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AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 % Practical (Snibz far tfje Jteginner 
 
 BY 
 
 W.I.LINCOLN ADAMS 
 
 Editor of The Photographic Times, 
 The American Annual of Photography, 
 The Photographic Instructor, etc., etc* 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 THE BAKER & TAYLOR CO. 
 
 1893 
 
Copyright, 1893, 
 
 BY 
 
 The Baker & Taylor Co. 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK. 
 
2To jfH» jFatfjer, 
 W. IRVING ADAMS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In presenting the following chapters on Ama- 
 teur Photography in book form, the author wishes 
 to make public acknowledgment to the editors 
 of The Christian Union and Outing, by whose 
 permission they are here reprinted, with neces- 
 sary revision and additions, from the respective 
 periodicals wherein they first appeared. 
 
 The first six chapters were originally printed 
 in the Home Department of The Christian Union. 
 Of the remaining chapters that on Composite 
 Photography was written for Outing. The other 
 chapters have appeared in The Photographic 
 Times. The tables in the Appendix were col- 
 lected from various sources, several having ap- 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 peared in their present form in The American 
 Annual of Photography. 
 
 The entire matter has been carefully revised, 
 rearranged, and brought up to date. In its pres- 
 ent more convenient form it is hoped a wider 
 field for usefulness may be opened than was 
 possible for the articles as they originally ap- 
 peared. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Apparatus, n 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 In the Field, . . 18 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 In the Dark Room, 24 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Printing and Toning, 34 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Portraiture, 43 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Instantaneous Photography, . . . * „ .51 
 
 9 
 
IO 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Flash-light Photography, . . . . . .57 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Orthochromatic or Color-sensitive Photography, . 63 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Composite Photography, . ' . . . . . .70 
 
 CHAPTER X, 
 
 The ' Fathers of Photography," 78 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tables, Formulae, etc., 87 
 
AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 The first requisite for making good photo- 
 graphs is a good camera. It need not be of 
 complicated construction, highly polished, and cor- 
 respondingly highly priced. Indeed, the simpler 
 the camera the better, if it be perfectly light- 
 tight and able to do the work which is required 
 of it. So simple a contrivance as a darkened 
 room, with a small hole at one end, served for 
 a camera before photography was really discov- 
 ered, and such a camera made pictures, too, 
 though not photographs. 
 
 ii 
 
12 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Now, this dark room, or camera-obscura, greatly- 
 reduced in size, so as to be easily carried from 
 place to place, and furnished with a lens for 
 collecting the rays of light from the subject be- 
 fore it to be photographed, and thus throwing the 
 image of it on the glass plate within and at 
 the opposite end of the box, is the model of 
 our modern photographic camera, and contains 
 all that is required to make good photographs. 
 
 Any one can. make a camera if at all handy 
 with tools, though it will probably cost more in 
 the end and will not be so good or so convenient in 
 use as one which may be purchased for a few 
 dollars. 
 
 Cameras are very cheap now, good ones of fair 
 size ranging in price from two dollars and a half 
 to twenty-five dollars. Specially made and orna- 
 mental cameras of moderate dimensions some- 
 times cost as much as one hundred dollars; 
 while, on the other hand, a complete photographic 
 outfit, including a landscape lens, dry plates, de- 
 veloping and printing materials, may be bought 
 for only two dollars and a half. 
 
 The best camera for general use is one which 
 will make photographs four by five inches, or 
 
APPARA TUS. 
 
 13 
 
 five by eight inches, in size, adjusted for use on 
 a tripod, and which is of a plain pattern and 
 strong in construction. 
 
 The above is a picture of a typical camera 
 of this class, from which can easily be learned 
 the use of those necessary parts which every 
 good camera should have. 
 
 First of all, a camera should be as light and 
 compact as is consistent with a fair amount of 
 strength. It should be capable of reversing, so 
 that an upright picture may be made when the 
 character of the subject requires it. In the one 
 illustrated this is accomplished by turning the 
 
AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 camera on end and securing it to the tripod 
 by the screw, which also fits into a plate on 
 the side. The front-board which bears the lens 
 should be capable of moving upward and down- 
 ward, so that more or less of the sky or fore- 
 ground may be taken in the picture by simply 
 moving the lens upward or downward. And 
 then what is called a " swing back " is also a 
 great convenience, as it enables the photographer 
 to point his camera upward or downward in 
 order to take in a high building or the ground 
 very near his feet. 
 
 The front part of the camera which bears the 
 lens is connected with the back part which holds 
 the plate by means of an elastic bellows, so 
 that a "sharp" focus — by which is meant clear- 
 ness of the image on the ground glass — may be 
 obtained by moving the plate nearer to or far- 
 ther from the lens. Just how to focus, however, 
 we shall learn when we go into the fields with 
 our camera. 
 
 The lens is a very important instrument, as it 
 forms the image of the picture to be photo- 
 graphed on the sensitive plate. It should be 
 selected with the utmost care, and if only a mod- 
 
APPARA TUS. 
 
 erate amount of money can be spent on the out- 
 fit, we should advise economizing on the camera 
 rather than on the lens. There are many kinds 
 of lenses, and they vary in price from three dol- 
 lars and a half to fifty or even seventy-five dol- 
 
 LENS. 
 
 lars, for the size of cameras we have been con- 
 sidering. A good " single view " lens, as it is 
 called, costs only four dollars and a half, and is 
 perfectly capable of making the best landscape 
 photographs, as well as groups of one's friends, 
 
i6 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 and portraits ; but it will not make instantane- 
 ous pictures unless the light is very strong and 
 the plate used is very sensitive ; and it cannot 
 make photographs of interiors, as the picture of 
 one's room or the inside of a church. 
 
 For interior work a wide-angle lens must be 
 used ; and for instantaneous photographs one 
 which is called a " rapid rectilinear " lens, which 
 means that it is very quick-working and makes 
 an image with perfectly straight lines, as the 
 original subject appears in nature. Such lenses 
 of domestic make, which are now in every way 
 the equal of the best imported lenses, cost from 
 twenty-five to seventy-five dollars. 
 
 The other necessary piece of apparatus is the 
 tripod. It should be light but strong, and capa- 
 ble of being lengthened or shortened so as to 
 overcome unevenness of the ground, as the 
 camera must always stand perfectly level. 
 
 A tripod does not cost very much, the very 
 best being priced at three dollars and a half. 
 It is easily put together and taken apart, and 
 does not require any special description at this 
 time. 
 
 There are many other things which go to 
 
APPARATUS. 17 
 
 make up a complete photographic outfit, but 
 just now we need not regard them. We have 
 examined the essential parts of a working equip- 
 
 ment, and are prepared to go into the field and 
 make our pictures. When we are actually en- 
 gaged in the work of photographing we shall 
 learn more about the outfit and how it should be 
 used. 
 
18 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 IN THE FIELD. 
 
 Having carefully examined our apparatus, let 
 us now wander afield and try our skill at making 
 pictures. 
 
 What shall we photograph first ? Let us look 
 about us, and see what most attracts our attention. 
 There are pretty subjects on every hand, and 
 many of them will make beautiful photographs, 
 though we cannot " take " them all at this time of 
 day, with- the light falling as it does. We can 
 only photograph those subjects which lie in front 
 of us when our back is turned toward the sun. 
 That little meadow brook straying along by the 
 old tumble-down, vine-covered pasture-fence 
 yonder makes a pretty picture and one that is 
 easy to photograph. Let us set up our camera 
 and look at it through our lens. 
 
 First, we must unstrap the tripod and adjust it. 
 This is easily done by setting it up and then 
 
IN THE FIELD. 1 9 
 
 spreading the legs so that one comes exactly in 
 front of us and one on each side. Now take the 
 camera from its carrying case, and secure it firmly 
 on the tripod by means of the " set " screw, which 
 protrudes up through the tripod top and into the 
 bottom or " bed " of the camera. Then adjust 
 the lens (which comes packed reversed in the 
 camera) so that it faces outwards from the front- 
 board, right side up. Our apparatus is now ready 
 for use ; but before we can make our photograph 
 we must " focus " the image upon the ground 
 glass of the camera. 
 
 This is done by excluding all surrounding light 
 by means of a black cloth thrown over the opera- 
 tor's head, and held closely around the camera 
 and underneath it. Take the cap off from the 
 lens, and you see but a blurred image, upside 
 down, on the ground glass focusing screen in front 
 of your face. Move the glass a little nearer the 
 lens, and the image may become somewhat more 
 distinct. If it does not, you must draw the glass 
 toward yourself and away from the lens, when the 
 picture will surely grow clearer. At a certain 
 point the image will appear most clear, or 
 " sharp," as photographers say. If you go be- 
 
SO 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 yond this point the picture will grow indistinct, 
 and if you do not reach it the image will con- 
 tinue to be dim ; so that it is easy to determine 
 just where the ground glass should be secured, 
 for there the picture is clearest. This point is 
 called the " focus/' and here the frame which 
 carries the ground glass, and, later, the plate- 
 holder containing the sensitive plate, is fastened 
 by means of a little thumbscrew. Having accom- 
 plished so much, we may proceed to examine the 
 inverted picture on the ground glass as to its 
 artistic composition. 
 
 On looking at the subject we have chosen, on 
 the focusing glass, we find that we can decidedly 
 improve our picture. We should have more fore- 
 ground and not nearly so much sky, and the 
 pretty little clump of trees on the extreme right 
 of our picture should be brought into view, in 
 order to balance the old fence with its weeds and 
 vines on the left. We take in more foreground 
 and shut out more sky by lowering the front 
 board which bears our lens. The graceful elm 
 trees are brought into our picture by simply 
 turning the camera a little to the right, on the 
 tripod, without moving it in any other way. 
 
IN THE FIELD. 
 
 21 
 
 We are now ready to make the " exposure," as 
 photographers say. First we recap the lens, and 
 then in the place which the ground glass occupied 
 we fasten one of our plate-holders, which was 
 filled with two plates in the dark room (one on 
 each side), and throw our focusing cloth over the 
 camera to exclude any light which might leak in. 
 On such a bright morning as this, with the 
 medium-sized aperture in our landscape lens, and 
 a sensitive plate in our plate-holder, four seconds 
 will be ample time to sufficiently impress the 
 image of the beautiful picture before us on our 
 plate in the camera. In timing an exposure I 
 find it easier to count double the number quite 
 rapidly than to count the exact number of 
 seconds more slowly. (One can easily determine 
 just how fast one should count by timing one's self 
 with a watch.) Draw the slide from the plate- 
 holder which is nearest the lens, so that the plate 
 within has nothing between it and the subject 
 except the cap on the lens. When this is taken 
 off, the light transmits our picture through the 
 lens and on to the sensitive plate. As you re- 
 move the cap from the lens, carefully, so as not 
 to jar the camera, count "one," and place it over 
 
22 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the lens again when you say " eight." The slide 
 should now be re-inserted in the plate-holder, but 
 this time with the silicate-coated side out, so that 
 you can write on it with a slate-pencil the name 
 of your subject, the length of exposure, the time 
 of day, the date, and any other particulars con- 
 cerning the picture which you think it may be of 
 interest to preserve. 
 
 When one is not quite sure how long to expose 
 a plate on a certain subject, it is well to use a 
 second plate on the same subject, giving it a 
 different time, longer or shorter, and note in de- 
 veloping afterward which plate makes the best 
 negative. Thus one learns by experience how 
 long a time to give one's subjects under certain 
 conditions of light, and a guide is formed for 
 future trials. 
 
 But we do not need to expose a second plate 
 on this view, as it is quite certain four seconds 
 will be enough ; and if it should prove too long 
 a time, we can " restrain " the development by 
 means which we shall learn when we go into the 
 dark room. Let us continue our search for the 
 picturesque, and expose the five remaining plates 
 which we have in our holders. We must remem- 
 
IN THE FIELD. 
 
 23 
 
 ber, however, that a photograph should only be 
 made with the sun shining from behind the 
 camera or at one side. We cannot photograph 
 successfully with it shining directly into our lens ; 
 at least, in the beginning. And we should choose 
 the simplest subjects at first — landscapes and 
 other stationary objects. We shall then be the 
 better prepared to photograph more difficult 
 subjects, as they present themselves in the future. 
 
2 4 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 It now becomes our pleasant duty to "de- 
 velop," as it is termed, in a dark room the sensi- 
 tive plates which we " exposed " in our camera 
 in the fields. But before doing so we must fit 
 up a dark room and prepare the solutions. 
 
 A dark room may easily be improvised by the 
 amateur. Any room from which all rays of sun 
 or white light can be excluded will answer the 
 purpose perfectly well. The bathroom or kitchen 
 may be used in the evening, and are very con- 
 venient, too, for here we can use running water 
 and have plenty of it. It is only necessary to 
 light our ruby lantern (which came with the out- 
 fit), unpack our trays and wash them, and make 
 our solutions according to the directions which 
 are given. 
 
 Where running water cannot be had, as, for 
 instance, in a dark room fitted up in the cellar, 
 
IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 25 
 
 garret, or barn, or when we are using a spare 
 closet for a developing room, or even one's own 
 bedroom, we must add to our outfit a large pail 
 for holding fresh water, and another pail or slop- 
 jar for receiving the waste water and old solu- 
 tions. 
 
 Unless we have a dark room which is perfectly 
 light-tight, we can develop in it only after sun- 
 down, for if a single ray of white light reaches 
 our sensitive plate it will be spoiled at once. 
 Red light, however, does not affect the sensitive 
 surface of photographic plates or paper, so we 
 can develop by it with perfect safety. The pho- 
 tographer can make his own red lantern without 
 much trouble and expense, but a very convenient 
 little ruby lantern, giving a good light to work 
 by, can be had for a dollar and a quarter, and 
 even cheaper ones may be purchased for fifty 
 cents. 
 
 When one is so fortunate as to have a spe- 
 cially made dark room which is absolutely light- 
 proof, one can develop in it by day as well as 
 at evening, by simply covering one window, or 
 a small portion of the window, with a sheet of 
 ruby glass or paper. The white light which then 
 
26 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 passes through the window becomes red before it 
 enters the dark room, and so is perfectly harm- 
 less to all photographic operations. At night, of 
 course, the lantern must be resorted to, the same 
 
 THE RUBY LANTERN. 
 
 as in the case of the other dark rooms men- 
 tioned. 
 
 A complete developing outfit should contain, 
 in addition to the ruby lantern which we have 
 already spoken of, two trays of the proper size, a 
 4-ounce glass graduate and a minim graduate for 
 measuring our solutions, and a small pair of 
 scales. The chemicals required are : a package of 
 dry plates (which, of course, were purchased with 
 
IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 27 
 
 the camera), a pound of hyposulphite of soda, a 
 pound of alum, an ounce of bromide of am- 
 monium, and a package of developer containing 
 two solutions. A bottle of negative varnish is 
 sometimes included, though for most amateurs' 
 purposes it is not necessary to varnish a negative. 
 
 Having found and fitted up the dark room 
 with the utensils and chemicals enumerated, we 
 are ready to develop our first plate. 
 
 There are many developers in the market 
 already prepared for the amateur's use, and it is 
 fully as well, at least in the beginning, and more 
 economical to use one of these ready-prepared 
 developers instead of making your own. First, 
 at least, learn the use of the reliable one, con- 
 sisting of pyrogallol, carbonate of potash, sul- 
 phite of soda, and other substances. In case any 
 one should want to make it for himself, we 
 give the exact formula. It is composed as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 A. 
 
 Pyrogallol , 
 
 Sulphite of soda (crystals) 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 Water 
 
 10 ounces 
 
 4 ounces 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 4 ounces 
 
28 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY* 
 
 B. 
 
 Carbonate of potash 
 
 Carbonate of soda (granulated) 
 Water * 
 
 10 ounces 
 
 3 ounces 
 i drachm 
 
 The developing solution is formed by taking I 
 dram each of the above solutions, A and B, to I 
 ounce of water. It will be found more con- 
 venient and more economical to buy the de- 
 veloper already prepared, as has been said. It 
 comes in two solutions, and the developing bath 
 itself is composed as was just stated. Let us 
 proceed to try it on the first plate which we ex- 
 posed. 
 
 We take up one holder containing the two 
 plates, and, observing which side contained the 
 first exposure by the notes on the silicate slide, 
 we carefully remove it from the holder, and 
 place it in a tray filled w T ith pure water. Here 
 we allow it to soak for a few moments, and then 
 immerse it in the developing solution which we 
 have just made, and which is contained in the 
 other tray. In handling the plate, be careful not 
 to touch the sensitive side, which can easily be 
 determined by its appearance, even in the dim 
 
IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 29 
 
 ruby light, for the back of the plate is plain 
 glass and glistens, while the sensitive side has a 
 dull appearance. It should be held by its edges, 
 as shown in the accompanying sketch. 
 
 HOLDING THE PLATE. 
 
 The image should not be long in making its 
 appearance. At first a dark streak will be ob- 
 served in about the middle of the plate, and 
 soon all the upper (or lower) half of the negative 
 will gradually darken. This is the sky, which, 
 being most bright in nature, affected most 
 strongly the sensitive plate, and is therefore 
 first to make its appearance. Soon, however, 
 the details of our picture, even in the shadows, 
 will begin to appear, and we observe with breath- 
 less interest the beautiful landscape grow into 
 being as we observed it first upon the ground 
 
30 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 glass of our camera. We must wait patiently, 
 however, gently rocking the tray which contains 
 the developer all the time, until the image is 
 fully out, and the milky-white appearance of the 
 plate is changed to a dark gray color. When 
 the plate is fully developed we must remove it 
 from the developing solution and wash it in two 
 or three changes of water. It is now ready for 
 the "fixing bath." But before describing that 
 process, it may be well to consider for a moment 
 how we should have acted in case our plate had 
 not been correctly "timed" in the exposure. 
 
 If the exposure had been too long, the image 
 would have flashed up suddenly as soon as the 
 plate touched the developing solution, and we 
 could not have saved it from being a weak, 
 " flat " negative, as it is termed, unless we were 
 ready with our bromide of ammonium solution 
 to add several drops to the developer, and some 
 more of the "A" solution. The bromide of 
 ammonium is composed by dissolving the con- 
 tents of the ounce bottle in ten ounces of water. 
 
 If, on the other hand, our plate had not been 
 exposed long enough in the camera, the picture 
 would have been very slow in making its appear- 
 
IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 31 
 
 ance, and the finer details, especially in the 
 shadows and dark portions, would have failed 
 to come forth. It would then have been neces- 
 sary to add half a drachm or more of the " B " 
 solution to the developing bath. It must be 
 understood that the " B " solution accelerates de- 
 velopment, while the " A " solution retards it. 
 When the developed negative has been rinsed off 
 in clear water, we place it in the hyposulphite 
 of soda solution, where it is " fixed." 
 
 The "fixing" bath is composed by simply dis- 
 solving four ounces of the hyposulphite of soda 
 in twenty ounces of water. Place the developed 
 negative in this solution and allow it to remain 
 there until the opaque yellowness has entirely 
 disappeared from the back of the plate. It will 
 require from five to fifteen minutes to accomplish 
 this, and it is well to leave the plate a little 
 while after it becomes perfectly clear rather 
 than remove it too soon, for if the negative is 
 not perfectly " fixed " it will afterward gradually 
 turn yellow. I must here caution the amateur 
 never to use the tray which contains the fixing 
 solution for any other purpose. You cannot 
 wash it so clean but that a slight trace of the 
 
32 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 "hypo," as it is called, will remain, and if that 
 comes into contact with the plate during any 
 previous process it will surely spoil it. 
 
 After the negative has been thoroughly 
 " fixed," it only remains to wash it very care- 
 fully in several changes of water, when it is 
 ready for drying, and, later, for printing. In the 
 
 PLATE-RACK. 
 
 summer time it is often well to soak the nega- 
 tive, at this point, for a few minutes, in a solu- 
 tion composed of alum and water. This hardens 
 the film and prevents it from "frilling" about 
 the edges of the plate. The alum or hardening 
 bath is composed by dissolving two or three 
 ounces (the exact amount is not material) in 
 r.everal ounces of water. 
 
IN THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 33 
 
 When the plate has been thoroughly washed 
 in three or four changes of water, or, better still, 
 in a continuous gentle stream of running water, 
 for, say, fifteen minutes or so, it should be set up 
 to dry in a secure place. While it is drying, 
 we will take up our second plate and proceed in 
 the development of it as in the first case, and 
 so on until all the plates which we exposed 
 have been developed, fixed, hardened, and 
 washed. 
 
34 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRINTING AND TONING. 
 
 We left our developed plates in a secure 
 place, drying. As the sun shines brightly to-day, 
 let us take them from the drying racks and pro- 
 ceed to make some prints from them. 
 
 For this purpose we must employ the printing 
 frame which came with our outfit. This is a 
 wooden frame which exactly takes the negative. 
 After the plate has been placed in it, film side 
 up, a sheet of printing paper is laid on the 
 negative, sensitive side down. The wooden back 
 is then put in, and secured at both ends by the 
 brass springs, as shown in the cut. This back 
 is hinged in the middle, so that it may be 
 partly turned back and the progress of the print- 
 ing process examined without moving the paper 
 on the plate. When the plate and paper have 
 been firmly secured in the printing frame, it is 
 exposed to the sunlight, on a window-sill or else- 
 
PRINTING AND TONING. 35 
 
 where, care being taken to avoid any shadows 
 falling upon its face from shutters or other pro- 
 jecting parts. In bright sunlight, one minute is 
 usually long enough to thoroughly impress the 
 
 THE PRINTING FRAME. 
 
 picture on the sensitive silver paper through an 
 ordinary glass negative ; but the print must be a 
 little darker than it is desired to be when fin- 
 ished, as the toning, fixing, and subsequent 
 operations bleach it somewhat. We can easily 
 determine just when to remove the print from 
 the negative by taking the printing frame from 
 the sun, and, in a subdued light, observing how 
 
36 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 dark the print has become. This is done by un- 
 hinging one side of the back and lifting that 
 part of the print thus released from pressure. 
 When the print is dark enough, remove it from 
 the printing frame to a box or drawer, where no 
 light can get at it. Repeat the operation until 
 as many prints are made from the negative as 
 are desired, and then put another negative in 
 the frame, removing the first one, of course. 
 Make the required number of prints from this 
 negative, and so on until all the prints are made 
 that are wanted. We are now ready to take 
 them from the box where they have been con- 
 cealed from the sunlight, and proceed with the 
 toning and fixing processes. But before we take 
 up these interesting operations it would be well 
 to know something more definite about the 
 actual printing itself. 
 
 The negative, as we know, is made up of 
 more or less opaque and transparent portions ; 
 clear glass on the one hand, shading into abso- 
 lute opaqueness on the other. And the whites of 
 the negative correspond to the darks of the orig- 
 inal picture, because the light, being weakest 
 from the dark portions in the picture in nature. 
 
PRINTING AND TOMNG. 
 
 37 
 
 affected in the least degree the sensitive film of 
 the plate, and thus left it nearly or quite clear 
 glass. In like manner, the bright spots of the 
 picture reflected most light through the lens to 
 the sensitive plate, and therefore darkened it. 
 In proportion as the parts in nature are dark or 
 light, just so are the images on the photographic 
 plate light or dark. We can, therefore, under- 
 stand how the print will be exactly the opposite 
 of the negative again, and like the original sub- 
 ject in nature. 
 
 The light will pass most freely through those 
 parts of the negative which are clearest, and 
 thus will blacken the paper beneath to the great- 
 est degree. Where the negative is dense and 
 opaque very little light can pass through, so that 
 the paper retains its original whiteness under 
 those parts. Thus we obtain on the print the 
 reverse of the negative, or a " positive/' as it is 
 called. Positives may be made not only on 
 paper, but also on glass, when they are called 
 transparencies, or lantern slides, and are used for 
 hanging in windows or for enlargement through 
 a magic lantern or stereopticon. Then we have 
 " blue " prints, bromide prints, platinotypes, aris- 
 
3* 
 
 AM A TEUfc PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 toiypes, and chloride prints, according to the 
 kind of paper which is used for printing the 
 picture by sunlight through the glass negative. 
 Printing from a glass transparency, which is a 
 positive, of course obtains a negative; and some- 
 times negatives are made on paper for certain 
 purposes. As many prints as are desired can be 
 made from one negative, for the operation is the 
 same every time, and nothing is taken from the 
 negative ; the light passing through it makes the 
 picture. 
 
 We have learned in this chapter only one 
 printing method, the simplest of all, but the one 
 yielding, perhaps, the most beautiful pictures. It 
 is called " silver printing'' by photographers, be- 
 cause the paper on which the prints are made 
 was sensitized to light by coating it with a solu- 
 tion of nitrate of silver. The amateur can make 
 his own silver paper without much trouble, 
 though perhaps it is better at first to buy the 
 paper already prepared. It comes in packages of 
 two dozen sheets, cut to the different sizes of 
 the negatives, and one package came with our 
 outfit. Having learned how to make prints 
 by this method, we will go on with the toning 
 
PRINTING AND TONING. 
 
 39 
 
 and fixing processes, and finish the picture we 
 have commenced. 
 
 We left the batch of untoned and unfixed 
 prints in a dark box. We must now take them 
 from their hiding-place, and place them, one at 
 a time, in a tray of pure water, face down. The 
 tray which comes with our printing outfit will 
 hold fifteen or twenty prints. While they are 
 soaking there we will prepare the toning bath 
 as follows : 
 
 Dissolve in fifteen ounces of water fifteen 
 grains of chloride of gold and sodium, and pour 
 three ounces of this solution into another tray, 
 adding a few drops of a bicarbonate of soda so- 
 lution. Then add a pint of water to the toning 
 bath and twenty grains of acetate of soda. 
 After the solution has stood for a few moments 
 it is ready for use. 
 
 The prints are transferred from the water bath 
 to this solution, facing downward as before, and 
 are moved about so that they will not stick to- 
 gether. In ten or fifteen minutes the reddish 
 color which the prints assumed in the pure 
 water will begin gradually to change until a rich 
 purplish-brown color is obtained. The prints 
 
40 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 must not be removed until this stage has been 
 reached, but, on the other hand, they must not 
 be allowed to remain so long in the bath as to 
 acquire a bluish or slaty color. 
 
 After the prints have acquired the desired 
 shade, take them from the toning bath and rinse 
 them off in another tray of pure water. Then 
 immerse them in the fixing bath, which is com- 
 posed as follows: 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda i pound 
 
 Carbonate of soda i tablespoonful 
 
 Common table salt i tablespoonful 
 
 Water . . 5 pints 
 
 In this fixing bath the silver compound which 
 forms the image of the prints is " reduced " so 
 that pure metallic silver remains, which is perma- 
 nent and will not fade. It generally requires 
 about fifteen minutes' soaking in the fixing bath 
 to thoroughly accomplish this result. The prints 
 are then removed and thoroughly washed again, 
 for if the slightest trace of hypo is allowed to 
 remain in the film it will gradually turn yellow on 
 exposure to light and ruin the print. As in the 
 case of the negative fixing bath, so here, the tray 
 
PRINTING AND TONING. 
 
 41 
 
 holding the solution should never be used for 
 anything else, for the hyposulphite of soda is very 
 difficult to remove, even by the most thorough 
 washing. 
 
 The final washing is of the utmost importance, 
 as on it depends to a great extent the durability 
 of the prints. They should soak in a tray of 
 clear water for several hours, the water being 
 changed a number of times during that period. 
 Some amateurs allow their prints to remain in 
 water over night and remove them in the morn- 
 ing after a thorough rinsing. In the final wash- 
 ing the prints should float face downward, so that 
 the hypo will dissolve out of the film more easily, 
 but in the toning process they may be turned 
 upward from time to time in order that the prog- 
 ress of the process may be observed. 
 
 After the final washing the prints are hung up 
 on a line to dry, or laid between blotters, and 
 then they are ready for "mounting" upon card- 
 boards or in an album. This is done by covering 
 their backs, while still wet, with a thin layer of 
 flour or starch paste, and then placing them upon 
 the cardboard, paste side down, rubbing them 
 closely to the mount by means of a paper placed 
 
42 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 on the print. A gloss may be given the mounted 
 prints by running them through what is called a 
 " burnisher ;" but the print must be perfectly dry 
 before this is done. 
 
Portraiture. 
 
 43 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PORTRAITURE. 
 
 Portrait-making by photography is one of 
 the most interesting of pastimes. It is not 
 necessary to have a regular studio, with sky- 
 light, painted backgrounds, and papier-mache 
 accessories, in order to make good likenesses of 
 your friends with the camera. The light from an 
 ordinary side window in your home will answer 
 very well; and for a background a large sheet of 
 brown wrapping-paper will serve. Real furniture 
 looks better in a photograph than the imitations 
 which are used in the professional studio, and 
 there is no reason why the amateur should not 
 make as good portraits of his friends as the 
 professional photographer. 
 
 Select a room with plain white or painted 
 walls for your studio, if such is to be had in the 
 house ; and it is better if the window is on only 
 one side. If possible, have the window face the 
 
44 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 north, for then the illumination is the same 
 throughout the day, the sunlight at no time 
 entering a window which faces due north. If the 
 walls of your improvised studio are papered with 
 brilliantly colored figures, you must use a back- 
 ground in all cases. A good one can be made by 
 stretching some dark woolen material over a 
 clothes-horse or other suitable frame. Or, as has 
 been suggested, plain brown wrapping paper may 
 be used if a large enough sheet can be obtained 
 to cover at least one side of a clothes-horse or 
 similar frame. If the clothes-horse is divided 
 and hinged in the middle, as is very often the 
 case, the other panel may be covered with a 
 white cloth or paper, and will serve very well as 
 a reflector. If the wall is plain white or of a 
 gray color, there is no absolute need of a back- 
 ground, for the wall will answer very well, and 
 then one need make but a reflector in order to 
 be ready for work. The reflector is of white 
 material, so that, by being placed opposite the 
 window through which the light enters to illu- 
 minate the subject, the darkened side of the face 
 is lighted to a certain degree, and thus a more 
 even illumination is given the portrait. If there 
 
PORTRAITURE. 45 
 
 are windows on two sides of the room, all but 
 those on the one side must be closed by means 
 of shutters and curtains, so as to exclude any 
 light, for the illumination must all be from one 
 source. 
 
 If a background is used, and the amateur is 
 fortunate enough to have the use of a hinged 
 frame like an ordinary clothes-horse, he arranges 
 his apparatus and subject as shown in the dia- 
 gram. 
 
 BACKGROUND 
 
 CAMERA 
 
 In posing the subject, there is room for the 
 exercise of much taste and artistic skill ; and in 
 lighting opportunity is given for the display of 
 the best of judgment. Seek to photograph your 
 friend in a characteristic attitude. Sometimes 
 this will be standing, sometimes sitting ; while at 
 
4 6 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 others, reading a book or a letter, or even writing 
 at a table, makes a suitable pose. Then there 
 are characters in history and fiction which one 
 can represent by appropriately dressing and 
 posing the figure. There is no end to the pic- 
 tures which one can make with the camera in a 
 home-made studio. 
 
 The first object, of course, in photographing 
 one's friends is to obtain a characteristic likeness, 
 and in this respect the amateur should be able to 
 obtain a more satisfactory portrait than even the 
 most skilful professional ; for the amateur knows 
 his friend — what pose and expression are most 
 characteristic — while the professional cannot be 
 expected to bring out the individuality of his sub- 
 ject on but a few moments* acquaintance. Then, 
 too, the self-conscious expression which a subject 
 is very likely to assume when seated before a 
 camera in the professional's studio is not so often 
 seen in a portrait made at home among familiar 
 surroundings. Let the subject be dressed in 
 ordinary clothes, and have the hair arranged in 
 the usual way. The plainer the clothes the more 
 effective will be the portrait, for, like fancy back- 
 grounds, elaborate costumes sometimes attract 
 
PORTRAITURE. 
 
 47 
 
 more attention than the face, which should be, 
 of course, the most prominent part of the por- 
 trait. A plain sitting pose, showing head and 
 shoulders, is, as a rule, most satisfactory, espe- 
 cially for beginners. Such a pose is easier to 
 light and requires less skill in the arrangement 
 of details. 
 
 The camera which we have used in the field 
 will answer all purposes for home portraiture, 
 though a regular studio camera, with an adapt- 
 able rolling stand made especially for portrait 
 work, is more convenient, of course. The lens 
 which we have been using will also answer for 
 portrait-making, for it is a long-focus one and 
 possesses what is called a " flat " field. If a 
 wide-angle lens had been used for landscape pur- 
 poses, we should have been obliged to procure 
 another one for portrait-making. The single-view 
 lens which came with our outfit, however, does 
 fairly good work in both departments of photog- 
 raphy. 
 
 When the subject is posed in a natural posi- 
 tion, with the best side of his or her face turned 
 toward the light, we are ready to focus. This 
 done, the plate-holder is inserted as before, the 
 
48 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 lens capped, and the slide withdrawn. We are 
 now ready for the exposure, and here twenty or 
 twenty-five seconds will be required ; the exact 
 length of exposure must be determined by ex 
 perience, as in the case of landscape-making. It 
 is well to expose both plates on the subject, giv- 
 ing one a little longer time than the other and 
 slightly changing the pose, so that there will be 
 two chances of success and a choice in the posi- 
 tions of the subject. 
 
 A group of two or more figures is managed in 
 much the same way, so far as lighting and pos- 
 ing are concerned; but if the group should be- 
 come larger than this, it is better to photograph 
 it out-of-doors, using the plain side of a house 
 for a background, and photographing when that 
 side is in shadow. The people composing a 
 group should be arranged in the general form of 
 a pyramid. They should not all gaze directly at 
 the camera, or, indeed, at any one point. Each 
 one should be looking in the most natural way, 
 and be in a characteristic pose, so far as is pos- 
 sible. Let there be some prominent central idea 
 in the posing when the group is not too large, 
 and the result will be a picture, as well as a 
 
FOR 7 RA I TURE. 49 
 
 number of individual portraits in one photograph. 
 In making groups, as in photographing separate 
 individuals, the taste of the amateur will suggest 
 and direct ; and he should be sure that he is 
 master of ceremonies, for if every member of a 
 group should carry out his or her ideas the pic- 
 ture would present a rather disconnected appear- 
 ance. You alone can judge of the effect as a 
 whole, as you alone see it on the ground glass. 
 
 Developing and printing a portrait negative 
 differs in no essential way from the same pro- 
 cesses in connection with a landscape plate, 
 which we have already learned how to make 
 from beginning to end. But a portrait negative 
 is sometimes " retouched 99 after it has been de- 
 veloped and fixed. This should never consist of 
 more than merely touching out the imperfections 
 in the plate with an ordinary lead-pencil. Over- 
 retouching is not artistic, and is more objection- 
 able than no retouching at all. Indeed, many 
 portraits which the amateur will make are much 
 better if not retouched at all. 
 
 In printing, a paper vignette which cuts off the 
 sides of the negative and allows the portrait to 
 gradually shade off into whiteness sometimes pro- 
 
50 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 duces an agreeable effect. The face is promi- 
 nently brought out and the surroundings are 
 softly shaded off into the background. Portraits 
 appear best when mounted on neat white cards 
 without gilt edges or anything to detract from 
 the likeness itself. 
 
INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY, 5 I 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the practice of instantaneous photography 
 there is perhaps more genuine fun to be had 
 than in any other branch of amateur picture- 
 taking. The same camera which has been used 
 for landscape will serve quite as well for photo- 
 graphing instantaneously, and the same lens also 
 will answer quite as well under the most favor- 
 able circumstances ; for the modern dry plate is 
 so extremely sensitive that in a fair amount of 
 light even a slow lens will succeed in making an 
 instantaneous photograph. 
 
 If the day is dark, however, or the moving 
 object is passing very rapidly before the camera, 
 so that an extremely short exposure is required, 
 a lens termed a rapid " rectograph " or " rectili- 
 near," consisting of a "double combination/* is 
 
$2 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 required. These more costly lenses are fitted 
 with an exposing shutter, by which the quickest 
 exposure can be made automatically. They are 
 also arranged so that longer exposures may be 
 given when desirable, as in photographing land- 
 scapes or architectural subjects; thus, a good 
 instantaneous lens supplied with an improved ex- 
 posing shutter will answer for instantaneous pur- 
 poses, portraiture, landscaping, and other kinds of 
 photographic work. 
 
 To fit a landscape or portrait lens for instanta- 
 neous purposes, we must apply it with a quick 
 exposing shutter. There are many kinds in the 
 market of various designs and prices, but the 
 simple gravity or "drop" shutter will answer all 
 purposes very well, at least in the beginning of 
 instantaneous work. This shutter costs but a 
 dollar and a half, and may be easily adjusted to 
 the lens when it is desired to make instantaneous 
 photographs. When we do not require its aid it 
 may quickly be removed from the lens and laid 
 aside. Sometimes these "drop" shutters are 
 made to release by means of a slight pressure of 
 air sent through a rubber tubing by squeezing 
 the bulb at its end. This is a convenience, but 
 
INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY, 53 
 
 it is not necessary, for the release can also be 
 given by a slight touch of the hand. 
 
 It will thus be seen that instantaneous photo- 
 graphs can be made by merely applying a simple 
 drop shutter to the lens and camera which has 
 already been purchased. For many purposes, 
 however, a specially constructed hand camera, 
 known under various forms as the " detective " 
 camera, will be found very convenient. In fact, 
 it is almost necessary to use one of these hand 
 cameras if the fleeting scenes of street life in a 
 large city, the quickly passing views of a trot- 
 ting horse on a racing track or roadway, the 
 swiftly moving pictures seen from a car window, 
 steamboat, or yacht, or those properly called de- 
 tective pictures, made of people without their 
 knowledge, are to be photographed. 
 
 When a tripod camera is used, a " finder " 
 should always be affixed to the box on its top, 
 for it is not easy to quickly move a camera on 
 a tripod so as to catch a fleeting object exactly 
 on the middle of the plate. The finder, or 
 " view-meter, 5 ' as it is sometimes called, shows 
 one exactly when the moving subject is opposite 
 the middle of one's plate, so that it is only 
 
54 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 necessary to release the shutter in order to catch 
 the picture as securely as if the subject were 
 stationary. 
 
 Let us now see wherein this process differs, if 
 at all, from the other branches of photographic 
 work. As has already been said, unless our lens 
 is a very quick-working one, strong sunlight and 
 clear atmosphere are necessary to make good in- 
 stantaneous photographs. The light must fall 
 from behind the camera full upon the object be- 
 fore it, so as to give the strongest illumination. 
 The lens must have the largest opening possible, 
 so as to admit the greatest amount of light, and 
 the dry plate must be extremely sensitive. The 
 developer described in Chapter III will be 
 found to work as well with instantaneously ex- 
 posed plates as with those which have received 
 a longer exposure, and the beginner, at least, had 
 better use the developer he has become accus- 
 tomed to. In developing instantaneous negatives 
 we must proceed as if treating an under-exposed 
 plate, using rather more of the " B " solution 
 than of the "A" solution. Sometimes a prelim- 
 inary immersion of the plate in " B " solution 
 and water before the "A" solution has been 
 
IXSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 55 
 
 added is advantageous. The "A" solution can 
 then be added, and, as the development pro- 
 gresses, increased until a full and proper density 
 has been obtained on the negative. The fixing 
 of the negative differs in no way, of course, 
 from the process as applied to other negatives ; 
 and the printing, toning, and subsequent treat- 
 ment of prints are also the same. 
 
 Instantaneous photography is but a few years 
 old. The introduction of gelatine dry plates 
 about ten years ago made it possible. Before 
 that time, several seconds were considered a very 
 short time for the camera to make a picture ; 
 now photographs are made in the infinitesimal 
 fraction of a second. With the quickest-working 
 lenses and the most sensitive plates, it is not 
 even necessary that the light be strong or the 
 atmosphere clear. Good instantaneous photo- 
 graphs have been made on dark days, and even 
 during a gentle rain. By means of the magne- 
 sium "flash" light, daylight is not even neces- 
 sary, for its intense blue light is sufficient to 
 illuminate scenes at night, and in dark places 
 where the sun's rays never penetrate. But of 
 this interesting development of modern photog- 
 
56 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 raphy we must speak in a separate chapter. 
 Having learned how to make instantaneous pho 
 tographs by daylight, we shall be the better pre- 
 pared to take up this wonderful process. 
 
FLASH-LIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 57 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FLASH-LIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ONE of the most fascinating branches of ama- 
 teur photography is that which was made possi- 
 ble by the introduction of burning magnesium as 
 a source of photographic light. 
 
 Magnesium metal in the form of coiled wire 
 or ribbon has been used for several years for 
 making photographs in dark places, such as 
 mines, caves, etc., but the method was quite dif- 
 ficult and required a prolonged exposure in the 
 camera. 
 
 Electric light has also been used as a substi- 
 tute for the rays of the sun, but it required ex- 
 pensive apparatus and is much less powerful in 
 its photographic action than the intense blue 
 flash from the powdered magnesium metal. 
 
 Since the introduction of magnesium metal as 
 a source of actinic or photographic light, two or 
 three years ago, many improvements have been 
 made upon the method of applying it, so that 
 
58 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 now any amateur can make instantaneous photo- 
 graphs in this way without any trouble whatever. 
 The powdered magnesium can be purchased in 
 the form of " cartridges " containing the proper 
 quantity for an exposure. A pistol has been de- 
 vised for "shooting" the flash light on the sub- 
 ject to be photographed, whether it be a man 
 walking in the street at night or merely a dark 
 place which the sun cannot illuminate.' Any 
 camera can be used for this purpose, though a 
 hand camera will be found most convenient. 
 Portraits also in one's home may very readily be 
 made by these means — family groups, small 
 dinner and card parties, and other social gather- 
 ings — and a great many subjects which were out 
 of the question before the magnesium flash light 
 was suggested. 
 
 Considerable care must be given in lighting a 
 portrait by the magnesium flash in order to pro- 
 duce roundness of effect and avoid the strong 
 contrasts and harsh appearance which we so 
 often see in flash-light pictures. One should place 
 the magnesium at least five feet distant from the 
 subject. The nearer it is to the source of light^ 
 the sharper are the contrasts, of course. But, on 
 
FLASH-LIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY. *9 
 
 the other hand, the further we remove the light, 
 the weaker will be its illuminating power. It is 
 therefore better to place the magnesium to be 
 ignited from five to eight feet distant from the 
 subject, and soften its effect by interposing be- 
 tween it and the sitter a screen of white tissue- 
 paper. The background must be removed some 
 distance from the subject so that the strong 
 shadows from the sitter will not fall upon it. 
 The magnesium should be ignited a little above 
 the camera, and removed far enough from the 
 apparatus so that no light can enter the lens. 
 Sometimes it will be necessary to use a reflect- 
 ing screen similar to the one described in the 
 chapter on Portraiture. 
 
 In lighting groups for photographing by means 
 of the magnesium flash, it is better to place the 
 light on the extreme right or left of the subject 
 than immediately in its front. When very large 
 groups are photographed, it is sometimes neces- 
 sary to light from both sides of the group, the 
 light that falls on one side being made much 
 stronger, of course, than upon the other, so as 
 to produce agreeable shading. This method of 
 lighting is also best when a large interior is de- 
 
6o 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 sired to be photographed at night, and for such 
 purposes some one of the many ingenious mag- 
 nesium lamps which have been placed upon the 
 market will be found more convenient than the 
 simple " cartridges/' 
 
 Of course a rapid lens and a very sensitive plate 
 must be employed, and the development will 
 be conducted as for an ordinary instantaneous 
 picture. In focusing it will be found convenient 
 to employ a burning candle, which may be placed 
 at that part of the room where the greatest dis- 
 tinctness is desired in the photograph, or close 
 to the sitter's face, as the case may be. As soon 
 as sharp focus is obtained, the candle is of 
 course removed, the lens is capped, and the slide 
 withdrawn from the plate-holder ready for the 
 flash. The photographer is now in total dark- 
 ness, the cap is removed from the lens, and the 
 magnesium powder, in the form of a cartridge or 
 in a lamp as the case may be, is ignited. A 
 lightning-like flash of the most intense blue light 
 follows and endures for perhaps a thirtieth of a 
 second. The lens is then recapped, the slide re- 
 inserted, and the exposed plate ready for the 
 development. 
 
FLA Slt-LICIIT PIIO TOGRA PH Y. 6 1 
 
 It will not be necessary to employ a special 
 developer for this kind of work, though the one 
 recommended by Mr. S. R. Stoddard, who has 
 been very successful in flash-light work, is so well 
 adapted for the purpose that it is given here. 
 
 No. i. 
 
 Distilled or ice water 10 ounces 
 
 Citric acid i drachm 
 
 Sulphite of soda, crystals 4 ounces 
 
 Pyroga lol (Schering's resublimed). . 1 ounce 
 
 Add water to make the solution up to sixteen 
 fluid ounces. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Water — 10 ounces 
 
 Sulphite of soda, crystals 2 
 
 Carbonate of soda, crystals (or dry 
 
 granular, 1 ounce) 2 
 
 Potash carbonate 1 
 
 Dissolve, and add water to make sixteen fluid 
 ounces. 
 
 A third solution, composed of 
 
 Bromide of potassium \ ounce 
 
 Water 5 ounces 
 
 should also be prepared for " restraining purposes. 
 
62 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The developing solution is composed by mix- 
 ing from \\ to 2\ drachms of No. I solution 
 with from 2 to 3 ounces of the No. 2 solution. 
 More or less of the No. 1 or No. 2 is added as 
 the exigencies of development may require. If 
 the image does not readily appear when the 
 plate has been immersed in the developing solu- 
 tion, a little more of the No. 2 solution should 
 be added. 
 
 If it comes up too quickly, a few drops of the 
 third solution should be mixed with the devel- 
 oper. The plate is, of course, fixed as usual in 
 a hyposulphite of soda solution, after which 
 and a thorough washing in running water, it is 
 dried, and is then ready for the printing frame. 
 
OR THOCHROMA TIC PHO TOGRAPH V. 
 
 63 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ORTHOCHROMATIC OR COLOR-SENSITIVE 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The announcement that photographing in the 
 colors of nature has successfully been accom- 
 plished has been made periodically ever since 
 photography itself was discovered. But on in- 
 vestigation the various so-called discoveries have 
 been shown to be in reality no discoveries at all, 
 but merely new applications of old and well- 
 known principles. 
 
 Recently, however, there has been perfected in 
 Philadelphia by an American, Frederick E. Ives, 
 a process for reproducing the colors of nature, 
 by which an entirely new principle is employed. 
 This principle was stated by Mr. Ives before a 
 meeting of the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia 
 about two years ago, but it was only rendered 
 practicable by a more recent invention of special 
 
6 4 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 optical devices. The process as now employed 
 by Mr. Ives may be briefly described as follows : 
 By means of a very ingenious compound 
 camera front, three photographic negatives of 
 the object are made by simultaneous and equal 
 exposure from the same point of view and upon 
 the same sensitive plate. The photographic 
 plate is sensitive to all colors of light, but by in- 
 troducing light filters one of the negatives is 
 made by such light rays only as excite the fun- 
 damental red sensation, and in due proportion ; 
 another by light rays as they excite the funda- 
 mental green sensation, and another by light rays 
 as they excite the fundamental blue-violet sensa- 
 tion. 
 
 From this triple negative a triple lantern slide 
 is made which, although it shows no color, con- 
 tains such a graphic record of the natural colors 
 that in order to reproduce them to the eye it 
 is sufficient to superpose the three images, one 
 with red light, one with green, and one with 
 blue-violet. This is accomplished either in Mr. 
 Ives's new heliochromoscope, — a device about the 
 size of a hand stereoscope and used in much 
 the same way,- — or by projection with a special 
 
OR THOCHROMA TIC PHO TOG RAP H Y. 
 
 THE HELIOCHROMOSCOPE, 
 
66 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 optical lantern having three optical systems, with 
 red, green, and blue glasses. The three images, 
 being exactly superposed, appear as one only, in 
 which the natural colors are exactly reproduced 
 together with the light and shade. Images of 
 three ordinary photographs exactly alike, if super- 
 posed in the same way, through the same col- 
 ored glasses, would show no color whatever. 
 
 The process is as scientifically accurate for re- 
 production in color as ordinary photography is 
 for reproductions in monochrome, but at present 
 can be carried out successfully only by a scien- 
 tific expert employing the photo-spectograph for 
 testing the sensitive plates and adjusting the 
 selective color screens. When such preliminary 
 adjustments have been correctly made, the pro- 
 cess is almost as simple and reliable as the ordi- 
 nary negative process. 
 
 By a modification of the process introducing 
 further complication, color prints are made on 
 glass or paper; but the comparative simplicity 
 of the plan of superposing images commends it 
 to scientists, and is more convincing to the gen- 
 eral public. 
 
 Mr. Ives calls his process Composite Helio- 
 
OR T1I0CIIR0MA TIC Pl/O TOGRAPHY. 67 
 
 chromy, and says that it grew out of a sug- 
 gestion made by Henry Colin, Queen Victoria's 
 painting-master, in 1865. The process must 
 necessarily remain a comparatively costly one 
 when carried out in a manner to yield the best 
 results, and is best adapted to the illustration of 
 lectures by means of the optical lantern. 
 
 For the amateur, the most practical method 
 of producing color effects is by the process 
 known as ortho- (or iso-) chromatic. The colors 
 themselves are not photographed, but the color 
 values are given in true relation, so that the 
 natural harmony of the original subject is pre- 
 served in the photograph. Yellow, green, and 
 red are photographed so that they can easily be 
 distinguished from each other in the finished 
 picture, whereas on an ordinary plate no differ- 
 ence whatever is shown between these colors in 
 the photograph, since they are non-actinic or 
 photographically inactive colors and impress the 
 plate in an equally slight degree. Blue, violet, 
 and indigo, at the other end of the spectrum, 
 can also be photographed in like manner, so that 
 a difference is shown in their values, instead of 
 
68 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 appearing perfectly white in the photograph, as 
 is the case when an ordinary plate is used. 
 
 No matter how brilliant the yellow object may 
 be, on an ordinary plate it is always photo- 
 graphed a dull black, while every dark, dull blue 
 appears clear white, simply because they are very 
 powerful in actinic rays,, and thus more actively 
 influence the sensitive photographic film. But by 
 means of the orthochromatic plate, which may be 
 purchased ready prepared, these results untrue to 
 nature may be avoided, though the colors them- 
 selves cannot be photographed. 
 
 There is a simple method by which one can 
 make one's own orthochromatic plates from any 
 good dry plate which one may have on hand. It 
 is done by means of the orthochromatic solution, 
 which may be obtained ready prepared or made 
 in the following manner : 
 
 The plate is first immersed in 
 
 THE PRELIMINARY BATH 
 
 Aqua ammonia i drachm 
 
 Water. . . « 7 ounces 
 
 — where it is allowed to remain for about three 
 
0RT110CHR0MAT1C PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 6 9 
 
 minutes. After removal, and without washing, a 
 bath, composed of 
 
 Erythrosine solution (1 : 500) 1 \ drachms 
 
 Aqua ammonia 2 
 
 Water (distilled) 5 1 ounces 
 
 is allowed to flow over the plate by holding the 
 latter in a horizontal position for about one min- 
 ute. The plate is then allowed to dry in a dark 
 closet, after which it is ready for use. 
 
 The development of erythrosine plates does 
 not differ from that of ordinary negatives, ex- 
 cept that, as they are extremely sensitive to color, 
 the process must be carried on in total darkness 
 or in the shadow of a much subdued ruby light. 
 
 When the painting or subject is one in which 
 the colors blue and violet predominate, it is 
 necessary to interpose a yellow color screen — 
 which also may be purchased ready-made — be- 
 tween the plate and the subject. It may be fast- 
 ened inside the camera to the front-board which 
 bears the lens. When the color screen is used 
 the duration of exposure is increased from three 
 to six times that of an ordinary plate. 
 
70 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Francis Galton in 1877 explained to a sub- 
 section of the British Association a method by 
 which he had obtained an average type of a 
 group of people by blending in a certain manner 
 the photographic portraits of the individuals. 
 
 This was the beginning of composite photog- 
 raphy. The original method of Galton was soon 
 greatly modified and improved, and composite 
 photography became very popular. As the pro- 
 cess was simplified, composite photographs were 
 made in great numbers and of various subjects. 
 It was a common thing for the graduating class 
 in the higher schools and colleges to have a 
 composite made from their portraits before sepa- 
 rating for their homes. Thus each member of 
 the class would have a picture of all the other 
 members in one portrait, or, more truly, perhaps, 
 
COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHY, 7 1 
 
 a characteristic portrait of the entire class. The 
 average facial type of certain professions and 
 occupations was obtained by means of composite 
 photography, and very interesting were the at- 
 tempts made to show the typical American 
 lawyer, clergyman, doctor, legislator, or actor. 
 Some of the results obtained were very curious, 
 as, for instance, the composite of a class of girls 
 blended with a similar photograph of a group of 
 young men in order to show the prevailing char- 
 acteristic of the young American student. 
 
 A rather comical story is told of one young 
 man who was shown a photograph of a young 
 lady which seemed to impress him very much. 
 The expression of the countenance in the por- 
 trait denoted a strong will, yet a gentle disposi- 
 tion. It was the face of a young lady whom 
 one would like to know. 
 
 "Who. is the original of this portrait ?" the 
 young man inquired. 
 
 " The graduating class of Smith College, North- 
 ampton, " was the reply. 
 
 It was a composite photograph, and the admir- 
 ing young man awoke regretfully to the fact that 
 there was in reality no such lady as the one 
 
7 2 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 whose face had so strongly impressed him,— or, 
 rather, that there were forty-nine of her ! 
 
 Another instance is told of a young lady who, 
 on seeing a composite photograph of a small 
 circle of friends of which she was a member, 
 exclaimed : " It is so charming to enjoy the por- 
 trait of somebody who is all ones intimate 
 friends at once !" 
 
 An interesting composite photograph may be 
 made by blending the various portraits of one's 
 self made at different periods. Thus a slightly 
 idealized likeness is obtained, for the inevitable 
 conscious expression is done away with in blend- 
 ing the various portraits. 
 
 There is no end of subjects to which compos- 
 ite photography may be applied, and the results 
 may often be of great value to science. It has 
 been suggested that the process might be used 
 with advantage in obtaining the types of animal 
 species and standards of different breeds ; also 
 that a composite photograph would be more 
 valuable than the most expert testimony in de- 
 ciding the genuineness of a suspected signature, 
 for the doubtful autograph could be compared 
 with a composite of several which were known to 
 
COMPOSITE PHO TOG PA PH V. 
 
 73 
 
 be genuine, and the difference, if any, would then 
 be apparent. 
 
 Composites of small groups are not so valuable 
 as an average type, of course, as those which are 
 made of larger numbers. Composite photography 
 is of the most value in securing an average type 
 and generalization of the prevailing race or class 
 characteristics. 
 
 When the prominent features in a group of 
 people are entirely unlike, the composite photo- 
 graph of that group will result in a blurred mass 
 without many well-defined lines. If, on the other 
 hand, it were possible for all the faces of a 
 group to be exactly the same in the striking 
 features, the result would be a clear and well- 
 defined portrait, as if made of one person. It is 
 therefore apparent that in proportion as the char- 
 acteristic features of a group are similar or un- 
 like, the resulting composite photograph will be 
 clearly defined or blurred. That member of the 
 group who bears the greatest resemblance to the 
 composite portrait comes nearest, of course, to 
 having the average typical face ; while the one 
 who is entirely unlike the blended mass of por- 
 
74 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 traiture has features which are distinctly differ- 
 ent from all of the others in the combination. 
 
 It is not difficult to make composite photo- 
 graphs. There are several methods by which the 
 work can be done. That first explained by 
 Francis Galton consisted in hanging a number of 
 portraits one in front of the other " in such a 
 way that the eyes of all the portraits shall be 
 nearly as possible superimposed. " He first 
 focused his camera upon the top portrait, and 
 made a photograph of it ; then, by successively 
 removing the portraits from the pin which 
 secured them, the likenesses of all were imposed 
 in turn upon the same part of the sensitive plate, 
 and a composite photograph of the entire group 
 was secured. 
 
 This method required accurate apparatus, which 
 was rather expensive and therefore could not be 
 used by most amateurs. Mr. Rockwood, who 
 has successfully made many composite photo- 
 graphs, especially of graduating classes, describes 
 his method of work as follows. He is speaking 
 of a composite of nine young ladies, members of 
 a literary club in New York. 
 
 "I reduced the power of light/' he says, "so 
 
COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 n 
 
 as to make necessary an exposure of eighteen 
 seconds. 
 
 " I first drew upon the ground glass a fine per- 
 pendicular pencil line, which served as a central 
 line to the head. Across and at right angles to 
 this line I drew two others, an inch and a quar- 
 ter apart, one of which ran through the line of 
 the mouth and the other through the eye at the 
 caruncula, or at the joining of the upper and 
 lower cartilages. These lines were arbitrary, and 
 the image was adjusted to them. 
 
 " Of course there is quite a variation in the 
 distances between these two lines in the human 
 head ; therefore the cajnera had to be carefully 
 adjusted after each exposure. As it was very 
 difficult to do this by hand, I constructed adjust- 
 able boards hinged at one side with fine screws 
 so placed under the camera as to elevate or de- 
 press it, and another screw to move the whole 
 camera and bed-plate forward or backward, until 
 these distances between the eyes and mouth 
 were made to correspond with the standard. I 
 then made a pendulum by a weight on the end 
 of a string about forty inches long, practically 
 giving one second to a motion of oscillation. 
 
7 6 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 This I found to be more practicable than a 
 watch. 
 
 "Starting my pendulum, the impressions were 
 made in quick succession. Of course the slide 
 was returned to the holder after each exposure, 
 and a new focus of adjustment of the succeeding 
 sitter made. The only modification to the final 
 picture consisted in uniting the white collars or 
 neckwear into one. I think it would be best in 
 future experiments to have a dark or black silk 
 kerchief with which to cover the white neck- 
 draping, which would give a simple, uniform 
 effect to the upper part of the body." 
 
 Another simple yet accurate way of making a 
 composite is to superimpose one portrait upon 
 another until all the pictures of a group are 
 printed upon one piece of paper from the vari- 
 ous negatives. This print is then finished in the 
 ordinary way, and shows the average of all facial 
 developments and physical peculiarities of the 
 members composing the group. 
 
 In printing from various negatives on one 
 piece of paper it has been suggested to place 
 the negatives all together, one on top of an- 
 other, accurately superimposed in one large spe- 
 
COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 11 
 
 cially made printing frame deep enough to hold 
 all, and then print through all the negatives at 
 one time on one sheet of paper beneath. 
 
 The actual photographing in any case is, of 
 course, accomplished in the usual way, and the 
 development and printing is the same as in other 
 branches of photographic work. But the great- 
 est accuracy must be maintained in posing the 
 subjects so that the prominent features of all 
 will fall exactly upon the same place in the 
 plate, and in giving precisely the same length of 
 exposure to all the subjects. The sum of the 
 various individual exposures must equal the 
 length required to make one good negative 
 under the same circumstances. 
 
78 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE " FATHERS OF PHOTOGRAPHY." 
 
 Photography is a child of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. This, the steam-engine, and the electric 
 telegraph form the three great discoveries which 
 have made this century momentous. Its actual 
 beginnings, to be sure, date earlier than the nine- 
 teenth century, but with the announcement of 
 Daguerre's discovery, August ioth, 1839, the real 
 history of photography may be said to com- 
 mence. 
 
 That announcement was received with the wild- 
 est enthusiasm by every one. People flocked to 
 Paris in great numbers to see the beautiful sun 
 pictures which Daguerre had made, and also to 
 learn how to make them. The French govern- 
 ment awarded Daguerre an annual life pension of 
 six thousand francs (about twelve hundred dol- 
 
THE "FATHERS OF PHOTOGRAPHY:' 79 
 
 lars) for his invention, and then generously gave 
 the secret to the world. 
 
 The new process was called Daguerreotypy, 
 after its inventor, and the business of making 
 daguerreotypes soon became a flourishing one, 
 not only in France and on the Continent, but 
 also in England, and especially in this country. 
 Many improvements were soon made upon the 
 daguerreotype ; in England by such men as Fox- 
 Talbot, Scott-Archer, and Dr. Maddox ; and in 
 our own country by Professors Draper and 
 Morse, and a German, living in Philadelphia, 
 named Langenheim. 
 
 The daguerreotype was not at all like our mod- 
 ern photograph. It was an image photographed 
 upon a copper plate, which could only be seen 
 distinctly by looking at it in a certain direction, 
 and which required, at first, fully thirty minutes' 
 " exposure " in the camera. Think of sitting per- 
 fectly still before the camera for half an hour in 
 order to have your photograph taken ! And 
 then you could have only one picture, and not, 
 as now, a glass plate from which as many pict- 
 ures may be printed as you desire. For every 
 picture you wanted in those days you had to sit 
 
8o 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the full time, though the process was quickened 
 soon after its introduction into general use. 
 
 A photograph can be made in these days in 
 the hundredth, and even the thousandth, part of 
 
THE "FATHERS OF PHOTOGRAPHY:' 8 1 
 
 a second ; and any number of pictures can be 
 printed from one glass plate or " negative." The 
 beautiful colors of nature may be photographed ; 
 not in the actual color-shades, it is true, but 
 naturally and harmoniously, so that there is a dif- 
 ference in the shades as seen in the photograph. 
 We can even make pictures at night by means 
 of artificial light ; and instantaneously, too, as we 
 have seen in the foregoing chapters. 
 
 All these wonderful things have been accom- 
 plished very recently, most of them within the 
 last ten years, though they were foretold, and 
 made possible by experiments, much earlier in 
 the history of photography. But we are pro- 
 gressing too fast, and, before we speak further of 
 the modern almost perfect photograph, should go 
 back to the earlier days, and recall some of the 
 inventions and discoveries which led up to it — 
 even before the time of Daguerre. 
 
 Joseph Nicephore Niepce, another Frenchman, 
 was the first man to obtain a really permanent 
 photograph, though his picture was not so perfect 
 as that produced by Daguerre. Without the as- 
 sistance which Niepce rendered Daguerre, how- 
 ever, that successful inventor could never have 
 
82 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 perfected his process. We therefore owe half our 
 gratitude, at least, for the discovery of photogra- 
 phy to this other Frenchman, who is so rarely 
 spoken of and so seldom praised. The early ex- 
 periments of Niepce were also the foundation of 
 lithography and the kindred arts now so largely 
 used in illustrating books and papers. Niepce in- 
 vented a velocipede as well, which is the ancestor 
 of our modern bicycle. In 1829 he made an 
 agreement with Daguerre to continue their ex- 
 periments together, and this partnership was 
 maintained after his death by his son, Isidore 
 Niepce, who inherited much of his father's genius, 
 and received for the joint invention, from the 
 French government, four thousand francs (or 
 about eight hundred dollars) when Daguerre was 
 awarded his pension of six thousand francs. 
 
 The camera was invented by an Italian named 
 Baptista Porta, much earlier than this, though it 
 was not used for photographing. It was in 
 reality merely a dark room into which the light was 
 admitted through a little round hole in one side. 
 The rays of light coming from objects outside of 
 this room entered it through this aperture and 
 made a picture on the other side of the room, 
 
THE "FATHERS OF PHOTOGRAPHY:' 83 
 
 glowing in all the beauty and color of nature 
 itself, but rather indistinct, and upside down. 
 
 This dark room was contrived by Porta about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century. He im- 
 
 JOSEPH NIEPCE. 
 
 proved it, later, by placing a glass lens in the 
 aperture, and outside a mirror which received the 
 rays of light and reflected them through the lens, 
 so that the image upon the opposite wall within 
 
8 4 
 
 AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 was made much brighter, more distinct, and in a 
 natural or erect position. This was really the 
 first camera-obscura, an invention which is en- 
 joyed to the present day, being situated often 
 upon a hilltop where a picturesque country sur- 
 rounding may be reflected through a lens which 
 is placed in the centre of the conical roof. 
 
 Now, our modern photographic camera is 
 merely a small camera-obscura in its simplest 
 form, carrying a lens at one end, and a ground- 
 glass screen at the other. It is, however, often 
 much more complicated in its construction, as we 
 have learned in the preceding chapters, 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 
 
 SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 20 Grains = i Scruple = 20 Grains. 
 
 3 Scruples = 1 Dram = 60 Grains. 
 
 8 Drams = 1 Ounce = 480 Grains. 
 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5760 Grains. 
 
 FLUID. 
 
 60 Minims = 1 Fluid Dram. 
 
 8 Drams = 1 Ounce. 
 20 Ounces = 1 Pint. 
 
 8 Pints — 1 Gallon. 
 
 The above weights are those usually adopted in formulae. 
 
 All Chemicals are usually sold by 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 27^ Grains = 1 Dram = 27^ Grains. 
 16 Drams = 1 Ounce = 437? Grains. 
 16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7000 Grains. 
 
 Precious Metals are usually sold by 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. 
 24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight = 24 Grains. 
 
 20 Pennyweights = 1 Ounce = 480 Grains. 
 
 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5760 Grains. 
 
 Note. — An ounce of metallic silver contains 480 grains, but 
 ounce of nitrate of silver contains 437? grains. 
 
88 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM OF VOLUMES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 MEASURES OF VOLUME. 
 
 Denominations and Values. 
 
 Names. 
 
 No. of 
 Liters. 
 
 Kiloliter or 
 
 
 stere .... 
 
 IOOO 
 
 Hectoliter.. 
 
 IOO 
 
 Dekaliter.. . 
 
 IO 
 
 Liter 
 
 I 
 
 Deciliter. . 
 
 p 
 
 Centiliter . . 
 
 100 
 
 Milliliter. . . 
 
 1(50 0" 
 
 Cubic Measures. 
 
 i cubic meter 
 cubic meter 
 
 io cubic decimeters 
 t cubic decimeter 
 i 1 ^ cubic decimeter 
 io cubic centimeters 
 i cubic centimeter 
 
 Equivalents in Use. 
 
 Dry Measure. 
 
 308 cubic yds. 
 bushl's and 
 3.35 pecks 
 9.08 quarts 
 
 jo8 quart 
 6. 1023 cu. inches 
 6102 cubic inch 
 061 cubic inch 
 
 Wine 
 Measure. 
 
 264.17 gals. 
 
 26.417 gals. 
 2.6417 gals. 
 1.0567 qts. 
 .845 gill 
 .338 A. oz 
 .27 fl. drm. 
 
 WEIGHTS. 
 
 Denominations and Values. 
 
 Names. 
 
 No. of 
 Grams. 
 
 Weight of Volume of 
 Water at its Maximum 
 Density. 
 
 Millier or Tonneau. . 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 t cubic meter 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 1 hectoliter 
 
 Mynagram. . .. 
 
 10,000 
 
 10 liters 
 
 Kilogram or Kilo . . 
 
 1,000 
 
 1 liter 
 
 Hectogram 
 
 100 
 
 1 deciliter 
 
 Dekagram 
 
 10 
 
 10 cubic centimeters 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 cubic centimeter 
 
 Decigram 
 
 1 
 
 To" 
 
 yo- cubic cent meter 
 
 
 TOo 
 
 10 cubic millimeters 
 
 
 Too"U 
 
 1 cubic millimeter 
 
 Equivalents in 
 Use. 
 
 Avoirdupois 
 Weight. 
 
 2204.6 pounds 
 220.46 pounds 
 22.046 pounds 
 2.2046 pounds 
 3.5274 ounces 
 
 .3527 ounce 
 15.432 grains 
 1.5432 grains 
 •1543 grain 
 .0154 grain 
 
 The unit of capacity is the cubic decimeter or Liter, and the series of 
 measures is formed in the same way as in the case of the table of lengths. 
 The cubic meter is the unit of measure for solid bodies, and is termed 
 Stere. The unit 0/ weight is the Gram, which is the weight of one 
 cubic centimeter of pure water weighed in a vacuum at the temperature of 4 
 degrees Centigrade or 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit, which is about its tempera- 
 ture of maximum density. In practice, the term cubic centimeter, abbrevi- 
 ated c.c, is generally used instead of milliliter, and cubic meter instead of 
 kiloliter. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 8 9 
 
 THE CONVERSION OF METRIC INTO AMERICAN 
 MEASURE. 
 
 By Np:lson B. Sizer, B.Sc, M.D. 
 [From The Photographic Times, August 14, 1891.] 
 
 The following table is computed true to the nearest half grain 
 or minim, as the case may be, so it will prove a sufficiently near 
 approximation to the required metric equivalents. 
 
 U. S. P. Standard. 
 
 Gram, 
 or c.cm. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Minims. 
 
 Gram, 
 or c.cm. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Minims. 
 
 1 
 
 15* 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 3 T x 
 
 244 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 3 2 £ 
 
 16 
 
 247 
 
 260 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 17 
 
 262 
 
 276 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 18 
 
 278 
 
 292* 
 
 5 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 97i 
 
 19 
 
 293 
 
 3°9 
 
 6 
 
 93 
 
 20 
 
 308^ 
 
 325 
 
 7 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 30 
 
 463 
 
 487^ 
 
 8 
 
 123* 
 
 130 
 
 40 
 
 617 
 
 650 
 
 9 
 
 139 
 
 T46 
 
 50 
 
 77'i 
 
 813 
 
 10 
 
 154 
 
 162* 
 
 60 
 
 926 
 
 9757 
 
 11 
 
 170 
 
 179 
 
 70 
 
 1,080 
 
 1,138 
 
 12 
 
 185 
 
 194 
 
 80 
 
 1,234$ 
 
 1, 300 \ 
 
 x 3 
 
 201 
 
 211 
 
 90 
 
 1,389 
 
 1 1463 
 
 14 
 
 216 
 
 227^ 
 
 100 
 
 i,543 
 
 1,625* 
 
 
 
 
 1,003 
 
 I 5-4323 
 
 16,256^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 kilo 
 
 liter 
 
 The "kilo 11 or kilogram,the 
 1000-gram weight, is equal to 
 32 ounces 72^ grains 44 Troy 
 or Apothecaries 1 " weight, or 
 2 pounds 3 ounces 119/3 grains 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 The 44 liter " or 1000 cubic 
 centimeters, or bulk of water 
 that weighs 1 kilo, is equal to 
 2 pints 1 fluid ounce and 4T5 I 3 (y 
 minims, U. S. P. Standard, or 
 our glass graduates as com- 
 monly sold by reliab'e houses. 
 
 The grains and minims are easily reduced to fluid drams and 
 fluid ounces, or drams and ounces Troy, by my readers, if they will 
 only remember that 60 grains or minims go to the solid or fluid 
 dram, and 480 grains or minims, or 8 drams solid or fluid, go to 
 each U. S. P. ounce, solid or fluid. 
 
 Thus the table gives the value of go grams as 1389 grains, of 
 go cubic centimeters as 1463 minims. How many ounces in 
 each? 
 
 Dividing I38g by 60 for drams, we have 23 drams g grains. As 
 8 drams go to the ounce, there are 2 ounces in the 23 drams and 
 7 drams over, so we have — in 1389 grains there are 2 ounces 7 
 drams g grains. In the same way we find 3 fluid ounces and 23 
 minims over to be the value of go cubic centimeters or 1463 
 minims. 
 
9 o 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Portraits 
 in 
 
 Ordinary- 
 Room. 
 
 0 
 
 c/3 Tt" CO O MTtcOvO Nt+ 
 co -h co 
 
 GOO O O m m -t 00 
 S 
 
 Portraits 
 in Good 
 Studio 
 Light. 
 
 min. sec. 
 O I 
 
 O 2 
 
 o 4 
 o 8 
 o 16 
 o 32 
 
 2 8 
 4 16 
 
 Portraits 
 in bright 
 diffused 
 Light out 
 
 of doors. 
 
 th|?d Hec frfeQ Hco e$0 r+? eleo 
 
 % m m rr 
 
 Badly 
 Lighted 
 Interiors, 
 up to 
 
 .5 -f COO W *t CO O M 
 
 g hh co -1 co 
 
 200 O O O m <N rt CO 
 Xi 
 
 Fairly 
 Lighted 
 Interiors. 
 
 min. sec. 
 
 O 20 
 
 0 40 
 
 1 20 
 
 2 40 
 5 20 
 
 10 40 
 21 20 
 42 40 
 
 Under 
 Trees, 
 up to 
 
 800 ooooooo 
 
 COO 0»~iMir>0'-w 
 
 Landscape 
 with Heavy 
 Foliage in 
 Fore- 
 ground. 
 
 H°o H« 
 
 O i-( d Tf CO O M 
 1) 1-1 CO 
 
 Open 
 Land- 
 scape, 
 
 J lo |ot H» l-fcC r+C r-fcC 
 
 w n«s 'tw m « *n 
 
 13 S S 0 
 
 8.8 
 
 d O. 
 
 2 2 
 
 to bfi 
 
 0 
 
 S ^ 
 
 in 
 
 O 
 
 S^JCO 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 
 oT 
 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 co 
 
 s 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ci 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 co 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 0* 
 
For Professional and Amateur 
 Photographers. 
 
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 Combined Bath, for toning and fixing in 
 
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 COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING CRAYON 
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 Sent, post-paid, on receipt of the price, by 
 
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Amateur * 
 
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 of Contents is as follows : 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I. — Apparatus. 
 
 Il.-ln the Field. 
 
 III. — In the Dark Room. 
 
 IV. — Printing and Toning. 
 V.— Portraiture. 
 
 VI.— Instantaneous Photography. 
 I VII.— Flash-light Photography. 
 
 VIII. — Orthochromatic or Color-sensitive Photography. 
 
 IX. — Composite Photography. 
 
 X. — The " Fathers of Photography." 
 Appendix. —Tables, Formula?, etc. 
 
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 for the latter. 
 
A PERFECTLY MADE film-roll camera, making 3.1 in. 
 round or square pictures, for $7 [ebonite] or $8 [leather]. 
 
 NO DARK=ROOn required to load or unload. Uses 
 "LIGHT=PROOF FILil CARTRIDGES " which can be in- 
 serted and removed anywhere. Each cartridge makes 12 expos- 
 
 BEAUTIFUL RESULTS- 
 
 Simplicity of operation and GOOD 
 FILM insure satisfactory results to 
 the inexperienced, while the fine 
 quality of the negatives astonishes 
 old photographers. 
 
 . EVERYBODY SHOULD 
 
 HAVE ONE. No matter if you 
 have a dozen other cameras, The 
 Bull's-Eye is the latest wonder, and 
 just the thing for Lantern Slides or 
 to slip in your grip-sack when travelling. 
 
 BOSTON CAMERA MFG. CO.. 
 
 380 Tremont St., Boston, Mass. 
 
 ures. Price 60 cents each. 
 
 Size, 5! *4f X4I inches. 
 
astman's 
 
 £o\\o paper 
 
 Is a superior substitute for albumen paper, and is free from 
 the defects common to gelatine and collodion papers. It gives 
 clear whites, exquisite tones and high gloss, and does not 
 
 stain the negatives. 
 
 Solio will not curl, crack, or blister ; requires 
 
 no special handling, and can be used with Ordinary negatives. 
 
 It does not fix out. 
 
 NOTICE : 
 
 Nothing but the best Imported Paper is used as a support in the 
 manufacture of our Permanent Bromide and Eureka papers. 
 Some manufacturers of cheap Bromide Paper use inferior Ameri- 
 can paper. Inferior paper makes inferior pictures, and is difficult 
 to work in crayon. Eastman's Permanent Bromide Paper is 
 absolutely reliable. 
 
 astman's 
 
 gromide paper. 
 
 13 First 
 Prize Medals. 
 
 Eastman Kodak Co., 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
 
 3 3125 01410 4570