 inches focus. The two instruments were so placed that their optical 
 axes coincided , and the object glass of the camera almost touched 
 the eye-piece of the microscope. When, with the concave mirror 
 attached to the microscope, the solar rays were thrown on the object, 
 a clear picture of the crystals contained in the mica appeared on 
 
204 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the ground-glass. With the rack adjustment of the microscope, a 
 sharp image was obtained and a photographic picture taken. The 
 experiment succeeded perfectly, and furnished, after twenty-five 
 seconds exposure, a sharp picture of the crystals, magnified five 
 hundred times. 
 
 This method of making microphotographs is so simple that any 
 one can piactice it who is at all familiar with photographic opera- 
 tions. It requires no other apparatus than a simple camera with a 
 landscape lens. It can be adapted to any microscope which is suf- 
 ficiently strong in light, and gives, accordingly as the ground-glass 
 is more or less removed from the object, views which are equal, or 
 laigei 01 smaller, than the directly observed image. 
 
 Two precautions should be observed in making such pictures : 
 The lens of the camera must not have a chemical focus, and the 
 pictuie should be taken in a room which is not exposed to any 
 vibration. 
 
 The picture may also be taken when the instrument is placed in 
 a vertical position. In that case the camera must also be placed 
 vertically in order that the two optical axes coincide. 
 
 I published this method in November, 1862 , and have frequently 
 practiced it. 
 
 The illumination offers some difficulty in so far as a quantity of 
 unnecessary light is easily thrown into the object-glass of the mi- 
 croscope, which materially disturbs the purity of the picture. The 
 best way to concentrate the light is by placing the object at the 
 apex of a cone of rays, the axis of which coincides with the axis 
 of the microscope. With opaque objects this danger does not 
 exist. The illumination is made with a condensing lens (bull’s eye). 
 
 The abo\ e stated simple combination of the microscope and the 
 camera has the other advantage, that the cobweb lines are visible 
 in every picture, and that a difference in the chemical and optical 
 foci of the microscope itself does not amount to much, provided 
 that the camera lens is free from this error. 
 
 But when the cobweb lines are not necessarily required, we can 
 operate with the microscope alone. The lens of the camera is re- 
 moved ; the tube of the microscope is placed in the opening of the 
 camera ; all extraneous light is excluded by means of a cloth, or a 
 sleeve, which is nailed on to the camera, and its other end tied to 
 the tube of the microscope. 
 
 When the micrometer screw of the microscope is now gently 
 turned in a direction to remove the object from the object-lens, the 
 image will suddenly appear on the ground-glass as the image pro- 
 
MICROPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 205 
 
 duced by the objective of the microscope is enlarged and projected 
 on the ground-glass by the ej^e-piece. Unfortunately a chemical 
 focus becomes rather annoying with this method. 
 
 By removing the ground-glass further from the object, we enlarge 
 the image. 
 
 The extent of the chemical focus is easily ascertained. 
 
 I employed a microscopic photograph by Dancer of Konigsberg. 
 The picture itself was an albumen positive, about the size of a pin’s 
 head, and placed between thin glass ; under a microscope with a 
 power of one hundred diameters, it appears as a plain, legible in- 
 scription — the inscription on the tombstone of General Dickson — 
 which is arranged in about the following order: 
 
 To the memory of 
 William Francis Dickson, 
 
 Major in Her Majesty’s 62d Regiment 
 of Foot, and eldest son of 
 General Sir Jeremiah Dickson, K. C.B. 
 
 He died a soldier’s death before Sebastopol, 
 
 June 8, 1855, having been killed early in 
 the morning of that day, whilst gallantly 
 holding the quarries against repeated 
 attacks of the Russians, &c., &c. 
 
 I laid this photograph on the stage of the microscope, not flat, 
 but inclined by placing pieces of wood under one end. The di- 
 rection of the lines remained horizontal, but the line vertical to it 
 formed with the horizontal plane an angle of 30°. By this arrange- 
 ment the distance of the lines from the combination of lenses was 
 a different one for each line, and it was not possible to focus sharply 
 more than one or, at most, two lines. With the Schick combina- 
 tion of lenses, 1 + 2 + 3, I focussed sharply on line 8, and took 
 two pictures. On both pictures line 5 appeared black and sharp 
 instead of line 8. This demonstrated a chemical focus. To measure 
 this difference, and to compensate for it, I used the micrometer 
 adjustment of Schick’s instrument, by which the stage of the in- 
 strument can be elevated or depressed, and by which the fine ad- 
 justment is made. 
 
 From the above experiments it becomes evident that in order to 
 obtain a sharp picture of line No. 8, I must focus on line No. 5 ; 
 or if I focussed on line 8, I must turn the micrometer screw until 
 line 5 appeared sharply defined in the field. I have measured the 
 
 ( 1 ) 
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 ( 6 ) 
 CO 
 ( 8 ) 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
206 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 revolutions, and found that with G. Rose’s microscope it amounted 
 to 50°, and with Dove’s microscope to 35°, for the combination 
 1 + 2+3. 
 
 These measurements are easily made by placing under the head 
 of the micrometer screw a paper circle, which is divided by radii 
 from 5° to 6°, in such a manner that the centre of the circle coin-' 
 cides with the prolongation of the axis of the screw, and by filing 
 on the head of the screw a line with a file. By placing the eye 
 vertical over the head of the screw, it is not so very difficult to 
 note the change on the divided paper circle. 
 
 After having measured the focal difference, two new pictures 
 were taken ; line No. 8 was sharply focussed, the micrometer screw 
 was sufficiently turned to compensate for the chemical focus, and 
 now line 8 appeared sharp in both pictures. 
 
 Another picture of the whole slide placed horizontally and taken 
 wdth a magnifying power of 25, and the above correction gave a 
 sharp picture of all the lines. 
 
 With the microscope the focal difference of every combination 
 must be ascertained by experiment. For low powers the differ- 
 ence is small ; a six-fold magnifying power (lens 1 of Schick) shows 
 scarcely any chemical focus. 
 
 I would recommend this simple method of ascertaining the 
 chemical focus, not only to persons who photograph with the mi- 
 croscope, but also to all practical photographers. For the latter, 
 a sheet of clear printed matter, placed on a board, will suffice. 
 The board is placed opposite to the camera, not at right angles to 
 it, but at an inclination of from 60° to t f0°. The camera is placed 
 at such a distance that the resulting picture is about natural size. 
 Ihe lens is focussed on one of the middle lines, and we examine 
 afterwards which line appears the most sharply defined. 
 
 STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES. 
 
 To obtain stereoscopic pictures two different views of an object 
 are necessary, — one a little more from the right than the other, the 
 second a little more from the left. 
 
 1 hese pictures can be made (1), the simplest way, with an ordi- 
 nary camera, which is placed on a stand with a broad top-board. 
 Ihe board, B (Fig. 65), is placed vertical to a line which is drawn 
 from the observer to the object. 
 
 We either take a camera with a movable plate-holder, with which 
 two pictures can be taken in succession, or we employ a camera 
 
STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES. 
 
 207 
 
 with a movable object-lens and internal divisions (it, Fig- 65). 
 Such a camera is first placed on the right side of the board towards 
 the groove. The right-hand picture is taken on the left side of the 
 plate, looking at it from the rear. Next the camera is placed on 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 the other side from 5, and we take the left side of the object on 
 the right side of the plate. That the camera retains exactly the 
 same distance from the object is very necessary, and the boaid 
 should be placed very firm. The binding-screw, /v, of the camera 
 passes through holes bored in the board, or runs in a groove, in 
 order that the position of the camera may be fixed at any time. 
 
 The length of the board for distances of about twenty-five feet 
 is about a & foot. With nearer objects it is less. With great dis- 
 tances we take four to five feet and even more. When too much 
 length has been given to the board for near objects, they will appear 
 unnaturally solid, while the reverse produces pictures that are flat. 
 
 This method will not do for moving or living objects, as these 
 are apt to change their position, and the second picture, even if it 
 should be sharp, would not be in its proper place, and would appeal- 
 distorted in the stereoscope. 
 
 Even in landscape photography this method has great drawbacks, 
 as the illumination will sometimes change between the taking of 
 the first and second picture. 
 
 The second method is with a camera with two tubes. With 
 it both pictures are taken at the same time. A change in posi- 
 tion or illumination has no influence here, as both pictures are taken 
 simultaneously ; but as the tubes cannot be very far removed from 
 one another the right and left view differ very little, and the dis- 
 tances do not appear very solid. 
 
 In Germany we use the German and English boxes for this work. 
 
 A very practical camera for stereoscopic work is the one called 
 the u Philadelphia Box,” made by the American Optical Company, 
 
208 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 New York, and one of which was presented me by the Scovill 
 Manufacturing Company. 
 
 It consists of a rigid front part (Fig. 66), and the back part Z>, 
 
 which moves back and 
 forth on the platform. It 
 also has fronts for the 
 tubes. The focussing is 
 done by moving the back 
 part over the brass guides, 
 G G , and securing the ex- 
 act focus by using the fo- 
 cussing screw, F. The 
 opening and shutting of 
 the tubes is done with a 
 cloth, the common method, 
 I find, in America. Some 
 of the foreign boxes have 
 an instantaneous front, 
 which moves around an 
 axis, and which can be 
 rapidly raised and depressed by turning a knob. The exposure 
 can, ot course, be lengthened at pleasure. The whole arrangement 
 fits only loosely on the objective, and is easily removed. The front 
 board with the stereoscopic lenses is also easily detached and re- 
 placed by another board carrying a single lens. This same arrange- 
 ment may be applied to the American boxes when necessary. 
 
 The inside of the camera is divided by a movable piece or dia- 
 phragm A (Fig. 66), which moves in a groove, and which doubles 
 on itself in shortening the camera, and lengthens when the camera 
 is pulled out, so as always to completely divide the camera into 
 two parts. 
 
 Fig. 66 represents the box as it is used for ordinary stereoscopic 
 woik. The platform is hinged so that it may fold up compactly; the 
 bellows is rubber ; the swing-back, which is indispensable for land- 
 scape work, is attached ; the front raises and lowers, and the holder 
 is made to fit on pins, which is far preferable to a holder which slides. 
 
 I he ground-glass is hinged fast. Fig. 61 represents the box turned 
 over on its side, for the purpose of making an upright single view 
 with one tube, as recommended by Wilson. The partition or dia- 
 phragm A (Fig. 66) is removed, so the plate is not obstructed or 
 divided. C is a clasp which holds the holder in place when the 
 exposure is being made, and at E is a clasp and screw, which keep 
 
STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES. 
 
 209 
 
 the holder at a proper swing or angle when it is necessary to use 
 the swing-hack. G G are the metal guides; D D screws which 
 bind the platform to the box when in use ; F the focussing screw. 
 
 The plate-holders have corners of solid glass on which the sensi- 
 tive plate rests. Drawings 
 of them will be found on 
 page 47. 
 
 The lenses which may 
 be used with this camera 
 have an opening of 1 \ and 
 1^ inches, and from 3^ to 6 
 inches length of focus (cal- 
 culated from the back lens). 
 
 They should be provided 
 with stops ; the sizes so ar- 
 ranged that with each one 
 twice as long a time of ex- 
 posure is required as with 
 the next larger one. But 
 stops are only necessary 
 for very near objects. Long distances we can work with the full 
 opening. 
 
 The above-described screen for taking instantaneous pictures 
 offers some difficulties. Great care has to be observed that in 
 moving it neither the tubes nor the camera are shaken. The taking 
 of instantaneous pictures requires steadiness and skill. 
 
 Lately another instantaneous shutter has been invented, which 
 is warmly recommended by Remele.* It consists of a wooden box 
 which is placed over the tubes. In the box is a curtain which, by 
 being pulled over the tubes, shuts out the light. This can be done 
 rapidly or slowly, as circumstances may require. This arrange- 
 ment admits also of giving different lengths of exposure to different 
 parts of the same picture; for instance, the sky and distant parts 
 of the landscape may receive a very short exposure, and the fore- 
 ground considerably more without interrupting the pulling of the 
 curtain-string a moment. With many landscapes for the longer 
 exposure of the foreground, and the shorter time given to the sky, 
 it is of great importance, particularly with distant views. With a 
 lid the illumination would have to be an average one, or the middle 
 parts of the picture would be correctly timed, while the background 
 
 * Remele’s Handbook of Landscape Photography. 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 THE PRACTICE OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 and sky would be completely over-exposed, and the foreground, 
 which generally shows some foliage, would be wanting in detail. 
 By giving a short exposure to the sky the most beautiful cloud 
 effects can be obtained. The pictures which are made with the 
 above curtain arrangement show a beautiful harmony, and many 
 faults in the illumination which we see on other pictures are entirely 
 avoided. 
 
 Rouch has constructed a screen for instantaneous pictures which 
 has two shutters instead of one, as in the other arrangement. 
 These shutters turn around a small axis, which is provided with 
 teeth which connect them with a swivel on the centre of the box 
 at each side. It is evident that when the upper shutter is turned 
 with the knob the lower shutter will have to turn also, and that 
 both must move in the same direction. When the arrangement 
 is closed by the upper shutter then both shutters will stand verti- 
 cal above their axis ; when the knob is turned backwards the lower 
 shutter will be depressed, and the tubes will be opened, but will be 
 closed again immediately when the upper shutter places itself in 
 front of them. 
 
 The movements of the apparatus are simpler than those of the 
 Dallmeyer instantaneous shutter, but it requires skill and steadi- 
 ness to operate them. 
 
 Braun, in Dornach, manages the opening and shutting of the 
 tubes in a peculiar manner. He closes both tubes with a black 
 cloth which he holds flat in the hand ; he removes it rapidly, and 
 replaces it as rapidly again. This movement, however, requires 
 much practice. 
 
 For portraiture the lenses should be 2£ inches distant (the dis- 
 tance of the eyes). For landscapes a greater distance is desirable. 
 English mechanics have placed the lubes on boards which can be 
 moved in a horizontal direction , which admit of their being placed 
 a little closer together or a little further apart. Of course the shut- 
 ter arrangement is not always applicable to this arrangement. 
 
 All kinds of lenses are used for taking stereoscopic pictures : 
 
 1. Portrait lenses, where a quick-working lens is desired (for 
 moving objects, portraits, instantaneous views, &c.). 
 
 2. Doublets, aplanatic lenses, correct wide-angled lenses, where 
 correct drawing and a large field of view is desired. Vertical po- 
 sition of the camera is necessary. The tube must have an arrange- 
 ment by which it can be raised and lowered, in order that the pic- 
 ture on the ground-glass may be centred. By raising the tubes; 
 
STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES. 
 
 211 
 
 the sky will become larger, by lowering them the foreground will 
 increase in size. 
 
 3. Landscape lenses, where a little distortion does not amount 
 to much. 
 
 The methods of operation are in no way different from the ordi- 
 nary methods. Plates should be selected which are a little larger 
 than the picture is to be. In this way spots at the corners are easier 
 avoided. It should also be observed that plates taken in the double 
 camera show, when seen from the glass side in an upright position, 
 the right side to the left, and the left side to the right. They must, 
 therefore, be cut apart, and their positions reversed. 
 
 When this is done at once with the plates it will afterwards no 
 longer be necessary to do it with the prints. When, however, the 
 pictures are farther apart than 2^ inches, which is the ordinary 
 stereoscopic distance, it is better to print them together, and to re- 
 verse them when ready for mounting. 
 
 The difference in the amount of light in two different lenses is 
 often a great drawback, as they will yield pictures of different in- 
 tensities, and one is compelled in such cases to stop the one lens 
 until it corresponds in intensity with the other. 
 
 INSTANTANEOUS PICTURES. 
 
 There was a time when instantaneous pictures were the theme 
 of every-day conversation, and when they gave rise to the most 
 wonderful illusions. The representative Faucher made, in the 
 Prussian Chamber of Deputies on July 1, 1869, the following re- 
 marks : 
 
 “ We have now instantaneous pictures. By this process por- 
 traits can be stolen, and perhaps the most extraordinary precau- 
 tionary measures will be necessary to guard against such a theft ; 
 perhaps it will finally be necessary to wear a mask.” 
 
 These rumors probably owed their origin to the splendid stereos 
 of Braun and Ferrier with walking figures, carriages in motion, 
 horses, &c. The public as well as photographers considered it 
 possible to produce instantaneous pictures in the atelier. Even 
 photographers advertised themselves in the papers as “ instanta- 
 neous photographers,” and very often we heard in those days the 
 exclamation, “ Yes, if I had his collodion,” as if everything de- 
 pended on the collodion. 
 
 I have already mentioned in another place that the production 
 of instantaneous pictures is only possible under certain favorable 
 conditions : (1) a good collodion ; (2) bright light ; (3) a lens that 
 
212 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 gives a great deal of light ; (4) a new and pure silver bath ; (5) a 
 strong developer. 
 
 But even to this day we hear of instantaneous portraits. “ There 
 must be something in it,” say a great many; and here we must refer 
 to an episode in the Berlin Photographic Society, when Mr. Ahrens 
 put the question, “ What is a photographic moment ?” The answer 
 was, “ Three seconds.” 
 
 Of course, instantaneous pictures have been taken in much shorter 
 time than this, but what are they like ? 
 
 In a good portrait we want modulation. This can only be ob- 
 tained by a skilful direction of the light, which must not pour in 
 from all sides, but must be excluded here and there. 
 
 But this diminishes the quantity of light, and does not suffice 
 for condition No. 2. 
 
 On the other hand, clearness in the shadows is demanded ; this 
 can only be obtained by long exposure. 
 
 Hence, the real instantaneous pictures, taking for instance a 
 space of time not more than one-tenth of a second, are reduced to 
 landscapes with their accessories in clear, sunny w 7 eather. And 
 for this purpose we recommend 
 
 1. Collodion made by any reputable party, or, when the pho- 
 tographer wishes to prepare it himself, make it according to 
 formula on page 96.* 
 
 2. Apparatus — a double objective of short focus giving much 
 light, 'with an instantaneous shutter. 
 
 3. Bath, 1:10, freshly made of crystallized silver and one-quarter 
 per cent, of the salt of iodide of potassium. 
 
 4. Developer after Remele: viz., 5 iron, 11 glacial acetic acid, 
 100 water (alcohol is not always necessary). Some “instantaneous 
 collodions ” of commerce are apt to work foggy with this developer. 
 In that case more acid should be added. 
 
 5. Intensifying and fixing as usual. The same conditions apply 
 to taking portraits with a short exposure in the atelier. 
 
 To any one who wishes to make instantaneous pictures, I would 
 recommend to place himself in such a position that the majority of 
 the movable objects approach or move away from the apparatus. 
 In this case the change of position is apparently the smallest ; in 
 taking a view of a street we should look into the street lengthways, 
 and marching soldiers we should take in the direction of the 
 march. 
 
 * When the following conditions are observed, a less sensitive collodion 
 will suffice. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXCURSIONS. 
 
 213 
 
 TENT WORK AND PHOTOGRAPHIC EXCURSIONS. 
 
 In the previously described operations, the existence of a labora- 
 tory in which the plates are prepared and developed has been con- 
 sidered as a matter of course. But there are plenty of cases where 
 such a laboratory does not exist, and where pictures have to he 
 taken at a distance from the atelier of the photographer. A dark- 
 room has to be prepared before the photographer can commence to 
 work. In case of necessit}' anj r inclosed space that can he made 
 light-tight, can be used as a dark-room. Braun, in Dornach, does 
 not hesitate to use cellars, stables, outhouses, &c., as dark-rooms, 
 but it always depends on how far we can work here without being 
 molested by dust or stench. As such a space cannot always he 
 improvised, the travelling photographer will do well to carry his 
 own dark-room along. For such a portable room nothing is better 
 than a tent, which, above everything else, must be light-tight, solid, 
 easily put up, and sufficiently comfortable. As one of the most 
 useful dark-rooms, we can recommend those of Rouch, in London 
 (Fig. 68). It consists, when folded up, of a square box, which, in 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 the annexed figure, is visible as a simple box. When opened, the 
 lid forms the horizontal base of the tent, and the box, the sides. 
 To the latter, the tent cloth, consisting of double black and yellow 
 
214 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 material, is nailed ; two iron rods are fastened in the box, and the 
 tent cloth is thrown over it ; it hangs down as an open bag, in 
 which the operator ha§ to creep. The whole is supported by a firm 
 tripod. The bath is put in a black bag, which descends in front. 
 A square hole, covered with double oiled silk, serves for a window. 
 The best way of arranging this is to make a window which can 
 easily be opened. On the top of the tent a water box is placed, 
 which communicates with the interior by means of India-rubber 
 hose ; the latter is provided with a stop-cock. The sides of the 
 tent are best provided with pockets to receive small articles, such 
 as plate-holders, dippers, &c., &c. The base is a folding rubber 
 dish, which has an outlet to the exterior. The tent is placed in a 
 shady place, protected from the wind. In very warm countries 
 sprinkling the tent cloth, and the bag containing the silver bath, 
 with water is an excellent way of keeping both cool. 
 
 A similar tent construction, and one which is very solid, is de- 
 scribed by Ph. Remele in his excellent Handbook of Landscape 
 Photograph}^. The tent is the invention of L. Herzog, in Bremen. 
 The most essential part of the whole tent is the box necessary for 
 the transport of apparatus and chemicals. The box is opened and 
 four strong wooden legs are attached ; on the top a folding iron 
 
 rod, a, is pushed in the correspond- 
 ing holes and fastened by the rods, 
 &, b ; over the rods a tent cloth is 
 thrown, and with hooks it is fast- 
 ened to the e} T es, c, c, c, above, 
 below, and on both sides. The 
 tent cloth should be double at the 
 sides, that it may be hooked in the 
 interior of the box in a similar 
 manner. At the lower extremity 
 the tent cloth has an opening ; the 
 operator creeps into it and ties it 
 light-tight around his waist. At 
 b there is a door in the box, which 
 can be opened and shut, and here 
 a window of oiled silk is fixed in. 
 
 The best material for a tent is 
 the so-called India-rubber cloth ; 
 the hooks are fastened to it with 
 gum bands. Overhead a yellow 
 window of oiled silk is placed. This tent is remarkably solid, 
 
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXCURSIONS. 
 
 215 
 
 offers much space for working, and has, finally, the advantage that 
 one can work in it without wasting a drop of silver or any other 
 solution on the floor. 
 
 For excursions all the other objects necessary for operating have 
 to be taken along. I carry a basket with a lid, which is divided 
 in squares ; in such a basket all the requisites are easily packed, 
 and the bottles are much less exposed to breakage, owing to the 
 elasticity of the basket, than they would be in a wooden box. 
 Four-cornered bottles are preferable to round ones. The packing 
 of the bottles requires the stuffing in between of some soft mate- 
 rial ; the best for this purpose is rags or paper. (Tow or hay will 
 make too much dust.) 
 
 The following articles are necessary for a photographic excursion : 
 
 (a.) For short excursions. 
 
 1. Tent. 
 
 2. Camera box. 
 
 3. Tripod for same. 
 
 4. Connecting screw for 2 and 
 
 3. 
 
 5. Plate-holder, with frames. 
 
 6. Tubes, with camera box 
 
 fronts. 
 
 T. Focussing glass. 
 
 8. Plate box. 
 
 9. Cleaned plates. 
 
 10. Duster. 
 
 11. Dipper. 
 
 12. Two focussing cloths. 
 
 13. Water-can and rinsing- 
 
 water. 
 
 14. Bath or dish. 
 
 15. Alcohol lamp. 
 
 16. Photogenic lamp. 
 
 IT. Negative bath. 
 
 18. Collodion. 
 
 19. Developer. 
 
 20. Silver for intensifying. 
 
 21. Alcoholic pyrogallic solu- 
 
 tion. 
 
 22. Distilled water. 
 
 23. Cyanide of potassium. 
 
 24. Some empty bottles and 
 
 corks. 
 
 25. Yarnish for negatives. 
 
 26. Graduate. 
 
 2T. Two funnels. 
 
 28. Alcohol. 
 
 29. Filtering paper. 
 
 30. Writing paper for scum- 
 
 ming the bath. 
 
 31. Matches. 
 
 32. Scissors and knife. 
 
 33. Twine and pins. 
 
 34. Developing glasses. 
 
 35. Bottle of nitric acid for 
 
 acidifying the bath. 
 
 36. Bottle of bichloride of mer- 
 
 cury* for removing stains 
 from clothing. 
 
 3T. Towels. 
 
 For longer excursions, all the above articles should be taken 
 
 o > 
 
 * The sublimed mercury is excellent for this purpose, as it does not destroy 
 color 
 
216 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 along in duplicate, so that in case of loss they may be replaced, 
 besides, 
 
 1. Scales with horn dishes. 
 
 2. Weights. 
 
 3. Nitrate of silver. 
 
 4. Sulphate of iron or sulphate 
 
 of iron and ammonia. 
 
 5. Glacial acetic acid. 
 
 6. Pyrogallic acid. 
 
 7. Citric acid. 
 
 8. Plain collodion. 
 
 9. Iodizer. 
 
 10. Salts of iodine for sensitiz- 
 
 ing. 
 
 11. Alcohol and ether. 
 
 12. Nitric acid. 
 
 13. Rags for cleaning. 
 
 14. Cleaning vice. 
 
 15. Tools (screws, screw-driver, 
 
 diamond for cutting glass). 
 
 16. Permanganate of potash for 
 
 restoring the bath. 
 
 The quantities of the articles must depend on the length of the 
 excursion. For excursions it is to be recommended to test all the 
 mixed chemicals at home, and only to take them when they are in 
 perfect working order. All the articles should be compared with 
 the list before starting, as it often happens that thoughtless people 
 arrive at their destination and have to go home again because some 
 simple article was left behind. 
 
 That working in the field or tent requires much more circum- 
 spection than in the atelier is self-evident. The difficulties become 
 sometimes insurmountable. Rust, heat, and the want of suitable 
 water, wind, cold, and unfavorable weather. These very often put 
 the patience of the photographer to the severest test. 
 
 Another point is of great importance, namely, solid apparatus, 
 which can easily be reduced to a small compass. I will describe 
 some such here. 
 
 Meagher's Travelling Camera .— This camera* (Figs. 70 and 71) 
 which was first constructed by a celebrated joiner, consists of a 
 rigid front piece, u, which is supplied with grooves for the reception 
 of the board carrying the tubes ; the back piece, H, H, is movable, 
 and receives the ground-glass and plate-holder. The focussing is 
 done by the screw adjustment, consisting of an endless screw, s s, 
 and the handle, g. The camera board, which carries the whole 
 arrangement, is divided ; the back piece, B , R, is at x connected 
 with the front by hinges ; a folding support, S, with a screw, r, 
 gives firmness to the whole. For the transport, the bellows is 
 screwed together, that H and v touch each other; the screw at v 
 
 * The same and similar constructions are furnished in America by the 
 American Optical Company in New York, one of whose boxes I have had 
 groat pleasure and satisfaction in using. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXCURSIONS. 
 
 217 
 
 is loosened, 5, B is turned upward, and S is folded on the back. 
 The folding up and setting up of this camera is done very rapidl}-. 
 The arrangement at H is very peculiar. The ground-glass is neither 
 
 Fig. 70. Fig. 71. 
 
 II 
 
 removed nor folded back, but the plate-holder is pushed in the slit, 
 m, m; the movable ground-glass, which is kept by the spring/ in 
 its place, is pushed back, but immediately resumes its position 
 when the plate-holder is withdrawn. The camera can be used for 
 a focal length of from four to twelve inches, has a movable division 
 in the centre for taking stereos, and one of them served the Egyp- 
 tian Expedition with best success. The only point to be com- 
 plained of is the want of firmness of the piece S, which is apt to 
 crack when very dry. Besides the ordinary plate-holder, this 
 camera is pi'ovided with an extra one for dry plates. The arrange- 
 ment is fully explained by Fig. 12. 
 
 Travelling Bath . — This bath, which can be bought of any stock- 
 dealer, consists of an ordinary glass bath, which is placed in a 
 wooden box, and provided with a rubber covered 
 lid, which by tightening a screw fits water-tight. 
 
 For short excursions this arrangement does very 
 well, but a long contact of the silver solution 
 with the rubber of the lid is apt to exercise an 
 injurious effect on the bath. 
 
 The methods of operating do not vary from 
 those which I have described heretofore. On 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
218 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 account of its keeping qualities, I use in travelling the equivalent 
 collodion (see page 96); the sulphate of iron and ammonia for 
 developing and intensifying ; for fixing, on account of its more 
 rapid action, and because it requires less washing, I use cyanide of 
 potassium. When the last drop which runs from the washed plate 
 has no bitter taste, the plate has been perfectly washed. 
 
 APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the previous part of my work, I have explained the opera- 
 tions which are necessary for the production of a negative or posi- 
 tive picture by means of light, without reference to the nature of 
 the object to be taken. 
 
 Any one who will follow exactly the directions given, may take 
 whatever object he pleases, and will always get a picture, but very 
 seldom a perfect one. Even the beginner will soon find out that 
 the nature of the object has a great deal to do with success, and 
 that this should not be overlooked when we wish to obtain a satis- 
 factory result. 
 
 Let us attempt to copy an oil painting, or a copper plate print, 
 with an exposure which would be sufficient for a portrait, or the 
 reverse ; let us apply the intensification which is necessary for such 
 reproductions to a portrait, or let us copy a large drawing with an 
 illumination suitable for a portrait. In either case we will be hor- 
 rified at the result. 
 
 The nature and the succession of the operations remains gener- 
 ally speaking the same, and still every one of them, pose, illumina- 
 tion . | selection of the model , sharp focussing , time of exposure , 
 development , intensification , must in some measui'e be modified ac- 
 cording to the nature of the object to be taken, and unless we pay 
 strict attention to these circumstances the resulting picture will 
 not be satisfactorj^. 
 
 It is erroneous to think that photography always draws truly. 
 Nothing can be less true than a photograph, when it has been 
 made under circumstances which are not suitable for the object. 
 (See chapter on Aesthetics.) 
 
 We must therefore go a little more into detail concerning photo- 
 graphic operations as applied to different objects. 
 
 The field is endless. Sun, moon, and stars, animals, plants, 
 minerals, products of art, and products of nature, the microcosmus, 
 and the macrocosmus, all, all belong to .the realm of photography. 
 So I am excusable when from the multitude of things I only make 
 a selection. To treat of all exceeds the limit of oiy work. 
 
REPRODUCTIONS. 
 
 219 
 
 I will select those objects the representation of which is prin- 
 cipally the work of the practical photographer — drawings, paint- 
 ings, models, machinery, architectural objects, landscapes, and 
 portraits. 
 
 I will speak first of the more mechanical work of “ reproductive 
 photography ” and the copying of technical objects, and I will re- 
 serve the consideration of portrait and landscape photography, 
 which is more of an artistic character, for the second part ot my 
 work. 
 
 I. PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTIONS. 
 
 ( Copying of drawings, prints, oil paintings, &c ., &c.) 
 
 1. PREPARATION OP THE ORIGINAL. 
 
 Care should be taken to get a clean original. A drawing with 
 dirty finger-marks will yield a dirty negative. Lead-pencil lines in 
 India-ink drawings are also annoying, and unequal color of India- 
 ink is objectionable. Photography reproduces everything, the 
 most trifling thing, and the latter very often in an unpleasant de- 
 gree. Drawings and prints should first be rolled in the press, to 
 do away with the inequalities of the paper. Pictures which are 
 framed under glass should be taken out of the frames, as the glass 
 is apt to produce disturbing reflections of light. 
 
 It is well known how much difficulty some yellow prints or spotted 
 drawings will cause. To overcome this, we should resort to retouch- 
 ing the original. Mr. Scamoni, photographer in the imperial print- 
 ing establishment, at St. Petersburg, writes about it as follows : 
 Every yellowish or otherwise disturbing spot is carefully covered in 
 the spaces between the lines with flake white, and the shadows are 
 wherever it is possible intensified. When the paper is rumpled and 
 not smooth, it should be firmly pressed in a frame against a piece 
 of plate-glass, through which, when it is carefully placed, and with 
 a steady light, very good photographs can be taken. That the ob- 
 ject is absolutely plane is always necessary, otherwise the picture 
 will show distortion. 
 
 2. ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 The reproduction of drawings is the simplest of photographic 
 work. Elaborate arrangements are unnecessary. Perfectly smooth 
 stretching on the drawing-board, perfect parallelism between the 
 board, the ground-glass, and the apparatus, are the principal con- 
 
220 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ditions of success. When these conditions are not observed, dis- 
 tortions in the drawing will necessarily be the consequence. The 
 lines, wdiich are parallel amongst themselves, converge towards the 
 top or the sides, when the apparatus, instead of being absolutely 
 vertical to the axis of the drawing, is turned a little upwards, or 
 downwards, or sideways. 
 
 To secure this parallelism in the position, larger establishments 
 have made arrangements to keep drawing-boards and apparatus 
 always parallel to one another. 
 
 Such an apparatus (Fig. 73) consists of a strong support, which 
 rests lengthways on four or more feet. On one end the drawing- 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 board is attached at right angles to the metal guides which are 
 fastened to the sides of the support, and along which the camera 
 moves. When necessary, one end can be left open to admit the 
 operator for the purpose of focussing, and the support can be made 
 rigid by uniting the feet near the floor, and strengthening the 
 guides on which the camera moves, by iron braces. On the copying- 
 table, in the Royal Technical Institute, in Berlin, the drawing- 
 board is moved by cords, which run over rollers underneath the 
 camera. 
 
 The drawing-board should be divided into square inches, which, 
 combined with the square inches which are marked on the ground- 
 glass, will be a great help in determining whether the picture is 
 exactly square and of the right shape, and it affords at the same 
 time a means for determining the proportion, whether or 
 It is also very practical to provide this apparatus with a scale at the 
 sides divided into inches, by which the distance between the draw- 
 ing lens and ground-glass can be determined beforehand. The 
 distance (with a given lens) necessary for making a natural size, 
 double natural size, or half size picture, can be marked down once 
 and forever, and all the trouble of finding out the position is 
 avoided in the future. 
 
REPRODUCTIONS. 
 
 221 
 
 The dimensions of these supports must necessarily depend on 
 the extent of business of the atelier. It must be observed that for 
 natural size drawings, the ground-glass must be removed from the 
 lens the distance of twice its focal length. Smaller supports of this 
 kind should be placed on rollers, as it facilitates their removal 
 from place to place. 
 
 In an atelier where reproductions are an exception, simpler 
 arrangements will answer every purpose. 
 
 In this case the drawing is simply placed on a stand as de- 
 scribed (page 42), and the camera is placed opposite. The distance 
 necessary for getting the correct size of the picture is first found 
 approximately ; next the board and camera are placed as nearly 
 vertical as possible by placing the sides exactly parallel with some 
 vertical architectural part, as, for instance, the corner of a room ; 
 finalljq to get the camera and board parallel to one another, the 
 lines of the boards of the floor will serve as guides. It requires 
 some patience, but the result is better than with a spirit-level. 
 
 With oil paintings a different course has to be taken ; to avoid 
 glaring reflections, they have to be inclined forward in the same 
 way as they are generally hung on the walls of galleries. 
 
 3. ILLUMINATION. 
 
 For copying of drawings, the illumination is of the simplest 
 kind ; nothing is necessary but an even light over the whole sur- 
 face. This takes place only when the angle of light is nearly the 
 same for every point of the picture. Any one who has studied 
 the principles of illumination, as laid down on page 27, will easily 
 satisfy himself on this point. A front light, which passes over the 
 camera on to the drawing, is the best. Care should be taken that 
 the camera does not throw its shadow on the drawing. 
 
 Sometimes the paper is rough ; each fibre or each depression will 
 cause a shadow. When this is the case, the drawing should, if 
 possible, be passed through the rolling press, or else a sheet of 
 white paper should be laid in front of it and used as a reflector. 
 
 More annoying than unevenness is gloss, as with varnished 
 pictures, and particularly oil paintings and photographs. The 
 easel with the picture should be placed where this disturbing reflec- 
 tion does not appear. Opening and closing of the curtains some- 
 times gives material advantages. To be quite sure that it does 
 not disturb, the eye should be placed in front of the lens and the 
 picture examined. This will show the exact effect of illumination. 
 Oil paintings are placed at an angle, as stated above; the axis of 
 
222 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the apparatus is placed vertical to its surface. Sometimes direct 
 sunlight is of advantage, particularly when age has darkened the 
 picture. The illumination should be so arranged that, besides 
 the gloss, the shadows of heavy layers of paint are avoided. 
 
 4. THE LENS. 
 
 All kinds of lenses are used for reproductions. With art sub- 
 jects, copper-plate prints, oil paintings, a slight distortion does not 
 matter much, particularly when only the central part is used. For 
 mathematically correct pictures, however, an absolutely correct 
 drawing lens is required, and as such a one I recommend the Stein- 
 heil Aplanatic Lens, or the Ross Doublet (see page 72). 
 
 Portrait lenses which have a great deal of light are only neces- 
 sary for dark oil paintings to shorten the time of exposure. 
 Objectives of feeble light, as the pantoscope (which also draws cor- 
 rectly), can only be employed with a bright light. 
 
 With the full opening, the lens is focussed on the centre of the 
 picture (with Steinheil lens), or half way between centre and 
 margin (with the Doublet lens) ; after this has been done the stops 
 are inserted. For line drawings, a stop should be used so small 
 that the picture is sharp to the edge. For oil paintings, larger 
 stops should be used, to gain light. 
 
 5. PROTECTION OF THE OBJECTIVE AGAINST FOREIGN LIGHT. 
 
 This protection is absolutely necessary for drawings, where it is 
 the object to obtain clear lines. A black box, and a piece of paste- 
 board in which a hole has been cut, just large enough to show the 
 drawing, but excluding everything else, is placed in front of the 
 lens. A wide tube placed over the objective, in which another 
 tube moves, like a telescope, is also of advantage. Landscape 
 lenses do not require this protection as much as portrait lenses. 
 
 The whole field of view of the lens should not be used, as this 
 would expose one to a considerable loss of light towards the 
 margins. 
 
 6. TIME OF EXPOSURE. 
 
 The correct time of exposure is not so easily determined in 
 reproductions. We must distinguish between black line drawings 
 without half tones, copperplate prints, and pictures with half 
 tone. When the former are exposed too short a time, the picture 
 develops slowly and looks pale ; all the lines are transparent, and 
 
REPRODUCTIONS. 
 
 228 
 
 it requires long intensifying, and the film is apt to become brittle 
 and to split. When the exposure is too long, the black lines will 
 finally exert some action, and will appear, after development, weak 
 and foggy ; they will print gray instead of black. Generally speak- 
 ing, in line drawings, over-exposure is worse than under-exposure ; 
 just the reverse from landscape or portraits. 
 
 Drawings with half tones require longer exposure than line 
 drawings, in order to get details in the shadows. Drawings with 
 half tones and lines give the greatest difficulty. When we expose 
 for half tones , we get partially veiled lines ; when we expose a 
 shorter time, the lines will be black, but the half tones will be hard, 
 and the shadows will be wanting in detail. Of the two evils, we 
 should choose the least. Draughtsmen, who work for photogra- 
 phers, should accustom themselves to drawing with deep black lines 
 on white paper. Gra} 1- lines give the most trouble ; for instance, 
 the glossy lead-pencil line. Copperplate prints also cause some 
 difficulty; generally they are only medium black, and we often get 
 copies which are blacker or weaker than the original. 
 
 To copy oil paintings correctly was formerly considered an im- 
 possibility. The colors, of course, cause much difficulty ; a sun of 
 chrome yellow will appear as a black spot, an ultramarine blue sky 
 will appear white, not to speak of other colors. The most obstinate 
 color is brown, and brown photographs are only with great diffi- 
 culty reproduced. Fortunately the reflected light from the colored 
 surface acts a little, but generally speaking a longer exposure will 
 be necessary with oil paintings than any other pictures when we 
 wish to get detail in the shadows and in the inactive working 
 colors. Every picture should be examined most carefully after 
 development. When the details in the shadows are insufficient,, 
 the time of exposure should be increased ; sometimes this does not 
 insure success with such colors as umber and dark green. Under 
 these circumstances nothing remains but to replace the missing 
 tones by negative retouch. Clouds and sky have often to be 
 strengthened by negative retouch, as they will be visible in the 
 negative, but do not offer sufficient contrast. In regard to the 
 technicalities of negative retouch, I would refer to the chapters on 
 that subject in the splendid work of Mr. Ayres, entitled “ How to 
 Paint Photographs.” 
 
 7. METHODS OF OPERATION FORMULAS. 
 
 The different operations should be carried on with the formulae 
 given above. For half tone pictures and oil paintings, I use a 
 
224 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 strong developer; for line pictures, I take a feeble developer (see 
 page 98). 
 
 For long exposures particularly, precautionary measures are 
 necessary. The repelling action of the collodion film is very apt 
 to produce marbled stains. Collodions from which the bath runs 
 off in greasy lines are not suitable for long exposure. On the other 
 hand there are “ moss stains ” caused by particles of dirt from the 
 plate-holder which become imbedded in the film, and finally drying 
 spots, by actual drying of the silver solution on the plate, in which 
 case the iodide of silver is dissolved by the concentrated bath. 
 
 To prepare wet plates for a long exposure, Carej^ Lea recom- 
 mends, in the “Philadelphia Photographer,” the following: 
 
 1. Marbled stains, which show themselves particularly in the 
 centre of the plate, are best avoided by dipping the plate into the 
 silver bath immediately after collodionizing. 
 
 2. Spots, which in spite of these precautions will appear, and 
 particularly at the lower corners, are best avoided 
 
 a. By the use of two baths — an old one for sensitizing, and a 
 new one for dipping the sensitized plate after it has been taken 
 from the first bath. 
 
 b. By placing a thick strip of blotting-paper, which is bent over 
 lengthways in such a manner that one part is about one-eighth of 
 an inch wide, and the other one inch wide ; the part which is one- 
 eighth of an inch wide is placed under the plate, when it is placed 
 in the plate-holder, in such a manner that the plate rests on the 
 thick and narrow layer of paper. The wider part is then placed on 
 the back. 
 
 To keep the plate-holder clean is a matter of course. By follow- 
 ing these directions an exposure of half an hour or more is possible. 
 
 Covering the back of the plate with wet blotting-paper, and em- 
 ploying a spongy collodion, rich in bromine, is also a remedy which 
 is to be recommended.- 
 
 Jabez Hughes recommends, besides the above-named remedies , 
 the employment of washed wet plates. The plates, after they have 
 ■been sensitized, are placed in a large dish with very pure distilled 
 w r ater ; they are moved for about three minutes, the superfluous 
 water is allowed to drip off, and then they are used. Before devel- 
 opment they are returned to the silver bath, and moved in it for at 
 least one minute. 
 
 In the development, the rapid or slow appearance of the picture 
 is a criterion whether the picture has been over or under-exposed. 
 Intensification is, particularly with line drawings, a point of great 
 
REPRODUCTIONS. 
 
 225 
 
 importance. The plate must be intense enough to offer a consider- 
 able obstruction to the passage of light, otherwise we will get a re- 
 production in which the ground is gray instead of white. 
 
 Photolithographers and photogeographers require very thick 
 and opaque prints. For this purpose Waterhouse recommends the 
 following method of intensifying: After the solution of pyrogallic 
 acid has been completely removed, the plate is dipped into a 
 saturated solution of bichloride of mercury, and remains in it until 
 it appears almost white (like porcelain) ; as soon as glossy lines 
 appear, the operation should be stopped, and not be carried beyond 
 a dark gray tone. After this the plate is washed, and a solution of 
 sulphate of ammonia is poured over it, which changes the color 
 into a reddish brown, verging on black. When the plate has been 
 well washed, it is varnished in the ordinary manner. 
 
 After many experiments in India, I found that when citric acid 
 has been employed in the developer, the film shows great inclina- 
 tion to split as soon as the plate is dipped in the bath of chloride, 
 of mercury. I tried to find a substitute for the mercury bath, 
 which, for many reasons, is unpleasant. I employed the following 
 formula, recommended by Mr. M. Carey Lea: 
 
 Cold saturated solution of bichromate of potash, . 3 fluid drachms. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, 1 drachm. 
 
 Water, 6 ounces. 
 
 This solution is poured upon the plate after it has been intensi- 
 fied with pyrogallic acid. The color of the film changes rapidly 
 into a splendid lemon-yellow 7 , and the lines seem to become a little 
 clearer. When the solution has been removed by washing, a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of ammonia is employed, and this changes the 
 color into a deep chocolate-brown. 
 
 The only point which requires particular attention is the washing 
 of the plate after each operation, for when this has been neglected 
 the lines will run together, be covered with precipitates, and the 
 negative will be spoiled. 
 
 8. THE PRINTING. 
 
 Perfect negatives will print easy, and do not require any artificial 
 help. The printing is carried a little into excess, that the high 
 lights may show a little color. In toning, the high lights will 
 become white. Negatives, in which some parts are too thin, others 
 too thick, have to be copied with a mask. The thin parts are copied 
 first ; when ready they are covered with suitably cut pieces of paste- 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 board, and the dense parts are printed until they reach the neces- 
 sary amount of color. The tone of the picture should be kept very 
 black by employing an alkaline or chloride of lime bath. See 
 page 139. 
 
 9. CRITICISM OF THE RESULT. 
 
 To judge of the result, the severe and critical comparison be- 
 tween the copy and the original is not very difficult with drawings 
 and prints, as both are monochromatic. It becomes more so 
 with oil paintings. With these the effect of color has to be repro- 
 duced by the mere graduation of tone between light and dark. 
 We have to observe at the start that in photography the cold colors 
 (blue) are reproduced too light, while the warm colors (yellow and 
 red) are rendered too dark. This contrast has to be equalized if 
 the picture is to be true. We have, so to say, to analyze the colored 
 original. We have to ignore the color, and have to observe what 
 should be light, half shadow, and dark ; what should be prominent 
 and what not. 
 
 When, in a photograph, the proper gradation between light and 
 shade is wanting, the figures will not separate ; the picture, in 
 short, lacks character, and is worthless. 
 
 Whoever wishes to photograph works of art correctly must be an 
 artist himself, or else submit to the superior judgment of an artist. 
 
 There are hundreds of reproductions of oil paintings in the 
 market which show light where the original is dark, and vice versa; 
 or where the several figures which in the original are properly 
 separated by contrast of color, appear in the copy as an undefined 
 mass ; or large surfaces show nothing but shadow where the origi- 
 nal is full of delicate detail. All these several points have to be 
 observed, and only by exercising a sound criticism can a satisfac- 
 tory result be secured. Oil paintings, which have become dark by 
 age, and in which the eye does not recognize any details, of course 
 cause more difficulty than new ones. 
 
 Reproductive photography is a branch which stands on the border 
 between the purely mechanical and artistical activity of the pho- 
 tographer. So far as it is based on artistic principles, it belongs 
 to the chapter on Photographic JEsthetics ; practical considerations 
 induced me, however, to treat of it in the purely technical part of 
 my book. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING OF MODELS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 227 
 
 II. PHOTOGRAPHING OF MODELS, ORNAMENTS, STATUES, 
 WORKS OF ART, MACHINERY, Etc. 
 
 1. PREPARATION OP THE OBJECT, AND ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 It is difficult to find general rules for the parti-colored medley of 
 objects which have been arranged in this chapter, as these have to 
 be modified by every especial case, and I will only try to develop 
 those principles which one dare not neglect in taking the picture of 
 such objects as are placed at the head of this chapter. 
 
 The rules which are laid down for reproductions also hold good 
 here. Everything which does not belong to the object-proper should 
 be removed, and no pains should be spared to make the object as 
 elegant as possible before proceeding to the taking of the picture. 
 
 The objects which come under this head are either easily removed 
 (can be transported to the atelier) or not. The latter have to be 
 taken at the spot where they are located, with all the accidental 
 surroundings — landscape background, spectators, &c.; sometimes 
 with an unsuitable or even impossible illumination — in dark 
 cellars, &c. 
 
 Objects which can be placed in the atelier are best placed in 
 front of a monotonous background (see page 40). According to the 
 nature of the object different shades are necessary. As a general 
 rule, we may state that the object must contrast with the background. 
 They must not be equally light or dark. It will be observed that 
 the background becomes darker by moving it away from the object. 
 This enables us to make a completely black background on the 
 picture with a screen which naturally is only gray. A background 
 which is too dark can be lighted up by a suitable illumination. 
 As a basis we should select a dark table or a support of a sombre 
 color. All other things should be removed. A vertical position is 
 almost a matter of course. The selection of the position of the 
 camera is of much importance. The camera has to be placed at 
 the spot where an expert, but not a photographer, would place 
 himself to get a full view of the whole object. The direction in 
 which the camera is placed should correspond with the direction 
 of the eye of such an observer. It is therefore necessary that the 
 photographer should perfectly know his subject if he wants to select 
 the proper standpoint. Of what use is the most brilliant picture 
 of a piece of machinery when the main things are hidden by 
 secondary matters. Sometimes this may depend on a single wheel 
 or a single screw. It is the same with objects of art. The pho- 
 
228 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tographer has to study his subject, exactty as the actor has to study 
 the character which he is to represent. 
 
 Whoever wishes to take pictures of plastic figures must under- 
 stand the plastic ; he must be possessed of artistic judgment, or he 
 will commit gross errors. 
 
 The same holds good for technical objects, as stores, machinery, 
 tools, and reliefs. Any one, not being an expert in these matters, 
 should at least consult some one who understands it thoroughly. 
 In taking works of the plastic art, he should consult the sculptor ; 
 in taking technical objects, he should consult a mechanic, who will 
 point out to him which parts are essential, and which are not. The 
 engraver has to do the same when he desires to make an engraving 
 of an intricate piece of machinery. 
 
 The advantages of photographic pictures of technical objects 
 have often been estimated as being of very little value. The reason 
 is that the pictures were made by photographers who did not un- 
 derstand their subject. Not photography but its disciples are to 
 be blamed. My space does not permit me to give detailed instruc- 
 tions to every one who wishes to photograph statues, or machinery, 
 or architectural objects. Fortunately our literature is not deficient 
 in such works, and it is the duty of every one to instruct himself 
 in these matters.* The cultivation of these specialties is the 
 reason why we have nowada}-s portrait photographers, landscape 
 photographers, and architectural and technical photographers. 
 The practical manipulations are nearly always the same ; but the 
 particular success in any one of these branches is based on par- 
 ticular knowledge of the subject-matter. It is not unusual to find 
 that a skilful portrait photographer will make a poor hand at land- 
 scape photography, and a good worker at reproductions will fail 
 completely in portraiture. 
 
 When the proper side from which the picture should be taken 
 has been found, the distance is the next important subject. When 
 the camera has been placed too near, perspective exaggerations are 
 apt to take place ; even with the best of lenses the nearer parts ap- 
 pear too large. When the camera is removed too far, the relief is 
 apt to seem too flat. The photographer will be very apt to make 
 the former mistake from want of distance, and (when working in a 
 contracted space) he often has no other choice. Vertical position 
 of the camera is generally necessary, particularly when taking tech- 
 nical objects (models, &c.). Under certain circumstances, however, 
 
 * We would recommend Lflbke’s History of Architecture, also Liibke’s 
 History of Plastics. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND EXPOSURE. 
 
 229 
 
 an inclined position of the camera has to be selected. Take, for 
 instance, a statue on a high pedestal, which we are accustomed to 
 see from below, and which has been constructed by the artist with 
 reference to this position. It would be absolutely faulty if we 
 would copy such a statue in the atelier on a level with the camera. 
 On the contrary, it should be placed high, and the apparatus 
 should point upwards ; by doing so we will only conform to the 
 natural conditions for which the statue has been constructed. We 
 know works of art, as, for instance, the George’s Head, by Kiss, 
 which, when seen from a level, looks indifferent, and only makes 
 a startling impression when viewed from below. 
 
 We often sin against these principles. Portrait photographers, 
 who are accustomed to incline their cameras on the sitter, too fre- 
 quently apply this position for all other objects. I would here call 
 the attention of the photographer to what will be said in the article 
 on Perspective. 
 
 2. ILLUMINATION AND EXPOSURE. 
 
 T1 e selection of the proper illumination is as important as the 
 selection of the proper standpoint. Artistic objects require analo- 
 gous considerations to portraits (see -(Esthetics) ; technical objects 
 must appear distinct in all particulars ; dark shadows, which are 
 apt to obliterate some details completely, should be avoided. The 
 light of a high atelier, which pours in uniformly, is preferable. 
 Objects which have to be taken in a given locality can of course 
 not be brought into a suitable illumination. We have to w r ait for 
 the suitable moment, and very often we have to assist with mirrors, 
 magnesium light, or other artificial means. 
 
 By the aid of a mirror sunlight is thrown on the object (it is best 
 to follow the direction of the camera) ; and by slightly moving the 
 mirror the light is passed to and fro over the whole object. Objects 
 which are much hidden can often only be reached by two mirrors, 
 and the light proceeding from the first has to be caught by a second 
 one, and is from it reflected on the object. Of course, with such a 
 process, much light is lost. The time of exposure, for such an 
 illumination, in July, with a Steinheil lens, and third largest stop, 
 is, with a single mirror, about six minutes ; with two mirrors, from 
 nine to twelve minutes ; the object being dark. 
 
 The following principles of illumination and perspective refer to 
 all objects. The specially noted lifeless models are very different 
 in their character ; sometimes purely artistic, as plaster models, 
 
230 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 marble figures, &c. ; sometimes purely technical, as models of ma- 
 chinery ; sometimes of a dark color (cast iron) ; sometimes white 
 (plaster of Paris), 
 
 How extremely different the treatment of such bodies must bejs 
 self-evident. A white figure requires a dark background, a dark 
 one (bronze or iron) requires a light one ; the former a short ex- 
 posure, the latter a long one. Remember, too, that high lights 
 often make their appearance on metallic objects, and require to be 
 modified by suitable illumination, or by dusting the respective 
 parts with gra}’’ chalk. Still more annoying are colors ; very often 
 we have to distinguish between red cast (copper) and bronze ; both 
 act photographically alike. W e must resort to negative retouch for 
 separating parts which should be kept apart, but which will run 
 together on account of color. 
 
 For taking buildings in the open air, a light falling from the 
 front at an angle of 45° is the most advantageous. The exposure 
 should be continued until all the details in the shadows appear. 
 
 3. LENSES. 
 
 In the selection of lenses freedom from distortion should be 
 looked for. For objects that give out very little light, portrait 
 lenses should be used ; where correctness of drawing is the main 
 object (machinery), doublets or aplanatic lenses are the best ; with 
 a large angle and short distance, the pantoscope is preferable. I 
 repeat that acquaintance with the object is necessary for the proper 
 selection of the lens. The same refers to stops. 
 
 It is advantageous to place over a piece of machinery white 
 graduated marks lengthways, perpendicular, and horizontal ; they 
 should be included in the photograph, as with a knowledge of the 
 perspective the dimensions can be reduced from them. 
 
 The negative and positive process are practiced according to the 
 rules given in previous chapters. A strong developer, however, 
 should be used. 
 
THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 OR 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 The photographic pictures, which are obtained by the previously 
 described processes, are made for very different purposes. They are 
 either of a purely scientific or technical nature, such as pictures of 
 microscopic objects, representations of machinery or buildings, 
 architectural plans, &c. In such cases their object is to instruct. 
 Again, a real practical use is made of them when they furnish the 
 basis for measurements, when used as aids in the construction of 
 maps, or when buildings are erected according to the delineations 
 which they represent. Finally, some of the pictures obtained are 
 of an artistic nature, and then they have no other object than the 
 one to please; and amongst representations from nature we have 
 to class portraits and landscape pictures in this category. 
 
 The question whether photography is an art or not is an idle one. 
 
 Experience has demonstrated that a sharp and spotless, or in 
 short a technically perfect photograph, be it portrait or landscape, 
 may appear on the one hand untrue, or it may displease w'hen the 
 observance of the laws of the beautiful (which are the cause of our 
 pleasure in thq works of the plastic art or paintings) have been 
 disregarded. That these laws in their generality are not applica- 
 ble to photography, which more than any other art is “ glued to 
 the substance,” is evident. 
 
 The photographer cannot follow his mind’s ideal flight. The 
 children of his creative fancy enchant us not in marble, nor do 
 they charm us with brilliant hues on the canvas, but his aim is to 
 portray nature ; and the most which can be demanded of him is a 
 beautiful reality, — truth in a pleasing form. 
 
 Let us see now how nearly photography gives us truth. 
 
232 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY AND TRUTH. 
 
 Admirers of photography assert so often that this young art 
 represents the pure truth, the true counterpart of nature. Pho- 
 tography can, indeed, when rightly applied, produce truer pictures 
 than any other art, but they are not absolutely true, and because 
 they are not absolutely true it becomes important to learn the 
 sources of error, and they are manifold. 
 
 Let us first consider the optical errors. 
 
 A picture which has been taken with a lens that does not de- 
 lineate correctly, and causes the marginal lines which should be 
 straight to appear curved, can certainly not be called a correct one. 
 Many persons may not notice these distortions, nevertheless they 
 exist. Some will say that a correctly drawing lens will avoid these 
 errors. True, very true ; but let us examine the pictures of high 
 buildings which have been taken with such a lens from a low stand- 
 point. 
 
 The lines which should be vertical will converge towards the top. 
 Can this be called correct ? But you will say the reason of this is 
 that the camera was not placed level. "Very good ; but let us now 
 try a Globe or pantascopic lens, and take a view of a long street: 
 how the perspective deepens ; how enormously large the nearer 
 houses appear, and how very small are the objects in the distance. 
 Houses that are a hundred feet distant look as if they were half 
 a mile away. Is this truth? No, certainly not; and yet the lens 
 draws correctly, the camera has been placed exactly on a level, and 
 the perspective is mathematically correct. A draughtsman could 
 not make it any better. 
 
 But where lies the mistake? The angle of vision is too large. 
 Unfortunately, this cannot always be avoided, and curious enough 
 it affects straight lines as w r ell as curved ones. Take, for instance, 
 a pile of cannon-balls. An artist would represent the balls circles. 
 Now take a picture of them with a wide-angle lens, in such a man- 
 ner that they will appear at the edge of the picture, and instead of 
 circles we will have ellipses. Mathematically, this is easily ex- 
 plained. From every ball (A B G , Fig. 14), a conus of ra} r s pro- 
 ceeds to the optical centre of the lens, o, and the plane of the pic- 
 ture intersects them as an ellipse, when it falls in any other direc- 
 tion but at right angles (see the chapter on perspective). 
 
 A photographer showed me the view of a castle which had been 
 taken with a Globe lens. In front of the castle was a row of statues, 
 and it was really comical to notice how the bodies and faces grew 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY AND TRUTH. 
 
 233 
 
 broader towards the edge of the picture, and the slender Apollo de 
 Belvidere, who unfortunately happened to be at the extreme edge 
 of the plate, had such a broad face, and his body showed such a 
 remarkable rotundity, that he looked like Dr. Luther. 
 
 Now, is this truth ? Unfortunately these are not the only sources 
 of error ; there are a great many more. 
 
 Further on in this book, I publish four hea , portraits of the 
 same person. They were taken by Loescher & Petsch, of Berlin, 
 with front-light, top-light, side-light, and oblique-light. In the first 
 picture the man looks dull and stupid ; the second gives him an 
 angry and savage expression ; the third gives him a cunning look; 
 which of the three named pictures is the true one ? Not one of them. 
 The truest representation is No. 4, where a combination of light 
 effects has been employed, and we see that the mode of lighting 
 can also become a source of error. This not only holds good for 
 portraits, but refers to landscapes also. The view from the Rock- 
 usberg, in Bavaria, had often been described to me as most beau- 
 tiful. Accompanied by friends, I visited the spot several times, 
 but we could not see any beauty in the view. At last I visited it 
 again, not as before in the morning, but in the evening, and then 
 the view was charming. But besides the direction of the light being 
 a source of error, there is another circumstance which has much 
 influence on the correctness of photographic pictures. 
 
 Generally speaking the lights are too white and the shadows are 
 too black in photographic representations. This is a radical error, 
 which has its origin in the nature of the art, and the avoidance of 
 which becomes sometimes very difficult. The error is most strik- 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 l 
 
234 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ESTHETICS. 
 
 ing in taking the picture of an object on which the sun shines with 
 full force, for instance a statue. If we expose for a short time 
 only we get the details of the light parts, but the shadow is a black 
 spot without any design. If we expose for a long time we will 
 get some detail in the shadows, but the lights will be over-exposed 
 to such an extent that all the finer shades will be missing. Is this 
 truth ? 
 
 These are the reasons why we have so much difficulty in our stu- 
 dios when we wish to produce a properly lighted picture. We keep 
 the lights more diffused and the shadows lighter than what painters 
 would do, and the latter are often surprised when they see a model 
 in the gallery, under such artistically faulty illumination, yield a 
 picture correct in lights and shadows. 
 
 In taking landscapes, architectural objects, and particularly in- 
 teriors, we cannot control the light with the same ease as in por- 
 traiture. I once photographed a chemical laboratory. The room 
 was large, with an arched ceiling. In the picture you can see the 
 tables, furnaces, retorts, lamps, &c., everything perfectly plain ex- 
 cept the arched ceiling ; this was too dark. 
 
 I made other attempts with twenty, thirty, and even forty min- 
 utes’ exposure ; at last I saw a trace of the ceiling, but now the 
 objects near the windows were so much over-exposed that all the 
 details were lost. The result was four pictures, not one of which 
 was true. Finally I resorted to throwing reflected sunlight on to 
 the ceiling. 
 
 This circumstance, that photography reproduces the dark parts 
 too dark, makes itself felt in very simple operations, for instance 
 in the reproduction of prints. A photographer reproduced Kaul- 
 bach’s “Battle of the Huns.” The copy was an excellent one, but 
 the background was too dark, too thick, not hazy enough. The 
 copy was refused, and another picture demanded. 
 
 The photographer now gave a longer exposure. The background 
 had the hazy appearance of the original, but unfortunately the fig- 
 ures in the foreground, which should have been bold and black, 
 had a dusky gray look. Is this truth ? The artist succeeded finally 
 by retouching the negative. • 
 
 I have purposely selected simple examples to prove my assertion, 
 that it is difficult to make truthful photographs. But now comes 
 the worst point of all, the different colors. In photography the 
 cold tones will be rendered too light, while the warm ones, such as 
 red and yellow, will be reproduced too dark. As an illustration I 
 may mention the photographic copy of Hildebrand’s painting, 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY AND TRUTH. 
 
 235 
 
 “ Sunset on the Ganges ” — a glowing red sun with burning clouds 
 of chrome yellow on an ultramarine blue sky. And now what does 
 the photograph show ? A black disc surrounded by black thunder- 
 clouds. The sun looks like the solar eclipse at Aden. Is this 
 truth ? Still more striking becomes the lack of truthfulness in 
 photography when the artist attempts the solution of a higher ar- 
 tistical problem. Perhaps the reader knows the pretty little picture 
 called “ A Mother’s Love.” A young mother, in modern costume, 
 sits in an arm-chair reading ; her little son approaches from behind, 
 and, standing on a chair, embraces her. Surprised and delighted 
 the mother drops her book and kisses the child. 
 
 A photographer took it into his head to reproduce the picture 
 from living models. He easily found a pretty girl suitable to rep- 
 resent the mother. A boy, a chair, some decorations, and furni- 
 ture, were not hard to procure, and the group was placed in 
 position. The mother in effigy readily complied with the direc- 
 tions of the artist, and made a face which perhaps might express 
 motherly affection. The boy, however, had different ideas. He 
 did not feel himself drawn towards his pseudo mother, and pro- 
 tested energetically against any familiarity. It required a good, 
 sound thrashing to bring him to terms. With these preliminaries 
 time had been lost. The mother begins to feel uncomfortable in 
 her forced position, with the head partially turned backwards, and 
 finally the photographer “fires away.” The picture is shai*p, fully 
 exposed, without spot or blemish. The models, to their great joy, 
 are discharged. A print is made, and what is the result ? The 
 boy embraced the mother with a face in which the thrashing is 
 plainly visible, and with a look that seems to indicate a desire to 
 choke her, while the mother looks much more like saying, “ Charley, 
 you are very naughty to interrupt my reading,” instead of “ Dear 
 little pet.” Can any one say that such a picture expresses the in- 
 tention of the photographer ? Is the above-described an expression 
 of the title “A mother’s love?” Any one will fail to see the in- 
 tention of such a picture. The whole, although a true copy of the 
 group as placed before the camera, is, as an expression of a mother’s 
 affection, a photographic lie. 
 
 Such pictures we find by the thousand. Ten years ago these 
 sins were committed over and over again by the makers of stereo- 
 grams, and when such pictures meet with approval we can only 
 blame the corrupted taste of the public for it. But it will be said 
 that the photographer cannot be blamed for the lack of truth in 
 such a picture. His models should be censured for it. Still it is 
 
236 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the fault of the photographer. Pictures in which the models do 
 not absolutely come up to the intentions of the artist should not be 
 made at all. Tbejr do not lie within the province of photography. 
 
 But there are other characteristic cases of photographic untruth 
 for which the models cannot be blamed. Stimulated by the beautiful 
 pictures of Claude, Scliirmer, or Hildebrandt, a photographer at- 
 tempts to take a sunset. Of course the brilliant glowing sun 
 requires only a very short exposure ; what kind of a picture will 
 he get ? A round, white spot surrounded by some glowing clouds 
 will be all that is visible. All the objects in the landscape — trees, 
 houses, men — are all totally under-exposed. The road, the village, 
 the wood, and the meadow, all so beautiful to the eye, are nothing 
 but a confused black mass without any outline. Is such a pictui'e 
 true ? Even the enthusiast in photography will not dare to say yes. 
 
 Cases where glaring contrasts in light and shade make the pro- 
 duction of a true picture impossible are very numerous. Most of 
 the photographs of the Ro}'al Monument in the “ Thiergarten ” 
 belong to this class. The monument is beautiful, but the back- 
 ground of the trees is without detail, without half tones, an unde- 
 fined mass, anything but a representation of the splendid foliage 
 which charms the eye at this spot. 
 
 Still more numerous are the photographs of rooms, where the 
 corners in which objects are plainly visible to our eye are repre- 
 sented by pitch-dark night. Other cases of photographic untruth 
 are still more characteristic. 
 
 Observe that mountain scene. A village inclosed on either side 
 by wooded hills occupies the middle ground. Houses are pictur- 
 esquely scattered amongst the trees on the hillside. A chain of 
 finely-curved mountains in the distance, the peaks of which are 
 glowing in the evening sunshine, forms the background of this 
 wonderful picture. Only one thing is annoying. A dilapidated 
 pigsty, and next to it a heap of straw, are in the immediate fore- 
 ground. A painter who would paint this picture would either omit 
 the objectionable feature altogether, or keep it so subdued that it 
 would barely be noticed. 
 
 How is it with the photographer ? He cannot remove the sty*. 
 He looks for a different standpoint; but now the trees cover a large 
 portion of the landscape. He takes the view, sty and all, but what 
 kind of a picture will he get ? The sty, which is in the immediate 
 foreground, on account of its proximity, appears of gigantic size. 
 The distant landscape, the main object , is small and insignificant. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY AND TRUTH. 
 
 237 
 
 Still worse is the effect of the pile of straw in front of the sty. It 
 occupies one-fourth of the whole picture. 
 
 Being the most brilliant object in the whole picture, it draws at 
 once the eye of the spectator and calls it away from other more im- 
 portant points. The effect is unpleasant. It annoys the photog- 
 rapher, and does not appear to be a representation of the landscape 
 for which it was intended, but a picture of the pigsty. The 
 secondary matter has become the main object, and if any one 
 writes under such a picture “A Yiew of Dornburg,” it is simply 
 untrue. It is untrue, not because the objects represented do not 
 exist in nature, but because the secondary matter is represented 
 too plainly, too glaring, and too large, and the principal objects 
 appear dim and unimportant. 
 
 We now touch a sore spot in photography ; it draws the main 
 objects and secondary matters with equal distinctness. To the plate 
 everything is indifferent, while the true artist, in producing pictures 
 of nature, will give prominence to the characteristic points, and 
 subdue and moderate the secondary matters. With artistic free- 
 dom he can act and do as he feels best, and he is fully justified in 
 doing so ; for as he gives the characteristic points only, and sup- 
 presses what is secondary, his work will appear more true than 
 photography, which reproduces everything with equal distinctness, 
 and sometimes gives the greatest prominence to the most trifling 
 matter. 
 
 Reynolds, in speaking of the portrait of a lady, where an elabor- 
 ately painted apple tree forms the background, says, it is the picture 
 of an apple tree, and not of a lady. The remark is applicable to a 
 great many photographs. It is a cardinal fault that they elevate 
 secondary matter to the most prominent position. We see a con- 
 glomeration of bright furniture, and only on close inspection we will 
 find that a man is placed amongst it, for whose portrait the picture 
 is intended. We notice a Avhite-spotted dress, and finally discover 
 that it belongs to a girl whose head is just visible. We see a park 
 with fountains and other fixings, and on very close inspection we 
 notice the black coat of a man dimly contrasting with a piece of 
 dark shrubbery. 
 
 Perhaps some will raise a great outcry when I ascribe greater 
 truthfulness to the unrestrained art of painting than to photography, 
 which generally is considered the most truthful of all the picture- 
 producing methods. That I refer only to the works of first class 
 artists is a matter of course, and it is one of the greatest merits of 
 photogi*apliy that it has made the daubs of art, which were for- 
 
238 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ESTHETICS. 
 
 merly sold at every corner, an impossibility. I consider it my 
 duty to call attention to the sources of untruth in photography. 
 Only when we have learned to know them, and to appreciate them, 
 will we learn also to avoid them ; and those who have been taught to 
 watch for them feel surprised and astonished how problems of the 
 most simple nature offer difficulties in regard to truth. 
 
 It is the duty of the photographer to weigh well the difficulties 
 which he has to encounter in the production of a truthful picture. 
 His picture to be true must give prominence to the characteristic 
 points, and such as are secondary must be made subordinate. The 
 insensible plate of iodide of silver cannot do this. Controlled by 
 immutable laws, it delineates everything that is presented. 
 
 The photographer accomplishes his purpose partly by a suitable 
 preparation of the original, partly by a proper treatment of the 
 negative. It is necessary, however, that he should know the char- 
 acteristic and secondary points of his model. He that has not got 
 an eye for these is not a photographic artist. 
 
 As the sculptor and painter, in order to produce a life-like and 
 beautiful picture, must pay attention to the minutest details of 
 every feature of the face, every effect of light and shade, every fold 
 in the drapery, so must the photographer study his model as closely 
 as possible in features, carriage, and dress. The forte of the two 
 arts, painting and photography, is however entirely different. 
 
 The object of both is to produce a beautiful picture on a plane 
 surface, which must not appear flat, but round and real. 
 
 The painter can produce upon his canvas from an imperfect model 
 an artistically beautiful picture, and improve upon the original 
 by idealizing. The photographer has to work differently. He 
 cannot, like the draughtsman, make changes in his picture (a few 
 trifles excepted). To secure beauties in his picture, thej^ must be 
 present in the original. It is therefore his object to beautifully 
 pose and light his model, and in short to arrange a living picture. 
 Not until this has been done is the mechanical process put into 
 operation. It is by no means true that only beautiful originals 
 will furnish artistically perfect pictures. Every original has its 
 faults. The photographer must reproduce his original from the 
 point where it shows the least faults, or he must cover them by 
 artifices. If he fails in this, the very best of chemicals, apparatus, 
 and formulae, will fail to produce an artistically beautiful picture. 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 Light is the element of life, the drawing-pencil of the photog- 
 rapher. It is the brush with which he paints. For him a thorough 
 knowledge of this element is as important as it is for the painter 
 to possess an exact knowledge of his colors. 
 
 At Resent it is our object to explain the aesthetic principles of 
 illumination. 
 
 Like the painter or draughtsman the photographer has for his 
 purpose the production of a picture on a plane surface which shall 
 give the beholder the impression of a reality. The figures must 
 not appear flat like the paper which bears them, but plastic, with 
 foreground, middle, and background. 
 
 There are two ways of producing this apparent solidity. The 
 first of them is by means of perspective. 
 
 All objects of equal size appear smaller in nature when seen at 
 a distance; the draughtsman, bearing this in mind, decreases the 
 proportions of his figures with the distance. He succeeds thus in 
 producing the impression that the objects are both near and distant, 
 although all the figures in his picture are equidistant from our eyes. 
 Pictures, in which these laws of perspective have been neglected, 
 for instance, old pictures of Van Eyk, Kranach, &c., appear flat. 
 Hence arises the importance of a knowledge of perspective both to 
 the painter and draughtsman. 
 
 The second method of giving a plastic appearance to flat objects 
 is the proper distribution of light and shade. * 
 
 We draw two right-angled triangles alongside each other, and 
 both will appear as flat figures. As soon, however, as we shade 
 the one with India ink, so that the shadow will gently decrease 
 from the side towards the centre, the triangle, although always re- 
 maining a plane, will appear like a cone, and*On the other hand 
 round objects will often appear flat when these contrasts of light 
 and shade are wanting. 
 
240 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The principal method of making plastic pictures is, therefore, by 
 the proper employment of contrasts, and the artist has them in his 
 power, but he must know how to use them. We will now proceed 
 to the special consideration of these contrasts. 
 
 Let us consider first the raw material with which we paint, — the 
 light. This ink, in its original purity, is so powerful that we can- 
 not w r ork with it in our studios when we wish to produce real half- 
 tones. 
 
 In direct sunlight we will get a portrait glaring white on one 
 side, and sharply defined, not gently shaded, and black on the 
 other. 
 
 Even when the sunlight does not strike the model directly, the 
 reflections from windows and other objects would become a source 
 of great annoyance. Even curtains afford only a partial protection 
 against this direct sunlight. A considerable portion of it pene- 
 trates, destroys the shadows, and makes the picture weak. For 
 this purpose we not only exclude the direct sunlight from the 
 model, but also from the atelier itself, by making the latter face 
 towards the north. We go further and construct sunshades, work- 
 ing only with the diffused light of the clear or clouded sky. 
 
 While, generally speaking, the rays of sunlight may be consid- 
 ered as being parallel, those which emanate from the sky take all 
 possible directions ; horizontal when they come from the horizon, 
 vertical when they come from the zenith. These circumstances are 
 important. While in consequence of the parallelism of the sun’s 
 rays, a body on which the sun shines will show sharply defined con- 
 trasts of light and shade, a body illuminated by diffused light will 
 show these contrasts obliterated. This is the reason why, under 
 such circumstances, full and round bodies appear flat, as can easily 
 be observed by looking at an intricate building on a dull day. It 
 is no wonder that photographs taken on such a day always have a 
 flat appearance. 
 
 The portrait of a person would have an equally flat appearance 
 if it received light from all sides of the atelier. This shows the 
 necessity of employing a one-sided light when we wish to produce 
 plastic pictures. 
 
 To make such pictures we supply our glass-houses with curtains, 
 which we can raise or lower at pleasure. Such a one-sided light 
 gives a living variation of light and shade. It does not follow, 
 however, by any means, that the shaded side of a picture should 
 not receive any light at all. On the contrary, it must be slightly 
 illuminated, so that by chemical action too strong contrasts may 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 241 
 
 be modified, that the details may become visible, and that there 
 may be a gentle transition from light to shadow. In which direc- 
 tion then must the principal mass of light strike the person ? 
 
 Different cases are possible. The light may strike the person from 
 the front, i.e ., coming from the direction towards which the point of 
 the nose is directed; or sideways, i.e., horizontally at right angles 
 to the previous direction, and finally from above or in the direction 
 of the longest axis of the body. We have to discriminate, therefore, 
 between front-light, top-light, and side-light. Let us suppose now 
 that the glazed side of the atelier is hung with curtains, and that 
 a small slit is opened at the side of the person. If the person itself 
 stands with its front at right angles to the glazed side, it is evi- 
 dent that it will be struck by the side-light. Turning now the 
 chest and the head towards this light, it will be changed on the 
 person to front-light. This shows that the direction of the light re- 
 quired depends on the position of the person, and it becomes neces- 
 sary to define the expressions top-light, side-light, and front-light, 
 in order not to be misunderstood ; and as I shall in future fre- 
 quently use these terms I will give the following explanation : 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 L S 
 
 Suppose the paper be the floor of the atelier, and the square A 
 the photographic apparatus, P the person. The direction of the 
 head and chest is a matter of indifference. We call the light which 
 strikes the person in the direction of the line V V (the connecting 
 line with the apparatus) Front-light ; the light which is horizontal 
 at right angles to this, in the direction of S S, we call side-light ; 
 the vertical light from above the top-light. 
 
 Besides these three principal directions the light can strike the 
 person in other directions, for instance obliquely in the direction of 
 the line L L, as front side-light, or obliquely from above, as front 
 top-light, &c., expressions which are easily understood. It is 
 now my object to describe the effect of these three principal direc- 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tions of light, — Front-light, Side-light, and Top-light. I give three 
 photographs, one of which has been taken with front-light only, 
 the other with direct side-light, and the last with top-light. With 
 
 . Fig. 76 . 
 
 0 S V 
 
 0 S V 
 
 the aid of these pictures we will see what a powerful effect the 
 direction of the light has on the relief , the color of the picture, the 
 resemblance of the features , and the whole character of the phys- 
 iognomy. 
 
 V was taken with front-light : the size of the opening opposite the 
 sitter was 7 square feet; the distance from the model 15 feet.* 
 
 S was taken with side-light : size of opening 5 square feet ; dis- 
 tance from the object 8 feet. 
 
 0 was taken with top-light : size of opening 3 feet 8 inches wide, 
 and 5 feet long ; the distance from the head of the object was 6 
 feet. 
 
 1 consider it necessary to remark that the three pictures are 
 portraits of the same individual, that they were taken immediately 
 one after the other, and excepting the light, under circumstances 
 as nearly identical as possible. I make this remark because the 
 surprising difference which these three pictures exhibit — only in 
 consequence of the different illumination — has caused many who 
 have seen them to express doubts that they really were pictures of 
 the same person. 
 
 The pictures were taken with a “Postage-stamp apparatus” for 
 twelve heads, an apparatus which is very convenient for the pro- 
 duction of quantities of pictures of this kind, and which is similar 
 to the American Optical Company’s Gem Camera. 
 
 * The person was placed on the southern side of the atelier, the face turned 
 towards the northern glazed side, at which the apparatus was placed. 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 243 
 
 Now let us first consider the effect of the different lights on the 
 relief of the face. 
 
 We notice in 0 that the eyes are deeply sunk in their sockets, 
 the nose is sharp and projecting, and casts a deep shadow ; the 
 fleshy parts below the cheek bones recede downwards, the mouth is 
 large and sharply cut, while the beard projects thick and bushy. 
 
 In S the beard appears thinner, the parts under the cheek bones 
 are much more flat, the roundness of the cheeks is wanting, the eyes 
 do not appear so sunken. On the other hand we notice wrinkles 
 above the nose, on the forehead and also below it, which in 0 are 
 almost entirely obliterated. In S the wrinkles under the ej-es and 
 at the sides of the nose are less clearly defined than in 0. The 
 whole face in S has, owing to the rather sharply defined limits of 
 the shadows, the appearance of a box illuminated from one side, 
 and the edge of which is turned towards the eye ; the whole middle 
 line of the face projects much more than in 0. The face is goat- 
 like. 
 
 V is like a box seen from the flat side ; the sockets of the eyes 
 are scarcely indicated. Of the characteristic lines, which in 0 and 
 S start from above, below, and at the side of the nose, not a trace 
 is left. The beard and the clothing appear as flat as the face. The 
 nose is gently lost in the eyebrows, and forms with these two sym- 
 metrical hooks. The mouth appears small when compared with 
 0. The whole is like a board on which the main outlines have 
 been drawn. This shows that with the aid of illumination we can 
 obliterate wrinkles and canities in the face , or can make them ap- 
 pear more prominent. 
 
 When we consider the effect of the illumination on the color of 
 the different parts, we will notice at once the great difference in 
 the color of the hair and the beard. They appear strikingly gray 
 in the photographs 0 and S, where the light falls on them (the 
 most so in 0), while in V the color is black. 
 
 In 0 we recognize each individual hair, and also on the light side 
 of S , while in V the hair and beard form a homogeneous black 
 spot, with very little detail. 
 
 The cause of this want of detaifis the equal illumination which 
 every hair receives from the front, so that we can only see the light 
 side. It is quite different with side-light, where we see on every 
 hair its bright and its shaded side, and thus each hair becomes dis- 
 tinct from the other. The hair in V appears much darker. The 
 reason of this is that the model was much further removed from 
 the light when the picture was taken. This is also the reason why 
 
244 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 the coat appears much darker, and why the background in V ap- 
 pears much lighter than in S and 0, simply because it received as 
 much light as the sitter (except where the background is shaded by 
 the person), while in 0 and S the background stands a few feet 
 back of the light opening, and receives only that part of the light 
 which either vertically or horizontally strikes the person. 
 
 The bright color of the coat in 0 (the coat of the sitter was black) 
 must be noticed. The top-light acts with the greatest chemical in- 
 tensity ; hair and forehead are unusually bright with this light, 
 while the shadows are very deep. This demonstrates that with the 
 aid of illumination we can modif y to a considerable degree the color 
 of hair , background , and clothing. 
 
 The next point to be considered is the effect of illumination on 
 the character of the picture; and the most superficial observer must 
 admit that a great many, who believe that a clean and neatly exe- 
 cuted picture must always be a good likeness, are grossly in error. 
 
 The eyes in 0 look dark and threatening, and this sinister ex- 
 pression is increased by the sharp projecting nose, the dark-colored 
 compressed corners of the mouth, the prominent cheek bones and 
 nostrils, which throw deep shadows. How harmless and even 
 sleepy the picture in V appears. The shadeless eyes look fishlike 
 and expressionless, the lines which give energy to the face are 
 wanting, and the mouth is without expression. 
 
 The picture S is intermediate between the two. It is not so in- 
 sipid as F, nor so sinister as 0. The contrasts of light and shade 
 give a lively expression to the face, in which the two wrinkles on 
 the forehead look as if they were produced by a cunning thought ; 
 only the shaded side appears still a little too threatening when 
 compared with the light side. The picture is more characteristic 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 245 
 
 than the other two, but it does not show us the man as he is ; it is 
 too angular, and he looks too much like a goat. We see from the 
 above how the whole character of a face may be varied consider- 
 ably by illumination. We can make a gruff and unhappy-looking 
 face appear to look cheerful and pleasant, and we can give an 
 energetic expression to a sleepy-looking countenance. 
 
 But my readers will ask, Which of the three pictures shows the 
 true character of the man ? and I answer, None of them. That 
 every one may get an idea how the man actually does look, and 
 form an idea how the three different modes of illumination have 
 changed the expression of his countenance, I add the portrait 
 which all his friends consider a perfect likeness, and a true repre- 
 sentation of his character. (Fig. 77.) 
 
 What I have said above will, I think, be sufficient to impress 
 the reader with the importance of illumination in photographic 
 pictures. 
 
 Each of the three different modes of illumination — front-light, 
 top-light, and side-light — gives a different character to the model. 
 
 It is the duty of the photographer to make pictures in which the 
 true character is reproduced. 
 
 How may this be accomplished ? The best results are secured 
 by a combination of all the three different modes of illumination — 
 i. e., top-light, front-light, and sidelight, or what is the same thing, 
 a front top-light from an oblique direction. In this case the main 
 quantity of light which strikes the person proceeds from an open- 
 ing which is a few feet in front, above, and either to the right or 
 left, in such a manner that the light strikes the sitter at an angle of 
 about 45°.* 
 
 This method of illumination produces the rotundity and relief of 
 the model in the richest manner, and painters make it the founda- 
 tion of their shadow constructions. 
 
 We find this illumination also in most of the pictures of our 
 prominent portrait painters, simply because it appears to our feel- 
 ings as being the most natural, and there are many photographers 
 who will, as if by instinct, place their model in exactly that corner 
 of the atelier where this mode of illumination is produced by local 
 
 * In an atelier which is hung with curtains as illustrated in Fig. 78, such 
 an arrangement of the light is easily managed by removing some of the top 
 curtains, L , L , and the adjoining side curtains, L ' , L ,f , a few feet in front of 
 the person, K. The other openings, 0, 0, S, S, are for lighting the shadows. 
 See below. 
 
246 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 causes. Others, again, have put up curtains and removed them 
 again, have changed their glass-houses, until finally their pictures 
 assumed that natural appearance which depends altogether on the 
 illumination. 
 
 With such a light, and with the combination of the three different 
 methods, the fourth head, in Fig. IT, is taken, and an attentive 
 study of the same will soon demonstrate this to a careful observer. 
 
 When we consider the effect of such a normal light on the model, 
 we will find that on the forehead (for instance, on the right), the 
 strongest light, while on the opposite side, on the lower jaw, we 
 will find the deepest shadows. There are a number of ateliers 
 where this mode of illumination is employed with every model, 
 without exception. 
 
 The model is placed in a spot from which the side and top- 
 light is excluded by curtains and masonry ; consequently he will 
 receive light mainly from the front. 
 
 Such an arrangement may suffice for a great many faces, but it 
 cannot be denied that by employing the same mode of illumination 
 invariably, the pictures will become monotonous. 
 
 In photographs this monotony is even more objectionable than 
 in oil paintings, as the painter by the aid of colors has the means 
 to produce a great variety of effects. It is quite different with the 
 photographer. In his hands light and shade have to replace the 
 effects of color. He can replace variety only by a skilful man- 
 ipulation of the illumination, and the more or less inclined angle 
 under which the light strikes the object is here of primary im- 
 portance. 
 
 We have to mention that a top-light, 0, or a side-light, S (Fig. 
 18), proceeding from a gi’eat distance, produces a similar effect to 
 that of a front-light. A top-light of large dimensions, immediately 
 above the sitter, is in its effects similar to a side-light, a circum- 
 stance which must be borne in mind in an atelier which is wide, but 
 comparatively low, and vice versa. A very high side-light will pro- 
 duce similar effects to a top-light, as can easily be noticed in any 
 very high atelier. 
 
 It follows that as we increase or diminish the size of the opening, 
 L , A, or as we approach it or remove the sitter from it, we can 
 give to the light more or less the character of front-light, top-light, 
 or side-light, and modify the character of the model to a consider- 
 able extent. 
 
 Suppose we have a well-marked, energetic, and expressive face. 
 By removing the sitter from the source of light, we give the char- 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 247 
 
 acter of front-light to it, and infuse mildness and softness into the 
 harsh features. 
 
 And so the other way, when we have a flat, sleepy, and otherwise 
 little-marked face, we should give to the light more of the character 
 of top-light, and the face will get more energy and life. 
 
 With certain small-cheeked faces, the employment of side-light 
 is to be fecommended. It lights up the cavities under the cheek 
 bones on the light side, makes these concave parts appear more 
 rounded and full, while the details on the other side are lost in 
 shadow. 
 
 For ladies of a “ certain age,” who sometimes become very an- 
 noying to the photographer, the employment of a gentle front-light 
 is to be recommended. It will light up the wrinkles and remove 
 the unpleasant shadows. 
 
 Yes, we can place the whole face in the shadow (which of course 
 must not be too dark), only throwing a few light-effects over the 
 most prominent parts, and still get good effects. 
 
 Generally speaking, we may lay down the rule that we must illu- 
 minate all the elevations and depressions which we wish to modify, 
 in such a manner that they throw no shadow, or only a very small 
 one, and vice versa. 
 
 It is self-evident that we dare not go too far in this respect. We 
 can modify the shortcomings of the original, but we must not ob- 
 literate them altogether, for in that case character and likeness 
 would be lost. How far we may go in this respect cannot be deter- 
 mined by any rule, but the thinking artist must be guided b} 7 his 
 sight and the gift of observation. 
 
 The observing artist will also notice a slight difference in the 
 brightness of the hands and the face. In every portrait the face is 
 of paramount importance. It must receive the principal light , and 
 all the other parts must he kept subdued and subservient to it. 
 
 Nothing can be more repulsive than those pictures where the 
 arms and hands appear as prominent white spots, strongly con- 
 trasting with the drapery and clothing. The upper part of the 
 body should be kept lighter than the lower parts. With dark 
 screens , which are placed a few feet from the sitter , and partially 
 shade the hands and feet , this is easily accomplished. Loescher & 
 Petsch use such a shade-screen with great advantage, particularly 
 in avoiding over-exposure of white dresses. The screen is a frame 
 five feet wide, covered with dark cloth, and moves on rollers. The 
 upper part is movable around a horizontal axis, so as to give more 
 
248 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ESTHETICS. 
 
 or less inclination. It is self-evident that the production of such 
 light-effects requires a skilled eye, which will appreciate the 
 slightest gradations from light to dark. 
 
 For training the eye in this respect, I would recommend the 
 photographer to practice on plaster of Paris busts. Such a bust 
 should be placed in the atelier on the same spot where the sitters 
 are placed. All the light should be excluded by closing all the 
 curtains, and now, by admitting the light first from one direction, 
 then from another, now from above, and next sideways, the effect 
 on the face should be carefully watched. 
 
 The variations are not only surprising, but entertaining and in- 
 structive, and whoever will take the trouble to photograph them, 
 and make a short memorandum of the mode of illumination, 
 can make for himself an album of studies that will materially 
 assist him in selecting the proper mode of illumination for the 
 living model. But he must not forget that one effect is not suitable 
 for all, and the illumination should be adapted to the sex, age, and 
 physiognomical peculiarities of the sitter.* 
 
 All that I have shown as taking place on the human face repeats 
 itself on all other forms. Just as cavities or prominences on the 
 human head can be obliterated or exaggerated by the mode of illu- 
 mination, so also can we modify the appearance of other plastic 
 objects, as buildings, bas-reliefs, machinery, &c. 
 
 It is the rule to illuminate in such a way that the details ivhich we 
 desire to show prominently in the picture are by the illumination 
 brought to the proper prominence. Art objects make the choice of 
 illumination easy, in so far as all artists place their models under a 
 light which strikes the object at an angle of 45° obliquely from 
 above. Whether the obliquity is from the right or the left side is 
 still a question, and when the artist himself does not give the direc- 
 tion, experiment must show from which side the light acts the most 
 favorably. W ithout subjecting oneself to examination and criticism, 
 we will never obtain a satisfactory result. 
 
 This oblique light with an inclination of 45 degrees will, under 
 most circumstances, be the most suitable. 
 
 Two more points have to be considered, — the size of the object 
 and the distance of the source of light, i. e., the window of the 
 atelier. Suppose we have two pillars, one of large diameter, a, and 
 
 * About certain light-effects, such as the popular “Rembrandt” effects, I 
 will speak further on in the chapter on Backgrounds. 
 
ON LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION. 
 
 249 
 
 a small one, 5, placed at equal distance from a window. It wall be 
 easily seen that the first will show 
 a different illumination from the 
 second. The light plays more 
 around the smaller pillar on the 
 shady side than on the large one. 
 
 The shad} r side contracts while the 
 light side expands. If we wish to 
 photograph the smaller pillar, un- 
 der similar conditions of light and 
 shade, we have to decrease the light 
 opening. This is the reason why an illumination which has been 
 arranged for a life-size model is unsuited for a smaller object. 
 
 The second point is the distance from the glass wall. 
 
 We have shown above that the brilliancy of a point, which re- 
 ceives the light of the sky through a window, decreases as the 
 square of the distance from the window increases. With a very 
 large window opening this decrease is not so strong, but still very 
 perceptible (see page 21) when we consider that the shady side of 
 a model is only illuminated by the light reflected from the back wall 
 of the atelier. It becomes evident that the contrast between light 
 and shade will be stronger as we approach the model to the glass 
 wall ; we have it in our power, therefore, to increase or decrease 
 these contrasts by placing the model in different positions. 
 
 It must not be overlooked that, generally speaking, contrasts 
 are stronger in photographic pictures than they appear to our eyes. 
 Very often the shaded side, which to our eye represents all the de- 
 tails, appears on the photograph as a pitch-black spot. I his is 
 most striking with yellow, green or red objects, less so with white 
 ones, or cobalt and ultramarine blue. 
 
 A plaster bust will generally, even without artificial arrange- 
 ments, show good details in the shadows, but it is different with 
 human beings, and still worse with dark-colored objects, such as 
 iron and bronze. When it is intended that the shadows of such 
 objects shall not appear altogether black, we must either introduce 
 direct light on the shadow side or arrange reflectors to throw the 
 light in that direction. 
 
 In an atelier with a north front the illumination of the shadows by 
 direct light is an easy matter. Generally the model is placed near 
 the glazed wall, in the place where in Fig. 15, the white pillar has 
 been placed. By opening the curtains, L' L" V" (Fig. 78), to the 
 right, we get an illumination that would be suitable for the painter. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
250 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In order to illuminate the shadows properly we open on the other 
 side of the atelier part of the top-light curtains, 0 0, and side cur- 
 tains, S S, Fig. 78. A quantity of top front-light pours in upon the 
 model, which by itself would produce a picture like V, page 242, but 
 combined with suitable side-light produces the result on page 244. 
 
 To the eye the effect is visible on the model. By increasing the 
 amount of front-light the time of exposure becomes relatively 
 shortened. The light and shade contrasts become more and more 
 decided by approaching the model to the glass side of the house. 
 
 The illumination by reflecting screens is very generally employed. 
 When the atelier is small and the rear wall light, the latter will 
 act as a reflector, and many photographers will only notice this 
 fact when they are suddenly placed in another larger atelier with 
 a dark rear wall. The floor of the atelier acts similarly to a reflector. 
 It lights the lower shadows of the model. This effect is also very 
 often overlooked. Every object in the atelier, provided it is not 
 absolutely black, acts more or less as a reflecting screen. Those 
 photographers who boast that they work without reflecting screens 
 may make a note of this. 
 
 For a movable reflecting screen I would recommend a frame, B, 
 which revolves around the horizontal 
 axis, a b, and is moved from place to place 
 on rollers. Others are so arranged that 
 they can be placed high or low. One side 
 of the frame should be covered with tin 
 foil, the other with white paper. This 
 secures two surfaces of different reflecting 
 power. 
 
 The frame is placed on the dark side 
 of the model, and moved in different directions until the eye ob- 
 serves that the shadows become lighter. 
 
 To the beginner 1 would recommend experiments with a plaster 
 bust. The effectiveness of the screen increases the nearer we place 
 it to the model. As regards the most suitable position of the re- 
 flecting surface we soon notice that, even with a dull surface, such 
 as paper, the action is analogous to a mirror, i. e., the angle of in- 
 cidence is like the angle of reflection. 
 
 Besides such reflecting screens the thinking artist can employ 
 many other accessories for the same purpose ; a sheet of white 
 paper, an open book placed upon the table, a hidden mirror, and 
 other trifles, will often produce very favorable effects. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 251 
 
 OP THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 Fig. 81 . 
 
 When we look at a cube (Fig. 81), the sides of which being of 
 equal length, we will find that they appear to our eye of very dif- 
 ferent length. The surface fronting our eye appears as a square ; 
 the others become shortened in a remarkable manner. The sur- 
 faces appear quite irregular ; the parallel lines converge towards 
 the point o. Similar appearances we notice on all other bodies. 
 The human arm hanging down 
 along the side of the body, or the 
 pillar, S, standing upright, appear 
 of full length, while the arm 
 stretched towards us, or a pillar 
 lying in a horizontal position, L , 
 appear u foreshortened.” The parts 
 appear contracted, and finally we 
 see, instead of the shaft of the pil- 
 lar, only the circular base, 6, which 
 
 either appears circular when we face it directly, or as an ellipse 
 (which it is not in fact), and the parallel sides of the pillar con- 
 verge to a point. The reason why we do not notice this falsehood 
 (for such it is) is simply because we are used to it. 
 
 We know from experience that the arm pointing towards us only 
 appears short, and that it is longer than it appears to us. We 
 know also that the apparently converging railroad tracks run ac- 
 tual ty parallel. We constantly correct, by our experience, the ap- 
 pearances of our vision. A child without experience will try to 
 feeize the moon. It is the duty of the painter and the photographer 
 to represent the foreshortening correct!}', i. e., as they appear to 
 our eyes ; and when this is not done the picture will be untrue. 
 
 The perspective teaches us the laws of foreshoi'tening. Our eye 
 is a camera obscura with a simple landscape lens. We know from 
 optics that the image of a point lies on the straight ray which is 
 drawn from the point through the centre of the objective. Where 
 this line, which is called the principal ray, cuts the plane of the pic- 
 ture (the ground-glass in the camera or the retina in the eye), we 
 will find the picture of the point in question. The image of a straight 
 line is where the rays which proceed from the different points of 
 the line, after passing through the centre of the lens, intersect the 
 ground-glass. These lines form a plane in the optical centre. This 
 plane cuts the plane of the ground-glass in a straight line. The 
 
252 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 image of a straight line is, therefore, in our eye a straight line, and 
 the image of a plane triangle is a plane triangle. 
 When the plane figure on the retina, or the ground- 
 glass, is parallel to the object, then, according 
 to well-known stereometrical laws, the image will 
 appear similar to the original figure. Suppose that 
 a plate of glass has been placed in front of the eye 
 vertical to its axis. Then the rays which proceed 
 from an object, abed , will intersect the plate in 
 the figure a' b' c' d' (Fig. 82). When we con- 
 struct such a figure for a given point of intersec- 
 tion and a given plane, then the drawing, when it 
 is brought to the correct position and distance in 
 front of the eye, will give exactly such an image 
 as the objects themselves. This explains the de- 
 ception that a correctly constructed plane picture 
 appears in relief. A picture drawn in the above- 
 described manner we call a perspective drawing. It is self evi- 
 dent that we must look at it under the same conditions under which 
 it was drawn. 
 
 Suppose that A B CD, Fig. 83, is the ground plan of a house, 
 
 B the ground-glass, 0 the focus of 
 the rays, abed the image of A B 
 CD; then it is necessary that I 
 should place my eye at 0 in order to 
 see the perspective picture, abed, 
 exactly as the object itself. 
 
 When I move the ground-glass 
 closer to the eye, for instance to B' , 
 it is easy to see that the rays must 
 cross each other in the eye under an 
 entirely different angle from those 
 which proceed from A B CD; and they cannot produce a correct 
 impression. The same would take place if I should remove the 
 picture-plate away from the eye (for instance to B"). Hence it 
 follows that every perspective drawing should be looked at from 
 the standpoint from which it was taken in order to produce a cor- 
 rect impression. 
 
 Photography is a perspective drawing where the point of sight 
 lies in the object-lens ; and hence the eye must be placed at the 
 same distance as the object-glass (i. e ., its focus). When this is 
 not done the impression is untrue. 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 253 
 
 There are, however, lenses of four inches focus and less ; at so 
 short a distance it is impossible for the naked eye to see a draw- 
 ing, or anything else. Generally we look at them at a distance of 
 at least eight inches, and the consequence is that the photograph 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 produces an unnatural impression. This is very often the case 
 with pictures taken with wide-angle lenses. 
 
 When we look at these from too great a distance, O' f, we will 
 notice the too great expansion of the marginal parts. The fore- 
 ground and the sides appear disproportionately large. When they 
 are placed at the correct distance, 0 /, which is equal to the focus 
 of the lens, then the angle of vision, G A 0, of the too wide mar- 
 ginal parts, A C, B D, will shrink considerably, as they will be 
 seen considerably foreshortened (see above), and the picture will 
 make a correct impression. 
 
 These errors do not show themselves in so striking a manner 
 with pictures that have been taken with lenses of a smaller field of 
 vision. When, for instance, the angle is equal to 60°, it does not 
 make much difference whether we look at the picture from the 
 single or double focal length, as a glance at the small marginal 
 piece, A g, of a field of vision of 60°, will demonstrate. This 
 is the reason why we do not notice the false perspective, so com- 
 mon in portraits which have been taken with lenses of a short 
 focus, as the field of vision of these lenses is less than 60°. But 
 other abnormities will manifest themselves which we must not 
 overlook. 
 
 When we take from the point P (Fig. 85), the picture of a pillar, 
 the ground section of which is, A B C D, the lens to have a focus 
 of seven inches, we obtain a picture in which the sides A B and 
 G D are visible. When we substitute, however, a lens of three and 
 a half inches focus we would have to approach the object in order 
 
254 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 to obtain a picture of the same size as with the 7 inch lens. For 
 instance, from the point O', the sides A B and G D are no longer 
 visible ; the whole character of the picture becomes changed. When 
 we substitute a human face for the pillar it is evident that, with 
 the lens near to the object, the cheeks will contract and appear too 
 narrow in proportion to the length of the face. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 The correctness of this conclusion the following tw r o illustrations 
 will demonstrate. They represent two pictures of the bust of 
 Apollo. The bust was placed exactly vertical, the camera likewise, 
 and the direction of the line of vision carefully adjusted. The 
 picture, No. I, was taken with a small patent Dallmeyer lens, at a 
 distance of 47 inches ; the picture, No. II, was taken with a Stein- 
 heil A plan at ic lens, at a distance of 112 inches. 
 
 The difference is striking. In No. I the figure appears slender, 
 the chest is almost feeble, while the same model yields in No. II a 
 full-faced, robust figure. That this slenderness does not depend on 
 an illusion a measurement of distances will best illustrate. The 
 distances between the eye and the point marked on the chest with 
 a cross are exactly alike. The greatest expansion of the chest, 
 however, including the stumps of the arms, amounts in No. I to 56 
 millimetres, and in No. II to 59 millimetres. Looking aside from 
 this dissimilarity, the character of the two faces will reveal to the 
 attentive observer other striking differences. A line, a, a, applied 
 to the hair of the figure will run horizontal in No. II, while in No. 
 
 I it inclines to the left of the figure. The pedestal, P, differs like- 
 wise. In I, the rings are strongly inclined ellipses, while in II 
 they are quite flat. The stump of the arm, A, A, shows hardly any 
 surface in I, while in II it becomes quite prominent. The support 
 of the back extends in No. II, at u, further to the right. The head 
 is in II more between the shoulders (see the angle of the neck at 
 U 7 ), and the whole figure seems to elevate the head more in No. I 
 than in No. II. In II the head seems almost to incline forward, 
 and yet the figure was immovable, the lenses were free from dis- 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 255 
 
 tortion, the direction and height was in both identical; nothing 
 was different but the distance. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Besides the two pictures above described, two others were made 
 under exactly similar circumstances at a distance of sixty and 
 eighty inches, and when we place the four heads alongside of each 
 other, we notice that with increasing distance the figures appear 
 stouter and more robust, the head line inclines more and more, the 
 ellipses of the pedestal become flatter, the chest increases in breadth, 
 and the stumps of the arms become more prominent. T hese dif- 
 ferences will show themselves when we take the same head with 
 the same lens and only change the distance from the object. 
 
 The author took the Apollo head with a Dallmeyer stereoscope 
 lens at distances of five and ten feet. The latter picture is of 
 course only half the size of the former. Differences were not 
 visible to the naked eye on account of the smallness of the pic- 
 tures, but they became quite evident by magnifying them, and 
 showed the same differences as shown above in the illustrations. 
 
256 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC 2ESTHETICS. 
 
 We thus see how different distances yield different pictures of the 
 same object, exactly as a different direction of the light will give a 
 different character to a portrait of the same person. 
 
 Some will say that all this is trifling, and that it does not make 
 mnch difference whether the Apollo is a little stouter or a little 
 more slender. So far as the Apollo is concerned this may be a 
 matter of indifference (most people do not know how the Apollo 
 looks at all) ; but the case is quite different in portrait photography, 
 and where the customer’s own dear self is concerned. For their 
 own physiognomy even inartistic people have an exceedingly keen 
 
 eye. The most trifling things — a line, a wrinkle, a curl is 
 
 criticized, and differences, which are not noticed in the Apollo, 
 are easily observed in the counterfeit presentment of themselves. 
 
 It is the duty of the photographer to pay attention to distance. 
 
 To the photographer who only works mechanically this may be 
 an inconvenience ; but the intelligent and ambitious artist will 
 know how to take advantage of it. He will not make a thin person 
 appear still thinner by taking a photograph at a short distance, nor 
 will he increase the circumference of a stout one by placing a con- 
 siderable distance between the camera and the model. This is 
 particularly the case with bust pictures, but still more so with large 
 heads, where on the one hand the distances are short, and where 
 on the other hand the breadth of the body is almost equal to the 
 height of the figure (so far as the same is visible in the picture). 
 
 With standing figures, where the breadth is comparatively small 
 in proportion to the length, these errors caused by distance are not 
 so apparent. 
 
 Perhaps many will wish to know which distance is the proper 
 one, and which gives the most correct picture. 
 
 This depends upon the individual, I might say, and refer to 
 the example of the stout and slender person, which I gave above, 
 and where entirely different distances are proper. Generally speak- 
 ing, painters recommend, for making a drawing, a distance which 
 is at least twice as great as the height of the object. For a person 
 five feet high, the distance would be ten feet ; for a bust (half the 
 length of the body), a distance of about five feet. 
 
 The painter, however, has greater freedom. He can add, or leave 
 off, or change, just as he chooses. His guide is his artistic feel- 
 ing. I think that the photographer needs this feeling also. The 
 opticians have furnished him with different lenses, that he may 
 make pictures of the same object and of the same size from different 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 257 
 
 distances. A portrait photographer should be provided with lenses 
 of different focal length.* 
 
 Everything is proper when employed in the right place. And 
 thus the question is answered : Which portrait apparatus furnishes 
 the most correct picture, particularly when the negative has to 
 serve for enlargement. 
 
 The preceding chapter will demonstrate that even a correct 
 drawing lens will give different pictures at different distances. I 
 obtain a different result when 1 take a picture at five or ten feet 
 distance. With small sized pictures, these differences are not very 
 striking ; but when we enlarge to life size, they become very no- 
 ticeable, and every one will observe them. 
 
 Let us suppose that the original is five feet high, then it will 
 require, according to the above academical rule, a distance of ten 
 feet to give a proper standpoint for the contemplation of the same. 
 But in order that the picture should make a correct impression at 
 this distance, it is necessary that the negative be taken at the 
 same distance, no matter with what objective, provided it draws 
 correctly and defines sharply. If it has been taken at a shorter 
 distance, the life-size picture will appear, under the given proposi- 
 tions, untrue. 
 
 These circumstances are modified by the nature of the object. 
 
 Let us take as an object an artistically sculptured chalice. In 
 drinking out of it or in looking at it we take it in our hands and place 
 it at a distance of about two feet from our e} r es. We will get a true 
 picture of such an object only by making a photograph at such a 
 short distance, and the truth of this assertion becomes quite evident 
 when we magnify a picture which has been taken at a greater dis- 
 tance. The untruth of the latter becomes evident at once by com- 
 paring the picture with the original, particularly when the width of 
 the latter is large in comparison to its height. 
 
 Cavities are different from prominences. 
 
 When A B, G D (Fig. 87), is the interior of a box, we will see 
 the side A B from P much more foreshortened than from O' or N. 
 If, therefore, a picture is taken under like circumstances from near 
 or far, it will appear in the former case broader in proportion to 
 
 * For large heads of carte de visite size, which are now in so much demand, 
 he should have three numbers of sufficient light (a point of great importance) 
 at his command : 
 
 1 portrait head of about 24 lines and 4 inches focus at about 5 feet distance. 
 
 1 << a 30 “ 7 “ “ 7 “ 
 
 1 « “ 36 “ 12 “ “ 11 “ 
 
 In most cases the second one will be sufficient. 
 
 17 
 
258 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the height. This relation becomes evident in taking a perspective 
 street view. At a short distance, with a wide-angled instrument, 
 the nearer parts will appear unusually broad. The same will happen 
 when we suppose that A G represents the body and C D the lap or 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 the feet of a sitting person. The lap will appear much broader in 
 proportion to the body. It would be the same if G D represented 
 the feet of a person facing the camera. They would appear larger 
 from N. Finally, let us imagine that C D represents the carpet 
 or the floor of a room ; it would appear broader or with a steeper 
 ascent from N. When we take a picture of one and the same per- 
 son from two different standpoints, P and A, with two lenses of 
 different focal lengths, in such a manner that the height of the body 
 shall remain the same in both pictures, we will find in the pictures 
 taken at a short distance that the projecting parts (hands, feet, lap, 
 &c.) are too wide, while the receding ones, as the cheeks, are too 
 small; the floor and chair ascend- too much (Fig. 88). For com- 
 parison, look at the picture, Fig. 89, which has been taken from a 
 greater distance. When we suppose that A B (Fig. 87) is the 
 
 Fig- 88. Fig. 89. 
 
 ground-plan of a house or a window, then it will appear broader 
 when taken from O' than if taken from P. 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 This is the reason why windows and doors 
 appear too broad when taken at a short distance 
 with a lens of a wide field of view, and hence 
 look compressed, as will be noticed in many 
 pictures taken with a pantoscope apparatus. 
 This is also the reason why the distance of the 
 apparatus and the size of the field of vision are 
 of so much importance in giving a true picture 
 of an object. How, under these circumstances, 
 and even with a perfectly correct perspective, 
 quite abnormal figures are produced, the an- 
 nexed picture of balls will demonstrate. Balls 
 will always appear round to us, or circular; but 
 when they are located at the margin of the field 
 of vision — i. e., when the rays intersect the plane 
 of the picture under a very oblique angle, then 
 the perspective figure, even when mathematic- 
 ally correct, will be an ellipse. (See page 233.) 
 
 Such a figure we will not consider a true one, 
 as our eye has been accustomed to seeing a 
 ball under any circumstances as a circle, and 
 we cannot blame the painter when he ignores 
 the rules of perspective and draws them always 
 as circles. Unfortunately the photographer 
 cannot do the same; he must reproduce the 
 figure which the lens, constructed according to 
 mathematical principles, furnishes. 
 
 Distortions similar to those described on the 
 balls will always manifest themselves with 
 lenses of comparatively small fields of vision. 
 The balls B and D are on the margin of a field 
 of only about 35°. The balls A and E are at 
 the edge of a field of 64£°. The former angle 
 is nothing unusual with portraits, particularly 
 with groups. The latter is frequently em- 
 ployed in landscape and architectural photog- 
 raphy. The marginal figures will easily appear 
 too thick when taken at a short distance with a 
 wide field of view. Look at the two figures 
 (Fig. 91, Fig. 92) ; they are the marginal figures 
 of the same bas-relief; the one taken at a distance 
 of 3 1 feet, the other at 8| feet. The head in 
 Fig. 92 appears twisted, thick, and the left foot 
 turned outwards, while Fig. 91 is more correct. 
 
260 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 In taking groups a long distance should be chosen, and stout 
 persons should not be placed at the margin, but in the centre, and 
 we should only employ a large field of vision when circumstances 
 admit of no other. 
 
 Still another point is the height of the apparatus and its direction. 
 
 The normal position of the apparatus is the horizontal one. In 
 that position the eye-point — i. e., the point where the continuation 
 
 of the axis of vision would intersect the plane of the picture — 
 would fall in a line exactly in the horizon — i. e ., in the line where, 
 on a large sheet of water, the water and the sky appear to meet. 
 
 This normal position, however, is maintained by photographers 
 only in taking architectural views. When it is neglected, in such 
 cases the vertical lines of the buildings will not appear vertical, 
 but inclined — L e., converging at the top when the apparatus is 
 turned upwards, and converging at the bottom when the apparatus 
 is turned downwards.* 
 
 Such pictures look very ugly. With portraits and simple land- 
 
 * The explanation is easy. The rays proceeding from a straight line will 
 form a plane at the point of crossing, and this will intersect the plane of the 
 ground-glass in a straight line. When we imagine a succession of lines 
 parallel to the ground-glass, the planes of rays proceeding from them will in- 
 tersect the ground-glass in parallel lines according to well-known stereomet- 
 rical laws. When, however, the ground-glass is inclined, the intersecting 
 lines will converge. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 261 
 
 scapes we very often deviate from this horizontal position. The 
 eye-point must be looked for either in the ground or in the sky. 
 In this case we will see in the former instance more of the ground, 
 and in the latter more of the sky. Under some circumstances this 
 may be an advantage. In rows of trees, where we wish to avoid 
 an excessive foreground in order to get an insight into the splendid 
 mass of foliage, we must direct the apparatus upwards. 
 
 Bedford has done this. That the stems of the trees converged 
 did not matter much. What influence the inclination of the appa- 
 ratus exerts in portrait photography is shown most strikingly by 
 taking the picture of a bust with an apparatus pointing upwards, 
 and then from the same standpoint with the camera pointing down- 
 wards, as the annexed figure (93) shows. In the first figure the 
 head appears to incline forward, like that of an old man ; in the 
 second the person stands perpendicular, like a soldier; while in 
 the third instance the head is thrown backwards and the eyes are 
 turned heavenward. 
 
 The effect becomes still more striking with antique statues. 
 Generally they sire calculated and executed for a high standpoint. 
 They must be copied with a camera turned upwards, while with re- 
 clining figures (Bndymion, Cleopatra, or Queen Louisa) the appa- 
 ratus should be turned downwards. 
 
 The elevation of the apparatus above ground is of still more im- 
 portance. Many mistakes are made in this respect. The normal 
 height is the height of the eyes above ground, which for a standing 
 figure is about four and three-quarters feet. When the apparatus 
 is placed higher,, we will see the objects from above (bird’s e} r e 
 view) ; when we go lower, we will see the objects in what is called 
 a frog perspective. For a sitting figure, we may assume the ob- 
 server to be in a sitting posture — i. e., the eye or the camera at a 
 height of about four feet. For a sitting person the apparatus is 
 generally placed on a level with the head of the model and inclined 
 forward, while for a standing person the height of the chest and 
 the horizontal position is adopted. In the former case we can ele- 
 vate the head of the model ; in the second case we can depress it 
 to equalize errors. 
 
 When the apparatus is placed too high the person will appear 
 more in a bird’s eye perspective, and we see a larger part of the 
 top of the head. The eyes appear depressed, the throat is covered 
 by the chin, <fec. When the apparatus is placed too low the reverse 
 takes place. We look into the nostrils and the sockets of the eyes ; 
 we look under the chin, and the forehead becomes foreshortened. 
 
262 
 
 THE ART OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
OF THE PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 263 
 
 In landscape photography the height of the apparatus is still 
 more important. In order to gain a proper standpoint we have to 
 ascend buildings and climb mountains. 
 
 We must observe that all the parallel horizontal lines which 
 are not parallel to the ground-glass will converge towards a point 
 in the horizon— the point of disappearance or vanishing point. 
 
 As the horizon is located in the height of the eye — i. e ., the 
 camera — it follows that the ground will ascend more and more as 
 
 we raise the horizon. See Fig. 95, where the eye-point is taken 
 at the normal height of a human figure, the next at the height of 
 the hips (Fig. 94), and the third at twice the height of a human 
 figure (Fig. 96). In the first picture, where the horizon is lowest, 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 the lines of the street ascend gently; the upper parts of the window, 
 however, form strongly inclined, or, as they are called, tumbling 
 lines ; the lines of the step incline, and the milestone reaches to 
 
264 
 
 PHOTOGR APIIIC ESTHETICS. 
 
 the clouds. When we ascend the steps (Fig. 96), the ground lines 
 ascend more, and the window lines are more horizontal. From 
 such a standpoint the lower objects appear in a bird’s eye perspec- 
 tive ; persons and trees become foreshortened and appear small 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 and compressed ; it does not create a natural impression to see the 
 ground ascend over objects which we are used to seeing prominently 
 above ground, or to see the lines of window sills, which generally 
 run in a descending direction, become ascending. Such a high 
 standpoint in taking a street view is only to be recommended when 
 it offers other great advantages. 
 
 Here is still another point. In a perspective view, the lines of 
 the cornices of a building will appear to tumble when viewed from 
 a normal standpoint — i. e., the height of the eye of a standing 
 person ; more and more so the higher the building is. We are 
 accustomed to calculate the height of a building from the degree 
 of inclination of the upper lines. This is the reason why build- 
 ings taken from a high standpoint, where these lines approach to 
 the horizontal, appear low and depressed, and fail to make a great 
 impression. 
 
 Paul Veronese, who painted a splendid hall, knew this effect 
 very well. He gave to the upper lines a strong inclination, and 
 placed the eye-point intentionally lower for them than for the floor, 
 in order to make them steeper. 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 265 
 
 He has offended the learned mathematicians, but gained in artistic 
 effect. It is not intended that a picture should solve a mathe- 
 matical problem or conform to it. 
 
 In narrow streets the selection of the proper standpoint is often 
 so difficult that in spite of all our good intentions we must be satis- 
 fied with something very imperfect.* 
 
 ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 We very often hear in ordinary life the commonplace remark, 
 “artistic confusion,” and many draw the conclusion that every 
 chaotic mixture of objects must be artistic. We will not investigate 
 here how many photographers hold this view. I have known one 
 who in order to heighten the effect of his landscape dragged all 
 possible things into it. Piles of wood were carted to the place, 
 stones were thrown in the foreground, the wheelbarrow on which 
 the apparatus had been moved had to do duty, and when nothing 
 else was to be had, the ground in front was dug up in order to 
 make the view “ picturesque .” He did still worse with his por- 
 traits ; clocks, picture frames, vases, chairs, bottles, and foot-stools 
 were so piled together, that finally it became difficult to find the 
 person amongst the heap of rubbish. 
 
 It requires an advanced artistic education to understand that 
 disorder and picturesque are ideas by no means identical. It is 
 not artistic when the objects in the picture are arranged with a 
 stiff symmetry and mathematical precision ; as, for instance, the 
 sacred pictures of the oldest schools of painting ; in the centre, we 
 find the holy virgin, to the right and left each six apostles drawn 
 up like soldiers of the line, and not only symmetrical in position, 
 but also in the carriage of the hands, feet, and head ; the left side 
 of the picture the exact counterpart of the right. Art demands 
 liberty and order, and this shows itself in an easy symmetrical ar- 
 rangement. Man himself is a symmetrical figure ; we can divide 
 him into two parts, and the one part would be the exact copy of 
 
 * I have seen views of the staircase in the Museum in Berlin which were 
 taken with wide-angled lenses. In these the joists of the ceiling are taken from 
 below (frog perspective), while the statues on the groundfloor are taken from 
 a bird’s eye view ; however, the public is satisfied ; all they want is to have 
 a picture with a great many objects in it; how they look does not matter. 
 From this desire to see a great deal at once originated probably the mania 
 for ascending mountains. Every one is delighted with the view from the 
 Brocken (Harz Mountains), although it is bare of all beauty; but we see a 
 great deal at once, although very little that is beautiful. 
 
266 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the other ; for example, a soldier making “ front face,” the legs 
 together, the hands drawn close to the body, the head directed 
 vertically forward. 
 
 A person will only take such a position when forced to do so, and 
 it will lack beauty because it is unnatural. Let us contemplate a 
 man standing in an easy position (Fig. 91); he will very seldom 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 rest on both legs, like a soldier, but generally rests on one, the 
 supporting leg , while the other is left free. Neither do both arms 
 hang down, but he places them in different positions, and generally 
 the head and body are turned in different directions; and hence it 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 267 
 
 is that he appears, even in the lifeless picture itself, capable of 
 motion, while the symmetrical soldier appears even in life stiff and 
 rigid, and still more so in the picture. 
 
 As an example of an easy symmetrical arrangement, the annexed 
 sitting figure (Fig. 98) may serve as an illustration. 
 
 To the left sealn of the coat the right one conforms (almost too 
 symmetrical), the left collar of the overcoat corresponds with the 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 right one, although in a different arrangement of the folds. The line 
 which ascends from the left arm corresponds with the one which 
 ascends on the right from the other. Both culminate in the head, 
 which, however, like the feet, is independent of the symmetrical 
 arrangement. 
 
 I have just called attention to the symmetry of lines. A line, 
 a, descending to the left, corresponds with a line, 6, descending to 
 
 Fig. 99. Fig. 100. 
 
 the right (Fig. 99) ; such lines support each other, so to speak — 
 they balance each other. When the picture consists altogether of 
 
268 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 oblique parallel lines, this balance is not maintained (Fig. 100); 
 and this want is felt at once by the observer, although he cannot 
 explain to himself the reason. In the next picture (Fig. 101), for 
 which, and three others, we are indebted to Mr. Robinson’s ex- 
 cellent work “ Pictorial Effect in Photography,” a great many 
 of the main lines run in the same direction. *The legs of the 
 figure, the chair legs, upper arm, coat collar, and the back of the 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 chair, and not a single line which runs in a symmetrically opposite 
 direction ; to the right we have an empty space, while to the left a 
 vase and a table crowd the space and withdraw the eye from the 
 main object. That the monotonous and unnecessarity parallel 
 lines could have been easily avoided it is not hard to understand ; 
 but we must not think that we must avoid absolutely all parallel 
 lines in a picture ; we must leave what is an organic necessity, but 
 we must not unnecessarily increase them, as the author has done 
 in the preceding picture, by letting both arms, both legs, the legs 
 and the back of the chair run in the same direction. 
 
 In conclusion, I will give a sketch in profile, after Paton (Fig. 
 102). The balance has been beautifully maintained ; the folds of 
 the dress, which fall towards the left, find their symmetrical oppo- 
 site in the lines of the arms, which descend towards the right. 
 The shrubbery at the right finds its opposite in the two trees on the 
 left ; a few objects in the foreground on the right side correspond 
 with the figure and give it an easy appearance. The few branches 
 and the hat in the immediate foreground are not without meaning. 
 They form, so to speak, the continuation of the lines of the arms, 
 which incline to the right. When we cover the former by a piece 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 269 
 
 of paper, the figure will at once lose its importance. If the child 
 should stretch its invisible foot towards the right, the accessories 
 would no longer be necessary. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 I have shown in these examples how we can do justice to a 
 free symmetry, or how we can maintain an artistic balance. The 
 artist is at liberty to call draperies and accessories to his aid. 
 
 A piece of drapery thrown over the back of the chair of Fig. 101, 
 and falling towards the right, would establish the artistic equilib- 
 rium, a trick which is cheap and very much liked. However, 
 it would not remove the parallel arm and legs, but would only 
 fill the empty space. The less an artist stands in need of these 
 things the better he is off'. That they are not absolutely necessary 
 is demonstrated by the portrait (Fig. 98), which is copied from a 
 picture by the world-renowned C. V. Jagemann in Vienna. The 
 woodcut does not do justice to the original. 
 
 It shows symmetrical arrangement with full liberty of motion, 
 and yet without resorting to draperies or accessories. In every 
 arrangement one thing should be observed, — the arrangement must 
 be free and unrestrained. As soon as we notice in a picture that 
 the artist has carefully pulled the clothing into the proper folds, 
 that he has dragged furniture and draperies to his assistance in 
 order to establish an equilibrium of lines, when we feel that the 
 limbs and the material are forcibly squeezed into a position which 
 the}^ would never assume naturally, then the arrangement appears 
 artificial and inartistic. 
 
 The portrait (Fig. 98), as well as the sketch by Paton (Fig. 
 
270 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 102), show figures which rest on the broadest basis; forms which 
 narrow towards the top, like a pyramid. 
 
 This pyramidal arrangement we find in numberless works of art. 
 Why does this arrangement harmonize the best with our feelings ? 
 It is because the pyramid rests on the firmest foundation ; and we 
 demand a firm stand for every figure at any price, particularly in 
 photography. 
 
 This is a point which requires particular attention with standing 
 persons ; they are not so easily brought within the pyramidal ar- 
 rangement, and hence are easily in danger of appearing in the pic- 
 ture as if they rested on an insecure basis. 
 
 We not only find this arrangement on the basis of the pyramid 
 for single persons in the works of art, but to a much larger extent 
 for groups. 
 
 I will give as an illustration a group by Bendermann. 
 
 We see the pyramidal arrangement not only in the whole group, 
 but the large pyramid resolves itself into several smaller ones ; for 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 instance, to the right the mother with the child ; in the centre the 
 boy with the jug, and where the stream of water accommodates 
 itself to the pyramidal arrangement the lines of the right are the 
 opposite of those of the left. The boy playing the flute comes 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 271 
 
 under the same arrangement. We see here that two things of 
 secondary importance serve to complete the pyramidal structure, 
 but the less we rely upon or resort to such artificial means the 
 better it is. Such accessories become perfectly horrible when they 
 crown the pyramid. I have seen a picture of two sitting persons 
 where the pyramid was formed by placing behind them a step- 
 ladder. In fact two persons are apt to give the photographer much 
 trouble in the arrangement, and even the sculptor has great dif- 
 ficulties in properly disposing of such subjects. As examples I would 
 mention the Schiller-Goethe Group of Rietschel and the Luther- 
 Melanchthon Group by Schadow. The difficulty is still greater when 
 a great number of persons has to be grouped together. This much 
 is to be observed, the pyramidal grouping must appear easy and 
 without stiffness ; it must under no circumstances appear as if made 
 after a stencil pattern, in which every object is forced into a given 
 form. 
 
 There are objects which are absolutely antagonistic to the py- 
 ramidal form. As an example we give u The Last Supper,” by Leo- 
 nardo da Yinci. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 UmC 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i ■ . i ■ ■ 
 
 
 i!lM 
 
 7 I ! — ' 
 
 
 — 4 - — 
 
 r- i -1 i - 
 
 
 It would hardly be possible to arrange the thirteen persons who 
 sat at the table in pyramidal groups. A horizontal arrangement 
 is unavoidable unless we foreshorten the table. The nature of the 
 case demands it. The picture shows how the artist disposes of a 
 number of persons, and brings them all prominently into view. 
 
272 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 He proceeds like the naturalist. The latter, in order to make it 
 comprehensible, divides a number of objects in genera and fami- 
 lies, or smaller groups. In a similar manner the artist divides his 
 persons into two principal groups, — six apostles to the right, six 
 to the left; each of these two groups is again divided into two 
 parts containing three persons each. But all the parts stand in a 
 harmonious combination ; they all arrange themselves in accord- 
 ance with the idea of the picture. The arrangement obeys the laws 
 of symmetry in the most perfect and easy manner. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 There are works of art in which pyramidal composition was possi- 
 ble, but where it has been purposely neglected. Thorwaldsen’s splen- 
 did Bas-relief, Night, is an illustration. With two sleeping children 
 (Sleep and Death) the female figure floats down to the earth ; around 
 her forehead is a wreath of poppy, indicating sleep. We would 
 have to force our judgment to find a pyramidal arrangement in 
 this work of art. It would, in this instance, not only be superflu- 
 ous, but it would also be without motive, for the figure does not 
 demand stability (which is a characteristic of the pyramidal style), 
 because it is not at rest.; it floats in the air. 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 273 
 
 I have had engraved, as examples, several works of art of the 
 highest order, to serve as patterns to illustrate the rules of art. In 
 how far the latter can be applied to objects which are taken from 
 real life a few more specimens may explain, such as Mieris and 
 his wife at breakfast (Fig. 106), and a musical entertainment after 
 Terburg (Fig. 112), also a loving couple after Metzu (Fig. 111). 
 
 Fro. lOfi. 
 
 When the photographer has to group a greater number of per- 
 sons he can easily combine the horizontal and pyramidal arrange- 
 ments. He divides the numbers, as in Leonardo’s picture, into 
 several smaller groups (which, however, must not be disconnected), 
 and tries, in each of the smaller groups, to do justice to the py- 
 ramidal arrangement. It will be difficult for him to create a work 
 of art in this way. People are too unwieldy and too awkward, 
 but he will succeed in making a more pleasing group than if he 
 placed all his figures stiffly side by side. 
 
 The arrangement of landscapes admits of much more freedom, 
 as we have already seen above, in speaking of the sketch by Paton. 
 
 18 
 
274 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 (Fig. 102.) The shrubbery to the right finds its symmetrical oppo- 
 site in the two trees to the left. 
 
 In the same manner in a picture of the sea, which intentionally 
 has been enlivened by a boat or a ship, the latter effect must be 
 balanced by massive rocks (Fig. 101). Clouds also are often hap- 
 pily employed to produce this equilibrium. 
 
 FlCr. 107. 
 
 Accessories are of great importance. Very often the simplest 
 things are of the greatest advantage. For instance, the following 
 two figures (Figs. 108, 109), for which we are indebted to Mr. H. 
 P. Robinson, the unrivalled composition photographer. The two 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 wood-cuts represent one and the same object, and correspond ex- 
 actly, excepting the black spots, — the boat in the river, and the 
 
LINES AND OUTLINES. 
 
 275 
 
 tree on the river-hank, which in the one are wanting. In compar- 
 ing the two we feel at once the importance of the black parts in 
 the lowest point of the angle, which is formed by the perspective 
 lines of the castle and the river. In the second picture, where the 
 boat and the river-bank are left out altogether, the castle looks as 
 if the foundation had been removed from under it. The lines, 
 which run towards a distant point, seem to lack union and regula- 
 tion ; the distance enters the foreground, and the separate parts 
 do not stand in the proper relation to one another. In Fig. 108, 
 where the boat, tree, &c., are present, every part occupies its proper 
 
 Fig. ino. 
 
 position, and we have a feeling of completeness which is wanting 
 in Fig. 109. 
 
 I would advise the student to study with care the principal 
 landscape pictures of our great masters, — Claude Lorrain, Schir- 
 mer, Lessing, Hildebrandt, and others. In all of them he will find 
 interesting examples of what has been said above. 
 
 LINES AND OUTLINES. 
 
 Before photography was invented the so-called silhouettes were 
 much liked as cheap pictures. They represented nothing but the 
 outlines of the figure, generally in profile. Everything elsewas empty 
 (as the treasury of the French minister (Silhouette) from whom these 
 pictures derived their name). In spite of this emptiness the pic- 
 tures were pleasing, and how much effect can be produced with 
 
276 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 them is shown by the recent silhouettes of Konewka, who really 
 has produced charming pictures in this branch, and the want of 
 filling up in his pictures is scarcely felt. This shows of how much 
 importance outlines are. The influence is felt everywhere, not only 
 in the empty silhouette, but in every picture. 
 
 Every thinking artist who desires to reproduce an object first 
 studies its outlines. He allows his eye to glide over the lines, and 
 tries to find the beauty of their curves. He follows the changes 
 of the stronger and the weaker one, the longer and shorter, their 
 windings, and easy combinations. Let us study, for instance, the 
 outlines of the figures of the Madonna Aldobrandini by Raphael 
 (Fig. 110), one of the most magnificent early works of the great 
 Urbini, let us place alongside a similarly arranged, and accord- 
 ing to photographic notions, successful children’s picture, and we 
 will feel at once the enormous difference. But not only the out- 
 lines speak in the picture, but the whole contour generally, whether 
 it be formed by the limbs, seams, folds, accessories, or draperies. 
 
 I have already shown above what an unpleasant effect is pro- 
 duced by parallel lines, or when the limbs are placed at right 
 angles to each other, like the legs of a saw-horse. In every artisti- 
 cally beautiful picture there exists a wonderful degree of harmony 
 of lines, and even a photograph can do justice to this. 
 
 Let me again refer to the picture by Jagemann (Fig. 98). The 
 edge of the undercoat slopes from the right hand upwards, and is 
 continued in the line of the neck. The latter sweeps on the other 
 side downwards, in the contour of the face and the forehead, and 
 is finally lost in the edge of the same coat. The outline of the 
 hand which holds the book is, starting from the little finger, con- 
 tinued in the same elegant manner in the contour of the overcoat, 
 ascends next to the throat, descends on the other side, and ends 
 in the slightly curved index finger of the left hand, and almost 
 voluntarily the eye follows the direction of this finger, and con- 
 tinues the sweeping line in order to ascend again to the edge of 
 the book, the thumb, and the contour of the inner coat. 
 
 This shows how several outlines may combine to form a main 
 line, and how even the hair may follow the sweep of the curves. 
 
 I would now call attention to the “ genre ” style of Terburg 
 (Fig. 112), Metzu (Fig. Ill), and Mieris (Fig. 106). In Fig. 112, 
 for instance, we see the contour of the coat of the lady continued 
 in the folds of the table-cloth, ascend to the corner, and continue 
 in the right arm of the knight, continue again in the outline of the 
 figure standing in the background, and thus gradually carried back 
 
LINES AND OUTLINES. 277 
 
 to the lady. The hack figure in the terzetto would, if placed by 
 itself, not be free from objection. It is a fault when neither arm 
 nor leg resolves itself into outline , and when the head is squeezed 
 in between the shoulders , as in this last-named figure. 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
278 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Such figures are bad unless the action represented should de- 
 mand such a position. But in trying to give a sharply-marked 
 outline we can do “too much of a good thing,” and instead of ex- 
 pressing calmness and dignity by a simple profile, we may, by too 
 lively an arrangement of outlines, do exactly the reverse. We 
 need not look far for examples. There are thousands of portrait 
 photographs, in which the calm and dignified features of an old man 
 are represented by zigzag lines, lacking all the elements of beauty 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 In its outlines, the picture by Jagemann (Fig. 98), may be called 
 a success. Only one thing is annoying, the projecting back of the 
 chair behind the left arm and the shoulders, which are drawn back 
 too much, and give to the figure a weak appearance. 
 
 The lively outlines correspond perhaps with the character of the 
 subject, but they would be ill-suited to an older person. A little 
 more lively profile would be desirable for the female parts of the 
 picture by Metzu (the lovers) (Fig. Ill), but it maybe objected 
 that the beauty turns a cold shoulder to the caresses, and that the 
 quiet outlines correspond exactly with her indifferent humor. 
 
 It is difficult to explain to any one fully the beauty of lines. It 
 
LINES AND OUTLINES. 
 
 279 
 
 is a matter of feeling. I can only call attention to the first-class 
 masterpieces in painting and sculpture. For instance, the lines 
 and general contour in the Madonna of Raphael (Fig. 110). In 
 these wonderfully soft outlines, which look as if they were laid on 
 the canvas with the breath, is such a charming harmony that every- 
 thing which the photographer has ever made with his camera looks 
 flat and weak compared with it. On such works the disciple of art 
 may exercise his appreciation of outlines. 
 
 Flo. 112. 
 
 In landscapes also contour and lines play an important part. 
 Even the ordinary admirer of nature distinguishes between elegant 
 and clumsy outlines of mountains and trees. In architectural pic- 
 tures many parallel lines converge towards the point of “ disappear- 
 ance thejr direct the eye to great distances, and even without 
 such architectural lines we will feel, in a well-composed landscape, 
 a certain harmony in the sweep of the lines, as, for instance, in 
 the curve of the shore which is lost in the distance of the picture 
 (Fig. 107) ; also in the contour of the mountains, all of which lead 
 the eye to the same distance. Clouds are wanting in the above 
 sketch ; if an artist would add them to the picture their outlines 
 would have to harmonize with those of the mountains and shore. 
 
 In the sketch of Windsor Castle (Figs. 108, 109) the outlines of 
 
280 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 the clouds descending to the right form a contrast with the contour 
 of the architectural objects which descend to the left. 
 
 DRESSES AND DRAPERIES. 
 
 Our climate compels us to cover ourselves, as a protection against 
 wind and weather, with clothing, the form of which is regulated by 
 sex, nationality, the age, and is also modified to a very large extent 
 by the individual taste and fashion. 
 
 In general the modern dress consists of bag-like pieces, which 
 are sewed or buttoned together — sleeves, pants, vest, coat — quite 
 in contrast with the costume of the ancients, which consisted in sim- 
 ple pieces of some material which were thrown in picturesque folds 
 around the body. At present the fop shows himself b} r the cut of 
 his clothes, which correspond with the latest number of the journal 
 of fashion. At the time when classic Greece had reached its height 
 the greatest elegance showed itself in the beauty of the folds of 
 the drapery. Pericles was celebrated for the manner in which he 
 threw his cloak about his body. 
 
 We find the antique costume in numberless statues, and even 
 where the figure is completely draped we can discern the form of 
 the body distinctly. Shape and motion of the covered limbs are 
 distinctly visible. To this principle, from which the ancients never 
 deviated, our great modern artists strictly adhere, and where it 
 has been overlooked the work will not even satisfy the common 
 inartistic observer. 
 
 Our feelings demand motives. Why is there a depression in the 
 
 drapery '( Because underneath it is the 
 cavity between the arm and the body. 
 Why is there an elevation in the 
 dress ? Because it indicates the knee. 
 
 When we contemplate the (in itself) 
 beautiful Maria, by H. Van Eyck 
 (Fig. 113), we find the dress does 
 not indicate in any way the foot, the 
 leg, or the knee, and one cannot 
 tell (at least not from the wood-cut) 
 whether the figure is kneeling or 
 standing. No one will call such dra- 
 pery beautiful. 
 
 The forms are much more clearly 
 indicated through the covering of the 
 Madonna of Fra Bartolommeo (Fig. 
 114). It is not difficult to perceive that one leg is kneeling, while 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
DRESSES AND DRAPERIES. 
 
 281 
 
 the other one is stemmed in support. The position of the knee is 
 clearly indicated. Even the heel of the left foot is plainly shown. 
 Mueh the same arrangement we see in the arm. 
 
 How strictly modern artists conform to the rule that the folds 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 of the drapery must conform to the forms of the body is shown by 
 the fact that the sculptors first model their figures naked, and after- 
 wards place the drapery on. Some modern fashions make this con- 
 forming of the clothing to the form of the body, an impossibility 
 in photography, as, for instance, the use of the hoop skirts. 
 
 In such cases the artist must submit to the ruling fashion, for it 
 would be wrong to persuade a modern lady, not an actress, to dis- 
 card her crinoline in order to mark by a suitable drapery the po- 
 sition of the knees, the legs, &c. 
 
 In the arrangement of the clothing and draperies, in so fai as 
 
282 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the fashions do not interfere, attention should be given that the 
 points of the shoulders, elbows, hip, knee and foot are recogniza- 
 ble, also the broad surfaces of the chest, the loins, &c. On the 
 latter, depressions look very bad, while they are well suited to mark 
 cavities, as, for instance, between the body and arm, between the 
 legs, &c. (Fig. 114.) 
 
 How impoitant a part the drapery plays, in giving a more or less 
 elegant flow to the lines, the examples which we have given above 
 will show. Good artists are always anxious to modify the baggy 
 and unyielding forms of our modern garments, by a piece of cloth 
 01 a cloak, in order to drape the figure artistically, and the more 
 stiffness the fashion or the clothing prescribes the more excusable 
 is the aitist il he resorts to these subterfuges. In the soldiers of 
 Rauch we generally find the cloak (Blucher, Scharnhorst, Gneise- 
 nau), the flowing lines of which agreeably contrast with the stiff 
 lines of the uniform, and which splendidly mark the movements of 
 the figure. Photographers in particular like to resort to these acces- 
 soiies, and especially the sculptor Adam Salomon, who goes per- 
 haps too far in this respect, by giving to his sitters draperies un- 
 known to modern fashion. Fortunately cloaks, havelocks, and 
 Scotch plaids are the read 3 ^ means at the hands of the artist to 
 produce the desired effects ; still better advantages are offered in 
 the female costume, where arabs, shawls, veils, &c., supply a va- 
 riety of draperies. But they should not be given to persons by 
 whom the wearing of such articles is unusual, and who, perhaps, 
 even protest against their employment. 
 
 It is not the purpose of photography to represent motion, but 
 on the contrary a resting pose, and, therefore, it loses that impor- 
 tant element of marking the forms of the body which the artist 
 possesses in the flowing drapery. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that the artist can let the gar- 
 ments fly about at will, but their motions must have a motive, 
 which we must be able to explain from natural causes. 
 
 It is the resistance of the air in Thorwaldsen’s “Night” (Fig. 
 105) which presses the drapery to the form, and brings out the 
 beautiful proportions. 
 
 Such motives we demand also in a resting pose. Byron, by 
 Thorwaldsen (Fig. 115), has his cloak over the shoulders, in order 
 to hide the right half of the body completely. The hand rests on 
 the knee, and this causes the folds descending from the shoulder 
 to be tightly drawn, which with the depression between the arm 
 and the upper leg, plainly indicates the form of the body. 
 
DRESSES AND DRAPERIES. 
 
 283 
 
 Frequently we help ourselves artificially by purposely pressing 
 the draperies into the cavity between arm and body, or between 
 the legs, but such an arrangement has to be managed with exceed- 
 ing care, in order to look artistic and not artificial. 
 
 The material of the garment plays a very important part. 
 Starched linen and highly-finished silk give hard and unpleasant 
 folds. Cotton is better, but woollen material is the softest and most 
 harmonious. 
 
 The gloss, the color, and the thickness of the material, also re- 
 quire the most diligent study of the artist. For the painter, 
 color and high-lights are welcome objects to show his skill. The 
 photographer is often driven to despair by their stubbornness, as 
 the color is either ineffectual, or the high lights produce ugly 
 white spots. Salomon is right. Starting from the principle that 
 the head should be brightest, he covers the light clothing which 
 would make the head appear dark with dark drapery. He gives 
 the preference to velvet drapery, not black silk velvet, but violet, 
 brown, or reddish cotton velvet. This material arranges itself in 
 soft and well-rounded folds, while the high light on the prominent 
 points is gently moderated. A piece of dark crape or a veil is 
 sometimes very valuable in modifying bright clothing, and has the 
 advantage that the light dress shows through, while a dark dra- 
 pery hides it completely. 
 
 Attention should be given to the parts without folds, and also 
 to the elevated and depressed portions. The folds should flow 
 evenly, and not be interrupted 1^ numberless rumples, as is often 
 the case when the garments have been in use for a length of time. 
 I have seen a picture of Iphigenia, by Jagemann, where the classic 
 robe was splendidly arranged, but where the many rumples dis- 
 turbed the effect. The artist (painter or sculptor) leaves these 
 things out, and he has a right to do so. 
 
 Folds generally do not run in straight lines, but appear on the 
 curves of the body, or where the dress touches the floor, and the 
 folds become broken. 
 
 Such breaks are very different in their nature ; sometimes they 
 are sharply cornered, sometimes more rounded, sometimes quite 
 flat, and at others deeper. When they run in a zigzag line, back- 
 ward and forwards, they disturb the feeling, and lack beauty (Fig. 
 113). The seam appears under as manifold aspects in our modern 
 tiresome costumes ; it generally is lost in monotonous lines, as, for 
 instance, the seams of our coats, which are cut below in a horizon- 
 tal line of almost architectural stiffness. 
 
284 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 Still more disagreeable is the dress-coat, with the right-angled 
 cut on both sides, which lacks all purpose. 
 
 But even in garments which fulfil the purposes of drapery much 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 better, the seam is generally neglected. The artist is often satisfied 
 with having produced a few artistic folds, and pays no attention to 
 the lines of the corners. 
 
 Of how much importance these are, a glance at the seam of the 
 drapery of Thorwaldsen’s Night (Fig. 105) will show at once. 
 
 Lively and animated at the feet, the upper parts sweep in various 
 directions, and give rise to a charming play of lines. When such 
 an animation of the seam is but an exceptional case in quiescent 
 
DRESSES AND DRAPERIES. 
 
 285 
 
 figures, and particularly difficult in our modern costumes, still 
 the pictures of Terburg and Mieris (Figs. 105, 106) teach us that 
 with all simplicity we can avoid monotony. The lively curve of 
 the seam of the cloak of Byron forms a pleasing contrast to the 
 somewhat stiff and monotonous lines of his modern costume. 
 
 A peculiar kind of folds, which are particularly annoying to the 
 photographer, are the folds which show themselves in our clothing 
 after they have been in use for some time. They manifest them- 
 selves particularly in the arm and knee joints. They are elevations 
 or indentations which are visible even in the standing figure, and 
 which no pulling and twisting will remove. They are particularly 
 offensive when they show themselves above or below the knee. At- 
 tention should be paid to these folds, and they should be placed at 
 the spot where they properly belong, L e., at the knees or the elbows. 
 
 Sometimes a comical effect is intentionally produced by placing 
 these folds in the wrong place, and by giving them a particular 
 prominence. 
 
 The treatment which modern costumes require, in order to give 
 an artistic effect, we can best learn from the works of modern mas- 
 ters. They should be studied whenever a chance offers itself. We 
 should observe the contour, the folds, the surfaces, and seams. 
 That is the only way to sharpen our judgment. 
 
 The hair requires similar management to the drapery, but in 
 speaking of the hair I do not refer to the dropsical modern pro- 
 ductions, consisting of chignons and other monstrosities, but refer 
 to the free flowing natural article. I will not sit in judgment on 
 every artificial curl, however. They are sometimes very acceptable 
 in producing a picturesque arrangement. 
 
 The hair which hangs down monotonously without variation is 
 like the drapery without a fold. The ancient sculptors enlivened it 
 by pouring it into wavy lines. The effect is splendid when in no- 
 bly curved lines it flows ax*ound the head, descends to the shoulders, 
 and harmoniouslj r loses itself in the lines of the drapery. A hat 
 with a waving plume or a veil will produce a beautiful harmony 
 with the hair. The portrait painters of all times have known how 
 to take advantage of this. 
 
 I might speak here of drapery in the landscape. Seriously 
 speaking, what is the foliage of the trees other than beautiful 
 natural drapery ? The difference's that the trees wear their gar- 
 ments in summer-time, while men don their most elaborate costumes 
 in winter. Here also the aesthetic sense demands that the skeleton 
 of the trees, the branches, shall be visible in the foliage. The 
 
286 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 elevations and depressions must find their cause in the disposi- 
 tion of the branches, and in this consists the difference between 
 beautiful and ugly trees. In the former the contour of the foliage 
 gives us an insight in the structure of the branches, although the 
 latter are not directly visible. 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENT OF HUMAN FIGURES. 
 
 In the chapter on arrangement I have already called attention 
 to the fact that, in a standing human figure, the centre of gravity 
 must not be lost sight of. In a figure resting on one foot the line 
 of the centre of gravity proceeds from the throat to the inner 
 ankle bones of the foot on which the person rests. If the lines 
 fall outside the same, then the figure is not sufficiently supported, 
 and should have a support against which it can lean. A position 
 where the body rests equally on both feet the artist will very seldom 
 select, not even for a soldier. But where a body rests on one foot 
 (Fig. 116), and where the other has free play, the hip on the side 
 of the supporting leg will be higher than the other. It will also 
 easily be observed that the shoulder over the supporting leg is a 
 little lower than the other. 
 
 The hip lines and shoulder lines are no longer parallel. Painters 
 pay particular attention to this, and photographers should do the 
 same. There are persons who habitually carry one shoulder lower 
 than the other. Such persons should not be placed in such a man- 
 ner that the body rests on the foot which corresponds with the 
 lower shoulder. The natural fault would only appear exaggerated. 
 The head appears more lively when it has a different direction from 
 the chest. The eyes follow the head ; for instance, if the head is 
 turned to the right the eyes will take the same direction, unless 
 they should look straight ahead. In no instance is it admissible, 
 where the face bears a calm expression, that the eyes should be 
 turned to the right while the face is turned to the left. By a very 
 slight turn or change in the direction of the head on the one side 
 and the apparatus on the other , the outlines of the head map become 
 completely changed . The turn of the head is generally left to the 
 photographer, and he generally prefers to direct the eyes to the 
 shaded side. Artists, on the contrary, are in the habit of turning 
 the head in the direction of the highest shoulder. 
 
 The free leg, in contradistinction to the supporting leg, is not 
 limited in the choice of position. It can be moved forward or 
 it ma} r recede, but the position of the opposite arm depends on 
 the position of the leg. We notice in walking how the left leg cor- 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIGURE. 
 
 287 
 
 responds in its motions with the right arm, and vice versa. The 
 right arm and the left foot are raised simultaneously in order always 
 to maintain the balance. But from an artistic standpoint it is like- 
 wise justifiable that the left arm and the right foot should move in 
 contrary directions, so as to avoid parallel lines. 
 
 When the upper part of the “free leg” progresses, it is customary 
 to let the upper arm on the other side recede and the forearm 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 progress (see the annexed figure of the Levite). Also, in order to 
 avoid parallel motion, when one arm is raised the other hangs 
 down by the side (see the annexed figure of the Pharisee.) In 
 short, the natural contrast in motion, which shows itself in walk- 
 ing, we try to maintain in the quiescent figures, and this enables the 
 artist to give it an animated appearance. Artists pay attention 
 to the smallest details, even in the positions of the limbs. In an 
 outstretched arm the hand should have a different direction from the 
 
288 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 arm, and to the hand itself the most scrupulous attention is given. 
 Next to the head the hand is the most expressive and interesting 
 part of the body. 
 
 Beautiful hands are exceeding^ rare, and the photographer is 
 but too often compelled to show them as little as possible ; but 
 their natural ugliness is increased by an ungraceful position. Let 
 us look at the hands by our first painters and sculptors. Every 
 finger of the unemployed hand is independent and distinguishes 
 itself from its neighbor by its motion, while in many photographs 
 the fingers appear as if they were glued together (look at the figure 
 
 of a grasping and supporting hand, Fig. 
 117 ; also the hands in the portrait, Fig. 
 115). We will also find in our master- 
 pieces, without much difficulty, that the 
 index linger plays a prominent part 
 amongst the longer fingers of the hand. 
 
 It is difficult for the photographer to 
 separate the fingers of his model. A 
 simple expedient to give to the stiff 
 lingers a somewhat more lively expres- 
 sion consists in placing a roll of paper 
 in the hand of the sitter. The fingers 
 will place themselves around this, similar to the portrait (Fig. 116). 
 By gently removing the roll, the fingers will remain in a tolerably 
 graceful position. 
 
 We must of course take the individuality of our model into ac- 
 count. It would be ridiculous to bring the horny hand of a labor- 
 ing man or a washerwoman into such a position. The position of 
 the hand depends of course upon the object that has been held by 
 it. A light object, for instance, like a book, is seized more in a 
 playful manner, while a heavy one, like a lance or a spear, is more 
 firmly grasped ; but even here the index finger does not grasp as 
 firmlj' as the others. To seize a light book in the same manner as 
 a heavy w r eapon would appear comical; and to seize a heavy weapon 
 as gracefully as a plaything would appear weak. 
 
 All that has been said in the above pages in regard to standing 
 figures applies, the nature of the support excepted, also to sitting 
 ones. Both legs are here at liberty. On account of the inactivity 
 of arms and legs there exists a greater freedom of motion and of 
 arrangement. Above everything else a parallel position of the 
 arms, or of the legs, should be avoided. Fig. 101 furnishes a warn- 
 ing example. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
DRESSES AND DRAPERIES. 
 
 289 
 
 On the contrary let us contemplate the position of the arms and 
 feet in the Agrippina (Fig. 118). In the practice of art we will fre- 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 quently he compelled to deviate from this rule, particularly when 
 lively motion has to represent bodily or mental excitement. 
 
 With such representations photography has nothing to do ; the 
 representation of objects at rest is her province. 
 
 I must still call attention to the differences in age and sex. 
 Children and women are differently constructed from men. They 
 stand and walk differently. The child, for instance, does not know 
 a supporting leg nor a free leg, except in a highly developed state. 
 It stands firm on both legs. The masculine body is firmer, more 
 muscular, and less fleshy. 
 
 In women and children the soft parts are more developed. Look 
 at the hand of a child. It looks like a cushion. The large size of 
 the head of a child is well known. The oval of the male head is 
 broader below than the female. The eye in women is^ located a 
 little lower than in men ; the ears and the nose are a little shorter, 
 and the mouth somewhat smaller. 
 
 Of course there are numberless exceptions to this average rule, 
 according to race, individuality, manner of living, and development 
 from gymnastic exercises. Place a woman who has to make her 
 living with her handiwork, alongside of a lady who spends her time 
 
 19 
 
290 
 
 THE ART OP PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 in idleness. There are no two individuals exactly alike, and no 
 one knows it better than the photographer. Let him try to repeat 
 a Pretty pose, with which he was successful with one model, with 
 another person, and he will soon find the difficulties. It will not 
 do, and in spite of all his care it will always turn out something- 
 different, even if the two persons look as nearly alike as can be. 
 It is, therefore, generally speaking, superfluous to give rules for 
 making positions. 
 
 I have repeatedly referred to the picture (Fig. 98) by Jage- 
 mann. The chest is turned towards the left upper leg. This gives 
 a lively expression. It is increased by the turn of the head, in the 
 reproduction of which unfortunately the xylographer has not suc- 
 ceeded. The whole figure becomes animated, which seems almost 
 as if it were carried too far, but which in this instance corresponds 
 exactly with the character of the individual. It would, however, 
 be foolish if we would give a similarly animated pose to another 
 person of a calmer temperament. 
 
 Slight contrast s are by far preferable. When a stiff-jointed old 
 man places both his legs in parallel lines, we must admit that this 
 is perfectly in order, and a quiescent turn of the head should be 
 selected for him. 
 
 What has been said in regard to single persons applies with 
 equal force to groups, for a group is nothing but a number of in- 
 dividuals. Yet in the arrangement of each single figure the com- 
 plexion of the whole must be kept in view, and the building up of 
 the group must be carried on in an artistic manner. The larger 
 the number of persons, the greater will be the difficulty, and we lmve 
 to add to this, that besides the artistic conditions, we have to take 
 into account the optical difficulties, which require that every char- 
 acter should appear on the ground-glass sharply defined and with- 
 out any distortion, the latter compels us to adopt a circular ar- 
 rangement, where the concave side of the circle is turned towards 
 the lens. When this is done the marginal figures will appear sharp, 
 as the whole picture is now r flat. How much the circle must be curved 
 inwardly depends entirely on the nature of the objective, which 
 yields more or less curved pictures. How the groups are to be 
 artistically arranged we have already shown above. With all pic- 
 tures without exception clearness in the arrangement is demanded. 
 
 Y hen in groups the hands rest on different shoulders, an arrange- 
 ment much in vogue in student’s pictures, and where one is at a 
 loss to say to whom the different limbs belong, and when the legs 
 of a group form a confused mass, we must call the arrangement 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 291 
 
 confused. Such want of clearness very often happens also in 
 single portraits, when for instance, one hand lifts the drapery and 
 causes characteristic folds; but when the lifting hand itself is in- 
 visible, we must call the representation devoid of clearness. It 
 further lacks clearness when expressive parts are covered up. It 
 is mentioned as a fault in the group of the Amazon, by Kiss, that 
 the three heads — the head of the Amazon, of the horse, and the 
 panther — cannot be seen from any side all at once. It is also a 
 fault to cover a limb which performs a characteristic function. I 
 know of a picture where it is intended to represent a letter-writer, 
 where the writing hand is covered entirely hy a superfluous book. 
 It is also unpardonable when the supporting leg of a figure, which 
 gives it a hold, is hidden or partially hidden by unimportant 
 accessories; this is even annoying in lifeless objects, as a table or 
 a pillar. But it does not follow by any means that all the legs 
 must be absolutely visible. For instance, in Raphael’s “ School of 
 Athens,” which is very rich in figures, the covering of the less 
 important figures by the more prominent ones in the foreground is 
 explained by the nature of the case. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 We have spoken repeatedly of characteristic features, motions, 
 limbs, &c., and the reader will ask, What are characteristic signs? 
 
 I call all external signs that are necessary to a true and comprehen- 
 sive representation characteristic. 
 
 For a letter-writer the writing hand is of course characteristic, 
 even when it is not in the act of writing, but is merely lifted while 
 the writer is in a contemplative mood, and the representation would 
 be faulty and incomprehensible if this hand were hidden, even if 
 the figure were surrounded by piles of paper and rows of inkstands 
 and sandboxes. Sometimes for a clearer definition ot the charac- 
 teristics of the subject other marks have to be added. How, for 
 instance, could we characterize a wine-drinker without a glass, a 
 gambler without dice or cards. Some people think that they can 
 get along with these accessories alone. We have, for instance, a 
 representation of young Bacchus, with lifted and foaming cham- 
 pagne glass, but alas the face is cold and dry ; the model shows 
 that it is nothing but a model, and the features indicate that the 
 fluid in the glass is nothing but small beer. 
 
 Such a representation is not only difficult to understand, but it is 
 also untrue. A woman who folds her hands does not pray unless 
 the expression of her face indicates this. This holds good also for 
 
292 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 oidinai j poxtxait x ©presentations. Observe the photographic por- 
 trait taken with top-light (page 242). The fierce-looking eyes and 
 the heav} r compressed lips are false indications, for they indicate a 
 temperament which the man does not possess. Neither does the 
 front and side-light illumination give the character of the person. 
 A great artist needs very little to indicate the character, but the 
 photographer often requires a great deal. That is the distinction 
 between art and photography. The painter pays attention to the 
 chaiacteristic points only, while he modifies the others or leaves 
 them out entirely, and the mechanically working photographer pro- 
 duces everything, even the minutest trifles, with equal distinctness. 
 
 Neaxly eveiy person has his own character — i. e., his own prin- 
 ciples of action (some, however, have none whatever). Some act 
 without aix 3 r forethought, quite uncoixcerned aboixt the consequences. 
 They think lightly of even the most serious things, and look on 
 everything froixi the most cheerful standpoint (optimists), while 
 others again look always gloomily into the future (hypochondriacs). 
 
 But in a picture we must represent the true character of a person, 
 which can be done in a twofold maxxner. We either reoresent the 
 fxgux*e at rest (as the statue of Lessing), or we represent it in action 
 (Luther). It has often been said that the portraitist should not 
 paint action. This is very true ; but wdxen action contributes in 
 such a weighty manner to rendering the character of the person, as 
 the features in Rietschel’s Luther (Pig. 119) indicate, our objec- 
 tions are hushed in admiration. It seems as if this man of metal, 
 this giant mind, thunders to every one his “ Here I stand. I cannot 
 do otherwise. God help me. Amen.” 
 
 When Luther here as a hero stands divinely grand before us, we 
 must say that this representation is justified, even when we are 
 told that he did not wear the gown, but was simply clad in the cos- 
 tixme of his monkish order, with his head shaved accordiixg to its 
 regulation, and that at that time he was as thin as a match. If 
 Rietschel had confined himself closely to these facts, he would have 
 represented an Augustine monk, but not a Doctor Luther. Riet- 
 schel in his representation of Luther has departed from historical 
 facts, but gained lai’gely in characteristic effect. 
 
 The artist often has to struggle long and hard to find the charac- 
 teristic representation of a historical or mythical figure. For cen- 
 turies they struggle, and always in vain, until at last a god-inspired 
 genius seizes the problem and solves it in sixclx a forcible and con- 
 vincing manner, that the form becomes a model and an ideal which 
 is imitated over and over again, until finally it becomes the type of 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 293 
 
 the character. So the Zeus and the Athene by Phidias, and the 
 Hercules by Lysippus. 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 Few people have features which clearly and unmistakably repre- 
 sent their character. Physiognomists are badly at fault. I know 
 persons whose compressed lips have something sly and malicious, 
 whose small greenish eyes have something false and treacherous in 
 them, and still they are the best and most amiable persons, whose 
 character and life are without fault or blemish. While, on the other 
 hand, persons with open and noble countenances, who at first sight 
 will win the confidence of every one, very often prove to be the 
 
294 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 greatest rascals. A great many people run about whose faces are 
 living lies. They enter the studio of the photographer and he shall 
 make a picture of them which not only gives the outside appear- 
 ance, the likeness, but which also indicates his character , which 
 latter often contrasts in the most heterogeneous manner with his 
 outside appearance. Few persons are aware how much belongs to 
 the complete representation of a person. 
 
 Some appear charming when they talk, sing, or gesticulate. 
 Some represent themselves onh r to advantage when they are in 
 company, with a large circle around them listening to their witti- 
 cisms. Some are only gay and lively in ladies’ society, while others 
 again show best in male company. Some people appear dark and 
 gloomy in the room, while they are lively and amiable in the open 
 air. The honest countryman feels depressed and embarrassed when 
 he treads the elegantly carpeted floor of the richly furnished atelier, 
 but he is happy in his humble cot. All these circumstances, how- 
 ever, have their influence on the appearance of a person. The por- 
 trait, no matter how good it is, will only give an extract of the char- 
 acter. It may appear a speaking likeness (scarcely a singing one), 
 but it will only give partial satisfaction, as the accessories which 
 the original requires to produce its whole effect are wanting. The 
 painter, who knows his original, does not always succeed in this; 
 how much more difficult must it be for the photographer, who has 
 to represent a perfect stranger, who sometimes intends to leave in 
 the next train, and who in his whole behavior shows so much 
 hurry that he would make a good representation of Mercury with 
 winged sandals on his feet. 
 
 To this we must add the circumstance that a great many do not 
 care particularly for a true representation of their character. The 
 rascal wishes to appear as an honest man ; the lady passing into 
 the sear and yellow leaf of autumn wants to be young and coquet- 
 tish; the servant girl wishes to represent the mistress; the daughter 
 of the mechanic wants to look like the court lady, and the street- 
 sweep would be a gentleman. So do their pictures serve them as 
 a gratification of their personal vanities ; and in order that they 
 may appear very fine and extraordinary, they put themselves into 
 their own (and sometimes borrowed) Sunday clothing, which sits 
 upon them as uncomfortably as possible. They practice before the 
 glass, consulting papa and mamma, wife or sweetheart, on artistic, 
 impossible pose. Even educated persons have such “ cranky ” 
 notions. Thorwaldsen relates of Byron, who visited him to sit for 
 his bust, that “ he placed himself in the chair, but the moment I 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 295 
 
 commenced to work his features changed. When I called his at- 
 tention to it, he remarked, ‘ This is the true expression of my face.’ 
 I made no reply, but finished his portrait as I saw proper. Every- 
 body declared my bust to be a perfect likeness except Byron him- 
 self, who exclaimed, ‘The bust does not resemble me; I look much 
 more unhappy.’ He wanted at that time to look very unhappy,” 
 continues Thorwaldsen. 
 
 The photographer is much worse off than the sculptor or 
 painter. Suppose Byron had gone to a photographer and placed 
 his woful face before the camera. What could the photographer 
 have done ? Unfortuantely he has at the decisive moment to 
 depend on his model, and how often his model at this critical 
 moment disappoints him, not always from ill will, but often from 
 nervousness. 
 
 Much depends on the photographer himself, who should under- 
 stand how to govern the public in an amiable manner, for the treat- 
 ment of the public is no unimportant part of photographic aesthetics. 
 
 Generally speaking photography has to represent objects in a 
 position of rest, and only occasionally do we find representations 
 of still-life, where the figures are employed in a harmless activity, 
 be it reading, writing, or contemplating a picture, mechanics at 
 work, musicians performing on instruments, or chil Iren at play. 
 In representing such objects the photographer can only seize a cer- 
 tain moment, and it is of the greatest importance to know how to 
 decide which moment to choose. Not only artistic arrrangement 
 has to be consulted, but contour and harmony of lines must be 
 studied. Take, for instance, a smith wielding the hammer, or a 
 sculptor with his chisel. He places the chisel on the block of 
 marble, lifts the hammer above his head, and with a heavy stroke 
 it descends on the chisel. It would appear very weak if we would 
 represent this last moment, when the hammer touches the chisel ; 
 far much truer, more lifelike, and comprehensible would it be to 
 place the hand with the hammer above the head in the act of 
 striking. In the simplest motions, even in walking, we observe 
 similar deep-seated differences. Not eveiy phase is equally com- 
 prehensible. Many no doubt have seen the walking figures in in- 
 stantaneous pictures, where the one leg is stretched forward in the 
 act of stepping. Although this motion is entirely natural, and 
 forms a part of our motion in walking, still it does not appear char- 
 acteristic, but almost comical ; it rather gives the impression of a 
 military exercise. 
 
 Our walk is rather a complicated motion as simple as it may ap- 
 pear to us. W e step forward, the weight of the body rests on the 
 
296 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC ESTHETICS. 
 
 forward foot ; at the same time we 
 elevate the heel of the other foot ; 
 we lift ourselves on the toes of the 
 rear foot, and give the body a push 
 forward, which is the real cause of 
 the forward motion. When this 
 
 foot forward, and the same thing is 
 repeated over again. Of all these 
 different movements, the one which 
 causes the forward motion is the 
 
 toes of the rear foot push the body 
 forward, while the forward one 
 
 the position which artists select in 
 the representation of walking fig- 
 ures. It is on the one hand the 
 most characteristic, while on the 
 
 March of Alexander, Fig. 120.) A 
 number of walking figures are here 
 represented, and one would have 
 supposed that for the sake of va- 
 
 different phases of the walking mo- 
 tion, and still we see all the figures 
 in the movement where the rear foot 
 is in the act of being lifted from 
 the ground. Something similar 
 we find in Konewka’s Scene from 
 Faust. Only the two soldiers have 
 a very characteristic and for them 
 suitable military walk, with both 
 
 processions characterize themselves 
 differently. In the Triumphal 
 Frescos of the Parthenon, the fe- 
 male figures step on both feet. It 
 
 feet stretched forward. Solemn 
 
 rietj r the artist would have selected 
 
 other it gives the firmest position 
 to the person so represented. 
 
 most interesting — i. e ., where the 
 
 rests firmly on the ground and 
 supports the body. And this is 
 
 has been done, we force the rear 
 
 (See Thorwaldsen’s Triumphal 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 297 
 
 shows how difficult it is to characterize even simple motion in the 
 picture. 
 
 The characteristic representation of mental condition is still more 
 difficult. Foerster calls attention to Bendemann’s J eremiah. (Fig. 
 121.) The intention was to represent a person deeply grieved ; but 
 the circumstance that the hand does not support the head, but 
 simply pushes it sideways, gives to it more the character of an 
 angry person, or one that suffers bodily pain. 
 
 The same author remarks very pertinently, “ How unnatural the 
 picture of a praying person would be who would not bend her head 
 
 Fio. 121. 
 
 downward, but hold it stiff and vertical, and where the hands only 
 lightly touch each other, instead of being folded.” Such figures 
 remind one of the coquettish sinners, who go to church as a place 
 of rendezvous, and who show that they care more for their sur- 
 roundings than for the worship of God. Such studied positions 
 are very common in the photographic representations of real life. 
 The models feel their importance, and it is very difficult to pre- 
 vent them from taking affected positions. 
 
 Most particular care should be taken with actors and acti esses. 
 These persons think that they understand everything much better 
 than the photographer, as they themselves are u artists,” and have 
 made a study of beautiful positions and motions. Unfortunately, 
 however, they know very little of the plastic art, and forget entiiely 
 that what may look well on the stage will look very bad in a pic- 
 ture. On the stage much can be well excused. Even a movement, 
 which is not exactly beautiful, does little harm, as it occupies but 
 a few seconds of time ; but it becomes horrible when it is immor- 
 talized in the picture. Pictures of “ mimics,” who, when they wish 
 
298 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 to remove a glove, stretch out the arm as if they were pulling the 
 sword of a giant from its scabbard, appear absolutely ridiculous. 
 
 Many figures which painters draw from the living model lack 
 beauty. Stone-throwing giants (where the want of all muscular 
 exertion shows that the heavy rock is but a piece of w'ood) give no 
 satisfaction. 
 
 Finally, I wish to call attention to how much the drapery is 
 dependent upon the motion. For instance, see the person playing 
 the “tuba,” in Thorwaldsen’s Triumphal Procession (Fig. 120). 
 In consequence of inertia on the one hand, and the resistance of 
 the air on the other, the garment in walking will fly backward. 
 
 We find something similar in the modern costume. Nothing 
 shows more untruth than a photograph of figures apparently in 
 motion where the drapery hangs down to the body. Such motions, 
 which to characterize them require flowing draperies, are not suited 
 for photographic representations. When the photographer wishes 
 to represent motion, he should choose close-fitting garments for 
 his figures. This is the reason why the photographs of mimic- 
 artists or ballet dancers appear in a measure dead-like and rigid, 
 when it is intended to represent them in action. 
 
 But whatever may be chosen in order to give character to the 
 object, everything that is not in itself beautiful should be avoided. 
 The antique artists have never represented a fury, says Lessing, 
 and the head of the Medusa, whose horrid countenance w r as to turn 
 everything into stone, looks yet beautiful. 
 
 r lhe beautiful cannot be learned by heart, as a rule in arithmetic. 
 The feeling for it is a natural gift, and study can only develop it. 
 It cannot create it. There are plenty of photographers whom 
 nature has sadly neglected in this respect. They may learn at 
 least what they will have to avoid, from what I have said, and 
 when the}' feel that they cannot ci’eate, themselves, they should 
 take examples of acknowledged value as their patterns. 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF THE PUBLIC. 
 
 Many persons have a great aversion to being photographed. 
 They r compare it with a visit to the dentist or the barber, and many 
 a one would much rather be for half an hour under the hands of 
 the latter than under the care of the photographer. It frequently 
 happens that a person will resist the importunities of his friends 
 for years, and finally walk to the gallery like unto a place of ex- 
 ecution. Others, and to this class the ladies belong in particular, 
 have no such strong aversions, but they are timid and nervous 
 
TREATMENT OF THE PUBLIC. 
 
 299 
 
 when they enter a glass-house, and are not in a condition to make 
 a good picture. Nervousness is by no means confined to the hand- 
 some sex, or to the old and feeble. Young and strong men get 
 sudden attacks before the camera, and brave officers and soldiers, 
 who would steadily march up to the cannon’s mouth, will tremble 
 before the photographic lens. They can no more stand still than 
 any one else. 
 
 As this feeling is so widespread, the artist should attempt to 
 dissipate it, and try to make things pleasant to his customers. The 
 few introductory remarks on the arrival of a visitor he should try to 
 make as agreeable as possible; neither too familiar nor too humble, 
 but in the light and easy manner of the gentleman. During the 
 preparation the same easy and polite manner should be maintained. 
 
 Under such a treatment many persons will lose their nervousness, 
 and instead of having an aversion to the operation, it will afford 
 them pleasure. This shows itself in the pleasant expression of the 
 portrait, and in the carriage and quietness of the original. 
 
 It is probable that many photographers have never thought of 
 the importance of such a treatment, and they must blame them- 
 selves if people do not like to visit their establishments. A rough 
 and violent, or impolite and affected manner, we frequently meet 
 with among our colleagues. Many photographers will call out, 
 when eveiything is ready, “ Please look at this point ; but make a 
 little more amiable face.” A lady will not be pleased with such an 
 expression, for it indicates that so far she has not looked amiable, 
 and after so polite a request she will not look any better. “ Not 
 quite so serious ,” would be less offensive. Much also depends on 
 the manner in which it is said. 
 
 Another point which severely tries the patience and good humor 
 of the photographer is the head-rest. 
 
 His sitters, almost without exception, misunderstand this object, 
 and dislike it. But head rests are necessary, and it requires tact, 
 firmness, and good humor in insisting on their use. The general 
 remark is, “ I will look better without it. It only makes me look 
 stiff.” The best answer would be, “ You may perhaps feel stiff, 
 but you will not look so in the picture.” It is the general custom 
 to request the person to look steadily at a certain point, and it 
 gives a calm expression to the whole face. 
 
 Sometimes, and particularly during a long exposure, the expres- 
 sion will change during the thirty or forty seconds of time, and 
 pass from a pleasant smile to a melancholy look. Many a photog- 
 rapher opens his lens on a laughing seraphim and closes it on a 
 
300 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 fallen angel. It is, hence, necessary to caution the sitter against 
 changing his expression. The corners of the mouth are particularly 
 liable to this change. 
 
 Sometimes people will insist on having their pictures taken in 
 unfavorable weather. They demand a trial, although the photog- 
 rapher feels perfectly convinced that it is but a loss of time and use- 
 less, and that success is impossible. 
 
 The photographer should remind such persons that it is in their 
 own interest to postpone the sitting, that it would only give them 
 unnecessary trouble, and that he has no selfish motive in making 
 the request. Some people will bring a friend along, who wants 
 to re}3resent the artist , and assist in arranging the sitter. A 
 young lady, for instance, will be accompanied by a young gentle- 
 man — a brother perhaps ; perhaps somebody still dearer — to whose 
 judgment she appeals, while the photographer places her in the 
 proper position. The 3 ^oung friend commences to give advice how 
 and in what direction his “protege” is to look, generally request- 
 ing her to look steadily at a given point long before the photog- 
 rapher is ready. To a good photographer such an interference is 
 unbearable. He finds his presence ignored, his place usurped by 
 another, and feels that no confidence is placed in his artistic feeling 
 nor in his skill. Here it is necessary to maintain your position, 
 and to declare in a firm, collected, and polite manner, that either 
 the photogi'apher or the friend must withdraw. That a division of 
 labor is not admissible, and if the gentleman wishes to make the 
 arrangement, he may do so, but the photographer will not answer 
 for the result. This has generally the desired effect, and the friend 
 w r ho perhaps never intended to become intrusive will generally 
 withdraw. 
 
 Occasionally some one will insist quite obstinately that he wishes 
 to be taken in a “ comfortable” position. People often think that 
 everything which is comfortable must be naturally graceful and 
 beautiful. They throw themselves into the chair in a position 
 ■which on the picture would give to them the legs of an elephant 
 and the head of a dwarf. When such people are stubborn, it is best 
 to let them have their own way. They will not try it a second time. 
 
 With all these trials and vexations to which the whims of the 
 public expose the artist, it is not always easy to keep an even 
 temper, and still he has to do it for his own sake and for the 
 sake of his customers. It is not surprising that sometimes the 
 stupidity of his clients puts him in a bad humor, for there are 
 occasionally extremely provoking cases. A lady, for instance, will 
 
TREATMENT OF THE PUBLIC. 
 
 301 
 
 return her cards without stating any reason, and after repeated in- 
 quiries she will state that she does not like the position of her hat, 
 or that a curl should fall forward instead of backward ; another 
 will complain of the position in which she has been taken, and 
 threatens to bring her husband along the next time for the sake of 
 keeping control. 
 
 Another unpleasant kind of customers are those who want to be 
 photographed with small dogs on their laps, or large ones by their 
 side ; but worst of all are small children. These little screamers 
 are generally accompanied by papa, mamma, and nurse, who all 
 come to “help” the photographer. The scenes which at such 
 times happen in the atelier would be amusing if we would not lose 
 our patience. 
 
 It is very necessary not to keep our patrons waiting too long if 
 we desire to keep them in a good humor. 
 
 Waiting under any circumstances is a tiresome business, and 
 many a picture shows but too plainly the long waiting to which the 
 model has been obliged to submit. 
 
 Any one who has a flourishing business will do well to make an 
 appointment with his patrons beforehand. Care should then be 
 taken that everything is in readiness. Whoever commences to 
 make the developer or even the silver-bath when the public is wait- 
 ing will soon lose his custom. 
 
 Messrs. Loescher & Petsch prepare the plate the moment the 
 model enters the atelier (the arrangements about the style of the 
 picture having been fixed beforehand in the reception-room). 
 
 In the few moments of conversation, which precede the taking 
 of the picture, the photographer should have sufficiently examined 
 his model and formed his conclusions about position, illumination, 
 arrangement of dress, background, and accessories. He must at 
 once arrange the pose while his assistant arranges the camera and 
 brings the lens in focus. Only when the plate is ready the rest 
 should be gently adapted to the head (not the reverse). With a 
 quick glance the whole arrangement should be examined to see if 
 illumination, outline, drapery, and background form a harmonious 
 ensemble , and then the work should proceed at once without delay. 
 
 Any third party, or any noise in the adjacent rooms, running, 
 to and fro, &c., is an annoyance. 
 
 It is inconsiderate in the extreme to place the person in the head 
 rest, and to let them wait for the plate, or to lose half an hour in 
 making the proper arrangement, and to change the position over and 
 over again. The person will feel that the photographer does not 
 know exactly what he is about, and will lose confidence. 
 
302 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Children should be taken very quickly. Success with them is in 
 a measure a matter of chance. The light should be strong, the 
 lens should work rapidly, and while the artist draws the attention 
 of the little one by showing a toy or some bright object, the assist- 
 ant should remove the cap the moment the child sits quiet. 
 
 Any one who has much intercourse with children will soon learn 
 their little peculiarities, and by adapting himself to them he gains 
 their affection, and they willingly obey his arrangements. This is 
 the reason why a friend of children like Mr. Petsch is so successful 
 with them. 
 
 FILLING UP THE PICTURE. 
 
 ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 In photographic practice certain sizes have become standard, 
 and they are ordered over and over again. Particularly is this the 
 case with the carte de visite size, and also the cabinet size. Both 
 these sizes are dependent on the lens and plate-holder of the 
 camera. The photographer has to see to it that the space is prop- 
 erly filled. 
 
 When, in 1858, Disderi, in Paris, invented the carte de visite, 
 and by it gave an enormous impulse to photography, he recom- 
 mended to take full-length pictures as being artistically most justi- 
 fiable, as figure and deportment are necessary to the characteristic 
 of an individual. 
 
 Photographers generally made whole-length figures in the be- 
 ginning, and only here and there a bust or | size would make its 
 appearance. It did not take, a great while, however, and busts 
 became more and more in vogue. The public liked them. The 
 reason is obvious. A picture in which only the head and chest are 
 visible cannot be spoiled by a faulty arrangement of legs and 
 arms, nor by an ugly arrangement of accessories, as too often hap- 
 pens with full-length pictures. So far as the aesthetic element is 
 concerned, their production is easier and surer. 
 
 To this must be added other advantages. The larger dimensions 
 and the greater prominence given to the most characteristic part 
 of the human body, the head. Delicate details in the features, 
 which in the small full-length picture were only visible with a mag- 
 nifying glass, become strongly marked (sometimes too much so) in 
 the bust picture or vignette. 
 
 On the other hand, individual shortcomings and faults in the 
 illumination, which would scarcely be noticed in the full-length 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 303 
 
 picture, became quite apparent, and it was reserved to a later 
 period to remove them. 
 
 Since this size has become quite fashionable, various experi- 
 ments or improvements have been attempted by enterprising pho- 
 tographers, which have gained a more or less general approval 
 of the public. At first, heads of a size from f to 1 inch, and where 
 more or less of the bust was visible, were all that was ventured. 
 Soon the size of the head was increased to 1| and 2 inches, appa- 
 rently at first in England, for the first cards of this kind which 
 came into my possession were portraits of Boz (Dickens). 
 
 Although many objections might be urged against the adoption 
 of this size, still it has become more and more popular. I can- 
 not help stating though that it is less suitable for the general pub- 
 lic than for the heads of the ladies of the stage, with their rococo 
 style of hair-fixings. 
 
 No doubt the unusual size of the head will show a richness of 
 detail, as buckles, chains, chignons, curls, &c. But on the other 
 hand, the danger is obvious that some undesirable details, as 
 wrinkles, freckles, &c., become unpleasantly prominent in the 
 picture. 
 
 1 he ladies of the stage have other means at their command to 
 cover such shortcomings. They are in reality the inventors of a 
 third kind of retouch, which, to distinguish it from positive or 
 negative retouch, we have called the original retouch, as it is with 
 paint, poudre de riz, and rouge, applied on the person itself, and 
 at piesent this kind of retouch is in many of the Berlin ateliers 
 (not only by ladies of the stage) practiced with good success. 
 
 With these large heads a careful study of illumination is of great 
 impoitance. io this we must add negative retouching, which for 
 obvious reasons becomes oftener necessary than in pictures of 
 smaller dimensions, not to speak of removing spots. 
 
 Still another important element is the lens with which the picture 
 is to be taken. On this point we have given above (page 257) some 
 directions. 
 
 For the general photographer bust pictures without a background 
 (vignetted) are doubtless the most convenient. Legs are excluded, 
 and generally the hands also. He has no difficulty with the position 
 of these extremities. He should pay attention to head and chest 
 (see pages 286 to 291), the upper parts of the arms, a pyramidal 
 arrangement, and outlines. . The figure itself is generally seated, 
 being more steady than the slightly vibrating standing figure. The 
 background should offer sufficient contrast that the outlines may 
 
304 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC .ESTHETICS. 
 
 not run together, but stand out boldly. For black hair there should 
 be a somewhat lighter background, and for light hair a somewhat 
 darker one.* 
 
 Lately, instead of the white graduated backgrounds, gradated 
 ones and even black ones have been introduced — i. e., the so-called 
 Rembrandt backgrounds. 
 
 Mr. Kurtz and Mr. Baker have made the start, and I have seen 
 pictures made by them in which almost the whole face is kept in a 
 half shadow, and where the eye, contrary to the generally adopted 
 and recommended usage, turns towards the light instead of the 
 darker side, and this style is now quite general in America. Mr. 
 Milster and Mr. Petsch, in Berlin, have likewise adopted this mode 
 of illumination, but they employ a light background, and in so far 
 they differ from the “ Rembrandts.” The following sketch by Mr. 
 Grasskoff will explain the mode of making them. 
 
 A is the apparatus, P the person, H the background. The man- 
 agement of the side and top curtains is plainly visible in the cut. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 The illumination must, as Mr. Grasshoff distinctly states, vary 
 with the person ; accordingly more or less curtains are opened or 
 closed, and the camera is moved more to the right or left, as shown 
 in the ground plan (Fig. 122). 
 
 Special effort should be made to have the shadows well lit up. It 
 
 * It is certainly remarkable that the glaring white backgrounds in vign- 
 etted pictures does not offend our feelings, while otherwise we are horrified at 
 everv high light in pictures with a full background. We can only explain 
 this by the circumstance that our aesthetic feeling does not consider the white 
 background as belonging to the picture. It appears to us as a part of the 
 ■white paper, but not as an organic part of the picture. It is quite different 
 with full backgrounds with designs on them. They pretend to belong to the 
 picture, and acre judged as parts of the same. 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 305 
 
 might be said with much propriety that nature is not as black as 
 shown in the “Rembrandt.” This is very true; but we may say 
 with the same propriety, that nature is not as white as represented 
 in the toned pictures. However, the brown foundation as back- 
 ground to the picture has already in antique painting (Pompeii 
 and Rome) done good service, which in modern times has been 
 happily imitated. 
 
 Our modern painters too have monotonous, half-dark surfaces 
 without any design, as backgrounds, only they treat them differ- 
 ently from most photographers. They appear unequally illumi- 
 nated, dark on the side from whence the light proceeds, and light 
 on the side of the shadows, and this is why the figure itself is plas- 
 tically relieved from the background. 
 
 Such unequally toned backgrounds are obtained b}r shading 
 them with some object, which is not visible itself in the picture. 
 
 Attention should be paid that the shadow be cast in such a 
 manner that the illuminated side of the model is cast upon it, 
 
 Fig. 123 . 
 
 while the background behind the shadow side of the same remains 
 light. 
 
 Adam Salomon, in order to obtain the same result, inclines his 
 background. 
 
 & • 
 
 Finally, we can effect the same result by raising next to the 
 person, P, a single curtain, 0 0 . The different parts of the back- 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ground, H, appear unequally illuminated. 6, for instance, although 
 the glass side is nearer to it, appears darker than a, as is explained 
 by the angles of light indicated in the figure. It is easy, by placing 
 the apparatus A in a suitable position, to obtain the desired result. 
 In order to light the shadows properly, a considerable quantity of 
 front-light is necessary. 
 
 With bust pictures it will seldom be necessary to bring in other 
 objects than the individual. It alone will fill the space, even if 
 the whole background should be printed in without any effort at 
 vignetting. 
 
 It is different with three-quarter size or whole-length pictures, 
 or when the body is in a sitting posture or when it supports itself; 
 then a pedestal or a stand is necessary, and we also require a floor. 
 Even in such cases we do not hesitate to employ a monotonous 
 background, and the care of the artist is confined to the chair, the 
 floor, or the support (the table). 
 
 It is also necessary to observe that accessories must harmonize 
 with the main figure (see Arrangement, Contour, and Lines), and 
 they must, because they are accessories, be secondary in import- 
 ance to the main figure — i. e., they must neither in shape nor in 
 color become too prominent. 
 
 High lights on furniture are horrible, but much more so are zig- 
 zag lines or ornaments which interfere with the harmony of the 
 outline. A glaring design in the carpet or curtain is unbearable. 
 
 When these simple things offer already so much difficulty, how 
 much more complicated must it be when the whole background is 
 filled up with obtrusive painted landscape scenery or architectural 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 307 
 
 objects. We can operate with real objects ; we can place the figure 
 in an arbor, in a window, or have a really papered wall, where every- 
 thing which is necessary to the picture has been suitably selected 
 and placed in the proper position. Or we have recourse to a 
 painted background. There are many of them, which can be pur- 
 chased from the stockdealer, but most of them are good for nothing. 
 
 One of the most striking shortcomings of the painted background 
 is the accumulation of different objects and the diversity of the 
 things so introduced ; the number of the objects, which by their 
 smallness are to indicate the distance, while the sharpness and 
 solidity with which they are painted places them immediately back 
 of the sitter, and the perspective becomes at once wrong when the 
 camera is not placed at the eye-point of the picture (see page 252). 
 
 It is perfectly clear that if natural objects are at all represented 
 in the background, it should be done under the same conditions as 
 the principal figure itself, and that the landscape should not have 
 a different “ e} r e-point ” from the model. 
 
 The horizon, if it is represented at all, should be opposite to the 
 lens. For a time it was the fashion amongst portrait painters to 
 paint the horizon as low as possible. Of course the figure reached 
 to the clouds, and appeared very gigantic; still, such a picture 
 looks very untrue. 
 
 I will give, as an instance, the picture of King Frederick William. 
 He stands on the sandy plain, and in the distance is “ Charlotten- 
 hof,” reaching as high as the knees of the figure. Such a view 
 could only be natural when the painter places his head on the 
 ground, or when the figure stands on an eminence and the observer 
 below. Reutlinger has made some good pictures where the figures 
 reach to the clouds; so also has Robinson. The undefined cloud 
 forms relieve the figure, and it is easy to place the light face against 
 a dark cloud, or the dark hair against the light sky. But the 
 horizon should not extend lower than the hips. 
 
 A faithfully drawn landscape, but without much detail, and 
 which contains nothing which will draw attention to lineal per- 
 spective, in which, hence, horizontal lines are as much as possible 
 avoided, will always be effective, and need not contain any gross 
 errors, even if it is not absolutely true. Some backgrounds of 
 Graf and Reutlinger show this in a remarkable manner. 
 
 Regarding the illumination of backgrounds, it may be difficult 
 to get a perfect harmony between the illumination of the sitter and 
 the objects forming the background. It is also necessary to change 
 the illumination with the different models. Some require more 
 
308 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 top-light, others more side-light, while the illumination of the 
 background remains unchanged. 
 
 This causes difficulties ; but when the backgrounds are originally 
 painted in a manner to correspond with the general illumination of 
 the room, and when light and shade have not been placed in too 
 violent a contrast, it becomes easy to avoid any striking errors. 
 In landscape backgrounds top-light should predominate as corre- 
 sponding with an open air effect, while for an indoor representation 
 a side-light effect would correspond better with the light entering 
 a room through the windows. It would of course be very bad 
 taste if the sitter received the light from the right side, while on 
 the background the light is painted as coming from the left. 
 
 I sometimes meet with queer combinations on the background. 
 Papered rooms only separated by a balustrade from a rocky coast 
 or a desert heath ; ladies in a ball-room toilet amongst rocks and 
 under a threatening, stormy sky, — follies which spring from thought- 
 lessness, and to which I need only give a passing condemnation. 
 I must also condemn a combination of different styles of furni- 
 ture, as gothic, renaissance, or rococo. Attention should be paid 
 to style. 
 
 A real plastic decoration, as a pillar, a clock, a moulding, or a 
 picture, will always be more effective, when the color has been 
 properly selected, than a painted representation of the same object 
 in which we always notice the pasteboard, not to speak of the in- 
 correct perspective. 
 
 Lcescher and Petsch have for this reason introduced real objects 
 in the background in place of painted ones. 
 
 In the large cities it is easy to procure good backgrounds ; but 
 in the smaller towns the matter becomes more difficult. The pho- 
 tographer orders according to a sample. The sample looked very 
 pretty and full of effect, but in using it everything turns out entirely 
 different. What is to be done now ? To alter it is difficult, hence 
 it remains as it is, and awful things come to light. Still the fault 
 is with the photographer. The sample was taken under entirely 
 different circumstances. 
 
 When some parts work too glaring, Mr. Grasshoff recommends 
 the following background retouch : Some powdered yellowish- 
 brown color, as, for instance, gold, or Roman ochre, or umber, 
 should be placed in a piece of linen in the shape of a pad. With 
 such a contrivance the light places are rubbed over, and the yel- 
 lowish tone will produce a more subdued effect. In a similar man- 
 ner spots that are too dark should be retouched with pulverized 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 309 
 
 chalk. This will often be sufficient to harmonize effects, which are 
 otherwise disturbing. 
 
 In conclusion, I will add some valuable hints from our friend Mr. 
 William Kurtz, in New York: 
 
 “We frequently meet with the same background in twenty dif- 
 ferent pictures hanging in the same showcase. The different per- 
 sons are costumed in the greatest variety of styles, but the back- 
 ground alone is sufficient to show at whose atelier the pictures 
 originated. This is, plainly speaking, simply manufacturing pic- 
 tures, and out of ten pictures perhaps only one has a background 
 correct in tone — i. e., in only one of them face and figure contrast 
 harmoniously with the background. This holds good not only 
 when plain backgrounds are used, but more particularly when those 
 that have fancy paintings on them are introduced. 
 
 “ The photographer should never forget that he must produce 
 his effects by entirely different means from other artists, and it is 
 better to execute in the best manner what legitimately belongs to 
 photography, than to expect great results from innovations devoid 
 of any artistic intention. When we have a wide background and 
 much space in front of it, we can place it nearer or further off, 
 and, by making it lighter or darker get the color most suitable to the 
 sitter. 
 
 “ The best fancy backgrounds which I have seen came from Paris. 
 The figure stood out well from a boldly painted park scene, which 
 possesses on the one side a handsome light effect, supported by 
 a splendidly executed, although little detailed, patch of foliage. 
 The foreground suits exactly, and consists of natural plants, 
 stones, &c. 
 
 “ A picture representing a lady, full length figure, gave the im- 
 pression that the background had been expressly painted for the 
 picture, the two harmonized with each other so excellently. Un- 
 fortunately, however, this was only the case in this single instance. 
 In some — thei’e were perhaps altogether ten or a dozen pictures — 
 the background was too dark ; in others it was too dull. However, 
 let us return to the consideration of the simple background for 
 heads and busts. That we cannot employ the same background 
 for everybody seems self-evident. There are many rules given on 
 this point, but generally speaking it is a matter of feeling. 
 
 “ For heads and busts a medium gray background of woollen 
 material is sufficient ; in accordance with the position of the same 
 to the light, various shades may be obtained. Sometimes pictures 
 are condemned merely on account of the background, as it inter- 
 
310 
 
 THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 feres with the ‘ likeness; ’ when, for instance, a blonde is placed in 
 front of a light background and vignetted in printing, the blonde 
 hair, which already photographs much darker, and the light back- 
 ground will make the contrast appear still greater. Hence the ex- 
 pressions : ‘No trace of your beautiful light hair;’ ‘You look 
 like a brunette and they are perfectly right. Blondes should be 
 placed on a dark background. If the picture is to be vignetted, 
 then the paper around the head should be colored sufficiently to 
 take away the tone of the paper. The brightness of the head will 
 be preserved, and we get, as everything else is darker, by suitable 
 contrasts, the proper effect of a blonde. 
 
 “The same rule holds good for the reverse. We can make a 
 dark, sunburnt gentleman look much lighter by placing him against 
 a dark background ; but the likeness suffers, and it is better to use 
 a light background which at once will indicate a dark complexion ; 
 but the background should relieve the head on all sides, and not 
 only on one, as we see it on many photographs. 
 
 “ Imagine the light side of the face of a lady, while the shaded 
 side and the background both have the same color; the two latter 
 of course will melt together and the picture is good for nothing, 
 while, if the background had been moved forward only a few inches, 
 a lighter tint would have been obtained, and the proper contrast 
 secured. In nature the face has by its color, which distinguishes 
 it from the background, sufficient relief, and this is the great ad- 
 vantage which the portrait painter has over the photographer. 
 
 “We photographers have a certain scale of tints, which varies 
 from the purest white (the paper tint) to the darkest black ; the 
 painter has these and a great many more, as he can produce these 
 gradations with every color. The relief of the face from the back- 
 ground may appear perfectly good on the ground-glass, while in 
 the negative both will melt together, and cannot be distinguished 
 one from the other when their colors are alike.” 
 
 Mr. Kurtz employs, besides the flat background, others that are 
 cylindrically curved. It is evident that such backgrounds under 
 suitable illumination will tone off, like a cylinder, a gently gradu- 
 ated surface from dark to light. When w^e place a person next to 
 a window, the part of the face next to the window will be light, the 
 part opposite to it will be dark. When we place behind the person 
 a cjdindrical background, the concave side of which is turned 
 towards the person, then the background will be toned in the re- 
 verse order, or darkest nearest to the window, and lightest on the 
 opposite side. 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 311 
 
 Mr. Kurtz employs of late not only a cylindrical background, but 
 one which is curved like a dish, — a kind of hollow sphere. This is 
 placed in such a manner as to show a gradual toning off, not only 
 from right to left, but in every direction. 
 
 The annexed figure shows the background, and at the same time 
 the peculiar reflecting screen of Mr. Kurtz, — a simple wooden frame 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 covered with white paper. The frame has two wings, P,, F 2 , and 
 is placed between the person and the camera. By turning P, and 
 F 2 in the proper direction, by moving the screen backward and 
 forward, the illumination of the shadows is accomplished in the 
 most perfect manner. The platform, P, is movable, and admits of 
 turning the person without compelling the same to leave the chair. 
 
 The following rules should always be observed: Everything 
 which is put in the picture, such as table covers, curtains, and fur- 
 niture, must be subordinate, and must not show more prominently 
 than the person, and the lines and outlines of the portrait, the cos- 
 tume, and everything, must form a harmonious whole with the 
 above-named objects. 
 
 The less we stand in need of such accessories the better will it 
 be. The painted background will never be more than a make-shift. 
 It is a fault when the background occupies three-quarters of the 
 picture, as we see it frequently. The size of the figure should 
 bear a certain proportion to the whole picture. 
 
 It is astonishing how little space is necessary around the figure 
 without the frame appearing too narrow. Take Raphael’s Madonna 
 
312 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC AESTHETICS. 
 
 Sedia, which contains three figures in the narrowest round frame, 
 and still it does not make an unpleasant impression. 
 
 1 he effect of a figure w ith too large a blank space about it is 
 easily seen in the medallion pictures, which are frequently taken 
 with the carte de visite apparatus at long distances. On the lai'ge 
 white paper the head appears much smaller than if we cut it out 
 and look at it separately. 
 
 It is also well known that a standing figure appears more slender 
 when the head touches the upper margin of the paper, and to the 
 right and left much open space is left ; so also does the figure ap- 
 pear stouter when much upper space and no side margin is left. 
 
 Of how much importance accessories are the following commu- 
 nication of Mr. Priimm will explain : 
 
 A little lady, only four feet high, complained to this gentleman 
 that in all her pictures she looked so very diminutive. Mr. Priimm 
 knew how to obviate this ; he placed the lady next to a toy table 
 in front of a plain background, and took a three-quarter length 
 picture. Alongside the little table the lady appeared very large, 
 and she was highly pleased with the effect. Such contrasts have 
 in many instances extraordinary effect. 
 
 The same which we have said before in regard to disorder in the 
 background refers with increased force to the foreground. It is 
 wrong to place a carpet with a striking design or glaring colors in 
 the foreground. Such designs are positively ugly when their figures 
 do not correspond with those of the picture. 
 
 A carpet with dull colors and a “quiet” design is the best for 
 full-length pictures. Very often the lustreless, simple floor, or a 
 grass carpet — the latter of course with landscape background — is 
 the best. 
 
 Finally, there should be harmony between floor and background 
 in shape and color. A background which is placed an inch above 
 the floor, and separated from the latter by a black line, will always 
 make a “stagy” effect. It is also self-evident that a figure cannot 
 throw its shadow upon a landscape which is considered to be miles 
 away. A certain distance between the person and the background 
 is necessary. 
 
 But now to the conclusion, — for the one anxious to learn and to 
 improve, it may come too soon ; for the impatient, too late. 
 
 I can only give outlines. The realm of art is as infinite as the 
 realm of science, and man}^ a one will exclaim : Too much, too 
 much ! how can we practical photographers pay attention to all 
 these trifles ? Arrangement , Outlines , Drapery , Background , Ac- 
 
ACCESSORIES AND BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 318 
 
 cessories , Perspective , Position , Illumination , &c., &c.? It is of 
 course too much for the lazy oue aud for the thoughtless one, but 
 not for the one who strives to excel. 
 
 In the world of art the greatest masters have gained the highest 
 success by restless study and indefatigable labor. Look at the 
 studies of Raphael ; they are the mute and yet eloquent witnesses of 
 the colossal preparations which this greatest painter of all times 
 made before he attempted such creations as the “ Disputa,” u The 
 School of Athens,” “ The Sybilla,” and other masterpieces. And 
 it is fortunate that photography is not only a mechanical trade, 
 but a profession in which the intelligent and ambitious artist will 
 always outdistance the merely mechanical worker. 
 
 I hope, then, this book of mine may encourage the student to 
 work on, and let him remember the words of Socrates : 
 
 “ The beautiful is difficult.” 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. WOODBURY PHOTO-RELIEF PRINTING PROCESS. 
 
 When a mixture of chromate of potash and gelatine is exposed 
 under a negative to the action of light, those parts on which the 
 light has fallen will become insoluble in water (see above, Carbon 
 or Pigment printing process), and when the film is afterwards 
 washed with hot water, these parts will remain while the others 
 are washed away. When the exposure has been sufficient, these 
 parts of the picture will appear in relief, and by means of a strong 
 hydraulic press the relief can be transferred to a plate of type- 
 metal. Such a plate would be similar to a copper printing plate. 
 When the depressions are filled with printer’s ink a copy can be 
 made on paper. With ordinary printer’s ink such a plate would 
 yield but an imperfect print, but when a semi-transparent gelatine 
 ink is employed, we will get from the deepest parts of the plate the 
 deepest shadows, and from the smaller cavities the half tones. We 
 are thus enabled to make pictures which in the beauties of the 
 half tones approach the nearest to the photograph. The process is 
 the invention of Mr. Woodbury, and has been carried on practically 
 by Goupil, in Paris, and Carbutt in Philadelphia. 
 
 The process is a very important one, particularly when it is de- 
 sired to produce large quantities of prints from a single plate in a 
 short time. The pictures may also be printed on glass, and yield 
 stereos or magic lantern slides equal to silver positives. Of course 
 differently colored gelatine ink may be employed, similar to the 
 pigment process. 
 
 A piece of plate glass about five-eighths of an inch in thickness 
 is coated with the following solution : 
 
 II. ALBERT’S PROCESS (LICHTDRUCK). 
 
 Water, 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Gelatine, 
 
 Red chromate of potash, 
 
 . 300 parts. 
 
 150 “ 
 
 15 “ 
 
 8 “ 
 
316 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 When the film has become dry, it is exposed for about two hours 
 to light, the glass side uppermost, and backed by a piece of black 
 cloth. 
 
 The exposed plate is next coated with the following: 
 
 ^ hen the plate has become sufficiently dry, it is exposed under 
 a negative ; it is next washed, inked with printer’s ink, and im- 
 pressions are taken from it as from a lithographic stone. 
 
 The prints show beautiful half-tones. 
 
 The printing itself is a very important part of the process, and 
 requires certainly much practical experience, great care, and many 
 precautionary measures in order to secure success. 
 
 ON THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN WET OR DRY PLATES. 
 
 Ommeganck has made some interesting experiments. Two sen- 
 sitized wet plates were placed one behind the other and exposed in 
 the same plate-holder. When the collodion was strongly iodized, 
 the second plate showed only traces of a picture (caused by the 
 rays of light passing through the first plate); when the collodion 
 was feebly iodized, the picture on the second plate was almost as 
 powerful as on the first. By employing a dry plate, the picture on 
 the wet back plate became even more powerful. Ommeganck sees in 
 this transmission of light the cause of the inferior sensibility of dry 
 plates, proposes to employ opaque glass, and to use only the nega- 
 tive film which has been previously detached from the glass. 
 
 ON THE REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS WITHOUT THE CAMERA. 
 
 Mr. L. E. Walker, the superintendent of photographic work for 
 the Treasury Department in Washington, which work consists 
 principally in reproduction of architectural plans and drawings, 
 employs a process of reproducing drawings by a kind of natural 
 self-print. He does not claim to be the inventor, but it is certainly 
 to the credit of Mr. Walker that he has modified and perfected the 
 process very much. He describes it as follows : 
 
 1. The drawing which is to be copied should be made on ver}'' 
 
 Gelatine, . 
 
 Red chromate of potash, . 
 Water, . . . . 
 
 300 parts. 
 . 100 “ 
 
 . 1800 “ 
 
 III. PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS. 
 
 IV. PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 317 
 
 thin paper, or better still on tracing linen. A very dark black or 
 other color should be used for the drawing, strong enough to pre- 
 vent the light from passing through. The lines should be made 
 very sharp, and with one stroke, that they may not show breaks. 
 
 2. The making of the negative. — A smooth, dull paper should be 
 used ; it should be well salted, silvered, and fumed for from ten to 
 fifteen minutes with ammonia. The drawing is now placed in the 
 copying-frame, the drawing uppermost ; the sensitized paper is 
 placed on top of this ; the frame is closed and exposed to light. 
 With bright sunlight an exposure from one and a half to two min- 
 utes will be sufficient for a picture. The exposure should not be 
 made too long, as this will cause the feeble lines to run together 
 and give it a feathery appearance. The superfluous silver is washed 
 away, the print is toned slightly, and fixed like any other print. 
 The picture should be well washed and hung up to dry, preventing 
 its curling as much as possible. The negative is now ready, quick, 
 and cheap, and any number of positives can be taken from it, which 
 will be in every respect like the original. 
 
 3. Making the positive. — The negative, back downward, is laid 
 on the plate-glass of the copying-frame ; the sensitive paper is laid 
 on top of it and exposed. 
 
 4. Salting the paper. — A bath should be made of 2.5 grammes 
 sal ammoniac, and 3 grammes gelatine to 480 grammes of (hot) 
 water ; the sheets are dipped in this solution for 2 or 3 minutes 
 and dried in a warm room. 
 
 5. Sensitizing the piaper. — The paper is brushed with a slightly 
 acid solution of the oxide of nitrate of silver and ammonia, 1:16; 
 it is well dried and fumed for 15 minutes with ammonia. (The 
 solution of oxide of nitrate of silver and ammonia is made in the 
 following manner: To a solution of nitrate of silver, 1 : 10, ammo- 
 nia is added drop by drop until the first formed precipitate has re- 
 dissolved. Nitric acid is added drop by drop until a slight acid 
 reaction takes place.) 
 
 6. Toning , fixing , a nd washing. — To 1750 grammes of w r ater 1 
 gramme chloride of gold and 1 gramme chloride of platinum is 
 added ; the liquid is neutralized with carbonate of baryta ; it is well 
 shaken and placed in a warm place for 4 or 5 days, when it is read}' - 
 for use. This is the stock solution. Two or three hours before 
 use 1 gramme of neutral solution of chloride of gold, 1 ; 16, should 
 be added for every sheet of albumen paper to be toned, or about £ 
 of a gramme for ordinaiy paper. In toning everybody may follow 
 his individual taste. 
 
318 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mr. Walker considers this bath very economical, as it can he 
 used for months. 
 
 I have described the process very particularly, as it is very use- 
 ful. Before the albumen paper was introduced a paper print was 
 used in place of the negative when the latter had been lost. Now 
 we make a virtue of necessity, but in another direction. 
 
 THE REDUCTION OF SILVER RESIDUES. 
 
 Of the large quantity of silver which photographers use, par- 
 ticularly in the positive process, we find, according to Davanne, 
 about, 
 
 a. 3 per cent, in the finished picture. 
 
 b. 1 per cent, in the drippings, filters, paper trimmings, and in 
 
 the paper with which wasted solution has been wiped up. 
 
 c. 50 to 55 per cent, in the wash water of the exposed paper in 
 
 the form of a silver salt. 
 
 d. 30 to 35 per cent, have been passed into the fixing bath. 
 
 e. 5 pfer cent, at most in the wash water of the fixed prints. 
 
 To recover these residues is financially a matter of great importance. 
 
 Usually photographers collect the first wash water in a barrel, 
 and precipitate the silver with common salt. An excess should be 
 avoided, as it will retard the precipitation of chloride of silver. 
 
 After twenty-four hours the clear water is drawn off the precipi- 
 tate, and silver water is collected again ; when this process has been 
 repeated for months, the precipitate of chloride of silver is collected 
 on a cloth, washed with water, and dried. 
 
 The silver which has been recovered from the developing solution 
 (negative process) may be added to the above. 
 
 To reduce the dry mass the melting process is the most suitable. 
 
 A good Hessian crucible is heated in a furnace to a red heat, and 
 gradually the following perfectly dry mixture is introduced : 
 
 Chloride of silver residue, . . . .3 parts. 
 
 Carbonate of soda, free from water, 1-ty “ 
 
 It is well to rub the inside of the crucible, with chalk or white clay, 
 previous to heating it. 
 
 The smelting should be continued until the whole mass, which 
 at first froths very much, flows even ; it is then allowed to cool, the 
 crucible is broken, and the button of silver is taken out. 
 
 Liesegang recommends precipitating the silver with oxalate of 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 319 
 
 soda or potash, as oxalate of silver, which is easier reduced than 
 chloride of silver. 
 
 Fixing waters of hyposulphite of soda are collected separately 
 in large earthen jars, large enough to hold the water of two day's, 
 or the fixing bath and the first water after fixing of from 4 to 6 
 days. In each jar a bright copper plate is placed, or better still 
 two plates opposite to each other. The metallic silver will collect 
 on these plates in 48 hours, and can be removed with a stiff brush. 
 The precipitate which has been brushed from the plates may be 
 taken out at once, or it may remain until a sufficient quantity has 
 collected for smelting purposes ; at all events after brushing off the 
 precipitate sufficient time should be allowed for it to settle. 
 
 When it is removed from the liquid, it should be filtered either 
 through linen or paper, according to quantity, and be dried in the 
 open air or on a stove. 
 
 After this mix 
 
 100 parts of the washed and dried silver powder, 
 
 50 “ melted and powdered borax, 
 
 25 “ “ “ “ saltpetre. 
 
 The saltpetre has to oxidize the particles of copper which have been 
 removed by the brush. The crucible is filled one-third full with 
 the mixture, and when the foaming has ceased it is heated for 
 about twenty minutes longer on a brisk fire ; the mixture is then 
 allowed to cool, and the crucible is broken. 
 
 The resulting metal contains some copper, but this does not do 
 any harm ; it can be used for producing the silver salt by dissolving 
 it in nitric acid. 
 
 Papers containing silver should be collected and burned; the 
 ashes are collected, and when all organic matter has been removed 
 by heat, a mixture should be made of 
 
 100 parts of ashes, 
 
 60 u dry carbonate of soda, 
 
 25 “ quartz sand. 
 
 The melting goes on rapidly, and the result is a quantity of silver 
 varying from 20 to 60 per cent., according to the composition of 
 the papers. 
 
 ON TECHNICAL ERRORS. 
 
 The number of errors in the photographic process is legion. The 
 cause is partly owing to changes in our apparatus and solutions, and 
 the errors resulting from this cause have been treated of in the 
 
320 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 chapters on the Care of the Solutions. Those who have studied 
 these chapters carefulty, and know how to apply what they have 
 learned, will know at once how they can meet a great man3' of the 
 blunders. On the other hand, carelessness or want of skill of the 
 operator causes a great many more. 
 
 Anjr one who does not always exercise the most conscientious 
 care in all his operations will always have to contend with mistakes. 
 Certain faults, such as cai’eless illumination, wrong time of expo- 
 sure, or wrong pose, will occur to every beginner. Experience onty 
 can overcome them. 
 
 ERRORS IN THE NEGATIVE PROCESS. 
 
 These show themselves generally in developing. And I would 
 recommend never to intensify and finish a plate until it has been 
 ascertained that after development , ivashing , and cleaning of the 
 back , the plate is free from faults. 
 
 The principal fault is fogging ; it is a general precipitate over 
 the whole plate, also over those parts which have not been exposed 
 to the light at all. The causes are manifold : a, the so-called dark- 
 room admits white light (the author works only by lamplight) ; &, 
 the plate has been exposed to strong lamplight for some time ; c, 
 the camera or plate-holder is not light-tight (in the latter case we 
 will have spots opposite the holes admitting light) ; d, bright light 
 enters the tube (this happens frequently when the camera is placed 
 opposite to an opening in the curtain or the bright sky) ; e, the col- 
 lodion is alkaline (in this case a few drops of tincture of iodine will 
 remedy it) ; f the nitrate bath is alkaline (the remedy is an addi- 
 tion of acid) ; g , the bath contains organic substances, and in con- 
 sequence the plate is deficient in sensitiveness (the remedy is per- 
 manganate of potash); /?, the bath contains nitrous oxide of silver. 
 
 The other faults arrange themselves according to their origin. 
 
 ORIGINAL ERRORS. 
 
 Some small yellowish spots, which the e3 r e is scarcely able to dis- 
 cover, as freckles in the original, and iron spots on paper, become 
 very prominent in the photograph, and are often laid at the door 
 of the chemicals. 
 
 FAULTS IN CLEANING AND POLISHING. 
 
 1 . Precipitates of a silver-like appearance between the collo- 
 dion film and the glass (best visible from the back of the plate) 
 are caused b3 r badly cleaned, old, and carelessty treated plates. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 321 
 
 Remedy . — Place them in a strong solution of chromate of potash. 
 If this does not do, such plates can still be used by albumenizing 
 them. 
 
 2. Moss-like excrescences on the plate. Dirty plate-holders. 
 
 3. Dirty margins or spots proceeding from the corners and ex- 
 tending more or less to the centre are caused by insufficient clean- 
 ing of the rough edges, or by their subsequent soiling by placing 
 the plates on dirty tables, papers, plate-holders, &c., or by taking 
 hold of them with dirty fingers. 
 
 4. Streaks caused by imperfect cleaning manifest themselves 
 plainly by showing the direction of the motion employed in clean- 
 ing the plate. Cracks in the glass frequently cause streaks when 
 the cleaning powder collects in them. 
 
 5. Bright and irregular points and short lines are caused by dust 
 and woody fibres, which drop on the plate in opening the plate- 
 holder. 
 
 FAULTS IN THE COLLODION. 
 
 1. The plate leaves the bath with a transparent insensitive mar- 
 gin. The cause is, that the plate was too dry when dipped in the 
 bath. 
 
 2. The film is rotten, and is apt to tear in the bath. The film 
 had not sufficiently set when dipped in the bath, or the collodion 
 was too old. 
 
 3. The film is of an uneven thickness. Caused by unequal 
 coating. 
 
 4. Spots proceeding from the corner by which the plate has been 
 held (see page 107). 
 
 5. Thick and thin streaky places. The consequence of air- 
 bubbles which have burst just previous to the “setting” of the 
 collodion ; also a consequence of unequal drying influenced by the 
 warmth of the fingers or by the evaporation of collodion on the 
 back of the plate ; also caused by old pyroxyline, which dissolves 
 imperfectly. 
 
 6. Diagonal streaks (see page 106). 
 
 7. Comets. Cause : freshly iodized and imperfectly settled col- 
 lodion. Black and white serpent-like lines also occur with new and 
 imperfectly settled collodion, particularly with potassium salts, that 
 do not dissolve readily ; they disappear after filtration or perfect 
 settlement. 
 
 8. Intense cold is apt to form cross-like shadings. 
 
 21 
 
322 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 9. Black and irregular spots. Dirt from the neck of the collodion 
 bottle. 
 
 10. Collodion, which works well in the beginning will after a short 
 time yield imperfect plates. Cause: the collodion has become 
 impure by pouring it back from the plate into the bottle. 
 
 11. Want of sensitiveness is often met with in old and red 
 collodion. 
 
 12. The collodion film does not stay on the plate. Cause : 
 An old and acid bath ; imperfectly cleaned plates ; old pyroxyline. 
 
 13. Fogginess, the causes of which have been fully explained. 
 
 FAULTS OF THE NITRATE BATH. 
 
 1. White dipping lines , caused by stopping the plate when partty 
 immersed, partially straight and horizontal, when an upright bath 
 is used, and partly curved when dishes are used, or round spots 
 caused by air-bubbles. 
 
 2. Black lines in the direction of the dip, particularly with an 
 upright bath, but also with dishes, the film being downward. 
 Cause : The time for silvering was too short, or an old bath sur- 
 charged with organic substances. 
 
 3. Black lines proceeding from the dipper. Cause : India-rubber 
 dipper. 
 
 4. Plates in which the film is partially destroyed. Cause: The 
 bath contains too little or no iodide of silver. 
 
 5. Transparent and pale-looking insensitive plates occur some- 
 times in extremely hot weather. The remedy is to cool the silver 
 bath. 
 
 6. Spears, crosses, and swords. Cause: Sulphate of silver or 
 acetate of silver. 
 
 7. The plates appear as if they were dusted over with flour. 
 Cause: Considerable reduction and precipitate of iodide of silver, 
 caused by extreme heat. The remedy is filtration and cooling. 
 
 8. Pinholes. Remedy : Cooling and restoring the bath. 
 
 9. Black spots caused by pressure on the collodion film; originate 
 frequently from protuberances on the sides of the bath or dish. 
 
 10. Want of sensitiveness is caused by an excess of acid, and 
 also by the presence of organic substances. 
 
 11. Gray and grizzly spots are caused by imperfect scumming. 
 
 12. Fogginess. See above. 
 
 13. Weak pictures are caused by an old and frequently restored 
 silver baths. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 323 
 
 ERRORS OF EXPOSURE. 
 
 1. Want of sharpness, or double outlines. Cause : Careless focus- 
 sing, moving; of the object, or shaking of the apparatus during 
 exposure. 
 
 2. Marbled stains and drying spots, caused by long exposure or 
 great heat (see page 225). 
 
 3. A hard picture: the illumination was too short; a weak picture 
 is sometimes produced by an excess of illumination. 
 
 4. The picture shows unequal intensity (unequal illumination, 
 particularly in drawings) (see page 221). 
 
 5. Foggy spots are caused by reflections of light, on drawings. 
 
 6. Veiling is produced by extraneous light, see above. 
 
 ERRORS OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 1. A bright margin on the side where the developer has been 
 poured (see page 113). 
 
 2. Crooked lines, developing streaks (see page 113). 
 
 3. The film repels the developer : in this case the developer con- 
 tains too much alcohol, as with a new-made bath ; or too little, as 
 with an old bath. 
 
 4. A dark margin to a light object, on the side where the de- 
 veloper has been poured on (appearing in the positive as a bright 
 
 'halo), is a very common error of development. 
 
 5. Veiling is often occasioned by a too strong, too warm, or a 
 developer deficient in acid. 
 
 6. Most of the above errors only show themselves on develop- 
 ment, although strictly speaking they are not errors of development. 
 
 ERRORS OF INTENSIFYING. 
 
 1. The intensifier is repelled and produces spots, particularly 
 wdien we intensify with the salts of iron (see page 115). 
 
 2. Pale spots will Be produced when the intensifier. no matter 
 which one, does not flow evenly over the whole plate. 
 
 3. A gray and grainy precipitate is formed when the iron inten- 
 sifier is left to act until it becomes turbid. 
 
 4. A bluish precipitate is formed in the shadows when there is a 
 deficiency of acid, or by employing an old pyrogallic solution. 
 
 5. Thick spots will form when the intensifier is always poured 
 on the same place, particularly in long-continued intensification. 
 
324 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ERRORS IN FIXING. 
 
 1. The plate is greenish or bluish. The cause of this is, that 
 the plate has been fixed with cyanide of potassium, is imperfectly 
 washed, and after-intensified with a solution containing iron. 
 Thorough washing after fixing will avoid it. 
 
 2. Black streaks, mainly visible from above. Cause : too cold 
 or too diluted a fixing solution, or insufficient flowing of the same. 
 
 3. Thin places are formed when too strong a solution of cyanide 
 of -potassium has been used (see page 116). 
 
 FAULTS THAT APPEAR IN DRYING. 
 
 The film shows the colors of the rainbow and peels off. This 
 takes place with plates which have had a short exposure and strong 
 intensification. Such plates can be saved when they are varnished, 
 when still damp ; they are then left to dry and revarnished. 
 
 FAULTS IN VARNISHING. 
 
 1. Dissolving of the film ; 2, weak film ; 3, streaky film (see 
 page 111). 
 
 For faults in the finished negative, see the article, the Care of 
 the Negative. 
 
 ERRORS IN THE POSITIVE PROCESS. 
 
 1. Air-bubbles (see page 144). 
 
 2. The paper repels the bath. The albumen film is too dry. 
 
 3. The silver solution collects in the centre of the sheet in drops : 
 this is partially avoided in the same way as fault 2 ; the drops can 
 also be removed by blotting-paper. 
 
 4. The paper is too dry or too wet ; it copies weak or uneven 
 (see page 145), or spoils the negative (see page 144). 
 
 5. The bath turns brown (see page 151). 
 
 6. Grayish dirt ; from imperfect scumming of the bath. 
 
 ERRORS IN PRINTING. 
 
 1. The picture looks weak, the shadows are dull, the high lights 
 look cloudy. Cause: the bath was too acid, too old, or too diluted; 
 the paper has been dried too much or too little ; the negative was 
 too thin, — in the latter case the printing should be carried on under 
 green glass, or the negative should be varnished with a varnish 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 325 
 
 containing dragon’s blood (1 part dragon’s blood to 200 parts of 
 varnish). 
 
 2. When the high lights are weak, the cause is often that the 
 prints have been too often examined in diffused light. 
 
 3. Turning yellow from long-continued printing. 
 
 4. Brown lines. Cause : remnants of fibrin in the albumen. 
 
 5. The print is in some parts not sharp. Cause : the paper is 
 not pressed with uniform firmness against the negative, the paper 
 is wavy; this takes place when the temperature of the sensitizing 
 room is very different from the temperature of the printing room. 
 The remedy is to place the paper for half an hour in the printing- 
 room before placing it into the printing-frame. 
 
 ERRORS IN WASHING. 
 
 1. Black precipitates are formed by substances in the water con- 
 taining sulphur, or by remnants of hyposulphite of soda in the 
 dishes, particularly in India-rubber dishes. 
 
 2. Brownish-black spots are formed by taking hold of the prints 
 with fingers soiled with solutions of soda. 
 
 ERRORS IN TONING. 
 
 1. The picture does not tone even. Cause : want of gold solu- 
 tion ; the prints are not moved sufficiently in the solution ; the 
 prints stick together, preventing the toning solution from penetra- 
 ting ; the prints have been kept too long after being printed. 
 
 2. The picture does not tone at all : 
 
 a. Iodide of silver, or much acid, or foreign metals are present 
 in the positive bath (see page 129, on printing bath made from 
 negative bath). Such a bath (after the iodide of silver has been 
 removed by four or five-fold dilution) is evaporated to dryness, 
 and melted moderately for some time. The acid escapes ; the salts 
 of the metals are to a large extent dissipated. 
 
 6. The washing water is contaminated with substances contain- 
 ing sulphur. 
 
 c. Want of gold. 
 
 3. The high lights become colored. Cause : too much diffused 
 
 light in the toning room. • 
 
 ERRORS IN FIXING. 
 
 1. Lines are formed in consequence of careless immersion of the 
 
 22 
 
326 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 print into the fixing bath, or spots are formed by letting drops of 
 the bath solution fall on the prints previous to immersion. 
 
 2. Yellowish spots on the prints, which sometimes become visi- 
 ble only when the prints are finished. Cause : air-bubbles on the 
 paper. Remedy : moving briskly every sheet of paper after im- 
 mersion in the bath. 
 
 3. The fixing bath is too old (see page 163). 
 
 4. Cloudy spots are caused when the fixing has been too short. 
 
 ERRORS IN WASHING AFTER FIXING. 
 
 1. The pictures become spotted (see page 156). 
 
 2. They stick together or to the sides of the vessel, and turn 
 yellow easily in consequence of the remnant of soda remaining in 
 the paper (see page 149). 
 
 3. The washing has been insufficient (see page 150, soda test). 
 
 ERRORS IN FINISHING. 
 
 1. Danger from drying between blotting-paper (see page 151). 
 
 2. Faults in the mounts (see page 151). 
 
 3. Faults in the paste (see page 151). 
 
 4. Faults in pressing (see page 152). 
 
V 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aberration, spherical and chro- 
 matic, 55 
 
 Absorption of light in wet and dry 
 • plates. 316 
 Accessories, 302 
 
 Acetate of soda toning hath, 141 
 ^Esthetics, 231 
 
 Albert’s “ Lichtdruck ” Process, 315 
 Alkaline toning bath, 139 
 American Optical Company camera 
 boxes, 216 
 
 Ammonia, fuming paper with, 145 
 Apparatus, care of the, 121 
 Apparatus, panoramic, 81 
 Appendix, 315 
 Applied photography, 218 
 Arrangement of human figures, 286 
 Arrangement of gallery, 17 
 Arrangement of the picture, 265 
 Art of photography, 231 
 Art, works of, how to photograph, 227 
 Atelier of the Academy Royal of Ber- 
 lin, 18 
 
 advantage of low ones for 
 single portraits, 31 
 American, 36 
 
 construction of, for single 
 portraits, 23, 25, 30 
 Rabending& Monckhoven, 18 
 Reutlinger’s, 30 
 Salomon’s, 30 
 size of, 34 
 tunnel, 25 
 
 B. 
 
 Backgrounds, 302, 308, 309 
 
 arrangement of,- 39 
 Bath, India-rubber, 109 
 nitrate of silver, 97 
 
 Bath, glass, 109 
 
 porcelain, 109 
 the positive, 134 
 the toning, 136 
 alkaline, 139 
 acetate of soda, 141 
 bicarbonate of soda, 140 
 borax, 139 
 care of the, 163 
 chloride of lime, 140 
 neutral, 140 
 phosphate of soda, 139 
 Rhodan gold, 141 
 toning process, 147 
 Bedford, landscape effects, 261 
 Bendermann, pyramidal arrangement 
 of groups, 270 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, for toning bath, 
 140 
 
 Bichromate of potash, for Albert’s 
 process, 315 
 for carbon process, 164 
 for Vogel’s photometer, 172 
 for Woodbury process, 315 
 Bingham, tent around the apparatus, 
 51 
 
 Brewster, stereoscope, 80 
 Brightness, direct in the atelier, 28 
 Bromide, ammonium, 89 
 cadmium, 90 
 lithium, 89 
 potassium, 88 
 sodium, 88 
 zinc, 89' 
 
 Busch, E., comparison of lenses, 67 
 
 C. 
 
 Camera, the, 44 
 
 American, 48 
 care of the, 122 
 
328 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Camera, stand, 43 
 tube, 49 
 
 Carbon paper, 175 
 
 printing bath, 167 
 printing process, 163 
 prints on albumen paper, 178 
 Care of the apparatus, 121 
 camera, 122 
 chemicals, 121 
 collodion, 124 
 developer, 130 
 fixing bath, 163 
 intensifier, 130 
 lenses, 121 
 negative, 153 
 negative bath, 126 
 paper, 156, 162 
 printing bath, 157 
 plates, 123 
 toning bath, 163 
 varnish, 131 
 Characteristics, 291 
 Chemicals, care of the, 121 
 Chloride of lime toning bath, 140 
 Claudet, tent around the apparatus, 51 
 Collodion bottles, 108 
 
 care of the, 124 
 cometless bottle, 108 
 equivalent, 96 
 filter, 96 
 paper, 188 
 permanence of, 91 
 plain, 85 
 
 preparation of, 84 
 salted, 93 
 Dr. Yogel’s, 95 
 Collodionizing, 106 
 Collodio-chloride of silver, 187 
 Color, dispersion of, 55 
 Consumption of silver in printing, 136 
 gold in toning, 139 
 Copying stand, 42 
 
 the direct process, 199 
 indirect process, 196 
 Cracking of the negative film, 154 
 Curtains, arrangement of, 19, 20 
 white and lace, 35 
 Curve of surface of picture, 56 
 Cyanide of potassium, 116 
 
 D. 
 
 Dallmeyer portrait lens, 66 
 triplet lens, 64 
 
 Davanne, neutral toning bath, 140 
 on toning, 138 
 Developer, the, 97 
 
 care of the, 130 
 Development, 113 
 Dipper, 109 
 
 Disappearance, point of, 263 
 Dishes for sensitizing, 111 
 Distance, effect of, on pictures, 256 
 Distortion, 57, 259 
 Drawings, how to reproduce, 219 
 
 without camera, 
 316 
 
 Dresses and draperies, 280 
 Dry plates, 180, 184 
 Dusting, 106. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elevation of apparatus, 261 
 Enlargement, 196 
 
 with development, 201 
 Errors, cleaning and polishing, 320 
 in the collodion, 321 
 cleaning, 320 
 in development, 323 
 drying, 324 
 exposure, 323 
 finishing, 326 
 fixing, 324 
 
 \ fixing after toning, 325 
 intensifying, 323 
 negative process, 320 
 nitrate bath, 322 
 original, 320 
 polishing, 320 
 positive process, 324 
 printing, 324 
 technical, 319 
 toning, 325 
 washing, 325 
 washing after fixing, 326 
 Exclusion of extraneous light, 112 
 Excursions, photographic, 213 
 Exposure, mode of, 112 
 time of, 112 
 
INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 p. 
 
 Field of view, 61 
 Finishing the print, 151 
 Fixing, 116 
 
 hath, care of, 130, 163 
 hath, positive, 142 
 prints, 148 
 solutions, 100 
 
 Floating, time necessary for, 144 
 Front-light, 241 
 
 Fuming of paper with ammonia, 145 
 
 G. 
 
 Ghost, cause of, 61 
 Girard on toning, 138 
 Glass-house, description of, 24 
 glass for it, 36 
 
 Glass plates, how to clean, 102, 104 
 Globe lens, 73 
 
 Gold, consumption of, in toning, 139 
 solution, normal, 139 
 Gordon, Russell Manners, dry plates, 
 181 
 
 Grasshoff, backgrounds, 308 
 Gun cotton, 85 
 
 H. 
 
 Hardwich collodion, 86, 91 
 Harnecker dry plates, 184 
 Harrison & Schnitzer, Globe lens, 73 
 Head-rest, Scovill Manuf. Co’s, 41 
 Tuscan, 41 
 
 Wilson’s Improved, 41 
 Hildebrandt, landscapes, 234 
 Hyposulphite of soda, 116 
 
 in toning, 138, 142 
 
 I. 
 
 Illumination and light, 239 
 
 effect on character, 245 
 effect on color, 243 
 Image, size of, 53 
 Intensifier, the, 98 
 Intensification, 115 
 
 after fixing, 117 
 Intensifier, care of, 130 
 Intensity of light at different seasons 
 of the year, 112 
 Iodide of ammonium, 89 
 
 Iodide of cadmium, 89 
 calcium, 89 
 lithium, 89 
 potassium, 87, 159 
 sodium, 88 
 starch, 150 
 zinc, 89 
 Iodizing salts, 87 
 
 action of, 90 
 photographic qualities, 
 92 
 
 solubility, 91 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacobsen, Dr., on the use of perman- 
 ganate of potash, 128 
 Jagemann, C. V., portraits, 30, 269, 
 276 
 
 K. 
 
 Kiss, group of the Amazon, 291 
 Kits for plate-holders, 47 
 Kurtz on backgrounds, 309 
 
 L. 
 
 Laboratory, work in the, 84 
 Landscape effects, 236 
 
 Hildebrand’s, 234, 236 
 lenses, 64 
 
 Lenses, care of the, 121 
 
 simple forms of the, 51 
 Leonardo da Vinci, “Last Supper,” 
 271 
 
 Light, absorption of, in wet and dry 
 plates, 316 
 
 amount of, in lens, 59 
 and illumination, 239 
 foreign, to be excluded, 51 
 Lines and outlines, 275 
 Loescher & Petsch, backgrounds, 308 
 system of arranging 
 curtains, 19 
 
 M. 
 
 Madonna, by Fra Bartolommeo, 280 
 by Raphael, 279 
 
 Machinery, how to photograph, 227 
 Masks, for prints, how to use, 147 
 Meagher, travelling camera, 621 
 
330 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Metzu, arrangement of groups, 273 
 Microphotography, 203 
 Mieris, arrangement of groups, 273 
 Model, arrangement of, 39 
 Monckhoven, atelier construction, 18, 
 22 
 
 tunnel construc- 
 tion, 25 
 
 on reproducing nega- 
 tives, 193 
 
 Mohr, burettes, 160 
 
 N. 
 
 Negative process, 38 
 
 care of the, 131, 153 
 how to reproduce, 192 
 imperfect ones, how to 
 print, 146 
 
 Nitrate of silver bath, the, 97 
 
 O. 
 
 Objective, the photographic, Busch 
 portrait, 49 
 construction of, 51 
 Dallmeyer portrait, 66 
 Dallmeyer triplet, 64 
 globe lens, 73 
 how to test, 71 
 qualities of, 62 
 Petzval, 65 
 Boss landscape, 49 
 Steinheil aplanatic, 72 
 Yoigtlander, 65 
 Zentmayer, 74 
 
 Oil paintings, how to copy, 219 
 Operations, photographic, 103 
 Ost, bath for permanent positive pa- 
 pers, 163 
 
 permanent paper, 187 
 Ornaments, how to copy, 227 
 Over-exposure, how to detect, 114 
 
 P. 
 
 Panoramic apparatus, 81 
 Paper, care of the, 156 
 for printing, 142 
 permanent, for printing, 163, 
 186 
 
 Paper, sensitizing of, 143 
 Paton’s profile sketch, 269 
 Permanganate of potash for disordered 
 bath, 128 
 Perspective, 251 
 
 and distance, 255 
 Petzval portrait lens, 59, 65 
 Phosphate of soda in toning, 139 
 Photographic excursions, 213 
 Photography and truth, 232 
 art of, 231 
 
 Photometer, Dr. Vogel’s, 169 
 Pictures, how to transfer, 189 
 instantaneous, 211 
 Plates, care of the, 123 
 Plate-holder, 46 
 
 corners of the, 47 
 
 Positives on glass, porcelain, &c., 
 192 
 
 Press for finishing prints, 152 
 Principles of illumination in the 
 glass-house, 26 > 
 
 Printing, the, 132, 143, 145 
 
 by development, 195 
 carbon process, 163 
 from imperfect negatives, 
 146 
 
 solar camera, 201 
 with vignettes, 146 
 Prints, finishing operation, 151 
 Public, treatment of, 298 
 Pyramidal arrangement, 270 
 Pyrogallic acid for intensifying, 115 
 Pyroxyline, 85 
 
 E. 
 
 Kabending, atelier of, 18, 22 
 Reduction of silver residues, 318 
 Reflecting screen, 250 
 Relief printing process, 315 
 Reproduction of negatives, 192 
 photographic, 219 
 without the camera, 316 
 Resin dry plate process, 184 
 Reutlinger, atelier of, 30 
 Rhodan gold toning bath, 141 
 Rietschel’s statue of Luther, 292 
 Robinson, landscape composition. 274 
 
INDEX. 
 
 331 
 
 s. 
 
 Salomon, Adam, accessories, 282 
 atelier of, 30 
 background, 305 
 portraits, 30 
 
 Scovill Manufacturing Co’s Cameras, 
 208 
 
 Secondary picture, cause of, 61 
 Sensitizing, 108 
 
 in dishes, 111 
 paper for printing, 143 
 Sensitized paper, care of, 162 
 
 permanence of, 163, 186 
 Side-light, 241 
 Silver bath, care of the, 126 
 
 consumption of, in print- 
 ing, 136 
 
 residues, how to reduce, 
 318 
 
 Simpson, positive bath, 163 
 Solar camera, 201 
 prints, 201 
 
 Standpoint, the proper, 257 
 Statues, how to photograph, 227 
 Steinheil’s aplanatic lens, 72 
 Stereoscope, the, 79 
 Stereoscopic camera, 208 
 pictures, 206 
 Stops for objectives, 49 
 Succession of different photographic 
 operations in negative and positive 
 process, 119 
 Sutton, collodion, 86 
 
 T. 
 
 Technical errors, 319 
 Tent work, 213 
 
 Terburg, arrangement of groups, 273 
 Thorwaldsen, bas-reliefs, 272 
 
 statue of Byron, 284 
 Triumphal march of 
 Alexander, 296 
 Toning bath, the, 136 
 
 acetate of soda, 141 
 
 Toning bath, alkaline, 139 
 
 bicarbonate of soda, 140 
 borax and phosphate of 
 soda, 139 
 
 care of the bath, 163 
 chloride of lime, 140 
 neutral, 140 
 Rhodan gold, 141 
 Toning process, the, 147 
 Top-light, 241 
 Transfer paper, 189 
 Transparencies, 192 
 Treatment of the public, 298 
 Truth and photography, 232 
 Tunnel atelier, 25 
 
 criticism of, 25 
 
 IT. 
 
 Under-exposure, how to detect, 114 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yarnish, the, 100 
 
 care of the, 131 
 Yarnishing, 117 
 Yentilation, 36 
 Yoigtlander, 65 
 
 carte de visite lens, ex- 
 amination of same, 69 
 lens, 66 
 
 Yogel, Dr., collodion, 95 
 
 photometer, 169 
 test for silver bath, 160 
 
 W. 
 
 Walker, reproduction of drawings 
 without the camera, 316 
 Washing apparatus, 149 
 Washing prints, 147 
 
 after fixing, 149 
 test for, sufficient, 150 
 Wheatstone stereoscope, 80 
 Woodbury relief printing process, 315 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zentmayer lens, 74 
 
CORRECTIONS. 
 
 Page 29, fifth line from below, read, “at the same ratio as the squares of the 
 distances,” instead of, “at the same ratio as the distances.” 
 
 “ 62, eighth line from below, read. “ plane,” instead of, “ plain.” 
 
 “ 71, twelfth lino from above, read, “ smaller,” instead of, “ larger.” 
 
 “ 89, sixth line from above, read, “bromide of sodium,” instead of, 
 
 “iodide of sodium.” 
 
 “ 107, second line from below, read, “coated with collodion,” instead of, 
 “ silvered.” 
 
 “ 141, fourth and fifth lines from below, read, “grammes,” instead of 
 “ grains.” 
 
CHOICE 
 
 Photographic Books. 
 
 Dr. VOGEL’S 
 
 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Ufa - S O- 
 
 THE YEAR BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 1871. 
 
 By G. WHARTON SIMPSON, A.M. 
 
 Just received. See advertisement. 
 
 Companion book to Mosaic c, giving thousands of hints from the best English 
 and French artists. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 HOW TO PAINT PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 By GEORGE B. AYRES, Artist. 
 
 Third edition in press. First and second all gone. It will give concise 
 instructions how to use the brush with skill, taste, and profit in Oil and 
 Water colors. Shows how to occupy rainy days and make them pay. A 
 portion is also devoted to giving instructions how to Retouch the Nega- 
 tive, which branch of the art is now very popular. 
 
 Will be ready in May. See future advertisements. 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT IN PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 See advertisement herein. Price, $3.50. 
 
 THE AMERICAN CARBON MANUAL. 
 
 By EDWARD L. WILSON. 
 
 A complete manual of the Carbon Process, from beginning to end. With 
 a fine example by the profless. Cloth, $2. See premium list, Philadelphia 
 Photographer and Photographic World. 
 
 HIMES’ GLIMPSES AT PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 By Prof. CHAS. F. HIMES, Ph.D. 
 
 Full of useful information for the photographic printer. Illustrated with 
 a whole-size photograph. Cloth, $1.25. See Premium List. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC MOSAICS. 
 
 v 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871. 
 
 A few copies of previous years only. Cloth, $1; Paper, 50 cents. 
 
 Any of the above mailed on receipt of price. 
 
 Send for circular list of all our publications. 
 
 BENEEMAN & WILSON, Photo. Publishers, 
 
 THE ONLY REGULAR PHOTOGRAPHIC PUBLISHERS IN AMERICA, 
 
 Seventh and Cherry Sts., Philadelphia. 
 
 23 333 
 
Photographers’ Supplies 
 
 CHAS. W. STEVENS, 
 
 I $ o 
 
 Dearborn Street, 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 Be sure and read my full-page advertise- 
 ments in tire Photographer and World , it will pay 
 you every month. 
 
SOLE AGENTS FOR 
 
 Ross Lenses, Steinheil Lenses, 
 
 Rohatjt & Hutinet’s French Card Stock, 
 
 Liesegang’s Papyroxyline, 
 
 Talbot’s Aniline Colors, 
 
 Loesciier & Petsch’s Photographs, 
 Fennemore’s Collodions, 
 
 Burgess & Lenzi’s Print-Cijtters, 
 French Frames for Porcelains. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Wilson’s Photographic Rests, 
 
 Accessories, 
 
 Photographic Chairs, 
 
 Retouching Frames, 
 
 Bergner’s Cutters. 
 
 AGENTS FOR AND DEALERS IN 
 
 All Kinds of Photographic Requisites, 
 
 American Optical Co.’s Apparatus, 
 
 Harrison Lenses, Globe Lenses, 
 
 VoiGTLANDER LENSES, PHENIX PLATES, 
 
 Card, Yictoria, and Cabinet Envelopes, 
 Bigelow’s Revolving Backgrounds, 
 Seavey’s Painted Backgrounds, 
 
 &c., &c., &c., &c., &c. 
 
 FULL LINE STEREOSCOPES AND VIEWS. 
 
 Illustrated Price Lists on application. Trial orders solicited. Terms C.O.D. 
 
 WILSON, HOOD & 00., 822 Arch St., Philadelphia. 
 
 335 
 
BENJAMIN FRENCH & CO., 
 
 159 Washington St., Boston, 
 
 IMPORTERS AND SOLE AGENTS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE CELEBRATED 
 
 Voigtlander & Son 
 
 and Darlot Lenses, 
 
 For Portraits, Views, and Stereoscopic Work of all sizes. 
 
 Send for Price List. 
 
 The supply of Darlot Lenses was interrupted a while on 
 account of the war in Europe, but we 
 shall shortly have an abundant 
 supply. 
 
 ROETTGER’S H D C1STLE S SOUR CHRIS, 
 
 Slack Wal»«E frames* 
 
 Oval and Square, of all sizes and styles, of superior finish. 
 
 Carved Slmstie ?ra»es. 
 
 Square, Carved Rustic, with leaf on corners. All sizes up to 18x22. 
 
 Sbermaa Card frames. 
 
 We have of these three different sizes and styles, for the Card, Victoria, and 
 Cabinet Photographs. 
 
 White Hollywood frames. 
 
 We have these in three different styles of each size, for the Card, Victoria, 
 and Cabinet Photographs. 
 
 Stereoscopes. 
 
 PRANG’S CHROMOS, ALBUMEN PAPER, 
 
 GLASS BATHS, PORCELAIN WARE. 
 
 And every description of goods used in the business, at wholesale and retail, 
 at the lowest cash prices. 
 
 BENJAMIN FRENCH & CO. 
 
 336 
 
POWERS & WEIGHTMAN, 
 Manufacturing Chemists, 
 
 S. W. cor. Ninth and Parrish Streets, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 AND 
 
 No. 60 Cedar Street, New York. 
 
 OFFER TO STOCKDEALERS A FULL ASSORTMENT OF RELIABLE PHO- 
 TOGRAPHIC CHEMICALS OF THEIR OWN MANUFACTURE, 
 INCLUDING: 
 
 titrate of Silver, 
 
 Sulphuric Ether, Concentrated, 
 
 Ammonia, Concentrated, 
 
 Bromide of Potassium, 
 
 Chemically Pure Acids, 
 
 Acetic Acid, 
 
 Iron and Ammonia Proto-Sulphate, 
 
 Iodide of Ammonium, 
 
 Chloride of Gold, 
 
 Sulphate of Iron, 
 
 Cyanide of Potassium, 
 
 Chloroform, Tannin, / 
 
 Sulphuret of Potassium. 
 
 337 
 
IN THE SOUTtf! 
 
 Land’s Standard Photographic Chemicals. 
 
 full stock of Chemical & Photographic Apparatus. 
 ^|ew and select Photographic Materials. 
 0allmeyer’s and other fine Lenses at catalogue prices 
 0wiss, Anthony’s, Clemons’, and Berlin Papers. 
 
 Qhemicals of our own manufacture or purification. 
 Jjaving no superiors at home or abroad. 
 
 [very Artist who has tried them continues to order. 
 M-y testimonials in proof of this are given 
 |n the orders received daily for these 
 Qhallenge productions. 
 
 /\ 11 orders have prompt attention. 
 
 Low figures on “ goods of best quality” 
 
 §hall be our lasting motto. 
 
 PEMBEETON, TAYLOE & CO., 
 
 338 
 
WVBVB. Hfli BVBnBlVVVIl ^ W.j 
 
 MANUFACTURING PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMISTS, 
 
 WIVI. H. MARDOCK * CO. 
 
 IMPORTERS AND DEALERS IN 
 
 EVERY DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK, 
 
 417 Broome Street , New York . 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 CHALLENGE VARNISH, 
 
 Which was pronounced at the Cleveland Exhibition as the VERY BEST IN USE. 
 
 Self-drying. Price, six-ounce bottle, 45 cts. ; pints, $1; quarts, $1.85; half- 
 gallon, $3.50 ; gallon $6.50. 
 
 MARDOCK'S COLLODION. 
 
 A Superior Article. Highly commented upon at the Cleveland Convention, and employed 
 in making Views of the Exhibition. 
 
 Single pounds, $1.20 per pound ; in five-pound bottles, $1 per pound. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF GOLD. 
 
 This Article contains double the amount of Metallic Gold usually sold in the market as 
 
 Chloride of Gold. 
 
 NITRATE OF SILVER, OF UNDOUBTED PURITY. 
 
 ETHER, ALCOHOL, IODIDES, BROMIDES, &c., &c. 
 
 All Chemicals manufactured by us are made with a view to their use in Photography, and 
 guaranteed strictly pure. 
 
 And is used by A. Bogardus, Esq. , W R. Howell, Esq., H. Rocher, Chicago, 111., and 
 other first-class artists, in pre erence to all others. Some of TIIE FINEST PHOTO- 
 GRAPHS EXHIBITED AT THE CLEVELAND CONVENTION WERE MADE OF 
 THIS PAPER, and testified conclusively to its merits. We refer to the pi tures of 
 W. R. Howell, Esq., and other first-class artists, as well as to our own exhibit of Euro- 
 pean Photographs. The pictures of Loescher & Petsch, at the Cleveland Exhibition, 
 were made on this Paper. 
 
 See illustrations in May number of “Philadelphia Photographer.’’ 
 
 Price, from $33 per ream upwards, according to weight or color. 
 
 Sample dozen, assorted, mailed free on receipt of $1. 
 
 WM. H. MARDOCK & CO. have the pleasure to introduce a new article, called 
 
 THE CYYJLJLjJuttYTG-tt COTTOU, 
 
 FOR NEGATIVES OR ROSITIVES, 
 
 Claiming for it Extra Rapidity, Solubility and Freedom from Acid. 
 
 TRY XT'. 
 
 Price 50 Cents Per Box. For Sale by all Dealers, and the Manufacturers, 
 
 Every Sheet of this Paper will he found Perfect, 
 
 Finer in Texture and More Brilliant in Finish, 
 
 Than any hitherto introduced, 
 
 A NEW COTTON! 
 
 WM. H. MARDOCK & CO., 
 
 417 Broome Street, New York. 
 
 339 
 
C. A. WILSON. 
 
 WALTER DINMORE. 
 
 ANEW STOCK HOUSE IN BALTIMORE! 
 
 DINMORE & WILSON, 
 
 125 West Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md., 
 
 HAVE OPENED A FRESH STOCK OF 
 
 Photographic Goods, 
 
 To which they invite the attention of Photographers in the South 
 and Southwest. 
 
 AMONG OTHER GOODS WE SHALL KEEP 
 
 American Optical Co.’s Apparatus. 
 
 Harrison’s Lenses, Gem Boxes. 
 
 Scovill’s Chairs and Union Goods. 
 
 Ross and Voigtlander Censes. 
 Wilson’s Photographic Ilead-Rests. 
 
 Dinmore’s Standard Collodion. 
 
 Magee’s Chemicals. 
 
 Collins’ Card Stock. 
 
 Oval, Walnut, Square, and Rustic Frames. 
 
 Stereoscopes and Stereoscopic Views. 
 
 French Frames, Velvet Cases and Stands. 
 
 Porcelain Glass, Ferrotype Stock, &c. 
 
 ARTISTIC COLORING DONE FOR THE TRADE. 
 
 Send for Circular and Prices. 
 
 Having both resided in Baltimore for several years, and one of us having 
 been a photographer for near twenty years, we think we can guarantee satis- 
 faction to those who will favor us. Our effort will be to keep GOOD goods 
 only, and keep a stock that will enable us to fill our orders quickly. 
 
 PLEASE REMEMBER THE NUMBER. 
 
 D. &W. 125 W. Baltimore Street. 
 
 340 
 
DRAWINGS AND MODELS MADE. 
 
 CONSULTATIONS BY MAIL. 
 
 HOWSONS’ 
 
 77. 8. AND FOREIGN 
 
 PATENT OFFICES, 
 
 I0RREST BUILDING, 119 S. Fourth St., 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 MAKBLE BUILDING'S, 605 SEVENTH ST., 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 PROPRIETORS : 
 
 H. H0WS0N, Engineer , & Solicitor of Patents. 
 
 0. H0WS0N, Attorney-at-Law. 
 Communications to lie addressed to 
 
 Messes. Howson, Philadelphia. 
 
 SEND TOR BOOK OP INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 341 
 
 RELIABLE INFORMATION FREE. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 
 CAM® 
 
 A. 1 COLLIE SON & CO 
 
 MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 No. 18 South Sixth Street. 
 
 AND 
 
 No. 9 Decatur Street, 
 
 Everything appertaining to the line of our 
 Manufactures furnished with care 
 and promptness. 
 
 rgJJ* Our long experience in and facilities for the 
 manufacture of these goods, and familiarity with the 
 peculiar wants of Photographers, enable us to offer 
 superior inducements to those who may favor us with 
 their orders. Pure materials only used. 
 
 342 
 
LEWIS & HOLT’S 
 
 COLLODION 
 
 TRY IT AND BE CONYINCED. 
 
 THE BEST COLLODION IN USE IS 
 
 LEWIS & HOLT’S POSITIVE HID NEGSTITE, 
 
 with a printed Formula accompanying each Bottle. 
 
 Being the first in this country to make Collodion Pictures, 
 they can warrant their Collodion to be one of the best in use. 
 
 FOR SALE BY STOCKDEALERS GENERALLY. 
 
 PEEPAEBD BY 
 
 R. A. LEWIS, 
 
 160 Chatham Street, New York. 
 
E. £ H. T. ANTHONY £ CO., 
 
 591 Broadway, N. 7., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS OF 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 
 REQUISITES. 
 
 SOLE AGENTS FOE THE 
 
 Celebrated 
 
 DALLMEYER LENSES 
 
 AND 
 
 SUCCESS CAMERA BOXES, 
 
 WITH SOLID GLASS CORNERS. 
 
 E. & H. T. A. & Co. received the HIGHEST PREMIUMS at 
 the Late FAIR OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, for 
 
 Photographic Requisites and Soluble Cotton. 
 
 844 
 
HERMAN ROETTGER, 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 » CHRIS, LEASES, TELESCOPES, &c„ 
 
 402 Library Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 ROETTCER’S 
 
 WEW SPHERICAL LEWS 
 
 FOR VIEWS AND COPYING. 
 Warranted to give entire Satisfaction. 
 
 Wo . 
 
 Mo. 2. < I «£« >»■ } $35.00 
 
 Mo. 3. j 1J 1J.141. J t50 00 
 
 NTo. 1 is furnished in matched pairs for Ste- 
 reoscopic Views. 
 
 Telescopes, Object Glasses, and Eye-pieces 
 for ^Mathematical Instruments, Magic Lanterns, 
 and Condensing Lenses and Object Glasses for 
 the same. Latest improvements. 
 
 ROETTGER’S 
 
 Patent Parallactic Solar Camera. 
 
 PRICE LIST. 
 
 Soliar Camera Tube Complete, 14 in. Lens, $350 
 “ “ 12 “ 300 
 
 “ “ 10 “ 255 
 
 “ “ 9 “ 175 
 
 TIESTIII^OISrX-AJLS. 
 
 F'rom F. A. Wenderoth, Philadelphia. — “I take pleasure to state that the Spheri- 
 cal View Lens which you made for me two years since, has given me more satisfaction 
 tha n any other Lens I have tried for the same purpose, as with the same focal length, 
 the angle inclosed is considerably larger, and the time of exposure shorter, and the 
 resulting negatives more brilliant.” 
 
 From John Moran, Philadelphia. — “ I have never seen your lenses equalled. They 
 give me more satisfaction and better work than any I ever used, foreign or domestic.” 
 
 From Messrs. Peters & Rehn, Washington, D. C. — “We are using the two Sphe- 
 rical View Lenses you made for us, in the copying of drawings for the United States 
 Pat ent Office, and find them of most excellent quality, they fulfilling all required con- 
 ditions of sharpness, field, and time.” 
 
 SILVERED MIRRORS FOR SOLAR CAMERAS. 
 
 Warranted not to tarnish or change from the effects of the sun-rays. 
 
 For further particulars, address 
 
 HERMAN ROETTGER, 
 
 402 Library Street , Philadelphia . 
 
 345 
 
Not put up in TMct Bottles holm only Four Ounces, hnt 
 
 Each Bottle is guaranteed to hold full Six Ounces. 
 
 It bas been used for years by several of the best photographers, and I have been 
 induced by them to make it for the trade generally. 
 
 It will surpass any other varnish for negatives or gems, and requires only slight heat 
 to dry it. Will not clog or thicken on the plate. Try it, and you will be pleased. 
 
 None genuine unless the label bears the signature of the manufacturer. Dealers 
 ordering one gross at a time will have their card printed on the labels free. 
 
 Philadelphia, April 7th, 1871. 
 
 Mb. John R. Clemons. 
 
 Dear Sir : It occurred to me to try your varnish for retouching upon, and I find it 
 to answer admirably. It takes the pencil readily, and you can work out the shadows 
 more delicately on it than on any varnish I have ever tried, 
 v A. K. P. Trask, 
 
 40 North Eighth Street. 
 
 Clemons’ Albumen Paper 
 
 IS WARRANTED EQUAL TO ANY MANUFACTURED FOR 
 
 Brilliant Surface, Uniform Quality, Perfect Ease in Working, 
 
 WHITE, PINK, AND BLUE. 
 
 It is pi for Hot I natter, Coll Weather, ai all Weather. 
 
 PRINTS EASY, TONES EASY, NEVER TURNS YEEEOW. 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 CLEMONS’ SALTED ARROWROOT PAPER. 
 
 Working formula furnished to all consumers. 
 
 CLEMONS’ VARNISH AND PAPER FOR SALE BY ALL DEALERS. 
 
 JOHN R. CLEMONS, Manufacturer, 
 
 915 Sansotn St., Philadelphia. 
 
 846 
 
BIGELOW'S REVOLVING BACKGROUND 
 
 Is having an immense sale, and gives 
 perfect satisfaction. 
 
 PATENT APPLIED FOR. 
 
 The most artistic and satisfactory 
 background for making 
 
 Bast aaS Half-Leaitli Portraits 
 
 EVER INVENTED. 
 
 Any effect of relief can be given, re- 
 gardless of the dress of the sitter, or any 
 kind of Lighting or Posing. It is per- 
 fectly satisfactory in “Rembrandt” 
 Lighting. 
 
 PRICE, $10.00. 
 
 A dozen effects are produced in a more artistic manner than by any other 
 Ground in the market It is compact, being 58 inches in diameter, painted in 
 Oil Colors , on firm cloth stretched over a light circular frame. In the centre 
 of the back side of the frame, is a cast plate and wrought iron shaft, upon 
 which to revolve the Ground, and by which it is attached to the head-rest. 
 It weighs about 10 pounds, and with care will last a lifetime. 
 
 TESTIMONIALS. 
 
 J. F. Ryder , E«q.. Cleveland, Ohio, says: No operating room is complete without one of your 
 grounds. It is small enough to he quite out of the way when not in uve. and large enough for 
 any bu^t or half-length portrait. Fiom the manner in which the shading is graduated, a great 
 many effects may be obtained from this one little ground, making it as good as a half dozen plain 
 grounds. 
 
 Abraham Bogardus , President of the National Photographic Association, says: I put your Re- 
 volving Background at work immediately upon its receipt, and am much pleased with it. Almost 
 any desir> d * ffect may be produced with the utmost ease. 
 
 G. Grilling , Detroit Mich, wavs: I find your Revolving Background works fully as represented. 
 
 The Philadelphia Photographer , February. 1871, says: We have often spoken of the advan- 
 tages of a graded background over a plain, even tinted one, and no one who has tried these will 
 go back to the old. Their use enabl-s you to secure a charm in your pictures which your patrons 
 will appreciate, though they may be mystified as to how you do it. 
 
 H. Rocher, Chicago, says: I am using Bigelow's Revolving Ground, and think it the neatest 
 invention yet out, for bust and half length portraits. It should be called ‘-The Perfection 
 Ground,” for I can see nothing further to be desired. 
 
 Geo. H. Fennemore , 820 Aich Street, Philadelphia, says : I am enabled to produce some of the 
 most charming off. cts with it that 1 ever saw. It makes an old fashioned plain background look 
 as flat and expressionless as an over-timed negative. lean control or “ revolve” it at will to se- 
 cure any eff.-ct, and each revolution turns out a satisfactory picture. I wonder how I have done 
 so long without it. 
 
 All orders promptly filled upon receipt of Draft or Post-office Order. No 
 orders will receive attention unless accompanied by one-half the price of the 
 Ground. Address, 
 
 L. G. BIGELOW, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 
 P. 0. Drawer 2391 ; or any of the following Agents : Benj. French & Co., Boston, 
 Mass.; A. Hesler & Co., Chicago, III. ; W. II. Allen, Detroit, Mich.; W. H. Til- 
 ford, St. Louis, Mo. ; Wilson, Hood & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. ; Wm. B. Holmes, 
 New York; Scovill Manufacturing Co., New York. 
 
 The Grounds are so securely packed, that they will safely bear transporta- 
 tion AS FBEIGHT IF SO O it Dili -REID. 
 
 347 
 
Photographic World. 
 
 A Hew Illustrated Monthly, derated to PMograpliy. 
 
 Edited by EDWARD L. WILSON. 
 
 Editor of the Philadelphia Photographer , Photographic Mosaics, Spc. 
 
 Issued the 15 th of every Month. 
 
 $5.00 a Year ; $2 50 for Six Months ; 50 cts. per single copy. 
 
 The Photographic World and the Philadelphia Photographer to one 
 address, $9.00 a Year; $4.50 for Six Months ; or $2.25 
 for Three Months. Sample Copy, free. 
 
 Subscribers to the Philadelphia Photographer will have the World furnished for 1871 for $4.00 
 
 January, February and March for $1. Try it. 
 
 The publishers of the Philadelphia Photographer having been urged by so many of 
 their old subscribers to issue more frequently, have deemed it best to issue a separate 
 magazine instead. This will meet the wants of those who wish to be the most en- 
 lightened in the profession, and will not compel those to take both who do not choose 
 to do so. 
 
 In size, shape, number of pages, price, Ac., it is the same as the Philadelphia Pho- 
 tographer, only dijfeting in the matter which it contains and in the pictures which em- 
 bellish it. The reading-matter embraces the photographic news of the world, no matter 
 in what tongue it is made known. This immense advantage the American photogra- 
 pher will no longer be shut out from. Although special attention will be given to 
 such extracts from foreign sources as are useful and valuable, the World will be thor- 
 oughly American in its proclivities, and a large poition of each number will be filled 
 with practical papers from our own home sources. Each month the following leading 
 articles appear : Photography Abroad , which embraces the foreign news and selections ; 
 Notes In and Out of the. Studio , by G. Wharton Simpson ; Position and Composition , 
 a series of handsomely illustrated papers on the Art of photography ; Photography fur 
 Boys , a series of chapters for beginners, giving the whole modus operandi of picture- 
 making ; Splashes of Silver ; Proceedings of the Hypo Club, &c., &e. 
 
 What Photographers say of it. 
 
 “It is a glorious, good, and valuable journal. ” — H. L. Bingham. 
 
 “I would deprive myself of many conveniences before I would do without it.” — J. 
 E. SCHORB. 
 
 “My appetite for such good journals is so great that I need a new World every 
 night. Let us have it weekly at any price.” — Nason, Cleveland, 0. 
 
 THE WORLD PREMIUM LIST will be the same as that of the Philadelphia. Pho- 
 tographer, which see. ADVERTISEMENTS inserted in The World at the same rates 
 as in the Philadelphia Photographer. 
 
 BENERMAN A WILSON, Publishers, 
 
 Seventh and Cherry Sts., Phil a da. 
 
 348 
 
THE 
 
 Philadelphia Photographer, 
 
 A Monthly Journal devoted to Photography. Illustrated. Eighth Year. 
 
 Edited, by Edward L. Wilson, Editor of The Photographic World , Mosaics , fye. 
 
 $5.00 a Year. $2.50 for Six Months. 50 Cents per Copy. 
 
 The Philadelphia Photographer and The Photographic World to one address. $9.00 a Year, 
 $4.50 for Six Months, or $2.25 for Three Months. Sample Copy Free. 
 
 ISSUED THE 8th OF EVERY MONTH. 
 
 The Philadelphia Photographer is now the only legitimate Photographic Magazine 
 in America, except its new Supplement, the Photographic World. Its first purpose 
 and aim is to be useful in conveying the best and freshest information to the working 
 photographer , and to apprise him of all that concerns his welfare, whether it be to 
 caution him fearlessly against fraud, or to recommend to him independently all that 
 is good. To do this the publishers expend more money than all the other photographic 
 publishers in America put together. 
 
 The usual staff of contributors will be retained during 1871 — M. Carey Lea, Prof. 
 Towler, Dr. H. Vogel, G. Wharton Simpson, A. M., Elbert Anderson, and Roland 
 Vanweike — together with all the new talent that is found worthy. 
 
 OUR PICTURES will excel any that have heretofore appeared, and will always be 
 up to the progress of the art. The true way to early learn all the new styles and sizes 
 is to take the Philadelphia Photographer and Photographic World. 
 
 By words of good cheer and encouragement, by presenting proper instruetiflh to our 
 readers, and by the publication of examples of good work for their study, we hope to 
 elevate the n and their art towards the highest standard. Contributions on and dis- 
 cussions of practical matters, from the daily worker in the skylight and dark-closet, 
 abound in our pages, and the numbers are always fresh. 
 
 PREMIUMS FOR NEW SUBSCRIBERS: 
 
 ( It will be undei'stood that premiums are only given to old or present subscribers for other NE W ones.) 
 
 We will send, for two new subscribers and $10, a copy of the Carbon Manual (price 
 $2), and any volume of Mosaics desired, or a copy of Ayres's Chart. For one new 
 subscriber and $5, Prof. Himes’s “ Glimpses at Photography,” price $1.25. Or if any 
 prefer other of our publications, we will give one dollar’s worth for a new subscriber 
 always, or credit $1 on your own renewal, the party sending making the choice from 
 our advertised list. Operators, by a little exertion, can readily secure enough new 
 subscribers to pay for their own Magazine. 
 
 The same Premiums will be given for subscribers to the PHOTOGRAPHIC WORLD. 
 
 To every one sending $10 we will mail the Philadelphia Photographer, and the 
 Photographic- Woild, for a year, and the Carbon Manual. More interest is being 
 taken in the Carbon process, and as it can now be worked without patent license, this 
 book will be useful. Secure a copy now and be ready. 
 
 Pnrties ordering our books will always receive credit for the new subscriptions they 
 send as so much cash. 
 
 Canada subscribers must remit 24 cents extra to prepay postage. Foreign subscrip- 
 tions must be accompanied by the postage in addition. 
 
 In remitting by mail, a post-office order, or draft, payable to order of Benerman & 
 Wilson, is preferable to bank notes, for if lost, the order or draft can be recovered 
 without loss to the sender. Two, three, or ten cent postage stamps will be received 
 in cases where draft or post-office order cannot be had. In ordering our publications, 
 clearly give your Post-office, County, and State in full. Grievous delays occur from 
 neglect of this. For rates, apply to the Publishers. 
 
 The attention of advertisers, and those having galleries, Ac., for sale, is called to 
 our Specialties pages. Terms, $2 for 6 lines, and 25 cents for each additional line, 
 seven words to a line, always in advance. Sure to pay. Operators desiring situa- 
 
 tions half price. 
 
 BENERMAN & WILSON, Photo. Publishers, 
 
 Office, S. TF. cor. Seventh & Cherry Sts. (Sherman’s Building), 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 349 
 
 24 
 
THE ZENTMAYER LENS, 
 
 FOR VIEWS AND COPYING. 
 
 Although only the short period of two years has elapsed since this lens was 
 first introduced, it has already become widely popular, and its excellent 
 qualifications well established, which are pre-eminently as follows: 
 
 Width of visual angle, ranging from 80° to 90° ; depth of focus ; extreme 
 sharpness over the whole field ; true perspective ; freedom from all distortion 
 in copying; portability and cheapness. 
 
 Each mounting is provided with a revolving Diaphragm, containing the 
 stops of the different combinations for which they are designed. The larger 
 ones are provided with an internal shutter for making and closing the ex- 
 posure. 
 
 No. 1, 
 
 21 
 
 inch focus 
 
 3 
 
 x 3 plate, 
 
 $20 
 
 00 
 
 No. 1 
 
 ind No. 2 combined, . 
 
 . $33 
 
 00 
 
 “ 2, 
 
 31 
 
 
 4 
 
 x 5 *• 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 “ 2 
 
 “3 “ 
 
 . 40 
 
 00 
 
 “ 3, 
 
 31 
 
 it 
 
 6 I x 81 “ 
 
 30 
 
 00 
 
 “ 3 
 
 “ 4 
 
 . 55 
 
 00 
 
 “ 4, 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 10 
 
 xl 2 “ 
 
 42 
 
 00 
 
 “ 4 
 
 “5 “ . 
 
 . 75 
 
 00 
 
 *■' 5, 
 
 12 
 
 < ( 
 
 14 
 
 xl7 
 
 60 
 
 00 
 
 “ 5 
 
 “6 “ . 
 
 . 110 
 
 00 
 
 “ 6, 
 
 18 
 
 it 
 
 20 
 
 x24 “ 
 
 90 
 
 00 
 
 “ 1, 
 
 2, and 3 “ 
 
 . 48 
 
 00 
 
 Nos. 3 
 
 4, and 5 combined, $88 00 
 
 No. 3, with large mounting to combine with No. 4 and No. 5, $35. 
 
 No. 1 and No. 2, specially adapted for Stereoscopic views, are furnished 
 in matched pairs. No. 1, single, not to combine with other sizes, $36 a pair. 
 This size is constructed for special cases where the largest possible angle is 
 required. 
 
 Lenses and mountings to form all six combinations, from 2$ to 18 inches, 
 $173. 
 
 Zentmayer’s Stereoscopic Outfits. 
 
 Knowing that many Photographers are retarded from making stereoscopic 
 views on account of the high prices heretofore charged for lenses, thus de- 
 priving them of what might be a source of considerable revenue, I take pleas- 
 ure in announcing that in order to obviate this, I offer a STEREOSCOPIC 
 OUTFIT, consisting of 
 
 1 pair 3| Focus Lenses, best quality, in monnting not to combine with other 
 sizes. 
 
 1 American Optical Co ’s Stereoscopic Box, 4x7, made especially for these 
 lenses. 
 
 1 Folding Tripod for box. 
 
 1 7 x 10 Tight Covered India-rubber Bath and Dipper. 
 
 2 4x7 American Optical Co.’s Printing-Frames. 
 
 The whole, except the tripod and printing-frames, contained in a neat box, 
 with handle, convenient for carriage and weighing only 11 pounds. 
 
 PRICE (Complete) $60.00. 
 
 Nothing ever offered can compete with this outfit either in price , qualify, 
 or convenience. This should enable every Photographer to make first-class 
 stereoscopic work. Orders by mail will receive prompt attention. 
 
 For further particulars, please address 
 
 JOSEPH ZENTMAYER, 
 
 147 S. Fourth St., JPhilada . 
 
 350 
 
9 
 
 IS A GREATLY IMPROVED FORM OF 
 
 MAGIC LANTERN, 
 
 Combined with a Safe and Powerful Lamp. 
 
 The Photographer by using a Portrait Tube, which may be on the retired list, can, 
 with small outlay, have a first class Instrument. He is accustomed to similar appar- 
 atus ; he can make transparencies and judge of their excellence with a practical eye ; 
 and by projecting upon his white background, placed indoor or in front of his window, 
 life size images of persons, and things about home, he can make his gallery the centre 
 of attraction. The old Magic Lantern is too dull and clumsy for his purpose, and 
 chemical lights are too troublesome and expensive. The Sciopticon is efficient and 
 ready at a moment’s notice. 
 
 In making picture-slides for the growing demand, a convenient instrument is ne- 
 cessary to te-t their quality ; this property of convenience is peculiarly valuable to 
 those whose time is money, and is very acceptable to all. 
 
 For Home, May-ScM and Lrclm Rook, it is UnrivaM. 
 
 The price of the SCIOPTICON, without objectives, is $32 ; with Non-achromatic 
 front lens $40 ; with Achromatic front lens, $45. 
 
 For particulars, address 
 
 L. J. MARCY, 
 
 1340 Chestnut Street, 
 
 (Opposite V S. Mint,) 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 351 
 
TRAPP * MUNCH’S 
 
 Albnmenized Papers 
 
 The Albumen Paper manufactured by Messrs. Trapp & Munch, 
 has now been in general use in this country for more than a year 
 by the most eminent photographers. No paper has ever been 
 introduced into this market which has WORKED SO ADMIR- 
 ABLY DURING SEVERE HEAT, and 
 
 IT IS THEREFORE PARTICULARLY 
 
 RECOMMENDED FOR USE IS ROT WEITHTR. 
 
 The undersigned can assure the trade in good faith that 
 
 The Trapp & Munch Paper is the Best Manufactured 
 
 For Photographic Purposes. 
 
 WILLY WALLACH, 
 
 General Agent for the United States, 
 
 No. 43 John St., N.Y. 
 
 HUNDREDS OF TESTIMONIALS CAN BE PRODDCED IF DESIRED, 
 
 Mr. Wallach is prepared to supply dealers on favor- 
 able terms. 
 
 SPECIAL AGENTS. 
 
 Scovill Manufacturing Co., New York. 
 
 E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., New York. 
 
 Wilson, Hood & Co., Philadelphia. 
 
 G. S. Bryant & Co., Boston. 
 
 W. H. Tilford, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 A. S. Robbins, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 S. T. Blessing, New Orleans, La. 
 
 FOR SALE BY ALL STOCKDEALERS. 
 
Rhode Island Card Board Co., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 C ard Board of Every Description 
 
 FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS’ USE. 
 
 CARDS CUT TO ANY FORM OR SIZE DESIRED 
 
 And colored to standard shades, or of any tint required. 
 
 GiOQDS MADE OF THE VERY BEST STOCK 
 
 And finished in a superior manner at prices as low as first-class goods can he produced. 
 
 I. B. DEXTER, GEO. H. CLARX & GO., 
 
 (Successors to Thomas & Co.,) 
 
 Proprietors, Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 
 
 Pictorial Effect in Photography 
 
 BEING 
 
 Hunts 01 Composition aid Cliaroscira as Applied to Photographs. 
 
 To which is added a Chapter on Combination Printing. By H. P. Robinson. 
 
 Price, $3.50. 
 
 Th'he Work consists of a Handsome Small Quarto Volume , printed on 7'oned Paper , and 
 contains copious illustration * by the Carbon Process , Photo-Relief Process , Phototype 
 Process , Silver Printing , and oy Printing from Etchings and Wood Engravings. 
 
 NOTICES BY THE PRESS. 
 
 “ A careful and thoughtful study of these lessons, and constnnt reference, cannot 
 faiiil to improve the art qualities of any photographer’s work ."—Photographic News. 
 
 “ We have endeavored frequently to persuade our readers that it is quite as impor- 
 tant to study pictorial effect, and to try to attain it in their work, as it is to endeavor 
 too make perfect negatives and prints. No one can study this excellent work without 
 beeing better able to pose and compose his subjects, and to light them more artistically.” 
 Ph i ladelphia Photograph er. 
 
 “If photographers could be persuaded how clearly and simply Mr. Robinson ex- 
 plains in his ‘ Pictorial Effects,’ and how very fundamental he is, beginning at the first 
 sttteps and carefully advancing, but few would feel that they could afford to be without 
 hiiis book.” — W. J. Baker, in Philadelphia Photographer, 1870. 
 
 Sent post-paid, on receipt of price, by 
 
 BENERMAN & WILSON, Publishers, 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 353 
 
HALE, GOODMAN & CO 1 1 MANUFACTURERS OF SOLID WALNUT FRAMES & MOULDINGS 
 
 ' paiiotios fiusaiuv i s.iap.to jnux •diqsnRra 
 -qjoAi jo qsnq 0{A}g ooud m pajjooxoun ojoijjr uxx oonpoad oj six ojquuo sop 
 -ipopf iiUUtuoiijnuiiui aAisuojxa ano pun jaqjticu eqj ui 11015 rjndaa jsouiaaoj aqj 
 pouruJ! Ap'Bo.q'B 0Ax>q soiu , bj l j juo ■uoijoaysijns ojijuo oa;S 05 pajuRjauAv puR 
 A^iiRno joijsdns jo ‘apujj aqj Joj A[ssajdxa paanjORjtiuRj\[ 4, dsj» ‘s.oUi|>[iioni 
 ‘saiuu.ij' jijsii J 3 v 9J«ni»s ‘sajwij y s|«ao 
 
 354 
 
 Mirrors Frames and Tables, Window Cornices, Carved 
 Ornaments, Oval and Square Hacks, Backing in Length, 
 Mat and Clothes Racks, «&c. Send an order to your Stockdealer, being 
 sure to ask for our m"kc of Frames, and if unable to procure them in this way 
 orders seni directly to us will receive prompt attention and be filled at our 
 regular rates. 
 
 “ d 
 
 £ s 
 
 a § 
 
 © § 
 
 ^ p, 
 
 5 ■§ 
 
 £ 5 
 
 °- 3 
 
 | I 
 
 © 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 00 g 
 
 "o 
 . IP* 
 
 VI <s> 
 
 .. ffc 
 
 >- .3 
 K 3 
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 Z . ..2 
 
 5 ffk 
 
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 5 to 
 
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 K & 
 
 ui i g 
 
 « rm 
 
 5 :5 
 
CARTE ENVELOPE! 
 
 TJ 
 
 o 
 
 Pm 
 
 
 80 
 
 J1U OTHERS AH INFRINGEMENT. 
 
 They are well made , of excellent paper, of assorted tints , 
 with Arch and Oral Openings , with End and 
 Side Flaps , neatly gilt and embossed , 
 and hold one carte or one dozen. 
 
 •The safest Envelope for mailing , the most beautiful to de- 
 liver Pictures in, and , w//e» the flap is turned 
 back {see cut), they form an Ele- 
 gant Stand for the Picture. 
 
 ; SEE SPECIMENS IN JUNE NUMBER, PHILADELPHIA PHOTOSRAPHER. 
 
 FOR SALE BY 
 
 tSCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO., 
 
 E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., 
 
 WM. B. HOLMES, . 
 
 WILSON, HOOD & CO., 
 
 BENJ. FRENCH & CO., 
 
 GEO. S. BRYANT & CO., 
 
 DODGE, COLLIER & PERKINS, 
 
 F. HENDRICKS, . 
 
 C. W. STEVENS, .... 
 
 AND BY ALL DEALERS. 
 
 P. S._I n addition to the styles represented in June Num- 
 ber, “ Philadelphia Photographer,” we are making Cabinet En- 
 velopos, in gilt, for plate 41 x 5}, with opening i, x 41, and 
 small size, for plates 21 x 3}, with opening 1} x 2, inches. 
 
 355 
 
 Neav York. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 Chicago. 
 
SOMETHING NEW FOR ARTISTS! 
 
 John Wolfgang Morgeneier’s 
 
 BOOK. 
 
 ArtisthaTinv a de^ire o n tRkin « Portrflits ’ il « necessary for every 
 
 ferent taste-fof hi, P f ' hlms0,f in his profession, and entirely satisfy the dif- 
 touching "process Thishnnhf’d ° ™ ake . blmpelf thoroughly acquainted with the re- 
 touch ng process' Bv foul deaST . lh ™ V"/ ? h ° rt iind P ractici11 ™™er the "hole re- 
 togrnphfrs will be em , S * C f'° ly th f . lnstruction8 laid down in this Book, Pho- 
 d.rect onrfor do n/.n ° t “ ake r ?P ld >“P™vements in their profession. Full 
 L l nf? r ,Ve W ° rk W L n be f0und in tbe sarae - Also, for using 
 
 Z.TZ G, '°l R S, 'tfV' e Ne S alive Retouching Varnish. Pat- 
 • nted December 6, 1870. 
 
 The Book is illustrated with samples of Photographs retouched 
 and un retouched, showing in a fine manner the difference between 
 wm °i Qn( ^ a( J va ^ a g es of the retouching process. 
 
 Vill be sent post-paid to any address on receipt of $1.50. 
 
 0fe W1 ®hing to procure a Sample Negative can have the same 
 sent post-paid for $1.50, by addressing 
 
 JOHN WOLFGANG MORGENEIER, Photographer, 
 
 Sheboygan, Wisconsin. 
 
 StocMealers supplied wi ll Boots liv Wholesa le on Reasonable Terms. 
 
 I wish also to call the attention of brother artists throughout the country to my 
 
 NEW PATENT VARNSSH. 
 
 Si"/Slt h / V i ne l ,0 J know]ed Fe of drawing to retouch any negative, 
 
 a g only Faber s Polygrade Lead Pencils, from No. 1 to No 5 or water colors and 
 dry colors ; negatives being taken on plain glass. ’ d 
 
 This varnish is applied in the same manner as any other. A negative coated with 
 tL’re^ve^ he , n mP T ed re !° uchin S’ jet there is no process known, nor will 
 
 Jut the use of the neneT^ 7 ^ T1P ^ ntive wil ‘ sufficiently improved with- 
 
 6 f- f th -. P u ” L M -7 P rocess 18 ‘he first discovered to varnish and retouch 
 bung cons,i '”‘'' bef ” e lhi * “■»«. “ to 
 
 The Advantages of this Varnish are— 
 
 1. That all other processes and materials used before are wholly unnecessary 
 
 2. It saves time, labor, and expense. J UIUlecei,&al T- 
 
 3. There is no other application necessary. 
 
 4. There is no danger of injuring the negatives. 
 
 5. It makes a much softer and more lustrous print 
 
 b. It works in the same manner in all degrees of temperature. 
 
 8 S-rTTi™ rk8 . u P° n ., , 1 h ® fihn of such a negative as upon white paper. 
 i>re«!ft Hm B P h« g h npher T A® en,,bled to use a Solar Camera, which, until the 
 retoucJing process ^ artlStS Wh ° Wer6 Wel1 aC( l uainted ** the positive 
 
 to work as represented. W 1 LL B EBO L d'whT) LE I^B ^DE ALE RS^ 
 
 8 ol,nce bottles, 75 cents. 16 ounce bottles, $ 1 40 
 JS" wm reoel,. prompt .Uo.Uom Frio ,i„ * „„ 
 
 J. W. MORGENEIER, Photographer, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO., Gen.ral Tradf AgoptI’ SUebUU ' jm ’ ' F,S ' 
 
 4 lieekrnan Street, New York. 
 
 356 
 
A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN OPTICAL COMPANY’S 
 
 ktojgrapMjt ^jjpratos, 
 
 (ABRIDGED). 
 
 Scovill Manufacturing Company, Proprietors, 
 
 4 Beekman Street, New York. 
 
 By strict care in the manufacture of the simplest piece of apparatus, 
 the American Optical Company are able to say that they 
 have distanced all Rivals , and their Apparatus 
 stands Undeniably the best. 
 
 Camera Boxes, all sizes, “ Perfect ” and other Stands, 
 
 Tripods, Negative Boxes, 
 
 Flat arid Beep Pressure Frames, Retouching Frames, &c., &c. 
 
 This Apparatus is for sale by all Dealers. 
 
 The following Camera Boxes are manufactured from the best Mahogany or 
 Black Walnut, French polished, with India-Rubber Belloivs, solid or folding 
 platform, with Patent Brass Guides, and/jie Focussing Screw, with which the 
 Focus is drawn upon the largest boxes with the same facility and accuracy a3 
 upon the smaller ones, and all Holders fitted with the new Patent Glass Comers, 
 (without extra charge.) 
 
 2 . — 1-2 “ “ 
 
 3. — 4-4 “ “ 
 
 4. — Ex. 4r- 4 sizo “ 
 
 4£. “ “ “ 
 
 6. — 8-4 size “ 
 
 6. — Mammoth “ 
 
 7. — “ “ 
 
 
 
 
 Single 
 
 Double 
 
 31 x 41 inches. 
 
 $12 00 
 
 Swing. 
 
 Swing. 
 
 4£ x 5£ 
 
 H 
 
 15 00 
 
 $20 00 
 
 $25 00 
 
 6£ x 8£ 
 
 U 
 
 30 00 
 
 35 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 8 x 10 
 
 « 
 
 35 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 10 x 12 
 
 (< 
 
 42 00 
 
 50 00 
 
 55 00 
 
 11 x 14 
 
 (C 
 
 50 00 
 
 58 00 
 
 65 00 
 
 14x 17 
 
 
 65 00 
 
 73 00 
 
 80 00 
 
 17 x 20 
 
 “ 
 
 80 00 
 
 90 00 
 
 95 00 
 
GEM, CARD, AND UNIVERSAL CAMERA BOXES. 
 
 No. 8.— Gem Box for 12 Pictures on a 1-4 Plate using 12 Tubes, 1-9 
 
 to 1-2 sizes Reversible, using 1 Tube, and 2 Cards on a 1-2 
 
 Plate using 2 Tubes $25 00 
 
 No. 9. — The same Box fitted with 12 Tubes 60 00 
 
 No. 10. The same Box fitted with 4 additional Tubes for making 4 
 
 Pictures on a 1-4 Plate 75 00 
 
 No. 11.— For 4, 8, 12, and 16, on 1-4 Plate 1-9 to 1-2 Reversible, and 
 
 2 Cards on a 1-2 Plate 35 00 
 
 No. 12. — The above fitted with 4 Darlot Tubes 50 00 
 
 No. 13. Card Camera Box for 2 Cards on a 1-2 Plate, using one Tube, 
 
 and 1-9 to 1-2 Pictures, Reversible 25 00 
 
 No. 14. 4—4 Card Camera Box, Covered Front, for 4 Cards, using 4 
 
 Tubes with side-doors for adjusting the focus 45 00 
 
 No. 15. 9 x 11 Card Camera Box, Covered Front, for 8 Cards using 
 4 Tubes, with side-doors for adjusting the focus, Sideway 
 
 Movement 55 00 
 
 No. 16. — 4-4 Card Camera Box for 4 Cards using 2 Tubes, Upright 
 
 Movement 30 00 
 
 No. 17.— 4-4 Universal Camera Box for 4 Cards using 2 Tubes and 
 1-6 to 4-4 Pictures, Reversible using 1 Tube, Sideway 
 
 Movement 35 00 
 
 No. 18. — 4—4 Universal Camera Box for 4 Cards using 2 Tubes and 1-6 
 to 4-4 Pictures, Reversible using 1 Tube, Sideway Carriage 
 
 Movement .... 40 00 
 
 No. 19. — 8-10 Universal Camera Box for 4 Cards on 4-4 Plate using 
 2 Tubes, and 1-6 to 8—1 0 Pictures, Reversible using 1 Tube, 
 
 Upright Movement 45 00 
 
 No. 20. — 8-10 Universal Camera Box for 4 Cards on 4—4 Plate using 
 2 Tubes and 1-6 to 8-10 Pictures, Reversible using 1 Tube, 
 
 Sideway Movement 45 00 
 
 Card Camera Boxes, fitted with the Double Card Attachment, for 
 making two different pictures in different positions of the 
 same subject on the same card, $5 extra. 
 
 No. 2 CAMERA BOXES. 
 
 ( Compo. Corner Holders.) 
 
 To meet the wants of a large class of customers who give preference to Cam- 
 era Boxes of their manufacture over those of all others, they have been induced 
 to put into the market a cheaper class of Boxes, not so highly finished as their 
 No. 1 goods, and without the Patent Brass Guides, but, at the same time, good, 
 wall-mode, true, and reliable Boxes, and, without doubt, the best of their class 
 in market. AVe can recommend them as being of superior workmanship when 
 
 compared with others of same price. 
 
 No. 40. — 1-4 size, Reversible for Plate 3J x 4£ inches $9 00 
 
 “ 41.— 1-2 “ “ “ 4i x 5£ “ 10 00 
 
 “ 42.— 4-4 “ “ « 6i x S£ “ 15 00 
 
 “ 43.— Ex. 4-4 “ “ 8x10 “ 22 00 
 
 “ 44.— Ex. 4-4 “ “ 8x10 “ with Focus Rack 24 00 
 
 “ 45. — 10-12, Reversible, with Focus Rack 35 00 
 
 “ 46.-11-14 “ “ “ 40 00 
 
 “ 47.-14-17 “ “ “ 52 00 
 
 “ 48.— 17-20 “ “ “ 70 00 
 
 “ 49. — 4J x 6£, for 2 Cards, with 2 Tubes 10 00 
 
 “ 50. — 4-4 Reversible, with attachment for 2 Cards on 4^ x 6J 
 
 Plates with 2 Tubes 18 00 
 
 “ 1.30. — 4 x 7 — 4 x 8 or 5 x 8, Stereo. Cam. Box 20 00 
 
THE VIEW CAMERA BOXES 
 
 Manufactured by the American Optical Company are 
 
 
 
 
 ( Patent 
 
 Glass 
 
 Cor. Holders.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Single 
 
 Doable 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Swing. 
 
 Swing. 
 
 No. 21.— 
 
 For View 4J x 5i inches, 
 
 Reversible,. 
 
 ..$25 00 
 
 $30 00 
 
 $35 00 
 
 a 
 
 22.— 
 
 tt 
 
 6J x 8£ 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 35 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 it 
 
 23.— 
 
 it 
 
 8 x 10 
 
 ft 
 
 it 
 
 ... 40 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 50 00 
 
 a 
 
 24.— 
 
 a 
 
 10 x 12 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 ....50 00 
 
 55 00 
 
 60 00 
 
 it 
 
 25.— 
 
 tt 
 
 11 x 14 
 
 ti 
 
 it 
 
 ....60 00 
 
 68 00 
 
 75 00 
 
 ti 
 
 26.— 
 
 tt 
 
 14 x 17 
 
 tt 
 
 “ 
 
 ....70 00 
 
 78 00 
 
 85 00 
 
 u 
 
 27.— 
 
 ti 
 
 17 x 20 
 
 it 
 
 ti 
 
 85 00 
 
 93 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 u 
 
 28.— 
 
 it 
 
 20 x 24 
 
 tt 
 
 if 
 
 ...100 00 
 
 110 00 
 
 115 00 
 
 With Vertical Sliding Front for Adjusting Foreground and Sky. 
 
 These Boxes are the only ones made in this country which combine Porta- 
 bility and Lightness with Durability and Perfect Accuracy - qualities which 
 every Operator will appreciate. 
 
 THEY MAKE THE FOLLOWING STYLES 
 
 OF 
 
 GEM BOXES. 
 
 (Composition Corner Solders.) 
 
 New York Gem, complete with four 1-9 Darlot Tubes ; will make 4, 8, 
 and 16 on a 1-4 Plate, 2 cards on a 1-2 Plate, 1-9 to 1-2 Rever- 
 ... $35 08 
 
 No. 40 G. 1-4 Gem Boxes with four Darlot Tubes complete; will make 
 
 4 Pictures on 1-4 Plate and 1-9 to 1-4 Reversible 
 
 No. 41 G. — 1-2 size Gem Box with 6 Darlot Tubes; will make 6 Pic- 
 tures on 1-2 Plate and 1-9 to 1-2 Reversible 
 
 No. 42 G. 4-4 size Gem Box with 12 Darlot Tubes; will make 12 Pic- 
 tures on a 4-4 Plate and 1-6 to 6} x 8} Reversible 
 
 No. 42 F. — 4-4 size Gem Box with four 1-4 Tubes will make 4 Pictures 
 on 6i x 8} Plate and Regular work 1-6 to 4-4 
 
 45 00 
 
HE STEREOSCOPIC BOXES 
 
 Patent Glass Corner Holders. 
 
 Manufactured by the American Optical Company are : 
 
 Single 
 
 Swiug. 
 
 No. 29. — For Plate 4 x 7 or 4 x 8 inches $25 00 $30 00 
 
 “ 30. — The same Box arranged with an extra front for 1-4 
 
 or 1-3 Lenses, with folding platform 30 00 35 00 
 
 “ 31. — For one Lens for Plates 4 x 7 or 4 x 8 inches 25 00 30 00 
 
 “ 32. — “ 1-4 or 1-3 Lens for Plates 4 x 7 or 4x 8 inches 30 00 35 00 
 
 THE NEW PHILADELPHIA BOX, 
 
 Patent Glass Corner Holders, 
 
 For Stereo and Single views, Reversible for Plates 5x8 
 
 inches 30 00 35 00 
 
 For full description, see April number, 1870, Philadelphia 
 Photographer , page 100. 
 
 SCOVILL’S NEW IMPERIAL AND CARD CAMERA 
 
 BOX. 
 
 Patent Glass Corner Holders. 
 
 4i X 6£, KIT INCLUSIVE, AND 2 CARDS. 
 
 With Double Swing Back and Carriage Movement, making 8x10 to 1-6 
 
 Pictures and 2 Imperial Cards on an 8 x 10 Plate using 1 Tube $55 00 
 
 Without the Double Swing Back 45 00 
 
 Silver Saving Bottle in Holder, $1.00 extra. 
 
 The same as above, except 6£ x 8£ instead of 8 x 10, Double Swing Back 50 00 
 
 Without the Double Swing Back 40 00 
 
 Silver Saving Bottle in Holder, $1.00 extra. 
 
 THE CHICAGO CARD BOX. 
 
 No. 13. — For 2 Cards on a 1-2 of 4-4 Plate and 1-9 to 1-2 Picture, 
 
 Reversible $25 00 
 
 With Double Swing Back 35 00 
 
VICTORIA BOX. 
 
 Solid Glass Corner Solders. 
 
 Making 5 x 7 to £ inclusive. 
 
 2 Victoria Cards on a 5 x 7 Plate. 
 
 4 « n a n a 
 
 8 “ Gems “ “ “ 
 
 PRICE. 
 
 With 4i Darlot Tubes $75 
 
 Without Tubes 35 
 
 REGULATIOIT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 8 x 10 AMERICAN OPTICAL COMPANY’S 
 MULTIPLYING BOX. 
 
 72 Gems on 7 x 10 Plate. 
 
 36 “ “ “ 
 
 18 “ « “ 
 
 9 a n n 
 
 36 “ 5x7 Kit in the centre. 
 
 8 Cards on 7 x 10 Plate, with two 1-4 or 1-3 Lenses. 
 
 8 Cards, with l Lens for Copying. 
 
 4 small Imperials on 7 x 10 Plate, with 4-4 Lens. 
 
 2 large 4-4s, with 4-4 Lens. 
 
 Regular Work, from 1-4 to 8 x 10, inclusive. 
 
 It can also be arranged so as to take 8 Cards with 1-4 or 1-3 Lenses, which 
 requires another Diaphragm. 
 
 THE PERFECT CAMERA STAND. 
 
 This Stand has been pronounced by all who have 
 used or examined it, as “ the best ever made.” The 
 Philadelphia Photographer justly says, “It is a Perfect 
 Camera Stand.” It is strong, quickly raised, lowered, 
 and adjusted, is handsome, and will last a careful man 
 a life-time. Price, $25. 
 
American Optical Co.’s Apparatus, 
 
 NETT STYLE. 
 
 OLD STYLE. 
 
 j&yNotice the difference, and see article on the subject in The Photographic Times for 
 
 The American Optical Company's Apparatus, manufactured solely by 
 the Scovill Manufacturing Co., again declared the best. 
 
 At the late Pair of the American Institute, held in New York City for 
 over one month, and closing November 5, 1870, when the awards were 
 made, Scovill’s Apparatus and Photographic Goods were each awarded the 
 FIRST AND HIGHEST PREMIUMS. Other Apparatus received hon- 
 orable mention. 
 
 The high standing to which the Harrison Portrait Lenses have attained is 
 due to their superiority over all others. This make of Lenses is the only one 
 ever awarded a Gold Medal. 
 
 RATIO LENSES, for Views and Copying. 
 
 These Lenses are furnished in sets or “combinations” of varied focus to 
 avoid the necessity of several mountings. Circulars, giving particulars, sent 
 free on application. See June No. (1870) Philadelphia Photographer. 
 
 January. 
 
 PORTRAIT LENSES, 
 
 GLOBE LENSES. 
 
 The best View Lenses in the World. 
 
 SCOVILL M’FG. CO., 4 Beekman St., N. Y. 
 
 Wholesale Dealers in Photograph Materials, 
 
 Proprietors of the American Optical Co. Works, 
 
SCOVILL’S ROLLER PRESSES. 
 
 The wide reputation these Presses have won in the face of severe 
 competition is due to their merits alone, as they combine all the good 
 qualities which constitute a superior Press. The advantages they pos- 
 sess over all other presses in the market are, Cheapness, Simplic- 
 ity, convenience, with Durability, Ease and Rapidity of working, 
 together with Evenness of Pressure. They are cheaper than any 
 other Press that will finish pictures as well. 
 
 They are the most Simple in Construction of any Press in mar- 
 ket, well and strongly made of the best materials, and therefore 
 are more durable than any other. 
 
 More pictures can be pressed within a specified time, with a finer sur- 
 face and with less expenditure of strength on the part of the operator 
 than with any Bed Plate Press, as the Rollers can be turned with one hand 
 easily, and fed with the other as fast as the cards can be picked up. 
 
 They will finish pictures more evenly than any ordinary Bed Plate 
 Press, having been tried in comparison with every style in market, as 
 we wished to determine which was the best Press manufactured before 
 introducing them, and have satisfied ourselves that the only Bed Plate 
 Press which will finish pictures as well as the Excelsior, is one which 
 costs Three Hundred Dollars. We have also satisfied ourselves, to- 
 gether with many others, that the manner in which a Card is pressed 
 has nothing to do with its curling, as they curl equally alike whether 
 pressed between two rollers or in a Bed Plate Press. 
 
 V r e have completed our arrangements so that we are enabled here- 
 after to offer them at the following reduced prices. AVe shall continue, 
 as heretofore, to keep up the quality, making them not only the Cheap- 
 est but the Best Press in the market, and justly deserving the name of 
 
 “EXOBLSIOB PRESS” 
 
 6 inch Hollers, $10.50. 8 inch Hollers, $10.50. 
 
 O “ '• 11.50. lO “ “ 18.00. 
 
 12 inch, Extra Gearing, $27.50. 
 
SCOVILL 
 
 Manufacturers, Importers, and Dealers in all Articles 
 
 PERTAINING TO 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 4 Beekman St., and 36 Park Row, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 73 Bold St,, Liverpool, England. 
 
 MANUFACTORIES: 
 
 Waterbury, Conn., New Haven, Conn., and 
 New York City. 
 
 All orders shall receive careful attention, and will be filled 
 promptly at the lowest market rates. 
 
 SAMUEL HOLMES, Agent. 
 
 See further Advertisements herein, and in the Photographic 
 Journals.