anxa 
 87-B 
 24934 
 
 Architecture ^' 
 
 under 
 
 Nattonaltsm, 
 
 BY 
 
 J. PICKERING PUTNAM 
 
 MEMBER OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTS. 
 
 
 B O S T D N 
 
 1 
 
 
 .T I C K N O R C: 0 M P A N V 
 
 
 
 911 Fremont Street 
 
 
 
 1S91 
 
 
 
 
THE NATIONALIST. 
 
 A monthly magazine devoted to the Nationalization of Industry and 
 thereby the promotion of the Brotherhood of Humanity. 
 
 Edited by John Stoker Cobb. 
 
 This is the only magazine in the United States dedicated to the dis- 
 cussion and dissemination of the principles of nationalism. It has among 
 its contributors many representative men and women, among whom may 
 be mentioned Edward Bellamy, Edward Everett Hale, Thaddeus B. 
 Wakeman, Mary A. Livermore, Charlotte Perkins Stetson, Sylvester 
 Baxter, Henry Austin, Rev. Solomon Schindler, Abby Morton Diaz, 
 J. Foster Biscoe, and others who would make too long a list of distin- 
 guished names for insertion here. 
 
 The Nationalist has a wide circulation among the thinking public 
 in every state of the Union, and is, therefore, a valuable medium for the 
 advertisements of those who wish to place their announcements before a 
 laro^e number of discriminatinoj readers. 
 
 Subscriptions and business communications should be sent to 
 
 EDWARD S. HUNTINGTON, 
 
 Business Manager. 
 
 Communications relating to advertisements should be addressed to 
 
 HENRY R. LEGATE, 
 
 General Advertising Agent. 
 
 Subscription price, $2.00 a year. Single numbers, 20 cents. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 The Nationalist Educational Association, 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
/ 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 UNDER 
 
 NATIONALISM 
 
 BY 
 
 J. PICKERING PUTNAM 
 
 MEMBER OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTS 
 Author of 
 
 " The Principles of House Drainage" " The Open Fire-Place in All Ages" 
 " Improved Plumbing Appliances " etc. etc. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 BOSTON 
 TICKNOR & COMPANY 
 
 211 Fremont Stmt 
 
 1891 
 
Copyrighted. 
 
 PI BLISHED BY PERMISSION OF 
 
 THR AMERICAN ARCHITECT. 
 
Architecture Under Nationalism. 
 
 NATIONALISM may be defined as 
 the substitution of universal coopera- 
 tion and education for industrial and 
 social warfare. It is a continuation of 
 the evolutionary force -which has raised 
 man from the lower to the highest form 
 of terrestrial beings. It is so strictly 
 logical and practical in all its aspects ; so 
 impartial in its benefits to all classes ; 
 has already crept so deeply into the 
 minds and hearts of 
 thinking people in 
 both continents, and 
 has made such 
 remarkable pro- 
 gress of late, in this 
 country, especially 
 on the Pacific coast, 
 in arousing the people to definite action with a view to hastening its 
 practical introduction, that we are forced to believe the present 
 generation will see a great change in the social organism due to its 
 influence. Nevertheless, there still exist many curious popular mis- 
 conceptions as to its principles ; and it is necessary to refer briefly 
 to these, before entering upon the consideration of the particular 
 branch of the subject we have chosen. 
 
 Perhaps the most common error in the popular conception of 
 Nationalism is that it will benefit chiefly, if not only, the poorer 
 classes, increasing their wealth at the expense of the richer. Where- 
 as, a close study of its principles will clearly show that the wealthiest 
 will in many respects, be the greatest gainers, not alone because, 
 without the least diminution of their material possessions, they will 
 be freed from association with a great unwashed and untutored pub- 
 lic whom they both dislike and fear, but also on account of the many 
 dangers and responsibilities inseparable from extraordinary wealth. 
 
2 
 
 For eighteen hundred years, at least, it has been pronounced a diffi- 
 cult feat for a man possessing wealth much greater than that of his 
 neighbors to enter the Kingdom of Heaven, which would seem to in- 
 dicate that Heaven is not a plutocracy but rather a commonwealth. 
 
 Another popular error, based on the first, is that the jjrincipal im- 
 pediment to the introduction of nationalism is selfishness, particularly 
 on the part of the " capitalists" who control the machinery of produc- 
 tion. For, since it is easy for any one who will investigate the subject, to 
 see that all, without exception, will beimmensely benefited thereby, it 
 becomes clear that the real impediment is ignorance, and that selfish- 
 ness will have the very opposite effect, and greatly aid its introduc- 
 tion as soon as this ignorance is removed. 
 
 Finally it is an error to suppose that nationalists either desire or 
 require to appropriate, without just recompense, for the common 
 use, property which is now possessed by individuals ; to remove from 
 office efficient workers in any calling ; or to disturb the wheels of 
 industry by any sudden, ill-considered action. The successful 
 business man will retain all the advantages his industry and thrift 
 have brought him, with this immeasurable gain, that he will be free 
 from all worries and burdensome responsibilites now necessarily 
 connected with them. 
 
 Considered in its relation to the architectural art, I propose to 
 review, first the general, and then the specific advantages which 
 nationalism will bring; and, in this material age, we may appropri- 
 ately consider the material advantages first and the intellectual and 
 moral ones afterwards. 
 
 That industrial cooperation ehormously increases the economy of 
 production is evident, and the trusts and great combinations of to- 
 day seem created for the useful purpose of presenting to the world 
 striking practical illustrations of the fact. But the extent to which 
 that increase would be carried by a cooperation which is general 
 throughout the nation, is likely to exceed the expectations of the 
 most enthusiastic. With the imperfect statistics provided us at the 
 present time, it is impossible to obtain anything more than approxi- 
 mate figures. But a safe minimum of gain may be reached, and even 
 this minimum seems at first statement so monstrous that 1 have 
 repeatedly refused to accept my own deductions, until again and 
 again forced to do so by the overpowering weight of evidence. 
 
 I am convinced that it is understating the facts to say that at least 
 nine-tenths of the energy exerted to-day is utterly wasted ; or that, 
 in other words, this country would produce ten times as much wealth 
 annually under Nationalism with the same quality of machinery as it 
 does to-day. 
 
 Authorities do not entirely agree as to the aggregate amount of 
 wealth annually produced in the United States. Mr. Joseph JJimmo, 
 Jr., Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, estimates the total value of the 
 annual product of the last census year, 1880, as over ten thousand 
 million dollars. Mr. Edward Atkinson placed it at somewhat under 
 ten thousand millions, but presents some very ingenious and con- 
 vincino- considerations which show that his estimates are not likely 
 to be too high (see Atkinson's ''Distribution of Products " published 
 by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1885). 
 
 The various items making up this total may be estimated as 
 follows : 
 
3 
 
 Manufactures :— 
 
 Total value of products of manufactures as given in the U. S. 
 Census Report for 1880, after deducting the value of the 
 materials (which are included under the subsequent headings.)... 1,972,756,6*^ 
 
 Agriculture: — 
 
 Estimate of Mr. J. R. Dodge, Statistician of the Department 
 
 of Agriculture of the United States 3,720,331 ,422 
 
 Illuminating gas (partly estimated). From Mr. Nimmo's figures... 30,000,000 
 
 Mining 236,275,408 
 
 Forestry 455,000,000 
 
 Fisheries 43,046,053 
 
 Petroleum (Manufactured Product) 44,000,000 
 
 Value of all materials Avhich are not included in the above:. . 
 Products of Home Worli of Women, and of Factories producing. . 
 less than $500.00 not included in the Census; Buildings, Books,... 
 Newspapers, Works of Art and Education, Manufactures of... 
 Railroad Companies, and sundry other i:ems 3,500,000,000 
 
 Total 10,007,409,525 
 
 Assuming this estimate of ten thousand milHons to be approxi- 
 mately correct for the total wealth production of 1880, a ten-fold in- 
 crease under nationalism would raise the national wealth to a 
 hundred thousand millions. This amount, paid yearly in dividends 
 to the fifty million citizens of the same census year, as stockholders 
 in the great national corporation, would give each an annual income 
 of $2,000, and as a dollar under nationalism will go at least twice as 
 far as the same amount under the competitive S} stem, on account of 
 the fact that all education and countless objects of entertainment and 
 luxury, now attainable only by the very rich, will be furnished the 
 people by the nation free, this amount will have a value very much 
 greater. Yet a still more important consideration in giving real 
 value to this income lies in the fact that the whole of it may be, and 
 is expected to be, enjoyed each year without anxiety for the future. 
 A dollar which may be spent is worth two which must be laid up, and 
 we shall see as we proceed that our income becomes again much 
 greater in actual pleasure and profit-producing capacity. All expen- 
 ditures for charities of every kind, and all for mere ostentation will 
 evidently cease to be required under Nationalism ; neither charity 
 nor ostentation having any place there, and the extinction of these 
 two factors will wonderfully modify men's ideas as to the importance 
 of a large income. 
 
 Moreover, almost exactly half the population of the United States 
 according to the last census, were under twenty-one years of age, 
 and about a quarter were under ten years of age. Assuming that 
 infants and youths will require a smaller dividend than adults, there 
 will be a large surplus each year to be devoted partly to increasing 
 the dividend of the adults and partly to i3aying the expenses of 
 education and making public improvements which will be sources 
 of profit and pleasure free to all and thus reduce the need of money 
 for each. 
 
 Two people uniting in marriage will double this yearly means of 
 support, and, moreover, every child born to them will still further 
 increase the financial stability of the household. 
 
 Let us examine some of the principal wastes due to the existing 
 industrial system, and see if the above estimates can be substantiated. 
 
I 
 
 DEFINE wasted energy as 
 that wliich produces no useful' 
 results, and arrive at the esti- 
 mate of waste upon which I have 
 based my calculations as follows : 
 First comes a great loss in our 
 distributing system. In the year 
 of our last census, there were over 
 three hundred dry-goods distri- 
 buting stores in Boston alone, five 
 hundred shoe stores, and over a 
 thousand grocers' shops, where a 
 single one under Nationalism 
 would have sufficed for each, 
 combined with a few central 
 sample-buildings for the display 
 of all the goods used by the 
 nation. Accordingly a very small 
 percentage of the outlay and 
 persons employed in distributing 
 these goods in Boston, would 
 have sufficed for the work. 
 In the United States, in 1880, more than a tenth of the whole 
 working population of seventeen million people spent their 
 whole working time in selling and distributing goods. But a small 
 fraction of this great army would have sufficed, under Nationalism, 
 to have done the work and to have done it infinitely more satisfac- 
 torily. This whole army of tradesmen, commercial drummers and 
 peddlers would be transferred to the field of useful production. A 
 simple system of reliable national ilkistrated catalogues, alphabeti- 
 cally arranged, of all the goods used by the people would take the 
 place of the very unreliable travelling drummers. A few sample- 
 stores with a number of distributing stores in each city or county, 
 would take the place of the myriads of shops now required. 
 
 The national catalogues become practical cyclopgedias of the most 
 perfect form, giving concise scientific descriptions of every article 
 known and used in the nation, with its actual value, the few fluctua- 
 tions in cost being published periodically in separate sheets like the 
 discount sheets of our manufacturers of to-day. 
 
 With these catalogues and the modern improvements in trans- 
 portation enabling travellers and merchandise to be transported 
 safely at a speed of from one to two hundred miles an hour (a speed 
 which experiments seem to show will be practicable), the great 
 central sample and distributing stores of the nation need not be 
 
0 
 
 duplicated in every large town. Methods of distributing merchan- 
 dise with marvellous l apidity, safety and economy have already been 
 devised, and a system which will now deliver packages with almost 
 lightning speed about a large city will equally conveniently dis- 
 tribute them within a radius of ten or twenty miles with a very 
 ti'illing increase of time in transit. Accordingly the great national 
 sample and distributing stores, placed at a few convenient points in 
 -each State or National District, with, perhaps, small receiving- 
 stations in each town, will supply all the intervening territory with 
 the greatest ease and convenience, and a few hundred such centres 
 would suffice for the entire country. 
 
 Careful estimates place the cost of the commercial travellers alone 
 in this country at over a billion dollars a year, (see last chapter). 
 
 In view of tlie above considerations, I think it safe to place the 
 waste of energy under the competitive system due to the item of dis- 
 tribution at one-tenth, at least, of the whole amount exerted. 
 
 The next great loss of energy comes from the increased labor re- 
 quired of every citizen in the effort to supply his wants in purchas- 
 ing the goods furnished by the unscientific distributing system just 
 considered. 
 
 A single instance taken from a single department of a single in- 
 dustry must serve for illustration, and no more representative in- 
 dustry could be selected than that which forms the subject of our 
 paper. 
 
 An architect desires and is expected to provide his client with the 
 best of everything the market affords up to the extent of the appro- 
 priation. Here the conscientious architect finds one of the greatest 
 and most distressing elements in the practice of his profession, since 
 it is utterly impossible for him ever to feel certain that he has 
 fulfilled his duty in this respect, however great his effort. The 
 wisdom of a Solomon and strength of a Hercules would miserably 
 fail in the effort to justly weigh the conflicting claims for superiority 
 of a hundred competitors in each of the thousand items of labor and 
 material entering into the construction of a modern house. The in- 
 ventive genius of the country, in spite of the discouraging effect of 
 a proverbially inadequate reward for the inventor, still turns out im- 
 provements with marvellous and constantly increasing rapidity ; the 
 patented inventions in the United States in the past year alone 
 numbering over twenty-three thousand. To keep thoroughly informed 
 in the most important of these, even under the most perfect system 
 of public expert valuation and classification would involve constant 
 vigilance and great study on the part of the architect. 
 
 But to expect every individual practitioner to extricate inde- 
 pendently from all this mass of invention the best, and to do so with 
 no other guide than the conflicting claims of those who are admittedly 
 the most biased, is to expect an evident impossibility. Yet this is 
 exactly what is expected of the architect to-day. 
 
 I shall take my illustration from the department of sanitary 
 plumbing, in which I have recently been obliged to make a number 
 of particularly careful original experiments as the only way to obtain 
 the very information above indicated — information which could 
 have been obtained much easier and better, in the interest of all the 
 people at once, by the State. 
 
 I found a great diversity of opinion existing among authorities as 
 
6 
 
 to many of the most important points connected with this branch of 
 building, and a constantly increasing complication in the methods o£ 
 piping in vogue, particularly in trap-venting, a complication which my 
 investigations convinced me was not only unnecessary but even dan- 
 gerous. I found that the special trap-vent pipe, so long as it per- 
 formed its office of producing a ventilating current over the water- 
 seal of the trap, tended to destroy this seal by evaporation and to 
 open a direct avenue into the house for the so-called sewer-gas ; that 
 the efficacy of the vent-pipe was easily nullified by friction and clog- 
 ging, and that its use produced a false sense of security which pre- 
 vented the adoption of more reliable precautions. 
 
 These expensive and dangerous complications were, in many 
 places, actually enforced by legislation, involving a pecuniary loss on 
 the part of the public of a very large sum, amounting in Boston alone 
 during the last few years, according to estimates based on the City 
 Inspector's Building Reports, to an average of about S50,000 a year. 
 As the law benefits the dealers in lead and iron pipe, a powerful 
 element exists in favor of its perpetuation and extension to other 
 cities. 
 
 Under nationalism the drainage and plumbing of our houses being 
 in the hands of the people, as is already partly the case with the water- 
 supply, this condition of things would not for a moment exist, since 
 it would be for the interest of all to have the simplest and best system 
 of plumbing everywhere adopted, and the necessary investigations to 
 determine what that system really was, at once made by the nation. 
 The cost of such an investigation would be but a minute fractional 
 part of the annual loss now sustained by the people on account of its 
 omission. 
 
 Already the best authorities are opposed to the trap-vent law, in 
 view of the great improvements made during the last few years, since 
 the law was frametl, in plumbing methods and appliances, and several 
 cities have lately repealed it. But in Boston it still exists to the dis- 
 grace of the building professions, and it is likely to remain so until 
 the public come to a proper sense of the evil and insist upon 
 reform.* 
 
 AVe will suppose that it has been rumored among the ever vigilant 
 manufacturers' sales-agents that our architect is about to compile his 
 plumbing specifications for some building. Instantly a half-a-dozen 
 eager drummers, armed with brass, scamper to his office and some of 
 the moi-t persistant of them succeed after many vain attempts in 
 gaining access to his ear. Those manufacturers who have the least 
 eloquent drummers, or who live at the greatest distance from the 
 architect's office, or who do not happen to hear at the right time of 
 the writing of this particular specification, stand at a considerable 
 
 It is gratifying to see that our Building Inspector, Danirell, in his last annual 
 report (for 1889), wisely calls the attention of the City (Jouncii to this evil, in the 
 following emphatic language: "Plumbing is a question of growing importance 
 for it has to do with the safety of our dwellings, school and business houses ; ami 
 whether the present method of ventilating is not prejudicial to health is a matter 
 of serious moment, and I respectfully call your attention to the ordinance regu- 
 lating it, believing that it is necessary for the best interests of the city to amend 
 and revise said ordinance before the revision of the ordinances now iu process is 
 completed and accepted." 
 
7 
 
 disadvantage, for how can a new article be of any great merit whose 
 proprietor cannot afford to have special agents in all the principal 
 cities and towns throughout the land? Still the architect does not 
 feel at liberty to abide exclusively by the somewhat colored and 
 mutually contradictory representations of the agents. lie is forced 
 to make a special study in books and catalogues of some of the latest 
 improvements, and to consult a number of plumbers and sanitary ex- 
 perts. He finds in the catalogues, innumerable different kinds of 
 fittings in every branch of the work, each declared to be in every 
 particular the very best. lie invites the various manufacturers to 
 demonstrate the truth of their claims, and studies the arguments 
 by which each proves the utter falsity and absurdity of the pre- 
 tensions of all the rest. By a process of exclusion, he finally settles 
 down to two or three kinds, and the agents for these fortunate 
 specimens, offer to furnish him free of charge (he being an architect 
 of influence) with a sample of his goods, set them up under 
 water-connection in his office if necessary, for his personal trial. 
 At last after a considerable amount of patient experimenting and a 
 prodigious expenditure of time and very little satisfaction, he makes 
 his final selection. It is the same in the choice of every article of 
 construction and workmanship, from foundation to chimney-top. 
 
 This foolish waste of energy will be entirely avoided under 
 nationalism, all industries being conducted by the cooperative com- 
 monwealth in a single perfected organization administered in accord- 
 ance with the simple principles taught us by the great corporations 
 of to-day, but free from the corrupting influences and wasteful com- 
 petition by which the latter are crippled. Xo opportunity will be 
 offered for intentionally false or exaggerated representations as to 
 the value of any production, since all inventions will be owned, 
 manufactured and sold by the commonwealth, the inventors being 
 rewarded by royalties an I special honors bestowed by the people. 
 The amount of the royalty will be determined by the popular re- 
 cognition of the value of the invention as shown in their use of it 
 and by its merit as to ingenuity, novelty and scientific importance as 
 determined by experts appointed in the same manner with other 
 Government employes. 
 
 It would, of course, be foolish for any one to attempt to foretell 
 with any pretensions at accuracy the details of a future social state 
 so radically different from and immeasurably above the present. 
 But nationalists are accused of being only theorists, unable to sug- 
 gest any practical steps by which their vision may be realized ; and 
 as an answer to this accusation we arc justifled in pointing out at 
 least a possible form under which the ideal may appear, without 
 claiming or believing that this form is necessarily the only one it can 
 assume. 
 
 It is then possible, and, I believe, even probable, that the in- 
 ventor in the future will receive his recompense directly from the 
 State, and that the recompense will be certain, prompt and just, 
 instead of the reverse as is now the case, and as must necessarily be, 
 the case under the competitive principle, since the very qualities and 
 con litions which fit a man for being an inventor unflt him for ex- 
 ploiting his invention. 
 
 Mr. Bellamy has outlined with his usual good practical sense and 
 great ingenuity in his " Lookinrj Backward " a possible and, in my 
 
8 
 
 mind, very probable way in which books will be published in the co- 
 operative commonwealth. The first cost of printing is defrayed by 
 the author, after which the book is placed on sale by the nation. 
 " The price," says Dr. Leete, " of every book is made up of the cost 
 of its publication with a royalty for the author. The amount of this 
 royalty is set to his credit, and he is discharged from other service 
 to the nation for so long a period as this credit at the rate of allow- 
 ance for the support of citizens shall suffice to support him." As 
 with the author so it will be with the inventor. The price of the 
 experimental work is defrayed by him, after which the invention is 
 duly classified, catalogued and placed on sale by the nation. The 
 price of the article is made up of the cost of its manufacture with a 
 royalty for the inventor, who is discharged from other service to the 
 nation, as long as these royalties serve to support him. This system 
 is admirably calculated to encourage true inventive genius and to 
 discourage its mere semblance ; for all will be free to select the work 
 for which they are most fitted without misgivings as to their support, 
 and since the acquisition of extraordinary wealth will be neither 
 desirable nor possible, the unhealthy incentive which dazzles the eyes 
 of most of the would-be inventors of to-day, will cease to exist, and 
 with it also the unhealthy crop of useless inventions which burden 
 our patent reports. Those inventions which, under nationalism, will 
 find their way into the national catalogues, will then well be worth 
 the cost to the people of their classification and printing. As soon 
 as it becomes important for the public to know the exact relative 
 value of two similar inventions, scientific experiments will be con- 
 ducted by the nation to that end, and the results will be published 
 in the catalogues in properly condensed form, the most valuable in- 
 vention being clearly designated as such in accordance with the 
 regular system of classification adopted. 
 
 Thus a glance at the catalogues or a visit to the nearest great 
 sample-store, will sufiice to give the architect at once, and with 
 absolute accuracy, all the latest information on any subject he may 
 wish to investigate, and the time required for selecting all that enters 
 into the construction of the building becomes reduced to a hundredth 
 part. 
 
 The determination of cost also now uselessly consumes a vast 
 amount of the architect's time. He has, in fact, absolutely no means 
 of correctly ascertaining this item even though it has a most im- 
 portant bearing upon his selection. The prices are indeed usually 
 published in the catalogues of the dealers, but these published prices 
 have no more to do with the selling prices to builders and other large 
 buyers than the advertisements of a quack medicine have to do with 
 its real value. The actual price is determined by the discount, and 
 these the architect is rarely permitted to know. They not only vary 
 from 5 to 05 per cent and more, but differ for different individuals, 
 at different seasons, and are always subject to fluctuations without 
 notice on the turn of the market or the caprice of an individual. 
 All this insane tinkering with prices will instantly disappear under 
 nationalism with the disappearance of its cause, and a fixed and just 
 price will accompany every article in the great trade-catalogues of 
 the nation. 
 
 What has been said of the architect applies also to the engineer, 
 builder, broker, housekeeper, and, in short, to all who have purchases 
 
9 
 
 io make. Under nationalism, housekeeper's shopping will 
 
 cease altogether to be required, the national catalogues, telephone 
 and rapid transmitting service rendering it superfluous. 
 
 For the sake of convenience and clearness, I will call the item of 
 waste just described, the waste in purchasing," as distinguished 
 from tiie waste in selling," before alluded to, and the amount of 
 waste is, at least, as great on the part of the former as of the latter. 
 For wherever there is a sale there must also be a purchase, and it 
 takes exactly as long for a salesman to ''stuff" (the only really 
 appropriate word which occurs to me) a purchaser as it does the 
 purchaser to be stuffed by the salesman. But since much more time 
 is wasted in travelling to and from the place where the bargain is 
 made, than in actually making the bargain, and as by far the greatest 
 number of sales are made in the shops or warerooms of the sellers, 
 the greater aggregate loss of time is suffered by the purchasers. 
 
 The seller has, moreover, to learn the qualities and prices only of 
 his own goods, whereas the purchaser has to learn those of all the 
 goods he purchases, and under the most conflicting representations 
 which must evidently consume much more time. 
 
E come now to our third great waste which I call the waste of 
 
 I estimate ^ that legal protection of all kinds costs each citizen 
 on the average from one to four per cent of his income, which means 
 from the standpoint of Nationalism, a waste of from one one-hundredth 
 to one twenty-fifth, or an average of about one-fortieth, of all he pro- 
 duces. 
 
 Since ninety-nine one-hundredths of all litigation is the result of 
 the competitive system of industry, we may add to the above, the loss 
 as an unnecessary waste of energy, of substantially the whole working 
 hours of all lawyers and their clerks and employes, claim-agents, 
 sheriffs, judges and jury -men, army, navy and police forces, jailors, 
 detectives, private watchmen, collectors, tax-assessors and insurance 
 men. These aggregated in the year of the last census about one one- 
 hundredth part of the whole working population. • This hundredth 
 added to the above-mentioned fortieth gives us over a thirtieth. To 
 this again we may safely add another large percentage for the waste 
 involved by the necessity of providing against mistakes and fraud, 
 including all financial accounts, banking and bookkeeping, rendered 
 almost entirely superfl^uous by Nationalism. 
 
 This item of ihe waste of contention has a peculiarly important 
 bearing upon the architectural profession. It is truly said of the 
 architect of the present day that he must be one-third lawyer and 
 detective, and one-third business man. The preparation of his con- 
 tracts, the search for defects in its fulfilments, and the settlement of 
 disputes between his client and the contractors, occupy a very large 
 part of his time, and require qualities of mind and training quite 
 
 contention. 
 
 1 Deduced from Engel's Law. (See Ely's " Political Economy," page 281). 
 
11 
 
 inconsistent with his legitimate duties as an artist and mechanic. 
 Accordingly architects of the most sensitive and refined natures are 
 placed at a disadvantage by these necessities, and the result is an 
 almost inestimable loss to the public and to the art of architecture. 
 
 Under nationalism no such burden is laid upon the architect, the 
 nation supplying him with all material and labor of absolutely 
 uniform quality and cost, and his entire energies will then be turned" 
 with enthusiasm to the cultivation and practice of his art. 
 
 A fourth great loss is due to what I call " exclusiveness," and has 
 reference particularly to our mode of living. We are anti-social, and 
 owe this evil to the social and intellectual inequalities of the people 
 resulting from the competitive system. I have shown in a previous 
 article on "The Apartment-Hou<e," written for the American Archi- 
 tect in January, 1890, that our dwellings, built as is now customary 
 in the United States in the form of isolated "towers," cost us from 
 two to four times as much as equal accommodations would cost built 
 in the form of "flats" in a properly constructed apartment-house. 
 These figures are explained and verified by means of simple diagrams 
 one of which I will here reproduce to make clear what follows. 
 
 In this diagram, the long black-and-white line represents an 
 
 ordinary isolated city dwelling which we have called " tower," and the 
 shorter the "flat" in apartment-house, which served for our illustra- 
 tion. The black part of each line denotes unavailable, and the 
 white part available room, the sum of the two denoting the total 
 cubical contents of each dwelling (by "available" I mean space 
 which is directly occupied by the owner of a suite as distinguished 
 from staircases, furnace, etc., which are simply used as means of 
 renderin<r the occupied rooms habitable). 
 
 The white parts of the lines measure the same length in each case, 
 because the amount of available room in both buildings is assumed at 
 the outset to be the same. Thus in the "tower " the front and back 
 staircases and halls take up 22,000 cubic feet out of a total 106,000 
 covered by the entire building. " In the 'flat' the proportional part 
 of the halls and staircases for each suite is represented by a com- 
 paratively insignificant quantity as shown." The eighty families in 
 
 I 
 
12 
 
 our illustration by uniting tlieir eighty homes in one cooperative 
 apartment, save 156 staircases, consisting of seventy-six front and 
 eighty back staircases, seventy-eight furnaces, seventy-nine laundries, 
 etc., and all the space they occupy, and the land, foundation and 
 roof they represent. Again an enormous waste is shown in the 
 flooring, roof and air-spaces of the " tower," while this item is but a 
 trifle in the *'flat." The six floors, each 16 inches thick, and the 
 roofing, make up together in the "tower" 12,000 cubic feet, or 
 nearly the equivalent of an entire story. Add to this 12,000 cubic 
 feet of air-space under the roof and over the concrete, and we have 
 in these items a waste of 24,000 cubic feet, against only 4,000 in the 
 " flat." Thus we see that the waste space in the " tower " actually 
 exceeds the available. Yet it must be paid for at the same rate 
 with the latter. Deducting the waste in the " flat " from^ that in the 
 " tower," Ave find the balance of waste space in the " tower " to be 
 equal to the available, showing graphically that the "tower" must 
 ■cost, in these items alone, just twice as much as the "flat." 
 
 The annual running expenses are also greatly in favor of the 
 " flat " system when the advantages of cooperation are used to its 
 greatest extent. Eighty independent Irish cooks give way to a pro- 
 fessional chef and half-a-dozen attaches. The wages and mainten- 
 ance of the 80 cooks would amount to an annual sum of not less than 
 S40,000; those of the chef and his assistants to hardly S10,000, 
 making in this one item a possible annual saving of $30,000. 
 
 The management of the 80 independent Irish cooks, if possible 
 at all, could only be accomplished by the constant struggle of 80 
 worried and largely inexperienced owners or their wives. The man- 
 agement of the chef and his attaches could more easily be manag«ad 
 by a single person. 
 
 Corresponding savings are evidently possible in every other de- 
 partment of housekeeping, including steam-heating, ventilating, 
 laundry -work, lighting and elevator work. In all these particulais, 
 ^cooperation, judiciously conducted, has been shown to produce sur- 
 prising economies. In the matter of heating, for instance, besides 
 the large saving in fuel due to handling the materials at wholesale, 
 there is a vast saving in the amount of space to be heated. The 
 "tower" contains 106,000 cubic feet to be heated. The same 
 amount of available space in our "flat" contains about 50,000 cubic 
 feet. Hence there is but half the space to heat, and, therefore, the 
 cost of the fuel will be but one-half. In a like manner the cost of 
 management is very much less, just as much less, in fact, as it costs 
 le?s to manage one large heating-apparatus than to manage eighty 
 smAl ones. 
 
 From an artistic standpoint, an immense advantage is seen. The 
 rooms " may be grouped in the ' fiat ' in a manner which renders 
 possible the highest architectural effect, whereas in the 'tower' the 
 perpendicular arrangement evidently precludes such opportunity by 
 limiting the design to a wearisome and monotonous repetition from 
 basement to attic. 
 
 No argument can be sustained against the " flat " on the ground 
 of transmission of sound or want of privacy and isolation, for sound 
 may be as fully deadened as in the " tower " by means of improved 
 deafening treatment now well-known to builders. 
 
 Isolation may be made complete in the ' flat,' the private halls 
 
13 
 
 and front doors of each suite being in every respect the equivalent of 
 those in the ' tower'; the only difference being that with the ' fiat* 
 the outer world begins with the public hall and its elevator, while 
 with the ' tower ' it begins with the public street and its horse-car. 
 
 Nationalism will bring us to the first true realization of the value 
 of the society of our fellow-men. Universal education and cultiva- 
 tion under equal opportunities and equal material advantages will 
 develop the highest qualities of mind, and the only true and perfect 
 individuality. Men will become necessary to each other through 
 their very differences of character, tastes and variety of intellectual 
 attainments, and the selfish and narrowing isolation of the separate 
 dwelling will give place to the cooperative apartment-house as surely 
 as the isolated huts of the savage yield to the cities and villages of 
 advancing civilization. Accordingly, under nationalism, the only 
 valid objection to the apartment-house, namely, the uncongeniality of 
 the people, will disappear, and with it half the expenses of living. 
 In the United States to-day, over nine-tenths of the people live in 
 isolated dwellings, and with ninety-nine one-hundredths the expenses 
 are twice as great as they would be for better accommodation under 
 the cooperative apartment-house system. 
 
 I am satisfied that it will be quite conservative to place the saving 
 in this item also at, at least, a tenth of the entire present expendi- 
 ture of the people. 
 
 Architecturally, the gain will be inestimable. Instead of the 
 monotonous rows of inharmonious facades crowded closely together, 
 largely to the exclusion of sunlight from their rooms, with their still 
 more monotonous interiors, we shall have separate large and grace- 
 ful edifices standing in open spaces wide enough apart to give ample 
 chances for tlie air and sunlight to bathe every part. The streets 
 will be laid out in such a manner as to enable all the rooms in the 
 buildings to receive the sunlight at some part of the day, and each 
 building will constitute a complete work o£ art in itself, set in an in- 
 dependent miniature park. So great is the economy of land-area 
 obtained by this system of building, that ample space will be saved 
 for verdure around each edifice, and there will be no crowded, in- 
 sanitary, half-dilapidated fire-traps for the poor" as now, constitut- 
 ing at once a disgrace to humanity and an eyesore and peril to the 
 whole community. 
 
 The same principle of cooperative building will be practised in 
 the country and at the seashore as in the cities, with the same end 
 in view; namely, the promotion of social intercourse, preservation of 
 natural beauties of site, and relief from household cares. The sys- 
 tem admits of either detached or connected dormitories. The 
 cooking, laundry-work, heating and other household drudgery of 
 each community will then be done under a single management and 
 with a single plant. By this system, the natural beauties of the 
 landscape will be infinitely better preserved than at present. Now 
 every one builds with little or no reference to the view and comfort 
 of his neighbor, and the finest effects of scenery are destroyed. He 
 does not even hesitate to imperil the health of his neighbor by the 
 sinking of a cesspool or the laying of a carelessly-jointed drain close 
 to his well, and I have known warm friendship between neighbors to 
 be severed by the encroachment of the branches of an apple-tree 
 belonging to one upon the premises of the other. 
 
14 
 
 Under the new regime it will be for the interest of all to preserve 
 all the beauties which nature affords, and the concentration of the 
 residences of a special neighborhood on some one spot best adapted 
 for building, besides giving to all the social and economical advantages 
 which distinguish the civilized man from the savage, will ensure to 
 each the most perfect enjoyment of the bounties of nature. 
 
 Nor does this necessarily preclude the possibility of an occasional 
 entirely isolated and independent cottage for those exceptional 
 natures who, for any reason, will prefer seclusion. It is only requi- 
 site that such isolation be attained without injury to the rights and 
 privileges, as these will be under nationalism for the first time fully 
 understood, of the rest. 
 
 There will, however, be no such shocking difference in the 
 twentieth century in the aspect of the city and that of the country 
 as now. 
 
 Remove from the city to the more suitable localities the crowded 
 shops and grimy factories, and substitute for them parks and foun- 
 tains; remove the insane clamor of traffic consequent upon our pre- 
 sent system of industrial warfare, and the populous city will rival the 
 rural village in natural beauty and repose. The various manufac- 
 turing and agricultural industries will be concentrated in those 
 parts of the country best fitted by nature and climate for their con- 
 duct, instead of being divided up and planted anywhere, haphazard 
 at prodigious waste in power and transportation. Animal power, 
 as a motor for transporting freight is already being rapidly sup- 
 planted by electric-motors, and in the twentieth century animals 
 will be debarred from the streets, which will then be everywhere 
 smoothly paved with asphaltum or flagging, and maintained as clean 
 and even as a hall floor. As a consequence of this, one o£ the 
 greatest evils of city life, greatest, whether considered from a sanitary 
 or from an artistic and economical standpoint, dust^ the distributor 
 of disease germs, and the perpetual torment of the housekeeper, will 
 be substantially banished from the city forever. 
 
 The coast line of picturesque seaport cities like Boston, instead of 
 being brutally sacrificed as now to lumbering warehouses, will be 
 transformed, as a matter of course, into esplanades of marvellous 
 beauty after the general plan of the Lake Fronts of Chicago ; the 
 mercantile vessels and shipping wharves being transferred to the 
 new points determined by the requirements of the great manufactur- 
 ing and agricultural centres, leaving pleasure yachts and cultivated 
 ocean terraces to take their places in front of the residences. 
 
 Of course, no one imagines that such a transformation could take 
 place all at once. But as the nation assumes, in continuation of the 
 evolutionary process long since begun, the management of the 
 various industries one by one, acquiring next, perhaps, the railroads, 
 telegraphs and mines, and gradually extending its control as fast as 
 the public good demands, so, one after another, the private business 
 structures which cumber our streets will disappear, and the new city 
 will rise in their places. The sooner the public becomes aware of the 
 great advantages which this new order will bring them individually 
 and collectively, the more rapid will be this transformation and the 
 fewer will be the sufferings which would come to all through leaving 
 the process to the slow course of natural evolution. 
 
8' 
 
 UR next great item of 
 waste conies from the 
 failure of society to 
 utilize the highest capabili- 
 ties of women. Drudgery, 
 which the nation should 
 perform now falls upon her, 
 and excludes occupations 
 which would not only be 
 more congenial, but which 
 are absolutely indispensa- 
 ble for the liiohest develop- 
 ment of society. In the 
 year of the last census, out 
 of the seventeen million of 
 persons employed in all 
 occupations, only two and a 
 half millions were women. 
 One of the leading princi- 
 ples of nationalism is that 
 every individual shall be 
 provided with the occupa- 
 tion for which he is best 
 fitted, knowing that the 
 greatest curse for the in- 
 dividual as well as for 
 society is to be condemned to an existence of idleness, and that the 
 greatest blessing is to have a congenial occupation, relieved by suita- 
 ble seasons of rest and recreation. Moreover it recognizes that the 
 work of men and women are distinct from, and supplementary to each 
 other, and that the work of each is equally necessary for the perfect 
 health of the social state. Accordingly special occupations, scienti- 
 fically adapted to their respective physical and mental natures, will be 
 provided by the nation for each. No such absurdity as a question of 
 women's right to suffrage will exist under nationalism. Her participa- 
 tion in the regulation of all matters affecting her own sex, or equally both 
 sexes, will be needed by the nation, and being needed will be exacted 
 of her. It is evident that the home and family will always claim a 
 part of every woman's time, but the energy which is now unnecessarily 
 spent in shopping and household drudgery, including that part of the 
 training of children which can better be performed by scientifically 
 trained instructors, as well as all the time which is now wasted in un- 
 profitable idleness and luxury will be claimed by the nation. W e may, 
 I think, fairly put the nation's share at, on the average, one-half the 
 
 Architecture. 
 
16 
 
 workin^i hours of every woman. But ai^ain, to avoid all possibility of 
 over-estimating our items of was^te, and to leave ample margin for differ- 
 ences of opinion in this matter, I will reduce the figure to one-quarter, 
 particularly as it is a fact that a large part of the home work of 
 women in wealth production escapes census enumerations. Taking 
 then a quarter of the time of the fourteen and a half millions of 
 women now unemployed, in the sense above indicated, according to 
 the census of 1880, we have the e(|uivalent of three and a half 
 millions available for the full working time, or about one-fifth of the 
 entire working population of to-day. 
 
 Accordingly, our waste due to this item of the unprofitable employ- 
 ment of women amounts to a fifth of the whole productive energy now 
 exerted. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the loss to the art of architecture due to 
 the exclusion of the female element from its actual practice, particu- 
 larly under the favorable conditions induced by nationalism ; but it 
 is fair to say that at least half and probably much more than half of 
 the inspiration which might have contributed lustre to our fair and 
 noble art — ever symbolized by the female figure — have by this exclu- 
 sion been sadly thrown away. 
 
 The next great unnecessary waste comes from the labor troubles, 
 due to the evils of the competitive system and involving failures, 
 business crises, gluts, strikes and lock-outs, speculation, peculation 
 and gambling, and all the timidity and hesitation resulting from these 
 evils. 
 
 Richard T. Ely says in his ^'Political Economy/, " page 260: "It 
 appears that wage-earners are idle about a tenth of the working days 
 in the year, on an average"; and it is a common saying, well sup- 
 ported by the facts, that for every success in business there are two 
 or three failures. Each must learn anew for himself by 
 
 bitter experience and long struggle the secret of financial success. 
 Each must create an independent policy, and work out a system of 
 management alone and unaided, and very few succeed in this before 
 their youth and power of enjoyment have passed away. 
 
 Each zealously keeps the secret of his success to himself, for to 
 share it with a competitor would be financial suicide. The terrible 
 nervous strain occasioned by this incessant warfare on the part ot" 
 our business men, embitters their whole career, and deprives success 
 of whatever sweetness mere money-making possesses. The struggle 
 becomes more severe each year, and the ratio of insanity increases 
 much faster than that of the population. 
 
 A short time ago a successful business man, of world-wide reputa- 
 tion, on being congratulated upon his unusual success remarked, " I 
 would rather have my head cut off with an axe than endure the 
 worries and responsibilities of my business life again. It ended by 
 driving me into nervous prostration of long duration, barely sparing 
 ray life." If such is the experience of an " eminently successful" 
 man, what must be the life of the vast majority, who are eminently 
 unsuccessful ? 
 
 The loss of effective working power due to this great nervous 
 strain forms an important element in the item of waste now under 
 consideration. 
 
17 
 
 Deducting now from the seventeen million workers those who have 
 already been considered under our previous heads oi distribution and 
 conientiouy and also the professional men, we have a balance of about 
 thirteen millions who must be included under the present class of 
 wane-earners and business men. 
 
 AVe estimate that considerably over a tenth part of the time of 
 these thirteen million workers is wasted in what we teim labor 
 troubles. This is equivalent to a loss of more than a thirteenth part 
 of the energy of the whole body of workers. It is only necessary to 
 add a thirtieth to more than make up our tenth on this item, and the 
 want is quickly supplied by the timidity of capital and labor result- 
 innj from the great perils and hardships connected with nil business 
 undertakings and the mental and physical exhaustion which these 
 evils produce. 
 
UR next great waste 
 comes under the 
 heading of prevent- 
 able cj'ime and disease. 
 
 The census of 1880 
 places the number of de- 
 fective, dependent and 
 delinquent classes in the 
 United States at 409,- 
 535, (including 168,854 
 insane ajid idiotic, 82,- 
 806 blind, deaf and 
 dumb, and 157,875 pris- 
 on ers and paupers). 
 This makes, including 
 their attendants and 
 keepers, nearly half a 
 million persons with- 
 drawn from useful occu- 
 pations, or about a 
 thirty-fourth of the whole 
 working population. 
 It is impossible to estimate how large a proportion of insanity and 
 idiocy is due to the distress, poverty, and fearful nervous strain re- 
 sulting directly or indirectly from the present system of industrial 
 warfare. Perhaps nearly all ; but I will place it at three-quarters, 
 which may be taken as the lowest measure of the benefits of Nation- 
 alism in this respect. Ninety-nine per cent of the prisoners and 
 paupers would be liberated by Nationalism, since ninety-nine per cent 
 of the causes for both will disappear. 
 
 Add to the above wastes the losses due to intemperance and pros- 
 titution, both of which are directly traceable to the evils of the com- 
 petitive system; and the losses coming from the preventable diseases, 
 and from the competitive manufacture and sale of intoxicants, quack 
 medicines, opium and other hurtful drugs, and we shall obtain a suffi- 
 cient aggregate to raise our percentage of waste under this heading 
 far above the tenth we have allowed for it. 
 
 Our margin of safety is here sufficiently large to cover that part 
 of the waste enumerated which Nationalism alone might be power- 
 less to cure. 
 
19 
 
 The annual production and sale of drinks amount, according to 
 the estimates of Mr. Atkinson, to $400,000,000 or a twenty-fifth of 
 the whole national income. 
 
 Now under Nationalism, the manufacture and sale of all liquors 
 being under the government, and no profit to individuals being ob- 
 tained therefrom, and all incentives to drink coming from poverty or 
 distress and idle luxury being removed, and the strong public 
 sentiment coming from universal education being turned against 
 drunkenness, the cause for this great waste will substantially dis- 
 appear. 
 
 A ninth great waste comes under the heading of unfitting occupa- 
 tions. A man can do twice as much work in the direction for which 
 he is fitted as in any other. Yet in nine cases out of ten the choice 
 of calling is regulated by other things than special aptitude. Fortune, 
 favor and fashion are the governing factors. 
 
 Money considerations debar countless numbers from following un- 
 lucrative callings for which they have decided fondness. Family in- 
 terest or personal favor opens opportunities to some to the exclusion 
 of others who are better fitted or more justly entitled to occupy 
 them. Fashion and social restrictions frequently exclude the college 
 graduate from the only field in which he possesses a strong natural 
 aptitude. Finally, with women, the restrictions are so great that only 
 a seventh part of the whole possible number are reported by the 
 census as employed at all. 
 
 The whole great mass of the laboring and poorer classes, de- 
 prived of the advantajres of a liberal education, are practically ex- 
 cluded from all occupations in which education is an essential element, 
 and countless talents are thus buried in obscurity and lost to the 
 world. They are even deprived of a free choice in the realm of 
 manual work, inasmuch as the fluctuations of supply and demand 
 necessarily limit freedom in this respect under the competitive system 
 and render any continuous employment in a given field extremely 
 uncertain. 
 
 A prolonged " glut, " so-called, in the market in any particular in- 
 dustry, or a decrease in the employing capacity of any individual or 
 combination of individuals, involves the suspension of the work of 
 many " hands " and their absorption into other lines after a great 
 waste of energy has been sustained in making the change. 
 
 All this would be changed under nationalism. For it is a neces- 
 sary consequence of the system, and one of its most important char- 
 acteristics, that every citizen will be employed by the nation in the 
 line for which he is best fitted, and every possible effort and precau- 
 tion will be taken, to ascertain correctly in each case, what this line 
 may be. For it will be for the interest of all, that each shall con- 
 tribute his utmost for the commonwealth, and in no other way can 
 such a result be attained. Under the competitive system, on the 
 contrary, every one considers it for his interest to reduce the pro- 
 ductiveness of his competitor, inasmuch as his neighbor's failure con- 
 tributes directly to his own financial success. 
 
 Accordingly under nationalism the standard of work of all kinds 
 "will be raised to the highest possible point, there being no incom- 
 petent ones, quacks, or humbugs to lower it. Industry and ability 
 will be the only sure road to honor, and the most important 
 
20 
 
 commissions will be confided by general consent to those best fitted to 
 execute them. Since every one wiU be directly benefited by such 
 selections, the bitter feehngs of rivah-y and jealousy now existing 
 will disappear, and a spirited but friendly emulation will take ita 
 place. 
 
 Nationalism would at once put an end to the use of our absurd 
 weights and measures and replace them by the Metric System now 
 adopted by the majority of civilized nations. "Private enterprise " 
 has thrown the only practical obstacle in the way of its introduction 
 during the last decade. For nearly a quarter of a century the 
 Government has shown a disposition to meet the people more tlum 
 half-way in joining the general march of progress among nations in 
 this particular, and almost the only positive opposition has come 
 from private owners of machinery and goods whose gauges and 
 values would be affected by the change. 
 
 Thus the interests of the whole people have been sacrificed for 
 the benefit of a few selfish and short-sighted, but influential 
 individuals who have so far succeeded in working upon the ignoi ance 
 and prejudice of the masses, and through tliem postponing the 
 adoption of a blessing, the importance of which can hardly be 
 estimated. The United States Government has always had a 
 decimal coinage which is now also metric. Our five cent nickel 
 weighs 5 grams; our dime 2^ grams; our twenty-five cent pitce 
 grams; and our fifty cent piece 12^- grams. Our Congrci-s made 
 the Metric System legal in 1866, and caused each State to be 
 furnished with a set of the metric standards. And b'wce then the 
 metric system has been used exclusively in all the work done in the 
 Assay Department of the United States INlint, in the Unittd iSfatcs 
 Marine-Hospital Service, and the metre has always been iv. vd in the 
 United States Coast Survey. Under nationalism, when all 
 machinery and industries are owned by the nation, it is evident that 
 no other than the metric system can possibly be used, b(cjui;-e the 
 simultaneous employment of two or more diflercnt systems will llien 
 be seen to be an absurdity and absolutely useless and int xcuf-able. 
 
 The metric system may be fully mastered in a few hours by any 
 person of ordinary intelligenct^, whereas, on llie contrary, ro man 
 exists who can master in a life-time, all the intricacies of the mutual 
 relations of the weights and measures of our present tables. 
 
 It has been estimated by good authorities that the introduction of 
 the metric system will save between one and two years in the school- 
 time of every child enjoying a liberal education. In after life in all 
 practical business and scientific research, the saving of time and 
 money will be inestimable. 
 
 Esj)ecially important will this item be to the architect and engi- 
 neer with whom the calculations of weights, measures and values of 
 building materials form, or should form, an important part of their 
 work, and they have accordingly for many years actively favored the 
 adoption of the metric system, and in 1886, the Western Association 
 of Architects voted to petition Congress to pass a law making the 
 system compulsory after a reasonable period. 
 
 Foundations are measured in rods or perches of two or three 
 different kinds, and other building materials in yards, feet and 
 inches, or by weight in tons, hundred-weights, pounds and ounces of 
 
21 
 
 several different kinds, none having any scientific relations to each 
 other, and computation which in the metric system may be accurately 
 made with a few dozen figures often require as many hundred in our 
 ordinary measures with only an approximation at accuracy. 
 
 I have before me the figures required by an architect to estimate 
 approximately the weight of a quantity of material used in building. 
 Tlie operation required 380 figures. I solved the same problem 
 with absolute accuracy by the aid of the metric system in 68 figures, 
 and in doing so found that the inaccuracies of the first result were 
 practically unavoidable. 
 
w 
 
 'E have calculated the losses of energy 
 sustained in selling and purchasing 
 under the competitive system ; iu 
 needless contention; neglect to utilize the 
 capabilities of women ; in the extrava- 
 gance of our fcxclusiveness ; in incessant 
 labor troubles ; in all kinds of preventable 
 diseases and crime, and in the unwise allot- 
 ment of the work to be performed. 
 
 But a far greater loss than any of tliese 
 comes from the anarchy of production. 
 " These points of which I have been speak- 
 ing," says Mr. Bellamy, " indicate only neg- 
 atively the advantages of the national 
 organization of industry by showing certain 
 fatal defects and prodigious imbecilities of 
 the sj'stem of private enterprise which are 
 not found in it. These alone, you must ad- 
 mit, would pretty well explain why the 
 nation is so much richer than in your day» 
 But the larger half of our advantage over 
 you, the positive side of it, I have yet barely 
 spoken of. Supposing the system of private enterprise in industry 
 were without any of the great leaks I have mentioned ; that there 
 were no waste on account of misdirected effort growing out of mis- 
 takes as to the demand, and inability to command a general view of 
 the industrial field. Suppose, also, there were no neutralizing and 
 duplicating of effort from competition. Suppose, also, there were no 
 waste from business panics and crises through bankruptcy and long 
 interruptions of industry, and also none from the idleness of capital 
 and labor. Supposing these evils, which are essential to the conduct 
 of industry by capital in private hands, could all be miraculously 
 prevented, and the system yet retained ; even then the superiority 
 of the results attained by the modern industrial system of national 
 control would remain overwhelming. 
 
 *' You used to have some pretty large textile manufacturing estab- 
 lishments, even in your day, although not comparable with ours. 
 No doubt you have visited these great mills in your time, covering 
 acres of ground, employing thousands of hands, and combining under 
 one roof, under one control, the hundred distinct processes between, 
 say, the cotton bale, and the bale of glossy calicoes. You have 
 admired the vast economy of labor as of mechanical force resulting 
 from the perfect interworking with the rest, of every wheel and 
 every hand. No doubt you have reflected how much less the same 
 force of workers employed in that factory would accomplish, if they 
 
23 
 
 were scattered, each man working independently. Would you tliink 
 it an exaggeration to say that the utmost product of those workers, 
 working thus apart, however amicable their relations misfit be, was 
 increased not merely by a percentage, but manifold, when their 
 efforts were organized under one control? Well now, Mr. West, 
 the organization of the industry of the nation under a single control, 
 so that all its processes interlock, has multiplied the total product 
 over the utmost that could be done under the former system, even 
 leaving out of account the four great wastes mentioned, in the same 
 proportion that the product of those mill-workers was increased by 
 cooperation. The effectiveness of the working force of a nation, 
 under the myriad-headed leadership of private capital, even if the 
 leaders were not mutual enemies, as compared with that which it 
 attains under a single head, may be likened to the military efficiency 
 of a mob, or a horde of barbarians with a thousand petty chiefs, as 
 compared with that of a disciplined army under one general — such a 
 fighting machine, for example, as the German army in the time of 
 Yon Moltke." 
 
 According to the tenth census the number of persons engaged in 
 manufacturing, mechanical, mining and agricultural industries, that is 
 in wealth production, amounts to eleven and one-half millions, or two- 
 thirds of the entire working force, and more than five times the 
 number employed in distribution. All these "hands" and "heads" 
 are working at cross-purposes and in the dark. Each head has to 
 learn independently how to organize and lead its little squad of 
 hands in its own imperfect way, where a single head and a single 
 business system might be organized once and for all, and serve for 
 the entire eleven and a half million. Each hand is needlessly 
 duplicating work for the thousandth time in guiding one of a 
 thousand bmall machines which could far better be supplanted by a 
 single great machine. Each small factory or firm has its separate 
 officers, superintendents and foremen, where thousands might be 
 united in a single establishment under a single system of superin- 
 tendence. Each part of the country is sending its raw materials to 
 a thousand different places for conversion into marketable goods 
 only to be returned again for consumption, where all this cross 
 transportation might be dispensed with. 
 
 Eliminate this last and greatest waste, and the annual wealth pro- 
 duction of the country might, as Mr. Bellamy truly says, be increased 
 not merely by a percentage but many fold, even without taking 
 into account at all the nine other great items previously con- 
 sidered. 
 
 There are many other great wastes directly due to the competitive 
 system of industry which will occur to the reader ; such as the loss of 
 energy, due to the manufacture and use of adulterations of all kinds, 
 which has now assumed colossal proportions, and the loss due to the 
 obstruction of free trade with other nations, occasioned by the 
 present policy of " Protection " which will instantly be viewed in a 
 new lights when the nation assumes itself the conduct of all indus- 
 tries. 
 
 It is said that in Paris alone, two thousand children die annually 
 before reaching the end of their second year of tuberculous disease 
 contracted through cows' milk. Rich and poor alike are exposed to 
 
24 
 
 the terrible danger due to the sale of infected milk and unwholesome 
 food of all kinds, an inevitable result of the existing industrial 
 system. 
 
 Nationalism, by eradicating the incentive for the sale of such food, 
 will thereby stamp out a vast amount of the disease which now 
 afflicts the whole community, and will correspondingly increase its 
 power of wealth production. 
 
 Accordingly 1 believe it would be nearer the truth to say that the 
 nation will be nearer twentyfold than tenfold richer when all these 
 gigantic Avastes together are abolished, when the people come to a 
 general realization of the gigantic folly of the competitive system of 
 industry. 
 
 Thus it is easy to see that the principles of Nationalism involve 
 no confiscation of property now owned by private parties. Land 
 and machinery required by the nation can then be obtained, as now, 
 in the open market, and under more equitable terms, since justice 
 and morality form the distinguishing characteristics of Nationalism, 
 and Government Bonds will be eagerly taken in exchange for private 
 securities. 
 
 What will be the effect upon the architecture of our country, of 
 this universal enjoyment of wealth and cultivation, this immeasur- 
 ably improved condition of the whole people under Nationalism? It 
 will develop a national style of architecture which will surpass in 
 splendor anything hitherto known in the history of the art, even as 
 the superior social state of the ancient Greek Republic produced, in 
 the midst of an age of comparative barbarism, the art of Phidias. 
 
Part of a Greek Temple. From Viollet-le- Due's " Discourses on ArcMtecture** 
 
 WHAT are the special conditions — tlie social and intellectual 
 peculiarities — which developed the great styles of architect- 
 ure, and to what extent will nationalism reproduce these con- 
 ditions and characteristics ? 
 
26 
 
 Beginning with the art of ancient Greece, we find a republic ia 
 which all the citizens participated in public affairs and took a deep 
 interest in them as members of the same society. This spirit of 
 association and equal political and social power and responsibility 
 encouraged a spirit of criticism, emulation, ambition and intellectual 
 progress. All the citizens were cultivated art critics and more or 
 less of philosophers. The architect both valued and feared their 
 judgment on his work, and exerted himself correspondingly to ren- 
 der his creations worthy of himself and his country. Every part 
 shows the result of careful reasoning in virtue of which the design 
 was precisely suited to the requirements of the structure and to the 
 nature of the materials obtainable. The Athenians were slave- 
 holders, but the slaves formed no part of the Republic proper, and 
 corresponded simply to our machiner3% They did the work of 
 machines, giving the Greek citizens the opportunity for performing 
 the higher intellectual work. Sparta alone of all the Greek cities 
 developed an exclusive and inhospitable aristocracy, and never cul- 
 tivated the arts. 
 
 With the Athenians the artist worked, not for a chief, nor for an 
 aristocracy, nor a plutocracy, but for the whole people who were 
 free, cultivated, fastidious, critical and disputatious. " If such a 
 task is difficult, the recompense is precious when obtained ; for suc- 
 cess, won from such a public opinion, is the only reward which can 
 really flatter the artist . . . The Athenians were inclined to make 
 art rule over all things, or rather to convert everything into a work 
 of art. Among them an event, a fact, a phenomenon, good, evil, all 
 that exists in the material or immaterial world, was translated into 
 this language, with a delicacy of observation, a logical truthfulness, 
 a simplicity and energy of expression which seems almost super- 
 human. But faculties so precious could only be developed in the 
 midst of a perfectly homogeneous society, all of whose members, 
 moved by the same intelligence, understood each other and were 
 equally sensitive to the different expressions of art." ^ 
 
 Precisely these conditions will be reproduced under Nationalism. - 
 The great wealth of the Nation will give every citizen something of 
 the leisure so fruitfully applied by the ancient Greeks to the study^ 
 of art. With short working days of perhaps from four to six 
 hours, and frequent and liberal vacations absolutely free from business 
 cares, ample opportunity will be given for physical and intellectual 
 development. Believed from the all-absorbing occupation of money- 
 making and money-losing, with its long train of consequent evils, 
 and equipped with the complete education received in early life con- 
 sisting partly of manual and partly of mental training (the one or 
 the other predominating in accordance with the natural aptitude of 
 the individual), all the useless pursuits, legal, military and criminal, 
 necessitated by the competitive system, being abolished, the entire 
 energy of the whole people will be directed to the cultivation of the 
 arts and sciences including manufacture, agriculture and trans- 
 portation. 
 
 All the desirable features of the Greek Bepublic at the time of 
 Pericles will be reproduced and magnified. 
 
 The first feature of vital importance, after that of the general cul- 
 
 1 Viollet-le-Duc's '^Discourses on Architecture." 
 
27 
 
 tivation of the masses and social equality, influencing Greek archi- 
 tecture, was that the architect was both artist and engineer; or, 
 in other words, the professions of the architect and engineer were 
 one and the same. This is an essential condition, and the impossi- 
 bility of its realization under the present form of competitive indus- 
 try, is one of several reasons why we cannot expect to see the 
 development of another great style of architecture so long as this 
 system lasts. It is not sufficient that the architect should employ 
 an engineer or associate himself with one. He must be one. Al- 
 ready far too much is exacted of the architect to-day to enable him 
 greatly to extend his sphere in this direction. He must first be re- 
 lieved of two-thirds of the cares and responsibilities he now sustains, 
 and this can only be done, as already indicated, by the Nation. 
 
 The result of the union of these two qualities in the architect is 
 most forcibly shown in the magnificence and boldness of the early 
 Gothic architecture, but it is also clearly evident in the logical re- 
 finement of the ancient Greek ; while its absence is the cause of the 
 failure from an artistic standpoint of the Roman architecture. 
 
 These facts are too well recognized to-day by the architect to re- 
 quire argument, but for the non-professional reader a few illustra- 
 tions may be necessary, and even to the professional useful, as pre- 
 senting the subject in a new light. 
 
 The initial cut shows the construction of part of a Greek temple. 
 
 The simple problem before the architect was to build an enclosed 
 room surrounded with porticos to protect and shade it, in the most 
 suitable and beautiful manner with the materials and machinery at 
 command. His material consisted in the marbles of the neighbor- 
 ing mountains; his machinery in the arms of his slaves. Accord- 
 ingly, where large blocks of material are not absolutely necessary 
 for grandeur of effect, as in the walls of the cella, small stones are 
 used, which can easily be transported in square blocks by these 
 slaves. Where large pieces are required, as in the columns of the 
 the porticos, the blocks are cut at the quarry in the cylindrical form 
 necessary to facilitate transportation by rolling. The lintel stones 
 above the columns are smaller and composed of two long pieces, one 
 showing a face on the exterior, and the other on the interior of the 
 portico. This division is for two purposes, both considerations of 
 engineering, the first being to diminish weight in transportation, 
 and the second to avoid danger of fracture under the pressure of the 
 superstructure on account of chance flaws or natural lines of break- 
 age, invisible at the time of quarrying, to which all calcareous stones 
 are liable We see everywhere the science and skill of the engi- 
 neer united with the delicate feeling of the artist. The lintels are 
 raised to their places by ingeniously formed channels cut in their 
 ends, since the modern crowbar and wedges cannot be used to ad- 
 just these finely cut and finished blocks. The capitals of the col- 
 umns are formed with strong projections all round, the lateral pro- 
 jections being needed to assist in the support of the lintels, either 
 actually or for the satisfaction of the eye, and the front and rear 
 to serve as scaffolding for the erection of the lintels and super- 
 structure. Above the lintels only small stones are used, since large 
 ones are not needed for the artistic effect of the structure. The 
 corner columns where greater strength is needed are spaced 
 
28 
 
 nearer together than the rest, and these columns are sUghtly thicker 
 than the interior ones and lean slightly inward to increase the 
 stability of the building. The strength and proportions of every 
 part are calculated with the utmost refinement. 
 
 The same constructive skill is displayed in the treatment of every 
 detail, and the same hand and mind are apparent in their artistic 
 decoration. Thus the columns and triglyphs are fluted to increase 
 the effect of vertical strength, and give decision and character to 
 the lines of light. The columns are diminished in size toward 
 the top to correct the optical effect of the reverse which an equal 
 diameter at the top would produce; and all the apparently straight 
 lines of the building, both horizontal and vertical, are really most 
 delicate hyperbolic curves designed with the most subtile feeling to 
 counteract optical effects produced by their combinations which 
 would offend the trained eye of the Greek. 
 
 Every moulding has its meaning, explanatory of the functions of 
 the member it adorns, and every piece of sculpture tells a story 
 appropriate to the purpose of the structure. Thus the moulding 
 under the abacus of the Doric column indicates by its design the 
 massive weight these sturdy members support. The story is told by 
 the form of the leafage inscribed upon its surface. The leaves are 
 doubled entirely over upon themselves until their pointed ends touch 
 their bases, as shown in the accompanying sketches. The leaves on the 
 antas or pilasters are somewhat less bent indicating thereby truth- 
 fully that less weight Is borne by them than by the columns. With 
 the Corinthian order, on the contrary, where, as compared with the 
 Doric, grace and lightness are the distinguishing features, the leaves 
 below the abacus are but lightly curved, and thus express the com- 
 parative lightness of the entablature. The Romans, incapable of 
 
 Doric Column Capital. Doric Pilaster Capital. 
 
 understanding any such refinement of art expression as this inter- 
 preted the Doric tracery above described as indicating cggs-and-darts, 
 and so named it. Could any more unfortunate symbols possibly be 
 devised to express resistance to colossal weight than eggs-and-arrows I 
 Finally, the whole structure is richly decorated with strong, pure 
 colors, for the purpose of setting forth the various members of the 
 structure in bold relief and of adding brilliancy to the design. 
 " This application of color," says VioUet-le-Duc, " to the exterior of 
 monuments is so necessary in a country like Greece, where the air 
 has a marvellous transparency, that to-day, for example, he who 
 
29 
 
 from a certain distance looks at the Temple of Theseus at Athens, 
 now deprived of its colors, when in fall sunlight, finds it impossible 
 to distinguish the lights on the columns from those on the wall of the 
 cella behind them, these lights, though on different planes, beino- 
 confounded and appearing to be projected on the same surface." ° 
 
 When the travclhng public view tlie ruins of these temples to-day, 
 they see nothing of their real beauty, the color, the sculpture and re- 
 finement of the forms are gone; yet the average traveller imagines 
 himself transported with admiration when he beholds them, and he 
 describes their glory to his friends at home with as much enthusiasm 
 as if he had actually seen the reality. Thereupon ghostly imitations 
 are erected all over the country, without the color, sculpture, refine- 
 ment, life or meaning of the original creations, and our public has 
 not tlie cultivation to realize the absurdity of the thing. They are, 
 in fact, as a whole, too much hurried and worried to care anything 
 about the refinements of the art of architecture, and could not afford 
 to pay for them if they did. 
 
 The next desideratum for the development of a true style of archi- 
 tecture, evidently unattainable under our present competitive system, 
 is that the architect should be permitted in every case to personally 
 superintend the execution of his design; in order that the archi- 
 tectural forms may exactly conform to the conditions of the site. " It 
 is not rare," says Viollet-le-Duc, ''to meet persons, considered com- 
 petent judges, or even artists, who believe that a project conceived 
 by an architect can, without losing any of its merit, be put into 
 execution by outside subalterns without any direct supervision of the 
 architect. Now a work of architecture, like every other work of art, 
 is the most intimate association and agreement between the concep- 
 tion of it, and the manner and means of executing it; and to sup- 
 pose that an architect can make a design, which another can execute 
 without his superintendence, is the same as admitting that a musi- 
 cian may be two men, one who composes and one who arranges the 
 score of the orchestra. The skilful architect, in designing, always 
 has in view the materials he is to employ, their forms and dimen- 
 sions; he must appreciate their qualities and nature, and dispose of 
 them accordingly; he builds up in one day in his mind what it will 
 take years to erect actually : and the sheet of paper before him 
 already becomes, as it were, a vast constructor's yard, where masons, 
 stone-cutters, carpenters, iron-worker , slaters, joiners, glaziers, 
 sculptors and painters, are plying their vocations to produce an 
 harmonious whole, just as the musician, in composing an opera, 
 hears the various instruments of the orchestra, the choruses and the 
 voices of the singers. But in order that the public may recognize 
 in the score of the musician as in the monument of the architect, an 
 original work of art, bearing the impress of personal talent, the 
 musician must have himself written and arranged all parts of his 
 composition, as the architect must have himself apportioned among 
 all his workmen the various details which compose his monument; 
 and it is essential that the musician himself should direct the re- 
 hearsals, so that he may modify his work where experiment may 
 render it necessary, tis the architect should superintend his me- 
 chanics and arrange, according to the spirit of his design, the in- 
 numerable unforeseen emergencies of execution as they daily arise 
 
30 
 
 under the hands of the workmen." The direction and power of the 
 sun's rays, and the forms of the shadow in particular locaUties 
 always determined the forms of the mouldings used in the Classic 
 styles. The architect should not only supervise the erection of the 
 building, but to a certain ej^tent also, the preparation of the mate- 
 rials, since his design must be influenced by the size, form and con- 
 stitution of the materials he uses. If, for instance, his stonework 
 must come from quarries which are capable of furnishing only small 
 blocks, the design must be governed by this condition. If, on the 
 other hand, enormous blocks are obtainable, the design must be made 
 to take advantage of this as an element of grandeur. It was in 
 strictly conforming to these principles that the Greeks and mediaeval 
 architects produced the essential characteristics of their styles. 
 
 It is not so with us, nor can it be in the pressure and hurry of the 
 modern architect's work. Our design must be made to suit the style 
 arbitrarily selected, and be prepared in time to enable the building 
 to be completed in accordance with the close financial calculations of 
 the owner, and if the stones come from the quarry in pieces too 
 large to conform to the design, they must be cut up into little pieces 
 or else grooved in courses shamming little pieces as the only alterna- 
 tive. 
 
 Mr. Henry Van Brunt, in the introduction to his scholarly transla- 
 tion of Viollet-le-Duc's " Discourses," * refers to this evil in the fol- 
 lowing telling words : " The atmosphere of haste in which we live is 
 another element distinctly detrimental to the development of good 
 style. But the Greek democracy, says our author, 'had the in- 
 estimable advantage of leisure.* The Greek temple, therefore, is an 
 expression of utter tranquility. The very essence of that great art 
 was deliberation. The architect was never hurried ; his inspiration 
 proceeded, not from impulse, but from conviction. He built slowly. 
 But with us he is pressed to the completion of his work amidst 
 bustle and confusion. The public is impatient of delay; it must 
 have promptness and despatch at all hazards. The modern Ictinus 
 must supply the design for the new Parthenon, ' ready for estimates,' 
 in three weeks at farthest ; and the unfinished study is perpetuated in 
 a workmanlike manner and with all its sins of omission and commis- 
 sion made permanent and monumental. Indeed, all the conditions 
 of life in this country encourage the architect to habits rather of 
 rapid composition than of study and reflection, and tend to make of 
 his occupation rather a business than a fine art. The ' strenuous 
 liberty* which we have inherited involves a constant and often 
 harassing struggle for existence. Therefore, the aim of the archi- 
 tect is to multiply his opportunities of professional work to the 
 utmost extent, having in view, first, his pecuniary emoluments, of 
 course, and second, his art. Under these circumstances he has no 
 time to review his studies; he cannot afford, after his first sketches 
 are made and his work is in progress of routine development in his 
 office, to distrust and chasten his favorite motifs, with the solicitude 
 and patience of an artist aiming at perfection like the Greek ; much 
 less, having discovered on reflection a new condition in his problem 
 which would enable him perhaps to raise to a higher plane of artistic 
 excellence or fitness the whole sentiment of his work, to throw aside 
 
 1 Published by Ticknor & Company, Boston. 
 
31 
 
 his old studies and begin anew. This costs too much. If the pro- 
 ducts of routine and conventionality will satisfy his impatient public, 
 he has the strongest impulse under the circumstances to content 
 himself with the superficial appearance, and let the substances of art 
 go for those who can afford it. Art is a mistress who is won by no 
 such partial service." 
 
 Now so long as " time is money," and the struggle for money is 
 the first aim and only condition of existence with the people, or in 
 other words, so long as the competitive system exists, so long will 
 that mistress refuse to be won by them. 
 
rpHE union of artist 
 and engineer is 
 particularly notice- 
 aTble in the architects 
 of the twelfth century. 
 Their great cathedrals 
 are marvels of engineer- 
 ing skill handled with 
 consummate art. The 
 problem before them 
 was almost the reverse 
 of that presented to the 
 ancient Greek. A vast 
 hall must be built and 
 roofed-in with materi- 
 als so small as to resem- 
 ble rubble more than 
 blocks of masonry. The 
 supports of the roof 
 vaulting must occupy a 
 minimum of ground 
 area, not only for the 
 purpose of giving the 
 greatest possible 
 amount of unobstructed 
 room for the perform- 
 ance and view of the 
 sacred ceremonies and 
 grand processions held 
 Avithin them, but also 
 to provide a maximum 
 of open space for the 
 gorgeous stained-glass 
 windows which form a 
 leading characteristic 
 of the Gothic style. 
 The initial-cut shows the 
 construction of a part 
 of a Gothic cathedral. 
 Only a perfect mastery of the laws of statics and dynamics, as 
 affecting the materials employed and a marvellous skill in their appli- 
 cation, enabled the architect to erect such daring structures, which 
 have already stood the test of five centuries and now seem capable 
 of standing as many more. The Gothic represents the dynamics 
 and the ancient Greek the statics of architectural construction, and 
 the resultant forms are correspondingly diametrically opposite tO' 
 
 Section of the Nave of Amiens Cathedral. From Viollet- 
 le-Duc. 
 
33 
 
 each other. Equihbrmm, the opposition of compressile to tensile 
 iorces, and the reduction of the horizontal section of the points of 
 support to a miniinum are the principles of Gothic construction, 
 iron, had it been obtainable in large masses for building, would have 
 been enthusiascicahy used by the Gothic architects as a means of 
 obtaining pouits of support still more rigid and condensed. 
 
 The Goihic architecture did not attain its highest perfection until 
 emancipated entirely from the control of the church. This took 
 place at the end of tiie twelfth century, when a real national spirit 
 began to make itself lelt in the gradual enfranchisement of the com- 
 mons, in scholastic discussions and in the study of ancient philosophy. 
 Then throughout France a truly national style arose with a general 
 thirst for Icnowledge, independence and national union aniong^ll the 
 people of the middle classes, and under this influence it developed 
 with great rapidity. The artists were then entirely independent, 
 neither the clergy nor the nobility interfering. The whole people 
 took an intense interest in their architecture. They were not, in 
 the modern sense, highly educated. Books were rare, since the 
 printing-press did not then exist. Therefore, the painting and 
 sculpture of their cathedrals formed almost their only literature, and 
 this made these buildings all and all to those who erected, as Avell as 
 to those who worshipped in them, and thus the appreciation and love 
 for art grew strong among the whole people and was not confined to 
 the richer classes. 
 
 The accompanying cut represents in perspective a part of the 
 interior of the Cathedral of Mayence, and gives some idea of the 
 marvellous beauty of these noble creations, the highest work of art 
 ever produced hy man. Such interiors as these, blazing with 
 harmonious colors and rich with sculpture, could only be the work of 
 love of a whole community inspired by one feeling and a universal 
 sympathy for their national art, and could have no other effect upon 
 those Avho worshipped in them than to civilize and elevate them to 
 a still higher degree. This cut illustrates clearly the method of con- 
 struction of medisBval architects. Not a stone over a foot thick is 
 shown in the whole design, and yet the stability both actual and 
 apparent of the structure is absolute, even though the horizontal 
 area of the supporting columns is reduced to the smallest amount 
 possible with stone, and the walls are cut away to mere points of 
 support in order to make room for whole volumes of history in stained 
 glass. 
 
 "An epoch," says Viollet-le-Duc, "which regards art as a mere 
 matter of luxury, an appurtenance of the privileged classes, or an 
 envelope proper only for certain public monuments, may be a well 
 administered epoch, but it does not possess the highest element of 
 civilization, and perhaps one of the most essential qualities of public 
 tranquility. There are intellectual enjoyments, as well as material 
 enjovmenls, and the former, like the latter, when they become exclu- 
 sive and. priviledged, create envy and ill feeling. If but a few 
 know how to read, the ignorant crowd, when it chances to get the 
 upper hand, burns books with as much passion as it burns sumptuous 
 chateaux, where all the material pleasures of life are brought 
 together. If everybody can read, books will accumulate and remain 
 uiTinsulted upon the library shelves. In the same manner to make 
 
34 
 
 art a matter of luxury or to associate it only with wealth is danger 
 
 Interior of Gothic Cathedral. From Violiet-le-Duc. 
 
 ous alike for art and for the exclusive few who patronize it. It is 
 
35 
 
 important, therefore, to render art catholic, and to restore it to its 
 proper intluence over all things and its proi)er place everywhere; 
 it is important that the minds of all, and of artists more especially, 
 should be penetrated with the truth that art, in architecture, does 
 not consist in the employment of precious marbles or in the accumu- 
 lation of ornaments, but in distinction of form, in the most graceful 
 and most honest way of doing practical things ; for it cot^ts no more 
 in money, although it may in thought, to cut stones or to lay bricks 
 according to judicious principles, and with a proper regard for 
 aesthetic proprieties, than to cut and lay them without duly consider- 
 ing the place they are to occupy in the building, and the part they 
 are lo bear in its general effect. Now the art of the lay school in 
 the thirteenth century was essentially democratic ; it was everywhere 
 and in everything; and the villager had as much right to be proud 
 of his little church, or the countiy gentleman of his manor-house, 
 as the citizen of his cathedral or the nobleman of his palace." 
 
 The architect of the best Gothic period made his own details and 
 superintended the construction of the building. He was the master 
 of the works. The great cathedrals of the Middle Ages were not 
 designed and executed in a few months. They were the work of 
 years and even centuries. They represent the aggregate experience 
 of a whole people working for generations in the same direction. A 
 single mind, however talented, cannot invent a new style. Archi- 
 tecture is a useful art ; an adaptation to habitations of all the count- 
 less developments of science in methods of construction, warming, 
 ventilating, lighting, draining, and protection of all kinds, and every 
 advance or modification in any one of these elements which make 
 up the building, must have its effect upon its form. Accordingly 
 architecttu'e must of necessity develop slowly and only in conformity 
 with the progress of the various elements of which it is composed. 
 In a purely useful art, like ship-bnilding, for instance, this necessity 
 of sloAv development is instinctively felt and accepted by every one 
 without question. Each individual, each generation, is content to 
 add the merest atom to the general progress, the smallest detail to 
 the grand aggregate of effort which has converted the canoe of the 
 savage into the great ocean steamer of to-day. So it was in the 
 architecture of the Middle Ages and so must it always be in the 
 development of another national style. 
 
 But the architect of to-day is not satisfied to perform so humble a 
 part; he must distiniruish himself by producing some striking orig- 
 inality; he must tickle some eccentric client, or be left behind in 
 the present slavish race for existence and position. Thus it is that 
 in Art the age of gold is ths reverse of the " Golden Age," and we 
 have in the abnormal craving for originaUly a fourth reason why, so 
 long as the competitive money struggle exists, a great national style 
 of architecture is an impossibility. Unfortunately, too, the evil 
 increases and must continue to increase under this system each year, 
 for as one by one the various small manufacturing and distribirting 
 firms are crushed out of existence by the great monopolies, other 
 occupations will be sought and the professions must inevitably 
 become correspondingly overcrowded. As competition grows hotter, 
 the independence of the artist so indispensable for the progress of 
 art, must diminish until artists and architects will be degraded to 
 
36 
 
 the position of lackeys to a liauglity and ostentatious plutocracy, 
 and as has under such condiiions always been the case in history, 
 the degradation of art will be absolute. 
 
 A Jifth great evil, resulting from the competitive system, pregnant 
 with danger to the art of architecture, comes from the custom of 
 instituting architectural competitions for the award of the most 
 desirable building commissions. However necessary they may be 
 under the competitive system of industry, from which they are a 
 direct outgrowth, and they certainly are necessary under this systt m, 
 nevertheless, considered from a broad standpoint they are an unal- 
 loyed evil, and the fact that under nationalism all need and excu^^e 
 for them will absolutely disappear is not the least of the countless 
 practical advantages of this system. 
 
 To avoid misunderstanding it is proper to say at the outset, that 
 the writer has no unusual personal prejudice against competitions, 
 inasmuch as his most lucrative commissions have come from them. 
 Condemnation of the principle is in no respect due to any personal 
 bitterness. 
 
 Architectural competitions are of two kinds, the first being for the 
 selection of the architect and the second for the selection of the vari- 
 ous contractors who are to execute his designs. 
 
 The first evident objection to the competition of architects is the 
 encouragement of unstudied but effective and flashy design, of the 
 attempt to produce that superficial and dangerous orif/inality to 
 which we have just referred — an effort to capture the jury, rather 
 than an earnest and thorough study of the problem from the highest 
 standpoint of art, through which alone a national style can ever be 
 developed. It often happens that a month, or even a fortnight, is 
 all the time given the architect to make his competitive drawings for 
 a most important building. Even if the architect had no other work 
 on hand to be "rushed, ' how could a design ti-uthfuUy representing 
 all the requirements of the case, and worthy of living for centuries 
 in monumental stone, be created in these few days? In the evident 
 impossibility of studying all the constructive and utilitarian require- 
 ments of the case, which ought evidently to govern the form of the 
 structure, the architect is obliged to select arbitrarily in advance 
 some style of architecture belonging to past ages which happens at 
 the time to be, in his opinion, most fashionable or appropriate, and 
 afterwards mould the requirements to suit these forms as best he can. 
 
 But if it is difficult for architects to prepare their designs in so 
 short a time, it is stiil more difficult for a jury to decide justly upon 
 their merits, and a truly satisfactory decision is rarely attained. 
 
 Finally, the temptation to unfairness of all kinds, conscious and 
 unconscious, on the part of the competitors as well as of the judges^ 
 is so great that many of the ablest and most conscientious architects 
 refuse to participate in competitions, even though under our present 
 system of industry they seem to be a necessary institution. 
 
 Competition among contractors for building is equally to be con- 
 demned, as productive of the most serious evils to the public, the 
 architect, the building, and the contractor himself. 
 
 The general rule is that the contract shall fall to the lowest Judder. 
 Under the sharp competition of the building trades of to-day, a 
 contractor can only obtain a contract by offering to do the work for a 
 sum below what all the other competitors consider safe. Work he 
 
37 
 
 must have, however, or go into bankruptcy. He is not even per- 
 mitted to know liow low he must fi-^ure to get it. Considering the 
 tremendous amount of detad and the great chances of error attend- 
 ing the specification, valuation and execution of an important build- 
 ing to-day, the risk on tiie part of the contractor is very great, and 
 the temptation to dishonesty, in order to save himself and family 
 from ruin, when he discovers he has estimated below the cost to him, 
 is terrible. The result is endless oi)portunity for litigation and the 
 need of increasing vigilance on the part of the architect to detect 
 carelessness and fraud. 
 
 All this -will be avoided under Nationalism. All buildings will 
 belong to, and be built by, the nation. When architecture becomes 
 truly national, a true national style will be the result. 
 
 The national-buildings will consist of magnificent libraries, 
 churches, art-galleries, music-halls, theatres, baths, gymnasiums, 
 warehouses, samj)le-storep, museums, memorial buildings, academies 
 of science, art and literature, scliool-iiouses, apartment-houses, rail- 
 road-stations, and the like. There will be no mean or unimportant 
 buildings, because there will be no necessity nor excuse for such. 
 
 Comj)etition among architects will then take the form of constant 
 emulation in designing all these great buildings in the truest, and, 
 therefore, most artistic manner, and without haste, each artist being 
 ambitious to execute the commissions entrusted to him in such a 
 manner as to deserve the approbation of his fellow-citizens, and to 
 contribute something to the progress of his national art. The 
 undignified and degrading necessity of catering to the whim of unar- 
 tistic and irresponsible individuals will not mortify the artist of the 
 twentiedi century. As has always been the case in the best ages of art, 
 all things will be treated artistically, and all buildings will be e([ually 
 important in the eye of the artist and worthv of calling forth his best 
 endeavors. Therefore, for the nation to require several architects 
 to elaborate desiins for the same building will be a useless waste of 
 energy and totally unnecessary. Those architects who have the 
 greatest genius will have ample opportunity to distincjuish them- 
 selves in all they do, and if their creations, in the constant emulation 
 of their daily work are not appreciated by a cultivated people, then 
 no amount of special competition, under the less favorable conditions 
 of a general scramble for some particular building, will be likely to 
 greatly benefit them. On the other hand, young architects will not 
 need the opportunity now afforded by competitions to " bring them 
 out." 'J'hey will be thoroughly trained, at the expense of the State, in 
 their profession before being called upon to practise, and when once 
 allowed to enter the lists with their fellow artists, abundant oppor- 
 tunity for making themselves known to fame will be afforded them. 
 
 As I have remarked before, isolated dwellings for individuals will 
 gradually give place to handsome apartment-houses. This, indeed, 
 will not only be desirable, but to a certain extent necessary, since, 
 when domestics " cease to exist as a class in the social economy, 
 private kitchens, laundries, heating apparatus, and chambers made 
 for these domestics will of necessity disappear, and there will then 
 be so little left to build separate foundations, roof and staircases for, 
 that the individual dwelling Avill in most cases be given up as an 
 extravagance. 
 
S a IS if 2S -jox. 
 
 Section of the Pantheon at Rome. 
 
 TfTHE Romans were " marvellous builders, nothing more." " That 
 i\\ which is admirable in the Roman architecture of the Empire is 
 the manifestation it presents of a powerful orjianizaiion." The 
 Roman, says Viollet-le-l)uc " disdained art, but did not persecute it, 
 nor did he modify it with the prejudice or caprice of an amateur: 
 he did not enter into the question of creeds of any kind, he exacted 
 nothing but respect for his law and submission to Iiis administrative 
 and political sy>tem ; little would he sympathize with your concern 
 about adopting this or that form, provided you kept to the practical 
 conditions he imposed upon you; such matters were your affairs, 
 not his. But art is like religion also in this, that mere toleration is 
 not enough for it; it requires, lives by, sympathy; and when it 
 exists among people who content themselves with not being hostile 
 to it, who excite it neither by adhesion nor criticism, it iiuisL 
 necessarily decline : this explains why art may decline even undr ra 
 powerful and flourishing empire like that of the Romans up to the 
 time of Constantine." 
 
 Roman architecture was grand, magnificent, but also vuhar, 
 becaui-e the construction and decoration had no relation to one 
 another ; you may remove its apparent form, its casing of '• orders," 
 without prejudice to its stability. 
 
 The initial cut represents in section the Pantheon at Rome. The 
 construction and simple method of lighting is admirable, but the 
 treatment of the decoration is abominable. The double row of 
 
39 
 
 orders veneering the interior walls have no constructive propriety, 
 are out of all harmony with each other and appear crushed under the 
 colossal details of the vault above. 
 
 But ill spite of the false decoration, there is an element of grandeur 
 and stability coming from the solid construction of the great Roman 
 buildings which goes far to compensate for their defects. Size and 
 stability are alone sullicient to produce grandeur in architectural 
 design, and as Fergusson says "where sublimity is sought, they are 
 the two elements most essential to its production, and in fact the two 
 without which it cannot possibly be attained." Xow, under the com- 
 petitive system of industry, the majority of our mercantile build- 
 ings must be built for competitive purposes, which necessarily pro- 
 hibits any greater solidity than is absolutely necessary to serve the 
 immediate end in view. The risk in every financial enterprise is 
 too great to permit of any permanent and monumental style in these 
 buildings. Fortunes are made and lost in a day, and architecture 
 must faithfully reflect this condition. The risk increases every day 
 with the increasing social discontent arising fr(>m material 
 ine(jualities, and instability in our architecture must result from the 
 instabihty of our fortunes, and it has of late been seriously proposed 
 by some of our merchants to construct their warehouses of wood 
 covered with sheet metal, rather than stone, on account of fire-risks, 
 and in the city of Lynn this idea has actually been carried out 
 since the recent fire. 
 
 The more substantial mercantile buildings of to-day are the result 
 of great combinations of capital and give a forecast of what the still 
 greater combination of Nationalism will })roduce. 
 
 Viollet-le-Duc truly says We must look upon all that is not 
 made for the public — the entire public — as transient." 
 
 Accordingly we find in this feature of insecurity and the conse- 
 quent loss of an essential element of architectural beauty, solidity, 
 a sixth influence adverse to the attainment of a grand style under 
 the existing system of industry. 
 
 Nationalism, on the other hand, will furnish all the elements of 
 social stability, and, for the first time in history, the absolute 
 security necessary for the perfect development of the arts, whereby 
 will be' attainable in architecture not alone grandeur but sublimity, 
 the most impressive form of architectural expression. 
 
 Another marked characteristic of the Roman architecture was 
 vulgar ostentation, the sole desire to produce an outward effect of 
 wealth and power. The Roman Empire was made up of three 
 classes : first, the wealthy class, absorbed in political intrigues ; 
 second, the free plebeians, who were barbarous and corrupt, the 
 tools of the demagogues and wealthy patricians; and third, the 
 slaves. The tendency of modern civilization is to reproduce these 
 three classes, with whom a true art is an impossibility, and degrada- 
 tion a necessity. There is this difference, however, in the two 
 states, namely, that the slaves in the villa of the Roman patrician 
 "were certainly better lodged and treated than are our servants; 
 they had their separate building, their baths and their rooms for 
 exercise or amusement. Without regard to their social state, these 
 slaves were in reality more free, more happy, and more comfortably 
 and wholesomely provided for than are the domestics of any wealthy 
 
40 
 
 householder of the present day, though indeed it is true that the 
 former had an intrinsic value, and that their master was interested 
 in preserving their health and strength." ( VioUet-le-Duc). Yet 
 such domestics are notorioussly far better provided for than our 
 poorer classes of wage earners. 
 
 I must be allowed to quote once more from the greatest of writers 
 on architecture, VioUet-le-Duc, whose genius as a practical architect 
 and cnn-ineer, and whose profound study of the theory and history of 
 his art°have placed him in the highest rank as an authority on all 
 matters appertaining thereto. Jn relation to the subject under 
 consideration he writes : ^ The Romans never discussed questions 
 of artistic principle; they were never enthusiasts; they were 
 politicians and legislators; . . . they administered but did not 
 civilize. . . Subjected to the Romans, the Greeks were only skilful 
 practitioners ; and this cstabhshes the fact that, for them as well as 
 for all other gifted nations, self-government is the only condition for 
 the healthy development of art. . . A man cannot undertake to 
 tame a barbarian (and, to the Greek, the Roman was barbarous) 
 without becoming somewhat of a barbarian himself; and woe to the 
 artist who yields to a master without sympathy for matters of art! 
 The Greeks, then, very sensibly, did not amuse themselves by dis- 
 cussing questions of style with the Romans, for they knew they 
 would^not have been understood, and, while submitting to the 
 rigorous conditions imposed by the Romans upon their architectural 
 problems, they contented themselves with the more humble duties of 
 decorator, — their aim was only to gratify the pompous taste of their 
 masters, and to charm them, if possible, by a brilliant, if not elegant, 
 execution." As with the Romans, so with us to-day. " ' Making 
 an appearance ' has been the order of the day; for appearance has 
 been readily taken for the reality, and the tailor has made the man 
 more perhaps than at any other time. The question has been, who 
 should make the most show. . . Little sterling worth, great vanity 
 and de-ire to make a display, and as the result of this a social con- 
 dition in which envy becomes the prime mover ; that is an incessant 
 and immoderate desire to seem grander people than we really are, 
 and a secret hatred for all that is produced superior to what we can 
 exhibit. . . The architecture suited to our times is not an art that 
 is a mere luxury for the delectation of a few amateurs, a select 
 portion of society; it must be an art which belongs to all. . . It is 
 an easy thing in architecture to make an imposing display, with 
 plenty of money to lavish; the real difficulty is to give a perfume of 
 art to the most common and the most simple things, and to know how 
 to remain sober and unostentatious in the midst of splendor. . . 
 When art has become a mere matter of luxury to the few and an 
 affair of simple curiosity and wonder to the many, then it has ceased 
 to be true art, and has indeed relapsed into barbarism " 
 
 Accordingly, a seventh barrier in the way of our acquiring a worthy 
 national style, under the existing social conditions, is the same which 
 corrupted the architecture of imperial Rome, the inordinate desire 
 for ostentation, especially on the part of the '■'nouveaux riches,'* a 
 
 1 1 use, in my quotations from Viollet-le-Duc's " Discourses," the words of Mr, 
 Van Brunt's admirable translation. 
 
41 
 
 class rapidly increasing under the <;onditions provided by the " lassez- 
 Jhire," or " private monopoly," system of industry. 
 
 Still another, an eiy/ith, impediment to the growth of architectural 
 art is due to the very opposite evil, namely poverty and parsimony. 
 No sooner has the architect become interested in his theme, and 
 elaborated his design with some artistic retiuement, than lie is di- 
 rected to "cut down." The material is too expensive for the appro- 
 priation. A cheaper one must be substituted. An imitation ur a 
 veneer is ordered in place of the genuine material. A little here and 
 a little there must be saved, until the work of art becomes a very 
 commonplace affair indeed. 
 
 Of course, a due regard for economy does not of itself interfere 
 with artistic expression. On the contrary, it has often been tlie basis 
 and origin of style. But a parsimony, either voluntary or forced, 
 which discourages o.U artistic effort, insists upon shams, and refuses 
 improvements in sanitation and convenience, involving but a slight 
 increase in cost, is an evd growing out of the existing absurd system 
 of industry, of tremendous importance in its effect on the architecture 
 of our country. Everywhere the eye is accustomed to the sight of 
 mean and sordid structures, hardly one in a hundred showing even 
 an attempt at artistic treatment, and thus the public taste and sym- 
 pathy for the beautiful is blunted by the constant contemplation of 
 the ba>e, commonplace and uninteresting ; and it is certain that a 
 refinement or distinction in architectural style can result only from 
 the prevalence of refined taste throughout all grades of society culti- 
 vated in an atmosphere of art. 
 
 As an illustration of the effect of economy in hindering the devel- 
 opment of stjle, 1 may instance the following: 
 
 It is known that the j)roducts of the combustion of illuminating gas 
 are highly injurious to animal and vegetable life, a single ordinary 
 fishtail gas burner, used in a room, being equivalent to from four to 
 eight men in air consumption. 
 
 Plants are killed, books and textile fabrics injured, silver blackened 
 and lungs corroded by the sulphur compounds of this combustion. It 
 is, therefore, extremely important, where gas is used for illuminating 
 purposes, thnt the burners should be ventilated. It is not sufficient 
 that ventilating openings should be made merely in the ceiling over 
 the gas-burner or chandelier, as is the custom where ventilation is 
 attempted at all, because openings so placed carry off the pure air 
 supply, and only serve their purpose of removing the products of gas 
 combustion completely when made large enough to remove all the 
 pure heated air supply as well. 
 
 In most buildings the fresh air supply should be at the top of the 
 room, and the foul air exhaust at the bottom. Accordini^ly, gas- 
 burners should be ventilated immediately at the jet, and with flues 
 large enough only to remove the products of combustion, leaving the 
 surrounding pure air unaffected. With this end in view, a number of 
 ventilating chandeliers, two of which are shown in the accompanying 
 cuts were designed for a hospital. The space occupied by the venti- 
 lating flues was no greater than that ordinarily taken up in the designs 
 for gas-fixtures by meaninfiles'* scrolls and hollow casings applied 
 solelv for the purpose of increa-ing the apparent Aveight and size of the 
 gas supply pipe and improving its contour. But, as no chandeliers 
 
42 
 
 had at lhat time been made after the principle shown in these designs, 
 tlxeir exp^.-ase would have somewhat exceeded that of ordinary JixiureSy 
 and for this reason the idea of using tliem in the liospital was finally 
 abandoned. The lower chandelier in the cut was designed for the 
 dining-room, and had eight burners surrounding a central jet, with 
 reflectoi'. A bell was formed directly over the central burner, from 
 which ascended the main ventilating flue, enclosing the gas supply 
 pipe. An annular bell, over the eight surrounding burners, collected 
 their products of combustion, and carried them, by branch pipes, into 
 the central flue. All the flues and bells were constructed double, with 
 suitably ventilated interspace.-^, as a protection against djscoloration 
 by heat. The lower rim of each bell was provided with a small 
 gutter, to catch the water of condensation. The upper figure was 
 designed for the parlor of the hospital, the elevation being shown on 
 the left and the section on the right. Both of the designs were kept 
 simple, in accordance with the instructions of the Building Commit- 
 tee. J3ut, evidently, designs of great beauty might be made on this 
 principle, and a proper development of tiie idea would have given 
 infinitely more " style " in the design of gas chandeliers than the 
 senseless elaboration of useless piping which has been the fashion. 
 By this arrangement, not oidy might the air of the room have been 
 maintained pure from gas contamination, but the heat generated by 
 the burners would have been sufficient, properly applied, to have ex- 
 hausted the foul air from the entire building at the time of day when, 
 the greatest quantity is generated, namely, when all the occupants of 
 the building are collected within the liouse at evening in the dining 
 or reading room. Nevertheles'^, after the estimates of cost had 
 been obtained for manufacturing these ventilating chandeliers, the 
 Committee found they would exceed their appropriation, and aban- 
 doned the idea of using them. 
 
 Now, therefore, owing to this unfortunate, though entirely consci- 
 entious, economy of the Committee, the occupants of these rooms at 
 night are obliged, when the ordinary chandeliers ai'e fully used, to 
 breathe air contaminated not only by their own exhalations, but by 
 the combustion of a dozen burners, equivalent, in the fresh air pollu- 
 tion, to at least 72 adults. 
 
 Under the belief that, if the importance of sanitary gas-fixtures as 
 ventilators could once be appreciated by the public, suitable designs 
 would immediately be furnished by specialists in chandelier work,, 
 which could be executed at a cost as low as corresponding ones con- 
 structed with the ordinary sham casing and scroll woi k; a number of 
 designs, with descriptions, of these ventilating chandeliers we^-e pub- 
 lished in 1883, in a book on the heating and ventilating of buildings, ^ 
 and a prominent firm of manufacturers of chandeliers executed one 
 of these designs, and put themselves to some expense in the effort to 
 create a demand for them. It is doubtful, however, now that electric 
 lighting is supplanting gas, if the ventilating chandelier will ever 
 become fashionable. The public are not alive to its importance 
 where gas is still used, and no one cares to pay the first cost of intro- 
 ducing them, consisting in making novel designs after a principle 
 totally new in chandelier work, requiring unusually skilful specialists 
 and an extensive plant, new patterns, moulds and spinning blocks. 
 
 The Open Fire Place in All Ages," published by Ticknor & Company, Boston, 
 
43 
 
 necessary for their execution on a largo or paying scale. The public 
 will not, and the manufacturers cannot, undertake this expense. 
 Each waits for the other, and thus nothing is done. 
 
 One other illustration of the lamentable effect on our architecture 
 
 Ventilating Chandeliers, from " The Open Fireplace in All Ages." 
 
 of the false economy necessitated by the existing method of leaving 
 to individuals duties and responsibilities which should be borne by 
 the nation, must suffice under this heading. 
 
44 
 
 There is no work wliicli can more properly claim the hif^hest wis- 
 dom and resources of the whole people than the education, both 
 mental and physical, of our school cliildren. Their trainin<^ should 
 be entrusted only to those who are most thoroughly ecpiipped by 
 nature and education for the work, and the schoolhouses should be 
 built in the most perfect manner known to the art of architecture, 
 not alone from a sanitary and truly economic, but also from an artistic 
 point of view, all these items being necessary for the complete physi- 
 cal, intellectual and moral development of the children. This truth 
 is admitted by every one, yet unde-r Nationalism alone is its practical 
 application possible. So long as the existing state of society lasts, 
 many children will, and must, be turned over for their schooling to 
 irresponsible and incompetent teachers, and confined in insanitary 
 and unsightly school buildings, for the simple reason that the majority 
 of small country towns and isolated communities, which, as compared 
 with the nation, become nothing more than irresponsible individuals, 
 do not and cannot possess the means and intelligence to do other- 
 wise. Almost any architect can testify to the tiaith of this from in- 
 stances comino: within his j^ersonal experience. A particularly 
 striking one, which must serve for my illustration is the following: 
 
 A Town Committee was aj)pointed to build a schoolhouse. The 
 Committee knew, however nothing whatever about the requirements 
 of the building, exce[)t that it must be large enough to box in all the 
 children who could afford to go there, and that a certain sum of 
 money had been appropriated for the purpose. The plans were 
 drawn, howevt-r, Avith great care, especially as to sanitation. Ducts 
 for foul air exhaust were carefully arranged, so as to perfectly venti- 
 late all parts of the building at all times, and to the extent needed, 
 without great expense either in first cost or in use, and the foul air 
 was expelled by means of the heat of the smoke of the heating appa- 
 ratus, through a somewhat ornamental chimney, prominent in the 
 design of the exterior. 
 
 The committee sat on the design, accepted it with expressions of 
 approval and ordered it to be executed under their own superin- 
 tendence. It was executed. When the outside had been completed 
 and the great ornamental ventilating chimney had been built, the 
 committee decided to "cut down" in the expense of finishing, and 
 all the ventilating ducts were, without a word's notice to the architect, 
 (juietly omitted! Absolutely no provision for air supply or exhaust 
 was substituted in its place, and the magnificent exhaust chimney 
 with its scientific flues, became a hollow mockery and an architect- 
 ural monstrosity. To-day the miserable school-children are breath- 
 ing over and over again one another's breath, while the townspeople 
 look upon the mammoth chimney with as much pride and pleasure as 
 if it were really performing its legitimate office of pumping pure air 
 through the lungs of their children. 
 
 The lesson we have to learn from Roman architecture is not 
 entirely a negative one. The construction and planning of their 
 public buildinfrs is worthy of the highest admiration whatever may be 
 said of their elevations. Particularly applicable to our present subject 
 is the study of their magnificent public baths — a study which 
 Nationalism will render fruitful in a practical way. The Roman 
 Empire set a noble example to all succeeding nations, of furnishing 
 
45 
 
 the whole people with the kixury and salubrity of public baths on a 
 grand and liberal scale. 
 
 We, who call ourselves civilized, allow the masses to live in filth, 
 though rivers and oceans of ])ure water flow everywhere at our feet, 
 and machinery for transporting, storing, heating and cooling that 
 water, far superior to that which the Romans employed, is at our 
 disposal. Yet the poorer classes reek in filth, and loathsome epi- 
 demics spread over the whole community in consequence of our 
 neglect. 
 
 The magnificent baths of Caracalla, however, give us a faint idea 
 of what Nationalism will do for the people in this direction. 
 
 In the front part of the building on each side of the main entrance 
 are small private baths in two stories for those who do not care to 
 enter the main building. 
 
 The main entrance to the public baths is through a grand portal 
 in the centre of the front. We enter a vast building containing 
 great swimming baths of cold, tepid and hot water, each with spa- 
 cious vestibules, dressing and service rooms and other ap[)urtenances 
 and all grouped in such a manner as to give the utmost convenience 
 of access and egress without draughts or danger from overcrowding 
 or disorder. 
 
 Within the enclosure are gardens and fountains and courts for 
 games and gymnastic exercises, provided with seats for spectators. 
 We find also porticos and pavilions for lectures and discussions and 
 libraries and reading-rooms for study. 
 
 The perspective view represents a restoration of the cold bath, or' 
 frujidarium, which is the largest hall in this building. 
 
 it is open to the sky, under the principle that protection from 
 rain is unnecessary for bathers in cold water in a climate like Kome. 
 The warm bath, tepidarium, seen in the view beyond the three great 
 arches, is roofed over, as is also the hot bath, caldarium. 
 
 A ninth reason for the decline of architecture under the existing 
 system of exclusiveness and individualism, is that the sister arts of 
 painting and sculpture have been divorced from architecture. 
 
 In the grand styles, the former existed with and for the latter, 
 which, in its turn, was worthy of the distinction of claiming paint- 
 ing and sculpture as her handmaidens; and it was in the harmonious 
 union of the three that the greatest distinction of each lay. 
 
 Then the artist forgot himself in his art, and we seldom find his 
 name inscribed upon his works. Now the artist forgets his art in 
 himself, and the aim of each individual is to make his own work the 
 most prominent feature in the completed building, and each takes 
 good care that his name shall appear in as conspicuous a place as 
 possible. How could it be otherwise with the poor artist, whose 
 family depend upon this advertisement, perhaps, for their privilege 
 of existing! 
 
 Paintings and statuary are executed entirely apart from, and 
 independent of, architecture, and when afterward they are brought 
 together, they as often mutually injure as improve each other 
 through want of harmony of expression and scale. 
 
 Finally the tenth and last corrupting influence upon our architect- 
 ure is the indifference of the masses to the essential element in 
 design of truth. 
 
46 
 
47 
 
 The present is an age of hypocrisy and misrepresentation. Our 
 whole social and industrial system is founded on the colossal incon- 
 sistency of permitting, in a nominally free country, one individual to 
 practically own the soul and body of another. In a country where 
 "all men are born with ecjual rights before the law, " twenty-five thou- 
 sand ])ersons, in appropriating from the rest one half of all that is 
 produced by the entire sixty millions, create a conflict under which 
 a vast majority of the entire energy of the whole is wasted. 
 Industrial Avarfare breeds dishonesty as its necessary fruit, and cor- 
 ruption even in the highest offices of the country has become so 
 common as to be accepted as a matter of course. 
 
 With so general a disregard for the truth in everyday matters, we 
 cannot expect to find a strict observance or appreciation of it in art, 
 and so long as a system of industry exists which places a premium 
 on dishonesty, falsehood will continue to appear everywhere in 
 design. We shall continue to see columns whose form indicates the 
 function of support, used as a decorative veneer upon facades where 
 they support nothing ; cornices and pediments elaborately designed 
 with the sole view of shedding rain water, used in interiors where 
 rain never falls; sham windows and doors built upon blank walls; 
 buttresses erected against piers having no interior vaulting to sustain ; 
 walls massive enough in desirrn to serve for a fortress or tower, sup- 
 porting the lightest of structures, and cheap materials everywhere 
 used in imitation of expensive ones. 
 
 Where such falsehoods exist, style in architecture is impossible, 
 since style in art consists only in a graceful expression of the truth. 
 
 Thus we find that Nationalism will reproduce all the conditions 
 favorable to the development of a noble style of architecture, and 
 eliminate the many unfavorable ones at present existing. 
 
 With the great advances made in the present century in the sci- 
 ence, materials and machinery of building, corresponding advances 
 would have been made in the art of architectur e had the social con- 
 ditions been less adverse. For a more complex and perfect civiliza- 
 tion permits of a higher form of art expression, just as, in the animal 
 world, a higher type of beauty is possible with man than with the 
 mullusk. So, in architecture, the higher civilization and the many 
 new and peculiar conditions furnished by Nationalism must of neces- 
 sity evolve a style as much nobler than any which has preceded as 
 the civilization itself will surpass that of any other age. 
 
 As an illustration of the ])eculiar features which will distinguish 
 this new style, we may take the element of " extensiveness." Build- 
 ings capable of accommodating the vast assemblies which the co- 
 operative system in a great nation will bring together, must be con- 
 structed on a far grander scale than anything heretofore known, and 
 new methods of construction will be required, involving the use of 
 metal and all the science and skill of the engineer. Undoubtedly, by 
 the use of aluminum and aluminum-bronzes in place of stone and 
 wood, in vaulting, framing and finish, a lightness, strength and power 
 of resistance to fire will be attained, which will enable areasof a magni- 
 tude hitherto undreamed of to be safely covered without interior 
 support, and thus this element of extensiveness, when combined with 
 strength and refined with art, will yield a style of architecture incom- 
 parably grand, and fitly characterized only by the word sublime. 
 
w 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 'E have based 
 our calcula- 
 tions as to 
 the amount of 
 wealth annually 
 produced under 
 Nationalism upon 
 the supposition 
 that application to 
 work on the j)art 
 of the peojjle will 
 then he only as 
 close as it is 
 at present. 
 
 There are, how- 
 ever, many reasons 
 for believing that 
 application will be 
 far more intense 
 and its productive- 
 ness correspond- 
 ingly increased, 
 and that idleness 
 will be compara- 
 tively rare in a 
 social state in 
 which faithful in- 
 dividual effort is 
 assured the reward 
 of all that is 
 desirable and in 
 which disgrace 
 and deprivation 
 are sure to follow 
 indolence or 
 neglect. 
 
 i^fter what has already been said in this article it might seem 
 superfluous to consider further these incentives for application, but so 
 much depends upon a clear understanding of this point which has 
 so often been a stumbling-block for those who discuss Nationalism 
 without knowing what it is, that a few words in relation to incentive 
 will be pardoned. 
 
 In just what manner the wealth of our Cooperative Commonwealth 
 will be distributed among the citizens for their services, it is evidently 
 impossible to foretell. Probably in different ways at different stages 
 in the nationalization of industry, the principle of distribution on a 
 basir, of c^^ffort rather than ahilil/j becoming more and more recog- 
 nized. This is clearly the only just basis of distribution, and is 
 accordingly, for this reason, in the end inevitable. Th« capacity 
 for wealth production of a nation being the result of ages of civiliza- 
 tion, every individual, as a product of that civilization, is entitled to 
 an equal share of the wealth due thereto, irrespective of any special 
 
49 
 
 ability or lack of ability he may individually have received from 
 nature or education, provided only that he does his best. 
 
 As in the private family it is seen to be just that each child should 
 receive an equal share in the family goods irrespective of his mental 
 or physical ability, the feebIe^t in mind or body receiving even 
 greater rather than less attention as a partial compensation for their 
 natural deficiency. So in the great human family which is but an 
 extension through a number of generations of the private family 
 justice and humanity will demand the same material consideration 
 for all who do their duty irrespective of the accidents of their birth. 
 
 Two brothers, A and B, have inherited to-day equal wealth. A 
 war breaks out. A, being patriotic, leaves home and family to serve his 
 country. He is wounded in battle and loses forever his ability to 
 provide for his family. B is unpatriotic and selfish. He remains 
 at home and amasses a princely fortune in army contracts. The 
 descendants of the patriot, deprived of capital and education, sink 
 lower and lower under the heartless struggle for existence, called free 
 competition, in which now only giants can succeed, while those of 
 the unpatriotic brother, the "individualist," obtain the highest edu- 
 cation and enjoy every form of luxury. 
 
 Every one recognizes this as unjust, but all do not see that the 
 community in recognizing a system of unrestricted competition in 
 industry is responsible for it. The descendants of A and B are 
 equally entitled, so long as they do their duty, to an equal share in 
 the fruits of civilization irrespective of the action of any particular 
 individual, or individuals, in the line of their pedigree, since all are 
 descended from the same common stock — children in the same 
 human family — which produced those fruits. Hence the nation 
 should own all the machinery of production in order that this equal 
 distribution may become practicable. 
 
 But, inasmuch, as the nation is gradually assuming control of certain 
 industries which already owe their existence to governmental inter- 
 vention or franchise, there is and will continue some time to be a 
 transition period, in which a basis of distribution in proportion to 
 ability will prevail. 
 
 In this article, however, I refer to Nationalism only in its completed 
 and perfected form, and assume a basis of equal distribution depen- 
 dent upon effort alone. 
 
 The principle of equal pecuniary reward to all workers irrespective 
 of their productive ability has been the cause of much unfavorable 
 criticism of Nationalism for three reasons : First, on the ground that 
 such equal distribution would deprive many having superior ability 
 and industry, of luxuries which they are now able to obtain ; second, 
 that it would lead to a wholesale shirking of work by the lazy and 
 selfish, and third, on account of a false idea that a pecuniary reward is the 
 only one which will, or ever can appeal to the average human being. 
 
 The first of these three objections is answered the moment we 
 fully realize the prodigious increase of productiveness effected by 
 Nationalism, whereby more than suflicient is produced to provide 
 every individual with every want and luxury which can reasonably 
 be desired in a community of workers. 
 
 Let us examine the second. 
 
 Idleness, which under the competitive system is not only allowed 
 
50 
 
 but even encouraged, would be discouraged under Nationalism by 
 universal condemnation. 
 
 To-day unproductiveness on the part of the wealthy is regarded 
 rather as a mark of distinction than the reverse, and in England, as 
 a necessary condition of the highest social distinction, whereas under 
 Nationalism, it will be regarded as the most j)rofound disgrace. 
 
 Now moral and intellectual effort and achievement, the real wealth 
 producers, stand below financial shrewdness in the rewards and 
 honors of society. 
 
 Under Nationalism they will attain the highest rewards and 
 honors within the bestowal of the people, because it will be for the 
 interest of all to have this so. 
 
 Now, not only is there no law for the adequate ])unishment of 
 idleness, but in the present condition of things there could be none. 
 The tramp maybe imprisoned, but imprisonment for the tramp means 
 comparative comfort and security. He has nothing to lose, and this 
 is the case with most idlers in the two extremes of social position. 
 
 Under Nationalism idleness will be punished by disgrace and the 
 deprivation of all the great wealth and luxuries the nation would 
 otherwise bestow. 
 
 Under the present system, work is arduous and unceasing. Under 
 Nationalism it will become the pleasurable exercise of one's strongest 
 faculties and tastes for a definite and useful purpose, an exercise 
 which increases in intensity of interest as those faculties and tastes 
 are developed by cultivation. 
 
 Man is by na.ture ambitious and active. Indolence is the result of 
 disease or discouragement. When in a normal and healthy condition, 
 man, like all animals delights in the exercises of all his functions. Such 
 exercise is a structural necessity the neglect of which results in pain. 
 No severer punishment can be inflicted upon a vigorous nature than 
 forced inactivity. When each individual is allowed to pursue the 
 special activity for which he is best fitted, as will be the case under 
 Nationalism, the danger will be, not that he will work too little but 
 that he will work too much. It must be borne in mind that under 
 the competitive system every kind of occupation is and must be made 
 more or less disagreeable by the very nature itself of the competitive 
 struggle, and it is this alone which now renders work arduous. Thus 
 in the practice of architecture, the detective, legal and financial 
 duties, worries and limitations, and the hurry necessitated by the 
 competitive state are the items and the only ones which render the 
 occupation of the architect irksome. Under Nationalism the ex- 
 pression " work " will acquire an entirely new meaning. It will 
 signify " interesting occupation " which corresponds simply with our 
 expression ^^play " ; the only difference being that it will be of the 
 kind in which the interest constantly increases through life with the 
 increasing knowledge and skill gradually acquired in the game as it 
 progresses. 
 
 When the interests of all become identical, there will be a strong 
 and common motive to make every occupation as pleasant as 
 possible, and when the united energy of an entire people is directed 
 upon the attainment of this object, success will be certain. The 
 architect of industrial buildings instead of being hampered by restric- 
 tions urged in the interest of larger profits to capitalists will be 
 
51 
 
 encouraged to plan and construct workrooms healthy, comfortable 
 and attractive by thorough ventilation, lighting and every form of 
 sanitary construction and appropriate artistic treatment ; this new- 
 motive for making every occupation as pleasant as possible will be a 
 strong incentive to sup])lant by machinery all those kinds of manual 
 work which are, by their nature, unhealthy, dangerous, or especially 
 disagreeable. 
 
 The third cause of criticism, that a pecuniary reward is the only 
 one which can possibly appeal to the average man, has been to a great 
 extent answered by what has already been written. 
 
 This much, however, may be added, that whatever may be the 
 success of the method of recompense proposed under Nationalism for 
 the encouragement of good work, the method now in vogue must be 
 pronounced a total failure. The hardest workers now as a rule 
 receive the smallest pecuniary reward and honesty and generosity 
 stand little chance before sharpness and selfishness. 
 
 The money guage is evidently totally inadequate to measure 
 intellectual effort. The custom of guaging the value of an artist's 
 work, for instance, by a uniform percentage on the cost of the build- 
 ing tends constantly to the deterioration of his art. In a society 
 which pretends to make the reward proportional to ability, the high- 
 est intellectual and emotional effort is measured by the same material 
 standard as a purely mechanical or speculative operation backed 
 only by large capital. The designing of a cathedral may produce as 
 much as the commission on a cargo of hogs or on the speculation of 
 a stock gambler, either of which might require but the writing of a 
 single letter. 
 
 Under Nationalism no attempt is made to perform the impossible 
 task of measuring mental effort by material standards. Cooperation 
 enables the nation to furnish its citizens freely with all the material 
 wants, and intellectual ability and effort are recognized and rewarded 
 by promotion into higher intellectual authority. 
 
 But even if pecuniary reward were made dependent upon ability 
 (real and not fictitious) under Nationalism, instead of upon effort, the 
 result would, after all, in either case, be very nearly the same. For 
 it must be remembered that all education being free, every individual 
 will be supported by the State during the courses of schooling and 
 apprenticeship for life's work, or, say, up to the age of 25. Then, if 
 we assume that compulsory service to the nation terminates at the age 
 of 45 or 50, after which the nation resumes the support of its citizens, 
 pensioning those who have manfully labored to support the nation in 
 peace as it now does those who have bravely slaughtered their brethren 
 for their country in war, there will remain only from 20 to 25 years, 
 which will be affected by the question of method of remuneration. 
 
 Under the influence of mutual helpfulness which common interests 
 would foster all work will become respectable and respected. There 
 will be no so-called "menial" service. There will be none of the 
 senseless distinctions in the " respectability " of different occupations 
 which exist now ; as, for instance, between gambling at wholesale 
 as in the stock-exchange and at retail, as at the gaming-table, the 
 former being eminently respectable, though infinitely more injurious 
 to society as affecting countless outsiders ; and the latter eminently 
 disgraceful, though harmful only to the individual gambler, himself. 
 
52 
 
 Or, as between the skilful mechanic and the wealthy Corporation 
 Treasurer of to-day, the former often requiring infinitely more brains 
 and experience than the latter, who may delegate the real work to 
 assistants. Yet custom places the latter occupation far higher, 
 socially and financially, than the former. 
 
 Under Nationalism a liberal education will be given alike to all^ 
 and machinery and organization will do much of the work now left 
 to individuals, relieving men of unhealthy and tedious drudgery on 
 the one hand, and of extraordinary responsibility on the other. 
 
 The marvellous financial and executive ability now required of 
 business managers to launch and afterwards pilot safely through the 
 stormy seas of competition, every important mercantile or speculative 
 enterprise of to-day, will be supplanted by the perfect system of the 
 great industrial army of Nationalism. Then the duties and responsi- 
 bilities under this system, both of officers and men, will be so equally 
 distributed among all the workers that none will ever feel overbur- 
 dened by an undue share. Accordingly the remuneration of all 
 workers, even on a basis of ability, would be far more equal than 
 now, and those who fear disastrous results from the adoption of the 
 juster basis, very greatly overestimate the danger. 
 
 To illustrate my meaning let us imagine for instance a possible 
 manner in which the Department of Architecture may be organized 
 under a Nationalist administration, without assuming, of course, that 
 the details introduced for the purpose of completing the picture- are 
 indispensable to the general plan. 
 
 In order that architects may supervise the erection of the structures 
 they design, the national architectural offices will have to be dis- 
 tributed throughout the country in accordance with the requirements 
 of each locality ; and for the convenience of the profession they will 
 be built adjoining the great sample-stores of the district. Evidently 
 a much smaller number of architects will be required for a given 
 amount of building than now. Probably a very small proportion of 
 the architects and draughtsmen now practising in Boston, if method- 
 ically employed, and relieved of the legal, financial and competitive 
 work now exacted of them, could suffice for the purely architectural 
 work they perform. But under Nationalism, however, the duties of 
 engineer and draughtsman will devolve upon the architect, and as 
 the enormous increase of national wealth will increase also the 
 amount of building, all of which will be placed in charge of architects, 
 the profession will undoubtedly be much larger in proportion to the 
 population than now. 
 
 Accordingly the department of architecture, sculpture, and paint- 
 ing for the Boston district will comprise a hundred or more archi- 
 tects. They will occupy a building appropriately designed for the 
 purpose, and as the structure will stand as a permanent expres- 
 sion of the state of our national art at the period of its erection, its 
 proper architectural treatment both exterior and interior will be 
 a matter of patriotic solicitude to every citizen. 
 
 As it is indispensable for the highest development of architecture 
 that sculpture and painting be closely allied thereto, or rather, form 
 an essential part thereof, the same building will as intimated contain 
 also the studios of sculptors and painters as well as a museum of the 
 best products of these allied arts. 
 
53 
 
 The site will be made worthy of the structure by landscape gar- 
 dening, fountains and statuary, arranged in such a manner that the 
 approach shall do honor to the monument. The building itself, both 
 without and within, will be richly adorned with color and sculpture 
 appropriate to its purpose and an atmosphere of refinnient will per- 
 vade every part inspiring the occupants fittingly for their work. It 
 will face diagonally with the points of the compass in order that all 
 sides may be reached by the direct rays of the sun at some time 
 during the day, the new streets of the city being laid out with this 
 in view. 
 
 There will be no " draughtsmen " in the present acceptation of th6 
 word. Every part and detail of a building being equally important 
 in the eye of the artist will be the work of his own hand. The 
 enlarging and copying of drawings will be done by photographic and 
 other mechanical j>rocesses conducted in a special department of the 
 building devoted thereto. Thus, after the architect has drawn his 
 quarter-inch-scale working-plans, they will be taken into the mechan- 
 ical department, and such portions of them as the architect desires 
 will be instantly enlarged to, say, an inch-scale, and returned to him. 
 These enlargements will be corrected and refined by him, and then 
 still further mechanically enlarged to full size. Once more the archi- 
 tect will alter and perfect the final enlargements, after which all the 
 drawings will be ready for copying in the mechanical department 
 for distribution among the various builders. 
 
 Aided by this mechanical enlarging process, the architect will be 
 encouraged always to begin his designs upon a very small scale, say 
 an eighth or sixteenth of an inch, following them up with many 
 successive enlargements, by which process much greater boldness 
 and simplicity of effect, and much more perfect harmony of propor- 
 tions are attainable, than is possible without the aid of these 
 successive studies. 
 
 In this way the architect will be absolutely relieved from all the 
 purely mechanical and laborious processes lie is now subjected to, 
 and thus be free to devote his attention to every detail of the design. 
 His only assistants will be his fellow artists, the sculptors and 
 painters, with whom he will be in constant communication through- 
 out the work. 
 
 Of course, under the competitive system all this would be impossible. 
 It could only be carried out by the aid of the wealth of a great 
 Cooperative Commonwealth and on a grand scale. Though a syndi- 
 cate of talented architects formed on some such basis in any of the 
 great cities even now would probably meet with considerable suc- 
 cess both as a financial and economical enterprise. 
 
 Since architecture is even to-day, with all its needless drawbacks, 
 one of the most attractive occupations, there will under Nationalism 
 when these drawbacks are removed, be so large a number of aspirants 
 for its practice that only those having exceptional talent or even 
 genius for it will be enrolled by the nation. Undoubtedly the prin- 
 ciple of longer working-days for attractive and shorter for unattrac- 
 tive occupations will be adopted by the Commonwealth so far as 
 practicable. But were this principle alone relied upon for equaliz- 
 ing the applications, the days of the most attractive ones might have 
 to be prolonged beyond the limit of healthfulness, and one of the 
 
54 
 
 dangers most to be ojuarded against under Nationalism will be over- 
 application. Even now history is full of cases of physical and mental 
 injury due to over-application for love of work on the part of artists 
 and talented men; and under Nationalism the favorable conditions 
 for work will multiply such cases indefinitely unless wise measures 
 are taken by the administration to provide against it. The people 
 will then be as solicitous for the life and strength of its workers in 
 peace, as they now are of its fighters in war. 
 
 Accordingly the length of the architect's working-day will be limited 
 by Nature's laws of health, and it is certain that by the observance of 
 these laws, a greater amount of work will be accomplished in the 
 long run than by their neglect. Therefore a system of selection for 
 talent will govern the admission into the architectural ranks, and it 
 is in this manner that the law of the survival of the fittest will be 
 carried out under Nationalism. It is in this way that Nationalism 
 is seen to be in the direct line of evolution to a higher plane of 
 human life. 
 
 How now will the various buildings to be erected by the nation be 
 distributed among the national architects without overworking some 
 and underworking others, and yet in a manner which will yield to 
 the nation the full benefit of the peculiar talents of each individual. 
 
 The constantly increasing complication in all industries arising^ 
 from the rapid progress of science and invention has evolved the 
 specialist in the various professions. As in medicine the separate 
 parts of the body have become the subjects of distinct sciences each 
 requiring years of special application for its mastery. So in archi- 
 tecture, special research and experience are requisite for attaining 
 the best results in designing the various kinds of buildings needed. 
 Thus the building of school-houses has become a science of itself. 
 So it is with libraries, and equally with theatres, churches, bridges, 
 hospitals, and, in short, all buildings erected for specialists will re- 
 quire specialists for their erection. 
 
 Yet it is, all the same, indispensable that the specialist should be 
 grounded in the principles of general practice, and with this in view 
 the first training of all architects is the same. 
 
 The department of architecture will then be divided up into groups 
 of specialists, natural aptitude guiding one individual towards the 
 scientific or engineering side of architecture and another toward the 
 more distinctly aesthetic, emotional, or poetic side, the former corres- 
 ponding somewhat with the civil engineers of the present day and 
 the latter with our sculptors and painters. 
 
 This subdivision into groups of specialists will not only greatly facil- 
 itate the distribution of work but it will form an element of harmony 
 and good feeling among the practitioners by excluding, so far, feelings 
 of jealousy which might arise were there no such natural distinction 
 between the workers. 
 
 But a still further security against the growth of petty rivalries 
 and jealousies lies in the fact that important work will be provided 
 for all at all times, and that it will be almost impossible to say in the 
 case of nine-tenths of the buildings erected under Nationalism which 
 will be the most important, especially from the standpoint of the 
 architect. The element of size alone will not constitute superiority, 
 for the smallest buildings may be dedicated to the highest purposes^ 
 
55 
 
 Richness of material and decoration alone will not necessarily open 
 the greatest field for the architect, for the work of the sculptor and 
 painter will predominate in these. Importance or nobility of desti- 
 nation will not constitute superiority ; for under Nationalism all forms 
 of honest work will be seen to be equally noble, and in a like manner 
 the buildings in which such work is performed, and this will be 
 recognized in its true relationship when no longer overshadowed by 
 the money estimate. 
 
 I fail, therefore, to find any opportunity under such a sysfem, for 
 the development of petty jealousies predicted by unbelievers in 
 Nationalism, in architecture at least. But I do find the amplest in- 
 centives for the noblest form of friendly emulation. Natural genius 
 will, of course, show itself in its works, and lead to prominence, but 
 as soon as the great truth is generally recognized, that, for the 
 highest good of our national architecture, the individual must be 
 made secondary to his art, that personality must be sacrificed for 
 principle, and that the utmost attainment of genius is the contribu- 
 tion of a microscopic atom to the general progress ; then will a 
 jealousy due to inequalities of natural endowment be impossible, and 
 no other cause for such a feeling will exist. 
 
 Thus it is clear that equal material remuneration among architects 
 at least for equal effort Avill be a perfectly just and extremely desir- 
 able principle, beside relieving artists of all sordid considerations of 
 pecuniary emolument. 
 
 The interior administration of our architectural department will 
 be very simple, the utmost possible freedom from unnecessary re- 
 strictions of every kind upon individual action being aimed at. Each 
 group of specialists will elect from among its number its Representa- 
 tive or Foreman, and these Representatives will in the same manner 
 elect its Chief of the District Department of Architecture. The 
 duties of these officers will be to place the buildings to be erected in 
 charge of the proper architects, to keep account of the general pro- 
 gress of all work in their District and render a proper report of such 
 work at proper intervals. 
 
 It seems to me unnecessary to insist that though election to these 
 offices will be viewed as an honor as implying confidence on the part 
 of the constituents, yet there will be nothing in them of a nature to 
 incite to corrupt practices or intrigue for their attainment. Indeed, 
 most true artists would prefer to be free from the somewhat distract- 
 ing duties and responsibilities attending them. 
 
 At the present time it is customary for the architectural student 
 to obtain the practical part of his training by serving as draughtsman 
 in some architect's office. Under Nationalism a far better and more 
 thorough system of preparation will be provided for the young 
 architect. 
 
 A special Preparatory School of Architecture will form a wing of 
 the main building already described, in which students will receive 
 a complete course of architectural and engineering training, theoreti- 
 cal and practical. 
 
 This school will possess immeasurable advantages over any now exist- 
 ing in the -world, or which could exist under the competitive system. 
 
 In the German academies thorough courses of both architecture 
 and engineering are given under the same roof open to all. 
 
56 
 
 The leading practising architects of the country are employed to 
 give lectures and practical courses of instruction at the schools at 
 certain hours, usually each instructor giving from four to eight 
 hours a week to this work. 
 
 The principle of instruction in the French Academy at Paris, is 
 very different from the German. Distinguished practising architects 
 give courses of instruction, it is true, but it is a matter of etiquette 
 for a pupil to confine himself to a single instructor during the whole 
 academical course. The result is that the student sees very little of 
 the master, and depends for his advancement substantially upon the 
 emulation existing among the pupils themselves, and the example of 
 the most proficient among them. Such a method of instruction may 
 be good for the })ainter and sculptor, but for the architect it is totally 
 inadequate. 
 
 In both academies, regular monthly or quarterly competitions 
 among the pupils on a given programme constitute prominent features 
 of the course. 
 
 Our nationalist school will retain whatever features are good in 
 both French and German schools. 
 
 The " concours " will be retained, but instead of being competi- 
 tions for the solution of some programme arbitrarily composed for 
 the occasion, they will be competitions for the solution of pro- 
 grammes for buildings actually to be executed for the nation by the 
 practising architects themselves who constitute the Board of Instruc- 
 tors in the Academy. As in the German schools now, the practising 
 architects under Nationalism will give courses of lectures and of in- 
 struction in design to the students in the adjoining building, as a reg- 
 ular j)art of their professional duties, devoting thereto, perhaps each 
 from four to eight or more hours a week. The course in design will 
 consist in the practising architect giving his pupils for a programme 
 the actual building (no architect having charge of more than one 
 building at any time) he is himself commissioned to erect at that time. 
 The programme will be presented to his pupils after he has prepared 
 his first working-drawings precisely as it was presented to him by 
 the administration, with such additional explanations as he may deem 
 necessary for his pupils; and after they have completed their draw- 
 ings, each will have the advantage of comparing them not only with 
 those of their fellow-pupils, but still better with those of the master 
 himself as prepared for actual execution. The importance of this 
 feature of our academical course as a means of inducing a serious, 
 intelligent and practical study of their plans on the part of the stu- 
 dent is inestimable. The training at once assumes the attractiveness 
 of reality, and both pupil and master are immensely benefited at the 
 same time. The architect acquires the invaluable habit of expres- 
 sing his ideas in the clearest manner by word and pencil, and is 
 obliged to have a good reason for every architectural form which the 
 conditions of the problem have evolved. Everything must be truth- 
 ful, logical and refined in his design in order that it may serve as a 
 perfect model for his pupils. On the other hand, any peculiarly happy 
 points which may be developed by the studies of the pupils will be 
 gladly incorporated by the architect in the plans to be executed, such 
 adoption not only encouraging and gratifying the pride of the stu- 
 dent but benefiting the public as well. 
 
57 
 
 After the plans are completed and during the erection of the build- 
 ing, an important part of our course of instruction will consist in the 
 inspection of the work by the pupils under the architect's guidance 
 and explanations, from time to time as the work progresses. 
 
 Thus the training of the architectural student for his professional 
 work will be scientifically conducted in the most thorough manner 
 both theoretically and practically. He receives instruction not from 
 one architect alone but from many, all working harmoniously together 
 in one style, the national style, and all interested in his progress. 
 
 The haphazard and superficial instruction which the student of 
 to-day receives as a draughtsman in his wanderings from office to 
 office', picking-up here a little and there a little, copying letters, run- 
 ning errands, tracing ill-digested plans which he only half under- 
 stands, and perhaps never sees executed, haggling for an increase in 
 his salary, and ever harassed by petty rivalries and jealousies, will 
 be happily done away with forever. 
 
 The various building trades will work in harmony with the archi- 
 tects. Like them they will be divided into specialists in each great 
 department. Thus in the mason's trade, the same individual will 
 take charge of the masonry of the same kind of building as a spec- 
 ialist in that class, and in this way builders and architects in the 
 same class will become personally acquainted with one another and 
 with their peculiar work, and the work of both be thereby facilitated ' 
 and improved. The specifications of the architect as to the materials 
 to be used will consist simply in designating these materials through 
 their numbered samp'es in the great sample-store adjoining the build- 
 ing: of the department of architecture. The same numbers will be 
 affixed to the samples published in the great national catalogues, 
 so that the builder will be obliged only to refer to these to enable 
 him to carry out the terms of the specification to the letter. The 
 builders will have nothing to do with estimating the cost of the 
 structures. This will be done by specialists in the architectural de- 
 partment. Nor will the builder nor any of the workmen have any- 
 thing to do with contracts or payments of any form whatever con- 
 nected with the building. The specification of the architect properly 
 signed by him and countersigned by the head of his department, will 
 constitute the order of the builder upon the national supply-depart- 
 ment for building materials. All the details for the stone-cutting 
 will be made by the architect. The builder will have nothing to do 
 with the stone-cutters. These will be employed by the government 
 directly at the quarries where the details of the architect will be 
 carried out. In this manner all waste of stone and cost of transport- 
 ing the rough material will be avoided. It will be the same way 
 with the framing which will be cut and fitted at the mills. 
 
 The builder will take the place of the clerk-of-the- works of to-day, 
 and have charge, under the architect, of all the workmen employed 
 on the building, entirely relieving the architect of any responsibility 
 for delays and inaccuracies not due to errors in the plans. All 
 the workmen will, of course, be on a financial equality, and they 
 will be subjected only to such discipline as is necessary to the 
 proper conduct of the work. The officers will consist simply of the 
 builder or chief of the works, and the foremen in the different trades, 
 who will see that the men are provided with materials and that they 
 
58 
 
 use these materials properly and economically, and do their duty 
 generally. Gross carelessness and indolence will be reported and 
 punished by reduction of remuneration and by such other means a& 
 may be found most effective. 
 
 It is likely that before Nationalism can be introduced in its com- 
 plete and perfect form, machinery will have supplanted most or all 
 of the most disagreeable parts of the builder's work, such as convey- 
 ing the heavy materials from the ground to the parts of the building 
 where they are to be finally laid. But even tlien there will for a long 
 time be no lack of men incapable of doing the difficult and more in- 
 tellectual parts of the construction. These will be glad of the oppor- 
 tunity to perform the purel}' mechanical operations, uneducated 
 foreigners will, so far as the immigration laws will allow, flock to 
 the nation which first adopts a rational system of industry and under- 
 take such forms of labor as will be found arduous by the natives 
 under the high grade of cultivation such a system will furnish, before 
 suitable machinery shall have been invented as a substitute. 
 
 The kind of work which will remain after machinery and foreigners 
 have undertaken the most arduous and mechanical parts, will be a 
 high grade of skilled labor, involving perhaps hs long a course of pre- 
 paratory education and as mucli ability, though of a different kind, 
 as the various professions, and deserving of as high a material 
 reward. 
 
'EX who would resent 
 the shghtest imputa- 
 tion of injustice, dis- 
 honor or cruelty in their 
 private dealings, yet partici- 
 pate in a great injustice and 
 r^f^^ "^7" '"'^ T^^^^J ;>\' cruelty towards their poorer 
 
 y-^ fa!L_J ^T-^ ^=; '^ |_ , . . , .gi , / •• or less gifted fellow beings, 
 
 lt:,KHi r■^M^k^i^' ' H'/^'i ■ U^- . simply because their atten- 
 tion has not been called to 
 the fact. Their opinions on 
 all great moral and social 
 questions are hereditary and 
 conservative rather than in- 
 dependent and progressive, 
 and the obvious and in- 
 evitable result of this is that these opinions do not keep pace with the 
 progress of events. 
 
 The tremendous advances in science, invention and concentration 
 of capital made within the last twenty years, have created a veritable 
 revolution in industrial and social conditions. But there has been 
 no corresponding revolution in ideas. 
 
 There is no longer free competition as formerly. Monopoly, its logical 
 offspring, has almost strangled its progenitor, and the result is that a 
 few men have obtained such absolute control over the rest that they 
 are able to exact from them for the privilege of existing, a very large 
 percentage of the product of their labor, the machinery of produc- 
 tion being held in the grasp of the few. This is a fact which is disputed 
 by no one and which admits of no dispute. The simple question then, 
 is, whether this condition of things is right or wrong. If it is right, 
 then Nationalism has no other justification than that of good policy. 
 If it is wrong then it becomes the duty of every one as participating 
 in that wrong to aid in uprooting it, and in substituting for it a system 
 founded upon justice, irrespective of any selfish feelings of indifference 
 or imaginary personal injury, which may stand in his way. But 
 since modern civilization has admitted slavery to be wrong, the modern 
 social system is proved to be wrong the moment we prove its inevit- 
 able consequence to be industrial and moral slavery, and the magni- 
 tude of the wrong becomes evident when we realize the magnitude 
 of the evils such slavery induces. 
 
60 
 
 Returning to our previous illustration, the descendants of the 
 •patriotic citizen, A, reduced to poverty, are able to obtain only a 
 limited education. There are thousands of families to-day in this 
 country who are too poor to give their children a common school 
 education. The product of their labor is necessary for the support 
 of the family. TJius the descendants of our citizen A are predes- 
 tined to earn a miserable pittance in the street or factory, subjected 
 to a thousand evil influences, which their overworked parents are in- 
 capable, through ignorance and want of leisure, of counteracting. 
 The tendency is inevitably downward' because the aggregate of in- 
 fluence resulting from extreme ignorance and poverty is evil. Living 
 from hand to mouth, they are bound to accept any conditions imposed 
 upon them by their employers, simply because they have no reserve 
 funds to sustain them while seeking employment elsewhere. Misfor- 
 tune leads to discouragement, and discouragement to intemperanca, 
 suicide and crime. 
 
 The descendants of B, on the other hand, are subjected to other 
 evils influences likewise tending to degradation through precisely 
 the opposite causes. Extreme wealth tempts to indolence, arrogance, 
 selfishness, and general moral and physical degeneracy. 
 
 The contact of these two extremes of society breeds every form 
 of ill feeling and stirs up the lowest passions of which human nature 
 is capable ; and if the causes which brought these extremes into 
 existence and which foster their growth are allowed to exist very 
 much longer, the disease in the social state will pass beyond govern- 
 ment control and culminate in general disaster. 
 
 Nationalists believe that justice and wisdom alike point to the 
 necessity of meeting the inevitable in a manly and straightforward 
 manner; of admitting the injustice of the present conditions and 
 endeavoring to effect a cure by peaceful means. 
 
 There is nothing more certain than that every individual is en- 
 titled to the full value of his labor whether mental or manual. This 
 is only possible when the people themselves own the whole machinery 
 of production, because so long as society sanctions the private mono- 
 })oly of machinery, its owners are expected to appropriate a part of 
 the labor of their employes as a return for the use of that machinery. 
 
 By what process did the machinery become the exclusive property 
 of certain individuals rather than of the community as a whole? 
 
 C, D and E are scientific investigators and philosophers having a 
 passion for the study of natural laws, purely for the knowledge itself, 
 without reference to the application of these laws to the industrial 
 arts, nor to their own material welfare, and, accordingly, they freely 
 publish their discoveries for the benefit of the whole (iommunity. F 
 is a practical mechanic quick in turning the discoveries of others to 
 practical uses and shrewd in directing these uses to his own emolu- 
 ment. He closely follows the researches of C, D and E, and seizes 
 upon the most important results which they obtain, producing by 
 means thereof a patentable labor-saving machine whereby he is 
 enabled to monopolize the fruit not only of his own labor, but of that 
 of C, D and E as well, although the latter may have formed nine- 
 tenths of the value of the machine. But the labor of C, D and E 
 was given by them in their publications to the community, and F 
 had no intrinsic right to that part of the machine which was due 
 
61 
 
 thereto. Custom has, however, given him this right in disregard of 
 justice. 
 
 Now C, D and E represent the whole civilized community and F 
 an individual member thereof. Every invention or production of 
 anv kind made nominally by an individual is really the production of 
 the individual aided hy the community, hy civilization, and that part of 
 it which is due to civilization, by far the greater part, should clearly 
 become the property of the community. Hence the justice of Nation- 
 ahsm. 
 
 Is it also wise ? 
 
 All recognize the fact that a wide-spread discontent now exists 
 among the working-classes throughout the entire civilized world, a 
 discontent which has assumed unprecedented proportions, and is yet 
 daily increasing ; which shows itself in the formation everywhere of 
 labor unions, and combinations of all kinds for mutual protection and 
 concerted action; in the appearance of hundreds of books, papers 
 and periodicals published in the interest of labor, and devoted solely 
 to the discussion of the condition of the laborer and social wrongs ; 
 in the general agitation of the labor question in all the leading maga- 
 zines and periodicals of the day; in strikes, lockouts and all kinds 
 of labor troubles, and finally in many forms of violent insubordina- 
 tion, disorder, and riot. 
 
 Those who refuse to shut their eyes upon these facts, recognize 
 that the causes for them are daily increasing, and that intelligent and 
 prompt action should be taken to direct the great popular movement 
 in the right channels. Leaving it to itself is equivalent to leaving it 
 to those who are most interested in the change, and least fitted to 
 direct it — the wage-earners. This course was tried in France a 
 hundred years ago, and it is the part of wisdom to profit by that 
 lesson and avoid the possibility of its repetition. Strikes and riots 
 are expensive to the strikers as well as to the public, and had the 
 money spent in them during the last twenty years been devoted to 
 the wiser service of educating the people in the principles of National- 
 ism, our Cooperative Commonwealth might have been realized to-day. 
 
 Much as has been said by critics as to the impossibility of attain- 
 ing a speedy realization of such an ideal, yet the moment we begin to 
 reflect upon the vast economies effected by cooperation, the diffi- 
 culties which at first thought appeared overwhelming begin one by one 
 to vanish. We, are dealing, moreover, it must be remembered, not 
 with a system in which every individual, or small body of individuals, 
 is engaged independently in a constant conflict with all the rest, to 
 regulate which, even partially, requires the ablest statesmanship, but 
 rather with a system of cooperation so simple as to resemble a 
 beautiful piece of machinery, having a thousand parts moving in 
 perfect harmony and with irresistible power, but which can yet be 
 guided by the simplest mechanism. 
 
 I have stated as my belief that over nine-tenths of the energy now 
 exerted is wasted. I should also have stated that my authority for the 
 wastes due to the item of travelling salesmen was the United States 
 Census for 1880 and the following calculations by Mr. Edward H. San- 
 born, of the United States Census Staff : " Careful estimates from a 
 variety of reliable sources, place the number of commercial travellers 
 in this country at 250,000. Their railroad fares, express or freight 
 
62 
 
 upon baggage, hotel-bills, and incidental expenses range from $4 to Si 2 
 and more a day, averaging about $6 daily. Salaries range upwards 
 from $900 a year. Thousands of men earn S2,000 and $2,500 a year ; 
 a smaller number receive salaries between $3,000 and $5,000, while a 
 comparative few are paid from $5,000 to $15,000, and in rare instances 
 even more. Of course, as in every field of employment, the lower 
 salaries are vastly in the majority, and $1,800 a year is a fair 
 average. Let us see what these figures will give us lor the cost of 
 this single element in competition. The expenses of 250,000 
 travelling men at $6 a day amount to $1,500,000 daily, or $547,500- 
 000 in 365 days. Then the salaries of 250,000 men averaged at 
 $1,800 a year aggregate $450,000,000, so that the two items of 
 salaries and travelling expenses to be charged against the commercial 
 traveller mount up to the astonishing total of $997,500,000 a year. 
 JSTor is this all. In nearly every branch of business each man must 
 be provided with his outfit of trunks, sample cases, and his more or 
 less complete line of samples. To give accurate figures or even 
 approximate estimates in this direction is a hopeless task and I shall 
 not attempt it; but here are a few facts to stimulate speculation. A 
 salesman who handles a general line of dry goods, ' notions ' and 
 'small wares,' requires an outfit costing from $50 to $200, in addition 
 to which the samples that he carries in a single year cost from $1,000 
 to $2,000. Some of these samples are sold subsequently, while others 
 become worthless, or are lost altogether. To cover losses of this 
 character, it is customary to make an allowance of thirty-three and 
 one-third per cent, of the actual cost of the samples. Now it may 
 readily be seen that a concern employing fifty to a hundred travel- 
 ling salesmen — and there are many at the latter figure- — is under an 
 enormous expense in reaching its customers, not to mention such 
 minor matters as store expenses, interest upon capital, etc. • This 
 item of over $1,000,000 000 charged annually to the account of the 
 travelling man, is paid by the purchaser at retail, or consumer. And 
 the expensive luxury of this form of competition brings neither 
 advantage to the purchaser, nor profit to the merchant, in the long 
 run. Were there not a travelling salesman upon the road to-day, the 
 aggregate sales of merchandise would be likely as large as at present, 
 and at lower prices the merchant would reap even greater profits 
 than he now makes. The aggregate volume of business represents 
 what is necessary to supply the people's wants, and with or without 
 travelling salesmen the wants of the people will be supplied. The trav- 
 elling salesman influences the aggregate volume of business but 
 little, one way or the other. His only accomplishment is to enhance 
 the cost of needful commodities and to cultivate extravagance, by 
 forcing the sale of goods not actually needed by the purchasers. 
 But so long as one firm sends out its travellers, others and all must do 
 likewise." 
 
 Accordingly, taking into consideration all these great wastes of the 
 competitive system and all the possible gains in productiveness which 
 general cooperation will permit as suggested in these pages, I believe 
 that the increase of National wealth through Nationalism will be 
 nearer twenty than ten fold. Should a more exhaustive study in this 
 direction aided by more accurate and comprehensive census reports 
 prove that this belief is well founded, then will it follow that a single 
 
63 
 
 year's production under Nationalism will be more than sufficient to pay 
 for all the plant needed by the Nation for conducting its own business. 
 The problem of the practical introduction of Nationalism will then 
 be viewed in a new light. The substitution of a different system of 
 industry will be no longer a question of possibility or advisability, but 
 will become a question of method. ^ 
 
 Since the work must be done without disturbing the wheels of 
 industry, severing social ties, or doing injustice to any individual, 
 it will be necessary to make use of the existing industrial ma- 
 chinery at first, gradually supplanting this by better as convenience 
 and experience dictate. 
 
 The acquisition by the people of the means of production can be 
 accomplished by existing methods, by purchase at assessed valua- 
 tion or by right of eminent domain, payment being made in bonds, 
 the details of the transaction being regulated somewhat after the 
 manner of the formation of the great combinations and trusts of 
 to-day. In the purchase of railroad and other stock and bonds 
 which rest on Government franchise, the value of the grants and 
 franchise will be included in the amount paid, since these fran- 
 chises, once granted by the Government and included in the mar- 
 ket value of such stock, and afterwards purchased in good faith 
 by the public, have become as fairly the property of these pur- 
 chasers as any other objects of value connected with the property, 
 and a gift or promise made by our Government should be held 
 sacred even though such gift or joromise may have, in the opinion of 
 some, been unwisely made. 
 
 In the same way such land as may be required, will be purchased 
 at its actual market value, proved by careful appraisal. 
 
 Factories and mercantile buildings will evidently at once become 
 useless to their present owners, since no one could compete with a 
 Government capable of paying the large dividend to its employes, 
 which we have shown to result from so gigantic a combination, and 
 these buildings will be gladly turned over to the new administration 
 for their value. But dwellings and improved estates held for per- 
 sonal use and not for speculation, with which the owners are 
 unwilling to part, will simply be valued and left in their possession. 
 The amount of land now so held for personal use as homes, how- 
 ever, is very small compared with the vast territory held for farm- 
 ing, forestry, railroads, manufacturing and speculative purposes, all 
 of which could be purchased by the nation at a fair valuation. 
 
 A portion of our immensely increased annual wealth production 
 could be devoted each year to redeeming these bonds. Thus every 
 property-holder would receive the full value of his property in Gov- 
 ernment securities exchangeable for any kind of wealth produced by 
 the nation. 
 
 During the time which will intervene between the substantial accept- 
 ance by the people of the principles of Nationalism, and its practical 
 
 1 All our calculations, have been based on the amount of wealth production at 
 the time of the Census of 18 0. It is well-known that in the last ten years machin- 
 ery has immensely increased the economy of production, and, under'the favorable 
 auspices of Nationalism, such increase must be very much more rapid. These 
 figures and considerations would place the annual income of each adult In- 
 dividual, man and woman, under Nationalism at considerably over the equivalent 
 of six thousand dollars, and would permit of a great diminution of the length of 
 the average working-day. 
 
64 
 
 adoption in its entirety, the industries successively placed under 
 National Control will necessarily be administered more and more on 
 the principles of reformed civil service, because it will become more 
 and more for the interest of all to have this so. 
 
 The nationalization of all industries will bring about such reform 
 as an inevitable consequence, because it will substitute for the pres- 
 ent cause of corruption — private monopoly — public monopoly 
 wherein the interests of all will be identical, a monopoly which in 
 directing legislation and acting for itself will thereby necessarily act 
 for the whole people. 
 
NOW READY, 
 
 Saved by Nationalism, 
 
 By H. B. Salisbury. 
 
 This story, which first appeared in the October NATIO^- 
 ALIST, is reproduced in pamphlet form, and will be found a 
 very effective document by those who wish to convince their 
 friends, in an attractive and entertaining manner, of the 
 evils of industrial and commercial competition, and of the 
 advantages of co-operation. 
 
 The reader is introduced to a New England village, in its 
 primitive condition of contented sleepiness, before the 
 demon Avarice has corroded the souls of its inhabitants. 
 This condition lasts until a railroad corporation, by the 
 customary artifices of its agents, rouses the people to a 
 desire for change, and by the usual methods, obtains the 
 necessary powers for carrying out its project. Next is seen 
 "the village as it is;" ruined by the system of commer- 
 cialism which the railroad has brought into operation, 
 worked as it is in the interest of its stockholders and not 
 in that of the people generally. At length co-operation 
 forces competition from its supremacy, and nationalism 
 brings peace and prosperity to the community, rebuilds 
 demolished houses, fertilizes abandoned farms, finds con- 
 genial occupation for each inhabitant, and increases the 
 wealth of the whole people. 
 
 Price 5 cents. 
 A liberal discount to purchasers of ten or more copies. 
 
 BOSTON : 
 
 THE NATIONALIST EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 
 No. 77 BoYLSTON Street.