FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY PHILADELPHIA, PA. REFERENCE CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY A BOOK FOR ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTS BY WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE CONSULTING ENGINEER ; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS; MEMBER OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 1902 (Loa->S TH V5" 1 ?/ COPTKIGHT, 1899 AND 1902, BY WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE TROW DIRECTORY PRINTING AND BOOK BINDING COMPANY NEW YORK PREFACE Up to the present time, there has been but one book on the subject of " Chimneys " printed in the United States, that of Armstrong's, revised by F. E. Idell, and published in the " Van Nostrand Science Series." It is a treatment of chimney-draft only. Other than this, the only book of any pretension is that of Bancroft's, an English book, published in 1885, and no longer obtainable. Thus it may be seen that there is no book which contains the latest practice in regard to the theory and designing of chimneys as built in the United States. The Transactions of the engineering societies and volumes of technical periodicals do not give very much that is of value excepting, however, the " Engineering News " and " En- gineering Record," to whom, with Mr. Henry C. Meyer, Jr., I am especially grateful for courtesies extended. Whenever any extracts are made use of they are credited as far as possible to their source, and my thanks are tendered for the use of same, and to Mr. F. E. Idell for many valuable suggestions and criticisms. The absence of data on this important subject has induced me to prepare this treatise, and if it meets with the same success that attended my pamphlet, " Chimney Formulae and Tables," 1897, and will prove to be a source of information and assistance to designers, my object will be attained. William Wallace Christie. Patekson, N. J., May, 1899. 17761 PEE FACE TO THE SECOND EDITION For a second edition the book has been revised throughout, some twenty-five pages of text and twelve full-page illustra- tions being added. Radial brick chimneys, which were just being introduced in the United States as the first edition went to press, are now treated of briefly. I have tried in a limited space to round out the work, thus meeting some of the criticisms made by the reviewers of the original publication, and I will be grateful for any sugges- tions that may be sent me looking to the further improvement of the work. Mechanical draft is not enlarged upon, it being a subject by itself. I desire to thank those who by their interest in the first edition have made this revision now possible. William Wallace Christie March, 1902. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PASS Introduction and History, 1 CHAPTER II. Theory of Chimney Draft, 6 CHAPTER III. Chimney Formulae, 16 CHAPTER IV. Chimney Tables, Wind-Pressure, Air-Space in Grates, 20 CHAPTER V. Foundation Materials. Brick Chimney Materials, . . 33 CHAPTER VI. Steel Chimneys— Theory Pertaining to Same, and Exam- ples from Existing Structures, 45 CHAPTER VII. Brick Chimneys — Theory Pertaining to Same, and Exam- ples from Existing Structures, 85 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII. PAGE Chimney Performances — Special Types — Straightening Chimneys— Flues, 138 CHAPTER IX. House Chimneys 163 CHAPTER X. Lightning Protection, 171 CHAPTER XL General Information, 178 INDEX, 182 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE HO. 1. Savery's Steam Engine and Boiler * 2. Three Brick Chimneys apposite 31 3. Hartford Street Baidway Company opposite 53 4. Bidgewood Pumping-Station Chimney 64 5. Wilmerding, Pa., 200-Foot Chimney 67 6. Anheuser-Busch Brewing Co., St. Louis, Mo opposite 69 7. Guggenheim Smelting Co., Perth Amboy, N. J opposite 71 8. Steel Chimney Used in and about Philadelphia, Pa 72 9. Maryland Steel Company 74 10. Garfield Park Electric Light & Power Company, Chicago, III 75 11. Self-Sustaining Steel Chimney (Woolson) opposite 11 12. Third Avenue Railroad,- New York City 76 13. Nassau Electric Railway Company, Brooklyn, N. Y. ) 14. Philadelphia Smelting & Befining Co., Pueblo, Col. j- .opposite 87 15. Midvale Steel Company, Philadelphia, Pa J 16. Dobson & Barlow, Bolton, Eng opposite 88 17. Plume & Atwood Mfg. Co., Thomaston, Conn opposite 90 18. Manchester Pumping Station, Manchester, N. H opposite 92 19. Queen Lane Pumping Station, Chimney Sections opposite 94 20. Queen Lane Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa 96 21. Freiburg, Saxony opposite 97 22. TWEEDVALE MANUFACTURING COMPANY 98 23. Three Brick Chimneys opposite 98 24. Edison Electric Illuminating Company, Paterson, N. J 9!) 25. Edison Electric Illuminating Company, Paterson, N. J. opposite 100 Vlll ILLUSTRATIONS NO " PAGE 26. Nabbagansett Electbic Lighting Company, Pbovidence, K. I. . 106 27. Nabbagansett Electbic Lighting Company, Pbovidence, R I 107 28. Union Depot Bail way Company, Power House opposite 113 29. Omaha & Gbant S. & R. Wobks, Denver, Col opposite 114 30. Cheney Bbos., South Manchesteb, Conn 115 31. Steinway Electbic Company, Astobia, L. I opposite 118 32. ivobydale, ohio, details hq 33. Cambbia Ibon Company 121 34. Metbopolitan Stbeet Railway Company, New Yobk City 123 35. Babboub Flax Spinning Company, Patebson, N. J opposite 126 36. Obford Copper Company 128 37. Pabis Exposition Chimney 129 38. Pabis Exposition Chimney, Hoisting Methods 131 39. Obfobd Coppeb Company, Constable Hook, N. J opposite 132 40. Belleville, N. J., Old Coppeb Wobks opposite 135 41. Pacific Coast Bobax Company, Constable Hook, N. J 143 42. Ibon Fubnaoes, Stockholm, N. J opposite 143 43. Wateb Tank Suppobted upon a Bbick Chimney 145 44. Cabnegie Gas Company's Bagdad Plant opposite 145 45. Concbete and Steel Dust Flue opposite 146 46. Section of Dust Flue 146 47. Okmsby Textile Company, Watebfobd, N. Y opposite 152 48. Ormsby Textile Company, Watebfokd, N. Y opposite 154 49. Flue for Vertical Boilers 155 50. Horizontal Boiler Flue Connection opposite 156 51. Flue fob Hobizontal Return Tubulae Boilees 157 52. Chimney Struck by Ltghtntng opposite 171 -53. Steel Chimney Steuck by Lightning 172 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY INTRODUCTORY The most prominent feature to the world at large, of every steam or power plant, and that by which the manufacturing character of a village or city is most easily distinguished, is the chimney. It is an engineering work which is often given but little thought, so far as the proper size and proportions for the best results are concerned, by those for whom it is to be built. Nothing in a steam plant is so conducive to great waste of fuel as a badly designed chimney ; and it may be made the means of assisting or increasing a high efficiency in the plant, if properly proportioned for the quantity of gases which is to be passed through it. Chimneys are built of brick, or steel, or stone ; steel chim- neys being sometimes stayed or guyed with iron rods or wire rope, and sometimes built self-sustaining ; in all cases chimneys are set on heavy masonry foundations. In the following pages the adjuncts and various types of chimneys will be treated separately. Historical Notes. According to Tomlinson, chimneys were probably in use in England before those of Padua, of which the earliest record is the year 1368, when Carrara, Lord of Padua, introduced them in Rome. 1 2 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The use of the curfew-bell in preceding- centuries indicates their absence, as the ringing of the bell was the signal to cover the fires (couvre-few), which were made in pits, for the night. In Venice, chimneys were common in the fourteenth cen- tury, a number being overthrown by the earthquake of Janu- ary 25, 1347. Of the nations of antiquity little in this direction is known. No traces of chimneys have been found in the ruins of Pompeii or Herculaneum. Charcoal has been found, it being used, no doubt, in the portable furnaces discovered in the rooms. Koman houses were frequently heated by means of hot air, which was brought in pipes from a furnace below. In the dwellings of the Greeks there were no chimneys, the smoke escaping through a hole in the roof. The Persians still retain their .ancient custom of making fires in a hole in their earthen floors, in an iron vessel, and thus heat their apartments, which plan is said to give very satis- factory results. A low table is placed over the heater, with a thick quilted cloth reaching to the floor, and no provision is made for the escape of the products of combustion. There is no evidence of chimney-shafts in England earlier than the twelfth century. Leland, speaking of Bolton Castle, says, " ... was fyniched or Kynge Kichard the 2 dyed . . . one thynge I much notyed in the hawle of Bolton, how chimneys were con- veyed by tunnells made in the syds of the walls betwixt the lights in the hawle, and by this means, and by no covers, is the smoke of the harthe in the hawle wonder strangely con- veyed." For centuries afterward chimneys remained luxuries for the houses of the great. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, chimneys were almost unknown ; the fire was kindled against a hob of clay called the rere dosse, in the back or centre of the room, which was filled with smoke, from the wood (which was the only fuel used), that found its way out by an opening or lantern in the roof. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY. 3 The houses built at Amboy, N. J., in 1683 are described usually thirty feet long, sixteen feet wide, ten feet between joints, with double chimneys of timber and clay, "as the man- ner of this country is to build," and cost about fifty pounds each ($250). The chimney in its present sense of a funnel from the hearth or fireplace to the roof of the house, is a modern invention. In 1785, Mr. "Watt procured a patent for obviating the smoke of steam-engines by placing the coal in an upright conical tube or hopper fixed in the brickwork of the boiler, immediately behind the furnace door, and causing a stream of air to rush through the furnace door for maintaining com- bustion. In Mr. John Bourne's " Treatise on the Steam-engine," p. 51, he shows a boiler and furnace designed by John Smith, of Kingston near Dublin, which has a vertical chimney, designed probably about 1825. Rev. IX Lardner, "The Steam-engine," p. 128, speaks of the gases passing about the boiler and in immediate contact with it, and finally issuing into the chimney; but he says nothing about the design of the chimney. In the same book, in an illustration of Savery's steam-en- gine, 1702, a brick chimney is shown. This is also the first illustration in Dr. R H. Thurston's "Growth of the Steam- engine," of a chimney - shaft in connection with a steam- boiler. The following is abstracted from Bishop's " History of American Manufactures " : Gawen Lawrie, settler of East New Jersey in 1684, says " the country farm-houses they build very cheap, . . . the chimneys are stone." Bricks were used by some. — Volume I., page 226. " Stone and bricks, of which last ten thousand were sent from London to Massachusetts in 1629, were first used in the construction of the fireplaces, which were usually of the most ample dimensions." — Volume II., page 219. " In 1789 the first steam-engine for cotton spinning was INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY 5 erected at Manchester, England." It must have been used with a boiler and chimney.— Volume II., page 19. " Booseveldt, in connection with James Sullivan, took out a U. S Patent, May 31, 1798, for a double steam-engine, and soon after constructed probably the first effective steam-en- gine, after those of Fitch, ever built in America. "-Volume II., Pa§ "He completed one in 1800, with a wooden boiler, through which long cylindrical flues, or heaters, wound several times before entering the chimney." It was for the use of the Phila- delphia, Pa., Water-works. A great many chimneys having but one thickness of brick, and the exterior bonded together with hoop-iron bands, were erected at the Potteries during the years 1847-1867 by Mr. Scrivenor, of Hawley, England. CHAPTER II THEORY OP CHIMNEY-DRAFT Furnace or chimney-draft is produced by on^e of the follow- ing methods : I. By a natural draft due to the unbalanced pressure of a column of heated gases against a heavier column of outside air. II. By the use of a steam-jet in the chimney, inducing draft, using either live or exhaust steam from the engine. III. By a forced draft from a steam blower in the furnace of a boiler setting or a fan feeding through pipes to the fur- nace. IV. By induced draft from blowers placed between boiler setting and chimney flue, blowers being usually placed at the base of the chimney. What follows is abstracted from a paper by Professor De- Volson Wood, in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XI. Peclet's and Rankine's hypotheses are : 1. A certain amount of air must pass through the grate and the body of the coal on the grate to secure combustion. 2. Since the openings for the admission of air are fixed mechanically the requisite amount of air must be supplied at a definite velocity. 3. The required velocity may be produced by the pressure of a column of atmospheric air, which pressure will be the difference of the pressure of the external air and that within the furnace. The height of such a column is called a " head." 4. That, to the head described in the preceding condition, a head must be added sufficient to overcome the resistance offered by the coal to the passage of the air through it ; and 6 THEORY OF CHIMNEY-DRAFT 7 another head for the resistance offered by the flues and chim- ney to the passage of the gases produced by combustion. The law representing these conditions is given in the form of an equation by Peclet thus : (i) h=f{i + a + 4 in which u is the required velocity of gases in the chimney, G, a constant to represent the resistance to the passage of air through the coal, I, the length of the flues and chimney, m, the mean hydraulic depth or the area of a cross-section divided by the perimeter, f, a constant depending upon the nature of the surfaces over which the gases pass, whether smooth, or sooty and rough. If now A, be the section of the chimney in square feet, H, the height of the chimney in feet, t 0 = 461° Fahr., absolute (temperature of melting ice), Tj , the temperature of the gases in the chimney, absolute, V 0 , the volume of air at the temperature 32° Fahr., sup- plied per pound of fuel burned on the grate, w, the pounds of fuel burned per second, n, the ratio of grate area to that of the chimney area, S, the area of the grate ; then (2) w F 0 — = uA = nuS. The pounds of coal or fuel burned per square foot of grate per hour will be (3) 3600-^ = 3600^- -°. Peclet found that when 20 to 24 pounds of coal is burned per hour, the value of G is about 12, and/, for sooty surfaces, equals 0.012. Professor , Wood has assumed 12 for G, except when 16 pounds is burned, when 11 is used. Neglecting the length of the flue, let /= 0.015. Then for 8 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY square or round chimneys, in which b is the breadth or diam- eter, we have Kankine's determination of the height was for the purpose of deducing- the head h. His hypotheses are : 1. The gases in the chimney are uniformly hot ; 2. The gases move in parallel sections through the chimney ; 3. The density of the gases in the chimney is uniform, and does not differ sensibly from that of air at the same tempera- ture and pressure ; in other words, it is assumed that the den- sity varies with the temperature only, the variation of pressure being neglected in determining the density. 4. " The head producing the draft in the chimney is equiva- lent to the excess of the weight of a vertical column of cool air outside the chimney, and of the same height, above that of a vertical column of equal base of the hot gases within the chimney." 5. That the draft is a maximum when the weight of gases discharged is the greatest. The fourth hypothesis is improperly denned, since the head is denned as a weight, whereas it is a height in feet. Professor Wood defines it as such a height of hot gases as, if added to the column of gases in the chimney, would produce the same pressure at the furnace as a column of outside air, of the same area of base, and a height equal to that of the chimney. If 24 pounds of air be supplied per pound of fuel the vol- ume of the gaseous product will be 24 x 12J = 300 cubic feet (nearly), and one cubic foot will weigh -jfg- = 0.0033 of a pound at 32° Fahr., which, added to the weight of a cubic foot of air at 32° Fahr., gives 0.0807 + 0.0033 = 0.084 of a pound; and if r a be the temperature of the external air, we have at once from the fourth principle as amended, U 0.0807 (5) k = -f THEORY OF CHIMNEY-DRAFT 9 which is the formula given by Rankine. From this we find (6 ) H== *0\«*J\tJ \ 0 n8rJ This gives the height of chimney for burning w pounds of coal per second. If S be the weight of a cubic foot of the gases in the chim- ney, and ]¥, the number of pounds of air required per pound of coal (about 24 pounds), then will the weight of gases passed up the? chimney be 28 V 0 — 8 = 0.0807 'Nw nearly ; K ' B 0. 0807^. V O i The weight per second will also be 8 times the volume, or Av$\ hence 0.0807JW4 V*]H\J 0.96 ^ - 1 (8) Auh F/l ( 1 + G+ ftO«*?) Observing that N 4- V 0 will be constant, this expression will be a maximum for a given chimney when the function 0.96 1 (9) is a maximum. If G be a variable, the maximum cannot b& found unless it be a known function of the temperature. Lit- tle, however, is known of its value in special cases, and the law of variation cannot be assigned. If it be considered constant., as in the assumptions of Peclet and Rankine, the function for* a maximum reduces to 0.96 T - r 2> T » which is the function considered by Rankine, and gives 10 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOIiY T = 2^s t, , a maximum ; and if the temperature of the external air be 60°, then will the temperature of the gases be 622 °. From the foregoing rules Professor Wood has calculated the following table : TABLE No. 1. SHOWING THE HEIGHTS OP CHIMNEY AND CORRESPONDING HEADS FOR BURNING GrVEN AMOUNTS OP COAL. Absolute. 24 lbs. coal per sq. ft. grate area. 20 lbs. coal per sq. ft. grate area. 16 lbs. coal per sq. ft. grate area. Head, h ft. Height, IT ft. Head, h ft. Height, H ft. Head, h ft. Height, H ft. 520° 600 128.001 1207.57 52.76 497.73 14.02 132.33 Absolute 700 72.75 250.87 45.70 157.61 19.65 67.76 or 800 82.76 172.42 55.58 115.80 26.71 55.66 59° Fahr. 1000 125.22 149.08 83.97 99.97 40.89 48.68 48.17 1100 153.22 148.76 101.87 98.91 49.61 1200 182.34 151.97 121.03 100.86 58.87 49.06 1400 252.51 159.86 161.92 105.65 80.89 51.20 1600 334.38 168.83 219.68 110.95 105.96 53.52 2000 555.53 206.52 355.61 132.20 169.47 63.007 It will be seen that the required heads equal the height of the chimney when the temperature in the chimney-flue is about 620° Fahr., the external air being assumed to be 60° Fahr. The many different conditions found in the United States, and the complexity of the above equations, prevent their use to any great extent. Those who wish to investigate more thoroughly the theory of chimney-draft will find material in the Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. XI. D. K. Clark deduces the following formula for force of draft in inches of water : (10) ^ = #(.0146 - w = force of draft in inches of water. H— height of chimney in feet. T'= absolute temperature, Fahr., of hot gases in chimney. If H= 135 feet, and T' = 550° + 461° = 1011° then, (T 66 \ .0146 - -t^tt) = 0-945 inch. THEORY OF CHIMNEY-DRAFT 11 Force of Intensity of Draft — In. this particular case 0.88 incli draft lias been observed. The force of the draft is equal to the difference between the weight of the column of hot gases inside of the chimney and the weight of a column of the external air of the same height. It is measured by a draft- gauge, usually a U-tube partly rilled with water, one leg con- nected by a pipe to the interior of the flue, and the other open to the external air. If D is the density of air outside, d the density of the hot gas inside, in pounds per cubic foot, if the height of the chim- ney in feet, and .192 the factor for converting pressure in pounds per square foot into inches of water column, then the formula for the force of draft expressed in inches of water is (12) F= .19211(1)- d). The density varies with the absolute temperature (see Ran- kine), (13) d = - 0.085 ; see foot-note. T . (14) D = 0.0807-° ; where t 0 is the absolute temperature at 32° Fahr., = 493°, t, the absolute temperature of the chimney gases, and t 2 that of the external air. F. R. Low, in Power, February, 1900, says-. The weight per cubic foot of chimney gas will vary with its composition. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, nitrogen and aqueous vapor is lighter ; so it is easily seen that the density of the gases will depend upon the proportion of carbon and hydro- gen which is being burned and with the excess of air used. For ordinary fuel and 19 pounds of air to one of combustible (20 pounds of gas) the gas will weigh .085 * pounds per cubic foot at 32° Fahr. Substituting 13 and 14 in equation 12 the formula for force of draft becomes (15) F = . mH (^-^I^f-^), or knowing the force of draft in inches of water it becomes, for obtaining the height of a chimney, • Rankine, " Steam Engine," gives this decimal as varying from 0.084 to 0.087. 12 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY. < 15A -> H =lM^i To find the maximum intensity of draft for any given chim- ney, the heated column being at 600° Fahr., and the external air at 60° Fahr., multiply the height above grate in feet by .0073, and the product is the draft in inches of water. TABLE No. la. DENSITY OR WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OP AIR, BY FORMULA 14. TABLE No. lb. DENSITY OR WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF GAS, BY FORMULA 13. CHIMNEY t D t d t d t d 0 .086355 200 .063335 430 .046952 660 .037302 5 .085424 210 .062389 440 .046429 670 .036972 10 .084514 220 .061470 450 .045919 680 .036647 15 .083623 230 .060578 460 .045419 690 .036328 20 .082750 240 .059711 470 .044930 700 .036015 25 .081895 250 .058869 480 044451 710 .035707 30 .081058 260 .058051 490 .043983 720 .035404 32 .080728 270 .057255 500 .043525 730 .035106 35 .080238 280 .056480 510 .013076 740 .034814 40* .079434 290 .055726 520 .042636 750 .034526 45 .078646 300 .054992 530 .042205 760 .034242 50 .077874 310 .054277 540 .041782 770 .033964 55 .077117 320 .053580 550 .041368 780 .033690 60 .076374 330 .052901 560 .040962 790 .033420 65 .075645 340 .052239 570 .040564 800 .033155 70 .074930 350 .051594 580 .040174 900 .030715 75 .074229 360 .050964 590 .039791 1000 .028610 80 .073541 370 .050349 600 .039415 1100 .026775 85 .072865 380 .049750 610 .039047 1200 .025161 90 .072201 390 .049163 620 .038685 1300 .023731 95 .071550 400 .048591 630 .038330 1400 .022455 100 .070910 410 .048032 640 .037981 1500 .021308 420 .047486 650 .037639 1800 .018479 2000 .016976 — F. E. Low, Power, 1900. The readings of all draft-gauges will vary somewhat from the figures in Table No. 2, as the same condition of variation in temperature from bottom to top exists to a greater or less extent in all chimneys. For any other height of chimney than 100 feet, the height of water-column is found by simple proportion, the height of the water column being directly proportional to the height of the chimney. The calculations have been made for a chimney 100 feet THEORY OF CHIMNEY-DRAFT 13 high, with various temperatures outside and inside of the flue, and on the supposition that the temperature of the chimney is uniform from top to bottom. TABLE No. 2. HEIGHT OF 'WATER-COLUMN DUE TO UNBALANCED PRESSURE IN CHIMNEY 100 FEET HIGH. Temperature of external air. — Barometer 14.7. tne 0 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 200 .453 .419 .384 .353 .321 .292 .263 .234 .209 .182 .157 210 .470 .436 .401 .371 .338 .309 .280 .251 .227 .200 .175 220 .488 .453 .419 .388 .355 .326 .298 .269 .244 .217 .192 230 .505 .470 .436 .405 .372 .344 .315 .286 .261 .234 .209 240 .520 .488 .451 .421 .388 .359 .330 .301 .276 .250 .225 250 .537 .503 .468 .438 .405 .376 .347 .319 .294 .267 .242 260 .555 .528 .484 .453 .420 .392 .363 .334 .309 .2S2 .257 270 .568 .534 .499 .468 .436 .407 .378 .349 .324 .298 .273 280 .584 .549 .515 .482 .451 .422 .394 .365 .340 .313 .2S8 290 .597 .563 .528 .497 .465 .436 .407 .379 .353 .326 .301 300 .611 .576 .541 .511 .478 .449 .420 .392 .367 .340 .315 310 .624 .589 .555 .524 .492 .463 .434 .405 .380 .353 .328 320 .637 .603 .568 .538 .505 .476 .447 .419 .394 .367 .342 330 .651 .616 .582 .551 .518 .489 .461 .432 .407 .380 .355 340 .662 .638 .593 .563 .530 .501 .472 .443 .419 .392 .367 350 .676 .641 .607 .576 .543 .514 .486 .457 .432 .405 .380 360 .687 .653 .618 .588 .555 .526 .497 .468 .444 .417 .392 370 .699 .664 .630 .599 .566 .538 .509 .4S0 .455 .428 .403 380 .710 .676 .641 .611 .578 .549 .520 .492 .467 .440 .415 390 .722 .687 .652 .622 .589 .561 .532 .503 .478 .451 .426 400 .732 .697 .662 .632 .598 .570 .541 .513 .488 .461 .436 410 .743 .708 .674 .643 .610 .583 .553 .524 .499 .472 .447 420 .753 .718 .684 .653 .620 .591 .563 .534 .509 .482 .457 430 .764 .730 .695 .664 .632 .602 .574 .545 .520 .493 .468 440 .774 .739 .705 .674 .641 .612 .584 .555 .530 .503 .478 450 .783 .749 .714 .684 .651 .622 .593 .564 .540 .513 .488 460 .793 .758 .724 .694 .660 .632 .603 .574 .549 .522 ;497 470 .802 .768 .733 .703 .670 .641 .612 .584 .559 .532 .507 480 .810 .776 .741 .710 .678 .649 .620 .591 .566 .540 .515 490 .820 .785 .751 .720 .687 .659 .630 .601 .576 .549 .524 500 .829 .791 .760 .730 .697 .669 .639 .610 .586 .559 .534 This is the basis on which all calculations respecting- the draft-power of chimneys have been made by Eankine and others, but it is very far from the truth in most cases. The difference will be shown by comparing the reading of the draft-gauge with the table given. In one case a chimney 122 feet high showed a flue temperature at the base of 320° Fahr., and at the top 230° Fahr., while the table considers the temperature uniform. Box gives this table : internal air at 552° Fahr., external air at 62° Fahr.; damper nearly closed. 14 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 3. DRAFT-POWERS OF CHIMNEYS. Height of chimney — feet. Draft in inches of water. Theoretical velocity Cold air entering. — feet per second. Hot air at exit. 10 .073 17.8 35.6 20 .146 25.3 50.6 30 .219 31.0 62.0 40 .292 35.7 71.4 50 .365 40.0 80.0 60 .438 43.8 87.6 70 .511 47.3 94.6 80 .585 50.6 101.2 90 .657 53.7 107.4 100 .730 56.5 113.0 120 .876 62.0 124.0 150 1.095 69.3 138.6 175 1.277 74.3 148.6 200 1.460 80.0 160.0 TABLE No. 4. VOLUME, DENSITY, AND PRESSURE OF AIR AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. Fahr. Volume at atmos. pressure. Density lbs. per cubic foot at atmos. pressure. Pressure at constant volume. Cubic ft. in 1 lb. Comparative volume. Lbs. per sq. in. J Comparative pressure. 0 11.583 881 .086331 12. 96 .881 32 12.387 943 .080728 13 86 .943 40 12.586 958 .079439 14 08 .958 50 12.840 977 .077884 14 36 .977 62 13.141 1 000 .076097 14 70 1.000 70 13.342 1 015 .074950 14 92 1.015 80 13.593 1 034 .073565 15 21 1.034 90 13.845 1 054 .072230 15 49 1.054 100 14.096 1 073 .070942 15 77 1.073 110 14.344 1 092 .069721 16 05 1.092 120 14.592 1 111 .068500 16 33 1.111 130 14.846 1 130 .067361 16 61 1.130 140 15.100 1 149 .066221 16 89 1.149 150 15.351 1 168 .065155 17 19 1.168 160 15.603 1 .187 .064088 17 50 1.187 170 15.854 1 .206 .063089 17 76 1.206 180 16.106 1 .226 . 062090 18 02 1.226 200 16.606 1 .264 .060210 18 58 1.264 210 16.860 1 .283 .059313 18 .86 1.283 212 16.910 1 .287 .059135 18.92 1.287 THEORY OF CHIMNEY -DUAFT 15 Widening the Top of Chimney Flue.— The effect of widen- ing the chimney flue at the top or mouth is, according to Dubois-Weisbach, as follows: strictly speaking, according to the principles of hydraulics (Vol. L, § 425), in the formula O-0±lS\ / we should insert for S not the mean cross-section, but that at the mouth, hence, other things being equal, a chimney which gradually widens toward the mouth or top can discharge more gas and smoke than one which dimin- ishes. Q = cubic feet of gas per second. d = diameter, in feet. h = height in feet. t = temperature of outer air. tf, = temperature of escaping gases in the flue. From 1 Weisbach, we find that (? is a maximum when ,t • * cr 0.760 t, — t = 273° Cent., and we have v = 1.32 y/h m feet ; b = ^~ in feet. If outer temperature is 32° Fahr. then gases are 555° Fahr. Except in cases where the gases have a very high velocity, as in the locomotive chimney, the writer fails to find any ad- vantage in widening the mouth of chimneys; in locomotive practice it has been proven, however, that the taper stack with diverging sides is the most efficient type. Illustration No. 35 is of a chimney whose flue widens tow- ard the top or mouth. Pyrometers.— The high temperatures and peculiar currents- of gases in the chimney make it very difficult to ascertain defi- nitely what the temperature is. The clock-face pyrometers made for general use, and whose indications depend on the unequal expansions of metals in their stem, are not considered very reliable, particularly as the zero point is subject to change during the handling of the instrument. The most satisfactory type of pyrometer is that m which a thermo-electric couple is made use of, but this type has not come into general use ; the metal pyrometers just described being considered sufficiently accurate for commercial purposes. CHAPTER III CHIMNEY FORMULAE Professor H. B. Gale gives this handy rule, that the sec- tional area of the chimney in square feet should be equal to the number of pounds of fuel to be burned per minute. This would make the velocity of chimney gases between 7 and 11 feet per second.* Mr. Gale also suggests the following rules : (17) Flue area in square feet = A = .07 F* (18) Height of chimney in feet = H~ 100 j-(^f where a may be considered £ of grate area in square feet. iTmay be approximately taken as 0.2. F = pounds of fuel burned per hour. G = grate area in square feet = 3a. t = temperature of chimney gases. < 2 °> F =y§ (21) a = 10^ V / f; which enables us to calculate the openings in the grate for the admission of air. Professor Gale has calculated Table No. 5, the temperature •of gases in a chimney being taken as 500° Fahr. The heights obtained by calculation are said to agree fairly well with American practice. * Only for chimneys of small dimensions. 16 CHIMNEY FORMULAE 17 TABLE No. 5. gale's chimney table. H. P. 20 60 100 200 400 600 1000 Coal per hour, F. lbs. 100 300 500 1000 2000 3000 5000 Coal per sq. ft. grate, B. lbs. 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 Area grate, (4) sq. ft. 7.' 20 30 53 95 130 200 Area opening, a. (= 0.4 ff.) sq. ft. 3 8 12 21 38 52 80 Chimney Kules. Adams gives : Chimney for one boiler : area = | of fire-grate. Chimney under 150 feet high for more than one boiler : area = T V fire-grate area. Chimney over 150 feet high for more than one boiler: area = fire-grate area. Rankine gives, "Rules and Tables," p. 29: Area of grate = .10 to .04 square feet per pound of fuel burned per hour. Area of grate in furnaces with forced draft by blast-pipe from .04 to .01 square foot per pound of fuel burned per hour. Area of chimney = .10 area of grate. D. K. Clark, " Thurston's Manual of Steam - engineering," Vol. II, p. 201 : Sectional area of tubes, inside = | grate surface. Sectional area of chimney = T ^ grate surface. Sectional area blast orifices = j\ grate surface. Height of chimney in feet = its diameter in inches multi- plied by 4. 2 18 THEORY OF CHIMNEY-DRAFT Transactions of the " American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers," Vol. XV., p. 607, gives : G A = -f- 1.076. 12 Vtf 1.076 is constant for a horizon- tal flue 50 feet long. Nystrom gives : HP 11 - m*~ 2 H = {HP*) A = G = 1MVH G %\A 2 " 2VH+2 C = 2GVH~+~2 Jones and Laughlin give : A = C . _ 10 VH ~ VW Another formula is IIP = VSxG 8 = (HPf G G _(HPf S Molesworth gives : HP A A = -°- 12 VH 1.2&VH Adams, p. 155, "Hand-book for Mechanical Engineers," gives : A = G 14 Vll \^A) C = UA s'TL G = square feet of grate sur- face. S = square yards of heating surface. G = pounds coal per hour. H= height of chimney in feet. A = area of chimney-flue in square feet. HP— horse-power of boilers. William Kent gives the following, assuming a commercial horse-power to demand the consumption of 5 pounds of coal per hour : Let A = actual section of chimney-flue in square feet. Let HP — boiler horse-power. « CHIMNEY FORMULAE 19 0 SlIP (22) E — - L -^—- = A — Q-Q^/A — effective section in square feet. (23) HP = 3.33# VH = horse -power. (24) d — 13.54 VE + 4" = diameter of round flue in inches (25) S = 12 V E + 4'' = side of square flue in inches. (26) // = (^-j^^- ) = height of chimney in feet. After numerous examples and discussion, D. K. Clark, in Tol. I. of " The Steam-engine," constructs the following for- mulae : Working maximum consumption of coal per hour, for a chimney of a given height : diameter at the top, one-thirtieth of the height ; temperature in the flue, 60Cf Fahr. (27) C=.0UHWJl C = coal consumed per hour in pounds. H — height of chimney in feet. G = area of grate in square feet. Taking as an average rate of combustion 15 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour, we have : Total grate area for a chimney of a given height ; conditions as above : 7/24/77 2.5 (28) ti = J MT-° r -- ff=163 VG- Another formula has been quite widely published, which applies to about the same conditions as were assumed by Mr. Kent, and agreeing well with Isherwood's experiments on anthracite coal is given by Dr. E. H. Thurston. Subtract one from twice the square root of the height, and the result is the rate of combustion for anthracite. For low-grade soft coals the result is to be multiplied by 1.5— for general use we may use the mean of the figures for best anthracite and low-grade bituminous coal, or a multiplier of 1.25. Mr. Nagle * examined a good many chimneys, varying from 300 to 1,000 horse-power, to see if there existed any common ratio between these two ele- ments. Where a smaller ratio than 1| square inches of area to 1 pound of coal burned per hour existed, much dissatisfaction existed as to the draft of the chimney ; when it reached 2 square inches very satisfactory results were obtained. * Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. CHAPTEll IV CHIMNEY TABLES, WIND-PRESSURE, AIR-SPACE IN GRATES The results of 45 tests of boilers with anthracite and Welsh steam coal give only 5 instances where the rate of combustion was greater than 13 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour, and all of the tests showed the rate of evaporation from and at 212° Fahr. per pound of combustible to be 8.11 pounds to 14.23 pounds. The same quantity of coal as used in the above tests, burned on a smaller grate, evaporated more water per pound. Averages of 15 tests by Isherwood give the following data : Another case — Average of 15 boilers tested gives 13. 87 pounds of coal to square foot of grate per hour, while only 7 tests exceed 13 pounds (capacity trials). For economy trials we have the average of 15 tests, giving 9.77 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour ; none being over 13 pounds. — Clark, Volume I. Thurston — "Steam Engine and Boiler Trials," p. 17, says the ''efficiency of fuel falls off at 50 to 60 pounds of fuel burned per square foot of grate " (per hour). In the plotted tests of the writer, PLATE I, all regu- larity ceases after 37 pounds of coal burned per square foot of grate is reached. RATE OF COMBUSTION Coal per sq. ft. of grate per hour. Evaporation from nnd at 212° F. per lb. coal. Anthracite coal Semi-bituminous coal Bituminous coal . . 12.75 10.95 12.43 8.90 10.14 9.31 Back of Foldout Not Imaged RATE OF COMBUSTION 21 The following- averages are from over 100 tests collated by the writer: Pounds of coal per horse-power developed per hour 3 . 64 Pounds of combustible per horse-power developed per hour 3 04 Pounds of coal burned per square foot of grate per hour. . 18.16 Professor Rankine says : " The rate of combustion in fac- tory boilers is 12 to 16 pounds of coal to the square foot of grate." Dr. Thurston says, in "Steam Engine and Boiler Trials": "In land boilers it is customary to keep the rate of combus- tion per square foot of grate down to about 8 pounds per hour, although it frequently rises to 10 or 12 pounds." The preceding diagram shows that 13 pounds of coal burned per square foot of grate per hour of either anthracite or bituminous coal gives the greatest economy in evaporation. The greatest amount of anthracite coal found to have been burned per square foot of grate per hour was 33.70 pounds ; the least, 470 pounds. The greatest amount of bituminous coal found to have been burned per square foot of grate per hour was 57 pounds ; the least, 6.70 pounds. -Land stationary boilers are the only ones considered in these statements. A noticeable feature of the plotted data is that the most economical boiler performances are obtained when a mixture of one part soft coal to two parts anthracite dust is burned at quite a high rate of combustion, forced draught being used. The writer's object in giving "combustible " per square foot of grate is that the rating by combustible is the best way of comparing the tests of a number of boilers under which differ- ent coals are burned, and is a more reasonable criterion than that of coal only. It will be readily seen from the averages that less than 4 pounds of coal in the majority of cases is that which is re- quired to be burned per hour to produce one horse-power ; and as 13 pounds of coal burned per square foot of grate is a most economical rate of combustion, 13 divided by 4, or 3.25 horse- power per square foot of grate per hour, is most economically attainable. 22 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The above is for anthracite coal. For bituminous coal, as 23.8 pounds burned per square foot of grate is an economical rate of combustion, 23.8 divided by 4, or 5.95 horse-power per square foot of grate per hour, is economically attain- able. The average of 13 and 23.8 is 18.4, which is very nearly 18.16, the average of all the 108 tests ; which confirms the cor- rectness of common practice, as to rates of combustion. CHIMNEYS. The writer has found that a relation exists between the coal burned per square foot of grate, with efficient chimney draft, for anthracite and bituminous coal, and by assuming that coefficient x A V II — coal per hour in pounds, then coefficient x A \' H — G x coal per square foot of grate per hour, we find that for anthracite coal the coefficient equals the coal burned per square foot of grate, and that for bituminous coal the coefficient equals the coal burned per square foot of grate divided by 1.83. The following tables, figured by formulas given, will give satisfactory results to any who may use them ; should any special modification be needed, the user must use his own judgment with regard to them. Table No. 6. Grate area for a rate of combustion of 13 pounds per square foot of 'grate per hour. Table No. 7. Grate area for a rate of combustion of 23.8 pounds per square foot of grate per hour. Table No. 8. Coal capacity of chimney. Table No. 9. Horse-power of boilers. Table No. 10. Horse-power of chimneys, when two pounds of coal per hour burned furnishes one indicated horse-power at engine. Should the engine horse-power be known, and the chimney size wanted, great care should be exercised in deter- mining it. The last table is intended only for the one case. The writer has put himself on record as being decidedly in favor of rat- ing chimneys at their coal capacity and not by horse-power. BATE OF COMBUSTION 23 The 23-8 is a derived constant obtained by multiplying 13 x 1.83 ; 1.83 confirms Mr. Harris's rule for grate area for bitu- minous coal burned with natural draft, 23.8 is an economical rate of combustion for bituminous coal. A horse-power is understood throughout these tables to be the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' standard of 34^ pounds of water evaporated per hour from and at 212° Fahr. ^ E co = £ ^ co o> UO CO Csj Co TJ- O) to »^ °3 lO Oj O O) CO CO CO »-» o CO N N CO Ol ^" Is. Oj O ^ ts, CO Co CO ^ r*. r-. CM CN O CO N Hi N OS »— Co COCO * IflCoN CfiMO CO 301O Tj- CO CO ^" COCN CN) CM CO lO N CO »— 1 O CO CO nqojO) *- , t}- i— 03 Co lO rsLT-^co ^ is. o en n o <}• CO N. CO CO CO I oj 1 co co* co co ^i- r» CJ> 0> O O ^ CN co tJ- 24 '1ABLB No. 7. BUM 21. 24 <27 33 36 39 42— 48 54 60 ee._ 72 78 84 AREA (A) Sq. Ft. 102, 108 11.4. 120 132 144 1.77. 2.41 3.14 3.98 4.91. 5.94 7.07 8.30 ...9.62. 12.57 15.90 19.64 .J23.78. 28.27 33.18 38.48 .44.18 50.27 56.75 63.62 HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY. 60' 70' 90' I 100' | 110' 125' \ 150' | 175' \ 200' I 225' I 250' I 300' Grate Area (Gj)=A\/H~ 1.83 for a rate of combustion of 23.8 lbs. -70.88. 78.54 95.03 113.10 7.6 10 13 17 21 25 30 27. 32 34 39 40 45 47 53 87 107 _130 155 56 72 91 113 136 162 190 220 59 77 97 120 145 173 203 236 270 308 347 389 66. 86 109 134 162 193 227 263 302 343 .484 536 650 772 115 142 172 204 245 278 319 3S3 410 459 512 567 686 817 219 256 297 439 492 548 607 735 S74 232 272 315 362 412 465 521 581 647 778 927 297 332 381 434 490 550 612 679 831 977 472. 476 537 602 671. 743 EQUIt Sq. CHI Side of* ===== 16! 19 22 H 27 30 i 32 35 JO* torn rim 12M TABLE No. 8. DIAIH. AREA HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY. EQUI Sq. Oh 04) 50' 60' 70' 80' 90' 100' 110' 125' 150' 176' 200' 226' 250' 300' Inches. Sq. Ft. Horse Power = 3.25 At/H;4lbs. of coal burned considered I.H. P. Side of 18_ 21 24 27 ..1,77. 2.41 3.14 3.98 ...42 55 72 91, 46 62 78 101 49 65 85 107 52 68 91 114 98 124 19 22 24 30.. 33 36 39 .-41.9J. 5.94 7.07 8.30 .1.14 124 149 179 133 163 192 224 143 172 205 241 153 182 218 257 159 192 228 270 202 241 283 257 302 30 32 35 42.. ..9.62. -263 282 296 312 332 351 390.. 38 43 54 60 12.57 15.90 19.64 364 387 491 605 410 517 637 429 543 669 458 579 715 510 647 797 683 845 43 48 54 66_. 72 78 84 .23.7.6 28.27 33.18 38.48 920 809 962 1131 1310 865 1051 1206 1401 965 1147 1349 1563 1021 1215 1459 1654 1092 1300 1524 1768 1378 1619 1875 1706 1976 2165 59 em 70 75 90 44.18 1794 2041 2304 2584 1898 2161 2434 2734 2031 2311 2607 2925 2155 2451 2766 3101, 2269 2584 2915 3269 2486. 2831 3195 3578 80 88 91 96 96 102 t 108 50.27 56.75 63.62 1830 2067 2314 rrt?_ -70.8a 3045 3374 4082 4859 3257 3611 4368 5200 3455 3829 4631 5515 3643 4037 4882 5811 3991.. 4420 5350 6367 —10.1 107 117 128 120, 132 144 78.54 95.03 113.10 3191 3861 4596 TABLE No. 9. AREA (A) HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY. EQUIV. oq. i^nirrj. Side ofSq i 50' | 60' | 70' | 80' | 90' \ 100' | 110' 1 125' | 750' | 775' | 200' | 225' | 250' | 300' Sq. Ft. Hon e Power = 6.5 A l/H. When 2 lbs. coal burned per hour = 1 H. P. __7..7V —84 92 98 104- [2.41 3.14 3.98 110 144 182 124 156 202 130 170 214 136 182 228 196 248 79' 24 4.91 5.94 7.07 8.30 -228 248 298 358 266 326 384 ' 448 286 344 410 482 306 364 436 514 318_ 384 456 640 404 482 666 514 604 30 32 35 -.9.62. 12.57 15.90 19.64 -326 564 728 592 774 982, 1210 624 820 1034 1274 662 858 1086 1338 702 916 1158 1430 7.80.- 1020 1294 1594 1366 1690 43i 48 54 1548 1618 1924 2262 2620 1730 2102 2412 2802 1930 2294 2698 2042 2430 2918 2184_ 2600 3048 3536 64, 70 H 28.27 33.18 38.48 1840 ~2756 3238 3750 8412 3952 4330 .44.18 3588 4082 4608 5168 3796 4322 4868 5468 4062 4622 5214 5850 .4310 4902 5532 6202 4538 5168 5830 6538 4972 5662 6390 7156 .—80 86 91 96 50.27 56.75 63.62 3660 4134 4628 -70.88. 78.54 95.03 113.10 -5758 6382 7722 9192 6090 6748 8164 9718 6514 7222 8736 10400 6910 7658 9262 11030 7286 8074 9764 11622 7982 8840 10700 12734 -103 107 117 128 ! TABLE No. 10. AREA HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY. (A) 50' | 60' | 80' 1 90' I 700' | 770' | 725' I 750' 1 775' | 200' | 225' | 250' | 300' EQUIV. Sq. Chim. Sq. Ft. Pounds of coal burned per Hour. = = 13 x C.' Side of Sq. .-.1.77- 2.41 3714 3.98 .169 221 286 364 182 247 312 403 195 260 338 429 208 273 364 455 390 494 19 ■22 24 _ .4.9 1- 5.94 7.07 8.30 -455 494 598 715 533 650 767 897 572 689 819 962 611 728 871 1027 637 767 910 1079 806 962 1131 7027 7209 30 32 35 - .9.62_ 12.57 15.90 19.64 J053 1128 1456 1183 1547 1963 2418 1248 1638 2067 2548 1326 1716 2171 2678 1404 1833 2314 2860 1560 2041 2587 3198 2730 3380 43 48 54 —23.76 28.27 33.18 38.48 3094 3679 3237 3848 4524 5239 3458 4121 4823 5603 3861 4589 5395 6253 4082 #S59 5837 6617 4368 5200 6097 7072 5572 6474 7501 6825 7904 8658 59 64 70 75 -44.18 50.27 56.75 63.62 -6435 7319 8268 9256 7176 8164 9217 10335 7592 8645 9737 10933 8125 9243 10426 11700 8619 9802 11063 12402 9074 10335 11661 13078 9945. 11323 12779 14313 80 86 91 96 -.70.88 78.54 95.03 113.10 .11518 12766 15444 18382 12181 13494 16328 19435 13026 14443 17472 20800 13819 15314 18525 22061 14573 16146 19526 23244 15964 17680 21398 25467 70/ 107 T17 128 26 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOKY < Eh Equivalent square chimney side of square. Inches. © OS CQ ■># Hrt«« CQ CO CO CO 00 CO GO co -st 1 ^ io os o in m co t- c- © © i-l CO 00 © © © 1-H t- t- 00 © © i—i CM 1-H 1-H TH 1-H O o cc '28860 © eo t- © m © t-h rtMOt- COt-Cit- co co m< CO CO c— o i-H CO CQ © CQ © CO 00 CO 00 i-H IO JO i> 00 o lO on 22750 26347 30247 34450 38871 43593 48910 53820 65087 77480 IN! 18373 21580 25003 28730 32673 36877 41340 CO t-O N © Tr 1 in CO © © t- IO © i-i 1-H CO •«*< IO © £> o o CN u CQ CO CO CO © CO CM £- io co eo m i-H i-l CQ CQ 27083 30810 34753 39000 © CO © CO CQ rf CO M< — CQ CO eo oo oo © T IO © & SURFACE IN BOILERS. . per hou 9100 11267 13607 16197 19457 22057 OrHlOlJI CO GO IO CO CM © CQ CM CO CO CO © £>■ CO © CO CQ 00 © © t- © Tfi IO © H o o 1 \V. H. S o co co o O O CM CO CQ CO CO CO m co co © © t> eo co t- OS JO Tfl CO CQ © CO CQ IO t- © i—i th t— I CQ © eo o © © O"! i> -HH CO t- © Oi CQ CO CO eo eo © eo © IO 00 t- CO IO CM 00 CQ l-H l-H CO Tf IO © 5 o h o re foot oi 3423 4030 ~o~o eo co CO TH i-l CO CO r-i i> O -rf CC C- OS t- t- t- t- o t eo c- t- in c— © © t— co co oo TH 7— 1 T— 1 T— 1 © t- © CO in © © io Tti eo AO oo 1-H J> © CQ CM CM CO HEIGUT 110' | HEATING per squa . J> o 00 O £> • CO o> t- • oi co co O O t- l- CQ CQ CO CM L- CM OS t*i IO t- GO © t- © CO © CQ CC CO t- GO © © cq in t- o o WATER-: b. of coal CO t- CO L- CM iO CO OS CO OI CO CO O O O CO CO CO OS OS T-l Tt< 00 io co oo 10313 12263 => os (0.3 1 1300 1647 t- eo eo eo cm o cf O OS CQ CQ CM CO coo wo TjH IO CO os i—i in © CO IO CO 00 o 00 WOMi> OH-lH CO OS CQ IO t- c~ © r~ O OS CO o OS CM < - CM i-l CM CM CO C CO ■ ■ © IO • £- 00 • ■ CO • • o ~o t- e- © IO © CQ CO r-i tH i- t> t> ©~ C- CO lO OS l-HIOCS H««« ~©~ : 7 in • ■ ■ CO • • • o ;o t- co o co O CQ TjH Tj< CO CO O CO ' - CO CO • -# OS CO ■ CO OS CO ■ i-H — i CM • in co t- eo eo CO CO IO i— I IO t- OS CQ 1517 Area (A) square ! feet. L- t- -tf CO t- T« i-l © i-i oi eo co — I -H {> O OS OS © CO IO I- CO co m os co os cq in cs HrlH co t> oo oo L- CQ tH ^H CO 00 CO 00 cm cq eo co oo c- m cm © CO CO IO o © 70.88 78.54 95.03 113.10 Diameter Inches. CO 7-1 -# t- HC5«N o eo co cs CO CO CO CO CM 00 O ■<*< m co © CQ CO — *" © t- CO © © CM CO © © © © 1-H T— 1 tH © CQ r- CQ CO ^ HHHrt EATE OF COMBUSTION 27 This table has been calculated by D. K. Clark's rules. TABLE No. 12. Diameter of Flue. Top sectional area of flue in feet. Coal per hour. Area of grate. 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 1 .39 1.77 2.19 2.63 3.14 3.69 4.26 4.91 5.60 6 29 7.09 7.89 8.71 9.62 10.57 11.52 12.86 13.65 14.73 15 90 17.12 18.32 19.63 20.99 22.31 23.76 25 . 24 26.69 28.27 29.90 31.47 33.18 34.94 Per lb. coal per hour. Pounds. 1.41 1.34 1.27 1.21 1.16 1.11 1.07 1.04 1.00 .97 .95 .92 .90 .88 .86 .84 .82 .80 .79 .77 .76 .74 .73 .72 .71 .70 .69 .68 .67 .66 .65 .64 .63 142 190 248 314 390 477 574 682 801 932 1076 1231 1394 1582 1777 1985 2208 2446 2698 2904 3247 3544 3858 4187 4533 4896 5275 5672 6: 186 6517 6967 7434 7920 RATE OF COMBUSTION DUE TO HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY. Trowbridge's " Heat and Heat Engines " gives the follow- ing table showing the heights of chimneys for producing certain rates of combustion per square foot of section of the chimney -flue. It is best adapted to chimneys where a good grade of large-sized anthracite coal is used. 28 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 13. Height of chimney in feet. Lbs. of coal burned per hour per square foot of section of chimney flue. Lbs. of coal burned per square foot of grate, the i atio of grate area to chimney flue area being 8 to 1. Height of chimney in feet. Lbs. of coal burned per hour per square foot of section of chimney flue. Lbs. of coal burned per square foot of grate, the ratio of grate area to c h i m n ey flue area being 8 to 1 . 20 60 7.5 70 126 15.8 25 68 8.5 75 131 16.4 30 76 9.5 80 135 16.9 35 84 10.5 85 139 17.4 40 93 11.6 90 144 18.0 45 99 12.4 95 148 18.5 50 105 13.1 100 152 19.0 55 111 13.8 105 156 19.5 60 116 14.5 110 160 20.0 65 121 15.1 Dr. K. H. Thurston's rule for the rate of combustion for a given height of chimney (Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. xi., p. 991) is : Subtract one from twice the square root of the height, and the result is the rate of combustion in pounds per square foot of grate per hour, for anthracite coal ; or rate = 2V H — 1, in which His the height of chimney in feet. This rule gives the following table : H= 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 135 150 175 200 2VW-1- 13.14 14.49 15.73 lfi.89 17.97 19 19.97 21.36 23.49 25.45 27.28 The results agree closely with Trowbridge's table given above. In practice, however, the high rates of combustion for high chimneys given by the formulae are seldom obtained, for the reason that with high chimneys there are long horizontal flues, serving many boilers, and the friction and interference of the currents of gases from the different boilers diminish the intensity of the draft at the boiler from what it was at the chimney. In a battery of several boilers connected to a chimney 150 feet in height there has been found f inch of water draft at the boiler nearest the chimney, and only -} inch at the boiler farthest from it. The first boiler was wasting fuel from an excessive tem- perature of the chimney gases, 900° Fahr., having too large a RATE OF COMBUSTION 29 grate surface for the draft, and the last boiler was working below its capacity, and with poor economy, on account of poor draft. Theron Skeel gives the following relative amounts of coal that can be burned in the same time with chimneys of various heights : Height in feet 120 100 80 60 40 20 Relative amount of fuel. . 100 90 80 70 57 40 J. J. DeKinder finds the best results to be obtained by- using chimneys of the following heights : 75 feet for free-burning bituminous coal. 100 feet for free-burning bituminous slack. 115 feet for slow-burning bituminous coal. 125 feet for anthracite pea coal. 150 feet for anthracite buckwheat coal, with a draft for anthracite coal of 0.75 to 0.88 inch of water. This agrees with the conclusions of Emery and Hague. AIR-SPACE IN GRATES. The successful performance of a chimney depends upon very many local conditions, among which, and very important, is the amount of air supplied to the burning fuel and allowed to p ass through it. The following list gives the proper size of air-space and thickness of metal in the bar for different fuels. ]-inch opening and f-inch iron for screenings. | -inch opening and f-inch iron for buckwheat coal. ^-inch opening and £-inch iron for nut or pea coal. f -inch opening and ^-inch iron for stove coal. f-inch opening and i-inch iron for egg coal. | -inch opening and £-inch iron for broken coal. 1-inch opening and £-inch iron for lump coal. £-inch opening and f-inch iron for sawdust. | -inch opening and f-inch iron for sawdust. \ -inch opening and |-inch iron for shavings. |-inch opening and |-inch iron for shavings. For bituminous coal, | or f-inch opening and J -inch iron. 30 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOKY VOLUME OF AIR PASSING THROUGH CHIMNEY. According to Professor H. B. Gale, the velocity for maximum draft in chimneys is between six and fourteen feet per second, depending- on the height of the chimney and temperature of the escaping gases ; in brick-stacks it sometimes is as low a rate as three feet per second. The exact rate at which the best draft is produced depends on so many variables, such as flue temperatures, grate air-space, kind of conditions of fuel, etc., that it is probably not the same in any two chimneys or power plants. VELOCITY OF GASES. Lang recommends " for velocity of chimney gases, V„, 13.12 feet per second ; in sheltered locations 9.84 feet per second. If prevailing winds come over steep mountains and fall on the top of the chimney, then V n must be correspondingly in- creased from 19.68 to 22.96 feet per second ; or the top of the chimney must be provided with proper covers for such un- favorable directions (wind caps, etc.). "With good wind caps V„ may be reduced from 4.92 to 5.65 feet a second. Wind caps, on account of their dangerous position, are only recommended in exceptional cases. If a number of boiler-furnaces discharge their gases in one and the same chimney, then V n must be increased for the full working number, so that in case there are less than the whole number of boilers under fire a sufficient exhaust velocity of the gases will still be obtained. In place of the average value of V n = 13.12 feet per second ; the following values may be sub- stituted : For 3 boilers, V n = 16.40 ft. per sec. = 984.0 ft. per minute. " 7 " V n = 19.68 " " = 1180.8 " " 12 " V n = 22.96 " " = 1377.6 " " more, 12 + X boilers, V n = 22.96 + ° ft. a second. RATE OF COMBUSTION 31 WIND-PRESSURE. The scale of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington for the estimation and description of the velocity and pressure of the wind, calculated by Smeaton's Eule, is as follows : Divide the square of the velocity in miles per hour by 200 ; the quotient is the pressure in pounds per square foot. TABLE No. 14. Grade. Velocity in miles per hour. Pressure per square foot in lbs. Name. 0 0 0.0 Calm. 1 2 0.02 Very light breeze. 2 4 0.08 Gentle breeze. 3 12 0.75 Fresh wind. 4 25 3.00 Strong wind. 30 4.50 5 35 6.00 High wind. 40 8.00 6 45 10.00 Gale. 50 12.5 7 60 18.00 Strong gale. 8 75 28 2 Violent gale. 80 32.00 9 90 40.5 Hurricane. 10 100 50.00 Most violent hurricane. In the United States the general practice is to assume fifty pounds wind-pressure per square foot as the highest to be con- sidered. !No record of such a high pressure has been heard of, or is likely to be, except in the extreme hurricane, with cyclonic conditions present, as in the East St. Louis, Mo., tornado of 1896, when the brick chimney of the Electric Light Section was partially destroyed and blown down. From calculations made since the occurrence, the force of the wind must have been about ninety pounds per square foot. During the Galveston, Tex., tornado of September, 1900, the barometer dropped to 27.3 inches, and the velocity of the wind was reported by a United States Engineer to have been as high as 100 miles per hour. 82 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY. The Engineer, London, says : the pressure of the wind on plane surfaces has been found by experiments to be approxi- mately : v ~ velocity of wind in feet per second. i = angle between the normal to the plane and the direction of the wind. q = pressure in pounds per square foot of plane. The above, of course, does not apply tq curved surfaces. CHAPTEE V FOUNDATION MATERIALS. BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS Logically and from an engineering stand-point, the first detail of chimney construction is the foundation. Before considering- this topic, a brief statement of the qual- ities and strengths of various soils, with reference to their abil- ity to support foundations, is requisite. BEARING rOWER OF SOILS. The building laws of New York City allow 4 tons per square foot as a safe load for " good solid natiiral earth." The laws of Chicago specify If- tons for pure clay, fifteen feet or more thick ; 2 tons for pure dry sand, fifteen feet or more thick ; and 1\ tons for a mixture of clay and sand of the same depth. Ordinary practice gives the following : 200 tons per square foot for solid bed rock. 5 to 25 tons per square foot for rock broken, but well com- pacted. 4 tons per square foot for pure clay fifteen feet or more thick. 1 ton per square foot for soft wet clay. 8 tons per square foot for gravel well packed and confined. 4 tons per square foot for pure dry sand well packed and com fined. 2 tons per square foot for pure dry sand in its natural bed. 1 ton per square foot for quicksands and marshy soils. PILING. Piling must be resorted to when the soil is very sandy or loose. 34 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Piles should be of spruce, not less than six inches in di- ameter at the smaller end, and should be driven by a drop- hammer weighing- not less than 2,000 pounds. The broom and splinters should be removed from the head of the pile for the last blow. The heads of the piles should be sawed off level and capped with an oak grillage, or filled around with concrete. There has been no satisfactory determination made of the safe load on piles, and each engineer is obliged to use his own judgment. A test reported in Engineering News, July, 1893, says: four piles, 13 inches in diameter, 80 square inches area, held up 50.7 tons each without settling. We give the following formulae, for the benefit of those who care to use them : Let R — weight of ram in pounds. h — fall of rani in feet. s = depression at last blow in feet. e = average depression for 100 blows— in inches. P = weight of pile in pounds. L — carrying capacity of driven pile in pounds. (29) Safe load in pounds = ^ + m$ e ' (Dutch formula). (30) Safe load in pounds = \ (~—\ (Eng. News, Feb., 1891.) \ T2 + 67 (31) L = (L. P. Church in Mechanics) (32) L = 32BV/1 — c. (Haswell, 1894) ; * where c is a constant having a value of from three to six according to the nature of the soil. (33) L = (Wellington.) 12s + 1 v & • / (34) Z=^A^. (Tl .autwi„e.) As a factor, Trautwine recommends that for piles thor- oughly driven in firm soils, one-half of the above load be taken ; in river, mud, or marsh (piles not driven to rock bot- tom), the safe load be restricted to one-sixth of L. * Haswell, 1900, gives /, = SRyk -f- 1.25 FOUNDATION AND BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS 35 L — °f hammer in inches x weight of ra m in net tons depression at last blow in inches x 8 (Sanders.) This formula applies to piles driven until penetration is small and nearly equal for successive blows. Building- laws of these cities give the following : Philadelphia, small end 5 inches, head 12 inches, spaced not over 30 inches centre to centre, 20 net tons per pile. New York, small end 5 inches, spaced not over 30 inches centre to centre, 20 net tons per pile. Chicago, 25 net tons per pile, driven to rock or hardpan bearings. Buffalo, small end 6 inches, spaced not over 36 inches centre to centre, 25 net tons per pile. concrete. Concrete is largely used as a subsidiary foundation. The Metropolitan Water Board's specifications for this ma- terial are as follows : " Concrete shall be composed of one part by measure of American natural hydraulic cement, two parts of clean, sharp sand, and five parts of clean screened broken stone, or clean screened gravel. " The stone for the concrete shall be free from clay, dirt, or other objectionable material ; no stone shall be greater than two and one-half inches, and but very few less than one-quarter inch in their greatest dimensions. "The mixing shall be done in proper boxes, in a manner satisfactory to the engineer. "After the materials are wet, the work must proceed rapidly until the concrete is in place, and is so thoroughly rammed that water flushes to the surface, and all the interstices between the stones are entirely filled with mortar. " It shall be allowed to set a sufficient time, to be determined by the engineer, before walking over, or working upon it shall be permitted. "All trenches or foundations must be kept free of water while concrete is being placed therein. "All cement used in the work shall be of the best quality of American natural hydraulic cement, and equal in quality to the best Rosendale cement ; it must be made by manufacturers 36 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY of established reputation, and must be fresh, very fine ground, and put up in well-made casks. "For exposed stone masonry, Portland cement, mixed in the same proportions as the American cement concrete, shall be used ; all other stone masonry should be laid in American cement concrete of second quality, mixed in proportion, by measure, of one part of cement to two parts of sand for both mortars." The building- laws of Chicago will not allow more than four tons per square foot on concrete foundations. Boston and New York specify a minimum thickness of twelve inches. Using a factor of safety of five, the safe load per square foot, for concrete one month old, is three tons ; for concrete six months old, is twelve tons ; for concrete one year old, is sixteen to twenty tons. Chimney foundations are sometimes made of large stones laid on a bed of concrete, and in any case, whether of concrete, stone, or both, they should be large enough to prevent unequal settling; the pressure on the foundation being largely concen- trated on the leeward side, and the prevailing winds therefore are apt to have the effect of canting the chimney to one side, unless a broad foundation is furnished. For dimensions of foundations, and descriptions of several in particular, see pages 36 to 116. Walls laid in lime and cement mortar : New York, 23,000 pounds per square foot, 160 pounds per square inch. PIERS. Building laws of Boston allow 6 to 20 times least diameter for the height, also laid in 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 26,000 pounds per square foot ; laid in 1 part cement, 4 parts sand, 20,000 pounds per square foot ; laid in lime mortar, 14,000 pounds per square foot ; for " light hard " brick, two-thirds of the above loads are allowable. Professor Ira O. Baker * says, " safe loads for good brick, in lime mortar, 40,000 pounds per square foot ; in cement, 60,000 pounds per square foot. * Expanded Metal and its Uses in Fire-proof Construction. FOUNDATION AND BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS 37 In United States Government tests, piers built in lime mor- tar have cracked at a load of 1,200 pounds per square inch, or 172,800 pounds per square foot. TABLE No. 15. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT TESTS, WATERTOWN ARSENAL. Breaking load on common brick piers, laid in a mortar composed of one part cement to two parts clean sharp sand. Height (feet). Size of pier (incheR). Area (square inches). Breaking load (pounds per square inch). 10 8x8 57.38 1500 8 12x12 130.53 1461 10 12x12 132.25 1347 10 12 x 12 108.03 1457 10 16 x 16 238.70 964 10 16x16 244.92 1010 m 12x12 134.56 1622 m 12x12 131.67 1468 Laid in lime one part, sand three parts. 10 12x12 132.25 1511 10 12 x 12 115 44 1807 10 12x16 192.00 773* * Face brick ; showed cracks at a load of 516 pounds per square inch. FIRE AND RED-BRICK -WORK. Sizes of fire-brick : 9-inch straight, 9 x 4| x 24 inches. Soap, 9x2^x24 inches. Checker, 9x3x3 inches. 2-inch, 9 x 4| x 2 inches. Split, 9 x 4£ x l£ inches. A 9-inch straight brick weighs 7 pounds, and contains 100 cubic inches, its specific gravity is 1.93. One cubic foot of wall requires 17 9-inch straight bricks, and weighs 120 pounds. One cubic yard requires 460 9-inch bricks. One ton of fire-clay will lay 3,300 ordinary bricks. Fire-bricks should be used where a temperature greater than 600° Fahr. is to be withstood. English fire-brick measure 9 x 4| x 2i inches. 38 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY A. T. Byrne says : * "To secure the best results, fire-brick should be laid in the same clay from which they are manufact- ured. " It should be used in a thin paste, and not as a mortar ; the thinner the joint the better the furnace wall. The brick should be dipped in water as they are used, so that when laid they will not absorb the water from the clay paste. " They should then receive a thin coating- of the prepared fire-clay, and be carefully placed in position with as little of the fire-clay as possible." Ordinary red bricks measure x 4 x 2 inches, or 26 bricks to the cubic foot. The average weight is 4| pounds. An 8^-inch wall requires 14 bricks per superficial foot. A 12|-inch wall requires 21 bricks per superficial foot. A 17-inch wall requires 28 bricks per superficial foot. A 21|-inch wall requires 35 bricks per superficial foot. Safe Loads.— Bed brick. — Summary of some municipal build- ing laws. New York, Chicago, and Boston. Walls : Hard-burned red brick, laid up in a mortar com- posed of one part of cement to two parts clean sharp sand: Boston 30,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 207 lbs. per sq. in. New York 30,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 207 lbs. per sq. in. Chicago 25,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 173 lbs. per sq. in. Walls laid in a mortar composed of one part of cement to four parts of clean sharp sand : Boston 24,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 166 lbs. per sq. in. Chicago 18,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 125 lbs. per sq. in. Walls laid in lime mortar : Chicago 13,000 lbs. per sq. ft., 90 lbs. per sq. in. Boston 16,000 lbs. per sq. ft. Ill lbs. per sq. in. New York 16,000 lbs. per sq. ft., Ill lbs. per sq. in. Expansion of Fire-brick in Chimney. — Eng. Bee, vol. xxix., p. 400, H. N. Brinckerhoff says : It varies from nothing to 2 to 3 inches in 75 feet in height, also that in lined steel chimneys 4 inches in 200 feet is not likely to occur. * Inspector's Pocket Book. FOUNDATION AND BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS 39 Twenty cubic feet = 16 bushels of sand, 4 cubic feet = 32 struck bushels of quicklime, will make 22| cubic feet of mor- tar and will lay 1,000 2 x 4 x 2^-inch bricks, with f to |-inch joints. A good bricklayer will in a day of ten hours lay 1,500 brick if provided with a laborer to keep him supplied with materials, but in chimney -work the number of bricks laid will depen d on design of chimney and elevation above ground of scaffold, from which they are laid. John C. Trautwine, Esq., furnishes the following directions for cement mortar : A barrel of cement, 300 pounds, and two barrels of sand (six bushels or 7§ cubic feet) mixed with about half a barrel of water, will make about 8 cubic feet of mortar sufficient for 192 square feet of mortar, joint i inch thick ; 288 square feet of mortar, joint § inch thick ; 384 square feet of mortar, joint | inch thick ; 768 square feet of mortar, joint | inch thick ; or, to lay 1 cubic yard, or 522 bricks of 8£ x 4 x 2 inches with joints | inch thick, or a cubic yard of rubble stone-work. The quantity of sand may be increased to 3 or 4 measures for ordi- nary work. Two barrels of cement and two barrels of sand will be suf- ficient to lay 1,000 bricks. Five pounds of salt added to each 20 gallons of water used with cement, will prevent its freezing at a temperature of 10° below zero. It quickens the hardening and does not materially reduce the ultimate strength. LINING. If the heat of the gases exceed 300° C. or 572° Fahr. then the building of a so-called lining of the shell of a thickness = 0.09 meter (3.53 inches) to 0.25 meter (9.84 inches), varying according to the chimney heat and degree of heat in the en- tering gases, is to be recommended. Gases below 250° C. (482° Fahr.) do not demand a fire-brick lining, except up to a short distance above where the flue en- ters the chimney. (G. Lang.) 40 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The latter is about all that is done in brick chimneys in the United States. Barely being over 9 inches thick at the bottom for 30 feet in height, or less, and 4| inches thickness for 30 feet above it, we also seldom see any double-shell brick chimney lined with fire-brick to a greater height than 20 to 30 feet above breech- ing or top of entering flue. A single-shell brick chimney 225 feet 9 inches, p. 89, has 56 feet of 9-inch and 60 feet of 44-inch fire-brick lining. Steel chimneys are frequently lined with hard-burned red brick, sometimes with fire-brick, generally leaving an inch space between lining and shell to be filled with sand. All fire-brick linings should have room for expansion, and for removal of a portion at one time. FOUNDATIONS. Professor Lang, of Hanover College, Germany, says : The bounding planes of the sides of foundations should be inclined, enlarging the body of masonry as it deepens. Instead of a plane, the inclination may be made by use of a step construc- tion. The proportions of the foundation should be such, that the permissible load per square foot on the earth or soil found in the particular locality shall not be exceeded, and, also, that the wind-pressure against the chimney- shaft shall not unduly increase the foundation load at any point. The inclination of the bounding sides with the horizontal should not be greater than 60 degrees. It may be assumed that the supporting and sustaining capacity of earth of uniform character increases gradually with its depth. In order that both the dead load and the effect of the wind- pressure may be properly taken care of, Hotop gives these formulae : Where H u = depth of foundation below ground level ; B u = breadth of the bottom of foundation ; H e = height of chimney above the top of foundation ; and S u = thickness of bottom plate of foundation, „ H c , D H c + H u H u — -g- and B u — — ■ FOUNDATION AND BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS 41 For especially wide chimneys, the values of H u and B u should be enlarged proportionally. Gaping of joints in chimneys is almost entirely avoided when the greatest pressure on the foundation does not exceed 35.55 pounds per square inch or 5120 pounds per square foot. The base of the foundation, or foundation plate, should have a thickness &,^1.64 + 0.01//, where all dimensions are in feet. If the angle of the sides to bottom of the foundation should be greater than 60 degrees, it should be strengthened by steel beams or railroad rails placed crosswise in the concrete. In looking over some tests, the writer finds that in com- pression tests of cubes of cement concrete the corners of the cubes and their sides break off, or slough off, leaving the angle somewhat less than 60 degrees ; this bears out Professor Lang's statement. Thus, when designing footings or foundations of concrete, with no metal in them, it is of no advantage to have the angle of the bounding sides to the base much less than 60 degrees. Again, there is no advantage in enlarging the foun- dation plate beyond what that angle will give, unless metal re- inforcement is used. The foundation of masonry for the brick-lined steel chimney for the Maryland Steel Works was large-dimensioned stone, quarry faced, with dressed arrises, set in a mortar of one part Portland cement and three parts of sand by measure. The foundation of a brick chimney erected in 1859 for the Chicago Refining Company, 151 feet high, 12 feet square at the base, is as follows : The base, two courses of heavy-dimen- sioned stone, is bedded upon the surface gravel near the. mouth of the river, there recently deposited by the lake. The mortar employed in the joints between the stones was roofing gravel and cement. The area of the base is 256 square feet,, the weight of the chimney, inclusive of the base, is 625 tons r giving a pressure of 34 pounds to the square inch, 2.45 tons per square foot. 12 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY 1-1 rl lC 3D — " CS T}1 IO re iO iO IO (>( 00 ^ 00 ooooooo© oooooooo oooooooo FOUNDATION AND BRICK CHIMNEY MATERIALS 43 — o d o m CD Co -2 d ^ 5Q « 5 ce £ k B c3 S 1) ° ° s e? — -o -aTOl-t-rtlOCOTN CO CO ^O^^T^ccrMt;:: oo os S t-~t- " & OS O 00 Os" lO io o: o HHi-n n Ci S* n >«! 3c 52 P co k "S O n .0 '5 2 c - v oo o!E55- x os fs OS OS OS =: o o os : . os os os os o o:cc o i-i io it; o io io io tr. in io »o w 44 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The foundation of a brick chimney erected in 1872 for the McCormack reaper works, 160 feet high, 14 feet square at the base, with a flue 6 feet 8 inches in diameter, is as follows : The base is 25 feet square ; area, 625 square feet ; the weight of the chimney and the base is approximately 1,100 tons ; the pressure on the soil is 24.33 pounds per square inch, 1.75 tons per square foot. Soil was dry, hard clay. This loading is very light. Foundations for self-sustaining steel chimneys are of ne- cessity of greater bearing surface than for brick chimneys, and will be treated under steel chimneys. CHAPTEK VI STEEL CHIMNEYS— THEORY PERTAININ& TO SAME, AND EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING STRUCTURES STEEL CHIMNEYS. The cheapest chimney that can be erected if ground-space is plenty, is a straight steel tube, held up by one or two sets of guy-rods or wires, four or six in a set. These guys should be fastened to an angle-iron or band at two-thirds the height, and if two sets are used, also at one-third the height. They should be anchored at a distance from the base equal to the height of the band above the ground. Boiler blank flue-heads, 16 to 24 inches larger in diameter than the chimney, and | to |-inch in thickness, make good bed-plates. If cast-iron bed- plates are used, they should be : at least one inch thick. The foundation should extend at least 12 inches above the ground level, and should be sunk 4 feet below ground level, and spread out on the bottom |o about twice the diameter of the chimney. An iron or steel casing is superior to a brick one, in that it does not leak and draw in cold air, thus impairing the draft. Moreover, when the ordinary chimney is working at its full capacity the velocity of the ascending column of gases is so great that very little heat is lost by radiation through the shell, even though the latter be without any lining, which is quite common. It is scarcely necessary to say that steel chimneys are al- ways round. For guy -rods, |-inch or f-inch iron is a common size. For guy-wires, not over 1 inch in diameter should be used. The following table will give some useful data. Whether rods or wires are used, a turnbuckle is necessary for adjusting the tautness of the connection. m 46 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 18. STANDARD HOISTING ROPE — CRUCIBLE STEEL, NINETEEN WIRES TO THE STRAND. Circumference. Inches. Diameter. Inches. Weight per Toot of rope with hemp centre Lbs. Breaking strain in tons of 2,000 lbs. Safe working load in tons of 2,000 lbs. 3i 3i 2i 21 2 li H 11 n H l i t 9 1 ~5 i TB 1 2.00 1.53 1.20 0 88 0.60 0.44 0.35 0.28 0.26 40 32 24 18 14 9* 7i 6 5 6 5 4 3 2 H 1 f GUYED STEEL CHIMNEYS. " Rule of Thumb "for Finding Diameter of Guy Wires for Steel Chimneys. {Engineering Mechanics, October. 1893.) Multiply the height of chimney in feet by its diameter in inches, and take the square root of the product. Divide this by 100, and the quotient is the least allowable diameter in inches for each of four guys. TABLE OF THICKNESS BY GAUGE OF STEEL FOR GUYED CHIMNEYS. Diameter— inches... 18 20 24 26 28 30 32 32 34 36 Height— feet 40 45 50 50 55 60 65 70 70 75 Thickness— gauge.. 16 IS 14 & 10 14 14 12 & 14 12 & 14 12 & 14 10 & 12 10 & 12 E. P. Aixis & Co. WEIGHT PER FOOT OP STEEL-RIVETED TUBES FOR GUYED CHIMNEYS. Diameter— inches 10 12 14 16 20 22 24 26 28 30 No. 16 W. G , Wt. per foot. 7.20 8.66 9.58 11 63 13.75 15.00 16.25 17.5 18.75 20.00 No. 14 W. G , Wt. per foot. 9.40 11.11 13.69 15.00 18.33 20.00 21.66 23.33 25.00 26.66 Circular boiler heads make good bases for guyed steel chimneys. The table on pages 42 and 43 applies to such cases. SELF-SUSTAINING STEEL CHIMNEYS. The solf-sustaining steel chimney is a feature of a great many modern power plants, because of its many advantages over a brick chimney. Among these advantages are : less floor or ground-space occupied, that is above the ground ; ease and rapidity of con- struction and erection ; because it weighs less than a brick THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 47 chimmey of like capacity, it is better adapted to soils of low load-sustaining power ; the steel shaft presents a smaller area to the wind than a brick chimney of equal flue area does. Self-sustaining chimneys are frequently lined with fire- brick, but more often with ordinary hard-burned red brick, which can receive the chimney gases at 600° to 700 7 without injury .. S.oime, however, simply line the chimney at the bottom wheire the flue enters it, and in such cases second-quality fire- brick answers the purpose very well. The thickness of brick lining should nowhere be less than 4 1 imches, and that in the upper portion of the chimney, and the thickness should be increased toward the bottom, adding 4|Ymclies every 30 or 40 feet. The size of flue and thickness of lining being known (usually adding from 18 to 36 inches to the diameter of the chimney shell or tube), we may start with the design of the chimney. For an example we will assume the case of a chimney with an outside diameter of 66 inches and 150 feet high. Let the diameter of the chimney be called D. Let the diameter of the bottom of bell-shaped base be called D B - The writer usually makes the height of the bell-base, or h B = 2D, and the diameter of bottom of bell D B = 2D, though 1\ times the diameter D is often used for both the height h\ and diameter D B - The outlines of the bell-shaped base in vertical projection shoiuld be bounded by straight lines, as of a cone, to give the greatest strength, but the outlines are often made curved as in a pealing bell, making use of thicker sheets of steel to counter- act the loss of strength due to the straight outline. The base-plate, usually made of cast-iron, should be^ kept from 12 to 24 inches above the level of the ground, but in no case should a high brick pedestal be used, it being much more expensive, less pleasing architecturally than the low founda- tion*, without possessing any advantage with regard to strength, and it occupies much more space on the ground. The base-plate is usually made of cast iron from 1 inch 48 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY I I .a V mmmmn mmsm ssl 8§88$8S8Ss83gg §153§88§§§ §S1 t"00 03OH THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 49 =11111111 nm illSlfigiiiiiii |iiiiiis! linn iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii siiiiiii linn iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii ;iiiiiii§ mm iiiiiiiiiiiiiii mining! iiigisiiiii||i|ill linn iiiiiiiiiiiiiii II!I||IH|1 |g3iisiisiiii||i| gSllli iiiiiiiiiiiiiii IIIIIIIIIII ligslHgllliSlgsill iHSS* IIIIIIIIIII IggSSSISSSliEgiSSS Illiii |||§|gi||lll||| 11111111111 UllllliSSI IllSSisIiSSIIiSlli Sillig jII§lf£i§llSillii illill SSSISg 50 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY thick for 100-foot chimneys to 3 inches thick for 250-foot chim- neys, and from 16 inches to 36 inches larger than D B in diameter for the above heights. For the convenience of casting- base-plates can be made in from two to six sections with flanges, held together by f-inch to l|-inch bolts, and need be solid only to within 12 inches in- side the bell, that is, like a round wrought-iron washer. Neglecting the flare at the base we will consider the whole height of a chimney with a common diameter J), and proceed to design the shell. Considering the force of the wind as 50 pounds per square foot — the actual pressure on a cylinder is 50 per cent, of the above, or 25 pounds per square foot on the projected area. Add 5 pounds for compressive strain produced by the wind in one half of the shell and its dead load, and we have 30 pounds as a safe value for wind-pressure. The height of the chimney under consideration, H — 150 feet, which, multiplied by D — 5| feet and by 30 pounds, gives 24,750 pounds of wind-pressure distributed over the entire area. The lever arm about the base being — , the bending mo- 150 ment is 24750 X — = 185625 foot pounds. The section modulus, Z, for hollow cylinders is — I — — )' where d = the inside diameter of the shell, and simplified the value of Z=. 09821 — — I; having used feet before, feet should be used in this formulae, or divide the results obtained from using inches by 12. Dividing the bending moment obtained as above, by the section modulus Z, we obtain the strain per square inch on any section considered. By calculating the bending moments at different heights of the chimney by multiplying the diameter by H by one-half of the height above the section under consideration by 30 pounds, we may then make use of the following table. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 51 TABLE No. 20. MOMENTS OF RESISTANCE OF THIN HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL BEAMS (IN FEET). D = outside diameter. R fa inches = .mS2(B^) d = inside diameter. D Insi.de | Diairuetc r. Inches.. i G TB i 7 i 9 IB 1 At A 23. y 61 . y 47 9 66.1 64.1 72.2 80.4 At Q 33 Q o o / . y A1 A 56.9 66.5 76.1 85.8 95.4 52 4 'il . O OO.I 66 .8 78.1 89.4 101 .0 112.0 oo 38 (; 01 . D O-t .0 77 5 90.5 104.0 117.0 130.0 OU 44 4 oy . o VA 0 89 .0 104.0 119.0 134 0 149.0 IRA 68 50 4 O 1 . O 9.A 1 101 0 118.0 135.0 152.0 169.0 56 8 75.9 94.9 114^0 133.0 152.0 172^0 191.0 72 63 8 85.0 107.0 128.0 149.0 171.0 192.0 214.0 78 74 8 ioo'o 125.0 150.0 175.0 210 0 226.0 251.0 84 86 8 116.0 145.0 174.0 203.0 232.0 261.0 291.0 80 100 0 133.0 166.0 200.0 233.0 267.0 300.0 334 0 96 113 0 151.0 189.0 227.0 205.0 303.0 341.0 380.0 1(02 171.0 213.0 256.0 299 0 342.0 385.0 428 0 K08 191.0 239.0 287.0 335.0 383.0 432.0 480.0 114 213.0 267.0 320.0 373.0 427.0 481.0 535.0 1:20 236.0 295.0 354.0 414.0 473.0 533.0 592.0 1:32 286.0 357.0 429.0 501.0 572.0 644. 0 716.0 144 340.0 425.0 510.0 596.0 681.0 766.0 852.0 156 399.0 499.0 599.0 699.0 799.0 899.0 999.0 168 4l>2.0 578.0 694.0 810.0 926.0 1043.0 1160.0 180 531.0 664.0 797.0 930.0 1064.0 1197.0 1331.0 192 201: 604.0 755.0 906.0 1058.0 1209.0 1361.0 1513.0 682.0 853.0 1024.0 1194.0 1365.0 1536.0 1708.0 2'16 764.0 956.0 1147.0 1339.0 1530.0 1722.0 1914.0 2i28 852.0 1065.0 1278 0 1492.0 1705.0 U»19.0 2133 0 240 943.0 1180.0 1416.0 1653.0 1889.0 2126.0 2362.0 (Power, 1897.) Dividing- above result by the strength in tension of steel- plate— 45,000 to 50,000 pounds, divided by a factor of safety of 4, obtain the factor which in the horizontal line of chimney diameter will be found in the column of proper thickness of steel to be used for the shell at the section considered. Thus for the chimney under consideration, 40 feet down from the top, we have (5| X 40) 30 X j = 132000, which, di- vided by 12,000 pounds, gives 11 as the section modulus ; so the shell may be made of less than x y ' thickness at that elevation. It is not advisable to use less than J" to T V' thickness of metal in any tall chimney, or short one, if long life is to be desired. 52 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOEY The Philadelphia Engineering- Works, Ltd., gives the fol- lowing for the shells of steel chimneys : TABLE No. 21. SIR WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN'S EXPERIMENTS. Clear span. Thickness iron. Outside diameter. Sectional area. Breaking weight. Breaking weight by Clark's formula. Constant 1.2 lbs. I... . II. ... III. ... IV. ... Feet. Inches. 17 0 15 7* 23 5 23 5 Inch. .037 .113 .0631 .119 Inches. 12.0 12.4 17.68 18.18 Square inches. 1.3901 4.3669 3.487 6.74 Lbs. 2,704 11,440 6,400 14,240 2,627 9,184 7,302 13,910 Mr. Edwin Clarke has formulated a rule, from experiments conducted by him, in the use of iron and steel for hollow tube bridges, which is as follows : (36) Centre breaking ( Area °. f m 1 f terial x ¥ ean * e P th x ? on r load intense J __i*jnches- ininches. stant. { Clear span m feet. When the constant used is 1.2, the calculation for the tubes experimented upon by Mr. Fairbairn are given in the last column of the above table. D. K. Clark's " Kules, Tables, and Data for Mechanical En- gineers," page 513, gives the following rule for hollow tubes : (37) I.", - :Ul f' * W= Breaking weight in pounds in centre. D — Extreme diameter in inches. T — Thickness in inches. L — Length between supports in inches. S — Ultimate tensile strength in pounds per square inch. Taking S, the strength of a square inch of a riveted joint at 35,000 pounds, this rule figures as follows for the different examples experimented upon by Mr. Fairbairn : I. 3.14 x 144 x 0.037 x 35,000 -f- 204 = 2,870 II. 3.14 x 153.76 x 0.113 x 35,000 4- 187.5 = 10,190 III. 3.14 x 312.5 x 0.0631 x 35,000 -r- 282 = 7,700 IY. 3.14 x 330.5 x 0.119 x 35,000 4- 282 = 15,320 THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS The Hartford Street Eailway Co.'s (Hartford, Conn.) chimney is 166 feet high, diameter of bell at base 190 inch- es, tapering to 129 inches diameter at a height of 21 feet. Twenty-one feet of £-inch steel at bottom, 30 feet T Vinch steel, 30 feet f-inch steel, 30 feet ^-inch steel, and 55 feet £-inch steel at top. Ladder from top to within 2 feet of the base ; a 5 by |-inch flat iron band around the top, on inside ; copper cornice 190 inches diameter by 114 inches high, of 24-ounce cop- per; base plate 18 feet 6 inches square. This stack has 4£ inches lining, thus making a 10 feet diam- eter flue. 54 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY A close approximation between the breaking- weights ob- tained by his experiments and those derived from Mr. Edwin Clarke's and Mr. D. K. Clark's rules will be observed. It may be assumed, theref ■ >re, that this system of calculation is prac- tically correct, and that it is eminently safe when a large factor of safety is provided, and from the fact that a chimney may be standing for many years without receiving anything like the strain taken as the basis of the calculation— fifty pounds per square foot. Wind pressure at fifty pounds per square foot may be assumed to be travelling in a horizontal direction and be of the same velocity at all points between the top and the bottom of the stack. This is the extreme assumption. If, however, the chimney is round, its effective area will be only half of its diametral plane, that is, the entire force on round chimneys if concentrated in the centre of the height of the section of the chimney to be considered. Taking the average diameter of a 125-feet chimney as 90 inches, the effective surface in square feet upon which the force of the wind may act will, therefore, be 1\ times 125 di- vided by 2, which multiplied by 50, gives a total wind force of 23,437 pounds. The resistance of the chimney to breaking across the top of the foundation would be 3.14 x 168 2 (that is, diameter of base), multiplied by .25 x 35,000 -f- (750 x 4) = 258,486, or 10.6 times the entire force of the wind. We multiply the half height above the joint in inches 750 by 4, because the chimney is considered a fixed beam with a load suspended at one end. In calculating its strength half-way up, we have a beam of the same character, the beam in this case being fixed at a point half-way up the chimney, where it is 90 inches in diameter and .087 inch thick. Taking the diametral section above this point and the force as concentrated in the centre of it, or half-way up from the point under consideration, its breaking strength is: 3.14 x 90* x 0.187 x 35,000 -f- (381 x 4) = 109,220. The force of the wind to tear it apart through its cross-section afc this line, 1\ x 62| x 50 h- 2 = 11,725, or a little more than one-tenth of the strength of the stack. Rioeting.—Kot less than £-inch rivets, and never a less di- ameter than the thickness of plate should be used. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 55 For vertical or horizontal seams in flaring- base the joints should be double-staggered riveting ; above the bell a single riveted joint can usually be made use of, though for horizontal joints double-staggered riveted joint may often be most desir- able and necessary— having a greater lap for sheet and conse- quently giving greater stiffness to the shell. Button-head should invariably be used, with the button- head inside so as to present the least resistance to the gases. Kivets should be spaced at least 2| times their diameter centre to centre, by a distance not any further apart than 16 times the thickness of the plate with which they connect ; use all possible care to have the joint air tight and of suf- ficient strength. In Reuleaux's "Constructor" is the following regarding riveted joints, which may be found of value in this connection. Let s = thickness of plate. d = diameter of rivet. a = pitch of rivets, centre to centre of adjacent rivets. n = number of rows of rivets. = ratio of resistance of joint to full plate. V = overlap for shearing. b" = overlap for bending. Overlap is the distance from centre of rivets to edge of plate. In connection with the above we have the following table, m No. 22, regarding lap-joints, which type is most frequently used in steel-chimney construction. For ease of construction and economy also, the method of making the diameter of the circle between the plates the same for all joints is the best, and the upper end of each section ghould be placed inside the lower end of the section immedi- ately above it. For brick-lined chimneys the reverse order is preferred. In recent tests made of the flow of water under the direc- tion of Clemens Herschel, of the East Jersey Water Company, of New York City, it has been found that the friction is ap- preciablv less in pipes constructed as above over the style of one large course than one small one, and large one, etc.* * Reference— One Hundred and Fifteen Experiments on the Flow of Water Through Riveted Pipes. Herschel. Published by John Wiley & Sons. 56 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 22. PROPORTIONS OF RIVETED JOINTS (REULEAUX'S "CONSTRUCTOR"). d 1~ 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 n 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 t 1.63 2.22 2.92 4.33 4.52 7.04 6.43 10.47 S.67 14.33 14.07 24.14 IINT. 6' T 0.39 0.39 0.88 0.8S 1.57 1.57 2.54 2.54 3.53 3.53 6.28 6.28 LAP JC b" T 1.06 1.06 1.7S 1.78 2.5S 2.58 3.46 3.46 4.31 4.31 6.48 6.48 R 0.39 0.55 0.49 0.65 0.56 0.72 0.61 0.76 • 0.05 0.79 0.72 0.83 ird c s 0.63 0.63 0.94 0.94 1.26 1.26 1.57 1.57 1.88 1.88 2.51 2.51 p t 2.26 3.52 4.33 7.15 7.04 12.05 10.37 18.21 14.33 25.61 24.14 44.21 >INT. V t 0.79 0.79 0.96 0.96 3.14 3.14 4.91 4.91 7.07 7.07 12.56 12.56 *a b" t BUTT 1.29 1.29 2.20 2.20 3.24 3.24 4.37 4.37 5.60 5.60 8.32 8.33 R 0.56 0.72 0.65 0.79 0.72 0.83 0.76 0.86 0.70 0.90 0.83 0.94 2nd 5i ~ c s 1.26 1.26 1.88 1.88 2.51 2.51 3.14 3.14 3.77 3.77 5.03 5.C3 d = diameter of rivet. b" t = thickness of plate. s n = number of rows of rivets. R V = centre to centre, or pitch of rivets. b' == lap for shearing conditions. c plate. Wherever possible one section in height should be made of one sheet in circumference, and the author prefers to make the bell one sheet in height by 6, 8, or 12 sheets direction of the circumference ; joints in the latter to be double-staggered riveted. We have the following graphic representation of the rule just given for stability of chimneys : If the chimney is blown to the position of the angle indi- cated, or until the line from centre of pressure passes through the third of the foundation, indicated by the arrow, we have, by summation of moments, about M — O or zero. (38) ( W c + W P ) ~ S F = wind-pressure + h F ). THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 57 Collecting- the data of a number of existing * self-sustaining steel chimneys and plotting the results given in the last three columns on the right in the accompanying table,f the author finds, that a straight line fairly represents each mean, and for any chimney of steel — self-sustaining, the following equation holds good: Knowing h c , h F , which may be taken equal to or assumed a little less than D F , W c , D F and wind-pressure, and substituting; in equation, 38, we can obtain W F for a given case. By substitution : (40) ( W c + W F ) Q = SQhXd + 15/i c 2 d. Knowing the least diameter of the base of the foundation we can readily calculate the cubical contents of the necessary frustum of a cone by the following rule : The contents of the frustum of a cone or pyra- mid are found by adding together the areas of the ends and the mean pro- portional between them (the square root of their product), and multiplying the sum by one -third of the perpendicular height. In the event of the diameter of the base as- sumed for top and bot- tom of the foundation not giving enough weight, the Dp ^ » 2 —~>\ g j ze or area G f b ase ma y Wc+Wp a ]^ erec [ f rom round to hexagon, or square, or built up straight for 2 or 3 feet from bottom, or the weight increased in other ways — at the pleasure of the designer. ' Pp. 60, 61, 62. 1 Table 23, p. 60. 58 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY 120 to 150 pounds per cubic foot is about the proper weight for such materials as enter into foundations of this character. They should be made of any clean stone or brick-bats well grouted in Portland-cement mortar, thoroughly rammed. The part out of the ground should be laid up with good- sized blocks of local quarry stone, rough dressed, or of brick. The poorest soil will sustain about one ton load to the square foot of foundation area — quicksand not excepted, if it is properly covered over and confined. Piling, however, is often resorted to in unstable bottoms, and along river-banks and in marshy lands. Foundations. — The following is the rule for stability of steel chimneys and the relation to the foundation : Find the total wind-pressure on the chimney and its mo- ment about an axis in the plane of the base of the foundation. Find also the total weight of the chimney with its lining, and of the foundation. Divide the moment of the wind-pressure by the weight of the chimney and foundation ; the quotient will be the distance from the outer edge at M which is the length of the lever-arm^ of the combined weights of foundation and chimney producing equality of moments. Should this distance be ~ then the chimney would be just stable ; should this distance be less than ~ then ~ divided _ — by the distance in question may be called a factor of stability, and consequently the less this distance becomes the greater is the factor of stability ; this factor will never in any case be- come infinity (except in the case of no wind blowing), since no " chimney and its foundation " of given dimensions can have an infinite weight of material. Therefore, the heavier the combined weight of the chimney and its foundation, the more stable the structure. Should the distance above mentioned come within the outer third of the width of the foundation, the chimney is stable, with a fair factor of safety, provided of course that the chimney proper and its anchorage to the foundation have been properly designed and constructed. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 59 The strength obtained from the ground to support the sides of the foundation, has been left out of our calculation, though the stability is increased hy it. See p. 42. For the chimney we have been considering, p. 50, using formula 38, we have : (41) 150 x 30 x 5| x (~ + 16^ = 2252250 foot-pounds, where 16 feet is the depth of the foundation. "Weight of chimney is 38,000 pounds. "Weight of foundation is 400,000 pounds. Total weight, 438,000 pounds, then 2252250 -7- 438000 = 5.14, which is less than 16 -5- 3, or 5.33, so the chimney is stable with a factor of stability of 8 -h 5.14 =1 .55. For foundations on loose soils it may be found desirable to increase the factor of stability to say 1\ or 3. If we had substituted the value of the wind moment about an axis in the plane of the base of the chimney, as obtained from equation 42, in place of the value obtained from 41, our result would show a still greater stability ; this method, how- ever, would not be strictly correct, as the depth of foundation, which in many cases is largely above ground, is left out of the consideration in equation 42. (42) Moment =ix30x^= 3o(y ) d. Diameter at base of foundation = D F . Cubic feet of masonry in foundation = G. 60 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 23. Chimney. 2 D F C Foundation Depth. No. Feet. Feet. i 8 575 13 square 2,704 16 2 77 [890 18 square 8,100 25 3 188,360 25 square 15,625 25 4 230,000 30 diameter 18,500 30 5 430,304 36 square 25,058 22 6 146,330 20 square 2,666 20 7 9,600 iii square 632 5 8 22,500 15 diameter 1,340 9 9 10,666 10* square 707 9 10 9,600 13 diameter 676 8 11 348.046 47 diameter 27,566 22 12 188,180 30 diameter 6,961 13+ 13 35,156 15 square 2,250 10 14 17,150 10 square 583 8 Anchorage. — To anchor the chimney to the foundation, bolts or rods are used running from a foot fastened to the bell of the chimney through the base-plate nearly to the bottom of the masonry, terminating in a lock-nut cast-iron washer. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 61 THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 63 These anchor-bolts are both subjected to tension and shear- ing, but the chimney being- not very likely to slide on its foun- dation, we neglect the shearing strain in our calculations. As the lining of chimneys is not always in 1 place or in good repair, we will neglect its weight, as it cannot be counted upon for assistance in keeping the chimney stable. The overturning moment, M, is about the circumference of the largest diameter of the bell-base, or on a circle whose diameter is D B and equals, M = 25D B — . The weight of the steel shell being W, the moment of contrary effect to above, m is m — W x — ; which enables us to find the overturning 2 moment T — M—m. This is the moment on the foundation bolts, which are equally spaced in a circle, and are from 6 to 12 or even more in number, and the calculations for the bolts are made as follows : Considering any point in the bolt circle, the approximate mean distance from the circumference of same on a line through the centre of the bolt circle to all of the bolts is the radius of that circle ; and considering that one-half of the bolts only stand the strain, we have this equation : T c = — x tension on bolts = — e x 9000 pounds x number of 2 2 bolts x area of one bolt. "Where D c = diameter of bolt circle, (43) T c = x or the moment on the foundation bolts. For 6 foundation bolts, T c = 27000 D 0 x area of one bolt. For 12 foundation bolts, T c — 54000 D c x area of one bolt. In reality the mean distance of bolts from circumference in the half circle considered is ^ + — c , and we are considerably 2 b inside the safe limit in the former assumption. For the application to the chimney under consideration (44) M= 25 X 5 * X „ 16 ° X 160 = 1546875. 64 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOKY %'\Diam. MM. ' 6 | STEEL CHIMNEY AT THE RIDGE- WOOD PUMPING STATION, BBOOKLYN, N. Y. Built by the Philadelphia Engineer- ing Works, Ltd., in 1896. The height from the ground is 217 feet, the minimum diameter is 8 feef , and the diameter at the base is 25 feet. It is lined with brick for one -half of its height. There are 137 plates in the structure, varying in weight from 800 to 1,400 pounds, and in thickness from | to I inch. The plates are of open- hearth steel, of 65,000 pounds tensile strength, with an elongation of 20 to 25 per cent, in 8 inches. An iron lad- der extends from the bottom to the top of the shell. The chimney was erected in ten weeks. The work of erecting was done from an inside scaffolding which was raised as the work progressed. The cost was about $10,000. Half Section. ! Half Elevation %;Z\'B6ftS Plan. ILLUS. No. 4. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 65 Let W— 38000 pounds assumed, (45) 38000 x 11 m = = 209000, A T= M-m = 1546875 - 209000 = 1337875. (46) Let D e = 12i then T c = '"'f ° 4 = 1520312. T (47) If 6 bolts are used, area of one bolt = nmnnn c = 4.50 v 27000 x 12^ square inches for present case. T (48) If 12 bolts are used, area of one bolt = „ c = 2.25 54000 x 12J square inches for present case. Twelve bolts are the most convenient number to use, and if the base is made in 6 sections, 2 bolts will pass through each segment. To ascertain the weight of the chimney, W, for the chimney being considered, the following thicknesses from the top down were used : 54 feet - t \ inch. 18 feet § inch. 30 feet £ inch. 6 feet \ inch. 24 feet ^ inch. 18 feet f inch. Base-ring. — The breadth of the base-ring can be readily determined by knowing the pressure on the base, but it is usually proportioned according to good practice, and with good judgment as accompanying conditions assist or compel. STEEL CHIMNEY, GUYED, FOR AUGER & SIMON SILK DYEING COM- PANY, PATERSON, N. J. Flue 48 inches diameter by 125 feet high. Starting from the bottom with the foundation, which is 7 feet square at the bottom and 5 feet square at the top, 5 feet deep, 12 inches of which is out of the ground ; the chimney rests on a cast-iron plate 5 feet square by 1\ inches thick, having a rim .3 inches high inside of the shell of the chimney, this plate is held to the foundation by four l^-inch bolts 4 feet long. The shell is made in sections 5 feet 4| inches in height of plate, 5 feet centre to centre of joints, each vertical section beinsr made of one sheet. 66 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY I The lower 65 feet of the chimney is |-inch thick steel ; the upper 60 feet is T 3 7 -mch steel ; the chimney has an ornamental cap of simple design. All joints are double staggered riveting, 2| inches centre to centre of rivets. The upper end of each section is put in place inside the lower end of the section above it. The chimney is supported by four guy-ropes of f-inch crucible-steel wire, six strands, 7 wires to each strand, laid about a hemp centre. These are strongly secured to the chimney at about 83 feet above its base and running from it to the ground, the ropes are made fast at about 80 feet from the base of the chimney to anchorages made of long pieces of 6-inch pipe placed in the ground at an angle of 45°, and the pipe has long timbers laid over it in the trenches to give large earth-bearing surface. A turn-buckle is placed in each guy-rope for adjusting the tension of the same. The chimney has stood well, and was erected in 1896. A NOVEL WROUGHT-IRON CHIMNEY, CREUSOT, FRANCE. Total height, 279 feet ; diameter at base, 23 feet ; diameter at top, 7 feet 6 inches. Total weight, 80 tons, exclusive of ma- sonry foundation. The latter is carried 3 feet 3 inches above the ground level and weighs about 300 tons. The shaft is successive rings, each 4 feet 1 inch high. Thickness of sheets vary from T V inch at bottom to i inch at top. The nine lower rings have 8 plates in each, the upper ones 4 plates. The base is encircled by a massive angle-iron ring bolted to the foundation. Fire-brick lines the eight lower rings, or about 32 feet in height ; seventy days were required for its erection including removal of scaffolding, which consisted of a 7-inch wrought-iron central tube provided with four cross arms of wood, made ad- justable, resting on outer ends on plates, which arms carried the inner platform. The upper end of tube had four similar arms, from which was slung the exterior circular platform, which THEOEY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 67 'The Engineering Record." Elevation. ILLUS. No. 5. A 200-Foot Steel Chimney, Wilmebding, Pa. 68 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY consisted of a pair of angle-iron rings to the outer edge of which was riveted a plate-iron fence, while the inner part was provided with T-iron stanchions. Radial bearing timbers, resting on these rings, and adjust- able endwise, to suit the varying diameters of the chimney, carried the plate, from an annular space left just sufficient for hoisting the plates. The plates were hoisted by a rope passed over an adjust- able pulley fixed to each jib in turn, and carried down a cen- tral tube to a snatch-block fixed at the bottom of the chimney. The complete scaffold weighed about 4 tons, the heaviest plate about 800 pounds. Total cost of steel part of chimney and lining was about $8,000. — Engineering JVetvs, May 10, 1890. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., at Wilmerding, Pa. Steel chimney, 200 feet high ; built by Riter & Conley, Pitts- burg, Pa. The construction is shown very fully by the illustration on p. 67. It was designed to resist a wind-pressure of 50 pounds to the square foot with a factor of safety of 4. The material is punched and formed in the shops, and the principal riveting is done in the field. The ladder was shipped in 15 or 20 foot lengths. The work was erected by using inside scaffolding, with a centre derrick for raising the sheets, and outside cages for the work- men which are hung on trolleys running on the edge of the shell. These were raised by the derrick, as each course was added. When the chimney was finished it was painted from a swing carriage suspended from the trolleys which run on the Z bar underneath the top ornament. Soot. — It is reported that soot 1| inches thick adheres to the interior of iron and steel chimneys. D!an T 9' Diam. ■ Ground Line sq * ILLUS. No. 6. Chimney of the Refrigerating Plant of the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Association, St. Louis, Mo. Steel Sheets. Lower 50 ft. — % inch thick. Middle 50 ft.— % inch thick. Upper 50 ft.— % inch thick. The chimney is lined with fire-brick 125 feet up. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 09 STEEL CHIMNEY ERECTION. The Anheuser-Busch. Brewing Association chimney, illus- trated on the opposite page, was erected by ten men, who were carried by means of the light apparatus shown in this cut. Four small angles bolted to the shell already in place, car- ried six-inch cross timbers, which carries the platform from which the men work. Double-flanged wheels running on the top of the sheet- metal of the shell carried two light cages holding the riveters on the outside. 70 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY SELF-SUSTAINING STEEL CHIMNEY. In the design of bases for the chimneys of this type, bell shapes are not strictly adhered to, in some cases, steel cables containing turn-buckles are secured to a straight steel tube at the height of say three diameters of the flue, and secured to the bottom anchor-bolts as usually located for bell bases. In other cases two angle -irons riveted with thin separators are placed where the wire cable is located as above. Still another method is very clearly illustrated in the cut on page 75 ; this chimney is 164 feet high. Still another type of base is that shown in cut of Anheuser- Busch Brewing Association chimney on opposite page, being a square hollow-brick shaft. Ladders— Ladders are placed either within or without un- lined chimneys, but always outside of lined chimneys. Ornamental Caps— Ornamental caps, as in the chimneys il- lustrated, are best made of copper, as they are then lighter and do not rust away as quickly as steel or iron caps, but they are expensive. Ornamentation near the top of steel chimneys, at its best, is a poor investment, and very unsatisfactory, both architect- urally and otherwise. Painting— Bed-lead ground in linseed-oil, graphite paint, or the best quality of black asphaltum varnish should be used ; two coats both inside and out should be given at erection, and one coat outside every year or two thereafter, for the proper protection against rust, etc. Illus. No. 8 illustrates the general style of self-sustaining steel chimneys in and about Philadelphia, Pa. The following data pertain to chimneys of this style at that place : A chimney 165 feet high, would be 15 feet 10 inches in di- ameter at the bottom of the bell, tapering to 10 feet 9 inches diameter in the straight part. Foundation would be a 20- foot cube. A chimney 100 feet high would be 10 feet in diameter at the bottom of the bell, tapering to 6 feet 8 inches in diameter at a height of 15 feet from the base. In first 20 feet up from founda- tion of |-inch steel ; the next 30 feet up, T 5 r inch steel, and the THKORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 71 upper 50 feet of i-inch steel. The foundation would be 16 feet high by 13 feet square. Chimneys 100 feet high or less, are usually lined with red brick only to the top of the bell. Angle-iron is often substituted at the top of the copper- moulded cap shown. The bell is usually made in five rings of sheets 3 feet wide plus the lap, or 15 feet high altogether ; the sheets above this being 5 feet or 6 feet wide plus the lap. Ladders are put on chimneys over 100 feet high; under that height steel cable is placed over a pulley at the top, com- ing nearly to the ground so as to be used in hoisting a man to the top when it is necessary for painting or repair. Chimney at the Guggenheim Smelting Company's Works, Perth Amboy, N. J., was 140 feet high, diameter at base 10 feet 6 inches, tapering in a height of 25 feet to 13 feet 6 inches diameter. Shell 35 feet of T \-inch steel at bottom, 35 feet |-inch steel, 35 feet x Vmch steel, and 35 feet of J-inch steel at top. Chimney has a 3 x 5 x T V-inch angle band around the top ; also a Z iron band ; ladder the entire height ; base plate 23 feet 11 inches diameter. This stack has 9-inch brick lining, thus making a 12-foot diameter Hue. This chimney was built in 1898 by the Coatesville Boiler Works. 72 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Vertical Section. Elevation. LLLUS. No. 8. Steel Chimney as Used in and about Philadelphia, Pa. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TALL STEEL STACKS. When the large blast-furnace plant of the Mary- land Steel Company, at Sparrow's Point, Md., was de- signed it was deemed advantageous to operate the eight 22 x 75-foot Whitwell blast stoves, and the eight bat- teries of Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers, aggre- gating 2,000 horse-powers, serving each pair of fur- naces by means of one brick-lined steel chimney. Two such chimneys were constructed of 13 feet 9 inches in- ternal diameter and 225 feet in height. Set upon masonry about 16 feet above the surface of the ground, and standing in an exposed situation, independent of guys or bracing. The weight of the metal in each stack is about 77 tons, of the brick about 900 tons, and of the masonry pedestal and foundations about 1,600 tons, making a total of about 2,600 tons, as against 7,400 tons, which a structure of the same height and internal diameter is estimated to weigh if made en- tirely of brick, stone, and concrete. The soil on which the chimney was constructed consisted of compact clay, which was excavated to a depth of 6 feet. The first course of stone was laid dry immediately on the clay. No piling was resorted to, and the foundation was built of good masonry in courses to a height of 16 feet above ground level. The base of the stack was made 40 feet square. The load per square foot of foundation area was thus 1.62 tons, and no settlement or irregularity has j r et been ob- served. The masonry was large dimensioned stone, quarry-faced, with dressed arrises, set in a mortar of 1 Portland cement and 3 sand. The inside of smoke tunnels and the shaft was lined with brick offset to form walls of diminishing thickness, decreasing every 40 feet in height by one ring of brick, or in all from seven to two rings of brick. — See Kent, p. 741, for further description. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 75 76 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY ILLUS. No. 12. Details of Chimney for Third Avenue Station, New York City. Dimensions. ILL US. No. 11. Self-sustaining Steel Chimney (Woolson). , — 54 inches diameter x 85 feet above foundation, 100 feet from ground. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 77 The chimneys, of which there are to be four, will be con- structed of brick to a point 102 feet above the lower boiler- room floor, and extended 98 feet higher by self-supporting- steel stacks, making- the height of the complete stack 200 feet. The brick portion is to be built into the building and treated as part of such, and is shown in section in illustration No. 12. The internal diameter is 12 feet. The lower section of the steel portion will be belled to 17 feet in diameter, the body diameter being 12 feet 9 inches, and be mounted upon a heavy cast-iron stack-plate 18 feet 8 inches in diameter. Eight steel brackets 24 inches in height will be riveted to the first ring to take the anchor-bolts. The entire chimney is to be lined with ordinary brick laid in lime mortar rendered hydraulic with Portland cement. The top is to have a locomotive type ornament of copper and a Z-bar painting ring. A steel ladder will run up the outside and over the top of each stack. The rated boiler horse-power of this station is 31,200, or 2.09 square inches of chimney-flue area per boiler horse-power. The Metropolitan station has a single chimney of 22 feet diameter for a rated boiler capacity of 21,700 horse-power, or about 2.5 square inches per horse-power. The four chimneys of 12 feet diameter are equivalent to one of 24 feet diameter for a rated capacity of 31,200 horse-power, or about 2.09 square inches per horse-power. The Metropolitan chimney * is, moreover, 353 feet in height, against 200 for those of the station under considera- tion. Intensity of draft and increased capacity are obtained in the latter instance by fans, instead of by excessive chimney height, two fans, each capable of handling the gases from 4,000 horse-power of boilers, being attached to each chimney. These fans are to be capable of producing a draft equiva- lent to that of a stack 500 feet in height. They are to be overhung in heavy steel-plate housings, the main bearings are to be water-jacketed, and each fan is to be provided with a large sliding damper, b,y means of which it may be isolated from the hot gases when not in use. — Power. * See p. 123. 78 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The Pueblo, Col., chimney, p. 00, is made of the following weights of steel plates, beginning- from the top down : 30 feet of 10 pounds per square foot, J inch thick. 25 feet of 13 pounds per square foot, T \ H- inch thick. 25 feet of 15 pounds per square foot, f inch thick, scant. 25 feet of 18 pounds per square foot, T \ + inch thick. 25 feet of 20 pounds per square foot, \ inch thick, scant. Diameter of main shell 13 feet 8 inches, enlarging at the bottom to 19^ feet diameter, with an inch of sand between the shell and brick lining, which lining extends throughout the chimney, leaving a flue 12 feet in diameter from the concrete sub-base upward. The concrete sub-base is 30 feet square by 12 feet deep. The brick frustum of a cone 28 feet square at the bottom, 25 feet square at the top, by 20 feet high. Flue door 7 feet wide by 16 feet high. The approximate costs are as follows : Steel shell erected $7,000 Brick lining 1,400 Foundation and pedestal masonry... 3,600 Total cost $12,000 Built by the Coatesville Boiler Works. W. W. C's rating of this chimney is 4,186 horse-power. Following this, we have a list of steel chimneys on page 79. THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 79 1. Pennsylvania Railroad Company, at Jersey City, N. J., built 1892. Base-plate, cast iron. Flue, 4 feet 8 inches in diameter by 125 feet high. Upper half of shell, |-inch steel. Lower half of shell, x 5 g-inch steel, except bottom sheet of f-inch steel. Diameter outside at bottom, 12 feet 6 inches. Diameter outside at top, 6 feet 10 inches. Lined throughout with 12 inches of brickwork. Vertical seams — rivets, f-inch diameter, 3-inch pitch. Horizontal seams— rivets, f-inch diameter, 35-inch pitch. 2. Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, Cleveland, O. Lined chimney, 11 feet 6 inches diameter by 225 feet high. (See Engineering Record, vol. xxxv., p. 386.) 3. Westinghouse Air Brake Company, Wilmerding, Pa. Flue, 11 feet 6 inches diameter by 200 feet high. (See description and cut, pp. 67 and 68.) 4. Bronx Company, Bronxville, N. Y. Flue, 4 feet 6 inches diameter by 100 feet high. 5. Hartford Street Railway Company, Hartford, Conn., and 6. Manhattan Street Railway Company, Brooklyn, N. Y. Height, 165 feet. Diameter at top, 10 feet 9 inches. Diameter at bottom of bell, 15 feet 10 inches, tapering to 10 feet 9 inches in straight part of chimney. The foundation is a 20-foot cube. 7. Burden Iron Company, Troy, N. Y. 6 feet 3 inches diameter ; 150 feet high. 8. Ridgewood Pumping Station, Brooklyn, N. Y. 8 feet diameter by 217 feet high. (See description and cut, p. 64.) 9. Potomac Light and Power Company, Washington, D. C. 9 feet diameter by 200 feet high. 10. City and Suburban Railway Company, Baltimore, Md. Two chimneys, 11 feet diameter by 118 feet 9 inches high. Two stacks are provided, one for each 2£ batteries. These stacks are of steel plate, lined with fire-brick. The metal 80 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY stacks rest upon brick piers 18 feet square, of sufficient height (21 feet 6 inches above the boiler-room floor) to take in brick smoke-flues, thus avoiding any cutting of the metal stack, which is weakening and also an unsatisfactory- detail to some designers. The stacks are 11 feet in diameter by 118 feet 9 inches high above the top of the brick pier. The lower section of 14 feet 3 inches is cone-shaped, 15 feet 2 inches in diam- eter where it rests upon the brick pier. The base-plate is of heavy cast iron, anchored to the pier with seven 2-inch bolts each 24 feet 6 inches long, built into the pier with large anchor-washers ; these bolts are up-set 2| inches for the nut. The cone-shaped section is f inch thick, and the heights of the other sections and the thickness of the steel are as follows : second, 15 feet, j\ inch thick ; third, 15 feet, | inch thick ; fourth, 15 feet, T \ inch thick ; fifth, 20 feet, | inch thick ; sixth, 20 feet, yV inch thick ; balance, 33 feet 9 inches, £ inch thick. Around the top is riveted a heavy angle-iron stiffening. 11. Cleveland Boiling Mill, Cleveland, Ohio. 11 feet diameter by 190 feet high. (See description, p. 83.) 12. East Boston Electric Railway Power Station, Boston, Mass. 5 feet diameter of flue by 130 feet high. Outlet for furnaces of 4 Corliss boilers with a total of 8,672 square feet of heating surface. (Engineering Record, November, 1894.) 13. Creusot, France. 7 feet 6 inches diameter by 279 feet high. (See descrip- tion, p. 60, Engineering News, May 10, 1890.) 14. Maryland Steel Company, Sparrow's Point, Md. 13 feet 9 inches diameter by 225 feet high. (See descrip- tion and cut, pp. 73 and 74. ) 15. Hartman General Electric Company, Duluth, Minn. 7 feet 6 inches diameter by 200 feet high. 16. Etna Iron Works, Ironton, Ohio. 9 feet diameter by 200 feet high. (Built in 1874.) THEORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 81 17. East River Gas Company, Long Island City, N. Y. 6 feet diameter by 150 feet high. 18. United Glass Company, Chicago, 111. 6 feet diameter by 125 feet high. 19. Aspinook Company, Jewett City, Conn. 6 feet diameter by 100 feet high. 20. Consolidated Gas Company of New Jersey, Long Branch, N. J. Not lined ; 5 feet diameter of flue by 130 feet high, built in 1896. 21. Consolidated Gas Company of New Jersey, Long Branch, N. J. 6 feet diameter of flue by 120 feet high, built in 1897. 22. Arnold Print Works, North Adams, Mass. Built in 1896. 42 inches diameter by 100 feet high — guyed. 23. Arnold Print Works, North Adams, Mass. 60 inches diameter by 130 feet high — guyed. 24. Arnold Print Works, North Adams, Mass. 88 inches diameter by 128 feet high — guyed. Of the latter the lower 23 feet is f-inch steel, the next 50 feet is f^-inch steel, % the upper 55 feet is j-inch steel. Base-plate is of cast iron, 14 feet diameter, 2| inches thick, with a shoulder-ring 3^ inches high by 2 inches thick to go inside of the chimney, and with rivets through same. Total weight of chimney and base-plate, 22 tons. Through the base-plate were eight lj-inch bolts for anchorage. Each of these chimneys was erected in one piece. {Power, November, 1896.) 25. Darwin and Mostyn Iron Company. Height above foundation, 260 feet. Depth of foundation, 15 feet. External diameter at base, 27 feet 6 inches ; external diameter at top, 11 feet. Weight of chimney with foundation, 1,100 tons ; weight of equivalent brick chimney, 3,000 tons. 82 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEOEY 26. Kineshmia, Russia. 170 feet high. 27. Middlesborough, England. 165 feet high. 28. Gottfried Brewing Company, Chicago, 111. Outside diameter 9 feet 5 inches by 175 feet ; lined. Steel varies in thickness from ^ inch at the top to f inch at the bottom. The lower 75 feet is lined with fire-brick 8 inches deep, formed to fit the shell ; above this is a hollow-tile lining. The lining is supported at intervals of 25 feet by an angle-iron riveted to the shell. The foundation is one layer of cement, then two layers of steel rails in cement, then one layer of I-beams, on which the cast-iron base-plate rests. This chimney furnishes draft to 12 boilers, 60 inches diameter by 20 feet long. 29. Straight-Line Engine Works, Syracuse, N. Y. Unlined, of No. 10 iron, self-supporting ; 79 feet high. 38 inches diameter at top, and 40 inches at bottom. It has stood gales which demolished large trees, and is built with the top end of the first piece outside of the bottom end of the piece above. {Power, December, 1896.) 30. Toledo Traction Company, Toledo, Ohio. Lined with fire-brick and tile ; self-supporting. Flue 13 feet inside diameter by 213 feet high. Furnishes draft for four 300 horse-power Sterling boilers. Furnishes draft for four 200 horse-power Heine boilers. To run four 1,200 indicated horse-power Green- Wheelock engines. Thirteen pounds steam per indicated horse-power is guaranteed. {Electrical Engineer, January 6, 1897.) 31. Schneider's, Creusot, France. Top diameter, 27g inches, by 98 feet 6 inches high. London Engineering, p. 419, 1898, gives an illustration of these chimneys, or one of them being erected in one piece. THKORY PERTAINING TO STEEL CHIMNEYS 83 32. Dublin (Ireland) United Tramways Company. 2 steel-lined self-supporting- chimneys, 10 feet diameter by 200 feet high, on brick bases, which are 26 feet high. Total height of chimney, 226 feet. 33. Metropolitan Street Railway Company, Kansas City, Mo. Self-supporting steel chimney ; flue, 8 feet 4 inches di- ameter by 175 feet high ; shell, 10 feet 6 inches diameter. {Engineering Nevis, April 8, 1897.) 34. Edison Lighting Station, New York City. Two steel-lined chimneys. Flue, 12 feet diameter by 139 feet high, from ceiling or base to top. The upper 74 feet 9 inches is self-supporting, the cast- iron base of which is secured by eight 1^-inch anchor-bolts passing down 32 feet in wall. The Engineering Record, vol. xxx., p. 44, contains a detail cut of these chimneys, showing a very ingenious expansion- joint, at the place where cast-iron cap above-mentioned is set. 35. Elevated Railroad Company, Chicago, 111. Self-supporting steel chimney. Flue, 5 feet diameter by 120 feet high, lined. To furnish draft to three 150 horse-power Heine boilers. 36. Cleveland Rolling Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio. En- gineers and constructors, Messrs. Witherow & Gorden, Pittsburg, Pa.; built September, 1881. About 50 days were occupied in its erection, apart from the building of the foundation proper. Dimensions. — Height, including- foundations 213 feet 6 inches. Height, from ground line to top 190 feet 0 inches. Height of bell-shaped base 21 feet 0 inches. Outside measurement of foundation 30 feet 6 inches. Outside diameter at foot of bell-base 21 feet 2 inches. Outside diameter at top of bell-base 13 feet 0 inches. Outside diameter at top 12 feet 0 inches. Internal diameter throughout 11 feet 0 inches. Foundation. — Stone, laid in cement, and is situate in what is termed the "Bottom," next to Cuyahoga River, where the ground is all of alluvial formation. For such a load as this 84 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY chimney the foundation required close piling- ; the piles were driven 23 feet to 24 feet in depth, and almost in contact with each other ; through the stone foundation eight 2^-inch bolts were passed, connecting a circular cast-iron foundation-plate of T-section, 18 inches by 8£ inches at bottom of stonework, to similar casting upon the top of stone foundation ; this top cir- cular ring or base-plate is formed with a projecting flange placed at an angle of sixty degrees to receive plates forming bell-shaped base, 2 feet above ground. Construction.— -The chimney was constructed by inside scaf- folding, and built up one plate high at a time ; the workmen hanging what is called a " cage " on the plates, to serve as a stand for the " holder on " while riveting the plates in situ. Bell-shaped Base. — The plates forming the base are bolted to the flange of chimney base-ring by f-inch bolts, and when completed to a height of 21 feet form a bell-shaped base 21 feet 2 inches diameter at bottom, and 13 feet 6 inches at top. Shaft. — From the top of bell-shaped base the wrought-iron outer casing is continued to height of 21 feet from below top ; from this point the cap is formed as shown in drawing. Rivets and Riveting. — The plates are all riveted together with a lap of two inches ; the constructors used conical-shaped rivet-heads, and the diameter of rivets for this class of work is as near as possible twice the thickness or upward of plate, and the pitch of rivets is 5 diameters. Ladder. — A wrought-iron ladder is fixed to the outside. Fire-brick Lining. — A fire-brick lining was built up through the entire height of the chimney, commencing at junction of flues at foundation with a thickness of 18 inches, and finishing at top 5 inches thick. The internal diameter, when finished with lining, is 11 feet, and constant throughout its height ; the radiated fire-bricks were of five sizes, purposely made. Stability. — The chimneys built on this plan are calculated to withstand 50 pounds wind-pressure per square foot with safety ; the constructors say the climate of America is dry, and no doubt better for such structures than the climate of England ; they be- lieve that no one alive at the present time will see the end of a wrought-iron chimney, lined with brick ; the oldest ones in Amer- ica show no material deterioration. Cost, complete, $13,000. CHAPTEE VII BRICK CHIMNEYS— THEORY PERTAINING TO SAME, AND EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING: STRUCTURES RULES FOR BRICK CHIMNEYS. Molesworth's "Pocket Book" gives the following-: "Di- ameter outside of the base, not less than one-tenth the height ; batter of outside, 0.3 inch per foot ; thickness of brickwork, one brick from top to 25 feet down ; one and one-half brick from 25 feet to 50 feet, etc. If inside diameter exceeds 4 feet at the top, the top thickness should be one and one-half bricks ; if less than three feet it may be one-half brick for the first 10 feet down." The Metropolitan Board of Works Kules for furnace chim- ney shafts contain this : Brickwork should be at least 8| inches thick at the top, and for 20 feet below, and must be increased 4| inches every 20 feet of additional height measured down- ward. There should be no cornice or projection of more than 8| inches at the top of the shaft. Lang gives for thickness of upper wall of chimneys : If built of ring stone, at least 7.08 inches. If built of bricks, at least 9.84 inches. For quadrangular chimneys, \ brick thickness may be used in upper section, but the chimney must then be built from the exterior, and well braced by scaffolds. The more steam there is contained in the smoke gases and the cooler they are, the larger the thickness of the upper wall should be chosen. The old rule that the upper wall thickness should be T V of 85 86 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY the clear width, given too thin walls for narrow chimneys, and too thick ones for wide chimneys. Bather S l = 0.10 + 0.05 d 0 + 0.0005 H (in metric system). Answer in meters S t = 3.937 + 0.05 d u + 0.0005 (in United States measure). Answer in inches S, = thickness, d 0 = clear inside diameter at top, H == height of chimney. The author would advise making- the lengths of each vary- ing thickness 20 to 30 feet,* with an outside batter of 1 in 30 to 1 in 36, and also running the inner core to within a few feet of the top, but not to connect it with the outside shell ; in all cases calculate each section for stability, which will also aid in determining the thickness of brickwork. One authority suggests for a brick chimney 100 feet high, an outer shell in three steps, the first 20 feet, 16 inches thick ; the second 30 feet, 12 inches thick ; the third 50 feet, 8 inches thick—all minimum thicknesses ; batter no less than 1 in 36 to give stability. The core should be in three steps of equal height, 12, 8, and 4 inches thick. Brick chimneys should not be connected in a structural manner with any other structure, owing to both their swaying motion and expansion by heat. A chimney near Marseilles, 115 feet high, was observed to oscillate one foot eight inches ; when a sudden gust of wind struck the shaft it would vibrate four or five times before coming to rest. Excessive oscillations are frequently prevented by loading the cap. CHIMNEY DESIGN. M. Bassine — Engineering News, April 22, 1897, p. 247 — con- siders a chimney as a vertical beam fixed at the base, and thus determines the limiting conditions of pressure and tension in the different horizontal sections. He recommends an exterior profile with a batter ranging from 33.1 on 1 to 25 on 1, and divides the vertical height into sections of from 16 to 20 feet each, with the thickness of wall constant for each section, and decreasing by 1| to 2 J inches in each ascending section. He * For chimneys built of common red brick. I m a W " H o a is 02 tso i-i t; •< 2 2" O . « 3 I O 0« £ O 55 • 02 H J "' »S d M ... 22 ^ a l * .Si [z; 3 j_" "SI " s» 1 I I THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 87 prefers an octagonal base with a height equal to one-fifth of the height of the chimney. The foundation should be a trun- cated pyramid with a square base, and sides inclined at an angle of at least 45 degrees. The length of the sides of the foundation should vary between \ and -J of the height of the chimney. Stability— Eankine says: "It had been previously ascer- tained, by observation of the success and failure of actual chimneys, and especially those which respectively stood and fell during the violent storms of 1856, that in order that a round chimney may be sufficiently stable, its weight should be such that a pressure of wind, of about 55 pounds per square foot of a plane surface, directly facing the wind, or 27£ pounds per square foot of the plane projection of a cylindrical sur- face, . . . shall not cause the resultant pressure ILLUS. No. 19. Queen Lane Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 95 A tire-brick lining, or inner shaft, is built up to a height of 60 feet, the lower 30 feet in 9-inch, and the upper in 4|-inch work set in fire-clay. An annular space of 15 inches is left at the base, between the fire-brick lining and the main shaft, to admit of expansion in the fire-brick. The top of lining nearly touches the main shaft, which is corbelled over to fire-brick lining to prevent any deposit ac- cumulating in the annular space. Cast-iron inlets 9 by 6 inches are provided at ground level to admit cold air, and to prevent the inrush striking the fire- brick lining ; a 4^-inch brick pier, 2 feet high, is built between the two shafts. Two rings at the base and one toward the top, of hoop-iron bonding, fV by l^-inch, are built in main shaft, about every 3 feet 6 inches in height. The connection between flues of boilers and furnaces with main shaft is made by an arched flue opening, 9 feet by 3 feet 3 inches at the base, and a soot door is also provided, whereby access can be obtained to the inside of shaft when required. The time occupied in building this shaft was a little over five months, commencing in July and finishing in December, 1888. The bricklaying was continued all through the foggy weather in the latter month, although the workmen could not see the ground through the fog below. A lightning conductor is fixed to the shaft, composed of two copper tapes or bands, 1| by \ inch, winding spirally around the outer circumference to underside of cap, where they are connected to a ring encircling the shaft, and from thence to 6 copper rods, 1-inch diameter, which are carried to a height of 4 feet above the cap, and the rods terminate with crow-feet ends. The tapes are joined at a distance of about 40 feet from the base, north of the shaft, and 18 feet below the ground level, and terminate in a copper earth-plate 3 feet by 2 feet by \ inch. Outside scaffolding was used, and no accident whatever oc- curred during the construction. The shaft forms a conspicuous landmark to the surrounding locality, and dwarfs all other sim- ilar structures for miles around. 96 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Queen Lane Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa., com- pleted in 1896, is a brick chimney with a very elaborate exte- rior casing-, as may be seen from the engraving- shown. The flue is 12 feet in diameter, perfectly straight. Height, 200 feet above ground. The foundation is 24 feet below grade level, and its bottom course 37 feet square ; the base of chimney above grade is 24 feet square. 1LLUS. No. 21. Royal Saxony Smelting Wokks, of Halsbrccke, near Freiburg, in Saxony- Height, 460 feet ; internal top diameter, 8 feet 4 inches. Built by H. R. Heinicke. y THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS BRICK CHIMNEY AT IMPEEIAL FOUNDRY NEAR FREIBURG, IN SAXONY. Flue 453 feet high, with an interior or flue- diameter of 15 feet 9 inches. Projected and designed by Engineer Huppner, it is built on the right bank of the river Mulde, on a hill which rises 259 feet above the ground on which the furnaces stand, so that the top of the chimney will be 712 feet above the works. The base is 39 feet 4| inches square, and 28 feet 6 inches high, and at its top the chim- ney proper begins. The works being on the left or opposite bank of the river, the flues running from the furnaces are carried across on a bridge built for the purpose, and then up the hill to the point where they enter the chimney. The total length of these flues or ducts is 3,228 feet. The chimney is built of brick entirely, and cost $40,000. — Railroad and Engineering Journal. CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY 100 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY EDISON ELECTEIC ILLUMINATING CO., PATEESON, N. J., 1896. Flue, 10 feet diameter, 225 feet high ; cal- culated for 4,000 boiler horse-power. The smokestack is the highest but one in the State of New Jersey, and its construction deserves special attention. The height from the foundation to the top is 235 feet, with a 10-foot flue, and its diameter at the base is 22 feet ; the other dimensions will be found in the detail drawing, Fig. 9. The foundation on which it is built is piling driven into the earth and over this is laid 5 feet of concrete. The chimney is double walled for 130 feet 9 inches, and at every 15 feet a wrought iron ring is set into the brickwork, in this way bonding the chimney together. There were 900,000 bricks used in the construction of . this chimney, and an electric hoist was used during its construction, no outside staging whatever being employed. The material was hoisted on the interior of the chimney. In their old plant the company used an octagonal brick chimney ; flue, 8 feet diameter by 200 feet high ; calculated for 2,500 boiler horse-power, and it is reported to have fur- nished draught for 5,000 lbs. of coal per hour. ILLUS. No. 25. Edison Electkic Illuminating Company, Paterson, N. J. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 101 Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, Manchester, N. H. Architect, George W. Stevens ; Steam Engineer, Charles H. Manning ; builders, Amoskeag Manufacturing Company. Description— Circular brick ; built 1883 ; 60 days occupied in construction. Dimensions. Total height, including foundations 265 0 Height from ground line to top 255 0 Outside measurement at foundation 25 8 Inside measurement at foundation 19 8 Outside diameter at ground surface 25 0 Inside diameter at ground surface 19 8 Thickness of brick at ground surface 2 8 Outside diameter at top (exclusive of cornice) 12 6 Inside diameter at top 10 0 Thickness of brickwork at top 1 3 Foundation. — The shaft is founded on a bed of ledge. No concrete used. Pressure. — On foundations (as given by the firm) is 10,220 lbs. per square foot. Bond. — Headers every tenth course. Batter— 1 in 40.8. Brides. — 1,000,01)0 common bricks used in construction. Weight— 2,330 tons. Scaffold. — Outside scaffold used, costing $750. Duty.— nThis shaft was designed to burn 18,000 lbs. of an- thracite coal per hour. It carries off the fumes from sixty-four boilers = 8,400 horse-power. The company chiefly manufact- ure ginghams, ticking, and fancy shirtings. Inner Shaft. — The chimney has an inner shaft of 10 feet internal diameter. Lightning Rods. — Wrought -iron ; costing $95. Cost— Complete, $16,000. Merrimack Manufacturing Company, Lowell, Mass. En- gineer, J. T. Baker, C. E. ; chimney built 1882. Description.— Circular hrhsk ..shaft, with^ inner shaft and 102 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Dimensions. Feet. Height above ground line 282 Outside diameter foundation 30 Outside diameter 2 feet 6 inches above ground 28 Inside diameter 2 feet 6 inches above ground 12 Inside diameter at top 12 Foundation.— The chimney is founded on a ledge of sand- stone. The foundation, 30 feet in diameter, is built of granite blocks, laid on their natural beds. At the surface of the ground there is a dressed granite base 2 feet 6 inches in height, laid in clear Portland cement, the remainder of the foundation being in Kosendale cement and sand. Upon this base is placed the brickwork, consisting of three cylinders, as follows : Outer Shaft— Batter, 0.42 inches per foot, for a height of 100 feet. First section. . . 75| feet high, 28 feet diameter 24 inches thick. First section. . . at junction of inner shaft 36| inches thick. Second section 60 feet high 20 inches thick. Third section . . 70 feet high 16 inches thick. Fourth section 74 feet high, including cap.. 12 inches thick. 279i high above granite base. Inner Shaft— Vertical, 18 feet diameter ; 75| feet high ; 8 inches thick. At this height the inner shaft connects with the exterior brickwork, making the masonry at that point 36| inches thick, as above. Lining or Core. — Uniform inside diameter, 12 feet. It is entirely separate from the outside masonry, except the doorways and flue-openings, and is built up as follows : First section 100 feet high, 16 inches thick. Second section. . 60 feet high, 12 inches thick. Third section 90 feet high, 8 inches thick. Fourth section . . 29| feet high, 4 inches thick. :'\ :•**: *: * : ^9^**feefe«ljig^gut5©Ve granite base. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 103 Construction. — The core was laid in mortar of lime and sand ; the outside shell in lime, cement, and sand. Ladder' and Lightning Conductor. — On one side of the chimney is a ladder of iron extending- from the ground to the top, and on the opposite side is a f-inch galvanized iron- wire rope, both ladder and rope being connected with a copper ring, having four spurs, the central point of which extends 8 feet above the top of the shaft. The bottoms of both ladder and rope are connected to a 16-inch water-pipe. Duty.— Two wrought-iron flues enter the chimney, one 5 feet by 6 feet, and the other 5 feet by 11 feet. The chimney is constructed to provide for 15 sets of boilers ; only 12 are now in- use. Each set has 103^ square feet of grate surface, and is rated at 300 horse-power. Weight— Chimney, 3,392 tons; cap, 18,600 lbs. Materials— Brick used, 1,101,000; 6,875 cubic feet stone masonry. Cost— $18,500. Holyoke Machine Company (1883). Flue, 42 inches square by 120 feet high. Double Wall. — Inner wall to within 24£ feet of top, above this wall the flue is enlarged to 48 inches square. There are three arches in each side with stone water-tables above each, and a double arch at the top of chimney. The top is covered with a casting bolted together in sec- tions ; 144,044 bricks were used in its construction, and its cost was, aside from cast cap, $2,160.60. Weight of cast cap was 869| lbs., which, with labor, adds $31.41 to cost, or a total of $2,192.01. An internal ladder of round iron provides means of access to the top. Each wall is built in three steps or thicknesses, not given above the base, where the outer wall is 16 inches, 54 feet high, those above it probably 12 inches, 23 feet high, and 8 inches for the balance, 12-inch inner, 39 feet core ; those above probably 8 inches, 45 feet, and 4 inches, 55| feet high. A very clear engraving of this chimney can be found in the American Machinist, March 24, 1883. 104 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass. Architect and builder, H. F. Mills, C. E. ; built 1873. Description.— Brick, octagonal outer shaft, circular inner shaft, vertical inner lining. Shaft situate 210 feet from boilers. Dimensions. Feet. Inches. Total height 242 Height of outer shaft, including footings 233 Height of inner lining 234 Outside measurement, outer shaft at base 20 Outside measurement, outer shaft at top, under pro- jecting cornice 11 Inside diameter, vertical flue 8 Foundation.— Foundation bed, 19 feet below ground ; coarse gravel ; concrete, 35 feet square, enclosed by pine-sheet piling 1 foot thick ; rubble masonry of granite, in Kosendale cement, 7 feet high. Outer Shaft.— This is constructed in six sections, viz. : 12 feet high, 28 inches thick. 18 feet high, 24 inches thick. 20 feet high, 20 inches thick. 40 feet high, 16 inches thick. 60 feet high, 12 inches thick. 83 feet high, 8 inches thick. 233 feet high above granite masonry. Inner Shaft : First section 27 feet high, 24 inches thick. 154 feet high, 12 inches thick. 181 feet. First section .. Second section Third section . Fourth section Fifth section . . Sixth section . . Second section Lining : First section . . . Second section. Third section . . Fourth section . . 20 feet high, 20 inches thick. 17 feet high, 16 inches thick. 52 feet high, 12 inches thick. 145 feet high, 8 inches thick. 234 feet above granite masonry. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS' 105 Construction. — The foundations were laid in mortar of Rosen- dale cement and sand ; the outer shell in mortar of Rosendale cement, lime, and sand ; and the flue-walls in mortar of lima and sand. Duty. — In the winter of 1873, the vertical flue having reached? 90 feet in height above ground, boilers having 542 square feet of grate surface were connected with the chimney, with satis- factory results. The chimney was designed to serve boilers, having 700 square feet of grate surface. Weight.— The approximate weight of the chimney is 2,250; long tons. Bricks— There were 550,000 bricks used in the construction! of the shaft. Lightning Conductor. — The shaft was struck by lightning in J une in 1880, after which date a lightning-rod was put up. It consists of a seamless copper tube, T 5 ¥ inch thick, 1 inch in- side diameter, at the top of which are seven points radiating from a ball 4 inches in diameter, the top of the central point being 8| inches above the iron cap. The rod is attached to- the chimney by brass castings, and is connected at the base to» a 4-inch iron pipe extending 60 feet to a canal. This is a very weak chimney, the diameter at the base is 15 feet ; one-tenth of the height (a common rule) would give 21.1 feet. J. B. Francis, in a report on the above chimney, says 44 lbs. wind-pressure per square foot would blow the chimney down- Brick chimney of the Narragansett Electric Lighting Com- pany, at Providence, R. I. Designed by Messrs. Remington and Henthorn, Providence, R. I. The foundation of the chimney consists of piling and con- crete, and to arrange for it 44 square feet was excavated 5 feet 6 inches below the zero line of high water, and the sides pro- tected by 3-inch spruce sheet-piling 16 feet long. Over this excavation the pile-driver, having a ram weighing 2,200 pounds, was rolled. Spruce piles, 50 feet long, were driven as far as possible without breaking, and were spaced 30 inches centre to centre, as shown in Fig. 1. 106 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY .260'9'from H.W. ■E4-'0"0ut$.Diam. v-2l'9" do. ■20' 3" do. <.--i9'6"outtoout ■~l$'6' do. «- Octagonal Terra Cotta Belt Course Oranits Cofner Square C— 1 ~j B- A- r Elevation. 6'9'of Concrete- 3"xl6 'o"5pncePlank-A Redrawn from * The Engineering Record. " •at" ■8"Wall -14-Dr* 1 Iron ■Ins. Pilasters End here. ■■■irwaii 4WFlgtlronJ Section C-C. 16' Wall Iron Ladder B Ironladder. Section A-A. £? Z lzQJ>.-. Section D-D. -S'6" ■SO'SprucePiles 1 —Piling an' i) Foundation. Vertical Section . ILLUS. No. 26. Brick Chimney, Narragansett Electric Lighting Company, Providence, R. T 2(30 feet 9 inches high. Flue, 14 feet diameter. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 107 ^Platinum Tip, l§'fom? Brass Casting vpper Ribbon around 7p,liM",foivh/chall iints are Connected— - Redrawn from " The Engineering Retort!' Fig. 2.— Chimney Cap— Lightning Protection. Platinum T/p-y^ 1 ^ -r-lt&Nut Redrawn -from "The Engineering Record." 14 Copper Pipe- Fig. 3.— Lightning Fixtures. ILLUS. No. 27. Narragansett Electric Lighting Company, Providence, R. 108 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY There are, however, many more piles shown in this cut, but those were driven to sustain other structures along-side. In the drawing- of chimney, of which there are 231 piles, they are shaded lightly that they may be more readily recognized. These piles are cut off uniformly at 5 feet below the high- water line, the earth around their heads thus being 6 inches below their tops. The intervening space between the sheet- piling was filled in with concrete composed of one part of Nor- ton's hydraulic cement, two parts sand, and three parts coarse gravel and broken stone. This mass was carried up to the 1 foot 3-inch level, and con- sequently, formed a foundation 6 feet 9 inches thick, with the head of each pile projecting 6 inches therein. This was then covered with earth and allowed to season during the winter. On May 31, 1889, work was resumed by laying the first brick of the chimney. This was carried up in the form of a square of 36 feet, to a height of 3 feet 2 inches, and from that level the base of the chimney proper, which was 28 feet 6 inches square, was started. The centre of the chimney was fixed by building into the chimney a cast-iron plate, upon which was a well-defined centre mark. From this centre mark all measurements and plumbing were established while the chimney was being built. As each 20 feet in height was built, the centre of its axis was re-established, and if any deviation from the plumb was found it was corrected before the next 20-feet level was reached. The base of the chimney, as before stated, is 23 feet 6 inches square ; consists of three walls, an outer wall 28 inches thick, an intermediate wall, octagonal in form, 12 inches thick, and a core wall, circular in section, 16 inches thick. The outer and intermediate walls are joined together by pilasters 12 inches thick. In commencing the base of the core wall each course of brick was set back 2| inches from the previous course, until the inside diameter, 14 feet, was reached, when the wall was car- ried plumb 16 inches in thickness up to the 78 feet 2-inch level, where it was reduced to 12 inches, and run up to 193 feet 2 inches, where it was again reduced in thickness to 8 inches, THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS and thus carried to 249 feet 9 inches. This wall, complete, was laid up in lime mortar which had been slaked from three to six months before using-. The outer wall, of rectangular cross-section, was carried up to the 38 feet 2-inch level, where, at each of the four corners, cut granite blocks were laid to change from a square to an oc- tagonal cross section. The chimney was built entirely from the inside platforms, the masons working overhanded, and thus no staging was neces- sary on the outside. Up to the level of the granite work all the stock used was carried up a ladder placed on the outside. But at this point there was constructed inside the 14-foot chimney- flue an elevator, fitted with safety clutches, and capable of carrying a thousand pounds, although not more than four hundred and fifty was allowed to be placed upon it at any one time ; and thereafter everything used in the process of con- struction was sent up the elevator, to hoist which a 19-strand steel cable was used. The temporary framework inside the flue consisted of four 6 by 8-inch timbers, laid across each other at right angles in pairs, and built into the walls at inter- vals of every 5 feet. Through the opening at the centre the elevator passed. Over these timbers was laid a platform of 2-inch plank, upon which the masons performed their work. To these 6 by 8-inch horizontal timbers, at opposite corners, were bolted the vertical guides for the elevator and its upright framing, by which it was hoisted ; these were spliced out at the top each alternate staging. The opening for smoke-flues is 10 feet wide and 18 feet high, with a 28-inch arch of 5 feet radius. The lower part of the opening is on the 14 feet 2-inch level. Directly below and above the opening on the 13 feet 2-inch and 33 feet 2-inch levels, were placed on each of the four sides of the chimney, and 8 inches from the outside surface of the wall, two li-inch diameter rods, with l^-inch ends, connected together by cast-iron plates 12 by 14 inches square. Openings were left at each corner so that the nuts could be examined occasionally as the work dried out. From and including the 53 feet 2-inch level, there were laid 110 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY edgewise at each 20 feet in height and 8 inches from the out- side surface of the chimney wrought-iron bars of 4 inches by \ inch with their ends bolted together, forming an octagon corresponding to that of the chimney. At the 153 feet 2-inch levels these braces were reduced in size to 3 inches by \ inch, and were not again used until the 223 feet 2-inch level, or where the commencement of the head was reached, at which point bars 3 inches by f inch were bolted together in the wall. Their next application was in the head, where two braces made of 4- inch by i-inch iron were used to help in binding the heavy brickwork together during construction, which had considera- ble overhang (2 feet 9 inches on each side). "With reference to the outside walls, the outer and inter- mediate walls, with their connected pilasters, were built as one structure and terminated on the 83 feet 2-inch level (see p. 106), where by the batter the outer wall is thus joined to the inter- mediate, and become one wall from that point. At this level two holes 5 by 8 inches were left in each of the eight sides of the intermediate walls, so that the interven- ing space between the outer and inner walls might be venti- lated, if by any possible chance gases should find access to this space. These ventilating spaces or holes are in communication with the space between the outer wall and the core, which is carried nearly to the top. An attempt has been made to protect the structure from lightning, by encircling the cast-iron cap with a copper ribbon 1 inch by T 3 g- inch thick, to which are connected, by riveted and soldered joints, eight brass upright sockets, one in the centre of each panel of the cap. To these brass sockets castings are secured by soldered joints l|-inch seamless drawn copper tubing, which extends upward above the top of the cap and conforms to the shape thereof, and after projecting 5 feet above the top of cap the tubes are each surmounted by a brass casting 28 inches long, tapering in cross section, and having at its extremity a plati- num point If inches long. The encircling ribbon around the cap is connected to the ground ribbon by a brass casting thoroughly riveted and sol- THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 111 dered thereto, which, as it runs down the chimney is secured in position by brass clamps with bolts built into the brickwork as it progressed. This arrangement, as a whole, is shown in detail in Figs. 2 and 3. The lower end of the ribbon, which is 1 by T Vinch copper, rolled in one piece 285 feet long, terminates in a copper plate 30 inches wide by 60 inches long, and ^-inch thick, and is buried 4 feet below the natural level of the water in the soil of the premises. This plate is buried in a load of powdered coke, 18 inches being placed above and 18 inches in thickness below the plate, and the whole tilled up with gravel. Chimney at Clark's Thread Works, Kearny, N. J. " One of the tallest chimneys in America has been erected at the works of the Clark Thread Company, at Kearny, near Newark, N. J. The shaft is circular and 335 feet in height ; it is 28 feet 6 inches in diameter at the base and 14 feet at the neck. Its internal diameter is 11 feet in one circular flue. The top is surmounted by a cast-iron coping weigh- ing 6 tons and made in 32 sections bolted together by inside flanges. " The foundation is concrete, made with 6 parts crushed limestone, 3 parts sand, and 1 part German Portland cement. This foundation is 40 feet square and 5 feet deep, resting on a bed of firm gravel. On this is founded the base of the chimney of brick and extending 4 feet above the surface of the ground. The material used was brick laid in mortar made \\ sand to 1 of Portland cement. The shaft up to 160 feet in height was laid with mortar made of 6 parts sand, 2 parts lime, and 1 part cement ; the sand and lime have stood for three months previously made up as mortar, and the cement was added just before use. The top of the chimney was laid in mortar made of 3 parts sand to 1 of lime and 1 of cement. " The outer bricks were first quality North Kiver, and the backing bricks were of a good quality New Jersey brick. At intervals of 20 feet an iron ring 4 inches wide, f to \ inch 112 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY thick placed edgewise, was built into the walls about 8 inches from the external surface. "At the base the chimney is double, with an outer wall 5 feet 2 inches thick, and inside of this is a second 20-inch wall placed about 20 inches inside the first. From the interior of the main wall eight buttresses are built up, nearly touching the main flue wall and intended to keep the flue proper from sagging. The interior wall starting with 20 inches in thick- ness is gradually reduced until at 90 feet high it is 8 inches thick, and at 165 feet it ceases entirely. No fire-brick was msed in the lining. "Two horizontal flues enter the base of the chimney directly opposite to each other, and a 12-inch deflecting wall is built across the shaft between these flues for a height of 16 feet. The two flues are arched and are 7 feet wide and 8 feet Jhigh, and in these flues will be placed feed-water heaters for the boilers ; 21 boilers of 200 horse-power each will depend on this one chimney. " The lifting was done by an inside elevator, with a 3£ by 3 foot platform, running between 4 by 6 inch guides braced against the inside walls. The interior platforms, erected at eveiy few feet, rested upon two 3 by 8 inch beams built in the wall. The ^greater part of the brick laying was done by 8 bricklayers and 5 helpers, with 7 laborers on the ground supplying anaterial. " The foundation and base were put in and the shaft run up 18 feet in December, 1887. The work was again com- menced in April, 1888, and finished in September, or in 150 days of 9 hours each. The total weight is about 5,000 tons, divided as follows : Brickwork, 9,051,900 pounds ; concrete] 1,000,000 pounds; iron-work, 40,000 pounds. The base con- tains 1,600 square feet, which would give a load of about 2.8 tons per square foot. No permanent means of access to the top were provided; as if such access becomes necessary a small balloon can be sent up the shaft with a line and allowed to descend on the outside, and a' line sufficiently heavy for mse is thus carried up."— Engineering News, November 10, 188©. With a flue temperature of 210° Fahr., a draft of If inches lias been observed. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 113 BKICK CHIMNEY AT THE POWER HOUSE OF THE UNION DEPOT RAILWAY COMPANY, ST. LOUIS, MO. This chimney was partially blown down by the tornado at St. Louis on May 27, 1896. Construction— It consisted of an outer shell built of selected hard-burned dark-red brick laid in a mortar of equal propor- tions of one part Portland cement to two parts sand, and one part lime to two parts sand. Bricks laid with push-joints under inspection, and all joints are well filled. The inner core is built of a ring- of 44-inch fire-clay brick, re-inforced in the lower section by a ring of hard-burned red brick. The fire-brick are laid in fire-clay. Each shell is finished at the top by a cast-iron cap 2 feet deep, of £-inch metal, se- cured to the brickwork by bolts. The inner shell is separated from the outer one by a varying distance ; the dimensions, as planned, give this distance as a minimum of 2 inches at the top, and the same at 50 feet below the top where the section changes. The inner shell is stayed by brackets built into the outer shell at intervals of 10 feet vertically. There are six of these brackets on a level, each having a face of about 8 by 8 inches. (See American Society of Civil Engineers. Proceedings, Jan- uary, 1897. Baier on Tornadoes.) 114 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Brick Chimney at the Omaha and Grant Smelting and Be- fining Works, Denver, Col. The Denver Times thus describes the Grant Smelting Com- pany's chimney : " The chimney of the Grant Smelting Company, designed by W. J. Scanlon, is the most marvellous construction of the kind in the world and the highest in the United States.* Its dimensions are as follows: It commences with a gravel foundation 8.4 feet high and 58 feet square, composed of Diker- hoff cement, containing from one to six parts of broken stone and sand. Barney Currigan had charge of the cement work. " On top of this cement foundation the brickwork starts, 40 feet square at the base, and tapers to 35 feet at a distance of 7 feet from the base. On the top of this level there are two courses of Fort Collins stone 9 feet thick, bedded in cement mortar, the stonework being the grade line from which the chimney proper starts. The base of the chimney from here is 33 feet square, and it continues to the height of 352 feet 3 inches, diminishing 13 feet from the bottom to the top. The octagonal corners are not built on an inclined plane as usual. They are curved, with a prominent outside curve of about three feet. This was so constructed in order to obviate an optical delusion through the use of a centre line, by plumbing down to the centre, which was established by bedding plate in the centre of the chimney. A 15-pound bob was used for this purpose, with as fine a line as would carry it. Plumb rules were changed every ten feet, with curve established on the rule to carry up from one measure- ment to the other and also measured out from centre line every ten feet and came out on top within a fraction of the size re- quired. " The chimney has a flue of 16 feet in the clear, and walls 8 feet 6 inches thick, which extend to the top of the racking. At this level start two walls with a space between of 2 feet ; the outer wall is 4 feet thick, and the core wall 2 feet 6 inches thick. The space between these walls of 2 feet extends to the top of the chimney, to the open air, and the outer wall for the last 100 feet is reduced to a 13-inch wall. The core wall is reduced to a 9-inch « In 1900 it was exceeded in diameter and height by the Metropolitan Traction Company's chimney, New York City, see p. 124 In 1901, in height by the Orford Copper Company's chim- ney, at Constable Hook, N. J., see p. 128. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS ' 115 116 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY wall for the same height. From the 28-foot level the outer 01 main wall is separate from the core, or practically one chimney within the other. " At intervals of every ten feet in each octagonal section there are buttresses carried from both walls with plates between. There are six rollers between each plate, so that the core can rise when the heat is great enough to cause expansion. This idea was to prevent the pressure from being - sidewise. " The top or finish, which is 30 feet high, with a projection of 5 feet 2 inches, is the heaviest one ever made in brick. It is banded by large iron circlets passing around the structure. These bands are placed over the inner walls with bolts running out, which fasten to angle irons that form the octagon. These angle irons are placed on the outer course of brick and built in solid with the best cement mortar. " While being built it was kept level and the weight equal- ized the pull or pressure of going out on these irons. There were several sets of these irons. A cast-iron plate covers the entire top, with a trap-door which connects with an iron ladder built in the main wall on the inside next to the core wall. " The weight of the structure is 8,000 tons, and its cost was $55,000. Over 2,000,000 pressed bricks were used in its com- position. The brickwork was done by John Cook in 199 days. Twelve bricklayers worked on the first 100 feet, eight bricklay- ers on the next 100 feet, and six workmen on the remainder. The laborers were paid $7 a day, and the foreman received $8." A Tall Brick Chimney.* The largest chimney on the Pacific coast, 1892, the third in point of size in the United States, and the fourth in the world, is being built in San Francisco. The broad column of bricks is seen high above the roofs of the houses in its vicinity, and towers above every factory chimney in the city. The structure was put up by the Edison Electric Light and Power Company on Jessie Street near Third, in connection with a new building 75 feet front, 165 feet deep, and 52 feet high. The chimney is 175 feet above the pavement, and will rest on foundations, be- * San Francisco Chronicle. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS low the street level, of solid concrete 9 feet 8 inches thick, and 28 feet square. The interior diameter for the entire height is to be 12 feet. At the base the chimney has an exterior diameter of 18 feet 6 inches, and the outside diameter of the cap will be 14 feet. Inside, for a height of 73 feet, there will be a detached fire-brick lining with air-space between it and the interior surface of the chimney. The object of this lining is to protect the chimney from the expansion and contraction incident to the varying degree of heat. As the base is of con- crete so is the topmost ring of the chimney. Laid in the arti- ficial stone of the cap and intended to bind it firmly together, are seven hoops of one-inch wire rope. Between base and cap machine-made brick is used entirely, it being estimated that 275,000 bricks will be required to complete it. The concrete ring will be 4 feet deep, and the ornamental brick and concrete capital of the chimney will be 16 feet high. The only vertical openings in the chimney will be one about the level of the roof of the building in order to repair the fire-brick lining and to clean it, and one at the base through which to remove soot and ashes. From the roof an iron ladder will rise outside the chimney to the very top, so as to afford a means to repair the exterior when necessary. This ladder would, if connected by copper wires to the earth, form a lightning conductor. The latter has not been provided, however, it being considered un- necessary, as there is no instance in the history of the city of a chimney or building of any kind having been struck by light- ning. The sole duty required of this enormous chimney is to afford a natural draught to twenty-eight boilers, which will furnish the motive power to six engines of 1,200 horse-power each, or 7,200 joint. The cost of this chimney is estimated at $10,000. At Paterson, N. J., a great many of the old mill chimneys are built as follows : with square flue or core about 3 feet 4 inches square inside, and 75 feet high. A chimney of the above dimensions has been built as follows : Foundation of concrete, 9 feet by 9 feet by 4 feet deep ; base of chimney, 7 feet 9 inches square ; 12-inch wall tapering up 25 feet 6 inches ; the next 19 feet 6 inches is 8-inch wall. 118 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY The core is 3 feet 4 inches square inside, with 8-inch Avail running up and meeting the outer wall at 45 feet above the foundation, where the chimney is 6 feet square, above this the flue continues straight up, and the outside is drawn in to about 8 inches thickness of Avail at the top. A square cap of cast iron in four pieces is put on top, and bolted by inside flanges. About 45,000 brick and 36 cubic yards of concrete entered into its construction. The weight per square foot on foundation is 2.20 tons. The weight per square foot on soil is 1.82 tons. Air vents are placed in outside wall to let out the heated air from cavity between walls. Some of these chimneys have had their top part lifted off by reason of the heat of the flue, and the flue and outer shell being run together, others have stood very well, probably be- cause the fires have not been forced. BKICK CHIMNEY AT THE PLANT OF THE STEIN- WAY ELECTKIC COMPANY, ASTORIA, L. I. Flue, 8 feet in diameter. Height, 140 feet above the ground. Fire-brick lining, 45 feet up from the bottom, 5 inches thick. Core of chimney, 13 and 8 inches thick to within 50 feet of the top. Outer shell, 32 inches thick at the bottom, reduced to 12 inches thick at the top. 1LLUS. No. 31. Steinway Electric Company, Astoria, L. I. 120 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY BRICK CHIMNEYS. The Cambria Iron Company, Johnstown, Pa., in 1881 built two sizes of chimneys, which from the peculiar design were termed " Crinoline " chimneys. One was 140 feet 6 inches high above base-plate, with a flue 7 feet 11 inches in diameter. The other, 200 feet high above base-plate, with a flue 10 feet in diameter. The prominent features of their design are : First. — Single-brick tube. Second. — Cast-iron base-plate. Third.— Steel rails set vertically in outer walls, with wrought-iron binders or hoops. They have been in constant use up to the present time, and have proved themselves well fitted to the work for which they were designed. Through the courtesy of Mr. Jos. Morgan, Chief En- gineer of the works, the 140-foot chimney is pictured in detail on the opposite page. 122 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Robert Kuntsman* gives the data for material for a brick chimney of 2,000 horse-power capacity, as follows : Working capacity of chimney 2,000 horse-power. Depth of foundation 12 feet. Height of chimney inclusive of foun- dation 205 feet. Height of chimney from base line to top of cap 193 feet. Height of cap from neck of shaft to top 14 feet 9 inches. Effective height from inlet of boiler- Hues 178 feet 3 inches. Batter per foot on side walls t 8 5 2 if inch outside, and T f ¥ inside. External diameter of chimney at base line 17 feet. Internal diameter of flue at base line . 8 feet. External diameter at neck under cap . 10 feet 6 inches. Interior diameter at extreme top 7 feet. Thickness of outer wall under the cap 1| brick, 12 inches. Thickness of outer wall at section CD 2 brick, 16 inches. Thickness of outer wall at section EF 2| brick, 20£ inchesi Thickness of outer wall at section Gil 3 brick, 24| inches. Thickness of outer wall at section (with inlet flue) IK 3 brick, 24| inches. Size of inlet flue from boilers, 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, with an area of 32 feet square. Area of outlet on top of chimney 38.5 square feet. Total weight of chimney, including founda- tion. 1,588 J tons. Total weight of brickwork, from base line upward 1,016| tons. Load on concrete foundation 2.9 tons, or nearly 3 tons per square foot. The load on the ground and distributed over an area of 1,370 square feet is therefore 0.86 ton per square foot. It should not be difficult to arrive at the cost of this chim- ney at any locality if, according to local conditions, price of materials and labor are estimated from the quantities we have given. It will require 390,000 brick. * Brick, April, 1897. - £9* -j ■ rr6 ' **B#*. Section at Eleu4y6* Section at Elev. ILL US. No. 34. Chimney Metropolitan Street Railway Power House, New York City. 124 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY BRICK CHIMNEY FOR THE METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY COMPANY, Ninety-fifth Street and First Avenue, New York City. Built in 1898. The ground on which it is built was originally low ground, being covered at one time by the water of the East River, but had been filled in at a later period. A number of borings were made to determine the character of the strata below the earth and ash filling, averaging, respectively, about 10 and 15 feet in depth. Below the filling, blue clay or mud was found to an average depth of 35 feet, beach sand to about 45 feet, fine red sand from 45 to 55 feet, and, from this down, clay was present as far, at least, as 80 feet. Rock was found in one trial at a depth of 125 feet. In building the foundations, which cover an area of about 85 feet square, the earth and ash filling were removed to a depth of 20 feet below the determined level of the station floor, taken as datum, and piles were driven to a depth of about 40 feet over the entire area. The piles are upon 2-feet 6-inch and 2-feet 3-inch centres, and a total of about 1,300 were driven by means of pile-drivers suspended from derrick booms. At a depth of 40 feet it was found that a 2,500-pound hammer falling 20 feet drove the piles about one inch, on an average. In driving the last 20 or 30 piles, the resistance was so great that they could not be driven over 15 feet. The piles were cut off 1 foot above the top of finished ground, or at a grade of — 19. An immense concrete block was laid upon them, 85 feet square and 20 feet thick, of 1, 3, and 5 Giant Portland cement-concrete. Cement mortar used in the brick- work was made of 1 part Giant Portland cement and 2 parts sand. It is located close to the wall separating the engine and boiler rooms of the station, and divides the boiler room in two parts. Smoke flues lead from the boilers to the chimney from opposite directions, and as there are three stories in the boiler house upon which the boilers are to be installed, there THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 125 are six large openings to the chimney, two on each of the three floors. The chimney is built of two concentric shells, and the outer shell is stiffened by 12 interior longitudinal ribs projecting radially toward the inner shaft and leaving a clear- ance of £ inch. The inner shaft has a constant diameter of 22 feet, and the outer dimensions of the stack range from a square base, 55 feet on a side, to a neck of 26 feet 10 inches in diam- eter,' 316 feet above. The cylindrical exterior of the chimney is given a batter of 3i inches in 10 feet, or 0.312 inches per foot. The two shells rise from a common brick base resting on the concrete, and are practically a single structure ap to a few feet above the smoke-flue openings. These openings are 24 feet 6 inches, one above the other, and 4 feet below the first opening, at the 15-foot elevation, the shaft is lined with an 8-inch thickness of fire-brick to a height of 90 feet, which is about 10 feet above the third-floor opening. Beyond this for 25 feet the fire-brick is only 4 inches thick, and from the 115-foot elevation upward the walls are of common brick. The weakening caused by the openings is overcome by the double-arch construction and the use of tie-beams of channel iron. A 12-inch brick wall, 85 feet high and provided with a buttress divides the lower part of the shaft into two parts, separating the two tiers of smoke-flue openings. The inner shell is built in five sections from the basal thickness of the wall, which is 24 inches, to an 8 inch wall at its top, 340 feet high. The outer shell, as to thickness, ranges from 28 to 16 inches. The fourth section, from the 200 to the 280 foot elevation, is 16 inches thick, as shown, and the wall thick- ness then becomes 20 inches. The successive gradations of thickness up to this point conform to the requirements of the limiting stresses allowed, but the enlargement is made, aside from providing for the coping, to bring the two shells in closest proximity, so that both may assist in resisting lat- eral strains. The gap between the two shells near the top of the chimney is protected with an apron of sheet-iron 4 feet wide and provided with a flange at the top imbedded in the brickwork. The top of the chimney is protected with an iron cap formed of 40 cast-iron sectors, bolted one to the other. 126 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY They envelop the top brickwork, and are anchored by vertical tie-rods to an annular steel ring about 28 inches in diameter imbedded in the brickwork about 14 feet below the cap. Ten lightning-rods point upward 6 feet above the top of the chim- ney, and are connected to a copper ring, which is provided with two descending conductors of copper, each 1 by ^ inch in cross section. These conductors are also connected to the iron top. Two other steel rings are also encased near the top, one about 342 feet and another about 313 feet from the base, to prevent any tendency to disintegration resulting from in- cipient cracks. The chimney for the station, now practically completed, stands 353 feet above its foundation, and it is, therefore, the tallest chimney in the United States.* Its internal diameter is 22 feet, and in that dimension it is the largest brick chimney in the world. Kankine's formula was used in determining its capacity, and in designing the chimney it was assumed that the wind-pressure would be equivalent to a pressure of about 40 pounds per square foot of diametrical area. The total weight of the chimney is 8,540 tons, and 3,400,000 red bricks were used in the construction. The drawings show at various elevations the total weight supported, and the corresponding stress per square foot of sectional area. The pressure intensity of the outer shell is on the average greater than that in the interior shaft, being about 9 tons per square foot. The unit load at the concrete base is only 3.5 tons for the whole weight of the chimney. The chimney was designed by the Engineering Department of the Metropolitan Street Railway Company. — Engineering Record, vol. xxxix., p. 53. •In 1901 it is exceeded in height only by the chimney of the Orford Copper Company, Con- stable Hook, N. J., which is 360 feet high, see p. 128. ILLUS. No. 35. Barbour Flax Spinning Co., Grand Street, Paterson, N. J. Flue, 6 feet diameter. Height, 175 feet. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 127 The Chestnut Hill Pumping Station Chimney. This chimney, built by the Metropolitan Water Board, Boston, Mass., 125 feet high with a flue 4& feet in diameter, has a feature worthy of record in its soot-collecting- tunnel, il- lustrated below. This feature is described by the Engineering Record as fol- lows: "From a point opposite the centre of the chimney a branch tunnel, 3 feet wide by 6 feet high, extends into the chim- ney foundation to a pit beneath the flue, for the removal of soot. The entrance to this branch- tunnel is closed by a tight iron door. The bottom of the chim- ney is con- tracted into the form of an inverted truncated cone, whose smaller di- ameter is 24 inches. " This opening is closed by a door made of two semi- circular £-inch wrought-iron plates, arranged to revolve about a 1^-inch diameter horizontal steel shaft at the diameter of the circle. By means of pulleys and a chain passing through the walls of the chimney the two leaves of this door can be dropped simultaneously to dump the soot and then be closed again from the coal-house without entering the flue." By this arrange- ment the chimney draft is not interfered with while removing the soot. Bator'* '\ 'Batter A/2 Transverse Sec+ion through Boiler Room and Coal House. 128 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Orfobd Copper Company's Chimney. This radial-brick chimney, 360 feet high, consisting of a single shaft, is now being built (1901) at Constable Hook, N. J., for the Orford Copper Company, to elevate the gases from chemical reactions so high as to be the cause of no harm to the peo- ple of the neighborhood. With an internal diameter of 20 feet at the base, and 10 feet at the top, a square exterior for 30 feet above the foundation, the balance of the height is circular in cross-section to the top. The square portion of the shaft is built of ordinary red brick, the circular part of radial brick (custodis). These radial bricks vary in size from 12 inches radial length at the base, laid in five concentric rows, to 11 inches at the top, in one row, by 4 inches thick (or high). The circular portion is 46 inches thick at the 30-feet elevation, its outside base a taper of 3 inches in 10 feet, the inside be- ing offset 2 inches every 16| feet. 3|X T 5 g- in^h iron bands encircle the brickwork every 8 feet in height, to the cap, which also is made of moulded brick. The fire-brick lining, 42 feet high, in- tended to resist a temperature of 1,500° Fahr., is divided into three parts or sec- tions, each carried on corbels at their bot- tom, and leaving an air-space of 2 inches between the lining and shell. Two parti- tions, forming an X, deflect the gases up- ward from four inlets. The estimated weight of the chimney is 3,475 tons, giving a load of 5.57 tons per square foot on an area of 624.4 square feet at the foundation level. it: ILLUS. No. 130 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Brick Chimneys at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. A pair of chimneys of white brick, with decorations of terra- cotta, and brick of various colors, consisting- of a single shell, 262 feet 5 inches above the ground, with a Hue 14 feet 9 inches at the smallest diameter, were built on the Exposition grounds for furnishing draft to the various steam-boilers. The sub-foundation of concrete, 59 feet in diameter X 5 feet thick rests on 133 oak piles, 12 inches diameter X 23 feet long, driven in circular rows by a hammer weighing 2,650 pounds ; above this a stone foundation is built up to the grouud-level or nearly so. Two flues enter each chimney, a diaphragm being built in the chimney a short distance to keep the inlets separate and distinct. The shaft proper consists of a twelve-panel pedestal 52£ feet high, and a highly ornamented shaft bound together by 0.43 X 4.75-inch flat iron bands fifteen in number, bolted to- gether and embedded in the masonry. An inside ladder provides for access to the top, and a cop- per-pointed lightning rod at the top, grounded to drainage and waste pipes, is to take care of lightning discharges. The thickness of the wall at the top is 14 inches to a maxi- mum of 4 feet 5 inches at the cap, 5± feet at base of cylindrical part and 6 to 9| feet in the pedestal. The concrete was 2 parts stone, 1 part mortar, which mor- tar was 500 pounds Portland cement to one cubic yard of sand. The mortar for the shaft was composed of 1 part hydraulic lime to 2 parts of sand. The first 92 feet was built from outside scaffolding, above which height a fir-plank platform inside the shaft, from which was hung a platform-car with a capacity of upward of 3,300 pounds. This timber floor was raised every 20 feet, a five horse- power engine did the hoisting, the apparatus being shown in detail by the cut on page 131. Three thousand cubic yards of brickwork, and 1,300 cubic yards of other masonry were used in the work. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 131 For more complete description and illustration of these two chimneys see Engineering Record, Steam Engineering, Genie Civil and Zeits. d. Verein. Deutsch. Ing., all of 1890. ill us. No. 38. 132 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY Alphons Custodis, Dusseldokf on Rhine, as well as other builders, have built a great many round chim- neys, using a special moulded radial brick. The brick " are made from pure, thoroughly consistent clay and pressed with water," burned at a heat of not less than 1,500° Fahr. A smooth surface, and a surface which is less porous than is the case with common brick, is thus obtained. These brick are perforated in one direction — vertical, leaving an air-space from top to bottom, which acts as a sort of jacket to the flue, but is not continu- ous, as the mortar at each joint acts as a separator. This design of brick adds to the stability of the chimney, by virtue of the less number of joints subject to the weather, and also the better bond which Mr. Custodis says he secures. Comparative experiments at the Royal Testing Station for Building Materials in Berlin, with perforated and unperforated chimney bricks, show the following : 1. In unperforated bricks the material possessed the ex- traordinary compressive strength of 350 kilos per square cen- timetre ( = 4,978 pounds per square inch). 2. In perforated bricks made of the same raw material, the compressive strength was even somewhat greater, 354 kilos per square centimetre (5,035 pounds per square inch), although the sectional area of the holes was included as surface. 3. The adhesive power of cement-mortar used with unper- forated bricks amounts to 1.53 kilos per square centimetre (21f pounds per square inch), while with perforated bricks it amounted to 4.33 kilos per square centimetre (61 § pounds per square inch), or about three times as much. Illustration No. 39 shows a chimney built in the manner just described and of radial brick. As it is generally found desirable in a brick chimney to have a central core or flue lined with fire-brick to protect the chimney itself from being destroyed by the varying tempera- tures within, Mr. Custodis uses the sectional method of build- ing the lining, giving it a uniform thickness, which allows a THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 133 section at a time to be repaired; each section can expand vertically according- to the heat each section receives ; on ac- count of the small lining thickness necessary, this method is very economical. Because of the superior strength of the bricks used and wall thickness used the diameter at the base of any chimney can be much less than for red brick chimneys, less land occu- pied, and a less unit load on the foundation. Chimneys of this type built in the United States, which are over 150 feet high, are in part located as follows : Bethlehem Steel Company, South Bethlehem, Pa. (2) 175 feet by 8 feet inside top diameter. (1) 175 feet by 9 feet inside top diameter. Yorkville Independent Hygeia -Ice Company, New York City. Stack 190 feet by 7 feet 6 inches inside top diameter. New York Shipbuilding Company, Camden, N. J. 200 feet by 8 feet 6 inches inside top diameter. Great Northern Paper Company, Millinocket, Me. 235 feet by 12 feet inside top diameter. Manhattan Kail way Company, New York City. (4) 278 feet by 17 feet inside top diameter. Orford Copper Company, Constable Hook, N. J. 360 feet by 13 feet inside top diameter. 134 CHIMNEY DKSIGN AND THEORY LIST OF BEICK CHIMNEYS. 1. At Knoxville, Tenn. Illustrated in Engineering News, November 2, 1893. Flue, 6 feet diameter ; 120 feet high ; double walls. TABLE No. 25. EXTFRIOK WALL. INTERIOR CORE. Height, feet. Thickness, inches. Height, feet. Thickness, inches. 20 21 35 131 8* 30 17 35 30 13 29 4 40 Si 21 0 Exterior diameter at base is 15 feet 6 inches ; batter, T \ inch in 12 inches from the bottom to 8 feet from the top, then straight. Space between walls, 16 inches at bottom, diminishing- to nothing at the top of core wall. The interior is of red brick, except a lining of fire-brick for 20 feet up from the bottom. 2. Montreal (Can.) Street Railway Company, William Street Power House. This chimney (1894) is the highest in Montreal, 190 feet high above the fire-grate, and with a flue 9 feet diameter, gives a draft of 1^ inches of water. The chimney is built with double walls, and the square pedestal base is 18 feet square outside. Three thousand horse-power of Lancashire double-flue boilers are connected to it. 3. Mechernich Lead Mining Company. Flue, 9 feet 10 inches ; height, 440 feet 6 inches ; foundation of dressed stone, 36 feet square by 11 feet 6 inches high. The base, a cube of 32 feet 9 inches, and the octagonal plinth of the shaft are both built of annular kiln bricks. The circular shaft is formed of radial bricks, it is 24 feet 6 inches outside diameter, and 11 feet 6 diameter inside at base ; at the top it is 11 feet 6 inches outside and 9 feet 10 inches inside diameter. THEORY PERTAINING TO BRICK CHIMNEYS 135 4. New Sessions Foundry, Bristol, Conn. Flue, 42 inches diameter by 110 feet high ; circular, 6 feet diameter at top, 10 feet diameter at base, set on an 11- foot square bed at ground. Three 150 horse-power Heine boilers connected to it. 5. Passaic Print Works, Passaic, N. J. Flue, 9 feet diameter by 200 feet high ; cost, $15,000 ; built by Flynt Building and Construction Company. This chimney has three batters in the height. Eighteen 6 feet diameter by 18 feet long horizontal tubular boilers are connected to it, with a total of 760 square feet of grate. 6. Fall Biver Iron Company. Flue, 11 feet diameter by 350 feet high ; diameter outside at base, 30 feet ; diameter outside at top, 21 feet. Foundation of granite, 55 feet by 30 feet by 16 feet deep. Bequired 1,700,000 brick, 2,000 tons stone, 2,000 barrels mortar, 1,000 loads of sand. Estimated cost, $40,000. 7. Dundee Chemical Works, Passaic, N. J. Circular, 175 feet high, 14 feet square at bottom ; laid up in cement. Used to get rid of gases from chemical reaction at a high altitude ; cost $7,000. Since it was built it showed several large cracks from the top one-third the way down and has been rebuilt ; iron bands being placed around the outside to retain the brick. 8. Merrimack Manufacturing Company, Lowell, Mass. Flue, 12 feet diameter ; 282 feet high ; round pedestal, cost $18,500 ; load on foundation 4.8 tons per square foot. The foundation is 30 feet in diameter of dressed granite blocks laid in clear Portland cement ; core was laid in lime and sand mortar; the outside shell was laid in lime, cement, and sand. 136 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY 9. Municipal Lighting Plant, Frankfort-on-Main, Germany. Flue, 7 feet diameter ; 164 feet high. Supplies draft for 12 internally fired boilers with single furnace, and four Galloway tubes. Boilers, 82 inches diameter by 28.8 feet long ; 925 feet of heating surface each. 10. Port Dundee, Glasgow, Scotland. 488 feet high. Cost, $40,000. 11. Townsend, Glasgow, Scotland. 454 feet high. 12. Tennant & Company, Glasgow, Scotland. 434 feet 6 inches high. 13. Crossley's, Halifax, England. 381 feet high. Octagonal, stone. 14. Dobson & Barlow, Bolton, England. 13 feet 2 inches diameter ; 367| feet high. 15. Brooks's Fire-clay Works, Huddersfield, England. 306 feet high. Circular, brick, and stone. 16. Mitchel Brothers, Bradford, England. 300 feet high. Octagonal, stone. 17. Edinburgh Gas Light Company, Edinburgh, Scotland. Flue, 12 feet diameter ; 264 feet high. Cost, $25,000. Circular, stone, square pedestal. Load on bottom or soil is 2.5 tons per square foot. 18. "West Cumberland Hematite Iron Works, England. 251 feet high. Circular, stone. 19. Amoskeag Mills, Manchester, N. H. Flue, 10 feet diameter ; 250 feet high. Circular, brick. 20. Washington Mills, Lawrence, Mass. Flue, 10 feet diameter ; 250 feet high. Circular, brick, 21. Tremont and Suffolk Mills, Lowell, Mass. (1) Flue, 10 feet diameter; 250 feet high. Circular, brick. 22. Tremont and Suffolk Mills, Lowell, Mass. (2) Flue, rectangular, oblong, brick. Height, 238 feet. 23. Lower Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass. Flue, 8 feet diameter ; 214 feet high. Circular, brick. 24. Edison Electric Illuminating Company, Paterson, N. J. (1) Old chimney ; 200 feet high. Octagonal. CHIMNEY DP]SIGN AND THEORY 137 25. Edison Electric Illuminating- Company, Paterson, N. J. (2) New chimney ; 225 feet high. Circular. 26. Newland's Mills, Bradford, England. Flue, 9 feet diameter ; 260 feet high. Load on bottom on soil, 4.5 tons per square foot. 27. McCormack's Reaper Works. Flue, 6 feet 8 inches diameter ; 160 feet high. Load on soil, a dry hard clay, 1.8 tons per square foot. 28. Queen Lane Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa. Flue, 12 feet diameter ; 200 feet high. Foundation, 37 feet square by 24 feet deep. 29. Tweedvale Manufacturing Company. Flue, 4 feet diameter ; 125 feet high. Foundation, 19 feet square by 9 feot deep. 30. Grosvenordale Company, North Grosvenordale, Conn. Flue, 5 feet diameter ; 150 feet high. Power, December, 1897. 31. New Chester Water Company. Flue, octagonal ; area, 2,430 square inches ; height, 105 feet. Lined with fire-brick 20 feet up above the opening for breeching. Furnishes draft to five 60 inch diameter by 16 feet horizontal tubular boilers. — Engineering Record, vol. xxv. 32. Chicago City Railway Company. 14 feet diameter of flue by 208 feet high. Top round ; base square. Foundation, 50 feet square ; 16 feet deep. For twenty -four 78 inches by 20 feet horizontal tubular boilers. John Mohr & Sons. — Power and Transmission, May, 1897. 33. Akron, Ohio, Street Railway and Illuminating Company. Octagon exterior, brick, round flue ; 72 inches diameter ; 130 feet high. 34. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, Electric Power Plant. Brick chimney, 7 feet diameter of flue by 15 feet high, for 2,400 horse-power B. and W. boilers ; 1,200 of which is now in. CHAPTEK VIII CHIMNEY PERFORMANCES. — SPECIAL TYPES. —STRAIGHT- ENING CHIMNEYS— FLUES CHIMNEY PERFORMANCES. Brick chimney, Dwight Manufacturing- Company, Chicopee, Mass. Flue, 4 feet square by feet high. Burned through it 1,587.8 pounds anthracite coal per hour ; burned through it 1,459.0 pounds combustible per hour ; draft 0.45 inch. Horse-power developed in boilers, 460.9. Equivalent evaporation per pound of combustible from and at 212° = 11.17 pounds. Coal burned per hour per square foot of grate = 10.97 pounds. Boilers connected to chimney : 4 vertical Corliss boilers 8 feet diameter, and 2 vertical Corliss boilers 10 feet diameter. A chimney 80 feet high, flue 42 inches diameter, has been found to cause sufficient draft for a rate of combustion of 120 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of area of chimney, or if the grate area is to the chimney area as 8 to 1, a combustion of 15 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour, or a total combustion of 1,154.4 pounds of coal per hour.— Kent : " Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers," vol. vi. The author's Table No. 10 gives the capacity of this chimney as 1,128 pounds. A chimney 92 feet high, flue 50 inches diameter. Area of 13.63 square feet ; area of flue inlet = 13.12 square feet ; area of grate 48 square feet, with an air space of 21 138 CHIMNEY PERFORMANCES 139 square feet, with a temperature of chimney gases of 609° Fahr., caused sufficient draft for the combustion of 1,179 pounds of free bituminous coal per hour. — Gale : " Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers," vol. vi. The author's formulae, Table No. 10, gives the capacity of this chimney as 1,141 pounds. " Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers," vol. xv., p. 610, says : " Three hundred boiler horse- powers were connected to a chimney 72 inches diameter of the flue by 125 feet high, with poor results ; but when chimney was changed to 42 inches diameter by 125 feet high, the boil- ers worked much better." The author's Table No. 8 gives the capacity of the latter chimney as 351 boiler horse-power. Steel chimney, 38 inches diameter by 110 feet high, over a Oahall vertical boiler at Armstrong Cook Co's. Works, Pitts- burg, Pa. Tests by J. M. Whitham. Coal, nut and slack, from Sandy Creek Mine, near Pittsburg, Pa. Efficiency test, 917 pounds of coal burned per hour. According to the author's formulae, this chimney capacity is 1,073 pounds ; capacity test, 1,702 pounds of coal burned per hour. Brick chimney, 8 feet diameter flue by 175 feet high, Ar- mour & Co's. plant, Kansas City, Mo. Coal — Ardmor, Mo., bituminous Mine-Run coal. Tests by F. G. Gasche, M.E. Flue temperature, 580° Fahr. ; out-door temperature, 80° Fahr. (approximate). Draft in chimney, 0.68 inch of water. Boiler horse-power is 1,167. Coal burned per hour, 7,198 pounds. — Power, August, 1897. Steel chimney, 4 feet diameter flue by 100 feet high. Reid & Barry, Passaic, N. J. Attached to two boilers rated at 250 horse-power each, with 140 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY a total of 104.76 feet of grate-surface, gave the following- re- sults with different coals used under boiler : Anthracite buck. Bituminous lump coal. coal. Temperature of external air 45° Fahr. 42° Fahr. Temperature of gases at base of chimney 372° Fahr. 427° Fahr. Coal burned per hour, total dry 1,902 pounds. 1,865 pounds. Force of draft in inches of water 0.48 0.55 Theoretical draft, we might look for 0.556 0.624 Barometer 30.35 inches. 29.9 inches. Natural draft was used, and the coal burned in both cases coincides with what might be looked for from the author's tables. An old chimney, 67 feet high, with internal diameter of 19.6 inches to 13.8 inches, and with a total distance from fire to chimney of 98 feet, was taken down, and a new chimney with an intended total distance from fire to outlet of 95 feet, and a minimum internal diameter of 25.5 inches was planned ; when the chimney had gone up 39 feet it was tried, already there was a great improvement on the old chimney ; again at 46 feet it was still better, and at 52.5 feet the draft was excellent, and there was an economy of 15 to 20 per cent, in fuel. The chim- ney was therefore finished at that height. Bamdohr of Gotha confirms this, and recommends a uniform internal diameter as being more rational and as protecting the brickwork from the hot and rapid axial stream. — Journal du Gazet Electricitat, 1897. A steel chimney, 110 feet high, with flue 42 inches diameter, attached to a boiler rated at 250 boiler horse-power, with 57 square feet of grate-surface, under test, when starting the plant with outside air quiet, and with a temperature of 40° Fahr., showed the following results : Temperature of gases at base of chimney. . 300° F. 445° F. 525° F. 575' F. Force of draft in inches of water 0.36 0.46 0.52 0.56 —Geo. H. Barrus, 1894. CHIMNEY PERFORMANCES 141 OFFICE-BUILDING CHIMNEYS. Tall office-building chimneys in the large cities are often made of steel, circular in shape, and placed in the ventilating shaft in many instances to assist it in the purifying of the air throughout the building; these chimneys need no special strength, being braced to the walls of the shaft and easy to support. The metal and riveting should be proportioned as in guyed steel chimneys. Other chimneys are of brick in office buildings built like any house chimney, while others of steel are placed in the "open air" or light shaft, as the chimney of the Manhattan Life Building, New York City ; this is 4 feet 6 inches diameter of flue by about 360 feet high, and is secured to the wall by wrought-iron straps. It furnishes draft to three internally fired Scotch boilers, with 1,620 square feet of heating surface each, total 4,860 square feet. The first record of steel chimneys in use in tall office build- ings, is that at " the Fair," Chicago, 111., built in 1890-91, which is described as follows : Diameter of outside of 4-inch tile lining is 6 feet 9 inches. Diameter of flue in clear at fire-brick lining, 5 feet 9 inches. Diameter of flue in clear at tile lining, 6 feet 1 inch. Height of chimney, 172 feet 6 inches. Starting from the basement floor, the chimney rests on a brick base 2| feet high ; at the base two 4 by 4 by T 2 F -inch angles are riveted, one inside and one outside of the i-inch shell, and they in turn rest on a cast-iron ring l£by 8£ inches in section, through all of which the f-inch anchor or foundation bolts pass ; thickness of shell is £ inch throughout, the first 40 feet is lined with fire-brick 6 inches thick, above which a 3 by 4 by inch angle-iron is riveted thus | 4" to the shell, and similar ones above this about every 15 feet, which carry the 4-inch tile- lining which goes to the top of shell. The cap is made of £-inch steel shaped like an inverted U, fitted outside of shell, and inside of tile riveted to shell. The chimney is braced to the building by two 3 by 3 by |-mch 142 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND TIIEOUY angles fastened to columns. Space around the chimney is utilized for purposes of ventilation. — Engineering Record, vol. xxix., p. 157. REMOVING BRICK CHIMNEYS. A brick chimney octagonal in section, 135 feet high, ex- ternal diameter 12 feet, base 17 feet square by 16| feet high, with walls 3 feet thick, at a brick works in Lorincznyaralo, Hungary, was blasted by Lieutenant-Colonel Tangl of the army and his men. Bricks were removed for about three feet in height, di- rectly above the base, leaving two openings— one in front, one in the rear ; this work being done by four men in nine hours. The structure was to fall to the ground close to the base on account of nearby buildings. A mine of 15 pounds of " ecrasite " was placed in one open- ing, and two of 11 pounds in the other, all placed 10 inches above the base in order to spare it. They were fired simultaneously, and the chimney fell in a bottle-shaped mass just away from the base, occupying a length of 190 feet, height of 10 feet, and the greatest width was 56 feet at 66 feet from the base. Observers did not feel the rush of air, but in the direc- tion of the fall windows were broken at a distance of 260 and 500 feet. — Engineering, p. 658, 1898. CAST-IRON OFFICE-BUILDING CHIMNEY. University Block, Syracuse, N. Y., eleven-story steel-cage building. Boilers, 470 boiler horse-power. Chimney, 172 feet high ; flue, 4 feet diameter. Foundation, a bed of concrete 16 inches thick ; on this 20-inch brick wall about 6 feet high, capped with a circular cast-iron shoe or base-plate. From this plate six sections of flanged cast pipe 4 feet 10 inches diameter are placed, lined with 4-inch fire-brick, capped again with a cast-iron plate on which stands the spigot end of the 4-foot inside diameter cast- SPECIAL TYPES 143 iron water-pipe, which, with bell ends and spigot ends, makes the balance of height of chimney, excepting 1 the upper sec- tion, which tops out in a moulding above which is a serrated edge. The chimney is anchored to the floor-beams by f -inch bolts. In the building this chimney is surrounded by a double tile wall each 3 inches thick, 3-inch air-space between them, and greater air-space between tile and cast-iron chimney pipe. — Engineering Record, vol. xxxviii., p. 190. I0'4" MONOLITHIC FACTORY CHIMNEY. Pacific Coast Borax Company, Constable Hook, N. J., 1898. The entire mill is built of con- crete and iron after E. L. Ran- some's patent and by him, as is also the chimney. Only the hottest zone of the chimney, bottom to 20 feet up, is protected by a fire-brick lining. The reinforcement of this stack consists of f-inch rings two feet apart vertically and eight f inch vertical bars in each wall of the chimney. This chimney is built inside the factory, which protects it from wind strains up to a height of 70 feet, above which it rises 80 feet exposed to the elements. The flue is 7 feet diameter by 150 feet high. Between the inner and outer shell are eight concrete and iron brackets, 6 inches wide, running the entire height of the chimney. — Engineering Record, vol. xxxviii., p. 189. 15'0'Diam. ILLUS. No Pacific Coast Borax Company, Constable Hook, N. J. 144 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY A light-house was erected in 1874 on the Isle of Jersey, of concrete, but built up of moulded blocks as ordinary ma- sonry. Its height is 135 feet on a rock 109 feet above the level of the sea. Designed and erected by Sir J. Coode. It is recorded as a successful application of concrete. Fr. Von Emperger, Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers, 1894, says: "Two concrete structures which give the best x>roof of the elastic properties of this material (con- crete) may be mentioned. " One is a chimney 160 feet high, in Ireland, in one piece of concrete, which has stood the heaviest storms ; and another example which is cited by Mr. A. Bella, are wine-tanks of a capacity of 80,000 gallons (of concrete only) in Agram, Hun- gary, which stood the last earthquake without cracking." Sutcliff* says the first example in England of concrete chimneys was at Sutherland ; the foundation was 12 feet square by 6 feet thick of concrete. The chimney-base was 24 feet 9 inches high, 7 feet 6 inches square outside, and 4 feet square inside, lined with fire-brick. Above the base was a moulding 21 inches high, and from this rose an octagonal shaft 30 feet high 15 inches thick at the bottom, and 9 inches at the top. Concrete for base, 1 part Portland cement to 8 parts shingle and sand ; for the shaft, 1 part Portland cement and 5 parts gravel and sand ; rubble stones were also packed in the con- crete as it was laid. The finish was £-inch coat of cement (1 to 1) divided into ashlar. Sutcliff speaks also of concrete chimneys being built else- where before this one. Chemical Works Chimneys. — Chimneys used to carry off acid gases should be provided with exterior iron bands, and the in- terior have proper protection to the bricks, especially at the joints ; the author would use only the best Portland cement, laid with close joints, for this class of work. * "Concrete, Its Nature and Uses," published 1893. CHIMNEY AS A TOWER 145 Engineering News. ILLUS. No. 43. A Water Tank Supported upon A Brick Chimnet. 146 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY CONCRETE - STEEL DUST FLUE. Engineering Neivs describes a concrete-steel construction at the works of the Arkansas Valley Smelting Company, at Leadville, Col., where the dust flue conveying the smoke and gases from the roasting furnaces to the chimney is built of concrete, with an embedded metal skeleton. The flue is U-shaped in plan, with one leg of the U shorter than the other. The sulphurous gases from the roasting furnaces enter the short leg of the U from a tunnel below ; pass around the loop, being somewhat cooled, and, depositing in the passage ILLUS. No. 46. Transverse Section of Concrete and Steel Skeleton Dust Flub. the valuable dust which it contains, finally pass out of the chimney into which the long leg of the U enters. Brick riffle- walls, placed at intervals across the bottom of the flue, aid in collecting the dust. The flue was designed by Mr. E. H. Messiter. The construction of the flue is quite clearly shown by illus- tration No. 45. Illustration No. 46 gives a cross-section show- ing the main arch members, which are simply iron channel hoops bent to an arch and having their ends set in a concrete base wall. Between the base walls is a concrete floor resting directly on the ground. The channel iron arches are con- nected longitudinally by flat iron members connected to the Long'rtudinul Section atCrown. Longitudinal Section of Side Wall. Structural Details of Concrete and Steel Skeleton Dust Flue. ILLUS. No. 45. Concrete and Steel Dust Flue. CONCRETE-STEEL DUST FLUE 147 channels by clinched staples. Illustration No. 45 shows this connection, and also shows the arrangement of the lathing of expanded metal, which was fastened to the inside of the main flat and channel iron skeleton. The lathing and main skeleton were finally embedded in mortar composed of 1 part German Portland cement to 3 parts sand, to make a wall 2£ inches thick, except at the crown, where a furnace slag con- crete was employed. The inside of the wall was given a wash of neat cement paste. In one side of the wall a space was left for an iron plate door. The various other details of the con- struction are clearly shown by the drawings. CHIMNEY AS TANK TOWER. Professor O. Intze and F. A. Neumann, of Aachen, Germany, have patented such an arrangement. It consists of a brick chimney built as usual to where a tank is to rest, where a cap- stone is placed upon it ; from there upward the outside size of the chimney is smaller, leaving a shoulder for tank brackets. In an illustration in the Engineering News, vol. xxxix., p. 287, the total height of the brick chimney is 143 feet, the base for the tank being at 102 feet elevation. Diameter of flue is 3 feet 6 inches at the top, and 5 feet 9 inches at the bottom. The steel tank has a capacity of 26,400 gallons, and space is left between it and the chimney for a ladder. Several of these structures have been built of the capacity of the above, or less. OTHER USES FOR CHIMNEYS. The Coe Brass Company, formerly Wallace & Sons, at Ansonia, Conn., use an old square brick chimney as a clock tower. The Eichardson Manufacturing Company, at Newark, N. J., utilize their steel chimney to carry an exterior spiral staircase from an enclosed court to each floor of the factory building. At the power-house of the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass., scarcity of room and the smoke flues entering 148 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY " the chimney at a high level," allows of the interior of the lower part of the chimney being "used to contain a spiral stairway to connect the ground level and the floors." COMPARATIVE COST. Based upon figures given in the table, a chimney of 2,000 horse-power, if built of red brick, would cost about $8,500 ; of steel, self-supporting, full lined, about $8,300 ; of steel, self- supporting, half lined, about $7,800; of radial brick, about $6,800 ; of steel, self-supporting, unlined, about $5,820 ; of steel, guyed, about $4,000. The following list is one which has been made up from act- ual costs, and may prove interesting in this connection : Description. Radial brick, Circ. . . Radial brick, Circ. . . Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ Red brick, Rect Red brick, Hex Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ Red brick, Circ .... Red brick, Rect Steel, self-supporting- Steel, self-supporting Steel, self-supporting Steel, guyed Horse pow- er, W. W. Cost, dollars. Christie's rating. Total. Per rated horse- power. 1,645 6,000 3.64 13,484 40,000 3.00 4.040 16,000 4.00 6,000 18,500 3.00 450 2,192 4.87 12.211 55,000 4.50 4.819 10,000 2.06 2,925 15,000 5.13 5,772 40,000 6.93 6.300 18,500 3.00 6,000 25,000 4.25 1,100 4,950 4.50 517 1,900 3.80 2,400 10,000 4.15 2,350 8,000 3.40 240 700 2.91 240 400 1.66 Remarks American. Foreign. Single shell, firebrick lining half height. Lined throughout. Half-lined, price with- out foundation. Unlined. Unlined. An 80-inch centrifugal blower, 48-inch wheel, 4X3 inches double engine, blower and engine on beam platform, was erected in New England in 1899, connected with a 48-inch diam- eter chimney of No. 12 steel, 22 feet high, 10 feet of it above the roof, 1 inch thick cast base plate. The total cost for ap- COMPARATIVE COST 149 paratus, frame work, and mason work was $856. The boilers used in the plant, in connection with the blower, were hori- zontal tubular, one 80-inch diameter by 17| feet ; two 72-inch diameter by 17| feet. In the same year a self-supporting steel chimney, unlined, 3| feet diameter by 105 feet high, was erected, with foun- dations and flue connections, at a cost of $1,013. The chim- ney was made of T \, £, and | inch steel. The blower outfit works satisfactorily in the part having two boilers with a total of 75 square feet of grate. The chimney gives a very satis- factory draught for 93 square feet of grate surface, and if it had been made 48 inches diameter, as in the blower outfit mentioned, and been guyed with wire rope, with a light foun- dation, $800 would easily have met the expense. A CHIMNEY ON LOOSE SOIL. An interesting description is given in Dingier 's Polytech- nisches Journal, vol. cclxvii., p. 194, of a chimney built on loose soil ; thus rendering a light structure necessary, says the London Builder. From the foundations four upright, and somewhat tapering, lattice-girders were carried up, and con- nected together by cross bracing. On the inner edge of the frame thus formed the chimney proper was built of tiles, about five inches in thickness, and having lap joints. Angle- iron bands were introduced at intervals to bind the whole firmly together. The total height of the chimney is 140 feet, and the inside diameter 8 feet 6 inches. The total weight is 543 tons, which gives a pressure of 17 pounds per square inch on the foundation, 2.2 tons per square foot. This would be about equal to half the weight and pressure per square inch of an ordinary chimney. The whole chimney was erected in thirty-nine days, the iron-work occupying thirty-one days of the time. The cost is set down at 19,200 francs,* and it is estimated that a brick chimney of the same height and size would have cost 14,300 francs.t « $3,698. t $2,752. 150 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY HIGH. CHIMNEYS ARE NOT NECESSARY. In the language of Professor Wood they are " a monument to the folly of the builders." While multiple chimneys do not look as imposing- as one state- ly structure, yet better results are often obtained by their use. A notable example of chimneys in multiple is at the Spreckles Sugar Eefinery, Philadelphia, Pa., where five chim- neys are used for one plant of 7,500 horse-power of boilers, costing- less than one chimney for the combined plant. The new plant of the Carnegie Steel Company, Bagdad, Pa., is a still more striking example, as shown by Illus. No. 44. The author has changed one plant from one chimney for two boilers to three chimneys for three boilers, with very beneficial results. This St yle Made Use of by Locom.fi ^Builders. Best to Split Wind^tt. Bad. Good, Bad. Chimney Top Designs. STRAIGHTENING A CHIMNEY. The Standard Concrete Manufactur- ing Company, Earnest, Pa., have a brick chimney 122 feet high, 11 feet square at the base, with tapering walls, weigh- ing 400 tons ; walls 36 inches thick. The top leaned 45 inches from a ver- tical line. To sink the side 4£ inches, 10| inches of brickwork were removed at the foundation from three sides, and square blocks of wood put in their places — brick piers being built 6 inches high so as to leave the 4| inch space. The wood was then set on fire and made to burn evenly. As the top gradually swung over, small fissures which appeared on the bottom were filled with steel wedges, to maintain solid- ity of the walls. The work consumed one day, the burning of the blocks one hour. — Engineering News, vol. xxxvi., p. 160. CHIMNEY ACCIDENTS 151 CHIMNEY ACCIDENTS. "The lecture of H. Liitgen, 1884, that in a manner similar to other chimney accidents (see for instance Cordeir's report concerning capsizings in France) all chimneys blown down have broken off either slightly above or below the centre. "For the granting of an equal steady wind-pressure the upper parts become weak in proportion to the lower part," and " it is well known that in Germany the storm of the year 1876 threw down only such chimneys as were in use among a large number of the same kind and sizes of chimneys " caused by the weakness accompanying the heat from the gases. A brick chimney with a flue about 5 feet inside diameter by about 160 feet high, being built in a New Jersey city, in 1890, was nearly completed, when struck by an extended severe northeast storm, and though the top was covered, yet the mor- tar being green, a major portion of the structure came down, so much that an entire rebuilding of the shaft was necessary. A 200 feet high octagon chimney, with a flue 8 feet in diameter (of the inscribed circle), which had been just com- pleted for the Hoepfner Refining Company, Hamilton, Ont., Canada, collapsed early on the morning of April 18, 1900, ne- cessitating the rebuilding of everything above the foundation. The apparent cause of this disaster was building the chim- ney when the lime mortar froze as it was laid, and the con- sequent expansion was built upon day after day ; when the spring sun thawed out the frost the masonry settled and the collapse was the result. TEARING DOWN OR RAZING A CHIMNEY. The Engineering News, May 17, 1894, gives some details in re- lation to the successful tearing down of a square brick chimney, 75 feet high, by use of four dynamite cartridges set off at once. A brick chimney at the Tees Iron Works, Middlesbrough, England, was taken down by using a tight vertical box the cross-section of which was the size of a brick, and dropping the bricks in at the top ; when a number had reached the bottom they were removed ; the air-cushion provided by the closed box prevented breakage to any considerable extent. — Engineering, London, vol. xii., p. 189. A brick chimney, 160 feet high and 8| feet square at the 152 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY base and feet diameter at the top, was overthrown lately in St. Louis by the use of hydraulic jacks. The chimney be- longed to the old Belcher Sugar Refinery, and contained about 200,000 bricks. The chimney was first undermined on one side, and three 10-ton hydraulic jacks were placed in position un- der the side. A hawser was then fastened about the chimney, 60 feet from the ground, and ropes led from this hawser to crabs placed at a distance of about 100 feet from the chimney. With eight men at each crab and men at the hydraulic jacks, the chimney was slightly lifted and pulled at the same time ; the men at the jacks left their posts at the first warning crack, but those at the crabs continued their work until the chimney fell. The top of the chimney toppled over first and the base followed. The work was performed by P. W. Hassatt, contractor. — Engineering Neirs, 1899. STE AIG HTENING A CHIMNEY. Square brick chimney, 100 feet high, leaning 28 inches, at factory of Ormsby Textile Company, Waterford, N. Y., erected in 1893, located one-third of a mile from the west bank of the Hudson River on north side of outlet of Mohawk River. The underlying rock is shale, irregularly covered by earth. Chimney is 5 feet 4 inches square at the top, and 9 feet 6 inches square at the bottom, and has a flue 3 feet square ; its foundation is 14 feet deep — 4 feet by 14 feet square being concrete, and heavy stone-work 10 feet by 14 feet square at bot- tom, tapering to 9 feet 6 inches at top. Foundation weighs 149 tons, making with chimney 355 tons on 196 square feet of earth, or about 1.8 tons per square foot. — "Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers," paper dcxi. This chimney settled in all about 0.598 of a foot. The man- ner in which it was straightened is described by Mr. J. C. Piatt in part as follows : "The work of straightening the chimney commenced on March 19, 1894. A scaffold was erected, and eight oak timbers, 6 inches by 10 inches by 10 feet, were placed at the corners at the height of 42 feet above the stonework, and 4| feet below the centre of gravity of the brickwork ; the object of the oak timbers being to spread the bearing of the wire ropes over as large a section as practicable. " Wire ropes were passed around the timbers, and another ILLUS. No. 47. Ormsby Textile Company, Waterford, N Y. CHIMNEY STRAIGHTENING 153 wire rope 2£ inches in diameter with eye in each end, was fast- ened to the first-mentioned ropes at its upper eye. " The lower eye was connected with a system of pulleys secured to the dock at the river edge at a distance of 78 feet, and directly opposite the direction in which the chimney leaned, the pulleys being made up of three sets of double and single blocks connected together in series, having three points of fastening to the dock, and having eleven pulleys in a system. " Cables were also put out from the chimney on each side at right angles to the main cable, and having turn-buckles to tighten them ; also a guard cable in the rear. "The earth was then excavated on the high side of the foundation nearly one-half way around the bottom of the foundation (to a depth of 13 feet), and the main cable put under strain with the pulleys. "In the course of three weeks the chimney was brought back about 4 inches. " Then with a post-hole digger, 8 inches in diameter, eleven holes were sunk vertically in the bottom of the trench around the foundation, principally at the highest point, to a depth of 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet. At this time the water in the river stood up to within \\ feet of the bottom of the foundation ; the ground being soft to a depth of 4 feet, it then became very hard, showing that the strata supporting the chimney had been reached. " No movement or flow of the soil was discovered until the eighth hole was sunk 4& feet and the tool withdrawn for clear- ance, when it could only be reinserted readily about 3 feet and headway made very slowly. " From this removal of the earth there resulted within a few hours a righting of the chimney of 5 inches, increasing to 8 inches by the next morning. " The slack of the pulling-rope was taken up as fast as the chimney moved, and the rope was kept under strain. "By tightening up the pulley-rope two or three times a day, in a week the chimney was brought back to 8f inches. " In similar manner, the post-hole diggers being reduced to G inches diameter, about one -fifth as much more material was 154 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY removed, immediately followed by righting the chimney to 4 inches, and from that point, after tilling the holes with fine broken stone and gravel thoroughly rammed, by continued daily strain on the main cable the chimney was brought back to plumb at the rate of a quarter of an inch per day. " The turn-buckles . in the side cables were occasionally used to control any tendency toward lateral inclination. " The work has been accomplished without injury to the structure." Chimneys have been straightened at Louisville, Ky., in a similar manner. CHIMNEYS FOR FORCED DRAFT. Chimneys for forced or induced draft should be made of sufficient diameter to carry off the products of combustion ; and the writer recommends thie top of such chimneys to be at least 15 feet above the top of the boiler-house roof or the roofs of adjoining structures. If the greatest diameter of chimney flue, corresponding to the given horse-power or boiler plant, be looked up in the authors' table No. 8 for chimney sizes, it will coincide very closely with present practice, and give abundance of room, so as not to necessitate too high a velocity for the gases. The above is applicable to either brick or steel chimneys. By the use of the fan, high and expensive chimneys are done away with, and the capacity is not as limited as the ordi- nary chimney, and while the draft of the ordinary chimney is affected by the weather and climatic conditions, forced or in- duced draft can be regulated so as to be nearly constant in its effects, and there is less waste of heat of the flue gases. The cheap grades of fuel can be used, in fact anything that will burn at all can be made use of, and money possibly saved, though the interest of the investment must be met, and the running expenses of the draft-producing appliance is never ending. Provided mechanical draft is an easily applied remedy, unless the flue in the chimney is large enough of area, the re- sults obtained will not meet one's expectations as well as a properly designed chimney ; it may be said, however, that ILLUS. No. 48. Ormsby Textile Company, Waterfort>, N. Y. CHIMNEY FLUES 155 156 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY mechanical draft is a necessity in the burning of dust and rice coal and other cheap fine fuel. FLUES. In conveying the gases from the boiler furnace to the chim- ney a flue must be used fitted with an easily swinging damper close to boiler connection, and be made as air tight as pos- sible all of the way to chimney flue. Having seen that there is less friction in a round than square chimney to the flue gases, we should make the flue round whenever possible, and it is more easily built, while the square flue needs flanged corners or special angle-iron corners. Round flues for more than one boiler are made tapering from a small size at first boiler to the largest size at chimney. The area of the flue should be at all sections as large or larg- er than the total area of tubes emptying in it at that section. When more than one flue is to connect with a chimney from opposite sides, a partition or deflector is provided so as to separate the two currents of gases, and deflect them upward. Sometimes one opening is made at least three or four times its diameter above the other flue inlet, without a separator. Overhead flue connections are of steel sheets, those under ground are sometimes of steel, but often of fire-brick laid in fire-clay and covered with red brick. Exposed flues should be protected with hair felt, asbestos board, or some other heat retainer, that all the heat from the gases may be available in the chimney proper for draft. The effect of changing the length of the flue leading into a chimney 60 feet high and 2 feet 9 inches square is as follows: TABLE No. 26. DRAFT POWER— VARYING FLUE LENGTHS. Length of fine in feet. Horse power. Length of flue in feet. Horse-power. 50 107.6 800 56.1 100 100 0 1,000 51.4 200 85.3 1.500 43.3 400 70.8 2.000 38.2 600 62.5 3.000 31.7 CHIMNEY FLUES 157 The following table may also be useful. TABLE No. 27. REDUCTION OF crflMNEY DRAFT BY LONG FLUES. Total length of flues in feet.... 50 100 200 400 600 800 1,000 2,000 Chimney draft in per cent 100 93 79 06 58 52 48 35 In the above the total length from grate to base of chim- ney must be considered. When several boilers are connected with one flue, increase size as before noticed. "''■Front of Boiler Setting _ Plan. To Chimney Side Elevation. Flue for Horizontal Return Tubular Boiler. ILLUS. No. 51. INFLUENCES OF TURNS AND ELBOWS UPON FLUIDS IN MOTION.* Let us consider first the influence of abrupt changes of di- rection and later those of continuous changes, that is to say, of curved pipes. M. d'Aubuisson has made several experiments on the influ- ence of abrupt changes of direction. In his " Traite d'Hydrau- lique," p. 513, appears the following : * Translated from M. E. Peclet's Traite de la Chaleur. by F. R. Low. 158 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY " Elbows in conduits, when they are abrupt, augment con- siderably the resistance to movement. In my numerous ex- periments on conduits with elbows, seven 45-degree turns reduce the flow one-quarter. "In these experiments I noticed that the resistance in- creases, as in water pipes, sensibly as the square of the velocity and nearly as the square of the sines of the angles. Beyond a certain number, however, the resistance even diminished ; thus fifteen angles reduced the outflow a little less than seven of the same size. This phenomenon and other circumstances have rendered futile the attempts that I have made to estab- lish, even approximately, the resistance of the elbows. In practice a bad effect may be avoided by rounding well those curves which it is necessary to make." According' to the experiments made by Dubuat' on water pipes, the resistance of an abrupt change is sensibly repre- sented by p sin? i, p being the head corresponding to the velocity of flow, and i the angle which the second pipe makes with the prolongation of the first. For gas which flows under a light pressure, and which in consequence undergoes only insensible variations of density, it was probable that the resist- ance of the elbows would follow the same law, but it was im- portant to verify this, the more so that in the experiments of Dubuat' the angles i were always between 36° and 56°. As to the singular result found by d'Aubuisson, that from a cer- tain limit the flow increased with the number of angles, it can be explained only by admitting that the joints were not en- tirely tight. INFLUENCES OF TURNS AND ELBOWS 159 It results from numerous experiments which I have made on abrupt changes of direction that when the angle i, Fig. 1, of the second pipe with the prolongation of the first is be- tween 20° and 90°, the loss of head is given by the formula : P x — p l ~ p sin 2 i as for pipes carrying water. P, is the head before the elbow, p 1 is the head after the elbow, p the head corresponding to the velocity. For angles between zero and 20 degrees, it will be neces- sary to consider the elbow as a curved pipe and employ the formula which will be given later. If the angle was a right angle, Fig. 2, the loss of head would be p, and for n changes at a right angle it would be np. c 4 / c / c 9 v 1 I / / / ki / L 1/ M Fig. 4. For an angle greater than a right angle, as in Fig. 3, the loss of head is uncertain. From some experiments it appears that for the angles made by the second pipe with the prolongation of the first comprised between 110 and 160 degrees, the loss of head would vary from 2p to 2.28p ; but these experiments were not sufficiently regular and consistent to justify a great deal of confidence in them. This case, however, rarely presents itself in practice. The total resistance of the abrupt changes in a circuit be- ing equal to the sum of the resistance of each one of them, if it is imagined that the right angle formed by the two pipes AB and BC, Fig. 4, were replaced by three, four, or five pipes, 160 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY disposed symmetrically, the angles i being equal, their sum would be equal to 90 degrees, and designating by n the num- ber of angles i, the total resistance would be n sin i ! — I. If n be supposed successively equal to 1 2 3 4 the value of i will be 90' 45° 30° 22° 30 of which the sines are 1 0.707 0.50 0.382 and the losses of head become 1 1 0.75 0.58 Thus a single pipe cutting a right angle does not diminish the resistance appreciably, and three intermediate pipes do not reduce it quite to one-half. CUKVED PIPES. The earliest experiment on the flow of fluids in curved pipes was made by Bossut. A pipe of 16.24 metres in length and 27 millimetres in diameter discharged under a head of .325 metre a volume of .0028 cubic metre of water in a minute when it was in a straight line, and .02048 when it was turned upon itself so as to form six well-rounded elbows. It seemed, ac- cording to this experiment, that well-rounded elbows had not much influence on the flow, but as the pipe was quite long, the loss of head was in part confused with that which came from friction. Dubuat made a considerable number of experiments to de- termine the resistance of curved elbows in water-pipes, and this engineer has been led to a singular explanation of the resistance in question. He maintains that when the water issues from a rectilinear canal, AB, Fig. 5, and penetrates into a curved canal, BCD, the elementary veins do not follow the curvature of the pipe, but are reflected on its surface, and that the loss of head produced by the curved pipe is due to these reflections of the lines of water. According to his ex- periments the loss of head would be expressed by 0.0123 v* {,r + s' 2 4- s m . .) ; or ^0.24(. = 20° 40° 60° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° 140° G =0.046 0.139 0.364 0.74 0.9S4 1.26 1.556 1.861 2.158 2.434 hence at a 90-degree elbow the whole head due to the velocity is very nearly lost. Bends. — For curved bends, O cross-section, /t h = G b — , &9 G b = 0.131 + 1 where d — diameter of pipe, r = radius of curvature of bend. For Q cross-sections G h = 0.124 + 3.104 ( where s is the length of side of section parallel to the radius of curvature, r. i= 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2r O section. (76= 0.131 .138 .158 .206 .294 .440 .661 .977 1.408 1.978 ~ = 0 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 .07 0.8 0.9 1.0 2r □ section. Q b = 0.124 .135 .180 .250 .398 .643 1.015 1.546 3.228 4 CHAPTEE IX HOUSE CHIMNEYS HOUSE-HEATING Schuman * gives these formulae for house-heating calcula- tions. Let A = sectional area of flue in square feet. Y = volume of smoke delivered in cubic feet per sec- ond ; usually 600 is allowed for V. K= pounds of coal consumed per hour. H= height of chimney in feet. v = velocity of smoke in feet per second. t = external temperature, average 50°. t t = internal temperature, average 550°. (58) v =0.08 tf{t, - t)H, (59) A = - 12 5 Z =, (60) V= Av = AOmVit, - t)II, allowing 600 for V, we have K (62) A = 0.128 (63) 77= 0.01638(^1 The following table is adapted from the Blackmore Heating and Ventilation Company for hot-air furnaces. * Manual of Heating nnd Ventilation, p. 69. 163 164 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY TABLE No. 28. SIZE OP CHIMNEY FLUE. Diameter of grate. Inches. Area of grate. Squsiie inches. FLUE. INCHES. Round. Rectangular. 16 201 9 8x8 18 254 9 8x8 20 314 11 8 x 12 22 380 11 8 x 12 24 452 14 12 x 12 26 530 14 12 x 12 28 615 16 12 x 16 30 706 16 12 x 16 32 804 16 12 x 16 H. J. Barron, New York City, gives the following : Chimney for a small dwelling 8x 8 inch, rectangular flu.' Chimney for a large dwelling 8 x 12 inch, rectangular fluo Chimney for a five-story flat, 25 x 80 feet 12 x 12 inch, rectangular flue. Chimney for a six-story flat, 36 x 80 feet 16 x 16 inch, rectangular flue. Chimney for a church, 400,000 cubic feet 20 x 20 inch, rectangular flue. Chimney for a school, 100 x 100 feet 20 x 20 inch, rectangular flue. Chimney for an office building, 100 x 100 feet. 30 x 30 inch, rectangular flue. The Herendeen Manufacturing Company, Geneva, N. Y., give : For grates 16 inch diameter to 22 inch diameter a flue 8x8 inches. For grates 24 inch diameter to 26 x 34 inch rectangular a flue 8 x 12 inches. For grates 28 x 36 to 36 x 42 inches rectangular a flue 12 x 12 inches. For grates 36 x 56 inches rectangular a flue 12 x 16 inches. For grates 44 x 56^ to 44 x 70J inches rectangular a flue 20 x 20 inches. For chimneys in residences or other buildings where stoves or hot-air heaters are used, or where a low rate of combustion is desired, the writer proposes this formula, which is a very satisfactory one. (64) K=2AV7T, where K = grate area in square feet, A — flue area in square feet, H — height of chimney or flue in feet. Giving .ST the value 49, which is somewhere near the height of house chimneys, the following table has been calculated : HOUSE CHIMNEYS 165 TABLE No. 29. GRATE. CHIMNEY. Diameter, feet. Area K, square feet. Area A, square feet. Diameter, inches. 1.6 2.0 0.571 10.3 1.80 2.5 0.714 11.4 1 .95 3.0 0.858 12.6 2.10 3.5 1 000 13.5 2.25 4.0 1.142 14.5 2.4 4.5 1.285 15.5 2.52 5.0 1.429 16.2 2.64 5.5 1.571 17.0 2.76 6.0 1.714 17.8 2.98 7.0 2.000 19.2 3.19 8.0 2.285 20.5 3.38 9.0 2.571 21.7 3 56 10.0 2.858 22.9 3.74 11.0 3.142 24 0 3.90 12.0 3.429 25 1 The J. L. Mott Iron Works, from data gained during- a long experience and close study of the subject, recommend the following table and its accompanying chimney proportions as absolutely safe. TABLE No. 30. Size of house in cubic feet. 12,000 15.000 18,000 24,000 30.000 36,000 42,000 60.000 80,000 100.000 150.000 200.000 300.000 400.000 500,000 700,000 RADIATING SURFACE. Square feet of direct hot water. 350 to 450 to 550 to 850 to 1,000 to 1,200 to 1,600 to 2.000 to 2.500 to 3,000 to 3.500 to 4,000 to 5.000 to 8,000 to 10.000 to 13,000 to 450 550 650 1,000 1 ,200 1.600 2,000 3 000 4,000 4.500 5,000 6,000 8,000 12.000 14,000 18,000 Square feet of steam. 250 to 300 to 350 to 500 to 600 to 700 to 900 to 1.200 to 1,500 to 1,800 to 2,000 to 3.000 to 4 000 to 5,000 to 6,000 to 7,500 to 300 350 450 600 700 900 1 ,200 1,600 2,000 2,300 2,600 4,000 5.000 6.500 8,000 9,500 Size of chimney. Inside measure. Inches. 8x8 8 x 12 8 x 12 8 x 12 12 x 12 12 x 12 12 x 12 12 x 16 12 x 16 16 x 16 16 x 16 16 16 20 20 24 20 20 20 24 24 166 CIUMXEY DESIGN AND THEORY No illustrations of house chimneys are given in this work, for the reason that, having determined the flue proportions by engineering methods, all that remains is to provide a neat exterior, which is purely architectural in its demands ; but the designer should bear in mind two things : first, to be plain in the treatment of the chimney top ; second, build it high enough above roofs and surrounding- objects, that there will be no down drafts or wind eddies to contend with. As in mill construction so in house construction there is no detail which plays so important a part in the comfort of the occupant as the chimney which gives the draft to the heating apparatus. It is an appurtenance which receives but little consideration in many cases, the architect or engineer being very liable to copy some one else's proportions in preference to working out the problem again, having determined the general flue dimen- sions by the general rules. House chimneys should be made as straight as possible, and if slight bends occur they should be of the same cross-sectional area as the straight part, and be made round in shape, as this shape gives much less frictional resistance than a square flue. An inside flue is much better from any engineering standpoint than one outside of the building exposed to the weather. Ample area is especially desirable in a house chimney, that the flue may take care of the smoke of the oft kindled fire, and area must be sufficient to counteract minimum draft. House chimneys are usually built of brick, 4 inches thick around the flue for small chimneys, and 8 to 12 inches for very large chimneys. For house-heating a flue 8 x 12 or 8 x 8 is the smallest that should be built, not because that area is necessary, but to overcome roughness of construction and of cleaning. For large houses use not less than 12 x 16, and for steam plants use the writer's formulas and tables for anthracite coal, and elsewhere in this volume. All other conditions being equal, the coal capacity of a chimney varies as the square root of the height, the difference of temperature * within and without the flue, and the flue area. * Absolute temperature. HOUSE CHIMNEYS 167 The straighter and more true the flue the more powerful the draft will be, but there are cases where even the best con- structed and designed chimneys may and do smoke. Fred. Hodgson says: "Some causes of chimneys smoking are well known and avoidable, the trouble arising perhaps from positive ill construction, having a narrow part and angle bend, or a downward portion in their conduit, which their normal draft is not sufficient to overcome. " Others smoke because they form the shortest channel by which the air can enter the house to supply the draft to a higher chimney. " When there are two chimneys in one room, or in rooms adjacent to each other, and the doors and windows are closed in all other rooms, the shorter will have its draft inwardly to supply the other with a current." Sometimes the best constructed and most carefully de- signed chimney, with regard to the building in which it is situated, will smoke in consequence of its exit being in the immediate neighborhood of walls, hills, or trees whose situ- ation is such as to create at times strong eddies and cross- currents. In most cases, however, the addition of a few feet or so to the height of a chimney-shaft, supposing it to be already above the ridge of the house which it ventilates, will prove more useful than any addition of those curiously contorted and usually non-pneumatic contrivances that are so often planted on the top of a smoking chimney to cure it of its "cussedness." Apart from the questions of normal draft and of internal regularity of construction, is the effect of wind on draft of chimneys. This varies very much with the locality of the house. The action of the wind, although, of course, always determined by physical laws, is so subtle and so delicately affected by slight causes, that there are many cases in which it is impossible to foretell it. What is more common than to have a chimney that has been built according to the rules relating to chimneys, and which answers its purpose perfectly well, except when the wind is in one particular point of the compass. 163 CHIMNEY DESIGN" AND THEORY And why does it smoke ? To be able to reply to this question is to be able to cure the defect ; but how often is the difficulty regarded as insuper- able? The celebrated philosopher Count Bumford paid great at- tention to the subject of smoky chimneys. He says : " Those who will take the trouble to consider the motion and properties of elastic fluids, of air, smoke, and vapor, and to examine the laws of their motions, and the necessary consequences of their being rarefied by heat, will perceive that it would be as much a miracle if smoke should not rise in a chimney — all hinderances to its ascent being removed — as that water should refuse to run in a siphon or to descend in a river. " The whole mystery, therefore, of curing smoky chimneys is comprised in this simple direction : find out and remove those local hinderances which forcibly prevent the smoke from following its natural tendency to go up the chimney, or rather, to speak more accurately, which prevent it being forced up by the pressure of the heavier air in the room." It is on record that Count Rumford prescribed for and cured more than 500 chimneys that had been given up as in- curable, and his services were in constant demand whenever he was disposed to render them. In Southern Italy, the land of " Master Builders," all chim- neys are built over with some sort of a roof, either arched or run up to an acute angle, and so no architect ever thinks for a moment of leaving a vertical flue open at the top to receive the tremendous downpour of rain, which occasionally occurs in that sunny land. The covering of the chimney, whatever it may be, has a number of apertures in its sides for the escape of smoke, and these openings are so constructed that when the wind strikes against them it receives an upward tendency, as the bottom or lower portions of the aperture slant upward in the same manner as a louvre board. By this method of construction two objects are attained, the slant carries the wind upward and thereby increases the draft by suction, and it prevents the water from finding its way down the flue. HOUSE CHIMNEYS 169 A number of mill and house chimneys have their draft im- proved, and that to a considerable degree, by placing- a blue- stone slab or iron-plate cover above the top with abundant side openings. Another common cause for smoky chimneys that defies remedy, is the rubber weather-strips on doors, and other draft preventives, which keep all air from entering a room. Such inlets must be allowed to exist, or special air inlets provided if we wish our chimneys to draw; again, high trees break up the wind currents as they come near a chimney and thus interfere with the draft. BUILDING A CHIMNEY. Brick chimneys seldom receive the care in construction that so important a structure should have. The best and hardest bricks are usually put in the outer walls of a house, and the soft bricks, or " bats," relegated to the chimney. This is folly, as will be appreciated by any one with a knowledge of the subject. Good brick may be used at the top, but it is not there that there is danger of the fire eating through, but within the build- ing where the soft brick have been used. Tile flue-lining is rapidly coming into use and rightfully, as it makes a decidedly more efficient chimney — being as near as can be perfectly tight, and it does not absorb as much heat as a brick lining. In topping out a house chimney there is a great difference of opinion as to what is the best mortar ; one says one part of lime, and four parts cement, with sand enough to work ; an- other says use only Portland cement throughout the whole chimney. Chimneys of " ye olden times " were laid up in sim- ple lime mortar, and when torn down were found to be very solidly adhering masses ; but the fuel used was mostly wood, and while we criticise the mason of to-day for poor lime mor- tar, we must bear in mind that gases generated by the combus- tion of coal are the principal destructors of chimneys, decom- posing and destroying the life of the mortar which is employed, 170 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY and causing soft brick to chip and flake, while the gases from burning wood have scarcely any effect on a well-built chimney. Use only the best hard brick throughout the chimney en- tirely; and cement mortar, and be particular to fill the joints full. The writer has a decided preference for a severely plain ' Heaven has more thunders ounces. Nearly 9 inches high, 5% to alarm than thunderbolts to pun- mches square at b se. Height . , , , . . from ground, 555 feet (169 me- ish, has just SO much more point to ^Struck April 5, 1885, without it; > as is nearer the truth. One who damage, struck June 5, 1 885- lives to see the Uqhtninq flash need not Crack on north tace just under u i too stone, extending through the concern himself much about the pos- block in a line nearlv parallel -i :vi. <• i • • j? j_i j to northeast corner. " sibility of personal injury from that flash. " On June 5, 1885, the Washington Monument, at Wash ington, D. C, at that time the highest edifice in the world, was struck by lightning, resulting in no damage. On June 5, 1885, it was again struck, leaving a crack ; a commission appointed to investigate and recommend additional protec- tion did so with the following results and procedure : Four I -inch copper rods were fastened by a band to the alu- minium terminal and led down the corners to the base LIGHTNING PROTECTION 177 of the pyramidion, and then through the masonry to the columns. " As these exterior rods are each over 60 feet long 1 , they are also connected at two intermediate points of their lengths with the iron columns by means of copper rods \ and f inch in diameter, respectively, furnishing 16 rods in all, connecting the exterior system of conductors with the interior conduct- ing columns. Where the exterior rods upon the corners cross the 11 highest horizontal joints of the masonry of the pyra- midion they are connected to each other all around by other copper rods sunk into those joints. All of these exterior rods, couplings, and fittings are gold plated, and are studded at every 5 feet of their lengths with copper points 3 inches in length, gold plated and tipped with platinum. There are 200 of these points in all." Eight years have now passed since the alterations were made and the monument stands uninjured. Unquestionably, standing as it does, 555 feet high, in the centre of flat, well- watered ground, it constitutes a most dangerous exposure for lightning flashes. No better illustration of the value of light- ning conductors can be asked. The octagonal brick chimney of the Heywood Brothers & Wakefield Rattan Company, Wakefield, Mass., was struck by lightning March 5, 1899, the entire exterior shell being knocked away, except the cap which hung from the inner shell. The chimney was 152 feet high, and inside a 16-foot circle at its base. See illustration in Power of May, 1899. CHAPTER XI GENERAL INFORMATION AIR. The air is composed of nitrogen, 78.5 parts ; oxygen, 20.6 ; aqueous vapor, .86, and carbonic acid, 0.4 part. Air contains about 4 grains of moisture per cubic foot. Air is increased in volume by elevation of temperature. An increased volume of a constant weight of air, of which the initial volume = 1 at 32° Fahr., heated to a given temperature under atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch, may be found by this rule : . _ T , . . Given temperature 4- 461 (65) Increased volume of air = 32 + 461 ' If the temperature be taken at 62° Fahr., as in table on page 14, instead of 32°, the divisor is 62 + 461 = 523. The weight of atmospheric air is .08072 pound at 32° Fahr. ; under the pressure of one atmosphere at 62° Fahr., the weight is .076098. Absolute zero being 461.2° below Fahr. zero. Absolute temperature = 461.2 + degrees F. In the above matter the decimal has been dropped. 178 GENERAL INFORMATION 179 SMOKE PKEVENTION. Colonel Dullier, of the Belgian Engineers, has designed an apparatus or device for the absorption of smoke which has been installed at the boiler-house of the South Kensington Museum, London, also at Glasgow, Scotland. Tests of the latter showed in one case a reduction of the soot in the gases from 73£ grains per 100 cubic feet before treatment to 2 grains after treatment ; and in a second case, from 23.3 to 1.5 grains.* The products of combustion before entering the chimney are taken up one leg of an inverted U-shaped flue, made of galvanized iron, being assisted in their upward course by a steam-jet. The jet assists in the condensation of the tarry products, and saturates the dust with water vapor. In descending the second leg of the flue the products of combustion are brought in contact with a large number of upward inclined water sprays, which are intended to thoroughly wash the smoke, moistening all particles of dust. The smoke and water next pass through a chamber contain- ing a helical passage in which they are made to still further commingle, and after all this the gases are allowed to pass into the chimney proper, while the sulphurous wash-water is drained off. The draft in the flue and chimney, measured with a water- gauge, is said to have shown no diminution after the erection of the apparatus.f MISCELLANEOUS. The first mention made of the use of coal as a fuel is in the records of the Abbey of Peterborough, in the year 850 a.d., where is found an entry for twelve cart-loads of " fossil fuel." To fix bolts in stone-work, Dingler's Polytechnic Journal recommends a mixture of 3 parts of sulphur with 1 part Port- land cement as superior to either individual constituent. If cast-iron or bluestone is used for a chimney cap, iron clamps should not be used, according to J. L. Fitzgerald, as they will oxidize and burst the material. * '•CaRKieiR," December, 1897, p. 1S2. t Engineering Record, xxix., p. 385. 180 CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY BUILDING LAWS OF BOSTON, MASS. Acts of 1892. That Portion delating to Ch imneys. Section 68. No chimney shall be corbelled from a wall more than the thickness of the wall, nor be hung from a wall less than twelve inches thick, nor rest upon wood. All chimneys shall be built of brick, stone, or other incom- bustible materials. Brick chimneys shall have walls at least eight inches thick, unless terra-cotta Hue linings are used, in which case four inches of brickwork may be omitted. Other chimneys shall have walls eight inches thick, and in addition a lining of four inches of brickwork or a terra-cotta flue-lining. The inside of all chimneys shall have struck joints. No wood furring shall be used against or around any chimneys, but the plastering shall be direct on the masonry or on metal lathing. All chimneys shall be topped out at least four feet above the highest point of contact with the roof. No nail shall be driven into the masonry of any chimney. Section 69. Flues of ranges, boilers, and other similar flues, shall have the outside exposed to the height of the ceiling, or be plastered direct upon the bricks. Section 70. All hearths shall be supported by trimmer arches of brick or stone ; or be of single stones at least six inches thick, built into the chimney and supported by iron beams, one end of which shall be securely built into the ma- sonry of a chimney or adjoining wall, or which shall otherwise rest upon incombustible supports. The brick jambs of every fireplace, range, or grate opening- shall be at least eight inches wide each, and the back of each shall be at least eight inches thick. All hearths and trimmer arches shall be at least 12 inches longer on either side than the width of such openings, and at least 18 inches wide in front of the chimney breast. Brick over fireplaces and grate openings shall be sup- ported by proper iron bars, or brick or stone arches. Section 71. Every chimney in which soft coal or wood is GENERAL INFORMATION 181 burned, shall be carried to a height sufficient to protect neighboring buildings from fire or smoke. Section 72. No smoke-pipe shall project through any ex- ternal wall or window. No smoke-pipe shall pass through any wooden partition, without a soapstone ring of the thickness of the partition, with a ventilated air-space of not less than 4 inches around the pipe, nor shall be placed within 8 inches of any wood unless such wood is plastered and protected by a metal shield 2 inches distant from the wood, in which case the smoke-pipe shall not be less than 6 inches from the wood, etc. TABLE No. 31. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP MATERIALS OP MASONRY, ETC. All stresses given in pounds per square inch. Brick, flatwise paving Paving brick, Philadelphia specifications : Red shale Max. Min. Yellow fire-clay . Hard building. . Soft building.. . I Max *| Min. Concretes, 1 month old, of following compositions : Cement mortar, 1 of natural cement, 2 of sand. . . Natural cement mortar and furnace slag Natural cement mortar and sandstone Natural cement mortar and limestone ... Natural cement mortar and granite Natural cement mortar and trap Cement mortar, 1 of Portland cement, '■I of sand . Portland cement mortar and furnace slag Portland cement mortar and sandstone Portland cement mortar and limestone Portland cement mortar and granite Portland cement mortar and trap Granite Slate . Trap . I Max, 1 Min.. J Max . / Min., ( Max , I Min. J Max ( Min. Ultimate crushing strength. 20.800 4,880 9.(190 18,000 8,1100 10,(00 18.400 3,1-00 Transvrse strength. 3,100 1,350 5,000 (1,000 5.800 6.200 1,250 300 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 2."0 to 500 250 to f.OO 250 to 500 250 to 500 250 to 500 24.450 12,000 22.300 7.000 20,000 4,650 18,750 4.100 Modulus , Wei e ht of Pf r elasticity. I «J» 4,000.000 ) .... 2,000,000 ( 1M 4.000.000 2,(00,000 22.000 2,700 900 2.500 150 2,850 150 2.350 350 13,000,000 1,620.000 8,000,000 335,000 13,550,(100 2,500,000 2.815,0(10 270,' 00 7,000,0(11 125 100 109 120 136 142 142 147 134 V.7 53 369 169 161 rl64 I 158 ■139 174 170 * Concretes after six months will be about four times, and at the end of one ye;,r will be about six to seven times as strong as at the end of the first month. — Pencoyd Iron Works, 1898. INDEX PAGE Accidents, chimney 151 Adams, chimney formulae 17 18 Air 178 " density and weight per cubic foot 12 " space in grates 29 " volume, density, and pressure 13 Akron, Ohio, Street Eailway & Ilium. Co Brick Chimney 137 Aluminum tip of "Washington Monument 176 Amoskeag Mills, Manchester, N. H Brick Chimney. ..101, 136 Anchorage Steel Chimneys 60 Anheuser-Busch Brewing Company Illus. No. 6, opposite 69 Area of protection from lightning 174 Arnold Print Works, North Adams, Mass Steel Chimneys 81 Aspinook Company, Jewett City, Conn Steel Chimney 81 Astoria, L. I., Steinway Electric Company 118 Illus. No. 31, opposite 118 Baltimore, Md., City and Suburban Ry. Co . . .Steel Chimney 79 Barbour Flax Spinning Co., Paterson, N. J Brick Chimney, Illus. No. 35, opposite 126 Base-plates Steel Chimneys 47 Bearing power of soils 33 Belleville, N. J Brick Chimney, Illus. No. 40, opposite 135 Bolt circle, steel chimneys 63 Bonding Brick Chimneys .... 93 Boston, Mass., East Boston Electric Railway Power Station, Steel Chimney 80 " building laws of, regarding chimneys 180 Bradford, England, Mitchel Bros Brick Chimneys 136 " Newland Mills " " 137 Brick chimney as a tank tower Illus. No. 43, opposite 145, 147 " chimneys, bonding 93 182 INDEX 183 PAGE Brick chimneys, general notes 85, 92 list of 134 " " material 33 material for 2,000 H. P 122 " " mortar 93 « " progress 92 " " rules for, Bassine 86 « " rules for proportions of 85 « « stability of 87 « " " Kankine 87 « « three Illus. No. 2, opposite p. 31, and Illus. No. 23, opposite 98 " " weather 92 « lining Steel Chimneys. . .39, 40 Brickwork, fire and red 37 " expansion of, in chimney 38 Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Brick Chimney 137 Bristol, Conn., New Sessions Foundry " 135 Bronx Company Steel " 79 Brooklyn, N. Y., Manhattan Street By. Co " " 79 «' " Bidgewood Pumping Station .. . " 79 «i a << " " Illus. No. 4, opposite 64 Brook's Fire Clay Works, Huddersfield, Eng .... Brick Chimney 136 Building a chimney ... * I 69 " laws of Boston, Mass., regarding chimneys 180 Burden Iron Company, Troy, N. Y Steel Chimney. ... 79 Cambria Iron Co., Johnstown, Pa 120 Illus. No. 33, 121 Carnegie Gas Company's Bagdad plant Illus. No. 44, opposite 145 Cast-iron office-building chimneys 142 Cheney Bros.' Silk Mills, South Manchester, Conn Illus. No. 30, 115 Chestnut Hill Pumping Station Brick Chimney .... 127 Chicago, 111., City Bailway Company " " 137 " " Elevated Bailroad Company Steel " 83 " " Garfield Park Electric Light and Power Company, Steel Chimney 75 " '* Gottfried Brewing Company " " 82 " " United Glass Company " " 81 " " Refining Company's chimney 41 Chimney accidents 151 building a I 69 " chemical works 144 184 INDEX PAGE Chimney draft 6 " " Peclet's and Rankine's hypotheses 6 " DeVolsonWood 6 " for houses, design of 163, 164, 165 " formulas, Adams 17,18 " " Christie 22 Clark 17, 19 Gale 16 " " Jones & Laughlin 18 Kent 18 " " Moles worth 18 " Nystrom 18 " Thurston 19 " for forced draft 154 " " office buildings 141, 142 ' ' in multiple 150 Illus. No. 44, opposite 145 " performances 138 " special use for 147 " struck by lightning Illus. No. 52, opposite 171 table 17 " grate area 23, 24, 27 " " horse-power 24,25 " " pounds of coar burned per hour 25, 27 " " water-heating surface in boilers 26 " top design 150 Christie chimney formulas 22 City and Suburban Railway Company, Baltimore, Md., Steel Chimney 79 Clark's Thread Works, Kearny, N. J ....Brick " .... Ill Clark, D. K., rule for strength of hollow tubes 52 Clarke, E., " " " " " 52 Clarke chimney formulae 17, 19 Cleveland, Ohio, Electric Illuminating Co Steel Chimney 79 " Rolling Mill " ** 80, 83 Coal per hour 25, 27 Combustion diagram Plate I., opposite 20 " rate of 20 Comparative cost 148 Compression of stones, tests at Watertown Arsenal 43 Concrete 35 " and steel dust flue Illus. No. 45, opposite 145 " " " " Illus. No. 46, 146 INDEX 185 PAGE Concrete factory chimney 143 Consolidated Gas Co. of N. J., Long Branch. . . .Steel Chimney 81 Constable Hook, N. J., Pacific Coast Borax Co Illus. No. 41, 143 Copper conductor for lightning 173 Cost, comparative 148 Creusot, France, wrought-iron chimney 80 " " steel chimney, Schneider's 82 Crossley's, Halifax, England Brick Chimney 119- Cylindrical beams, moments of resistance of thin hollow 51 Darwin & Mostyn Iron Chimney 81 Denver, Col., Omaha & Grant S. & R. Works 114 Illus. No. 29, opposite 114 Design of chimneys for houses 163 Dobson & Barlow, Bolton, England Illus. No. 16, opposite 88, 136 Draft 6 " power — varying flue-lengths 156 *' " reduction of, by long flues 157 " powers of chimneys 14 Dublin, Ireland, United Tramways Company. . .Steel Chimney 83 Duluth, Minn., Hartman General Electric Co ... " " 80 Dundee Chemical Works, Passaic, N. J Brick " 135 East Boston, Mass., Electric By. Power Station . . Steel Chimney .... 80 " River Gas Co. , Long Island City, N. Y " " .... 81 Edinburgh, Scotland, Gas Light Company Brick " 136 Edison Electric Illuminating Co., Paterson, N. J 99, 100 Illus. No. 24, 99 Illus. No. 25, opposite 100, 136. Edison Electric Light & Power Co., San Francisco, Cal 116 " Lighting Station, New York City Steel Chimney 83- Elevated Railroad Company, Chicago, 111 " " 83- Erection of lightning rods 173 Etna Iron Works, Ironton, Ohio Steel Chimney .... 80* Expansion of stones, tests, Watertown Arsenal 42 Fairbairn's experiments 52: Fall River Iron Company Brick Chimney 135- Flues 156 " draft-power of varying lengths 156 " for horizontal boilers Illus. No. 51, 157 " " " « Illus. No. 50, opposite 156 " "vertical " .Illus. No. 49, 155 186 INDEX PAGE Flues, sizes of, for house-heating 164, 165 Force or intensity of draft 11 Foundations, brick chimney 40 " Chicago Refining Company chimney 41 " Maryland Steel Company chimney 41 " McCormick Reaper Works " 44 " of self-supporting steel chimney, stability of 58 Frankfort -on -Main, Germany, Municipal Lighting Plant, Brick Chimney 136 Freiburg, Saxony " " 97 Illus. No. 21, 97 Friction in tubes, Clemens Herschel 55 Gale chimney formulae 16 table 17 ■Garfield Park Electric Light and Power Company, Chicago, 111., Illus. No. 10, 75 Oases, density or weight of 12 " velocity of 30 General notes, brick chimneys 92 'Glasgow, Scotland, Townsend Brick Chimneys. . . 136 ■Gottfried Brewing Company, Chicago, 111 Steel Chimney .... 82 Grate area, table 24 Grates, air-space in 29 Grosvenordale (Conn.) Company Brick Chimney ... . 137 Guggenheim Smelting Co., Perth Amboy, N. J. .Illus. No. 7, opposite 71 •Guyed steel chimney. . 65 " " chimneys, rule for guys 46 " " " weights, etc *46 " " chimney — 48 inches by 125 feet high 65 'Guys for steel chimneys 45, 46 Halifax, England, Crossley's. Brick Chimney. . . . 119 Hartford Steel Railway Co. 's steel chimney, description 53,79 Illus. No. 3, opposite 53 Hartman General Electric Co., Duluth, Minn . .Steel Chimney ... 80 Heating surface in boilers 26 Height of chimneys for various fuels 29 " water column due to unbalanced pressure in chimney. ... 13 Heights of chimney and corresiDonding heads 10 Historical notes 1 Hollow tubes, D. K. Clark's rule 52 " ;< E. Clarke's rule 52 INDEX 187 PAGE Holyoke (Mass. ) Machine Company Brick Chimney 103. Hornsley, England, refuse destructor chimney 94 Horse-power— chimney tables 24, 25 House-heating, chimneys and flues for 163 Huddersfield, Eng., Brook's Fire Clay Works . . .Brick Chimney 136 Indifference of lightning to the path of least resistance . . 174 Influences of turns and bends 157, 162; Intensity of draft, force or 11 Introductory 1 Ironton, Ohio, Etna Iron Works Steel Chimney 80 Ivorydale, Ohio, details of brick chimney Illus. No. 32, 119 Jersey City, N. J., Penn. Bailroad Co Steel Chimney 79> Jewett City, Conn., Aspinook Company " ... 81 Johnstown, Pa., Cambria Iron Company 120, Illus. No. 33, 121 Kansas City, Mo., Metropolitan Street Ry. Co. . .Steel Chimney 8& Kearny, N. J., Clark's Thread Works Ill Kent, chimney formulae 18- Kineshmia, Russia Steel Chimney 82 Knoxville, Tenn Brick " .... 134 Lawrence, Mass., Lower Pacific Mills Brick Chimney. . . . 136 " Pacific Mills " " .... 104 " Washington Mills " " .... 136 Lightning, chimney struck by Illus. No. 52, opposite 171 " protection of Narragansett Electric Light Co.'s chimney. . 171 " rods, erection of 173 Lining 39^ Long Branch, N. J., Consolidated Gas Co Steel Chimneys. ... 81 " Island City, N. Y., East River Gas Co " " .... 81 Loose soil, chimney on 149 Lowell, Mass., Merrimack Mfg. Co Brick Chimney .. 101, 135 " Tremont and Suffolk Mills " " 136 Lower Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass " " .... 136> McCormick's Reaper Works .Brick Chimney. . .44, 137" Manchester, N. H., Amoskeag Mfg. Co " " . .101, 136'. " pumping station " " Illus. No. 18, opposite 92* Manhattan St. Ry. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y Steel Chimney 79" Maryland Steel Company's chimney foundation 41 188 INDEX PAGE Maryland Steel Company, Sparrow's Point, Md 73, 8U Illus. No. 9, 74 Masonry materials, proportions for estimating 37 Material for 2,000 H. P. brick chimney 122 Materials of masonry, physical properties of 181 Mechernich Lead Mining Company Brick Chimney ... 134 Merrimack Mfg. Co., Lowell, Mass " " ..101,135 Metropolitan St. Ey. Co., Kansas City, Mo Steel " 83 power house ch. N. Y. C. . .Brick " . .123, 124 Middlesborough, England Steel " .... 82 Midvale Steel Co., Philadelphia, Pa Illus. No. 15, opposite 87 Miscellaneous 179 Mitcbel Bros., Bradford, England Brick Chimney 136 Molesworth chimney formulae 18 Moments of resistance of thin hollow cylindrical beams 51 Monolithic factory chimney - 143 Montreal, Can., Street Bail way Company Brick Chimney. . . . 134 Mortar, brick chimneys 93 Moving brick chimneys 142 Multiple, chimneys in 150 Illus. No. 44, opposite 145 Municipal lighting plant, Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, Brick Chimney 136 Narragansett Electric Lighting Company, Providence, R. I . . 105, 106, 107 Nassau Elec. Ry. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y Illus. No. 13, opposite 87 New Chester (Pa.) Water Company Brick Chimney 137 Newland's Mills, Bradford, England " " .... 137 New York City, Edison Lighting Station Steel " .... 83 " " Met. St. By., power house Brick " ..123,124 " Third Ave. Station Steel " .... 76 North Adams, Mass., Arnold Print Works " " 81 Nystrom chimney formulae 18 Office building chimneys 141, 142 Omaha & Grant S. & R. Works, Denver, Col 114 Illus. No. 29, opposite 114 Orford Copper Company = Illus. No. 36, 128 Illus. No. 39, opposite 132 Ormsby Textile Co., Waterford, N. Y 152 Illus. No. 47, opposite 152 Illus. No. 48, opposite 154 Pacific Coast Borax Co., Constable Hook, N. J Illus. No. 41, 143 INDEX 189 PAGE Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass Brick Chimney. . . . 104 Paris Exposition chimneys Illus. No. 37, 129 Passaic, N. J., Dundee Chemical Works Brick Chimney. . . . 135 " ( " ) Print Works " " 135 Paterson, N. J., Barbour Flax Spinning Co " " Illus. No. 35, opposite 126 " " Brick Chimneys. . . 117 " Edison Brick Chimneys .. 99, 100, 136, 137 " Brick Chimney.... Illus. Nos. 24 and 25. . . .99, 100 Path of least resistance, indifference of lightning 174 Pennsylvania Railroad Co., Jersey City, N. J. . . .Steel Chimney 79 Performances, chimney 138 Perth Amboy, N. J., Gxiggenheim Smelting Co. Illus. No. 7, opposite 71 Philadelphia (Pa.) Engineering Works practice 52 " " pumping station Brick Chimney 96 Illus. No. 19, opposite 94 " " style self-sustaining steel chimneys.. Illus. No. 8, 72 " " Queen Lane Pump Station . . . Brick Chimney. . . 94, 137 Illus. No. 19, opposite 94 S. & R. Co., Pueblo, Col Illus. No. 14, opposite 87 Physical properties of materials of masonry 181 Piers 36 " tests at Watertown Arsenal 37 Piling 33 Plume & Atwood M. Co Illus. No. 17, opposite 90 Port Dundee, Glasgow, Scotland Brick Chimney .... 136 Potomac Light & Power Co., Washington, D. C. Steel " 79 Pounds of coal burned per hour — chimney table 25, 27 Prevention of smoke 179 Progress, brick chimneys 92 Providence, R. I., Narragansett Electric Lighting Co 105, 106, 107 Pumping Station, Water Works, Manchester, N. H., Illus. No. 18, opposite 92 Pyrometers 15 Queen Lane Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa 96, 137 Blus. No. 19, opposite 94 Radial brick for chimneys 132 Rate of combustion 20 " " due to height of chimneys 27, 28 Reduction of chimney draft by long flues 157 190 INDEX Refuse destructor, brick chimney, Hornsley, England 94 Removing brick chimneys 142 Ridgewood (Brooklyn, N. Y.) Pumping Station. .Steel Chimney, Illus. No. 4 and description 64, 79 Riveted joints, proportions of 56 Riveting 54 Rules for brick chimneys, Bassine 86 << " " " proportions of 85 St. Louis, Mo., Anheuser-Busch Brewing Co. .Illus. No. 6, opposite 69 " " Union Depot Railway 113 Illus. No. 28, opposite 113 San Francisco, Cal., Edison Brick Chimney 116 Savery's steam engine and boiler Illus. No. 1, 4 Schneider's, Creusot, France Steel Chimney 82 Self-sustaining steel chimney, 200 feet high, 11 feet 6 inches diam- eter flue 68 chimneys, data of 46, 54 " design of 70 " diagrams, 1-15 60-62 ladders 70 ' ' ornamental caps 70 " painting 70 " Philadelphia, Pa., style 70 strength of 52 " (Woolson) Illus. No. 11, opposite 77 Sessions Foundry, Bristol, Conn Brick Chimney .... 135 Sizes of flues for house -heating .164, 165 Smoke prevention 179 Soils, bearing power of 33 South Manchester, Conn., Cheney Bros.' Silk Mills. . .Illus. No. 30, 115 Sparrow's Point, Md., Maryland Steel Co.'s Steel Chimney 73, 80 Stability of a chimney 56 " " brick chimneys 87 " " steel chimneys 58 Steel chimneys 45 " " anchorage 60 " " base-plates 47 " " brick lining 47 " " description of a number of 79 " " Edison Lighting Station 83 " " erection 69 " wire rope, properties of 46 INDEX 191 PAGE Steinway Electric Co., Astoria, L. 1 118 Illus. No. 31, opposite 118 Stockholm, N. J., Iron Furnaces Illus. No. 42, opposite 143 Stone and brick work, sizes and safe loads 37 Straightening a chimney 150, 152 Illus. No. 47, opposite 152 Straight Line Engine Works, Syracuse, N. Y Steel Chimney .... 82 Syracuse, N. Y., Straight Line Engine Works " " .... 82 Tearing down or raising a chimney 151 Tennant & Co., Glasgow, Scotland Brick Chimney 136 Three brick chimneys Illus. No. 2, opposite 31 Illus. No. 22, opposite 98 Third Ave. Station, New York City Illus. No. 12, 76 Toledo (Ohio) Traction Co Steel Chimney 82 Top design 150 Townsend, Glasgow, Scotland Brick Chimney 136 Tremont & Suffolk Mills, Lowell, Mass " " 136 Troy, N. Y., Burden Iron Co Steel " 79 Tubes, friction in 55 Tweedvale Manufacturing Co Brick Chimney 137 Illus. No. 22, 98 Union Depot By. Co., St. Louis, Mo 113 Illus. No. 28, opposite 113 United Glass Co , Chicago, 111 Steel Chimney 81 " Tramways Co., Dublin, Ireland " " 83 Unnecessary alarm regarding lightning 176 Upward motion of stroke of lightning 174 Varying flue lengths, draft-power 156 Velocity of gases 30 Washington Mills, Lawrence, Mass Brick Chimney 136 " (D. C.) Monument, aluminum tip 176 " Potomac Light and Power Company, Steel Chimney .... 79 Waterford, N. 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