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SOUTH AMERICAN HANDBOOKS 
 
 PE R U 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES, NATURAL RESOURCES, 
 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, MANUFACTURES 
 AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 E. C. VIVIAN 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY 
 
 MCMXXI 
 
Printed by 
 
 Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, England. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PACE 
 
 I. GEOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL FEATURES, AND 
 
 CLIMATE ...... 1 
 
 II. NATURAL HISTORY (FLORA AND FAUNA) . 13 
 
 III. HISTORY 20 
 
 IV. THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS. . . 39 
 
 V. DEPARTMENTS, PROVINCES, AND POPULATION 55 
 
 VI. CONSTITUTION, GOVERNMENT, AND DEFENCE 80 
 
 VII. NATIONAL FINANCE ..... 85 
 
 VIII. COMMERCIAL AND GENERAL SOCIAL CONDITIONS 95 
 
 IX. INLAND COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT . 110 
 
 X. PORTS AND HARBOURS . . . .123 
 
 XI. AGRICULTURE ; FOREST PRODUCTS J GUANO J 
 LAND TENURE AND COLONISATION ) GRAZING 
 AND CATTLE-BREEDING . . . .142 
 
 XII. MINING AND MINERALS ; MINING LAWS . 160 
 
 XIII. MANUFACTURES AND MINOR INDUSTRIES . 171 
 
 XIV. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS . . . .178 
 
 XV. GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS . . . 184 
 
 APPENDICES — 
 
 (A.) POSTAL AND TELEGRAPH GUIDE . 213 
 
 (B.) STEAMSHIP SERVICES . . .218 
 
 (C.) CURRENCY : GENERAL TABLE OF 
 
 SOUTH AMERICAN CURRENCIES ; 
 PERUVIAN CURRENCY . . 221 
 
 Y 
 
 IA— (2247 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 appendices — continued PAGE 
 
 (d.) weights and measures . . 222 
 
 (e.) commercial treaties and 
 
 conventions . . . 223 
 
 (F.) DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES — 
 
 OF PERU TO U.S.A. . . 225 
 
 OF U.S.A. TO PERU . . 225 
 
 OF PERU TO GREAT BRITAIN. 225 
 OF GREAT BRITAIN TO PERU. 225 
 INDEX 227 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 map of peru (physical) . . . frontispiece 
 
 VISCAS BRIDGE, OROYA RAILWAY . facing 6 
 
 IN THE FOREST OF CHANCHAMAYO . . .14 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF CUZCO ..... 22 
 
 A QUICHUA INDIAN OF PERU — A DESCENDANT OF THE 
 INCA RACE. THE BACKGROUND SHOWS OLD INCA 
 MASONRY ....... 40 
 
 A STREET OF THE INCAS IN THE OLD CITY OF CUZCO 48 
 ENTRANCE TO A TEMPLE ..... 52 
 
 LOS PORTALES, PLAZA MAYOR, LIMA ... 54 
 
 CATHEDRAL, LIMA 84 
 
 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS, LIMA . . . 104 
 
 MAP OF RAILWAYS AND NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS . 110 
 
 GALERA JUNCTION, OROYA RAILWAY . . .118 
 
 THE DOCKS, CALLAO 122 
 
 MARKET, HUANCAYO 146 
 
 PACK LLAMAS, FOR TRANSPORTING MINERALS. . 160 
 
 CUSTOMS HOUSE, CALLAO 178 
 
 coloured map of south America . end of volume 
 
 VI 
 
PERU 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL FEATURES, AND CLIMATE 
 
 The Republic of Peru is situated on the western side of 
 the Continent of South America. To the north lie 
 Ecuador and Colombia, to the east Brazil and Bolivia, 
 to the south Chile ; on the west, her seaboard is washed 
 by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The actual area is still uncertain, though the long 
 boundary disputes with the neighbouring republics are 
 being gradually settled. An agreement with Chile was 
 signed in 1912, and the frontier line with Bolivia has 
 been drawn from the mouth of the river Heath to that 
 of the Yaverija. A definite arrangement was also made 
 in 1910 with Brazil, generally favourable to Peru ; 
 and the delimitation is proceeding under a European 
 Boundary Commission, in which several British officers 
 are taking part. A treaty was signed in September, 
 1909, between Peru and Colombia, but the delimitation 
 has not yet been made. The chief outstanding question 
 is, therefore, that of the Ecuador frontier, involving 
 something like 100,000 square miles of territory. Offers 
 of arbitration (a) by a joint Commission of the United 
 States, Brazil, and Argentina ; ( b ) by the King of Spain 
 or the Hague Tribunal, were accepted by Peru, but 
 refused by Ecuador. Military operations took place 
 
2 
 
 PERU 
 
 on the river Caqueta in July, 1911, in which Peru was 
 successful ; but the question is still unsettled. 
 
 The Bolivian frontier is the most extensive of any, 
 while the Chilean boundary has been moved northward 
 since the war of 1879-81, by which the rich nitrate areas 
 of Tarapaca and Tacna were lost to Peru. The treaty after 
 the war gave to Chile Tarapaca and a ten years’ tenancy 
 of Tacna and Arica. At the end of that period a pleb- 
 iscite should have been taken (in 1894) to decide which 
 country should retain the area, but the popular vote 
 was not taken, since Chile asserted that the whole popu- 
 lation should vote, while Peru claimed that only Peruvians 
 had that right. Thus the question was still nominally 
 undecided up to 1912, when a definite agreement ceded 
 Tacna to Chile — but, meanwhile, the nitrate revenues all 
 went to the Chilean Government. Exclusive of Tacna, 
 and anticipating the most favourable settlement of all 
 other boundary disputes, Peruvians estimate the area 
 of their own country at about 700,000 square miles, 
 and their coast line at 1,350 miles, counting from 
 the Ensenada of Santa Rosa in the north, to the northern 
 boundary of Tacna. 
 
 Physically, the country falls naturally into three 
 zones, of which the central or mountainous zone may be 
 further subdivided into three “ belts,” differing in height 
 and character. (1) The coast zone, that farthest to the 
 west, is a practically rainless strip extending from the 
 extreme north to the extreme south of Peru, and scarcely 
 exceeding 60 miles in width at any point ; (2) the zone 
 of the sierras, or Andine region, follows the north-west 
 to south-east line of the Andes crests throughout the 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLIMATE 
 
 3 
 
 country, and its uplands broaden out, especially in 
 the south, to form the great tableland on which Lake 
 Titicaca is situated, the mean height being from 11,000 
 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level ; (3) beyond the region of 
 the sierras lies the montana, or river and forest zone. 
 
 Roughly speaking, the coastal zone occupies about a 
 tenth part of the republic, the sierra a fourth part, and 
 the montana occupies the remaining thirteen-twentieths 
 of the whole — though it is this zone which is in question 
 through boundary disputes. 
 
 The great tableland of the sierra is bounded on the 
 east by the Andes proper — this term being applied in an 
 exclusive sense to the crests of the main range ; the 
 western boundary is formed by the western or coastal 
 Cordillera, while numerous secondary ridges, rising but 
 little above the level of the tableland, are also known as 
 cordilleras. In the north, the western range is called the 
 Cordillera Negra, owing to the absence of snow upon its 
 upper crests ; while the eastern range, the Andes proper^ 
 is known as the Cordillera Nevada. The highest eleva- 
 tion to which the coastal Cordillera attains is about 
 16,000 ft. ; while the eastern or main range, which main- 
 tains a height of about 18,000 ft. between the montana 
 zone and the Huallaga river valley, forms the watershed 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific regions of South America. 
 The principal peaks of the range attain in Southern Peru 
 a height of over 20,000 ft., chief among them being 
 Coropuna (22,900 ft.), and the twin-peaked Huascaran, 
 over 22,180 ft. in height. 
 
 A striking feature in the Andine chain is the occurrence 
 of certain transverse ridges, known as “ knots,” which 
 
PERU 
 
 connect the main Cordilleras. In Bolivia, the knot of 
 Potosi occurs in lat. 22° S. ; in Peru, the knot of Vil- 
 canota, or Cuzco, occurs in lat. 14° 30' S. Between the 
 two lies the great Titicaca basin, 360 miles in length and 
 100 miles in breadth. Three chains run north from the 
 Cuzco knot, converging, after about 440 miles, near lat. 
 11° S., in the knot of Pasco. To the north of the country 
 the chains are cut by the Maranon and Huallaga, and 
 unite again in Ecuador in the knot of Loja. 
 
 The rainless character of the Coast Zone is due in part 
 to the crests of the Andes, which intercept moisture from 
 the east of the continent, and in part to the Humboldt 
 current, which, lower in temperature than either the 
 surrounding ocean or the air, prevents evaporation from 
 the sea. It is responsible, however, for the formation of 
 mists, which, in turn, admit the growth of scanty pastur- 
 age in places throughout the zone. Small streams, flow- 
 ing westward at intervals along the coast, give rise to 
 strips of vegetation in this desert zone ; and, wherever 
 irrigation is possible, verdure flourishes. The greater 
 part of the white population of Peru — about three- 
 quarters of a million in number — is concentrated in the 
 coast zone, in which Lima, the capital of the country, is 
 situated, as well as the majority of important Peruvian 
 towns. The climate here is excellent, the temperature 
 fairly constant throughout the year, and about 10° lower 
 than in corresponding latitudes east of the Andes. 
 Except for the heavy mists which rise and deposit the 
 heavy dews which this region enjoys, the sun is generally 
 visible, but the cool breezes springing from the south and 
 tempered by the Humboldt current render the air 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLIMATE 5 
 
 peculiarly healthy. The general appearance of this 
 coastal strip is, however, dismally brown and bare, and 
 from Paita to Moquegua sterility is the rule ; while the 
 oases formed by the streams flowing from the coastal 
 cordillera to the shore are the exceptions. In these 
 spots, sugar-cane, cotton, rice, maize, and other tropical 
 and sub-tropical products are cultivated, but the output 
 of agricultural products is for the present small. 
 
 The zone of the Sierras falls naturally into three dis- 
 tinct “ belts.” First of these is a strip composed of the 
 foothills and valleys of the western slope, adjoining the 
 coast zone, and limited by the point where the altitude 
 is between 10,000 and 11,000 ft. It is characterised by 
 a tumbled confusion of jutting spurs from the central 
 tableland of the sierras, alternating with deep valleys, 
 ravines, and isolated hills and ridges. The geologic 
 formation here is granite on the lowest levels, lava- 
 capped in the south, and occupying the western extremi- 
 ties of the belt ; while higher and farther inland are 
 sandstone and limestone, quartzite, and conglomerates, 
 bearing rich veins of gold, copper, quicksilver, and other 
 minerals — little worked, but capable of being trans- 
 formed into one of the great mineral fields of the world. 
 In the valleys of this region, maize flourishes ; and 
 alfalfa is also largely grown, together with most of the 
 cereals of the temperate zone. The belt of the foothills 
 is fairly well watered, its climate is healthy (except where 
 stagnant water gives rise to malaria, known locally as 
 terciana), and it is on the whole one of the best parts of 
 Peru from the view point of commercial possibilities. 
 
 The next belt eastward is the great tableland of the 
 
 2— (2247) 
 
6 
 
 PERU 
 
 Andes proper, ranging from 11,500 to 13,500 ft. above 
 sea-level, desolate and treeless for the most part, and 
 interspersed with lakes and stretches of morass, between 
 which extend tracts underlaid by quartzite or limestone, 
 and covered thinly by the ichu or mountain grass. Sheep, 
 llamas, alpacas, and vicunas graze here in great numbers, 
 and the inhabitants are mainly Indians, devoted to the 
 care of the live stock. The great tablelands, unsurpassed 
 in extent anywhere in the world except by the Tibetan 
 plateau, are known locally as punas. At their western 
 edge rises the third belt of the upland zone, the great 
 cordillera of the true Andes range, white clad above 
 the height of 16,000 ft. The range consists of two and 
 sometimes three parallel lines of summits, between which 
 the Peruvian feeders of the Amazon have their courses ; 
 and in these central valleys there exists a sparse popula- 
 tion devoted to cattle-breeding, mining, and agriculture, 
 cut off from the outer world by the vast heights that 
 surround them — a world with which they communicate 
 only by means of pack mule tracks across the mountain 
 passes. The largest of these valleys is the great basin 
 of Lake Titicaca, which in old time was reputed to drain 
 to the Amazon, but which now empties its waters only 
 into Lake Poopo to the south, forming with the last- 
 named lake an inland lacustrine basin, unconnected with 
 the ocean. In the hill-encircled bolsones, or valleys, of 
 these southern punas, flourished the pre-Spanish civilisa- 
 tions of Peru — Inca, Aymara, and others of which even 
 the names have vanished — for in these valleys are found 
 both the climate and the products of the temperate 
 zone ; though the climate of the punas themselves is 
 
Viscas Bridge, Oroya Railway 
 

PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLIMATE 7 
 
 not all that could be desired, since rain, snow, and 
 at times keen winds make a very inclement region of the 
 exposed tablelands of the sierras. The only break in the 
 average elevation of the chain is in the north, where on 
 the Ecuadorean frontier a gap exists, only 6,700 ft. above 
 sea-level. No other pass falls below 14,000 ft. in height. 
 
 The Montana, the most easterly zone of Peru, com- 
 prises the lowest Amazonian slopes of the Andes, and 
 not, as its name would seem to imply, the mountains 
 themselves. It extends only up to about 5,000 ft. in 
 height from the east. Except for this limitation of 
 height on the west, the montana is devoid of natural 
 boundaries, and consists of a tropical, low-lying area, 
 alluvial in character, and intersected by a network of 
 large and generally navigable rivers, which contain 
 multitudes of fish. The land is covered with dense 
 forest growth, rich in useful plants and valuable timbers, 
 and containing vast quantities of rubber trees, which 
 have formed the basis of a prosperous and notorious 
 industry for some years past. Tree-ferns, palms, and 
 bamboos of many varieties abound, and the forests are 
 inhabited by almost every species of animal that South 
 America can boast, though the human population is made 
 up of only a few tribes of savage Indians, whose numbers 
 have been woefully reduced during the past two or three 
 decades. Among the crops which thrive abundantly in 
 the montana region are cacao, coffee, sugar-cane, manioc, 
 and coca ; while a valuable kind of cinchona bark, the 
 Cinchona Calisaya, is found here. 
 
 Rivers. — The three main rivers of Peru are the great 
 parent streams of the Amazon, named respectively the 
 
PERU 
 
 Maranon, usually regarded as the true source of the 
 Amazon, the Huallaga, and the Ucayali. These, together 
 with some of the Ecuadorean affluents, converge beyond 
 Tabatinga on the Brazilian frontier to form the Solimoes, 
 or middle course of the Amazon. These three, chief 
 among the Peruvian rivers, occupy courses roughly 
 parallel to each other, flowing from south to north. The 
 Maranon, flowing as it does along the valley enclosed by 
 the western summits of the coastal cordillera, owes its 
 title as source of the Amazon to its position nearest to 
 the Pacific Ocean, rather than to its comparative import- 
 ance ; for the Ucayali, most easterly of the three, is a 
 greater river at the confluence, and also has a greater 
 navigable length. The Ucayali occupies the valley lying 
 along the east of the Andes’ crests, and together with its 
 tributary, the Pachitea, is navigable for small steamers 
 for a distance of over 800 miles ; while other of its 
 tributaries, the Apurimac, Urubamba, and Vilcanota, 
 provide waterways navigable for small craft in the south 
 of the country. Between these two extremes of the 
 Peruvian highlands, the Huallaga cuts its way through 
 the heart of the great plateau, rising in the vicinity of 
 Cerro de Pasco, and flowing directly north by way of 
 Huanuco, between the great enclosing ranges of the 
 Andine plateau. 
 
 In the extreme east of the montana region the Embira, 
 the Purus, the Aquiri or Acre, the Madre de Dios, and 
 the Beni have their rise in a network of morasses and 
 small streams, flowing with an average easterly trend to 
 augment the Madeira and other great southern tribu- 
 taries of the Amazon. They traverse districts rich in 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLIMATE 9 
 
 agricultural possibilities, though little visited, and 
 possessed of a climate that may, without exaggeration, 
 be termed virulent. 
 
 It is worthy of note that in 1851 a treaty was con- 
 cluded between Peru and Brazil, securing to Peru full 
 freedom for its shipping from Tabatinga to Para on the 
 Atlantic seaboard. At the present time there is a regular 
 steamboat service between Iquitos and Para, maintained 
 by the Booth Steamship Company in connection with its 
 ocean-going steamers to Liverpool and European ports. 
 
 The Maranon, rising in Lake Lauricocha, slightly to the 
 north of Cerro de Pasco, has its source at 14,250 ft. above 
 sea-level, and flows north-west for some distance in a 
 series of unnavigable rapids, until at the falls of Manse- 
 riche it is only 550 ft. above sea-level. Navigation is 
 possible only below Manseriche, and in its lower course, 
 where it is joined by the Huallaga and Ucayali, 
 the Maranon traverses territory still under dispute as to 
 proprietorship, being either Peruvian or Ecuadorean. 
 
 The Ucayali, on the other hand, is formed of two great 
 systems of waterways : its most southerly source is in 
 the small Lake de la Raya, just north of the watershed 
 between the Amazonian system and that which forms 
 Lake Titicaca. At this point, so far as confused nomen- 
 clature w'ill admit of certainty, the Ucayali is known as 
 the Vilcamayo, which later becomes the Urubamba, and 
 is joined by the Paucartambo from the east. Beyond 
 this junction the main stream is joined by the second 
 system of rivers which, flowing from the south-west, 
 consists of the Catonga or Apurimac, with numerous 
 mountain tributaries ; and the Jauja or Mantaro, which 
 
10 
 
 PERU 
 
 falls 12,000 ft. from its source, only 100 miles distant 
 from the Pacific Ocean, to its junction with the main 
 stream. From this junction to the point at which the 
 Ucayali empties into the Maranon, it is a sluggishly flowing 
 stream, easily navigable, and joined only by one important 
 affluent, the Pachitea, by means of which, together with 
 the Ucayali, a mail service is maintained between Lima, 
 Iquitos, and Para. 
 
 The Huallaga is of little economic importance, being 
 navigable for steamers only for a distance of 30 miles 
 above its mouth, to Laguna, though light native boats 
 ascend to Tingo Maria, about 330 miles up the river. 
 The remaining stream of importance in the montana is 
 the Javari, which for a considerable portion of its course 
 forms the boundary line between Peru and Brazil. 
 
 The character of the country does not admit of the 
 formation of large rivers draining to the Pacific. The 
 streams that flow westward across the coast zone at 
 intervals are intermittent in character, their beds being 
 dry or nearly so for a great part of the year, and subject 
 to periodical floods. Except the Santa and the Rimac, 
 not one is in constant flow ; and none is navigable. 
 The greatest in volume is the Huards, which flows from 
 Lake Conococha, 13,000 ft. above sea-level, through the 
 long, fertile valley named the Callejon de Huards, between 
 the main Andes range and the coastal summits, and 
 falls steeply to meet the Rio Chuquicara. The joint 
 stream makes an abrupt left turn, piercing the coastal 
 cordillera and issuing to the coast zone as the Rio Santa, 
 entering the Pacific at Santa, 250 miles from its source. 
 The next stream of importance is the Rimac, on which 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLIMATE 11 
 
 Lima, the capital, is situated ; and other coastal streams 
 are the Pisco or Chunchanga, lea, Grande, Yauca, Ocona, 
 Tambo, Ilo, Mages, and Vitor. 
 
 Lakes. — Including Lake Titicaca, the largest fresh- 
 water lake of South America, the lake system of Peru is 
 of importance, as Titicaca forms a means of communica- 
 tion with Bolivia, to which it in part belongs. Its 
 greatest length is 130 miles, average breadth 44 miles ; 
 and its altitude about 12,200 ft., though its present level 
 is considerably lower than formerly. A steamer service 
 connects Puno on the Peruvian coast with La Paz in 
 Bolivia. The Peruvian plateau contains a number of 
 other lakes, small in size, but noteworthy as the sources 
 of some of the rivers. The Ucayali rises in Lake Chin- 
 chaycocha, the Huards in Lake Conococha ; other upland 
 lakes are Parinacocha, Chinacocha, Huascarcocha, Cabal- 
 lococha, and Huachacocha — Cocha, in the Quichua tongue, 
 signifying “ lake.” 
 
 Climate and Health. — In considering the climate of 
 Peru as healthy, which it undoubtedly is, it must be 
 borne in mind that the scourge of yellow fever is by no 
 means eliminated from the country. This disease 
 flourishes throughout all the coastal area, where another 
 drawback is the great mortality among children, who 
 perish under the “ seven days’ sickness,” a form of con- 
 vulsions to which infants are subject, always with fatal 
 results. Dysentery also affects the coastal area, while 
 in the montaha typhoid and enteric, as well as malaria, 
 are prevalent. In the mountains, the soroche, or moun- 
 tain sickness, attacks new-comers, but never with fatal 
 results. With the exception of this last, and of the 
 
12 
 
 PERU 
 
 “ seven days’ sickness,” the avoidance of disease is 
 mainly a matter of sanitary precautions and care with 
 regard to food and drink. Yellow fever, except in the 
 extreme north of the country, is gradually being elimin- 
 ated, as in Brazil, though Peru has not yet attained the 
 standard reached in Rio and other Brazilian centres. 
 
 The temperature in Peru is relatively low, thanks to 
 the Humboldt current on the west and the intervention 
 of the Andes summits in the east. Lima, at lat. 12° S., 
 has an average and fairly constant temperature of 60° ; 
 and Cerro de Pasco, higher in altitude, averages 40°. 
 Really tropical heat, however, is experienced in the 
 closed valleys of the sierras, and in the montana district 
 the steamy discomfort of marshy land is added to 
 equatorial temperature. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 The Flora of Peru is extremely varied. This is due, 
 in part, to the numerous species imported from Europe 
 and elsewhere, and naturalised in the country ; but still 
 more to the enormous variation of soil and climate due 
 to the range above sea-level. The most important and 
 characteristic of the indigenous products are maize, 
 potatoes, rubber, cotton, cacao, coca, cinchona, and 
 sarsaparilla. Probably the best way of describing the 
 flora is to proceed from the coast to the Montana or 
 forest of the interior, noting the various belts of vegetation 
 encountered. 
 
 The Coast Region is, generally speaking, treeless, 
 save for the algarrobas ( mesquite ) of Piura, and the trees 
 artificially introduced in or near towns, such as the 
 Australian eucalyptus. A great proportion of the coast 
 area consists of sandy deserts absolutely devoid of plant 
 life, even of cacti. These barren tracts are crossed by 
 fertile river valleys, which produce sugar, cotton, rice, 
 tobacco, cocoa. The olive ( Olea Europaea) and the 
 castor-oil bean flourish in Arequipa. Mulberry trees 
 have been introduced for silkworm culture. Many kinds 
 of fruit are grown, including grapes, oranges, melons, 
 bananas, pomegranates, alligator pears ( paltas ), and 
 chirimoyas. The ramie (China grass) and alfalfa, or 
 lucerne, are grown ; and vegetable crops, such as beans, 
 peas, lentils, and sweet potatoes. The nopal, or prickly 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 PERU 
 
 pear cactus, the habitat of the cochineal insect, is also 
 found. On the foothills grass appears in the winter 
 season of mists, and also the quishuar ( Buddleia incana), 
 a tree used for firewood and building. 
 
 The Temperate Zone, between about 6,000 and 
 11,500 ft. above sea-level, contains the potato, the aji or 
 pepper, and various cereals — maize, wheat, barley, 
 alfalfa, sorghum, and quinua. The splendid development 
 of the maize and potato is due to the careful native 
 cultivation for centuries before the coming of the 
 Spaniards. Maize is used not only for food, but in the 
 preparation of the drink called chicha ; the large pods 
 of the aji are eaten both green and dried ; quinua is an 
 indigenous grain, growing freely in thin soil at high 
 altitudes, and very nutritious. The trees and shrubs 
 include the quishuar, willow, mountain ash, eucalyptus, 
 roble (a stunted oak), with hawthorn, acacia, elder, 
 datura, rhatanjq and ivy. Cacao is largely grown in the 
 department of Cuzco, and coffee in Puno, Junin, and 
 elsewhere. The airampo cactus occurs, and also the 
 maguey, which gives a fibre used for making ropes and 
 sacks. The common flowers and fruits familiar in 
 Europe occur in profusion ; and the traveller in the 
 fertile valleys of this zone is often reminded of the flora 
 of Devonshire or of Switzerland. 
 
 The High Plateaux ( paramos ) and the slopes over 
 11,500 ft. produce a very scanty vegetation, which is 
 put by the Indian to the fullest use. Trees no longer 
 grow. The high, coarse grass ( ichu ) provides him with 
 thatch, fodder, and fuel ; from the lake edges he forms 
 his rafts ( balsas ) ; and he finds another valuable fuel in 
 
In the Forest of Chanchamayo 
 
I 
 
NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 15 
 
 the woody fungoid yareta ( Azorella umbellifera). Higher 
 still, a few alpine plants and lichens lead to bare rock, 
 and finally to perpetual snow. 
 
 The inter-Andine region contains the great river valleys 
 leading to the Amazon ; and the vegetation is, according 
 to elevation, alpine, temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical. 
 
 The eastern slope of the Andes descends into a new 
 climate, with abundant rain, rich, deep soil, and tropical 
 heat. The Forest Region, which covers about two- 
 thirds of Peru, has all the luxuriant vegetation which is 
 associated with the name of the Amazon — huge timber, 
 thick undergrowth, lianas, and tropical ferns. It includes 
 “ almost every tree or plant known in the botany of 
 South America,” and it has been calculated that one 
 square league contains some 3,000,000 different species. 
 An account of a pleasure trip from Lima to the Ucayali 
 mentions, as noticeably prominent, broom, orchids, 
 begonias, calceolarias, pampas grass, durantas, solonacias, 
 wild cotton, and species of scarlet runners and brambles ; 
 at places the ground was covered with arum lilies. 
 
 Among the most important products are : (1) Timber 
 trees ( e.g ., ebony, mahogany ( caoba ), cedar, hardwood or 
 ironwood, walnut, and various dyewoods ; (2) medicinal 
 plants (e.g., cinchona, coca, sarsaparilla, vanilla) ; (3) 
 tagua or vegetable ivory (exported for button-making) ; 
 (4) resinous and gum-exuding trees, including the rubber 
 Hevea brasiliensis and Castilloa elastica ; (5) fibrous 
 
 plants ; (6) food-plants (e.g., the papaya (Carica papaya) 
 the large fruit of which is eaten raw, or boiled as a vege- 
 table, or preserved ; (7) fruits ; (8) palms, ferns, etc. 
 The best rubber (jebe) is found in the lowest portion of 
 
16 
 
 PERU 
 
 Loreto, under 300 ft. above sea-level ; it grows to an 
 average height of 70-75 ft. ; the lower grades grow above 
 this elevation. 
 
 Agriculture is only beginning in this vast region. The 
 chief products at present are rubber and coca ; but there 
 is a certain cultivation, which admits of almost unlimited 
 increase, of sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, with 
 bananas and other fruits. Transport is one great 
 difficulty, though nature has provided a system of 
 trunk-lines in the series of great navigable rivers. 
 
 In the Fauna, as in the flora, there is a marked differ- 
 ence in the coast zone, the high uplands, and the eastern 
 Montana. 
 
 In the Coast Region, the animals, except those intro- 
 duced by man, are few and scarce ; fish and bird-life, on 
 the other hand, are abundant. The immense deposits of 
 guano on the islands of the coast may serve to indicate 
 the enormous number of large sea-birds ( alcatraces , 
 gaviotas, etc.). Fish abound both in the sea and the 
 rivers ; the chief sea-fishing grounds are off the Lobos 
 Islands, where skate, sole, plaice, haddock, cod, flounder, 
 smelt, mackerel, and sardines are caught. The local 
 names include the corbina (6-10 lb.), morena (3 ft. long), 
 peje-aguja or needle-fish (2-t ft. long), anchoveta, peje- 
 blanco, bonita, cabrilla, castaneta, and tiboron. Seals 
 frequent the coast in large numbers ; lobsters, prawns, 
 and shrimps of great size are caught. The camaron, or 
 large fresh-water prawn, is esteemed a great delicacy. 
 Lizards and scorpions occur in the hot deserts, and taran- 
 tulas in the valleys of the coast. The sea-cow {manatee), 
 7 ft. in length, comes up the rivers of the Montana. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 17 
 
 In the Sierra occur the fauna most characteristic of 
 Peru. The four members of the Andean wool-bearing 
 family deserve first mention : the Guanaco, the Vicuna, 
 the Llama, and the Alpaca. Of these, the Guanaco or 
 Huanaco ( Auchenia or Lama huanacus ) is the largest. 
 It has never been domesticated, but is an important 
 source of food to Indian hunters. It roams the upland 
 plateaux in herds of 500 to 800. The second largest, also 
 wild, is the Vicuna (A. vicunia). This animal moves in 
 flocks of one male and six to fifteen females ; it is growing 
 scarce, and is hunted mainly for its wool, which is finer 
 than that of the alpaca, though the yield is smaller. The 
 fleece is light brown, paler on the under part of the body. 
 The llama and the alpaca have long been domesticated, 
 and never occur now in a wild state. The llama (A. 
 glama), which is smaller than the guanaco, stands some 
 3 ft. high at the shoulders, with a long neck. It is bred 
 in the Titicaca region, mainly for its wool, though it is 
 also useful as a pack-animal, carrying loads up to 75 lb. 
 The fleece is usually white, occasionally spotted, and 
 more rarely a uniform brown or black ; it is coarser than 
 that of the alpaca. It is perhaps descended from the 
 guanaco, though some naturalists believe it to be a dis- 
 tinct species. The alpaca or paco (A . paco ), the smallest 
 of the four, has a long fleece, usually black ; the fibre, 
 strong and lustrous, is used for making blankets {ponchos). 
 It is shorn every two years, giving a yield of 6 to 9 lb. 
 None of these animals have horns ; they depend for pro- 
 tection partly on speed, partly on their faculty of “ spit- 
 ting ” — the accurately-aimed projection of a mass of 
 peculiarly unpleasant saliva. The diminishing number 
 
18 
 
 PERU 
 
 of these animals has rendered necessary measures of 
 Government protection. 
 
 The rodents include rats and mice, the viscacha, the 
 chinchilla, and the cui. The viscacha ( Lagostomus 
 trichodactylus), or Peruvian hare, is a squirrel of the 
 Chinchillidae family. It lives in deep burrows in colonies 
 of twenty to thirty ; it has long, soft fur, known in com- 
 merce as “ bastard chinchilla.” The chinchilla (Ch. 
 laniger) is smaller ; the fur — blue-grey at root, white in 
 middle, and dark grey at the tips — is used in Europe for 
 muffs and furs, and in Peru for making cloth fabrics. 
 The Indians esteem the flesh for food. The cui is a 
 guinea-pig, long domesticated, and used for food. A 
 small species of deer is found in the uplands. 
 
 Fish are found in Lake Titicaca. The bird life of the 
 region includes flamingoes, the white alcamarine, par- 
 tridges, wild fowl of the duck and goose species, and the 
 great condor of the Andes. 
 
 There are great numbers of horses, donkeys, cattle, and 
 sheep, but these are all of foreign origin ; they are, 
 generally speaking, small but hardy. 
 
 The Montana presents an abundant fauna of a totally 
 different type, many members of which are dangerous or 
 noxious. Enock states that “ nearly 15,000 species have 
 been recently collected, about 8,000 being new.” We 
 may mention the powerful puma or cougar and the 
 jaguar, both of the cat tribe ; the armadillo ; the tapir 
 or wild pig ; the ant-eater ; and the peccary or tagassu, 
 another species of pig. Many species of snakes are 
 found, including the boa-constrictor. Alligators and 
 turtles frequent the rivers. The trees are alive with 
 
NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 19 
 
 birds (many, like the parrots, of brilliant plumage) and 
 also with monkeys. There are numerous butterflies, 
 some “ as large as thrushes,” of which the owl butterfly 
 and the gorgeous blue Morphos may be mentioned ; the 
 beetles, mosquitos, and flies of various sorts are 
 innumerable. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 Early History. — There is no doubt that, in pre- 
 Spanish times, the portion of Western South America, 
 which is now known as Peru, was far more thickly popu- 
 lated than it is at present. Garcilasso de la Vega and 
 other early writers assign to the country a population of 
 from 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 ; and even after the con- 
 quest of the country by Pizarro and his associates, in the 
 course of which many massacres were perpetrated among 
 the natives, the population was estimated at 8,000,000. 
 During this period there were three distinct civilisations, 
 of which a definite (though only oral) record remains. 
 These concerned two distinct races, the Yuncas of the 
 western lowlands, and the Aymara-Quichua race of the 
 Andes tableland. 
 
 The name “ Yunca,” in the Quichua language, means 
 merely “ the hot lowlands,” and it was applied in error 
 to this people, whose true name has been lost. Their 
 language, known as Mochica, has been preserved in a 
 grammar compiled by a certain Carrera, a native of the 
 country, and was printed in 1644. It is by means of 
 this grammar that the Yuncas are known to have been 
 a separate race. 
 
 The capital of the Yunca or Chimu kingdom was Chan 
 Chan, a city of considerable extent, which was captured 
 and destroyed by the tenth Inca, Yupanqui. The city 
 had a north to south length of over 14 miles and a 
 
 20 
 
HISTORY 
 
 21 
 
 breadth of over 5 miles ; and the massive character of 
 its remains is proof of the power and wealth of this 
 people, whose territory extended for nearly 700 miles 
 along the coast, and who were a cultured race when the 
 Incas were only beginning to rise from barbarism. The 
 monuments left by this race prove a high state of 
 civilisation, but of an order different from any other in 
 the southern continent. 
 
 The name “ Aymara ” was also applied in error like 
 that of “Yunca.” The original name of this people 
 was “ Collas,” the Aymar£s being a colony of settlers 
 transplanted under Inca rule. Their civilisation, devel- 
 oped in a period anterior to that of the Incas, centred 
 round Lake Titicaca, where still remain the most stupen- 
 dous monuments to be found in the New World as testi- 
 mony to the genius of this nearly forgotten race. The 
 immense architectural remains of Tiahuanaco, consisting 
 of blocks of stone weighing from 10 to 150 tons, are 
 situated on what is at the present time a bleak plateau, 
 miles distant from and hundreds of feet higher than the 
 quarries from which the stone was hewn. In the islands 
 of Lake Titicaca, and along its shores, are found Aymara 
 (or rather Colla) structures which testify to the presence 
 of a highly cultured, powerful race. 
 
 These two races, which almost certainly had sub- 
 jugated and replaced earlier civilisations of the Andean 
 area, were, in turn, conquered by the Inca race, and, 
 under the system of the Inca empire, were so broken up, 
 that by the time of the Spanish conquest they had 
 become Inca in spirit. The Inca regime, according to 
 Garcilasso de la Vega, a descendant of the royal race, 
 
 3 — (23471 
 
22 
 
 PERU 
 
 began with Inca Manco Capac in a.d. 1021, and numbered 
 thirteen sovereigns, including the unfortunate Atahuallpa, 
 murdered by Pizarro. 
 
 The Inca capital, Cuzco, was the centre of an empire 
 which extended, at the height of its power, northward 
 to Quito, westward to the Pacific coast, east to Antisuyu, 
 and southward to the river Maule in Chile. The form of 
 government was a benevolent despotism, and the empire 
 had reached its zenith, under the Inca Huayna Capac, 
 just prior to the coming of the Spaniards. At the time 
 Pizarro entered the country, civil war between two rival 
 claimants for the throne had weakened the nation. 
 
 The Conquest. — The Spanish conquest of the country 
 forms one of the great romances of history. How, before 
 the existence of such a country as Peru had been definitely 
 ascertained, three men sat down in Panama and divided 
 the spoils of the rich empire between them, is a story 
 that has been told times out of number. The three 
 signatories to the historic document which apportioned 
 out the undiscovered empire were Hernando de Luque, 
 vicar of Panama, who provided by far the greater part 
 of the funds for the expedition ; Diego de Almagro, who 
 was charged with the business of equipping and victualling 
 the expedition ; and Francisco Pizarro, who was placed 
 in command of the vessels in which the adventurers set 
 forth on 24th September, 1524. This first attempt at 
 discovering the country which was rumoured to exist 
 somewhere to the south was unsuccessful, as were several 
 later ones, and it was not till 1531 that Pizarro landed 
 at Tumbes. 
 
 From intercourse with the outposts of Inca settlement 
 
General View of Cuzco 
 
HISTORY 
 
 23 
 
 along the Pacific coast, Pizarro, Almagro, and then- 
 followers gained some idea of the vast extent and wealth 
 of the Inca empire. They heard of it as an exactly- 
 governed prosperous dominion, with about 12,000,000 
 subjects. The hills were terraced and irrigated to permit 
 of cultivation ; the land was fertilised with guanos and 
 other manures ; and all cultivable territory was measured 
 and divided into three parts : one for the priesthood of 
 the sun, one for the upkeep of the royal fine, and the 
 remaining part for the support of the people themselves. 
 Taxation was enforced in the form of cultivation of the 
 lands of the Inca and of the sun, and other services to the 
 State, and the lives of the people were so regulated, that 
 even the smallest details of domestic life were under State 
 supervision. Poverty and destitution were unknown ; 
 the laws provided for the care of the old and infirm ; 
 grain was stored in each village according to its require- 
 ments ; and each man was capable of making his own 
 clothing. There was no coinage, nor any system of 
 purchase. Gold and silver, used in enormous quantities 
 for purposes of decoration, were the exclusive property 
 of the Inca. No man of the lower orders owned any- 
 thing, even he himself being the property of the State. 
 The records of Garcilasso de la Vega and others prove 
 that various arts and sciences reached a high state of 
 perfection under the Incas ; arithmetic, geometry, 
 geography, astronomy, music, and medicine were among 
 their finer accomplishments ; while abundant evidence 
 is still in existence to prove their skill in mining and 
 metal working, building, weaving, and the manufacture 
 of pottery. Such of their buildings as the Spaniards were 
 
24 
 
 PERU 
 
 unable to destroy remain yet, scattered throughout the 
 coastal zone and the Andine plateau, most noteworthy 
 being the great fortress of Sacsahuaman. Little remains 
 of their famous roads, said to rival the highways of old 
 Rome in their construction ; one of these royal highways 
 led from Cuzco to Quito, a distance of over 1,200 miles — 
 and the carriers organised and maintained by the Inca 
 government traversed that distance in twenty days. 
 Another of these roads led from Cuzco throughout the 
 coast zone of the empire, and suspension bridges of 
 200 yards’ span were employed to maintain the con- 
 tinuity of the way. Fully developed Socialism, or 
 absolute tyranny, was here in operation, and the singu- 
 larly unambitious character of the people made it a 
 success. 
 
 Seven years of privation, toil, and disappointment, and 
 nearly 150 lives, went to the actual discovery of the Inca 
 empire by the Spaniards ; and then in January, 1531, 
 Pizarro set out with a force of 180 men, including his 
 four brothers, for the real conquest of Peru. The Island 
 of Puna and the settlement of Tumbes were first sub- 
 jugated, and by means of fresh reinforcements from 
 Panama a series of conquests of the settlements along 
 the coast was made. After a year’s work along the 
 coast, Pizarro learned that the settlements he was 
 reducing were but the fringe of a huge and powerful 
 State ; he had now gained news of the existence of 
 Atahuallpa, the Inca emperor, and also of the great 
 central settlements of Cajamarca and Cuzco. 
 
 Pizarro laid the foundations of the settlement of San 
 Miguel, intending that it should serve him as a base ; 
 
HISTORY 
 
 25 
 
 and in September, 1532, set out on his great march 
 toward the interior, in search of Atahuallpa. News of 
 the emperor was first obtained at the Inca town of 
 Caxas, whence one Hernando de Soto, who led an 
 advance guard, returned with messengers from the 
 emperor, bearing presents and assurances of his peaceful 
 intentions. Thence Pizarro led his force along the Inca 
 coast road, following the track to Cajamarca, where the 
 Inca was reported to be. Arriving at the foot of the 
 cordillera, the Spaniards learned of the civil war between 
 Atahuallpa and his brother Huascar. Cajamarca was 
 entered on the 15th November, 1532, and the Spaniards 
 occupied a large plaza or square in the centre of the 
 town ; a message announcing their arrival was sent to 
 Atahuallpa, and Hernando Pizarro, Francisco’s brother, 
 visited the Inca’s camp outside the city and brought 
 back a message to the effect that Atahuallpa would visit 
 the Spaniards on the following day. 
 
 Attended by crowds of his unarmed followers, the Inca 
 arrived after sunset. At Pizarro’s instigation, Friar 
 Vicente Valverde, the priest of the expedition, addressed 
 the Inca through an interpreter, bidding him render 
 tribute to the Emperor, the Pope, and the God of the 
 Spaniards. The friar placed a Bible in the Inca’s hands, 
 and Atahuallpa, after glancing at the pages of the book, 
 threw it carelessly aside. 
 
 At this the friar, a fanatic of the worst type, called 
 on the Spaniards to avenge the insult to their faith. 
 Pizarro and four others, rushing forward, seized the Inca, 
 while the remainder of the Spaniards began an indis- 
 criminate massacre of the Indians in the Plaza. Without 
 
26 
 
 PERU 
 
 a single casualty on the Spanish side, 2,000 Peruvians, 
 unarmed and defenceless, were slaughtered, Atahuallpa 
 remaining a prisoner in the hands of the Spaniards. As 
 ransom, the captive emperor offered to fill a room, 22 ft. 
 long by 17 ft. wide, with gold to a point as high as a 
 man could reach, as well as to fill the room twice with 
 silver. The offer was accepted, and the Inca sent mes- 
 sengers to Cuzco for the required stores of metal. The 
 total value of the gold and silver, thus infamously 
 obtained, was three and a half million pounds sterling ; 
 but, although the ransom was paid, Atahuallpa was not 
 released. Dispatching his brother Hernando on a recon- 
 noitring expedition through the country, Pizarro got rid 
 of Hernando de Soto, another cavalier of the expedition, 
 who might have proved too scrupulous, on a similar pre- 
 text, and arraigned Atahuallpa, accusing him of insti- 
 gating the formation of a force in the north of the 
 country to overwhelm the Spaniards. Although twelve 
 cavaliers of the party, impelled by a sense of honour, 
 protested against the proposed murder, Atahuallpa 
 was condemned to be burnt alive, and was ultimately 
 strangled in the plaza of Cajamarca on the 3rd of May, 
 1533. No blacker act of treachery is to be found in the 
 history of the conquest of the New World. The out- 
 raged Peruvians rose against their invaders after this, 
 and for a time the existence of the Spaniards was imperil- 
 led ; but by the 15th November, 1533, they had over- 
 come their opponents sufficiently to enter Cuzco, where 
 Pizarro invested the Inca Manco as Atahuallpa’s 
 successor — but merely as a figurehead. 
 
 Proceeding to Spain with the great treasure acquired 
 
HISTORY 
 
 27 
 
 by the plunderers, Hernando Pizarro brought back with 
 him the decree by which Francisco Pizarro was granted 
 dominion over 270 leagues of coast line, while Almagro 
 was appointed to the command of what is now the 
 Republic of Chile ; but the royal decree was so loosely 
 worded, that the ownership of Cuzco, which was near 
 the boundary line between the two new colonies, was 
 left in doubt. 
 
 Early in 1536, the Inca Manco rose against the 
 Spaniards, and so fierce became the struggle that rein- 
 forcements were summoned from outside the country. 
 The return of Almagro from his new country of Chile 
 disheartened Manco and his followers ; the last Inca 
 retired to safety among the recesses of the mountains, 
 and the Spanish conquest of Peru was now complete. 
 
 Civil War. — Almagro, claiming Cuzco as part of his 
 territory, took possession of the city in April, 1537, 
 capturing Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, whom he 
 subsequently released. This dispute ended in a pitched 
 battle between the forces of Almagro and those of the 
 Marquis Francisco Pizarro, in which Almagro ’s force was 
 utterly defeated, and he himself was captured. He was 
 finally strangled in prison by order of the merciless 
 Hernando Pizarro. 
 
 After Almagro’s overthrow and death, the Marquis 
 Francisco set about the settlement of the country, 
 established order, and developed the mining industry. 
 But the “ men of Chile,” ruined followers of Almagro’s 
 son, plotted against the murderer of Atahuallpa and — 
 as they conceived — the originator of their misfortunes. 
 On the 26th June, 1541, a band of the malcontents, under 
 
28 
 
 PERU 
 
 Juan de Herrada or Rada, entered the house of the 
 marquis in Lima, overcame the slight defence of Pizarro’s 
 followers, and slew him after a fierce struggle, in which 
 he accounted for two of his assailants. 
 
 The young Almagro’s followers disputed the possession 
 of the country with Vaca de Castro, the governor sent 
 from Spain to succeed Pizarro ; but in a battle fought 
 near Jauja, the Chilean faction was defeated, and Almagro 
 and the murderers of Pizarro were executed. In 1543, 
 Blasco Nunez Vela, first viceroy of Peru, arrived, and 
 simultaneously the Royal Audience of Peru was estab- 
 lished. Gonzalo Pizarro disputed the governorship of 
 the country with the new viceroy, and in a battle which 
 ensued two of the judges of the Royal Audience espoused 
 opposite sides. Blasco Nunez was killed in the battle, 
 and Gonzalo Pizarro became governor of the country 
 in 1546. 
 
 His rule was terminated by the ecclesiastic, Pedro de 
 la Gasca, who was sent from Spain on it being rumoured 
 that Gonzalo was attempting to set up a separate king- 
 dom. After various battles, Gasca overthrew the last 
 of the Pizarros, and executed him together with the 
 veteran fighter Carbajal and a number of his adherents. 
 Contemporary accounts of the character of Gasca are 
 conflicting, but he certainly brought peace to Peru and 
 kept the country in order for the period of his stay. 
 
 After the departure of Gasca, and the arrival of the 
 second viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, civil war again 
 broke out. The third viceroy, Andres Hurtado de 
 Mendoza, Marquis of Canete, came to the country in 
 1555, and ruled Peru with a heavy hand, expelling a 
 
HISTORY 
 
 29 
 
 number of Spaniards whom he found of more trouble 
 than use to the colony. 
 
 Colonial Period. — Toward the end of the sixteenth 
 century came the viceroy Toledo, under whom the 
 descendants of the Inca race were systematically 
 oppressed, and the young Inca Tupac Amaru driven 
 to a semblance of rebellion as a pretext for his execution. 
 The system under which the Spanish colonists had been 
 allowed to employ the natives, little better than slavery, 
 had gone far towards reducing their numbers ; but under 
 the government of Toledo, the destruction of the race 
 outstripped even that of the Pizarros themselves. 
 
 In all, forty-four viceroys governed the country during 
 the Spanish period ; Lima became the Spanish capital 
 of South America, and the Peruvian viceroyalty and 
 Royal Audience formed the supreme court of the con- 
 tinent. A million ducats went annually to Spain from 
 the mines of Peru ; quinine, ipecacuanha, chocolate, and 
 potatoes were some of the gifts that the new continent 
 gave to the old ; while, in return, Peru was enriched by 
 the introduction of wheat, oats, alfalfa, olives, grapes, 
 and other growths hitherto unknown west of the Atlantic. 
 But, apart from material benefits such as these, Peru 
 gained little from Spain ; the main object of the home 
 government was the suppression of freedom of thought 
 and action ; the printing press was rigidly supervised 
 and censored ; the colonists were treated as children ; 
 the Inquisition arrived with its attendant evils, religious 
 intolerance and persecution, and priest and layman alike 
 united in oppressing the original inhabitants of the land. 
 
 In the eighteenth century it was found that the Peruvian 
 
30 
 
 PERU 
 
 Viceroyalty had become too unwieldy for effective govern- 
 ment of the whole continent, and New Granada, com- 
 prising the present republics of Colombia, Venezuela, 
 and Ecuador, was constituted a separate government ; 
 while toward the end of the century the Plate River 
 countries were placed under another viceroyalty at 
 Buenos Aires. The oppression of the natives brought 
 about a general revolt in 1780, for forced labour — 
 especially that in the mines — had become unendurable. 
 After various battles, the rebellion was crushed, and its 
 leaders, including Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the 
 Inca race, were barbarously executed at Cuzco. A few 
 reforms followed, more liberty was allowed to scientific 
 and literary development, and even the printing of a 
 newspaper was allowed. 
 
 Revolt from Spain. — The events of the Napoleonic 
 wars, however, revealed to the Spanish colonies the 
 weakness of the Mother Country, and the general unrest 
 expressed itself in Peru by the destruction of the Inquisi- 
 tion and all its appurtenances at Lima in 1813. By 
 this time most of the other Spanish colonies in South 
 America had declared for independence, but Peru, oldest 
 and strongest centre of Spanish authority, remained 
 loyal to the last ; and it was not till August, 1814, that 
 the patriots of Cuzco rose in open revolt against the 
 Viceroy. General Ramirez, with 1,300 regular troops, 
 had no difficulty in defeating the insurgents, and a series 
 of executions followed. 
 
 Pezuela, the penultimate viceroy of Peru, who came 
 to rule in Lima in July, 1816, reported to Spain that the 
 country was a hotbed of revolutionary sentiment. Early 
 
 / 
 
HISTORY 
 
 31 
 
 in 1817, San Martin, the hero of Argentina, annihilated 
 Spanish power in Chile, after which he undertook, in 
 connection with Lord Cochrane, the task of freeing Peru 
 from Spain. After various encounters both by land and 
 sea, Pezuela was deposed from his position ; disaffection 
 made itself evident among the Royalist forces ; and the 
 independence of the country was proclaimed on the 
 28th July, 1821, San Martin being appointed Protector. 
 He resigned his position on the advent of Simon Bolivar, 
 having organised the independent government of the 
 country and established its congress. 
 
 The first President of Peru, Jose de la Riva Aguero 
 was elected in February, 1823. But the contest with 
 Spain was not quite ended, for La Serna, the viceroy 
 who had been appointed in succession to Pezuela, was 
 established at Cuzco with a force strong enough to 
 defeat the republican army under General Santa Cruz, 
 who gave battle to the Royalist army near Lake Titicaca. 
 In June, Riva Aguero was deposed, and in 1824 Bolivar 
 became dictator. With an army composed of Colombian 
 and Peruvian troops, and in conjunction with General 
 La Sucre, he defeated the Royalist army under General 
 Canterac at Junin, and marched on Cuzco, La Serna’s 
 stronghold and the last centre of Spanish authority in 
 South America. The last battle against Spain was 
 fought at Ayacucho. Bolivar’s army totalled about 
 6,000 men, while La Serna had a force of 9,000 and 
 more ; but, in spite of their inferiority in numbers, the 
 patriots were completely victorious ; the whole of the 
 Royalist army was either captured or slain, and Bolivar 
 was hailed throughout Peru as the saviour of the country. 
 
32 
 
 PERU 
 
 Bolivia was established as a separate republic, and Peru, 
 with nearly the same area as belongs to it to-day, entered 
 on its republican career. 
 
 Independence. — The list of rulers of Peru, printed at 
 the end of this chapter, gives some indication of the 
 almost continuous political upheaval which followed the 
 declaration of independence in 1821. The next quarter 
 of a century presents a welter of warring ambitions ; 
 every general who could command the services of a 
 regiment aspired to become head of the State, and each, 
 as he attained supremacy, was attacked by his jealous 
 rivals. The fall of the vast Spanish empire in South 
 America was so sudden and complete, that time was 
 needed before its diverse elements could group them- 
 selves afresh and acquire national traditions and feeling. 
 Consequently, the internal dissensions of Peru were 
 complicated by interference from, and wars with, her 
 neighbours. Gradually, however, the separate entities 
 of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador emerged.. 
 
 There was war with Chile in 1836-7, and again in 1838 ; 
 a series of revolutions followed, and meanwhile the pro- 
 prietorship of the rich nitrate deposits in the south of the 
 country gradually became a vexed question between Peru 
 and Chile. Bolivia, which then extended to the Pacific 
 coast, also took part in this dispute. 
 
 The first period of peace and progress was reached in 
 two presidencies of Ramon Castilla, 1845-51 and 1855-62. 
 Castilla was not only a strong and capable, but a con- 
 stitutional, ruler. He refunded, with accrued interest, 
 the foreign debt incurred in the wars of independence, 
 and promoted in every legitimate way the development 
 
HISTORY 
 
 33 
 
 of the country. Under his successors, the old evils 
 sprang up with renewed force — military ambitions, 
 corruption, extravagance, nepotism. 
 
 A little naval war between Peru and Spain in 1864-66, 
 prevented serious complications over republican boun- 
 daries, and Chile shared the burden of this war with Peru. 
 Peru suffered severely from a bombardment of Callao 
 by the Spanish squadron, 2nd May, 1866 ; but the 
 Spanish ships were also so much damaged by the fire 
 from the Peruvian batteries, that further hostilities were 
 abandoned. The war was followed by a revolution 
 which placed President Balta in office ; his rule is note- 
 worthy for great projects of material progress, in port- 
 works, railways, parks, public buildings, and the develop- 
 ment of the Montana region. Great revenues were now 
 pouring into the treasury from the guano and nitrate 
 deposits, and Castilla’s financial reforms had given Peru 
 a good name in the money markets of Europe. The 
 great Central and Southern railways were magnificent in 
 conception, though possibly built too soon ; but they 
 were built entirely on foreign loans, the repayment of 
 which crippled the development of Peru. (See chapter 
 on National Finance.) 
 
 Balta was eventually murdered, and Manuel Pardo, 
 who succeeded him, set about the organisation of schemes 
 of retrenchment and economy rendered necessary by 
 Balta’s reckless expenditure. 
 
 War with Chile. — Meanwhile, Chilean capital and 
 enterprise were busy developing the nitrate areas of the 
 Atacama desert, and the Peruvian Government (working 
 in concert with Bolivia) attempted to impose a tax on the 
 
34 
 
 PERU 
 
 Atacama products, in order that the Peruvian nitrate 
 industry in Tarapacd might benefit. Chile seized the 
 port of Antofagasta, without any formal declaration of 
 war, and the Bolivian Government thereupon declared 
 war against Chile. The Peruvian minister at Santiago 
 del Chile suggested that Peru should mediate between the 
 two countries, but this offer was declined. Since Peru 
 would not forego her treaty with Bolivia and declare 
 neutrality, Chile declared war against Peru in April, 1879. 
 
 At the outset, public opinion declared that Chile could 
 not possibly survive a war with Peru, especially with the 
 weight of Bolivia on the Peruvian side ; but the event 
 proved the contrary. For years, Chilean administrators 
 had been strengthening their navy and making prepara- 
 tion for such a war, while the Peruvian Government had 
 pursued a policy which involved numerous revolutions 
 and little beside. The issue of the war depended on the 
 control of the Pacific ; the combatant who was supreme 
 at sea could blockade or bombard the ports of the enemy 
 and — since government, commerce, and civilisation were 
 centred on the coastal region — must eventually be vic- 
 torious. In the first engagement the Chileans lost the 
 Esmeralda, but the Peruvian Independencia ran on 
 sunken rocks and was wrecked. Then for four months the 
 Peruvian ironclad Huascar, under the brilliant command 
 of Grau, held Chile in check and terrorised the coast ; 
 but with its capture off the coast of Antofagasta on 
 8th October, 1879, after a desperate and historic battle 
 against overwhelming odds, the Chilean navy became 
 supreme. The way was clear for her invading forces ; and 
 the Peruvian army in Tarapacd was isolated. The 
 
HISTORY 
 
 35 
 
 outstanding events in the campaign that followed were : 
 the landing of the Chileans at Pisagua, on 2nd November, 
 1879, under protection of heavy fire from the guns of the 
 fleet ; the failure of the Peruvian attack on the Chilean 
 position at San Francisco, 16th November ; the retreat 
 of the Peruvians first to Tarapacd, where a Chilean attack 
 was repulsed with considerable loss, 27th November, and 
 then across the desert to Arica ; the defeat of the allied 
 Peruvian and Bolivian forces at Tacna, 26th May, 1880 ; 
 and the brilliant Chilean capture of the Morro Hill and 
 the forts at Arica by a night surprise, 5th June. 
 
 Meantime, the blockade of Callao had begun, and 
 lasted from April to December, and the coast ports and 
 valleys were ruthlessly ravaged. It would have been 
 the wiser policy for Peru to acknowledge her defeat and 
 submit ; but national pride forbade this. The conse- 
 quence was a Chilean invasion in force in January, 1881, 
 directed on Lima. Peru made a desperate but unavailing 
 resistance at Chorrillos and Miraflores, 14th and 15th 
 January, and Lima was entered on 17th January. 
 Mainly under C&ceres, Peru still maintained a guerilla 
 warfare ; Chile meantime occupied the capital for two 
 years and nine months, confiscated the Customs revenues, 
 and made barbarous reprisals on property, such as the 
 spoliation of the National Library. No systematic 
 attempt was made to conquer the interior, though 
 Arequipa was captured, July, 1883. 
 
 The coastal zone of Peru was dependent on outside 
 supplies for the means of subsistence, and with a navy 
 superior in every way, the Chileans had little difficulty 
 in reducing the majority of the coast towns. 
 
36 
 
 PERU 
 
 By October, 1883, when the humiliating Treaty of 
 Ancon was signed, the Chilean forces had devastated 
 Peru and dictated the election of General Iglesias to the 
 Peruvian presidency. The treaty, ratified in May, 1884, 
 provided for the cession of the nitrate province of 
 Tarapacfi to Chile, and a ten years’ Chilean tenancy of 
 the province of Tacna with Arica, on condition that 
 at the end of the ten years a plebiscite should be taken 
 to decide to which country the province should belong 
 permanently ; that country should then pay 10,000,000 
 dollars to the other — a policy of “ heads I win, tails you 
 lose,” for Chile. The plebiscite has never been taken, 
 but Tacna, under an agreement arrived at in 1912 
 between the two countries, is now definitely a Chilean 
 province, and Bolivia no longer possesses a seaboard. 
 
 Peru To-day. — One of the later revolutions, that of 
 1895, involved three days’ furious fighting in the streets 
 of Lima, with a death roll of over 3,000 ; but Pierola, 
 who came to the presidency after this, brought about 
 many improvements in the country, a notable change being 
 the standardisation of the currency, the sol, equivalent 
 to two English shillings, being introduced in 1899. 
 
 A reform of the electoral law was passed in 1897, by 
 which a committee of nine was appointed to examine 
 electoral returns ; and another law of 1897 legalised 
 marriages performed by foreign diplomatic ministers, 
 consuls, and ministers of dissenting churches, provided 
 they were entered in the civil registers ; in 1903 further 
 facilities were given for the marriage of non-Catholics. 
 
 Since 1895, revolutionary movements in Peru have 
 been inconsiderable, and, on the whole, the last eighteen 
 
HISTORY 
 
 37 
 
 years in the history of the republic have been character- 
 ised by steady progress in many ways. The only out- 
 break has been that of 4th February, 1914, when Presi- 
 dent Billinghurst was deposed and the Premier (General 
 Varela) was shot. 
 
 Education, the improvement of sanitation in the towns, 
 the amelioration of the lot of the Indian population, the 
 development and extension of railways, and the opening 
 up of the vast mineral resources of the country by means 
 of judiciously attracted foreign capital, are some of the 
 subjects to which the government has devoted particular 
 attention. 
 
 The chief drawbacks to the development of the country 
 at the present time are sparse population, together with 
 a cessation of immigration, and the lack of local govern- 
 ment in the montana region, out of which has arisen the 
 devil’s tragedy of the Putumayo, and other less known 
 but glaring offences against the elemental laws of human 
 intercourse. These things are possible in the hinterlands 
 of Peru, because the hand of the government cannot as 
 yet effectively control its huge territories. This, how- 
 ever, is a fault that is being gradually overcome, for the 
 pressure of public opinion has, in a measure, forced the 
 Government to bestir itself ; but there is much to be 
 done yet before the montana of Peru can claim to rank 
 as a civilised country, even in the portions that are under 
 control of white or half-breed population. 
 
 Rulers of Peru from the Declaration of 
 Independence, 28th July, 1821 
 1821 (Aug.). Jose de San Martin (Protector), resigned, 1822. 
 1823 (Feb. -Nov.). Jose de la Riva Aguero (first President), 
 
 deposed. 
 
 4— ( 3247 ) 
 
38 
 
 PERU 
 
 1824 (Feb.). Simon Bolivar (Dictator), left the country, Sept., 
 1826. 
 
 1827 (Aug.). Jose de Lamar y Cortazar, deposed, June, 1829. 
 1829 (Aug.). Agustin Gamarra (Provis. Pres.). 
 
 1833 (Dec.). Luis Jose Orbegoso. 
 
 1835 (Feb.). Felipe Santiago de Salaverry (Supreme Chief), 
 executed, Feb., 1836 
 
 1836. Andres Santa Cruz (Protector of the Confederation of 
 North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia), retired to Europe. 
 1839. Agustin Gamarra (Provis. Pres., then Constitutional 
 President and “Restorer”), killed at the battle of Yngavi, 
 Nov., 1841. 
 
 1841. Manuel Menendez (Acting President), deposed, July, 1842. 
 
 1843. Manuel Ignacio Vivanco (Supreme Director), retired to 
 Chile, July, 1844. 
 
 1844. Manuel Menendez (restored as Acting President). 
 
 1845. Ramon Castilla (for six years). 
 
 1851. Jose Rufino Echenique, fled, Jan., 1855. 
 
 1855 (July). Ramon Castilla, resigned, Oct., 1862. 
 
 1862. Miguel San Roman, died, 1863. 
 
 1863. Juan Antonio Pezet, resigned, Nov., 1865. 
 
 1865. Mariano Ignacio Prado (Supreme Chief), retired, Jan., 
 1868. 
 
 1868. Pedro Diez Canseco (Acting President). 
 
 1868 (Aug.). Jose Balta, murdered, 1872. 
 
 1872. Manuel Pardo (first civilian President). 
 
 1876. Mariano Ignacio Prado, fled to Europe, Dec., 1879. 
 
 1879 (Dec.). Nicolas de Pierola (Supreme Chief), resigned, 
 Nov., 1881. 
 
 1881 (Mar.). Francisco Garcia Calderon (Provis. Chief of 
 Executive), exiled to Chile. 
 
 ,, (Nov.). Lizardo Montero. 
 
 1883. Francisco Garcia Calderon. 
 
 ,, (Oct.). Miguel Iglesias (Provis.), resigned, Nov., 1885. 
 
 1886. Andres Avelino Caceres. 
 
 1890. Remijio Morales Bermudez. 
 
 1894. Andres Avelino Caceres, left the country, March, 1895. 
 
 1895 (Mar.). Manuel Candamo (Provis.). 
 
 ,, (Sept.). Nicolas de Pierola. 
 
 1899. Eduardo de Romana. 
 
 1903. Manuel Candamo ; died, May, 1904. 
 
 1904 (Sept.). Jose Pardo. 
 
 1908. Augusto B. Leguia. 
 
 1912. Guillermo E. Billinghurst, deposed Feb., 1914. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 The traveller in Peru will meet with abundant traces of 
 the earlier civilisations of the country — both pre-Inca 
 and Inca — in the shape of temples, palaces, houses, 
 fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, pyramids, and ceme- 
 teries. It may be both interesting and useful to him to 
 know where the most important of those are to be seen, 
 of what they consist, and how they are related to the 
 history of the country. There are, however, many 
 problems of Peruvian archaeology as yet unsolved, and 
 the scientific study of the subject is comparatively recent. 
 The views given are, to some extent, provisional, and may 
 be modified in detail by further investigation. 
 
 Many of the early buildings termed “ Inca remains ” 
 are not such in reality. It is necessary to distinguish 
 the comparatively short period of the true Inca rule, from 
 an immensely ancient period of culture preceding it. 
 The Inca period proper commenced about 300 years 
 before the arrival of Pizarro in Peru, and is divided into 
 the reigns of the twelve (or possibly thirteen) rulers 
 named by the early chroniclers. Approximately, the 
 period was from 1230 to 1530 a.d. But it is clear that 
 the civilisation found by the Spaniards, could only have 
 been developed in a far vaster number of generations. 
 Not only had a remarkable skill been attained in pottery, 
 weaving, architecture, and metal-working, together with 
 some proficiency in mathematics and astronomy ; but 
 
 39 
 
40 
 
 PERU 
 
 such less obvious points as the evolution of maize and 
 potatoes from wild plants, and of the domesticated llama 
 and alpaca from wild ancestors, presuppose the lapse of 
 countless generations. Some of the early remains of this 
 pre-Inca period may be coeval with the early work of 
 Egypt or Assyria ; the later portion of the period is 
 probably that of the ninety kings mentioned by the 
 chronicler Montesinos as preceding the reigns of the 
 twelve Incas. 
 
 Within this great pre-Inca period two main culture- 
 schools existed, one of the highland plateaux and the 
 other of the coast. On the coast, two subsidiary centres 
 of craftmanship are found : at Trujillo and Nasca. It 
 seems probable that the nucleus of the Peruvian empire 
 was at Tiahuanaco (now in Bolivia), with frontier for- 
 tresses at Cuzco and Ollantaitambo, directed against the 
 wild tribes of the upper Montana. The seat of empire 
 was later transferred to Cuzco, and it was probably from 
 this centre that the rulers proceeded to conquer the coast 
 settlements, meeting with occasional reprisals. Probably 
 the highland and the coast civilisations were evolved 
 independently for a long period, before the conquest 
 of the latter region brought them into contact and 
 inter-action. 
 
 Taking together the building remains of the Inca and 
 pre-Inca periods, we may distinguish (a) megalithic and 
 cyclopean work, as at Tiahuanaco ; ( b ) work of unhewn 
 stone, as in the innumerable hill-fortresses ; and (c) work 
 of smaller hewn and squared stone, as in the later walls at 
 Cuzco. Chronology and sequence is peculiarly difficult to 
 ascertain, owing to the facts that the early Peruvians had 
 
By permission of 
 
 Evangelical Union of South America 
 
 A Quichua Indian of Pern — a descendant of the Inca race. 
 The background shows old Inca masonry 
 

THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 41 
 
 no alphabet, and that carved ornament is comparatively 
 rare. The stone remains are chiefly in the highlands ; 
 while those of the coast, where stone was compara- 
 tively rare, were largely built of sun-dried bricks 
 {adobes), which, though easily destructible by the hand 
 of man, will last otherwise for amazingly long periods in 
 the extraordinarily dry, rainless climate. 
 
 Some of the most important sites are described below. 
 It may be added that, while accounts of particular sites 
 and explorations have been more recently written by 
 other investigators, the most comprehensive work on the 
 subject is that of the American E. G. Squier, issued in 
 1877 : Peru : Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the 
 Land of the Incas . 1 
 
 Coast Remains. — The most accessible of the sites con- 
 taining ruins of early buildings are those near Trujillo 
 and Lima : a description of the most remarkable of these 
 is given in some detail below. But nearly every valley 
 has many ruins, e.g., the valleys of Cafiete (“ palacio del 
 Rey Inca ”), Huarcu, Chillon, Barranca (fortresses pos- 
 sibly marking the southern limit of Chimu rule), Santa, 
 Moche, Nepena (Huaca Tambo), Casma (Calaveras, 
 Quisque, Alpacote), and Pisco. 
 
 Particularly characteristic of the coast population are 
 the truncated pyramids known as huacas. In some cases 
 these are solid masses of adobe brick, built round a central 
 core, and, perhaps, raised in honour of some deity ; in 
 others, they contained numerous painted chambers for 
 the reception of the dead. They are generally of great 
 extent {e.g., that of El Obispo, near Trujillo, covers an 
 
 1 Macmillan. 
 
42 
 
 PERU 
 
 area of about 8 acres and rises to a height of 150 ft.)* 
 Many have been attacked and more or less spoilt by 
 treasure hunters. It would appear that they were 
 originally ascended by zigzag staircases, were covered 
 with stucco, and painted in bright colours. In many 
 instances they have been coated with adobes, possibly by 
 the Inca conquerors, who filled up the chambers, made 
 a straight ascent, and erected stone temples to the sun 
 on the top. 
 
 The district north and south of the present city of 
 Trujillo contains very extensive remains of the old city 
 or settlement of the Y unca population. They are known 
 as Grand Chimu or Chan Chan, and cover an area of 
 perhaps 12 by 6 miles. The city appears to have been 
 built in self-contained sections or wards, each perhaps 
 the residence of one clan ( ayllu ). Each ward has only 
 one entrance ; it contained courtyards, store-chambers, 
 reservoirs, workshops, and sometimes a huaca ; the 
 rooms often had no door, and appear to have been 
 approached along the top of the walls. Interesting 
 ornamentation has been found. In some cases, the walls 
 were plastered and covered with paintings ; in others, 
 the adobes were arranged in chess-board pattern, giving 
 a honeycombed appearance, or, again, in diamond-shaped 
 rows ; in a few cases the stucco is cut in relief in bold 
 but rude ornamental patterns, raised about an inch from 
 the surface. These were painted in bright colours, 
 producing a very rich, barbaric effect. 
 
 About 14 miles from Lima, in a side valley running 
 down to the valley of the Rimac, is the ruined city of 
 Cajamarquilla, a maze of complicated structures in three 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 43 
 
 groups ; there are no windows, and among several 
 peculiar features may be noted the low doorways of 
 diverse curious form (horseshoe, coffin-shaped, etc.), and 
 the curious store-chambers in the floors, shaped like 
 boxes or jars. 
 
 The ruins of Pachacamac are, perhaps, the most 
 famous. They stand near the sea, on the right bank of 
 the river Lurin, about 30 miles south of Lima. The 
 buildings are partly of stone, partly of adobe ; some have 
 been overthrown by earthquake and others lie buried in 
 drifted sand. The city contained the shrine of the god 
 Pachacamac, the Creator, “ he who animates the uni- 
 verse.” This shrine, originally adorned with immense 
 wealth of gold and silver, was desecrated and despoiled 
 by Hernandes Pizarro. There are two principal ruins : 
 (1) “ El Castillo,” the Temple of Pachacamac, on a head- 
 land ; four -walled terraces enclose the shrine at the top ; 
 the walls of the latter were originally stuccoed and 
 painted, and perhaps had pilasters ; some have windows, 
 and others niches. This, in the main, represents the 
 worship of the earlier coast population. (2) The “ Mama- 
 cuna,” 1£ miles away, on low ground near a lake. The 
 materials are similar, but the niches, windows, and door- 
 ways are of the usual Inca type. These ruins represent 
 a Temple of the Sun and a Convent of Virgins, and date 
 from the Inca period. It may be mentioned that the 
 inhabitants of such convents either became wives of the 
 ruling Inca or chief nobles, or were offered in sacrifice to 
 the sun, or were dedicated to perpetual virginity. One 
 very remarkable feature in this group of ruins is the 
 existence of a genuine segmental arch. The arch is very 
 
44 
 
 PERU 
 
 rare on the coast and unknown in the highlands ; the 
 failure of the early Peruvians, in spite of their bold and 
 vast buildings, to evolve the arch may be ranked with 
 their failure to invent an alphabet or system of writing. 
 The arch would have been of immense service, not only 
 in their buildings, but in bridging ravines for purposes 
 of irrigation and road-making ; for lack of it, their 
 canals had to be carried immense distances, if it were 
 necessary to cross a valley. 
 
 The ground surrounding these ruins is a vast cemetery. 
 From it, as from Chan Chan, and from many huacas, 
 immense quantities of mummies (buried in Peru in a 
 sitting posture), pottery, textiles, implements, and 
 ornaments have been obtained. 
 
 Highland Remains. — The most important of the ruins 
 in the highlands or Andean plateaux may be visited from 
 two centres — Puno and Cuzco — both now accessible by 
 the Southern Railway. A few isolated, but less important, 
 sites are mentioned below. 
 
 Excursions from Puno. — The town of Puno, on Lake 
 Titicaca, is close to the boundary line between Peru and 
 Bolivia. Tiahuanaco itself and several adjacent sites lie 
 just across the border, in Bolivia. The boundary, how- 
 ever, is entirely artificial ; the whole of the Titicaca basin 
 is essentially one in character and history ; and the sites 
 are so important as forming the cradle of a great 
 civilisation, that they cannot be omitted here. 
 
 Tiahuanaco. The ruins lie near the road to La Paz, 
 about half a mile to the south of the village of Tiahuanaco. 
 They have been surveyed by Stiibel and Uhle, and more 
 recent excavations were made by the Crequi-Montfort 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 45 
 
 expedition. There are three rectangular enclosures of 
 differing size, the largest marked by great monoliths, 
 which were formerly connected by a wall, and entered by 
 a stairway of large monoliths. The small enclosure 
 opposite the stairway has grotesque heads carved in 
 relief on the columns. Within the large enclosure is the 
 “ most famous ruin in America,” a great gateway cut 
 from a single block of stone, 10 ft. by 12 ft. 6 in., and 
 1| ft. in thickness ; the doorway is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 9 in. 
 On one face a frieze of alternate sun-faces and meanders 
 ending in condor-heads runs from end to end above the 
 doorway. Over this is carved, in relief, a central figure, 
 shown full-face, flanked by three rows of smaller figures 
 in profile. On the other face, the doorway is flanked 
 on each side by a doorlike niche, and the place of the 
 frieze is occupied by two smaller niches on each side. 
 The figures, bold and grotesque in design, have several 
 noticeable features ; the heads are disproportionately 
 large and the legs truncated ; the square-shaped head is 
 surmounted by a head-dress wfith numerous rays ter- 
 minating in circles and puma-heads ; a ceremonial staff, 
 single or double headed, is held in the hands, and the 
 smaller profile figures are seen to have wings and tails, 
 and those in the middle row r have bird masks. All over 
 are placed conventional ornaments of fish, serpent, condor, 
 and puma heads. These reliefs appear to have been 
 painted. The central figure is supposed to represent 
 Viracocha, the supreme deity ; possibly the smaller 
 figures represent the three clans, worshipping in cere- 
 monial and priestly dress. At some time unknown, the 
 monolith has been broken, perhaps in being moved from 
 
46 
 
 PERU 
 
 its earlier position ; but the two portions have been 
 recently replaced in relation. 
 
 Other monolithic gateways, whole and broken, exist 
 on the site, and some colossal statues have been found. 
 In one spot are large numbers of worked stones, large and 
 small, cut like puzzle blocks, with grooves and projections, 
 and drilled with holes. This has been done with great 
 precision, so that block could be fitted to block and 
 fastened with metal rods and clamps. While much 
 remains in situ, the place has been used as a quarry by 
 builders of the neighbourhood ( e.g ., for the village of 
 Tiahuanaco, and for the cathedral, houses, and street 
 paving of La Paz). 
 
 One of the unsolved mysteries of the place is the 
 reason for the selection of the site as a sacred city or 
 shrine. Tiahuanaco stands nearly 13,000 ft. above the 
 sea, in a district not only cold, but barren. It can hardly 
 have been the site of a great city, for a large population 
 could only be maintained there by transporting food 
 from a distance ; and there are no signs of any extensive 
 ancient city. 
 
 Titicaca and Coati Islands. Off the peninsula at the 
 south of Lake Titicaca, which extends almost across the 
 lake, lie two islands — Titicaca and Coati — sacred respec- 
 tively to the sun and to the moon. The larger, lying to 
 the north of this peninsula, is Titicaca, where the founders 
 of the Inca dynasty — Manco Capac, and his sister-wife, 
 Mama Ocllo, children of the Sun — descended from heaven, 
 and whence they started north to conquer and to civilise. 
 High above the landing-place at Titicaca stands a plat- 
 form backed by two chambers, separated by a narrow 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 47 
 
 passage. It was probably used in the initiatory rites 
 necessary before the pilgrims to the sacred rocks were 
 allowed to proceed thither. 
 
 Of the numerous interesting remains on the island, the 
 following may be particularised : ( 1 ) The Pila or Fountain 
 of the Incas, a rectangular basin, 40 ft. by 10 ft. by 5 ft., 
 enclosed on three sides by walls of carefully-squared 
 stone. It is half-way down a valley arranged in regular 
 terraces, supported by niched walls, and planted with 
 fragrant vegetation. The water, uniform in flow, enters 
 the basin by four jets, and thence flows from terrace to 
 terrace, to the lake. 
 
 (2) The Palace of the Inca stands on a beautiful ter- 
 raced site facing the island of Coati. The ground floor 
 chambers are covered by a primitive vaulting formed of 
 overlapping stones ; the upper storey, approached from 
 the exterior, was probably roofed with the elaborate 
 thatching usual in Peru. The front here consisted of a 
 oblong open-air chamber, flanked by two small rooms. 
 The walls were covered with a yellow stucco, and the 
 recesses of the doorways and niches coloured red. 
 
 (3) The so-called Temple of the Sun, standing on a 
 high ridge or isthmus, and commanding fine views on 
 both sides ; the high walls enclose levelled terraces, 
 perhaps originally gardens. 
 
 (4) The most sacred spot on the island lay near its 
 northern extremity. This is the Rock of Manco Capac, 
 a mass of red sandstone, some 25 ft. high, on the crest 
 of a ridge. Here (according to the Inca tradition) the 
 children of the Sun first alighted upon earth. In front 
 is a wide platform surrounded by walls. The sacred soil 
 
48 
 
 PERU 
 
 might only be trodden by special priests, no pilgrim 
 being allowed to approach within 200 paces. The sum- 
 mit was plated with gold and silver, and covered, save 
 on high festivals, with a rich mantle of the finest colours 
 and materials. In the natural hollows of this rock the 
 various offerings of the worshippers were deposited. 
 
 Much of the building on Titicaca island is assigned 
 traditionally to the reign of Tupac Yupanqui, grand- 
 father of Atahuallpa (i.e., between 1425 and 1470 a.d.). 
 
 Coati Island. The most important building on this 
 island was the Acllahuasi, or Convent of the Virgins of 
 the Sun. It is in good preservation and has several 
 remarkable features, such as doorways and niches with 
 “ stepped ” gables, recessed four or five stages deep ; 
 gable-ends fronting on the courtyard ; and niches, some- 
 times pierced for window openings, of a peculiar shape. 
 Two large chambers in the middle of the long side of the 
 courtyard are conjectured by Squier to have been the 
 shrines of the Sun and the Moon. The building stands 
 high in the heart of a terraced amphitheatre facing north. 
 Similar convents existed at Cuzco and Pachacamac. 
 
 Lake Umayo. This lake is about 15 miles north-west 
 of Puno. It contains an island in the middle and a 
 peninsula at the eastern end, called Sillustani. Here are 
 to be seen several sun-circles of large, erect, uncut stones, 
 enclosed within a platform of stepped and grooved cut 
 stones. There are also a very large number of well- 
 built circular towers, called “ chullpas.” These, though 
 sometimes considered to be granaries, were probably 
 mausolea for chieftains or their families. The more 
 elaborate are faced with large hewn stones, domed, and 
 
By permission of 
 
 Evangelical Union of South America 
 
 Street of the Incas in the old city of Cuzco 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 49 
 
 with a projecting cornice, and the diameter gradually 
 increases from base to cornice. Two small entrances 
 were made, one in the domidal covering and one at the 
 base. Internal arrangements vary greatly. In other 
 parts of the country the chullpas are often square. 
 
 At Hatuncolla, 6 miles to the east of the lake, are two 
 sandstone pillars, 7 ft. by 2 ft., and 10 in. thick, elabo- 
 rately carved with geometrical and wavy patterns, and 
 with figures of serpents, lizards, and frogs. 
 
 At Cacha, on the line to Cuzco, about half-way between 
 Lampa and Cuzco, are numerous remains. The best 
 known formed part of the famous Temple of Viracocha 
 erected in honour of the god by the Inca of the same 
 name. It has been largely destroyed, partly in the early 
 hunt for treasure and out of hatred of heathen super- 
 stition, and partly in later times for the purpose of 
 erecting churches and other buildings. The outer walls 
 of hewn stone, have disappeared ; the long and lofty 
 ruined wall, 40 ft. high, familiar in the illustrations of 
 books on Peru, ran down the middle of the building, 
 from end to end ; it has a stone foundation, 8 ft. high, 
 surmounted by adobe bricks. On each side of it ran a 
 row of pillars, and the whole supported an upper floor, 
 now entirely vanished, where stood the sanctuary and 
 statue of the god. There are numerous domestic build- 
 ings, regularly disposed as in a monastery or college, 
 adjoining the temple. 
 
 On the way from Cacha to Cuzco, numerous ruins are 
 to be seen at Quijana ; great Inca quarries near Anda- 
 huaylas ; a fortress or barrier at Piquillacta ; a walled 
 town at Muyna ; and more ruins at the pass of Angostura. 
 
50 
 
 PERU 
 
 Cuzco. The Inca city of Cuzco, or, at any rate, the 
 part containing its great public buildings, was confined 
 within a long, narrow tongue of land sloping down from 
 the hill of Sacsahuaman, and enclosed by the two stream- 
 lets of the Rodadero and the Huatenay. Within this 
 area the lower portion of the Inca walls have been largely 
 retained by the Spaniards as foundations for their own 
 structures, and they still define in great measure the streets 
 and squares of the ancient city. The greatest and most 
 magnificent building was the Temple of the Sun, rising 
 above the terraced gardens of the Sun, which sloped down 
 to the artificially widened waters of the Huatenay. 
 This is now the site of the Friary of Santo Domingo. To 
 the north-west was the Acllahuasi or Palace of the Virgins 
 of the Sun, nearly 800 ft. by 200 ft. ; this is now occupied 
 by the Convent of Santa Catalina. On either side were 
 great palaces, of which the lower walls still survive in 
 great part ; one of the finest specimens, 380 ft. long and 
 18 ft. high, faces the square of Pampa Maroni. The 
 cathedral occupies the site of a covered hall ; the domin- 
 ating site of San Cristobal was formerly that of the 
 palace of the first Inca, of which a few remains 
 survive. 
 
 Sacsahuaman. Above ancient Cuzco the ground rises 
 precipitously in a line with the two streamlets before 
 mentioned ; across this V-shaped acropolis run the three 
 zigzag lines of cyclopean fortification, so stupendous as 
 to strike the early Spanish chroniclers as worthy to rank 
 with the seven wonders of the ancient world, and even 
 to raise suspicions that it could only be the work of 
 enchantment. It is, perhaps, a primeval stronghold, 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 51 
 
 older even than Cuzco itself. The lines are indeed 
 wonderful. They ran for a length of some 1,800 ft. ; 
 they have an average height of 27, 18, and 14 ft. respec- 
 tively, and were planned with a parapet and platform or 
 terrace behind ; and they were built with a succession 
 of salient angles, so as to command the flanks of any 
 attacking force. But what is most wonderful is the 
 enormous size of the blocks of stone employed, and the 
 accuracy with which their irregular angles are fitted 
 together. One of these blocks is 27 ft. by 14 ft. by 12 ft., 
 and “ stones of 15 ft. by 12 ft. by 10 ft. are common in 
 the outer walls.” There were many other structures 
 near, but these, being built of small hewn stones, were 
 pulled down and the stone used for later Spanish building 
 in the city. The “ Seat of the Inca,” cut in the rock, 
 is noteworthy. 
 
 West of Cuzco lies Chinchero, which contains a long 
 terrace wall, niched and coped ; in the neighbourhood 
 are great sculptured rocks, with a statue of a puma. 
 The old road turns then to the north, descends 4,000 ft. 
 into the valley of the Urubamba, and crosses the river 
 to the sheltered fertile valley of Yucay, a favourite resi- 
 dence of the Incas, with a wonderful series of terraced 
 andenes or gardens, each with its retaining wall. High 
 up among these stood their Summer Palace, of which but 
 scanty ruins survive. The road down the valley passes 
 numerous rock-tombs in precipitous situations, and 
 circular loopholed towers, finally leading to the famous 
 fortified town of Ollantaitambo, the frontier town of the 
 valley. Here, “ in a climate of endless Spring,” are to 
 be seen extensive remains of a very typical Inca town, 
 
52 
 
 PERU 
 
 planted at the foot of a narrow ravine and backed by 
 mountains rising 9,000 ft. above the river. The ancient 
 town was laid out in parallel streets ; the houses, like 
 monastic dwellings, were arranged in formal parallelo- 
 grams, each group with its courtyards ; there was a 
 town square or piazza, a fortress, and a palace. Here, 
 too, is a pillar supposed to be an “ intihuatana ” or 
 gnomon of the sun, used for the observation of the 
 equinox. The passes were all fortified and the river 
 bridged. The precipitous slopes are still terraced with 
 innumerable retaining walls. The principal fortress, 
 terraced on lofty walls rising from the river, commanded 
 the narrow passage which formed the approach from the 
 Montana — one of the four passes from the Amazon plain 
 to the Andine region. Some of the megalithic work here 
 is probably of the pre-Inca period ; and some of the 
 stones in the fortress are cut in slots and patterns 
 resembling those of Tiahuanaco. 
 
 Pisac. Another ancient road from Cuzco leads first 
 east and then north, down a valley ; on the opposite 
 side of the Vilcomayo (or Urubamba) stands Pisac. This 
 place, like Ollantaitambo, guarded a pass leading from 
 the montana ; and at both ends of the pass gigantic 
 fortresses were built. The remains here are, perhaps, 
 even more remarkable. Squier says : “ Every rood of 
 surface that can be terraced and cultivated is dedicated 
 to agriculture ; every avenue of ascent, except such as 
 the engineers determined to leave open, is closed ; every 
 commanding and strategic spot is fortified. There is not 
 a point to the very summit of the first peak which is not 
 somewhere commanded, or somehow protected by a maze 
 
Evangelical Union of South America 
 
 Entrance to a Temple 
 
 By permission of 
 
THE INCA AND PRE-INCA RUINS 
 
 53 
 
 of works, which almost defy the skill of the engineer to 
 plan, and which baffle description.” 
 
 Among the religious remains at Pisac is a fine example 
 of an “ inti-huatana.” A rock has been levelled at the 
 top, giving an area, roughly circular, 18 ft. by 16 ft. In 
 the centre has been left, in the living rock, a cone-shaped 
 pillar, 16 in. high. The whole is surrounded by a wall 
 of stones, faced on the outside and perfectly smooth, 
 about 20 ft. high ; this enclosure is shaped like a D. 
 It is thought that the short pillar was surmounted at 
 the proper season by a long gnomon ; and also that the 
 apsidal wall at the end of the church of St. Domingo at 
 Cuzco enclosed originally the “ inti-huatana ” of the 
 great sun temple there. 
 
 Below Ollantaitambo, in the same valley, are striking 
 remains at Macchu Pichu and Rosas Pata. 
 
 Isolated Sites. — Huanuco Viejo is in the Province of 
 Huamalies, 54 miles west of the modern town of Huanuco. 
 The ruins apparently are those of a palace and a fortress. 
 The palace contains a reservoir, a bath, a number of 
 houses, and long walls, and three double doorways with 
 niches and rude carvings ; these doorways, at different 
 sides of large courtyards, are all in a line. The fortress 
 is 180 ft. by 80 ft. ; it has walls of hewn stone 13 ft. 
 high, with a projecting cornice. 
 
 At Huantar, in the valley of Chavin, near the Maranon, 
 are a castle, numerous houses, and a bridge with carved 
 heads in the corner pillars. From the castle a remark- 
 able carved slab, 7 ft. long, has been removed, and is now 
 in the Exhibition Park at Lima ; other carved stones 
 remain in situ. 
 
 5— (2247) 
 
54 
 
 PERU 
 
 A few words, in conclusion, may sum up the salient 
 features of the highland architecture. The stone work, 
 whether cyclopean, irregular -shaped, or of regular squared 
 and smoothed blocks, is universally marked by extreme 
 accuracy of fitting ; walls, windows, doorways, niches, 
 have a marked inward slope ; circular building is not 
 infrequent ; the stones are carefully measured and pre- 
 pared for their places, cut to the requisite angles or radii ; 
 the arch is unknown, as also was the use of glass (hence 
 the paucity of windows) ; the buildings were frequently 
 of two, or possibly more, storeys. The external effect 
 was severe and monotonous, but powerful ; perhaps it 
 was frequently relieved by the use of stucco and paint. 
 Internally, the palaces and temples were adorned with 
 thin gold and silver plates. The roofs seem to have been 
 invariably of thatch, but this thatching was of a very 
 elaborate and ornamental character. It is described by 
 the early chroniclers ; and a specimen survived at 
 Asangaro till quite recently. 
 
Los Portales, Plaza Mayor, Lima 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 DEPARTMENTS, PROVINCES, AND DISTRIBUTION OF 
 POPULATION 
 
 Departments. — Peru contains at present (omitting 
 Tacna) twenty-two independent administrative divisions. 
 These are usually known as departments, but three are, 
 strictly speaking, not departments, but “ littoral pro- 
 vinces.” Ten of these divisions are in the Coast region, 
 viz., the seven departments of Piura, Lambayeque, La 
 Libertad, Ancachs, Lima, lea, and Arequipa, together 
 with the three littoral provinces of Tumbes, Callao, and 
 Moquegua. Eight departments belong to the Sierra 
 region, viz., Cajamarca, Huanuco, Junin, Huancavelica, 
 Ayacucho, Apurimac, Cuzco, and Puno. The Montana 
 at present contains four departments, viz., Amazonas, 
 San Martin, Loreto, and Madre de Dios ; but it will 
 doubtless be further subdivided as its development 
 proceeds. Tacna is now counted as part of Chile. 
 
 Population. — The estimates of area and population 
 given below can only be regarded as approximate. The 
 area is uncertain, partly from the absence of an accurate 
 survey, and partly from the difficulties attending frontier 
 delimitation. As to the first, the great height and 
 extent of the mountains, plateaux, and forests must 
 long render accuracy impossible ; much of the eastern 
 part of Peru is even still unexplored. As to the latter, 
 while the frontiers with Bolivia, Chile, and Brazil are 
 now settled, those with Ecuador and Colombia are still 
 in dispute. 
 
 55 
 
56 
 
 PERU 
 
 The facts concerning the population are equally in 
 doubt. According to the census of 1876 — the last that 
 has been taken — the total was 2,660,881, of which 300,000 
 was assigned, conjecturally, to the montana. Estimates 
 were prepared in 1896 and 1908, and certain municipal 
 censuses have been taken from time to time. 
 
 The Civil States Registers, ordered on the promulgation 
 of the Civil Code in 1852, and again on the establishment 
 of municipal councils in 1873, have never been properly 
 kept ; and the Government recently ascertained “ with 
 veritable stupefaction ” that no less than seventy-two 
 municipalities keep no such registers of any description. 
 Till recently, the Government held the total to be still 
 under 3,000,000 ; the London Stock Exchange estimates 
 it at 4,000,000 ; and the figures here adopted amount to 
 about 3,600,000. 1 
 
 Of this total, about 800,000 belong to the Coast 
 region, 2,360,000 to the sierra, and 400,000 to the 
 montana. 
 
 Omitting Callao, which stands in an exceptional posi- 
 tion, the most populous department, judged by the pro- 
 portion of inhabitants to area, is Cajamarca ; next come 
 Ancachs, Lambayeque, Lima, Huancavelica, and La 
 Libertad ; then Apurimac, J unin, Ayacucho, Piura, 
 Tumbes ; then Puno, lea, Arequipa, Huanuco. The 
 
 1 The Presidential Message to Congress on 5th Sept., 1913, 
 while allowing for “ war, revolutions, Indian uprisings, epidemics, 
 and inhuman conduct of certain disorderly provincial elements ” 
 (as, e.g., in the Putumayo region) takes a more favourable view, 
 and holds that, in spite of all the uncertainties attending the 
 calculation, the population of the republic at present approx- 
 imates to 5,000,000. This gives an average of about 7.2 per 
 sq. mile. 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 57 
 
 others have less than three per square kilometre (ten 
 per square mile). 
 
 The constituent elements of the population are also 
 very uncertain ; but the following proportions appear 
 to be the best attainable : Pure Indians, 50 per cent ; 
 Mestizos ( i.e ., those of mixed white and Indian descent), 
 35 per cent. ; pure whites, 11 per cent. ; negroes (includ- 
 ing Zambos, partly of negro and partly of native descent), 
 2 per cent. ; Asiatics (Chinese, Japanese, and descendants 
 of mixed marriages), 2 per cent. 
 
 The Indian population of the uplands, known generically 
 as Cholos, are Christians and largely Spanish-speaking, 
 though they maintain their Quechua and Aymara dialects 
 among themselves. The Indians of the tropical forest 
 region in the east, known generically as Chunchos, are 
 pagan and uncivilised ; they speak many different 
 languages and enjoy no citizen rights. 
 
 Omitting Tacna, Arica, and Tarata, Peru contains 
 22 departments, 104 provinces, and 826 districts. 
 
 Amazonas, a Montana department, has an estimated 
 area of 13,940 square miles (36,122 sq. kiloms.), with a 
 population of about 53,000, (i.e., an average of under 
 15 per square kil. It is bounded on the north by 
 Ecuador, on the west by Cajamarca, on the south by 
 La Libertad, and on the east and north-east by 
 Loreto. The department is composed of alternate 
 mountain and valley, the mountains of the central 
 cordillera, intersected by the deep valleys of the Maranon 
 and its tributaries. The Maranon forms the boundary 
 between Amazonas and Cajamarca for more than half 
 the west side of the department, and then flows in a 
 
58 
 
 PERU 
 
 north-east direction. It receives on the left bank the 
 river Santiago, which divides Amazonas from Loreto, 
 and on the right bank another river Santiago and the 
 Chuchanga. 
 
 The capital is Chachapoyas, seat of a bishopric, and 
 the industrial centre of the department. 
 
 The provinces are — 
 
 (1) Bongora (cap. Jumbilla) ; 
 
 (2) Chachapoyas (cap. Chachapoyas) ; 
 
 (3) Luya (cap. Lamud). 
 
 The department is largely covered by virgin forest, with 
 rubber, coca, and the usual forest products ; agricultural 
 products in the valleys include cacao, coffee, sugar, 
 tobacco, cotton. Gold mines and placer gold exist, and 
 rock salt is found at Chiliquin. 
 
 Ancachs or Ancash, a littoral department, is estimated 
 to contain 16,562 square miles (42,908 sq. kiloms.), with 
 a population of 317,000 (i.e., an average of 7 5 per square 
 kilometre). It is bounded on the west by the Pacific, 
 on the north and north-east by La Libertad, on the east 
 by Huanuco and Junin, and on the south by Lima. 
 The department is very mountainous. On the coast are 
 the ports of Santa, Chimbote, Samanco (on the Bay of 
 Ferrol), Casma, and Huarmei. This region is watered 
 by the rivers Santa, Nepeha, Casma, Huarmei, and 
 Fortaleza, all of which, except the first, rise on the west 
 of the cordillera and are dry for most of the year ; the 
 intermediate portions of the coast are completely barren. 
 The first river rises east of the Cordillera, and under the 
 name of Huaras flows north-west through the long valley of 
 the Callejon of Huaras. In the north of the department 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 59 
 
 it turns west and, after uniting with the Chuquisaca, 
 takes the name of Santa, and passes through a deep gorge 
 in the Cordillera to the Pacific. Its total length is about 
 180 miles. The valley of the Santa is extremely fertile, 
 and rice and sugar plantations flourish. It is connected 
 with the port of Chimbote by a railway running as far as 
 Tablones, and intended ultimately to pass Cards, Yungay, 
 Huards, and Recuay. The capital is Huards. 
 
 The provinces are — 
 
 Bolognesi (cap. Chiquidn) ; 
 
 Cajatambo (cap. Cajatambo) ; 
 
 Huailas (cap. Cards) ; 
 
 Huards (cap. Huards) ; 
 
 Huari (cap. Huari) ; 
 
 Pallasca (cap. Cabana) ; 
 
 Pomabamba (cap. Pomabamba) ; 
 
 Santa (cap. Casma) ; and 
 
 Yungay (cap. Yungay). 
 
 The agricultural products of the department include 
 sugar, rice, cereals, grapes, potatoes, maize ; Cards grows 
 a special kind of potato, which matures in three months. 
 The mineral wealth includes coal (anthracite, near 
 Chimbote and Huards ; bituminous, in many parts), 
 petroleum, gold, copper, silver, quicksilver, antimony, 
 cinnabar, lead, kaolin, clay, marble. There is a con- 
 siderable amount of cattle rearing. Tanning and textile 
 industries (mattings, carpets, blankets) are pursued in 
 the towns. 
 
 Apurimac is a sierra department, estimated to contain 
 8,187 square miles (21,209 sq. kiloms.), with a population 
 of 133,000, an average of 6 3 per square kilometre. 
 
60 
 
 PERU 
 
 It is bounded on north and west by Ayacucho, on south 
 by Ayacucho and Arequipa, and on east by Cuzco. 
 It is a highland district, with great grazing grounds and 
 forests, and is drained by the river Apurimac (which 
 divides it from Cuzco) and the tributaries Tambobamba, 
 Pachachaca, and Pampas, which flow to its left bank. 
 The capital is Abancay. 
 
 The soil is fertile and, in addition to extensive rearing 
 of cattle, sheep, and goats, there is a considerable pro- 
 duction of cereals, sugar, rice, coffee, cocoa, maize, and 
 potatoes. The mining includes gold, silver, copper, 
 saltpetre. Woollen articles are manufactured, and a 
 small amount of silk fabrics ; the silkworm is cultivated 
 near Abancay. 
 
 The provinces are — 
 
 (1) Abancay (cap. Abancay) ; 
 
 (2) Aimaraes (cap. Chalhuanca) ; 
 
 (3) Andahuailas (cap. Andahuailas) ; 
 
 (4) Antabamba (cap. Antabamba) ; and 
 
 (5) Cotabambas (cap. Tambobamba). 
 
 Arequipa, a coast department, is estimated to contain 
 21,947 square miles (56,857 sq. kiloms.), with a population 
 of 172,000, an average of three per square kilometre. 
 It is bounded on the north by lea, Ayacucho, and Cuzco; 
 on the south-west by the Pacific ; and on the east by 
 Puno and Moquegua. The coast contains the minor 
 ports of Chala, Atico, Ocona, Camand, Quilca, Islay, and 
 the major port of Mollendo, the second largest in the 
 republic. The coast has numerous rivers, the Acari, 
 Atiquipa, Atico, Pescadores, Ocona, Manga, Mages, and 
 Vitor ; the north is watered by the Apurimac and its 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 61 
 
 tributaries. The south-east of the department is traversed 
 by the Southern Railway of Peru, connecting Mollendo. 
 via Arequipa, with Cuzco, Puno, and La Paz. The capital 
 is Arequipa, one of the leading cities of Peru, seat of a 
 cathedral, a superior court, and a university, and an 
 important manufacturing and commercial centre. 
 
 The provinces are — 
 
 Arequipa (cap. Arequipa) ; 
 
 Cailloma (cap. Cailloma) ; 
 
 Camand (cap. Camana) ; 
 
 Castilla (cap. Aplao) ; 
 
 Condesuyos (cap. Chuquibamba) ; 
 
 Islay (cap. Mollendo) ; and 
 
 La Union (cap. Cotahuasi). 
 
 Cotton, sugar, olives, and grapes are grown in the valleys ; 
 and maize, potatoes, and cereals in the uplands. The 
 mineral products include gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, 
 sulphur, manganese, rock-salt, borax, gypsum, alum, 
 kaolin clay ; silver is produced in considerable quantity 
 in Cailloma. Most of the manufactures of the country 
 are represented at Arequipa, including textiles, 
 hide-dressing, brewing, and engineering. 
 
 Among the physical features of the department may 
 be mentioned the shifting, crescent-shaped sand dunes 
 of the Pampa or Desert of Islay, which lies at a mean 
 elevation of 4,000 ft. 
 
 Ayacucho, an extensive sierra department, is estimated 
 to contain 18,185 square miles (47,111 sq. kiloms.), with 
 a population of 227,000 — an average population of 4 8 
 per square kilometre. It is bounded by Huancavelica and 
 lea on the west, Arequipa on the south and south-east, 
 
62 
 
 PERU 
 
 and Apurimac and Cuzco on the east. It is mainly 
 a district of high plateaux, watered by the Apurimac 
 (which forms much of its eastern boundary) and its 
 tributaries, especially the Pulperia. In the south is Lake 
 Parinacocha, 12 miles long by 6 miles broad. (The 
 capital is Ayacucho.) 
 
 The provinces are — (1) Ayacucho (cap. Ayacucho) ; 
 (2) Cangallo (cap. Cangallo) ; (3) Huanta (cap. Huanta) ; 
 (4) La Mar (cap. San Miguel) ; (5) Lucanas (cap. Puquio) ; 
 and (6) Parinacochas (cap. Coracora). 
 
 Cattle and a hardy type of sheep are extensively bred ; 
 cereals, maize, potatoes, sugar, grapes, with a little coffee, 
 cotton, and cocoa are grown. The gold mines are mostly 
 abandoned, but the Lucanas district is rich in silver ; 
 nickel, cobalt, copper, manganese, sulphur, and asphalt 
 occur. The industries include woollen textiles, sugar, 
 wine, and alcohol manufactures. 
 
 Cajamarca, a northern sierra department, is estimated 
 to contain 12,540 square miles (32,482 sq. kiloms.), with 
 a population of 333,300 — an average of 10-2 per square 
 kilometre. It is bounded on the north by Ecuador ; on 
 the west by Piura, Lambayeque, and La Libertad ; on 
 the south by La Libertad ; and on the east by Amazonas. 
 The department is watered by the Maranon (which forms 
 nearly the whole of its eastern boundary) and by tribu- 
 taries entering it from the west. The south-west has 
 communication with the port of Pacasmayo by a railway, 
 which is intended to extend to Cajamarca. The capital 
 is Cajamarca, on the river Camarca, a tributary of the 
 Maranon. It is one of the chief industrial centres of the 
 inter-Andean district, and is notable for its Inca ruins 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 63 
 
 and as the scene of the capture of Atahuallpa in 
 1532. 
 
 The provinces are — (1) Cajabamba (cap. Cajabamba) ; 
 (2) Cajamarca (cap. Cajamarca) ; (3) Celendin (cap. 
 
 Celendin) ; (4) Chota (cap. Chota) ; (5) Contumazd (cap. 
 Contumaza) ; (6) Hualgayoc (cap. Hualgayoc) ; (7) Jaen 
 (cap. Jaen de Bracamoros). 
 
 The highlands are favourable to the breeding of cattle 
 and a hardy type of sheep. The cultivated valleys pro- 
 duce cereals, coffee, and sugar ; gold, silver, coal, copper, 
 and other minerals are found. 
 
 Callao was constituted a littoral province in 1836, and 
 a “ constitutional ” province in 1857, in commemoration 
 of its repeated defence of the constitution of the republic. 
 It extends from the river Rimac on the north to the 
 Mar Brava on the south, with an area of 14£ square miles 
 (37 kil.) ; its population is 35,000, of whom about one- 
 tenth are foreigners. In addition to the city of Callao 
 (for which, see List of Towns), it includes the wards or 
 barrios of Bellavista and La Punta, and the islands of 
 San Lorenzo, Fronton, and others off the coast. Stone 
 is quarried on San Lorenzo, and the island is used as a 
 depository for explosives. 
 
 Cuzco, the largest sierra department, is estimated to 
 contain 89,447 square miles (228,985 kiloms.), with a 
 population of 300,000, or 1 -3 per square kilometre. These 
 figures are much smaller than those formerly given, owing 
 to the recent creation of a new Montana department, viz., 
 Madre de Dios ( q.v .) and certain cessions of territory to 
 Bolivia and Brazil. Cuzco is bounded on the north by 
 Loreto and Brazil ; on the west by J unin, Ayacucho, and 
 
64 
 
 PERU 
 
 Apurimac ; on the south by Arequipa ; and on the east 
 by Puno and Madre de Dios. It is watered (1) by the 
 Apurimac (which forms almost the whole of its boundary) 
 and its tributaries ; (2) by the Urubamba, which takes 
 the successive names of Vilcamayo, Yucay, Santa Ana, 
 Urubamba, Quillabamba ; (3) by the Paucartambo ; 
 
 (4) by the upper waters of the Purus, Madre de Dios, 
 and other rivers of western Brazil. These last flow 
 eastwards ; the others have a general north-westerly 
 direction. 
 
 Cuzco (the city) and the south of the department are 
 connected by the Southern Railway with Mollendo, Puno, 
 and La Paz. 
 
 The capital is Cuzco, the former metropolis of the Inca 
 empire ; the whole neighbourhood contains numerous 
 remains of great archaeological importance. (For modern 
 Cuzco, see the List of Towns ; it is an important 
 manufacturing and commercial centre.) 
 
 The provinces are twelve in number, viz. : (1) Acomayo 
 (cap. Acomayo) ; (2) Anta (cap. Anta) ; (3) Calca (cap. 
 Calca) ; (4) Canas (cap. Yanaoca) ; (5) Canchis (cap. 
 Sicuani) ; (6) La Convencion (cap. Santa Ana) ; (7) Cuzco 
 (cap. Cuzco) ; (8) Chumbivilcas (cap. Santo Tomas) ; (9) 
 Paruro (cap. Paruro) ; (10) Paucartambo (cap. Paucar- 
 tambo) ; (11) Quispicanchi (cap. Urcos) ; and (12) 
 
 Urubamba (cap. Urubamba). 
 
 Agriculture is the chief industry, coffee, sugar, cocoa, 
 and coca being produced ; the best coffee district in 
 Peru is that of Paucartambo and Chancamayo, and 
 cocoa of exceptional quality is grown for the home 
 market. There are large sugar plantations in the valleys 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 65 
 
 of the Urubamba and Paucartambo, and the province of 
 Urubamba produces the finest coca. 
 
 Mining is only done on a small scale ; gold is mined in 
 the provinces of Cuzco and Paucartambo, and is found 
 in alluvial deposits in the latter province and in 
 Quispicanchi. Copper, coal, iron, and many other 
 minerals exist, the greatest variety being in Canas pro- 
 vince. Cattle and wool-bearing animals are bred, 
 especially in Canchis. 
 
 There is a large home industry in weaving and knitting ; 
 for the manufactures, centred at Cuzco, see under Cuzco 
 in the List of Towns. 
 
 Huancavelica, a central sierra department, is estimated 
 to contain an area of 9,250 square miles (23,967 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 167,840 — an average of 7-2 per square 
 kilometre. It is bounded on the north by J unin ; on the 
 west by Lima ; on the south by lea ; and on the east by 
 Ayacucho. It is watered in the north by the Mantaro 
 and its tributaries, and in the south by the upper waters 
 of the rivers of lea, the Chincha, lea, and Grande. In 
 the high Andes occur the Lakes of Choclococha and 
 Orcococha. There is, as yet, no railway communication, 
 though the Central Railway approaches its north-east 
 boundary at Huancayo. There are several thermal 
 springs. 
 
 The capital is Huancavelica, in the northern half of the 
 department. 
 
 The provinces are as follows : (1) Angaraes (cap. Lircay) ; 
 (2) Castroverreina (cap. Castrovirreina) ; (3) Huancavelica 
 (cap. Huancavelica) ; and (4) Tayacaja (cap. Pampas.) 
 
 There is a certain amount of agriculture, cattle-raising, 
 
66 
 
 PERU 
 
 and weaving in this department, but its great wealth lies 
 in its mineral resources. Gold, silver, copper, and quick- 
 silver occur in abundance ; and coal, petroleum, salt, 
 saltpetre, cinnabar, and lead also occur. Near the capital, 
 mining and smelting of gold, silver, and quicksilver form 
 the chief industries. The quicksilver mines of Huan- 
 cavelica have been famous since their opening in 1566, 
 and were one of the chief source of Spanish wealth during 
 the Colonial period. The old workings lie buried under 
 a vast fall of earth, and the ore, though still extracted, is 
 on a far smaller scale than of old. 
 
 Hudnuco, a central sierra department, is estimated to 
 contain 14,024 square miles (36,331 sq. kiloms.), with a 
 population of 109,000 — an average of 3 per square kilo- 
 metre. It is bounded by Loreto to the north and east, 
 by Ancachs to the west, and by Junin to the south. It 
 lies like a saddle over the central and eastern Cordillera, 
 and is watered by the Ucayali (which forms its eastern 
 boundary), the Pachitea, the Huallaga, and the Maranon, 
 which rises in Lake Lauricocha in the south-west of the 
 department. The first two are navigable, and the 
 “ central ” route from Lima to Iquitos via rivers Pichis, 
 Pachitea, and Ucayali passes through this department. 
 The capital is Huanuco, on the Upper Huallaga : the 
 seat of a bishopric. 
 
 There are three provinces, viz., (1) Dos de Mayo (cap. 
 La Union) ; (2) Huamalies (cap. Llata) ; and (3) Hudnuco 
 (cap. Hudnuco.) 
 
 Agricultural products include cereals, maize, potatoes, 
 coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and coca. Cattle, sheep, 
 and pigs are bred. The mountains are rich in gold, 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 67 
 
 silver, and quicksilver ; while coal, iron, and copper also 
 occur. 
 
 Ica, a coast department, estimated to contain an area 
 of 8,718 square miles (22,586 sq. kiloms.), with a popula- 
 tion of 68,200 — an average of three per sq. kilometre. 
 It touches the department of Lima on the north ; and is 
 bounded on the east by Huancavelica and Ayacucho, on 
 the south by Arequipa, and on the west by the Pacific. 
 
 Formerly a province of Lima, Ica was made an inde- 
 pendent province in 1855 and a department in 1868. 
 It is watered by the Chincha, Pisco, Ica, and Grande, 
 which flow from the Cordillera to the Pacific. Near Ica 
 are the Lakes of Huacachina and Cachiche, noted for 
 therapeutic properties. The valleys are extremely fertile, 
 and there is much good land still uncultivated that only 
 needs irrigation. The capital is Ica, which is connected 
 by railway with the port of Pisco. 
 
 Ica is divided into the three provinces of (1) Chincha 
 (cap. Chincha Alta) ; (2) Ica (cap. Ica) ; and (3) Pisco 
 (cap. Pisco). 
 
 The chief products of the department are agricultural, 
 viz., grapes and other fruits, sugar-cane, and cotton ; 
 maize, bird pepper (aji), divi-divi, and cereals (including 
 alfalfa or lucerne) are also grown. Wine-making and 
 alcohol distilling are flourishing industries, as is also 
 sugar-refining ; there is some textile manufacture and 
 bee-keeping. Copper, salt, coal, iron, marble, gypsum, 
 and clays exist, but are not as yet much worked. 
 
 Juntn, a central sierra department, is estimated to 
 contain 23,350 square miles (60,484 sq. kiloms.), with a 
 population of 305,700 — an average of five per square 
 
PERU 
 
 kilometre. It is bounded by Huanuco on the north ; by 
 Ancachs and Lima on the west ; by Huancavelica on the 
 south ; and by Loreto, Cuzco, and Ayacucho on the east. 
 It possesses three well-marked districts : the West, 
 
 traversed by the main Andean range, is rich in minerals ; 
 the Central portion is a land of high plateaux, suited for 
 grazing and agriculture ; the East sinks to the valley of 
 the Ucayali (its boundary from Loreto), and displays the 
 tropical vegetation of the Montana. J ust south of Cerro 
 de Pasco lies Lake J unin or Chinchaycocha, 36 miles long 
 by 7 miles wide, the second largest lake in Peru ; it is 
 13,322 ft. above sea-level. In the neighbourhood the 
 Spanish army was defeated in August, 1824, by the 
 national army under Bolivar. 
 
 Junin contains the head waters of some important 
 rivers of the Amazon basin. The Maranon rises near the 
 boundary with Huanuco. The Jauja flows in part from 
 Lake Junin, and assumes later the names of Mantaro, 
 Ene, Tambo, and finally Ucayali ; it forms the boundary 
 of the department on the east. Among the lesser rivers 
 are the Perene, which flows east and joins the Ene ; and 
 the Palcazu and Pichis, which unite to form the Pachitea 
 of Huanuco. 
 
 The Central Railway runs from Callao and Lima to 
 Oroya, and then south-east to Huancayo ; a branch from 
 Oroya extends to Cerro de Pasco and Goyllarisquizga. 
 Another line is projected to connect Cerro de Pasco with 
 the Ucayali, and so by river navigation with Iquitos. 
 Meantime the “ Central ” route from the latter town 
 passes via the river Pichis through south-east Junin to 
 Oroya. The capital is Cerro de Pasco. (See List of Towns.) 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 69 
 
 The provinces are as follows : (1) Huancayo (cap. 
 Huancayo) ; (2) Jauja (cap. Santa Fe de Jauja) ; (3) 
 Pasco (cap. Cerro de Pasco) ; and (4) Tarma (cap. Tarma). 
 
 The products vary with the physical zones mentioned 
 above. The immense mineral wealth, chiefly exploited 
 by the American mining companies of Cerro de Pasco 
 and Morococha, embrace silver, copper, lead, vanadium, 
 with gold, coal, salt, cinnabar, marble, and phosphates 
 of lime. The supply of vanadium has grown largely 
 since its discovery in 1904, and is now about 70 per cent, 
 of the world’s output. Smelting is carried on extensively. 
 
 The plateaux have large stocks of cattle and wool- 
 bearing animals ; there is a great sheep ranch at Atocsayo, 
 30 miles north of Oroya. Cereals, maize, and potatoes 
 are grown. Snow-cured meat ( chalona ) is made. 
 
 In the tropical east of the department are coca planta- 
 tions, coffee (especially in the Perene valley), sugar, cocoa, 
 and fruit. 
 
 The handicrafts include woollen textiles and hats. 
 
 Lambayeque, a small coast department, estimated to 
 contain an area of 4,614 square miles (11,952 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 93,000 — an average of 7-25 per square 
 kilometre. It is bounded by Piura on the north, Caja- 
 marca on the east, La Libertad on the south, and the 
 Pacific on the west. It contains the ports of Eten and 
 Pimentel, with the cove ( caleta ) of Cherrepe, and is 
 watered by the small rivers Morrope, Lambayeque, and 
 Sana. The railways are : (1) Eten to Lambayeque and 
 Ferrenape ; (2) Eten to Cayalti ; (3) Pimentel to Lam- 
 bayeque ; and (4) Chiclayo to Patapo. The capital 
 (formerly Sana or Santiago de Miraflores) is now Chiclayo. 
 
 fr-(2247) 
 
70 
 
 PERU 
 
 There are only two provinces, viz., Lambayeque and 
 Chiclayo, with capitals respectively of the same names. 
 
 The department is almost entirely agricultural, pro- 
 ducing rice, sugar-cane, cotton, coffee, and cereals. 
 There is a little gold mining, and manufactures of hats, 
 ponchos, cotton and thread-piece goods, saddle bags, and 
 alcohol. 
 
 Guano is produced from the Lobos Islands, off the 
 coast. 
 
 Lihertad, La, a coast department, estimated to contain 
 an area of 10,206 square miles (26,441 sq. kiloms.), with 
 a population of 188,000— an average of seven per square 
 kilometre. It is bounded on the north by Lambayeque 
 and Cajamarca, on the east by Loreto, on the south by 
 Ancachs ; and on the west by the Pacific. It is watered 
 by the rivers Jequetepec, Chicama, Moche, Viru, Chao, 
 and Santa, the last-named forming the boundary with 
 Ancachs. It contains the seaports Pacasmayo, Huan- 
 chaco, and Salaverry. The railways are : (1) Pacasmayo 
 to Chilete, with a branch to Guadalupe ; (2) Salaverry to 
 Trujillo, Chicama, and Ascope, with branches Trujillo- 
 Menocucho, and Chicama-Cartavis ; (3) a private sugar- 
 line from Huanchaco to the hacienda of La Roma. The 
 capital is Trujillo. 
 
 There are six provinces, viz. : (1) Huamachaco (cap. 
 Huamachaco) ; (2) Otusco (cap. Otusco) ; (3) Pacasmayo 
 (cap. San Pedro de Lloc) ; (4) Patas (cap. Tayabamba) ; 
 (5) Santiago de Chuco (cap. Santiago de Chuco) ; (6) 
 Trujillo (cap. Trujillo). 
 
 The coast provinces produce sugar-cane, rice, coca, and 
 coffee ; higher up, cereals, maize, and potatoes. The 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 71 
 
 manufactures include -ponchos, carpets, and cotton textiles. 
 In the sierra, gold, silver, tin, and coal are found. 
 
 There are many remarkable remains at Trujillo and on 
 the neighbouring coast, proving the existence of the large 
 population and ancient civilisation known by the name 
 of Chimu. Ruins of the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan 
 exist, with a large necropolis, which has yielded quantities 
 of textile fabrics, pottery, weapons, and objects of art, 
 dating back possibly some 7,000 years. 
 
 Lima, a central coast department, is computed to con- 
 tain an area of 13,310 square miles (34,482 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 250,000 — an average of 7-3 per 
 square kilometre. It is bounded on the north by 
 Ancachs, on the east by Junin and Huancavelica, on the 
 south by Huancavelica and lea ; and on the west by the 
 Pacific. It is a mountainous district, with numerous 
 fertile river valleys, of which the principal are those of 
 the Barranca or Pativilca, Supe, Huauro, Chancay, 
 Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, and Canete. It con- 
 tains the major port of Callao, and the minor ports of 
 Supe, Huacho, Chancay, Ancon, and Cerro Azul. The 
 Central Railway of Peru runs east from Callao and Lima 
 to Oroya in Junin ; short branches run from Lima north 
 to Ancon and Huacho, and south to the watering-places 
 of Chorrillos, Magdalena, Miraflores, and Barranco ; a 
 short branch from Ticlio runs to the copper mines of 
 Morococha. 
 
 The capital is Lima, which is also capital of the 
 republic. (For this city, see the List of Towns.) 
 
 The provinces are six in number, viz. : (1) Cahete (cap. 
 Caiiete^ ; (2) Canta (cap. Canta) ; (3) Chancay (cap. 
 
72 
 
 PERU 
 
 Huacho) ; (4) Huarochin (cap. Matucana, a popular 
 mountain resort) ; (5) Lima (cap. Lima) ; and (6) Yauyos 
 (cap. Yauyos). 
 
 The fertile valleys produce sugar-cane (chiefly in 
 Canete) ; cotton, including the “ Sea Island ” variety 
 (in Supe, Huacho, and Canete) ; coca (in Yauyos) ; 
 grapes ; and vegetables. Cereals, maize, and potatoes 
 are grown on higher ground. The mountains provide 
 pasturage for cattle and wool-bearing animals, and are 
 also rich in minerals ; gold, silver, copper, coal, sulphur, 
 chalk, ochre, clay, alum, lead, cinnabar, bismuth, anti- 
 mony, rock crystal are all found. Mattings, woollen 
 textiles, hats, stringed meat, wines, oil, sugar, and many 
 other industries exist. (For details of the manufactures, 
 see Lima and Callao in the List of Towns.) South of 
 Lima lie the ruins of the great “ Chimu ” temple of 
 Pachacamac — “ He who gives life to the Universe ” — 
 an adobe erection of vast extent, now fallen into heaps 
 of formless rubbish. 
 
 Loreto, the chief Montana department, is estimated to 
 contain an area of 172,059 square miles (440,471 sq. kiloms. 
 with a population of 120,000 — an average of 0-27 per 
 square kilometre. The Montana territory was assigned 
 at the time of the Independence as a province of the 
 Intendencia of Trujillo, under the name of Mainas. 
 Later it became a province of La Libertad, then of 
 Amazonas, in 1853 an independent “ littoral ” province,” 
 and finally a military department. In 1906 the western 
 portion was formed into the new department of San 
 Martin. The eastern boundary with Brazil is now 
 settled, but the northern frontier line with Ecuador and 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 73 
 
 Colombia is still in dispute. The capital, originally 
 Moyobamba, is now Iquitos, the only town of any size. 
 (See Iquitos, in List of Towns.) 
 
 The department is bounded on the north by Ecuador 
 and Colombia, on the west by San Martin and La 
 Libertad, on the south by Hudnuco, and on the east 
 by Brazil. 
 
 The chief river in the east of the department, the 
 Ucayali, joins the Maranon at Nauta ; the eastern 
 boundary is for a long distance formed by the Javary. 
 On the north, the Maranon is joined by many tributaries 
 of considerable size ; the most important at present are 
 the Napo and the Putumayo. 
 
 There are no railways and few roads ; on the other 
 hand, the navigable waterways afford communication 
 by steamers of light draught, and by canoes. 
 
 The provinces are : (1 ) Alto Amazonas (cap. Yurim- 
 aguas) ; Bajo Amazonas (cap. Iquitos) ; and Ucayali 
 (cap. Contamana). 
 
 There are minor river ports at Yurimaguas, on the 
 Huallaga ; Contamana, on the Ucayali ; Nazareth, on 
 the Javary; and Caballo Cocha, below Iquitos, on the 
 Amazon. Others are being developed at Leticia, Nauta, 
 Requena, and Orellana. 
 
 (For the products, see the Chapters on Flora and 
 Forest Products.) 
 
 The only commercial product of any importance at 
 present is rubber ; next comes vegetable ivory. Colonisa- 
 tion is being attempted on the rivers Pisqui and Aguatia. 
 Development is slow at present, means of communication 
 scanty, and difficulties of climate, etc., very great. But 
 
74 
 
 PERU 
 
 there is no doubt about the exceptional fertility of the 
 soil and the future possibilities of this region. 
 
 At present, the communication between Loreto and 
 the coast of Peru is carried on by river and road. There 
 are two main routes : (1) By Amazon to Puerto Borja, 
 and thence via Huancabamba and Piura to Paita ; (2) by 
 rivers Ucayali, Pachitea, and Pichis, then by road to 
 Oroya, and by railway to Lima and Callao. 
 
 The northern railway from Paita to P. Borja, though 
 long mooted, has been delayed for strategic reasons, as it 
 would pass very near the Ecuadorian frontier. It is 
 more likely that the first railway connection will be from 
 Cerro de Pasco to the Ucayali. 
 
 Madre de Dios, a Montana department created in 
 December, 1912, is estimated to possess an area of 
 25,500 square miles (64,112 sq. kiloms.), with a popula- 
 tion of about 16,000 — an average of 0-25 per square 
 kilometre. 
 
 The department consists of area formerly assigned to 
 Cuzco and Puno, but in dispute with Bolivia ; it is now 
 definitely a part of Peru. The capital is Maldonado, on 
 the left bank of the river Tambopata at its junction with 
 the Manu. 
 
 The three provinces are: (1) Manu (cap. Puerto 
 
 Manu) ; (2) Tahuamanu (cap. Tahuamanu) ; and (3) 
 Tambopata (cap. Puerto Maldonado). 
 
 (For the forest products, see the Chapters on Flora and 
 Forest Products.) 
 
 The district is largely unexplored, and for the moment 
 is of no commercial importance. Its development, how- 
 ever, may possibly be rapid. A Government colony of 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 75 
 
 repatridos from Chile has been planted here ; rubber and 
 mining concessions have been granted to British com- 
 panies ; and a railway line projected from Tirapata, on 
 the Cuzco line, to the Madre de Dios river. 
 
 Gold and silver exist (including placer gold). 
 
 Moquegua is a littoral province, containing an esti- 
 mated area of 5,550 square miles (14,375 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 32,000 — an average of 2-3 per square 
 kilometre. 
 
 It is bounded on the north-west by Arequipa, north- 
 east by Puno, south by Tacna, and south-west by the 
 Pacific. It contains the port of Ilo, and is watered by 
 the rivers Tambo, Moquegua, and Locumba. There is 
 a railway from Ilo to Moquegua, which is the centrally 
 situated capital. 
 
 The agricultural products are olives, grapes, figs, 
 cereals, and maize. Wine and brandy are made. There 
 is little mining at present, but coal, tin, manganese, 
 copper, salt, sulphur, borax, gypsum, and marble are 
 known to exist in quantity. 
 
 A recent loan for irrigation and colonisation is expected 
 to aid greatly in the development of the province. The 
 soil is well adapted for growing vines and olives, but 
 much of the coast district has hitherto been desert from 
 lack of water supply. 
 
 Piura, the northernmost coast department, is esti- 
 mated to contain 16,825 square miles (38,458 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 155,000 — an average of four per 
 square kilometre. It is bounded by Ecuador on the north, 
 by the Pacific on the west, by Cajamarca on the east, 
 and by Lambayeque on the south. The chief rivers are 
 
76 
 
 PERU 
 
 the Chira and the Piura ; the Chira can be ascended for 
 40 miles from the mouth in large canoes. Parina Point 
 (81° 19' W.) is the westernmost extremity of South 
 America. 
 
 The capital is St. Miguel de Piura, from which starts 
 an overland route to Puerto Borja on the Amazon (via 
 Vicus, Huancabamba, Perico, and Nazareth), and the 
 only railway in the department (via Sullana to the port 
 of Paita). 
 
 The other chief towns are Paita on the coast and the 
 capitals of provinces (mentioned below) inland. 
 
 The department is subdivided into four provinces, viz. : 
 (1) Ayabaca (cap. Ayabaca) ; (2) Paita (cap. Paita); 
 (3) Piura (cap. Piura) ; and (4) Huancabamba (cap. 
 Huancabamba). 
 
 The coastal area includes among its most valuable 
 products, pitch and petroleum ; sulphur, mica, borax ; 
 salt and saltpetre ; and cotton. The best grades of 
 Peruvian cotton are grown in this department and 
 shipped from Paita. The upland districts afford pastur- 
 age for cattle ; the province of Huancabamba is noted 
 for its superior quality of wool ; while the goat and kid 
 skins possess unusually fine texture, flexibility, and soft- 
 ness. Gold is mined in the sierra. The east of the 
 department extends to the head waters of the Amazon, 
 and contains the coffee, sugar-cane, and tobacco usual in 
 the tropical forest or montana region. The chief indus- 
 tries are cotton-textiles, distilling, soap, candles, and 
 straw hats. 
 
 Puno, a southern sierra department, is estimated to 
 contain an area of 27,979 square miles (71,627 sq. kiloms.), 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 77 
 
 with a population of 270,000 — an average of 3-8 per 
 square kilometre. It is bounded on the north by Cuzco ; 
 on the west by Cuzco, Arequipa, and Moquegua ; on the 
 south by Chile ; and on the east by Bolivia. It includes 
 the northern half of Lake Titicaca, the high plateau in 
 which the lake stands with the mountains enclosing it 
 on west, north, and east ; the “ knot ” of Vilcanota, on 
 the borders of Puno and Cuzco, forms the watershed 
 dividing the Amazon basin from the enclosed lacustrine 
 basin of Titicaca. 
 
 The northern portion of the old department has 
 been taken away (in 1912) to form part of the new 
 department of Madre de Dios ( q.v .). 
 
 The capital is Puno, for which see List of Towns. 
 
 The department is connected by the Southern Railway 
 with both Cuzco and Mollendo ; and by steamer and 
 railway with La Paz in Bolivia. 
 
 The provinces are : (1) Ayaviri (cap. Ayaviri) ; (2) 
 Asdngaro (cap. Asdngaro) ; (3) Carabaya (cap. Macusani) ; 
 (4) Chucuito (cap. J uli) ; (5) HuancanS (cap. Huancane) ; 
 (6) Lampa (cap. Lampa) ; (7) Puno (cap. Puno) ; and (8) 
 Sandia (cap. Sandia). 
 
 The products are various and important : cattle and 
 sheep are bred, and the wool of the alpaca and vicuna 
 largely exported. Potatoes, barley, and a few other 
 crops are grown. Silver was formerly extracted in great 
 quantity ; to-day this is surpassed by the output of gold, 
 which is about 70 per cent, of that produced in the 
 country, and comes mainly from Sandia and Carabaya. 
 Coal, salt, copper, antimony, cinnabar, arsenic, quick- 
 silver, tin, marble, zinc, cobalt are also found. Petroleum 
 
78 
 
 PERU 
 
 and naphtha exist near the town of Puno. There is a 
 considerable manufacture of pottery at Lampa, and of 
 woollen textiles. 
 
 San Martin, a northern Montana department, is esti- 
 mated to contain 30,745 square miles (79,625 sq. kiloms.), 
 with a population of 33,000 — an average of 0-4 per 
 square kilometre. It is bounded on the east and south 
 by Loreto, on the west by Amazonas, and on the north 
 by Ecuador. It was formed in September, 1906, being 
 carved out of the north-west of Loreto. It is watered 
 by the Huallaga and its tributaries in the east side of the 
 department, and by the Maranon and Pasta£a in the 
 north. The capital is Moyobamba. 
 
 The provinces are Huallaga (cap. Saposoa) ; Moyo- 
 bamba (cap. Moyobamba) ; and San Martin (cap. Tarapoto) . 
 
 The products are as yet scanty. Cacao has been 
 planted with success ; and bananas, sugar, coffee, tobacco, 
 yuca, and coca are grown. Gold, silver, coal, iron, and 
 sulphur exist. The manufactures include sugar, aguard- 
 ienta (rum), textiles, matting, and straw hats. The 
 trade passes through the river port of Yurimaguas (on 
 the Huallaga), a rising town, about 500 miles above 
 Iquitos. 
 
 Tacna, south of the rivers Sama and Tarata, with its 
 three provinces of Arica, Tacna, and Tarata, is now part 
 of Chile, and should no longer be counted among the 
 departments of Peru. The part north of the above- 
 named rivers has, since 1884, had Locumba for its pro- 
 visional capital ; it will probably be added to the 
 department of Moquegua. 
 
 Tumbes, formerly a province of Piura, was declared 
 
PROVINCES AND POPULATION 
 
 79 
 
 by the law of 20th December, 1901, an independent 
 “ littoral province,” in view of its extent and its position 
 on the frontier with Ecuador. It is administered by a 
 prefect, and enjoys the other privileges belonging to a 
 department ; it is distinguishable, however, from a true 
 department in being divided into districts instead of 
 provinces. It lies between the Pacific, Ecuador, and 
 the Department of Piura, and has an area of 1,990 square 
 miles (5,130 sq. kiloms.), with a population of 8,000 — 
 an average of four per square kilometre. The capital is 
 Tumbes, standing 16 miles from the mouth of the river 
 of the same name. 
 
 The province is divided into the four districts of 
 Corrales, San Juan de la Virgen, Tumbes, and Zarumilla. 
 
 In 1531 Pizarro landed at the old mouth of the river 
 Tumbes. Here, at one time, stood a stately temple and 
 palace of the Incas, now completely destroyed. The 
 petroleum springs of the Zorritos district were used by 
 the Incas. Since 1864, and especially since 1883, con- 
 siderable attention has been given to their development. 
 Over 300 wells have been sunk in this district, 60 in the 
 Punta Lobitos district, and 250 in the Negritos district. 
 Refineries have been built at Tumbes, Zorritos, and 
 Talara ; and an annual produce of about 1,500,000 
 barrels is given. From Negritos to the port of Talara 
 (a distance of 6 miles) the oil is conducted by a 6-inch pipe. 
 
 Sugar, tobacco, coffee, and cocoa, are also produced in 
 the district ; sulphur, cobalt, coal, salt, and iodine are 
 found ; and sugar, kerosene, alcohol, and aniseed rum 
 are manufactured. Both the home and the international 
 trade are growing rapidly. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CONSTITUTION — GOVERNMENT — DEFENCE 
 
 Constitution. — Peru is an independent republic of the 
 centralised, not the federal, type. The Constitution was 
 originally drawn up in 1822, and fresh schemes were 
 passed during the early revolutionary period in 1828, 
 1833-4, and 1839. The existing Constitution was pro- 
 mulgated in October, 1856, and revised in November, 
 1860. The people are declared free and sovereign, con- 
 trolling legislation and government through their freely- 
 elected representatives. All citizens are equal in the 
 eyes of the law. Voting power is entrusted to every 
 Peruvian male citizen over twenty-one years of age, who 
 is either married, or a master employer, or an owner of 
 real property, or a taxpayer, or able to read and write. 
 
 Government. — This is dealt with under : (1) National ; 
 (2) Local Administration. The former comprises the 
 three independent branches of (a) the Legislature ; ( b ) 
 the Executive ; and (c) the J udiciary. 
 
 I. National Administration 
 (a) The Legislature consists of the National Congress, 
 comprising the Senate (52 members), and the House 
 of Representatives (116 members). The members of 
 both houses are elected by direct vote for a period of 
 six years ; every two years one-third of each Chamber, 
 as decided by lot, retires. 
 
 Senators must be Peruvians by birth, over thirty-five 
 
 80 
 
CONSTITUTION— GOVERNMENT 
 
 81 
 
 years of age, and must possess an income of £100 a year, 
 or belong to a scientific profession. They are elected in 
 the proportion of four senators for each department of 
 eight, or more than eight, provinces ; three for each 
 department containing five, six, or seven provinces ; 
 two for each department with two, three, or four pro- 
 vinces ; one for each department of one province only 
 (this includes Callao). 
 
 Representatives must be Peruvians by birth, over 
 twenty-five years of age, and must possess an income of 
 £50 per annum, or belong to a scientific profession. 
 They are elected in the proportion of one for each 30,000 
 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 15,000. 
 
 Congress meets annually on 28th J uly for a session not 
 exceeding ninety days ; extraordinary sessions may be 
 called for periods not exceeding forty-five days. 
 
 (b) The Executive power is entrusted to a President, 
 who exercises his functions through a Cabinet of six 
 ministers holding office at his pleasure. The President 
 is elected for a period of four years, and may not be 
 re-elected until after an interval of four years. There 
 are two vice-presidents, who take his place only in case 
 of his death or incapacity. The President and Vice- 
 Presidents are elected by direct vote. The six Ministers 
 are those of the Interior : War and Marine ; Foreign 
 Affairs ; Justice, with Worship and Education ; Finance ; 
 and Public Works (“ Fomento ”). No act of the 
 President is valid unless countersigned by a minister. 
 
 (c) The Judiciary consists of a series of tribunals and 
 magistrates. The Supreme Court, whose members are 
 nominated by Congress from lists presented by the 
 
82 
 
 PERU 
 
 Executive, sits at Lima. Nine superior courts sit at 
 Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cuzco, Huaras, Lima, 
 Piura, Puno, and Trujillo ; their members are nominated 
 by the President on the recommendation of the Supreme 
 Court. Courts of first instance sit in the capitals of the 
 provinces, with resident judges ; their members are 
 nominated by the President on the recommendation of 
 the Superior Courts. J ustices of the Peace reside in the 
 districts. 
 
 II. Local Administration 
 The country is divided into a number of departments ; 
 each department into smaller divisions, called provinces ; 
 and each province into districts. Each department is 
 governed by a Prefect, and each province by a sub- 
 prefect ; these are State officials, appointed by the 
 Executive. The districts are in charge of minor officials, 
 called Gubernadores, appointed by the prefects ; they 
 are assisted by Alcaldes, generally chosen from the Indian 
 population. 
 
 Each department, province, district, and municipality 
 has its council, 1 dealing with such subjects as police, 
 public health, road-making, lighting, and the support of 
 art and industry. By law of 1892, foreigners are eligible 
 as members of municipal, district, and provincial councils. 
 
 It will be seen from the above description that the 
 Peruvian Constitution is logical, complete, and, in theory, 
 highly democratic. In practice, it is less democratic 
 than would at first sight appear, since the great majority 
 of the native inhabitants are still illiterate and not 
 possessed of real estate. These defects, however, and 
 1 Municipal Councils date from 1873. 
 
CONSTITUTION— GOVERNMENT 
 
 83 
 
 other defects of working, into which we need not enter, 
 may be expected to diminish with the increasing 
 development and peaceful prosperity of the country. 
 
 The Constitution, while granting absolute political 
 freedom, prohibits the public exercise of any religion 
 other than the Roman Catholic, which is declared the 
 religion of the State. In practice, however, a certain 
 amount of toleration is allowed ; and Anglican churches 
 and missionary schools exist in Lima, Callao, Arequipa, 
 and Cuzco. The Roman Catholic churches and convents 
 belong to the State, which makes an annual subsidy in 
 aid of public worship. Facilities for the marriage of 
 non-Catholics has been given by Acts passed in 1897 
 and 1903. 
 
 Defence. — The Army. Military service is, by law, 
 compulsory on all male citizens from 19 to 50 years of 
 age ; but a payment of £50 exempts from service or 
 passes into the Reserve. The army was re-organised in 
 1896 by a French Military Mission. The standing army 
 has a peace establishment of 6,500, 1 with a war strength 
 (first and second line only) of 40,000 : it includes 5 
 battalions, 7 squadrons, and 6 batteries. The requisite 
 number of conscripts is drawn by lot annually. Service 
 is for 3 years in the infantry (4 years in the cavalry), in 
 the active army ; 7 (or 6) years in the first reserve ; 
 5 years in the second reserve ; and 15 years in the 
 National Guard. The arm is the Mauser rifle (1891 
 pattern), with the Mauser carbine for the cavalry ; the 
 artillery have modem Schneider-Canet guns. There are 
 five military districts. 
 
 1 Now (1913) raised to 7,000. 
 
84 
 
 PERU 
 
 The Police Force has a strength of 5,408, viz., 2,413 
 civil guards, 1,900 mounted police, and 1,905 foot police. 
 
 The Navy. The navy was completely destroyed during 
 the war with Chile, and is only being slowly replaced. 
 It consists of fourteen vessels, of which the chief are the 
 following- — 
 
 (1) The Alphonso de Ugarte, an old French armoured 
 cruiser, purchased in 1911 and re-named; 6,400 tons, 
 13,000 h.-p., 22 knots speed. 
 
 (2) The Almivante Grau and Coronel Bolognesi, twin 
 cruisers, built at Barrow in 1906 ; 3,200 tons, 24 knots 
 speed. 
 
 (3) The Lima, cruiser, built at Kiel in 1880, but 
 re-boilered and re-armed ; 1,700 tons, 14 knots speed. 
 
 (4) Three transports : the Iquitos, the Constitucidn, 
 and the Chalaco ; the first of these is used as a 
 training-ship for cadets. 
 
Cathedral, Lima 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 NATIONAL FINANCE 
 
 The nineteenth century was, for Peru, a period largely 
 of war and revolution ; while the intervening periods of 
 peace were marred by extravagance, corruption, and 
 economic incompetence. The results upon the finances 
 of the country were disastrous ; and, though a certain 
 amount of order has been introduced into the chaos 
 during recent years, it cannot be said that Peruvian 
 finance is, as yet, quite satisfactory. It would serve no 
 useful purpose to enter into details of the embarrassments 
 and failures of the last century ; but a few salient points 
 must be mentioned as leading up to the financial situation 
 as it exists to-day. 
 
 Loans were negotiated in London at various times 
 from 1823, culminating in two issues of 1870 and 1872 ; 
 in the latter year the amalgamated foreign indebtedness 
 of Peru amounted to £32,688,320, requiring an annual 
 payment of about £2,500,000. This the slender revenue 
 ot the State was utterly unable to meet, and payment of 
 interest ceased in 1876. By 1879 the debt had risen to 
 £40,214,969. Loans obtained from the banks led to the 
 emission of an excessive amount of paper money, which 
 rapidly depreciated by 90 per cent. The war with Chile 
 soon followed, and resulted in the loss to Peru of the 
 profitable nitrate fields of Tarapacci and of much of the 
 guano deposits on which she had depended for years. 
 
 Peruvian Corporation. — By 1889 the debt amounted 
 
 85 
 
 7 — ( 3247 ) 
 
86 
 
 PERU 
 
 to over £45,000,000, and a radical reconstruction became 
 necessary. This was effected in January, 1890, by 
 means of the Grace-Donoughmore contract, under which 
 Peru was freed from responsibility for the foreign loans ; 
 and, in return, yielded to a committee of foreign bond- 
 holders, for a period of sixty-six years, the State railways, 
 with certain rights' over guano, mines, and lands for 
 colonisation. The committee thereupon formed, and 
 transferred their rights and obligations to, the Peruvian 
 Corporation, Ltd., which has its headquarters at 43-46 
 Threadneedle Street, London, E.C. The Government 
 undertook to make for thirty-three years an annual 
 subsidy of £80,000, secured on the Callao customs, but 
 soon fell again into arrears of payment. The Corpora- 
 tion, in consequence, suspended the stipulated railway 
 extensions. After long negotiation, a new agreement 
 was signed in April, 1907, under which the Corporation 
 now works. Even yet, however, there are certain sub- 
 jects unsettled : in particular, the Mollendo port improve- 
 ments, the Cerro de Pasco mining concessions, the Chira 
 irrigation canal, and a debt of £200,000 due to Chile. 
 
 By the agreement of 1907, the Corporation’s former 
 lease of sixty-six years was extended by seventeen years 
 ( i.e ., it will not expire till 1973). From July, 1907, the 
 Government pays an annual sum of £80,000 in monthly 
 instalments for thirty years, secured on the sugar tax of 
 1904 ; the Corporation pays as railway tax a sum of 
 £12,000 annually for ten years, £15,000 for the following 
 ten years, and £20,000 for the next ten years, subse- 
 quently paying according to the ruling tariff of the year. 
 During the seventeen years’ extension, the Government 
 
NATIONAL FINANCE 
 
 87 
 
 will receive 50 per cent, of net receipts after a fixed 
 reduction for the service of railway obligations, and will 
 have the right to nominate a director. The Corporation 
 undertook to construct the lines Oroya-Huancayo, 
 Sicuani-Cuzco, and Yonan-Chilete, taking over existing 
 Government contracts and returning the amount received 
 from the Government in connection with these exten- 
 sions. These extensions are all completed and in 
 operation. 
 
 The various activities of the Corporation are as follows — 
 
 (1) Railways. Eight railways are operated, viz. : (i) 
 Paita-Piura ; (ii) Pacasmayo-Guadalupe and Chilete ; 
 (iii) Trujillo-Salaverry ; (iv) Chimbote-Tablones ; (v) the 
 Central Railway and branches ; (vi) the Southern Rail- 
 way and branches ; (vii) Ilo-Moquegua ; and (viii) 
 Guaqui-La Paz. The Pisco-Ica has been leased since 
 1910, the Corporation receiving as rental 30 per cent, of 
 the gross takings ; and the conditions of the Ilo-Moquegua 
 line have not yet been sanctioned by Congress. 
 
 (2) Navigation. Two lines of steamers are worked : 
 (a) on Lake Titicaca, between Puno and Guaqui ; (6) on 
 the river Desaguadero. 
 
 (3) Guano. By the agreement of 1890, the guano up 
 to 2,000,000 tons in Peruvian territory was surrendered 
 to the bond-holders, with an additional 1,000,000 tons 
 on completion of the Southern Railway. Long negotia- 
 tions took place with Chile over the cession of Tarapaca, 
 and ultimately Chile ceded the moneys accumulated in 
 the Bank of England from the sale of guano (about 
 £652,000) and 80 per cent, of the proceeds of sales from 
 1882 (about £500,000), with the deposits of Pabellon de 
 
88 
 
 PERU 
 
 Pica, Huanillos, and Punta de Lobos for eight years ; 
 Chile also undertook not to ship guano for four years. 
 In June, 1913, the Government ordered the closing of 
 the Ballestas Islands, a measure against which the 
 Corporation has protested. 
 
 (4) Colonisation. The land colony in the Peren£ 
 Valley shows progressive improvement, yielding in 1913 
 a profit of £540. The Corporation also holds shares to 
 the amount of £810 in the New Chosica Land Co. 
 
 (5) Irrigation. The Chira Irrigation Canal, which cost 
 £120,695, is maintained and administered by the 
 Corporation. 
 
 By contract with the Government, the Corporation 
 has spent £120,000 on the improvement of the port of 
 Mollendo. 
 
 The various railways and navigations are transferred 
 to separate subsidiary companies for the purpose mainly 
 of better organisation. The Corporation also hold 840 
 ordinary £1 shares in the Peruvian Cotton Manufacturing 
 Co., upwards of £2,500 shares in the Mollendo Agencies 
 Co., and a considerable amount of real estate acquired 
 for railway purposes. The piers and quays at the coast 
 termini of their railway lines are also worked by the 
 Corporation. 
 
 The above details indicate the vastness and importance 
 of the Corporation’s undertakings. The capital consists 
 of £7,500,000 Cum. Pref. Stock, £9,000,000 Ord. Stock, 
 together with debentures. The latter are being gradually 
 amortised, the amount in June, 1913, standing at 
 £5,176,000. The net receipts have shown a great improve- 
 ment : from £91,771 in 1890-1 to £200,758 in 1900-1 and 
 
NATIONAL FINANCE 
 
 89 
 
 £468,693 in 1910-11. Those for the last year (1912-3) 
 amounted to £438,501. 
 
 The Grace-Donoughmore contract was a revival of a 
 previous scheme for financial adjustment, proposed in 
 1878. In that year the price of Peruvian bonds was 40, 
 and it was proposed to redeem them at this price by the 
 formation of limited companies, to which the existing 
 State railways should be handed over : these railways 
 (for which the loans had originally been contracted) 
 were valued at £15,680,000. The Peruvian Corporation 
 received not only these railways, but also those of Pisco, 
 Salaverry, and Paita, together with £560,948 in cash, 
 and Chilean bonds for £630,000, i.e., upwards of 
 £18,000,000 in all ; which represents a value of 55f 
 instead of 40 for each bond. This, with the loss of 
 guano, and a standing subsidy of £80,000 a year, is the 
 price paid by Peru for her disasters in the Pacific War. 
 On the other hand, she has benefited by the extension 
 and efficient management of the railway and other 
 services of the Corporation, work for which her 
 previous record proves that she was not as yet fully 
 competent. 
 
 Recent Loans. — Minor loans were raised in 1906, 
 1909, and 1910. Of these, only that for 1909 (of 
 £1,200,000, at 94, bearing 5£ per cent, interest, secured 
 on the salt tax) remains unpaid. A certain amount has 
 been amortised, and the total foreign debt on 31st May, 
 1913, amounted to £1,137,330. 
 
 The present Government, with the object primarily of 
 clearing off all overdue debts and claims, and, secondarily, 
 of executing some necessary and productive works, 
 
90 
 
 PERU 
 
 proposes to issue a loan of £6,600,000 at 6 per cent. By 
 a stringent investigation of the national expenditure and 
 the enforcement of a watchful economy, it hopes to pro- 
 vide for the interest and gradual amortisation of both the 
 foreign and internal debts. 1 
 
 Internal Debt 
 
 The internal debt of Peru consists of (a) bonds, consoli- 
 dated by the law of 1889, and now standing at a nominal 
 value of £2,660,645, paying 1 per cent. ; (b) amortisable 
 bonds, non-interest bearing, at a nominal value of 
 £1,134,210 ; and (c) certain quit-rents, chaplaincies, with 
 interest and recognised credits, of a nominal value of 
 £511,767. The present quotation of the first is 13-8 per 
 cent., and for the second 8-8 per cent. The Government 
 propose, in the interests of Peruvian financial credit, to 
 convert the first at the price of 14£ per cent., and the 
 other two at 10 per cent., into bonds paying interest at 
 7 per cent. 1 
 
 Revenue and Expenditure 
 
 The most authoritative and illuminating statement on 
 the financial position of Peru is to be found in the 
 message to Congress on 5th September, 1913, of Pre- 
 sident Guillermo E. Billinghurst. While indicating in 
 moderate language certain flagrant abuses in the past, 
 it faces the facts of the situation ; enforces the necessity 
 of economy and pure government ; and presents in the 
 Budget for 1914 a “ frank and honest computation,” in 
 which large economies are carried into effect. 
 
 1 This refers to the administration of President Billinghurst, 
 and was written before its overthrow by the recent revolution 
 of 4th February, 1914. 
 
NATIONAL FINANCE 
 
 91 
 
 Expenditure rose from £734,693 in 1894 to £2,506,386 
 in 1906 (i.e., by over 26 per cent, annually, or 341 per 
 cent, in thirteen years). For this increase the President 
 could find “ no satisfactory explanation.” Again, from 
 1907 to 1912, expenditure rose from £2,467,834 to 
 £3,493,626, the increase in the last year being no less 
 than £660,558. A marked and very unsatisfactory 
 feature of these years was the regular excess of expenditure 
 over revenue, so that the present Government have, as 
 one legacy from the past, a debt of £676,068 on the 
 years 1908-12 inclusive. For purposes of comparison, 
 it will be well to give the expenditure of the year 
 Jan.-Dee., 1912, before going on to the new estimates 
 for 1914. 
 
 Expenditure in 1912 
 
 l 
 
 The Treasury . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,092,295 
 
 Ministry of War and Marine . . . . 864,664 
 
 Government and Police . . . . . . 633,237 
 
 Justice and Education . . . . . . 499,219 
 
 " Fomento ” (Development) . . . . 208,826 
 
 Foreign Affairs .. .. .. .. 111,133 
 
 The Legislature .. .. .. .. 84,252 
 
 £3,493,626 
 
 The increased amount for the Treasury showed on 
 analysis, some temporary features, such as the establish- 
 ment of the tobacco monopoly, and the payment of 
 previous debts, and certain others of a reproductive 
 character. 
 
 The disproportion between estimate and payment in 
 the item “ interest, discounts, and commissions ” was 
 
92 
 
 PERU 
 
 particularised by the President, who gave the following 
 table — 
 
 
 Estimated. 
 
 Paid. 
 
 1907 
 
 5,000 
 
 9,426 
 
 1908 
 
 5,000 
 
 12,737 
 
 1909 
 
 5,000 
 
 19,977 
 
 1910 
 
 5,000 
 
 33,218 
 
 1911 
 
 5,000 
 
 62,687 
 
 1912 
 
 15,000 
 
 82,249 
 
 £40,000 £220,294 
 
 The increased amounts required by War and Marine were 
 necessitated by the increase of the standing army to 
 7,000 men ; increases of pay ; renewal of equipment ; 
 and payment of services required by former laws, but not 
 allowed for in the Budget. 
 
 A leakage was revealed under the item of “ Preventive 
 Police.” The estimate for this from 1904-12 was £4,000 
 annually, or a total of £36,000 ; the actual payments 
 reached £140,290. The President noted that “ not only 
 had unjustifiable disbursements been made, but the 
 money had been applied to purposes for which it was not 
 intended.” 
 
 The estimates for 1912 and 1913 were identical, and 
 were prepared by the previous administration. The 
 estimates for 1914 are as follows — 
 
 £ 
 
 Revenue . . . . . . 3,547,836 
 
 Expenditure . . . . 3,109,836 
 
 Balance . . £438,000 
 
NATIONAL FINANCE 
 
 93 
 
 The following tables compare the Budgets for 1912 
 and 1914 in detail (fractions omitted) — 
 
 I. Estimated Revenue ' 
 
 Sources. 
 
 1912.* 
 
 1914. 
 
 De- 
 
 crease. 
 
 In- 
 
 crease. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Maritime Customs Houses 
 
 1,201,562 
 
 1,305,112 
 
 — 
 
 103,549 
 
 Fluvial ,, ,, 
 
 233,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 — 
 
 Taxes . . 
 
 670,450 
 
 730,428 
 
 — 
 
 59,978 
 
 Monopolies 
 
 688,495 
 
 740,708 
 
 — 
 
 52,213 
 
 Fiscal Wharves 
 
 22,938 
 
 3,312 
 
 19,626 
 
 — 
 
 Various Revenues . . 
 
 175,410 
 
 219,776 
 
 — 
 
 44,366 
 
 Telegraphs 
 
 30,000 
 
 35,606 
 
 — 
 
 5,606 
 
 Post Offices . . 
 
 96,800 
 
 129,019 
 
 — 
 
 32,219 
 
 Wireless Telegraphy 
 
 2,114 
 
 2,115 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 Peruvian Corporation 
 
 12,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Deposits and Consignments 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,780 
 
 — 
 
 780 
 
 Cereal Deposits, Bellavista 
 
 10,700 
 
 14,569 
 
 — 
 
 3,869 
 
 Explosives 
 
 2,562 
 
 2,562 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Education Funds 
 
 161,364 
 
 145,849 
 
 15,515 
 
 — 
 
 Total.. 
 
 3,313,396 
 
 3,547,836 
 
 68,141 
 
 302,581 
 
 II. Estimated Expenditure 
 
 Branches. 
 
 1912.* 
 
 1914. 
 
 De- 
 
 crease. 
 
 In- 
 
 crease. 
 
 Legislature 
 
 £ 
 
 107,942 
 
 £ 
 
 107,942 
 
 r 
 
 T > 
 
 £ 
 
 Government . . 
 
 559,715 
 
 510,613 
 
 49,102 
 
 — 
 
 Foreign Affairs 
 
 98,620 
 
 88,814 
 
 9,806 
 
 — 
 
 Justice 
 
 520,325 
 
 481,345 
 
 38,979 
 
 — 
 
 Treasury 
 
 1,070,829 
 
 888,224 
 
 182,604 
 
 — 
 
 War . . 
 
 738,401 
 
 832,385 
 
 — 
 
 93,984 
 
 “ Fomento ” . . 
 
 217,500 
 
 200,510 
 
 17,049 
 
 — 
 
 
 3,313,396 
 
 3,109,836 
 
 297,543 
 
 93,984 
 
 * These tables give estimated expenditure for financial year of 
 1912 ; the table given above shows the actual disbursements 
 from Jan.-Dee., 1912. 
 
94 
 
 PERU 
 
 It may be noted that salt was declared a Government 
 monopoly in 1896. The proceeds were intended to be 
 devoted to the ransom of Tacna and Arica, but have since 
 been used to guarantee foreign loans. The collection is 
 farmed out to the Compania Salinera Nacional. 
 
 Tobacco similarly was declared a Government monopoly 
 in 1909. 
 
 The collection of other taxes is farmed out to the 
 National Tax Collecting Co. (Compania Nacional de 
 Recaudacion), which takes 1 per cent, on the revenue of 
 the branches it administers ; 6 per cent, for collection of 
 Lima and Callao licence fees ; and 10 per cent, for 
 administration of moles at Tumbes, Supe, and Chala. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND GENERAL SOCIAL CONDITIONS 
 
 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY — COMMERCIAL LAWS — BANKS— 
 PUBLIC HEALTH — LANGUAGES — EDUCATION — INSTITUTIONS 
 AND CHARITIES — NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS — LABOUR 
 CONDITIONS — IMMIGRATION 
 
 The following guarantees of individual liberty are quoted 
 from Chapter IV of the Constitution of Peru — 
 
 Art. 14. No one is obliged to do what is not ordered by the 
 Law, nor is he prevented from doing what the law does not 
 prohibit. 
 
 Art. 15. No law has nor can have retroactive effects. 
 
 Art. 16. The law protects honour and life against all 
 unjust aggression ; the penalty of death can only be applied 
 for homicide qualified as premeditated murder. 
 
 Art. 17. There are not and cannot be slaves in the Republic. 
 
 Art. 18. No one can be arrested except upon the written 
 warrant of a duly qualified judge ; or of the authorities 
 charged with the duty of preserving public order ; except 
 if taken in flagrante delicto ; and in all cases a person arrested 
 must be brought before a magistrate within twenty-four hours 
 after arrest. Those charged to carry out the warrant must 
 give a copy of it to the accused if asked to do so. 
 
 Art. 19. The jails are places for detention and not for 
 punishment. All severity is prohibited if not necessary for 
 the custody of the prisoners. 
 
 Art. 20. No one can be exiled from the Republic, nor 
 separated from his place of residence except by a judicial 
 sentence. 
 
 Art. 21. Everybody is at liberty to make use of the press 
 for the publication of his writings, without censorship, but 
 under the responsibility laid down by the law. 
 
 Art. 22. The secrecy of correspondence is inviolate, and 
 no legal use can be made of letters which have been stolen. 
 
 Art. 23. Everyone is at liberty to follow any trade, industry 
 
 95 
 
96 
 
 PERU 
 
 or profession which is not against the public morals, health or 
 security. 
 
 Art. 24. The nation guarantees the existence and diffusion 
 of free primary education and the support of public 
 establishments for the sciences, arts, religion and 
 benevolence. 
 
 Art. 25. All who can give the guarantee of capacity and 
 morality required by the law are at liberty to teach and to 
 direct educational establishments, under the inspection of the 
 authorities. 
 
 Art. 26. Property is inviolable, whether material, intel- 
 lectual, literary, or artistic ; no one can be deprived of his , 
 unless for causes of public utility, which have previously been 
 proved and legally declared, and then only by indemnification 
 under a just valuation. 
 
 Art. 27. Useful discoveries and inventions are the exclusive 
 property of their authors, unless these voluntarily cede them 
 or sell the secret, or when it may be necessary for motives of 
 public policy to expropriate them compulsorily. The intro- 
 ducers of new inventions will enjoy the same privileges as the 
 inventors for the limited time which is conceded in accordance 
 with the law. 
 
 Art. 28. Any foreigner may acquire, in accordance with 
 the law, territorial property in the Republic, under precisely the 
 same conditions and obligations with regard to such property 
 as the Peruvian citizen. 
 
 Art. 29. All citizens have the right to associate peacefully, 
 whether in public or private, so long as they do not disturb 
 public order. 
 
 Art. 30. The right of petition may be exercised individually 
 or collectively. 
 
 Art. 31. The domicile is inviolable; no one can enter it 
 without previously showing the written warrant of a judge 
 or of the authorities charged with maintaining public order. 
 The executors of the said warrant are obliged to give a copy 
 of it when asked to do so. 
 
 Art. 32. The laws protect and are obligatory equally to all. 
 New laws may be established when the circumstances show 
 them to be required, but not for the differentiation between 
 persons. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 97 
 
 By the Law of 14th October, 1892, foreigners are 
 eligible as members of the Municipal, District, and 
 Provincial Councils. 
 
 By laws passed in 1897 and 1903, facilities have been 
 given for the civil marriage of non-Catholics and of 
 foreign residents. 
 
 Commercial Laws. — The Commercial Code of Peru is, 
 substantially, the Spanish Code of Commerce of 1885 ; 
 it has been slightly modified by later legislation. A few 
 points may be of interest to English readers. 
 
 A Mercantile Register is kept in the capitals of depart- 
 ments : one book for individual traders, and one for com- 
 panies ; in Callao, Iquitos, and Puno, a third book is 
 kept for vessels. Inscription on the register is optional 
 for individuals, but compulsory for all companies — 
 domestic and foreign. 
 
 Foreign companies must produce a certificate from the 
 Peruvian Consul in their own country that they are in 
 that country legally constituted. 
 
 Commercial exchanges may be established where 
 necessary, and require Government authorisation ; also 
 colleges of exchange brokers, commercial brokers, and 
 interpreting shipbrokers, each of which must have a 
 governing board. The registers of all collegiate brokers 
 are legal evidence. 
 
 The chief of these institutions is the Commercial 
 Exchange of Lima, regulated by a decree of 1898. The 
 members, elected by ballot, pay 3 soles per quarter ; 
 large firms pay 10 soles quarterly and receive four cards 
 of admission. Non-residents in Lima may be introduced 
 by members. 
 
98 
 
 PERU 
 
 Banks are ordered to keep in cash a sum amounting to 
 not less than 25 per cent, of their obligations, and to 
 publish in a local daily newspaper a monthly statement 
 of their position. Cheques must be presented for pay- 
 ment within eight days, including the day on which they 
 are drawn. 
 
 The ordinary commercial instruments, e.g., bills of 
 exchange, promissory notes, cheques, letters of credit, are 
 in vogue, and duly provided for and regulated in the Code. 
 
 Insurance policies of all kinds may be negotiated : — for 
 fire ; life ; transport by land, sea, and river ; and other 
 risks. 
 
 General deposit warehouses are empowered to issue 
 receipts for merchandise stored therein ; these receipts 
 are negotiable by endorsement or other modes of 
 assignment. 
 
 Regulations for Travellers and their Samples. The 
 importation of travellers’ samples to Peru is regulated 
 as follows — 
 
 1. The interested persons (Travellers) must present in each 
 case, in duplicate, a detailed inventory with the following 
 data — 
 
 (a) Mark, number, and gross weight of each bale. 
 
 ( b ) Number of each kind of goods in the bale, and the 
 class and number of the tariff to which it belongs ; 
 description of the article, gross, legal and net weight, 
 and dimensions of each article, if possible. 
 
 (c) Only one sample of each kind of goods can be 
 imported ; the importation of several samples is per- 
 mitted only when there is a difference in quality, form, 
 size, weight, or colour. 
 
 ( d ) The goods that, according to the tariff are free of 
 duty, can be imported without fulfilling the preceding 
 requisites ; and 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 99 
 
 (e) The goods, the importation of which is prohibited, 
 
 can, according to paragraph (c) be left in bond in the 
 
 Customs-house, the expense of packing and storage being 
 
 charged to the interested persons, as per special tariffs. 
 
 2. For the objects contemplated by paragraphs ( a ) and (d) 
 of the preceding article, certificates of consumption in 
 triplicate must be presented. 
 
 3. The duties must be paid in cash or in bank drafts, and 
 will be returned as and when the goods are re-exported, 
 making allowance for the expenses referred to in paragraph 
 (e) of Article 1. 
 
 4. The Customs House fixes, in each case, a reasonable 
 term not exceeding three months for the re-exportation, and 
 there is no right to demand the recoupment of the monies 
 paid for duties after that term has elapsed. The draft \vill 
 be collected at the end of the term. 
 
 5. In order to re-export a collection of samples or a part 
 thereof, the interested persons must present the requisition 
 with due anticipation at the Customs House, and the Customs 
 House is not responsible for any delay in the shipping if 
 the samples are not presented in due time. 
 
 6. If on examination it can be shown that a sample is 
 missing or has been altered as to its weight or measure, or 
 replaced, double duties will be charged, and the article 
 intended for substitution will be confiscated. 
 
 7. Samples imported in conformity with the above- 
 mentioned regulations can go all over the Republic, subject 
 to the provisions of the Commerce and Customs House 
 Regulations. 
 
 The only tax to be charged to the travellers is 
 £\ 5s. Od. per half-year, which must be paid by the 
 agent to the Departmental Juntas (Boards) of the 
 Departments he visits. 
 
 The luggage of theatrical troupes, circuses, and other 
 similar concerns, will be dispatched by the Customs 
 Houses on presentation of a memorial signed by an 
 agent stating that he goes security for the duties to be 
 
100 
 
 PERU 
 
 collected on these goods, should the importers not comply 
 with the re-exportation of the goods. The Customs 
 House, after recording the number of bales, their weight 
 and contents, will value them and charge 1 per cent, on 
 the valuation or the equivalent of the duties corre- 
 sponding to the Consular invoice, which amount is not 
 returned to the interested parties. 
 
 Land Mortgage Companies are empowered to lend by 
 instalments on immovables, and to issue bonds and 
 mortgage “ cedulas.” They must reserve 50 per cent, 
 of their capital for the first of these objects. 
 
 Contracts of affreightment, with the usual particulars, 
 must be drawn up in duplicate in the charter-party signed 
 by the contractors. 
 
 In addition to the original bill of lading, four copies, 
 signed both by the master of the vessel and the con- 
 signor, are required ; one to be kept by the consignor, 
 one by the consignee, one by the master, and one by the 
 managing owner. 
 
 The contract of marine insurance must be drawn and 
 signed in duplicate, one copy being kept by each party. 
 
 Full provision is made for average, both particular and 
 general. 
 
 The various terms fixed by the Code for the limitation 
 of actions are absolute. 
 
 Exporters should be careful to observe the regulations 
 for the filling in of the master’s manifest, the bill of 
 health, and the consular invoices, to the number 
 required by law. Regular charges and special consular 
 stamps are provided for the due countersigning of all 
 such documents. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 101 
 
 Banks. — The principal banking establishments of Peru 
 have their headquarters in Lima, and are as follows — 
 
 The Italian Bank, founded in 1889 ; capital, £200,000. 
 
 The Bank of Peru and London, founded in 1897 by 
 merging the branch of the Bank of London, Mexico, and 
 South America with the Bank of Callao ; capital, £500,000 ; 
 has branches in Callao, Arequipa, Piura, Trujillo, Pacas- 
 mayo, Chiclayo, lea, Cuzco, Cerro de Pasco, and Iquitos. 
 
 The German Transatlantic Bank; capital, £200,000; 
 branches at Callao and Arequipa. 
 
 The International Bank of Peru ; capital, £100,000. 
 
 The Popular Bank ; capital, £100,000. 
 
 The Deposits and Consignments Bank ; capital, £100,000 ; 
 foundation caused by a law requiring judicial and fiscal 
 deposits to be made in one institution ; capital subscribed 
 by the other Lima banks. 
 
 The Savings Bank of Lima (Caja de Ahorros de la 
 Beneficencia) ; capital, £20,000 ; deposits over £200,000. 
 
 Iquitos has enjoyed banking facilities only since the 
 close of 1911, when two agencies were opened. One, 
 mentioned above, is a branch of the Lima Bank of London 
 and Peru ; the other, which combines a banking with a 
 merchant business, is the Cortes Commercial and Banking 
 Co. The British Consul reports — 
 
 “ The advent of these institutions has been beneficial to 
 commerce in general by providing credit on properly estab- 
 lished lines, and by the introduction of the current account 
 system, whereby payment may be made by cheque. This is 
 both safer and less cumbersome than the old form of payments 
 in gold and silver.” 
 
 It is a general feature of the Peruvian banks that the 
 gold reserve and cash balances held are very considerable. 
 
 8— (2247) 
 
102 
 
 PERU 
 
 The emission of bank-notes is prohibited by law. The 
 banks are authorised to issue mortgage bonds on landed 
 property. 
 
 Public Health. — Public health is watched over, as 
 has already been mentioned, by the local councils, and 
 also by medical officers of health, holding salaried 
 appointments in each province. 
 
 There is also a Supreme Sanitary Council in the capital 
 of the republic, and sanitary councils in each of the 
 departments and provinces. These have the special duty 
 of taking precautionary measures, including quarantine, 
 against vessels coming from infected ports. 
 
 In the majority of the capitals there are hospitals, sup- 
 ported by benevolent societies, which give free medical 
 aid to the poor. 
 
 Foreigners are admitted into these hospitals and aided, 
 when necessary, by the benevolent societies (for which, 
 see below). 
 
 In spite of the above provision for the safeguarding of 
 public health, progress is very slow. The lack of drain- 
 age in the older towns ( e.g ., Cuzco) is noted by every 
 traveller. Arequipa has recently arranged for a new 
 and improved water supply. The Consular Reports for 
 1912 contain the following notes on Lima, Callao, and 
 Iquitos — 
 
 “ The sanitary condition of Lima and Callao has been 
 particularly bad during 1912. Never were both towns in a 
 more unsatisfactory condition. Bubonic plague continues 
 to be virulent, especially in the north of Peru. There has 
 been no yellow fever. Enteric fevers have been prevalent 
 as well as small-pox.” 
 
 “It is a matter for congratulation that, in spite of the 
 

 COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 103 
 
 insanitary conditions which obtain in the town of Iquitos, 
 its immunity from infectious diseases since the early part of 
 the year has been remarkable. 
 
 “ The Government recently made a contract with an American 
 sanitary expert, who is to make a prophylactic campaign 
 throughout the town, and it is therefore to be hoped that, 
 with the preventive measures thus taken and with the support 
 of the local authorities, there will not be a recurrence of the 
 yellow fever scourge in the form of last year’s epidemic. 
 
 “ The sanitary expert arrived on 1 1th November, 1912, and he 
 will work in conjunction with the engineers who are to under- 
 take the drainage and general improvements of the town in 
 accordance with the Government’s proposed scheme, which 
 was authorised by Congress on 11th November, 1911. 
 
 “ The Bill provides for the issue of a loan of /200,000 (Peru- 
 vian), to be issued at 92 per cent., and at 8 per cent, interest 
 and sinking fund. The proceeds of the loan are to be devoted 
 to the sanitation of the town of Iquitos. 
 
 " In this connection, two American engineers have been 
 contracted by the Peruvian Government, and these are at 
 present engaged on the studies in connection with the scheme ; 
 but up to the time of writing there are no indications of the 
 actual work being commenced.” 
 
 Languages. — The language of the Peruvian of Spanish 
 descent, and of the Mestizos, or mixed Spanish and native 
 blood, is, of course, Spanish. The Cholo population of 
 the sierra region, while using a certain amount of Spanish 
 in their intercourse with the two classes just mentioned, 
 speak among themselves their two dialects of Quichua 
 and Aymara. The diverse wild Indian tribes of the 
 montana speak each its own dialect. English and French 
 are very generally known among the educated classes 
 and the former is taught in the higher schools. It is a 
 commonplace, but cannot be too often repeated, that 
 English traders, in competition with other mercantile 
 nations, would do well in their advertisements, samples, 
 
104 
 
 PERU 
 
 and exported goods to adopt Spanish nomenclature and 
 the metric system. 
 
 Education. — Peru possesses four universities those 
 of Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, and Trujillo. That of Lima, 
 the Universidad de San Marcos, originated in a grant made 
 in 1551 by Charles V to the Dominicans. It has faculties 
 of jurisprudence, literature, medicine, political science, 
 and theology. That of Cuzco was founded in 1598, and 
 that of Arequipa in 1616. 
 
 Lima possesses a School of Mines and Civil Engineering, 
 founded in 1874 ; a National School of Agriculture ; a 
 School of Arts and Trades. There is a Naval School at 
 Callao ; and a Military Academy, under the direction of 
 French officers, at Chorrillos. 
 
 There are nine episcopal seminaries, one for each 
 diocese. The principal towns contain private secondary 
 schools, many under the direction of English, German, 
 and Italian staffs ; and also twenty-four national colleges 
 for boys and three for girls, with foreign teachers. 
 
 Elementary education is, by law, compulsory for both 
 sexes, and is free in the public schools provided by the 
 municipalities. There are upwards of 2,000 primary 
 schools and 2,750 teachers. It is stated that the number 
 of pupils in these, in 1911, was 146,400, while the number 
 that ought to have attended was 407,987. 
 
 There is a reformatory for juvenile offenders. 
 
 It may be said that the professional and academical 
 needs of the upper and middle classes are fairly well met ; 
 but that the percentage of illiteracy is still extremely 
 high, and that very much remains to be done for the 
 poorer classes of the community. 
 
School of Arts and Crafts, Lima 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 105 
 
 The amount spent on education has, like most of the 
 items in the Budget, increased vastly in recent years, 
 rising from £29,000 in 1894 to £306,500 in 1912. The 
 totals expended in the last six years were — 
 
 £ 
 
 1907 289,087 
 
 1908 314,738 
 
 1909 288,235 
 
 1910 263,373 
 
 1911 269,482 
 
 1912 306,598 
 
 The present Government 1 announce its determination 
 to remove all obstacles to the effective diffusion of 
 primary instruction throughout the republic ; to create 
 new schools ; to found night schools ; and to give more 
 attention to the teaching of practical arts. 
 
 In accordance with this announcement, it estab- 
 lished at Magdalena, a Domestic Training School for 
 300 poor girls, of whom 200 are to be brought from the 
 provinces ; and it is intended to add to the curriculum 
 of the girls’ schools in the provincial capitals, a complete 
 course of training in the domestic arts, and to that of 
 the boys’ elementary schools courses of practical work 
 in carpentry, metal-working, etc. 
 
 Institutions and Charities. — The universities and 
 schools have been mentioned under Education, and the 
 Church organisation under Religion. The other learned 
 institutions, with the exception of the meteorological 
 stations and observatory at Arequipa, are practically all 
 centred in Lima. The following are prominent — 
 
 The National Library, founded in 1822, ruined in 1881 
 1 i.e., under Pres. Billinghurst. 
 
106 
 
 PERU 
 
 by its occupation as a cavalry barracks by the Chileans, 
 but later re-formed under Ricardo Palma. 
 
 The Geographical Society, founded in 1888, and sub- 
 sidised by Government. It issues valuable bulletins 
 quarterly. 
 
 The Athenaeum, a literary institution, founded in 1877. 
 
 The Historical Institute, which investigates the pre- 
 historic archaeology of Peru, as well as the strictly 
 historic periods ; it possesses a museum. 
 
 The Society of Engineers, with large library. 
 
 National Societies of Industry, of Mining, of 
 Agriculture, and of Medicine. 
 
 Among commercial institutions, the Lima Chamber of 
 Commerce and the Stock Exchange should be mentioned ; 
 and among Government institutions, not elsewhere 
 named, the flourishing Mint. 
 
 Charities. — Charity, as an item of the annual Budget, 
 was formerly administered by the department of 
 “ Fomento,” but is now under the Ministry of 
 j ustice ; about £8,000 is expended annually. 
 
 Apart from this, there are some forty-five or fifty 
 benevolent institutions throughout the country, with 
 revenues aggregating about £230,000. They are found 
 in the principal cities, and are administered by special 
 boards. The largest of these is the Lima Benevolent 
 Society, which maintains three hospitals. Other hospitals 
 are maintained from private sources ; and some, with 
 prisons, asylums, and the great Penitentiary of Lima, by 
 the Government. 
 
 Newspapers and Periodicals. — The leading daily 
 papers of Peru are issued at Lima ; but most of the 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 107 
 
 other leading cities ( e.g ., Arequipa, Trujillo, Cuzco, and 
 Iquitos) possess daily and weekly papers. The total 
 number is about 200. In Lima, the foremost newspaper 
 is El Comercio, a progressive and enlightened organ. 
 La Prensa, issuing morning and evening editions, ranks 
 next. Both have illustrated Sunday editions. Of the 
 other Lima dailies, La Opinion Nacional is perhaps the 
 most prominent. There are two important illustrated 
 weekly papers ; and El Agricultor Peruano, the organ 
 of the National Society of Agriculture, is also issued 
 weekly. There are a number of monthly publications, 
 representing the various scientific, professional, and com- 
 mercial institutions, of which the following deserve men- 
 tion : — The Boletin de Fomento, the Boletin de la Soc. de 
 Ingenieros, the Boletin del Cuerpode Ing. de Caminos, and 
 Minas Ind. y Construcc. 
 
 Labour. — The following notes on labour conditions in 
 1912 are quoted from the British Consular Report — 
 
 “ Chiefly owing to political causes the latter part of 1912 
 has been agitated by labour troubles, the demand being for 
 an eight-hour day and an increase in wages. 
 
 “ The demand was made and immediately followed by a 
 strike in Callao on the part of the dock and wharf labourers 
 and others engaged in the loading and unloading of ships. 
 The result was a victory for the men. As it was, the men, 
 prior to their recent demand, only worked eight hours effective 
 labour, although supposed to be working ten hours. The 
 hands in the flour mills, bakeries, iron foundries and machine 
 shops followed suit, and although the strike did not extend to 
 Lima, the Callao strikers were assisted by their fellow-workers 
 in the capital by funds and donations. 
 
 “ The time taken for the realisation of these demands seems 
 inopportune. Peru was beginning to recover from the want 
 of confidence resulting from a long period of political unrest, 
 both as to internal and external affairs, an improvement in the 
 
108 
 
 PERU 
 
 market price of staple Peruvian products had begun to sti- 
 mulate trade, and merchants were recovering from the over- 
 stocking of the market as a result of the over-buying of 1907, 
 when there was a set-back caused by the demands of labour 
 for an eight -hour day as well as a 30 per cent, increase on 
 existing wages. Few of the business houses can meet the rise 
 in cost of production which such an increase in their general 
 expenses portends, and as it affects all trades it means a general 
 increase in the cost of materials as well as of labour, which 
 may end in killing some of the new industries carefully fostered 
 by artificial methods, besides throwing out all provisions as to 
 contracts and other agreements entered upon previous to the 
 demands of the men. On the other hand, masters admitted 
 that, owing to the increased cost of living and rise in rents, a 
 readjustment of wages was bound to come, and it is to be 
 regretted that in the readjustment wiser councils have not 
 prevailed, for in those cases in which the industries will not 
 be able to meet the new charges, many factories and workshops 
 will have to close down, thereby throwing a number of men 
 out of work. The singular feature of labour in Peruvian coast 
 towns is, that although the country is canvassing in Europe 
 for immigrants, there is not enough work available to keep the 
 existing working population adequately employed. 
 
 “ Agricultural Labour. — The sugar plantations in the 
 coastal valleys employ some 17,000 hands at an average wage 
 of 3s. per diem. Work, however, on these plantations is not 
 suitable to Europeans and is carried on by natives or descend- 
 ants of African negro slaves and of Chinese coolies, and in 
 recent years by imported Japanese labour.” 
 
 Immigration. — Immigration is very slight, and it can- 
 not be said that Peru offers a favourable field for the 
 European immigrant of small means. His physique is 
 unsuited for the labour conditions of the coast valleys ; 
 the labourers imported in this part of Peru at different 
 times have been negroes, Chinese, and Japanese. The 
 rarefied atmosphere of the high sierra, and the tropical 
 heat of the low-lying montana, are equally unsuitable. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 109 
 
 There remains the higher parts of the Montana as it rises 
 towards the Andes. Here a field for immigration may 
 be found ; but the means of transit and transport must 
 first be developed, and much capital must be sunk and 
 pioneer work accomplished. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 INLAND COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 
 
 Inland communication in Peru may be classified under 
 the three heads of roads, railways, and waterways. 
 
 Roads. — Of the roads it may almost be said, as of the 
 snakes in Ireland, that there are none ; and of the coast 
 district an Irish writer might be expected to state that 
 the “ inland ” communication is conducted by sea. 
 Thus, between Cajamarca and Huancayo, or Cuzco, the 
 inevitable route would be by railway to the coast at 
 Pacasmayo, then by sea (to Callao or Mollendo 
 respectively), and finally by railway again. 
 
 Great trunk roads, one in the coast zone and one on the 
 plateau from Cuzco to Quito in Ecuador, were made and 
 maintained by the Incas ; but the glowing accounts of 
 those roads by early Spanish writers appear to be full of 
 exaggeration. The Incas had no horses, mules, or 
 wheeled vehicles ; their roads were, therefore, designed 
 for foot passengers, and might be perhaps better described 
 as “ trails.” Their method of crossing ravines by suspen- 
 sion bridges constructed of osiers and prairie grass has, 
 however, survived to this day. But the Inca roads, such 
 as they were, were neglected by their conquerors ; trans- 
 port was entirely conducted by means of mules and 
 llamas ; and no new roads, strictly so-called, were made. 
 It has been said that in South America, railways came 
 before roads, and it is especially true in the case of Peru. 
 This arose partly from the phenomenal difficulties 
 presented by the physical nature of the country, but partly, 
 
 no 
 
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 111 
 
 too, from poverty, administrative corruption, and lack 
 of enterprise. The cross-country roads are, in general, 
 nothing but “ steep, ill-made pack-mule trails.” 
 
 To-day this state of things is being remedied. The 
 Government is alive to the importance of developing the 
 country by means of roads as well as railways, and is 
 encouraging road-making both directly and indirectly. 
 Thus they have built and maintained the “ Central route ” 
 to the Montana from Oroya, through Tarma, to Puerto 
 Bermudez on the Pichis river ; and concessions of land 
 are generally only granted on condition of building roads 
 or railways in the district. Thus the road from Tiripata 
 via Cruceros to the Montana has been built by an 
 American mining company. The old “ Northern route ” 
 to Iquitos should also be mentioned. It is from 
 Pacasmayo via Cajamarca, Chachapoyas, and Yurim- 
 aguas on the Huallaga, and is often preferred to the 
 Central route between May and November. 
 
 The chief carriage road in Peru is from Sicuani to 
 Cuzco, a distance of 90 miles. There is also a short one 
 between Trujillo and the port of Huanchaco. With 
 these exceptions, roads are practically non-existent. 
 But there are numerous parts where the lie of the 
 country invites the building of roads to link up towns of 
 considerable size ; and with the high perfection to which 
 motor construction has now been brought, it is important 
 that this should now be done. 
 
 The following itinerary 1 explains in detail the mode of 
 travelling from Lima to Iquitos by the usual “ Central ” 
 or Pichis route — 
 
 1 Taken from an official Immigrants’ Guide to Peru, 1902. 
 
Itinerary of the Journey from Lima to Iquitos by the Central Railway 
 
 There are 2,044 kilometres, which can be traversed in 17 days, in going from Lima to Iquitos. 
 The return, owing to the river current, requires five days more. 
 
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 113 
 
 Tarma. The journey from Callao to La Oroya (220 
 kiloms.) can be accomplished in a day. Proceeding on 
 his way for three hours more, by road, the traveller 
 reaches Tarma, one of the principal cities of the Depart- 
 ment of Junin, with a population of 10,000 inhabitants, 
 colleges, schools for elementary education, and resources 
 of every kind. 
 
 At 78 kilometres from Tarma, and united by a good 
 road which can be traversed in ten or twelve hours, 
 the fertile valley of Chanchamayo is gained, where, 
 properly speaking, the Montana zone begins, and 
 vegetation assumes an aspect of surprising exuberance. 
 
 In this valley are to be found valuable plantations of 
 sugar-cane, cacao, and coffee, with their dwelling-houses 
 and machinery — plantations that to-day constitute the 
 fortune and wealth of a number of families which, not 
 many years ago, settled in the Montana region, with- 
 out other capital than their integrity and devotion to 
 industry. 
 
 La Merced. The town of La Merced owes its existence 
 to the development of Chanchamayo. It is situated in 
 the valley of that name, and has an almost cosmopolitan 
 population of about 600 inhabitants. It is of necessity 
 the centre for commercial transactions in the products of 
 the neighbouring plantations. 
 
 Its local affairs are under the control of a municipal 
 council, which provides primary schools, and for the 
 public security there are a Commissary and a police force. 
 
 San Luis de Shuaro. At 30 kilometres from La Merced 
 is the town of San Luis de Shuaro, on the banks of the 
 river of that name and the Rio Paucartambo. Its sole 
 
114 
 
 PERU 
 
 importance is due to the fact of its marking the commence- 
 ment of the Pichis highway, and to its being surrounded 
 by coffee plantations. Nevertheless, it offers some 
 accommodation to the traveller. 
 
 ***** 
 
 The Pichis highway has a length of 221 kilometres, 
 with a 5 per cent, gradient, as far as Puerto Bermudez, 
 which is situated at the confluence of the rivers Pichis 
 and Chivis. 
 
 Puerto Bermudez has a Commissary and a garrison 
 of gendarmes ; it is separated from Iquitos by the 
 courses of the Rivers Pichis, Pachitea, Lower Ucayali, 
 and a part of the Amazon, that is to say, by a distance 
 of 1,000 miles, which is traversed by the launches of the 
 State in ten days down stream, and in twelve days up 
 stream. Thus the products from the areas contiguous 
 to the Central highway can be exported, following the 
 river route towards the Atlantic, and overland towards 
 the Pacific. 
 
 The Government maintains, at the unpopulated points 
 of the transit, homes or shelters ( tambos ) for the accom- 
 modation of passengers. These are separated from each 
 other at a distance corresponding to that which a traveller 
 can cover in a day, as on next page. 
 
 Railways. — Though there is a fairly long list of rail- 
 way lines in Peru, the total length is only about 1,728 
 miles. The Andes run parallel with the coast at a dis- 
 tance of about 80 miles ; and most of the lines are, there- 
 fore, short railways constructed to develop the products 
 of particular valleys, and carry them down to the port 
 at the river-mouth, where there is usually a railway pier. 
 
Places of Refreshment on the Pichis Highway 
 
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116 
 
 PERU 
 
 One result of this independent construction is the variety 
 of gauges employed. The two big railways and a few 
 others have the “ normal ” (English) gauge of 4 ft. 8£ in. 
 (= 1-45 metres) ; others have a “ metre gauge ” ; or 3 ft. 
 (= 0-91 metre); or still narrower ones. The two lines 
 which scale the Andes — the Central and the Southern — 
 are described in some detail below. In the following 
 table the railways are named in order from north to 
 south ; those marked with an * are State railways, at 
 present controlled by the Peruvian Corporation. (For 
 this body, see Chapter on Finance.) 
 
 Name of Railway. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 Length. 
 
 1. Tumbes — Puerto Pizarro .. 
 
 1907 
 
 0-75m. 
 
 11 -00km. 
 
 *2. Paita — Piura 
 
 1884 
 
 1-45 
 
 97-00 
 
 3. Piura — Catacaos 
 
 1888 
 
 0-75 
 
 10-65 
 
 4. Bayovar — Reventazon 
 
 1904 
 
 1-00 
 
 45-00 
 
 5. Eten — Ferrenafe 
 
 1871 
 
 1-45 
 
 43-10 
 
 6. Pimentel — Chiclayo 
 
 1873 
 
 0-91 
 
 24-14 
 
 7. Chiclayo — Patapo 
 
 1871 
 
 1-45 
 
 24-00 
 
 8. Eten — Cayalti 
 
 1904 
 
 0-60 
 
 37-00 
 
 *9. Pacasmayo — Chilete ) . . 
 
 1876 and 
 
 1-45 
 
 195-00 
 
 ,, — Guadalupe) 
 
 *10. Salaverry — Ascope 
 
 later 
 
 1875 
 
 0-91 
 
 76-00 
 
 1 1 . Huanchaco — Tres Palos 
 
 1898 
 
 0-91 
 
 68-00 
 
 (Roma) 
 
 12. Chicama — Pampas 
 
 1898 
 
 0-91 
 
 45-00 
 
 *13. Trujillo — Menocucho 
 
 1896, 1905 0-91 
 
 26-00 
 
 *14. Chimbote — Tablones 
 
 1872 
 
 100 
 
 57-00 
 
 15. Supe — Barranca (Pativilca) 
 
 1902 
 
 0-60 
 
 12-20 
 
 16. Pativilca — Paramonga 
 
 1903 
 
 0-60 
 
 8-0 
 
 17. Supe— San Nicolds . . 
 
 1899 
 
 1-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 18. North Western Railway, 
 Sayan — Huacho and 
 
 Huacho- Ancon . . 
 
 1911 
 
 0-91 
 
 205-00 
 
 19. Playa Chica — Salinas de 
 
 Huacho 
 
 1876 
 
 1-00 
 
 10-00 
 
 20. Chancay — Palpa 
 
 1877 
 
 1-00 
 
 25-00 
 
 *21. Lima — Ancon 
 
 1869 
 
 1-45 
 
 38-00 
 
 *22. Central Railway 
 
 1870,18931-45 
 
 372-00 
 
 23. Casapalca — El Carmen 
 
 1901 
 
 0-60 
 
 5-00 
 
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 117 
 
 Name of Railway. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 Length. 
 
 24. La Oroya — Cerro de Pa c co. . 
 
 25. Cerro de Pasco — Goyllaris- 
 
 1904 
 
 1-45 
 
 131-00 
 
 quizga 
 
 1905 
 
 1-45 
 
 43-00 
 
 26. Lima — Callao 
 
 1851 
 
 1 -45 
 
 14-00 
 
 27. Lima — Chorrillos 
 
 1858 
 
 1-45 
 
 12-00 
 
 28. ,, 
 
 1904 
 
 1-45 
 
 13-00 
 
 29. Lima — Magdalena del Mar 
 
 1902 
 
 1-45 
 
 8-00 
 
 30. Callao — La Punta 
 
 1872 
 
 1-45 
 
 3-00 
 
 31. Lima — Callao — La Punta .. 
 
 1904 
 
 1-45 
 
 15-00 
 
 32. Lima — Herrodura 
 
 1901 
 
 1-45 
 
 17-00 
 
 33. Callao — Bellavista . . 
 
 1897 
 
 1-45 
 
 3-00 
 
 34. Cerro Azul — Cafiete 
 
 35. Tambo de Mora — Chincha 
 
 1870 
 
 0-91 
 
 10-00 
 
 Alta 
 
 1898 
 
 POO 
 
 12-00 
 
 *36. Pisco — lea 
 
 1869 
 
 1-45 
 
 74-00 
 
 *37. Southern Railway . . 
 
 1869-1912 
 
 1-45 
 
 863-00 
 
 *38. Ho — Moquegua 
 
 1908 
 
 1-45 
 
 100-00 
 
 Central Railway of Peru. 
 
 This railway, 
 
 which is 
 
 among the most remarkable in the world, runs from 
 Callao, through Lima, up the valley of the Rimac, and 
 pierces the Andes by the Galera tunnel at a height of 
 15,645 ft. It then descends to 12,180 ft. at La Oroya. 
 At La Oroya it turns to the south-east, and follows the 
 Mantaro valley to Huancayo. The length from Callao 
 to La Oroya is 222 kilometres, and thence to Huancayo 
 (123 kiloms.). It is proposed to carry it eventually via 
 Ayacucho to Cuzco, where it will link on to the Southern 
 Railway. 
 
 Its construction was begun under contract with the 
 Government, in 1869, by the American contractor, Henry 
 Meiggs, and it was opened as far as San Bartolome 
 (76 kiloms.) in September, 1871. The latter portion of 
 the line was delayed by Meiggs’s death in 1877, by 
 financial difficulties, and by the war with Chile, and was 
 only completed by the Peruvian Corporation. La Oroya 
 
 »— <2347) 
 
118 
 
 PERU 
 
 was reached in January, 1893, Huari in 1906, and 
 Huancayo in 1908. 
 
 The branches are (1) from Lima to Ancon (38 kiloms.) ; 
 (2) Ticlis to Morococha (14-650 kiloms.) ; (3) Tambo to 
 La Jauja (7 kiloms.). (The branch from Casapalca to 
 El Carmen (5 kiloms.) is a private mineral line.) The 
 line from La Oroya to Cerro de Pasco does not belong to 
 the Central Railway, but to the American Cerro de Pasco 
 Railway & Mining Co. 
 
 The cost of construction has been, in all cases, very 
 high, but in the section to La Oroya, stupendous ; it has 
 been calculated at £12,431 per kilometre. The short 
 Morococha branch reaches a height of 16,865 ft., 
 surpassing that of the Galera tunnel by 1,200 ft. 
 
 The line mounts the sierra by a series of zigzags and 
 horseshoe loops ; the gradients are sometimes as steep 
 as 4 in 100, and there are numerous bridges, viaducts, 
 and tunnels. At the Infernillo, the train issues from one 
 tunnel, crosses a precipitous ravine, and passes into 
 another tunnel on the further side. The zigzags number 
 17 and the tunnels 63. As might be expected, the 
 upkeep of the line is also expensive. 
 
 Southern Railway of Peru. The Southern Railway, 
 though less audacious in conception, is also a fine piece 
 of engineering. The section from Mollendo to Puno was 
 built in 1869-76. The only tunnel is just north of 
 Arequipa. The Andes are crossed at Crucero Alto at a 
 height of 14,660 ft. The line passes through Arequipa 
 to Juliaca, near the north-west end of Lake Titicaca. 
 Thence one branch runs south to Puno, and another 
 north-west to Cuzco. The section Juliaca to Santa Rosa 
 
Galera Junction, Oroya Railway 
 
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 119 
 
 was completed by 1877 ; that to Marangani was opened 
 in 1892, to Sicuani in 1893, to Checcacupe in 1907, and 
 to Cuzco in 1909. 
 
 Note. — Arica — La Paz Railway. The approaching opening of 
 this line will have an adverse effect on the trade of Mollendo, and 
 will eventually divert the Bolivian traffic. It will offer a saving 
 of time — one day instead of over three ; and it will avoid 
 the double transhipment of cargo at Puno and Guaqui. 
 
 Projected Railways. — These are numerous ; the 
 most important schemes are (1) the Longitudinal line; 
 (2) the Pan-American line ; (3) Montana lines. 
 
 (1) The Longitudinal line means the linking up of the 
 short, isolated lines of the coast by a series of connecting 
 lines running north and south. The line already open 
 from Lima to Huacho is one link in such a chain. 
 
 (2) The Pan-American line would enter Peru from 
 Ecuador across the river Chanchis and, like the great 
 trunk road of the Incas, would traverse the high inter - 
 Andine region to Lake Titicaca, passing Jaen, Cajamarca, 
 Cerro de Pasco, Oroya, Huancayo, Ayacucho, Cuzco, and 
 Puno ; it would enter Bolivia at or near Desaguadero. 
 The section from Cerro de Pasco to Huancayo, and that 
 from Cuzco to Puno, are already in existence ; and 
 extensions of these will undoubtedly be made in the near 
 future, though the project in its entirety will not be 
 realised for many years. 
 
 The Chimbote-Tablones line will probably be carried 
 into the inter-Andine region before long via Huaras and 
 Recuay. 
 
 (3) Montana Lines. Three main schemes are under 
 consideration to join the coast with the Montana : (a) 
 From the port of Paita via Piura and Ja£n to Limon or 
 
120 
 
 PERU 
 
 some other point below the Pongo de Manseriche, on the 
 Maranon. This route would cross the Andes at about 
 6,600 ft. above the sea, and would be both the cheapest 
 to construct and the most economically profitable. 
 Unfortunately, it lies near the frontier of Ecuador, and 
 for the present, political and strategic reasons appear to 
 prevent its realisation. ( b ) From a suitable point on the 
 Oroya-Cerro de Pasco line to a port on the Lower 
 Ucayali, such as Pucalpa or Port Cumaria. Though the 
 present line scales the Andes, the distance to the Ucayali 
 is very great. An alternative is from Oroya down the 
 Perene valley to Puerto Wertheman. (c) In the south of 
 the country there is a scheme to build a railway from 
 Tirapata on the J uliaca-Cuzco line to a port on the 
 Inambari. Traffic would then pass down this river to 
 the Madre de Dios and so to the Madeira and Amazon. 
 This scheme would open up the new Madre de Dios 
 Department. Another practicable scheme is to join 
 Cuzco with Santa Ana by either a light or a 
 normal-gauge railway. 
 
 Waterways. — Lake Titicaca. The Peruvian Corpora- 
 tion run a line of steamers on the lake, connecting the 
 Southern Railway of Peru at Puno with the Guaqui- 
 La Paz railway of Bolivia. The steamers also ply on the 
 river Desaguadero. 
 
 Navigable Rivers . — The navigable rivers of Eastern 
 Peru may be treated under two heads : (1) the Maranon 
 or Upper Amazon and its head waters, flowing south-east 
 from Ecuador and Colombia, and in a northerly direction 
 from Peru ; and (2) those which flow east into Brazil, 
 joining the Amazon much lower down : of these, the 
 
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 121 
 
 Madre de Dios and its tributaries form the chief Peruvian 
 system. 
 
 The Amazon is navigable for steamers of 20-ft. draught 
 up to Iquitos, and the Maranon for those of 4 to 8-ft. 
 draught to Puerto Limon, and for those of 2 to 4-ft. draught 
 to the rapids or Pongo of Manseriche, or about 1,000 miles 
 in all. It receives from the north the rivers Putumayo, 
 Napo, Tigre, Pastasa, Morona, and Santiago, portions of 
 which flow through Peruvian territory and are navigable 
 for steamers of 4 to 8-ft. draught. From the south it 
 receives the Javary, the Ucayali, and the Huallaga. The 
 Javary is navigable for the larger steamers to Galvez and 
 for the smaller to Paisandu. The Ucayali has numerous 
 important affluents, including {a) the Pachitea and Pichis ; 
 ( b ) the Tambo, Perene, Ene, Mantaro, and Apurimac ; 
 and (c) the Urubamba and Vilcanota. The large steamers 
 can ascend the whole of the lower Ucayali, including the 
 ports of Contamana, Cumaria, San Jeronimo, and Masisea, 
 and the Pachitea to Puerto Victoria ; the smaller steamers 
 ascend the Pichis to Puerto Bermudez, the Upper Ucayali, 
 the Urubamba to the Mishagua, the Tambo and the 
 Perene to the Pangoa confluence. 
 
 The Huallaga is navigable for the larger steamers up 
 to Yurimaguas and for the smaller to Achinimisa. 
 
 The above limits are for high water ; in the low-water 
 periods the limits are, of course, less. The southern 
 rivers are low in August and September, while those 
 which enter the Amazon from the north are low in 
 February and March. 
 
 The Madre de Dios is navigable for small-draught 
 steamers up to the confluence of the Manu. 
 
122 
 
 PERU 
 
 By means of canoes, these limits are indefinitely 
 extended, while for down-stream journeys, rafts are also 
 employed. The absence of roads and railways is largely 
 counterbalanced in East Peru by this wonderful system 
 of natural waterways, amounting to considerably over 
 10,000 miles. 
 
The Docks, Callao 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 In the matter of harbours, Peru is poorly served, for the 
 character of the coast is such that there are no great 
 natural harbours like the Bay of Rio and the Plate 
 estuary on the east coast of the Continent ; and such 
 anchorages as the Peruvian coast affords are rendered 
 difficult by the Pacific swell, which at some seasons of 
 the year is so violent as to render shipment impossible. 
 
 Callao and the Southern Ports. — The principal 
 port and centre of shipping interest is Callao, through 
 which about a third of the foreign trade of the country 
 passes. It is situated in lat. S. 12° 3', on Callao Bay, a 
 natural inlet, or rather curve of the coast, between the 
 mouth of the river Rimac and La Punta, a narrow 
 promontory jutting out to the south-west. The bay 
 is still further sheltered from the south-west by the 
 island of San Lorenzo, which, about 4 \ miles in length, 
 rises over 1,200 ft. above sea-level, and lies about four miles 
 distant from the mainland. La Punta, the promontory 
 reaching out from the mainland towards San Lorenzo, 
 is known at its extremity as Camotal Bank. 
 
 The town, together with the castle and forts, extends 
 about two miles along the beach fronting the bay, and, 
 rising gradually from the shore, presents probably the 
 best appearance of any of the coast towns of Peru. 
 The bay is safe for vessels of any tonnage, and has a 
 depth of 3£ fathoms close to the coast. Heavy rollers 
 
 123 
 
124 
 
 PERU 
 
 are sometimes experienced, but landing is seldom inter- 
 rupted at any of the piers. There are several piers with 
 wharves, alongside which vessels may lie to discharge 
 and load ; the Customs basin has a minimum depth of 
 23 ft., while a coaling wharf gives 21 ft. at all times. 
 Repairing docks exist, with ample facilities for the 
 repair of either hulls or machinery. Among other facili- 
 ties may be mentioned a floating dock, 300 ft. in length, 
 and capable of taking a vessel of 3,000 tons displacement 
 and 21 ft. draught. Coal is plentiful and obtainable at 
 a moderate price, and fish, fruit, and vegetables for 
 supply to ships form industries in the town. 
 
 The principal means of communication by sea is 
 afforded by the steamers of the P.S.N. Co. and those of 
 the C.S.A. de V., each line maintaining a service which 
 allows of two calls a week, the former company con- 
 necting directly with Panama northward and Liverpool, 
 Southampton, New York, and European ports via Cape 
 Horn. The Kosmos and other lines maintain a regular 
 service between Callao and other west coast ports ; and 
 there is a direct service of steamers between Callao and 
 Hong-Kong via Panama and Yokohama. A submarine 
 cable provides telegraphic communication with all parts. 
 
 The climate of Callao is good throughout the year, the 
 temperature varying between 64° and 74° Fahr. A sea 
 breeze mitigates the heat, and the nights are cool and 
 pleasant. Fogs are common from December to March, 
 and throughout the year the early mornings are charac- 
 terised by mists. Yellow fever occurs at times, but 
 epidemic diseases are rare on the whole. 
 
 Callao is connected with Lima, the capital of Peru, by 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 125 
 
 two railways, each seven miles in length, by which an hourly 
 service is maintained ; and there is also an electric tram- 
 way, while shaded avenues are available for wheeled 
 vehicles and pedestrians. One of the two railways forms 
 the seaward termination of the famous Oroya line (for 
 which, see Chapter on Inland Communication and Trans- 
 port). Lima itself stands on the banks of the Rimac, 
 chiefly on the southern bank, practically at the foot of 
 the coastal cordillera, and is laid out in the usual chess- 
 board fashion of South American cities. The chief 
 building is the old Spanish cathedral on the “ Plaza 
 Mayor,” the principal square of the city. The foreign 
 element in Lima consists mainly of German, French, and 
 Italian settlers ; while the American and English 
 residents congregate principally in Callao. 
 
 The following tables, taken from the Consular Report 
 for Peru, 1911-12, give details of the shipping which 
 used the port in 1912 — 
 
 Return of Shipping of all Nationalities which Entered and Cleared in 
 the Foreign Trade of the Port of Callao during the Year 1912 
 (a) Steam Vessels 
 Entered 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British . . 
 
 177 
 
 541,849 
 
 29 
 
 48,626 
 
 206 
 
 590,475 
 
 Chilean . . 
 
 112 
 
 198,766 
 
 1 
 
 210 
 
 113 
 
 198,976 
 
 French . . 
 
 6 
 
 18,119 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 18,119 
 
 German . . 
 
 80 
 
 278,574 
 
 1 
 
 2,408 
 
 81 
 
 280,982 
 
 Japanese 
 
 12 
 
 49,814 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 49,814 
 
 Norwegian . . 
 
 9 
 
 24,500 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 24,500 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 50 
 
 112,532 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 112,532 
 
 United States 
 
 1 
 
 3,209 
 
 1 
 
 981 
 
 2 
 
 4,190 
 
 Total 
 
 447 
 
 1,227,363 
 
 32 
 
 52,225 
 
 479 
 
 1,279,588 
 
126 
 
 PERU 
 
 Cleared 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British . . 
 
 140 
 
 431,844 
 
 28 
 
 61,335 
 
 168 
 
 493,179 
 
 Chilean . . 
 
 103 
 
 183,147 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 103 
 
 183,147 
 
 French . . 
 
 6 
 
 18,119 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 18,119 
 
 German 
 
 73 
 
 253,472 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 73 
 
 253,472 
 
 Japanese 
 
 11 
 
 46,574 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 46,574 
 
 Norwegian . . 
 
 9 
 
 24,500 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 24,500 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 47 
 
 106,092 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 47 
 
 106,092 
 
 United States 
 
 1 
 
 3,209 
 
 1 
 
 981 
 
 2 
 
 4,190 
 
 Total 
 
 390 
 
 1,066,957 
 
 29 
 
 62,316 
 
 419 
 
 1,129,273 
 
 ( b ) Sailing Vessels 
 Entered 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British . . 
 
 14 
 
 24,452 
 
 2 
 
 2,886 
 
 16 
 
 27,338 
 
 Argentina 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 Ecuadorean . . 
 
 1 
 
 251 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 251 
 
 French . . 
 
 2 
 
 4,284 
 
 1 
 
 1,944 
 
 3 
 
 6,228 
 
 German 
 
 10 
 
 18,579 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 18,579 
 
 Italian . . 
 
 2 
 
 2,649 
 
 1 
 
 1,409 
 
 3 
 
 4,058 
 
 Norwegian . . 
 
 14 
 
 21,365 
 
 2 
 
 2,379 
 
 16 
 
 23,744 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 3 
 
 2,955 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 2,955 
 
 Russian 
 
 3 
 
 4,838 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 4,838 
 
 Swedish . . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1,876 
 
 1 
 
 1,876 
 
 United States 
 
 26 
 
 18,320 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 26 
 
 18,320 
 
 Total 
 
 76 
 
 97,837 
 
 7 
 
 10,494 
 
 83 
 
 108,331 
 
 Cleared (in Ballast) 
 
 British 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Italian 
 
 Norwegian . . 
 Peruvian 
 Russian 
 Swedish 
 United States 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 . . 11 
 
 18,368 
 
 5 
 
 10,266 
 
 .. 11 
 
 20,052 
 
 2 
 
 2,818 
 
 . . 17 
 
 25,419 
 
 .. 5 
 
 4,796 
 
 3 
 
 4,838 
 
 1 
 
 1,876 
 
 . . 24 
 
 17,052 
 
 79 
 
 105,485 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 127 
 
 For the Imports and Exports, see (1) Callao in List of 
 Towns ; (2) Chapter on Imports and Exports. 
 
 South of Callao, the principal ports are Cerro Azul, 
 Tambo de Mora, Pisco, Port Chala, Quilca, Port Mollendo, 
 Islay, and Ilo. Arica, being situated in the province 
 of Tacna, is now a Chilean port. 
 
 Cerro Azul is the port for the beautiful and fertile 
 valley of Canete, in which sugar is largely grown. This, 
 together with rum as a by-product, is mainly exported 
 from Cerro Azul, where steamers of the P.S.N. Co. and 
 the C.S.A. de V. call regularly. Landing here is difficult 
 at all seasons, owing to the heavy surf ; but a wharf has 
 been constructed in connection with the works of Casa 
 Blanca and Quebrada, which facilitates the landing of 
 goods for these establishments. There is telegraphic 
 communication with Lima. 
 
 Tambo de Mora is situated at the mouth of the Chincha 
 river (15J miles north of Pisco). It is a small settlement, 
 and a port of call for the coasting steamers of the P.S.N. 
 Co. and the C.S.A. de V. Landing is difficult, and at 
 times dangerous, on account of the heavy surf. 
 
 Pisco, the chief port in the province of lea, is situated 
 on Pisco Bay. This bay is formed by the peninsula of 
 Paracas to the south, and protected by the Balleista 
 Islands and the Chincha Islands on the west. It is a 
 regular port of call for the coasting steamers of the 
 principal lines, and is connected by rail and telegraph 
 with lea, the capital of the province. Imports and 
 exports total about a quarter of a million sterling annually ; 
 the chief exports are cotton, cotton seed and oil cake, 
 wool, goatskins, hides, and mineral ores. Pisco Bay 
 
128 
 
 PERU 
 
 affords safe anchorage, and there is at the north of the 
 town an iron pier, 600 yds. in length, with 18 ft. of water 
 alongside. The railway, at present extending only 
 45 miles inland to lea, is intended eventually to connect 
 the rich silver mining districts at the head of the 
 Chunchanga gorge with the coast. 
 
 Port Chala is the nearest coast port to the city of Cuzco, 
 and trades principally in hides, wool, and mineral ores, 
 there being good copper veins in the vicinity of the port. 
 The steamers of the P.S.N. Co. and the C.S.A. de V. 
 call regularly, but landing is generally dangerous, owing 
 to the heavy Pacific swell ; and the trade of the port is 
 inconsiderable. 
 
 Quilca, at the mouth of the river of the same name, is 
 visited every three weeks by the steamers of the two 
 principal lines ; but there are no landing facilities, and 
 the trade of the port is very small. There is telegraphic 
 communication with all parts. 
 
 Mollendo, now that Arica belongs to Chile, is the 
 principal port of southern Peru. It is the - coastal 
 terminus of the railway to Arequipa ; to Puno, on the 
 shore of Lake Titicaca ; and Cuzco. The population 
 of Mollendo is estimated at 7,000, and its imports and 
 exports, of which the former are slightly in excess of the 
 latter, at about a million sterling. The principal exports 
 are copper, silver, borate of lime, and wool. (See also 
 Chapter on Imports and Exports.) A noteworthy fact in 
 connection with the town is that its water supply is 
 brought from Arequipa, 100 miles distant, by iron pipes. 
 The anchorage is entirely unprotected, and from June 
 to October the swell is often so violent as to prevent the 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 129 
 
 landing of goods in lighters. A scheme is under way, 
 however, for the construction of a breakwater and dock 
 for the accommodation of lighters. The steamers of the 
 two principal lines, and also those of the Kosmos Co., 
 call here regularly ; and the railway line affords com- 
 munication with Cuzco, La Paz, and the Bolivian railway 
 system, and with the Chilean port of Antofagasta via 
 La Paz. 
 
 The following tables, taken from the Consular Report 
 for Peru, 1911-12, give details of the shipping which used 
 the port in 1912 — 
 
 Return of Shipping of all Nationalities which Entered and Cleared in 
 the Foreign Trade of the Port of Mollendo during the Year 1912 
 (a) Steam V essels 
 Entered (with Cargo) 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British 
 
 . . 280 
 
 872,776 
 
 Chilean 
 
 . . 101 
 
 181,560 
 
 German 
 
 . . 110 
 
 372,160 
 
 French 
 
 8 
 
 34,000 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 6 
 
 16,174 
 
 Japanese .. 
 
 7 
 
 20,250 
 
 Italian 
 
 2 
 
 5,900 
 
 Peruvian . . 
 
 48 
 
 95,230 
 
 United States 
 
 1 
 
 4,200 
 
 Total 
 
 . . 563 
 
 1,602,250 
 
 Cleared 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British . . 
 
 270 
 
 840,026 
 
 10 
 
 32,750 
 
 280 
 
 872,776 
 
 Chilean . . 
 
 101 
 
 181,560 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 101 
 
 181,560 
 
 German 
 
 106 
 
 358,560 
 
 4 
 
 13,600 
 
 110 
 
 372,160 
 
 French . . 
 
 8 
 
 34,000 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 34,000 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 3 
 
 8,360 
 
 3 
 
 7,814 
 
 6 
 
 16,174 
 
 Japanese 
 
 7 
 
 20,250 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 20,250 
 
 Italian . . 
 
 2 
 
 5,900 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 5,900 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 48 
 
 95,230 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 48 
 
 95,230 
 
 United States 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 4,200 
 
 1 
 
 4,200 
 
 Total 
 
 545 
 
 1 ,543,886 
 
 18 
 
 58,364 
 
 563 
 
 1,602,250 
 
130 
 
 PERU 
 
 Cleared 
 
 ( b ) Sailing Vessels 
 
 Entered (with Cargo) and Cleared (in Ballast) 
 
 German 
 Norwegian 
 United States 
 
 Vessels Tonnage. 
 
 XcUl . . . . . . . . Z, ^,ODU 
 
 States . . . . . . 2 2,210 
 
 3 3,950 
 
 2 2,560 
 
 Total . . . . 7 8,720 
 
 Islay. Up to the time of the building of the railway 
 line from Mollendo to Arequipa, Islay, 5 miles north- 
 west of Mollendo, was the principal port of the province ; 
 but, except for a telegraph station, the place is now 
 practically deserted. The bay affords better anchorage 
 than that at Mollendo, and an extension of the railway 
 would probably revive the trade of Islay ; a pier is still 
 in existence, but the “ swell ” makes landing difficult, 
 though not to such a degree as at Mollendo. 
 
 Ilo (or Ylo) is the most southerly port of Peru, and 
 the seaward terminus of the Moquegua railway. The 
 anchorage is an open roadstead, slightly protected to the 
 south by Coles’ Point, the last promontory of the 
 Peruvian coast to the south. The town of Ilo is small, 
 and the trade of the port does not exceed a total of 
 £20,000 sterling annually. The coasting steamers of 
 the two principal lines call regularly, and telegraphic 
 communication is available with all parts. The railway 
 from Ilo was intended to connect with Lake Titicaca, 
 but it is unlikely to reach further than Moquegua for 
 some years. 
 
 Northern Ports. — Northward from Callao a railway 
 runs parallel with the coast to Ancon, a bay which affords 
 shelter from all southerly winds. The population of the 
 town of Ancon is little over 300, but the place is a very 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 131 
 
 popular bathing resort for the inhabitants of Callao and 
 Lima. Twelve miles northward from Callao is situated 
 Chancay, in a bay which is suited only for small coasting 
 vessels. Chancay is the centre of a considerable sugar 
 industry, being connected by tram lines with a number 
 of plantations in the vicinity. A railway links up 
 Chancay with Lima to the south and Palpa to the north- 
 east, as well as extending northward to Huacho and 
 Huara. 
 
 The next point of importance on the coast is Huacho, 
 a town of 9,000 inhabitants. It is situated about a mile 
 to the north of Huacho Bay, which affords good anchor- 
 age, and is visited regularly by the steamers of the two 
 principal lines, the P.S.N. Co. and the C.S.A. de V. 
 There is a pier for loading and unloading cargoes, and 
 the town is connected with Ancon by railway. Another 
 line southward via Salinas connects the port with 
 Chancay and Lima. 
 
 Supe Bay, at the mouth of the river Pativilca, is chiefly 
 visited by coasting vessels, though the steamers of the 
 two principal lines call regularly. The town of Supe is 
 situated midway between Barranca and San Nicolas, a 
 railway about 20 miles in length connecting the three 
 towns. Sugar and maize are the chief products, and a 
 brisk trade in these articles is maintained by the coasting 
 vessels which frequent the port. 
 
 From Casma, a small port in the Department of 
 Ancachs, a good quality of cotton is exported in small 
 quantities, and this trade is capable of considerable 
 development ; corn is also exported, and the steamers 
 of the two principal lines call regularly. Samanco Bay 
 
132 
 
 PERU 
 
 a few miles farther north, is the most extensive on the 
 coast of Peru to the north of Callao, being 3 miles in 
 depth. Rice, cotton, and cereals are the chief articles 
 of export, and the coasting steamers of the P.S.N. Co. 
 call regularly. 
 
 Eight miles north of Samanco is situated Ferrol Bay, 
 well sheltered by Blanca Island and the Ferrol group. 
 Port Chimbote, situated on the bay, is the seaward 
 terminus of a narrow gauge railway of over 150 miles in 
 length, which follows the course of the river Santa and 
 then turns south along the Callejos de Huar&s to Huards, 
 the capital of the Department of Ancachs, and centre of 
 a district rich in coal and mineral ores. Chimbote itself 
 has a population of about 1,500, and is the centre of a 
 district well suited to sugar cultivation ; the remains of 
 Inca irrigating channels show that the district was at 
 one time much more cultivated than at present, and that 
 the population was far greater. Shipping to the total of 
 about 250,000 tons visits the port annually, although it 
 is not a port of entry, and the principal exports are 
 sugar, coffee, and mineral ores. There is telegraphic 
 communication with all parts, and the vessels of the 
 principal lines call regularly. 
 
 Santa Bay, a few miles north of Chimbote, is the site 
 of a small and rarely visited settlement ; the river Santa, 
 which enters the sea here, is one of the largest of the 
 Peruvian coastal rivers, but it is quite unnavigable. 
 The district is mainly devoted to sugar growing. 
 
 Salaveny, situated at the southern extremity of a 
 railway which traverses the fertile valleys of Chicama 
 and Chimu, in the Department of La Libertad, is a port 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 133 
 
 of growing importance, devoted chiefly to the export of 
 sugar. The railway runs to the shore, and an iron pier 
 renders landing and shipping of goods safe at all times. 
 Steamers of the principal lines call here regularly, and 
 shipping to the extent of about 500,000 tons visits the 
 port annually. Salaverry shares the export trade of the 
 Chimu valley with Huanchaco, about 12 miles farther 
 north along the coast. The latter port affords a less 
 protected anchorage, and in spite of the existence of a 
 pier over 150 yds. in length, landing is interrupted at 
 times by the Pacific rollers, which are at their worst in 
 May and June on this part of the coast. Landing and 
 shipping of goods is effected by means of lighters ; and 
 the coasting steamers of the P.S.N. Co., the C.S.A. de V., 
 the Gulf, Kosmos, and other lines call to take in cargoes 
 of sugar, the products of the fertile valleys of Chicama 
 and Chimu. 
 
 About 50 miles farther to the north, Pacasmayo, at the 
 mouth of the river of the same name, forms the seaward 
 terminus of the railway which extends inland to Chilete 
 and northward to Guadalupe. A pier, 1,000 yds. in 
 length, fitted with 10-ton cranes, makes this one of the 
 best ports, as far as shipping facilities are concerned, on 
 the Peruvian coast. The trade is chiefly in sugar and 
 rice, grown in the fertile valley of the Rio Pacasmayo. 
 Steamers of the two principal lines call regularly, and 
 the exports attain a value of about £130,000 annually. 
 
 Eten Point, 33 miles farther north, is the site of a pier 
 nearly 900 yards in length, which facilitates the loading 
 of boats and lighters. The building of this pier has 
 diverted shipping from Lambayeque, which, situated 
 
 IO— (aa 4 7) 
 
134 
 
 PERU 
 
 about 12 miles farther north, had the reputation of the 
 worst anchorage on the Peruvian coast. Eten Point is 
 now the terminus of a railway which runs north to 
 Chiclayo, Lambayeque, Jayanca, and Ferrenafe, and 
 the exports of the district which the railway serves, 
 passing through the port, are valued annually at about 
 £250,000. The steamers of the two principal lines call 
 regularly at Eten, and there is telegraphic communication 
 with all parts. 
 
 Northward of the district served by the port of Eten, 
 the desert of Sechura stretches almost to Piura, and the 
 coast is devoid of anchorages until Paita is reached. 
 This is the best natural port on the Peruvian coast, being 
 so well sheltered that the shipping of cargo is never inter- 
 rupted. The population of the town is estimated at 
 3,000, and the trade of the port, both inward and out- 
 ward, is steadily increasing. The principal exports are 
 charcoal and firewood, cotton, cotton-seed, “ Panama ” 
 hats, salt, and tobacco ; while the chief imports are flour 
 from Callao, lumber, bricks, galvanised iron, and general 
 merchandise. Paita is sometimes named the petroleum 
 port of Peru, but this is a mistake, as the petroleum 
 trade is all done through the ports of Talara and Lobitos, 
 farther to the north. Paita is considered one of the 
 healthiest, and it is certainly one of the driest places in 
 Peru, rain only occurring at intervals of years. About 
 700,000 tons of shipping visit the port annually ; the 
 two principal lines maintain a weekly service between 
 Callao, Paita, and the Panama Isthmus, and all lines 
 serving the west coast of Peru call here. There is tele- 
 graphic and cable communication with all parts, via 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 135 
 
 either Panama or Callao ; and a railway extends inland 
 from the port to Sullana and Piura, a distance of nearly 
 60 miles. Two piers afford excellent facilities for landing 
 and loading cargoes. 
 
 The following tables, taken from the Consular Report 
 of Peru for 1911-12, give details of the shipping which 
 used the port in 1912 — 
 
 Return of Shipping of all Nationalities which Entered and Cleared in the 
 Foreign Trade of the Port of Paita during the year 1912 
 
 (a) Sailing Vessels. Entered 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In B 
 
 allast. 
 
 Tot 
 
 al. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Argentine 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 Columbian 
 
 7 
 
 330 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 330 
 
 Ecuadorian 
 
 3 
 
 172 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 172 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 6 
 
 1,278 
 
 3 
 
 376 
 
 9 
 
 1,654 
 
 Total 
 
 17 
 
 1,924 
 
 3 
 
 376 
 
 20 
 
 2,300 
 
 Cleared 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In 
 
 B 
 
 allast. 
 
 Tot 
 
 al. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Argentine 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 Columbian 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 Ecuadorian 
 
 3 
 
 172 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 172 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 
 84 
 
 4 
 
 110 
 
 Total 
 
 8 
 
 420 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 504 
 
 (6) Steam Vessels. Entered 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 British 
 
 United States 
 
 Chilean 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 German 
 
 Norwegian 
 French 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 85 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 242,507 
 
 3,209 
 
 153,975 
 
 108,523 
 
 21,996 
 
 10,925 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 93,539 
 
 42,782 
 
 154 
 
 9,856 
 
 2,597 
 
 3,263 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 136 
 
 1 
 
 112 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 336,046 
 
 3,209 
 
 196,757 
 
 108,677 
 
 31,852 
 
 13,522 
 
 3,263 
 
 Total 
 
 235 
 
 541,135 
 
 70 
 
 152,191 
 
 315 
 
 693,326 
 
136 
 
 PERU 
 
 Cleared 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 With Cargo. 
 
 In Ballast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 British 
 
 Chilean 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 German 
 
 French 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 84 
 
 75 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 195,707 
 
 138,048 
 
 105,851 
 
 9,740 
 
 3,263 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 106,050 
 
 58,709 
 
 3,014 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 119 
 
 112 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 301.757 
 
 196.757 
 105,851 
 
 12,754 
 
 3,263 
 
 Total 
 
 210 
 
 452,609 
 
 73 
 
 167,773 
 
 283 
 
 620,382 
 
 T alar a Bay, 34 miles north of Paita, is a port concerned 
 exclusively with the petroleum trade, and is the property 
 of the London and Pacific Petroleum Co., which owns the 
 wells of Negritos, about 7 miles south of the bay. The 
 oil is brought to the coast by means of a pipe line, and 
 the exports consist mainly of crude petroleum, which is 
 shipped to Chile, principally — small quantities also being 
 sent to the United States and to Ecuador. In the year 
 1912 about 60,000 metric tons of crude petroleum were 
 exported from Talara, together with about 9,000 tons of 
 gasoline and kerosene. 
 
 Lobitos. The company known as the Lobitos Oilfields, 
 Ltd., whose port is on the coast between Paita and 
 Talara, exports about two-thirds as much oil as is sent 
 out from Talara annually. A third small enterprise, 
 known as the Zorritos oilfields, has an output of nearly 
 20,000 tons of crude petroleum and other products 
 annually. These places are all dependent on Paita for 
 regular communication with the rest of the world, there 
 being no regular steam service. Both at Talara and 
 Zorritos, piers exist to facilitate shipping of goods, and 
 that at Talara accommodates vessels of up to 28 ft. 
 draught. 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 137 
 
 Tumbes, the most northerly port of Peru, is near the 
 site of the first Spanish settlement in the country, and is 
 situated on the Tumbes river. The steamers of the two 
 principal lines call regularly, and the chief exports are 
 coal, timber, and general cereal produce. The town is 
 situated about 12 miles up the river, which is not navig- 
 able ; the port is of only minor importance, though in 
 the period of Inca government, the spot was one of the 
 most populous and prosperous in Peru. 
 
 So far as foreign merchandise is concerned, Callao, 
 Mollendo, and Paita are the chief ports ; the remainder 
 are engaged almost solely in the coastal trade, and, 
 further, are not served by steamers connecting direct 
 with Europe, so that transhipment of goods is necessary. 
 In the year 1912, the foreign vessels entering Callao 
 amounted to a total tonnage of nearly 1,400,000, while 
 those entering Mollendo totalled over 1,600,000. In the 
 same year, the shipping entering the port of Paita 
 amounted to about 700,000 tons. In all cases, the 
 British shipping far exceeded that of any other nationality, 
 as the P.S.N. Co. exceeds all other lines in importance 
 along the west coast. 
 
 River Ports. — Iquitos, the river port of Peru, is 
 situated on the Amazon river, about 2,500 miles from 
 its mouth, and is the capital of the department of 
 Loreto, which comprises the greater and more valuable 
 territory of the montana region. 
 
 The following tables, taken from the Consular 
 Report for Iquitos, 1912, show the shipping which 
 used the port, and the chief exports of the district in 
 1912— 
 
138 
 
 PERU 
 
 Return of British Shipping Entered and Cleared in the Foreign 
 Trade of the Port of Iquitos during the Year 1912 
 Steam Vessels 
 
 Entered (with Cargo) 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 United Kingdom . . 
 
 9 
 
 11,947 
 
 United States 
 
 .. 9 
 
 7,302 
 
 Total 
 
 .. 18 
 
 19,249 
 
 Cleared 
 
 (with Cargo) 
 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 United Kingdom . . 
 
 .. 10 
 
 13,091 
 
 United States 
 
 .. 8 
 
 6,608 
 
 Total 
 
 .. 18 
 
 19,699 
 
 Table showing Exports of Rubber from Iquitos during the Years 
 1907-12 
 
 Month. 
 
 1907. 
 
 1908. 
 
 1909. 
 
 1910. 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912. 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 January 
 
 399,516 
 
 199,290 
 
 — 
 
 67,160 
 
 249,430 
 
 404,156 
 
 February . . 
 
 226,810 
 
 284,168 
 
 331,345 
 
 401,053 
 
 155,219 
 
 231,706 
 
 March 
 
 206,993 
 
 117,106 
 
 188,947 
 
 46,582 
 
 9,029 
 
 270,805 
 
 April . . 
 
 278,781 
 
 175,263 
 
 147,442 
 
 182,701 
 
 344,986 
 
 287,423 
 
 May 
 
 281,753 
 
 245,436 
 
 108,449 
 
 172,391 
 
 112,584 
 
 3,935 
 
 June . . . . 
 
 25,552 
 
 — 
 
 289,422 
 
 139,021 
 
 62,157 
 
 151,574 
 
 July . . . . 
 
 246,745 
 
 254,683 
 
 — 
 
 17,454 
 
 83,757 
 
 119,354 
 
 August 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 203,372 
 
 235,600 
 
 151,900 
 
 178,388 
 
 September 
 
 264,919 
 
 206,424 
 
 — 
 
 297,528 
 
 29,978 
 
 303,870 
 
 October 
 
 234,055 
 
 158,234 
 
 514,041 
 
 151,516 
 
 587,376 
 
 — 
 
 November . . 
 
 366,232 
 
 215,655 
 
 293,045 
 
 260,112 
 
 279,101 
 
 540,95! 
 
 December . . 
 
 365,051 
 
 528,893 
 
 446,003 
 
 323,073 
 
 16,370 
 
 321,802 
 
 Total 
 
 2,896,407 
 
 2,385,152 
 
 2,522,066 
 
 2,294,191 
 
 2,081,887 
 
 t 2, 813, 964 
 
 Table showing Classification and Destination of Rubber Exported 
 _ from the Port of Iquitos during the Year 1912 
 
 
 Havre. 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Fine rubber 
 
 318,206 
 
 434,923 
 
 75,908 
 
 42,898 
 
 871,935 
 
 Entrefine 
 
 26,494 
 
 39,977 
 
 1,681 
 
 1,692 
 
 69,844 
 
 Semamby 
 
 150,634 
 
 169,834 
 
 27,257 
 
 14,407 
 
 362,132 
 
 Caucho 
 
 35,578 
 
 14,278 
 
 256 
 
 4,631 
 
 54,743 
 
 Semamby de 
 Caucho . . 
 
 359,374 
 
 334,740 
 
 76,496 
 
 37,422 
 
 808,032 
 
 Weak fine 
 
 144,081 
 
 318,734 
 
 146,235 
 
 38,228 
 
 647,278 
 
 Total 
 
 1,034,367 
 
 1,312,486 
 
 327,833 
 
 139,278 
 
 2,813,964 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 139 
 
 Table showing Exports of other Products during the Year 1912 
 
 
 Havre. 
 
 Liver- 
 
 pool. 
 
 Ham- 
 
 burg. 
 
 New 
 
 York. 
 
 Callao. 
 
 Total 
 
 Ivory nuts 
 
 Kilos 
 
 504,755 
 
 406,062 
 
 120,410 
 
 154,447 
 
 
 1,185,674 
 
 Hides 
 
 Doe. 
 
 1,073 
 
 19,144 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 20,217 
 
 Panama hats 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 188 
 
 Cedar logs 
 
 Kilos 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4,000 
 
 — 
 
 4,000 
 
 Hard wood 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 313 
 
 — 
 
 313 
 
 Silver coins 
 
 Soles 
 
 — 
 
 33,200 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 23,000 
 
 56,200 
 
 The river ports of Nazareth on the Javary, Yurimaguas 
 on the Huallaga, Contamana on the Ucayali, and to a 
 certain extent, Caballo Cocha on the Amazon below 
 Iquitos, send their produce to Iquitos, as it is the only 
 point on the upper river at which ocean-going vessels 
 discharge and load cargo. Rubber, the chief export, is 
 almost stationary in volume, having reached its highest 
 point in 1907, when the total was 2,896,407 kilos. After 
 this, the rate of export fell considerably, but rose again 
 in 1912 to 2,813,964 kilos. The rate of export is not 
 likely to increase, as there is no cultivation of the trees. 
 The rubber is gathered from the forests by natives, and, 
 as there is no planting, the supply is bound to decrease 
 in course of time unless a system of planting is adopted. 
 On the other hand, the trade in vegetable ivory is 
 increasing at a rapid rate, having risen from 374 kilos, 
 in 1907 to no less than 1,185,674 kilos, in 1912. Improved 
 plant for peeling the nuts renders classification of the 
 exports easier, and thus increases the value of the pro- 
 duct in foreign markets. Like the rubber trees, the nut- 
 bearing palms are an uncultivated growth ; but, unlike 
 the rubber, the collection of the nuts does not damage 
 the trees, and as the supply is practically unlimited, the 
 
140 
 
 PERU 
 
 trade is likely to increase to a far greater extent. Havre 
 and Liverpool are the ports to which the greater part of 
 this product is consigned. Other exports of minor 
 importance are cedar logs, hides, and “ Panama ” 
 hats. 
 
 The Iquitos Steamship Co., Ltd., maintains two 
 regular services from Iquitos : one to Liverpool and 
 Continental ports, and the other to New York. A com- 
 pany known as the Amazon Steam Navigation Co., with 
 a monthly service between Iquitos and Para via Manaos, 
 was a competitor with the first-named company until 
 the end of 1911, but since then its boats have ceased 
 running. 
 
 Communication with Lima is effected by means of two 
 routes : the “ Northern ” and the “ Central ” — the 
 
 former being the better of the two between May and 
 November, the latter being preferred for the other 
 months of the year. The “ Northern ” route runs by 
 way of Yurimaguas, Chacbapoyas, and Cajamarca to the 
 coast at Pacasmayo ; while the “ Central ” follows the 
 rivers Ucayali, Pachitea, and Pichis for 1,000 miles, the 
 remaining 450 miles of the journey being performed by 
 mules (see pp. 111-4). Iquitos has long been agitating for 
 a direct railway connection with Lima ; and, in order to 
 satisfy this need, work has been begun on an extension 
 of the Oroya railway to Pucalpa, on the Ucayali river, 
 and only 700 miles distant from Iquitos. Telegraphic 
 communication with Lima is maintained by means of the 
 Telefunken wireless system, a tower having been erected 
 at Iquitos, by means of which direct communication has 
 been established with the wireless tower on the Cerro San 
 
PORTS AND HARBOURS 
 
 141 
 
 Cristobal, near Lima. Wireless communication has also 
 been established with El Encanto, in the Putumayo 
 district ; and it is hoped that soon the private wires 
 existing between Iquitos and Manaos may be augmented 
 by a line open to commercial use. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 AGRICULTURE — FOREST PRODUCTS — GUANO — 
 
 LAND TENURE AND COLONISATION — GRAZING AND 
 CATTLE-BREEDING 
 
 A review of the agriculture of Peru necessitates once 
 more a consideration of the three great zones into which 
 the country is divided — the coast, the Andine region, and 
 the montana — with their vast climatic and other difference. 
 
 The coastlands possess, generally speaking, a deep and 
 fertile soil, a warm and uniform climate, and practically 
 an entire absence of rain, frost, hail, and violent storms. 
 In short, the conditions are favourable in an unusual 
 degree to scientific cultivation, except for the lack of 
 adequate water supply. Agriculture in that zone 
 depends almost entirely on artificial irrigation ; where 
 this is not available, the soil becomes absolute desert. 
 
 Rainfall begins and increases as the land rises to the 
 inter-Andine region. The soil is still thick and fertile, 
 though less so than on the coast. The irrigated valleys 
 produce many of the large crops found on the coast, 
 together with coca ; while potatoes and various cereal 
 crops (including in this term, maize, alfalfa, and quinoa), 
 are grown on the uplands at elevations extending as high 
 as 13,000 ft. or more. 
 
 East of the Andes, new climatic conditions are 
 encountered. The rainfall is abundant, amounting to 
 an average of 70 in. per annum ; from May to October 
 the rains are, in the lower parts, torrential. The vast 
 
 142 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 143 
 
 slopes provide a system of natural irrigation ; the 
 “ humus ” is usually 15 ft. or more in depth — virgin soil 
 of extraordinary fertility. While the upper regions pro- 
 duce freely most of the crops grown on the coast, agri- 
 culture on a considerable scale has hardly begun as yet ; 
 and the only things exploited on a large scale are the 
 forest products — rubber and ivory nuts ( tagua ). 
 
 Facilities for education, inter-communication, trans- 
 port, and export have naturally promoted the develop- 
 ment of scientific agriculture on the coast and the more 
 accessible inter-Andine valleys. Modern methods and 
 machinery are very largely employed. On the other 
 hand, in the high plateaux and in the scanty settlements 
 of the montana the most primitive implements and 
 methods are usual, owing chiefly to the great cost and 
 difficulty of transport. 
 
 The area susceptible of cultivation on the coast is 
 estimated at 50,000,000 acres, of which only about 
 2,000,000 are now under cultivation. The evidence of a 
 great population in districts now desert would seem to 
 imply, in the time of the Incas, a skilful system of irriga- 
 tion, which the Spanish conquerors, through ignorance 
 or pre-occupation in the hunt for gold, suffered to decay. 
 The reclamation of these lands is one of the cares of the 
 Ministry of Development (Fomento). Artesian wells 
 were sunk in 1861 ; more recently, under the direction 
 of American hydraulic engineers, irrigating canals have 
 been constructed on the rivers Chira and Piura, in Lam- 
 bayeque and in the Chicama valley. By such means, 
 and by storage reservoirs, the area is being gradually 
 extended. 
 
144 
 
 PERU 
 
 The west coast is also favoured by the proximity of 
 the guano islands ; the ready supply of fertilisers has 
 rendered unnecessary the old system of allowing land 
 to lie fallow for a year. 
 
 There are drawbacks, however, even in this favoured 
 region. Shortage of water has been mentioned ; short- 
 age of labour is also a source of difficulty — to some 
 extent met by the importation of indentured Japanese 
 coolies. In the past, too large tracts were in the posses- 
 sion of single proprietors, who left much land unculti- 
 vated from lack of enterprise or capital. Various systems 
 of sub-letting have partially eliminated this feature ; 
 but it remains true that most of the best land is held 
 in large estates. 
 
 The Government foster agriculture in various practical 
 ways. A National School of Agriculture and Veterinary 
 Science was established at Lima in 1902. A monthly 
 bulletin and numerous educational papers and pamphlets 
 are issued by the Ministry of Fomento. An experi- 
 mental station, with a large number of acres under 
 cultivation has been established at Santa Beatriz, near 
 Lima, to study the various crops grown in the country ; 
 and another at Chancay is devoted to the study of 
 cotton plants. Seeds and special plants are imported, 
 and assistance is given to cultivators against pests, 
 blight, etc. There is a School of Botany at Lima ; and 
 a large and flourishing National Society of Agriculture, 
 which issues a weekly newspaper, El Agricultor Peruano. 
 As a result, the large haciendas are mostly under the 
 direction of scientifically-trained and qualified managers. 
 
 The principal crops cultivated in Peru are — 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 145 
 
 Sugar. — Sugar is grown up to 4,500 ft. above sea- 
 level in the west of the country, and up to 6,000 ft. east 
 of the Andes. The total production is not far short of 
 200,000 tons per annum, and the home consumption is 
 about 30,000 tons. The best is grown in the northern 
 coast valleys, in the departments of Lambayeque, La 
 Libertad, and Lima ; the largest estates are in the 
 valleys of Chicama and Canete. The acreage is under 
 200,000, about half of which is planted with cane. 
 
 The cane grows to a height of 8-10 ft. in about eighteen 
 months, when cutting begins. The product per acre, 
 both in weight of cane and in proportion of sugar, is 
 easily the best in the world, being about double that of 
 Java; the proportion of sugar is over 14 per cent. 
 There are usually three crops, but cutting is practically 
 continuous. The total annual value is about £2,000,000. 
 
 Cotton. — Cotton is indigenous to the country, and 
 has been cultivated from time immemorial. The prin- 
 cipal plantations are in the departments of Piura, lea, 
 and Lima ; the area under cultivation is increasing. 
 Several varieties are grown : (1) the native Peruvian, or 
 vegetable wool ( Gossypium peruvianum), in lea and 
 Piura ; (2) the Egyptian ( G . herbaceum), in lea and Lima ; 
 (3) the sea-island ( G . barbadense) and the Peruvian 
 Mitafi.fi, near Huacho and Supe ; (4) smooth cotton 
 
 from American seed. The first of these grows to a 
 height of 10 to 16 ft., and gives a first, but small, crop 
 eight months after sowing ; the crop increases each 
 year up to the sixth. The plant stands drought well, 
 and requires but one watering. The trees are planted 
 at intervals of about 15 ft., the interspace being occupied 
 
146 
 
 PERU 
 
 with vegetables and maize ; no ploughing is needed. 
 Two crops a year are obtained : in June-Oct. and Jan- 
 March. The product, known under the names of “ full 
 rough ” and “ moderate rough,” is mixed with wool in 
 the manufacture of woollen textiles. 
 
 The Egyptian cotton grows to a height of about 4 ft., 
 and yields for two or sometimes three years, beginning 
 six months after sowing. It needs several waterings, 
 but, on the other hand, is entirely free from weevil-blight. 
 
 These two varieties are chiefly grown at present. 
 
 Peru ranks twelfth among the cotton-producing 
 countries of the world. Increase of production is merely 
 a matter of irrigation, other conditions being as 
 favourable as those of Egypt. 
 
 Rice. — Rice is essentially a coast crop, grown chiefly 
 in Lambayeque and the Pacasmayo valley of La Libertad. 
 It is of good, but variable, quality, depending on the 
 advance or delay in the floods of the rivers in Spring. 
 The crop, which matures five months after planting, 
 averages from 25,000 to 30,000 tons, with a value of 
 about £500,000, A periodical flooding of the fields is 
 necessary, but little ploughing. Two varieties are grown : 
 “ Carolina ” and Jamaican. No industrial use as yet is 
 made of the straw. Three crops per annum are usually 
 obtained. The quantity grown is insufficient to satisfy 
 the home market, though about one-tenth is exported 
 to neighbouring countries. 
 
 Maize. — The finest maize in the world is grown in Peru. 
 It is an indigenous product, cultivated, like potatoes and 
 cotton, from time immemorial. It is grown in all parts 
 of the country up to a height of 11,500 ft., and is one of 
 
Market, Huancayo 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 147 
 
 the mainstays of the country ; the grain is used as food 
 for both man and beast, and the stalks are used as fodder. 
 Three, and occasionally four, crops are reaped annually. 
 It is all consumed in Peru. The finest quality is grown 
 in Cuzco, where the grains are of the size of large beans. 
 On the coast, the district of Chancay in Lima, is famous, 
 and produces about 10,000 tons per annum. 
 
 Potatoes. — The potato is an indigenous product, 
 probably developed from a bitter tuber still found wild. 
 It is grown in great perfection all over the sierra depart- 
 ments up to, and even beyond, a height of 13,000 ft. 
 With maize, it forms the chief food of the Cholo Indians. 
 Two crops annually are gathered. 
 
 The yam (three crops annually), manioc (one crop), 
 and other tuberous plants are also cultivated. 
 
 Cereals. — Cereal crops — wheat, barley, oats — are 
 grown at heights from 5,000 to 11,500 ft. Among these 
 we may particularise Alfalfa or Lucerne, used largely for 
 fodder, and Quinua, an indigenous plant, much used by 
 both Indians and whites ; the latter is very prolific, and 
 grows freely in poor soils to a height of 13,500 ft. 
 
 Coffee. — The best coffee is grown in the sierra, in the 
 districts of Choquisongo and Carabaya (Puno), Chan- 
 chamayo and Perene (Junin), Paucartambo (Cuzco) and 
 Huanuco. On the coast, the best district is that of 
 Pacasmayo. 
 
 Five hundred plants are set per hectare of ground ; 
 two crops are gathered annually, averaging 1 lb. for each 
 tree in its third year (or 800 to 1 ,000 lb. per acre). 
 
 In one colony at Chanchamayo, there are thirty-three 
 coffee plantations, with 1,700 acres — “ 2,000,000 trees.” 
 
148 
 
 PERU 
 
 The supply is enough for home needs, and no coffee is 
 imported. The export is small, and admits of great 
 development. The Peruvian Corporation owns a con- 
 cession of 2,750,000 acres, less than half of which is at 
 present cultivated. 
 
 Grapes. — Grapes and other fruits can be grown all 
 along the coast valleys ; the chief vineyards are from 
 Lima southwards to Moquegua. The best are in the 
 Campina, near Chincha Alta (lea). Though the vine was 
 certainly introduced as early as 1557, and the crop is, 
 even in bad years, superior to the average European 
 crop, yet viticulture has been till recently much neglected. 
 The vineyards are usually small and attached to haciendas 
 growing other crops. The grapes are grown on stocks, 
 planted in September, about 8 ft. apart, and supported 
 at first on wild canes ; later, trellises of bamboo or willow 
 are put up, resting on adobe columns. The average 
 yield is 900 gallons of wine per acre. 
 
 Of late years, foreign cuttings have been imported 
 and the culture improved. The chief varieties are the 
 Italia and Albilla for white wines, and Quebranta, 
 Moscatel, Negar, and Moyar for red wines ; a pink 
 Italia gives an admirable fruit for the table. The Que- 
 branta is the most prolific, and is grown in almost all 
 the wine-districts. (For the production of wine and 
 spirits, see under Manufactures.) 
 
 Fruit. — There are many other fruits which grow in 
 great abundance in the valleys throughout Peru (see 
 under Flora), but little attention has been yet devoted 
 to their production on a large commercial scale. 
 
 Olives. — The olive was imported from Seville in the 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 149 
 
 sixteenth century, and found in Peru conditions which 
 suited it admirably. It is thoroughly acclimatised, and 
 excels those of Seville and California. Nevertheless, no 
 great attention has been paid to it. About 70,000 lb. 
 are exported annually. The yield of oil is about 30 per 
 cent., and the supply is insufficient to meet the demands 
 of the home market. With further plantation, and the 
 introduction of modern methods and machinery, great 
 possibilities of development in the oil trade exist. 
 
 Tobacco. — Tobacco is grown both on the coast and 
 in the montana, but only in small plantations, and by 
 primitive and unskilled methods. From five to eight 
 crops are gathered annually ; the total yield of the 
 country is probably about 1,000 tons. The best grades 
 are grown at Jaen, Tumbes, Jeberos, and Huancabamba. 
 This is a crop which offers very great possibilities of 
 profitable development in the future. 
 
 Coca. — Coca, a forest product indigenous to Peru and 
 Bolivia, is cultivated in numerous plantations in the 
 sierra departments of Cuzco, Huanuco, and Junin. 
 Yauyos (Lima) and Otusco (La Libertad) are the only 
 parts of the “ coast ” district where it is largely grown. 
 It is grown in warm valleys at an elevation of 3,500 to 
 7,000 ft., with temperature averaging 50-80° Fahr. The 
 soil should be clayey, with iron, but no salts. The plant 
 requires frequent rain, but not marshy ground, and is 
 grown on the slopes of the valleys. Three or four crops 
 are reaped annually, the first eighteen months after 
 planting ; the yield continues for forty years. Consider- 
 able care is needed both in plucking and in preserving 
 the leaves. 
 
 ii— (2247) 
 
150 
 
 PERU 
 
 There is a large export both of leaves and of cocaine, 
 but it is difficult to estimate the total produce of coca, 
 as the home consumption by the Indians is very large. 
 
 Cocoa. — Cocoa grows wild in the montana, and is 
 doubtless one of the crops naturally suited to that region, 
 and one which will be planted extensively there in the 
 future. At present, the best cocoa is grown in the 
 department of Cuzco. It is practically all consumed 
 in the country. Planting is extending in the Perene 
 valley (Junin), where some 200,000 trees have been 
 recently set. The crop is continuous throughout the 
 year. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Among minor crops may be men- 
 tioned Ramie or China grass ; haricot beans (each of 
 these gives four crops annually) ; flax and hemp (two 
 crops annually) ; bananas (chiefly in the montana ) ; the 
 castor-oil plant ( higuerilla ) ; and mulberry trees for 
 silkworm culture. 
 
 Forest Products. — With the exception of rubber and 
 vegetable ivory or tagua, there is as yet hardly any com- 
 mercial exploitation of the forest wealth of Peru. The 
 exportation of Peruvian or Chinchona bark, formerly 
 large, has practically disappeared ; the prevailing varie- 
 ties were the “ royal ” or yellow bark, near Carabaya 
 (Puno), and the grey bark, in Huanuco. The trees have 
 been exterminated in some districts by reckless methods 
 of gathering. The production of sarsaparilla has similarly 
 dwindled ; nor is much use yet made of the numerous 
 dyewoods, tanning barks, and timber trees of the 
 montana. 
 
 On the other hand, the export of “ vegetable ivory ” 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 151 
 
 has sprung up very rapidly of recent years, as will be 
 seen from the following table — 
 
 The material is used in Europe for manufacturing 
 buttons, toys, and inlaid work. The palm, which bears 
 three nuts, is not cultivated, but grows wild ; the nuts 
 are gathered by Indians and transported to Iquitos, and 
 thence to Europe. The tree is the Phytelephas macro- 
 carpa, and the nuts are known as ” tagua,” " Corozo,” 
 or “ Marfil vegetal.” In the forest they are used for 
 curing rubber. 
 
 India-rubber. In the Amazon region, as in the tropics 
 generally, there are hundreds of different trees, shrubs, 
 and vines that produce rubber ; but of these only a 
 few produce it in a form and on a scale commercially 
 profitable. The Peruvian montana furnishes two kinds 
 of rubber, viz. : (a) the fine rubber (jebe), known com- 
 mercially as Par&, produced by several species of Hevea 
 trees ; and ( b ) the inferior ( caucho ), produced mainly by 
 the Castilloa elastica. In the former, incisions are made 
 round the trunk at regular intervals, and the milk or 
 latex is collected in little tin cups. The trees grow in 
 groups of 50 to 100 or 150 in a small area ; such a group 
 is known as an estrada, and is worked by one collector 
 or shiringuero. The best latex is violet in hue, inferior 
 kinds being red or whitish. The trees, so treated, bear 
 year after year, for twenty years, an average of about 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 374 
 
 3,774 
 
 79,300 
 
 449,585 
 
 1,185,674 
 
152 
 
 PERU 
 
 20 lb. The rubber is poured into a long-handled mould 
 and “ cured ” by being revolved in the smoke of a fire 
 made of “ humiro ” or tagua nuts, and is exported in balls. 
 
 The inferior rubber, or caucho, was formerly obtained 
 by completely felling the tree, a wasteful method now 
 forbidden by law. The milk flowed into a hole in the 
 ground, and was coagulated by means of a solution of 
 soap and a native plant, vetilla. It was exported in the 
 form of planks, known as Peruvian slab. About 100 lb. 
 would be yielded by each tree felled. 
 
 Sometimes, in both species of trees, long channels are 
 cut in the bark, and the exuding juice is allowed to 
 coagulate naturally. The resulting ribbons of rubber 
 are rolled in balls, known as Sernamby de jebe and 
 Sernamby de Caucho respectively. 
 
 The tables shown on next page, from the Consular 
 Report for 1912, illustrate the volume of the Peruvian 
 rubber trade and the classes of rubber produced. 
 
 Rubber is collected in Peru from the trees growing 
 naturally in the forests ; there has been as yet no planta- 
 tion. The quality is equal to that obtained in any part 
 of the world, and is for some purposes indispensable ; 
 and the quantity appears inexhaustible. Though the 
 distances are great, the natural system of waterways 
 furnishes a cheap and easy means of transport. The 
 condition of the trade, however, is far from healthy, and 
 a Commission was recently appointed by the President 
 to propose measures of amelioration. There are frequent 
 and extreme variations in prices ; heavy export duties 
 are imposed (8 per cent, ad valorem generally ; but 4 per 
 cent, for rubber from the Javary, which might also be 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 153 
 
 Exports of Rubber from Iquitos, 1907-12 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1907 2,896,407 
 
 1908 2,385,152 
 
 1909 2,522,066 
 
 1910 2,294,191 
 
 1911 2,081,887 
 
 1912 2,813,964 
 
 Classification and Destination of Rubber Exported 
 from Iquitos in 1912 
 
 
 Havre. 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Fine Rubber 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 [jebe) . . 
 
 318,206 
 
 434,923 
 
 75,908 
 
 42,898 
 
 Entrefine 
 
 26,494 
 
 39,977 
 
 1,681 
 
 1,692 
 
 Weak fine 
 
 144,081 
 
 318,734 
 
 146,235 
 
 38,228 
 
 Sernamby de jebe 
 
 150,634 
 
 169,834 
 
 27,257 
 
 14,407 
 
 Caucho . . 
 Sernamby de 
 
 35,578 
 
 14,278 
 
 256 
 
 4,631 
 
 Caucho 
 
 359,374 
 
 334,740 
 
 74,496 
 
 37,422 
 
 Total 
 
 1,034,367 
 
 1,312,486 
 
 327,833 
 
 139,278 
 
 sent to Man&os instead of to Iquitos) ; these duties are 
 levied in gold in advance, and are based on Liverpool 
 prices, the result being that the business is extremely 
 speculative. Again, it is run entirely on a credit basis ; 
 the collectors receive advances in kind from the patron or 
 company ; the patron obtains supplies on credit from 
 commercial firms at Iquitos, and these, in turn, from 
 European houses. Among suggested reforms are (1) 
 reduction of export duties ; (2) greater care in preparing 
 the rubber for export, thus reducing cost of packing and 
 freight ; (3) introduction of planting ; (4) offering induce- 
 ments to the labourers to work the whole year round, 
 instead of five or six months only. 
 
154 
 
 PERU 
 
 The recent revelations concerning rubber-gathering on 
 the Putumayo have shown that in Peru, as in Brazil and 
 on the Congo, the business has been attended by fright- 
 ful maltreatment of the natives ; this fact alone is a 
 strong argument for the substitution, in place of the 
 present forest collection, of plantations where Govern- 
 ment supervision would be more feasible than it is 
 now. 
 
 Guano. — Guano, the excreta of fish-eating sea-fowl, is 
 an exceedingly valuable general fertiliser, largely nitro- 
 genous and phosphatic in composition, but containing 
 numerous salts and other constituents. The immense 
 numbers of the sea birds on the west coast of America, 
 has resulted in vast deposits of guano being formed on 
 the coasts and on the desert islands just off the coast. 
 The peculiar value of the Peruvian deposits is derived 
 from the rainlessness of the climate, in consequence of 
 which the nitrogenous elements remain undissolved to 
 the extent of 13-14 per cent. 
 
 Guano, long used by the Incas and Spaniards in agri- 
 culture (under the Inca regime, it was State property), 
 was introduced to the notice of Europe by Humboldt in 
 1804. For many years the great deposits of the Chincha 
 Islands formed a source of easy wealth for Peru. It has 
 been calculated that from 1841 to 1879 over 12,000,000 
 tons were exported, with a net profit to the State of 
 nearly £80,000,000. President Billinghurst, in his 
 message to Congress of 1913, stated that a prolonged 
 study of the administration of these revenues results in 
 the conclusion that the only justifiable investments made 
 were the following : — 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 155 
 
 Twenty Warships .. .. .. 1,000,000 
 
 The Penitentiary . . . . . . 176,000 
 
 Exhibition Garden and Palace . . 600,000 
 
 Balta Bridge . . . . . . 60,000 
 
 or a total of £1,836,000. In other words, £78,000,000 
 were lost through prodigal and corrupt administration ; 
 and, in spite of this great annual revenue, recourse was 
 had to foreign loans at high interest to build the railways 
 of the country. 
 
 Much of the guano ground was lost by the war with 
 Chile ; and in 1890 cession was made to the foreign 
 bondholders of guano in Peruvian territory, up to 
 3,000,000 English tons, a quantity afterwards reduced 
 to 2,000,000, together with the surplus of 50 per cent, 
 of the guano of the Lobos Islands after the liquidation 
 of the account between Peru and Chile. The exports 
 of guano by the Peruvian Corporation have been as 
 follows — 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1891-1895 
 
 166,877 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 122,739 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 350,169 
 
 1906-1910 
 
 382,151 
 
 1911-1913 (April) 
 
 112,982 
 
 
 1,134,918 
 
 proceeds of the above were — 
 
 £ 
 
 1892-1896 
 
 376,133 
 
 1897-1901 
 
 322,886 
 
 1902-1906 
 
 808,477 
 
 1907-1911 
 
 712,457 
 
 1912 
 
 141,143 
 
 
 2,361,096 
 
156 
 
 PERU 
 
 For home use, Peru has obtained, from 1896 to 1912, 
 some 373,860 tons of guano. 
 
 As the export in 1883 reached a total of £807,600, it 
 will be seen that the output has greatly diminished. 
 This is due partly to the exhaustion of the southern 
 deposits and the disturbance of the breeding grounds. 
 The export is now mainly from the more northerly 
 islands, such as Guar.api, Macabi, Malabrigo, and the 
 Lobos groups. Protection, where necessary, is now 
 afforded to the birds. 
 
 Land Tenure and Colonisation. — The Constitution 
 enacts that any foreigner may acquire territorial pro- 
 perty in the republic according to law, under precisely 
 the same obligations and conditions as the native 
 Peruvian citizen. Laws of Congress passed in 1898, 
 1909, and 1910 have specifically contemplated and pro- 
 vided for the establishment of colonies for the develop- 
 ment of the country. The Executive is authorised to 
 use certain State lands for this purpose, selling or letting 
 them to individuals or corporations for purposes of agri- 
 culture, manufacture, or mining, or for the encourage- 
 ment of works of public utility, such as irrigation and 
 the building of roads and railways. The grants made 
 under these laws have been made hitherto not so much 
 for the furtherance of agriculture and colonisation, as for 
 these latter objects. 
 
 In earlier times, a British colony was planted at 
 Chanchamayo, and a German one at Pozuzo ; but these 
 efforts were hampered by difficulties of communication, 
 and were hardly successful. Profits were swallowed up 
 by the cost of transport. Of late years, vigorous efforts 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 157 
 
 have been made to develop the southern montana. (See 
 Madre de Dios in the List of Departments.) 
 
 The cultivable coast lands are mainly held by large 
 companies or wealthy proprietors ; in other cases, they 
 are owned by communities, whose title reaches back to 
 the pre-Inca period of the Chimus. Undeveloped State 
 lands in this region may be sold or granted on terms 
 based on the ensuing benefit to the country ; irrigation 
 is especially encouraged. There is no opening here for 
 the intending colonist, unless he is possessed of both 
 ample means and experience. 
 
 In the case of sugar and cotton growing, partnerships 
 are often arranged between the smaller cultivator and 
 the capitalist factory owner, on conditions such as the 
 following : The capitalist provides land and water- 
 
 supply, taking, in return, one-quarter of the crop ; or 
 he provides, in addition, seed, tools, oxen, etc., receiving 
 one-half. 1 If a money rent is paid, it averages in such 
 cases 8s. 6d. to 14s. per acre annually, according to the 
 amount supplied by the owner. 
 
 In the sierra region the desirable land in the valleys 
 has been long occupied. In the rocky highlands of the 
 Andes the Cholo Indians retain the small freehold hold- 
 ings (known as chacaras), which they have cultivated for 
 generations ; often they have been created by banking 
 up terrace-gardens in almost inaccessible positions and 
 carrying the soil there. These possessions — too poor, 
 perhaps, to excite the avarice of the Spaniard— are now 
 secured by law to the peasantry. In this region there 
 
 1 This is, approximately, the system adopted for the growth 
 of coffee and cocoa in the Perene colony of the Peruvian 
 
 Corporation. 
 
158 
 
 PERU 
 
 is even less opening for the intending colonist, who must 
 look rather to the higher and more accessible valleys of 
 the montana. 
 
 Concessions of montana land are made (1) as free 
 grants ; (2) as freehold property, at about 10s. per 
 hectare ( i.e ., 2£ acres) ; (3) as tenancies held from the 
 State at a rental of 2s. per hectare. Grants are per- 
 petual, subject to an annual tax of 2£d. per hectare. 
 Fertile land in very beautiful sub-tropical country may 
 be acquired at a low cost ; living, too, is cheap. On 
 the other hand, the population is very scanty, and 
 means of communication few and costly. The European 
 colonist, of course, would only settle in the higher part 
 of the montana, where the elevation above sea-level 
 mitigates the climatic conditions. 
 
 Grazing and Cattle-breeding. — The grazing and 
 live-stock industry of the sierra region is important and 
 flourishing. It is carried on throughout the whole 
 length of the country from Tumbes to Puno, at suitable 
 elevations, up to 13,000 ft. or more. Pasturage for 
 sheep, and in the winter for cattle also, begins in the 
 foothills ( lomas ) of the coast region ; but the large 
 ranches are to be found only in the sierra uplands, where 
 abundant natural pasturage is to be found. Some of 
 these ranches have 20,000 head of cattle and 50,000 
 sheep. Generally speaking, the cattle are bony, but not 
 large, the cows yielding milk of rich quality, but small 
 in quantity. The sheep are smallish, with long legs, and 
 are shorn once in two or three years. The industry is 
 sufficiently large, not only to supply the needs of the 
 whole country in meat and wool, but also to export a 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 159 
 
 considerable quantity abroad. These exports amounted, 
 in 1911, to over £633,000; the largest item was wool 
 (£481,845), including that of the alpaca, the sheep, and 
 the llama, in descending order. Other items were hides, 
 goat-skins, cattle, horns, live animals, parchment, tallow, 
 lard, and horsehair. Swine are largely bred and, with 
 lard, exported from Chancay, in the department of 
 Lima. The Cholo Indians of the sierras are excellent 
 shepherds, and from a tradition of many generations are 
 very expert in the breeding and management of the 
 llama and alpaca. (These animals and the other members 
 of the family are described under Fauna.) Other domestic 
 animals have been imported and acclimatised from 
 Europe ; more cross-breeding with foreign animals is 
 needed to improve their strains. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 MINING AND MINERALS — MINING LAWS 
 
 Mining and Minerals. — The mineral resources of Peru 
 are of extraordinary extent and variety, and her produc- 
 tion of gold and silver has long been famous. Judged 
 from the point of view of exports, the most important of 
 these products are : Copper, silver, vanadium, petroleum, 
 lead, borax, gold, coal, and salt. Others, less important 
 commercially, but known to exist in considerable quantity, 
 are antimony, sulphur, bismuth, quicksilver, nickel, zinc, 
 iron, cobalt, wolfram, molybdenite, graphite, magnesia, 
 manganese, mica ; also marbles, alabaster, porphyry, 
 jasper, gypsum, kaolin clay, and ochres. Tin is not 
 known in Peru, but is found in abundance near the 
 Peruvian border in Bolivia, to the east of L. Titicaca. 
 
 Gold was worked and possessed in very large quantities 
 by the Incas. It was the discovery of this wealth that 
 led to the Spanish conquest of the country and the over- 
 throw of the indigenous civilisation of Peru. The Incas 
 probably obtained their gold mainly from alluvial deposits ; 
 they mined silver, lead, and copper, and smelted these 
 ores in primitive furnaces. 
 
 During the Colonial period the Spaniards pressed with 
 great avidity the winning of the precious metals — gold, 
 silver, and quicksilver. By the law of Mita, the Indians 
 within 30 miles of a mine were drawn by lot for forced 
 service underground for a period of six months, and it 
 is believed that about 80 per cent, perished within the 
 period. 
 
 160 
 
Pack Llamas, for transporting minerals 
 
MINING AND MINERALS 
 
 161 
 
 About 1,400 mines were in operation, among them the 
 famous quicksilver mine of Huancavelica. This period 
 closed with the Wars of Liberation, which were followed 
 by recurrent revolutions. 
 
 The abolition of slavery in 1855 stopped the supply 
 of forced labour ; and the Government turned, for a 
 source of easy profit, from mining to the exploitation of 
 the great supplies of guano and nitrate found on or near 
 the coast. 
 
 In 1876 a new mining code was issued, and a National 
 School of Mines was founded at Lima, which has among 
 its objects the systematic survey of the mineral wealth 
 of the country. The development of mining which 
 appeared to be starting was checked by the war with 
 Chile, and has only within recent years revived. The 
 chief points in this later movement are the extension of 
 railways, the foundation of American works on a large 
 scale in Cerro de Pasco, and the issue of a new Mining 
 Code in 1901. The bulk of the minerals lie in the Andine 
 region, occupying an area of some 1,500 miles long and 
 200 to 300 miles broad. The great elevation and inacces- 
 sibility of this region, and the difficulties of transport, 
 have been great obstacles to the progress of mining. 
 The two chief railways of Peru now penetrate into the 
 inter- Andine district, and the linking up of the railway 
 system will in the future enhance enormously the 
 possibilities of the industry. 
 
 Copper occurs throughout the region from Cajamarca 
 to Cuzco. It is chiefly exploited by the American Cerro 
 de Pasco Mining Co. The ores are, for the most part, 
 grey copper and iron pyrites, with a considerable 
 
162 
 
 PERU 
 
 admixture of gold and silver. Large smelting works are 
 in operation at the Cerro and at Casapalca, and smaller 
 establishments at Yauli, Huallanca, and Huinac. The 
 output has risen from 1,000 tons in 1897 to 27,734 tons 
 metric (£1,411,416) in 1911. A detailed report of the 
 mines in the Cerro district is quoted below. 
 
 Silver is abundant, especially on the eastern slopes of 
 the Andes. The chief districts are Salpo, Hualgayoc, 
 Huari, Huallanca, Huaylas, Huaras, Recuay, Cajatambo, 
 Yauli, Cerro de Pasco, Morococha, Huarochiri, Huan- 
 cavelica, Quispisisa, Castrovirreina, Lucanas, Lampa, 
 Caylloma, and Puno. The ores are red oxides, sulphides, 
 and galena or silver-lead. A good deal is treated by 
 lixiviation and amalgamation with quicksilver in small 
 local works, but much is exported for smelting and 
 refining. One of the largest lodes is that of Carahuacra, 
 over 3 miles long, and occasionally 100 ft. thick. The 
 output in 1911 was 289,383 kg. (£926,713). 
 
 Vanadium, a recent product, is now obtained in large 
 quantities at Cerro de Pasco and exported to America. 
 Output in 1911 was 2,251 m. tons (£215,000). 
 
 Petroleum is found (1) in Tumbes ; (2) at Talara and 
 Zorritos, in Piura ; and (3) near L. Titicaca, in Puno. 
 The output, steadily increasing, in 1911 was 195,276 m. 
 tons (£785,071). 
 
 Lead is found in all the silver-bearing districts, chiefly 
 as galena, accompanied by silver and sometimes by gold. 
 As the cost of transport to the coast is at present pro- 
 hibitive, it is treated almost entirely for the extraction 
 of silver. Output in 1911 was 2,209 m. tons (£12,541). 
 
 Borax, together with mica and sulphur, is found in the 
 
MINING AND MINERALS 
 
 163 
 
 districts of Sechura (Piura), Camana, and Arequipa 
 (Arequipa). Output in 1911 was 1,923 m. tons 
 (£24,867) . 
 
 Gold is obtained in two forms, either from alluvial 
 deposits, or in the form of ores, usually mixed with 
 copper, silver, iron, etc. The principal alluvial districts 
 — situated on the Amazon watershed — are in the Sandia 
 and Carabaya provinces of Puno ; in Paucartambo and 
 Quispicanchi (Cuzco) ; Aymaraes and Antabamba (Apu- 
 rimac) ; Huanuco ; Pataz and Chuquibamba on the 
 Upper Maranon ; and near the rapids of Manseriche. 
 The metal is found in river-beds, in plains of auriferous 
 soil, and in large banks or moraines of gravel, such as 
 occur at Poto and Aporoma in the Sandia province of 
 Puno. Most of these are at present unworked, or only 
 casually worked by the Indians ; but at Poto a few 
 hydraulic “ monitors ” are installed. 
 
 Gold ores, usually in ferruginous quartz, are found 
 (1) on the west side of the Andes, at Salpo, Otusco, 
 Huailas, Yungay, Canete, lea, Nasca, Andaray, Arequipa, 
 and elsewhere ; and (2) on the plateaux and eastern 
 Andean slopes from Pataz to Puno. The old workings, 
 found throughout the region, were never deep, and the 
 methods of exploitation were primitive ; the ores are 
 crushed by hand labour in stone mills or basins called 
 kimbaletes, and treated with quicksilver. It is probable 
 that deep workings with powerful crushing machinery 
 would, in proved districts, result in profitable working. 
 
 British companies hold concessions at Andaray, Chuqui- 
 tambo, Aporoma, and Inambari. Peruvian companies 
 at Andaray, Cotabambas, and Pataz ; and an American 
 
164 
 
 PERU 
 
 company at Santo Domingo. Output in 1911 was 
 741 kg. (£101,152). 
 
 Coal, both bituminous and anthracite, is found (a) 
 in the Andes ; and ( b ) on the coast near Piura, Salaverry, 
 Chimbote, Huarmey, and Pisco. Immense quantities 
 exist ; and while the coalfields on the coast appears to 
 offer a good chance of commercial exploitation, those 
 inland will prove of service for railway, mining, and 
 manufacturing purposes. The output, at present 
 insignificant, is 324,000 m. tons (£194,155). 
 
 Salt is found in various forms in Tumbes, Lima, 
 Huancavelica, Cuzco, lea, Puno, Arequipa, and 
 Moquegua. It is mainly worked at present at the 
 salinas or salt-works of Huacho, in the department of 
 Lima. Output in 1911 was 24,867 m. tons (£24,867). 
 
 Quicksilver usually occurs in cinnabar ores as sulphide 
 of mercury, but native mercury is sometimes found. It 
 was produced at Huancavelica in huge quantities, from 
 1566 till the year when the mine fell in (1786). The ore 
 occurs in an immense lode, about 200 ft. wide, and is 
 still workable. Other districts in Ancachs ( e.g ., Chonta) 
 and in Puno also yield quicksilver. The output now has 
 almost ceased; in 1911 it was 560 kg. (£123). 
 
 The output of fine bismuth, in 1911, amounted to a 
 value of £7,329, and that of tungsten to £4,326. Antimony 
 is produced, but only in small quantities. 
 
 Iron ores exist in Piura, the Huailas valley, and else- 
 where, but they are not as yet worked. Nitrate has been 
 found at Caraveli. 
 
 Cerro de Pasco. — Mining generally, in Peru, is in a 
 stationary condition, but there has been a notable 
 
MINING AND MINERALS 
 
 165 
 
 increase in the production of copper and vanadium. 
 The most active district is that of Cerro de Pasco, where 
 certain mines, previously offered to an English syndicate, 
 were acquired for $14,000,000 by an American company. 
 This took place during the presidency of Senor Romana 
 (1899-1903). There was at this period considerable 
 friction between the Government and the Peruvian 
 Corporation, the former holding that the development 
 of the country was being selfishly retarded by the 
 Corporation. American capital was, therefore, welcomed 
 as a counterpoise to the somewhat exclusive policy of the 
 Corporation. The following extract from the British 
 Consular Report for 1911-12 shows the existing position 
 of the mines in the Cerro district — 
 
 Silver and Copper Mines.— The Cerro de Pasco Mining 
 Company, who are now the principal owners here, are still 
 working on a small scale at the central shaft, having plenty 
 of ore on hand. They are at present only working two blast 
 furnaces and two reverberatories. The output for the present 
 year amounts to about 40,000,000 lbs. of copper, and a small 
 amount of silver and gold. They expect to enlarge their 
 output during the coming year. 
 
 From their coal mines situated at Goyllarisquisga they are 
 producing about 650 tons daily, a decrease on their output of 
 last year on account of the scarcity of labour. But they also 
 buy foreign coke and petroleum, the output from their own 
 coal mines not being sufficient to keep them going. They 
 have now started building a branch line of about 18 kiloms., 
 to some of their mines at Quishuarcaucha, which they expect 
 to finish before the end of the coming year, and will help them 
 very much in obtaining supplies of coal for making coke. 
 
 Huarancaca. At this establishment they are producing 
 a little over 200 tons per day. The bars contain about 25 per 
 cent, of copper and 600 ozs. of silver to the ton, with traces 
 of gold. 
 
 Vanadium Mines, the property of the American Vanadium 
 
 12— (2247) 
 
166 
 
 PERU 
 
 Company, are still working, though there was a report of their 
 stoppage. They are producing about 12,000 sacks of 110 lbs. 
 per month, averaging from 35 to 40 per cent, of this metal. 
 
 Vinchos. This company’s output is now about 150 tons per 
 month, containing about 600 to 700 ozs. of silver per ton and 
 25 to 30 per cent, lead, and expect to produce more in the 
 coming year. 
 
 Chuquitambo Gold Mines. These are producing about 
 the same as last year — from 9 to 10 kilos, per month. This 
 company started a cyaniding process to work their tailings, 
 but this process up to the present has not turned out a success. 
 
 Atacocha. Hardly any work has been done here during the 
 present year, the mines having almost stopped working. 
 
 Huaillay. These mines have only been worked about six 
 months during the present year ; production about 800 sacks 
 of 110 lbs. per month, containing about 28 per cent, copper, 
 and 50 ozs. of silver, and \ oz. of gold per ton ; the output has 
 been exported. These mines have been bought by a French 
 company, who at present are only doing exploration work. 
 
 Electric Light and Power Works. The Cerro de Pasco 
 Mining Company and the Morococha Company have taken 
 possession of the rivers and waters between Oroya and 
 Morococha, for the purpose of erecting a powerful factory to 
 serve both the companies for lighting and power. They have 
 started erecting the plant and expect to finish in a year or 
 a year and a half. 
 
 Morococha. This company’s mines have begun work, the 
 metal being sent to the smelter up here, about 150 tons per 
 day, and they will soon double this quantity. The ores 
 contain about 9 or 10 per cent, copper and silver. 
 
 Claims. — The size of a mining claim (pertenencia) varies 
 from 200 by 100 metres 2 hectares = 5 acres) for 
 lodes, to 200 by 200 metres (4 hectares or 10 acres) for 
 deposits. One owner may hold any number of claims. 
 Each claim is subject to a tax of 30 soles annually (— £3), 
 and lapses to the Government if the tax is unpaid. 
 
 Labour. — Manual labour is performed by the sierra 
 Indians, and wages at present are low ; work is often 
 
MINING LAWS 
 
 167 
 
 done by the piece. It should be borne in mind that the 
 Indian prefers agricultural work to labour in the mine 
 or factory, and any large development of mining might be 
 faced by the difficulty of a scarcity of labour suited to 
 work at the high altitudes common in Peru. 
 
 Output. — The total output for 1910 was estimated 
 at a value of £3,373,212 (of which gold was valued at 
 £96,612) ; and for 1911, at £3,699,615 (gold, £101,152). 
 Details of the minerals exported are given in the Chapter 
 on Imports and Exports. 
 
 Mining Laws. — The present Mining Code, passed in 
 July, 1900, has been in force since January 1st, 1901. 
 It revokes all previous legislation on the subject, save 
 the laws on the School of Engineers, on Guano, on 
 Nitrate, on Mining Taxes, on the Salt Monopoly, and on 
 the Fiscal Duties. It is an exhaustive document, of 
 220 articles, arranged in eighteen chapters ; these deal 
 with mining property generally ; prospecting ; the unit 
 of measure, extension, and form of concessions ; taxes ; 
 mining administration and jurisdiction ; persons capable 
 of acquiring mining property ; the method of lodging 
 mining claims ; the relations between the concessionary 
 and the owner of the soil ; the relations between mine- 
 owners ; arrangements for general audits for adjoining 
 mines ; land and water for reduction works ; rights of 
 way ; mining companies ; mortgages and other con- 
 tracts ; technical functionaries ; mining lawsuits ; expro- 
 priation and indemnification ; and arrangements to 
 govern the transition from the previous to the present 
 code. The following points are extracted — 
 
 The ownership of mines is distinct from that of the 
 
168 
 
 PERU 
 
 land or superficial property. Concessions are for mineral 
 substances capable of industrial use, but do not include 
 (a) guano, which remains State property ; (6) salt ; 
 
 (c) nitrate, borax, and alkaline salts, which are regulated 
 by special laws ; ( d ) rocks, building and ornamental 
 stones, gypsum, ochres, clays, peat, steatite, calcareous 
 phosphates, pyrites, aluminium, and magnesia, all of 
 which belong to the owner of the soil. 
 
 Prospecting is free in unfenced lands, but requires the 
 consent of the owner in fenced property, or a licence 
 from the local mining authority. 
 
 An annual tax of 30 soles (£3) must be paid on each 
 claim, half on 30th J une and half on 31st December ; pro- 
 visional concessions for prospecting are charged 1 sole (2s.) 
 per hectare. Failure to pay the tax (which is surcharged in 
 succeeding periods ) renders the holding liable to confiscation. 
 
 The central administrative body is a Superior Mining 
 Council, of seven members, presided over by the Minister 
 of Development ( Fomento ). The local administration 
 is (a) by territorial deputations (of two members) in 
 important mining districts ; or ( b ) by one delegate ; or, 
 in the absence of either of the above, (c) by the judge or 
 acting-judge of the lower court of the province. Sub- 
 stitutes are appointed, who are to act in the absence of 
 either deputy or delegate. 
 
 Art. 18th. The claim or unit of measure for mining con- 
 cessions, except in beds mentioned in the following art., is a 
 prismoidial solid of rectangular base with an extension of 
 two hectares, having one side of two hundred meters and the 
 other of one hundred, measured horizontally in any direction 
 which the petitioner may point out and of indefinite depth 
 in the vertical direction. 
 
MINING LAWS 
 
 169 
 
 Art. 19th. In placers, coal and petroleum deposits, and 
 analogous ones of gold, platinum, tin, etc., claims shall have 
 a square base with sides two hundred meters long. 
 
 Art. 20th. The mining concession applied for by the 
 denouncer, may embrace any number of claims up to sixty. 
 
 Art. 21st. Claims forming together a single concession 
 must be grouped without interruption and form a rectangle 
 whose sides must be in a proportion not exceeding ten to one. 
 
 Art. 42nd. The following are the attributions of the 
 Mining Deputations — 
 
 1st. To decree and decide on everything respecting 
 concessions, possession and measurements of mines within 
 the territory of their jurisdiction, to attend to the formation 
 and registration of the titles of the mining concession : to 
 superintend mining labours as far as it should be necessary 
 so as to foresee, prevent and remedy accidents and to 
 protect the life and security of the workmen. 
 
 2nd. To resolve in a lower court with the character of 
 privative judges, litigations which may be promoted with 
 respect to denouncements, concessions, measurements and 
 possessions, introduction in strange claims, expropriations, 
 attendances, boundaries, and all other matters that have 
 reference to mines. 
 
 3rd. To decide questions relating to wages between 
 employers and workmen, in which cases a Justice of the 
 Peace may intervene, whenever the distance to the seat 
 of the Deputations exceeds twenty kilometres and the 
 amount of the business is not greater than two hundred 
 soles. 
 
 Art. 43rd. Attributions of the Deputations are also the 
 superior police of mines and all mining establishments within 
 their respective territories so as to be able to attend to the 
 security of persons. 
 
 Art. 44th. Deputations have the duty of transmitting to 
 the Government all data respecting mining industry in the 
 territory of their jurisdiction, when so requested. 
 
 Art. 45th. One Deputy’s attendance suffices for the 
 discharge of the functions entrusted to the Deputation ; but 
 both will intervene if at the time of deciding on some matter 
 any of the concerned parties so require it. 
 
170 
 
 PERU 
 
 Generally speaking, any Peruvian or foreigner capable 
 of owning property may acquire mining claims, except 
 Government officials in the sphere of their offices, and 
 the wives and sons (under age) of such officials. 
 
 A fee of 5 soles (10s.) is required on applying for a 
 claim. 
 
 Registered applications are advertised by placard at 
 the office door and in the newspapers ; and, if unopposed, 
 possession may be claimed after three months. If 
 opposed, the matter is decided by the deputation, experts 
 being called in, if necessary. Records of all claims, 
 possessions, and proceedings are to be filed. Titles are 
 finally authorised by the Mining Department of Lima, 
 and when once registered in the tax-list of mines can 
 only be disputed before common law. 
 
 Appeal against a judgment of the local deputation 
 must be made within five days. The Court of Appeal is 
 constituted of two members of the Superior Court and 
 one acting mining judge. 
 
 Opportunities for litigation seem numerous ; and it 
 must be added that competent observers report that 
 the administration of law in Peru leaves much to be 
 desired. Success in litigation is chiefly a matter of the 
 purse ; and the higher the court, the longer the purse 
 required. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 MANUFACTURES AND MINOR INDUSTRIES 
 
 Apart from her great agricultural and mining industries, 
 Peru possesses a large number of manufactures, some of 
 which are on a very considerable scale. Under the Inca 
 regime, despite somewhat primitive methods, a high pro- 
 ficiency was attained in weaving, pottery, smelting, and 
 gold and silversmiths’ work. These traditional arts still 
 survive ; to this day, the Indians of the sierra manu- 
 facture their clothes, hats, and blankets or ponchos, as 
 their forefathers did before the coming of the Spaniards. 
 But during the last thirty years, there has been a develop- 
 ment of manufactures on a larger scale, worked by 
 machinery of European origin. The capital and owner- 
 ship, though sometimes domestic, is for the most part 
 foreign, and the management also of these establishments 
 is mainly in the hands of foreigners. The most important 
 of the industries are sugar-making, textiles, brewing and 
 distilling, wine-making, smelting, and engineering ; but 
 there are numerous minor industries. Most of the large 
 factories (except in the case of sugar) are in or near Lima, 
 Callao, Arequipa, and Cuzco. 
 
 Sugar. — Upwards of fifty plantations or haciendas in 
 the sugar district of the west coast have their own mills. 
 The annual produce is about 150,000 tons, of which the 
 home market consumes about 30,000 tons. One of the 
 leading factories is that of the British Sugar Co. at Santa 
 Barbara, in the Canete valley, which produces some 
 
 171 
 
172 
 
 PERU 
 
 16.000 tons per annum. Until recently, the machinery 
 in these mills was old-fashioned and inadequate, extract- 
 ing little more than 75 per cent, sucrose in place of 90 per 
 cent. This reproach is being done away with now. An 
 important new installation of the latest machinery, with 
 the best labour-saving devices, has just been erected in 
 the Roma factory, and great improvements have been 
 introduced at Laredo, Tuman, Cartavio, and Casa Grande. 
 The future output will, therefore, be considerably larger. 
 
 Textiles. — (a) Cotton. Lima has five factories ; Are- 
 quipa and lea, one each. There are upwards of 1,500 
 looms, producing about 24,000,000 yds., and occupying 
 1,500 hands. Calico, drill, towelling, and “ Cashmeres ’* 
 are made, supplying a large part of the requirements of 
 the home market ; but calico printing is not attempted. 
 
 (b) Woollen. There are five factories, at Cuzco, Lima, 
 and Arequipa. That at Santa Catalina, Lima, produces 
 
 200.000 yds. of cloth annually, used mainly for army 
 clothing. The most modern equipment is at Marangani, 
 near Cuzco. 
 
 Probably the output could be trebled. 
 
 Beer, Wine, and Spirits. — The brewing of beer is 
 rapidly increasing. The largest brewery is that of 
 Backus & Johnston (British capital), at Lima; there 
 are others in Callao, Arequipa, and Cuzco. 
 
 Alcohol is distilled in great quantities in the wine- 
 growing district, and near Lima and Callao ; some 
 
 770.000 galls, of pisco (a spirit made from white grapes) 
 are produced annually. All the sugar of the montaha 
 is at present used in the manufacture of aguardiente 
 (rum). 
 
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 173 
 
 Wines, both cheap and good, are made to the extent 
 of about 2,200,000 galls, per annum. 
 
 Ore Smelting is largely in American hands, e.g., at 
 Cerro de Pasco and Morococha. It admits of further 
 development. 
 
 Engineering. — Large railway engineering shops are at 
 work in Callao, Arequipa, and Pacasmayo ; Iquitos also 
 possesses an engineering establishment. These are valu- 
 able not only for their equipment, but for the mechanical 
 training they impart. 
 
 Hydro-electric Installations of considerable size, on the 
 Rimac, 16 and 25 miles from Lima, provide electric 
 power for the capital. Other large towns (e.g., Trujillo, 
 Arequipa) possess similar establishments ; and a large 
 installation is being erected for the Cerro de Pasco and 
 Morococha mining companies. The great water power 
 supplied by the rivers of Peru invites further operations 
 in this field. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Cocaine is manufactured in sufficient 
 quantities to satisfy the world’s demand. About thirty 
 factories exist in the coca-producing districts, the largest 
 being at Otusco and Lima. 
 
 Coca leaves, chewed with alkali, have from time 
 immemorial been used by the Indians as a stimulant 
 to exertion in the absence or scarcity of food. 
 
 Central rice mills, with fairly modern machinery, exist 
 in the rice districts. Climatic conditions and inadequate 
 irrigation hamper the growth of this commodity, and 
 the supply is not sufficient for the demands of the home 
 market. 
 
 Cotton-seed oil and cotton-seed cake are made in eight or 
 
174 
 
 PERU 
 
 ten factories in Lima, Chancay, and Cerro Azul. Both 
 the cake and the seed are exported in considerable 
 quantities (vide Exports). 
 
 The manufacture of tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes has 
 been a Government monopoly since 1909. There are 
 five factories in Lima and others in Callao, Piura, 
 Trujillo, and Arequipa. Peruvian tobacco is somewhat 
 coarse and strong-flavoured ; the annual output is about 
 2,200,000 lb. 
 
 There are two match factories in Lima (one American) 
 and one at Iquitos. 
 
 Several factories produce soap, tallow, and candles. 
 
 Flour and other wheat products, such as vermicelli and 
 macaroni, are made in several places ; the best and most 
 modem equipment is at the Santa Rosa mills, near Lima. 
 Macaroni is made at Iquitos. 
 
 There is one biscuit factory at Lima. 
 
 Lard is produced in large quantities, though not 
 sufficient for home needs ; the industry is an old and 
 flourishing one. 
 
 Tanning is also a long-established industry, but the 
 processes are old-fashioned, and the products not of a 
 high class. 
 
 Paper, both white and brown, is made at one factory 
 in Lima ; but the quality is inferior, and there seems to 
 be an opening for capital here. 
 
 Chocolate is made in several factories at Lima and 
 Cuzco ; the quantity is not sufficient, however, for the 
 home market, and has to be reinforced by importation 
 from Guayaquil. 
 
 Chemical industries include the manufacture of drugs 
 
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 175 
 
 (especially cocaine), benzine from kerosene, ammonia 
 from coal-gas, gasoline, and alcohol ; the last two are 
 exported in some quantity. 
 
 Boots are usually hand-made, but there is one machine 
 factory at Lima. 
 
 Other minor industries are charcoal, butter, furniture, 
 parchment, dried fruits and foods, brooms. 
 
 So-called “ Panama ” hats, woven from the toquilla 
 grass, are made in large quantities in, and exported from, 
 Catacaos and other places in the Department of Piura. 
 The local name for these hats is “ jipi-japa ” ; the fibre 
 is kept under water during the whole of the plaiting pro- 
 cess, and not exposed to the sun till the article is finished. 
 
 Future Possibilities. — Peru is a vast storehouse of 
 the raw materials of manufacture ; it possesses abundant 
 water supply suitable for the development of electric 
 power, extensive coalfields, and cheap labour. 
 
 For a long time to come, Peru must continue to import 
 machinery, tools, metal manufactures, vehicles, shipping 
 and ships’ stores, and articles of luxury ; it may be 
 mentioned that the introduction of machinery is encou- 
 raged by its being admitted free of Custom duty. Both 
 cotton and woollen textiles admit of far larger production, 
 the raw material for both being to hand in abundance. 
 The silkworm has been introduced in Apurimac, and silk 
 manufacture is a possibility of the future. At present, 
 there is a large importation of food-stuffs and beverages, 
 but excellent beer and wine are produced locally ; butter, 
 cheese, chocolate, and preserve-making could be greatly 
 increased. The various hide-dressing industries admit of 
 improvement and development in methods and output. 
 
176 
 
 PERU 
 
 Pottery is a craft for which the ancient Peruvian 
 showed a native genius ; there seems no reason why glass 
 and pottery should not be produced in Peru to-day in 
 quantities adequate to meet the demand of the country. 
 The timber resources of the montana are enormous, and 
 will some day be exploited by means of saw-mills, etc. 
 At present, however, it is impracticable owing to diffi- 
 culties of transport. Another obstacle is the difficulty 
 of securing a large enough supply of one kind of timber 
 in any district to make exploitation profitable. For the 
 present, the treeless west of Peru must supply its timber 
 requirement by importation from North America. 
 
 The more general conditions affecting manufacturing 
 enterprise are, on the whole, more favourable to-day 
 than ever before. The political and financial instability 
 that checked the flow of capital to Peru in the nine- 
 teenth century has diminished. Political and frontier 
 disputes with Chile, Bolivia, and Brazil have been peace- 
 ably settled ; and there is no reason to doubt that similar 
 difficulties with Ecuador and Colombia, which have been 
 a fruitful source of friction in the past, will eventually be 
 equitably adjusted. The currency and finance have been 
 established on a sound basis, and the general administra- 
 tion of the country is progressive and enlightened. The 
 immense natural difficulties of inter-communication are 
 gradually being overcome by railways, roads, and tele- 
 graphs. It is arguable that the railways of Peru were 
 built before their time ; still they exist now ; and, 
 though they need linking up and carrying further east 
 into the montana, the natural barriers to trade have, in 
 great part, been broken down. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 177 
 
 The character of the workman is another point worth 
 considering. The average Cholo Indian prefers agri- 
 cultural and pastoral employments to mining or factory 
 work ; he is also illiterate and lacking in initiative. 
 The spread of education can only be slow in Peru ; but 
 the native has hereditary qualities of craftmanship and 
 patience that give him a natural fitness for the work of 
 an artisan. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
 
 Duties. — The Import Duties average 33 per cent, on 
 such articles as are liable to them. Certain foods and 
 beverages are dear, e.g., tea, coffee, wines and liquors, 
 cheese, butter and margarine, on which the duties are 
 about 65 per cent. On the other hand, many important 
 articles are on the free list, e.g., agricultural and mining 
 machinery and tools ; railway material and stock ; 
 steam and electrical motor machinery ; naval articles ; 
 coal ; and educational works. 
 
 Export Duties are non-existent, except in the cases of 
 gold and rubber. Three per cent, is charged on gold 
 and 8 per cent, on rubber ; but, as explained under 
 Forest Products, 4 per cent, only is levied on rubber from 
 the Javary district, to induce its exportation via Iquitos, 
 instead of its being sent direct to Manaos ; 40 cents 
 (Is. 8d.) per dozen is levied on “ Panama ” hats. 
 
 Total Trade. — The following table shows the total 
 import and export trade of Peru from 1905 to 1911 
 inclusive. (The figures are quoted from British official 
 sources.) — 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 1905 .. 
 
 .. 4,917,724 
 
 4,780,414 
 
 1906 .. 
 
 . . 5,632,349 
 
 6,600,325 
 
 1907 .. 
 
 . . 5,514,787 
 
 5,747,732 
 
 1908 .. 
 
 . . 5,295,625 
 
 5,478,941 
 
 1909 .. 
 
 . . 4,298,627 
 
 6,492,670 
 
 1910 .. 
 
 . . 4,965,792 
 
 7,074,076 
 
 1911 .. 
 
 . . 5,438,250 
 
 7,416,028 
 
 To transpose pounds sterling into Peruvian Soles, multiply by 10. 
 
 178 
 
Customs House, Callao 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
 
 179 
 
 It will be seen that the imports show a diminution in 
 1907-9, with a rapid recovery in 1910 and 1911 ; the 
 exports suffered a set-back in 1907 and 1908, but since 
 then have increased largely, the figures for 1911 being 
 the largest in the history of the country. To some 
 extent, this increase is due to the improved methods 
 adopted in recent years of collecting the Customs duties. 
 
 Imports Analysed. — (a) Imports by articles in 1910. 
 The following table shows the classes of imports in order 
 of value, with the leading countries from which they come. 
 The year 1910 is taken as the latest for which absolutely 
 complete and verified returns are available — 
 
 £ 
 
 i. Dry Goods and Miscellaneous Articles .. 1,739,630 
 
 £ 
 
 United Kingdom . . . . 530,860 
 
 United States . . . . 370,279 
 
 France . . . . . . 307,310 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 306,288 
 
 Belgium . . . . . . 188,382 
 
 ii. Food and Condiments . . . . . . 734,464 
 
 Australia .. .. .. 164,727 
 
 United States .. .. 112,495 
 
 Hong-Kong . . . . . . 104,264 
 
 Chile 102,283 
 
 United Kingdom .. .. 76,144 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 70,938 
 
 iii. Cotton Textiles . . . . . . . . 588,031 
 
 United Kingdom . . . . 363,735 
 
 Germany .. .. .. 90,142 
 
 Italy 46,065 
 
 United States . . . . 30,659 
 
 iv. Metals and Manufactures thereof . . 449,199 
 
 United Kingdom .. .. 261,124 
 
 United States .. .. 102,441 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 42,242 
 
 Belgium . . . . . . 33,944 
 
 v. Wool and Hair . . . . . . . . 213,387 
 
 United Kingdom .. .. 109,513 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 57,036 
 
180 
 
 PERU 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 vi. 
 
 Tools, Ships’ Stores, Machines and Vehicles 
 
 183,764 
 
 
 United States 
 
 89,748 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 55,304 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 15,955 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 11,918 
 
 
 vii. 
 
 Wearing Apparel 
 
 
 167,375 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 53,212 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 25,577 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 24,411 
 
 
 
 Italy . . 
 
 22,346 
 
 
 viii. 
 
 Stones, earths, glass, and chinaware . . 
 
 122,092 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 55,913 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 29,353 
 
 
 ix. 
 
 Beverages 
 
 . . 
 
 115,527 
 
 
 France 
 
 33,025 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 18,093 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 16,927 
 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 14,271 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Medicines and Drugs 
 
 ... 
 
 113,298 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 29,707 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 26,990 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 24,405 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 15,639 
 
 
 
 Italy . . 
 
 10,213 
 
 
 xi. 
 
 Textile Fibres (Linen, Hemp, Jute) . . 
 
 93,740 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 51,257 
 
 
 
 India 
 
 18,282 
 
 
 xii. 
 
 Lumber 
 
 
 89,316 
 
 
 United States 
 
 66*316 
 
 
 xiii. 
 
 Paints, Dyes, Varnishes, etc. 
 
 
 79,762 
 
 
 United States 
 
 43,810 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 13,892 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 12,823 
 
 
 xiv. 
 
 Paper, Stationery, and Cardboard 
 
 . . 
 
 66,468 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 31,763 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 9,623 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom . . 
 
 7,332 
 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 5,841 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 Silk 
 
 . . 
 
 61,744 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 24,894 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom . . 
 
 13,076 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 11,943 
 
 
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
 
 181 
 
 xvi. Arms, Ammunition, and Explosives .. 38,154 
 
 United Kingdom .. .. 13,814 
 
 United States . . . . 8,082 
 
 Hong-Kong . . . . . . 5,550 
 
 Chile 4,704 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 3,562 
 
 xvii. Hides, Skins, and Leather Goods . . 34,781 
 
 United Kingdom .. .. 12,117 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 8,369 
 
 United States . . . . 7,702 
 
 xviii. Furniture .. .. .. .. 31,924 
 
 Germany . . . . . . 11 ,009 
 
 United Kingdom . . . . 9,043 
 
 United States ... . . 8,266 
 
 (b) Imports by countries — 
 
 1 . United Kingdom 
 
 2. United States . 
 
 3. Germany 
 
 4. France . . 
 
 5. Belgium 
 
 6. Australia 
 
 7. Italy 
 
 8. Chile 
 
 9. Hong-Kong 
 
 10. Spain 
 
 11. India 
 
 12. China 
 
 13. Canada .. 
 
 14. Other Countries 
 
 1910. 
 
 1911. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1,678,701 
 
 1,720,133 
 
 922,677 
 
 1,248,952 
 
 790,710 
 
 945,907 
 
 485,903 
 
 289,543 
 
 250,595 
 
 333,982 
 
 182,152 
 
 229,306 
 
 167,790 
 
 199,450 
 
 152,188 
 
 76,996 
 
 131,686 
 
 154,321 
 
 52,308 
 
 79,597 
 
 29,828 
 
 38,980 
 
 4,159 
 
 283 
 
 3,400 
 
 — 
 
 113,695 
 
 120,800 
 
 Total .. .. 4,965,792 5,438,250 
 
 British Imports. — The principal imports into Peru 
 from the United Kingdom are : (1) Dry goods and mis- 
 cellaneous articles ; (2) cotton textiles ; (3) metals and 
 manufactures thereof ; (4) wool and hair ; (5) food and 
 condiments ; (6) coal, glass, china ; (7) wearing apparel ; 
 (8) textile fibres (linen, jute, hemp). 
 
 13— (2247) 
 
182 
 
 PERU 
 
 The imports from the United States, the second largest 
 importing country, are very miscellaneous, and fluctuate 
 considerably from year to year. The most important are : 
 (1) Machinery and vehicles ; (2) lumber ; (3) blacking and 
 boot pastes ; (4) hardware ; (5) cotton goods ; (6) 
 
 pharmaceutical products ; (7) lard ; (8) oils and lubri- 
 cants ; (9) explosives and firearms ; (10) paper and 
 
 paper articles; (11) perfumery; (12) boots and shoes; 
 (13) ropes and cordage ; (14) breakfast foods ; and (15) 
 
 soap. 
 
 Exports Analysed. — The list of Peruvian exports is 
 eloquent of the resources of the country and of the 
 extent to which they have been developed. The year 
 taken is, as with the imports, 1910 — 
 
 (a) Minerals . . 
 
 £ 
 
 .. 1,922,460 
 
 Sugar 
 
 .. 1,382,157 
 
 Rubber 
 
 .. 1,278,673 
 
 Cotton 
 
 .. 1,014,822 
 
 Alpaca Wool 
 
 . . 265,757 
 
 Guano 
 
 .. 181,582 
 
 Sheep’s Wool 
 
 .. 145,386 
 
 Straw Hats 
 
 .. 121,078 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 .. 109,615 
 
 Hides 
 
 90,745 
 
 Llama Wool 
 
 70,702 
 
 Cocaine 
 
 69,151 
 
 Rice . . 
 
 46,234 
 
 Goat-skins. . 
 
 33,754 
 
 Cotton-seed Cake 27,157 
 
 Shirtings . . 
 
 26,064 
 
 Pepper 
 
 25,164 
 
 Coffee . . 
 
 23,228 
 
 Cotton Seed 
 
 21,660 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 20,337 
 
 Alfalfa Seed 
 
 18,851 
 
 Chuno 1 
 
 7,435 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 7,408 
 
 Raw Sugar 
 
 
 (Chancaca) . . 
 
 7,261 
 
 Condurango Bark 
 
 6,788 
 
 Horns of Cattle 
 
 5,833 
 
 Chalonas 2 . . 
 
 4,829 
 
 Parchment 
 
 4,777 
 
 Bran 
 
 4,746 
 
 Vegetables and 
 
 
 garden produce 
 
 4,391 
 
 Rhatany Root . . 
 
 4,171 
 
 Live Animals . . 
 
 3,869 
 
 Onions 
 
 3,772 
 
 Tallow 
 
 3,232 
 
 Cacao 
 
 3,200 
 
 Cotton-seed Oil 
 
 2,739 
 
 Yarn 
 
 2,215 
 
 Butter 
 
 2,003 
 
 Olives 
 
 1,976 
 
 Wheat Flour . . 
 
 1,841 
 
 1 i.e., dried potatoes, cured on ice, used in making vegetable soup, 
 
 * i.e., mutton cured on ice, without salt. 
 
IMPORTS AND 
 
 EXPORTS 
 
 183 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Salt 
 
 12,956 
 
 Honey 
 
 1,551 
 
 Charcoal . . 
 
 10,682 
 
 Wines 
 
 1,306 
 
 Fruits (fresh and 
 
 
 Beeswax . . 
 
 1,288 
 
 dried) 
 
 9,548 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 1,224 
 
 Ivory Nuts 
 
 9,325 
 
 Horsehair . . 
 
 1,094 
 
 Cattle 
 
 8,548 
 
 Barley 
 
 1,044 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 7,493 
 
 Miscellaneous . . 
 
 30,961 
 
 (Cotton textiles, which amounted in 1909 to £36,850, 
 
 do not 
 
 appear in 1910, except as “shirtings.”) 
 
 (b) Mineral Exports of 1910 analysed — 
 
 £ 
 
 Silver and copper bars 635,852 
 Copper and silver bars 600,841 
 
 ,, ,, matte 130,915 
 
 ,, ,, ore . . 123,698 
 
 Silver sulphide . . 92,083 
 
 Vanadium .. .. 91,911 
 
 Borate of lime . , 73,170 
 
 Silver and lead ore 37,516 
 Silver bars .. .. 32,148 
 
 Copper ore . . . . 29,750 
 
 Silver ore . . . . 24,777 
 
 Copper matte . . 10,348 
 
 £ 
 
 Copper lead, and sil- 
 
 ver matte 5,591 
 
 „ old .... 4,732 
 
 Lead ore . . . . 3,976 
 
 Silver and copper 
 
 sulphide . . . . 3,312 
 
 Gold, silver, and 
 
 copper ore . . . . 3,051 
 
 All others .. .. 18,789 
 
 Total .. .. 1,922,460 
 
 Of this total, the United States took £1,406,663 (mainly 
 silver, copper, and vanadium) ; the United Kingdom, 
 £388,793 (various) ; Germany, £102,195 (mainly borate 
 of lime and silver sulphide) ; Belgium, £18,435 (silver 
 
 and lead, etc.) ; 
 
 and France, £2,702 (copper). 
 
 
 (c) Exports by countries in 1910 — 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 .. 2,517,308 
 
 Belgium 
 
 106,211 
 
 United States 
 
 .. 2,032,577 
 
 Spain 
 
 70,941 
 
 Chile 
 
 . . 894,981 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 14,461 
 
 France 
 
 .. 771,720 
 
 Colombia 
 
 12,924 
 
 Germany 
 
 . . 358,208 
 
 Brazil 
 
 8,078 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 . . 199,600 
 
 Italy 
 
 1,128 
 
 In 1911 the place of France was taken by Germany, 
 and that of Brazil by Italy. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 A 
 
 ABANCAY, cap. of the dep. of Apurimac, and also of the 
 prov. of Abancay ; lat. 13° 46' S. ; 8,060 ft. above sea-level ; 
 on R. Abancay, a trib. of the Apurimac. Population, c. 5,000. 
 Communications : (1) by road with Cuzco (209 kil.) , and thence 
 by railway with Mollendo (645 kil.), or (2) by road with Chala ; 
 the former is much the more convenient. Chief industries : 
 sugar-refining, alcohol, silk cloths ; copper is mined in the 
 district. 
 
 ACARf, on R. Acad, in dep. of Arequipa, prov. Camana, 
 30 m. from mouth of river ; lat. 15° 25' S. Custom house of 
 3rd class, dep. on Pisco. 
 
 ACOMAYO, in dep. of Cuzco, 50 m. S. of city of Cuzco ; 
 lat. 13° 50' S. ; cap. of the prov. of Acomayo. 
 
 ANCOMARCA, on the frontier between Peru and Bolivia, 
 S. of L. Titicaca ; lat. 17° 15' S. Custom house of 3rd class 
 dep. on Ilo. 
 
 ANC6N, in dep. and prov. of Lima ; small watering-place, 
 much frequented in the summer ; connected by railway with 
 Lima (38.2 kil.) and with Huacho, via Huaral (215 kil.) ; 
 lat. 11° 37' S. Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 ANDAHUAILAS, cap. of Andahuailas prov., in dep. of 
 Apurimac; lat. 13° 51' S. Industries: agriculture and 
 mining (gold, silver, copper, coal, marble). 
 
 ANTA, cap. of Anta prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. ,13° 45' S. ; 
 about 50 m. W. of Cuzco. Copper, clays, and marble are 
 found, and cereals grown. 
 
 ANTABAMBA, cap. of Antabamba prov., of dep. of Apuri- 
 mac ; lat., 14° 35' S. Produces cereals, gold and silver. 
 
 184 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 185 
 
 APLAO, cap. of Castilla prov., in dep. of Arequipa ; lat., 
 16° 13' S. Products : sugar, vines, cereals, coffee ; gold, 
 silver, sulphur ; wine and alcohol, carpets, woollen textiles. 
 
 AREQUIPA, cap. of the dep. of Arequipa, and also of the 
 prov. of the same name ; lat., 16° 24' S. ; 7,550 ft. above 
 sea-level ; pop. 35,000. Communications : by the Southern 
 Railway with Mollendo (172 k.) ; with Juliaca and Puno 
 (351 k.) on L. Titicaca, and so by steamer and rail with 
 La Paz in Bolivia ; and with Cuzco (644 6 k.). 
 
 Arequipa, orig. called Villa Hermosa, is the second in 
 importance of the cities of Peru. It stands in a fertile oasis 
 amid arid uplands, surrounded by the great mountains of 
 Omati, Ubinas, Pichu Pichu, and El Misti (18,500 ft.). The air 
 is dry and pure, and the climate delightful. The city has an 
 oriental aspect ; its massive houses, mostly of one storey, 
 are built of white stone, dazzling in the brilliant sunshine. 
 The larger facades are adorned with elaborate ornament. 
 With university and cathedral, it has been for generations 
 in the forefront of the literary and religious life of the nation. 
 It possesses two meteorological stations, and the Harvard 
 University stellar observatory. The volcanic soil of the 
 surrounding district, watered by the R. Chile, produces cereals, 
 vines, and sugar-cane ; and gold, silver, copper, mica, borax, 
 and sulphur are found. The industries of the city include 
 cotton and woollen textiles, leather, tobacco, and cigarette 
 making, brewing, printing, gold and silversmiths’ work. 
 Here, too, are the engineering shops of the Southern Railway. 
 There is an electric tram service. 
 
 The bathing resort of Tingo is not far from the city. 
 
 Arequipa is the centre of the wool trade. 
 
 ASCOPE, in prov. of Trujillo, and dep. of La Libertad ; 
 lat. 7° 40' S. Present terminus of railway communicating 
 via Chocope, with Trujillo (68 k.) and the port of Salaverry 
 (82 k.). The district produces sugar. 
 
 ASTILLERO, in dep. of Puno ; lat. 13° 30' S. ; small 
 river-port on the Tambopata. Communications: (1) by 
 
 canoe down river with Puerto Maldonado ( q.v .) ; and (2) by 
 road and rail with Mollendo (924 k.). 
 
186 
 
 PERU 
 
 ATICO, small port in dep. of Areqnipa ; lat. 16° 15' S. 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 AYABACA, cap. of prov. of Ayabaca, dep. of Piura ; lat. 
 4° 35' S. ; near frontier with Ecuador. The district is mainly 
 agricultural ; sugar is grown, alcohol distilled, and gold mined. 
 
 AYACUCHO (formerly Guamanga), cap. of the dep. of 
 Ayacucho, and also of the prov. of the same name ; lat. 
 13° 6' S. ; 9,216 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 14,000. Com- 
 munications by road : (1) with lea (300 k.), and thence by 
 railway to port of Pisco (374 k.) ; and (2) with Huancayo 
 (c. 260 k.), and thence by railway with Callao (347 k.). The 
 products of the district include silver, and filigree ware ; 
 cereals, wine, pottery, leather, and textiles. 
 
 An ancient city, seat of a bishopric and a superior Court ; 
 it contains a cathedral and about twenty other churches. 
 It stands in a deep and fertile valley, the scene of a great 
 battle in 1824. 
 
 AYAVIRI, cap. of Ayaviri prov., in dep. of Puno ; lat. 
 14° 50' S. Communications by Southern Railway with. 
 Cuzco (247 k.) ; Juliaca (93 k.) ; and Mollendo (569 k.), 
 Products include beans, Peruvian bark, mercury, arsenic, 
 silver, copper. 
 
 ASANGARO, cap. of Asangaro prov., in dep. of Puno ; 
 lat. 14° 53' S. Products include Peruvian bark, silver, 
 antimony, copper, cinnabar, salt, marble, mattings. 
 
 B 
 
 BARRANCA. See Supe. 
 
 BARRANCO, bathing resort near Callao. 
 
 BAYOVAR, small port at the southern end of the Bay of 
 Sechura, in dep. of Piura ; lat. 5° 50' S. Connected by a 
 private mineral railway with the sulphur mines at Reventazon 
 (48 k.). Chief export, sulphur. Vessels must clear at 
 Paita custom house. 
 
 BELLAVISTA, bathing resort near Callao, with which it is 
 connected by branch railway (3‘4 k.). 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 187 
 
 BERMUDEZ, PUERTO. Limit of steam navigation on the 
 R. Pichis ; on route from Iquitos to Oroya and Cerro de Pasco ; 
 lat. 10° 20' S. Wireless telegraph station. 
 
 C 
 
 CABALLO COCHA, river-port on the Amazon, below 
 Iquitos, 1,478 kil. from Manaos by river. There is also a lake 
 here of the same name. 
 
 CABANA, cap. of Pallasca prov., in dep. of Ancachs ; 
 Lat. 8° 23' S. Coal, silver, copper, and placer gold are found, 
 and cereals and potatoes are grown. 
 
 CAILLOMA, cap. of Cailloma prov., in dep. of Arequipa ; 
 lat. 15° 20' S. Agricultural and pastoral district ; mining 
 products : gold, silver, copper, coal, lead, petroleum. 
 
 CAJABAMBA, cap. of prov. of Cajabamba in dep. of 
 Cajamarca ; lat. 7° 30' S. Products mainly agricultural : 
 sugar, coffee, coca, and cereals. Some silver is mined. 
 
 CAJAMARCA (or CAXAMARCA), cap. of the dep. of 
 Cajamarca, and also of the prov. of the same name ; lat. 
 7° 5' S. ; 9,440 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,000. Communica- 
 tions by road with Chilete (75 k.), and thence by railway 
 (136 k.) with Pacasmayo. Ancient Inca city ; the thermal 
 " Bath of the Incas ” is in the neighbourhood. The mean 
 temperature is 52° Fahr. The district produces gold, silver, 
 copper, coal ; also cereals, tobacco, chocolate. 
 
 Historically the town is notable as the scene of the capture 
 of Atahuallpa by Pizarro in Nov., 1532. It stands on the 
 northern overland route to Iquitos, via Chachapoyas and 
 Yurimaguas. Telephone to Pacasmayo. 
 
 CAJATAMBO, cap. of Cajatambo, prov. in dep. of Ancachs ; 
 lat. 10° 30' S. Produces cereals, textiles, cattle-rearing. 
 Coal, silver, copper, antimony, and plumbago occur. 
 
 CALCA, cap. of Calca prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. 13° 30'. S. 
 Industries: Agriculture (cereals, sugar, cocoa, coca) and 
 mining (silver and copper). 
 
 CALLAO, EL, cap. of the “ constitutional ” prov. or dep. 
 
188 
 
 PERU 
 
 of Callao, which covers 14 sq. miles ; lat. 12° 8' S. ; pop., 
 34,000. Connected by two steam railways and two electric 
 lines with Lima (7J m.), and thence by the Central Railway 
 with Oroya, Huancayo, and Cerro de Pasco. 
 
 The roadstead, protected by the lofty island of San Lorenzo, 
 affords safe anchorage in a spacious bay. The docks allow 
 the largest steamers to lie alongside. There is one large and 
 one small floating dock ; also a Clayton disinfecting apparatus. 
 The town itself is purely commercial. There is an English 
 church. Custom house of 1st class. Work in the port ceases 
 at 6 p.m. Guano islands in neighbourhood. Inland telegraph 
 and telephone service, and cable communication to all parts. 
 Regular ocean-steamer services to Panama, Europe, United 
 States, and Hong-Kong ; and coasting vessels of all sizes call. 
 The industries include the manufacture of flour, tobacco and 
 cigarettes, wine, spirits, and beer. The engineering shops of 
 the Central Railway are here. The leading exports are wool, 
 cotton, and cotton-seed, copper, silver, coffee, oil-cakes, 
 sugar, hides, cocaine ; and the imports, timber, machinery, 
 and manufactured metals, cotton and other textiles, flour and 
 grain, drugs, oil, paper, coal. The total trade is upwards of 
 £4,000,000 annually. 
 
 There is easy access to the watering-places of Bella Vista, 
 Barranco, Chorrillos, Miraflores, and La Punta. 
 
 There are high-powered wireless telegraphic installations 
 at Callao and on the island of San Lorenzo. 
 
 CAMANA, seaport in dep. of Arequipa ; lat. 16° 40' S. ; at 
 mouth of R. Mages ; pop. 1,000. Cap. of prov. of same name. 
 The district produces olives, rice, sugar ; mining products are 
 coal, copper, sulphur, kaolin, salt, petroleum, gold, mica, borax. 
 Chief trade : olives and olive oil. 
 
 CANETE, cap. of Canete prov., in dep. of Lima ; lat. 
 13° T S. Communications by railway with port of Cerro Azul 
 (10 k.). The district produces cereals, cotton, sugar, fruit ; 
 gold, copper, iron ; sugar, oil, wine, and spirits. Hats and 
 matting are manufactured. 
 
 CANGALLO, cap. of Cangallo prov., in dep. of Ayacucho ; 
 lat. 13° 45' S. Produces sugar, alcohol, hats, woollen textiles, 
 and sulphur. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 189 
 
 CANTA, cap. of Canta prov., in dep. of Lima ; lat. 1 1° 20' S. 
 Agriculture and grazing ; wool-bearing animals are largely 
 bred ; the mineral wealth is great, including gold, silver, iron, 
 coal, sulphur, cinnabar, ochres, and kaolin clay. 
 
 CARAS, cap. of Huailas prov., in dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 9° 4' S. Produces coal, quicksilver, silver, gold, cinnabar, 
 copper, antimony ; cereals, sugar, vines, and fruit are grown ; 
 textiles and tanning are the chief industries. 
 
 CARMEN, EL, mining district in Lima dep., connected by 
 private railway (4 k.) with Casapalca, on the Central Railway 
 (72 k. from Droya) ; lat. 11° 40' S. 
 
 CARQUIN, in dep. of Lima, just N. of Huacho ; lat. 1 1° 7' S. 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 CASAPALCA, in dep. of Junin ; lat. 11° 38' S. ; on Central 
 Railway. A short private line runs hence to the El Carmen 
 mines. Contains the principal smelting works in Peru. 
 
 CASMA, cap. of prov. of Santa, in dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 9° 28' S. Minor seaport. Port of call for P.S.N.C. and 
 C.S.A.V. Telegraph to Lima. The district produces rice, 
 sugar-cane, vines, maize, and coal ; petroleum, and gold 
 exist. Exports cotton, corn, wood, charcoal. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 CASTROVIRREINA, cap. of prov. of same name in dep. of 
 Huancavelica ; lat. 13° 25' S. ; pop. 1,500. Old and some- 
 what decayed Spanish city, owing its former importance to 
 the rich mines of silver and quicksilver in the district. Textiles 
 are manufactured, and wool-bearing animals bred. 
 
 CATACAOS, small town in dep. of Piura ; lat. 50° 12' S. ; 
 on R. Piura, 10 kil. S. of the town of Piura, with which it is 
 connected by a light railway. Centre of the trade in 
 “ Panama ” hats. 
 
 CAUCATO, in dep. of lea ; custom house of 3rd class, 
 dep. on Pisco. 
 
 CAUJUL, in prov. of Cajatambo, dep. of Ancachs. On 
 line of projected railway from Huacho to Oyon ; lat. 10° 45' S. 
 For industries of district, see Cajatambo. 
 
190 
 
 PERU 
 
 CAYALTI, in dep. of Lambayeque, 36 kil. S.E. of port of 
 Eten (q.v), with which it is connected by a private agricultural 
 railway. 
 
 CELENDlN, cap. of Celendfn prov., in dep. of Cajamarca ; 
 lat. 6° 50' S. Centre of a mining district — gold, silver, copper, 
 lead, coal, rock salt. 
 
 CERRO AZUL, seaport in prov. of Canete, dep. of Lima ; 
 lat. 13° S. ; port of call for steamers of the P.S.N.C. and 
 C.S.A.V. Communications by railway with Canete (10 k.) ; 
 telegraph to Santa Barbara (on R. Canete) and Lima. Exports 
 sugar, ores, alcohol, cotton-seed, oil, swine, hides. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 Guano islands to the north. 
 
 CERRO DE PASCO, or Pasco, cap. of the dep. of Junrn, 
 and also of the prov. of Pasco ; lat. 10° 40' S. ; 14,380 ft. above 
 sea-level ; pop. about 9,000. Communications by railway 
 via Oroya, with Lima and Callao (454 k.) ; and also junction 
 with Goyllarisquisga (51 k.). The centre of a great mining 
 district, long famous for its output of silver, but also rich 
 n copper, coal, gold, salt, cinnabar, vanadium, and lead. 
 The Cerro de Pasco Mining and Railway Co. (American) 
 is largely concerned with the production of copper and 
 coal. 
 
 CHACHAPOYAS, or CHACAPOYAS, cap. of the dep. of 
 Amazonas, and also of the prov. of Chachapoyas ; lat. 
 6° 17' S. ; 9,200 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,000. Communi- 
 cations by road with Chilete (360 k.), and thence by railway 
 (135‘5 k.) with the port of Pacasmayo (495‘5 k.). Centre of 
 an inter-andine district, producing gold, sugar, tobacco, cotton. 
 Is seat of a bishopric. Stands on the northern overland route 
 to Iquitos (Pacasmayo-Cajamarca-Chachapoyas-Yurimaguas- 
 Iquitos). 
 
 CHALA, PUERTO, seaport in the dep. of Arequipa, prov. 
 Camana ; lat. 50° 51' S. ; at mouth of R. Yauca. Port of 
 call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. Chief exports : copper ore, 
 wool, cattle. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 191 
 
 CHALHUANCA, cap. of Aimaraes prov., of dep. of Apuri- 
 mac ; lat. 14° 24' S. ; on river of same name. Communica- 
 tions by telegraph with Lima. Products include Peruvian 
 bark, textiles, gold, silver, copper, and saltpetre. 
 
 CHAN CAY, in prov. of Chancay, and dep. of Lima ; lat. 
 11° 30' S. Small seaport ; connected by railway with Palpa 
 (25 k.), and by telegraph with Lima. Exports sugar. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 CHICAMA, in dep. of La Libertad, on R. Chicama ; railway 
 junction ; connected (1) with Trujillo and Salaverry, (2) with 
 Ascope, (3) with Cartavio, and (4) — by privately owned line — 
 with La Pampas (45 k.). The district produces sugar. 
 
 CHICLAYO, cap. of the dep. of Lambayeque, and of the 
 prov. of Chiclayo ; lat. 6° 48' S. ; 82 ft. above sea-level ; 
 pop. 15,000. Communications by railway with the port of 
 Eten (20 k.) and Cayalti to the S. ; with Lambayeque and 
 Ferrenafe to the N. ; with Patapo to the E. ; and with 
 Pimentel (14 k.) to the W. Sugar, rice, and cereals are grown 
 in the district, and ponchos, cotton textiles, straw hats, and 
 alcohol are manufactured. 
 
 CHILCA, small seaport in dep. of Lima ; lat. 12° 20' S. 
 Railway communication with Lima. Telegraph. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. It is believed 
 that Chilca is to be made the military port of the Republic. 
 
 CHILETE, in dep. of Cajamarca ; lat. 70° 20' S. Connected 
 by railway with port of Pacasmayo (103 k.). 
 
 CHIMBOTE, seaport in Ferrol Bay, prov. of Santa, dep. 
 Ancachs ; lat. 9° 5' S. ; pop. 1,500. Communications by 
 railway with Tablones (57 k.). In telegraphic communication 
 with Lima and Ferrenefe. Exports sugar, copper, ores, coffee. 
 Imports, general. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 Considerable guano fields to north and south. 
 
 CHINCHA, ISLAS DE ; lat. 13° 50' S. ; off the coast of 
 lea ; guano field. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Pisco. 
 
192 
 
 PERU 
 
 CHINCH A ALTA, cap. of prov. of Chincha, in dep. of lea ; 
 lat. 13° 22' S. ; pop. 3,000. Communications by railway 
 with its port of Tambo de Mora (12 k.). Industries : wine, 
 sugar-refining, alcohol distilling. 
 
 CHIQUlAN, in prov. of Bolognesi, dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 10° 9' S. For industries, see Cajatambo. 
 
 CHIRA. Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 CHORRILLOS, in dep. and prov. of Lima ; lat. 12° 11' S. ; 
 a bathing station for the inhabitants of Lima, with which it 
 is connected by a railway (14 k.), an electric light railway 
 (13 k.), and electric tramway (17 k.). The town is built on a 
 cliff at the foot of the Morro Solar. The anchorage, owing to 
 the swell, is poor ; landing is effected by means of specially 
 built canoes. 
 
 CHOTA, cap. of Chota prov., in dep. of Cajamarca ; lat. 
 6° 30' S. Centre of a mining district : gold, silver, and lead. 
 
 CHUQUIBAMBA, cap. of Condesuyos prov., in dep. of 
 Arequipa ; lat. 15° 50' S. Centre of agricultural district ; 
 gold and silver are found. 
 
 COCOTEA, on coast of Arequipa, near Moquegua ; lat. 
 17° 14' S. Guano exported. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 COLAN, in dep. of Piura, prov. of Paita ; lat. 5° V S. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 CONTAMANA, cap. of Ucayali prov., in dep. of Loreto ; 
 lat. 7° 50' S. ; on R. Ucayali. Wireless telegraph station. 
 Produces sugar-cane, yuca, and bananas ; manufactures 
 sugar and alcohol. 
 
 CONTUMAZA, cap. of prov. of Contumaza, in dep. of 
 Cajamarca ; lat. 7° 20' S. Produces rice ; gold and silver ; 
 woollen textiles. 
 
 COTAHUASI, cap. of La Union prov., in dep. of Arequipa ; 
 lat. 15° S. Products include Peruvian bark ; gold, silver, salt ; 
 wine, carpets, and woollen textiles. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 193 
 
 CUZCO, cap. of the dep. of Cuzco, and also of the prov. of 
 the same name ; lat. 13° 31 ' S. ; 11,445 ft. above sea-level ; 
 pop. about 15,000. Communications by the Southern Railway 
 (of which it is the Northern terminus with Mollendo) (816 6 k.). 
 One of the most ancient cities in Peru, famous for its Inca and 
 pre-Inca remains. Seat of a university and bishopric. The 
 district contains coal and copper, but 'is mainly agricultural, 
 producing maize, wheat, barley, coffee, cocoa, coca, chocolate, 
 and sugar, and also wool. 
 
 The Spanish city is largely built on the foundations of 
 former Inca work. There are three large plazas. The streets 
 are narrow ; there is hardly any wheeled traffic ; llamas and 
 donkeys abound. The great majority of the inhabitants is 
 Indian, and the Quichua language prevails. The Indian 
 markets form a characteristic feature. There is little manu- 
 facture. Above the city stand the walls of the famous 
 prehistoric fortress of Sacsahuaman. 
 
 E 
 
 ENSENADA, LA, in dep. of Arequipa ; station on the 
 Southern Railway, 21 kil. from Mollendo. Connected by 
 private railway with the hacienda of Pampa Blanca in the 
 Tambo valley (20 k.). 
 
 ETEN, in prov. of Chiclayo, and dep. of Lambayeque ; 
 lat. 6° 50' S. ; pop. 3,000. Connected by railway with 
 Cayalti (36 k.), Chiclayo, Lambayeque, and Ferrenafe (98 k.) ; 
 also with Patapo (24 k.). Exports (sugar, rice, cotton, 
 tobacco, “ Panama ” hats) reach an annual average of 
 £140,000. Port of call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A. de V. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class. The town of Eten is about 
 1J m. from the port. 
 
 F 
 
 REFRENAFE, in dep. of Lambayeque ; lat. 6° 40' S. ; 
 present terminus of a railway, via Lambeayque, to port of 
 Eten (43 k.). 
 
 G 
 
 GOYLLARISQUISGA, mining district in dep. of Junin, 
 connected by branch railway with Cerro de Pasco (43 k.) ; 
 lat. 10° 15' S. 
 
194 
 
 PERU 
 
 A railway is projected from this place via Huanuco to 
 Pucalpa on the Ucayali, thus linking Lima and Iquitos. 
 
 GUADALUPE, in the dep. of Lambayeque ; lat. 7° 18' S. ; 
 pop. 2,000. Connected by railway with the port of Pacasmayo, 
 (43 k.). Produces sugar, rice, maize, fruit. (There is another 
 place of this name on the Pisco-Ica Railway, 1 1 kil. from lea.) 
 
 GUARAPE, in dep. of La Libertad ; lat. 8° 25' S. A little 
 N. of the guano islands of Guanape. Cotton and firewood 
 are exported. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Salaverry. 
 
 H 
 
 HEATH, at junction of the rivers Heath and Madre de Dios ; 
 lat. 12° 30' S. 
 
 River custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 HUACHO, seaport in the dep. of Lima ; cap. of the prov. 
 of Chancay ; lat. 11° 8' S.W. Connected by railway, via 
 Ancon, with Lima (253 k.). Pigs and cattle are extensively 
 bred, and lard, sugar, and alcohol manufactured and exported ; 
 deposits of salt, coal, and silver are worked. Regular port 
 of call for steamers of the P.S.N.C. and C.S.A. de V. The port 
 has a pier, and is well supplied with fresh food, water, and 
 wood. Pop. 9,000. Telegraph to Lima. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 HUALGAYOC, cap. of Hualgayoc prov., in dep. of Caja- 
 marca ; lat. 6° 40' S. Chiefly mining industries : gold, 
 silver, copper, lead, tin, iron, coal. Cereals, coffee, and sugar 
 are grown. 
 
 HUAMACHUCO, cap. of the prov. of the same name, in the 
 dep. of La Libertad ; lat. 7° 35' S. The district is mainly 
 agricultural ; the products include cereals, coffee, coca ; 
 gold and coal are mined. 
 
 HUANCABAMBA, cap. of prov. of same name in dep. of 
 Piura ; lat. 5° 25' S. ; pop. 600. Cereals, sugar, and cotton 
 are grown ; fine wool is produced. Communication by road 
 with Piura to the W., and Puerto Borja on the upper Maranon, 
 to the E. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 195 
 
 HUANCANfi, cap. of Huancane prov., in dep. of Puno ; 
 lat. 15° 12' S. ; at N. end of L. Titicaca. Pasturage for cattle 
 and wool-bearing animals ; mining products of district include 
 silver, copper, cinnabar, tin, gold, coal, naphtha, petroleum, 
 marble. 
 
 HUANCAVELICA, cap. of the dep. of Huancavelica, and 
 also of the prov. of the same name ; lat. 12° 33' S. ; 12,530 ft. 
 above sea-level ; pop. 4,000. The district is rich in silver, 
 cinnabar, and salt ; the old quicksilver mines are now aban- 
 doned. All kinds of wool-bearing animals abound. Seat 
 of a bishopric, and formerly one of the wealthiest cities in 
 Peru. Communications : (1) by road with Huancayo (120 k.), 
 and thence by railway (347 k.) with Callao (467 k.) ; (2) by 
 road with lea (300 k.), and thence by railway (74 k.) with 
 Pisco (374 k.). 
 
 HUANCAYO, cap. of prov. of Huancayo, in dep. of Junfn ; 
 lat. 12° 8' S. ; 10,830 ft. above sea-level ; on R. Mantaro ; 
 pop. 6,000. Communication with Callao (347 k.) via Oroya, 
 by the Central Railway. A railway is in course of construction 
 from Huancayo southwards to Ayacucho (260 k.). Produces 
 silver, copper, and the other products common in dep. of Junin. 
 
 HUANCHACO, in dep. of La Libertad ; lat. 8° 5' S. Pop. 
 500. Communication by railway with Tres Palos (14 k.) and 
 La Roma (54 k.). Port of call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. 
 Other lines also call to take cargoes of sugar. Chief export : 
 sugar. Telephone to Trujillo. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Salaverry. 
 
 HUANTA, cap. of Huanta prov., in dep. of Ayacucho ; 
 lat. 12° 45' S. Produces vines, sugar, and cereals ; gold and 
 silver. Flannel textiles are manufactured, and wine, sugar, 
 and alcohol made. 
 
 HUANUCO, cap. of the dep. of Huanuco, dep. of the prov. 
 of same name ; lat. 9° 55' S. ; 6,200 ft. above sea-level ; on 
 the upper Huallaga ; pop. 6,000. Communication by road 
 with Cerro de Pasco (110 k.), and thence by rail (454 k.), 
 via Oroya, with Callao (564 k.). Produces gold, silver, sugar, 
 coffee, cocaine, tobacco, and cereals ; also cattle, sheep, and 
 Pigs- 
 
196 
 
 PERU 
 
 HUARAS, cap. of the dep. of Ancachs, and also of the prov. 
 of Huaras ; lat. 9° 30' S. ; 9,930 ft. above sea-level ; on 
 
 R. Santa ; pop. 10,000. Communications : (1) direct by 
 
 road with port of Casma (132 k.) ; and (2) by mixed service 
 route, i.e., road (110 k.) and railway (104 k.), with port of 
 Chimbote. An ancient city, seat of a bishopric, and of a 
 Superior Court. The mean temperature is 59° Fahr. The 
 district is rich in minerals, especially silver, lead, copper, and 
 anthracite coal ; cereals and potatoes are grown. 
 
 HUARI, cap. of Huari prov., in dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 9° 20' 
 
 S. Industries : agriculture and mining (silver, gold, lead, 
 and coal are found). 
 
 HUARMEY, in prov. of Huaras, in dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 10° 6' S. Minor seaport. Steamers of the C.S.A.V. call 
 fortnightly. Telegraph to Lima. Chief trade, firewood. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 I 
 
 ICA, cap. of dep. of lea, and also of prov. of same name ; 
 lat. 14° 4' S. ; 1,310 ft. above sea-level ; on R. Ica ; pop. 
 5,000. Communication with port of Pisco by railway (74 k.). 
 Industries, cotton textiles, wine, alcohol, bee-keeping. Bird 
 pepper ( aji ) is grown, and copper, gypsum, salt, kaolin, and 
 gold are found in the district. 
 
 ILO, or YLO, with Pacocha, seaport in dep. of Moquegua ; 
 lat. 17° 39' S. ; at mouth of R. Ilo ; pop. 1,800. Communica- 
 tion by railway with Moquegua (100 k.). Port of call for 
 P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. Telegraph. Clayton disinfecting 
 apparatus. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class. The most northerly port in 
 Peru ; exports wine, spirits, olives, olive oil. 
 
 INAMBARI, cap. of Tahuamanu prov., in dep. of Madre de 
 Dios ; lat. 13° 40' S. on Bolivian frontier. Products include : 
 coffee, coca, rubber, and placer gold. 
 
 INAPARI, or TACNA. River custom house of 3rd class, 
 dep. on Mollendo. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 197 
 
 INDEPENDENCE, BAHIA DE LA, in dep. of lea ; lat. 
 14° 18' S. Guano exported. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Pisco. 
 
 IQUITOS, cap. of the dep. of Loreto ; lat. 3° 44' S. ; on 
 left bank of the Marahon or Upper Amazon, 2,500 m. from its 
 mouth ; 350 ft. above sea-level ; pop. normally 15,000, rising 
 to 20,000 in the height of the rubber season ; mean tem- 
 perature, 85-90° Fahr. Communication by regular service 
 of ocean-going steamers down stream with Para, and so to 
 Europe and N. America ; also by two routes across the Andes 
 westwards : [a) via Yurimaguas, Chachapoyas, Cajamarca to 
 Pacasmayo, ( b ) via Rivers Ucayali, Pachitea, Pichis, and 
 mule-road to Oroya, and thence by railway to Lima and 
 Callao. The fortnightly mail follows route ( b ), about 2,100 
 kils. , taking 17 days. Railway from Oroya to Pucalpa is 
 being constructed. 
 
 Exports mainly rubber and ivory nuts ; imports food-stuffs 
 (including rice), dry goods, oil, soap. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class. 
 
 There is a high-powered telegraphic installation here on the 
 Telefunken system, communicating with the river ports on 
 the Ucayali ; directly with Lima ; and with the Putumayo. 
 As yet no commercial system is established with Brazil, via 
 Manaos, though private messages have been sent. 
 
 ISLAY, minor port in prov. of Islay, dep. of Arequipa ; 
 lat. 16° 55' S. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 J 
 
 JA£N DE BRACAMOROS, cap. of prov. of Jaen, in dep. 
 of Cajamarca ; lat. 5° 38' S. The district produces gold and 
 silver (placer gold in R. Chinchipa) ; coca, quinine, coffee, 
 and cocoa. 
 
 JAUJA, SANTA F£ DE, cap. of prov. of Jauja, in dep. of 
 Junin ; lat. 11° 44' S. ; 11,050 ft. above sea-level; on 
 R. Jauja ; pop. 3,000. Communicates by branch line (3 k.) 
 with the Oroya-Huancayo branch of the Central Railway, and 
 so with Callao (282 k.). The district grows cereals, coffee, 
 
 14— (2347) 
 
198 
 
 PERU 
 
 sugar, and produces coal, silver, copper, sugar, alcohol, textiles, 
 and hats. 
 
 JESSUP. See Yessup. 
 
 JULI, cap. of Chucuito prov., in dep. of Puno ; lat. 
 16° 10' S. ; on W. shore of L. Titicaca. Products : Peruvian 
 bark, silver, gold, copper. 
 
 JULIACA, in the prov. and dep. of Puno ; lat. 15° 29' S. ; 
 pop. 2,500. Junction on the Southern Railway. Com- 
 municates with Puno (47 k.), Cuzco (340.6 k.), and with 
 Mollendo (467 k.). 
 
 L 
 
 LAMBAYEQUE, cap. of prov. of Lambayeque, in dep. of 
 same name ; lat. 6° 4' S. ; pop. 8,000. Communicates by 
 railway with the ports of Pimentel (24 k.), and Eten (31 k.), 
 and with Ferrenafe to the E. (15 k.). Wool and cotton 
 textiles, soap and quinine are manufactured, and rice is grown 
 and exported in large quantities from the district ; also guano 
 from Lobos islands. 
 
 The city has a fine cathedral, a college, and a hospital. 
 
 LAMPA, cap. of Lampa prov., in dep. of Puno ; lat. 15° 22' 
 S. ; 30 m. W. of Juliaca. Silver is mined, and pottery 
 manufactured. 
 
 LAMUD, cap. of Luya prov., in dep. of Amazonas ; lat. 
 6° 10' S. ; on R. Santiago. Agricultural district ; gold is 
 found higher up the river at Santo Tomas, and lower down 
 at Shipasbamba. 
 
 LETICIA, on the R. Amazon, near the Brazilian frontier ; 
 lat. 4° 10' S. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Iquitos. 
 
 LIBERTAD. River custom house of 3rd class, dep. on 
 Mollendo. 
 
 LIMA, cap. of the Republic of Peru, and of the dep. and the 
 prov. of Lima ; lat. 12° 3' S. ; on left bank of R. Rimac, 
 about 8 m. E. of Callao ; pop. 145,000. Communicates with 
 its port, Callao (13 k.), by two steam railways and two 
 electric lines ; with the interior, via Oroya, by means of the 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 199 
 
 Central Railway (Oroya, 209 k. ; Huancayo, 333 k. ; Cerro 
 de Pasco, 340 k.) ; and northwards with Ancon (38 k.), and 
 Huacho (182 k.). There are short lines to the neighbouring 
 watering-places, Chorrillos (14 k.), and Magdalena (7'6 k.) ; 
 see also Callao. 
 
 Lima (the name is a corruption of Rimac), founded by 
 Pizarro in 1535, was for nearly three centuries the seat of 
 Spanish sovereignty, and the greatest and wealthiest city 
 in the New World. It is still a great capital, the seat of 
 government of the Republic, and the leading city in Peru. 
 It is the seat of a university and an archbishopric, with numer- 
 ous clubs, libraries, museums, theatres, etc. The climate is 
 cool and rainless, though heavy mists are frequent. The 
 national mint is here. The industries include cotton spinning 
 and weaving ; woollen goods and cloth mills ; tobacco, match, 
 chocolate, paper, biscuit, and soap factories ; brewing and 
 distilling ; cotton-seed oil making. Electric power is supplied 
 in great abundance from the Rimac. Telegraphic communi- 
 cation with the interior is mainly by government service ; 
 full telephonic facilities with neighbouring towns, and a 
 high-powered wireless telegraphic installation communicating 
 direct with Iquitos. 
 
 There is an English church. 
 
 LIRCAY, cap. of Angaraes prov., in dep. of Huanca- 
 velica ; lat. 13° S. Industries : agriculture, cattle-raising, 
 gold-mining. 
 
 LLATA, cap. of Huamalfes prov., in dep. of Huanuco ; 
 lat. 9° 22' S. Industries : agriculture, mining, and textile 
 manufactures (sugar, coca, coal, gold). 
 
 LOBITOS, 7 m. N. of Talara, in dep. of Piura ; lat. 4° 30' S. 
 Exports oil. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 LOMAS, PUERTO, small port on coast of the dep. of lea ; 
 lat. 15° 33' S. ; serves as bathing-place for Acad ; port of 
 call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A. de V. Sea-otters plentiful at 
 certain seasons. Exports cattle. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 LORETO, in the extreme E. of the dep. of Loreto ; lat. 
 
200 
 
 PERU 
 
 4° 8' S. ; on N. bank of the Maranon, not far from the Brazilian 
 frontier; pop. 1,200. An important river port and commercial 
 centre ; produces rubber. 
 
 M 
 
 MACUSANI, cap. of Carabaya prov., in dep. of Puno ; 
 lat. 14° 25' S. Products include coca, sugar-cane ; coal, 
 iron, and placer gold ; alcohol, preserved and stringed meats. 
 
 MAGDALENA DEL MAR, LA (or MAGDALENA NUEVA). 
 
 Bathing resort, S. of Lima, with which it is connected by a 
 short railway (7’6 k.). 
 
 MALA. Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 MALABRIGO, on coast of La Libertad dep. ; lat. 7° 42' S. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Salaverry. 
 
 MALDONADO, PUERTO, capital of the dep. of Madre de 
 Dios, and of the prov. of Tambopata, at the junction of the 
 rivers Tambopata and Madre de Dios ; lat. 12° 36' S. Com- 
 munications : (1) by steamer down the Madre deDios with the 
 Amazon ; and (2) by canoe with Astillero, thence by road to 
 Tirapata, and by railway to Mollendo. The second route 
 occupies about 22 days. Produces rubber, coffee, cocoa, gold 
 and silver. 
 
 River custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 MANCORA, on coast of dep. of Piura ; lat. 4° 16' S. 
 Exports wood. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 MANU, cap. of Manu prov., in dep. of Madre de Dios. 
 Produces rubber and cocoa. 
 
 MASISEA, river port on the Ucayali, below junction of the 
 Pachitea, dep. of Loreto ; lat. 8° 40' S. Wireless telegraph 
 station. 
 
 MATUCANA, cap. of Huarochiri prov., in dep. of Lima ; 
 lat. 11° 52' S. ; 7,730 ft. above sea-level. Communicates by 
 Central Railway with Lima and Callao (103 k.) and with 
 Oroya ( q.v ., 119 k.). Industries : agriculture, pottery, mining 
 (coal, silver, copper, gold, bismuth, antimony, rock crystal). 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 201 
 
 MENOCUCHO, in dep. of La Libertad ; connected by 
 railway with Trujillo (26 k.). Produces sugar. 
 
 MERCED DE CHANCHAMAYO, LA, in dep. of Junin ; 
 lat. 11° 5' S. Communicates by road with Oroya (111 k.), 
 and thence by railway with Callao (222 k.). On the Pichis 
 route to Iquitos ( q.v .). 
 
 MOLLENDO, cap. of prov. of Islay, in dep. of Arequipa I 
 lat. 17° S. ; pop. 7,000. Communicates by the Southern 
 Railway with Arequipa (172 k.), Puno (523 k.), and Cuzco 
 (816 k.). 
 
 The port has an annual trade of about £1,000,000. It is 
 important as the Pacific terminus of the Southern Railway, 
 and as a channel of traffic to and from Bolivia ; but it has been 
 hard hit by the competition of the Arica-La Paz Railway. 
 The anchorage is not sheltered and transit is effected by means 
 of whale-boats and lighters. A breakwater is being 
 constructed. 
 
 Mollendo possesses a hospital, and a custom house of the 
 1st class. It is a port of call for the P.S.N.C., the C.S.A.V., 
 and the Kosmos lines. It has telegraphic facilities both inland 
 and by submarine cable. The chief exports are : wool, 
 
 copper, silver, borax, together with tin and rubber from 
 Bolivia. The imports are general merchandise. 
 
 MOQUEGUA, cap. of dep. of same name ; lat. 17° 15' S. ; 
 4,475 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,000. Communicates by 
 railway with Ilo (100 k.). In earthquake region. Vines, 
 figs, olives are grown, and wine and alcohol made ; mineral 
 products include copper and silver, marble, gypsum, sulphur, 
 kaolin, borax, tin, coal, salt, manganese. 
 
 MOROCOCHA, copper mining district in dep. of Lima, 
 connected by branch line with Ticlio (14 - 6 k.) on the Central 
 Railway ; thence with Callao and Lima, with Oroya and 
 Huancayo, and with Cerro Pasco. 
 
 MOYOBAMBA, cap. of prov. of Moyobamba, in dep. of 
 San Martin; lat. 6° 1' S. ; 2,820 ft. above sea-level; pop. 
 4,000. Communications by road : (1) with the river port of 
 Yurimaguas (q.v.) on the Huallaga (170 k.) ; and (2) with 
 
202 
 
 PERU 
 
 Chachapoyas (170 k.), and thence with the seaport of Pacas- 
 mayo. ( See under Chachapoyas.) Grows cocoa and bananas, 
 and produces gold, coal, iron, sulphur, matting, and straw 
 hats. 
 
 N 
 
 NAUTA, river port at junction of the Ucayali and the 
 Maranon ; lat. 4° 25' S. 
 
 NAZARETH, river port on the Javari ; lat. 4° S. 
 
 NASCA, in prov. and dep. of lea. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Pisco. 
 
 O 
 
 OCOftA, on coast of dep. of Arequipa, prov. of Camana ; 
 lat. 16° 20' S. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 OROYA, LA, in prov. of Yauli, and dep. of Junin ; lat. 
 11° 30' S. ; 11,060 ft. above sea-level on river Mantaro. 
 Railway centre. Communicates with Callao (222 k.), 
 Huancayo (125 - 6 k.), and Cerro de Pasco (132 k.). 
 
 OTUSCO, cap. of Otusco prov., in dep. of La Libertad ; 
 lat. 7° 53' S. ; pop. 900. Industries : agriculture (sugar, 
 coffee, coca, cereals) ; mining (gold, silver, tin, coal). Cocaine 
 is manufactured. 
 
 OYON, in prov. of Cajatambo, dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 10° 40' 
 S. Terminus of projected railway from port of Huacho. 
 
 P 
 
 PACASMAYO, seaport in prov. of Pacasmayo, and dep. 
 of La Libertad ; lat. 7° 24' S. ; pop. 3,000. Communications 
 by railway with Guadalupe (43 k.) and Chilete (135' 5 k.) ; 
 the junction is at Calisnique (16 k.). Port of call for P.S.N.C. 
 and C.S.A.V. Telegraph to Lima. Chief exports : sugar, 
 rice, hides, coca, silver, copper. There are coal deposits in 
 the interior. The town has a railway engineering shop. 
 Telephone to Cajamarca. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 203 
 
 PAITA, cap. of the prov. of Paita, in the dep. of Piura ; 
 lat. 5° 5' S. ; pop. 3,000. Port of call for P.S.N.C. and 
 C.S.A.V. Communications by railway with Sullana and Piura 
 (97 k.), and by cable with Panama and southern ports as 
 far as Valparaiso. Excellent harbour, with growing trade. 
 Exports : cotton, cotton seed, sugar, hides, straw hats. 
 
 Important oil-fields are being opened up. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class ; Clayton disinfecting apparatus. 
 
 PALPA, in dep. of Lima ; hacienda connected by railway 
 with port of Chancay (25 k.). 
 
 (There is another Palpa in dep. and prov. of lea.) 
 
 PAMPA BLANCA, agricultural district in dep. of Arequipa ; 
 connected by private railway with La Ensenada (20 k.), and 
 with Mollendo (41 k.) by the Southern Railway. 
 
 PAMPAS, cap. of the prov. of Tayacaja in dep. of Huan- 
 cavelica ; lat. 12° 18' S. ; 7,000 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 
 3,000. Industries : agriculture, mining, cattle-raising ; 
 
 leather, sugar, cheese, and alcohol are made. 
 
 (Other towns in the prov. of Huaras, Yauyos, and Pallasca 
 bear this name.) 
 
 PARAMONGA, in dep. of Lima ; connected by a short 
 private agricultural railway with Pativilca, and so with Supe 
 (20 k.). 
 
 PATAPO, in dep. of Lambayeque ; lat. 6° 50' S. ; connected 
 by railway with Chiclayo (24 k.), and thence (43 k.) with 
 Eten (67 k.). Produces rice. 
 
 PATIVILCA, small town in dep. of Lima ; lat. 10° 40' S. ; 
 connected by railway with (1) Barranca and Supe (12-2 k.) ; 
 and (2) with Paramonga (private line) on R. Pativilca. 
 
 PAUCARTAMBO, cap. of Paucartambo prov., of Cuzco 
 dep. ; lat. 13° 25' S. ; on river of same name. Industries : 
 agriculture, cattle-raising, textiles. 
 
 PAUSA, cap. of Parinacochas prov., in dep. of Ayacucho ; 
 lat. 15° 20' S. Industries : agriculture, mining (gold, silver, 
 asphalt) ; textile industries. Important wool market ; 
 
204 
 
 PERU 
 
 woolbearing animals are bred largely in the district on 
 natural pasturage. 
 
 PIMENTEL, in prov. of Chiclayo, dep. of Lambayeque ; 
 lat. 6° 45' S. Communicates by railway with Chiclayo 
 (14 k.), and so with Lambayeque (24 k.), and Eten ( q.v .). 
 Chief export rice ; minor exports : sugar, alcohol, hats, cattle. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Eten. 
 
 PISACOMA, in dep. of Puno ; lat. 16° 50' S. ; on the 
 frontier between Peru and Bolivia, S. of L. Titicaca. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Ilo. 
 
 PISCO, seaport, cap. of prov. of Pisco, in the dep. of lea ’ 
 lat. 13° 42' S. Communicates with lea by railway (74 k.) 
 Extensive coal-fields at Paracas ; guano from the neighbouring 
 islands. Port of call for steamers of P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. 
 Hospital. Telegraph. Pop. 4,000. Exports : ores, cotton, 
 wool, hides, cotton seed and oil cakes, native whiskies and 
 wine. Imports : general merchandise and provisions. 
 
 Custom house of 1st class. 
 
 PIURA, cap. of dep. of Piura, and of the prov. of the same 
 name ; lat. 5° 11' S. ; 165 ft. above sea-level ; mean annual 
 temperature, 77° Fahr. Connected by railway with the port 
 of Paita (97 k.) and with Catacaos (10 k.). 
 
 Piura is a town of adobe houses, with an unfinished cathe- 
 dral ; it stands a little to the S. of the old San Miguel de 
 Piura ; pop. about 5,000. The province produces cotton, 
 rice, and Peruvian bark ; iron ores and coal exist near the 
 city. The industries include cotton textiles, straw hats, 
 tobacco, and cigarettes. 
 
 PIZARRO, PUERTO, or LA PALIZADA, seaport in prov. 
 of Tumbes ; lat. 3° 30' S. ; at mouth of R. Tumbes. Puerto 
 Pizarro has taken the place of old Tumbes, owing to alterations 
 in the mouth of the river ; the ancient mouth is 3 m. to the E. 
 Pop. 2,000. Port of call for vessels of the P.S.N.C. and 
 C.S.A.V. 
 
 PLAYA CHICA, in Salinas Bay, dep. of Lima ; lat. 11° 14' S. 
 Salt is brought from the salt lakes 5 m. to the S., and shipped 
 from the pier. Railway to Salinas (10 k.). 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 205 
 
 POMABAMBA, cap. of Pomabamba prov., in dep. of 
 Ancachs ; lat. 8° 52' S. Produces cereals, textiles, silver, 
 gold 'both placer and mining), and coal. 
 
 PUCALPA, river port on the upper Ucayali ; lat. 8° 25' S. I 
 towards which a railway from Goyllarisquisga is projected. 
 
 PUNO, cap. of the dep. of Puno, and also of the prov. of 
 Puno ; lat. 15° 50' S. ; 12,645 ft. above sea-level ; pop. about 
 5,000 ; situated on the N.W. shore of L. Titicaca. Communi- 
 cates (1) by railway, via Juliaca, with Mollendo (523 k.) ; 
 (2) by tri-weekly steamer service, with Guaqui in Bolivia, and 
 thence by railway with La Paz. The district is rich in silver, 
 lead, copper, zinc, cinnabar, and cobalt ; alpaca and sheep 
 wool is abundant ; Peruvian bark, barley, and potatoes are 
 grown. Seat of a bishopric and a Superior Court. Pop. 7,000. 
 Smelting is carried on extensively in works recently erected. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 PUNTA, LA, bathing station and suburb of Callao, with 
 which it is connected by short branch railway (2 6 k.). 
 
 PUQUIO, cap. of Lucanas prov., in dep. of Ayacucho ; 
 lat. 14° 50' S. Products : cereals, Peruvian bark, gold, silver, 
 copper, wool-bearing animals are bred on natural pasturage. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUILCA, at mouth of R. Quilca, in dep. of Arequipa ; 
 lat. 16° 43' S. Steamers of the P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. call 
 every three weeks. Telegraph to Lima. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Mollendo. 
 
 R 
 
 RARUBO, in dep. of Cuzco, 15 m. S. of the city of Cuzco. 
 
 RECUAY, in prov. of Huaras, dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 9° 40' S. On line of projected railway from Tablones along 
 the Huaylas valley. For industries, see Huaras. 
 
 REQUENA, small river port on the Ucayali, dep. of Loreto- 
 Wireless telegraph station. 
 
 REVENTAZON, in dep. of Piura ; centre of a sulphur- 
 mining district ; connected by private mineral railway with 
 the port of Bayover ( q.v .). 
 
206 
 
 PERU 
 
 S 
 
 SALAVERRY, seaport in prov. of Trujillo, and dep. of 
 La Libertad ; lat. 8° 14' S. ; pop. 1,100. Communicates by 
 railway with Trujillo (14‘5 k.), and thence with Chocope and 
 Ascope (82 k.) ; also with Menocucho to the N.E. Coal is 
 found in the neighbourhood. Port of call for P.S.N.C. and 
 C.S.A.V. Exports mainly sugar, rice, hides. Telegraph. 
 Custom house of 1st class. 
 
 SALINAS DE HUACHO, in dep. of Lima ; lat. 11° 20' S. ; 
 salt district, connected by short private railway with Play a 
 Chica (10 k.). 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 SALINAS DE OTUNA. Custom house of 3rd class, dep. 
 on Pisco. 
 
 SAMA, in dep. of Moquegua, on R. Sama ; lat. 17° 80' S., 
 on the (provincial) frontier between Peru and Chile. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Ilo. 
 
 SAMANCO, in prov. of Santa, dep. Ancachs ; on R. Nepena ; 
 lat. 9° 15' S. Port of call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. Exports 
 rice, cotton, cereals, firewood. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 SAN BARTOLOME DE CHAO, in dep. of La Libertad. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Salaverry. 
 
 SAN CARLOS, cap. of Bongara prov., in dep. of Amazonas ; 
 lat. 5° 50' S. ; centre of agricultural district. At Shipasbamba, 
 on the R. Santiago, a little to the W., are gold placer workings. 
 
 SAN JOSE (DE LAMBAYEQUE), in dep. of Lambayeque ; 
 lat. 6° 45' S. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Eten. 
 
 SAN MIGUEL, cap. of La Mar prov., in dep. of Ayacucho ; 
 lat. 12° 52' S. The district is mainly agricultural, producing 
 maize, Peruvian bark, cereals, coca, cocoa, coffee, and cotton. 
 Silver, nickel, cobalt, and manganese are found. 
 
 SAN NICOLAS, in dep. of Lima ; connected by short 
 private agricultural line with port of Supe (q.v) (6 k.). 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 207 
 
 (There is a guano island of San Nicolas off the coast of 
 dep. of lea ; and another San Nicolas in dep. of Amazonas, 
 prov. of Chachapoyas.) 
 
 SAN PEDRO DE LLOC, cap. of prov. of Pacasmayo, in 
 dep. of La Libertad ; lat. 7° 26' S. ; pop. 15,000. Com- 
 municates by railway with port of Pacasmayo (8 k.), and also 
 with Guadalupe, Yonan, and Chilete. Cotton textiles are 
 manufactured, gold and copper mined, and rice, sugar, coffee, 
 and cereals are grown. 
 
 SANDIA, cap. of Sandia prov., in dep. of Puno ; lat. 
 14° 20' S. Products include tobacco, coca, Peruvian bark ; 
 gold (mining and placer) ; wool-bearing animals bred on 
 natural pasturage. 
 
 SANTA, minor port at mouth of R. Santa, in dep. of 
 Ancachs ; lat. 8° 59' S. Exports salt, minerals, rice, and 
 hides. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 SANTA ANA, in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. 9° 30' S. Port on 
 R. Vilcanota. 
 
 SANTO TOMAS, (1) in dep. of Amazonas ; lat. 6° 30' S. ; 
 on R. Santiago. Gold-mining region. 
 
 (2) Cap. of Chumbivilcas prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. 
 14° 52' S. ; on R. Santo Tomas, flowing N. towards the 
 Apurimac. Industries : textiles and mining (gold, iron, 
 
 silver, copper, tin, lead, salt). 
 
 SANTIAGO DE CHUCO, cap. of prov. of same name, in dep. 
 of La Libertad ; lat. 8° 2' S. ; pop. 1,200. Gold, silver, and 
 coal are produced in the district ; carpets, woollen and cotton 
 textiles are manufactured. 
 
 SAPOSOA, cap. of Huallaga prov., in dep. of Loreto ; lat., 
 6° 50' S. Products include tobacco, sugar, coffee, coca, 
 quca, bananas ; alcohol, sugar, and textiles are manufactured. 
 
 SAYAN, in dep. of Lima on boundary with Ancachs ; lat. 
 11° S. Connected by railway with Huacho. For industries, 
 see Huacho and Cajatambo. 
 
208 
 
 PERU 
 
 SECHURA, in prov. of Piura and dep. of Piura ; lat. 5° 34' 
 S. ; 4 m. from mouth of R. Piura. Exports cotton and 
 salt ; sulphur, borax, and mica are found in the neighbourhood ; 
 pearls are found in the bay. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 SICUANI, cap. of Canchis prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. 
 14° 25' S. Communicates by Southern Railway with Cuzco 
 (143 k.) and Mollendo (673 k.). Industries : agriculture, 
 cattle-raising, pottery, textiles, mining (cobalt, iron, silver, 
 copper). 
 
 SUPE, in dep. of Lima, prov. of Chancay ; lat. 10° 45' S. 
 Minor port, connected by rail with Barranca (12 k.), Pativilca 
 and Paramonga to the N., and with San Nicolas (6 k.) to the S. 
 Port of call for P.S.N.C. and C.S.A.V. ; telegraph. Exports 
 sugar, alcohol, and corn. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 T 
 
 TABLONES, in dep. of Ancachs, on R. Santa ; connected 
 by railway with port of Chimbote (57 k.). The line continues 
 to “ kilometro 104,” and is intended to follow the Huailas 
 Valley S. via Huaras and Recuay, and ultimately to reach 
 Cerro de Pasco. 
 
 TACNA. See Inapari. 
 
 TAHUAMANU. River custom house of 3rd class, dep. on 
 Mollendo. 
 
 TALARA, small seaport in dep. of Piura ; lat. 4° 30' S. ; 
 exports oil and oil products from the petroleum fields at 
 Negritos. Telegraph, but no regular steamer service. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 TAMBO, in Arequipa, dep. ; connected by railway with 
 Mollendo (30 k.). 
 
 TAMBO DE MORA, minor port in dep. of lea ; lat. 13° 35' S. 
 Exports native whiskies and wines. 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Pisco. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 209 
 
 TAMBOBAMBA, cap. of Cotabambas prov. of dep. of 
 Apurimac ; lat. 13° 45' S. Industries : agriculture (incl. 
 sugar), and mining (gold and silver). 
 
 TARAPOTO, cap. of the prov. of San Martin in the dep. of 
 Loreto ; lat. 6° 38' S. ; pop. 900. Communicates by road and 
 cattle tram with Yurimaguas ( q.v .) on the R. Huallaga (90 k.). 
 Produces tobacco, coffee, cotton, sugar, and rubber ; sugar 
 and alcohol are manufactured. 
 
 TARMA, cap. of the prov. of Tarma, in the dep. of Junin ; 
 lat. 11° 24' S. ; 10,025 ft. above sea-level; pop. 8,000. 
 
 Communicates by road with Oroya (33 k.), and thence by 
 railway (222 k.) with Callao. Centre of a very healthy, 
 rich and fertile district, producing silver, copper, coal, salt- 
 petre ; also cereals, coffee, sugar, cocoa, Peruvian bark ; cattle 
 and wool-bearing animals are reared, and textiles and straw 
 hats are made. 
 
 TAYABAMBA, cap. of prov. of Patas in dep. of La Libertad ; 
 lat. 8° 10' S. Centre of agricultural, pastoral, and mining 
 region. Products include cereals, coca, sugar, gold, silver, and 
 coal. 
 
 TICLIO, in dep. of Lima. Station on the Central Railway 
 (Callao-Oroya), about 170 kil. from Callao. A branch line 
 runs hence to the mines of Morococha (14'6 k.). 
 
 TRES PALOS, in dep. of La Libertad ; connected with 
 port of Huanchaco (q.v.), 14 k., and with the sugar plantations 
 of La Roma, 54 k., by a private railway. 
 
 TRUJILLO or TRUXILLO, cap. of prov. of Trujillo, in dep. 
 of La Libertad ; lat. 8° T S. ; on R. Moche ; 202 ft. above 
 sea-level ; pop. 10,000. Communicates by railway with the 
 port of Salaverry (14- 5 k.) ; also with Chocope and Ascope 
 (67 5 k.) to the N., and with Menocucho (26 k.) to the N.E. 
 Ancient Chimu city ; seat of university, Superior Court, and 
 bishopric. Industries : sugar-refining, gold, silver, and salt 
 mining, tobacco. Electric power supply. 
 
 Extensive ruins of the ancient Chimu population exist in 
 the neighbourhood, and from these abundant evidence of the 
 ancient arts of pottery and weaving have been obtained. 
 
210 
 
 PERU 
 
 The present city ranks next in importance to Lima and 
 Callao in the coast region. It suffered greatly in the Chilean 
 war of 1881, but has recovered steadily. Its prosperity 
 depends mainly on the sugar plantations of the vicinity. 
 
 TUMBES, cap. of the littoral prov. of Tumbes, formerly in 
 dep. of Piura ; lat. 3° 30' S. ; on R. Tumbes ; pop. 2,000. 
 Communicates by railway with the port of La Palizada or 
 Puerto Pizarro (11 k.). The new town stands about 18 m. 
 by river from the port. Products include sugar, tobacco, 
 coffee, cocoa ; petroleum, iodine, salt, sulphur, cobalt, coal. 
 Sugar, alcohol, kerosene, and aniseed rum are made. Exports 
 tobacco, hats, charcoal, cattle. Telegraph station. (See 
 Puerto Pizarro.) 
 
 Custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 U 
 
 UNI6N, LA, cap. of prov. of Dos de Mayo in dep. of 
 Huanuco ; lat. 9° 42' S. Industries : agriculture (cereals, 
 sugar, coffee) ; cattle-raising ; textiles ; mining (gold, silver, 
 iron, coal). 
 
 URCOS, cap. of La Convention prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; 
 lat. 13° 55' S. Communicates by Southern Railway with 
 Cuzco (40 k.) and Mollendo (776 k.). Industries : agriculture 
 (cereals, coca, sugar, coffee) ; mining (coal, gold, silver) ; 
 textile manufactures. 
 
 URUBAMBA, cap. of Urubamba prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; 
 lat. 13° 26' S. ; about 60 m. N.W. of Cuzco. Industries : 
 agriculture and mining (silver, copper, iron, plumbago, salt, 
 marble, gypsum). 
 
 V 
 
 VfeGUETA, Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Callao. 
 
 Y 
 
 YANAOCO, cap. of Canas prov., in dep. of Cuzco ; lat. 
 14° 18' S. A little W. of the S. Pablo Station on the Southern 
 Railway (Cuzco- Juliaca branch). The district is very rich in 
 mineral wealth, and also produces Peruvian bark and textiles. 
 
GAZETTEER OF CHIEF TOWNS 
 
 211 
 
 YAUYOS, cap. of Yauyos prov., in dep. of Lima ; lat. 
 12° 30' S. Industries : agriculture, mining, cattle-raising, 
 and textiles. 
 
 YCA. See lea. 
 
 YESSUP or JESSUP, on R. Pichis ; lat. 10° 20' S. ; com- 
 municates (1) by canoe with Puerto Bermudez, the limit of 
 steam navigation, and thence with Iquitos ; (2) by road with 
 Cerro de Pasco. 
 
 YLO. See Ilo. 
 
 YONAN, in dep. of Cajamerca, connected by railway with 
 port of Pacasmayo (65 k.). The line continues eastward to 
 La Vina, and will ultimately pass through Magdalena to 
 Cajamarca. 
 
 YUNG AY, in prov. of Huailas, dep. of Ancachs ; lat. 
 9° 18' S. On the road from Huaras to Chimbote, and on the 
 line of the projected railway. Nearest railway station at 
 present Tablones. For industries, see under Caras. 
 
 YURIMAGUAS, cap. of the prov. of Alto Amazonas in the 
 dep. of Loreto ; lat. 5° 44' S. ; on the R. Huallaga ; pop. 
 1,200. Communicates by steamer down stream with Iquitos 
 (q.v.) ; also by road westward with Moyobamba ( q.v ) (170 k.), 
 and thence via Chachapoyas and Cajamarca with Pacas- 
 mayo. An important trading centre, collecting rubber for 
 transport to Iquitos, and distributing imports from the latter 
 town. 
 
 Z 
 
 ZARUMILLA, on the frontier of Peru and Ecuador. 
 Frontier custom house of 2nd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
 ZORRITOS, small port in dep. of Piura ; lat. 3° 41' S. 
 Petroleum works. Telegraph station. Exports : petroleum, 
 kerosene, benzine, gasolene. 
 
 Custom house of 3rd class, dep. on Paita. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 POSTAL AND TELEGRAPH GUIDE 
 
 Peru belongs to the Universal Postal Union. The adminis- 
 tration of the Post Office is sound and progressive, and the 
 service, considering the immense natural difficulties to be 
 encountered, is good. There were in 1911 some 1,057 offices. 
 Money Order and Parcels Post conventions have recently 
 been arranged with Bolivia, the United States, England, 
 France, Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland ; and one for 
 Parcels Post, alone, with Chile. Letters and parcels usually 
 pass through the Lima Post Office, but those for the Montana 
 district go via Iquitos. The tables on the following pages 
 give the charges for Internal and Foreign postage and 
 telegrams. 
 
 15— (2247) 
 
 213 
 
TABLE I. INTERNAL 
 
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 £ 
 
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TABLE II. FOREIGN 
 
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 Single 
 
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 73 
 
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 U<Wm 
 
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 02 g 
 
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 ■ a a a « 
 
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 Note. id. equals about 4 ceol 
 
216 
 
 PERU 
 
 III. From England to Peru 
 
 There are various routes : ( 1 ) via Southampton and 
 
 Panama ; (2) via United States (by British and French packet 
 via Panama ; by German packet via Buenos Aires and Andes). 
 
 Letters. — 2|d. for the first oz. ; l|d. for every succeeding oz. 
 The value cannot be insured. 
 
 Printed and commercial papers up to 4 lb. ) , , 0 
 
 Samples up to 12 oz. ) * • P er oz - 
 
 Coin, gold, silver, precious stones, jewellery, chemical and 
 medicinal products are prohibited. Dutiable articles are 
 liable to confiscation. 
 
 Correspondence for Iquitos and district, unless special 
 instructions are given to the contrary, is forwarded, three 
 times a month, via Brazil. 
 
 Parcels. — Routes : 
 
 (1) P.S.N. Co. (47 days to Callao) ) Four or five 
 
 (2) R.M. Co., via Panama (30 days to Callao) j times monthly. 
 
 (3) Iquitos Steamship Co. (about 8 weeks to | Every six 
 
 Iquitos) ) weeks. 
 
 Not exceeding 3 lbs., by (1) 2s. ; by (2) and (3) 3s. 
 
 „ „ 7 lbs., by (1) 3s. ; by (2) 4s. 6d. ; by (3) 4s. 
 
 „ „ 11 lbs., by (1) 4s. ; by (2) 6s. ; by (3) 5s. 
 
 The size must not exceed 3| ft. in length, breadth, or depth, 
 
 or a combined length and girth of 6 ft. The value cannot be 
 insured. The same articles are prohibited as given above 
 under “ Letters.” All parcels for department of Loreto go 
 via Iquitos ; this direct service was established in 1912, such 
 parcels having previously to go through Lima. 
 
 Telegraphs 
 
 Rapid progress is being made in the development of the 
 telegraph service. In 1911 there were 308 offices (276 belong- 
 ing to the Government). The lines amounted to a total of 
 about 6,475 miles. The line from Lima to Chalhuanca was 
 opened in 1912, and others are in progress. In 1908 wireless 
 communication was established between Lima and Iquitos, by 
 means of five wireless and eleven ordinary aerial telegraphic 
 relays ; in June, 1912, direct wireless communication between 
 the two places was inaugurated and an excellent service is 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 217 
 
 now maintained. The system adopted is the Telef unken 
 musical spark. 
 
 Cable communication with the United States and Europe 
 is carried on by the Central and South American Telegraph Co., 
 and by the West Coast of America Co. Cables to U.S.A. go 
 via Colon or Vera Cruz and Salina Cruz ; those to Europe link 
 on to other systems at St. Vincent. 
 
 Internal Rates. For a telegram of ten words, 40 centavos ; 
 for each additional word, 4 c. 
 
 For aerograms between Lima and Iquitos, a Spanish 
 message of ten words costs 24 c. ; one in a foreign language or 
 code, 48 c. 
 
 England to Peru. 2s. 9d. per word (except for the Montana 
 towns of Iquitos, Masisea, Orellana, and Requena, for which 
 the charge is 4s. 9d. per word). Deferred rate. Is. 4|d. per 
 word (not accepted for Iquitos, etc.). 
 
 Week-end cable letters may be sent to Peru, Chile, and 
 Argentina at the rate of 25 words for 20s., each additional 
 word costing lOd. These are not accepted, however, for 
 Iquitos, etc. 
 
 Telephones 
 
 The telephone, though under Government inspection and 
 supervision, is not a monopoly service in Peru. The lines 
 probably amount to over 4,000 miles. The districts of Lima, 
 Arequipa, Cuzco, Trujillo, Piura, Cajamarca, Cerro de Pasco, 
 Huanuco, lea, and Pacasmayo all enjoy good telephonic 
 facilities. The longest line is Pacasmayo to Cajamarca (192 k.). 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 STEAMSHIP SERVICES 
 
 The principal steamer services affecting Peru are as follows — 
 
 A. From Europe, via Colon. 
 
 B. From Europe, via Magellan Straits. 
 
 C. From United States. 
 
 D. Local West Coast Services. 
 
 E. River services of the Amazon basin, via Iquitos. 
 
 F. From Hong-Kong. 
 
 A. From Europe via Colon. — The quickest route from 
 Europe to the coast of Peru is by way of Colon and Panama. 
 The joint Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. and the Pacific 
 Steam Navigation Co. have a fortnightly mail service from 
 Southampton and Cherbourg to Colon ; and another from 
 New York to Colon. The Leyland line has a service from 
 Liverpool to Colon three times a month ; the Harrison line, 
 a monthly service of cargo boats between the same ports. 
 Elder and Fyffes carry a limited number of passengers in 
 their weekly service from Liverpool and Bristol to Colon. 
 The United Fruit Co. have a weekly cargo service from 
 London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Bristol, and continental ports, 
 the cargo being transhipped at New York or New Orleans ; 
 this line also carries passengers. 
 
 Continental lines running to Colon include the French 
 Compagnie Generate Transatlantique (passenger and mail) 
 from St. Nazaire, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Barcelona ; the 
 Italian Societd La Veloce (passenger and cargo) from Genoa 
 and Barcelona ; and the Spanish Compania transatlantic 
 Barcelona, from Barcelona. 
 
 At present the journey between Colon and Panama is by 
 rail, but the opening of the canal will avoid the necessity of 
 a change here. 
 
 The Leyland line’s fare to Colon is £20 ; that of the R.M.S.P. 
 to Callao is from £38 12s. 6d. to £48 12s. 6d., and to Mollendo 
 £5 extra. 
 
 218 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 219 
 
 B. For the Magellan Straits route the leading service is 
 that of the joint Pacific Steam Navigation Co. and Royal Mail 
 Steam Packet Co. They give a weekly mail service by “ A ” 
 steamers from Southampton and Cherbourg, and a fortnightly 
 mail service by “ O ” steamers from Liverpool andLaRochelle- 
 Pallice, to Brazil and the River Plate ; also an intermediate 
 fortnightly service from Liverpool. The route from Monte- 
 video is via Port Stanley (Falkland Islands), Punta Arenas, 
 Coronel, Talcahuano, Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Antofagasta, 
 Iquique, and Arica to Mollendo and Callao. (Fares £35 to 
 £62.) 
 
 The German Kosmos Co. (including some vessels of the 
 Hamburg-Amerika Co.) provide (1) a fortnightly mail and 
 passenger steamer from Hamburg, Antwerp, and London, 
 to Chile and Peru ; (2) a monthly steamer from Hamburg, 
 Antwerp, and London to the West coast from Chile to San 
 Francisco ; (3) Monthly cargo from Hamburg, Rotterdam, 
 Antwerp, and London steamers to west coast from Chile to 
 Ecuador ; (4) monthly cargo steamers from Hamburg and 
 Antwerp to Chile and Peru ; (5) monthly cargo steamers from 
 Genoa, Barcelona, and Cadiz to Chile and Peru. 
 
 The German Roland Line of Bremen has a service between 
 Callao and Europe, via Chilean ports. 
 
 The Lamport and Holt and Gulf Lines have joint regular 
 sailings from Antwerp, Havre, Glasgow, and Welsh ports for 
 Chile, Peru, and (if cargo offers) Guayaquil in Ecuador. 
 
 C. From U.S.A. — The Merchants’ Line (W. R. Grace & Co.) 
 run a service of cargo boats between Callao and San Francisco, 
 and Callao and New York ; two other lines have a similar 
 cargo service between New York and Callao. 
 
 D. West Coast. — The local west coast services affecting 
 Peru are — 
 
 (1) A weekly service between Panama and Valparaiso, 
 calling at Paita, Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, and Callao. 
 
 (2) A weekly service between Guayaquil and South Chile, 
 calling at all Peruvian and Chilean ports. 
 
 (These are operated by the joint Pacific Steam Navigation 
 Co. and the (Chilean) Compahia Sud-Americana de Vapores.) 
 
 (3) A service on alternate Mondays and Saturdays between 
 
220 
 
 PERU 
 
 Panama and Callao, via Guayaquil, operated by the (Peruvian) 
 Compahia Peruana de Vapor es y Dique de Callao. 
 
 E. Amazon. — To reach Iquitos and the Montana district 
 of Peru the quickest and easiest route is up the Amazon. The 
 monthly service of the Amazon Steam Navigation Co., a 
 Brazilian company, was discontinued in Dec., 1911 ; but 
 Iquitos is connected with Liverpool and New York by an 
 equivalent service of ocean-going steamers belonging to the 
 Iquitos Steamship Co., which is managed by the Booth Line. 
 The Booth Line, which has built a pier and warehouses at 
 Iquitos, runs a fortnightly service from Liverpool to Manaos, 
 via Plymouth, Cherbourg, Havre, Vigo, Leixoes (Oporto), 
 Lisbon, Madeira, and Para (minimum fare to Manaos, £34). 
 
 Smaller draught steamers take the traveller fromlquitos along 
 the tributaries of the Amazon into the heart of the Montana. 
 
 F. From Hong-Kong.- — A Japanese line, the Toyo Risen 
 Kaisha, has a service once in two months between Hong-Kong 
 and Callao, via Hawaii, Salina Cruz, Honolulu ; it proceeds 
 also to Iquique and Valparaiso. 
 
g 
 
 0 
 
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 English 
 & U.S.A. 
 Value. 
 
 20-97d. 
 (practic. 
 = 21d.) 
 42 cents 
 
 19-2d. 
 38-9 cents 
 
 16d. 
 
 32-4 cents 
 
 Usual Unit 
 of Commerce. 
 
 Peso papier 
 (paper dollar) 
 
 Boliviano 
 ( = 10 reales 
 fuertos or 
 100 centavos) 
 
 Milreis paper 
 
 English 
 & I S. A. 
 Par Value. 
 
 47 619d. 
 (practic. 
 = 48d. 
 •965 $ 
 (96-5 
 cents.) 
 
 48d. 
 
 •973$ 
 
 26-934d. 
 (practic. 
 = 27d.) 
 •546$ 
 
 l^nit. 
 
 Peso nacional 
 or peso, or 
 (gold dollar) 
 = 100 cen- 
 
 tavos 
 
 Peso or (gold 
 dollar) 
 
 Milreis gold 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDIX C 
 
 PERUVIAN CURRENCY 
 
 In 1872 gold was demonetised and bank notes were made 
 legal tender ; but they depreciated greatly and were with- 
 drawn in 1888. In 1897 the free coinage of silver was sus- 
 pended and the re-importation of early issues forbidden. A 
 gold standard was established by the law of 29th December, 
 1897, and became the only legal standard from 14th December, 
 1901. The unit is the sol, of 25 gr. weight, 900 fine. 
 
 The coins authorised are — 
 
 ( The libra peruana (of 10 soles). 
 Gold. — -| 916 fine, = 20s. 
 
 ( J libra (of 5 soles) = 10s. 
 
 ’The sol (of 100 centavos) = 2s. 
 
 £ sol ,, 50 „ = Is. 
 
 Silver. — J * ,, (peseta) 20 ,, = 4|d. 
 
 | (real) 10 ,, = 2fd. 
 
 Vji ff „ (medio) 5 „ = lid. 
 
 Bronze. — 2 and 1 centavos = (roughly) £d. 
 and £d. 
 
 j' = S4 866t (In Commer 
 \ cial practice 
 
 1 $4-87.) 
 
 = $2-4334- $2.43. 
 
 = $ -486£§, or 48 6 cents. 
 =24 3 cents. 
 
 = 9-7 „ 
 
 = 4-8 „ 
 
 = 2 4 „ 
 
 | = 1 cent, and £ cent. 
 
 There is no paper currency. 
 
 Legal tender — 
 
 Bronze, to the value of 5 centavos 
 Silver, ,, ,, ,, 10 Soles ( — £\) 
 
 For higher sums the English sovereign and half-sovereign 
 are legal tender at the rate of 10 soles to the £\, being the 
 exact equivalents in weight and fineness to the Peruvian libra 
 and half-libra. 
 
 N.B. — A comparative table of the currencies of the whole 
 of South America faces this page. 
 
 221 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 The French metric system is legal in all the countries of 
 South America, and is obligatory in the Customs Houses and 
 other government offices. The most important standards 
 are the metre ( = 39' 37 inches), and the kilogramme 
 ( = 2.204 lbs.). The metric system was established by law 
 in Peru in 1860. 
 
 In commerce, however, especially in the interior, the older 
 systems often survive. These are confusing, as the same 
 term may bear different values in different countries or 
 districts of a country. In old Spain itself the standards were 
 not quite uniform, e.g., the yard {vara) varied between 0'847 
 and 0834 of a metre. In the South American colonies this 
 variation tended to increase ; thus in Bolivia and Chile the 
 vara = 0836 m., in Argentina and Paraguay 0’866, and in 
 Brazil PI 110 m. 
 
 The most important of these older terms, which survive in 
 Peru, are given below, with the English equivalents. 
 
 Vara (yard) = 0847 metre = 33 37 in., or 0 927 yd. 
 
 Square vara = 0 0835 of a sq. yd. 
 
 Libra = TO 143 lbs avoird. 
 
 Arroba = 25 libras = 25 36 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Quintal = 100 libras = 101 44 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Gallon of wine or spirits = 0 74 imp. gallon 
 
 Arroba ,, ,, ,, = 6 70 imp. gallons 
 
 The following agrarian measures deserve mention — 
 
 Tongo = a square with sides of 13 varas (12'051 yds.) = 
 145'2265 sq. yds. 
 
 Fanegada = 5' 142 acres (on the coast). 
 
 Topo = 3,493 sq. metres = (approx.) 6,950 sq. yds. (usually) 
 
 ,, = 4,608 „ ,, = ,, 9,150 „ (in Puno 
 
 and Arequipa) 
 
 Cuadra = 10,000 „ = „ 19,000 „ 
 
 222 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 
 
 Between Peru and the United States oj America 
 Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation, 1851 ; Amended 
 1857, 1870, 1887. 
 
 Extradition Treaty, 1870. 
 
 Arbitration Convention signed 2nd December, 1908 ; 
 Ratified, 1st March, 1909, for submitting to arbitration all 
 questions which it shall be considered possible to submit to 
 such treatment. 
 
 Pecuniary Claims Convention, 1st February, 1911. 
 
 Between Peru and the United Kingdom 
 
 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, 1850 ; Provides for 
 Consuls. 
 
 Convention — Postal Union, 1878, 1885, 1891, and 15th 
 June, 1897. 
 
 Convention — Weights and Measures, 20th May, 1875. 
 
 Law — Marriages of Non-Catholics, 1897 and 1903. 
 
 Consolidated Regulations for preventing collisions at sea, 
 1897 and 13th October, 1910. 
 
 Extradition Treaty, 26th January, 1904. 
 
 In addition to the Commercial Treaties and Conventions 
 existing with Great Britain and the United States of America, 
 Peru has signed treaties of commerce and navigation with 
 the following countries — 
 
 Portugal 
 Russia . . 
 Italy 
 Japan 
 Bolivia . . 
 
 1853, 1862 ; additional protocol, 1863 
 . . 1875 
 
 . . 1873 
 
 . . 1896 
 
 . . 1906 
 
 Consular conventions are as follows — 
 
 Portugal 
 France 
 Italy . . 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 1875 
 
 1879 
 
 1896 
 
 1899 
 
 1908 
 
 1908 
 
 223 
 
224 
 
 PERU 
 
 A General Treaty of Arbitration has been signed with Italy 
 (1905). 
 
 At an international congress held at Montevideo in 1889, a 
 treaty of international commercial law was arranged between 
 Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and 
 Uruguay, and is now in force between the first and the last 
 three of the countries named. 
 
APPENDIX F 
 
 DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 
 
 1. Of Peru to the United States of America 
 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary — F. A. 
 Pezet. 
 
 First Secretary of Legation — M. de Freyre y Santander. 
 
 Consuls — Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, Los 
 
 Angeles, New Orleans, Panama, Philadelphia, Portland (Or.), 
 Port Townsend, San Francisco, Tacoma. 
 
 Vice-Consuls — Norfolk, San Diego, Manila, Porto Rico. 
 
 2. Of United States of America to Peru 
 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary — H. Clay 
 Howard. 
 
 Secretary — A. R. Magruder. 
 
 Secretary of Legation — William P. Cresson. 
 
 Consul-General (Callao) — W. H. Robertson. 
 
 Consul — Iquitos, etc. 
 
 Consular Agents — Cerro de Pasco, Mollendo, Paita, Salaverry. 
 
 3. Of Peru to Great Britain 
 
 Envoy and Minister — Don Carlos G. Candamo (resident in 
 Paris). 
 
 Charge d’ Affaires and Consul-General — (104 Victoria Street, 
 London, S.W.), Edward Lembcke. 
 
 Secretaries — Ricardo E. Lembcke and Enrique G. Swayne. 
 Attaches — Pablo E. Caballero and Adolfo Perez Palacio. 
 
 There are Peruvian Consuls at Liverpool, Southampton, 
 Glasgow, Dundee, Cardiff, Dublin, Belfast, Queenstown. 
 
 225 
 
226 
 
 PERU 
 
 4. Of Great Britain to Peru 
 
 Envoy, Minister, and Consul-General — E. A. Rennie, 
 M.V.O. 
 
 Consul-General (Callao) — L. J. Jerome (Calle del Arsenal, 
 19). 
 
 There is a Consul at Iquitos ; Vice-Consuls at Callao, Lima, 
 Arequipa, Mollendo, Paita, Salaverry, and for the Perene and 
 Chanchamayo districts ; and a Consular Agent at Cerro de 
 Pasco. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abancay (prov.), 60 
 
 (town), 184 
 
 Acari, 184 
 
 Acllahuasis (Convents), 43, 48, 
 
 50 
 
 Acomayo (prov.), 64 
 
 , (town), 184 
 
 Adobes, 41 
 
 Agriculture, 142-150, 157 
 
 , National School, 144 
 
 , Experimental stations, 
 
 144 
 
 Aimaraes (prov.), 60 
 Aji, 14 
 
 Alcohol, distilling, 172 
 
 , exports, 183 
 
 Alfalfa, 13, 14 
 
 , seed, 182 
 
 Almagro, Diego de, 22-27 
 
 , the younger, 27-8 
 
 Alpaca, 17, 159, 182 
 Alpacote, 41 
 
 Alto Amazonas (prov.), 73 
 Amazon, River, 8, 9, 121. 
 Amazonas (dep.), 57-8 
 Ancachs (Ancash), dep., 58-9 
 Ancomarca, 184 
 Ancon, 130-1, 184 
 
 , Treaty of, 36 
 
 Andahuailas (prov.), 60 
 
 (town), 49, 184 
 
 Andenes, 51. See also Cordilleras. 
 Angaraes (prov.), 65 
 Angostura, 49 
 
 Animals, Live (exports), 182 
 Anta (prov.), 64 
 
 (town), 184 
 
 Antabama (prov.), 60 
 
 (town), 184 
 
 Antimony, 164 
 Aplao, 185 
 
 Apurimac (dep.), 59-60 
 
 River, 8, 9 
 
 Aquiri (Acre), River, 8 
 
 Arequipa (dep.), 60-1 
 
 (prov.), 61 
 
 (town), 185 
 
 , capture by Chile, 35 
 
 Arica, 2, 36 
 
 , Battle of, 35 
 
 , Railway, 119 
 
 Arms, Ammunition and Explo- 
 sives, Imports (1910), 181 
 Army, 83 
 
 Asangaro (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 54, 186 
 
 Ascope, 1 85 
 Astillero, 1 85 
 Atahuallpa, 24-26 
 Atico, 1 86 
 
 Australia, Imports from, 181 
 Ayabaca (prov.), 76 
 
 (town), 186 
 
 Ayacucho (dep.), 61-2 
 
 (prov.), 62 
 
 (town), 186 
 
 , Battle of, 31 
 
 Ayaviri (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 186 
 
 Ayllus, 42 
 
 Aymaras, the, 20-21 
 
 Bajo Amazonas (prov.), 73 
 Balta, Jose, 33, 38 
 Bananas, 150 
 
 Banks and Banking, 98, 101-2 
 Barley, 183 
 
 Barranca, 41. See also Supe. 
 
 Barranco, 186 
 
 Bayovar, 1 86 
 
 Beans, 150 
 
 Beeswax, 1 83 
 
 Belgium, Imports from, 181 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 Bellavista, 186 
 Beni, River, 8 
 
 Bermudez (Bermudes), Puerto, 
 187, 114 
 
 227 
 
228 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bermudez, R. M., 38 
 Beverages, imports (1910), 180 
 Billinghurst, G. E., 37, 38 
 Biscuits, 174 
 Bismuth, 164 
 Bolivar, Simon, 31, 38 
 Bolivia, Frontier, 1 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 Bolognesi (prov.), 59 
 Bongora (prov.), 58 
 Boots and Shoes, 175 
 Borax, 162-3 
 Bran, 182 
 
 Brazil, Frontier, 1-2 
 
 , Treaty (1851), 9 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 Brewing, 172 
 Bridges, Inca, 24 
 Brooms, 175 
 
 Budgets (1912 and 1914), 93 
 Butter, 175, 182 
 Butterflies, 19 
 
 Caballo Cocha, 187 
 Cables, Submarine, 217 
 Cabana, 1 87 
 Caceres, A. A., 35, 38 
 Cacha, 49 
 Cachiche, Lake, 67 
 Cailloma (prov.), 61 
 
 (town), 187 
 
 Cajabamba (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 187 
 
 Cajamarca (dep.), 62-3 
 
 (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 25-6, 187 
 
 Cajamarquilla, 42-3 
 Cajatambo (prov.), 59 
 
 (town), 187 
 
 Calaveras, 41 
 Calca (prov.), 64 
 
 (town), 187 
 
 Calderon, F. G., 38 
 Callao (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 33, 35, 123-127, 
 
 187-8 
 
 , Shipping returns (1912), 
 
 125-6 
 
 Camana (prov.), 61 
 
 (town), 188 
 
 Camarones, 16 
 
 Canada, Imports from, 181 
 Canas (prov.), 64 
 Canchis (prov.), 64 
 Candamo, M., 38 
 Candles, 174 
 Canete (prov.), 71 
 
 (town), 188, 41 
 
 Cangallo (prov.), 62 
 
 (town), 188 
 
 Canseco, P. D., 38 
 Canta (prov.), 71 
 
 (town), 189 
 
 Canterac, General, 31 
 Carabaya (prov.), 77 
 Caras 189 
 Carbajal, 28 
 Carmen, El, 189 
 Carquin, 189 
 Casapalca, 189 
 Casma, 41, 131, 189 
 Castilla (prov.), 61 
 
 , Ramon, 32-3, 38 
 
 Castor-oil plant, 13, 150 
 Castro, Vaca de, 28 
 Castrovirreina (prov.), 65 
 
 (town), 189 
 
 Catacaos, 189 
 Cattle, 158-9, 183 
 Caucato, 189 
 Caujul, 189 
 Cayalti, 190 
 Celendin (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 190 
 
 "Central” route, 111-114 
 Cereals, 13, 14, 147 
 Cerro Azul, 127, 190 
 
 de Pasco, 190 
 
 , Mining report (1911-12), 
 
 164-6 
 
 Chachapoyas (prov.), 58 
 
 (town), 190 
 
 Chala, Puerto, 128, 190 
 Chalhuanca, 191 
 Chalonas, 182 
 Chan Chan, 20-21, 42 
 Chancaca (raw sugar), 182 
 Chancay (prov.), 71 
 
 (town), 131, 191 
 
 Chanchamayo, 113, 156 
 Charcoal, 175, 183 
 Charitable institutions, 106 
 
INDEX 
 
 229 
 
 i 
 
 Chemical industries, 174-5 
 Chicama, 191 
 Chiclayo, 191 
 Chilca, 191 
 
 Chile Exports to, 183 
 
 , Imports from, 181 
 
 , Treaties and Frontier, 1-2, 
 
 36 
 
 , Wars with, 32, 33-36 
 
 Chilcte, 191 
 Chillon, 41 
 Chimbote, 132, 191 
 China, Imports from, 181 
 Chincha (prov.), 67 
 
 (islands), 191 
 
 — Alta, 192 
 Chinchaycocha, Lake, 68 
 Chinchero, 51 
 Chinchilla, 18 
 Chiquian, 192 
 
 , 192 
 
 Canal, 88 
 
 Chocolate. 174, 175 
 
 Cholo Indians, 157, 159, 171, 177 
 
 Chorrillos, 192 
 
 , Battle of, 35 
 
 Chota (prov.), 63 
 , 192 
 
 Chucuito (prov.), 77 
 Chullpas, 48-9 
 Chumbivilcas (prov.), 64 
 Chufio, 182 
 Chuquibamba, 192 
 Cinchona, 150 
 Coal, 164, 165 
 Coast Zone, the, 4-5 
 
 , Flora, 13-14 
 
 , Early civilisation, 41-44 
 
 Coati island, 46, 48 
 Coca, 149-50 
 Cocaine, 173, 182 
 Cochrane, Lord, 31 
 Cocoa, 150, 182 
 Cocotea, 192 
 Coffee, 147-8, 182 
 Colan, 192 
 Collas, the, 21 
 Colombia, Exports to, 183 
 
 , Frontier, 1 
 
 Colonisation, 73, 74-5, 88, 156-8 
 Commercial Laws, 97-100 
 , 1 6 — (a* 47 ) 
 
 Commercial Travellers, 98-100 
 
 Treaties, 221-2 
 
 Condesuyos (prov.), 61 
 Condurango Bark, 182 
 Congress, 80-81 
 Conoche, Lake, 10 
 Constitution, 80, 82-3 
 Consuls, 222-3 
 Contamana, 192 
 Contumaza (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 192 
 
 Copper, 161-2, 165-6, 183 
 Cordilleras, 3, 6. 
 
 Coropuna (mb.), 3 
 Corrales (distr.), 79 
 Cotabambas (prov.), 60 
 Cotahuasi, 192 
 Cotton, Culture, 145-6 157 
 
 , Manufacture, 172 
 
 , Exports, 182-3 
 
 Cotton seed, 182 
 
 — Oil, 173-4, 182 
 
 Cake, 173-4, 182 
 
 Councils, Administrative, 82 
 Cui, 18 
 
 Currency, General Table, 220 
 
 , Peruvian, 220 
 
 Cuzco (dep.), 63-5 
 
 (prov.), 64 
 
 , 40, 193 
 
 , Early civilisation and re- 
 mains, 50-51. 
 
 , Knot of, 4 
 
 Debt, Foreign, 89 
 
 , Internal, 90 
 
 Departments and Provinces, 55-79 
 
 , Administration, 82 
 
 Diplomatic Representatives, 222-3 
 Disease, 11-12, 102-3 
 Districts, Administration, 82 
 Dos de Mayo (prov.), 66 
 Dried foods, 175 
 
 Duties, Import and Export, 178 
 
 Echinique, J. R., 38 
 Ecuador, Frontier, 1-2 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 Education, 104-5 
 El Obispo, 41-2 
 Electoral Law, 36 
 Electricity, 173 
 
INDEX 
 
 230 
 
 Embira, River, 8 
 Engineering, 173 
 Ensenada, La, :'°3 
 'ten, 133, 19? 
 r-xecutive, 81 
 Expenditure, 90-94 
 Explosives. See Arms. 
 
 Exports, 178, 182-3 
 
 Fauna, 16-19 
 Ferreflafe, 193 
 Ferrol Bay, 132 
 Finance, National, 85-94 
 Fish, 16 
 Flax, 150 
 Flora, 13-16 
 Flour, 174, 182 
 Foreigners, Rights of, 82, 96-7 
 France, Exports to, 183 
 
 , Imports from, 181 
 
 Fruits, 13 
 
 (export), 183 
 
 Furniture, 175 
 (imports), 181 
 
 Gamarra, Agustin, 38 
 Gasca, Pedro de la, 28 
 Gasoline, 182 
 Gazetteer, 184-211 
 Germany, Exports to, 183 
 
 , Imports from, 181 
 
 Goat Skins, 76, 182 
 
 Gold, 160, 163-4, 166, 183 
 
 Government, 80-38 
 
 Goyllarisquisga, 193 
 
 Grace-Donoughmore Contract, 86 
 
 Grand Chimu. See Chan Chan. 
 
 Grapes, 148 
 
 Grazing, 158-9 
 
 Guadalupe, 194 
 
 Guanaco, 17 
 
 Guanape, 194 
 
 Guano, 87-8, 154-6, 182 
 
 Harbours. See Ports. 
 Hatuncolla, 49 
 Health, 11-12 
 
 , Public, 102-3 
 
 Heath, 194 
 Hemp, 150 
 Herrada, Juan de, 28 
 Hides and Skins, Imports, 181 
 
 Hides and Skins, Exports, 182 
 Honey, 183 
 
 Hong-Kong, Imports from, 181 
 Homs, 182 
 Horsehair, 183 
 
 House of Representatives, 80-1 
 Huaca Tambo, 41 
 Huacachina Lake, 67 
 Huacas, 41-2 
 Huacho, 131, 194 
 Huailas (prov.), 59 
 Hualgayoc (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 194 
 
 Huallaga (prov.), 78 
 
 , River, 8, 10, 121 
 
 Huamachaco (prov.), 70 
 — : — (town), 194 
 Huamalies (prov.), 66 
 Huancabamba (prov.), 76 
 
 (town), 194 
 
 Huancane (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 195 
 
 Huancavelica (dep.), 65-6 
 
 (prov.), 65 
 
 — (town), 195 
 
 Huancayo (prov.), 69 
 
 (town), 195 
 
 Huanchaco, 133, 195 
 Huanta (prov.), 62 
 — — - (town), 195 
 Huantar, 53 
 
 Huanaco. See Guanaco. 
 Huanuco (dep.), 66-7 
 
 (prov.), 66 
 
 (town), 195 
 
 Viejo, 53 
 
 Huaras (prov.), 59 
 
 (town), 196 
 
 , River, 10 
 
 Huarcu, 41 
 Huari (prov.), 59 
 
 (town), 196 
 
 Huarmey, 196 
 Huarochiri (prov.), 72 
 Huascar (ironclad), 34 
 Huascaran (mt.), 3 
 Humboldt Current, 4, 12 
 
 Ica (dep.), 67 
 
 (prov.), 67 
 
 (town), 196 
 
INDEX 
 
 231 
 
 Ichu Grass, 14 
 Iglesias, Miguel, 36, 38 
 Ilo (Ylo), town, 130, 196 
 Immigration, 108-9 
 Imports and Exports, 178-183 
 
 analysed, 179-182 
 
 Inambari, 196 
 Inapari (Tacna), 196 
 Inca and Pre-inca Ruins, 39-54 
 Incas, the, 21-2, 23-4, 39-41 
 
 , Convents, 43 
 
 Independence, Bahia, 197 
 India, Imports from, 181 
 Indian Corn. See Maize. 
 India-rubber. See Rubber. 
 Individual Liberty, 95-6 
 Inland Communication, Roads, 
 110-114 
 
 , Railways, 114-120 
 
 , Waterways, 120-122 
 
 Intihuatanas, 52, 53 
 Iquitos, 197 
 
 , Communication with Lima, 
 
 140-1 
 
 , Shipping returns (1912), 
 
 138-9 
 
 , Steamship s.ervice, 219 
 
 — , Telegraphs, 216-7 
 
 (See also " Central ” and 
 " N'ortkern ” routes) 
 
 Iron, 164 
 Islay (prov.), 61 
 
 (town), 197, 130 
 
 Italy, Imports from, 181 
 Exports to, 183 
 
 Ja£n (prov.), 63 
 
 (town), 197 
 
 Jauja (prov.), 69 
 
 (town), 197 
 
 , River, 9 
 
 Javary, River, 10, 121 
 Jessup. See Yessup. 
 
 Judiciary, 81-2 
 Juli, 198 
 Juliaca, 198 
 Junln (dep.), 67-9 
 
 , Battle of, 31 
 
 , Lake, 68 
 
 •‘ Knots,’* 3-4 
 
 La Convenci6n (prov.), 64 
 La Mar (prov.), 62 
 La Serna, 31 
 La Sucre, Genr 31 
 La Uni6n (pro 61 
 Labour, 107-8, 166 
 Lamar y Cortazar, Jos6 de, 38 
 Lambayeque (dep.), 69-70 
 
 (town), 133-4, 198 
 
 Lampa (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 198 
 
 Lamud, 198 
 
 Land Mortgage Companies, 100 
 
 Land tenure, 156-8 
 
 Languages, 103-4 
 
 Lard, 174 
 
 Lead, 162, 183 
 
 Legislature, 80-1 
 
 Leguia, A. B., 38 
 
 Leticia, 198 
 
 Llama, 17, 159, 182 
 
 Llata, 199 
 
 Libertad, La (dep.), 70-1 
 
 (town), 198 
 
 Lima (dep.), 71-2 
 
 (prov.), 72 
 
 (town), 198-9 
 
 Commercial Exchange, 97 
 
 , occupation by Chile, 35 
 
 , Public institutions, 105-6 
 
 , Revolution of 1895, 36 
 
 , 1914, 37 
 
 Lircay, 1 99 
 Loans. See Finance. 
 
 Lobitos, 136, 199 
 Loja, Knot of, 4 
 Lomas, Puerto, 199 
 Loreto (dep.), 72-4 
 
 (town), 199 
 
 Lucanas (prov.), 62 
 Lumber, Imports (1910), 180 
 Luque, Hernando de, 22 
 Luya (prov.), 58 
 
 Maccaroni, 174 
 Macchu Pichu, 53 
 Macusani, 200 
 Madre de Dios (dep.), 74-5 
 
 , River, 8, 121 
 
 Magdalena, 200 
 Maguey , 14 
 
INDEX 
 
 232 
 
 Mainas (former dep.), 72 
 Maize, 14, 146-7, 183 
 Mala, 200 
 Malabrigo, 200 
 Malaria, 5 
 Maldonado, 200 
 Mama Ocllo, 46 
 Manatee (Sea-cow), 16 
 Manco Capac, 46 
 
 , Rock of, 47-8 
 
 Manco, Inca, 26-7 
 Mancora, 200 
 Manioc, 147 
 Manseriche, Falls of, 9 
 Mantaro, River, 9-10 
 Manu (prov.), 74 
 
 (town), 200 
 
 Manufactures and Minor Indus- 
 tries, 171-177 
 
 Maranon, River, 8, 9, 57-8, 121. 
 
 See also Amazon, River. 
 Marriage Laws, 36 
 Masisea, 200 
 Matches, 174 
 Matucana, 200 
 
 Medicines and Drugs, Imports 
 (1910), 180 
 
 Mendoza, Antonio de, 28 
 
 , Andres Hurtado de, 28 
 
 Menendez, Manuel, 38 
 Menocucho, 201 
 Merced, La, 113, 201 
 Mica, 162-3 
 
 Mines, Mining, and Minerals, 
 160-170 
 
 , Export (1910), 182-3 
 
 , Laws, 161, 167-170 
 
 , Output (1910, 1911), 167 
 
 Ministers, 81 
 Miraflores, Battle of, 35 
 Moche, 41 
 
 Mochica language, 20 
 Mollendo, 88, 128-30, 210 
 Montana, the, 7 
 
 , Concessions of land, 158 
 
 , Flora, 15 
 
 , Government control, 37 
 
 Montero, L., 38 
 Moquegua (dep.), 75 
 
 (town), 201 
 
 Morococha, 201 
 
 Morro Hill, 35 
 Mountain Sickness, 1 1 
 Moyobamba (prov.), 78 
 
 (town), 201 
 
 Mulberries, 13 
 Mummies, 44 
 Muyna, 49 
 
 Nasca, 202 
 
 , Early civilisation, 40 
 
 Nauta, 202 
 
 Navigable Rivers, 120-122 
 Navy, 84 
 Nazareth, 202 
 Nepena, 41 
 New Granada, 30 
 Newspapers, 106-7 
 Nitrate, 32, 164 
 Nopal. 13-14 
 "Northern” route, 111 
 
 OcoSa, 202 
 Olives, 13, 148-9, 182 
 Ollantaitambo, 41, 51-2 
 Onions, 182 
 
 Orbegoso, Luis Jose, 38 
 Oroya, La, 202 
 Otusco (prov.), 70 
 
 (town), 202 
 
 Oyon, 202 
 
 Pacasmayo (prov.), 70 
 
 (town), 133, 202 
 
 Pachacamac, 43-4 
 Pachitea, River, 8, 10, 121 
 Paints, Dyes, Varnishes 
 (Imports 1910), 180 
 Paita (prov.), 76 
 
 , (town), 134-6, 203 
 
 , Shipping returns (1912), 135 
 
 Palzada, La. See Pizarro. 
 Pallasca (prov.), 59 
 Palpa, 203 
 Pampa Blanca, 203 
 Pampas, 203 
 
 " Panama ” hats, 175, 182 
 Papaya, 15 
 Paper, 174, 175-6 
 
 , Imports (1910), 180 
 
 Paramonga, 203 
 Parchment, 175, 182 
 Pardo, Jose, 38 
 
INDEX 
 
 233 
 
 Pardo, Manuel. 33, 38 
 Parinacocha, Lake, 62 
 Parinacochas (prov.), 62 
 Paruro (prov.), 64 
 Pasco (prov.), 69 
 
 , Knot of, 4 
 
 Patapo, 203 
 Pat&s (prov.), 70 
 Pativilca, 203 
 Paucartambo (prov.), 64 
 
 (town), 203 
 
 , River, 9 
 
 Pausa, 203 
 
 Pepper, 182. See also Aji. 
 Perene Colony, 88 
 Peru, Boundaries, 1 -2 
 
 , Chief Towns, 184-211 
 
 , Climate and Health, 11-12 
 
 , Constitution, 80, 82-3 
 
 , Defence, 83-4 
 
 , Departments and Provinces, 
 
 55-79 
 
 , Fauna, 16-19 
 
 , Flora, 13-16 
 
 , Geography and Physical 
 
 Features, 1-11 
 
 , Government, 80-83 
 
 , History, 20-38 
 
 , Lakes, 4, 11 
 
 , Languages, 103-4 
 
 , List of Presidents, 37-8 
 
 , Mountains, 3, 4, 6 
 
 , Population, 20, 55-7 
 
 , Rivers, 7-1 1 
 
 Peruvian Corporation, 85-9 
 Petroleum, 79, 162, 182 
 Pezet, J. A., 38 
 Pezuela, 30-1 
 Pichis, River, 111-4, 121 
 Pierola, Nicolas de, 36 
 Pimentel, 204 
 Piquillacha, 49 
 Pisacoma, 204 
 
 Pisagua, Chilean landing at, 35 
 Pisac, 52-3 
 Pisco (prov.), 67 
 
 (town), 41, 127, 204 
 
 Piura (dep.), 75-6 
 
 (prov.), 76 
 
 (town), 204 
 
 Pizarro, Francisco, 22-28 
 
 Pizarro, Gonzalo, 28 
 
 , Hernandes, 25-27, 43 
 
 Pizarro, Puerto, 204 
 Playa Chica, 204 
 Police, 84 
 
 Pomabamba (prov.), 59 
 
 (town), 205 
 
 Poopo, Lake, 6 
 Population, 20, 55-7 
 Ports and Harbours, 123-141 
 Postal Guide, 213-217 
 
 , Internal tariff, 214 
 
 , External tariff, 215 
 
 , England-Peru,' 216 
 
 Potatoes, 14, 147. 
 
 See also Chalonas. 
 
 Potosi, Knot of, 4 
 Pozuzo, 156 
 Prado, M. I., 38 
 President (powers), 81 
 Presidents, List of, 37-8 
 Press, the. See Newspapers. 
 Provinces, 55-79 
 
 ■, Administration, 82 
 
 Pucalpa, 205 
 Punas, 6 
 Puno (dep.), 76-8 
 
 (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 205 
 
 , Early remains, 44-49 
 
 Punta, La, 205 
 Puquio, 205 
 Purus, River, 8 
 Putumayo, River, 37 
 
 Quicksilver, 66, 67, 164 
 Quijana, 49 
 Quilca, 128, 205 
 Quinua, 14 
 
 Quispicanchi (prov.), 64 
 Quisque, 41 
 Quishuar, 14 
 
 Rada. See Herrada. 
 Railways, 114-120 
 
 , List of, 116-7 
 
 , Central, 117-8 
 
 , Southern, 118-9 
 
 , Projected, 119-20. 
 
 See also under Departments , 
 Ramie, 150 
 
234 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ramirez, General, 30 
 Rarubo, 205 
 Recuay, 205 
 Religion, 83 
 Requena, 205 
 Reventazon, 205 
 Revenue, 90-94 
 Rhatany root, 182 
 Rice, 146, 182 
 
 , Mills, 173 
 
 Rimac, River, 10-11 
 Riva Aguero, Jos6 de, 31, 37 
 Roads, Inca, 24, 110 
 Roads, Present day, 110-114 
 Romafia, E. de, 38 
 Rosas Pata, 53 
 Rubber, 139, 151-4, 182 
 
 Sacsahuaman, 50 
 Salaverry, 132, 206 
 
 , Felipe S. de, 38 
 
 Salinas de Huecho, 206 
 
 Otuna, 206 
 
 Salt, 164, 183 
 Sama, 206 
 Samanco, 131-2, 206 
 Samples, Commercial, 98-100 
 San Bartholomfe de Chaco, 206 
 San Carlos, 206 
 San Francisco, Battle of, 35 
 San Jose, 206 
 
 San Juan de la Virgen (distr.), 79 
 San Lorenzo, 63 
 San Luis de Shuaro, 113-4 
 San Martin, (dep.), 78 
 — — (prov.), 78 
 
 , Jos6 de, 31, 37 
 
 San Miguel, 206 
 San Nicolcis, 206 
 San Pedro de Lloc, 207 
 San Roman, Miguel, 38 
 Sandia (prov.), 77 
 
 (town), 207 
 
 Santa (prov.), 59 
 
 (town), 41, 207 
 
 , River, 10, 58-9 
 
 Santa Ana, 207 
 
 Santa Cruz, Andres, 31, 38 
 
 Santiago de Chuco, (prov.), 70 
 
 (town), 207 
 
 Santo Torahs, 207 
 
 Saposoa, 207 
 Sarsaparilla, 150 
 Sayan, 207 
 Sechura, 208 
 Senate, 80-1 
 Sheep, 69 
 
 Shipping Documents, 100 
 Shirtings, 182 
 Sicuani, 208 
 Sierra, the, 3, 5-7 
 
 , Early Civilisat ion , 44-53 
 
 , Early Architecture, 54 
 
 , Flora, 14 
 
 Silk, Imports (1910), 180 
 Silkworm, 60 
 Sillustani, 48 
 Silver, 162, 165-6, 183 
 Smelting, 173 
 Soap, 174 
 
 Social Conditions, 94-109 
 Sorghum, 14 
 
 Soroche (Mountain sickness), 11 
 Soto, Hernando de, 25-6 
 Spain, Revolt from, 30-31 
 
 , War of, 1864-6, 33 
 
 , Imports from, 181 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 Steamship Services, 217-220 
 Sugar, Culture, 145, 157 
 
 , Refining, 171-2 
 
 , Export, 182 
 
 Sulphur, 162-3 
 Supe, 131, 208 
 Superior Courts, 82 
 Supreme Court, 81 
 Swine, 159 
 
 Tablones, 208 
 Tacna, 2, 36, 78 
 
 , Battle of, 35 
 
 . See also Inapari. 
 
 Tagua (Ivory nuts), 139, 150-1, 183 
 Tahuamanu (prov.), 74 
 
 (town), 208 
 
 Talara, 136, 208 
 Tallow, 182 
 Tambo, 208 
 
 de Mora, 127, 208 
 
 Tambobamba, 209 
 Tambopata (prov.), 74 
 Tanning, 174-75 
 
INDEX 
 
 235 
 
 Tarapaca, 2, 36 
 
 , Campaign and loss of, 34-5 
 
 Tarapoto, 209 
 Tarma (prov.), 69 
 
 (town), 113, 209 
 
 Taxes, Collection of, 94 
 Tayabamba, 209 
 Tayacaja (prov.), 65 
 Telegraph Service, 216-7 
 Telephones, 217 
 Temperature, 12 
 Terciana, 5 
 
 Textiles, Manufacture, 172 
 
 , Imports, 179-80 
 
 Theatrical troupes, 99 
 Tiahuanaco, 21, 40, 44-46 
 Ticlio, 209 
 Titicaca, Lake, 6 
 
 , Navigation, 120 
 
 , Battle of, 31 
 
 , Island, 46-48 
 
 Tobacco, 149, 174 
 Toledo (viceroy), 29 
 Transport. See Inland Communt- 
 ^ cation 
 
 Travellers’ Samples, etc. See also 
 Postal Guide 
 
 Treaties and Conventions, Com- 
 mercial, 221-2 
 
 Trees. See Flora; Forest Products. 
 Tres Palos, 209 
 Trujillo (prov.), 70 
 
 (town), 209 
 
 , Early civilisation, 40-42 
 
 Tumbes (litt. prov.), 78-9 
 
 (distr.), 79 
 
 (town), 137, 210 
 
 Tungsten, 164 
 
 Tupac Amaru, Inca, 29-30 
 
 Ucayali (prov.), 73 
 
 , River, 8, 9, 121 
 
 Umayo, Lake, 48 
 Uni6n. La, 210 
 
 United Kingdom, Imports from, 
 181 
 
 , Exports to, 183 
 
 United States, Imports from, 
 181, 182 
 
 , Exports to (1910), 183 
 
 Urcos, 210 
 
 Urubamba (prov.), 64 
 
 (town), 210 
 
 , River, 8, 64, 121 
 
 Valverde, Vicente, 25 
 Vanadium, 162, 165-6, 183 
 Vegetable Ivory. See Tagua. 
 Vegetables (exports), 182 
 Vegueta, 210 
 Vela, Blasco Nunez, 28 
 Vicuna, 17 
 Vilcamayo, River, 9 
 Vilcanota, Knot of, 4 
 
 , River, 8 
 
 Vines, 148 
 Viracocha, 45, 49 
 Viscacha, 18 
 Vivanco, Manuel I, 38 
 
 Waterways, 120-122 
 Wearing Apparel, Imports (1910), 
 180 
 
 Weights and Measures, 220-1 
 Wines, Export, 183 
 
 Manufacture, 173 
 
 Wool, Export, 159, 182 
 
 , Imports (1910), 179 
 
 , Manufacture 159 
 
 Yam, 147 
 Yanaoco, 210 
 Yarn, 182 
 Yareta, 15 
 Yauyos (prov.), 72 
 
 (town), 211 
 
 Yea. See lea. 
 
 Yessup, 211 
 Ylo. See Ilo. 
 
 Yonan, 211 
 Yucay, 51 
 Yuncas, the, 20-21 
 Yungay (prov.), 59 
 
 (town) , 211 
 
 Yurimaguas, 211 
 
 Zarumilla (distr.), 79 
 
 (town), 211 
 
 Zorritos, 211 ) 
 
 PrinUd by Sir Itaac Pitman & Sont, Lid., Bath. 
 (« 47 > 
 
.