T T T "» IT -K T T i -r- 
 
CHIMNEYS 
 
 — FOR — 
 
 FURNACES, FIRE-PEACES, 
 
 — AND — 
 
 STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 By R. ARMSTRONG, C. E. 
 f 
 
 SECOND AMERICAN EX5ITI03ST. 
 
 TO WHICH 18 APPENDED AN ESSAY ON 
 
 HIGH CHIMNEYS. 
 
 ,. By, Prof. - L. PI^ZGER,- , \ 
 
 Qf L'EafU Poipt-chnique at AiX-la>Chc~ppelh. 
 
 23 Murray and '27 Warren Street. 
 
 1883. 
 
CHIMNEYS FOR FURNACES 
 
 FIRE-PLACES, 
 
 AND 
 
 STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 PRACTICAL THERMODYNAMIC S. 
 
 Fornaces, or closed fire-places, which it 
 is the main design of this essay to treat 
 upon, arff^essentiaHy.different in .principle 
 and. cons'tim^tiCtfi !to* the. o'sthjaaiy :o}}eA 
 fire-places of dwelling-houses, as they are 
 exceedmgly^iffereirt, ih'.the jgeji.eraj. scope 
 and object, «an<l- m'the *va??t 'variety of 
 their applications ; yet there is one thing- 
 common and important to both, and that 
 is the chimney, or vertical flue, for the 
 purpose of creating a proper draught of 
 air through the fire, as well as to carry 
 off the smoke, or other products of com- 
 bustion ; and it is in the generally in- 
 
4 
 
 creased proportions of this almost in- 
 dispensable adjunct to all furnaces which 
 principally distinguishes the modero from 
 the aricient practice of steam engineer- 
 ing. 
 
 The great development of the manu- 
 facturing system of this country during 
 the last twenty or thirty years, and the 
 erection of a larger description of factories 
 being required, has caused more atten- 
 tion to be devoted to the stability and 
 general economy of such structures, in 
 which the erection of larger chimneys 
 than formerly have in some degree par- 
 .t;cipa$ed,.*but' only ip« a trifling extent 
 'Stow jpijofe^sBonal architect^* "properly, so 
 called. The external portions t of the 
 chimneys: e @f *dwelling\hoi*s«s/naye, no 
 doufelvhad •some "share* of 'attention from 
 architects, but it may be doubted 
 whether the most important function of 
 even a house chimney — the creation of 
 draught —has been adequately considered, 
 even if only to prevent that greatest of 
 all nuisances, a smoky house. In proof 
 of which, many cases might be cited 
 
5 
 
 among the mansions of the nobility and 
 gentry all over the country, as well as in 
 town, where it is less excusable. Indeed, 
 the chimney flues of dwelling-houses are 
 too commonly treated as mere conduits 
 for smoke, as, in fact, they are frequently 
 termed, and as such they are considered 
 equally subordinate with drains and 
 other conduits, which may or may not be 
 attended to after the plan of the house is 
 determined upon, and, in some cases, 
 even after the house is partly erected, 
 instead of being — as I humbly think they 
 ought to be — considered, in an archi- 
 tectural sense at least, of the highest im- 
 portance, as they are, in fact, the highest 
 external features that can in this climate 
 properly characterize the well- ventilated, 
 well-warmed, healthy, and comfortable 
 dwellings of a rational and civilized com- 
 munity. 
 
 It is far from my intention to write a 
 homily on any branch of architecture as 
 an art, but it must be admitted that there 
 are few, if any, subjects of such useful 
 importance connected with architecture 
 
6 
 
 that have been so much neglected, misdi- 
 rected, and misunderstood, as the proper 
 construction of chimneys generally, or 
 their proportions most suitable to the 
 various purposes for which they are de- 
 signed. Such attention as house chim- 
 neys have hitherto received, has been too 
 commonly in respect of their ornamental 
 and decorative character only, even to 
 the extent of erecting fictitious chimneys 
 where there are no flues and none wanted. 
 For all purposes of real utility the house- 
 building architect too often, apparently, 
 contents himself with a single step, and 
 in some respects scarcely so much, in ad- 
 vance of the "hole in the wall" of the 
 ancient Komans, who, however, with all 
 their barbarous simplicity, were, at any 
 rate, never troubled witb down draughts 
 — the universal malady of all English 
 smoky dwelling-houses. 
 
 The labored ornamentation of house- 
 tops, with their numerous little crooked 
 outlets for smoke, though frequently 
 only inlets for wind and rain, mis-termed 
 chimneys, have been the chief degrada- 
 
7 
 
 tion of modern architectural science. 
 The art of erecting chimneys for steam- 
 engines, and for similar purposes, has, 
 however, fared somewhat better, since all 
 the more substantially useful part of 
 architecture, comprising nearly the whole 
 of that appertaining to manufacturing in- 
 dustry, has for some time past, in our 
 northern counties at least, merged into 
 the province of the civil and mechanical 
 engineer, technically known in Lancashire 
 as the factory engineer. 
 
 Factory engineers, however, though 
 differing widely from architects generally 
 on many points, are not at all agreed 
 among themselves as to the best form 
 and construction of a chimney for attain- 
 ing the principal end in view; namely, 
 the best draught at the least expense. In 
 short, the problem of how to give a suffi- 
 cient velocity to the air passing through 
 the fire-grate, with a given temperature 
 in the furnace or in the escaping pro- 
 ducts, and at a minimum rate of con- 
 sumption of the fuel to be used, has 
 scarcely yet received and adequate solu- 
 
8 
 
 tion, even theoretically. Practically, the 
 question has received many solutions — 
 too many, one may say, for the conven- 
 ience of ordinary business men — which 
 circumstance is one of the main causes 
 that has rendered the present work nec- 
 essary, as well as contributing to some 
 of its chief difficulties. The multitude 
 and diversity of opinions on this subject 
 may, in a great measure, be ascribed to 
 the generally prevailing reliance on the 
 dicta of some few popular professors, or 
 rather amateurs, of chemistry; in which 
 category we might also, perhaps without 
 much injustice, include a few so-called 
 scientific guide-books. I am not for de- 
 crying the present inundation of cheap 
 scientific treatises, which is so marked a 
 feature of the times ; but, on the con- 
 trary, think such books cannot be too 
 many nor too cheap, when original or 
 genuine. Such of them, however, as are 
 merely reproductions of the last century, 
 or even the early part of the present, are 
 generally to be deprecated. 
 
 To make a chemical laboratory, for in- 
 
9 
 
 stance, as has sometimes been done, an 
 object of study to the engineer or build- 
 er, however scientifically constructed and 
 arranged, unless, indeed, the object be to 
 erect another laboratory for a similar 
 purpose, is, to say the least, very inju- 
 dicious, and the fruitful source of much 
 error and prejudice in the minds of 
 young men of scientific aspirations. 
 More particularly is this the case when 
 the object in view is the arrangement of 
 factories or works for other special pur- 
 poses ; those purposes being mainly for 
 commercial profit, and not for the mere 
 amusement of amateurs, nor even for the 
 professed advancement of science, which 
 is often little better. 
 
 Holding the above views in common 
 with the factory engineers before adverted 
 to, I have always preferred taking for 
 precedents the blacksmith's forge, the 
 potter's kiln, or the glasshouse chimney, 
 rather than seek mechanical prescrip- 
 tions, so to speak, among the crucibles 
 and alembics of our "modern al- 
 chemists." 
 
10 
 
 With respect to the fire-place itself— 
 the Furnace — to which a chimney of some 
 kind is but a necessary though highly im- 
 portant accessory, it is altogether in a 
 different predicament. The chief peculi- 
 arity relating to Furnaces, is that they 
 have always been, and are necessarily, in 
 the hands, or constantly under the im- 
 mediate control, of the workman himself. 
 To him they are, in a certain sense, his 
 tools — the tools of his trade — and for 
 each special trade comparatively perfect, 
 at least he thinks so. Operative work- 
 men, at any rate, though "reformers" 
 they may be themselves, seldom willingly 
 admit of any reform in their work tools. 
 On this point they are essentially con- 
 servative in all trades, even to the cobler, 
 as he sings, "To loose my awl 't would 
 break my heart," etc. The consequence 
 of this general feeling is that we have an 
 abundance of experiments confirmatory, 
 or otherwise, of any particular innova- 
 tions or alterations in a chimney or fur- 
 nace that effect the draught, which is the 
 only result a workman cares about. If 
 
11 
 
 the alteration turns out an improvement, 
 it is quickly, and almost instinctively, as 
 it were, appreciated; if the reverse, or 
 doubtful, or if even only undecided, it is 
 as quickly rejected and condemned. 
 Generally rather too quickly, in fact, for 
 the interest of such inventors and im- 
 provers as cannot afford to wait for ma- 
 tured results. Hence has arisen a good 
 deal of that great diversity of opinion, 
 not to say theory, even among the most 
 observant of mechanical engineers them- 
 selves. 
 
 The Chimney and Furnace have not 
 been sufficiently considered together, or 
 as one apparatus. The Forge furnace, 
 the Steam Boiler furnace, the Baker's 
 Oven furnace, and the Brick-kiln furnace, 
 may be instanced as four examples of 
 great dissimilarity of purpose ; but from 
 the first to the fourth consecutively, re- 
 quiring a gradually decreasing velocity 
 of draught. The first and the last of the 
 series, being instances of the two oppo- 
 site extremes, requiring the quickest and 
 the slowest draughts, and having in con- 
 
12 
 
 sequence the highest and the lowest tem- 
 peratures. These two extreme cases, 
 moreover, have one peculiarity in com- 
 mon, which is, that it is by many con- 
 sidered a difficult matter to decide in 
 either case where the furnace proper 
 ends, and where the chimney flue begins. 
 Although I shall have to revert to this 
 point more fully in the sequel, it may 
 here be observed that the difficulty 
 alluded to may be greatly lessened by 
 considering that the termination or vent 
 of the Forge or Air furnace for working 
 iron ought to be at no great distance be- 
 yond the point of greatest temperature 
 of the flame, because, in the Forge, or 
 Iron furnace especially, it is the flame 
 that " does the work." Whereas in the 
 other extreme case mentioned— the Brick- 
 kiln — which requires little or no flame, 
 the furnace may be considered to termin- 
 ate at the lowest possible temperature of 
 the issuing hot air, and might in fact do 
 very well with hardly any chimney at all. 
 The other two kinds of furnaces referred 
 to — the Steam-engine furnace and the 
 
13 
 
 Baker's Oven furnace — may be considered 
 generally in an intermediate condition to 
 the above, or in the order in which they 
 are stated, more particularly as respects 
 strength and draught. These two fur- 
 naces have also one trait in common, in 
 so far as they both require regulating 
 while at work, and are capable of permit- 
 ting of variations of temperature through 
 a very considerable range. The steam 
 boiler furnace admits of great delicacy as 
 well — so much so, as to make it, when 
 supplied with proper self-acting dampers, 
 a very efficient regulator or governor to 
 the steam-engine itself. In the Oven 
 furnace, the draught requires to be 
 *.* sharpened " or slackened, from time to 
 time, by hand, to suit the kind of goods 
 undergoing the operation of baking. 
 The steam-engine furnace is like the 
 forge furnace, so far as it requires occa- 
 sionally a very quick action for raising 
 the pressure of steam in a short time, or 
 otherwise, to prevent the steam from go- 
 ing down by some sudden increase of 
 the load on the engine. The Oven fur 
 
14 
 
 nace is not subject to such sudden 
 changes, but rather requires a long-con- 
 tinued, persistent, steady heat. This 
 property of the Oven furnace is mainly 
 caused by the large mass of brickwork 
 with which it is commonly constructed, 
 absorbing and retaining a great deal of 
 heat to begin with. 
 
 The accumulation and retention of 
 heat, or of the power of heating other 
 bodies, by non-conducting or slow-con- 
 ducting substances used in the construc- 
 tion of some furnaces, and the rapid dis- 
 sipation and apparent extinction of the 
 same, by metallic or good conducting 
 substances, in connection with other fur- 
 naces so provided, is perhaps the most 
 interesting branch of this subject, and as 
 anything bearing on this that may serve 
 to elucidate the principles on which 
 sound practice, to say nothing of theory, 
 must be sooner or later established, this 
 introductory Essay appears to be the 
 proper place in which to introduce what 
 is either new, or differently treated and 
 usual. 
 
15 
 
 In following the course here indicated, 
 I am quite aware of the unmethodical ap- 
 pearance it must have : but I have al- 
 ways preferred the rough and useful, 
 though only prospectively recompensed 
 labors of the pioneer's track, to the 
 smooth greensward and well-worn walks 
 of science that often lead " to nowhere." 
 Satisfied if, in going through the still un- 
 explored fields of discovery, I can bring 
 home but a few rough logs towards the 
 building up of the edifice so recently 
 founded for sheltering the yet young 
 though promising science of Heat and 
 its relations, now termed Thermo-dy- 
 namics. 
 
 For the actual state and condition of 
 much of existing knowledge on the sub- 
 ject of heat, there is now no longer occa- 
 sion to go for comparisons back to the 
 times of Bacon, Newton, and Hooke, 
 much as is due to those illustrious phil- 
 osophers. Nor is there any occasion to 
 consult the works of Franklin, Black, 
 Rumford, ond others of their times, nor 
 adopt any of the theories and doctrines 
 
10 
 
 they promulgated. The opinions of 
 those much more reliable authorities — 
 even Young, Dalton, and Davy — cannot 
 now be taken without some little reserve ; 
 but the experiments of their distinguished 
 successors Faraday and Joule, with the 
 praiseworthy labors of Rankine, Tindal, 
 and a few others in the same direction, 
 have more recently furnished results on 
 the subject of the present inquiry which 
 cannot be too highly esteemed, and 
 which with this general acknowledgment, 
 I intend to make a free use of in the 
 course of this work. 
 
 There is no need to extend the present 
 Essay by any long dissertation on the 
 theory of Chimney draught, neither shall 
 I introduce much of what has been ad- 
 vanced by others on that subject, but 
 rather confine these remarks to such ele- 
 mentary facts, principles, and rules as 
 are likely to be useful to those practical 
 engineers, builders and others, whose 
 commercial undertakings— contracts and 
 other exigencies — do not generally ad- 
 mit of long delay, much study, or scien_ 
 
17 
 
 tine research, but who, nevertheless, may- 
 wish to readily avail themselves of a few 
 leading- principles and practical directions, 
 such as may at least prevent them from 
 getting- veiy far wrong. By propounding 
 and exemplifying a series of practical ex- 
 amples of cases that can be now re- 
 ferred to in actual use, it is hoped that 
 the most casual reader will be able to ac- 
 company me with confidence and satis- 
 faction through the rest of these Essays. 
 
 THE STEAM- HEATING CHIMNEY. 
 
 The questions of most interest in con- 
 nection with large chimneys, and those 
 usually the first asked, after the impor- 
 tant one of cost, by the capitalist who has 
 determined on some considerable outlay, 
 either in erecting a new shaft or rebuild- 
 ing an old one, may be classed under two 
 principal heads — namely, the external 
 and the internal proportions. 
 
 Whether the external form of a hollow 
 shaft of brickwork or masonry of consid- 
 erable elevation, in this climate and 
 country, should be a plain obelisk, or a 
 
18 
 
 finely proportioned architectural column, 
 is a question that does not admit of much 
 difficulty in deciding. Most engineers 
 are no doubt properly inclined to the 
 opinion that for so entirely utilitarian a 
 purpose as a chimney, the former is the 
 most preferable. It is, however, quite a 
 matter of architectural taste as to how it 
 may harmonize with surrounding objects, 
 and the last thing in the world, perhaps, 
 that engineers ought to dogmatize upon. 
 Whether the form of such a column 
 should affect great simplicity — a simple 
 truncated cone or pyramid, for instance, 
 decreasing uniformly in diameter up- 
 wards ; or whether it should affect great 
 stability, like the trunk of the oak, pro- 
 verbially the shape for withstanding a 
 severe gale of wind ; or, ought a chimney 
 shaft to be erected with a variable batter, 
 like a lighthouse or a monument on the 
 sea-coast — these are all questions requir- 
 ing some consideration in designing a 
 chimney for general purposes ; but for 
 the chimney of a steam-engine other 
 
19 
 
 especial requirements of far greater im- 
 portance are to be considered. 
 
 It is the internal proportions of a chim- 
 ney shaft only— its height and sectional 
 area — that principally concern the steam 
 engineer. Until these essential internal 
 proportions are first agreed upon, we are 
 not in a position to discuss the external 
 proportions with advantage. 
 
 In fixing on the proper dimensions of 
 the vertical smoke flue, or inside of a 
 steam-engine chimney, it is a question 
 with many whether it should, as is most 
 commonly done, be tapered internally or 
 diminished in area towards the top; or 
 whether it ought to be parallel— as wide 
 at top as at bottom— in order to have the 
 greatest velocity of draught. Or, again, 
 ought a chimney to be, as some few ec- 
 centric engineers contend, and occasion- 
 ally carry into execution, even wider at 
 the top than the bottom 1 
 
 These questions are all deserving of 
 attentive consideration, and will receive 
 ample illustration in the sequel. But 
 there is another question quite as impor- 
 
20 
 
 tant as any of the above, and requiring a 
 prior consideration. It is thus enunci- 
 ated : What are the proper dimensions- 
 height and area— of a chimney shaft most 
 suitable for a steam-engine of any given 
 number of horse-power, or, which is 
 nearly the same thing, for burning away 
 a given quantity of coals per hour ? The 
 proper answer to this question depends a 
 good deal on the quality of the coals 
 used and the quantity of waste gase- 
 ous products arising from their generally 
 imperfect combustion in the furnace. 
 The best Newcastle or Hartley coals, and 
 the best Welsh steam coal, though re- 
 quiring very different treatment in the 
 furnace, are found equally in practice not 
 to require such large chimneys as the in- 
 ferior coals of the midland and manufac- 
 turing districts of England. Under these 
 circumstances it will perhaps be most ad- 
 visable, in the first instance, to base our 
 observations and calculations on such 
 practical data as those districts so readily 
 afford, more particularly those of Lanca- 
 shire, South Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and 
 
21 
 
 Staffordshire. Another reason for adopt- 
 ing those data is, that the usual stoking 
 and management of the fires in those dis- 
 tricts may be described as a fair medium 
 between the north and the south, between 
 the Newcastle and the Cornish practice. 
 There is one feature in common between 
 the northern and southern practice 
 that may be mentioned, which is, that 
 the engines in both districts are generally 
 very lightly loaded, compared with those 
 in the manufacturing districts ; the lat- 
 ter being very seldom, indeed, working 
 at less than 50 per cent, above their nomi- 
 nal horse-power, and commonly more 
 than double their real or indicated horse- 
 power. 
 
 The last-mentioned circumstance fur- 
 nishes us with the reason for the maxim 
 so long prevalent in Lancashire, that a 
 steam-engine chimney, leaving all consid- 
 erations of cost out of the question, can 
 never be too large nor too powerful, pro- 
 vided it is supplied with efficient means 
 for checking the draught, by properly 
 fitted dampers or otherwise, whereby the 
 
22 
 
 supply of steam can be readily controlled 
 at any moment, so as to work the engine 
 at one-half its full power, and using con- 
 siderably less than one-half the power of 
 draught of the chimney ; for which pur- 
 pose the ordinary damper (say 3 ft. long) 
 of a thirty-horse engine ought to be open 
 only to the extent of 3 to 6 in., thus hav- 
 ing a surplus draught always at command 
 for emergencies. 
 
 Another feature of this question arising 
 from the practice of working steam-en- 
 gines with inferior fuel, is the large pro- 
 portion of dirt and small ashes derived 
 from the burning of the bad coal— the 
 " flue- dust "—which accumulates to an 
 enormous extent within the flues and on 
 the bottom of the chimney. Much of 
 this fine dust— all the finer particles 
 especially, and to a much greater extent 
 than has hitherto been suspected, or at 
 least recognized— passes up and out of 
 the chimney top under the appearance of 
 smoke, but which even veteran "smoke 
 burners " generally are surprised to find 
 is neither carbonaceous soot nor combus- 
 
23 
 
 tible gas, but principally incombustible 
 earthy and silicious dust. 
 
 In appealing to the practice of our 
 best engineers respecting the proper area 
 of the vertical chimney flue of a steam- 
 engine, there is no occasion to go back to 
 the times of Brindley and Smeaton — 
 when steam-engines were called fire-en- 
 gines, and the firemen first called stokers 
 excepting for the purpose of making a 
 single reference to the early practice of 
 the celebrated James Watt, which strik- 
 ingly illustrates, not only the difficulty of 
 determining a priori the right propor- 
 tions of a chimney, but also the admir- 
 able caution and prudence observed by him 
 in this, as in other matters, so remark- 
 ably conspicuous in the eminently practi- 
 cal mind of that great man. 
 
 After Mr. Watt had once ascertained 
 the best size and proportions of a chim- 
 ney most suitable for a given size of 
 boiler and engine, he did not at first, as 
 almost any tyro of the present day would 
 not hesitate to do — venture to throw the 
 draught of two such or similar boilers 
 
into one chimney of a larger area, so that 
 the same outlet might serve for the 
 smoke from both furnaces, but he actu- 
 ally erected two such chimneys alongside 
 each other! Or, occasionally, he did 
 what was equivalent thereto : in erecting 
 a chimney for two boilers, he would 
 build up a midfeather, or division wall, 
 from bottom to top, in order to separate 
 the two draught currents from each 
 other, in the same manner as in house 
 chimneys. Had we not the evidence of 
 yet existing erections to the fact, such a 
 statement at this distance of time might 
 be considered scarcely credible.* 
 
 From all accounts of Mr. Watt's early 
 practice, it may be fairly inferred that he 
 did not theorize much respecting the 
 
 * Two united chimneys of this kind were, not many 
 years afro, in use, with two of Boulton and Watt's 
 original 20-horse boilers, in the cotton-spinning works 
 of Messrs. John Pooley & Sons, in Manchester. The 
 case was remarkable, from the fact that the engineer 
 of the firm once attempted to improve (as he thought) 
 the draught of the chimney by breaking an opening 
 through the midfeather, in order that the smoke 
 might ml' both flues. The result was, the draught was 
 entirely lost, and the communication had to be closed 
 up again before the engine could be got to work. 
 
25 
 
 height of engine chimneys ; for, having 
 succeeded in doubling the effect of the 
 steam-engine itself, for the same amount 
 of fuel previously used, he found no diffi- 
 culty in making a low chimney suffice, 
 such, in fact, as were then in use for the 
 old atmospheric engines, and occasionally 
 to be seen in the mining districts at the 
 present time. Those primitive erections, 
 however — mere outlets for smoke — can 
 now hardly be considered as chimneys 
 at all, seldom exceeding an elevation of 
 two or three yards higher than the top of 
 the boiler. So soon, however, as the 
 double-powered steam-engine came into 
 use, which quadrupled in effect the "old 
 atmospheric," and often exceeded that, 
 when applied to turning machinery in 
 towns, it was found that the speed of the 
 engine was often reduced for want of 
 steam, and that again for want of sufficient 
 draught. This last was occasioned, not 
 unfrequently, strange as the words may 
 now sound in the ears of modern engine- 
 drivers, by an " unfavorable wind ! " 
 Prior to the times we are speaking of 
 
26 
 
 the height of an engine chimney shaft, or 
 stack of chimneys, as on Mr. Watt's sys- 
 tem the chimney was, in fact, did not 
 then appear to be of much consequence, 
 provided it exceeded that of the neigh- 
 boring buildings, and any precedents 
 that then existed for the area of the aper- 
 ture or exit passage of the smoke were 
 like those for the height — of a very anti- 
 quated and empirical character. The 
 size and shape of the superior orifice of 
 a chimney was, in fact, even within the 
 present century, regulated by no fixed 
 rule, but was variously modified, as well 
 also in diameter and area, from accident- 
 al circumstances — often by considerations 
 as to what could be made safely to stand, 
 should the chimney require raising a 
 little higher than usual, or than first in- 
 tended. The numerous envious rivals of 
 Boulton and Watt in the early part of the 
 present century, the Sheratts, Murray s, 
 and others of that time, whose almost 
 universal rule was to give "one inch 
 more in diameter of cylinder than Watt" 
 for the same nominal horse-power, "and 
 
27 
 
 for a great deal less money," had no 
 little share in helping to mend this state 
 of things. They all knew pretty well 
 how important it was to have a little 
 extra steam, to meet the possible imper- 
 fect performances of their engines, and 
 this a very few inches or feet of extra 
 brickwork in the width and height of the 
 chimney always gave them the command 
 of, though this was often done at the cas- 
 ual suggestion of the bricklayer. In this 
 matter, as with a corresponding sugges- 
 tion of raising the height of the feed- 
 pipes, which was often complied with 
 professedly to suit the convenience of the 
 stoker in preventing boilng over, it gen- 
 erally resulted in raising the pressure of 
 the steam — an infallible remedy for al- 
 most all other deficiencies. Thus it occa- 
 sionally happened that the trifling or crude 
 suggestion of the bricklayer or stoker, in 
 some instances, turned favorably the tide 
 of success, which first founded the estab- 
 lishment of some of the largest engineer- 
 ing firms. 
 
 It is owing to similar circumstances to 
 
28 
 
 those just referred to that we have so 
 many examples of engine and other chim- 
 neys in most of our old provincial towns, 
 which, on being raised higher than at 
 first intended, have been stayed from 
 time to time by means of iron tie-rods, 
 and hooped with iron bands. These iron 
 rods, props and crutches to chimneys are 
 much resorted to in breweries, distil- 
 leries, malt kilns, and other large works, 
 as well in London as in different parts 
 of the south of England, and are very 
 far from being any indication of want of 
 great prosperity in the commercial and 
 manufacturing concerns to which they 
 are attached. In their apparent condi- 
 tion they are the very opposite to the 
 establishments of even second-rate manu- 
 facturers in Lancashire. 
 
 So far as economy of fuel is concerned, 
 the great prosperity and wealth of the 
 former seems to be in defiance of extrava- 
 gant waste and temporary expedients ; 
 while in the latter it arises in a great 
 measure from well-considered permanent 
 arrangements in all that concerns their 
 
29 
 
 engines, boilers and furnaces. The ne- 
 cessity of artificial helps to the stability 
 of a chimney is a sure manifestation of 
 great waste of fuel, by unnecessary stok- 
 ing and forcing the fires, and thereby 
 overheating the chimneys through inade- 
 quate area of flue. On the other hand, 
 we may instance the air furnaces and 
 kilns of the iron works and potteries of 
 Staffordshire, where there is some degree 
 of necessity for resorting to the expe- 
 dients referred to, on account of the much 
 higher temperature required by the pro- 
 cess going on within the furnace. 
 
 The chimneys, or cone, of an iron fur- 
 nace, an earthenware kiln, or a glass- 
 house, is, in fact, a part of the furnace it- 
 self, or at least ought to be so considered, 
 and necessarily becomes heated by the 
 flame passing into, through, or among 
 the materials and articles of manufacture 
 it contains. This peculiarity, which is 
 also common to many varieties of chemi- 
 cal furnaces as well as to pottery kilns, is 
 the main cause of the very strong draught 
 therein obtained* 
 
30 
 
 In the case of a steam engine boiler 
 furnace, however, it is well known that 
 no such thing as the flame passing off 
 into the chimney, nor even into a flue 
 leading thereto, after leaving the bottom 
 or internal tube of the boiler, is admis- 
 sible with the slightest attention to econ- 
 omy of fuel. It requires but little con- 
 sideration to convince us that the flame 
 of a steam-engine furnace ought to be 
 wholly expended against the boiler bot- 
 tom, or, where internal furnaces or flues 
 are used, entirely within the boiler itself, 
 in which case the draught is created solely 
 by the ascensional force of the column of 
 waste air or smoke within the chimney, 
 heated to the comparatively moderate 
 temperature of 500 or 600 deg. 
 
 Thus it will be observed, there is a 
 wide distinction to be made between these 
 two species of furnaces ; the steam-en- 
 gine furnace approaching more nearly, in 
 its moderate temperature, economy, and 
 other circumstances, to the enclosed house 
 stove, or at least to the kitchen fire-place, 
 or cooking range. In these, the grate- 
 
31 
 
 room or furnace proper, and the chimney 
 or smoke flue, are essentially separate 
 and distinct parts, though in the best 
 construction of engine furnaces they are 
 rendered more perfectly so by interpos- 
 ing what has been always considered and 
 properly termed the flame chamber, or 
 flame bed,* by practical engineers. 
 
 On the other hand, in the action of the 
 air furnaces of a potter's kiln, in which 
 the vertical flame chamber and chimney 
 are both in one, or in the small furnaces 
 of a chemist's laboratory, arranged for 
 producing very perfect combustion and 
 the most intense heats only, of two or 
 three thousand degrees and upwards, we 
 find a very different state of things to 
 that of a steam boiler, requiring a heat 
 only a little beyond that of boiling 
 Water. 
 
 * Several other more or less affected terms are ap- 
 plied to this part of a furnace by the ultra-chemical 
 school of smoke prevention patentees ; such as mix- 
 ing chamber and diffusing chamber, of which the 
 term combustion chamber is perhaps the least inap- 
 propriate, although, in reality, combustion goes on 
 more vigorously in the grate-room than anywhere 
 else. 
 
32 
 
 The importance of the distinctions we 
 have thus endeavored — though perhaps 
 imperfectly— to point out, though well 
 understood by practical firemen, has been 
 much underrated, and the cause of some 
 dogmatism and misapprehension, espe- 
 cially on the smoke question. From this 
 mixing up of different species of furnaces, 
 intended for totally different objects and 
 processes of art, though each may be 
 practically perfect for the purpose it is 
 intended for, very incorrect conclusions 
 only have been deduced by some scien- 
 tific writers. Waiving, therefore, for the 
 present any further consideration in this 
 place of the variable opinions of those 
 chemists who have not yet been able to 
 define satisfactorily where the steam-en- 
 gine or other furnace (proper) ends, or 
 where the chimney flue begins, — and dis- 
 missing also the calculations of those 
 really able mathematicians on the subject 
 of the velocity of draught, whose con- 
 clusions on the question have, unfortu- 
 nately, differed from each other by nearly 
 500 per cent, we shall next proceed to de- 
 
33 
 
 scribe the design for a steam engine 
 chimney, hastily improvised for a partic- 
 clar occasion, and which, on being prop- 
 erly executed, happened to be right. We 
 use this expression purposely, not wish- 
 ing to claim any particular merit for the 
 design itself, and do not say how many 
 others we may have taken more pains 
 with, that, from various causes, have 
 turned out less successful, although as in- 
 structive lessons, some such may be re- 
 ferred to in the sequel. 
 
 In order to elucidate the object of this 
 chapter still further, and tu show what 
 confused and erroneous notions on the 
 subject of draught in chimneys have 
 been, from time to time, prevalent, even 
 in so generally intelligent and eminently 
 manufacturing a town as Manchester, the 
 following extract from a letter addressed 
 to one of the newspapers in that city is 
 inserted, together with my reply thereto. 
 The article was entitled " Smoke and Long 
 Chimneys," and commenced as follows : 
 
 "The writer proposes that, instead of 
 erecting a long chimney for a steam -en- 
 
34 
 
 gine furnace, a very long and wide flue or 
 chamber should be built, contiguous to 
 the furnace. Take an area of ten yards 
 by twenty, more or less, according to the 
 size of the furnace, wall it round 10 ft. 
 high, and build three or four crosswalls, 
 3 ft. short of the length of the chamber, 
 each alternately, the alternate end of each 
 wall being tied "into the outer walls, arch- 
 ing the whole over from wall to wall, or 
 covering it with flags (any more conve- 
 nient form might be adopted, provided 
 the length and height of the flue was ob- 
 tained) — the smoke and rarefied air from 
 the furnace to be conveyed by an ordi- 
 ary-sized flue into it at one corner, pass- 
 ing through it zig-zag to the end, and 
 then up the chimney, which need not be 
 higher than the buildings around. There 
 should be a door into it, at some conve- 
 nient place, to take out the soot ; and at 
 the first time it was started it would be 
 necessary to put in a quantity of shavings 
 and light them, in order to start the 
 draught; this would only be required 
 when it was first commenced with, or 
 
35 
 
 after it had been a long time out of 
 use. 
 
 " The writer conceives that, when the 
 flue is filled with the smoke and rarefied 
 air from the furnace, there would be a 
 partial — and but a partial — vacuum in the 
 flue, or that the volume of air in it would 
 not be of equal density with the surround- 
 ing atmosphere, and that the difference 
 in the specific gravity of the smoke and 
 hot air in the whole flue, and the like 
 quantity of atmosphere, would be so 
 great that the air would rush through 
 the furnace with great force to effect an 
 equilibrium, thereby creating an intense 
 draught — the great desideratum in build- 
 ing long chimneys, which is prevented 
 taking place (the equilibrium) by its be- 
 ing rarefied by combustion in passing 
 through the furnace. 
 
 " Suppose, after the flue was filled with 
 smoke and rarefied air, the communica- 
 tion from the furnace was cut off by a 
 damper, and another one opened for the 
 atmosphere to pass into the flue, would 
 there not be a very strong draught into 
 
36 
 
 it, intense at first, and progressively di- 
 minishing till an equilibrium was effected? 
 The malt kiln has large flues or chambers 
 under the perforated tiles, into which the 
 hot air generated in the fire passes, and, 
 without the aid of any chimney, has a 
 strong draught. 
 
 " The baker's oven, when heated by a 
 fire in what they designate a wagon, has 
 a very strong draught, entirely owing to 
 the space the smoke and hot air has to 
 spread in, before passing to the chimney. 
 The same oven, when heated by a fire 
 spread on the bottom in the common 
 way, has a very poor draught, the oven 
 being converted into a fire-place without 
 any hot-air chambers or large horizontal 
 flue. The reason why the wagon plan is 
 not in more general use, is owing to the 
 wagon being so soon burnt out, arising 
 from the strong draught. It is an almost 
 universally received opinion that horizon- 
 tal flues check a draught ; but this, I con- 
 ceive, arises from their being generally 
 made of the same size as the flue of the 
 chimney. 
 
37 
 
 Have not some of the recent builders 
 of long chimneys, to supersede several 
 smaller ones, planted them at some dis- 
 tance from their furnaces, and made a 
 horizontal flue to carry all their draughts 
 to the chimney ? and when they have 
 turned the first draught into it they have 
 had a very strong one ; but as they have 
 added the others, the draught has pro- 
 gressively diminished. The width of the 
 large chimney is made too large for one 
 draught, consequently the atmosphere 
 would descend the chimney and create a 
 down-draught, diminishing the advantage 
 of its height for one draught ; but as the 
 rest of the draughts were put in, the 
 down-draught would be less and less, and 
 when all were put in, the smoke and hot 
 air would fill the chimney to the top, hav- 
 ing the whole benefit which its elevation 
 is supposed to give, — demonstrating, as 
 I conceive, that the horizontal flue, which 
 was constructed wide for several flues to 
 run into, is the occasion of the superior 
 draught, when only one was put in, and 
 not the long chimney. 
 
38 
 
 " As respects the smoke when it is pass- 
 ing through the proposed flue, from the 
 great space it has to pass in, it moves 
 slowly along, though the draught is 
 quick. From this circumstance, and the 
 rarefaction of the air in it, he conceives 
 it will have time to condense and fall to 
 the bottom of the flue before it arrives at 
 the chimney. But to render this desir- 
 able object more complete, he thinks that 
 if the condensing water from the engine 
 was introduced by a siphon pipe into the 
 flue next to the furnace, and passed along 
 its whole length in a gutter, and taken 
 out near the chimney by another siphon 
 pipe, the steam that would arise from the 
 water would partly be absorbed by the 
 floating particles of soot, and sooner fall 
 to the bottom. 
 
 "The writer some time ago, erected a 
 flue, or chambers, similar to what he has 
 described, to destroy coal tar. He set 
 fire to a quantity of shavings in the flue, 
 and then lighted the coal tar in the fire- 
 place, calculating that it would burn 
 slowly, and that the soot would all be 
 
30 
 
 deposited at the bottom of the flue. 
 When ignited, it blazed most furiously, 
 and passed through the small into the 
 large flue with such rapidity, owing to 
 the intense draught, and the flame was 
 carried such a distance in, that the cham- 
 ber would soon have been destroyed, be- 
 ing covered with flags, that he had it put 
 out as expeditiously as possible. He 
 then had small low arches built over the 
 fire-place, leaving out a brick here and 
 there, by which means he checked the 
 draught, which was still sufficiently 
 strong for the purpose, and not a parti- 
 cle of soot issued from the chimney, all 
 being deposited at the bottom of the flue. 
 The chimney, if it could be so called, 
 was not more than eighteen inches high, 
 and not more than three feet above the 
 level of the flue from the fire-place. 
 
 (Signed) "A Constant Reader." 
 
 The writer of the foregoing letter was 
 a well-known engineer in Manchester, and 
 at the time of its publication, his opinions 
 on the subject treated on were highly 
 valued by several of the manufacturers, 
 
40 
 
 who placed the matter in my hands for 
 the purpose of investigation, and the 
 result was the following letter addressed 
 to the editor of the same paper : 
 
 "The proposal of your correspondent 
 for attaching long horizontal flues or 
 chambers to steam-engine furnaces, if 
 carried into effect, so far from serving as 
 a substitute for long chimneys, would 
 render them more than ever necessary. 
 Nothing can be better established among 
 practical men conversant with the subject 
 than the fact, that every interruption or 
 bend in the flue of a furnace acts as a 
 check to the draught, and where such 
 checks or interruptions occur, there is 
 generally found a deposit of soot or 
 dust, which otherwise would have found 
 its way through the flue and out at the 
 chimney top. 
 
 "With respect to the strong draughts 
 generally obtained at a malt-kiln or a ba- 
 ker's oven, very little consideration is re- 
 quired to see that the draught in such 
 cases depends upon quite a different 
 principle to that of a steam-engine fur- 
 
41 
 
 nace. In those, the draught is, in great 
 part, owing to the great mass of brick- 
 work and other materials (generally sub- 
 stances that retain heat a long time) 
 used in their construction, becoming 
 heated to a considerable degree at the 
 commencement, and from which, by the 
 nature of the operations carried on, the 
 heat is but slowly abstracted. Hence 
 the velocity of the current of air passing 
 through the furnace is accelerated in 
 proportion to the length of the flues, or 
 area of heated surface, and, a very small 
 chimney is therefore sufficient. Where- 
 as, in the case of a steam-engine boiler, 
 things are very different, for here we 
 have the fire generally surrounded by an 
 extensive surface of iron plate, kept com- 
 paratively cool by the contained water 
 rapidly abstracting the heat in the gener- 
 ation of steam. And, in order that this 
 abstraction of the heat by the water 
 should be as complete as possible, before 
 the smoke is allowed to pass off into the 
 chimney, numberless contrivances have 
 been resorted to ; as is exemplified in the 
 
42 
 
 multiflue boiler of Messrs. Booth and 
 Stephenson, to the application of which 
 to locomotive purposes, we are undoubt- 
 edly indebted for the only efficient sys- 
 tem of economical traveling by railway. 
 
 "You must easily perceive, that with 
 any regard to economy especially, how 
 important it is in the generation of steam, 
 that the smoke should leave the boiler at 
 a comparatively low temperature ; and if 
 so* its tendency to ascend must be very 
 small; particularly when you recollect 
 that carbonic acid, which is one of the 
 principal products of the combustion of 
 coal, is considerably heavier than at- 
 mospheric air of the same temperature. 
 Hence exists the absolute necessity of 
 assisting the draught by the superior 
 levity of a column of heated air, as com- 
 pared to that of a similar column of the 
 external atmosphere, the pressure of 
 which, bj a well-known hydrostatical 
 law, is in a certain direct ratio to its per- 
 pendicular height, and is quite independ- 
 ent of its other dimensions. 
 
 "It requires no theoretical elucidation, 
 
43 
 
 and very little scientific knowledge, to 
 understand the great difference there is 
 in principle between the firing of a steam- 
 engine boiler and the heating of a baker's 
 oven. Almost any one, I should think, 
 who pays common attention to such sub- 
 jects must be aware of it ; and the same 
 may be said of a gas retort furnace, or of 
 a brick-kiln. In these it is the mass of 
 non-conducting matter heated, and the 
 slow abstraction of this heat, leaving a 
 large surplus to pass up the chimney, 
 which is the principal cause of draught. 
 On the contrary, in the furnace of a 
 steam-engine boiler, the largest possible 
 quantity of heating surface (but as re- 
 gards its effects on the draught it may 
 more properly be called cooling surface), 
 composed of the best conducting sub- 
 stance, is, or ought to be, exposed to the 
 current of hot air ; consequently the 
 main flues and chimneys of such furnaces 
 are nearly as cool as the external at- 
 mosphere. Therefore, unless an artificial 
 blast is used, as in the locomotives and 
 some other high-pressure engines, the 
 
44 
 
 adoption of long chimneys is altogether 
 unavoidable. 
 
 "If manufacturers who employ steam- 
 engines were at all likely to be induced 
 to increase so important an item of their 
 expenditure as that of fuel, for the mere 
 purpose of heating their chimneys — which 
 is evidently the principle of your corre- 
 spondent's scheme — it might be worth 
 while showing him that the great desider- 
 atum of smoke burning would thereby 
 be rendered more difficult of attainment 
 than ever. Of this, indeed any one who 
 admits the facts, which all must do — that 
 for burning or preventing smoke we re- 
 quire an increased heat of the fire, and 
 for increasing the heat of the fire we 
 require an increased draught through 
 the fire, rather than through the flue — it 
 is only necessary to observe what takes 
 place when a chimney is on fire, to be 
 convinced of what I now state. In such 
 case the draught is all in the flue instead 
 of the fire-place, where it ought to be; 
 and, of course, the heat is then all at the 
 wrong end of the chimney. 
 
45 
 
 " That checking tbe draught of a fur- 
 nace by brickwork or other obstructions 
 in the flues, may be termed a preventive 
 of smoke, is admitted — partly by causing 
 a deposit of soot in the flues, but princi- 
 pally from the smoke not being so rapidly 
 generated. In the latter particular it 
 bears some resemblance to many other 
 plans strongly recommended in your and 
 other papers for years past, as I have no 
 doubt many other similar plans will, for 
 good and substantial reasons, independ- 
 ent of their merits or demerits, con- 
 tinue to be recommended for years to 
 come. The principle of all the plans we 
 are alluding to is the same, and equiva- 
 lent to the notable expedient of keeping 
 the furnace door open until the fire ceases 
 to smoke. In other words, they amount, 
 in the generality of cases, to a complete 
 conversion of tbe furnace, for a time, to 
 the condition of a common open house- 
 fire. Of course, under such circum- 
 stances, the prevention of much smoke 
 becomes a very easy matter, for very lit- 
 tle is generated ; and owing to the same 
 
46 
 
 circumstances, I must also add, very little 
 steam ! 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 "An Advocate for Long Chimneys." 
 
 examples of engine chimneys. 
 
 The Mayfield Experimental Chim- 
 neys. — The original design for the pro- 
 portions and dimensions of this chimney 
 were made by the author for the well- 
 known firm of Thomas Hoyle & Sons, the 
 eminent calico printers of Manchester, 
 and the chimney was erected for them by 
 the equally well-known builders, Messrs. 
 David Bellhouse & Sons, of that city, 
 several years ago. Its total cost, includ- 
 ing the foundation, which was 10 ft. deep, 
 by 15 ft. square at the bottom, very little 
 exceeded £ 100. 
 
 The shaft of this chimney is octagonal 
 in plan, about 2 ft. 10£ in. wide externally 
 at the top, and 5 ft. at bottom. It stands 
 on a pedestal of 8 ft. square, which to- 
 gether with the shaft make up a total 
 height of 90 ft. from the ground — that 
 being the lowest elevation allowed by the 
 
47 
 
 police regulations of the then borough of 
 Manchester. The whole height from the 
 base of the foundation being 100 ft., and 
 about 88 ft. from the level of the fire- 
 grate, which is the proper datum line 
 from which all calculations respecting the 
 draught is to be taken. The whole, ex- 
 cepting the stone cap and cornice, being 
 of brickwork. 
 
 The shaft has a batter, externally of 
 one inch to the yard, which is the usual 
 rate, in this part of Lancashire. In the 
 northern and hilly parts of the country — 
 say about Preston and Oldham — a batter 
 of one and a quarter inch to the yard is 
 more generally used. 
 
 The work at the bottom of the shaft is 
 19 in. thick, and that of the top is 9 in. 
 The shaft is entirely octagonal inside 
 throughout down to the bottom, and 
 externally to the top of the pedestal. 
 
 The internal capacity of the chimney, 
 together with the short flue connecting it 
 with the boiler, to which it is attached, is 
 about 50 cubic yards. 
 
 The internal horizontal area of the nar- 
 
48 
 
 rowest part of the aperture at the top of 
 the chimney is about 1,000 sq. in., which, 
 as it was intended to make the chimney 
 large enough for about 50 horse power, 
 gives about 20 sq. in. area for each horse 
 power ; while, as above stated, there was 
 about one cubic yard capacity in the 
 chimney for the same. 
 
 Although the proportion of 20 sq. in. 
 area of chimney aperture, for each horse 
 power of a steam-engine, had been gener- 
 ally accounted in Lancashire to be "ac- 
 cording to Boulton and Watt," neither 
 that nor the proportion of a cubic yard 
 of capacity per horse power was adopted 
 from any theoretical rule or previously 
 determined opinion, excepting that they 
 were nearly the average of some of the 
 best chimneys we were then well ac- 
 quainted with. For, although Tredgold's 
 rule had been published a few years pre- 
 viously, and was generally considered to 
 be founded on principles pretty nearly 
 correct, it was very evident that author 
 himself had not sufficient knowledge of 
 the working of steam-engines to enable 
 
49 
 
 him to obtain proper constants for the 
 practical application of his own calcula- 
 tions, simple and admirable as the latter 
 generally were. There only, in fact, 
 wanted a more careful selection of data to 
 render his formulae highly valuable to the 
 practical engine-maker. 
 
 The proprietors of the Mayfield Print- 
 works—the intimate friends, disciples and 
 patrons of the celebrated John Dalton, 
 the great reformer of chemistry, who was 
 at the time of these experiments, as he 
 had been for some years previously, our 
 constant visitor and adviser in scientific 
 matters — were not the kind of men to be 
 easily led astray by Tredgold's, or any 
 other mere theoretical rules about steam- 
 engines, however flourishing the algebra 
 by which they might be surrounded. 
 They had in fact wisely resolved to erect 
 this experimental chimney for the very 
 purpose of acquiring for themselves ac- 
 curate experimental knowledge and cor- 
 rect practical data in all that relates to 
 chimneys and boilers; including also, 
 though not at the time, an essential ob- 
 
50 
 
 jec'', a little smoke burning by the way; 
 in all of which, not only Tredgold, but 
 most other theoretical writers on the 
 steam-engine, appeared to them clearly 
 deficient. 
 
 On referring to Tredgold's rule, in his 
 well-known work "The Steam Engine," 
 we found him recommending what ren- 
 dered his authority entirely nugatory in 
 the matter of chimneys — namely, that " a 
 chimney of double the size given by the 
 rule should be built ; " and, as if con- 
 scious of the great inconsistency — to say 
 the least — of giving us this kind of in- 
 struction, he adds the following very 
 lame reason: "because the expense," he 
 states, "bears a small ratio to the increase 
 of size, and it may afterwards be con- 
 venient if considerably larger than is 
 necessary for the engine it is erected 
 for?" Now, although Tredgold, justly or 
 unjustly, up to that time had stood fore- 
 most in the application of high mathe- 
 matical acquirements to the improvement 
 of the steam-engine, advice of this kind 
 necessarily demolished all confidence in 
 
51 
 
 his book as a scientific guide on the sub- 
 ject of chimneys. 
 
 The extract above quoted from Tred- 
 gold is followed up by an example in 
 which the side of a square chimney for 
 a 40-horse engine is calculated to be 
 equal to 23 in. "But" he adds, "I 
 would advise to build a chimney 33 in. 
 square ! " 
 
 The rule and the example, as given in 
 Woolhouse's edition of Tredgold's work 
 (Art. 275), published in 1833, after the 
 author's death, are as follows : 
 
 " Rule — The area of a chimney in inches, 
 for a low-pressure steam engine, when 
 above 10 horse power, should be 112 
 times the horse power of the engine, di- 
 vided by the square root of the height of 
 the chimney in feet. 
 
 "Example— Required the area of a 
 chimney for an engine of 40-horse power, 
 the height of it being 70 ft. 
 
 "In this case 
 
 40X112 = 4480 g . n 
 
 V70 8.4 
 
 "The square root of this is 23 in., which 
 
52 
 
 will be the side of a square chimney. Or, 
 multiply 533 by 1.27, and extract the 
 square root for the diameter of a circular 
 one." 
 
 Now, as my present purpose is the prac- 
 tical one of showing how a chimney for 
 the furnace of a steam-engine boiler 
 ought to be built, and what are its pro- 
 portions, in order best to answer the ob- 
 ject in view, namely, the obtainment of a 
 good draught with stability and econo- 
 my — I shall, at least in the first instance, 
 purposely waive all theoretical refine- 
 ments of calculation until a rough outline 
 of the method of proceeding be fairly 
 established. To effect this in the most 
 simple and direct manner, I depend far 
 more on practice than theory, on example 
 rather than precept — a mode of proceed- 
 ure analogous to that of teaching any 
 common mechanical trade, which I have 
 occasionally resorted to on other sub- 
 jects, with a certain measure of success. 
 
 In Weale's large edition of " Tredgold 
 on the Steam Engine," in 4 quarto vol- 
 umes, 1852, edited up to page 116, by the 
 
53 
 
 late Professor James Hann, of King's 
 College, and thence up to page 308 by 
 the present writer, I gave, in the notes, 
 some examples of these calculations for 
 chimneys adapted to practical data first 
 discovered — at least, collected and ar- 
 ranged—by the late Joshua Milne, Esq., 
 of Shaw, near Oldham, some years prior 
 to the first publication of Tredgold's 
 work, in which the area of the chimney 
 is expressed in square feet instead of 
 inches. Adapting Tredgold's rule to Mr. 
 Milne's data, it only requires the constant 
 multiplier 112 to be substituted by 280, 
 and the calculation in the above case will 
 then stand as follows: 
 
 40X28C I = 11 2 200_ = 33 ^ 
 V70 8.4 
 instead of 533; a result nearly three 
 times as much as that obtained by Tred- 
 gold, and the square root of which is 36£ 
 in. for the side of the square chimney, 
 instead of 23 in., as before. That is to 
 say, about 3 ft. and 2 ft. square, respect- 
 ively. 
 
 It is obviously much better to simplify 
 
54 
 
 such practical rules as these, by using 
 the same denomination for both dimen- 
 sions, the height and the area, or the 
 diameter of the chimney. And since the 
 large expensive edition of Tredgold as 
 above referred to, as published by Weale, 
 which has been until recently in a great 
 measure a sealed book to many practical 
 men, is now in the hands of a more 
 liberal and enterprising publisher, who 
 has made it more accessible by reducing 
 it to less than one-half its former price, 
 we have some pleasure in promoting its 
 utility in the same direction, by adding 
 here, as was partially attempted in that 
 work, a formula which includes Milne's 
 constant, for ready computation by in- 
 strumental inspection, as well as by com- 
 mon arithmetic, so that every intelligent 
 operative who honors these pages by his 
 perusal and carries a slide rule, has always 
 at hand a ready mode of verifying the 
 truth of our statements, and comparing 
 them with those of Tredgold, or any 
 other authority. 
 
55 
 
 SLIDE-RULE FORMULA FOR HORSE POWER OF 
 CHIMNEYS. 
 
 . , . . i Con- j Tredgold 112 
 
 A. Area in in ches. stant8 j Mi lne. . . 280 
 
 1) sq.root of height in ft. ! Nom. H. Power. 
 
 Tredgold's example for a 40-horse en- 
 gine before referred to : 
 
 Area -533 in. j Tredgold's Cons. = 112 j 
 4/70=8.4 ft. )Nom. H. P. = 40 1 
 Milne's Const. =280 
 
 Nom. H. P. = 16 
 In his arithmetical rule, insteadjof a 
 multiplier, Milne used a divisor for a con- 
 stant number, and was in words as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the square root of the 
 height of the chimney in feet, by the 
 square of its internal diameter at its top 
 or narrowest part also in feet, and half 
 the product will be the nominal horse- 
 power that the chimney is equal to. 
 
 Taking the same example as before, 
 it is by arithmetic — 
 4/70 x (lft. 11 in., or)l 92 3 _8.4x3.68 
 
 divided by 2 2 — 
 
 horse power ; and by the slide rule it is 
 approximately — 
 
56 
 
 Diam. I 2=3.68, Cons, divisor 2 
 
 Vheight— 8 4 I Horse power=15.4 
 After we first published these chimney 
 rules, at the desire of Mr. Milne, several 
 years ago, apprising him at the time of 
 the wide difference between his and 
 Tredgold's results, we soon found, and he 
 admitted, that a somewhat smaller pro- 
 portion of chimney area would be more 
 nearly in accordance with the general 
 practice throughout the country, more 
 especially where a better quality of coal 
 was burned than that ordinarily used at 
 the factories in Oldham, where, from the 
 peculiar quality of the cotton manufacture 
 carried on there — spinning coarse cotton, 
 waste, and shoddy — a larger measure of 
 work was usually allowed for a nominal 
 horse power than elsewhere. In fact, 
 two indicated horse-power for one nomin- 
 al was then the regular Oldham measure 
 for steam-engines. 
 
 If we take Tredgold's advice, and give 
 double the area of chimney-top obtained 
 by his rule, then the adoption of 1£ in- 
 stead of 2 for a constant divisor will give 
 
57 
 
 that result which we may conveniently 
 call the actual instead of the nominal, or 
 Oldham horse power, which will still, as 
 it ought, be considerably in excess of the 
 indicated power of steam-engines in 
 general. 
 
 In illustration of this, take — 
 Example 2.— Required the number of 
 horse power most suitable in connection 
 with the experimental chimney at May- 
 field already described ; the height above 
 the level of the fire-bars being 88 ft., 
 and the inside diameter at the top 2 ft. 
 10i in. 
 
 SOLUTION BY SLIDE-RULE. 
 
 (Slide inverted as before). 
 A Diam. 2 ft. 10fl^ =2.8g^=gj6 
 0~l VEtT(88>=9.88 
 , New Const. =1 15 
 
 Answer 51 H. P. 
 
 Example 3.— Another new chimney 
 erected the same year, in the same works 
 (Thomas Hoyle & Sons), was 3| ft. diam- 
 eter by 40 yards high. Required the 
 horse power it is equal to. 
 
5S 
 
 SOLUTION. 
 
 Diam. 3^ ft. I 2 = m\ Const, number 1* 
 
 Vht. (120) =11 I Horse power 90 
 The chimney in this example (3) was 
 erected in November of the same year? 
 and by the same builder as that in Ex- 
 ample 2. It was built with similar ma- 
 terials in the same manner like the pre- 
 ceding 1 chimney. The shaft was octagonal, 
 but higher in proportion to its area than 
 the former, for the purpose of carrying 
 away the smoke from contact with some 
 adjacent buildings, and the cost was 
 about double that of the experimental 
 chimney. By which it will be seen that 
 we had arrived at a fair average cost of 
 chimney. building in proportion to the 
 power capable of being produced in that 
 way, so far as chimneys of this character, 
 and from 30 to 40 yards high, are con- 
 cerned—namely, about £2 per horse 
 power. 
 
 The very many practical tests of vari- 
 ous kinds that were applied to these two 
 chimneys, during several successive years, 
 such as finding that the second chimney 
 
59 
 
 was equally applicable to two as the first 
 or experimental chimney was to one boil- 
 er of similar size, not much over or under 
 45 or 50 horse power each, convinced us 
 that we had approximated near to the 
 data we were in quest of. 
 
 The Duckinfield Bleach Works, Chim- 
 ney and Furnaces. — The subject of our 
 next example in chimney building serves 
 still further to corroborate our Mayfield 
 experiments in all respects except as to 
 cost, which of course greatly diminished 
 as the scale of our operations became 
 larger. 
 
 This chimney was erected early in the 
 spring of the year following the comple- 
 tion of those last named, at Messrs. 
 Hoyle & Sons' New Bleach W orks, then 
 erecting at Sandy Lane, between Duckin- 
 field and Staleybridge. 
 
 In the planning of the chimney and 
 flues, and furnishing the designs, with all 
 their details, and four large boilers, for 
 which the writer was more especially en- 
 gaged, and which were expected to furnish 
 from 200 to 300 horse power of steam* 
 
CO 
 
 we had the valuable assistance of Mr. 
 John Graham,* afterwards a member of 
 the firm, and whose eminent talents as a 
 scientific and practical chemist are gener- 
 ally known — as we also previously had 
 the cordial assistance, general concur- 
 rence and approval of the late Mr. Alfred 
 Binyon, the then managing partner. 
 
 Example 4. — The Duckenfield Bleach 
 Works chimney was made 45 yards high 
 by 6 ft. inside diameter at the top. Re- 
 quired the horse power it is equal to. 
 
 SOLUTION. 
 
 A I Diam. 6 ft. | 8 =36 [ New constan t=lj[ 
 0 | 0it. (135 ft.)=11.6]Horse power^378| 
 Milne's Const. 2 
 208 
 
 * See a valuable paper by this gentleman in vol. xv. 
 of the "Transactions of the Literary and Philosophi- 
 cal Society of Manchester," for the years 1857-8. A 
 portion of it was also republished in the Engineer 
 newspaper for March 12, 1858, which gave an account 
 of a series of evaporating experiments, made for the 
 purpose of testing the economy of fuel and manage- 
 ment effected at these boilers and furnaces through a 
 series of successive years, which will well repay pe- 
 rusal, and will be further adverted to in a subsequent 
 part or appendix to this work. 
 
61 
 
 The above slide-rule solution for the 
 power of this chimney gives two answers 
 to the question — namely, 278 and 208 
 horse power, respectively, according as 
 the new constant 1{, or Milne's old con- 
 stant 2, are used as gauge points. In 
 this case the latter was preferred, as 
 giving the most correct result, by reason 
 of the kind of fuel intended to be con- 
 sumed being of the same or similar in- 
 ferior quality to that already referred to 
 as being in general use within the parish 
 of Oldham, to which these Avorks were 
 nearly adjoining. Facility in obtaining 
 this cheap fuel— known as " burgey " and 
 " slack" — being one of the chief reasons 
 for erecting the works in this particular 
 locality. 
 
 THE EXPERIMENTAL BOILERS. 
 
 In the collection of data for steam-en- 
 gine chimneys, it would be a great omis- 
 sion to leave out the particular dimen- 
 sions of the boiler, to cause the efficient 
 working of which is, in fact, the only 
 profitable work the chimney has to do. 
 
62 
 
 The boiler, for which the Mayfield ex- 
 perimental chimney was erected, was de- 
 signed by the writer, as was also the 
 chimney, as already stated, specially for 
 experimental purposes, in acquiring all 
 practical information on the subject pre- 
 vious to commencing the construction of 
 Messrs. Hoyle & Sons' new Bleaching 
 and Calico -printing Works at Duckinfield, 
 near Staleybridge. For this purpose I 
 did not hesitate to recommend the plain- 
 est and simplest form of boiler that can 
 be conceived — namely, a plain cylinder, 
 laid hoinz on tally, or nearly so, with the 
 fire to go underneath it at one end, and 
 out to the chimney at the other, which 
 may now be described. 
 
 This experimental boiler was of the 
 " direct draught " kind, that is, without 
 return flues, and this one had no flues of 
 any kind, either inside or out. The boiler 
 and chimney were, therefore, both of the 
 simplest possible kind, and for that 
 reason made mutual tests of their re- 
 spective capabilities through a long series 
 of very accurate experiments relative to 
 
63 
 
 economy of fuel, as well as to the effi- 
 ciency of various methods of smoke pre- 
 vention, or smoke burning, as it was then 
 popularly termed, and other matters of 
 interest to the proprietors. Improve- 
 ments in smoke prevention especially 
 were freely invited from all quarters, and 
 this was the boiler at which very many 
 different plans for the purpose were 
 tried. 
 
 This kind of boiler was fully described 
 in the author's " Essay on the Boilers of 
 Steam Engines " (1839), and the principal 
 dimensions of this one, as there given, 
 need only be shortly referred to here. 
 It was in shape cylindrical, and fully 
 equal to 30 horse power, being 33£ ft. 
 long by diameter, and " set up," or 
 rather hung, by means of cast-iron brack- 
 ets riveted to the sides, and resting on the 
 side walls of the furnace, so that the 
 whole of the lower half of its convex 
 surface, about 32 square yards, was ex- 
 posed to the direct action of the fire and 
 flame. 
 
 The fire-grate, placed about 22 in. be- 
 
64 
 
 low the bottom of the boiler, was 5^ ft. 
 square, or equal to about 30 sq. ft. in 
 area, and was composed of one length of 
 fire-bars, each If in. thick on the face, 
 with air-spaces of T S T to £ of an inch wide 
 between them. 
 
 This boiler supplied steam to an old 
 Boulton and Watt condensing engine of 
 16-horse power, by Messrs. Sherratt, of 
 Salford, loaded so as to require seldom 
 less than 24 cubic feet of water to be 
 evaporated per hour at a pressure of ex- 
 actly 4 lbs. per sq. in. It also supplied 
 steam for heating drying cylinders, for 
 boiling water, and for a great variety of 
 other purposes, amounting at times to 
 nearly as much as the engine required it- 
 self. The least average evaporation for 
 a whole day together was 33, and the 
 greatest 45 cubic feet per hour. The 
 lower amount was, of course, obtained at 
 the most economical rate, namely, at 
 about 6 lbs. of water evaporated for each 
 pound of common coal burned. It was* 
 therefore, considered to be full 30-horse 
 power. A cubic foot of water evaporated 
 
65 
 
 per hour, being generally considered am- 
 ply sufficient to supply steam for each 
 horse power (nominal) of a Boulton and 
 Watt or low-pressure engine in good 
 order, however it might be at times over- 
 loaded. 
 
 Although this evaporation of a cubic 
 foot, or a little over six imperial gallons 
 of water, of 10 lbs. each, is what boiler- 
 makers have universally, and practical en- 
 gineers commonly, agreed to consider 
 nominally a boiler horse power, there is 
 no doubt, however, that the same weight 
 of water, as steam, at a higher pressure 
 can easily be, and is frequently, made to 
 work two or three indicated horse power 
 in a modern steam-engine, accordingly as 
 the latter is arranged to work to a 
 greater or less extent expansively. 
 
 This boiler was made of Low Moor 
 iron j\ in. thick, except the bottom row 
 of plates, which were f in. and the flat 
 ends t \, by Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, 
 who had just previously commenced the 
 boiler-making business, ^and was then a 
 staunch advocate for introducing the long 
 
66 
 
 Cornish high-pressure boiler, with its one 
 large internal furnace-flue, and single fur- 
 nace-grate. Instead of that kind of 
 boiler, now much less used, except in 
 Wales and Cornwall, I persisted in advis- 
 ing the simple and elementary form of 
 boiler now described. It was also sus- 
 pended by bracket flanges in the cheap 
 and simple manner above mentioned, in 
 accordance with the universal dogma of 
 its strictly utilitarian owners, which in 
 this, as in all other business matters con- 
 nected with the works, was never lost 
 sight of for a moment, — in order that 
 any alterations or improvements that 
 might be found expedient, either in the 
 construction of the boiler, or erection of 
 the brick- work, might be in the shape of 
 additions merely, and therefore capable 
 of being separately proved, both as to 
 first cost and utility, and also that our 
 experiments might be carried on for a 
 sufficient length of time, without the 
 usual liability to interruption from the 
 necessity of cleaning out of flues or 
 otherwise. 
 
67 
 
 The last-mentioned particular in the 
 erection of this boiler was of considerable 
 importance in thus attaining the main ob- 
 ject we had in view, as well as in accom- 
 plishing another object greatly desired 
 by the benevolent proprietors of the 
 works, that of doing away with the de- 
 grading practice of sweeping out the 
 flues by means of men, or rather boys, 
 crawling through them. 
 
 Trifling as a small matter of this kind 
 may appear to some, it is important to 
 show that, in this instance at least, it 
 was attended by considerable economy 
 Cast-iron lugs or brackets, with broad 
 flanges, were riveted along each side of 
 the boiler, a little above the intended 
 surface level of the water, and these 
 brackets rested on the tops of the two 
 vertical side walls of the furnace and 
 flame-bed. The boiler thus suspended 
 between the two side walls was then ad- 
 justed, not quite horizontally, but slight- 
 ly inclined, with a fall of about 8 in. to- 
 wards the front end, so that a greater 
 
68 
 
 proportion of the water was brought im- 
 mediately over the fire-grate. 
 
 This arrangement of the flame-bed and 
 seating, or side walls, of the boiler, 
 formed a chamber or receptacle, large 
 enough to hold all the flue-dust and dirt 
 that could be found from the use of any 
 kind of coal whatever, for a considerable 
 time. In fact, although the boiler was 
 every day at work, the flame-bed did not 
 require any cleaning out, even at the 
 end of nearly two years, — when, as an 
 opportunity occurred, several cart-loads 
 of flue-dust were removed from under the 
 boiler at one time. The occasion of hav- 
 ing this operation performed, discovered 
 to us a circumstance, which is sometimes 
 the cause of great disappointment to the 
 expectations of parties who, for the first 
 time, have boilers erected on this direct 
 draught plan, which requires an explana- 
 tion in this place. 
 
 At all direct draught boilers, it is usual 
 to have, and highly necessary that there 
 should be, two or more transverse " check'' 
 or flame-bridges, in addition to the ordi- 
 
G9 
 
 nary fire bridge, carried up to within 6 or 
 7 in. of the boiler bottom ; but in this 
 case, there was, in the first instance, only 
 one of these additional bridges, and the 
 man employed to get out the flue-dust 
 had, in order to make an easier passage 
 for himself, removed two or three courses 
 of brick-work from the top of the flame- 
 bridge, and neglected to replace them 
 again. The consequence was, that on 
 the boiler commencing work again, a 
 clear loss of 15 per cent, in fuel was de- 
 tected immediately, besides the overheat- 
 ing of the damper- plate and brickwork 
 of the chimney entrance, which evils 
 were, of course, quickly rectified by re- 
 placing the brickwork. Although no very 
 great nicety is required in adjusting the 
 height of these flame-bridges, and an inch 
 or two higher or lower may not make 
 much difference in the economy of fuel ; 
 but the extent of 8 or 9 in. in depth of 
 the air passage over them, when there is 
 already a depth of the same extent in the 
 throat area over the furnace-bridge, will 
 
70 
 
 at any time cause an exorbitant waste of 
 fuel. 
 
 The fact of an error of this kind, which 
 is very liable to be passed over unnoticed 
 by ordinary bricklayers and boiler-setters, 
 unless very carefully supervised, has been 
 frequently the occasion of much error in 
 experiments on the economy of fuel. It 
 is all the more necessary to mention the 
 above circumstances here, because, since 
 my description of the direct draught 
 method of setting boilers was first pub- 
 lished in 1837-8, I have occasionally had 
 complaints from parties who had been in- 
 duced to adopt the direct plan, but had 
 not succeeded in realizing any moderate 
 measure of economy therefrom, and had, 
 in consequence, too readily, or without 
 sufficient examination, given it up, and 
 returned again to the wheel-draught, 
 narrow flue system, with its little army 
 of chimney-sweeps, boiler-menders, and 
 laborers, and all its other disagreeable 
 and expensive accompaniments of Sunday 
 work, over-work, and night- work. It is, 
 however, but fair to state" that extreme 
 
71 
 
 cases of this kind have been mostly con- 
 fined to the South of England and the 
 metropolis, where the extravagant use of 
 flaming Newcastle or Hartley coal, with 
 very much unnecessary stoking of the 
 fires, is still continued. These results 
 have been helped not a little, perhaps, by 
 the prognostications of many of the old 
 school of bricklayers, that the direct 
 draught plan would "send all the heat 
 up the chimney," and who too often tes- 
 tify their sincerity in such a belief by tak- 
 ing special care to build their chimneys 
 and flues very narrow and very crooked. 
 
 The prejudices of some of the attend- 
 ants of engines in London in favor of 
 much stoking and hard firing, which is 
 literally working hard at wasting coal, 
 are difficult to account for, especially 
 when found among persons not notori- 
 ous for working hard at anything else ; 
 but a residence among them of any one 
 whose business is to save fuel, will very soon 
 convince him of the fact. Hence a more 
 careful attention to the condition of all 
 
72 
 
 the bridges under a boiler is a necessity 
 which ought never to be neglected. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO STOKERS. 
 
 1. Engineers and firemen who would 
 keep steam with economy, should do with 
 as little stoking or stirring of the fire as 
 possible, if any. In order to do so, they 
 should see before starting that the fur- 
 nace is properly constructed for the pur- 
 pose, and large enough for the quantity 
 of steam required. The fire-grate should 
 have about 1 sq. ft. of effective fire-bar 
 surface for each nominal horse- power of 
 the engine, or for each cubic foot of 
 water required to be boiled away per 
 hour. The fire-bars may be from \ to f 
 in. thick on the face with I to f in. 
 draught spaces between them, and with 
 joggles to keep them asunder nearly the 
 whole depth of the bar. The boiler 
 should have, at least, 8 or 10 sq. ft. of 
 heating surface per horse, and the chim- 
 ney should be of sufficient capacity to 
 create a draught into the furnace equal 
 to the pressure of a column of water § 
 
73 
 
 to | in. deep, when the damper is set 
 wide open. 
 
 2. In firing, spread the large and small 
 coals (equally mixed) on all parts of the 
 grate, thicker at the back of the grate 
 near the bridge than at the front, because 
 the draught is there the strongest, and 
 the coals burn away the quickest. 
 
 3. The fire should never be less than 
 about 3 or four inches thick in the middle 
 of its length, 2 or 3 in. in front, and 6 
 or 8 in. at the back of the grate. In no 
 case should the fire exceed double the 
 depth here stated ; and never more than 
 two- thirds of the fire-grate should be 
 entirely covered with fresh coals at one 
 time. 
 
 4. If a regularly uniform supply of 
 steam is required and the damper quite 
 up, the quantity of fuel on the grate 
 may be gradually increased ; but when an 
 increasing quantity of steam is wanted, 
 the average thickness or quantity of fuel 
 on the grate must not then be increased, 
 but ought rather to be diminished, and 
 supplied by smaller quantities at a time, 
 
7-1 
 
 and more frequently. So soon, however, 
 as the supply of steam e'xceeds the de- 
 mand, the coal must again be supplied by 
 larger quantities at a time, regularly in- 
 creasing the quantity of fuel in the grate 
 as before. On the other hand, when a 
 diminished supply of steam is required* 
 close the damper a little, and take the op- 
 portunity of levelling the fire or cleaning 
 the fire-bars, doing one-half of the grate 
 at a time. 
 
 5. A steam-engine furnace worked in 
 this way will make very little smoke ; or, 
 if any, it may be prevented when desir- 
 able by opening the fire-door 2 or 3 in. 
 for 1 or 2 min. after each firing. Bearing 
 in mind that the production of steam is 
 commonly lessened by doing so, but so is 
 the consumption of the fuel. 
 
 6. Stokers should understand that 
 they are not to make a business of " stok- 
 ing," but to leave it off entirely, except- 
 ing only when preparing to clear out the 
 grate from clinkers and rubbish, which 
 requires to be done generally three or 
 four times a day with average qualities of 
 
75 
 
 coal ; convenient times being chosen for 
 the purpose when there is the least de- 
 mand for steam. 
 
 7. A fireman's business is, first, to see, 
 before the fire-door is opened, that no 
 coal is left in the heap ready for going 
 on bigger than a man's fist 5 and that very 
 small coal or slack is wetted, or at least 
 damp, as well as a little water always in the 
 ashpit. Then begin by charging into the 
 farther end of the furnace, reaching to 
 about one-third the length of the grate 
 from the bridge, as rapidly as possible, 
 from a dozen to twenty or thirty spade- 
 fuls of coals, until they form a bank 
 reaching nearly or quite up to the top of 
 the bridge, and then shut the fire-door, 
 until the other fires, if there are any, are 
 served in the same way. 
 
 8. In firing up, throw the coals over 
 the rest of the grate by scattering them 
 evenly from side to side, but thinner at 
 the front, near the dead plate, than at the 
 middle or back. In this manner keep the 
 fuel moderately thick and level across the 
 bars, but always thicker at the back than 
 
76 
 
 the front, not by pushing the fire in, but 
 by throwing the coals on exactly where 
 they are wanted. 
 
 9. Never for a moment leave any por- 
 tion of the bars uncovered, which must 
 be prevented by throwing or pitching a 
 spadeful of coals right into any hollow 
 or thin place that appears ; and always 
 remember that three or four spadefuls 
 thrown quickly one on the top of the 
 other, will make no more smoke than 
 one, and generally less. But all depends 
 on doing it quickly ; that being the main, 
 if not the only point in which freedom 
 from smoke and economy of fuel agree. 
 Some firemen only put on three spadefuls, 
 while another can put on four, and make 
 20 per cent, more steam in the same time 
 by doing it. 
 
 10. In replenishing the fire, take every 
 opportunity of keeping up the bank of 
 fuel at the bridge, by re-charging it, one 
 side at a time. Whenever this bank is 
 burnt entirely through, or low, and also 
 when the fire is in a low state generallv, 
 take the rake and draw back the half- 
 
77 
 
 burnt fuel, 12 or 18 in. from the bridge, 
 and re-charge fresh coal into its place, 
 upon the bare fire-bars as at first. 
 
 11. An engine fire tended in this way 
 will consume its own smoke without 
 difficulty, simply by admitting a very 
 moderate supply of air (which for safety 
 to the boiler should be heated) at the 
 bridge, this being a more certain and 
 economical mode of prevention than that 
 of diluting the smoke by the admission 
 of much cold air at the fire-doors. 
 
 12. It may be set down as an axiom 
 that a steam-engine chimney cannot be 
 too large, if only provided with a damper, 
 although ninety-nine in one hundred, at 
 the present time, are decidedly too small. 
 They are unable to create a sufficient 
 draught of air through the furnace, con- 
 sequently a smoky flame is produced, 
 instead of a flame with little or no 
 smoke. 
 
 13. Want of chimney draught is a de- 
 fect which no smoke-consuming furnace 
 in the world can remedy, whether using 
 hot air or cold, unless by the application 
 
78 
 
 of an artificial blast, which commonly 
 costs as much to work as the heat it 
 creates is worth. 
 
 14. It being impossible to consume 
 smoke without great heat, which requires 
 a good draught, and difficult to get aj 
 good draught without a large chimney, I ; 
 here set down a table of chimney pro- 
 portions, which have been practically 
 proved to answer well with the inferior 
 steam coal of the manufacturing and] 
 midland districts for many years past. 
 It is true that some-what smaller dimenj 
 sions might serve where the extravagant 
 use of Newcastle coal is still continued,! 
 as in London ; but even here those di4 
 mensions and proportions ought to bej 
 adhered to, because of the constant tend4 
 ency to increase the engine and boileij 
 power, while the same brick chimney reJ 
 mains. For similar reasons I commend 
 with a chimney suitable for a 10-horsd 
 boiler, although a five, or even a 2-horsa 
 engine only, may be required. 
 
79 
 
 Nominal 
 Horse-power 
 of boiler. 
 
 15. A common low-pressure condens- 
 ing engine is usually overloaded when it 
 has less than 25 circular in. in the cylin- 
 der for each nominal horse-power ; and 
 a high-pressure non -condensing engine 
 ought to have from 10 to 12£, and to be 
 worked at double the effective pressure, 
 at the least, of the former,— say 30 to 40 
 lbs. per square inch in the boiler. 
 
DIMENSIONS 
 
 —OF— 
 
 TALL CHIMNEYS. 
 
 By L. PINZGER. 
 
DIMENSIONS OF TALL CHIMNEYS, 
 
 The formula frequently employed for 
 the determination of the height of a 
 chimney is: 
 
 u a =<PV 2gh — Y o — ' 
 
 in which U« is the velocity of the escap- 
 ing gases; T 0 =273 + « 0 , the absolute 
 temperature of the exterior air; T TO =273 
 + t m , the absolute mean temperature of 
 the gases in the chimney (t 0 and t m being 
 expressed in centigrade degrees); ^=9.81, 
 the acceleration of gravity, and cp a coeffi- 
 cient of correction relating to the resist- 
 ances opposed to the motion of heated 
 gases. 
 
 M. Grashoff, in 1866, propounded a 
 theory which renders it easy to take 
 account of the causes which modify the 
 movements of the products of combus- 
 
84 
 
 tion ; more recently he has introduced a 
 resume of this theory in his work, 
 Construction des Machines. 
 
 While the results thus obtained are 
 mathematically accurate, they have not 
 yet taken a convenient form for practical 
 use; partly because the principles of the 
 mechanical theory of heat have not been 
 generally adapted to the calculation of 
 the movement of gases, and partly in 
 consequence of the complex character of 
 the formulas. 
 
 Thus the height h of the chimney can- 
 not be deduced directly in terms of the 
 other quantities ; it is necessary to resort 
 to approximate methods. In order to 
 simplify the calculations, M. Grashof has 
 constructed tables adapted for use in the 
 case of chimnies and temperatures such 
 as are commonly employed in practice. 
 He has also established easy empirical 
 formulas deduced from exact theory. 
 
 The writer proposes to briefly review 
 the principles involved, and then to 
 develop a method of calculation which 
 shall possess the precision of Prof. 
 
85 
 
 Grashofs, but which will afford an easy 
 practical formula. 
 
 The special function of a chimney is to 
 cause a sufficient quantity of air to 
 traverse the mass of fuel spread over the 
 grate to insure its combustion— to make 
 the hot gases circulate through conduits 
 where they part with a portion of their 
 heat— and finally to discharge these 
 gases into the atmosphere with a veloci- 
 ty which shall diminish as much as 
 possible the action of the wind upon the 
 draft. 
 
 When the products of combustion are 
 deleterious to health or vegetation, it be- 
 comes necessary to employ high chimneys, 
 so that these products shall reach the 
 earth only after being mixed with a 
 large volume of air. 
 
 The cause of the draft lies in the 
 difference of pressure in the gases in the 
 fire, the flues, the shaft and that of the 
 outside air at the level of the grate. 
 
 Let p 0 be the atmospheric pressure in 
 kilograms per square meter at the level 
 of the grate ; p lt j? 9 , p a and p, the press- 
 
86 
 
 ures in the fire, at the entrance to the 
 flue; at the outlet from the flue; in the 
 horizontal shaft and at the base of 
 the chimney; then we ought to have 
 P„>P i >Pi>P 3 >P i so as to insure draft. 
 
 It is necessary then, 1st, to obtain 
 such a pressure p t at the base of the 
 chimney as would be produced by a cur- 
 rent of air required for the combustion ; 
 and 2d, to force the gas to the height of 
 the chimney and discharge it . with suffi- 
 cient velocity. 
 
 The difference of pressure p 0 —p 1 can- 
 not be determined by theory alone, but 
 the direct measure of it is obtained by 
 the manometer. In stationary furnaces 
 this difference corresponds to a water 
 column of 3 to 20 millimeters, according 
 to the thickness of the layer of fuel. In 
 locomotives it may be as high as 100 
 millimeters. As the weight of a column 
 of water having a base of one square 
 meter and a height of one millimeter is 
 one kilogram, it follows that p 0 — p^ may 
 be equal from 3 to 20 kilograms per 
 square meter. 
 
87 
 
 If we let h t represent the height of a 
 column of air of the temperature T 0 of 
 which the weight upon one square meter 
 of base is p 0 -p„ we shall have 
 
 B expressing the constant of the equa- 
 tion of gaseous condition, pv=HT. R 
 being equal to 29.3 for atmospheric air, 
 more or less humid. 
 
 In taking p 0 =1000 fc per square meter 
 under average conditions of barometric 
 pressure, and T=273 + 17=290, a column 
 of air of A 0 =4 m .25 to 17™ will be equal to 
 the pressure above mentioned. 
 
 The height h 0 will depend upon the 
 quantity of the fuel burned in a unit of 
 time— the thickness of the layer of fuel 
 and upon the weight of the products of 
 combustion. 
 
 Grashof assumes for the heat of soft 
 coal the value A 0 =25 G, A 2 in which G 
 represents the quantity of gas produced 
 by the combustion of 1 kilogram of fuel, 
 and A the thickness of the layer of fuel. 
 
 (1) 
 
88 
 
 If G 1 = 22 kilograms and A = 0 m .l, 
 we have: 
 
 ^ o = 25x22x0.01 = 5 m .50. 
 
 We may by this calculation find with suffi- 
 cient exactness the values of the differences 
 of pressure p, — p„ —p 3 andp 3 — <p K . Tak- 
 ing into consideration the relations exist- 
 ing between different systems of heating 
 and of flues, we find : 
 
 g \pJ RT; 1 + ^ 2g T/ 
 1 uf 
 
 \ l ( Q \+ Tk ) 2 T ~ T ° 
 
 * \pj RT 0 2g 
 I 
 
 (v \ 1 T 
 
 • S W 2*1 T, 
 RT 0 log — expressing equally the height 
 
89 
 
 h 1 of a column of air at the exterior 
 temperature T 0 , subjected to the press- 
 ures p 1 and jt> 4 upon the lower and upper 
 bases, and of which the weight measures 
 the pressure jt?,— p 4 on a square meter. 
 Consequently 
 
 I 8 * h ^Yg\ % + 
 
 In this equation u 0 represents the 
 velocity with which the heated gas passes 
 the section /of the flues if they have the 
 temperature T t ; T 2 and T a are the 
 temperatures at the escape from the flue ; 
 Tic the absolute temperature (of water in 
 a steam boiler); I the length of the flues ; 
 
 d their mean diameter (P being the 
 
 perimeter and / the section) ; F the 
 heated surface of the boiler ; Q the quan- 
 tity of heat transmitted by this surface 
 every hour; k the coefficient of con- 
 ductivity of the surface for heat, which 
 for boilers is about 20; C„ and C 3 the 
 
90 
 
 coefficients of correction relating to the 
 sudden changes in diameter and direc- 
 tion ; (in steam boilers £,=1.5 to 25, and 
 C 3 = 0.8 to 1) ; A the coefficient of friction 
 in the flues ( = 0.08). 
 
 Between the quantities F, Q, T s , T 3 and 
 
 (A) T t =T k + (T,-T k )e~oc 
 
 (B) Q=G.(T 2 -T 3 ) 
 
 in which G expresses the weight of the 
 gases flowing through each section of the 
 flues per second, and c is the specific 
 heat, of which the mean value is 0.25 for 
 bituminous coal fuel. 
 
 The weight of a column of air of the 
 external temperature T 0 and a height 
 h 0 + Aj, representing the difference of 
 pressure 4 per square meter, the 
 
 point is to determine the height h above 
 the level of the grate to which the gases 
 can be raised in the atmosphere. This 
 would be the height for the chimney. 
 
 In this calculation there should be 
 taken into account ; 1st, the diminution 
 of atmospheric pressure due to the 
 height h; 2d, the diminution of the 
 
1)1 
 
 pressure of gas for the same height ; 3d, 
 the mechanical work consumed by the 
 ascent of the gas through this height ; 
 4th, the velocity of the escaping gas at 
 the top of the chimney. This outflow 
 cannot evidently take place unless the 
 pressure on the escaping gas is at least 
 equal to the atmospheric pressure. 
 
 In order to calculate the upward ve- 
 locity of the gases in the chimney, we 
 make use of the equation 
 
 in which p is the pressure at the top of 
 the chimney and d m is the mean diameter. 
 
 If we represent by w 4 T 4 and p t re- 
 spectively, the velocity, the absolute 
 temperature and the pressure of the gas 
 at the base of the chimney; also by 
 xi a T a and p, the same quantities at the 
 upper outlet of the chimney ; the integra- 
 tion of the preceding equation, if we take 
 T TO =^(T 4 + T« ) for the mean tempera- 
 ture of the chimney, also w TO =i (u t + u a ) 
 for the mean velocity, will give for the 
 term relating to the resistance of friction 
 
 udu 
 
 0 
 
 -ds-BT 
 
 ^dp ^ ds i? 
 
92 
 
 On the other hand we shall have for 
 the height h of a column of air, at the 
 temperature T and under the upper and 
 lower pressures of /> 0 and p, 
 
 MS)- 
 
 A=KT„ 
 
 P 
 
 Combining the preceding equations we 
 get: 
 
 RT o log(^)=A?^_|». 
 
 \ PJ J-m ■ L 7n 
 
 Zg d m ' 2g f " 
 
 The first number of this being only the 
 value of h Q + h x , the height of the chimney 
 will be given by the formula : 
 
 0) ^fc+W^+g 
 
 ( u *)*i?L h M i ) x « 
 
 \u a l d m \n a J )T m -T 
 
 in applying which to find approximate 
 values of h, the following hypothesis is 
 employed : 
 
98 
 
 From the fundamental equation pv — RT, 
 and from the equation fn=G'v we deduce 
 
 ™ T 
 
 G being the weight of gas in kilograms 
 which passes each section of the chimney 
 in a unit of time with the velocity u. 
 
 The influence of the change of pressure 
 p upon the variation of the velocity u is 
 so small that we may neglect it, while we 
 have to regard the influence of change of 
 temperature and of cross section, and we 
 have with sufficient exactness: 
 
 We can calculate from equation (3) a 
 first approximate value of h, after having 
 assigned proper values to f a f t and f m , 
 also to T a according to the value of T 4 
 and according to the material of which 
 the chimney is built. It is necessary 
 
 also to determine — — — and — Vm , 
 
 u a T f k 
 
 and 
 
 a 
 
94 
 
 since in the term y- we substitute the 
 
 T m 
 
 approximate value (/?„ + /',) T _ T • 
 
 J-m -*- 0 
 
 From this value of h a more exact 
 value of T a can be deduced by employing 
 the equation 
 
 Jc F 
 
 T a -T 0 + (T 4 -T 0 ) e -'G 5 c 
 
 in which k 8 represents the coefficient of 
 conductivity of heat for the sides of the 
 chimney ; F s the area of the interior sur- 
 face; G 8 the weight of gas per hour 
 passing any section of the chimney; 
 c=0.25, the specific heat of the gaseous 
 mixture. 
 
 For chimneys of masonry, we take 
 K 8 =1.4 to 2 according to the thickness 
 of the sides. For chimneys in plate or 
 sheet iron k 8 =6; G s =22B n ; B w being 
 the weight of coal consumed per hour on 
 all the grates whose fires lead to the 
 same chimney. 
 
 From this value of T a we easily deduce 
 
 more exact values of T m , — 1 and of — — . 
 
 u a Ha 
 
95 
 
 We shall then be able to obtain a second 
 approximate value of h, which may be re- 
 garded as a definite value. 
 
 We shall have for the magnitude of f a 
 the entrance to the chimney, 
 
 Ja ~ 3600 u a 
 or /a = 0 .062-^. " 
 
 3600 
 
 In calculating ~ there are three cases 
 
 .7 4 
 
 to be considered : 
 
 1st. The transverse section of the 
 chimney decreases from the bottom up- 
 wards ; / a </ 4 . (Fig. 1.) 
 
 2d. The transverse section is every- 
 where the same ; then f a =f i - (Fig. 2.) 
 
 3d. The section increases from below 
 upwards ; then f a >f 4 . (Fig 3.) 
 
 When f a is less than/ 4 , the ratio varies 
 from 0.40 to 0.64 for chimneys constructed 
 either in masonry or iron according to 
 height. We may take therefore as a mean 
 
 value*^-=0.52. 
 
 J 4 
 
96 
 
 The second condition of course gives 
 ta _-i 
 
 ' f 
 
 For the third case we take -~ =1.5. 
 
 J K 
 
 With regard to the temperatures T 4 
 and T a we may introduce as first values 
 in the calculation 
 T 
 
 — 4 =1.06 for chimneys in masonry. 
 J-a 
 
 T 
 
 and = r *=1.10 for iron chimneys. 
 
 For the velocity u a with which the gas 
 ought to escape from the chimney, we 
 should take a rather large value for fear 
 of interference by downward currents of 
 air. The value of u a should never be less 
 than two meters. 
 
 Suppose that to calculate the dimen- 
 sions of a masonry chimney, we admit 
 T 
 
 that -=-*- = 1.06. We shall then obtain 
 
 -*-fl! 
 
 the following values : 
 
 For the first type, (Fig. 1) 
 
 ^-1.06.0.55=0.55; ^=0.775 
 
 U a u a 
 
97 
 
 \ 
 
 thus A=(A B + A,) T T ^ T + " 
 
 A -A . 0.6 + 0.7 1=-^ 
 
 Wot, 1 J-m 
 
 for the second type, (Fig. 2) 
 
 =1.06; ^=1.03 
 
 Va Ua 
 
 then A^^ + AJ^Hf + * 
 
 2<7 
 
 A A. 1.06 -0.24 LAjr* 
 
 for the third type, (Fig. 3) 
 
 -^=1.06.1.5 = 1.59; —=1.3; 
 
 then (h=h t + h i ) 
 
 T, 
 
 /? ) T 
 
 It is easy to see that for all forms the 
 total height of the chimney depends ; 1st, 
 upon the amount of resistance encount- 
 ered by the gases in the flues and through 
 the fuel ; 2d, upon the velocity of escape 
 
98 
 
 of the gases. The second term is veiy 
 small compared with the first, and as the 
 variation of h for one type or the other 
 depends on the second term, it is evident 
 that the employment of type No. 3 can- 
 not lead to a notable diminution of the 
 height which it is necessary to use in 
 JN o. 1. On the contrary the height be- 
 comes even less for the chimney con- 
 tracted in the upper part than for the 
 cylindrical form or for that which en- 
 larges upwards ; if it is demanded that 
 the velocity of escape of the gases it a be 
 the same for the three types, the reason 
 is that for the first form the resistance 
 due to friction is more feeble. The fact 
 should not be lost that in consequence of 
 the large value of t< 4 for the 3d type com- 
 pared with the value of the same function 
 for the 1st type, that the specific pressure 
 p t would be much less in the first case 
 than in the second ; consequently the en- 
 largement of the chimney towards the 
 top would occasion a stronger current of 
 hot gases at the bottom. 
 
 If on the other hand we desire that the 
 
99 
 
 value of w 4 be the same for the three 
 types, for equal ratios of temperatures 
 and pressures, we shall have for the 
 chimneys : 
 
 Fig. 1, w«=1.82 « 4 , 
 
 Fig. 2, w o =0.94w 4 , 
 Fig. 3, u a =0 63 m 4 . 
 
 Let for example, for the 
 
 1st form « a =4 meters 
 consequently w 4 = 2 m .2. 
 
 Let in 2d form v a =2 m .01 
 and in 3d form v a =l m .S9 
 
 With this feeble velocity of escape, the 
 draft of the chimney would be easily re- 
 versed by the wind. 
 
 Take as an example a brick chimney 
 designed to discharge the products of 
 combustion from three boilers of equal 
 size. Allowing for each boiler a heating 
 surface of 60 square meters, and requir- 
 ing a consumption of 100 kilos of coal 
 pBjoh-.mr ■: the length of: the: flues beh.g 
 30 taeteite',';£nd ^ their-; meaii 'cross seciio^ 
 
 4/ 
 
 f—0.2 sq. rioter; we have d— 0.^25. 
 
100 
 
 LetT 2 = 1300°; Tjfc=420°; G = 2200* 
 we shall have according to (A) 
 
 10.60 
 
 ~22C0.0,25 „ n _ 0 
 
 T 6 =420 + (1300-420) e = 520°; 
 
 and according to (B) 
 
 Q=2200 X 0.25(1300 - 520) =429000". 
 (The heat directly radiated not being 
 included.) 
 
 For T o =280° we shall have: 
 Gv 2200x0.8 
 
 "~ 3600/ _ 3600x0.2 
 and according to equation (2) : 
 , 3X1300 + 1X520 
 
 h =0.306 
 
 = 2 W .45 
 
 280 ' 
 30 / 4 29000 420 
 + a08 -0T25\ 20X 60 x 280 + 280 
 
 _ 2 1300-520, 3 
 280 S 
 
 Assuming A 0 ==B m .5 we shall have: 
 
 ""Since th^* Heated g'asses • are? 55ooi(5d -m 
 passing through, the # horizontal ^conduit, 
 we iWi*^*? to* 'idnjit'thati ft Je ja*bsolute 
 
101 
 
 temperature T 4 is only 500° at the base 
 of the chimney ; whence 
 
 T„= ^=470° and T m =i(600 + 470) 
 i- 06 =485° 
 
 We will take the velocity of escape of 
 the gas, u a =& meters, so that when only 
 one boiler is used the velocity will be 2 
 meters ;' we then have : 
 
 w a 2 = 1^.835, 
 and equation (4) gives : 
 
 f a =0.062^ • 1^=0.405 sq. meters, 
 o obO 
 
 d a — 0.718, or nearly 0.72 meters. 
 
 In order to provide, in case of need for 
 a fourth boiler, we will take : 
 
 / 4 =4/=4x 0.2=0.8 sq. meters, 
 then <# 4 =1.0 meter, and 
 
 d m -\{l.Q + 0.72)=0.86 meters. 
 We now have 
 
 ^ = 52? _^6 = 0.54 and ^=0.77. 
 v a 470 0.800 u a 
 
 The first approximate value then is 
 
102 
 
 ( 4G nn ) 280 
 
 | 0.08. 0.593^+ 0.708 
 
 A = 39.665+8. 133 = 47 m . 798, say 48 meters. 
 We obtain more exactly 
 
 1.6.180 
 
 „ * ~ 6600.0.25 .__ 0 
 
 T a =280 + (500-280) e =473°. 
 
 This result accords so well with the 
 value 470° introduced above in the calcu- 
 lations of T a , that it will not be necessary 
 to make any correction in the estimated 
 height of 48 meters. 
 
 We have %i= 0.54 X 6=3.24 meters for 
 the velocity with which the gas enters a 
 chimney whose cross section diminishes 
 upward. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 If a cylindrical chimney be used (Fig. 2) 
 for which the velocity of escape u a — 
 0.94x3.24=3.046 meters, the height h 
 will be reduced to : 
 A=39.665 + 0.473 
 
 0.08^106 - 0.124 ' 280 
 
 1.0 |485-280 
 A =39.665 + 2.221=41™. 886, or 42™. 
 
103 
 
 For a chimney, wider at the top than 
 the bottom, for which ^ = 1.5, we have 
 u a =0.6S . 3.24=2 W .04 and 
 /t=39.665 + 0.212 
 
 |0.08^ 1.7-1.53 
 
 /*=39.665 + 0.999=40 m .664, or 41 m . 
 
 The employment of the forms repre- 
 sented in figures 2 and 3 leads to a re- 
 duction in the estimated height of 6 or 7 
 meters, but the velocity of the escaping 
 gases is reduced from 6 to 2 or 3 meters, 
 which might lead to serious inconvenience 
 when only one boiler is at work instead of 
 three. In such a case a chimney of the 
 third type, the velocity of the escaping 
 gases would only be § meter. 
 
 In order to diminish the downward 
 action of the wind, the chimney may be 
 surmounted by a conical cap. Many con- 
 structors do not approve of the widened 
 top, although it allows of greater width 
 
104 
 
 to the orifice and therefore greater facili- 
 ties for changing the direction of the 
 currents of air at the summit of the 
 chimney. 
 
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 No. 53. INDUCTION COILS: How Made and How Used. ... 50 
 No. 54. KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY. By Prof. Kennedy. 
 
 With an introduction by Prof. R. H. Thurston 50 
 
 No. 55. SEWER GASES : Their Nature and Origin. By A. De 
 
 Varona 50 
 
 No. 56. THE ACTUAL LATERAL PRESSURE OF EARTH- 
 WORK. By Benj. Baker, M. Inst. C.E 50 
 
 No. 57. INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LIGHTS, WITH PAR- 
 
 TICULAR REFERENCE TO THE EDISON LAMPS AT 
 THE PARIS EXHIBITION. By Comte Th. Du Moncel, 
 Wm. Henry Preece, J. W. Howell, and others. Second edi- 
 tion 50 
 
 No.sfTHE VENTILATION OF COAL-MINES. By W. 
 
 Fairley, M.E., F.S.S 50 
 
 No. 59. RAILROAD ECONOMICS ; or, Notes, with Com- 
 ments. By S. W. Robinson, C.E 50 
 
 No. 60. STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE MEM- 
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 METHODS OF DETECTING IMPURITIES. . By Chas. 
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D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. 19 
 
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 "Clerk 5° 
 
 No 63 HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SANITARY PLUMB- 
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 No. 64. ELECTRO-MAGNETS. liy Th. Du Moncel S° 
 
 No 6s. POCKET LOGARITHMS TO FOUR PLACES DE- 
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 No. 66. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. By S. P. 
 Thompson. With notes by F. 1.. Pope .... 50 
 
 No. 67. HYDRAULIC TABLES, BASED ON «■ KUTTER'S 
 FORMULA." By P. J. Flynn 5° 
 
 No. 68. STEAM-HEATING. By Robert Briggs V 
 
 No. 69. CHEMICAL PROBLEMS. By Prof. J.C. Foye. Sec- 
 ond edition, revised and enlarged S° 
 
 No 70 EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS. 
 By M. Bertholet 5° 
 
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