916.2 B92c 66-20710 r reference uuiicuu city ic library kansas city, missouri COOES TOURS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 RESEA RCH -LIBRARY GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE https://archive.Org/details/COOkshandbOOkfor00budg_0 -ij. ) 4&J&. > V °\ ^ C \ . COOK’S HANDBOOK -it FOR EGYPT AND THE SUDAN. BY E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, M.A., Litt.D. D.Litt., D. Lit., KEEPER OF THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM. SECOND EDITION. London : THOS. COOK & SON, LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.C SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO., LTD. OFFICES OF THOS. COOK & SON-! (EGYPT), LIMITED: Cairo : Near Shepheard’s Hotel. Alexandria : Place Mohamet Ali. Port Said : Near Continental Hotel. Assouan, Halfa, Ismailia, Khartoum,. Luxor, etc. 1906. HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJES1Y, ST. MARTIN’S LANE, LONDON, W.C. j^HU R«foranc« fat \ j n KANo/iw Liu {ino.j ruoub LIBRARY PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Hef: In the year 1886 my friend, the late Mr. J. M. Cook, asked me to write a short guide to the principal Egyptian monu- ments on the Nile so far south as the Second Cataract, usually visited by tourists who travelled on the Nile under arrangements made by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son during a brief stay in Egypt. Following the general suggestions which he made, I prepared a short guide, and this appeared in the form of a small octavo volume entitled The Nile : Notes for Travellers. This little work dealt exclusively with the principal objects of interest on the Nile, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Wadi Haifa, and, as it made no pretence to describe the country as a whole, it in no way laid claim 1,0 - be a Guide to Egypt. The progress of archaeological research in Egypt, and the rapid development of the country, made it necessary to enlarge, from time to time, the Notes for Travellers which I had written, and at length, in its Ninth Edition, The Nile filled 800 pages. Now, in spite of this, there remained a great deal of information of all kinds about places and monuments off the beaten track which could not be compressed into the volume, and Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son therefore decided to issue a new Handbook for Egypt and to add numerous plans, new maps, etc. The carrying out of this decision was entrusted to my hands, and the present volume is the result. a 2 IV PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In preparing this Handbook I have endeavoured to include the principal facts relating to all the ancient monuments of Egypt and the Nile Valley which the tourist visits between the Mediterranean Sea and Khartum, adding, where necessary, brief descriptive paragraphs, chiefly of a historical character. In the Introduction will be found a series of hints of a practical nature, which have been drawn up as the result of much experience by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son and others, and it is hoped that they will be as useful to tourists in the future as they have been in the past. Travellers in Egypt owe the ease and comfort which they now enjoy in journeying through the country entirely to the efforts of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son, who were the first to organize the tourist system, and to make Egypt and its wonderful antiquities accessible to all classes. They have spared neither pains nor money in perfecting their arrangements for tourists, and their officers are ever watchful to place promptly at the disposal of those who travel under their care the advantages of rapid and comfortable transit which are becoming more and more numerous owing to the steady development of the country under British influence. The experience of their officials is unrivalled, and the advice which they supply freely on all questions concerning travel most valuable. It is therefore unnecessary to add to the bulk of this book by printing in it lists of hotels and tradesmen, &c., for Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son have their Offices in every important place in Egypt, and the courtesy of their Agents in supplying informa- tion of all kinds to tourists and travellers is notorious, and renders the reproduction of many details usually given in Guides and Handbooks to Egypt superfluous in the present work. This Handbook is divided into four parts. Part I contains a series of chapters in which a connected outline of the PREFACE TO THE SICOND EDITION. V history of Egypt is given, and brief accounts of the writing, religion, art, architecture, learning, etc., of the Ancient Egyptians have been added ; a number of important facts about the religion, architecture, &c., of the Muhammadans, or Modern Egyptians, have also been included. Hieroglyphic type has been used wherever necessary, and in the list of cartouches of Egyptian kings care has been taken to give all the names which are commonly found on scarabs, as well as those of the Ptolemies and Roman Emperors, of whom so many memorials are seen in Upper Egypt. Those who are interested in the modern regeneration and development of Egypt may find useful the accounts of British financial policy in Egypt and of the great irrigation and other works which have been carried out in the Delta and at Asyut and Aswan during recent years. Parts II-IV consist of descriptions of all the principal places in the Delta, and in the Nile Valley, and in the Peninsula of Sinai, where monuments of the ancient civilization of Egypt are found. A brief sketch of the course of the Nile from Khartum to the Equatorial Lakes has also been given. Eor information concerning the modern condition of Egypt I have great pleasure in acknowledging my obligation to the masterly Reports of Lord Cromer, and all the facts given about irrigation schemes for Egypt and the Sudan are derived from the Reports of Sir William Garstin and other well-known authorities. Many facts about the Nile are derived from the “ Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin,” by Captain H. G. Lyons, r.e., which contains a clear and accurate description of the great river of Egypt from its source, Lake Victoria, to the sea. From two papers most kindly sent to me by Sir John Aird I have obtained the facts concerning the Aswan Dam and Asyut Barrage printed in this book. I am also indebted to the works of Sir Reginald Wingate, Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha, Father Ohrwalder, Mr. Charles Royle, and Vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. to many reports and maps of the British and Egyptian War Offices for details concerning Mahdiism and the campaigns which resulted in the reconquest of the Sudan. In matters connected with the history of Cairo and of its mosques, and with the manners and customs of its Muhammadan population from the time of its conquest to about 1870, I have relied upon the excellent works of the late Edward Lane, and of the eminent Arabic scholar, Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole. In this edition are given a number of important facts con- cerning the modern history of the Egyptian Sudan, together with many details concerning the peoples and towns of this vast country ; many of these are based upon information obtained from Count Gleichen’s “The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,” 2nd edition, London, 1905. In this valuable work a clear and comprehensive account of the Egyptian Sudan will be found, the facts being grouped and arranged in a manner which deserves the highest praise. During the past two years the development of Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan has progressed with such great rapidity, and the exertions of archaeologists have produced such remarkable additions to our knowledge of the past history of the countries, that merely to describe them briefly has made it necessary to add no less than eighty pages to this the Second Edition of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son’s Handbook. The plans and illustrations given throughout this Handbook are derived from authoritative sources, among which may be mentioxied the works of Coste, Prisse d’Avennes, Lepsius, Howaid Vyse, Mariette, J. de Morgan, the^ Memoirs published by the French Archaeological Mission in Cairo, the Description de VEgypte , the Survey } published Ly the Palestine Exploration Fund, etc. My thanks are due to Messrs. Harrison & Sons for the PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. VII care which they have bestowed upon the printing of this work,, and to their employes, Mr. L. Lovett and Mr. F. W. Trollet. With the permission of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son I have reprinted from The Nile the chapter on the Arabs and Muhammad the Prophet, and portions of descriptions of monuments which it was unnecessary to re-write. E. A. WALLIS BUDGE. British Museum, August 15, 1906. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Practical Information for Travellers ... ... ... ... ... i Length of Visit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I Parties ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 Cost of Tour... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 Circular Notes and Money ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 Money ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 Egyptian Money ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 Weights and Measures ... .... ... ... ... ... 7 Egyptian and English Money ... ... ... ... ... 8 English and Egyptian Money ... ... ... ... ... 10 French and Egyptian Money ... ... ... ... ... 12 Thermometric Scales ... ... ... . .. ... 16 Civil Time ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Passports ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 19 Customs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Quail Shooting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Antiquities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Dress ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Health and Medicine ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Passengers’ Baggage Insurance ... ... . . ... ... 23 Postage and Telegraphs ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 Telephones ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 Bakshish ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 Travelling Arrangements of Thomas Cook & Son ... ... 27 Hotel Coupons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 JRoutes to Egypt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 The Journey up the Nile ... ... ... .. ... ... 29 Tickets to Visit Antiquities ... ... ... ... ... 31 Excursion to the Fayyum ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 The Traveller in Egypt ... ... ... ... .. ... 31 CONTENTS. IX PART I. The Climate and Health Resorts of Egypt PAGE 37 Alexandria and Cairo ... ... ... 40 Mena House and Helwan ... 42 Luxor and Aswan ... 43 The Land of Egypt 45 Geology ... 46 The Fayyum and Lake Moeris 50 The Lakes in the Delta 52 The Oases 53 Natural History 55 Sudan Game Ordinance 65 Minerals 66 Trade of Egypt 69 Ancient and Modern Divisions 7i Population ... 73 The Nile ... 75 White Nile 77 TheSadd 78 Blue Nile ... 79 Cataracts ... 80 Inundation ... ... 83 Irrigation ... ... ... ... ... 83 Corvee 85 The Barrages on the Nile ... ... ... ... 89 The Barrage of Asyut 92 The Aswan Dam and Reservoir ... 95 The Ancient Egyptians ... 102 The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians 107 Egyptian Gods 11 7 Egyptian Language and Writing 133 Llymn to Ra from the Papyrus of Ani ... 146 The Learning of the Ancient Egyptians i57 A List of the Names of the Principal Egyptian Kings 188 Sketch of the History of Egypt from the Pre-Dynastic Period to A. D. 1906 216 The Pre-Dynastic and Archaic Periods 216 Dynastic Period 219 The Greek Period ... 236 The Roman Period ... ... 240 a 6 X CONTENTS, Sketch of the History of Egypt, & c. — continued . IP AGE The Byzantine Period ... ... ... ... 244 The Muhammadan Period ... ... ... ... ... ... £4$ Turkish Rule in Egypt ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 § French Rule in Egypt ... ... 25$ Muhammad ‘Ali and his Family ... ... ... British Rule in Egypt ... ... ... ... ... ... 261 The Modern Egyptians : — Fellahin .. ... ... ... 282 Copts.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 285 Badawin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 292 Nubians ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 293 Negroes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 293 Turks... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 293 Europeans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 293 Muhammadan Architecture and Art in Cairo ... ... ... ... 295 The Modern Egyptians — Narcotics and Amusements ... ... 317 Sketch of the History of the Arabs, and ( f Muhammad and his Kur’an, Religious Beliefs, &c. ... ,,, ,,, ... 3?| British Financial Policy in Egypt ... ,,, ... .. 36? Comparative Table of the Muhammadan, and Chyistiw pras ... 369 PART II. Alexandria, Pompey’s Pillar, the Catacombs, Abukir, Rosetta, &c. 379 Alexandria ... 380 Pompey’s Pillar 385 The Catacombs 385 Abukir 392 Rosetta 392 Alexandria to Cairo 394 Port Sa‘id, Isma‘iliya, Suez, and the Suez Canal 400 Port Sa‘id to Suez via the Suez Canal ... 409 Port Sa ‘id to Cairo 414 Succoth 416 Kasasin 417 Tell al-Kabir 417 Cairo 421 Museum of Egyptian Antiquities ... 426 The Museum of Arab Art ... 444 Zoological Gardens ... 445 Aquarium ... ... 446 CONTENTS. xi Cairo — continued. PAGE The Mosques of Cairo ... ... ... ... .. ... 447 The Citadel ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 460 The Tombs of the Khalifas and Mamluks ... ... ... 462 The Bazaars of Cairo ... ... ... ... ... ... 463 The Modern Quarters of Cairo ... ... ... ... ... 466 The Coptic Churches of Old Cairo ... ... ... ... 467 The Island of Roda and the Nilometer .. ... ... ... 471 Heliopolis ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 473 The Pyramids of Gizah ... ... .. ... ... 477 The Sphinx 486 The Temple of the Sphinx ... ... ... ... ... 487 The Pyramids of Abu Roash ... ... ... ... ... 488 The Pyramids of Abu Sir ... ... ... ... ... ... 488 The Necropolis of Sakkara .. ... ... ... ... ... 489 Pyramids of Sakkara ... ... ... ... ... ... 491 The Serapeum ... ... ... ... ... ... 494 Tomb of Thi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 495 Pyramids of Dahshur ... ... ... ... ... 497 Cairo to Damietta via Mansura ... ... ... ... ... 501 Cairo to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon ... ... ... ... ... ^08 The Oases ... ... ... ... 513 Cairo to Mount Sinai ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 523 History of Sinai ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 529 Suez to the Monastery of St. Catherine via Wadi Maghara ... 532 Suez to the Monastery of St. Catherine via Tur... ... ... 540 The Monastery of St. Catherine and the Holy Places of Sinai... 542 Mount Sinai to Suez via Wadi ash-Shekh and Sarbut al-Khadem 552 The Exodus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 561 PART III. Cairo to the Fayyum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 569 The Fayyum and Lake Moeris ... ... ... ... ... ... 571 The Birket al-Kurun ... ... ... ... ... ... 571 Herakleopolis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 576 Minyah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 577 Beni-Hasan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 578 Roda ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 582 Melawi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 583 Tell al-‘Amarna ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 5^4 Gebel Abu Fedah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^5 a 4 Xll CONTENTS. The Fayyum and Lake Moeris — continued. page Manfalut ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^5 Asyut ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 586 Tahtah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 587 Suhag 587 Akhmim 588 Al-Menshah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 589 Girgah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 590 Abydos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 590 The Temple of Seti I ... ... ... ... ... ... 591 The Temple of Rameses II ... ... ... ... ... 594 Abu Tisht ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 595 Farshut ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 595 Nag‘ Hamadi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 595 Kasr es-Sayyad ... ... ... ... ... 595 Kena or Keneh ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 595 Temple of Denderah ... ... ... ... ... ... 595 Kus 598 Nakada ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 599 The Temples and Tombs of Thebes ... ... ... ... ... 600 Luxor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 600 The Temple of Luxor ... ... ... ... ... ... 605 The Temple of Karnak ... ... ... ... ... ... 61 1 The Temple of Amen at Karnak ... ... .. ... ... 614 The Temple of Madamut ... ... ... ... ... ... 620 The Temple of Kurna ... ... ... ... ... ... 620 The Ramesseum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 622 The Colossi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 623 Madinat Habii ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 623 The Pavilion of Rameses III ... ... ... ... ... 627 The Great Temple of Rameses III ... ... ... ... 628 The Temple of Queen Hatshepset at Der al-Bahari ... ... 631 The Tomb of Hatshepset ... ... ... ... ... ... 637 The Temple of Menthu-Hetep Neb Hept-Ra ... ... ... 640 Der al-Madinat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 649 Drah abu’l-Nekka ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 649 Shekh ‘Abd al-Kurna ... ... ... ... ... ... 65c Tomb of Rekhmara ... ... ... ... ... ... 650 Tomb of Nekht ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 651 Tombs of Thebes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 654 Kurnet Murrai ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 660 Tombs of the Queens ... ... ... ... ... ... 66t C'ONtENTS. xin Tfte Temples arid Tombs of Thebes I — -continued. TombS of the Kings ... Trimb of Tliothmes I Tdmb of Hatshepset Tomb of Thothmes III Tomb of Amen-hetep II Tomb of Thothmes IV Tomb of Amen-hetep III Tomb of Ai m n. Tomb of RameSeS I. h. ... Tomb of Sett I ;;; iu Ui Tomb of Rrime&eS I I vi . . ti 1>; Totrib of Amert-meSeS i; -. Tomb of Mer^eft-Ttah (Meriepthah) u. Tomb of Seti If Toffib of Set-nekt ... ... ... ... Tomb of Rameses III ... ... Tomb of Rameses IV ... Tomb of Rameses VI Tomb of Rameses IX Tomb of Rameses X Tomb of Rameses XI TombofRamesesX.il Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau ... Luxor to Aswan ... Gebelen ... ... ... Asna, or Esneh Al-Kab Tombs of Al-Kab ... Edfu Hagar (or Gebel) Silsila Kom Ombos... PAGE ... 661 ... 665 ... 665 ... 665 ... 66| ... 667 ... 6$B ... 669 Hi 67© Hi 67 © - r m Hi 6^ H. 674 674 ... 674 ... 674 ... 676 ... 679 ... 679 ... 679 ... 679 ... 679 ... 68l ... 687 ... 687 ... 688 . . . 690 ... 691 ... 693 ... 697 ... 697 PART IV. Aswan, the Island of Elephantine and Philae ... ... ... ... 7°3 The Nilometer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7°5 Tombs at Aswan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 706 Monastery of St. Simon ... ... ... ... ... ••• 7 10 The First Cataract ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 7 12 Philoe 714 Temples of Phibe ... ..~ ... ... ... ••• ••• xiv CONTENTS. Philoe to Wadi Haifa Kalabshah Bet-al-Wali Dendur Dakkah . Kurta Korosko ‘Amada Derr Abu Simbel ... Wadi Haifa The Sudan — Wadi Haifa to Khartum ... Ancient History of the Sudan Recent History of the Sudan Provinces ... ... ... ... Population ... ... ... The Sudani Peoples ... Religion Language Revenue Education Slavery Justice Railways Haifa- Kerma Line ... Iialfa-Khartum Line Semnah and Kummah Ferket Al-Hafir Al-Urdi, or New Donkola... Old Donkola... Abu Gus Al-Dabbah Kurta Kurru Marawi Napata Gebel Barkal Temples of Gebel Barkal ... Nuri ... Karema Line PAGE 722 723 724 725 725 728 728 729 729 729 734 735 735 738 742 743 744 744 745 745 746 746 747 747 748 749 75i 753 754 755 756 756 756 757 757 757 757 758 759 762 763 CONTENTS. XV The Sudan — Wadi Haifa to Khartum — continued. page Abu Hamed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 763 Berber ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 766 Nile — Red Sea Railway .. ... ... ... ... ... 767 River Atbara ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 768 Island of Meroe ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 769 Pyramids of Meroe ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 771 Shendi ... ... ... ... 780 Matamma ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 780 Temples of Nagaa ... ... ... ... ... 782 Masawwarat as-Sufra ... ... ... ... ... ... 784 Khartum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 785 Gordon College ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 789 Omdurman ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 791 Khartum to Ruseres on the Blue Nile ... ... ... ... ... 795 Soba 795 Sennaar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 797 Ruseres ... ... ... ... 798 Khartum to the Great Lakes ... ... ... ... ... ... 799 Fashoda ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 802 Sobat River .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 803 Bor, or Bohr... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 806 Kiro ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 806 Lado .. ... ... ... 807 Gondokoro ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 807 Nimuli ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 808 Fola Rapids ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 808 Dufili 809 Albert Nyanza ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 810 Victoria Nile... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 810 Victoria Nyanza ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 812 Kena to Kuser on the Red Sea and the Wadi Hammamat ... ... 814 Elementary Facts of Arabic Grammar ... ... ... ... ... 818 Index 861 MAPS Egypt and Sinai Alexandria The Suez Canal ... Cairo The Nile— Delta ... ,, Cairo to KenA ,, Ken A to Aswan ,, Aswan to Wadi Halfa ,, Wadi Halfa to Khartum .. {In Pocket.) ...To face p. 379 400 421 379 569 595 703 735 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Egyptian Moneys ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 Picture of an Ancient Egyptian Shaduf being worked by a Fellah ... 59 Modern Shadufs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 68 Modern Water-wheel ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 ° The Barrage at Asyut ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 The Dam at Aswan at Low Nile ... ... ... ... ... 97 The Dam at Aswan at High Nile ... ... ... ... ... 98 Forms of Egyptian Gods ... ... ... ... ... 126-132 Entrance to an Early Tomb ... ... ... ... ..; ... 168 Pyramid Tomb with Funeral Chapel ... ... ... ... ... 168 Plan of a Pyramid Tomb, with Vestibule, or Funeral Chapel and Corridor, the whole enclosed by a Wall ... ... ... ... 169 Pyramid Tomb with Funeral Chapel (the core of the pyramid is built of rubble) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 170 Section of the Tomb of Seti I, showing how the Corridors and Chambers enter and descend into the Mountain ... ... ... 171 Front of a Temple, showing Poles with Flags flying from them ... 173 A Group of Female Musicians ... ... ... ... ... ... 174 Upper Part of a Pillar with ornate Lotus Capital ... ... ... 176 Upper Part of a Pillar of Rameses II, with Palm Capital and square Abacus ... ... ... ... ... ... 177 Pillar with Hathor-headed Capital, set up by Amen-hetep III ... 178 Pillar with Hathor-headed Capital, of the Ptolemaic Period ... ... 178 Plain Palm-leaf Capital of a Pillar, with square Abacus ... ... 179 Ornate Palm-leaf Capital of a Pillar, with square Abacus ... 180, 18 1 Capital of a Pillar with inverted Ornamentation ... ... ... 181 Hathor-headed Capital ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Pillar with Lotus-bud Capital ... ... ... ... ... ... 182 The Mosque of Sultan Hasan ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 Section of the Mosque of Sultan Hasan ... ... ... ... 299 The Mosque of Al-Mu‘ayyad ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 The Niche and Pulpit in the Mosque of Al-Mu‘ayyad ... ... 301 XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Section of the Mosque of Ka’it Bey ... ... ... ... ... 302 Plan of a House in Cairo — Ground Floor . . ... ... ... 304 Plan of a House in Cairo — First Floor ... ... ... ... ... 305 Plan of a House in Cairo — Second Floor ... ... ... ... 306 Minaret of ‘Amr ... . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Minaret of Iskandar Pasha ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Minaret of Tulun ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Minaret of Ka’it Bey 310 Minaret of Barkuk ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 Minaret of Al-Azhar ... ... ... ... . . . ... ... 310 Minaret of Al-Mu‘ayyad ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Minaret of Kala‘un ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Minaret of Sultan Hasan... ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Panel from the Pulpit in the Mosque of Tulun ... ... ... 313 A Window of the Mosque of Tulun ... ... ... ... ... 314 Plan of Catacombs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 386 The Pronaos and Entrance to the Funeral Chamber ... ... ... 387 Plan of the Mosque of ‘Amr ... ... ... ... ... ... 448 Plan of the Mosque of Al-Azhar ... ... ... ... ... 450 Plan of the Mosque of Tiilun ... ... ... ... ... ... 451 Plan of the Muristan and Mosque of Kalaun ... ... ... ... 453 The Lantern in the Sanctuary of the Mosque of Sultan Hasan ... 454 Plan of the Mosque of Sultan Hasan ... ... ... ... ... 455 Plan of the M osque of Barkuk ... ... ... ... ... ... 456 Plan of the Mosque of Ka’it Bey ... ... . . ... ... 457 Plan of the Mosque of Al-Mu‘ayyad ... ... ... ... ... 459 Section of the Pyramid of Cheops at Giza ... ... ... ... 480 Section of the Pyramid of Mycerinus at Giza ... ... ... ... 484 The Necropolis at Dahshur ... ... ... ... ... ... 498 Plan of the Temple of Hibis ... ... ... ... ... ... 517 Plan of the Temple of Nadura... ... ... ... ... ... 5^ Plan of the Temple of Kasr al-Gehda ... ... ... ... ... 5 J & Plan of the Temple of Kysis ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 J 9 The Peninsula of Sinai, showing Positions of Mount Serbal, Mount Musa (Sinai?), and Ras as-Safsaf (Horeb)... ... ... ... 523 Scene in the Wadi Mukattab, showing Rocks with Figures of Animals and Men and several “ Sinaitic Inscriptions” cut upon them ... 53 1 Plan of the Monastery of St. Catherine ... ... ... ... 543 View of the Monastery of St. Catherine on Jebel Musa ... ... 544 Sketch of the Mosaic in the Church of the Transfiguration ... ... 545 The Cave of Moses and the “ Clift in the Rock ” ... ... ... 550 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX PAGE Plan of the Temple of Sarabit al-Khadem ... ... ... ... 553 Stele set up at Sarbut al-Khadim by an Official of Amen-hetep III, B.C. I450 554 Inscription for Wa’ilu and others 558 Inscription for Faridu 558 Greek and Nabatean Inscription for Aushu 559 Plan of the Temple of Seti I at Abydos 592 Plan ot the Temple of Rameses II at Abydos ... 593 Plan of the Temple at Denderah • 596 The Temple of Luxor, as it appeared about 1820 606 The Temple of Luxor 608 Temples on the Right or East Bank of the River 609 Karnak under the Ptolemies 616 Plan of the Temple at Kurna 620 Temples, Tombs, etc., on the Left or West Bank of the River 621 Plan of the Ramesseum at Kurna 622 Plan of the Temples and other Buildings at Madinat Habu ... 625 The Little Temple of Thothmes II at Madinat Habu 626 The Temple of Rameses III at Madinat Habu 629 The Temple of Hatshepset at Der al-Bahari ... Pa-rehu, the Prince of Punt, his Wife, and his Two Sons and a 632 Daughter Portion of the Passage leading to the Tomb of Queen Hatshepset, 634 excavated by Dr. Lepsius ... The Temple of Hatshepset as excavated by Prof, Naville for the 6 37 Egypt Exploration Fund The Temples of Menthu-hetep III (A) and Hatshepset (B) at 645 Der al-Bahari.. . 646 Cow of Hathor 647 Plan of the Tomb of Amsu (or Min)-Nekht 654 Plan of the Tomb of Ra-men-kheper-senb 655 Plan of the Tomb of Peh-su-kher 655 Plan of the Tomb of Mentu-her-khepesh-f 656 Plan of the Tomb of Amu-netcheh 656 Plan of the Tomb of Mai 65 7 Plan of the Tomb of Nefer-hetep 657 Plan of the Tomb of Amen-em-heb 658 Plan of the Tomb of Peta-Amen-em-apt 659 Tomb of Queen Thi 661 Plan of the Tomb of Thothmes IV 666 Thothmes IV in his Chariot charging his Foes... 667 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Plan of the Tomb of Amen-hetep III ... ... ... ... ... 669 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses I... ... ... ... ... ... 670 Ground Plan and Section of the Tomb of Seti I ... ... ... 671 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IT ... ... ... ... ... 672 Plan of the Tomb of Amen-meses ... ... ... ... ... 672 Plan of the Tomb of Menephthah I ... ... ... ... ... 673 Plan of the Tomb of Seti II ... ... ... ... ... ... 674 Plan of the Tomb of Setnekht ... ... ... ... ... ... 675 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses II I ... ... ... ... ... 675 Plan of the First Tomb of Rameses III ... ... ... ... 676 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IV ... ... ... ... ... 677 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IV (from a Papyrus) ... ... ... 677 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses VI ... .. ... ... ... 678 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IX ... ... ... ... ... 678 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses VII ... ... ... ... ... 680 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses X ... ... ... ... ... 680 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses XII ... ... ... ... ... 680 Inscribed Coffer from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau ... ... ... 681 Set of Vases from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau . . ... ... 682 Inside of Head of Bedstead of Iuaa and Thuau ... ... 683 Chair of State from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau ... ... ... 684 Chariot from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau ... ... ... ... 685 Plan of the Temple of Esna, with Restorations by Grand Bey ... 688 Plan of the Great Temple of Edfu ... ... ... ... ... 694 Temple of Seti I on the road between Redesiyah and Berenice ... 695 Plan of the Temple of Kom Ombos ... ... ... ... ... 698 Environs of Aswan ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 704 The Tombs at Aswan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 708 Plan of the Island of Philae ... ... ... ... ... ... 715 Plan of the Temple of Dakkah ... ... ... ... ... ... 726 Plan of the Temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel ... ... ... 731 The Seated Colossi and Front of the Temple at Abu Simbel ... 731 Map of the Nile ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 752 The Pyramids and Temples of Gebel Barkal ... ... ... ... 758 The Temple of Tirhakah at Cebel Barkal ... ... ... ... 759 The Temple of Piankhi at Gebel Barkal ... ... ... ... 759 Senka-Amen-seken, King of Nubia, clubbing his Foes ... ... 761 The Pyramids of Nuri at the Foot of the Fourth Cataract ... ... 762 Map of the Sudan Railways ... ... ... ... ... ... 764 The Nile-Red Sea Railway ... ... ... ... ... ... 767 The Largest Croup of Pyramids at Meroe ... ... ... ... 77 o LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI PAGE The Second and Third Group of Pyramids at Meroe ... ... ... 772 Plan of the Large Temple at Nagaa ... ... ... ... ... 781 Plan of a Small Temple at right angles to the Large Temple at Nagaa... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 781 Plan of a Small Temple near the Plain of Nagaa ... ... ... 782 Plan of Temples on the Brow of the Hill at Nagaa ... ... ... 783 Khartum and Umm Durman, or Omdurman, in 1893... ••• ••• 78 6 Khartum and Omdurman in 1905 ... ... ... ... ... 787 General Gordon Pasha ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 790 The Mahdi’s Tomb before the Bombardment of Omdurman... ... 792 The Great Equatorial Lakes ... ... ... ... ... ... 811 The Wadi Hammamat and Kuser route to the Emerald Mines and Berenice ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 815 COOK’S HANDBOOK FOR EGYPT AND THE SUDAN. INTRODUCTION. Practical Information for Travellers. Speaking generally, the season for travelling in Egypt extends from the beginning of November to the end of April. In Lower Egypt, that is, all the country north of Cairo, November, February, March, and April are delightful months, but in Cairo it is somewhat cold in December and January, and when during these months rain falls in heavy showers throughout the Delta the climate occasionally is unpleasant. Those who like heat will find both May and October very enjoyable months, especially in Lower Egypt. Travellers who are intending to visit Palestine and Syria as well as Egypt cannot do better than select November, December, January, February, or until the middle of March for their Nile journey, and March, April, and May, the most genial months of the year, for Palestine. On the other hand, many people prefer to see the Holy Land in the autumn, and in this case they should travel there during October and November, and make their journey up the Nile when they return in December. Length of Visit. — No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the time which it is necessary to spend in Egypt in order to get a general idea of the country, for in the majority of cases this depends entirely on the individual. A tourist, who can endure an ordinary amount of fatigue, and is tolerably active and industrious, and will be contented to be advised by those who have a practical knowledge of the country, can in from 35 to 40 days see a great deal of Egypt; moreover, each A 2 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. year brings with it new and increased facilities for travelling, and the tourist can now travel with extraordinary rapidity from one great town to another. All that is wanted is a care- fully thought-out plan, and fixity of purpose to carry it out. If a tourist can spare five weeks for his journey in Egypt itself he should give two days to Alexandria, 14 days to Cairo, and 21 to 24 days to his trip to Aswan, including a stay of three or four days at Luxor. In five weeks all the principal temples and ruins between Cairo and the First Cataract can be seen, and if another week can be spared, a visit to the Second Cataract and Wadi Haifa, and to the temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel, can be obtained. Invalids and persons seeking relief from sickness or disease must, of course, follow the instructions of their medical advisers, and their movements cannot be taken as the standard for moderately healthy folk who have only a very limited time to spend on their trip, and who intend to see all they can in a short period. Before the advent of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son’s Tourist Steamers it was customary for travellers to make the voyage up the Nile in a dahabiyyeh, A 55 ' = 5 2 7 6 55 55 = 6 3 1 7 55 55 = 7 3 7 8 5) 55 = 8 4 9 5) 55 = 9 4 7i IO 55 55 = 10 5 1 1 55 = 11 5 7i 12 55 55 = 12 6 2 *3 5 5 55 = i3 6 8 14 55 55 = 14 7 2 !5 55 5 5 = *5 7 84 16 55 55 = 16 8 2 — 2 2 i7 55 5 > = 17 8 84 18 55 55 == 18 9 3 19 55 55 = l 9 9 9 20 55 55 = 20 10 3 2 1 55 55 = 21 10 94 22 55 55 = 22 1 1 34 2 3 55 5 = 2 3 1 1 94 24 55 55 = 24 12 4 25 55 55 2 5 12 10 26 55 5 5 26 1 3 4 27 55 5 5 = 2 7 *3 10 28 55 . ,, = 28 14 44 2 9 55 55 = 2 9 14 io 4 30 55 55 = 3° 15 44 3i 55 55 = 3i *5 io 4 3 2 55 55 = 3 2 16 5 33 55 •5 = 33 16 1 1 34 55 55 = 34 17 5 35 55 55 — 35 17 "4 36 55 55 = 36 18 54 37 55 55 = 37 18 1 x 4 38 55 55 = 38 19 6 39 55 55 = 40 0 0 4° 55 55 = 41 0 6 Os On OCn OUA Cn ^ IO INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. Egyptian and English Money (eontcL). 41 Egyptian pounds ^ 3 - 11 s. 1 d. 0 42 55 = 43 1 6 i 43 55 55 = 44 2 °i 44 59 55 * ‘ ’ ■ 45 2 6 i 45 5 ) 55 = 46 3 1 46 55 55 = 47 3 7 47 55 55 = 48 4 1 48 „ 55 * - * = 49 4 7 i 49 59 55 = 5 ° 5 50 55 55 = 5 1 5 7 \ 100 55 55 • ' ’ = 102 1 1 3 i English and Egyptian Money. Shillings. Pence. 0 3 = o 6 = 0 9 1 o ~ 1 3 = 1 6 - 1 9 = 2 O A* 2 3 2 6 = 2 9 = 3 o 3 3 - 3 6 = 3 9 o == 3 = 6 = 9 = o = 3 6 9 o = 3 ~ 6 - Millims. I 2 ‘2 2 4’4 36*6 487 60*9 73 ' 1 85*3 97*5 io 97 12 1*9 i 34 *i 146-2 I 5 8 ‘4 1 7 o‘6 182*8 195-0 207*2 2 i 9*4 231-6 243*8 225-9 268' 1 280-3 292*5 304*7 3 i6 *9 Shillings. Pence. 6 9 = 7 o = 7 3 7 6 7 9 = 8 o 8 3 = 8 6 = 8 9 = 9 o = 9 3 = 9 6 = 9 9 = 10 o — 10 3 = 10 6 = 10 9 = 11 o = II 3 i 11 6 — 11 9 = 12 o = 12 3 — 12 6 = 12 9 = 13 o Millims. 329-1 34 i *2 353*4 3 6 5 ' 6 377-8 390-0 402 "2 414-4 426*6 438-8 45°*9 463-1 475'3 487*5 499*7 5 1 1 *9 52^-0 536 ’ 2 584*4 s6o-6 572-8 585-° 597'2 6094 62 1*6 638-8 ENGLISH AND EGYPTIAN MONEY. 1 1 English and Egyptian Money (contd.). Shillings. Pence. Millims. Shillings. Pence. Millims. *3 3 645*9 16 9 = 8i6'6 I 3 6 "b 658M L 7 0 = 828*8 13 9 = 670-3 17 3 = 840*9 14 0 = 682-5 17 6 = 853 'i 14 3 = 694-7 r 7 9 = 865-3 14 6 f= 706*9 18 0 = 877*5 14 9 7 I 9 ' 1 j 18 3 = 889-7 r 5 0 - 73 1 * 2 ! 18 6 = 901-9 x 5 3 - 743*4 18 9 = 9 I 4 ' 1 x 5 6 = 755’6 ! T 9 0 = 926-2 15 9 = >67-8 J 9 3 = 93 8 '4 16 0 = 780-0 r 9 6 = 95°-6 16 3 = 792-2 T 9 9 = 962-8 16 6 — 804-4 20 0 = 975 *° £ Piastres. £ Piastres. 1 = 97 s 26 - 2535 2 = T 95 27 = 2632J 3 = 2 9 2 2 28 = 2730 4 . = 39 ° 29 = 2827! - 5 = 487 i 3 ° = 2925 6 = 585 3 1 = 3°22 J 7 = 682^ 32 • = 3 1 20 8 = 780 33 = 32174 9 = 877 i 34 = 3315 10 = 975 35 • = 34 i2 2 1 1 = 1072! 3 6 ■ = 35 IQ 12 1170 37 = 3607! 13 - 1267^ 38 = 3705 14 = t 3 6 5 39 = 3802! i 5 = 1462^ 40 ■ = 39 °° 16 = 1560 4 i = 39974 J 7 - l6 57 i 42 = 4095 18 = 1755 43 — 41924 19 = 1852^ 44 = 4290 20 = 1 95 ° 45 = 43874 2 1 = 2047! 46 ■ = 4485 22 = 2I 45 47 - = 45824 2 3 = 2242J 48 = 4680 24 = 2340 49 = 47774 2 5 = 243 7 i 5 ° = 4875 12 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. English and Egyptian Money (contd.). £ Piastres. £ Piastres. 60 = 585° 200 = 195 °° 70 = 6825 3 °° = 29250 80 = 7800 400 = 39000 90 = S 775 5 °° = 4875° IOO = 975 ° French and Egyptian Money. I franc = 4 piastres. 14 francs = 54 piastres. 2 francs 8 33 15 33 - 58 33 3 j> - 12 33 l6 33 = 62 33 4 33 = *5 33 17 33 = 66 33 5 5) — l 9 33 l8 33 = 69 33 6 33 = 2 3 33 *9 33 = 73 33 7 3) = 27 33 20 33 = 77 33 8 33 — 3 1 33 21 33 = 81 33 9 33 = 35 33 22 33 — 85 33 10 33 = 39 33 2 3 33 = 89 33 1 1 33 = 42 33 2 4 33 — 93 33 12 33 = 46 33 2 5 33 = 96 33 *3 33 26 francs 27 3, 5° 33 = ^E.i = I and 4 piastres. 28 33 I 33 8 33 2 9 33 I 33 12 33 3° 33 - I 33 16 33 3i 33 = I 33 20 33 3 2 33 = I 33 2 3 33 33 33 = I 33 27 33 34 33 — I 33 3 1 33 35 33 = I 33 35 33 36 33 = I 33 39 33 37 33 — I 33 43 33 38 33 — I 33 47 33 39 33 — I 33 5° 33 40 33 = 1 33 54 33 41 33 = I 33 58 33 42 33 - I 33 62 33 43 33 = I 33 66 33 44 33 = r 33 70 33 FRENCH AND EGYPTIAN MONEY. 13 French and Egyptian Money (contd.). 45 francs 46 „ 47 „ 4 8 „ 49 „ 5 0 » 51 „ 5 2 „ 53 5? 54 » 55 „ 5 6 „ 57 „ 58 „ 59 „ 60 „ 6r „ 62 „ 6 3 „ 6 4 „ 6 5 „ 66 „ 6 7 „ 68 „ 6 9 „ 7 0 „ 71 „ 72 „ 73 „ 74 „ 75 „ 76 „ 77 „ 78 „ 79 » 80 „ 81 „ 82 „ 83 55 84 „ 85 „ = £E. 1 and 74 piastres. 77 81 85 89 93 97 2 and 4 piastres. 8 12 16 20 24 28 3 1 35 39 43 47 51 55 5 6 62 66 70 74 78 82 85 89 93 97 5 9 12 16 20 24 28 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. 14 French and Egyptian Money (contd.). 86 francs s? II 3 and 32 piastres. 87 55 = • • • 3 55 3 6 55 88 55 ... m . 3 55 39 55 89 55 — 3 55 43 55 90 55 = - 3 55 47 55 9 1 55 — 3 55 5 i 55 9 2 55 — . 3 55 55 55 93 55 = ■ 3 55 59 55 94 55 = 3 55 6 3 55 95 55 = - 3 55 66 55 96 55 = 3 55 70 55 97 55 = • 3 55 74 55 98 55 = 3 55 78 55 99 55 = . 3 55 82 55 100 55 = . . 3 55 86 55 1 10 55 = . 4 55 24 55 120 55 = 4 55 6 3 55 130 55 - ■ • 5 55 1 55 140 55 = 5 55 40 55 * 5 ° 55 = 5 55 78 55 160 55 — 6 5 » 17 55 170 55 = 6 55 56 55 180 55 = 6 55 94 55 190 55 7 55 33 55 200 55 ’ = 7 55 7 ii 1 55 210 55 = - 8 55 TO 55 220 55 — ■ 8 55 49 55 230 5 ) = .. . 8 55 87 55 240 55 =r , 9 55 26 55 250 55 = 9 55 64 55 260 5 5 = 10 55 3 55 270 55 = 10 55 42 55 280 55 = . . 10 55 80 55 290 55 1 1 55 J 9 55 3 °° 55 = 1 1 55 57 55 3 IQ 55 1 1 55 96 55 3 2 ° 55 = 12 55 34 55 33 ° 55 — 12 55 73 55 34 o 55 - . . 13 55 12 55 35 ° 55 = 13 55 5 ° 55 36° 55 = !3 55 89 55 FRENCH AND EGYPTIAN MONEY. 15 French a?id Egyptian Money (contd.). 370 francs 3 8 ° „ 39 ° » 400 „ 410 » 420 430 440 45 ° 460 470 480 490 5 °° 5 10 5 2 ° 53 ° 540 55 ° 56° 57 o 58° 59o 600 610 620 630 640 630 660 670 680 690 700 710 720 730 740 75 ° 760 770 5 j 5 ) 55 55 5 ) 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 51 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 = ^E.I 4 and 2 7 piastres. = 14 ■ • 55 66 55 = !5 55 4 55 = *5 55 43 55 = !5 -55 82 55 = 16 55 20 55 = 16 55 59 55 = 16 55 97 55 = 17 55 36 55 = *7 55 74 55 = 18 55 13 55 = 18 55 5 2 55 = 18 55 90 55 = I 9 55 2 9 55 = 19 55 67 55 5 = 20 55 6 55 = 20. 55 44 55 = 20 55 8 3 55 = 21 55 22 55 = 21 55 60 55- — 2 1 - • j 5 99 55 = 22 55 37 5 * = 22 55 76 55 = 2 3 55 i 4 i 55 = 2 3 5 5 53 55 — 2 3 55 9 2 55 = 2 4 55 30 5 5 = 24 55 69 55 = 2 5 55 7 55 = 2 5 5 5 46 55 = 28 55 8 5 55 = 26 55 2 3 55 = 26 5 ' 62 55 = 27 = 2 7 and 39 piastres. 2 7 ,5 77 28 55 55 28 5, 93 29 5, 3 2 2 9 5, 7 ° 55 r6 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. French and Egyptian Money (contd.). 780 francs ... II 0 and 9 piastres. 790 >> - 30 55 47 55 800 55 30 55 86 55 810 55 31 55 25 55 820 55 = 31 55 63 55 830 55 = 3 2 55 2 55 840 55 32 55 40 55 850 5) = 32 55 79 55 860 55 33 55 17 55 870 55 33 55 56 55 880 55 33 55 95 55 890 55 34 55 33 55 900 55 34 55 72 55 910 55 35 55 10 55 920 55 35 55 49 55 930 55 35 55 87 55 940 55 36 55 26 55 95° 55 36 55 65 55 960 55 37 55 3 55 970 55 37 55 42 55 980 55 37 55 80 55 990 55 38 55 T 9 55 1000 55 38 55 57 2 55 Thermometric Scales. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 32 O'O 45 7*2 33 0'6 46 7*8 34 II 47 8*3 35 i*7 48 8-9 3 6 2 ‘2 49 * 9*4 37 2*8 5° IO’O 38 3-3 5i io’6 39 3*9 52 in 40 4'4 53 1 r 7 4i 5 *° 54 12*2 42 5-6 55 12*8 43 6*i 5 ^ I 3'3 44 67 57 r 3*9 THERMOMKTRIC SCALES. 1 7 Thermometric Scales (contd.). Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 58 x 4*4 98 3 6 -7 59 I 5 '° 99 37* 2 60 15-6 TOO 37-8 61 16*1 IOI 38-3 62 167 102 38-9 63 172 IO3 39 '4 64 17-8 IO4 40'o 65 18-3 io 5 40*6 66 x 8'9 106 4 1 ' 1 67 19-4 107 41*7 68 20’2 108 42*2 69 20’6 109 42*8 70 21*1 1 10 43*3 7 i 217 hi 4 3 '9 72 2 2 ’2 1 12 44 '4 73 2 2 ’8 IT 3 45 *° 74 2 3'3 114 45 ' 6 75 2 3*9 ri 5 461 76 24*4 1 16 467 77 2 5 '° n 7 47*2 78 25-6 n8 47*8 79 26'! 1 1 9 487 80 267 120 48*9 81 2 7'2 121 49*4 82 27-8 122 5 °*° 83 28-3 I2 3 50*6 84 28^9 124 5 1 ' 1 85 2 9'4 125 5 X *7 86 3 °'° 126 5 2 ' 2 87 3°-6 127 52-8 88 3 1 ' 1 128 53*3 89 3 X *7 129 53*9 90 32*2 130 54*4 9 i 32-8 I 3 I 55 *° 92 3 3 '3 132 55 ' 6 93 33*9 i 33 5 6 * 1 94 34'4 x 34 5 6 '7 95 35 ’° x 35 57*2 96 35 ' 6 136 57*8 97 361 i 37 58-3 T? B i8 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. Thermometric Scales (contd.). Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 138 5 8 '9 T 39 59'4 140 6o*o 141 6o*6 14 2 611 M 3 6 i *7 144 62*2 *45 62-8 146 63*3 i 47 6 3'9 148 64-4 149 65-0 ! 5 ° 65-6 I 5 I 66*i J 5 2 667 I 53 6 j ’2 !54 67-8 155 687 T 5 6 68'9 *57 69-4 J 5 8 70*0 *59 70*6 160 I 1 ' 1 161 7 i '7 162 7 2 '2 163 72*8 164 733 i6 5 73‘9 i 65 74’4 167 75 0 168 75*6 169 76*1 170 767 171 IT 2 172 77-8 i 73 7 8 '3 174 78-9 x 75 79'4 Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 1 76 8o*o 1/7 8o‘6 178 8i*i 179 817 180 82*2 181 82-8 182 83-2 183 8 3‘9 184 84-4 185 85.° 186 85-6 187 86-i 188 867 189 87*2 190 87-8 1 9 1 88*3 192 88*9 *93 89-4 194 90*0 *95 90*6 196 91*1 197 9 r 7 198 9 2 *3 J 99 92*8 200 93'3 201 93'9 202 94'4 203 95 '° 204 95 ' 6 205 96*1 206 96-7 207 97 ' 2 208 97*8 209 9 8 ’3 210 98-9 2 1 1 99'4 212 100*0 CIVIL TIME, PASSPORTS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 1 9 Civil Time. — Civil time is that of the 30th Meridian East of Greenwich (East European time), and is two hours fast of Greenwich or West European time, and one hour fast of Central European time. A gun is fired at the Citadel daily at noon (East European time) by an electric current sent by the Standard Clock from the Observatory at Helwan. The same current also gives an electric signal to Alexandria, Port Sa’id, and Wadi Haifa. The day begins at sunset according to the Muhammadans and Jews, and at sunrise according to the Copts. In 1906, the year 1324 of the Muhammadan Era began on February 24. In 1906, the year 1623 of the Coptic Era began on Septem- ber ir. In 1906, the year 5667 of the Jewish Era began on September 20. Passports with Turkish visa are absolutely necessary for visiting Palestine and Syria or anyplace in Turkish dominions, and they are useful in order to procure admission to certain places of interest, to obtain letters from the Poste Restante, and especially to establish identity whenever required. Thos. Cook & Son will obtain passports with the necessary visas of foreign Ambassadors or Consuls. The total cost, including visa of the Turkish Consul, is 8 s. 6d. Customs. — The Custom-house examination at Egyptian ports is carefully performed, and the inspectors are usually polite. There are Custom Houses at Alexandria, Cairo, Port Sa’id, Suez. Damietta, Kuser (Kosseir), and Custom ports at Kantara, Isma’iliya and Rosetta An 8 per cent, ad valorem import duty is charged on all goods entering the country, and at Alexandria an additional half per cent, is charged for quay and paving dues. The import duty of 8 per cent, is sometimes charged on objects belonging to the tourist, if new ; and all tobacco (leaf, 20 piastres per kilo ; manufactured, 25 piastres per kilo)* is liable to duty : the duty levied on cigars is 25 piastres per kilo. The export duty is 1 per cent, ad valorem on all products of Egypt and the Sudan. By recent instructions issued by the Minister of War the importation of cartridges into Egypt by travellers is pro- hibited, but English cartridges of the very best make are * An extra duty of 2 piastres per kilo is charged on the above categories when not coming from Turkey or from a country having a Commercial Convention with Egypt. B 2 20 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. procurable at reasonable prices in Cairo. As agents of the Nobels Explosives Company, Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son have always on hand a large stock of their sporting Ballistite and Empire Powder Cartridges, which are much in favour in Egypt. For Quail Shooting in the Giza Province a licence is required. It is obtainable from Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son, and must be renewed in February each year. On leaving the country luggage is liable to be examined, and no traveller should attempt to export Egyptian antiquities without a special authorization to do so. Antiquities should be submitted to the authorities of the Egyptian Museum, who will assess their value for export duty, and have them duly sealed with the official seal, and will give the owner a signed permit addressed to the Mudir of the Customs, instructing him to allow the objects to leave the country. Dress. — It is always desirable in travelling to dispense with unnecessary baggage, at the same time if the traveller intends to journey for months he must be well supplied with clothing. Gentlemen should take with them an evening suit, thick and thin light-coloured tweed suits, a suit of some dark-coloured material for wearing on special occasions, a flannel suit or two, riding breeches and gaiters, thick and thin overcoats, thin and thick pairs of shoes both in black and brown leather. A pair of strong thick-soled shoes, or boots, will be found invaluable in exploring ruins. Woollen socks, flannel and linen shirts, slippers, straw and felt hats, cloth caps, white umbrella lined with green, cork sun-helmet, and an ulster, make a fairly complete outfit. A kefiyyeh , or turban cloth, to be tied round the hat or helmet in such a way that a good portion of it falls over the neck and sides of the face, should not be forgotten. Ladies will find very useful thick and thin brown shoes or boots, and short blue serge skirts, white and coloured cotton and linen shirts, dresses of thicker materials for cold days and evenings, wrappers and cloaks, etc. If shoes are worn in exploring ruins, gaiters will be found most useful for keeping out the sand and for protection against the bites of insects. Among small miscellaneous articles which will be found very useful are the following : — A good field or opera glass, a pocket filter and leather drinking-cup, leather straps, two or three small balls of twine of different thicknesses, a small strong writing case with plenty of writing materials, a good strong HEALTH, MEDICINE, FEVER, HEADACHE, ETC. 2 1 pocket-knife with a long blade of well-tempered steel, smoked spectacles, needles, pins, scissors, tape, thread, buttons, com- pass, small magnifying glass, soap, etc. Artists, geologists, entomologists, and those who wish to pursue a favourite line of study, should take all the most necessary materials with them ; photographers can obtain films, etc , in Cairo, but those who wish to be quite certain about the age of their films had better buy as many as they are likely to want before they start for Egypt. Health and Medicine. — Egypt is one of the healthiest countries in the world, and if the most ordinary care be taken by the traveller he should need neither physician nor medicine. This remark does not, of course, apply to invalids, who will follow the advice of their doctors as regards diet, dress, place of abode, etc. In winter it is usually unnecessary to make any change in the way of living, for most people may eat and drink that to which they are accustomed in Europe. In summer those who have experience of the country are careful not to drink wine or spirits in any great quantity until after sundown. Bathing in the Nile should not be rashly indulged in on account of the swift and dangerous under-currents. A Turkish bath will be found delightful after a fatiguing day of sight- seeing, but the bather must be very careful of draughts, and dress with due regard to the temperature out of doors, especially in winter. At all costs the traveller should ghard against chill or cold, for the results are troublesome and annoying, and may be dangerous. It should never be for- gotten that the mornings and evenings are cold in winter, and the nights very cold, and arrangements for keeping the body warm should be made accordingly. Fever, diarrhoea, and dysentery are generally the result of cold. The old medicine, Dr. Warburg’s Febrifuge, gives much relief in fever, and quinine should be taken between , not during , the attacks. Remedies for diarrhoea are a gentle aperient, followed by concentrated tincture of camphor ; no fruit, meat, or fatty food of any kind should be eaten at the time, and arrowroot or rice, boiled in milk and water until the grains are well burst, is exceedingly beneficial. Warmth and rest are essentials. Diarrhoea should never be neglected, for in Egypt and the Sudan it often leads to dysentery. Headache and sunstroke are common in Egypt. Effectual remedies are cold compresses, warm baths, and rest in a shaded room or place, Great care should be taken to protect 22 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. the head and back of the neck with a good broad-brimmed hat, or CGrk or pith helmet, and in making long excursions a long thin pad of khaki tied inside the coat or dress in such a way that it lies along the upper part of the spine, has been found very beneficial. The nape of the neck should always be covered when walking or riding in the sun, even comparatively early in the day, for the sun’s rays are powerful, and many severe head- aches have been caused by their striking the head and neck horizontally or diagonally. A sprained ankle should be treated in the usual way, i.e ., the sufferer must take rest, and keep his foot in wet bandages. Shoes with stout soles, low heels, and fairly wide welts form the best footgear to wear when clambering over the ruins of ancient temples and sites ; it is in such places that the ankle is often sprained. Ophthalmia has always been common in Egypt, a fact which is proved by the large numbers of natives who are deprived of the sight of one or both eyes. It is produced by many causes, and is seriously aggravated by dust and flies and dirt of every kind, and by the glare of the sun. When remedies are promptly applied this disease is not alarming in its progress. Fortunately good medical aid can now be obtained in all the large towns and cities of Egypt, and the sufferer is recommended to place himself in competent hands as soon as ophthalmia attacks him. Tinted spectacles may be often worn with great comfort and advantage. When travelling from place to place in Upper Egypt a small pocket medicine case will be found very useful. In selecting the medicines to stock it the traveller should before leaving home consult his own medical adviser, who, knowing his patient’s constitution, will take care that the remedies for his individual ailments shall be included in the selection. Cases of the kind are inexpensive and most useful, especially those which have vulcanite bottles with screw caps. Each individual will, of course, have a good idea of the medicines which he most needs, but the following will be generally useful :• — Warburg’s tincture and quinine for fever ; bicarbonate of soda, ginger, bismuth, for stomachic troubles ; cascara sagrada , and some aperient salt, chlorodyne, and a small quantity of tincture of camphor or of opium, for diarrhoea, and ipecacuanha wine for dysentery ; a roll of sticking plaster, a roll of heftband , vaseline, lanoline, and cold cream ; boracic acid and a preparation of zinc to make lotions for the eyes ; a powder made of boracic acid and zinc, or something similar, passengers’ baggage insurance, postage, etc. 23 for abrasions and chafings from riding, etc. ; a pair of scissors and a clinical thermometer in a metal screw case ; ammonia for treating the bites of gnats, mosquitoes, and scorpions ; carbolic acid soap of 5 and 10 per cent, strengths; eau de Cologne, and an emergency flask of liqueur brandy. Passengers’ Baggage Insurance. — Travellers using Tickets issued by Thos. Cook & Son can have their Baggage insured on payment of a small premium. The insurance covers all risk of the loss of Passengers’ Baggage, including fire, theft, and pilfering whilst travelling by sea and land, also whilst staying at hotels or travelling between hotels and railway stations, etc. Insurances can be effected for amounts of ^20 and upwards. Full particulars can be obtained at any of the Offices of Thos. Cook & Son. Postage and Telegraphs. — Egypt is included in the General Postal Union, and its Postal and Telegraph Administrations are most ably worked. Every year increased facilities are given to correspondents, and printed statements of these, with the times of the despatch and arrival of mails' from all parts of the world can be seen at all the large Post Offices in Egypt, and at the Offices of Thos. Cook and Son, and at all hotels. The Cash-on-Delivery System has been introduced, and is working successfully; but at present (July, 1906) no arrangement exists between Egypt and Great Britain, or Russia, or Syria, or Turkey. The penny postal rate between Egypt and the United Kingdom came into operation on December 15, 1905. Inland and Foreign Postage. /. For the Interior. Letters, 5 mills, for 30 grammes or fractions. Post Cards, 3 mills. ,, „ reply, 6 mills. Newspapers, 1 mill, per number. Non-periodicals, 1 mill, for 30 grammes. Visiting Cards, 2 „ „ 50 Samples, 2 „ „ 50 „ II. Countries in Postal Union . Letters, 10 mills. (U.K. 5 mills.) for each 15 grammes. Post Cards, 4 mills. ,, ,, reply, 8 mills. Newspapers and Printed Matter, 2 mills, for each 50 grammes. 24 INTRODUCTORY PRACTICAL INFORMATION. Telephones. — A trunk telephone line exists between Cairo and Alexandria. The public call-offices for it are. for Cairo at the Bourse, and for Alexandria in the State Telegraph Office. The charges are : — ■. Three minutes’ conversation ... 50 mill. Six „ „ ••• 100 „ Several villages are connected telephonically with the nearest telegraph office. Telegraphs in Egypt are worked by Egyptian officials for the Egyptian Government, and telegrams may be sent in any European language, except from small local stations, where they must be written in Arabic. The submarine cables connecting Egypt with other countries are worked by English companies with speed, regularity, and success. Inland Telegrams . The charges are 5 mill, for every two words or fraction of two words with a minimum charge of 20 mill. Urgent Telegrams are charged triple rate. Sudan. Deferred telegrams at 15 mill, per 4 words, with a minimum charge of 30 mill. Ordinary telegrams at 1 5 mill, per 2 words, with a minimum charge of 60 mill. Urgent telegrams at 40 mill, per 2 words with a minimum charge of 160 mill. The use of Currency Notes is increasing in Egypt, but as yet they' are not readily accepted in small towns and villages off the beaten roads. There is a Parcel Post to all the countries in the Postal Union, and Money Orders are issued for payment in Egypt on a small commission. Bakshish.* — This word, which is the equivalent of “gratuity,” “tip,” or “ pourboire” literally means a “gift,” and it will probably be the first word the traveller will hear when he lands on Egyptian soil, and the last as he leaves it. Those who render him the smallest service will demand bakshish, as likewise will those who render him no service at * ’ bakshish, plur-, jLxlXii ’ baTcasMsh. of the word is Bakhshish . The Persian form BAKSHISH. *5 all, but who stand about, stare at him, and obstruct the way ; the half-naked child lying in the dust will cry ’shzsh after him, the older children will shout the word at him in chorus, and labourers will stop their work and ask for bakshish on the chance, that they may get something given to them for nothing. Formerly in Egypt highly placed officials took bakshish openly, but as they received no regular salary this is not to be wondered at ; in recent years this abuse has greatly diminished, and bakshish is now only demanded by those who wish to be overpaid for their services, and by beggars. So far as possible the traveller should agree on the price of every service beforehand, but he must remember that even when he has paid the sum agreed upon the native will ask for bakshish. So Song as traveSSers will overpay the Egyptians for their services, so long will the cry for bakshish be a nuisance to everybody. No hard and fast rule can be laid down, for the simple reason that the generosity of benevolent men and women which finds expression in indiscriminate almsgiving and charity, even when known to be misapplied, refuses to be curbed. It must, however, be pointed out that those who bestow gifts on an unreasonably large scale make travelling difficult for people of moderate means, and for some wholly impossible. If each traveller would make it a rule never to give bakshish, except for some positive service rendered, worth the sum given, he would confer a boon upon the people and upon future travellers. In Egypt, as elsewhere, the traveller who pays best will always be waited upon first, and the more bakshish the native is given the more he will expect ; each season finds him more and more dissatisfied with the bakshish with which he would have been quite content a few years ago. A bargain once made should be adhered to, for when once the native realises that his employer intends to stand firm, he rarely gives further trouble. Among claimants for bakshish must be mentioned the profes- sional beggars, who are numerous ; many of these are impostors. On the other hand many of the maimed, the halt, the blind, and the aged ought to be helped , and a few piastres judiciously bestowed often smooth the way of those who, through an accident, or sickness, or no fault of their own, have fallen on evil times. In country districts the traveller will save himself a good deal of trouble if he will provide himself with a bag of copper paras (40 = 1 piastre tariff) or nickel milliemes (10 = 1 piastre tariff) before leaving Cairo, for the most 26 lord cromer’s appeal to travellers. urgent wants of the deserving beggars can be supplied with a few of these, and the danger of demoralizing the native is reduced to a minimum. Bakshish : Important Notice. The following notice has been issued : — The attention of the Egyptian authorities has been frequently drawn, both by visitors and by residents in the country, to the evils resulting from the indiscriminate bestowal of “bakshish” to the inhabitants of the Nile villages, and other places visited by tourists during the winter season. The intention of the donors is no doubt kindly, but the practice — more especially in view of the yearly increase of visitors to Egypt — cannot fail to be detrimental to the moral sense and the social well-being of the poorer classes of the community. At the present time many of the poorer inhabitants of those towns on the Nile which are most visited by tourists live almost entirely on what they can obtain by “ bakshish ” during the winter months ; the easy means thus offered of obtaining a small livelihood prevents their adopting any form of labour ; and children are brought up to regard the tourist season as the period during which they may, by clamorous begging, enable their parents and themselves to lead a life of idleness for the remainder of the year. The unhealthy tendency of such a system is obvious. On the other hand, from the point of view of the Nile travellers themselves, the inconveniences of this universal mendicity are equally obvious, and, as time goes on, cannot fail to increase, unless some means are adopted for checking the practice. It would be extremely difficult for the Government to devise an effective remedy for this state of things. The real remedy rests with the travellers themselves. If money were, in future, only bestowed in return for some actual service rendered, or in cases of evident and estab = lished distress, the present pernicious habit of begging would soon die out, to the advantage both of the people and of the visitors. It is with this conviction that we venture to express a hope that our fellow-countrymen, when travelling in Egypt, will lend their aid to this important reform by abstaining from the dis- tribution of money in response to mere demands for “ bakshish,” TRAVELLING AND HOTEL COUPONS. 27 bestowing it only when the circumstances appear to them to warrant their generosity. Tourists should especially abstain from throwing money from the decks of steamers on to the landing stages or on to the banks of the Nile for the purpose of witnessing the scramble for the coins ; such exhibitions are mischievous as well as degrading. (Signed) CROMER, HB.M.’s Minister Plenipotentiary, Agent and Consul General. RUCKER JENISCH, Minister Plenipotentiary , Agent and Consul General for Germany. J. W. RIDDLE, Agent and Consul General for the United Stales of America. The traveller who is a stranger in Egypt, and has no knowledge of the language, will find his pleasure greatly increased if he hires a dragoman,* i.e., an “interpreter,” for good dragomans save their employers time, trouble, and money. It often requires considerable moral courage to keep these individuals in their proper places, for the more useful and capable they are the more easy is it for their employers to lose control over them. Dragomans are of two classes, i.e., those who undertake the charge of parties on long journeys, and those who act merely as guides to the various places of interest in cities or towns. The former are often educated men, and can speak from two to five languages, the latter can usually speak English or French, but are useful chiefly in conducting the traveller from one part of the city to another when his time is limited. Travelling Arrangements of Thos. Cook & Son. The Travelling Coupons issued by Thos. Cook & Son are now so well known and universally used that it is unnecessary here to enter into particulars about them. Sufficient to say that they have been found to be advantageous to all European travellers, and in the East, where travelling is under greater difficulties in every respect, their system is indispensable to * This interesting worth is derived through the Arabic targumdn , X J> L,'' ■; , from the old Assyrian, KK * 7 ^” ’ ^ ar ~i u ' inan ~ nu - CC . 7 The word occurs in a list of officials written on a tablet in the British Museum (K 2012, Rev., line 5). 28 TRAVELLING AND HOTEL COUPONS. those who are unable to grapple with the obstacles presented by not being acquainted with Oriental languages, and by having to deal with dragomans and others, whose demands are invariably exorbitant. Thos. Cook & Son have made such arrangements in the East that the most inexperienced travellers may avail themselves of them without fear of not being able to get on as well as on the beaten Continental routes. They issue tickets for individuals, or for small or large parties, and every season they organise parties who travel under the personal superintendence of one of their capable staff of conductors. Each year they publish a pamphlet giving details of their Personally-conducted and Independent Eastern Tours, and to this the traveller is referred, as the cost of a tour varies according to circumstances and general arrangements are liable to variation. Those who propose making a Tour to Egypt, with extension to Palestine, Sinai, or elsewhere, should make out a programme, and mention the places they wish to visit, and Thos. Cook & Son will send them promptly a quotation which will represent the lowest price possible for which the journey can be accomplished with comfort. Hotel Coupons are issued not only for the countries passed through in reaching the East, but in the East also, and at such a rate as to ensure economy with comfort. Hotel Coupons save the traveller time, expense and annoyance, and since the rate of charges is fixed and uniform, the cost of the tour can be estimated before the traveller leaves home. A further benefit conferred by Hotel Coupons is that accommoda- tion can be bespoken by letter or telegraph. Routes to Egypt. Starting from London, the traveller may journey to Egypt the whole way by sea, or he may use one of the quicker trans- continental routes. To those who have sufficient time, and who are either indifferent or superior to sea-sickness, the long sea route offers many attractions; it occupies from 12 to 14 days. The principal long sea routes to Egypt are : — From London, by the Peninsular and Oriental, Orient, and British India steamers. From Liverpool, by the Bibby, Moss, and other lines of steamers. From Southampton, by the North German Lloyd. THE JOURNEY UP THE NILE. 2 y If the traveller decide to employ one of the trans-continental routes, he may embark at Marseilles, Trieste, Venice, Genoa, Naples, or Brindisi, from which ports there is frequent communication with Egypt. For full particulars as to the days and hours of sailing, fares, insurance, registered baggage, etc., apply to any of the offices of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son. The Journey up the Nile. The four principal methods of ascending the Nile are — 1. By the Dahabiyah, a large, comfortable boat, which is propelled either by steam or wind. Modern dahabiyahs have steel hulls, and in the best of them the internal arrangements, furniture, fittings, etc., leave very little to be desired. The dahabiyah represents the most luxurious, but at the same time the most expensive, means of travelling on the Nile ; it secures absolute privacy, and guarantees perfect independence of move- ment to the party on board. The drawback to the use of the sailing dahabiyah is the chance of encountering contrary winds, but this may be entirely obviated by the employment of steam tugs, a number of which are always available at short notice. The use of steam dahabiyahs is on the increase, and Thos. Cook & Son possess six vessels of this class, which are fitted with every requirement for the convenience of private parties, viz., “ Serapis,” “ Oonas,” “Arabia,” “Sudan,” “ Nitocris,” and “Mena.” The “Nitocris” is specially adapted for a private party, and possesses accommodation for eight persons. The price, including every charge for maintenance and sight-seeing ashore, but exclusive of wines, spirits, etc., is, for four persons, £400 per month ; for six, £550 ; and for eight, £675. 2. By the Tourist Steamers, one or more of which leave Cairo every week during the season. For a description of these steamers see Thos. Cook & Son’s “ Egypt and the Nile,” or Programme of Cook’s Arrangements for Visiting Egypt, the Nile, Soudan, etc., issued gratuitously on application. A voyage on these steamers is made with absolute certainty and punctuality from point to point, and the whole of the most interesting sights on the Nile — temples, ancient remains of all kinds, bazaars, native life, etc. — are brought to the traveller with the minimum of expenditure of wear and tear. The voyage from Cairo to the First Cataract and back lasts three weeks, and the fare is £50 ; with extra large berth, £60. 30 THE JOURNEY UP THE NILE. 3. By the Express Boat. — These steamers, which formerly carried the mails, leave Cairo every Friday up to the end of the season, with additional departures every Monday from December until the end of March. The main object of this service is to afford a more rapid and more economical form of conveyance for travellers who are limited as to time, or who are anxious to reach their destination higher up the Nile at a moderate price and with the least possible delay. The voyage from Cairo to Aswan and back lasts 19 days, and the fare is £ 22 . 4. By Rail and Steamer combined. — In the interests of those travellers who cannot spare the time to ascend the Nile all the way by steamer, Thos. Cook & Son, by an arrangement with the Egyptian Railway Administration, now issue combined rail and steamer tickets, in connection with the express service, which allow parts of the journey to be performed by rail, and parts by boat. The fares for these combined tours are given in the time tables of the Egyptian Railway Administration, and in Thos. Cook & Son’s Programme £ 5. Cairo to Aswan (First Cataract) and Wadi Haifa and back to Cairo, by Tourist Steamer all the way 70 Cairo to Aswan (First Cataract) and back to Cairo, by Tourist Steamer all the way ... ... 50 Cairo to Asyut and back by rail, steamer “ Amasis ” or “ Tewfik ” to Aswan and back... ... ... 35 Cairo to Asyut and back by rail, steamer “Amasis” or “Tewfik” to Aswan and back, and steamer “ Memnon ” from the First Cataract to the Second Cataract and back ... ... ... 55 Cairo to the Second Cataract and back by express steamer — First class ... ... ... ... ... 42 First Cataract to the Second Cataract and back — First class ... ... ... ... ... 20 N.B. — A Decree has been issued by H.H. the Khedive of Egypt levying a tax on all travellers who wish to visit the monuments, temples, etc., in Egypt, such tax to be devoted to the maintenance and preservation of the monuments, temples, etc. ; therefore Thos. Cook & Son have to inform all travellers taking tickets for their steamers that the various fares indicated TICKETS FOR VISITING TEMPLES, TOMBS, ETC. 3 1 in this book do not include such tax, which will have to be paid by the traveller at the Cairo Office before leaving for the Nile voyage, or at the Egyptian Museum, when a card admitting him to inspect the monuments will be given to him. Tickets to visit Antiquities are available from July ist for 12 months. a. For the whole of Egypt ... 120 piastres (24 s. 8d.). Obtainable of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son, at the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and of the Inspector at Luxor. b. Giza Pyramids, ascent or entrance, each 10 piastres. Obtainable at Giza Pyramids. c. Sakkara ... ... ... ... ... 5 piastres. Obtainable at the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son, and of the Official in charge of Antiquities at §akkara. The Traveller in Egypt. — The traveller who visits Egypt for the first time will certainly be delighted with the country, but it is probable that he will not admire the natives with whom he will come in contact until he knows them fairly well. The Egyptians in general, until quite recently, have, like other Muhammadans, never been accustomed to travel, and they look upon those who wander from country to country as beings who are possessed of restless though harmless devils. Like their more fanatical co-religionists and kinsmen in Mesopotamia, they believe that the ancient Egyptians w T ere idolaters and very wicked people, and that God destroyed them, and blotted out their kingdoms and buried their palaces and temples, because of their iniquity. That anyone should wish to make excava- tions for the love of learning or the advancement of science is more than they can understand, and the older generation regard all those who do work of this kind as wicked men. “ How do you dare to dig up what God hath buried ?” said a native to the writer some years ago, and even when it was pointed out to him that the smallest object could not be dug up “ unless God willed it,” he was discontented with the explanation. Egyptians of the “old school,” and especially those who have been much in contact with the orthodox Turkish official, still believe that the “Frangi,” or European traveller, has some ulterior motive in going about the country, and nothing will induce him to realize that the love of travel, and the wish to see new cities and new peoples, will draw men 32 THE EGYPTIAN CHARACTER. from their homes into remote countries. The younger genera- tion, though not fanatical, is as sceptical about the traveller’s motives as his elders, only, seeing that money is to be made out of the “ Frangi,” he conceals his doubts, and devotes him- self to making money out of him. The Egyptian knows that the possession of money will enable him to keep wives, to dress well, and to gratify his desires for pleasure ; he therefore loses no opportunity of getting money from the stranger, whom he believes to possess an inexhaustible supply of gold and silver. Speaking generally, the traveller has very little oppor- tunity of seeing the better class of Egyptians, and he must by no means judge the nation by those who minister to his wants in the great cities. The Egyptian, the worst side of whose character has not been developed by cupidity, is a very estimable individual. He is proud of his religion, but is tolerant to a remarkable degree ; it must , never be forgotten that the strictest Muhammadans despise the Christian faith in their hearts, although Christians are everywhere treated with civility. As the result of their religion, the Egyptians are benevolent and charitable to the poor, and they are extremely hospitable ; they are cheerful, affable, easily amused, and many are temperate and frugal. They love their homes and their native villages, and when they are compelled by the exigencies of military service to leave them, large numbers of young men regularly transmit money to their parents and relatives to keep them from want. It has been wisely remarked by Lane that the Egyptian has no gratitude in his composition, and the traveller will discover for himself that even after he has paid a man lavishly for trivial services he will be met with the demand for bakshish. Partly through climatic influences, partly through constitution, and partly through his intense fatalism, the Egyptian in all classes is lazy, and he will never do more than he is absolutely compelled to do. Truthfulness is very rare in modern Egypt, but this is in many cases the natural result of loose and inaccurate thinking. The views of the Egyptian about his womankind are not of an exalted character, but he has only himself to thank for this so long as he adheres to the abominable system of divorce which is common throughout the country. In judging the Egyptian the traveller must make allowance for the centuries of oppres- sion and misery through which he has passed, and remember that in many cases he should be treated with a kind but firm hand, as if he were a child. He is quick to appreciate just THE EGYPTIAN CHARACTER. 33 and humane treatment. And he has grasped the idea of honour and the trust that may be placed in an Englishman’s word or promise which generations of English travellers in Egypt have left behind them. The influences which have been brought to bear upon him in recent years have already produced important results; but unless he makes a radical change in his domestic arrangements, he will never be able to employ to the best advantage the benefits which the civilization of the West has brought to his land. In exceptional cases Europeans have made lasting friendships with Egyptians, but such friendships have not included their families, for the all-sufficient reason that women are never allowed to form friendships of this kind. Marriage between Europeans and natives is to be strongly deprecated. The most potent factor in the change which is now passing over Egypt is the progress of female education in Egypt. Formerly parents sent their daughters to school reluctantly, and took them away early, and to encourage the education of girls it was necessary to admit many to the schools free. Free Education has now been abolished to all intents and purposes, and yet the demand for private schools for girls has greatly increased. The advance in the education of boys has stimulated female education, for the younger generation are beginning to demand that their wives should possess some qualifications other than those which can be secured in the seclusion of the harim. Where educa- tion has made progress the age of marriage has risen, and thus it seems that girls are allowed to remain longer at school than was the custom formerly. In 1900, about 2,050 girls attended the 271 village schools, which were under Government in- spection ; the number of such schools has now risen to 2,053, and the number of pupils in attendance to 12,006. An attempt is now being made to create special village schools ( Kuttabs ) for girls. The abolition of the use of the kurbash , i.e., of corporal punishment, by Lord Dufferin, early in 1883, has had effects which were not contemplated by him. As soon as the whip was abolished the people refused to work, and Lord Cromer says that the period which followed its abolition “ caused him greater anxiety than any other ” during his lengthened Egyptian experience. Another result was that life and property became insecure, and Nubar Pasha was obliged to appoint “ Commissions of Brigandage,” that is, to introduce martial law. The Egyptian has also learned that no c 34 THE EGYPTIAN CHARACTER. one can be punished for a crime unless he is proved to be guilty, and that proof of guilt which will satisfy the law courts is hard to get. The result has been that large numbers of guilty people have escaped punishment, and throughout the country the people have little respect for the Law. The inability of the governors to use the whip is the cause of the present state of unrest among a certain class of Egyptians, and it is clear that only corporal punishment will reduce this class to order and obedience. 35 PART I . — — — CHAPTER PAGE I. — The Climate and Health Resorts of Egypt ... 37 II. — The Land of Egypt. — Geology, the Oases, the Fayyum, Natron Lakes ... ... ... 45 III. — The Land of Egypt. — Natural History ... 55 IV. — The Trade of Egypt ... ... ... ... 69 V. — The Land of Egypt. — Ancient and Modern Divisions, Population, etc. ... ... ... 71 VI. — The White Nile, the Blue Nile, the Atbara, the Cataracts, Irrigation, etc. ... ... 75 VII. — The Barrages on the Nile ... ... ... 89 VIII. — The Ancient Egyptians ... ... ... 102 IX. — The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians ... 106 X. — Egyptian Gods... ... ... ... ... 117 XI. — The Egyptian Language and Writing ... 133 XII.— Hymn to Ra, from the Papyrus of Ani ... 146 XIII, — The Learning of the Ancient Egyptians ... 157 XIV. — A List of the Names of the Principal Egyptian Kings ... ... ... ... ... 188 XV. — Sketch of the History of Egypt from the Pre- Dynastic Period to a.d. 1904 ... ... 216 XVI. — The Modem Egyptians ... ... ... 282 XVII. — Muhammadan Architecture and Art in Cairo. . . 295 XVIII. — The Modern Egyptians — Narcotics and Amuse- ments ... ... ... ... ... 317 XIX. — Sketch of the History of the Arabs, and of Muhammad and his Kur’an, Religious Beliefs, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 325 XX. — British Financial Policy in Egypt ... ... 361 XXI. — Comparative Table of the Muhammadan and Christian Eras .. ... ... ... 369 c 2 37 CHAPTER I. The Climate and Health Resorts of Egypt. The wonderful climate of Egypt is due entirely to the geographical situation of the country. A glance at a map of the two Egypts shows that the climate of Lower Egypt, the Delta, must, on account of its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, and the arms of the Nile and the large canals which flow from them, be different from that of Upper Egypt, i.e., the Nile Valley between Cairo and Aswan, which has the vast Libyan Desert on the one side and the Arabian or Eastern Desert on the other. The most northerly cities and towns in the Delta have the usual sea-side climate which the traveller expects to find in that latitude, with the customary warmth and humidity at night ; but the cities and towns in Upper Egypt enjoy a much drier climate both by day and by night. In certain parts of the Delta, where practically whole districts are covered with growing crops which are frequently irrigated, and even in the Fayyum, the temperature drops considerably at sunset, and continues comparatively low through the night, and the air contains much moisture. Beyond all doubt, the climate of Egypt as a whole deserves the highest praise which can be given to it : for dryness it is nearly unparalleled, and the regular and unvarying warmth and sunshine combined make the country a health resort in the truest sense of the word. It should be distinctly under- stood that the sick and delicate need medical advice in selecting the sites which will be the most beneficial for their ailments, and care should be taken that the advice comes from a physician who has a practical, first-hand knowledge of the country and of the climatic peculiarities which are characteristic of its most popular health resorts. * On the climate of the Nile Basin, see Capt. H. G. Lyons, R. E. , The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin , Cairo, 1906, p. 10. 38 THE CLIMATE OF EGYPT. The wind in Egypt usually blows from the north or north-west, but in the winter it often comes from the south- west, and is at times extremely cold. In the- late spring there blows a wind from the south-west which is commonly known as Khamsin,* i.e., “ Fifty, ;; because it blows at intervals during a period of 50 days. Sometimes it blows with terrific violence, and brings with >it a mass of sand which it has picked up in the deserts it has crossed, and for heat its blast is like the breath of a furnace ; fortunately it only blows for about a couple of days at a time. Rain falls oftener in Cairo and Alexandria than formerly, a fact which has been attributed by some to the increased area of land which is irrigated. The total rainfall at Cairo is about 2 inches, and at Alexandria it is much greater; at the latter place it was 12 '81 inches in 1897 ; 12*31 inches in 1898; 9*67 inches in 1899; 7*87 inches in 1900; 7*62 inches in 1901; and 1013 inches in 1902. In recent years heavy rains have fallen in Upper Egypt during the winter ; but, speaking generally, very little rain falls at Aswan and Luxor. It is, however, a mistake to declare that it never rains in Upper Egypt. Dew is heavy in all places where crops grow and in Cairo, but the further south we go the less dew will be met with until we reach Aswan, where there is practically none. Temperature : The coldest time of the day is a little before sunrise, and the hottest about 3 p.m. ; it is colder in fields where crops are growing than in the desert, and in Upper Egypt 2 0 or 3 0 of frost in the fields are not uncommon in the winter. In March and April the tempera- ture at Cairo is about 8o° ; a little later it rises from 10 to 15°, and in winter it falls to about 65° or 6o°. The mean annual temperature at Cairo is 70° ; the mean summer temperature is 85° ; and the mean winter temperature about 58°. The greatest heat in summer is about 125 0 in the shade. The greatest difference in the temperature during the day takes place at Aswan and equals about 30°. * The Arabs who speak correctly do not say Khamsin , but Khamdsin , which is really the vulgar plural of Khamsin , i.e., “fifty.” The proper word for the period here referred to is Khamsun, which does not necessarily contain 50 days ; there may be a few days more or a few days less in it, according to the weather of the particular year. The word Khamsin also means “ Pentecost,” but the peri, d of the Jewish year which corresponds to it is called by the Arabs Khamsin at , and the last day of it is A l- Khamsin. THE CLIMATE OF EGYPT. 39 Mean Monthly Temperature (Centigrade).* Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Cairo 12-3 13-8 i 6'9 2 r '2 24-8 27*7 28*6 28/ 1 25 '6 23-6 18-9 14*8 Giza TO'9 I 3 ’° 15-2 I 9’3 22*7 24-8 257 26 'i 24‘0 22*0 17-1 i2'9 Beni Suwef 12*6 I 4 ‘ I 16*8 2o‘8 24-9 26-9 28-1 27*2 257 23-2 i 8*5 15-0 Asyfit io*6 i 3’5 16*9 21'9 25*8 287 29-9 29 5 26*6 236 .7-8 13-8 Luxor * 5‘4 I 7’4 2i'I 24-1 i6‘9 Aswan (Rest Camp) i6*8 T 75 20*9 26*6 3°'3 337 33'9 32-0 3°’4 28'6 23-6 l8’2 Aswan (Reservoir) x 4’5 x8- 5 21-4 26*1 3o’o 32‘4 327 3 2 '4 3° '3 27-9 217 17-0 Mean Maximum Temperature (Centigrade). Cairo i 8’2 j 21*1 | 24 ‘2 28*6 32-6 35 ’ 1 361 34'9 32-2 3 °-i 247 20*2 Giza 19-1 22*2 ! 247 28-8 3 2-2 34 2 34'9 34 '9 32 ‘5 307 25-6 217 Beni Suwef T 9’5 20’9 24 *2 287 3 2 7 34'3 34‘9 33‘4 30*8 29'I 24-8 217 Asyut 20*2 247 28’4 327 36*6 377 37 - 9 37'8 34 '° 3 i 7 277 227 Luxor 23'x 1 257 29 '4 32-1 3 I- i 247 Aswan (Rest ' Camp) Aswan (Reservoir) 2 3'8 i 2 4 -2 28*9 33'6 39'3 4 2 ‘3 42'3 39 ‘ 2 37‘6 35'8 29*6 247 22*9 1 28*0 1 31-1 36*2 39 ’ 1 4 r '4 4 r ‘5 4 I- 9 397 38-8 317 277 Mean Minimum Temperature (Centigrade). Cairo 6-9 8-2 9'9 I 12-8 r 5'9 I 187 20*8 20*8 i8'9 17*1 12*3 8*8 Giza 67 7‘2 9 0 n ‘9 14-6 W4 19*0 20*1 i8*2 167 ii*9 8*2 Beni Suwef 5-8 ^*2 97 13-2 i 77 j j ! 9 - 6 21*3 21*0 l 9'7 * 77 ' 12*2 87 Asyut 47 67 9.4 14*0 187 21 '2 22*6 22*9 20*7 I7'4 10*9 7 0 Luxor 7 '6 97 127 i6‘i 12*9 9*6 Aswan (Rest Camp) Aswan (Reservoir) 9'9 107 T2'9 187 217 247 257 24*8 237 2 1*2 *77 5 9'° ix -5 13-8 187 1 2 2*0 24*2 1 247 25*0 23-0 20*7 *57 11 "4 Dryness of the air : No matter how hot the weather, the air of Egypt is always light, fresh, and invigorating, and in places which are quite away from cultivated lands only a minute amount of moisture exists in it. Another important characteristic of the Egyptian climate is its uniformity, and in this respect it probably is unique. How long this will last it is hard to say, for there is no doubt that the large surface of water in the Suez Canal, and the extensive irrigation works which are increasing yearly, to say nothing of the enormous lake which has been formed by the waters held up by the Aswan Dam, have produced local disturbances of the atmosphere, and contributed in some places to make the winters less dry and the summers less hot. The evenings and the mornings are beautifully cool, and the thermometer does not often fall From H. G. Lyons’ Physiography ^ p. 296. 40 THE CLIMATE OF EGYPT. below 40° in Cairo. The average temperature of Lower Egypt ranges between 75 0 and 90° in summer, and between 45° and 6o° in winter, and that of Upper Egypt between 90° and ioo° in summer, and between 6o° and 70° in winter. Mean Relative Humidity (per cent.).* Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May- June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 1 Dec. Cairo 69 65 59 51 47 47 5o 56 62 66 66 70 Giza 82 77 70 63 57 57 63 67 73 75 75 81 Asyut- 69 66 56 40 30 31 36 42 56 62 69 69 Aswan 51 37 32 3 ° 25 24 22 23 30 39 34 51 Relative Humidity (8 or 9 a.m.). Cairo 87 84 74 68 65 64 73 76 80 80 77 Giza 76 68 59 45 36 40 45 48 60 67 72 Asyut 59 32 24 19 14 18 19 18 27 28 3 6 Aswan 58 48 38 34 29 28 27 28 37 42 47 Relative Humidity (2 or 3 p.m.). Cairo • • 1 47 40 34 27 24 25 27 32 39 42 45 49 Giza. . •• 5 i 42 39 36 3 ° 33 36 36 44 52 44 50 Asyut •- 1 34 44 24 21 16 i 7 22 22 31 38 48 46 Aswan •• 30 J 22 J 7 T 7 15 15 13 I 3 18 22 25 3°* The principal health resorts of Egypt are Alexandria, Cairo, Mena House and Helwan, both near Cairo, Luxor, and Aswan. Alexandria possesses a healthy sea-shore climate, which is on the whole drier than that of Cairo. The mean rainfall is about 8*57 inches, and the mean temperature 69° F. = 20 - 5 C. ; The mean winter temperature is 6o° E., and, generally speaking, Alexandria is warmer by night than Cairo. The prevailing wind blows from the north in summer, and from the north- west in winter. Close to Alexandria is Ramleh, which is much frequented by tourists and residents who wish to live close to the sea. Mean Temperature (Centigrade) according to Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E. Jan. Feb. 1 - j Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.J Oct. Nov. Dec. Alexandria 14-2 T 5‘5 17-0. 19*2 2I’9 2 4'3 26*2 26'g 25'9 1 24-1 19-9 l6‘2 Port Sa‘id i4'o i 5 ‘3 16-9 I 9 ' 1 22‘o 247 2 To 27-6 26 "5 I 24-9 20-3 i6‘i Isma'iliya I 3'2 * 5'2 I 7'5 20'8 2 3’9 26'S 38 -s 28'3 26'i 23'8 187 Suez r 3’6 I 5'5 i8‘o 21*7 25‘3 27'6 29 '4 29*2 27-1 24-8 ; 19-1 i 5'4 * From H. G. Lyons’ Physiogi'aphy , p. 298. HEALTH RESORTS. 41 Cairo possesses a dry and salubrious climate in winter, and the city is thronged at that time with seekers after health and pleasure. It is the headquarters of the Egyptian Government, and the visitor may, if he pleases, amuse and interest himself from morning to night for some weeks. The climate is not so dry as formerly, and in recent years the cold in winter has become sufficiently intense to necessitate the building of fire- grates in dwelling and other houses. In December, January, and February, the mornings and evenings are often very cold. Rain falls on from 25 to 30 days, and the sky is often overcast by clouds which are blown over the city by a strong wind from the north-west. In April the Khamsin wind makes Cairo hot and stifling, and in the summer the heat and moisture together make it close. Each year that passes brings with it a considerable improve- ment in Cairo as a health resort, and the authorities spare neither pains nor expense in the carrying out of systems of drainage and other sanitary works, and in the cleansing of all parts of the city. The modern hotels are large, commodious buildings, which have been planned with due regard to the comfort, well-being, and health of European and American travellers, and the most approved methods of ventilation and sanitation have been adopted in them. The regular sweeping, cleansing, and watering of the streets, and the abolition of several old, narrow streets of houses, have made the European quarter of Cairo, in which the hotels are situated, an extremely pleasant place in which to live. The native quarters of the city of Cairo also have for years past occupied the serious attention of the Government, and the Egyptian is no longer allowed to live amid dust and dirt as formerly. Many of the streets in the native quarters of the city are now paved with asphalt, some ^E. 16,000 having already been spent in this work alone; and ^E. 11,000 was spent in making the new thoroughfare called the “Boulevard Abbas” in 1905. At the pre- sent time more than one half of the roads and streets in Cairo are paved. In 1902 it was decided to devote a sum of £E.io ,000 a year to establish free taps in Cairo from which the poorer classes could obtain pure water, and the Govern- ment voted ^E. 20,000 to enable the Water Company to improve the quality and increase the supply. That such measures tend to promote the general health of the whole city is too obvious to need mention, and when all the schemes now under discussion have been carried out, Cairo 42 MENA HOUSE AND HELWAN. will be as healthy a dwelling-place as any large Oriental city can be. Mena House was built by Mr. Locke-King, and is situated on the skirt of the Libyan Desert, near the Great Pyramid of Cheops, about eight miles from Cairo. The air here is cleaner, drier, and fresher than at Cairo, but the cold at night in December, January and February is sometimes unpleasant ; in November, and in the latter part of March and April, the weather is perfect. In addition to health a variety of amuse- ments may be obtained here, and Cairo is easily reached by means of the electric tramway. Helwan is a small town which lies on the right or east bank of the Nile about 16 miles to the south of Cairo,, and contained in 1897 about 2,876 inhabitants. This town, which stands about halfway between the river and the irrigated lands, owes its importance entirely to the sulphur and salt springs which come to the surface here in great abundance ; the water has a temperature of 91 0 , and the percentage of sulphur and salt held in solution is very large. These sulphur springs are thought by some to have been famous in very ancient days, and their healing properties were probably well known to those who gave to the place where they rise the name of “ Helwan.” Fresh water is brought into the town from the Nile, about three miles distant. The air of Helwan is clean and free from sand and dust, and the restfulness of the place is very grateful ; from the middle of November to the middle of April the climate is most beneficial for the sick and suffering. The baths which have been built during the Last few years leave little to be desired, and it is not to be wondered at that it has recently become the fashion for the inhabitants of Cairo to resort there. The springs have been found specially beneficial in the various forms of skin disease to which residents in so hot a climate are subject. The late Khedive, Tawfik, built a little palace there, and his luxurious bath-house may still be inspected. Helwan is easily reached by trains which run frequently, the journey lasting from3oto45 minutes. The Observatory at Helwan (lat. 29° 5 1' 33 ”5 " N., long. 31 0 20' 30-2" E., altitude 115 metres) is open to visitors from 3 to 5 p.m. daily, and at other hours by permission of the Superintendent. A Reynolds’ 30-inch reflector has recently been mounted there, and a “comparator,” for determining with precision the length of bars by comparing them with the standard 4-metre compound bar of platinum and brass, has been erected in a double-walled building. LUXOR AND ASWAN. 43 Luxor lies on the right or east bank of the Nile about 450 miles to the south of Cairo, and can be easily and com- fortably reached both by boat and by train. The wind is far less strong at Luxor than at the northern health resorts, the climate is more equable, the air is drier, sunshine is constant, rain falls very rarely, and the regular warmth is extremely grateful to delicate folk. From December to March it forms a most agreeable place to live in, and the Luxor Hotel is well provided with means for recreation, besides being most comfortable. There is a church in the hotel grounds, and an English clergyman ministers during the winter. The temples of Luxor and Karnak on the east bank, and the temple of Medinet Habu, the Ramesseum, the Tombs of the Kings, the great Theban Necropolis, etc., on the west bank, form objects of the deepest interest, and afford means of occupation, to say nothing of instruction, which are well-nigh endless. Archaeo- logical investigations of a most comprehensive character are being carried out by representatives of the Egyptian and European Governments, and visitors to Luxor are in the fortunate position of seeing and hearing of the most recent discoveries in Egyptology as soon as they are made. Aswan, at the foot of the First Cataract, is about 583 miles south of Cairo, and, like Luxor, may be easily and comfortably reached by boat and train. It is the driest and warmest health resort in Egypt, and as rain is rare, and there is no dew, the place forms an ideal abode for invalids and others, whose comfort, or may be their very existence, demands a high temperature by day, and warm, dry nights. The west wind passes over hundreds of miles of blazing desert, and is almost as dry as it is possible to be, and the north wind, owing to the little vegetation near the town, is also extremely dry, and to these causes must be attributed the wonderful crispness and bracing quality of the air, which is so beneficial to every visitor. In recent years large, commodious, and comfortable hotels have been built, one on the Island of Elephantine, one at the southern end of the town, and one close to the foot of the Cataract, and every attention is paid to cleanliness, sanitation, and drinking water, and three and a half months in winter, i.e., from the last week in November to the second or third week in March, may be passed most pleasantly at Aswan. In January the mornings are cold, but this hardly matters to those who have not to leave their hotels early ; care should be taken by boating parties to provide warm wraps if they intend to 44 ATTRACTIONS OF ASWAN. remain on the river after sunset, both for comfort’s sake and for the prevention of chills. The antiquarian attractions of Aswan are very considerable, and many weeks may be profitably spent in visiting the various sites of interest in its neighbourhood. The beautiful little Island of Philae, with its graceful temples, will afford occupa- tion and enjoyment for many days, for the attractions of its most characteristic sculptures and pillars are well nigh inexhaustible. The picturesque situation of the island, fixed as it is amid wild and weird scenery, is fascinating, and few of those who take the trouble to visit it several times will have difficulty in understanding how ideas of admiration and awe came to grow up in the minds of travellers, both native and foreign, as they stood and looked upon the sanctuaries which were made thrice holy by the shrines of Osiris and Isis of Philae. All the little islands in the cataract to the north of the Aswan Dam are worth several visits, and the inscriptions on the rocks, which are found everywhere on them, are of great interest. One or two expeditions may be made to the ruins of the Coptic monastery on the west bank of the cataract, and the tombs of the VTth and Xllth dynasties, which are on the same side of the river, and run in terraces along the great hill immediately opposite Aswan, are among the most attractive of their class. Delightful rides may be taken near the old granite quarries, and in the desert further to the east, and the marks still remaining of the methods by which the blocks were got out of the quarries by the ancient Egyptians, to say nothing of the unfinished colossal statues and obelisk, afford much material for study. Many visitors take pleasure in tracing out the old road from Aswan to Philae, and in examining the remains of the great wall which was built to protect the settle- ments and forts in the cataract from the attacks of the tribes of the Eastern Desert ; there are also numerous inscriptions to be seen on the rocks by the way. To many visitors the camp of the Bisharin is a source of great amusement, and now that the bazaars are once more becoming filled with the products of the handiwork of the tribes of the Southern Sffdan, they are of considerable interest. The sense of physical well-being, w r hich is obtained by riding in the desert in this delightful place, is rarely forgotten by those who have experienced it. 45 CHAPTER II. The Land of Egypt. — Geology, the Oases, the Fayyum, Natron Lakes. Egypt lies in the north-east corner of the continent of Africa, and is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the north, by the Sftdan on the south, by Southern Syria and the Eastern Desert and Red Sea on the east, and by the Libyan Desert on the we^t. The limits of Egypt have varied considerably at different periods, but, speaking generally, we may at the present time consider Egypt to be that portion of the Valley of the Nile which lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Island of Faras, which is the most northerly point of the Shdan Government, and is 20 miles north of Wadi Haifa, i.e., between 22 0 and 31 0 30' north latitude. The 22nd parallel crosses the Nile at Gebel Sahaba, 8 miles from the Camp of Wadi Haifa. The Camp is 802 miles from Cairo by river, and Cairo is 161 miles from the mouth of the Rosetta Arm of the Nile, and no miles from the lighthouse of Bur Ills (Borollos). Its limit on the east is a point slightly to the east of Al-Arish, the ancient Rhinocolura, and the frontier which divides Egypt from Turkey in Asia is marked by a line drawn directly from Al-Arish to the head of the Gulf of Akaba. The Peninsula of Sinai forms now, as it has for the last 6,000 years, a portion of Egypt. On the west the frontier is represented by a line drawn from the Gulf of Solum, due south, to a point a little to the south-west of the Oasis of Siwa ; from this point it proceeds in a south-easterly direction to the 22nd parallel of north latitude near Wadi Haifa. It must, however, never be forgotten that Egypt proper in reality consists only of the River Nile and of the land which is watered by the main stream and its branches, and this being so, the deserts which are included within the limits given above may be considered to possess significance from a political point of view only. The matter was well summed up by the Greek 4 6 LAND OF EGYPT GEOLOGY. historian Herodotus,* who declared (Book II, §§ 17, 18) that “ the whole country inhabited by Egyptians is Egypt, as that inhabited by Cilicians is Cilicia, and that by Assyrians, Assyria.” He further gave it in his opinion that the country of Egypt comprised all the land which was watered by the Nile, and stated that this opinion was supported by Divine authority. It appears that certain peoples who lived in the Libyan Desert close to the Delta wished to free themselves from the restriction of not eating cow’s flesh which had been imposed on them as if they had been Egyptians, giving as the reasons that they lived out of the Delta, and that they did not speak the Egyptian language. When the question was referred to Ammon, the god replied that “all the country which the Nile irrigated was Egypt, and that all these were Egyptians who dwelt below (/. 1 7 Giza ... yy 20 Gezira (Cairo) ... 8 Beni Suwef ... y , 10 Tahta ... 55 14 Sohag ... ... yy 17 Tanta ... yy 8 Mehallet Roh ... ... yy 9 Samanud ... y y 12 Kasr-el-Nil ... yy 15 Helwan ... ... yy 19 Luxor ... yy 15 t The resultant effect of this deposition during flood and ercsion during the falling stage of the river has been to raise the river-bed between Aswan and Cairo at the average rate of about 10 centimetres per century during the last 2,000 or 3,000 years, and certainly for a much longer period. Lyons, Physiography , p. 313. 4 « CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. south of Abyssinia, the Red Sea, the gulfs of Suez and Akaba, and the Jordan Valley, is due to extensive fracturing of the earth’s crust. The line of this fracture can be traced from the Mediterranean Sea nearly to the First Cataract.* In late Miocene or early Pliocene times the sea made its way so far south as Esna, and in doing so it laid down thick deposits of sand and gravel, and the tributary streams, fed by a rainfall much heavier than that of to-day, brought down masses of broken stony matter from the limestone plateaux and piled them up along the margins of the valley. A rise of the area turned this arm of the sea into a river valley, and the deposit of Nile mud and the formation of cultivable land began. The crystalline rocks began in latitude 28° N., and form the southern portion of the Sinai Peninsula and the range of hills which border the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea, and extend as far south as the northern boundary of Abyssinia. In width they gradually increase, reaching two-thirds of the way to the Nile east of Kena, while at Aswan, Kalabsha, and Wadi Haifa, and at numerous points further south they occur in the Valley of the Nile, forming cataracts and gorges, though often still hidden over large areas east of the Nile by the Nubian sandstone. The crystalline rocks are at base a gneiss,! which is overlaid by mica, talc, and chlorite schists, above which is a very thick volcanic series, and into this are intruded a grey hornblendic granite and also later a red granite. The best known of these rocks is the red hornblendic granite of Aswan, which was used by the Egyptians of all periods for obelisks, statues, stelae, and temples. Among the rocks of the volcanic series must be mentioned the famous porphyry, the quarries of which near the Red Sea were extensively worked in the Roman period. The three places in Egypt and Nubia where the old surface of the crystalline rocks lies nearest to the surface are Aswan, Kalabsha, and Wadi Haifa, and here the Nile has made cataracts in forcing its way through them. The layer of sandstone which lies on the crystalline rocks covers nearly the whole of Nubia, and extends so far north as * I am indebted for these facts to the section of Sir W. Willcocks Egyptian Irrigation written by Captain Lyons, R. E. f A word said to be derived from the old German gneista , “a spark,” the allusion being, of course, to the sparkling character of some of the component parts of the stone. LAND OF EGYPT — GEOLOGY. 49 Esna, where it is in turn covered over by the clays and lime- stones of Cretaceous age. It is yellow in colour, and at its base usually becomes a quartz conglomerate ; it was quarried chiefly at Kartassi in Nubia and at Silsila in Egypt, and most of the temples in the southern part of Egypt and throughout Nubia are built of it. Above the sandstone in many places lie a large series of green and gray clays, and thick beds of soft white limestone ; and above these is a very thick layer of soft white limestone which forms the cliffs of the Nile Valley from Luxor to Cairo, and furnishes most of the stone used for building in Egypt. Another kind of siliceous sandstone is found at Gebel Ahmar, near Cairo ; this is, in reality, a shallow water deposit, which has been in many cases cemented into a hard refractory rock by silica; this stone was largely used in building temples in the Delta. On all the above strata thick deposits of sand and gravel were laid down by the sea which, as has already been said, ran up as far as Esna in prehistoric times, and subsequently, under the influence of climatic conditions which closely resemble those of our own time, river deposits of dark, sandy mud were laid down at levels which were considerably higher than the deposits of to-day. There is a complete absence of fossils in the Nubian sandstone. From Abu Simbel northwards the Nile Valley is bounded on the west by a high limestone plateau called Sinn al-Kiddab, which at this point is about 56 miles from the river, and it gradually approaches the stream until at Aswan it is only 25 miles distant, and at Gebelen it marches with the river. North of Aswan we find two interesting plains, which Sir W. Willcocks calls the “ plain of Korn Ombo”andthe “plain of Edfu ” ; these were once ancient Deltas of rivers coming down from the high ranges which skirt the Red Sea. The sands and clays of these belong to an age anterior to the Nile, and are covered with granite and porphyry pebbles brought down from the Red Sea range, and have no affinity with those met with at Aswan, Kalabsha, and Wadi Haifa. About five miles to the north of the temple of Kom Ombo is a good section which illustrates the relative positions and depths of the ancient sandy clay and sand deposits overlaid by the more recent Nile mud. Limestone is first met with at Al-Raghama, a little to the south of Silsila, and between this place and Victoria Nyanza there is no other limestone in the Nile Valley. D 5 ° THE' FAY YUM AND LAKE MOERIS. It has been generally supposed that the pass at Gebel Silsila was an ancient cataract of the Nile, but though the present channel is narrow, yet it is only a branch of the river ; the true channel is on the right of the hill in which the quarries are, and is at present buried under mud and silt.* * * § The word Silsila , which has become the name of this place, means “ chain,’ 7 f and is usually applied to the cataracts | on the Nile, but Gebel Silsila can never have been a cataract, for the Nile deposits and certain shells are met with north and south of the pass at exactly the same level, and no change is experienced until we reach Gebelen, where there is a decided drop in the level of the ancient deposits. It is probable that a great cataract existed at Gebelen at a very remote period — at least, this is what the up-turned and undermined hills at Gebelen suggest. Between Kena and Cairo the Nile flows between limestone hills ; the Londinian formation extends to a point midway between Asyut and Minyeh, where the lower Parisian strata appear on the tops of the plateaux. The upper Londinian strata disappear a little to the north of Minyeh, and the lower Parisian formation is now generally met with as far as Cairo. The Fayyum, which some have regarded as the first of the Oases in the Libyan Desert, is in reality a “deep depression scooped out of the Parisian limestone,” the greater part of the bed of which is overlaid with thick belts of salted loams and marls, and upon this Nile mud has been laid down. In connection with the Fayyum must be mentioned the Birket aLKurun, i.e., “ the Lake of the Horns,” a long, narrow lake which lies to the north-west of the Fayyum province. A great deal has been written about Birket al-Kurun, both by those who regard it as a part of the old Lake Moeris and by those who do not. Modern expert engineering opiniong declares unhesitatingly that this lake, the water surface of which is about 130 feet below sea level, is all that remains of Lake Moeris, and it has, according to the authorities quoted by 1 Sir W. Wilicocks, been definitely proved that Lake Moeris i * Sir W. Wilicocks, Egyptian Irrigation , 2nd ed. , p. 7 * + The allusion is to the rocks, which are regarded as the hollows of the links of a chain formed by running water. X The Arabic word for “cataract” is “ Shallal,’’ ; but we have Salsul vid, “ a stream of running water.” § Sir W. Wilicocks, Egyptian Irrigation , p. 9. LAND OF EGYPT GEOLOGY. 5 never had a natural outlet towards the interior of the country, and that it was never connected in any way with the Wadi Rayan, which it nearly touched. One of the most extraordinary facts in connection with Lake Kurun is that its waters are only slightly brackish ; they are, moreover, quite drinkable, and fresh-water fish from the Nile are found in them in abundance. The cause of this is said to be clefts and fissures in the bottom of the lake and the very considerable drainage which has gone on. The streams of water which flow from these subterranean passages travel towards the Marmarica coast between Alexandria and Derma. There, “ owing to the tensile force inherent in all water at a high temperature, they are discharged at great depths below the level of the Mediterranean Sea.” The effect of this constant drainage has been to lessen the quantity of salt in the lake, and to lower the level of its waters. As the Fayyum basin is closed in on all sides by bluffs and hills of considerable height, had there been no subterranean drainage the salt in the waters of Lake Kurun must have increased, but the contrary is the fact, and the amount of salt in its waters at the present time bears no adequate proportion to that which the lowest estimate of experts entitles us to expect.* In support of the explanation of the relatively slight brackishness of the waters of Lake Kurun given above, Dr. Schweinfurth and Sir W. Willcocks mention the case of Lake Tchad in the Central Sudan as exhibiting an example of subterranean drainage on a larger scale. The waters are perfectly sweet in spite of the absence of any apparent outlet. This lake is * It is calculated that 8 '5 per cent, of salt, at least, has disappeared from the Fayyum Lake. According to Mr. Beadnell {Topography and Geology of the Fayuvi Province , Cairo, 1905, p. 26), the Fayyum is a depression which in Pliocene times was occupied by the sea, which then extended for some distance up the Nile Valley. Later on, in Pleistocene times, when the drainage of North-Eastern Africa flowed down the Nile Valley at a considerably higher level than to-day, the Fayyum depression became a lake communicating with the river. Later on, as the river eroded its bed, the depression was probably cut off from the Valley, until in early historic times the river bed had again risen sufficiently by deposition to render possible the diversion of part of its supply into the Fayyum. From that time, by regulating the amount so diverted, it was possible to reclaim gradually almost the whole of the floor of this low-lying area for cultivation. Now all that remains of the former lake is an area of 233 square kilometres of brackish water, which is being reduced yearly, as the water which reaches it is less than that which is removed by evaporation. The mean depth of the eastern portion is to-day 37 metres, while that of the western portion is 5*5 metres, the maximum depth being 8 metres. (Lyons, Physiography , p. 300.) D 2 5 2 THE LAKES IN THE DELTA. drained by active infiltration towards the north-east in low depressions, which are known as the Bahr Al-Ghazal. In connection with Birket al-Kurun must be mentioned the famous Natron Lakes which lie in the Natron Valley, to the north-west of Cairo. From these are obtained carbonate of soda and muriate of soda, both of which salts have been loosely classed as “natron ” ; these Birak or “ Lakes ” are six or eight in number, and the valley in which they are situated is about 20 miles long, and varies in width from to 5 miles. Dr. Sickenberger observed in 1892 that all the springs which gave birth to the “ Lakes were situated on the eastern side of the valley, and this fact suggests that the “ Lakes ” are probably due to direct infiltrations from the Nile. Along the northern coast of the Delta,* close to the Mediterranean Sea, are several large lagoons, of which the most important are Lake Menzala (area, 1,930 square kilos.), Lake Burlus (area, 690 square kilos.), Lake Edku (area, 270 square kilos.), Lake Abukir,! and Lake Mareotis (area, 290 square kilos.) ; between these lakes and the sea are innumerable sand-bars or dunes. It is estimated that the amount of land flooded by these lakes was equal to about 380,000 acres. The Delta measures : From Meks, west of Alexandria, to the shore of Lake Menzala, a little to the east of Port Safid, 250 kilometres (156 miles) ; from Cairo to the lighthouse of Lake Burlus, 175 kilometres (no miles); and its area is about 23,000 square kilometres. The Delta now begins about 14 miles north of Cairo, at the Barrage, but in ancient days the bifurcation of the Nile took place some ten miles nearer Cairo. The alluvial sand and mud of the Delta rest upon a thick deposit of yellow quartz sands, layers of gravel and stiff clay, which was laid down when the sea extended some distance up the Nile Valley, in the “Fault Valley ” in which now lies the cultivated land of Egypt. In ancient days it is said that the land now occupied by the lakes mentioned above was divided into tracts of land each containing about 50,000 acres, and that whole districts were planted with vineyards, and that the region * “Delta” is the name usually given to the triangular island which is often formed by the mouths of large rivers, e.$., the Indus and Nile, because it resembles in shape the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, A. In the case of the Nile, the two sides are formed by the Rosetta and Damietta arms and the base by the Mediterranean Sea. t Lake Abukir has been almost entirely reclaimed. THE LAKES IN THE DELTA. 53 supported a large population. The heaps of bricks and pottery which are found round about in all directions suggest that this tradition rests on some good foundation, although the visitor, when he looks on the scene of desolation which the neighbourhood presents, will have some difficulty in believing it. Irrigation engineers declare that the present state of things is due chiefly to the fact that the system of basin irrigation was abandoned by the Egyptians under the rule of the Turks, who allowed 40 per cent, of the land of the Delta to fall out of cultivation, and, what is worse, by keeping the land out of cultivation for so many years, they have made it so salted and barren that it is exceedingly difficult to reclaim it. Besides this, moreover, an ancient tradition says that the level of the land itself sank some 1,000 or 1,500 years ago, and that in consequence the city of Tanis, and the whole region of the “ Field of Zoan,” disappeared. Sir W. Willcocks has explained the sinking of the land in the following manner : — “ The Nile, like all deltaic rivers, deposits each flood its annual layer of fresh soil. This deposit is greatest near its banks. The natural consequence is, that the river advances into the sea in a series of tongues corresponding to the different mouths of the river. There is a limit to their length in the fact that, after a time, during some year of high flood, the river breaches its banks, and, finding a shorter course to the sea, tears open a new channel, and silts up the old one. The flood-water of the Nile, however, as it forces itself into the sea, meets the pre- vailing north-west wind, which drives back the matters held in suspension, and carrying on the sand, deposits it in long bars, stretching from mouth to mouth on a regular curve. These sand-bars are added to every year, and are considerably higher than the land behind them.” The steep slopes of such sand-bars towards the sea render them liable to slide, provided the level of the sea falls, a thing which would happen during a severe earthquake ; given some appreciable lowering of the sea-level for a short interval of time, and the sliding of the sand-bars towards the sea, the whole of the land for some distance behind the sand-bars would be more or less swamped and thrown out of cultivation (. Egyptian Irrigation , second edition, p. 241). Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes have come into being through the construction of the Suez Canal ; before 1865 they were mere swamps filled with reeds. The Oases. — In Ptolemaic times the Oases were said to be seven by Egyptian geographers: — (1) The largest of all 54 LAND OF EGYPT — OASES. is that which lies about 16 days’ journey to the west of Cairo, and is commonly known by the names of “ Oasis of Jupiter Ammon,” and “Oasis of Siwa ” ; (2) The Oasis of AUKharga, which is best known as the Great Oasis, lies at a distance of about four days’ journey from Esna ; (3) Beyond Al-Kharga, to the north, lies the Oasis of Dakhla, which some have thought to represent the Little Oasis ; (4) About half- way between the Great Oasis and the Little Oasis is the Oasis* of Farafra ; (5) To the north-east of Farafra and Dakhla is the Oasis of Bahariya, which has also been identified with the Little Oasis of early writers ; (6) The district which was called by the Egyptians Ut or Uahet, i.e., “Oasis,” has not yet been satisfactorily identified ; (7) The region called Sekhet = hemam, i.e., Salt Field, is no doubt some portion of the Wadi Natrun, or Natron Valley. At the present time the Oases in the Western Desert which belong to Egypt are five in number, viz., Siwa, Bahariya, Dakhla, Kharga, and Farafra. Of the history of the Oases in early dynastic times nothing is known, but they were probably raided by the tribes who lived between them and the Nile and even by the Egyptians themselves. Usertsen I.. the founder of the Xllth dynasty, appears to have been the first king of Egypt who attempted to make the inhabitants of the Oases subject to him. Usertsen I. found, as later kings did also, that it was useless to attempt to conquer the Sudan without first reducing the inhabitants of the Oases to submission. As long as the Oases were in the hands of people who were not subject to Egypt, the tribes of the Western Sudan could retreat northwards by the roads run- ning through the Oases, and find an asylum in the deserts of Northern Africa, until the Egyptian troops were withdrawn to Egypt. They appear to have been brought finally under the rule of Egypt about b.c. 1550, and there is reason to believe that they formed the Islands of the Blest in the popular mythology of a later period. Further details con- cerning the Oases will be found on pp. 513-522. 55 CHAPTER III. The Land of Egypt. — Natural History. Trees, Plants, Animals, etc. — The different kinds of trees known to the ancient Egyptians were comparatively few in number. The principal were the sunt, i.e., the acacia, of which two or three species were known ; two or three species of tamarisks, the mulberry, the carob, and “Christ’s thorn tree.” In pre-dynastic times the country must have been covered in many places with low trees and masses of marshy undergrowth, which formed cover for the wild animals that lived near the Nile. Wood has always been scarce in Egypt, and we know that as early as b.c. 3500 expeditions were sent into the Sudan for the purpose of obtaining it ; and it is on record that when, about b.c. 1100, the priests of Amen-Ra at Thebes wished to provide a new barge for the god to occupy during the water processions, they were obliged to despatch an official to Berflt in order to buy cedar-wood suitable for the purpose direct from the merchants. In the neighbourhood of Cairo long avenues of lebbek trees have been planted during the last 30 or 40 years, and these have not only improved the landscape, but afford very grateful shade to those who travel along the roads by the sides of which they grow. The road to the Pyramids illustrates the importance of the lebbek tree for the comfort of the traveller. The vine has always flourished in Egypt, and in ancient days large quantities of wine were made ; the grapes ripen in July. Among the commonest fruits may be mentioned oranges, lemons, pomegranates, figs, grapes, apricots, peaches, melons, mulberries, and bananas, and in recent years successful attempts have been made to grow the straw = berry, etc., in districts where water is plentiful, and the cost of distributing it over the gardens not prohibitive. The date palm is found everywhere, and its fruit is naturally one of the commonest articles of food. It has always been cultivated in Egypt, and the pruning and fertilization of the tree have always, at least in times of peace, been attended to with the 56 EGYPT : ITS TREES, SEASONS AND CROPS, greatest care. The blossoms appear in March and April, and the fruit is ripe at the end of August or early in September. Some 70 species are said to exist by expert merchants, and in many villages it is possible to find 20 or 30 sorts of date in the market. Very few kinds can be eaten fresh with impunity, and the fruit does not usually attain its full flavour until it has hung on the tree for several days, or, if gathered, has been allowed to lie on mats in the sun. Among the species grown in Nubia and the Eastern Sudan the ibrimi and the sult&ni are most prized, but owing to the neglect of the palm trees caused by the Dervish rebellion, it must be some years before the Stidan date harvests are as good and plentiful as they were before the advent of the Mahdi. The Dum palm flourishes in Upper Egypt and all along the Nile towards the south ; its large, dark-brown nuts contain a soft, sweet substance which is pleasant to the taste. In a country where wood is scarce the trunks of the date palm and the dum palm are very valuable, and the purposes for which the fibre, leaves, etc., are used are manifold. Sir W. Willcocks estimated in 1899 that there were about 5,200,000 date trees in Upper Egypt, the value of their fruit being ^1,040,000, and that the value of the fruit of the 2,200,000 trees in Lower Egypt was ^440,000 — i.e. y the date harvest of Egypt was worth nearly one and a half million pounds sterling. The ancient Egyptians divided the year into three seasons, which they called Shat, Pert, and Shemut, and these contained the months of August-November, December-March, and April-July respectively. For all practical purposes the summer may be said to last from April 1 st to August 1st, and the winter from December 1st to April 1st ; the period from August 1st to December 1st may be called the flood season, and is distinguished by the Nile inundation. The ancient and modern inhabitants of the country agree in considering that a season is the length of time which elapses from the sowing of the seed to the end of the harvest, i.e., four months. The principal crops are wheat, barley, d hurra, or maize of various kinds, peas, beans, lentils, Itibiya , clover, lucerne, rice, sugar, and cotton. In Upper Egypt the sowing of wheat, beans, clover, and barley begins early in October, and ends on November 30th ; the barley and bean harvests begin about March 10th, and the wheat harvest a month later. The sowing of sugar cane begins at the end of February, and ends about April 5th; the harvest begins on December 15th, SUGAR, COTTON, FLAX. 57 and ends March 15th. The value of the sugar exported in 1905 was ^E.400,000. The sowing of wheat begins on August 5th, and ends on October 15th. In Lower Egypt the sowing of wheat, beans, and barley begins on October 25th, and the harvest lasts from April 15th to the end of May ; this, of course, refers to winter crops. The sowing of cotton begins on February 20th, and ends on April 5th, and the harvest extends from August 20th to November 10th. In recent years the areas of land under cotton cultivation have steadily increased, but the total of the crop has remained stationary, and even diminished. In 1897-98 the crop was 6,543,000 kantars. „ 1899-00 „ „ 6,510,000 „ 1901-02 „ „ 6,372,000 „ „ 1904-05 „ „ 6,352,000 „ It is also stated on undoubted authority that the quality of the cotton tends to deteriorate (Cromer, Egypt , No. 1 (1906), p. 24). The values of the cotton and cotton seed exported in 1905 were pCE. 15,806,400 and ^E. 1,7 14,000 respectively. The sowing of dhurra (maize) begins on July 5th, and the harvest on October 15th. Sultdm rice is sown from May 5th to June 5th, and Sabaini rice from August 5th to September 5th ; both kinds of rice are reaped in November. A ton of sugar canes yields about 2 cwt. of sugar. The different sorts of vegetables grown in Egypt are numerous, especially in the Delta, where, under the modern system of irrigation, vegetable growing is very profitable. The commonest vegetable is the onion, and next come cucumbers of various kinds, pumpkins, melons of various kinds, gourds, leeks, garlic, radishes, bamia , badingan (the egg plant), melukhiyeh or spinach, lettuces, cabbages, beetroot, turnips, carrots, etc. The value of the onions exported in 1905 was ^E.393,400. That Egypt was famous as the home of fresh vegetables in very early times is proved by Numbers xi, 4, 5, where we read : “ And the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat ? We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely ; the cucumbers and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.” In dynastic times flax was cultivated with great diligence, and the weavers of linen must have formed a considerable and wealthy section of the community. The importance of the 58 PAPYRUS, THE PLOUGH, SOWING OF CROPS, ETC. flax crop was great, and it may be noted that it is coupled with barley in the Bible narrative (Exodus ix, 31), where it is said : “And the flax and the barley were smitten : for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was boiled” (t.e., podded for seed). The cultivation of flax has decreased as that of cotton has increased. The canals, pools, and marshes, which were fed from the Nile, were ornamented in ancient days with lofty, waving reeds, or “ bulrushes,” the papyrus,* and the white and blue lotus lily. The papyrus grew to a height of from 12 to 15 feet, and the largest diameter of its triangular stalk was from 4 to 6 inches. The roots were used for firewood, parts of the plant were eaten, and the other and coarser parts were made into paper, boats, ropes, mats, etc. Papyrus, the material so extensively used for writing upon, was made from layers which were separated from the stalk of the plant with a flat needle, and then gummed together. Neither the papyrus nor lotus plant is found in Egypt at the present day. The plough used by the natives is very similar in shape to that used by the ancient Egyptians, and would in no other country be regarded as an effective implement ; it has com- paratively little weight, and that portion of it which makes the furrow does not penetrate far into the ground. Its use is dispensed with as far as possible, and the seed which is scattered over the ground immediately the waters have receded is on large farms rolled in and on small ones beaten or trodden in. The fields are watered either by allowing the water to flow from a basin or reservoir into the rectangular patches into which they are divided, so many at a time, or by machines, more or less complex, which lift the water from the Nile or from the large canals which flow out of it. The commonest water-raising machine is the Shaduf,t which is usually worked by one man, who raises the water in a skin bucket to the end of the channel which leads into the field or garden to be watered, and tills it into it. Where the “lift” is high, and the leverage great, the Shaduf is often worked by two men. This machine is simple and inexpensive to make, and economical to work, and, in one form or another, repre- sents probably the oldest water-raising machine in the country. A more complex machine is the Sakiya, | or water-wheel, * The word “papyrus,” according to Bondi, is derived from the Egyptian Pa-p-iur , i. e . , “ that which belongs to the river.” t For illustration, see page 68. J For illustration, see page 70. THE SHADUF AND WATER-WHEEL, 59 which is usually worked by oxen. An endless rope passes over the wheel, and to this are attached a series of earthenware pots, arranged at regular intervals, which, as the wheel revolves, dip into a pool at the bottom of the cutting in the river bank or well, and so fill themselves, and in due course empty themselves into a trough on the top of the bank. The wheel is made to turn by means of a sort of cog-wheel arrangement, which is set in motion by an ox, or ass, or even a camel. A small boy usually sits on the large horizontal wheel and urges the animal on his course with blows from a whip or stick, accompanied by vigorous language. Owing to friction, and Picture of an Ancient Egyptian Shaduf being worked by a Fellah. (From a Tomb at Thebes.) leakage, and imperfect construction the loss of power in such machines is very considerable, but in spite of this serious defect the Sakiya forms an economical means of raising water. In many parts of Egypt and the Sudan iron water-wheels have been erected, but in some places the natives do not view them with a favourable eye. In recent years steam pumps have been largely used for irrigation purposes, and Sir W. Willcocks mentions 74 stationary engines with a joint horse-power of 3,500, and 81 portable engines with a joint horse-power of 890 ; large steam pumps 6o MANURE, TOBACCO LATAKIA, ETC, are also used on the estates of the Administration of Crown Lands, and the Societe Generate des Sucreries de la Haute Egypte* has at Nagh Hamadi a pumping engine of 500 horse- power. At the present time there are said to be about 100,000 water-wheels and 5,000 steam pumps at work in Egypt. The manure used throughout Lower Egypt “ is the urine of farm cattle, with the ammonia fixed by dry earth, which is spread under the cattle and removed daily, and collected in heaps outside the farms. The dry atmosphere and the dry earth of Egypt combine to fix all the valuable ingredients in the urine. Before the flood the manure is carried to the fields which are going to be planted with Indian corn, and in this way every field receives manure once every two years. For special crops, as melons, gardens, etc., pigeon guano is used ” (Willcocks, Egyptian Irrigation , p. 384). The greater part of the manure produced by cattle is burnt by the natives for fuel. Mr. Fuller, C.I.E., the eminent authority on manures, states that Nile water, though exceedingly rich in potash, which constitutes the principal food of leguminous plants, is singularly poor in nitrogen, on which cereals depend. In Upper Egypt the manuie consists of the nitrates which are found in the deserts between Wadi Haifa and Kena, and also of the accumulated rubbish of 20 or 25 centuries, which has been heaped up in the ruins on the sites of such ancient cities as Abydos and Eshmunen. The rubbish is called by the natives Sebbakh , and the removal of it from old, ruined cities has, incidentally, resulted in the discovery of many priceless antiquities. South of Kena the supply from the deserts is inexhaustible, but to the north of Kena the ancient ruins are being gradually exhausted, and, moreover, supply but a fraction of the area requiring manure. The proximity of manures in the deserts or in ancient ruins has been found by Sir W. Willcocks to exert a strong influence on rents, and he thinks that the manure question must always be inferior only to that of irrigation. It is in some quarters still a popular belief that large quantities of tobacco are grown in Egypt, but as a matter of fact none is grown for trade purposes. The first attempt to discourage the growth of the tobacco plant in Egypt was made in 1887, when a light tax per acre was put upon native-grown * This Company was engulfed in the failure of MM. Henry Say et Cie in 1905, LAND VALUE, TAXES, ETC. 6l tobacco ; this tax was raised to ^50 per acre in 1889, and to ^100 per acre in 1890, but notwithstanding this a considerable area was put under tobacco. In 1891 tobacco growing was absolutely prohibited, and people planted onions on the rich lands whereon they had previously grown tobacco. The tobaccos most commonly smoked by the natives are Turkish and Syrian ; of the former there are two kinds, the “ hot ” and the “mild,” and of the latter light brown and dark brown. The dark brown Syrian tobacco is commonly known as “ Latakia,” because it comes from Ladikiyyeh, a town in Syria. Other kinds are tutun and tambcik ; the latter is usually smoked in water pipes. The total amount of tobacco imported in 1905 was about 16,841,475 pounds, as against 16,385,674 pounds imported in 1904; of Persian tobacco tambak about 11,349,000 pounds were imported. The average consumption per head of population in 1903 amounted to 1 lb. 7 oz. The quantity of tobacco exported in the form of cigarettes amounted in 1905 to 1,581,300 pounds. The value of the gross yield of the land was in 1899 ^39,000,000, on 5,750,000 acres, or about ^7 per acre. Upper Egypt with 2,320,000 acres gives ^15,585,000, and Lower Egypt with 3,430,000 acres gives ^23,475,000. The renting value of Upper Egypt is ^8,300,000, and of Lower Egypt ^13,700,000 ; thus for the whole of Egypt the renting value was in 1899 ^22,000,000, or 57 per cent, of the gross yields. Lands in Egypt are classed either as Kharagi or Ushiiri , the former including all the lands which appeared in the Cadastral survey made for Muhammad ‘Ali in 1813, and the latter the estates which were given by him and his suc- cessors to their friends and their favourites ; ushiiri lands were at that time exempt from taxation The maximum tax in 1813 on Kharagi lands was 50 piastres (about io^. 3^.) per acre in Upper Egypt, and 45 piastres in Lower Egypt ; in 1864 this tax had risen to 115 piastres per acre in Lower Egypt, and no piastres per acre in Upper Egypt. In 1880 the ushiiri taxes were 112 piastres per acre in Lower Egypt, and 102 piastres per acre in Upper Egypt. The taxation per head of population amounted in 1882 to £1 is. i\d ., and in 1902 it was 1 6s. 2 d. The principal domestic animals are the ass, camel, horse, mule, buffalo, ox, pig, sheep, and goat. The ass is indigenous. The camel was known in Egypt so far back as b . c . 4000, for earthenware models of the animal have been found 62 EGYPTIAN ANIMALS AND BIRDS. in graves of this period. Representations of the camel are not found on the monuments, and he plays no part in ancient Egyptian mythology ; he is mentioned in the Travels of an Egyptian , but the writer only saw the camel in Palestine, and it seems that we must conclude that the Egyptians, during the greater part of the dynastic period, had no use for the animal. The introduction of the camel into Egypt in modern times probably dates from the Roman period. The horse appears to have been unknown in Egypt until the beginning of the XVIIIth dynasty, about b.c. 1700, when the Egyptians began to employ the animal in their Asiatic wars. The sheep was known at an early period, but it does not appear to have been indigenous ; a species of ram with flat, projecting horns existed under the early dynasties, but it appears to have become extinct before the Xllth dynasty. The pig was kept in certain districts, and the animal appears as a creature of evil in ancient Egyptian mythology ; it was a black pig (which was a personification of Set, the god of evil) that inflicted an injury on the eye of Horus, the Sun-god, and so produced an eclipse. Several species of the dog were known, and some of the kinds used in hunting have been satisfactorily identified by recent investigators of the subject, especially in the case of greyhounds and the more heavily built dogs which were used for pulling down big game. The cat has flourished in Egypt in all periods, and the position which it occupies in the ancient mythology proves that it must have been well known in Egypt at a very early period. One species appears to have been used in hunting. Among wild animals may be mentioned the wolf, fox, jackal, hyena, hare, ichneumon, gazelle, oryx, and ibex. The hippopotamus in early times was found in the Nile and its marshes far to the north in Egypt, and hunting it was con- sidered worthy sport for an Egyptian gentleman. At what period the hippopotamus became extinct in Egypt is unknown, but we may note that Saint Jerome, in his life of Abba Benus the monk, mentions that a hippopotamus used to come up from the river by night and devour the crops and lay waste the fields, and that the holy man succeeded in driving away the animal by adjuring it to depart in the name of Jesus Christ. This statement suggests that a hippopotamus was to be seen in Upper Egypt in the fifth century after Christ. The elephant disappeared from Egypt at a very early period, and probably also the rhinoceros. The lion was common, and the religious texts mention an animal which is probably to be FISH AND REPTILES. 63 identified with the lynx. Paintings on early tombs prove that the chief priests wore a leopard skin as a portion of their ceremonial attire, but it is uncertain at present whether the leopard was a native of the country or not. Many species of birds existed, and still exist, in Egypt, and found good cover in the marshes and in the low-lying lands near the canals. The commonest bird of prey was the vulture, of which three kinds have been identified. Eagles, falcons, hawks, buzzards, kites, crows, larks, linnets, sparrows, quail, the pelican, the bat, etc., are all found in Egypt. The hawk, ibis, swallow, and heron appear in the ancient mythology, and many of the legends of the older inhabitants of the country appear in the writings of the Copts and Arabs. In many districts geese of different kinds have always abounded, and at Chenoboskion, in Upper Egypt, they were fattened systematically ; near the village of Giza, at the present day, may be seen large numbers of geese which are identical in shape and colour with those which the ancient Egyptians depicted so successfully on their monuments nearly 6,000 years ago. Pigeons and chickens flourish in Egypt, but it is thought that the latter were imported subsequent to the XXVIth dynasty. Fish have always been abundant in the Nile, and in many districts form an important article of food. The commonest were the oxyrhynchus, i.e ., the sharp-snouted, the latus, the silurus, the phagrus, chromis nilotica, etc. The reservoirs, or irrigation basins, become filled with very small fish which are much prized by the natives, who catch them and pack them between layers of salt in large earthenware jars and keep them for months. Before the advent of steamers and railways the Egyptians, when travelling from Upper Egypt to Cairo, or from Cairo to Khartum, took such jars of salted fish with them on their long journeys, and practically lived on fish and hard, dry bread-cakes. In 1899 a survey of the fishes of the Nile was undertaken by the Egyptian Government with the co-opera- tion of the Trustees of the British Museum, and Mr. W. S. Loat was entrusted with the work. Mr. Loat fished the Nile from the Delta to Gondokoro, i.e., for a distance of about 2,800 miles, and he collected 9,500 specimens, representing over 100 species of fishes, 14 of which are new to science. In 1902 Lord Cromer inaugurated a series of reforms in connection with the Fishing Industry on the salt-water lakes adjoining the sea. The fisheries were farmed by the 64 REPTILES AND INSECTS. Government, and the fishermen were little better than slaves in the hands of the tax-farmers, the average yearly income of a whole family being from ^3 to ^4. At the present time the fishermen on Lake Bfirlfis (Borollus) are making from 2 15L to ^3 5 s. per month l and the licence system is working admirably. The men and women of the Lakes population are better fed and better dressed, and each year the number of those who make the pilgrimage to Mecca is increasing. Mortar is now used in building the walls of their houses instead of mud, and the roofs are made of planks of wood instead of palm trunks. Among reptiles the crocodile is the most famous. Until a comparatively late period this creature frequented the Nile so far north as the Delta, but steamers and sportsmen have, little by little, driven him southwards, and now the crocodile is rarely seen to the north of Wadi Haifa. Lizards are still fairly common, but turtles and tortoises are rare, except in the upper reaches of the Nile. In pre-dynastic times snakes must have existed in large numbers, and at a much later period they were a terror to the Egyptian ; in modern times some 20 species have been identified, and of these several are venomous. Snakes play a prominent part in ancient Egyptian mythology, some appearing as friends of man and others as foes. Certain species attained a very large size, for Dr. Andrews has recently found some of the vertebrae of a fossil serpent, and it is calculated that when living it must have been between 40 and 50 feet long. The uraeus belonged to the venomous group, and appears to have been worshipped ; it was regarded as the guardian of the king, and is described as possessing the faculty of belching flames and fire when moved to wrath. Frogs and toads have always abounded in Egypt, and scorpions still exist- in considerable numbers. The small, black variety is able to kill small animals, and its sting can cause a full-grown man much suffering. Among insects flies of various kinds, lice, and similar creatures increase with such extraordinary rapidity in certain circumstances that they become veritable plagues. The locusts still appear from time to time, and in large numbers, but, thanks to the methods now adopted for their destruction, their ravages are neither so severe nor so wide- spread as formerly. The beetle ( scarabeus sacer) is common in Egypt and the Sfidan, and is an interesting creature. From pre-dynastic times to the end of the Pharaonic period it occupied a prominent position in the mythology and religion of the BIG GAME IN THE SUDAN. 65 country, and even at the present day in the Stidan it is supposed to possess magical powers. It was held to be the symbol of the self-created god Khepera, and in the minds of the Egyptians it was associated with beliefs in regeneration, resurrection, and immortality. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to state that there still exist in the Sfidan several species of animals which were common enough in Egypt at one time, and that until quite recently there existed the probability that they would become as extinct in the Sfidan as they are in Egypt, unless steps were taken quickly to prevent the unnecessary destruction of animal life which was being carried on by the natives, whose object was to procure hides for sale in the market, and by “ sportsmen,” who were bent on piling up records of big game shot. The situation was quickly grasped by Sir Reginald Wingate, who promptly took steps to draw up the “Soudan Game Ordinance,” which was issued in 1901. The regulations embodied in this document were necessarily of a tentative character, and many of them were subsequently modified. The immediate result was, however, very good. A “ sanctuary ” for Central African animals was formed, where no one is allowed to shoot. This sanctuary was kept practically inviolate during 1905, only two tiang, two white-eared cob, and three or four oribi being shot. A second and less absolute sanctuary has also been formed, in which only Sudan officials in general will be allowed to shoot. It is in contemplation to place a limit of time to the period that shooting parties may pass in the reserved district ; but at present the quantity of game killed yearly by shooting is not large enough to make much difference to the general stock of game in the county. Outside these two reserves all sportsmen will be allowed to shoot, save where restrictions are imposed for reasons other than those based on the desirability of preserving game. In 1901, up to October 31st, about 842 animals were killed by holders of licenses, and in 1902 the number amounted to 1,340;* the number up to September 30th, 1903, was 1,072, and of these 175 animals were shot by visitors, and the remainder by Sudan officials. Among the animals killed were : — Addra and other gazelles., the ariel, bash buck, buffalo, cheetah, digdig, dinker, eland, elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus, ibex, fackson’s hartebeest, klingspringer, kudu, leopard, lion, oryx leucoryx, oribi, Mrs. Gray’s waterbuck, rhinoceros, reedbuck, roan * Officers killed 953 animals, and visitors 387. E 66 BIG GAME IN THE SUDAN — MINERALS. antelope, tiang, Torn hartebeest, Uganda cob, Wart hog, white- eared cob, waterbuck, wild ass, wild boar, wild dog. Four ostriches also were killed. In 1905 about 2,101 head of game were killed in the Sfidan. Of these 1,847 were killed by residents, officers, and officials, and 268 by visitors. According to Lord Cromer’s Report, one of the principal causes of the abundance of African game in the past have been the existence of powerful warrior tribes, which laid waste great tracts of surrounding country for decades together. In these devastated areas the game increased until its numbers were as great as the soil could support. The barbaric power that makes a solitude and calls it peace is the best game preserver. Legislation can protect game from the rifle, but it is powerless to save it from giving way to civilization. The Pax Britannica can never do for African game in the future what the Zulu Impis, the Masai Moran, the slave-raiders, and the Dervishes have done in the past. The present condition and the outlook for the near future of the game appear to be very satisfactory. There are large areas in the Sudan which are not likely ever to be populated, and where the continued existence of game in abundance can be secured by adequate protection. In such districts there is no reason why large game should not continue to exist for centuries ; but from others, as the country becomes repopulated, and chains of prosperous villages spread along the river banks — the favourite haunts of the game — it is bound in time to dis- appear. At many places on the White Nile hippopotami do a great deal of harm. “ In the narrow rivers of the Bahr al- “ Ghazal they swarm and are a positive pest, damaging the “ crops near rivers, and constantly making unprovoked attacks “ on small boats, dugouts, etc. Quite recently a Berthon boat, “ carrying the mail for the north, was attacked and sunk, the “ mail and two rifles lost, and two men in the boat narrowly “ escaping.” Colonel Sparkes goes so far as to suggest that hippopotami be treated as vermin and shot on sight. On the other hand, the news that provision is made for patrols, each containing six men, to prevent the slaughter of animals by poachers on the Rahad and Dinder Rivers, will be welcomed by many. Minerals and Mineral Products. — Gold is found in many places in the Eastern Desert, and there are abundant proofs that the ancient Egyptians had many gold mines there, which they worked at a great profit. At the present time a number of sites are being worked by companies, and, according to MINERALS AND PETROLEUM. 67 Mr. J. Wells, the total returns of gold from two of them, i.e ., the Nile Valley and the Umm Rus, have amouted to ^E.40,000. Gold to the value of about ^30,000 has also been extracted by the Nile Valley Company from the Umm Garaiart mine. In the Western Desert, in the Oases of Kharga and Dakhla, a deposit of gold has been found in a lower bed of phosphate rock, which contains gold from a few pence to as high as js. 6d. to Ss. per ton. Copper is found in the Peninsula of Sinai, and we know that the famous copper mines of Wadi Maghara and Sarabit al-Khadim were worked under the early dynasties of Egyptian kings. Coal has been found in small seams, but until further investigations have been made, it is impossible to say if they are worth working. Lead is found in the Eastern Desert, and the mines were worked by the Romans. Iron is found in many places, but without a cheap supply of fuel is not worth working. A few sulphur mines are known in the Eastern Desert. The famous emerald mines of Gebel Zabata were worked by the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, and Mr. E. W. Streeter has obtained a concession to work them for thirty years. Exten- sive deposits of nitrates, phosphates and alum have been found in the Western Desert. Egypt has in all ages been famed for the variety and beauty of its granite, basalt, sandstone, limestone, alabaster, marble, diorite, quartzite, porphyry, breccia, and veined and variegated stones of many kinds. Petroleum undoubtedly exists in the neighbourhood of Gebel Zet (Oil Mountain), near the Red Sea, but the extent of the supply has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Salt is common in Egypt ; it is obtained chiefly from the lakes on the sea-coast, but many natives take their supply from the salt-springs and layers of rock-salt which are found at several places in the Western Desert. The greater part of the salt used in Lower Egypt comes from Lake Mareotis, near Alexandria. Up to 1892 all salt was sold direct by the Government at the price of 800 piastres a ton, but in that year a company was formed which bought the salt monopoly from the Government. This company sold salt to the people for 500 piastres a ton, and on every ton sold the Government received a royalty ol 340 piastres. In 1904 about 60,000 tons of salt were consumed, and the revenue derived from the monopoly was ^"E. 182,000. The monopoly pressed very heavily on the poor, and it gave rise to smuggling on a large scale, some 1,223 persons being fined or imprisoned 68 THE SALT MONOPOLY. for this offence in 1904,* and the number of animals confis- cated was 489. Lord Cromer regarded the monopoly as a blot on the fiscal system of Egypt, and it was therefore abolished from January 1st, 1906. The estimated loss to the revenue is 175,000. Soda or natron, which was so largely used in the processes of mummification, is obtained from Wadi Natrun. The mining industries of Egypt are at present only in their infancy, but it is clear that when the country has been carefully surveyed, large deposits of valuable earths, etc., will be found at many places. The policy of the Government is not to hurry the exploitation of the country, but to have the mines worked in the true interests of the country. Modern Shadufs. * In 1905 about 1,572 persons were arrested ; 35 tons of smuggled salt were seized; 164 donkeys, 10 camels and 2 boats were confiscated and sold ; ^E. 1,100 were paid in fines ; and an aggregate of 13,000 days were spent in prison by the smugglers. 6 9 CHAPTER IV. The Trade of Egypt. The foreign trade of Egypt was in 1905 worth about ^E. 41, 924, 000. The exports were worth ^E. 20,360,000, and the imports ^E. 2 1,564,000. Compared with the figures of 1904 the imports have increased over 1,000,000, and the exports are about ^E. 45 0,000 less. The growth of the foreign trade of Egypt is illustrated by the following figures given by Lord Cromer : — Imports. Exports. Total. 1896 ... £E. 9,829,000 ^E.13,442,000 ^E.23,271,000 1900 ... jQE. 14, 1 12,000 jQE. 17, 124,000 31, 236, 000 I 9°5 ••• ^E.21,564,000 ^E.20,360,000 ^E.41,924,000 The values of some of the principal articles of import in 1905 were : £E. 424,600 head of cattle for slaughter 411,000 Cereals and flour ... 1,583,400 Dried fruits 232,100 Sugar 485,600 Coffee 244,500 Timber ... 1,322,000 Furniture... 206,900 Cotton goods 2,999,100 Worked iron and steel ... 917,400 Mixed tissues 269,000 Sacks 235,000 Railway wagons ... 298,700 Chemical manure 56,800 The import of coal decreased from 1, 179,300 tons in 1904 to 1,132,600 tons in 1905 • and transit coal landed at Port Said decreased from 1,013,000 tons in 1904 to 955,900 tons in 1905. The value of imports by parcel post 1904, and ^E. 62 1,000 in 1905. was ^E. 563, 000 in 70 THE TRADE OF EGYPT. There was a decrease in the value of the imports of the following articles, etc. : — Rice, woollen tissues, silk tissues, raw silk, indigo (both natural and synthetic), copper, hardware, cutlery, machines, horses, mules, donkeys, and camels. Of the imports 38*6 per cent, were from Great Britain and her colonies ; 12 ’8 per cent, from Turkey, and 19 'g per cent, from France. The remainder was supplied by various countries in a proportion of 7 per cent, and under. Of the total exports in 1905 cotton and cotton seed repie- sented 86 per cent., the values being ^E. 15,806,400 and ^E. 1, 7 14,000 respectively. Sugar exports increased from 238,600 in 1904 to ^E. 400, 000 in 1905, and onions from ^E.265,300 in 1904 to ^E.393,400 in 1905. The net Customs revenue from all sources was ^^71^.3,32 2, 148. A modern water-wheel worked by oxen. 7 1 CHAPTER V. The Land of Egypt. — Ancient and Modern Divisions, Population, etc. The name by which the Delta, and probably also the cultivated land on both sides of the Nile as far south as Aswan, are designated in the Bible is Mizraim (Genesis x, 6) ; the termination of this word aim has been generally supposed to refer to the two great divisions of Egypt, Lower and Upper. The Greeks called the whole country v AirYIlT02, a name which is in reality derived from an ancient native name of Memphis, viz., Het-ka-Ptah.* Homer, who seems to be the first to use the name v Ai^v 7 tto^ makes the masculine form apply to the River Nile ( Odys . iv, 477), and the feminine to the country itself (Odys. xvii, 448). From the Greek form of a name of Memphis came the Latin “ Aegyptus,” and, later, our “Egypt.” A very old Egyptian name for the country is Qemt , i.e., the “black land,” the allusion, of course, being to the colour of the soil ; from this name is derived the Coptic Keme, or Kemi , or Kheme. Among the many other names which the Egyptians called their country may be mentioned Baqet, i.e ., the “ land of the olive,” Ta-mera, i.e., the “ land of the inundation.” From the earliest to the latest times the Egyptians referred to their country as Taui, i.e., the “Two Lands,” and this name AN AX indicates that Egypt was always divided into two parts, viz., the “Land of the North,” i.e.. Lower Egypt, and the “Land of the South,” i.e., Upper Egypt. For administrative purposes Ancient Egypt was, in dynastic times, divided into districts, to which classical writers gave the name of “ nomes.” The number of these varies in the different accounts given by Greek and Roman writers from thirty-six to forty ; there appears to be some reason for thinking that the nomes were forty-two in number : This name means “ house of the double of Ptah. 72 MODERN PROVINCES OF EGYPT. Lower Egypt containing twenty, and Upper Egypt twenty-two. In quite late times the Greeks divided Egypt into three parts — Upper, Central, and Lower Egypt ; Central Egypt contained seven nomes, and was called “ Heptanomis.” Modern Egypt is divided for administrative purposes into Fourteen Provinces, of which six are in Lower Egypt and eight in Upper Egypt. Lower Egypt contains : — 1. Bahera, with nine districts ; the capital is Damanhur, and the population (including the Oasis of Siwa, 7,200) is 631,225. 2. Kalyubiya, with four districts ; the capital is Benha, and the population is 371,465. 3. Sharkiya, with six districts ; the capital is Zakazik, and the population is 749,130. 4. Dakhaliya, with six districts ; the capital is Mansurah, and the population is 736,708. 5. Menufiya, with five districts; the capital is Shibin al-Kom, and the population is 864,206. 6. Gharbiya, with eleven districts; the capital is Tanta, and the population is 1,297,656. Upper Egypt contains : — 1. Giza, with four districts; the capital is Al-Giza, and the population is 401,634. 2. Beni = Suwef, with three districts; the capital is Beni- Suwef, and the population is 314,454. 3. Minya, with eight districts ; the capital is Minya, and the population is 548.632. This number includes the people of the Oasis of Bahriya (6,082), and of the Oasis of Farafra (542). 4. Asyut, with ten districts ; the capital is Asyfit, and the population is 782,720. This number includes the people of the Oasis of Dakhla (17,090), and of the Oasis of Kharga (7,220). 5. Girga, with five districts ; the capital is Sfihag, a the population is 668,011. 6. Kena, with six districts ; the capital is Kena, and the population is 711,457. 7. Nuba, with three districts ; the capital is Aswan, and the population is 240,382. 8. Fayyum, with three districts; the capital is Madinat al-Fayyfim, and the population is 371,006. POPULATION OF EGYPT. 73 The large towns like Alexandria, Port Sa‘id, Ismafiliya, Suez, Cairo, Damietta, El- £ Arish, are generally governed by native rulersq to these must be added the province of Nuba. Population of Egypt. — In a country like Egypt, which contains so many people who only live in the country for a part of each year, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain an accurate statement of the number of the inhabitants. Ancient Egyptian texts throw no light on the matter, and we may assume that the Egyptians, like most other Oriental peoples, took no trouble to number the people ; so long as kings and governors could “ squeeze ” out of the inhabitants whatever supplies they needed, the number of the inhabitants who contributed to them mattered little. According to Mommsen, 7,500,000 people paid poll-tax in the reign of Vespasian, and if, as he believed, about 500,000 were exempt, it follows that the population of Egypt under the Romans amounted to about 8,000,000, without reckoning slaves. At the end of the 1 8th century the population was said to be about two and a half millions, and some fifty or sixty years later Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who knew Egypt well, estimated it at one million less. In 1821 the population was 2,536,400, and in 1846 4,476,440. The census published in 1884 declared that in 1882 the population of Egypt amounted to 6,806,381 persons, of whom 3,216,847 were men, and 3,252,869 were women. Included in the number of 6,806,381 persons were 98,196 nomads, 245,779 desert Arabs (commonly called Bedawin), and 90,886 foreigners. According to the census of 1897 the population of Egypt amounted to 9,734,405 persons, of whom 4,947,850 were males and 4,786,555 were females; in Upper Egypt the population was 4,058,296, and in Lower Egypt, 5,676,109. These people occupied 3,692 towns and villages, and 14,449 hamlets and smaller collections of houses. The number of houses occupied was 1,422,302, and the increase in the population since 1882 is 43 per cent. The Muhammadans numbered 8,978,775, the Jews 25,200, and the Christians 730,162. The population of Cairo was 570,062, of Alexandria 319,766, Tanta 57,289, Port Sa‘id 42,095, Asyut 42,078, Mansfira 36,131, Zakazik 35,715, Medinet al-Fayyfim 33,069, Damanhur 32,122, Damietta 31,515, Kena 27,478. The area actually under cultivation was estimated by Boinet Bey in 1899 to be 5,650,000 feddans, out of a possible total of 8,000,000 feddans, i.e., 33,607 square kilometres, or 74 PEASANT PROPRIETORS. 12,976 square miles; therefore to every 100 feddans there are 122 inhabitants, that is to say, 289 inhabitants to every square kilometre, or 750 inhabitants to the square mile. Thus no country in Europe is so densely populated as Egypt. The general policy of the Egyptian Government is, without resorting to any protective measures, to do all that is possible to maintain in existence the present proprietary class, and to encourage its growth ; the efforts of the Government have for many years past been directed to this object. The large reductions in the land tax ; the increase of productivity arising from the improved system of irrigation ; the establishment of the Agricultural Bank and of Post Office Savings Banks ; the partition of Government lands, when sold, into small lots ; the adoption of the system of paying the purchase price by annuities ; the leniency with which the land tax has been collected on lands only partially irrigated ; the abolition of the octroi duties, which has increased the demand for agricultural produce ; the abolition of the dues on the navigation of the Nile, and the reduction of the railway tariff, which have enabled the produce to be transported at relatively low prices to the nearest markets ; the abolition of the sheep and goat tax, and several other measures, have all tended in this direc- tion. Small proprietors of land are holding their own, and they show no tendency to disappear. Between 1900 and 1904, the acreage held by the proprietors of over 50 acres has increased by 95,956 acres. The total area of land under cultivation was 152,532 acres more in 1904 than it was in 1900. The distribution of land as between Europeans and Natives does not appear to have undergone any material change. In 1900, 6,347 Europeans held 586,149 acres of land, and in 1904, 6,165 Europeans held 630,925 acres. In 1900, 908,067 native proprietors held 4,527,903 acres of land, and in 1904, 1,083,877 native proprietors held 4,635,659 acres. In 1905 the Agricultural Bank (Share Capital ^3,740,000, Debenture Capital ^6,570,000) made 106,373 loans. Of these 45,267 were loans of sums from ^E.io to ^E.500. The total amount outstanding on December 31, 1905, was ^5,914,000, as against ^4,006,000 on December 31, 1904. 75 CHAPTER VI. White Nile, the Nile, the Blue Nile, the Atbara, the Upper Nile, the Cataracts, Irrigation, etc. The Nile is unquestionably one of the most important and interesting rivers in the world, for it and its two great tribu- taries, the Blue Nile and the Atbara, have transported soil from the highlands of north-east Africa, and laid it down many hundreds of miles from whence it came, and have thus formed Egypt. The Nile* has in all ages been considered a mysterious river, and when we remember that it was and still is a mainstay of all life in Egypt, and the source of all pros- perity in that land, it is not difficult to understand why the ancient Egyptians worshipped it. There is no reason for supposing that the pre-dynastic and dynastic Egyptians ever took the trouble to trace it systematically to its source, or that they ever attempted to define its influence upon themselves and their character, except in a rough and ready way; but there is no doubt that they were awestruck at the river which pursued its way resistlessly and unceasingly through hundreds of miles of blazing desert, without any apparent diminution, and they felt themselves justified in regarding it as one of the mightiest of the manifestations of the Creator of the world to His people. Year by year they saw it rise little by little, until at length, with a burst, it overflowed all obstacles, and carried its mud-laden waters over the fields until they reached, and sometimes flooded, the skirts of the desert, and year by year they saw its waters subside, and the river return to its bed, and great crops spring luxuriantly out of the mud which they had left behind them. Experience soon showed them that in the year in which the Nile flood was abundant, food was cheap, cattle flourished, and the prosperity of the country was assured for the year; * The word “ Nile ” is thought to be derived from the Semitic nakhal> in Hebrew 76 THE NILE A SOURCE OF CIVILIZATION. similarly, when the Nile flood was too great or too little, grain was dear, the cattle languished, business was paralyzed, and want and misery filled the land. Everything in Egypt depended on the Nile, and it is not too much to say that the river was the cause not only of the physical characteristics of the Egyptians, but also of their learning and civilization. As it was of vital importance to the Egyptian to know when the Nile would rise, so that he might have his fields ready to receive its life-giving waters, and might make his domestic arrangements accordingly, he learned to watch the seasons and to measure time, and, as he no doubt made use of the stars for the purpose, he acquired rough ideas of chronography and astronomy. His need to make the greatest possible use of the waters of the inundation, taught him to build small dykes and dams and embankments, and the example of the river, in spreading mud over the land yearly, showed him the necessity of top-dressing and of some kind of manure. In the earliest times, before he had learned to construct large canals and irrigation basins for the reception of the water, all the artificial divisions of the land into estates and properties were destroyed each year, and he was compelled to devise a system of men- suration which would enable a man to regain either his own property or its equivalent, and to work out a system of land valuation in which the distance of an estate from the river, the quality of the soil, etc., were carefully considered and provided for. In order to reckon the produce of the land he had to learn to count, and as records of sales of land and of exchanges were needed, systems of numbers, weights, measures, and some kind of writing would necessarily grow into existence. That disputes should arise would be inevitable, and we may be certain that the settlement of these would, at a very early period, be committed to disinterested outsiders or friends who were supposed to have some knowledge of the matter, and in this way the “ custom of the country ” would grow into a law, and the decisions of the arbitrators would form precedents, and those who gave them would gradually acquire the power of judges in a modern court of law. Among the laws which* would be made for the protection of property, i.e ., wives and families, cattle, crops, etc., none were more carefully observed than those which referred to the protection of water-courses and the purity of the water. And it is certain that in the religion of the primitive Egyptians the worship of the Nile THE NILE A MYSTERY. 77 played the most prominent part, for in the dynastic period, when men knew more about the river, the praises which they offered to the Nile-god show that they regarded the celestial and terrestrial Niles as the sources of life, both of gods and men. The Nile was declared by the Egyptians to be “ a mystery,” and they felt that its source was “hidden” from them, in other words, the Nile was unlike any other river known to them. And this is true, for no other river in the world has exactly the same characteristics, and no other river has formed a whole country quite in the same way, and no other river has impressed so deeply upon the people, who have lived on the soil which it has brought from remote distances, its own characteristics of isolation, reserve, and conservatism. The sources of the Nile, that is to say, of the Upper Nile, the White Nile, and the river from Khartum to the sea, were declared by Captains Grant and Speke, and by Sir Samuel Baker, to be Albert N’yanza and Victoria N’yanza, but according to Sir W. Willcocks, its sources lie to the south of Victoria N’yanza, and it takes its rise in the Kagera River, at a spot a few degrees south of the Equator. This view has, however, been proved to be erroneous by Sir W. Garstin, who shows that the Kagera represents the united flow of three rivers, and that the true source of the Nile is Lake Victoria itself. The most recent writer on the subject is Capt. H. G. Lyons, who says : “ It has been maintained that the Kagera is the actual upper course of the Nile, and that before the subsidence took place which formed Lake Victoria, the Kagera flowed between the Sesse Islands and the western shore, then skirted the present northern shore by Rosebery Channel to Napoleon Gulf to join the Nile at the Ripon Falls ; a distinct current is also mentioned as setting across from the Kagera to the Ripon Falls. Seeing how small an effect the volume discharged by the Kagera, even in the rainy season, can have on the water of this vast lake, any such current must be an effect of the prevalent winds, and as we have seen that winds blow from lake to shore by day at almost all seasons, it is more than probable that in places a regular drift of the surface water may be caused” ( Physiography , p. 58). Victoria N’yanza, i.e., Lake Victoria, which covers an area of 70,000 square kilometres, is the first reservoir of the Nile ; it lies in the region of almost perpetual rains, and receives an excessive supply of water from its western tributaries, from subsoil springs and heavy rainfall. The second reservoir of the Nile j8 SUDD ON THE BAHR AL-GEBEL. is Lake Albert, which has an area of 4,500 square kilometres, and Lake Albert in its turn is fed from Lake Edward, which has an area of 4,000 square kilometres. Lake Victoria is 1,130 metres above sea-level, and 500 metres higher than Lake Albert. The White Nile between these lakes is called the Victoria Nile, or the “ Somerset River.” From Lake Victoria to Lake Albert is a distance of 242 miles, and when the Nile leaves Lake Albert it flows in a steady stream, with scarcely any slope or velocity to Dufili, a distance of 125 miles. From this place it passes over the Fola Falls, and runs as a torrent to Lado for another 125 miles. From Lado the river flows in a single channel to Bohr, about 75 miles, and then by many channels traverses a distance of 235 miles, when it meets the Bahr al-Ghazal, or Gazelle River. The main stream between Lake Albert and Lake No is called “Bahr aLGebel,” t.e., the “ Mountain River.” Until recent years the fairways of this and the Gazelle River were seriously obstructed by nineteen dense barriers of floating vegetation, to which the natives have given the name of Sadd,* commonly pronounced “Sudd.” In 1900 Colonel Peake cut through the sadd on the Bahr al-Gebel, and so established communication with the upper waters of the Nile. For 172 miles north of Shambi, the true bed of the Nile could not be found, and Colonel Peake was obliged to force a passage through a series of shallow lakes lying to the west of the true bed. Since 1900 this route has been used fof boat and steamer traffic. In 1901 Lieutenant Drury (late R.N.) removed the worst of the blocks of sadd remaining north of Ghaba Shambi, and thus opened up to navigation a further length of 147 miles of channel; there still remained, however, the most formidable obstacle of all, namely, a reach of some 25 miles in length in which the river had practically disappeared. In 1902 Major G. E. Matthews discovered the true bed of the river, and made some progress towards clearing a channel. In 1903-04 Lieutenant Drury and Mr. Poole resumed operations, and there is every reason to believe that ultimately they will succeed in clearing a passage by which freedom of navigation in the waters of the Upper Nile will at all times be secured. Meanwhile sudd cutting has been carried on in the Bahr al-Ghazal or Jur River, and during An Arabic word meaning “ barrier, block, obstruction,” etc. THE BLUE NILE AND WHITE NILE. 79 the flood of 1903 a waterway was cleared to Waw, and steamers succeeded in reaching that spot. The Bahr al-Ghazal flows into the Upper Nile on its left bank, and at the junction is Lake No with an area of 150 square kilometres in summer ; here the waters of the Nile become polluted with decaying vegetable matter, and the green colour which is the result is, according to Sir W. Willcocks, observable so far north as Cairo in June and July. This green colour is due to large quantities of microscopic algse which are floating in the water, and it is the oil contained in some of these which gives the unpleasant taste and smell. The principal algae are the Aphanizomenon Kaufmanni, the Synedra acus, and the Anahaena variabilis. It has usually been supposed that the “ green water ” is caused by the mingling of the swamp water with that of the Nile, but Captain Lyons has shown {Egypt, No. 1 (1903), p. 70) that this explanation is untenable, and that the real source of the algae which are brought into the river in the early part of May is the Sobat River. The algae thrive in clear Nile water at low stage and under a hot sun, but are killed when the turbid flood arrives. The “ green water ” has been observed in a continuous stretch from Kalabsha to Cairo, about 564 miles. For the most recent discussion on the subject, see Lyons, Physiography , p. 172. Sixty miles further north the Sobat River flows into the Nile on the right bank. Lakes Victoria, Albert and Edward, the Bahr al-Zarafa, or Giraffe River, the Bahr al-Ghazal and Sobat Rivers are the sources of the Upper Nile. Between Lake No and Khartum the river is known as the “ White Nile.” About 560 miles further north is the town of Khartum, towards which the White Nile flows in a stream more than a mile wide, and 6 j? feet deep. Between Khartum and the sea the river is known as the ‘‘ Nile.” The total distance from Ripon Falls to Khartum by river is about 1,560 miles ; from Khartum to Aswan is 1,165 miles, and from Aswan to the sea is 748 miles more ; therefore, the length of the Nile is 3,473 miles. If we add the length of the Kagera River, which rises near the northern end of Lake Tanganyika, about 375 miles south of Lake Victoria, and also the length of the lake itself, about 250 miles, as many do, the total becomes 4,098 miles. The town of Khartum is built at the junction of the Bahr al-Azrak or Blue Nile, with the White Nile in 15 0 36' N. lat., and 32 0 32' E. long., and it is 1,253 feet above sea-level. The Blue Nile, called by the Abyssinians the Abai, or Abawi, is 8o THE ATBARA. about 960 miles long. It rises in the mountains of Abyssinia, near Sakala, and enters Lake Sana after a course of about 155 miles; it leaves the Lake at its southern end. Lake Sana has an area of 3,000 square kilometres, and is about 5,785 feet above the level of the sea. Its perimeter is about 163 miles. The waters of the Abai are nearly clear in summer, but from the beginning of June to the end of October they are reddish-brown in colour and highly charged with alluvium ; because of this colour the river has been called Bahr al-Azrak, i.e ., the “lurid river,” as opposed to Bahr al-Abyad, i.e., “ the clear river,” or White Nile. Strictly speaking, the Nile of history is the stream which is formed by the Upper Nile, the White Nile, and the Blue Nile. About 201 miles north of Khartum the river Atbara flows into the Nile on the east bank, after a course of about 790 miles. This river is fed by the Abyssinian torrents, and in flood is of great size ; its waters are heavily charged with volcanic dust, and it provides the greater part of the rich fertilizing mud which the Nile carries in flood. The Atbara is in flood from July to October, and its stream is greatest in August. North of the Atbara junction the Nile has no other tributary, and it flows to the sea in a solitary stream. Between Khartum and the sea the Nile has six Cataracts. The Sixth Cataract (Shabluka) is 56 miles north of Khartum, and the Nile drops about 20 feet in little over one mile in length. The Fifth Cataract is 32 miles to the north of the Atbara, and is over 100 miles long ; in the course of it the Nile drops 205 feet. About 60 miles lower down is the Fourth Cataract, which is 66 miles long ; in the course of it the Nile drops 160 feet. Between the Fourth and the Third Cataracts is a reach of 196 miles of open water; it begins about 12 miles above Gebel Barkal, and ends at Kerma. At the last-named place begins the Third Cataract, which is 45 miles long ; in the course of it the Nile drops 36 feet. The Second Cataract begins about 70 miles further north; it is 125 miles long, and in the course of it the Nile drops about 213 feet. The town of Wadi Haifa lies a few miles to the north of the foot of it, on the east bank. The name given by the natives to the region through which the Second Cataract passes is “ Batn al-Hagar,” i.e., “ Belly of Stone.” At Serrina, which is rather more than 40 miles south of Wadi Haifa, are the rocks whereon Lepsius discovered the Nile gauges which were cut by order of the kings of the Xllth dynasty, about b.c. 2300, and THE SIX CATARACTS 8l these show that the Nile flood recorded there was 26 feet higher than any flood of to-day. The distance between the Second and First Cataracts is 214 miles, and the stream is on an average 1,630 feet wide. The river in this reach is provided with gigantic spurs which were built by one of the ancient kings to collect soil on the sides in flood, and to train the river in summer. The First Cataract is three miles long, and in the course of it the river drops between j6 and 17 feet. The Egyptians, at one period of their history, for some unaccountable reason, believed that the source of the Nile was near Aswan, and that it lay under two rocks, which they called Qerti ; these rocks are mentioned by Herodotus, who calls them K pwtjn and M w0«, and he says that they were situated between the Islands of Elephantine and Philae. Muhammadan writers also thought that the Nile Springs were at Aswan. From Aswan to the Barrage, which lies a little to the north of Cairo, the distance is about 600 miles. Classical writers tell us that in ancient days the Nile emptied itself into the sea by seven mouths, to which were given the names Pelusiac, Tanitic, Mendesian, Phat- nitic, Sebennytic, Bolbitic, and Canopic. Fourteen miles to the north of Cairo the Nile becomes two branches, which are known as the Rosetta and Damietta arms respectively; each of these is about 150 miles long. It has already been said that a register of the height of the Nile flood was found at Semna in the Second Cataract, and that it dated from b.c. 2300, and we must note that a Nile gauge existed on the Island of Elephantine, opposite to the town of Aswan, at the foot of the Cataract, from very early times. It seems that the readings of the gpuge at Elephantine* were always used as a base for calculating the general prosperity of Egypt year by year. In the reign of Severus an officer of the Roman garrison there noted an exceptionally high Nile, but the maximum flood mark noted by the members of Napoleon’s great expedition was 2 *ii metres higher than the mark made by the Roman officer, The French savants, reckoning from the middle of the reign of Severus (say a.d. 200) to a.d. 1800, concluded that the bed and banks of the Nile had risen 2'n metres in 1,600 years, * The new Nilometer, divided into cubits and twenty-fourths, was set up in 1869. F 82 THE RAINY SEASON AND INUNDATION. or 0*132 metre per 100 years.* Remains of Nilometers, or flood-marks, exist also at. Kubosh, Taifa, Philse, Kom Ombo, Silsila, Edfu, Esna, Karnak, Luxor, Tehna, and Kom al-Giza.f On the Island of Roda is another very old Nilometer, which was restored in the 9th century ; its zero is, however, said to be at the same level as a more ancient one whose readings have been preserved since 641. When the gauge was con- structed a reading of 16 cubits meant the lowest level at which flood irrigation could be ensured everywhere. The level to-day is 20J cubits on the gauge, and the difference between them is 1*22 metres, and from these facts Sir W. Willcocks concludes that the river bed has risen 12 centimetres per 100 years. In the region of Lake Victoria the rainy season lasts from February to November, with one maximum in April and another in October ; at Lado the rains last from April to November, in the Valley of the Sobat from June to November, in the Valley of the Bahr al-Ghazal from April to September, at Khartum from July to September, and in Abyssinia there are light rains in January and February. Thus it is clear that in every month of the year, except December, rain, which is destined to flow into the Nile, is falling into one or other of the great reservoirs, or sources of that great river. Before the construction of the Aswan Dam Sir W. Willcocks estimated that the water took eight days to travel from Lake Victoria to Lake Albert ; five days from Lake Albert to Lado ; 36 days from Lado to Khartum in low supply, and 20 days in flood ; 26 days from Khartum and Aswan in low supply and 10 days in flood; 12 days from Aswan to Cairo in low supply and five days in flood ; three days from Cairo to the sea in low supply and two days in flood. Thus it takes 90 days for the water in low supply to travel from Lake Victoria to the sea, and in flood 50 days. The water of the Blue Nile travels from its source to Khartum in low supply in 1 7 days, and in * It is clear that about a.d. 100, the Nile often rose to 24 and sometimes above 25 cubits on the Nilometer scale ; so that the high floods of that time reached the level of 91 meters above sea-level. To-day they reach 94 meters as in 1874, or 3 meters above the level of about 1,900 years ago, corresponding to a rise of the bed of o‘i6 metre per century at this point. If the mean flood level of the last 36 years is taken, the height becomes 93 metres and the rise o*n metre per century. (Lyons, Physiography , P- 315 )- t See Borchardt, Nilmesser tmd Nilstandmarken (Abhand. der kgl., Prenss., Akad. d. Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1905). IRRIGATION OF EGYPT. 83 flood in seven days ; and the Atbara and the Sobat Rivers take about five days in flood. The following are the principal facts about the Inunda = tion : — In a usual season the heavy rains begin in April and force down the green water of the swampy region, which used to reach Cairo about June 20th. The White Nile begins to rise at Lado about April 15th, and this rise is felt at Khartum about May 20th. The floods of the White Nile and Sobat reach Khartum about September 20th. About June 5th the Blue Nile begins to rise, and is in flood about August 25th. The Atbara flood begins in the early part of July, and is highest about August 20th. The Nile continues to rise until the middle of September, when it remains stationary for a period of about three weeks, sometimes a little less. In October it rises again and attains its highest level. From this period it begins to subside, and, though it rises yet once more, and reaches occasionally its former highest point, it sinks steadily until the month of June, when it is again at its lowest level. The irrigation of Egypt is gauged by the height of the river at Aswan. When the maximum rise of the river is only 21 feet there will be famine in parts of Upper Egypt; when the rise is between 21 and 23 feet much of the land of Upper Egypt will be imperfectly watered ; when the rise is between 23^ feet and 25 feet certain lands will only be watered with difficulty; when the rise is between 25 feet and 26-J feet the whole country can be watered; when the rise is between 26^ feet and 28 feet the country will be flooded; and any rise beyond the last figure will spell misery and the ruin of many. From what has been said above about the Nile flood and the formation of Egypt it will be clear that the land is highest near the river bank and lowest near the desert ; this is not only true for the main stream itself, but for its branches also. With a view of modifying the difficulty of watering the land dykes have been constructed parallel with the Nile, and trans- versely across the direction of the stream. These dykes enclose basins which are filled each year during the inunda- tion, and nearly every basin has its canal which brings directly into it the flood waters which are charged with alluvium. Usually these canals are from 10 to 13 feet below the level of the ground, and they thus become dry during the period of the year when the Nile is not in flood. The mouths of such f 2 8 4 IRRIGATION OF EGYPT. canals which admit the Nile are stopped up each year, but are opened about August ioth or 12th, so that the muddy waters may flow in freely. The basins are grouped according to system, and several of them may be supplied by one canal, and the amount of water admitted into each basin can be regulated by means of specially constructed apparatus, which is usually built of stone. The water is allowed to stand in the basins for 40 days, by the end of which time it will have deposited all the earthy matter suspended in it, and then the water which is left is allowed to flow out into the river by an escape. The filling of the basins begins about August 12th, but the time of emptying of them varies as we travel north- wards, and the last basin is sometimes not emptied until November nth. If the flood has been a good one the basins are emptied directly into the river, but if it has not, and all the basins have not been filled, wherever possible the upper series of basins are allowed to discharge their contents into the river by passing through the basins which were not sufficiently filled during the flood. Between Kena and Suhak two systems of basins cover a distance of 90 miles. The basins between Suhak and 125 miles northwards are fed by the Suhakiya Canal, which is almost as large as a river; from the end of this canal to Girga, a distance of 147 miles, the Bahr Yusuf and six canals feed the basins, and the Girga Canal feeds them for 60 miles further north. The Ibrahimiya Canal, dug by Ismafil Pasha in 1873, waters the district which extends from Asyut northwards for a distance of close on 200 miles. The dykes are about nj feet high, and are about 20 feet wide at the top, and the average depth of the water in the basins is 5 feet. The villages in the basins are built on artificial mounds faced with stone, and during the flood they resemble small islands, between which communication is kept up by boat or by dyke. An average-sized basin contains an area of 9,000 acres. At the beginning of the 7th century all Lower Egypt was irrigated by means of basins (Basin Irrigation), and the whole country was under cultivation ; but between 700 and 1800 the population had dwindled from 12,000,000 to 2,000,000, and irrigation had been abandoned over the greater part of the Delta. About 1820 Muhammad ‘Ali changed the irriga- tion system of Lower Egypt by digging a number of deep canals to contain water all the year round (Perennial Irriga = tion) which permitted the cultivation of cotton on a large THE CORVEE, 85 scale. According to Sir W. Willcocks, this change was unfortunate, for the old basins were neglected, the embank- ments ploughed up, “and now that rich mud deposit, which constituted the wealth of Lower Egypt for thousands of years, can no longer be secured to renovate the land.” In other words, perennial irrigation more quickly impoverishes the land than basin irrigation. Meanwhile the work of converting the basin system is going steadily on throughout Upper Egypt, and up to the end of 1905 an area of 251,170 acres of basin land had been converted at a total cost of ^E. 1,7 40, 5 14. As a result, certain lands in the Fayyum which were rented at E. 1 ' 1 2 per acre in 1898, were rented in 1905 at £E.2'o$ per acre. The property of the Domains Administration, which was worth in 1898 about ^E. 402, 000, was valued in 1899 at ^E.625,000, and at ^E. 1,300,000 in 1905. Elsewhere in many places the land which in 1898 was valued at from ^E.5 to ^E.io per acre now fetches from ^E.25 to ^E.40 an acre (see the details in Egypt , No. 1, 1906, p. 40). To clear the old canals used to cost ^530,000 a year, to dig the new ones cost ,£3,300,000. For irrigation purposes Lower Egypt is divided into five circles. The first includes the provinces on the right bank of the Damietta arm of the Nile, and four main canals ; the second includes all the land between the Damietta and Rosetta arms of the Nile, and has one main canal ; and the third includes the province on the west bank of the Rosetta arm of the Nile, and has one main canal. All these canals take their supply directly from the Nile, and their water surface is generally from 10 to 13 feet below the level of the surrounding country. In 1899 the area of Lower Egypt which was cultivated was about 3,430,000 acres, and the yield was worth £23,475,000; and it has been calcu- lated that if the old system of irrigation could be restored the value of the yield would be £31,000,000, or a gain of £7,000,000 per annum. The Corvee. — A moment’s consideration will convince the reader that each year it is necessary to carry out a very large amount of work in connection with the clearing of the canals and the building up of dykes and embankments to keep the waters of the Nile in their proper courses ; moreover, new cuttings have to be made, and the ravages caused by an exceptionally high Nile must be made good before the inunda- tion of the following year. No difficulty has ever been 86 THE CORVEE. experienced in getting men to repair the damages done to the dykes by the river on their own immediate property, for self-protection and self-interest are sufficiently strong incentives to make men work. In the matter of works of general public utility the case is different, and from time immemorial the kings and rulers of Egypt have been compelled to force their subjects to dig and clean the necessary canals, to build dykes, and to guard the banks of the Nile during the inundation. The fairest way would be, of course, to make each village responsible for its own works, and when the interests of a number of villages are involved, to make each community supply its due proportion of labour. In practice, however, it was found that works of public utility were consistently neglected, until some calamity would force the attention of the Government to take notice of the neglect, and then the strong arm of the law would levy labour indiscriminately, and much injustice would be done. As time went on labour was levied for the performance of public works other than those connected with the river, and in dynastic times it is certain that all the great architectural wonders of the Pharaohs were raised by the hands of unpaid labourers. So long as the men were employed on works at no great distance from their villages, the hardship was not necessarily very great, and cruelty only began when they were torn from their homes and families and sent to labour in places far away from them. It was natural that terrible abuses should arise in connection with this system of forced labour, and they were probably never greater than between 1800 and 1880. So long as Egypt was irrigated by the basin system, which has been briefly noticed above, the forced labour arrange- ment was not a bad one, for during the months of the year in which the works on the canals, banks, and dykes were being carried on, the agricultural population had nothing else to do. When, however, Muhammad \Ali changed the system from basin to perennial irrigation the abuses became very serious, and terrible injustice was done. Everybody was interested in filling the basins, and the burden fell upon all. Under the new system the whole agricultural population was employed to do work which benefited only the few. Moreover, bodies of men were moved from district to district to work the whole summer through, whilst their own lands remained untouched. This system of daily forced labour is called “corvee,” and in the hands of Muhammad ‘Ali and THE CORVEE. 87 his immediate successors it became the curse of the country. It will be remembered that Said Pasha employed the corvee on the Suez Canal, and Ismail Pasha used it in working all his vast estates, and even dug with it the Ibrahimiya Canal, which is nearly 200 miles long. Besides this, the favourite nobles of the Pasha of Egypt employed it, without payment, on their own estates, and any attempt at resistance on the part of the workmen was met by imprisonment, beating on the feet, or death. Practically speaking, the men of the corvee spent six months each year on canal work, and three months in pro- tecting the river banks during the flood ; their own lands were neglected, and though they did all the work they gained no benefit from it. They had to feed themselves, and to provide spades and baskets for their work, and if lights were required at night when they were watching the river banks they had to provide lanterns, and brushwood to repair any breach which the water might make. In Muhammad ‘Ali’s time every male between the ages of 15 and 50 had to serve, and one-fourth of the number of available men was called out every 45 days. Nobles and officials, of course, abused their positions and power, and cases were common in which the corvee were doing the work which their own men ought to have done. In 1881 it was enacted that a man could free himself from the corvee by providing a substitute, or by a payment in cash, which amounted to 120 piastres in Lower Egypt, and 80 piastres in Upper Egypt • the moneys so collected were to be devoted to the reduction or suppression of forced labour. As a result of this enactment every man who could raise 25^. freed himself, and the whole of the corvee fell on the poorer classes ; in fact, no man who owned more than five acres went to the corvee. In 1885 the Egyptian Government spent ^30,000 on clearing canals by contract instead of by forced labour, and dredging was recommended for the larger canals ; and in 1886 ^250,000 were spent in the relief of the corvee, and thus, probably for the first time in history, the Egyptian Government contributed to the maintenance of the canals and river banks. In 1889 the corvee was abolished, and it was decreed that in 1890 no forced labour was to be used for the clearance of canals and repairs of banks ; the Public Works Department undertook to do the whole of the earthwork repairs for the sum of ^400,000. It must, however, be understood that the obligation of guarding the river banks during the inundation 88 THE CORVEE. still devolved upon the people, and that it was, and still is, necessary to call out a number of men each year to do this. The number of men called out to guard the banks of the Nile during the flood season since 1895 are as follows : — 1895 ••• ••• 36,782 men for 100 days. 1896 25,113 1897 10,830 1898 I953 26 1899 7,893 1900 ... ... 14,180 • „ ,, i9 QI 8,763 „ 1902 4 , 97 ° J 9 03 11,244 „ „ Lord Cromer thinks that the present system does not “ entail any very serious hardship on the population. At the same time, it is unquestionably true that the employment of forced labour for any purpose whatsoever is open to objection. Now that other more pressing matters have been disposed of. it is worthy of consideration whether the time has not come to abolish the last vestige of a bad system. ” This was written in 1900. Mr. Verschoyle, Inspector-General of Irrigation for Lower Egypt, thinks (1904) that the policy of reducing flood watchmen in the Delta has been rather overdone during the last few years, and he reports that the banks, which have been deprived of their protection of stakes and brushwood, have suffered from water action. In 1904 the total number of men called out to act as “flood watchmen” was 13,788; the average number of days they remained out was 65, and the total number of days’ labour was 896,220. Under the rule of the British in Egypt the men who are required for the protec- tion of the river banks are chosen with due regard to justice, and the slight burden which falls upon the people is carefully adjusted, every care being taken to prevent the creeping in of any abuse. If the abolition of the corvee for the clearance of the canals were the only benefit which had been conferred by the British upon the Egyptians, it alone would be suffi- cient to make the Administration of Lord Cromer for ever remarkable. 8 9 CHAPTER VII. The Barrages on the Nile. In connection with the foregoing article on the Nile it is necessary to add here a few particulars concerning the great engineering works which have been carried out for the purpose of storing the waters of the river, and distributing them systematically according to the needs and wants of the various districts at different seasons of the year. The three greatest and most important of these are : — (i) The Barrages to the north of Cairo; (2) the Barrage at Asyut ; (3) the Dam at Aswan. 1. The Barrages North of Cairo. — We have seen above that one of the Pharaohs marked the heights to which the Nile rose at Semna, and we know that on the front of the stone quay at Thebes, Shashanq I and his successors also recorded the heights of the Nile floods in various years ; but, so far as we know, no attempt was ever made by the ancient Egyptians to build a dam or barrage across the main stream, or to regulate the supply of its waters on any large scale. Yet the idea of a dam must have occurred to many of the great engineers of the Pharaohs, and the only wonder is that Amenemhat III, who did so much for the irrigation of Egypt, omitted to take in hand such an obvious work of improvement. According to Major R. H. Brown, R.E. ( History of the Barrage , Cairo , 1896), Clot Bey has put it on record that Napoleon Bonaparte prophesied that the day would come when barrages would be thrown across the Rosetta and Damietta arms of the Nile, and that these, by means of coffer dams, would allow the whole of the Nile stream to flow into either branch, and in this manner the inundation would be doubled. Soon after Muhammad ‘Ali became Viceroy of Egypt he began to develop cotton growing, and he found that the basin system of irrigation, which was then in operation, was unsuitable for his purpose. In ^33 he decided that it was necessary to increase the water in the Damietta branch, and in order to effect this 9 o mougel’s barrages he proposed to dam the waters of the Rosetta branch, which supplied Alexandria and a whole province with water, and turn them into the Damietta branch. The Viceroy abandoned his scheme on the suggestion of Linant de Bellefonds Bey, and agreed to his proposal to throw a barrage across the head of each branch of the Nile ; and such was the Viceroy’s haste to have the work completed that he ordered the Pyramids to be pulled down, and the stones of which they are built to be used in constructing the new work. With consummate tact Linant Bey proved that it would cost less to bring the stone from a quarry than from the Pyramids, and thus the Pyramids were spared. In 1833 Linant’s Barrage was begun by the corvee, and work went on until 1835, when the cholera raged, and the buildings came to a standstill ; in 1837 Linant was made Director of the Public Works Department, and, in brief, his barrage was never finished. It is said that the Viceroy regarded the cholera of 1835 as a sign that the Almighty was displeased with his attempt to interfere with the arrangements of the Nile which Nature had made. In 1842 Mougel Bey proposed to the Viceroy a barrage which could be combined with a fortress, and in 1843 he laid his plans before the Council of Roads and Bridges ; the Rosetta Barrage was to have 39 arches, and the Damietta 45, each being 8 metres wide. The Damietta portion was begun in that same year, and the Rosetta portion in 1847 ; and Muhammad ‘Ali was so impatient that he ordered 1,000 cubic metres of concrete to be laid daily, whether possible or not ! Mougel, the engineer, endeavoured to carry out the Viceroy’s orders, even though his knowledge told him that it was bad for the work, and the result was, inasmuch as the river was 3^ feet higher that year than it was the year before, that part of the concrete was laid in running water. The current carried away the lime from it ; the remainder, of course, would not set, and the underground springs, forcing their way up, destroyed the last chance of the success of the work. Mougel wished to postpone the work for a year, but the Viceroy would not permit it, and so the building went on ; in 1848 Muhammad ‘Ali died, without seeing the barrage completed, and in 1853, as the result of an unfavourable report, ‘Abbas Pasha, the new Viceroy, dismissed Mougel, and told him to hand over his plans to Mazhar Bey. At that time, although 47,000,000 francs had been spent on the barrage, without mentioning the labour of the corvee and of AND THEIR RESTORATION. 9 1 soldiers, scarcely any of the piers were above the level of the water. The total cost of the barrage, with its fortifications, canal heads, etc., was about ^4, 000,000. In 1S61 and 1863 Commissions were appointed to inquire into the barrage question, and in the latter year, because water was urgently wanted, the barrage gates were closed with the view of holding up about 4-^ feet of water ; as a result, cracks appeared in the structure. In 1867 a section of 10 openings of the Rosetta Barrage separated itself from the rest of the work, and moved downstream. In 1871 Linant Bey reported that it would take five years’ work and an expenditure of 25,000,000 francs to make the barrage safe. In 1876 Sir John Fowler examined the barrage, and proposed to remedy its defects for the sum of ;£i, 200,000; but as Ismafil Pasha had no faith in the barrage, nothing came of the matter. In the same year General J. H. Rundall, R.E., made a report on the barrage, and he estimared that repairs would cost ^400,000, and the “training of the river” and new gates another ^100,000. “The manner of restoring the barrage, as recommended by General Rundall, is very nearly that which was actually adopted ; and, further, the cost of the restoration was correctly estimated” (Major Brown, Barrage , p. 24). In 1883 Rousseau Pasha, Director of Public Works, declared the only use of the barrage was to distribute the river discharge between the two branches, and that to make it fit even for this work would cost ^400,000. He was in favour of pumps, and had recently signed a contract, which was to last until 1915, with a company who undertook to supply water to the Western Delta for ^50,000 a year, and it was solemnly proposed to extend the system, and to irrigate Lower Egypt by pumps at an initial cost of ^700,000, and an annual outlay of ^248,550. The English authorities declined to adopt this proposal, and directed Mr. (now Sir) W. Willcocks to examine the barrage and to report upon it. In 1884 this eminent expert was permitted to spend ^£25,611 in providing the Damietta Barrage with gates and in general repairs. In June 1884, he was able to hold up water to a depth of 7 feet 2 inches in the Rosetta Barrage, and to a depth of 3 feet in the Damietta Barrage. The cotton crop that year was 3,630,000 kantars, as against 3,186,060 kantars in 1879, which was the greatest known crop before 1884. In 1885 about ^18,246 were spent on the barrage, and the results were so successful that it was decided to restore the whole 92 THE BARRAGE AT ASYUT. work; the total sum spent in restoring both barrages was ^465,000, and the work lasted from 1886 to 1891. When finished the barrage was able to hold up a head of about 13 feet of water, and it has been doing splendid work ever since. The Rosetta Barrage has 61 arches and two locks, and is 465 metres long; the Damietta Barrage has 61 arches (formerly 71) and two locks, and is 535 metres long. The two barrages are separated by a revetment wall about 1,000 metres long, and all the arches, except the two centre ones, are of 5 metres span. The following figures will show the increase in the cotton crops from 1884 to 1894, to completion of the barrage : — which is directly due Year. Kantars of Cotton. Year. Kantars of Cotton. 1884 . 3,630,000 1890 ... 4,150,000 1885 .. 2,900,000 1891 ... 4,765,000 1886 .. . 2,983,000 1892 5,220,000 1887 . 2,965,000 1893 ... 5,033,000 1888 .. 1889 .. 2,720,000 . 3,240,000 1894 ... 4,615,000 Thus it will be seen that Mougel’s Barrage was turned into a success. It is evident that a great deal of the work which he put into it was good, but it was his misfortune to have served one impatient Viceroy, and to have been dismissed by his successor. After his dismissal in 1854 it seems that things did not prosper with him, for about the time of the restoration of the barrage he was found at Rosetta totally unprovided for. His case was brought before the Egyptian Government by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, and a pension was given him which placed him beyond the reach of want. 2. The Barrages south of Cairo. Barrage of Asyut* — The town of Asyut is about 250 miles from Cairo by river, and is the most important of all the towns of Upper Egypt. The chief importance of the district lies in the fact that it is the starting point of the great Ibrahimiya Canal, which is nearly 200 feet wide, and nearly 200 miles long, and supplies Middle Egypt and the Fayytim with water. This canal carries enough water in flood-time for all pur- poses, but when ihe Nile is low its supply is insufficient for the irrigation of the lands on its banks. For many years the irrigation experts declared the necessity of a barrage at Asyut, and when it was decided to make a reservoir at Aswan, it was felt that a barrage at Asyut must form part of the great THE BARRAGE AT ASYUT. 93 The Barrage at Asyut. (From “The Barrage across the Nile at Asyfit,” by G. H. Stephens, C.M.G., in Minutes of Proceedings , Engineers , Paper No. 3,462.) 94 THE BARRAGE AT ASYUT. scheme. This barrage, which has been made, was planned by Sir W. Willcocks, K.C.M.G., but the original proposal was considerably modified by Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C.B., and by Sir W. Garstin, G.C.M.G. Its duty is to hold up the river level during the spring and summer months, when it is low, but when the flood is a very low one, it may be called upon to raise the level then also, to insure the delivery into the canal of its flood supply. The site chosen for the barrage is about a mile from the town, where the river is about 2,953 feet wide, and to make adequate room for it, it was found necessary to divert a short length of the Ibrahimiya Canal. The highest Nile level at Asyfit, of which records are available, was 43 feet 7 inches above the deep channel, and the lowest 14 feet above the bed ; in flood the velocity of the river is 4^ miles per hour, and at low Nile 2 miles. The barrage at Asyut is an arched viaduct, somewhat similar to that near Cairo, which has already been described ; the width of the roadway over it is 182 feet 1 1 inches, and provision is made for wheeled traffic. It con- tains hi openings, each of which is 16 feet 5 inches wide, and has two sluice gates 8 feet 2 inches high ; the total length of the barrage between the abutment faces is 2,691 feet. The waterway between the piers is 1,821 feet wide, and superficial area of flood waterway is 63,924 feet. The average summer level of water downstream of the barrage is 148 feet 9 inches, and upstream 157 feet, the difference between the levels being 8 feet 3 inches. The depth of the water held up by the barrage is 8 feet 2 inches. The ordinary piers are 6 feet 7 inches wide, and the abutment piers, which occur after every ninth opening, 13 feet i| inches. The height from the floor of the barrage to the springing of the arches is 35 feet 1 inch, and to the roadway 41 feet. The Asyflt Barrage was built by Messrs. John Aird and Co., who entered into an arrangement to construct : — 1. The Aswan Dam and Lock for 2. The Asyut Dam and Lock for 3. The Ibrahimiya Regulator Lock for ... and t, 400,000 425,000 85,000 Land and subsidiary works were to cost ^49,000, and customs duty on material and plant was calculated at ^41,000. Messrs. John Aird signed the contract on February 20th, 1898, and agreed to complete the works in five years from July 1st, THE ASWAN DAM. 95 1898. The Egyptian Government were to pay nothing until July 1st, 1903, when they were to begin to pay a series of half-yearly instalments of ^78,613. The subsidiary works in the shape of canals and drains which it was necessary to make in connection with the dams were estimated to cost £1, 180,000. From Lord Cromer’s Report (April, 1904, p. 21) we see that the accounts between Messrs. John Aird and the Egyptian Government have been finally closed, and that the precise sum paid for the Aswan Dam and the Asyut Barrage has been ^E. 3, 439,864, including expropriation and indemnities ^E. 127, 626, a lock £E. 47, 532, and minor works ^£,E.6,coo. The General Reserve Fund contributed ^E. 1,346,699, the Special Reserve Fund ^E. 143, 165, and ^E. 1,950,000 was paid to Messrs. Aird with certificates. “Under the arrange- ment negotiated with Sir Ernest Cassel, the Government in order to redeem the money raised on the certificates, has to pay 60 six-monthly instalments of ^76,648 each, the first of which fell due on July 1st, 1903, while the last will fall due on January 1st, 1933. In other words, the Government will pay ^E. 4,5 98,880 in interest and sinking fund before the certifi- cates are fully redeemed.” With the view of deriving the fullest possible benefit from the construction of the dams at Aswan and Asyut it has been found necessary to convert a large tract of land in Middle Egypt from basin to perennial irrigation ; the cost of converting 451,000 acres will be ^E.3, 200,000. 3. The Aswan Dam and Reservoir. — In the year 1890 the Egyptian Government instructed Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff and Sir William Willcocks to study the question of making a reservoir, and after three years’ labour the latter gentleman reported that the best site for a reservoir was at the head of the First Cataract, near Aswan, where he suggested that a masonry dam should be built. Sir William Garstin concurred in this view, but because of the magnitude of the work suggested that a Commission should be appointed to advise the Government. The Commission spent three months in Egypt and examined all the proposed sites, and they decided that Aswan was the best place for a reservoir-dam, but recom- mended certain modifications, all of which tended to make the design approach more closely to that of a solid dam, and to increase its stability. As a result it was decided to build a dam across the head of the Aswan Cataract, to the north of the Island of Philae. The maximum head was to be 85 feet, and the volume of water stored 88,300,000,000 cubic feet; the 9 6 THE ASWAN DAM. level of the water held up was to be 374 feet above the mean level of the Mediterranean Sea. When the details of the proposal became known, a great outcry was raised by the principal archaeological societies of Europe, and a modified plan was made, which enabled the level of the water held up to be reduced to 348 feet above mean sea-level. When the plans were passed in 1895 there was no money to be had for such a great undertaking, and the beginning of operations was delayed until 1898. Early in that year Lord Cromer wrote :- — “The most crying want of the country at present is an increase in the water supply. . . . All that can be done with the present supply of Nile water has been already accomplished.” As we have seen above, Messrs. Aird & Co. agreed to con- struct the reservoir-dam and the barrage at Asyut for about ^2,000,000. The Egyptian Government were not required to pay any money in cash, except as regards excess quantities over the contract quantities, and Sir Ernest Cassel agreed to take over the bonds, and to pay the contractors on the usual monthly certificates; bonds were issued for ^4,716,780, and repayment was to be made in 60 half-yearly instalments of The Dam crosses the valley in a straight line, passing over the five summer channels of the river; the valley is 2,185 yards wide, and the dam is built on the coarse-grained red granite. At flood-time the waterway is 1,530 yards wide, with a maxi- mum depth of 56 feet. The dam is intended to hold up water to the level of 348 feet ; the lowest level of water on the downstream side is 282 feet, and the greatest head of water will therefore be 66 feet. The storage capacity is estimated at 37,612,000,000 cubic feet. No attempt is made to store water until the river is practically free from silt, which occurs about three months after the Nile is in full flood. Usually the Nile reaches its maximum early in September, but the reservoir is not filled before December-February ; the water is dis- charged during the months of May, June, and July. The total fall in water-level from Philse to Aswan is 16 feet 5 inches. The mean low Nile at Philse is 295 feet above mean sea-level, and the mean high 321 feet ; between high and low Nile the river rises 26 feet. The rise of the water upstream of the dam is 52^ feet above low Nile, and 26 feet 3 inches above high Nile ; the effect of the reservoir is felt at a distance of 140 miles south of the dam. The sluices are 180 in number, and they •are arranged at four different levels, viz., 328 feet, 315 feet, THE ASWAN DAM. 97 3°if feet, and 287 feet; only 130 sluices are used for regulating the dis- charge, and the remaining 50 are required for giving sufficient waterway to the Nile when in flood. About July 5th all the sluices are open, and the Nile is rising rapidly. At the end of July the discharge of the Nile is 159,000 cubic feet per second, and at the end of August the discharge is nearly 353,000 cubic feet per second. On December 1st the first of the 50 sliding gates at the level of 30 if feet is lowered, and the remaining 49 soon after ; the 65 gates with rollers at the level of 287 feet are gradually- shut, and next the 25 roller sluices are lowered, and early in February the sluices at the level of 315 feet are closed by degrees. By the end of February the reservoir usually is filled, and by July 7th it is empty. Work on the dam began in the summer of 1898, under the superintendence of Mr. John A. C. Blue, C.E., and Mr. M. Fitz- maurice, C.M.G., etc., and the foundation-stone was laid by H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught on Feb- ruary 1 2th, 1899. All the G 98 THE ASWAN DAM. foundation work of the dam was completed in the summer of 1901, and all the masonry was finished in June, 1902, one year before the con- tract time, and less than three and a half years after the first stone was laid. The contract quan- tity of excavation in the dam and locks was 408.000 cubic yards, and the actual quantity exca- vated was 824,000 cubic yards. The total contract quantity of masonry was 484.000 cubic yards, and the actual amount built was 708,000 cubic yards. In places the dam is over 100 feet high, and about 90 feet thick at the base. The actual cash cost of the works came out to nearly ^2,400,000, which is practically ^io for every million gallons of water held up. Sir W. Garstin calculated that the volume of water capable of being stored would be 1,065,000,000 cubic metres. While the dam was being made it was necessary to cut a canal for the passage of large boats up and down the river ; this canal was cut through the granite hill on the west side of the Nile, and 26,000 cubic yards of granite } were The Dam at Aswan at High Nile. (From Fitzmaurice and Stokes, “ On the Nile Reservoir and Sluices, Assuan,” in the Minutes of Proceedings , Civil Engineers , vol. clii, Session 1902-1903, Part ii, London, 1903.) THE ASWAN DAM. 99 blasted away in its making. The total length of the canal is 2,180 yards ; it is 52 feet deep, and is 40 feet wide at the bottom. Since there is a difference of 66 feet between the water levels tip and down stream, four locks are provided : each lock is 263 feet long and 31 feet wide at the bottom. The two upper gates are 59 feet deep, and weigh about 105 tons each, exclusive of the bascule ; the three other gates are 46, 36, and 26 feet deep respectively. When we consider that through the Aswan Dam and the Asyut Barrage the annual wealth of the countrywill be increased by about ^E. 2, 600, 000, that the direct gain to the Government will be about £E. 380, 000 a year, and that the value of the Government lands which will be reclaimed will be increased by more than ^E. 1,000,000, there can be no question about the wisdom of the decision of the Egyptian Government to undertake the works. And few will disagree with Lord Cromer’s assertion that with the “ moderate expen- diture of roughly ^E. 3, 500, 000, more good has been done to the people of Egypt than by the ^E. 100,000.000 of debt which Ismafil Pasha contracted, and for the most part squandered.” As regards the results obtained by the construction of the Asyut Barrage and the Aswan Dam, the main facts are as follows: — These two dams cost „-£E. 3, 237,000. Up to the end of 1904 a sum of ^E. 1,757,000 had been spent in subsidiary works in Middle Egypt, which must be constructed before the full measure of beneficial result can be derived from the construction of the dams. The total area so far affected is about 1,276,000 acres. The increased annual rental of these lands is estimated at about ^CE. 1,553,000 ; their increased sale value at about ^E.15, 730, 000. About 205.000 acres of land, formerly watered by the basin-irrigation system, have been adapted to perennial irrigation. About 246.000 acres remain to be similarly treated. It is estimated that the work of converting the remaining 246,000 acres will cost about ^"E. 1,424,000, and that, at the present rate of expenditure, the work will be completed in 1908. Thus, Sir William Garstin says, “From expenditure of some 6^ millions — by the end of 1908 — the annual rental value of the land affected in Middle Egypt should be increased by ^E. 2.637, 000, and its sale value by ^E. 26, 570, 000.” Lord Cromer doubts if, in the records of engineering work, another instance can be quoted of such results being achieved with so relatively small an outlay of capital (Egypt, No. 1 (1906), p. 34). G 2 IOO CONDITION OF THE PHIL.E TEMPLES. Here, naturally, reference must be made to the effect of the Aswan Dam on the temples of the Island of Philae. When the first scheme was proposed, it was at once seen that the temple of Philae would be drowned during the filling of the reservoir ; in the modified scheme the water was expected only to reach the level of the floor of the temple. An exami- nation by experts showed that a large portion of the main temple was founded on the rock, and that the southern end of colonnade was built almost entirely on silt. At one side of the colonnade the cross walls of a quay-wall had been carried down to the rock, and the long row of pillars forming that side of the colonnade was carried on sandstone sills, extending from cross-wall to cross-wall. The sills were cracked and broken, and many were supported only by the silt between the walls. The ground between the walls was excavated, steel girders were fixed below ground from quay-wall to quay-wall, and the steel girders were then completely surrounded by cement masonry, made watertight by forcing in cement grout. The other side of the colonnade was underpinned in cement masonry, the under- pinning in some cases being carried down to a depth of 25 or 30 feet from ground level ; Pharaoh’s Bed and many other buildings were similarly treated. In nearly all places where the underpinning was done, the superstructure of sandstone, in some places 60 or 70 feet high, was in a very dilapidated condition. The columns were out of the vertical, and the sandstone lintels, weighing many tons, were often cracked right through. The cost of these works was about ^2 2,000. In the Journal de Geneve (December 17th, 1903), M. Naville, who speaks with unquestionable authority on this subject, bears generous testimony to the archaeological value of the work performed by the Egyptian Government, and says : — “ Je suis de ceux qui, a plusieurs reprises, soit par la voie de la presse, soit dans les Congres scientifiques, ont proteste contre la constitution d’un barrage a Assouan. J’estime que les archeo- logues ont bien d’etre satisfaits. Le monument est a l’abri de toute degradation pour de longues annees, et il ne semble pas que l’eau ait un effet facheux sur la pierre, sauf peut-etre dans quelques chambres, qui, n’ayant d’autre ouverture qu’une porte basse, conservent necessairement l’humidite et se couvrent de salpetre. On peut meme se demander si, a certains egards, le Temple de Phile n’est pas aujourd’hui dans des conditions meilleures que la plupart des edifices Egyptiens. Depuis plusieurs annees les grands temples passent THE RAISING OF THE ASWAN DAM. IO par ce qui j’appellerais une crise de faiblesse senile .... A Phile il serait arrive la meme chose qu’aux autres. Le temple se serait degrade petit a petit ; on aurait vu tomber tantot une colonne, tantot une architrave, et il aurait fallu attendre pour le consolider d’avoir les ressources suffisantes. Maintenant cela est fait, et pour longtemps, et tout en sachant gre au Gouvernement Egyptien de Fempressement qu’il a mis a faire ce sacrifice pecuniaire, nous aimons a croire que nos protestations n’ont pas ete sans influence sur sa decision.” Professor Maspero says, “ L’lle de Philae continue a se bien comporter, et tout danger immediat parait etre ecarte. Le salt- petre se produit en quantite moins grande, et s’enleve plus aisement que les premieres annees. Tout va bien de ce cote pour le moment.” Sir W. Garstin has no doubt that the stability of the temples of Philae has not suffered by their submersion, but he calls attention to the band of saturated stone, from 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches deep, which is immediately above the water line. In this band salts deleterious to the masonry have made their appearance. As regards the remedy for this evil, the general opinion appears to be that the only one possible is to wash the stone work thoroughly and carefully, as soon as the water has subsided, thus getting rid of the salts. These are reported as coming away easily. Thus when the Aswan Dam is raised 6 metres— i.e., when the water held up by it will be 112 metres deep instead of 106 metres as at present — no serious damage will accrue to the temples provided the salts are washed off annually. The raising of the dam is postponed for the present, first, because it was found necessary to construct a solid masonry apron downstream of the dam sluices, in order to protect the rock from the severe action of the water issuing through them ; and, secondly, because certain mathematicians of great repute had expressed doubts as to whether the calcu- lations heretofore adopted for determining the stresses and the stability of masonry dams covered a sufficiently wide range, and whether the consideration of certain important factors had not been neglected. Good progress had been made in the construction of the masonry apron, but the mathematicians have not yet arrived at any very definite conclusion. 102 CHAPTER VIII. The Ancient Egyptians. All the evidence which is now available points to the fact that the root-stock of the Egyptians, whose remains are many, was African, and there is no doubt that African people, who possessed many of the fundamental characteristics of the primitive Egyptians, have lived in the Valley of the Nile for many thousands of years. The classical writer Diodorus (iii, 2, i, 2) adopted the view that the Egyptians sprang from a colony of Ethiopians who had settled in Egypt, and that, inasmuch as the soil of Egypt had been brought down by the Nile, Egypt itself was a product of Ethiopia. It must be remembered that the country called Ethiopia by Diodorus is not Abyssinia. The ethnographical table given in Genesis x, 6 , states that Mizraim, i.e., Egypt, was the son of Ham, and that he was the brother of Cush, Phut, and Canaan, and as the Hamites represent the fair African peoples, the author of the ethnographical table and Diodorus agree. Cush is the name usually given to Ethiopia, and it is possible that by marriage at a very remote period the Egyptians became kins- folk of the Ethiopians, but there are no grounds for the assertion that the Egyptians had negro blood in their veins. M. Maspero says that the bulk of the Egyptian population presents the characteristics of the white races which have been settled from all antiquity in the parts of the Libyan continent which are on the shores of the Mediterranean, that it originated in Africa itself, and that it made its way into Egypt from the west or from the south-west. He further suggests that when this people arrived in Egypt they may have found there a black race, which they either destroyed or drove out, and that they were subsequently added to in number by Asiatics who were introduced through the Isthmus of Suez, or through the marshes of the Delta. These new- THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 103 comers may also have entered Egypt by way of the Straits of Bab al-Mandib. It is tolerably certain that at a very early period the indigenous inhabitants of the Nile Valley were mingled with the fair-skinned Libyans, whom some regard as Hamites, and it seems that they led a purely pastoral life on the banks of the Nile and in the neighbouring deserts. Their skulls were dolicho- cephalic, or “ long-headed,” i.e ., their diameter from side to side bore a less proportion to the longitudinal diameter, i.e., that from front to back, than 8 to 10 ; hence they were, both physically and mentally, entirely different from the Egyptians, whose skulls in respect of measurements occupy a middle position between the dolichocephalic and the brachycephalic, or “ short-headed ” men. The hair of both sexes was short, and the beards of the men were long and pointed, but turned up at the points ; the faces of both men and women were regular and oval in shape, and the lips projected but slightly. The eyes of the men were almond-shaped and very broad, and they were shaded with heavy-arched eyebrows ; the figures of the women were comparatively slim, their thighs were broad, and their feet of moderate size, with, in some cases, a good instep. Both men and women seem to have had slightly sloping shoulders, and to have been a little above the average height, and not of a heavy type in their build. Besides these there must have been an element in the population produced by marriage with the Negro and Negroid tribes who lived a few degrees to the north of the equator. It must never be forgotten that the dynastic Egyptians regarded Punt as their original home ; and Punt and the “ land of the spirits ” were certainly situated some hundreds of miles to the south of Khartum. At some remote period, to which it is at present impossible to assign a date, the Nile Valley was invaded by some people, or group of peoples, belonging to a different race, who were far more advanced on the ladder of civilization than the Egyptians. The land from which they came was probably Asia, and there is very good reason for believing that their original home was the region which was called Babylonia in later days. According to some they entered Egypt by way of the Peninsula of Sinai and the Delta, and so made their way up the Nile ; according to others, starting from some point in Southern Arabia they crossed over by the Straits of Bab al-Mandib to the African shore, which they followed north- wards until they arrived at the entrance of the Wadi Ham- 104 early invasion of the Nile valley. mamat at Kus£r, which they entered* and after a few days’ march arrived in Egypt near the ancient city of Coptos ; according to a third opinion they entered Egypt from some country to the south-east, or even south, of Egypt, and made their way down the Nile. For the view which made the invaders enter Egypt by the Wadi Hammimit there is much to be said. The newcomers brought with them the arts of agriculture, and introduced wheat and barley into Egypt ; the art of brick making, the art of writing, the art of working in metals, and among other domestic animals they introduced the sheep into Egypt. The manners and customs of the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt must have been profoundly modified by the invaders, and we may note in passing that,, after their arrival, the Egyptians as a nation seem to havje abandoned the practice of burying their dead in a semi- embryonic position, and to have buried them lying on their backs at full length. As time goes on it becomes more and! more clear that many of the most important, but later, elements of Egyptian culture were brought into Egypt by a people who 1 were not remotely connected with the Babylonians. The language which was spoken by the invaders belonged to; the Proto-Semitic group and was different from that of the Egyptians, and from the languages of many of the Hamitic and Libyan peoples ; some think that the Proto-Semitic group of languages and Egyptian are descended from a common stock. Looking back on the history of Egypt we can see that no nation has seen so many vicissitudes of fortune, or been the object of invasion by so many enemies. The geographical situation of the country renders her position among nations unique. She lies open and unprotected to the dwellers in the desert on both sides of the Nile, the whole of her length, and' her fertile soil has always been a great attraction both to> pastoral and agricultural tribes. From the earliest times; the desert tribes must have raided the country, especially the Delta, with considerable success, and cattle and grain were no doubt carried off in abundance. What the earliest dweller on the Nile was like we have no means of knowing,, but if we may judge by the long series of pictures of dynastic Egyptians which adorn the walls of tombs that cover a period 1 of nearly 3,500 years, he was very much like what the felEh, or peasant farmer, is to-day. The colour of his skin' was dark red or a reddish-brown, his eyes were slightly THE EGYPTIAN PEASANT UNCHANGEABLE. 105 oblique, his hair was dark and thin, his body was slender, his legs thin, and his feet long; the skin of his womankind had a dark yellowish tinge in it, probably because their bodies were not so much exposed to the sun. The nations which have conquered himself and his land have produced no perma- nent modification in his physique, a fact which the traveller can easily verify for himself ; on the other hand, those who have attempted to settle in his country have either been eliminated by the inexorable climatic and other influences, or have become absorbed into the native population. The Egyptian of the soil is practically unchangeable physically, and it is not too much to say that mentally and intellectually he remains the same as he was 7,000 years ago. It was probably only a comparatively limited upper class, containing foreign elements, which made the Egyptians celebrated for their learning. That this upper class had very little influence on the general popula- tion of the country is evident from many things, and it is certain that, to all intents and purposes, the conquering element and the conquered had extremely little in common. The peasant proprietors and their labourers in the fields lived in precisely the same way as their ancestors from time immemorial ; their manners and customs were the same, and their religious beliefs were identical. Their conquerors changed the names of some of the old gods of the country, but they never succeeded in altering the people’s conceptions of the celestial powers and their attributes. There is good reason for believing that many of the manners and customs of the primitive Egyptians were derived from a large and important portion of the primitive population which came down the Nile from Central Africa. Many of the religious beliefs and ceremonies which are made known to us by the hieroglyphic texts have their equivalents among the A-Zande, or Niam Niams, and the Bantu and Fanti tribes at the present day, and it is certain that these w T ere borrowed by the Dynastic Egyptians from the earlier inhabitants of the Nile Valley. io6 CHAPTER IX. The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. The earliest proof that the Egyptians possessed religious beliefs is afforded by the pre-dynastic graves which have been excavated at Gebelen, Nakada, Abydos, and other sites during the last 17 years. In these, in addition to the human remains which were deposited in them either as whole or disjointed bodies, have been found jars and vases containing substances which were intended to serve as food for the deceased on his journey to some place of abode beyond the grave, and weapons of flint wherewith he might defend himself against the foes of various kinds which he was expected to meet on the road thither. Thus it is clear that the pre = dynastic Egyptians believed that a man would enjoy life in some form, and in some place to reach which they did their utmost to provide him with means ; it is probable that they considered such a life to be merely a prolongation or renewal of the life which a man led upon earth, and that they imagined it would include joys and pleasures, perhaps also rewards, of a material character. Where, however, that life was lived, or the manner of region in which it was lived, we have no means of knowing, and whether this life after death was everlasting or not we know not. We may, however, assume that the beliefs of the primitive Egyptians resembled those of some of the peoples and tribes of the north- east quarter of Africa, who live under the same conditions as they lived, and on land which is similar to theirs. Speaking generally, it seems that the primitive Egyptians peopled earth, air, river, and sky with spirits or beings, some of which were benevolent and some malevolent, and that to these they attributed various degrees of power. The greater number of such beings were probably regarded by them as being of a nature like unto themselves ; and there was perhaps a time when the Egyptians did not believe in the existence of any beings who were different from themselves. EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 107 What is known of the religion of Egypt in dynastic times suggests that in the earliest period of its history each community possessed its own supernatural being or spirit, who had his own peculiar form, and his own special manner of making himself manifest, and it is pretty certain that the views which the bulk of the community held concerning him dictated the ceremonies which, it was believed, would conciliate it or procure its aid. In connection with this period in the history of Egyptian religion it is important to state that many of the spirits which were adored at that time became gods subsequently, and continued to be the objects of worship of the dynastic Egyptians, and that many of the ceremonies connected with their service were celebrated for some thousands of years, though in some cases variations were made in details. in primitive times it was believed that spirits manifested themselves in birds, animals, reptiles, trees, stones, etc., and that under certain circumstances they had the power of speaking in human language. Certain spirits attached them- selves to certain animals, either temporarily or permanently, and many animals, e.g., the lion, jackal, bull, ram, were held to be abodes of spirits or supernatural powers by the dynastic Egyptians, and by the later inhabitants of the country. Besides living creatures, the primitive Egyptians adored various objects to which it is customary to give the name of fetishes ;* among these may be mentioned the Tet, which has been identified as a Nilometer, and even as a mason’s table, but is more probably, as M. Maspero has shown, a tree trunk with four branches, in which is to be seen some survival of the old roof tree of the primitive house, or the cosmic roof tree. Another interesting “ fetish ” is the vessel with a pole in it on which is suspended the headless hide of a pied bull ; this we see in the pictures of the Judgment of the Dead in the holy of holies of Osiris. Both these objects were in some way intimately connected with the history of Osiris, and as such they played prominent parts in his worship at all periods ; but * From the Portuguese feitifo “ saucery, witchcraft.” The word was first applied by the Portuguese sailors and traders to objects worshipped by the natives, which were regarded as charms or talismans. A fetish was supposed to have a spirit embodied in it, which acted through it, and held communication with it. It was treated as if it possessed personal consciousness and power, was talked with, worshipped, prayed to, sacrificed to, and petted or ill-treated with reference to its past or future behaviour to its votaries. E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture , vol. ii, p. 133. io8 GODS IN ANIMAL FORMS. it is pretty certain that the true history of their connection with the god was forgotten at a very early period, especially as the pictorial representations of them could not, in the first instance, have been very faithful. At the time when the Egyptians were worshipping spirits they probably adored the great powers of nature, and the sun, moon, and stars, light, darkness, etc., and they thought that the spirits of these could dwell in birds, animals, snakes, and other creatures. Every village community possessed its local spirit, and, in later days, every town and city had its own group of spirits, or “ gods ” as we may call them, among which were included the great spirits or great gods who were worshipped throughout the country. Such spirits and gods shared the good or evil fortune of the community to which they belonged. Their emblems or symbols were carried out to war, special habitations were set apart for them, and their upkeep was provided for out of common funds. As the riches of the community increased, the rank and dignity of its god kept pace with them, but his levenues suffered in times of scarcity, defeat, and war ; the gods and their emblems might even be carried off into captivity and burnt, when, of course, the spirits or gods suffered defeat and death like their votaries. The number of such spirits or “ gods ” was very considerable in early times, and even in the dynastic period the “ gods ” could be counted by hundreds. The reduction in the number of spirits began when man realized that certain of them were mightier than others, and the same may be said of the “ gods.” As man developed his conception of his “spirit,” or “god,” developed also, and a time came when he decided to represent his object of fear or worship in human form. The god who is always represented in human form is Tem, or Atmu, and it seems as if he were the product of a higher form of religious thought than that which existed among the purely African peoples. To a great many of the gods of the pre-dynastic Egyptians human bodies were given in pictures of them, and it is possible that this custom may be the result of a transition period in religious development when man began to be tired of or dissatisfied with gods in wholly animal forms. Thus we have a hawk-headed man for Ra and other solar gods, a jackal- headed man for Anubis, a crocodile-headed man for Sebek, a beetle-headed man for Khepera ; Osiris the deified dead man as depicted in the form of a swathed, mummied form. The pictorial representations of such gods usually give to GROUPS OF GODS AND TRINITIES. J09 the gods a long, plaited beard and a long, animal tail; they carried a staff of authority in one hand, and in the other the symbol JjL, i.e., “life,” which is the special emblem or attribute of divinity. Goddesses also are represented in forms which are part human and part animal or reptile, and all deities were believed to have the power of assuming at pleasure the bird, or animal, or reptile form under which they were supposed to have appeared in primitive times. Thus Ra could become a hawk, Isis and Nephthys could become vultures, Serqet could become a scorpion, powers of evil could become snakes, and so on. This idea was so per- sistent in later periods that provision was made for enabling the dead man, who had become master of life after death, i.e., who had become a god, to take the form of birds, of the crocodile and serpent, of the lotus, and of certain gods at will. There is no evidence available which would justify us in asserting at exactly what period it became customary to represent the gods in forms which were half human and half animal ; but it may have come about as a result of the higher class of civilization which was brought into Egypt by those who taught the Egyptians how to make bricks, and to grow wheat and barley. The important fact to note is that when the change took place one class at least of the Egyptians had advanced from the worship of spirits, fiends, demons, etc., to the cult of animals, and from the cult of animals to the adoration of the man-god, both living and dead. Thus they made their gods in the image of themselves, and they assigned to them wives and offspring, and then proceeded to invent stories about their lives and deeds. Examples of god-groups, each consisting of a male god, and a female counterpart, and a son, are Ptah, Sekhet, and Nefer-Temu, the triad of Memphis, Osiris, Isis, and Horus of Busiris, Amen-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu of Thebes, etc. The common word for god is neter, the exact meaning of which was lost at a very early period ; the plural is neteru, < jf^ > ^ j. The common word for “goddess ” is netert, with its plural, neterit,* < ^ > (j(j o | • * In the Book of Gates neterit is, in one place, used as a term of contempt, and is applied to what we should call “ false gods.” no THE CREATION. When the Egyptians wished to speak of the whole of the gods they used the words paut neteru , i.e., the “ divine matter,” but as under the Ancient Empire it was customary at Heliopolis to enumerate nine gods, these words gradually assumed the meaning of something like “ the company of nine gods.” These nine gods were, Temu or Atmu, Shu and Tefnut, Seb and Nut, Osiris and Isis, Set and Nephthys. Now, as the Egyptians regarded the sky, earth, and underworld as three distinct realms, they invented a company of gods for each ; each company might contain as many as 14 or as few as five gods, and thus it happens that the three companies comprised all the principal gods of Egypt. About the abode of the gods various views existed. According to one opinion heaven was situated above the sky, and was separated from the earth by a rectangular iron plate, and the stars were thought to be lamps which were suspended from holes drilled in the plate : and according to another, the abode of the blessed was in the Delta, or in one of the Oases, etc. One legend made the heavens in the form of a cow, and another in the form of a woman, whose body formed the canopy of the sky ; the ffgs of the cow in the one legend, and the arms and legs of the woman in the other, formed the cardinal points. The first act in the history of creation was the rising of the sun ; this was brought about by an act of will on the part of the god Khepera, and when this had been done the god created Shu and Tefnut, who in turn produced a number of gods, and finally men and women came into being from the tears which dropped from Khepera’s eyes upon his own members. Khepera, Shu, and Tefnut formed the first triad of gods, according to a very old legend. Another legend represents the sun-god Ra as being angry with mankind because they were mocking him, and scoffing at his age, and in his wrath he caused many of them to be destroyed. Of all legends, however, the most important and widespread is that of Osiris, the king of the underworld and judge of the dead. This god, who lived at one time on earth in human form, was murdered by Set, the god of evil and the equivalent of the Devil of modern nations, who hacked in pieces the body of Osiris. Isis, the wife of Osiris, collected the pieces and reunited them, and vengeance was taken on Set by Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, who, according to one legend, was begotten by Osiris after death through the incantation of Isis. Osiris became the god of the underworld and judge of the THE PRIESTS OF AMEN RA. Ill dead, through the incantations of Isis and the magical cere- monies which were performed by Horus and certain assistants. About 3600 b.c. the priests of Northern Egypt succeeded in making a very ancient god called Ra, who was a form of the Sun-god, the head of the companies of Egypt. This god was supposed to represent all the old solar gods of the country, who were now regarded merely as subsidiary forms of him ; with Ra were associated a number of triads from the chief cities of the Delta, e.g ., Sais and Bubastis, and the triad of Memphis, and in this way all the gods and goddesses of the pre-dynastic and archaic periods were brought under the sway of Ra. The priests of Ra appear to have been very tolerant, and so long as the supremacy of their god was acknowleged, they were content to allow the older cults of animals, etc., to flourish. In the Delta two very ancient goddesses were Neith of Sais, and Bast of Bubastis ; the former was said to be self-created and to have begotten and conceived her sen, the Sun-god. Among the epithets applied to her are those of “eternal” and “self-existent.” About 2500 b.c., Amen, a local god of Thebes, became important among the gods of Egypt, for the princes of Thebes were becoming the dominant power in the country ; the power of Memphis and Heliopolis had been broken, and the princes of Herakleopolis had been defeated by the Theban hosts. Amen is, however, a very old god, and the recent discoveries made by M. Legrain at Thebes prove that a sanctuary of Amen was in existence in this city under the early dynasties of Egyptian kings. Amen is probably one of the oldest indigenous gods of Upper Egypt. About b.c. 1 500 the renown of Amen was very great, for he was by this time identified with all the great gods of the land : as Ra absorbed all the deities of the primitive Egyptians, so did Amen absorb Ra and his company. In fact, the old gods of Egypt were declared to be merely forms of Amen, the “ king of the gods,” and his priests declared that only kings who had the blood of Amen in their veins could reign. The priestly hierarchy of Amen-Ra was the most powerful which was ever formed in Egypt, and its influence was sufficiently strong to resist successfully the attack made upon it by Amen-hetep IV, who called himself Khu-en-Aten, and tried to restore the worship of the Sun-god Aten, in the form in which it was celebrated in connection with Ra of Heliopolis. The priests of Amen usurped the supreme 1 1 2 THE JUDGMENT AND IMMORTALITY. power about b.c. 1050, and their arrogance alienated the people of Upper Egypt, and finally they fled from Thebes to Napata in Nubia. Under the XVIIIth dynasty the hymns addressed to Amen-Ra contain ascriptions of power which belong to a number of other gods, and he is addressed in terms which prove that his devotees believed him to be God, Who made Himself manifest in the form of His creature, the Sun. Under the influence of the priests of Amen-Ra a form of belief was developed which was different in many ways from that of the priests of Heliopolis, but the fundamental characteristics of the indigenous religion of Egypt were always prominent. It must, however, always be remembered that the religion of the people was invariably less spiritual than that of the thinking, well-educated priests. In the troubled times which followed the end of the reign of Rameses II, about b.c. 1280, great confusion existed in the religion of the people, and the true attributes of many gods were either confounded in their minds or forgotten by them. Under the influence of political events foreign gods were introduced into Egypt, and the religious tolerance of the people being great, no serious opposition was offered to their worship. Under the Ptolemies the gods of the company of Osiris were greatly honoured, and with the excep- tion of Serapis, no new gods of importance were introduced ; Osiris, Isis, and Horns were the leading deities of the land. Reference must now be made to the Egyptian belief in immortality, and to the views which they held concerning heaven and hell. The texts which have come down to us are full of difficulty and contradiction, and it is clear that many opinions existed on these subjects which we can never hope to reconcile. It is, however, quite certain that the Egyptians of all periods believed in a future life. In the earliest times they believed that future bliss could be obtained by the use of magical names and words of power, and that moral worth, or repentance, had nothing to do with it. Under the XVIIIth dynasty they thought that the style and duration of their future life depended upon the manner of life which men had led on earth. The man who had made offerings to Ra or Osiris on earth benefited by these pious acts in the life beyond the grave, and these gods preserved in happiness the men who had honoured them upon earth. The Egyptians believed in the Judgment, and seem to have thought that it took place immediately after death. The- dead of each district went to that portion of the Underworld which belonged to their district, THE UNDERWORLD. ”3 whence they passed to the kingdom of Osiris. In dynastic times the Judgment was held in the Hall of Maat, where each of the Forty-two Judges received the assurance of the deceased that he had not committed a certain sin. The heart was weighed in a pair of scales against a feather symbol of righteousness, under the supervision of Thoth, the scribe of the gods, and of Anubis. the god of the dead. The heart was expected to balance the feather exactly ; it was not required to outweigh it. Justice only demanded that the beam of the scales should be perfectly level. To be “ righteous overmuch ” was to incur the displeasure of the gods. If the result of the weighing of the heart was satisfactory, the deceased passed on through the Hall and paid adoration to Osiris, who permitted him to enter the Fields of Aaru ; if it were not his heart was given to Amemit, the Eater of the dead, who devoured it. In the fields of Aaru a portion of ground was measured out for the deceased, its size varying according to his merits. Here he tilled the ground and tended the wonderful wheat of that region, which was a form of Osiris ; and he lived upon that wheat, i.e., upon the god himself. Another view maintained that the souls of the blessed entered the boat of the sun, and lived with Ra for ever, and that the wicked, which included idolaters, and apostates, and all the powers of darkness which tried to bar the path of the Sun-god, were mutilated with knives or destroyed by fire each day between midnight and sunrise. The blessed lived in a state of divine bliss for ever, and the belief which seems to have been the most widespread in Egypt assigned to each man his own homestead in the Elysian Fields, where he would live with his parents and enjoy all the comforts of a well-stocked farm in a fertile country. This belief is clearly the product of the time when the Egyptians became an agricultural people, and it was only under the influence of the priests of the various forms of the Sun-god that they adopted the belief that the blessed became beings of light and lived in the boat of the Sun-god. The name for the Underworld was Tuat, ^ ^ , and it was supposed to be a region which ran parallel with Egypt : it was a rocky valley with a stream flowing the whole length of it, as the Nile flows through Egypt, and it was divided into ten main sections, with two smaller divisions, one at each end, U4 THE RESURRECTION. which served, if we may use the word, as ante-chambers. When the sun set he was believed to pass in his boat from this world into Amentet, the ante-chamber of the Tuat, and then to journey through the various sections of the Tuat at the rate of one per hour. At the entrance to each section was a massive gate, which his words of power enabled him to enter. As the god passed through each section the blessed were arrayed on his right hand, and the wicked on the left, and he saluted both in turn, and uttered the word of power which provided the continuance of the happiness of the former, and the misery of the latter. On his way the Sun-god overtook the souls who had set out for the realm of Osiris, but who for some reason or other had failed to get there ; those who were fortunate enough to possess amulets, words of power, etc., embarked in the boat of the Sun, and went with the god to the Kingdom of Osiris, which was reached about midnight. According to the views of the priests of Amen, the Judgment took place at midnight, and all rewards and punishments were meted out before the breaking of a new day. As the enemies of the Sun-god who came into being during the course of the day were destroyed before the day was ended, this disposes of the idea of some that the Egyptians believed in purgatory. As soon as the Judgment was ended, the boat of the Sun continued its course, and eventually, having passed through all the sections of the Tuat and its Twelve Divisions, it passes out from the gloom of the Underworld, and glides on to the waters of the celestial ocean called Nut, and so rises on this world. The souls who have been fortunate enough to sail with the god so far are now able to see this earth, and they can fly down to it and visit their old haunts at pleasure. Now, although the Egyptians firmly believed in the mightiness of the power of their gods, Osiris and Ra, they were also firmly convinced that they were able to assist in securing their own future life by performing certain things. The most important of all was to mummify the body, for it is clear beyond all doubt that in the earliest times they thought that the life of the j soul depended in some way upon the preservation ot the material body. There were some, no doubt, who believed in j the Resurrection of the material body, and who mummified the body for this reason ; and others, apparently a very large class, thought that the “spiritual body ” sprang directly from it through the prayers which were said and the ceremonies ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BELIEFS. 1T 5 which were performed when the mummy was placed in the tomb. The earliest religious texts prove that Egyptian theologians distinguished in the economy of man : — , or the material, corruptible body. or double. or shadow. or soub or heart. or vital power. or spirit. or name. or the “ spiritual body,” which, in the case of the blessed, came into being after death, and contained all the mental, intellectual and spiritual properties of a man. The Khat Ay-’ 1 The Ka V’ < The Khaibit ,T,i The Ba 1 The Ab ?• - The Sekhem A • The Khu V The Ren /W\/\AA J The Sah ]_ □ The ka, or “ double ” of a man, lived with his body in the tomb, a chamber of which was specially set apart for it; this chamber was connected with the hall of the tomb by means of a narrow passage, through which the ka was enabled to smell the odours of the incense, etc., which was offered up in the tomb at stated intervals by the descendants and friends of the deceased. The ka lived on the offerings which were made in the tomb, and if these failed it was believed it would wander about in the desert and eat whatever offal it might find there, and drink dirty water. To avoid such a calamity wealthy people had cisterns of water placed by their tombs, and round about these trees were planted ; thus the soul, when it visited its former body, found a comfortable and shady place on which to rest and clean water to drink, and the ka had water, always available for its needs. The form of the ka was that of the H 2 ii6 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BELIEFS. man to whom it belonged, and it seems to have been an immaterial, shadowy being, who was, however, supposed to be gratified with the right of, or pictures of, or phantoms of material food, or perhaps with the actual food. The ba, or soul, appeared in the form of a human-headed bird, The khu, or spirit, appeared in the form cf a bird, Next in importance to the preservation of the body was the preservation of a man’s name, for if this were destroyed or forgotten he lost his identity, and it seems that at one period it was thought that the destruction of a man’s name involved the destruction of his whole being. To introduce a nameless man to Ra or Osiris in heaven was impossible. The name of the deceased is always mentioned several times on his tomb and coffin and papyrus (when there is one), and it occurs prominently on every article of his funeral furniture. The various portions of man’s material and spiritual bodies mentioned above represent different phases of psychological belief, and probably belong to different periods in the development of the Egyptians ; but they were never forgotten by the people, and they appear in religious texts which were written centuries after belief in many of them had become very vague. As a whole the Egyptians were extremely religious, but they never troubled themselves with abstruse philosophical ques- tions concerning their beliefs like many peoples of antiquity, for so to do was foreign to their nature and disposition, and they were probably incapable of it. They devoted most of their energies to the building of tombs to hold their own bodies, and to the worship of their ancestors ; they called their tombs “ houses of eternity,” and they left nothing undone which would enable them to rise again and to enjoy immortality. A moment’s consideration will show that only the rich could indulge in costly tombs and tomb furniture, and expensive mummification, but the poorest men hoped to enter the kingdom of Osiris and to partake of everlasting life, for the priests worked out means whereby they could safely dispense with the pomps and ceremonies which attended the burial of the rich. The righteous man, rich or poor, who was provided with words of power, could make himself independent of the ordinary limits of time and space, and obtain everything he wanted. CHAPTER X. Egyptian Gods. The following is a list of the principal Egyptian gods and goddesses, with their names in hieroglyphics ; at the end of it will be found pictures of 57 of them, outlined in the forms in which they most commonly occur : — Amen () ^ J 1 AA/VW\ i l AMEN - RA d^s3 Originally a local god of Thebes, he usurped the attributes of all the great gods, and when joined to Ra, he was regarded as the “ king of the gods.” His name is often found joined to that of Amsu, or Menu and as such he is the god of generation and fecundity. A certain kind of Ram was sacred to him. Amset one of the four children of Horus, to whose care were entrusted the stomach and large intestines of the deceased ; he is represented with the head of a man. Ani jj (j(j a form of the Moon-god. part was An it. His female counter- Anthat , a goddess of war and hunting ; she was of Syrian origin. Anpu the god of the dead, who assisted at the embalmment of Osiris, and was the guardian of all mummies. He was present at the Judgment. The jackal was sacred to him, 1 18 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GODS. An-Heru p=q , a god of This, in Upper Egypt, whose position was usurped by Osiris. Anqet, a goddess of the First Cataract. Apt tj ° ^e hippopotamus goddess of Thebes. Ap-uat \Jf a god who appeared in the form of a jackal; he seems to have assisted Anubis in “opening the ways ” of the dead. •< 2 >- Asar jJ ^J, i.e.j Osiris, the god and judge of the dead. The seats of his worship were at Abydos and Busiris. Asar-Hap ^ ^ > Serapis, i.ei, the deified Apis Bull. Ast j" ^ , i.e. ? Isis, the wife of Osiris, and mother of Horus. Astes Atemu a local S od of Heliopolis, who per- sonified the sun-god as the closer of the day. He is repre- sented in the form of a man, and the lion and lotus were sacred to him. Baba a son of Osiris. EA r j Baal, a Semitic god. Names of Egyptian goes. the Dwarf-god from Central Africa. He was the god of mirth and pleasure. Bast j [1 jj ^ , the Cat-goddess, whose seat of worship was Bubastis, in the Delta. Ha pi ^ ^ ’ one °f ^ ie f° ur children of Horus, to whose care were entrusted the small intestines • of the deceased ; he is represented with the head of an ape. Hapi $ 0 , the Nile-god. Xn. \\ %££ Hapi | '$^5 the Apis Bull. Heru Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, the young Sun-god. Heru-netch-tef- f “ Horus, pro- tector of his father.” Heru-ur , i.e.j “ Horus the elder.” Heru-p-khart (Harpocrates.) i.€., “ Horus the Child.” Heru-khuti , i.e ., “ Horus ol the two Horizons,” a form of the Sun-god. Heru-khenti-an-maati , the Blind Horus. 120 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GODS. Heru-shefi i cm ~g> Jj , the Sun-god of Herakleopolis. Hu , the god of taste. Het-Heru i.e., Hathor, the goddess of love and beauty ; a special kind of cow was sacred to her. J\ - lUSAASE L' (S kf 1 , one of the chief goddesses of Heliopolis. em-hetep ^ i.e., Imouthes, a native of Memphis who was deified after his death ; he and Herutataf, son of Cheops, were held to be the two most learned men of Egypt. Khepera tj , the Beetle-god, a form of Ra, and the creator of the world. Khnemu Q First Cataract. Khensu or Khonsu , the Potter-god and Ram-god of the , the Moon-god. Khensu-nefer-hetep /WWV\ of the Moon-god. another form Maat the goddess of right, truth, law, order, etc. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GODS. I 2 I Menhet Menthu R ^ /WWW /X Q AVWNA a form of Bast or Sekhet. ^ , a War-god of Hermonthis. Meh-urt c< = : ^ < — -> , a sky-goddess, who is depicted in the form of a cow, Mersekert ffi , a goddess of the Underworld, who is depicted in the form of a woman-headed serpent. i Meskhenet birth-chamber. '*Zr\ a , a goddess who presided over the Mut the mother-goddess par excellence , wife of Amen-Ra, the king of the gods. Neb-er-tcher 1 “l° r d of wholeness,” a name of Osiris. Nebt-het Anubis. Nephthys, sister of Osiris, and mother of Nefer-Temu Memphis. i son of Ptah and Sekhet of >tZZK Net , i.e , Neith, the goddess of Sais, who existed in four aspects or forms. She was called “One,” was self- produced, and was declared by her devotees to have begotten and given birth to the Sun-god. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GOBS. Nekhebet ^ ^ ^fj, probably the oldest goddess of Cppei* Egypt ; she was worshipped under the form of a vulture. Nu , the god of the primeval water abyss, and “father of the gods . 5 Nut ^ ^ J) , the female counterpart of Nu. Neheb-ka ^jjuna. a serpent-goddess who per- formed many offices for the dead. □ ©A Pakhet 0 21 a local Cat-goddess. Ptah D jj ^ , a form of the Sun-god, and the master-craftsman of the world. He was the head of the triad of Memphis, Ptah, Sekhet, Bast. Ptah-Seker the night sun. Ptah-Seker-Asar □ a foi^m of the dead Sun-god, or the triune god of Ptah-Tatenen ■ 1-1 /WWSA , the creator of the great the Resurrection □ SN cosmic egg. Oebh-sennuf /WWVS /\ i lA yVWWA , one of the four children of Horus, to whose care were entrusted the liver and gall- bladder of the deceased ; he is represented with the head of a hawk. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GODS* 23 Ra a , the Sun-god of Egypt, and creator of the world. Ra-Herukhuti , i.e ., Ra-Harmachis, the Sun-god of Egypt. , a goddess who presided over birth, the goddess of harvest. Renenet ,WW\A pJT i /WWNA O V 1 Rennut <=>tk ^ /VWVSA V> A/WWS -/) \J Reshpu m ^ , was introduced into Egypt from Syria. Sa , god of intelligence. Satet a Nubian goddess of the First Cataract. Seker the great god of the Underworld of Memphis. Shai TYfyf god of luck, or destiny. See, or Qeb Jj ^ > the god who laid the cosmic egg, husband of Nut. Sebek |] Jj the Crocodile-god. Sept ^ i.e., Sothis, the Dog-star. 124 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN GODS. P 0 ^ ^ ^ th e wife of Ptah of Memphis. Sekhet oldest form of her name is Sekhmet. The p Serqet,. , /A , 1 A O " n ’ Seshetat /&■ the Scorpion-goddess, the goddess of writing and literature. Set the brother and murderer of Osiris, opponent of Horus the Elder, and of Horus son of Osiris and Isis. About b.c. 1200 he was no longer worshipped as a god, but was regarded as a power of evil, and he became the god of the burning desert, and of waste and destruction. The animal sacred to him has not yet been identified. Shu ^ ^/j , god of the air, and bearer up of the sky. It was he who separated Nut from the embrace of Seb, i.t., the sky from the earth. His female counterpart was Tefnet. Sutekh a g°d °f the Syrians and Hittites, identified with Set. ™ . - ] | MAAM 4" lANEN i *44— $ Ta-Tenen /WWNA I W /WWSA a cosmic god. Ta-urt Tefnet O , the Hippopotamus-goddess. , the female counterpart of Shu. Tuamutef 4: ^/j » one °f four children of Horus, to whose care were entrusted the heart and lungs of the deceased ; he is represented with the head of a jackal. SACRED BIRDS, ANIMALS, FISH, ETC. I2 5 Tehuti the scribe of the gods, inventor of astronomy and mathematics. Temu see Atem. Tetun , an ancient god of the Northern Sudan, whose principal sanctuary seems to have been at Semna, in the Second Cataract. Uatchit , one of the oldest goddesses of Lower Egypt ; the seat of her worship was at Pa-Uatchit, a city which was called by the Greeks Buto. Un-nefer Urt-hekau , a name of Osiris. U ^ Pn > a form of Isis. The principal sacred birds, animals, etc., were : — The hawk, sacred to solar gods ; the vulture, sacred to Mut and cognate gods; the ibis, sacred to Thoth ; the ram, sacred to Khnemu, Amen, Osiris, etc. ; the lion, sacred to Temu, Horus, Aker, etc. ; various kinds of bulls, sacred to Apis, Mnevis, Osiris, Amen, etc. ; the cow, sacred to Hathor and cognate gods; the cat, sacred to Bast; the ichneumon, sacred to Uatchit ; the sow, sacred to Isis ; the hare, sacred to Osiris; the jackal, sacred to Anubis, Ap-uat, etc.; the shrewmouse, sacred to Horus; the dog=headed ape, sacred to Thoth; the hippopotamus, sacred to Hathor; various kinds of fish, sacred to Hat-mehit and other deities ; the crocodile, sacred to Sebek ; the scorpion, sacred to Selqet ; the beetle, sacred to Ra and Khepera ; the uraeus, sacred to Nekhebet, Uatchit, and other goddesses ; various kinds of serpents, sacred to Seker and to many earth gods and goddesses. 126 FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. Amset, or Mestha (son of Horus). FORMS 'OF EGYPTIAN GODS. I27 The God Bennu (i.e., the Soul of Osiris). 128 FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. Mert, Goddess of the Inundation. The Goddess Mut. The Goddess Nebt-het (Nephthys). I 29 The Goddess Nebt-het (Nephthys). I 130 FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. The Goddess Net (Neith). The God Ptah-Seker. The Goddess Renenet. FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. 1 3 1 I 2 x 3 2 FORMS OF EGYPTIAN GODS. The God Tehuti (Thoth). The Goddess Nut-Hekau. T 33 CHAPTER XI. The Egyptian Language and Writing. The Egyptian language has formed the subject of many lengthy and learned dissertations, and even at the present day scholars are not agreed as to the exact place which must be assigned to it among the African and Asiatic languages. It contains fundamental elements of African origin, and a very large number of, biliteral words in it have been preserved from pre -dynastic times ; on the other hand, there are found, even in early texts, many triliteral words, which in the ordinary way we should say were of Semitic origin. Besides these, there are several words — e.g., the pronouns — which are identical in lorm and meaning with genuine Semitic words ; and there are, of course, a considerable number of loan words, of which the Hebrew originals are well known. These facts have induced some writers to assert that the ancient Egyptian language was Semitic, and to discuss it as if it were a Semitic dialect; but it is far more likely to have descended from an African language which possessed certain characteristics in common with the older forms of some of the Semitic dialects now known to us. The oldest form of Egyptian writing is the hieroglyphic, in which the various objects, animate and inanimate, which the pictures represent are depicted as accurately as possible. A remarkable peculiarity of hieroglyphic writing is the slight modification of form which the characters have suffered during a period of thousands of years, but it will be readily understood that such an elaborate system of writing became extremely inconvenient under certain circumstances. So long as inscrip- tions were of a ceremonial or funereal character, and were intended to last for a very long time, it was natural enough to make use of elaborately drawn or carved pictures of objects ; but in the case of letters and documents which concerned the ordinary business of life the picture system was found to be too cumbrous in cases where haste was required. The scribes, when writing upon papyrus, or making drafts of inscriptions 134 EGYPTIAN WRITING. which had to be cut in stone afterwards, began by abbreviating and modifying the characters, taking care, however, that the most salient characteristics of the object represented were preserved. Little by little the hieroglyphics lost much of their pictorial character, and many of them degenerated into signs, which formed the cursive writing which ancient and modern scholars have called Hieratic. This was extensively used by the priests in all periods, and though it occupied originally a subordinate position in respect of hieroglyphics, a good know- ledge of it was of great importance to the learned in Egypt. Soon after the rule of the XXIInd dynasty the scribes invented a series of purely arbitrary or conventional modifications of the hieratic characters, and so a new style of writing called Enchorial or Demotic came into existence. It was used at first chiefly for business or social purposes, but at length copies of the Book of the Dead and lengthy literary compositions were written in it. In the Ptolemaic period Demotic was con- sidered to be of such importance that whenever the text of a royal decree was inscribed upon a stele which was to be set up in some public place, and was intended to be read by the public in general, a version of the said decree written in the Demotic character was added. Thus on the Rosetta Stone the Demotic inscription occupies the middle portion of the face of the stone, and when this stone was fixed on its pedestal the Demotic text was probably on the eye line of the beholder ; the hieroglyphic version was above it, and the Greek below. In the case of the Rosetta Stone the decree of the priests which is cut upon it is probably a copy of the original document from which the hieroglyphic transcript and the Greek translation were made. The later equivalent of the ancient Egyptian language is called Coptic, and of this four or five dialects are known. Its name is derived from the name of the old Egyptian city, Qebt, through the Arabic Qubt, which in its turn was intended to represent the Greek Al^yvnos. The literature written in Coptic is chiefly Christian ; some think that the Holy Scriptures were translated into it in the second century, and some hold that this did not take place until the fourth century, and others assert that it was not until the eighth century that a translation of the whole of the Old Testament was made into Coptic. Curiously enough, Coptic is written with the letters of the Greek alphabet, to which were added six characters THE ROSETTA STONE. *35 derived from the Demotic forms of ancient Egyptian hiero- glyphics, to express sounds which were peculiar to the Egyptian language. The hieroglyphic system of writing ceased to be in general use long before the close of the Roman rule in Egypt, and the place, both of it and of hieratic, was taken by Demotic ; the widespread use of Greek and Latin among the governing and upper classes of Egypt also caused the disappearance of Egyptian as the language of state. The study of hieroglyphics was prosecuted by the priests probably until the end of the fifth century of our era, but very little later the ancient inscriptions had become absolutely a dead letter, and, until the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was neither an Oriental nor a European who could either read or understand a hieroglyphic inscription. In the eighteenth century Warburton divined the existence of alphabetic characters, De Guignes rightly guessed that some of the signs were determinatives, and Zoega thought that the hieroglyphics were letters, and that the oval rings, c or cartouches, contained royal names. In 1799 the Rosetta Stone was found among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien at Rosetta by M. Boussard, but it came into the possession of the British a year later, and in 1802 was deposited in the British Museum. The inscription on the stone is a decree of the priests of Memphis, in which the good deeds of Ptolemy Y, Epiphanes, b.c. 205 to b.c. 181, are enumerated, and it orders that divine honours shall be paid to him ; it further decrees that statues of the king shall be set up in every temple of Egypt, and orders that a copy of the decree, inscribed on a basalt stele in Hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek characters, shall be set up in each of the first, second, and third grade temples near the king’s statue. The importance of this stone is very great, for the decipherment of hieroglyphics is centred in it, and it supplied the clue which has resulted in the restoration of the ancient Egyptian language and literature. When the Rosetta Stone was first discovered, Napoleon Bonaparte ordered it to be taken to Cairo, and placed in a building with the other monuments which his soldiers had collected, for he intended to found an Academy there. He caused lithographic copies of the inscriptions to be prepared, and these he distributed among the savants of Europe ; the Greek version was first translated into French and Latin by Ameilhon, and Akerblad, a Swede, identified 136 YOUNG AND CHAMPOLLION. some of the royal names in the Demotic text, and pub- lished a Demotic alphabet in 1802. Between 1814 and 1818 Dr. Thomas Young proved the existence of alpha- betic and syllabic characters in hieroglyphic writing, and he identified correctly the names of six gods, and those of Ptolemy and Berenice; he also discovered the true values of six letters of the alphabet, and the correct consonantal value of three more. '1 his he did some years before Champollion published his Egyptian alphabet, and as priority of publication must be accepted as indication of priority of discovery, credit should be given to Young for at least this contribution towards the decipherment of Egyptian hiero- glyphics. About the year 1818 the cartouche of Cleopatra was correctly identified by Mr. Bankes from a bilingual inscription in Greek and hieroglyphs, which mentioned two Cleopatras and one Ptolemy. In 1822 Champollion published a masterly dissertation on hieroglyphics, and incorporated in it the correct results of Young’s labours ; his philological and linguistic studies enabled him to carry the work much further than ever Young could have done, and his subsequent labours form the foundation of the modern science of Egyptology. For the superstructure we have to thank — to mention the names of dead Egyptologists only — Birch, Lepsius, Hincks, Brugsch, Chabas, Diimicben and de Rouge. The hieroglyphic spellings of the names Ptolemy, Cleopatra, Berenice, Arsinoe, Tiberius Caesar, and Alexander, and the values assigned to the characters by the early workers are as follows : — □ P qT T ] O L M Ptolemy. Z1K S^Llj^flO ° till = a = Cleopatra. t R Qs(] E ^f N t \ l |i g j| = Berenice. a <->r ... S \jr b 0 ,y N ^ A t ? J = Arsinoe. I s Is J = Tiberius Oesar. r k s N t r s 3 Alexander. EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 137 Further investigations of the hieroglyphic forms of the names and titles of Greek and Roman kings and emperors, and of their wives and daughters, enabled Champollion to deduce the syllabic values of other signs, and at length to compile a classified syllabary. The letters which he collected from the proper names and titles of Greek and Roman rulers of Egypt may be given in tabular form, thus : — A ra q A or E H ijljorw 1 0orU J KH S a T \ T □ P v N Z1 TCH K K R, L Z5 K It will be noticed that we have three different kinds of K, three of T, two of H, and three of A. At the early date when the values of the hieroglyphics were first recovered it was not possible to decide the exact difference between the varieties of sounds which these letters represented; the values of the letters of the complete alphabet are as follows : — i 3 8 EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. i 1 1 9 □ n e A n A n JQ A c (Arabic) or ^ I D or @ U to ^ or A/VWSA or v B P F M N R L- n 2 A ffi n ^ E cfr 1 °, 'i H H KH (or x ) SH (or S) K Q K (or G) T T (or DH) TH (or 0) TCH (or T) The Egyptian alphabet has, in respect of guttural and other sounds, something in common with the Semitic dialects, and therefore the letters of the Hebrew alphabet have been added for purposes of comparison. Every hieroglyphic character is a picture of some object, animate or inanimate. The simplest use of hieroglyphics is, of course, as pictures, thus : — a hare, an owl, a a wasp or hornet, vy a lotus flower, a head. bull. EGYPTIAN PICTURE SIGNS. T 39 a star, ^ a pyramid, ^ a leg and foot, and so on. But hieroglyphics may also represent ideas , e.g., a wa ^ falling down sideways represents the idea of ‘‘falling”; a hall in which deliberations by wise men were held represents the idea of counsel a man grasping a staff indicates the act of striking, light, contest, etc. ; J a musical instrument repre- sents the idea of pleasure, happiness, joy, and so on. Characters used in this way are called ideographs. Now every picture of every object must have had a name, or we may say that each picture was a word-sign, and a list of these arranged in proper order would have made a dictionary in the earliest times. But if it were necessary to write the name of a foreign potentate, or of some object, a scribe would have to employ a number of characters which possessed the requisite sound values, without any regard to their meaning as pictures. Let us take the name “Alexander,” one form of which was I] <=> — Now the first sign is a ALK SNTR S picture of a reed, the second and seventh of a mouth, the third of a bowl with a ring handle, the fourth and eighth of a door-bolt, the fifth of the surface of rippling water, and the sixth of a cake ; in this name each of these characters is em- ployed for the sake of its sound only. In one case, , a sign is used to express the sounds of both L and R, unless the name was pronounced “ Al[e]ks[a]ntl[e]s. The need for characters which could be employed to express sounds only , caused the Egyptians at a very early date to set aside a considerable number of picture signs for this purpose, and to these the name of phonetics has been given. Phonetics are of two classes, alphabetic and syllabic. The alphabetic phonetics have already been given, and examples of syllabic phonetic characters are the following : — as hem , ndr, kheper , hen , p=3 pe^ i fr^T uat , > nef, . hetep , and so on. 140 EGYPTIAN DETERMINATIVES : In the earliest dynastic inscriptions known to us, hieroglyphic characters are used as pictures, ideographs and phonetics side by side, which proves that these distinctions must have been invented in pre-dynastic times. Many ideographs possess more than one phonetic value, in which case they are called polyphones ; and many ideographs representing entirely different objects have similar values, in which case they are called homophones. So long as the Egyptians used picture writing pure and simple, their meaning was easily understood, but when they began to spell their words with alphabetic signs and syllabic values of picture signs, which had no reference whatever to the original meaning of the signs, it was at once found necessary to indicate in some way the meaning and even sounds of many of the words so written ; this they did by adding to them signs which are called determinatives. Thus, in the word tekhen , ^ ^ |1 , “ obelisk,” the sign for obelisk is the specific determinative of the word tekhen. As examples of the use of general determinatives may be mentioned : — man beckoning with his right hand, which is raised ; determinative of “to call.” 2. a man seated, with his hand to his mouth ; determinative of to eat, to think, to speak, etc. 3. 1^1 a hide of an animal ; determinative of animal. 4- rain falling from the sky ; determinative of storm, thunder, etc. 5. O the solar disk ; determinative of time. 6. ^ a pair of legs ; determinative of actions performed by the legs. EXAMPLES OF THEIR USE. The following words illustrate their use : — nas to call. T 4 I . /vww\ 6 . M fete □ /WWSA O y - — a i i i o 0 ^ vJL MAMA y\ y\ j ra ^ ii v\ /ww\a ^ sura sekha ker pennu shenrd rek unnut hru aha peh hab khent sper to eat. to drink. to remember. to be silent. mouse. tempest. time. hour. day. to stand, to arrive* to send, to step, to come forth. 42 EGYPTIAN INSCRIPTIONS. Many words have more than one determinative : thus in the word qebh “cool water” A 1 « jy/vwv\A 3=1 } the last three Y\ I A /www characters MAAAA AAAA/SA /WS/SAA are determinatives ; in the word shat “ to slay,” 1 "" n ^ 5 ^ an d are deter- L—ZI minatives ; and in the word rekhit “ rational beings ” < 0 > (j (| ^ ^ ^fj | » ^e sign is a determinative of sound, are determinatives showing that men and women are referred to, and I is the determinative of plurality. /VWWS Q In the word nemmehu “poor folk” the pictures of a child and a man Mf* , and a woman are the determinatives, and show that the word nemmeh means a number of human beings of both sexes, who are in the condition of helpless children. We have seen how ideographs, and alphabetic and syllabic phonetic signs, and determinatives may be used in writing words, let us now take a connected passage from a text and observe how the hieroglyphics are arranged therein. The passage reads : — pp 1 ra I CS I 1 I I I 1 A Cl I ~n— /VVWVA *- MAAM I AWAA EGYPTIAN INSCRIPTIONS. J 43 We will now break up the extract into words, for whether written horizontally or perpendicularly the words of an inscription are never separated from each other by the Egyptians ; we will mark the determinatives by an asterisk,* and the syllabic values by a dagger t, and leave the alphabetic signs unmarked, and add the transliteration with the translation arranged interlinearly. <2>-j Vi 1 1 1 ^ ^ i ^ au ari - na heseset reth hereret I have done what is pleasing to men, [and] what is gratifying i I neteru her - s au td - - na to the gods because of it I have given 8 ^ mam y < r en heqer to the hungry, P sesa - a I have filled ft H I au shes - na I have followed neter aa / — \TJ I em 1 per - in his house. l /WWSA i ill* taic bread III * at the destitute, an not * i * re-a shenit was magnified my mouth against the nobles, an not TV J\ * d I kll pet nemmat-a making long my stride, I i A shem - a her sa I walked according to 144 EXAMPLES OF EGYPTIAN WORDS. - y 1 * AAAAAA khent maat sheps ari - na em the step of dignity, I acted according to the law t ! T AAAAAA suten mer en beloved of the king. The following common words will also illustrate the use of phonetics and determinatives : — AAAAAA £3 Ui r~r ~ — Si /WWW fj an skin. shenti hair. fent nose. abeh tooth. nes tongue. tcheru skull. nehebet neck. erment shoulder. d hand and arm. at back. EXAMPLES OF EGYPTIAN WORDS. T 45 /WWNA u° ^ I ra © merit breast. db heart. madset liver. uart thigh. hdu flesh. at members. tehen forehead. dfihu eyebrows. senf blood. q 1 pet sky. 1 n ta earth. - a l ra sun. *1— * a bah moon. p*j seb star. ra ^ hru day. a j o kerb night. K CHAPTER XII. Hymn to Ra, from the Papyrus of Ani. The following is the text of a hymn with interlinear trans- literation and translation, which will serve to give the reader an idea of the manner in which the Egyptians strung words together, and will show how alphabetic and syllabic characters, and determinatives, are used in a religious composition : — tua - tuau Ra x e ft uben - f An adoration of Ra when he riseth cQa cCl ti rwi /WW\A o □ ^ I - 11 em XUt abtet ent pet ha en in the horizon eastern of heaven. Rejoice A\*- n m amu - x e t - f a Ansar those who are in his train. Hail Osiris em maax^ru with the word of t t'et - f a at* saith he : Hail A ^ II /WWW 1 o aten pui neb Disk that, lord * Maat kheru means, word of maat , “[whose] word [is to become] maat or, “whose word is law.” The scribe Ani is supposed to have arrived at the state wherein he has the power of uttering his words in such a way that they must have the effect he wishes them to have. HYMN TO RA. 147 T>M | rj mmm ! ^J 3 - 0 c2) 0 1 satetu uben em yU t hrn neb of rays, rising in the horizon day every ; & T /WWW jj J ^ /www r\ r\ q Mnim pest - k em hrci en A usar Ani do thou shine upon the face of Osiris Ani, * em maayeru J with the word \ f of madt. j ^ 4 -*iJ tua - f tu em tuait He adoreth thee at daybreak, ^ □ u se - hetep - f tu he maketh to rest thee with praise CTZ2 A & per ba en Ausar May come forth the soul of Osiris 5 . /VWSAA hena - k with thee er pet into heaven. x=x Maatet 1^5 AMAAA mena mdseru at eventide. I I I Ani maaxeru a • f with the word \ ’ [ of madt , ) IV- & ntu - f em may he go forth in / & em <0 Sektet the Maatet boat, may he come into port in the Sektet boat, k 2 O D 148 HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT. abex ~ f cm axemu - urt em may he go in among the stars which never set in u a pet heaven. Ausar Osiris /WWW I I I A ni hetep-Oa maaxeru Ani, being at peace {«*“} t'et f saas - f neb f neb saith he, adoreth he his lord, the lord of M T •= heh anet' - hra - k eternity, [saying] : Homage to thee, Hern - Horus of the two horizons, X^pera pit x e P er t' esef nefenu Khepera that is, [who] created himself ; doubly beautiful nben k em x u t se ~ h e ^ ~ k [is] thy rising in the horizon, thou shinest upon tain em the two lands with Till'- 7TM sat 11 k thy beams. nebu all neteru Gods HYMN TO RA. 149 em haaui maa s\en\ tu are in rejoicing [when] they see thee ] 0 | /WWW □ 0 F =3 em suten en pet in the condition of king of heaven. r ~\ a/vw\a 1 vU v Nebt Unnut Nebt-Unnut men - 6a em tep - k is placed upon thy head ; qemdt s her portion of the south meht - s [and] her portion of the north em dpt - k [are] on thy forehead ; io A\ /vww\ CJ au ari - nes auset - s em hat - k Tehuti she maketh her place before thee. Thoth / AAAAAA 0 1 1 men em hat uaa - k her is fixed in the front of thy boat to /WWW I I I sesunnet xtftiu - k nebu dmu annihilate thy enemies all, Those who dwell HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT. t 5° a L 4-\h tuat per em X ese f u " & in the netherworld come forth to meet thee with bowings, \ i2 -°^ i er and to sent see [thy] Image pu neper that beautiful. n ✓VWsAA JITS $ M i - na x er - k dud hena - k er I have come before thee, may I be with thee to maa see f u. * 1 xena - tu not be shut in, A ^ / /ww\a V. o ^—7 Ho 1 aaaaaa dten - k hru neb an thy disk day every, may [I] \ ^ 13 -S ✓WSAAA - fl an senar - tu may [I] not be turned back, \\ - fl £ III I III main hau - a em teka neferu-k may be renewed my members by the sight of thy beauties, .21 md hesi - k nebu like thy favoured ones all, ~7 /VWSAA 14. V III I Cl G. 0 her entet nuk because I am ua one HYMN TO RA. 51 AAAAAA em ennu of those Q AAAAAA AAAAAA I 000 | en sepses - nek tep ta who worshipped thee upon earth. AAAAAA j\ 'S <=> '^f VSAAAA St AAAAAA J\ ^ W ft' 1 AAAAAA J $ er ta en t'etta entek as utu - na the land of everlastingness ; thou, behold, hast ordered for me set neb - a it, my lord. a A nsar Hail Osiris I I I Ani Ani, maaxerii f with the word \ \ of maat , j em in hetep maayeru t'et - f anet'-hra-k peace,| wl ^ t ^JJ ord J-hesaith : Homage to thee, uben - k thou risest r 10 \2sscs em x u ^ " ^ em Ra in thy horizon as Ra, □ ^ «- 1 t' a - k pet hra Thou passest over the sky, face 0 $ . ^ □ 1 hetep her Maat stablished by Maat ! 1 ^2=-/ -> neb her maa - k every is for watching thee 152 HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT. ✓vwwv I I I ^5>A 1 /WW\A ' U ' ■ semt - k amen em hra - sen and thy progress, having been hidden from face[s] their; V *“ko □n ta - k - tu tuat em thou givest thyself [at] dawn [and] at maseru eventide ra ° i 0 f\ hru retiu seqtet yer day [every]. Goeth forward in strength the Sektet boat having hen - k thy majesty; T“Mi satu - k thy beams shine I I MMW em hrau an in [all] faces, not 4 ” 1 ! e~\ rt I /wwv\ rey - set smu (?) an known are they [thy] rays, not M sma can be told 19 m i ammu - k thy beams. taiu The lands 0 1 nu of in neteru the gods <2>- maa cs entu §■ i her r^o set must be looked upon, and the colours of th§ eastern countries 0 I nu of [— | A/WWA a HYMN TO FLY llll ° Punt er Punt for to be JO _ 20. ^ sap - tu computed r LLLU-U ; WWAA • amen what is hidden. -- M AA/W/W | un - re - f dri - k ua - da sem Thou makest alone by thyself [thy] form in its appearance, /VWVVN | l> ' 'l /WWW i ft xeperu - k tep Nu thou comest into existence above Nu. auf He, er 21 I— AAAAAA J an sem - f matet er semt - k may he progress even as thou progressest, not U\° M !' dri - nef abu hen may he make ceaaation even,, {' “™,te3“ h } •Sfto hru for a period ketet little, kept striding, uau - 6a travelling over I ! atru distances em of i heh millions of years I hefnu j and hundreds ^ \ of thousands / *54 HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT. at in one moment (*) /vwwv CTY C J serat little ; £Z=123 aru - nek thou doest set it 0 * I I MAMA £2* O I unnut hetep - nek qem - nek and thou settest. Thou makest an end of the hours c IT y\ set kerh matet mesmes - nek of the night, likewise thou dost thyself count them, MAMA qem - nek ma thou endest [them] according to enta - k thy statutes, het ' - ta and the earth becomelh S. uben - k em thou risest in ra - k em Ra thy work under the form of Ra, 24 . light. ta - k - tu er Thou givest thyself to C&> 1 1 i yut Ausar an the horizon. Osiris, scribe Ani maaxeru t'et - f Ani Jwith the wordy h esaith , I of maat , J ’ HYMN TO RA. T 55 25.* si- tua - f he adoreth tu em thee in nek em to thee in o uben - k pest - k t'et - f thy shining, he saith tuau - k em thy rising when thou makest dawn in i\ W I I I yeperu - k 26. A seqa yeperu - tz yaa - /z exulting over thy coming into existence : Thou art crowned I III em seaaa neferu-k hepiu - u nub k in the majesty of thy beauties, advancing thou mouldest Pi* a \\ ati men ? Ill hau - k messu ati men mestu - f thy limbs, bringing them forth painlessly ; born is he 27. o em Ra in the form of Ra, uben rising em hert in the upper regions. ta - k peh - a hert /WWVA ent O heh Grant thou that I may reach the heaven of everlastingness * 5 6 HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT. a set ent hesiu sma - a and the mountain of [thy] favoured ones, may I be joined 28 . & 5§T l Z1 , i o i i em x u sepsi aqer nu with the shining beings, holy and perfect of a "ZD J\ Neteryert the netherworld, per - a may I come forth I X fl I I I hend - sen with them er to maa neferu-k thy beauties. see r 57 CHAPTER XIII. The Learning of the Ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed among the nations of antiquity a great reputation for being both religious and learned : we have given in the preceding chapter a brief sketch of some of the most salient features of the Egyptian religion, and it now remains to indicate shortly the principal characteristics of the learning of the people of Egypt in the dynastic period. The custom of embalming the dead taught the Egyptians a certain amount of practical anatomy, and tradition asserts that they possessed many works on this subject ; it is, however, clear that beyond a knowledge of the skeleton, and a good acquaint- ance wdth the various organs which they removed from the body when preparing it for embalming, their information con- cerning the body was limited. They recognized that the heart was the principal member of the body, and they understood the functions of the main veins and arteries, a fact which has caused some to say that the Egyptians discovered the circula- tion of the blood. The importance of the heart was known at a very early period, for the object of one of the oldest chapters in the Book of the Dead (XXXb) w r as its restoration to the deceased in the new life which he lived beyond the grave. In the chapter the deceased addresses his heart as “ My mother, my mother, O heart of my existence upon earth, 5 ’ and the words, according to the rubric, were to be recited over a green stone scarab set in gold. An ancient tradition indicates that the use of the beetle in connection with it dates from the time of Semti, about b.c. 4400, but there is little doubt that the beliefs which were associated with it were the product of pre- dynastic religious thought. In any case, the prayer given in Chapter XXXb was recited by pious Egyptians in the Ptolemaic period, and the deceased entered the Judgment Hall of Osiris with a prayer on his lips wdiich was then at least 4,000 years old. The knowledge of medicine possessed by the physicians of the dynastic period was probably of a higher class than their 158 EGYPTIAN MEDICINE AND BOTANY. anatomy, and it certainly involved a good practical acquaint- ance with botany. The climatic conditions of Egypt forced them to pay considerable attention to diseases of the eyes and stomach, and there is no doubt that they treated these with considerable success. In the Book of Medicine , commonly known as the Ebers Papyrus, a very large number of recipes are given, and an examination of these seems to indicate that in writing prescriptions the physician added many useless sub- stances to the one or two which he relied upon to effect the cure. He wished apparently to impress upon his patients the great amount of various kinds of knowledge which it was neces- sary for him to possess in dealing with their ailments, and some medicines contain a score or more of ingredients. As we should expect, decoctions of plants and herbs, vegetable powders and oil, fruit essences, etc., were largely used, and honey appears in many prescriptions. Associated with really useful remedies we find nauseous substances, such as urine, human and animal excreta, oil of snakes, beetles boiled in oil, etc. From the fact that many of these are prescribed as remedies for diseases which are of an entirely opposite character, it is clear that they were introduced into prescrip- tions merely for the sake of effect. That portion of Egyptian medicine which deals with indigestion, and the ills which result from cold and chill, shows that the Egyptian physician was able to cope successfully with the ordinary complaints of his fellow men, and the good and careful physician earned and obtained, then as now, the gratitude of mankind. Diseases of the eyes were especially studied by him, and we know that by means of certain mineral compounds, unguents, etc., he was able to find effectual remedies for the results of excessive light, the glare of the sun on the water, change of temperature, sand, dust, flies, etc. In Egyptian medicine, as in many other products of their civilization, there is much which belongs to the pre-dynastic period, and to the time when man was intensely ignorant and superstitious, and was obtaining his knowledge by bitter experience ; but it must be remembered that the Egyptian was only passing through the stage through which all ancient peoples have passed, and anyone who takes the trouble to compare some of the recipes of the Ebers Papyrus with many in some standard mediaeval medicine book will be surprised at the numerous points of resemblance. To what extent modern nations are indebted to the Egyptians in respect of medicine need not concern us here. EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMY. T 59 Astronomy. — There is no doubt that the Egyptians possessed a considerable amount of knowledge about the heavens, and that this is worthy of the name of astronomy. The first surveys of the stars were made by them for agricultural purposes, that is to say, they depended on the appearance of certain stars for knowing when the inundation of the Nile was coming near, and the best time for sowing their crops. At a very early period they invented a year which contained 12 months, each of 30 days, and because they found this year too short, they added to it five days, making in all 365. But inasmuch as the true solar year consists of nearly 365 \ days, it is clear that unless one day is intercalated every four years, the whole year must slip back one day every four years, and that it is only a question of time when midsummer day would fall on Christmas Day. Curiously enough, however, many of the Egyptians clung to the year of 365 days, although, as we know, they were fully aware that the year in common use was practically a quarter of a day too short. There may have been many reasons for their action in this respect, but the strongest of ail appears to have been the fact that the division of the year into 12 30-day months and the five additional days was a very ancient one, and that they had received from very early times the traditional custom of regarding certain days as lucky, and certain days as unlucky. Had they adopted the year of 365 days, with a day intercalated every four years, they would have been com- pelled to move their whole system of lucky and unlucky days every four years. Thus conservatism, and probably religious sentiment, caused them to cling to a changing year which only agreed with the true year once in 1,461 years. The practical difficulty as regards agriculture was overcome by the priests, who regarded as the true New Year’s Day, that day on which the star Sothis, /. £5 Aa-kheper-en-Ra, son of Nefer-khau-Tehuti-mes. the Sun, (Thothmes II.) C^Ll] Maat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hat-shepset-khnem-Amen. (Queen Hatshepsu.) Men-icheper-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes III.) Aa-kheperu-Ra, ¥ son of Amen-hetep neter heq the Sun, Annu. (Amenophis II.) ID r L Men-kheperu-Ra, son of TEHUTI-MES-KHA-KHAU. the Sun, (Thothmes IV.) Neb-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep heq Uast. (Amenophis HID ] ¥ QjiMJ SUTEN HEMT THI. (The Mesopotamian wife of Amenophis III.) NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 197 wCMPTI ¥ (fulfil Ci C* \ ill O V*V I AAAAAA V WAAM I (S ^/j Nefer-kheperu-Ra-ua- son of Amen-hetep neter heq en-Ra, the Sun, Uast (Amenophis IV.). r\ N ( j AAAAAA AAAAAA I yi e y j Khu-en-Aten. 1 HlMlftO a AAAAAA O SUTEN HEMT URT NEFER NEFERU-ATEN NEFERTI-ITH. Royal wife, great lady. « (^W 1 ¥ (A^VD Ankh-kheperu-Ra, son of Seaa-ka-nekht-kheperu-Ra. the Sun, M GlH ¥ re A f Till Neb-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tut-ankh-Amen heq Annu resu (?). m o a <0 \ H ¥ UHiTO] Kheper-kheperu-maat- son of Ari-Ra, the Sun, Atf-neter Ai neter #eq Uast. M CSli&l ¥ COMil Tcheser-kheperu-RA- son 01 setep-en-Ra, the Sun, Amen-meri-en Heru- em-ijeb. 198 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. MGOj Dynasty XIX. O $ O ifiQ C°f i; m , Ra-messu. (Rameses I.) Men-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-Seti. (Seti I.) Mh g M 0 ■> VWSA A (HHD Usr-maat-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of Ra-messu-meri-Amen. the Sun, (Rameses II.) ?CSt] SUTEN HEMT AuSET-NEFERT. SUTEN MUT, Royal wife, Royal mother, o Tui. U Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen, son of Ptah-meri-en-hetep-her- the Sun, maat. (Menephthah I.) Men-mA-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of Amen-meses-heq-Uast. the Sun, (Amen-meses.) summo ¥ (ion Usr-kheperu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Seti-meri-en-Ptah. Sun, (Seti II, ) t NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 199 Khu-en-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Ptah-meri-en-sa-Ptaij. Sun, (Menephthah II.) Usr-khau-Ra setep-en-Ra son of the Ra-meri Amen-merer meri-Amen, Sun, Set-nekht. (Set-Nekht.) Dynasty XX. Usr-maat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Ra-meses-heq-Annu. Sun, (Rameses III.) Usr-maat-Ra setep-en- son of the Ra-meses-meri-Amen- Amen, Sun, Ra heq maat. (Rameses IV.) Usr-maat-Ra s-kheper- son of Ra-mes-meri Amen- en-Ra, the Sun, Amen suten-f. (Rameses V.) Ra-Amen-maat- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses neter meri-neb, heq Annu. (Rameses VI.) 200 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 01 Ra-usr-Amen-meri- setep-en-Ra, (°4 -M'S-® 1 | ^11 AMAAA 1 Ra-MAAT-USR-KHU-EN- : Amen, ;u } ^ h f | /WWNA ( O “ AAAAAA heq-Annu. (Rameses VII.) ] ¥ GlIMLl Amen. (Rameses VIII.) \J\ s 111 (l a i Neb ta S-kha-en-Ra Meri- neb khau Ra-meses-sa-Ptah. Lord of the land, Amen, lord of crowns, (Rameses IX.) sQSS ¥ GSll] Nefer-kau-Ra setep- son of Ra-meses-merer-Amen- en-Ra, the Sun, kha-Uast (?). O ii AAA/N (Rameses X.) MSB Ra-kheper-maat setep- son of Ra-mes suten (?) Amen. eN-Ra, the Sun, (Rameses XI.) :] ¥ C Men-maat-Ra setep- son of the Ra-meses-merer-Amen kha en-Ra, Sun, Uast (?) neter heq Annu. (Rameses XII.) NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 201 Dynasty XXII. y QfmMT] Kheper-hetck-Ra son of Setep-en-Ra, the Sun, Amen-meri-Shashanq. (Shishak I.) r\ O A x ' A/WSAA 71 — / — * I AAAAM ^ \ I AA/W\A ^/j Sekhem-kheper-Ra son of setep-en-Ra, the Sun, Amen-meri UasArken. (OSORICON I.) (3D ^ Q Usr-Maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Thekeleth. * a WMAAA AAMAAA a Ra-usr-maat setep-en- son of Amen, the Sun, Amen-meri sa-Bast Uasarken. (Osorkon II.) 0 ft rai— -jo A/WWIA MW1M /'I _/_T MWAM o Kheper-sekhem-Ra son of the setep-en-Amen, Sun, Amen-Ra-meri Shasha[nq]. (Shishak II.) m Qiriifj ¥ Q5S3"’ ] Hetch-Ra setep-en-Amen, son of Amen-meri Auset-meri neter heq Uast, the Sun, Thekeleth. (Takeletu II.) 202 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. wGES ^ o°g«7nil Usr-maat-Ra son of the Amen-meri-Shashanq ijeq setep-en-Ra, Sun, ? ^ I) i 1 111 iai iu ]^ o y t AAAAAAA AAAA/VA NETER ANNU. (Shishak III.) Usr-maat-Ra setep- son of Amen-meri Pa-mAi. en-Amen, the Sun, (Pa-mai.) O A Aa-kheper-Ra son of the Sun, Shashanq. (Shishak IV.) J © T u j\ Dynasty XXIV O _7A a/vw^ Uah-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Bakenrenf. (Bocchoris.) 1 Ch AAAAAA King Kashta. m ( ° m §n ¥ GBD O .mmo, Men-kheper-Ra, son of the Sun, P-ankhi. c\ ^ Q /www ^ ¥ (ZB D Amen-meri P-ankhi, son of the Sun, P-ankhi. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 203 Dynasty XXV. a <0 Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Shabaka. (Sabaco.) Tet-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Shabataka. Ra-nefer-tem-khu, son of the Sun, Tahrq. (Tjrhakah.) l J Neter NEFER God beautiful, /VSAA/VA /WWVA ] S CCS*'] Usr-maat-Ra setep- en-Amen, lord of two lands, Amenrut. Dynasty XXVI. Uah-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, PSEMTHEK. (PSAMMETICHUS I.) @0 Nem-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun ? Nekau, (Necho II.', 04 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. mGlXD N Nefer-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psemthek. (PSAMMETICHUS II.) o Y O Haa-Ab-Ra, A .A son of the Sun, Uah-Ab-Ra. (Apries.) ¥ o m Khnem-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Aahmes-sa-net. (Amasis II.) f h] ¥ (333DI Ankii-ka-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Psemthek. (PSAMMETICHUS III.) $ Dynasty XXVII. © r 3H Mesuth-RA, son of the Sun, KembAthet. (Cambyses.) ¥ QCTfrm Settu-Ra, son of the Sun, Antariusha. (Darius PIystaspes.) Li Lord of two lands, Khshaiarsha. (Xerxes the Great,) NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 205 Artakhshashas. (Artaxerxes.) I (MS ¥ ( Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Antherirutsha. (Darius Xerxes). Dynasty XXX. S-netchem-Ab-Ra son of the setep-en-Amen, Sun, Nekht-Heru-hebt-meri- Amen. (Nectanebus I.) Kheper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Nekht-neb-f. (Nectanebus II.). Dynasty XXXII. m min i dam Setep-en-Ra-meri- son of the AleksAntres Amen, Sun, (Alexander the Dream ) neb taui Setep-en-Ra- son of the Phiuliupuas meri-Amen, Sun, (Philip Arrhidaeus). 206 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 1 \UZ ° D RA-qa-Ab-setep-en-Amen, son of the AleksAntres. Sun, (Alexander IV.) Dynasty XXXIII., Ptolemies. Is Cl Cl (X? 1 . 1^1 /WWW m 'N -9 O J ^ [P A Setep-en-RA-meri son of the Amen, Sun, Ptulmis (Ptolemy I. Soter I.). l f $ <=> nn a ^ l /WAAAA II ClO I Neter mut Bareniket. Divine Mother (Berenice I.). m Rvai ? O & ^ 4 Ra-usr-ka-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ptulmis. (Ptolemy II. Philadelphus.) lvh: i: sanEM) Sutenet sat suten sent suten hemt neb taui Arsenat Royal daughter, royal sister, royal wife, lady of the two lands (Arsinoe) } it GfcSS Suten sat suten sent Royal daughter, royal sister PlLATRA (Philotera). NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 207 y: a iU t' Erpa-ur-qebh-BAaArenekAt. Berenice (III.). Ptolemy XII. (Alexander II.), wanting. I ^ /WW\A7V\AAM Q ^ \\ ^ fl ^ *ywY /www. P-neter-n-aa-enti-nehem-Ptah-setep-en-Ari-maat-en- Ra-Amen-sekhem-ankh son of the Sun, Ptualmis ankh tchetta Ptah Auset meri. Ptolemy (XIII.), living for ever, beloved of Isis and Ptah. Neb taui Lady of two lands, Qlapetrat tchettu-nes Trapenet. Cleopatra (V.), called is she Tryphaena. Heqt taui Queen of two lands. Qluapeter. Cleopatra (VII.) Suten net neb King of North and lord of South, taui Ptualmis. two lands, Ptolemy (XIV.) 301 O Ra sa son of the Sun, III neb khau lord of diadems, Kiseres ankh tchetta Ptah Auset meri Caesar, living for ever, of Ptaij and Isis beloved. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 2 1 1 iQs Suten net King of North and South, fM Z) 0 neb lord of taui two lands, Auteqreter Autocrator, aa o (3 ilh 0 D TEEEX Q III Ra sa neb khau Kiseres anich tchetta Ptah Auset meri S un’s son lord of crowns, Caesar (Augustus), living for ever, of Ptah and Isis beloved. Suten net \> \> neb taui Auteqreter Ra sa Autocrator, son of the Sun, Tebaris Kiseres ankh tchetia Tiberius Cesar living for ever. S III neb khau lord of diadems, Heq hequ Autekreter Ptah Auset-meri K ing of kings, Autocrator, of Ptah and Isis beloved, son of the Sun, Qais Kaiseres Kermeniqis. Gaius (Caligula) Caesar Germanicus. Suten net neb taui CM3j!!S] Auteqreter Kiseres Autocrator Caesar, O 2 2 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. Ra sa neb khau Qlutes Tibaresa. Sun’s son, lord of crowns, Claudius Tiberius. 4 y neb taui Heq ipequ-setep-en-Auset meri Ptah King of North and lord of Ruler of rulers, chosen one of Isis, South, two lands, beloved of Ptah. S’ III sa Ra neb khau Sun’s son, lord of crowns eg & f\ /WWW^\| IaJ Autekreter AnrAni. (Autocrator Nero). Merqes Authunes (Marcus Otho). 5Q O III Sun’s son, lord of crowns, KlSERES ENT KHU AUTUKRETER. Caesar he who defendeth Autocrator. V ITELLIUS (wanting). Ck JLISW^J Suten net (?) Autukretur Kisares. Autocrator C^sar. 1 Suten net (?) UspiSines ent khu. Vespasianus, he who defendeth. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 213 ^ §E 1 Autekretur Tetis Keseres. Autocrator Titus Caesar, s 30 O ^37 s s Sun’s son, lord of crowns, USPESINES ENT KHU. Vespasianus, he who defendeth. Os -M t:jF) d £2* Autukretur Kiseres. Autocrator Cesar, 30 O Sun’s son. lord of crowns C (Ufl 0 5 TuMETINES ENT KHU. Domitianus, he who defendeth. Itel ¥ Autukreter Kiseres Autocrator Cesar, son of the Sun, NERUAlS ENT KHU. Nerva, he who defendeth. £ Autukreter Kaiseres Neruaui. Autocrator Cesar Nerva, the Sun’s Traianes ent khu Arsut Kermineqsa Ntekiqes. son, lord Trajan, (Augustus) Germanicus Dacius. of crowns, he who defendeth. 214 NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. ( eV- 53 ! °[ 3 Autukreter Kiseres Trinus. Autocrator Cesar Trajan, a S nn o o^w /WWVA the Sun’s son, lord of crowns. Atrines ent khu. Hadrian, he who defendeth. 1 X ^ S3 Suten hemt Royal wife, Sd Sabinat Sabina, Sebesta ankh tchetta. Sebaste living for ever. King of the North and South, lord of the world, Autukreter Kiseres Thites Alis Atrins. Autocrator Cesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus, 5009 a ^ s r sj a ^ "0 n o J. ] 1 ^ w ^ wj the Sun’s son. Antunines Sebesthesus Baus enti khui. lord of crowns, Antoninus Augustus Pius, he who defendeth. iQs Autekreter Kaiseres. Autocrator Csesar, the Sun’s son, lord of crowns, Aurelais Anti nines ent khu ankh tchetta. Aurelius Antoninus, he who defendeth, living for ever. NAMES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 2I 5 ISsT'n ikJ Autekreter Autocrator c a Kesers CAESAR cm Luki Lucius Cvm ( Aulli Aelius Uara ankh tchetta Verus, living for ever. 3Q Autekretirs KisAures Autocrator Cesar, 0 sss the Sun’s son, lord of crowns, C A — D ^ 0 Kamtaus A-en-ta-nins enti khu. Commodus Antoninus. Autocrator Caesar Autocrator C/Esar ( I] [) ^? oVx i^ J Sauris enti khu. Severus. I /WVsAA 0 0 v— — e. ] ANTANENES ENT KHU. Antoninus [Caracalla]. Autocrator Cesar Autocrator Cesar ^ XJ A/VWN * a a \\ Kat enti khu. Geta. 1 o tT) Taksas enti khu. Dscius. 2l6 CHAPTER XV. Sketch of the History of Egypt from the Pre = Dynastic Period to A.D. 1906. The history of Egypt from the earliest times to the present day must for convenience of treatment be divided into a series of Periods, for we have to consider briefly the Egyptians in the Pre-Dynastic and Archaic Periods, under the Dynasties of Pharaohs, and under the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Arabs and Turks. I.— THE PRE = DYNASTIC AND ARCHAIC PERIODS. Until comparatively recently all historians were compelled to begin their accounts of Egypt with the reign of Mena, or Menes, the first historical king of Egypt ; but, thanks to the results of the excavations which have been made in Upper Egypt, more especially at Nakada, near Thebes, and in the neighbourhood of Abydos, a considerable number of new facts concerning the pre-dynastic inhabitants of Egypt have been ascertained. We now know that for a very long period before the reign of Mena the Nile Valley was occupied by a population which lived chiefly by pastoral pursuits, fishing, hunting, etc. Of their relations with the rest of the world we know nothing, but it is most probable that they confined themselves to their own country, from which, on account of its natural position, it must always have been difficult to wander far. Their tools and implements were made of flint, they wore skins, they lived in rectangular mud houses or huts in the winter, and in the open, behind reed fences, in the warmer weather. At first they had no religious belief, but as their intelligence grew they believed in spirits, and in later times in one supreme spirit or god. In many respects they resembled the tribes now living near the Equator on the north, especially as regards their SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 217 manners and customs. They had not the art of writing, and therefore could not read. They possessed great skill in making earthenware vessels, but the potter’s wheel was unknown to them. Their burial customs were of a primitive kind, but they undoubtedly believed in a future life of a very material character ; they maintained men who were magicians by pro- fession, or “ medicine men,” and several of their magical customs descended uninterruptedly to their highly civilised posterity. As among all primitive peoples, fighting for the sake of loot, or water, or cattle, or women, was general, and the country contained a large number of petty chiefs ; in process of time certain chiefs were able to add largely to their lands, and became kings of districts in consequence. These kings had their territories between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea, and the most powerful of them were the over-lords of the best ground for pasturing cattle, which began near Thebes, the modern Luxor, and extended northwards. Gradually all the districts which lay between Aswan and the bifurcation of the Nile were regarded as forming one country, and the Delta, or all the land bounded by the two great arms of the river, as another. These two countries have always constituted Egypt, and the oldest name for the country in the inscriptions is “The two lands” j . The physique of the inhabitants 31 33 of each of these great divisions has always differed consider- ably, as likewise have their manners and customs ; the presence of the mountains and deserts has greatly influenced the minds of the dwellers in the Nile Valley proper, and the sea and the neighbouring seafaring peoples have had a permanent effect upon the people of the Delta. When the Egyptians had learned to write, they represented the southern division of Egypt by the papyrus plant, , or by | , and the northern division by the lotus plant, Jj, or by the hornet or wasp, therefore, represented the whole country of Egypt. In very early times the king of the southern division wore the “white crown,” A , and the king 2l8 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. of the northern division the “ red crown,’’ ^j/ . As the various chiefs of the different districts of each of these two great divisions were always fighting for supremacy before they were compelled to recognise the sovereignty of the over-lord of each division, so at a very early period the over-lord of the south and the over-lord of the north contended for the mastery of the whole country. Sometimes one was victorious, and sometimes the other, but it seems that neither was able to maintain supreme rule for very long. Whilst matters were thus Egypt was invaded by foreigners from the south-east, who conquered the country, and introduced into it many important characteristics of their own civilization, which was of a far higher character than that of the Egyptians. Under the influence of the newcomers Egypt became an agricultural country, and the manners and customs, beliefs, and social condition of the people were greatly modified, at least so far as the upper classes were concerned. The lands on each side of the river were ploughed and sown with grain, experience taught the people a system of irrigation, and the knowledge and the art of brick-making, which were introduced by the foreigner, enabled the native to build better houses for himself and his gods. From a dabbler in mud he became a hewer in stone, and his power of work and infinite patience enabled him to carry out the ideas of his more civilized conqueror, who seems to have allowed the people to keep their old beliefs and to follow their old ways, provided they acknowledged his supremacy. This state of things lasted for a considerable time, but at length a king arose who was able to make and to keep himself the master of the two great divisions of Egypt, and so it came to pass that Egypt became one country, under one ruler, who called himself “ lord of the land of the papyrus, and lord of the land of the hornet (or wasp),” and as the symbol of his absolute supremacy he wore the white and the red crowns united, thus As king of the two great ecclesiastical divisions of of Nekhebet (in the south), and lord of the shrine of Uatchet” (in the north). In later days we know that kings cut the country he styled himself shrine on their thrones the design which signified “uniter DYNASTIES I AND II. 219 of the land of the papyrus and the land of the lotus.” When the first “ unifier of the two lands ” ascended the throne of Egypt the Pre-Dynastic Period ended. As we have already said in the chapter on “The Learning of the Egyptians,” the Egyptians made no attempt to write a consecutive history of their kings, but we know that they kept lists of them, and it seems that they grouped them according to their native cities. This fact is proved by the list of kings which was compiled by Manetho the priest in the 3rd century before Christ. According to the copies of this list which have been preserved in the works of later writers, Manetho divided the kings of Egypt into 30 dynasties, and as he probably had very good authority for so doing, this division is adopted here. The Ancient Empire is generally said to contain 11 dynasties, the Middle Empire 8 dynasties, and the New Empire 11 dynasties. The dates assigned to the dynasties are those of the late Dr. H. Brugsch Pasha. II.— DYNASTIC PERIOD. First Dynasty. From This, B.C. 4400. The first “ unifier of the two lands ” was Mena, whom the Greeks called Menes. He is said to have founded the city of Memphis, which lay on the west bank of the Nile, a few miles south of Cairo. He has been identified with a king whose Horus name was Aha f}A , and whose tomb has been recently excavated at Nakada, near Thebes, but the evidence for this identification is inconclusive, as are the arguments based on it, and it is doubted by several competent Egypto- logists. The fifth king of this dynasty was Semti, , j in whose reign important events in connection with the I religion of Egypt took place. Semti was a worshipper of Osiris, and the rubric to one version of the LXIVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead declares that the chapter was “found,”* I i-e., rewritten or revised, in his reign. His name was formeriy read “ Hesepti.” Second Dynasty. From This, B.C, 4133. In the reign of Kakau a sanctuary of the Apis Bull was founded at Memphis, and a sanctuary of the Mnevis Bull 220 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. was founded at Annu, or Heliopolis, the On and Aven of the Bible (Genesis xli, 45, 50; Ezekiel xxx, 17). Of priests of Sent, another king of this dynasty, monuments are preserved in Cairo, the British Museum, and Oxford. Third Dynasty. From Memphis, B.C. 3966. The most important king of this dynasty was Tcheser, who built the famous Step Pyramid at Sakkara ; a tomb of this king was discovered by Mr. J. Garstang at Bet Khallaf in jyoi. Under this dynasty the nobles had built solid, rectangular tombs, to which the name “ mastaba ” has been given. The glazed tiles from the pyramid of Tcheser prove that the Egyptians of this period were skilled in making faience, and the tombs show that the arts of the mason and builder were well understood, and that the cult of dead ancestors had been systematized, and had reached a very advanced state. Fourth Dynasty. From Memphis, B.C. 3733. Under this dynasty the Pyramids of Giza, which were reckoned among the Seven Wonders of the World, were built. The first king of the dynasty was Seneferu, the builder of the Pyramid of Medum, and of a pyramid at Dahshur ; he made an expedition into the Sudan, or Land of the Blacks, and brought back 7,000 prisoners, i.e., slaves, to Egypt. This is the oldest example of slave raiding in the Sudan on record. Khufu, or Cheops, built the Great Pyramid; Khafra, or Khephren, built the second pyramid at Gizeh ; and Menkaura, or Mycerinus, built the third pyramid at Gizeh. During the reign of the last-named king, a further revision of certain chapters of the Book of the Dead took place ; fragments of his body and a portion of his coffin are in the British Museum. Under this dynasty the copper mines of Sinai were worked again. Fifth Dynasty. From Elephantine, B.C. 3566. Sahu = Ra and Ra = en = user each built a pyramid at Abusir, and Unas built at Sakkara a pyramid, with corridors that attached it to an older funereal edifice, on the inside of which are long and important religious inscriptions. The statues, reliefs, and painting exhibit under this dynasty a beauty and fidelity to nature never before reached by the DYNASTIES III-X. 22 1 artist and sculptor, but with the end of the dynasty art, in all its branches, began to decline. About this time the cult of Ra assumed a very prominent place in the worship of the Egyptians, and a great many of the kings of the Vth dynasty added the title “ Sa Ra,” i.e., “ son of Ra,” to their other names. Sixth Dynasty. From Memphis, B.C. 3300. The four greatest kings of this dvnasty, Teta, Pepi I, Pepi II, and Mer = en = Ra, each built a pyramid at Sakkara ; the walls of the corridors and chambers inside them are covered with religious inscriptions, similar to those in the pyramid of Unas ; the latest pyramid is less well-built than the others, and the workmanship suggests want of resources and unsettled times. In this period Una, a high official, was sent into Nubia on two or three trading missions, and Her-Khutj the Governor of Elephantine, was despatched to the country ot the pygmies to bring back one of them for the king. In some respects Egypt, under the YIth dynasty, was in a flourishing condition. Seventh Dynasty. From Memphis, B.C. 3100. Eighth Dynasty. From Memphis, B.C. . . . So far as we know, the kings of these dynasties did nothing to improve the condition of the country, and they carried out neither wars nor works. Under their rule the governors of the districts near Herakleopolis succeeded in gaining their independence, and they became the ancestors of two dynasties of kings who ruled Egypt from this place. Ninth Dynasty. From Herakleopolis, B.C. . . . Tenth Dynasty. From Herakleopolis, B.C. . . . The best-known kings of this period are Khati, who is commemorated by an inscription in the First Cataract, where he worked the quarries, and Ka = meri = Ra, in whose reign Khati, a prince of Asyut, lived. Khati, and his son, Tefaba, and his grandson, Khati II, sent men to fight against the princes of the South, who were making war on the Herak- leopolitan kings, and defeated them. The Xth dynasty came 222 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. to an end amid strife and civil war ; with the downfall of the kings of Herakleopolis the period known as the Ancient Empire really came to an end. Eleventh Dynasty. From Thebes, B.C. . . . The principal kings of this dynasty bore the name of Menthu = hetep, and they are to be distinguished by their prenomens Neb-hetep, Ra-neb-taui, Ra-neb-hap ; each of them appears to have been a great builder, and the inscrip- tions in quarries set up in their reigns prove conclusively that the Menthu-heteps were firmly established on the throne of Egypt. 1’he funeral temple of Menthu-hetep Neb-hap-Ra at Der al-Bahari was excavated by Professor Naville and Mr. H. R. H. Hall in 1903-6. In the reign of Ra = se = ankhka (Menthu = hetep), the official Hennu made an expedition to Punt, a region to the south of the Red Sea, which included a part of the coast of North-east Africa, and brought back stone for the statues of the gods, and products of every kind. Twelfth Dynasty. From Thebes, B.C. 2466. Amenemhat ! fought against the Nubians, and vanquished the Uaua, a people who lived near Korosko ; he built a pyramid near the modern village of Lisht, about 30 miles south of Cairo. Usertsen 1 continued his father’s wars in Nubia. He set up granite obelisks at Heliopolis, and built or rebuilt temples there ; his pyramid is also at Lisht. Amenemhat II worked the turquoise mines of Sinai, and the gold mines of Nubia, and sent an expedition to Punt ; he built a pyramid at Dahshur, of which comparatively little remains. Usertsen II is famous as the builder of the pyramid at Illahun, which was opened by Mr. G. W. Fraser. Usertsen III invaded Nubia and conquered it, and built strong forts near Wadi Haifa, Semna, and other places. He made a decree wherein he prohibited the Blacks from passing the Cataract at Semna and Kumma without special permission. He has, like Usertsen II, been identified with the Sesostris of the Greeks. His pyramid at Dahshur was excavated by M. J. de Morgan in 1894. DYNASTIES XI-XIV. 223 Amenemhat III was the greatest king of the Xllth dynasty. He devoted himself to the improvement of the iirigation of Egypt. He built forts at Semna and Kumma in Nubia, he registered the height of the Nile flood in different years, and he built the Labyrinth and the Pyramid of Hawara. Recent investigations have shown that the famous Lake Moeris, which is described so minutely by Herodotus, Pliny, and others, and is said to have been built by Amenemhat III, never existed. Major Brown and Prof. Maspero declare that what Herodotus saw was not a great reservoir, but the waters of the Inundation, and that the earthworks which he regarded as the sides of the Lake were nothing more than the roads which separated one basin from another ! Similarly, the Labyrinth was not the great temple which Herodotus thought, but merely the town which Amenemhat founded in connection with his pyramid ! A number of remarkable sphinxes, which were found by Mariette at San (Tanis) have been usually attributed to the Hyksos, but there is good reason for assigning them to the reign of Amenemhat III, who probably had them made. Amenemhat IV and his sister Sebek = neferu = Ra were the last rulers of the Xllth dynasty. Under the Xllth dynasty literature flourished, and there was great prosperity in Egypt. Thirteenth Dynasty. From Thebes, B.C. . . . The number and order of the kings of this dynasty are uncertain, and it is probable that the whole country was in a state of confusion for many years after the death of Amenemhat III. The principal kings of whom monuments are known are: — Ra = sekhem = ka, a series of kings each of whom bore the name of Sebek = hetep, Nefer = hetep, and Ab = aa. There is a statue of Khu = taui = Ra at Khartum. Fourteenth Dynasty. From Xois, B.C. . . . The principal kings of this dynasty were Anab, Sebek = em = sa = f, and Sebek = em = sau =f ; they came from Xois, a city in the Delta, and probably reigned whilst the kings of the XHIth dynasty ruled at Thebes. At all events, it is certain that many of the kings of the XHIth and XIVth dynasties 224 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. must have been contemporaneous. None of them can have had any extensive power in the country, and very few of them have left monuments behind them. Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties. [Hyksos. From Avaris?] B.C. . . . During the feeble rule of the kings of Thebes and Xo'is a considerable number of Semitic settlers took up their abode in the Delta, and the people of the country, who were probably their kinsfolk, making common cause with them, they watched their opportunity and seized the land and set up their king. The settlers were called by Manecho “ Hyksos,” a name which is usually translated by “ Shepherd Kings,” and they no doubt were the Hequ-Shasu z.vho certainly belong to the XVIIth dynasty, are Seqenen = DYNASTIES XVII AND XVIII. 225 Ra I, Seqenen = Ra II, Seqenen=Ra III, and Ka = mes. The first three of these appear to have engaged in wars against the Hyksos kings in the Delta, and Seqenen-Ra III probably lost his life in battle against one of them. His mummy, which shows that he must have died from wounds received in some hand-to-hand fight, is preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Karnes was probably the son of Seqenen-Ra III, and the husband of Queen Aah = hetep, in whose coffin were found large quantities of jewellery, a bronze spear-head inlaid in gold with the names and titles of Karnes, bronze axe-heads, a gold and a silver boat, each provided with a crew of rowers, etc. Other royal personages of this period are Senekht = en = Ra and Aahmes = sa = pa = ari. Eighteenth Dynasty. From Thebes, B.C. 1700 (?). Aahmes I (Amasis) attacked the Hyksos, captured their capital city Avaris, and drove them out of Egypt ; he next invaded Nubia and conquered it. The expulsion of the Hyksos has been confounded with the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, but they are two different historical events. Amen = hetep I (Amenophis) built or rebuilt sanctuaries at Karnak and Der al-Bahari, and carried on wars in Nubia; he was a devotee of Amen, the local god of Thebes, and was the founder of the great brotherhood of the priests of Amen. On many coffins of priests the deceased ecclesiastics are depicted in the act of worshipping his name, and in pouring out libations before his cartouches ; all the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty save one were devotees of Amen, but Amen-hetep I must have been a special patron of the priests. Tehuti = mes I (Thothmes) continued the war in Nubia, and carried his victorious arms so far south as the foot of the Fourth Cataract. He also made conquests in Northern Syria, and he enriched the temple of Amen with spoil therefrom, set up two obelisks at Karnak, and built sanctuaries in Nubia. He was the first king to build a tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes ; this tomb was excavated by M. V. Loret in 1899. Thothmes II, the son of Thothmes I and Queen Mut-nefert, carried on wars in Nubia, and in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt. He married his half-sister Hatshepset, p 226 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. daughter of Thothmes I and Queen Aahmes, the daughter of Amen-hetep I. Hatshepset reigned alone after the death of Thothmes II, and sent an expedition to Punt, and built the great temple of Der al-Bahari, which she called Tcheser- Tcheseru, “the Holy of Holies.” Her architect was Sen- Mut. Her tomb was discovered by Mr. Theodore M. Davis in 1904, but her body has not yet been found. Thothmes III was the son of Thothmes II and Aset, a lady who could not claim Royal descent, and reigned conjointly with his aunt Hatshepset for some years. When he became sole ruler of Egypt he devoted his energies to building up an Egyptian Empire in Western Asia. He advanced so far as the Euphrates, and, as the result of numerous expeditions to Syria and Palestine, brought back large quantities of tribute and spoil and greatly enriched the treasury of Amen. He was probably the greatest king who ever reigned in Egypt. Amen = hetep II waged wars in Syria, and slew seven chiefs with his own hand ; on his way to Thebes he hung their bodies head downwards on the bows of his boat. One of these he sent to Napata in Nubia (Gebel Barkal) to strike terror into the hearts of the Nubians. Two statues of this king were found at Wad Ba Nagaa, about 20 miles south of Shendi, a fact which proves that the authority of Amen-hetep extended to the south of the Island of Meroe. Thothmes IV made a victorious expedition into Phoenicia, and another into Nubia, which he declared the great god of the country, Tetun, had delivered into his hands. His tomb was discovered and excavated by Mr. Theodore M. Davis, and was officially opened on February 3rd, 1903. One of the most interesting works of Thothmes IV was the excavation of the Sphinx, which had become buried by drifting sands. Amen = hetep III, called Memnon by the Greeks, warred successfully in Nubia and Asia, and extended the frontiers of Egypt considerably. He hunted lions in Mesopotamia, and in the course of his shooting expeditions he married one, if not two, of the daughters of Kallimma-Sin (or Kadashman Bel), King of Babylonia, and a daughter of Shutarna, King of Mitani, and a daughter and a sister of Tushratta, King of Mitani. Tushratta’s sister was called Kilkipa. His best beloved wife, however, was Thi, “ Queen of Egypt,” who DYNASTY XVIII. 227 became the mother of Amen-hetep IV. The temple of Sad- denga in Nubia was built by Amen-hetep III in her honour. The tomb of Iuaa, the father, and of Thuau, the mother of Thi, was discovered by Mr. Theodore M. Davis on Sunday, February 12th, 1905. In it he found the mummies of the great queen’s parents, and complete suites of funeral furniture of a most interesting character. The tomb was literally filled with objects, and everything of importance was heavily plated with gold. Included in ..he find was a chariot. As soon as possible the contents of the tomb were taken to the Museum at Cairo, where they are now exhibited in the Egyptian Museum. Mr. Davis’s discovery is of very great importance, and it throws much new light upon the art of the XVIIIth dynasty. The correspondence which passed between Amen- hetep III and his son, and the kings of Karaduniyash (Babylonia) and Mitani, and the governors of towns in Syria and Phoenicia, and independent shekhs, written in cuneiform characters, was found at Tell al-‘Amarna in 1887, and large sections of it are preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the British Museum, and Berlin. Amen = hetep IV was a determined opponent of the god Amen and his priests, and he endeavoured to overthrow them and their god. He wished to revive and extend the cult of Aten, and to introduce a religion of a monotheistic character ; as a mark of his own “divine mission” he called himself “Khu- en = Aten,” i e., the “spirit of Aten.” The strife between himself and the priests assumed such serious proportions that he was obliged to leave Thebes and to found a new capital on a site near the modern Tell al = ‘Amarna. Here he estab- lished the cult of Aten, made himself high priest, and passed his time in religious and social pursuits instead of attending to the business of his Empire, which was breaking up. At his death the cult of Aten declined, and the new capital was forsaken, and within a few years was deserted. Amen- hetep IV had several daughters, some of whom married worshippers of Amen, and so renounced the religion of their father. The other kings of the XVIIIth dynasty were Tut = ankh = Amen, who married a daughter of Amen-hetep IV; Ai, who married a royal personage, and Heru=em = heb, who was probably a scion of the royal family of Thebes ; he owed his 228 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. accession to the throne to the influence of the priests of Amen. Heru-em-heb destroyed the shrine of Aten set up in Thebes by Amenhetep IV, and restored the temple of Amen at Karnak. He warred in Nubia, and sent expeditions into Palestine and Punt. Nineteenth Dynasty. From Thebes, B.C. 1400. Rameses I invaded Nubia, and chastised the tribes there : in his reign the Kheta challenged with success the supremacy of Egypt in Western Asia. Seti I carried on wars against the peoples of Syria and Palestine, and claimed to be master of Cyprus, and of Western Asia as far as the Euphrates. He established water stations in the eastern desert, and is said to have made a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea. He built largely at Thebes and Abydos, and had made the finest of all the rock- hewn tombs in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings. He built a temple on the west bank of the Nile, near the modern town of Dulgo, about 160 miles south of Wadi Haifa, probably in connection with the gold trade. His mummy and coffin are in Cairo, and his large funeral portrait figure and his magnificent alabaster sarcophagus are in London, the former in the British Museum, and the latter in Sir John Soane’s Museum. Rameses II carried on wars in Nubia, Libya, Palestine, and Syria, and the material prosperity of Egypt in his reign was very great. He marched into Northern Syria with the view of crushing the power of the Kheta ; a fierce battle was fought at Kadesh on the Orontes, and the Egyptians were victorious, but it cost them dear, and ultimately Rameses II was obliged to sign the treaty of Tanis, which practically declared the independence of the Kheta, and admitted their right to Northern Syria so far south as the Dog River near Berfit. Rameses II was a great builder. He set up temples in all the great cities of Egypt, but more especially in Abydos and Thebes. The rock-hewn temple of Abu Simbel was made to record his victory over the Kheta, of which he was very proud, and to terrify the Nubians, and so prevent open revolts in the country. Rameses II usurped many statues and buildings which he had never made. He is famous as one of the oppressors of the Israelites. DYNASTIES XIX-XX. 2 29 Mer = en = Ptah (Meneptah) suppressed the revolt of the Libyans which broke out in the fifth year of his reign ; his “Hymn of Triumph” is cut on the back of a large stele of Amen-hetep III, which is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. He is thought by many to have been the Pharaoh of the Exodus. His mummy was found in the tomb of Amen- hetep II at Thebes. Other kings of the XIXth dynasty are Amen = Meses, Seti II, Mer = en = Ptah, and Sa = Ptah. The tomb of Sa-Ptah was excavated by Mr. Theodore Davis in 1906. Twentieth Dynasty. From Thebes, B C. 1200. After the XIXth dynasty came to an end, conflict broke out between Setnekht, the Egyptian who claimed the throne, and Arsu, a Syrian, but at length the former became con- queror and the first king of the XXth dynasty. He was succeeded by ten kings, each of whom bore the name of Rameses, and the greatest of these was Rameses III, in whose reign Egypt attained to a very high state of commercial prosperity. He devoted his attention to providing Egypt with a navy, and thus he was able to crush a confederation of enemies who attacked the Delta by sea and by land. The spoil which he obtained was enormous, and he devoted large portions of it to the sanctuaries of Heliopolis, Abydos, and Thebes. A list of his donations to the temples, and summaries of his wars and extensive building operations, are contained in the great papyrus No. 9999, 133 feet long, preserved in the British Museum. His mummy is in Cairo, and his granite sarcophagus is at Cambridge. In the reign of Rameses III Egypt first appears as a sea power. His successors, Rameses IV = XII, were weak kings, and permitted the priests of Amen to acquire such vast temporal power that at length they administered the finances of the kingdom, and imposed and collected taxes. The most masterful of the high priests of Amen, Her-Heru, usurped the throne on the death of Rameses XII. 2 3 ° SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Twenty =first Dynasties. B.C. uoo. Egypt was now ruled by two dynasties : the upper country by a dynasty of priest-kings at Thebes, and the Delta by a dynasty of kings at Tanis. These kings were — I. — T'anis. 1. Nes-ba-neb-Tettet. 2. Pasebkhanut I. 3. Amen-em-apt. 4. Sa-Amen. 5. Pasebkhanut II. II. — Thebes. 1. Her-Heru. 2. Paiankh. 3. Painetchem I. 4. Painetchem II. 5. Masaherth. 6. Menkheperra. 7. Painetchem III At this period Palestine and Syria asserted their independence, and, as the priests of Amen devoted more time to their temples than to the affairs of the throne w T hich they had usurped, the Nubian tribes ceased to pay tribute to Egypt. Twenty = second Dynasty. From Bubastis, B.C. 966. The ancestor of this dynasty was Buiuuaua, a Libyan prince, who lived about b.c. 1150, and he and his descendants were warriors, and generals of the troops who were employed by the kings of Egypt. His descendant in the fourth genera- tion was Shashanq, who married the high-priestess of Amen, Meht-en-usekht ; their son Nemareth married the Egyptian lady Thent-sepeh, and their son Shashanq became the first king of the XXIInd dynasty. Shashanq I, the Shishak of 1 Kings xiv, 25^2 Chron. xii, 5, 7, 9, made an expedition against Rehoboam, King of Judah, with 1,200 chariots, 60,000 horsemen, and 400,000 footmen ; he besieged Jerusalem and took it, and stripped the Temple, taking away the bucklers and shields of Solomon, and the gold quivers- of the King of Zobah, which David had taken from him and dedicated to God. Thus Palestine once more became an Egyptian possession. The successors of Shashanq I were Osorkon I, Thekeleth I, Osorkon I*, Shashanq II, Thekeleth II, Shashanq III, Pamai, Shashanq IV. Under the rule of these kings Egypt finally lost most of her foreign possessions and the country lay open to the power of any strong foe. DYNASTIES XXIII-XXV. 23I Twenty=third Dynasty. From Tanis, B.C. 766. The first king of this dynasty was Peta = sa = Bast, and he was succeeded by Uasarkena, in whose reign the priests of Amen fled from Thebes and settled at Napata, i.e., Gebel Barkal, at the foot of the Fourth Cataract, in Nubia. Here they stirred up the Nubian king Piankhi, who invaded Upper Egypt successfully, and advanced northwards to Memphis, which he captured. An attempt to bar his progress was made by Tafnekhth, King of Sa'is, who appears to have laid claim to the sovereignty of the country, but he was defeated, and for the first time a Nubian was the actual king of Egypt. Piankhi built a large temple at Gebel Barkal : it is now in ruins. Twenty =fourth Dynasty. From Sais, B.C. 733. Bakenrenf (Bocchoris), the son of Tafnekhth, reigned for six years, and was esteemed one of the six great lawgivers of Egypt. During his reign Kashta, a Nubian, was king of Thebes. Twenty = fifth Dynasty. From Nubia, B.C. 700. Shabaka, the son of Kashta, burned Bocchoris alive; he has been identified with the So of 2 Kings xvii, 4, and was a contemporary of Sargon and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria. Shabaka was succeeded by Shabataka, in whose reign Sennacherib conquered Palestine, and appears to have attempted to invade Egypt. Shabataka was probably an ally of Hezekiah, King of J udah. Taharqa, the Tirhakah of 2 Kings xix, 9, was an ally of Hezekiah, King of Judah, and assisted in the overthrow of Sennacherib’s army. In 67 6 Esarhaddon set out to crush the revolt in Palestine, and six years later he invaded Egypt, defeated Tirhakah, captured Memphis, and appointed 20 governors over the various provinces of the country. After the death of Esarhaddon in 668 Tirhakah returned and pro- claimed himself king of Egypt at Memphis ; but Ashur-bani-pal, the new king of Assyria, quickly marched against him, and defeated his forces, which were assembled at Karbaniti ; Tirhakah fled, and Ashur-bani-pal marched into Egypt and reappointed the governors whom his father had appointed, and 232 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. so crushed the rebellion. Taharqa built a temple at Semna, immediately to the south of that of Thothmes III., and dedicated it to Usertsen III, This temple was discovered and excavated by Mr. J. W. Crowfoot and myself in 1905, and the objects found in it are now in the Museum at Khartum. An interesting feature of the temple is the rectangular stone altar which is complete and still in situ. Tirhakah’s successor was Tanuath = Amen, whom the Assyrians called Tandamanie ; he was associated with Tirhakah in ruling the Nubian kingdom. After Tirhakah’s death, as the result of a dream, Tandamanie invaded Egypt, and made his way northwards to the city of Heliopolis, which he cap- tured ; he then tried to turn the Assyrians out of Memphis, but, as soon as he heard that relief was coming for them in the form of an army led by Ashur-bani-pal in person, he fled to Thebes. Thither he was pursued by the Assyrians, who captured the city and plundered it in characteristic fashion ; Tandamanie meanwhile fled to the city of Kipkipi, and Ashur-bani-pal returned to Nineveh with a “ full hand.” It is uncertain how long the rule of the Assyrian governors in Egypt was maintained, but it can hardly have lasted for more than a few years, and 10 to 15 years will be ample to allow to the period during which the Assyrians held sway in Egypt. Twenty = sixth Dynasty. From Sa'is, B.C. 666. Psemthek I (Psammetichus) married the high-priestess of Amen called Shep-en-Apt ; he allowed Greeks to settle in the Delta, and employed Ionians and Carians to fight for him. He established garrisons of Greek mercenaries at Elephantine, Pelusium, Daphnae (Defenna), and Marea. During this reign the Mashuasha and other mercenaries deserted and marched in a body to the Sudan, where they obtained a grant of land from the king and settled down. After this the Mashuasha no more appear in Egyptian history. They deserted because the king took no steps to relieve the garrisons. Nekau maintained a powerful army of Greeks and other peoples, and kept a fleet of triremes both in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Red Sea. He re-cut and enlarged the old canal which united the Red Sea with the Nile, and employed 120,000 men in the work ; but an oracle having declared that he was only toiling for the foreigner, he gave up the under- taking. Nekau, or Necho, made an expedition into Syria, and DYNASTY XXVI. 233 as Josiah, King of Judah, tried to stop his progress, he did battle against him in the Valley of Megiddo ; an Egyptian arrow penetrated the disguise of Josiah, and he was mortally wounded and died. Necho then advanced towards the Euphrates, being master of Syria and Palestine, but was met at Karkemish by the Babylonian army led by Nebuchadnezzar IT, and was defeated. Palestine and Syria then became provinces of Babylonia. See 2 Kings xxiii, 29 Jeremiah xlvi, 2. Psammetichus II is said to have engaged in war with the Nubians ; his reign was short, but building operations were carried out by him on a considerable scale. Uah = ab = Ra, the Pharaoh Hophra of the Bible (Jeremiah xliv, 30), and Apries of the Greeks, marched to the help of Zedekiah, King of Judah, who was defeated by Nebuchad- nezzar II, King of Babylon. Owing to a mutiny among his soldiers, who suspected that Apries had planned their defeat, the troops made their general Amasis ruler of the country, and proclaimed him king. During the reign of Apries Egypt enjoyed a period of great prosperity, which was directly due to the encouragement he gave to commerce ; about this time Naucratis became a great city. After the invasion of Palestine by Nebuchadnezzar II, Jeremiah and a number of Jews escaped to Egypt and settled in Tahpanhes (Jeremiah xliii, 7). Amasis II entered into friendly relations with the Greeks, and the development of Naucratis continued ; he was forced to fight against his former master Apries, whom he defeated, but spared and treated in an honourable manner. Apries, however, raided the country, and one day, when the soldiers of Amasis found him sitting in a boat, they slew him. Amasis was a great and generous warrior, and an able commander, and under his care many of the old sanctuaries of Egypt were restored. Psammetichus III. In his reign the Persians marched against Egypt, and having defeated the Egyptians at Pelusium, they invaded the country and captured Memphis. Cambyses treated Psammetichus III with kindness, but as soon as he found him interfering in the affairs of the country he made him “ to drink the blood of a bull, and he died immediately afterwards.” Thus perished the last king of the XXVIth dynasty, and Egypt became a province of Persia. 234 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Twenty = seventh Dynasty. From Persia, B.C. 527. Cambyses marched against the Ethiopians (Nubians), and is said to have reached Meroe ; the inscription of Nastasen appears to contain a mention of his overthrow. He sent a detachment of 50,000 men to march to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon ; they reached the Oasis of Kharga, but they were never more heard of. Cambyses committed many foolish and sacrilegious acts in Egypt, and is said to have died from a sword wound in the thigh, which he inflicted upon himself accidentally. Darius I. Hystaspes adopted the rank and style of the kings of Egypt, had his name, transcribed into hieroglyphics, placed in a cartouche, and called himself “ son of Ra ” ; he supported native religious institutions, and contributed a sum of money towards the discovery of a new Apis Bull. He completed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea which Necho had begun, established a coinage, and favoured all attempts to promote the welfare of Egypt. He was tolerant, especially in the matter of religion, and his form of government was conciliatory. His greatest architectural work was the temple which he built in the Oasis Al-Kharga in honour of the god Amen ; on the south-west wall of this temple is inscribed a most remarkable hymn in 50 lines. Four years after the battle of Marathon, the Egyptians under Khabbesha revolted against the Persians ; Darias determined to set out from Persia to suppress the revolt, but died before he could do so. Xerxes suppressed the rebellion in Egypt : monuments of this king are not common, and there is no great work which can be mentioned as the product of his reign. Artaxerxes I, like Xerxes, neither repaired nor built a temple, although he assumed the titles of the Pharaohs. In his reign Inarbs, a Libyan, headed a revolt against the Persians, and obtained help from the Athenians ; in the battle at Papremis the Persians were defeated, and Akhaemenes, the Satrap of Egypt, was killed. Subsequently a Persian army arrived, and in the battle which followed the Egyptians were defeated; Inaros was taken to Persia, and at the end of five years was impaled and then flayed alive. DYNASTIES XXVII-XXX. 2 35 Darius II (Nothus) added his Egyptian name and titles to the walls of the temple of Darius I at Al-Kharga Oasis, and carried out some works on the temple at Edfu. His successors were Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III, but they had no influence on the destinies of Egypt. The greatest of all the Persian kings of Egypt was undoubtedly Darius I, who not only conquered Egypt, but pacified its people ; he tried to understand the priests and their religion, and was so wise, just, and prudent, that he was regarded as one of the six great lawgivers of the country. Twenty = eighth Dynasty. From Sais, B.C. . . . This dynasty consisted of a single king, Amen = rut, or Amyrtaeus, who may perhaps be the Amyrtaeus who was the ally of Inaros ; his reign lasted six years. Twenty = ninth Dynasty. From Mendes, B.C. 399. The kings of this dynasty were : — Naif = aaiu = rut I (Nepherites). Haker (Akhoris). Peshamut (Psammuthis). Naif = aaiu = rut II (Nepherites). The reigns of these kings were wholly unimportant, and the last of them only reigned four months. Thirtieth Dynasty. From Sebennytus, B.C. 378. Nekht Heru = hebt, the Nektanebes of the Greeks, restored for a short time the independence of the Delta, and the times were sufficiently peaceful to allow him to build a temple to Horus near the modern village of Behbit al-Hajara. He repaired many of the old temples of Egypt at Thebes and Memphis, and opposed the Persians at every opportunity. His claims to conquests outside Egypt are fictitious. Tche = hra, the Teos, or Tachos of the classical writers, restored the temple of Khensu Nefer-hetep at Thebes, and he worked the quarries near Memphis. SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 236 Nekht = neb=f, the Nektanebos of the Greeks, was a great warrior and a great builder. He built a vestibule at Philae, he carried out repairs at Thebes, Memphis, and at many other places. With an army of 20,000 Greeks, 20,000 Libyans, and 60,000 Egyptians, he attempted to fight the Persians, but losing heart when he saw the successes of his enemy, he is said to have quietly abdicated his throne, and, taking much treasure with him, to have fled to Ethiopia. Thus ended the rule of the last native king of Egypt, and the country has been ordained to be the possession of the foreigner even until now. A popular legend declared that Nectanebus fled to Macedon, where he became the father of Alexander the Great, to whose mother, Olympias, he appeared in the form of Amen of the two horns. III. -THE GREEK PERIOD. Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies. During the last three reigns the Egyptians were harassed by the Persian revenue officers, and their rule was both feared and hated, and they welcomed the successes of Alexander of Macedon, called the Great. About b.c. 332 Alexander arrived in Egypt, and spent some time in Memphis, where he seems to have been crowned. From Memphis he set out for the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon via Canopus, and the priests of Amen received him gladly ; in the temple of the Oasis Amen was worshipped under an unusual form, and when Alexander had paid his vows to it, the god (or his priests) indicated by some movement that he regarded Alexander as his son. “ Id quod pro deo colitur non eamdem effigiem habet quam “vulgo diis artifices accomodaverunt : umbilicus maxime “similis est habitus, smaragdus et gemmis coagmentatus,” Quintus Curtius, IV, 7. Prof. Naville has recently shown that the symbol of the god of the Oasis, made of an emerald and other precious stones, was fastened within the umbilicus (this word being used by Quintus Curtius as the equivalent of umbo , the “boss of a shield”) of a shield-shaped object specially made to contain it. This object, M. Naville thinks, PERIOD OF MACEDONIAN RULE. 237 resembled the green stone shield-shaped slabs, sculptured in relief with the figures of animals, etc , which have been found at Hierakonpolis and other very early sites. The object was placed in the shrine of the god, probably resting in a boat, and could easily be taken out and carried about in processions. The “ palette ” theory thus falls to the ground. Alexander founded the city of Alexandria near the old town of Raqetit (Rakoti), and intended it to be a port for his ships ; the city rapidly increased in size and numbers, and soon became the seaport capital of Egypt. Alexander died in June, 323, at Babylon, and was buried at Alexandria. In the scramble for the provinces of the empire of Alexander which took place at his death, Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy Lagus, and this brave warrior administered the country in the names of Alexander’s sons, Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander IS of Egypt; the former never was in Egypt, and the latter went there when he was six years old, and was murdered (b.c. 31 1) when he was 13, but in spite of these facts Ptolemy caused buildings to be erected in their names, and ruled the country as their loyal servant. Ptolemy I, Soter 1, son of Lagus and Arsinoe, was born b.c. 367 ; he married Artacama, daughter of Artabazos, in 324, and Thais in 323 ; he became Satrap of Egypt in 323, married Berenice I in 317, and assumed the title of Soter in 304. He abdicated in favour of his son in 285. He died b.c. 283-2. He founded the famous Alexandrian Library, and encouraged Greeks to make Alexandria their home. Ptolemy 11, Philadelph us, was born about b.c. 304. He became king in 287 or 286, married Arsinoe 1, daughter of Lysimachus of Thrace, in 285, and his sister Arsinoe II in 280, and died about 246. He built the Pharos, founded Berenice on the Red Sea, and Arsinoe in the Fayyum, employed Manetho to write a history of Egypt in Greek, and. caused the Greek version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) to be made. Ptolemy III, Euergetes I, became co-regent in 267, married Berenice II about b.c. 246, his daughter Berenice died in 238, and he himself died at the end of 222. The Stele of Canopus was set up in the ninth year of his reign. This important stele, preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, is inscribed in hieroglyphics, Greek, and Demotic, with 238 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. a decree of the priesthood which was promulgated at Canopus. It enumerates the benefits conferred on the priesthood, and the assistance which the king rendered to the people in times of famine ; it refers to the death of Princess Berenice, and mentions the reform of the calendar which Ptolemy III tried to introduce. He wished to add one day to every fourth year, and so do away with the absurdity of celebrating summer festivals in the winter, and winter festivals in the summer. Ptolemy was a patron of art and literature, and he began to build the temple of Edfu. He made Eratosthenes keeper of the Alexandrian Library (he died 196), and is credited with having secured the original MSS. of the works of dEschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles for that institution. Ptolemy IV, PhiSopator S, began to reign b.c. 221; he married his sister Arsinoe III in 217, and permitted her to be murdered between 209-205, and died in 205. He added a hall to the temple which Ergamenes built at Dakka, and continued the work which his father had begun at Edfu. Pie defeated Antiochus the Great at the battle of Raphia. In his reign elephant hunts were organised, and numbers of elephants were brought to Egypt by sea from Abyssinia and employed in military service. Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, was born b.c. 209 or 208, and was made joint ruler of Egypt with his father ; in 205 he became king of Egypt, in 193 or 192 he married Cleopatra I, daughter of xAntiochus III, and was poisoned in 18 r. During his reign Coelesyria and Palestine were lost to Egypt, and revolts and rebellions were widespread and frequent. The Rosetta Stone, which is inscribed with a decree of the priests of Memphis, was set up in the eighth or ninth year of his reign. Ptolemy VI, Eupator, appears to have reigned with Ptolemy V for some years ; he died the year in which he became sole ruler of Egypt. Ptolemy VII, Philometor, was the son of Ptolemy V and Cleopatra I, and he was crowned king b.c. 173. Two years later he was defeated by Antiochus IV at the battle of Pelusium, and the king of Syria, having taken Memphis, proclaimed himself king of Egypt. A brother of Ptolemy VII, known in history as Ptolemy IX, iwho had made himself master of Alexandria, also (declared hirnself to be king of Egypt, Onias PTOLEMAIC PERIOD. 239 begged permission from Ptolemy VII to build an altar to the God of the Hebrews, and this being granted, Onias built the temple fortress of Onion, 180 furlongs from Memphis. This Jewish settlement is represented by the modern Tell al-Yahudiyyah, and seems to be the Scense Veteranorum of the Roman writers. Ptolemy VIII, Eupator II, or Neos Philopator, was murdered by his uncle. Ptolemy IX, Euergetes 11 (Physkon), finished the building of the temple of Edfu, and repaired many temples both in Egypt and Nubia. He reigned from b.c. 147 to 117. Ptolemy X, Soter 11 (Lathyrus), who began to reign b.c. 1 1 7, was banished to Cyprus in 106, and his brother Ptolemy XI, Alexander I, reigned with Cleopatra III until he was killed in 87 ; Ptolemy X died about b.c. 81. Ptolemy XII, Alexander II, was killed in 81 or 80. Ptolemy XIII, Neos Dionysos, called “ Auletes,” i'.e., the “flute player, 5 ’ reigned from 80-52. Ptolemy XIV and Cleopatra VII, Tryphaena ; the Senate of Rome appointed Pompey to be their guardian ; after the battle of Pharsalia Pompey came to Egypt, but was slain by the machinations of Ptolemy, who had banished his wife Cleopatra. In 48 Julius Caesar came to Egypt to reinstate Cleopatra, and defeated the forces of Ptolemy, who was drowned. Ptolemy XV was appointed co-regent with Cleopatra by Caesar, but three years later (in 45) he was murdered by Cleopatra’s orders, and her son by Caesar, who is known as Ptolemy XVI, Caesarion, was named co-regent in his stead. Caesar was murdered in 44, and Antony, his successor in Egypt, lived with Cleopatra until the Roman Senate despatched a force against him under Octavianus, who captured Alexandria, and became master of Egypt. About b.c. 30 Antony killed himself, and Cleopatra killed herself, either by poison or by the bite of an asp. Thus Egypt became a Roman province. 240 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. IV.— THE ROMAN PERIOD. Octavianus appointed Cornelius Gallus Prefect of Egypt; g ^ he suppressed a revolt in the Thebaid and a serious rising of the Ethiopians, or, rather, Nubians. He was recalled by Octavianus (who now reigned under the title of Augustus), and killed himself. Gaius Petronius, the second Prefect of Egypt, suppressed B C 28 a rev0 ^ Alexandria and tightened the grasp * of the Romans on the country. ,, 25. /Elios Gallus, the third Prefect of Egypt. Gaius Petronius (recalled) marched against a confederation B C 2 ^ u ^ an tr ibes which had invaded Egypt and 2 ^’ defeated the Roman garrisons at Philse and Syene.. The Romans invaded Nubia and advanced as far as Napata, overcoming all the resistance which was offered them on their way. Rebellion of Nubians under Candace. The rising was soon B C 2 suppressed, and Candace sent envoys to Rome to beg for peace, asking that her territories might be restored to her. Tiberius. — In his reign Germanicus Caesar came to Egypt . „ and visited Syene. /Emilius Rectus and Avillius * * Flaccus were appointed Prefects. Caligula. — Many conflicts took place in Alexandria be- . ~ tween the Greeks and Jews, and the latter were treated with great rigour and deprived of their rights of citizenship. Claudius. — In his reign trade between the East and Egypt A D s waS developed, an d the internal prosperity of * * 4 5 • Egypt was improved, chiefly through the atten- tion which was given to irrigation, Nero is said to have sent officers to trace out the sources of the Nile. Christianity was preached in Egypt * * 54- by ]y[ ar b at the end of his reign. ,, 68. Galba. ,, 69. Otho. ,, 69. Vitellius. THE ROMAN PERIOD. 24I Vespasian arrived in Alexandria and was regarded as a god ; A n , his rule appears to have been just, and he attended carefully to the administration of the finances of the country. He sent troops from Egypt to take part in the siege of Jerusalem, which was being conducted by his son Titus. Jerusalem was destroyed in the year 70. Titus. — During his reign a new Apis Bull was installed in ^ j-j Memphis, and the Emperor assisted at the ceremonies. g Domitianus built temples to Isis and Serapis ” lm in Rome. In this reign Juvenal was banished to Syene. ,, 96. Nerva. A.D. 98. Trajan. — Serious disturbances broke out between the Greeks and Jews, and a Roman force under Marcius Turbo had to be sent to rescue the Greeks, who were besieged by the Jews in Alexandria; the Jewish popula- tion of Alexandria was destroyed. The canal which connected the Nile with the Red Sea was cleared out and traffic on it resumed. Hadrian visited Egypt twice, and he took great interest in ^ ^ the restoration of buildings, and in Egyptian I! ^‘ literature. On one of his voyages up the Nile, Antinous, a youth who was a great favourite of the Emperor, either drowned himself or was drowned accidentally, and Hadrian built the city of Antinoopolis in memory of him. A road also was made by him from the city to Berenice on the Red Sea. Hadrian and his wife Sabina visited the Colossi of Amenophis III at Thebes to hear the sounds which proceeded from the northern statue. A.D. 138. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. — A revolt of the Bucolic troops, led by AD 16 1 I sidore, a priest, broke out in this reign, and a Roman officer was killed and eaten by the rebels. It was suppressed by Avidius Cassius. Unfortunately for himself he was subsequently proclaimed emperor by his soldiers, but after a short time he was slain by a centurion, and his son Maecianus was murdered by the troops. Marcus Aurelius caused the famous Itinerary to be made. A.D. 180. Commodus. 242 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. A.D. 193. » > 93 - „ * 93 - »> 1 93 * Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Pescennius Niger. Septimius Severus visited Egypt. An edict was issued against the Christians. Caracalla visited Egypt, and because of the insults of the AD 21 1 Alexandrians he ordered a general massacre of 1 5 * all the young men in the city. He was murdered by a soldier. AD 23 Macrinus appointed Basilianus Prefect of .217. Egypt } an( j Marius his deputy. Elagabalus. — In his reign Marius was killed in a faction A.D. 218. fight at Alexandria, and Basilianus escaped to Rome. Decius. — A systematic attempt to destroy the Christians was * ~ made, and every person was called on to offer ^ sacrifice or die. Valerianus. — Further persecution of the ” 253 ' Christians. GaSlienus. — Persecution of Christians stayed. In his reign, A n , Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invaded Egypt A.D. 200. (A D ^ Aurelian. — Zenobia became Queen of Egypt for a short time, a and her followers struck coins with the head of J * Aurelian on one side and that of Vaballathos on the other. She was dethroned in 273. Probus attacked and defeated the Blemmyes on the south, a r'v ^ and once more made the Romans masters of A.D. 276. the country. Diocletian. — The Blemmyes became so powerful at this time A D 28 com P e ^ e( i ^e Romans to withdraw 4 * their troops from northern Nubia, and the Romans employed the Nobatse, a powerful desert tribe, to protect Upper Egypt and to keep the Blemmyes in check. In 295 Lucius Domitius Domitianus headed a revolt in Alex- andria, and was proclaimed king by the populace ; Diocletian came to Egypt and besieged Alexandria for several months, and when the city fell he well-nigh destroyed it. “ Pompey’s Pillar ” was set up in 302, and the savage persecution of the Christians began in 304. The Copts date the Era of the Martyrs from August 29th, 284. THE ROMAN PERIOD. 243 Constantine the Great. — In this reign a serious dispute » arose about the nature of Christ between Arius A U 0 and Athanasius ; the former maintained that Christ was only similar in nature to God, and the latter, who set forth the views of Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, that Christ and His Father were of one and the same nature. Constantine was appealed to for a decision, whereupon he summoned a council of bishops at Nicaea, and the views of Arius were condemned as unorthodox. On account of the unpleasant relations which existed between the people of Alexandria and the Emperor, Constantine withdrew his favour from the city, and founded Constantinople. Constantius. — George of Cappadocia, an Arian, is made p^ ^ Bishop of Alexandria, and, with the help of the 337- Government, he endeavoured to crush Athanasius and his followers. Julian the Apostate rejected Christianity and permitted AD 61 f°^ owers °ld pagan religions of Egypt ^ 'to enjoy their favourite beliefs. George the Arian was set upon by the populace of Alexandria, and murdered in the streets. Theodosius 1 , the Great, proclaimed Christianity the religion ^ g of his Empire. In Alexandria the orthodox . * Christians attacked pagans and Arians alike, and Alexandria became the centre of frequent fights between the followers of the chief religious factions. The temples and many other buildings were turned into churches throughout Lower Egypt, but in the upper country the Imperial edict could not be enforced, and the worship of the old gods of Egypt lingered on. It has been said, and not without some show of reason, that the revenues of the pagan temples were as much the object of the reformer’s zeal as the conversion of the pagans themselves to Christianity. 244 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. V.— THE BYZANTINE PERIOD. Arcadius. — In his reign the secular power passed into the ^ ^ hands of Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, 395* p rocee( 4 e( 4 to kin those who did not accept his views as to the anthropomorphic theory of God. Theodosius II. — The patriarch Theophilus died in 453, and AD 08 WaS succee d e d by Cyril, who began to quarrel 4 * with the Jews, and his influence was so great on the mob that the Jewish quarter was plundered and wrecked, and the houses of wealthy Jews were destroyed. The murder of Hypatia by the monks, which took place in the Church of the Caesareum, was the result of the successes of Cyril. In this reign the doctrines of Nestorius were condemned by Cyril, for, in addition to the two natures of Christ, Nestorius inferred also two persons, a human and a divine. During the first half of the 5th century the Nubians as a nation embraced Christianity, the first. Christian kingdom being established by Silko, king of the Nobadae, who made Dongola his capital. Marcianus. — In his reign Eutyches of Constantinople ^ ^ proclaimed that Christ possessed one person 45°* on ly, and one nature only, namely, the Divine, the human having been absorbed into it. In 451 the Council of Chalcedon condemned the views of Eutyches, but in spite of this the Copts of Egypt, who are Monophysites, practically adhere to his opinions on this matter. Towards the end of the reign of Theodosius II, the Blemmyes again began to trouble Egypt, and as they attacked Egypt in force after his death, the new Emperor was obliged to send his general into Nubia and punish them. As a result the Blemmyes and the Nobatae made an agreement with the Romans, in which they promised to keep the peace for one hundred years ; but they broke it very shortly afterwards. In this reign the people of Alexandria burned down the temple of Serapis. Zeno issued the Henoticon, an edict which, whilst affirming . p. the Incarnation, made no attempt to decide the 474* difficult question whether Christ possessed a single or a double nature. Anastasius. — In his reign the Persians invaded the Delta, . p. and the Roman troops were unable to stop * * 4Q 1 - their advance. Peter Mongus died, and there THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD. 245 was peace among the ecclesiastics for a short time. Anastasius sent a mission to the Homeritae of Arabia. Justinian. — The Monophysites separated from the Melkites ^ £) 3 or Royalists, and chose their own patriarch ; 5 3 7 * faey were afterwards called Copts. In this reign Hadad, King of Axum, opened negotiations with the Romans at Alexandria, and Narses, by the royal command, went up the Nile to Philae and destroyed the temple there, and carried the statues of the gods to Constantinople. Heraclius I. — The Persians invaded Egypt and besieged AD 610 Alexandria i n 619 ; they held Egypt for ten years. In 629, under the influence of the victories of Muhammad the Prophet, the Arabs revolted from the rule of Pers’a, and Heraclius, seizing the opportunity, marched into Syria, scattering the Persians before him, and once more became master of Egypt. The Era of the Hijra, i.e., the Flight, dates from the day when Muhammad the Prophet fled with Abu Bakr from Mecca to Medina, or Madina, i.e., on the fourth day of the month Rabi al-Awwal, on June 20th*, A.D. 622. They arrived at Medina on Monday, June 28th, having accomplished the journey in eight days. The usual caravan time is eleven days, but the distance between Mecca and Medina is often covered in five or six days. Muhammad and Abu Bakr really started on their journey from the Cave of Thaur. The name of Muhammad’s camel was “Al-Kaswa.” Muhammad died i) 632. VI.— THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD. ‘Amr ibn al = ‘Asi, the general of ‘Omar, arrived at Pelusium A D 6 a f° rce between 755°° and 8,000 men, 4 * and defeated the garrison in a month. The Arabs marched to Bilbes, and then to Misr, or “ Babylon of Egypt,” which was defended by a large Roman army, and guarded by the fortress which Turbo built in 116 . The fortress was surrendered chiefly through the machinations of Al-Makaukas, whom Mr. Butler has proved to be no other than Cyrus, the “ misbelieving governor who was appointed by Heraclius after the recovery of Egypt from the Persians to be both Patriarch and Governor of Alexandria.” * This is the true date. According to Muhammadans the Era began on July 16th, A.D. 622. 246 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Once master A.D. 640. word Fustat remained the The Khalifa A.D. 644. » ^ 45 - waste. A.D. 652. a treaty with A.D. 656. ,, 664. of Egypt, ‘Amr set to work to build on the plain close to Babylon a Muhammadan capital, which he called “Al-Fusfat,” i.e., “ The Camp.” The is derived from the Byzantine fyoaaarov. Fustat capital of Egypt until Cairo was founded in 969. ‘Omar was murdered, and ‘Abdallah ibn Sa‘ad was appointed Governor of Egypt. ‘Othman becomes Khalifa. Alexandria was seized by Manuel, but he was driven out by ‘Amr, and Alexandria was laid ‘Abdallah ibn Sa‘ad invaded Nubia, captured Dongola, and compelled the people to make him. ‘Ali becomes Khalifa. ‘Amr died, leaving to his sons a fortune of 70 sacks of dinars. A. — The ‘Omayyad Khalifas. A.D. 661. Mo‘awiya. 9 9 66 k Yezid (‘Abdallah ibn Zubeyr). 9 9 683. Merwan I. 9 9 685. ‘Abd a! = Melik. 9 9 705 - Al = Walid 1. 9 9 7 * 5 - Suleman. 9 9 717. Omar ibn ‘Abd al = ‘Aziz. 9 9 724. Hisham. 9 9 724. Al = Walid II. 9 9 744. Yezid III. 9 9 744 - Ibrahim. 9 9 744 - Merwan II. B. The ‘Abbasid Khalifas, A.D. 750 . As = saffah. 9 9 754 - AUMansur. 9 9 775 - Al = Mahdi. 9 9 785. Al = Hadi. 9 9 786. Ar = Rashid. 9 9 809. Al = Amin. 9 9 813. Al = Ma‘mun. 9 9 833- Al = Mo‘tasim. THE RULE OF THE KHALIFAS. 247 A.D. 842. » 847- „ 861. ,, 862. ,, 866 . Al = Wathik. Al = Mutawekkil. Al = Muntasir. A 1 = Musta‘in. Al = Mo‘tezz. C. — The Dynasty of the Tulunid Khalifas. Ahmad ibn Tulun was born in September, 835, and entered A D 868 * n 868. He built the suburb Al-Katai in 870 ; in 876 he began to build his great mosque, which cost 100,000 dinars, took Damascus and occupied Syria in 878, and acquired territory in Mesopotamia. He died in May, 884, leaving 10,000,000 dinars in his treasury. Khumaraweyh, the second of Ahmad’s seventeen sons, A.D. 884. succeeded his father at the age of 20 ; he was murdered in 896 by his slaves whilst at Damascus. His eldest son, Abu l‘ = Asakir, reigned for a few months, and was also murdered, and another son, Abu Musa Harun, also reigned for a short time, and was murdered as he lay drunk in his tent on December 29th, 904. The following year the whole of Tulun’ s descendants were taken to Baghdad by the Khalifa’s general, Muhammad, and Tulun’s suburb of Cairo was sacked and burned, and rapine and murder were, for four months, the order of the day. A.D. 906. Muhammad al = Khalangi usurps the rule of Egypt for eight months. D.— The Dynasty of the Fatimid Khalifas. A.D. 913. Khubasa, the Fatimid general, occupied Alexandria, but was driven out by the Egyptians. Alexandria was again captured by the Fatimid troops, and a rk their fleet arrived off the citv, but they were once more driven out by the Egyptians. Muhammad ibn Tughg, called the Ikhshid, took over the AD oik government of Egypt in August of this year; •9 5 * p e ^ied at p) amascus j n July, 946, and was buried in Jerusalem. He was a great builder, and set up a magnificent palace in the place called the “ Garden of Kafur.” In his reign the Arab historian Masflidi visited Egypt. 248 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. A.D. 946. Abu 1 = Kasim, son of Muhammad al- Ikhshid. Abu 1 = Hasan ‘Ali, son of Muhammad al-Ikhshid. These AD 61 tw ° ^ rot ^ ers were °nly rulers of Egypt in name, ^ 'for they were merely puppets of the black eunuch, Kafur, who acted as regent. Each was allowed 400,000 dinars per annum, and was ordered to do anything he pleased except interfere in affairs of State. Abu l = Misk Kafur was an Abyssinian slave who was bought A D 6 by M u b amm ad al-Ikhshid from an oilman for ^ •*’ about ^io, and was appointed governor of his master’s sons ; he died in 968. A Fatimid army entered Fustat, and Al = Mu‘izz* became AD 6 master Egypt ; he was a prudent, generous, ^ and cultured ruler, and he belonged to the Shi ‘a or “ free thinking ” section of the Muhammadans. The general who conquered Egypt for the Fatimids was called Gawhar, nicknamed “the Roman,” who had formerly been a slave. He founded a new capital, and because Mars, Al-Kahir, was in the ascendant when the first sods were turned, he called the city Al-Kahira, or “the victorious,” and from this name the modern name “ Cairo ” has been derived. Gawhar at once compelled the corn merchants to sell their grain to the people at fair prices, and did much to relieve the sufferings among the people which were caused by the famine; in his time the plague was so severe that the dead could not be buried fast enough, and the bodies had to be thrown into the Nile. He founded the mosque Al-Azhar in 970, and finished the build- ing in 972. Al-Mu £ izz died in 975. Al = ‘Aziz, the son of Al-Mu‘izz, was a great hunter and . ^ warrior, and had red hair and blue eyes ; one of 975* p; s w j ves was a Christian, and her two brothers were appointed Melkite, or “royalist,” patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem. During the reign of Al- £ Aziz Egypt enjoyed complete peace and prosperity, and, in Mr. Stanley Lane Poole’s words, his name “was prayed for in the mosques from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, in the Yemen, in the sanctuary of Mekka, and once (in 992) even in the pulpit of Mosil.” * The first three Fatimid Khalifas were : — (1) AI=Mahdl, 909-934 ; (2) Al=Ka’im, 934 94<>; (3) AIMansur, 945 953- THE RULE OF THE KHALIFAS. 249 Al = Hakim succeeded his father, Al-Aziz, when he was eleven An a y ears °ld, and when he was free from the direc- * * 99 tion of his tutor, Bargawan, he gained the reputation for being a madman. He summoned his councils to meet at night, for he loved the darkness, he ordered busi- ness to be transacted after sunset, women were not allowed to possess outdoor boots, the vines were cut down, honey was thrown into the Nile, dogs were ordered to be killed when- ever found in the streets, and he persecuted the Christians. In 1005 he founded the “Hall of Science,” the object of which was to propagate the tenets of the Shi‘a sects, and he established an Observatory on the Mukattam hills, where he studied astrology. In a mad fit he ordered Fustat to be set on fire, and after three days’ fighting half the city was actually burned down. Finally his madness made him declare that he was the Incarnation of God, and a preacher in the mosque of ‘Amr actually began an address with the words “ In the name of Al-Hakim the Compassionate, the Merciful.” He was the friend and patron of Darazi, the founder of the Druzes, whom he hid when the Turkish soldiers besieged his palace. On February 13th, 1021, Hakim set out for his usual ride in the desert near the Mukattam hills, where he seems to have been murdered ; his ass was found a few days later, and his coat of seven colours with dagger marks on it, but his body was never recovered. Zahir, son of Ah Aziz, was 16 years old when he succeeded, AD 1021 anC ^ a ^ a * rs State were controlled by his aunt for four years. He is said to have invited 2,660 singing girls into a mosque and to have closed the doors and bricked them up so that all the wretched company died of starvation. He himself died of the plague in June, 1036. Ma‘add, or Abu Tamim Ma‘add al-Mustansir bi-llah, A D 1016 ascen d e d the throne at the age of seven. His ** * mother was a Sudani slave, and she and her former master, Abu Said, a Jew of Tustar, practically ruled Egypt during Ma‘add’s boyhood. In 1065 a seven years’ famine began, and the distress became so great that “at last people began to eat each other. Passengers were caught in the streets by hooks let down from the windows, drawn up, killed, and cooked. Human flesh was sold in public.” In 1043 the power of the Fatimids began to decline in Syria, and 250 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. in 1060 Aleppo was lost to Egypt. The Seljuk general Atsiz conquered Palestine and entered Jerusalem in 1071, and five years later he took Damascus, and thus Palestine and Syria were lost to Egypt. * AS = Mustaii, the seventh son of Ma £ add. He died in 1 soi. The Christians regained possession of Jeru ” io 99 * sa lem, and massacred 70,000 defenceless Muham- madans. Abu ‘ASi al = Mansur, commonly known as ,, 1 101. A . * • J ” AS Amir. Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, and 700 knights ” * were defeated by an Egyptian army. The Crusaders became masters of Palestine 55 * and of the coast of Syria. Baldwin invaded Egypt, burned Pelusuim, and marched on A n to Tinnis, but illness prevented his advancing A.D. I117 ' further. ,, E124. The Crusaders conquered Tyre. Al-Amir was murdered by ten Assassins as he was returning ^ ^ from the Island of Roda ; in 1131 he was 11 ^°* succeeded by his cousin, Al = Hafiz, who died in October, 1 149. A.D. 1149. Az = Zafir. Af = Faiz. He died in July, 1160, aged ” ,1[ 54 * e i even years. .As Al‘Adid, the last of the Fatimid Khalifas, succeeded at the AD 1160 a ^ e n ^ ne - T^ e history of this reign prac- tically resolves itself into the narrative of the struggle for power which went on between Shawar, governor of Upper Egypt, and Dirgham, a Lakhmi Arab, who had fought successfully against the Crusaders at Gaza. In 1163 Amalanck, the Christian King of Jerusalem, invaded Egypt. Shawar was driven out by Dirgham, and fled to Nur ed-Dinat Aleppo ; he, however, refused to send an expedition against Egypt. Dirgham was defeated by Amalarick at Bilbes, and to save himself was obliged to cut the dams and flood the country. In 1164 Nur ed-Din sent troops with Shawar to Egypt under the command of Shirkuh and his nephew, Salah ed-Din THE RULE OF THE KHALIFAS. 2 5 * (Saladin). The forces of Dirgham were defeated, his troops forsook him, and as soon as he rode out of his fortress the populace fell upon him, and having cut off his head carried it in triumph through the streets. The victorious Shawar quarrelled with Shirkuh, who promptly sent Saladin to occupy the Delta ; Shawar then appealed to Amalarick, who sent his Crusaders to Egypt, but Shirkuh managed to leave Bilbes with all his men, as a result of the armistice which had been arranged between Nur ed-Din and Amalarick. In 1864 (April 18) Shirkuh and Nur ed-Din fought a pitched battle near Minyah, and at length, after three invasions, the former became master of Egypt and ruled as Wazir. His opponent, Shawar, was put to death. Salah ed = Din (Saladin) reigned 24 years, but he spent only AD 1 16 Egypt. He was born at Tekrit on the Tigris in 1137, and was the son of Ayyub, a Kurdish officer in the service of the Khalifa of Baghdad. In 117 s Al-‘Adid died, and with him perished the last of the Eatimids. Saladin conquered Syria and annexed Mesopotamia. He fortified Cairo with strong walls and built the Citadel, and under his orders the eunuch Kara-kush excavated the “ Well of the Winding Stairs,” 280 feet deep in the solid rock. The Citadel and the Gizah dyke were built with stones taken from the small pyramids ; the old aqueduct of Cairo, which is really Mamluk work, has been attributed to him. Saladin died on March 4th, 1193. E. — The Dynasty of the Ayyubid Khalifas. Saladin’s successors were A.D. 1193. Al = ‘Aziz ‘Othman, his son. ,, 1198. Al = Mansur Muhammad. ,, 1200. Al=‘Adil Seyf = ed = din. ,, 12 18. Al = Kamil Muhammad. ». *238. Al= ‘Adil II. ,, 1240. As = Salih Ayyub, grandson of brother. .» 1 2 49 * Al = Mu‘azzam Turanshah. ». 1 250. AI-Ashraf Musa. Saladin’s 252 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY, F. — The Dynasty of the Bahrite Mamluks. Louis !X collected 2,800 French knights, 5,000 archers, and AD 52 sa il e d for Egypt in 1,720 ships. He took 5249. p) am j ettaj an q marched on to Mansura, but here some 1,500 of the flower of his army were killed. Subsequently he retreated to Damietta, but the Saracens pursued him and annihilated the Christian army. It is said that 30,000 Crusaders were slain. King Louis and the remainder of his army were held at ransom for 10,000,000 francs, but Tfiranshah is said to have reduced this sum by one-quarter. The Mamluks derive their name from the fact that they were originally slaves, who were either purchased or captured in war. The Bahri Mamluks, i.e ., “the white slaves of the river,” were thus called because they lived on the Island of Roda, opposite Fustat. The 25 Bahri rulers were : — A.D. 5250. Sheger ad = Durr, a Queen. Al = Mu‘izz Aybek. He was murdered in his bath by his wife in 1257. AUMansur ‘Ali ibn Aybek. He was ” E2 57 * deposed in November, 1259. Al = Muzaffar Kutuz. He conquered the Mongols, who A.D. 5259. ,, 5260. .» s2 77* *» E279. ,, S279. ,, 5290. ,, 5293. were led by Hulugu. He was murdered in October, 1260. Az = Zahar Rukn ad = din Debars. He was the first Mamlfik Sultan. He died in July, 1277. As = Sa‘id Baraka Khan. He abdicated the throne, and died in 5280. Al=‘Adil Selamish. He was deposed. Al = Mansur Kala‘un. He built the Maristan (completed in 1284). He died in his tent in 1290. Al = Ashraf Khalil. He captured ‘Akka (Acre), May 18th, 1292. He was murdered in 1293. An = Nasir Muhammad. He was deposed in a year, but restored in 1298 and 1309. THE BAHRITE MAMLUKS. 2 53 A.D. 1294. Al=‘Adil Ketbugha. A terrible famine occurred in his reign. 9 9 1296. Al = Mansur Lagin. He was murdered in January, 1299. 9 9 s 298. An = Nasir (second reign). Deposed for 10 years. 9 9 1308. Al = Muzaffar Bebars I!. He abdicated and was shut up in prison in Gaza. S309. An = Nasir (third reign). Reigned for 30 9 9 years more. He died in June, 1341. 9 9 5342- AbMansur Abu Bakr. 9 9 *345- Al = Ashraf Kuguk. 9 9 *342. An = Nasir Ahmad. 9 9 1342. As = Salih Isma‘il. 9 9 *345- Al = Kami! Sha‘ban. 9 9 E 34^. Al = Muzaffar Haggi. An = Nasir Hasan. In his reign the plague attacked A.D. 1347. Egypt, and 10,000 to 20,000 people died in Cairo in one day. »» E 35 *» As = Salih Salih. >* * 354 - An = Nasir Hasan (second reign). ,, 136 :. Al = Mansur Muhammad. • > 1 3 ^ 3 - AUAshraf Sha‘ban. ,, * 37 ^- Al = Mansur ‘All. ,, 6381. As = Salih Haggi. He was deposed in 1382 by Barkuk, who founded the dynasty of the Burgi or Circassian Mamluks. » * 389 - As = Salih Haggi (second reign) G.— The Dynasty of the Burgite, or Circassian Mamluks. The Burgi Sultans were all Circassians, with the exception of two, Khftshkadam and Timurbugha, who were of Greek origin. The Circassian Mamlfiks obtained the name of “Burgite” because the founders of their dynasty were quartered in the “ Burg,” or Citadel. 254 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. A.D. 1382. »» ! 399* ,, 1405. „ 1405. ,, 5412. ,, 1422. ,» 142s. .* 1423. M 3423. ,, S422. Az = Zahir Barkuk. He died in 3399. Farag. He was executed in 1412, and his body cast on a dung-heap. ‘Abd al = ‘Aziz. Farag (second period of rule). Al = Mustain. Al = Mu‘ayyad. Ahmad. Sayf = ad = din Tatar. As = Salih Muhammad. Bars = Bey captured Cyprus in 3426; he died in 3438. 3438. Al = ‘Aziz Yusuf. o Gakmak persecuted the Jews and Christians ; 4< * * he died in 3453, aged 80. ‘Othman was deposed after a rule of six 5 453* wee k s _ 3453. Sayf = eddin Inal. 3461. Al = Mu‘ayyad Ahmad abdicated. 1461. Khushkadam, the Greek, abdicated. . Yel = Bey, called the u madman,” was deposed 4 after a rule of two months. . Timurbugha, a learned man, who was ” 4 7* deposed, but allowed to live at Damietta. Ka’it = Bey built two mosques, and restored many monu- A D 1 68 ments - The P^ a S ue visited Egypt in 1492, 4 * and 12,000 people died in one day in Cairo. Ka’it-Bey died in 1496. A.D. 3496. ** ! 49$. »» 3500. ,, 3503 - An = Nasir Muhammad. Kansuh. Ganbalat. Tuman = Bey. Kansuh al = Ghuri was killed at the battle I CO £ • * ” D of Aleppo, August 24th, 3536. Al = Ashraf Turnan = Bey was hanged on April 14th, 3537, An- a, when the Turks occupied Cairo. The last • u 5 11 • Abbasid Khalifa of Egypt, Mutawekkil, died in 35387 having bequeathed his title and rights to the Sultan of Turkey. Thus Egypt became a province of the Turkish Empire. PERIOD OF TURKISH RULE. 2 55 VII.— TURKISH RULE IN EGYPT. The first governor of Egypt under Turkish rule was Kheyr Bek. When Selim conquered Egypt he did his utmost to break the power of the Mamluks, but he found it impossible to do this, and “ he thought it wise to conciliate them, and to appoint 24 Beys over the military provinces of that number into which he divided Egypt, subject to the supreme control of a Pasha, whose Council was formed of seven Turkish chiefs, while one of the Beys held the post of Shekh al-Beled, or Governor of the Metropolis, an officer who became an object of hatred to the other chiefs.” This system lasted for nearly two centuries, but the desire of each Bey to become the Pasha of Egypt produced much intrigue and many murders. Little by little the Beys increased their powers, and the authority of the Pasha diminished as theirs increased. In 1768 ‘Ali Bey, the Shekh al-Beled, ejected the Pasha and declared himself ruler of Egypt ; he conquered a part of Arabia and of Syria, but was murdered by his general, Abu Dhahab, in 1772. In 5773, Ismail and other Mamlftks fought for the mastery of Egypt, and in a 790 a Turkish army invaded Egypt and seized Cairo. VIII.— FRENCH RULE IN EGYPT. Napoleon Bonaparte lands near Alexandria with an army of AH a 36,000 men (July ist)j storming of Alexandria • B 79 • Q u iy ^th) ; MurM meets the French in battle at Embabeh, opposite Cairo, with 60,000 men, but is beaten, and about 15,000 of his men are killed. This fight is commonly called the Battle of the Pyramids. A few days later Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Abukir Bay. * n Destruction of the Turkish army by the French A.U. 1799. atAbu]f{r Sir Sydney Smith signs a treaty at Al- £ Arish granting General A D s8oo ^leberV army permission to leave Egypt (February 24th), but as he had to admit later that he had exceeded his powers, and that the British Government demanded the surrender of the whole French 256 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. army as prisoners of war, General Kleber attacked the Turks A D 5800 at v ^ a & e Matariyeh and is said to have routed 70,000 men, an army six times as large as his own. A few months later Kleber was assassinated, and General Menou became commander-in-chief of the French army in Egypt. Sir Ralph Abercromby lands at Abukir Bay with 17,000 men An & (March 8 th) ; battle of Alexandria and defeat 1 OI * of the French (March 21st); the French capitulate at Cairo (June 27 th) ; the French capitulate at Alexandria (August 30th) ; evacuation of Egypt by the French (September). England restores Egypt to the Turks. As soon as the English AD ’8 ^ft E §yP t ’ severe conflicts took place between two Turkish parties in the country, the Albanians and the Ghuzz; to the former belonged Muhammad Ali. IX.— MUHAMMAD ‘ALI AND HIS FAMILY. Muhammad ‘Ali is elected Pasha of Egypt by the people. AD 18 e ^ ec ^ on was afterwards confirmed by the 3 ° 5 « Porte. He was bom at Cavalla, a small town on the sea-coast of Albania, in 2769, and he served in the Turkish army at an early age. He was sent with a body of troops to fight against the French, and enjoyed at that time the rank of major ( bimbashi ) ; he married the daughter of the governor of his native town, and by her had three sons, Ibrahim, Tusuii, and Ismafil. General Fraser arrives at Alexandria with 5,000 British troops . p. ^ (March 17th), but being unsuccessful in his 3 ° 7 * mission, he evacuated Alexandria on Septem- ber 14th. Assassination of the Mamluks by Muhammad Ali. These . n unfortunate men were invited by Muhammad A. .5 bb. c AU t0 attenc j t h e investiture of his son, Tusfin, with a garment of State at the citadel on March 1st. When they arrived, they were graciously received and led into the citadel, but as soon as they were inside the gates were closed DYNASTY OF MUHAMMAD ‘ALI. 257 and Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers opened fire upon them ; about 470 of the Beys and their followers were murdered, and of all who entered only one is said to have escaped. A D 1820 Expedition to Shdan led by Isma‘ 11 , who was burned to death by an Arab shekh called Nimr (1822). Muhammad ‘Ali sends about 8,000 troops to assist the Turks AD 1821 a g a i nst Greeks. In 1824 a false Mahdi appeared near Thebes, with about 25,000 fol- lowers, but nearly all of them were massacred by the Govern- ment troops. Invasion of Syria by Ibrahim, son of Muhammad ‘Ali. Acre AD 18 i WaS ^ nveste d on November 29th, but was not 3 captured until May 27th, 1832. Ibrahim was victorious at Emesa on July 8th, he defeated Rashid Pasha, and destroyed the Turkish fleet so completely that Constanti- nople was in imminent danger of capture. In 1833 the whole of Syria was ceded to Muhammad ‘Ali, and the rule of his son Ibrahim was firm but just. In 1839 war again broke out between the Turks and Egyptians, and two years later Syria was given back to the former. In 1847 Muhammad e Ali visited Constantinople, and soon afterwards his reasoning powers became impaired. Ibrahim is appointed to rule Egypt on account of his father’s AD 188 * a ^ n g health. He died after the reign of a few 4 • months, but Muhammad did not die until August 3rd, 1849. Muhammad ‘Ali was an able ruler, and one who had the interest of his country at heart. He created an army and a navy, and established equitable laws for collecting the revenues ; he founded colleges of various kinds, and also the famous Bulak printing press. There is no doubt that but for the obstacles placed in his way by the British Government, and its interference, he would have freed Egypt entirely from Turkish misrule. His health and spirits were broken by England when she reduced his army to 18,000 men and forbade him to employ his fleet, which rotted away as it lay inactive at Alexandria. ‘Abbas Pasha, the son of Tusftn, the son of Muhammad A D 1840 succee ds Ibrahim. He was an incapable ruler, and is said to have been strangled at Benha in July, 1854. R 258 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Sa‘id Pasha, the fourth son of Muhammad ‘Ali, becomes AD 1 8 ruler of Egypt. Though not a strong ruler, 54 * he was a just man, and he will be chiefly remem- bered for having abolished a number of cruel monopolies. In many particulars he sought to carry out his father’s plans, and first and foremost among these must be mentioned the building of railways in the Delta, and the enlarging of the canals with the view of improving irrigation and of facilitating communication. He it was who supported the project of making the Suez Canal, and he gave M. de Lesseps the concession for it. He founded the Bulak Museum, and encouraged excavations on the sites of the ancient cities of Egypt. Isma‘il, son of Ibrahim Pasha, and grandson of Muhammad AH ‘Ali, becomes ruler of Egypt; he was born in 1 1830, and by a decree of the Sultan, dated May 14th, 1867, was made “Khedive”* of Egypt. In the early years of the rule of this remarkable man everything seemed to go well, and the material welfare of the country of Egypt appeared to be secured. Apparently Ismail was straining every nerve to rule his country according to Western ideas of justice and progress. Railways were built, schools were opened, trade of every kind was fostered, and agricul- ture, upon which the prosperity of Egypt depends, was encouraged to a remarkable degree. The making of the Suez Canal, which was begun in 1859, was carried on with great zeal under his auspices (as well as the Fresh Water Canal, which was begun in 1858 and finished in 5863), and the work was successfully accomplished in 1869. But the various enterprises in which he embarked cost large sums A n K °f mone y> anc ^ towards the end of 1875 his * * 1 75 * liabilities amounted to ^77,667,569 sterling. The salaries of the officials were in arrear, and the Treasury bills were shunned by all. In this year he sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British Government for ^3,976,582 sterling ; these shares are now worth over 25 millions sterling. In 1878 M. Waddington, the French Minister of Foreign AD 18 8 Affairs, urged Lord Derby to co-operate with * * ' * France in an attempt to put the finances of Egypt on a sounder basis, and a Commission of Inquiry was * The Arabic form of the title is ~ O ' J> r Khudewty. DYNASTY OF MUHAMMAD ‘ALL 259 instituted by the Decree of March 30th, under the presidency A D 18 8 °f Mr. RiversWilson. In April Ismail was obliged 7 ' to find the sum of ^1,200,000 to pay the May coupon of the Unified Debt, and it is said that he did so by the familiar process of “squeezing” the native. The labours of the Commission proved that “ the land tenures were so arranged that the wealthier proprietors evaded a great portion of the land tax, and the system of forced labour was applied in a way which was ruinous to the country.” (Royle, Egyptian Campaigns , p. 6.) Ismail had built himself palaces everywhere, and he and his family had become possessed of one-fifth of the best of the land of Egypt. The taxes were collected with great cruelty and injury to the native, and peculation and bribery were rampant everywhere. In August of this year a Cabinet was formed with Nubar Pasha at the head, with Rivers Wilson as Minister of Finance, and M. de Blignieres as Minister of Public Works. At this time Ismail announced that he was, in future, determined to rule the country through a Council of Ministers. It must be remembered that the debt of Egypt at this time was about ,£90,000,000. On February 18th, 1879, Nubar Pasha and his Cabinet were, A D 1870 ow ^ n § to t ^ ie mac hinations of Ismail, mobbed by about 2,500 officers and men at the Ministry of Finance, but at the critical moment Ismail himself appeared, and the uproar ceased. At the same time, however, he told the European Consuls-General that unless more power were given to him he would not be--xesponsible for what might happen. Soon after this he issued a Decree to raise the number of men in the army to 60, coo, and in April he reduced the interest on the Debt. When Nubar Pasha resigned his office, Ismail appointed his own son, Tawfik, as Prime Minister, but soon after this he dismissed the whole Cabinet and appointed a set of native Ministers with Sherif Pasha as Prime Minister. As a result of this truly Oriental proceeding, England and France, after much hesitation, demanded the deposition of Ismail from the Sultan. About this time Ismail sent large bribes to the Sultan, but these availed him nothing, and on June 25th Mr. Lascelles, the British Consul-General, and M. Tricon, the French Consul General, together with Sherif Pasha, waited upon Ismail to inform him that he must at once abdicate in obedience to the orders of his sovereign master, the Sultan, which had been r 2 260 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. received from Constantinople. Isma‘il, of course, refused to do AD 1 8 this, k Ut a ^ out IO -3° A - M - a telegram addressed to Ismail Pasha, late Khedive of Egypt, was received at the Abdin Palace, and it was taken to him by Sherif Pasha, who called upon his master to resign in favour of Tawfik Pasha. Almost at the same hour Tawiik received at the Ismalliyyeh Palace a telegram addressed to Muhammad Tawfik, Khedive of Egypt, and when he went to the A bdin Palace with Sherif Pasha, who had come from there to tell him about the telegram to Ismail, he found his father ready to salute and to wish him better fortune than he himself had enjoyed. On Monday, June 30th,. Ismail left Egypt in the Khedivial yacht for Smyrna, taking with him a large sum of money and about 300 women; in 5887 he settled in Constantinople, where he died in 1895. Under Tawfik’s rule the Control was restored, and on September 4th Riaz Pasha became Prime Minister. Commission of Liquidation appointed, . and a number of A D 1880 re ^ orms ’ including a reduction of the taxes, are made. A rebellion headed by Ahmad Arabi or “ Arabi Pasha ” and AD 1881 ot l iers breaks out. Arabi was born in the year 1840 in Lower Egypt, and was the son of a peasant farmer. He offended Ismail, and was accused of malpractices and misappropriation of army stores, but this the despot forgave him, and promoted him to the rank of colonel, and gave him a royal slave to wife. Arabi was the leader of a secret society, the aim of which was to free Egypt from foreign interference and control, and to increase the army, and make Tawfik appoint an Egyptian to the office of Minister of War in the place of Osman Rifki. These facts coming to the notice of the authorities, Arabi and two of his colleagues were ordered to be arrested, and when this had been done, and they had been taken to the barracks in Cairo for examina- tion, the soldiers who were in their companies rushed into the rooms and rescued them. The rebel officers and men next went to the palace where Tawfik was, and compelled him to grant their requests, and to do away with the cause of their dissatisfaction. H.E. ‘Abbas Hilmi Pasha, the eldest son of Tawfik Pasha, A D 1802 b ecame Khedive of Egypt. The investiture ‘ ^ took place on April 14 at the Abdin Palace. BRITISH RULE IN EGYPT. 26 X. — BRITISH RULE IN EGYPT. On February 2nd of this year Tawfik was called upon to form A D 1882 a new Cabinet, anc ^ Arabi became Minister of War, and Mahmud Sami was appointed President of the Council ; Arabi was created a Pasha by the Sultan, and his power became paramount. In May a serious dispute arose between Arabi and his colleagues and the Khedive ; and on the 19th and 20th three British and three French vessels arrived at Alexandria. On May 25th the Consuls-General of England and France demanded the resignation of Mahmud Sami’s Cabinet and the retirement of Arabi from the country. These demands were conceded on the following day, but shortly after Tawfik reinstated Arabi, with the view of main- taining order and the tranquillity of the country. “ On June 3rd three more British and three more French warships arrived at Alexandria. On June nth a serious riot broke out at Alexandria, and the British Consul was stoned and nearly beaten to death, and Mr. Ribton, a missionary, and a British naval officer and tw r o seamen, were actually killed.” The massacre had been threatened by Mahmud Sami, and the riot was pre-arranged, and the native police and soldiery were parties to the murders of the Europeans which took place on that day. Mr. Royle (. Egyptian Campaigns , p. 54) estimates the number of Europeans killed at 150. On June 25th the Sultan decorated Arabi with the-Grnnd Order of the Medjidieh ! On July nth, at 7 a.m. the bombardment of Alexandria was begun by H.M.S. “ Alexandra ” firing a shell into the newly-made fortifications of the city, and the other British ships, “Inflexible,” “Superb,” “Sultan,” “Temeraire,” “Invincible,” “Monarch,” and “Penelope,” soon after opened fire. After the bombardment was over, the city was plundered and set on fire by the natives, and an idea of the damage done may be gained from the fact that the Commission of Indemnities awarded the claimants the sum of ^4,341,011 sterling (Royle, op. cit., p. 102). On July 14th British seamen were landed to protect the city, and on the 15th many forts were occupied by them. Early in August Arabi was removed from his post, and he at once began to prepare to resist the English soldiers who were known to be on their way to Egypt ; on August 15th Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived in Egypt ; on the 18th the British fleet arrived at Port Sa‘id ; on the 20th the British seized the 262 SUMMARY OR EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Suez Cana], and the British Government was declared by M. de 4 D 1882 Lessepsto have paid to him ^100,000 for loss of business ! (Royle, op. cit ., p. 152). On Sept. 13th Sir Garnet Wolseley was victorious at Tell al = Kebir, at a cost of about 460 British officers and men ; the Egyptians lost about 2,000, and several hundreds were wounded. On the 15th, Cairo was occupied by the British, and the 10,000 Egyptian soldiers there submitted without fighting. On December 26th Arabi left Egypt for exile in Ceyion. A rebellion led by the Mahdi breaks out in the Sudan. The A D 1883 Mahdi was one Muhammad Ahmad, a carpenter, '■’* who was born between 1840 and 1850; his native village was situated near the island of Arko, in the province of Donkola, and, though poor, his parents declared that they belonged to the Ashraf, or “ nobility,” and claimed to be descendants of Muhammad the Prophet. His father was a religious teacher, and had taught him to read and write. He studied at Berber under Muhammad al-Kher, and later at Khartum under the famous Shekh Muhammad Sherif, and when he became a man he led a life of great asceticism on the island of Aba, or Abba, in the White Nile. His piety and learning secured for him a great reputation in the Sudan, and the greater number of the inhabitants sided with him in a serious quarrel which he had with Muhammad Sherif. He wandered about preaching against the Christians, and he declared that the decay in the Muhammadan religion was due to the contact of Arabs with Christians, that true faith was dead, and that he was deputed by God to restore it. He then attached a number of important people to himself, and, having retired to Abba Island, he declared himself to be the “Mahdi,” or the being, whose advent had been foretold by Muhammadan writers, who would restore the religion of the Arabs to its former purity. In July, s88i, Rauf Pasha, the Governor- General of the Sudan, sent for him to come to Khartum, but the Mahdi refused, and six weeks later he and his followers defeated the Government troops which had been sent to bring him, and slew half of them. In December he defeated Rashid Bey, the Governor of Fashoda, and slew nearly all the 400 soldiers whom he had with him at Kaddir. In April, 1882, Giegler Pasha, the temporary Governor-General, next attacked the Mahdi, and under his able generalship considerable loss was inflicted on the rebels : but on June 7th the Mahdi and his Dervishes massacred the combined forces of ‘Abd-Allah THE MAHDI. 263 and Yusuf Pasha, and in September he besieged Al-‘Obed, AD 188 which capitulated on January 17th, 1883. In the same month Colonel W. Hicks, a retired Indian officer, was appointed head of the army in the Sudan, and on February 7th he left Cairo for Khartum via Berber, which he reached on March 1st; in April he set out against the Dervishes, and on the last day of the month he defeated about 4,000 of them and killed about 500. On September 9th he set out with reinforcements for Duwem, intending to recapture Al-‘Obed, but early in November the Mahdi attacked his force of about 10,000 men with some thousands of soldiers from the old Egyptian army, near Lake Rahad, it is said, and the gallant Englishman and his officers and men, who were suffering greatly from want of water, having been led into a forest, were cut to pieces. Thus the Mahdi became master of the Sudan. In February Baker Pasha set out with about 3,800 men to A D 1884 re ^ eve Sinkat, but his motley troops were 4 * defeated at Tokar, and about 2,400 of them slain, and thousands of rifles and much ammunition fell into the hands of the Dervishes. In January of this year Charles George Gordon (born January 28th, 1833, murdered at Khartum on Monday, January 26th, 1885, a little before daybreak) was sent to Khartum to arrange for the evacuation of the Sudan ; he left Cairo on January 26th and arrived there on February 18th. On February 28th, General Graham defeated the Dervishes at At = Teb, and nearly 1,00c of them were slain. On March 13th he defeated Osman Dikna’s* army at Tamai and killed about 2,500 of his men; Osman’s camp was burnt, and several hundred thousand of the cartridges which had been taken from Baker Pasha were destroyed. On the 27th, Tamanib was occupied by Graham and then burnt. About the middle of April the Mahdi began to besiege Gordon in Khartum, and preparations for a relief expedition were begun in England in May ; this expedition was placed (August 26th) under Sir Garnet Wolseley, who decided tc attempt to reach Khartum by ascending the Nile. This route made it necessary, to travel 1,700 miles against the stream, and six cataracts, and other natural barriers, made the progress extremely slow ; General Sir F. Stephenson, the highest * “Osman of the beard”; he is the son of a Turkish merchant and slave dealer who settled in the Eastern Sudan early in the 19th century. 264 SUMMARY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. authority on the subject, advised the route via Sawakin and A D I884 Berber, an d by it troops could have entered 4 * Khartum some months before Gordon was murdered. On the other hand, it has been urged that, ,as the town of Berber surrendered on May 26th, the main reason for an advance along the Sawakin-Berber road was taken away ( Sudan Campaign , Part I, p. 25). The expe- dition consisted of 7,000 men, and all of them had reached Wadi Haifa by the end of November. On December 2nd the troops at Donkola set out for Korti, which was reached by Sir Herbert Stewart on the 13th of the same month. Here it was decided to send a part of the force to Khartum across the desert, via Matamma, and a part by way of the river. On December 30th Sir Herbert Stewart set out with about 1,100 officers and men, and on January 2nd AD 188 se ^ ze< ^ Gakdul Wells, 95 miles from Korti ; after one day he returned with the greater part of his force to Korti (January 5th) to fetch further supplies, having left 400 men at Gakdul to build forts and to guard the wells. On the 8th he again set out for Gakdul, and on the 1 6th he reached a spot about four miles from the wells of Abu Klea,* and 23 miles from Matamma ; next day the famous battle of Abu Klea was fought, and 1,500 British soldiers defeated 11,000 Dervishes. The Dervishes suc- ceeded in breaking the British square, but every one of them who got in was killed, and 1,100 of their dead were counted near it; the number of their wounded was admitted by them to have been very large. On the 18th General Stewart moved on towards Matamma and, after a march which lasted all day and all night, again fought the Dervishes on the 19th, and killed or wounded 800 ; in this fight, however, he received the wound of which he died. On the 20th Abu Kru, or Gubat, was occupied by the British ; on the 21st Sir Charles Wilson attempted to take Matamma, but the force at his command was insufficient for the purpose On the 22nd the British soldiers began to build two forts at Abu Kru ; on the 23rd Sir C. Wilson began to make the steamers ready to go to Khartfim ; and on the 24th he set out with two steamers and twenty men. Four days later he came to Tuti Island and found that Khartum was in the hands of the Mahdi, whereupon * More correctly Abu Talih, W, a place abounding in acacia trees. fu >• MURDER OF GORDON. 265 he ordered his vessels to turn and run down the river with An ee all s P ee d ; when they were out of the reach ' * 1 of the enemy’s fire, Sir C. Wilson stopped them and sent out messengers to learn what had happened, and it was found that Khartum had fallen on the night of the 25th, and that Gordon had been murdered a little before daybreak on the 26th. His head was cut off and taken to the Mahdi, but his body was left in the garden for a whole day, and thousands of Dervishes came and plunged their spears into it ; later the head was thrown into a well. On February 13th the British troops, including those which had marched with General Buller to Gubat, retreated to Abu Klea, and a fortnight later they set out for Korti, which they reached on March 1st. The portion of the British troops which attempted to reach Khartum by river left Korti on December 28th, 1884, and reached Berti on February 1st, 1885, and on the 9th was fought the battle of Kirbekan in. which General Earle was shot dead. On the 17th the house, palm trees, and water-wheels of Suleman Wad Kamr, who murdered Colonel Stewart, were destroyed, and on the 24th, orders having been received to withdraw, the river column made ready to return to Korti, which was reached on the 8th of March. When it was seen that Lord Wolseley’s expedition had failed to bring Gordon from Khartum, it was decided by the British Government to break the power of Osman Dikna, and with this object in view the Sawakin Expedition was planned. On February 17th, 1885, the British Government made a contract with Messrs. Lucas and Aird to construct a railway of 4 feet 8J inches gauge from Sawakin to Berber.* On the 20th General Graham was placed in command of the Sawakin Field Force, which consisted of about 10,500 officers and men. On March 20th General Graham fought an action at Mashin, and two days later a fierce fight took place at Tofrik, between Sawakin and Tamai. General McNeill was attacked by about 3,000 Dervishes, of whom 1,000 were killed, but the British loss was, relatively, considerable. In May the British Government recalled Graham’s expedition, and aban- doned the making of the railway to Berber, and thus Osman Dikna was again able to boast that he had driven the English out of the country (Royle, Sudan Campaigns , p. 436). See Parliamentary Paper C-4325, 1885 (Suakim-Berber Railway). 266 DEATH OF THE MAHDI. On June 22nd, the death of the Mahdi occurred; he was AH succeeded by ‘Abd- Allah, commonly known as the “ Khalifa.” In July the last of the British troops of Lord Wolseley’s expedition left Donkola ; by the end of September nearly the whole of the country as far north as Wadi Haifa was in the hands of the Khalifa, and it was seen that, unless checked, the Dervishes would invade Egypt. General Sir F. Stephenson and General Sir Francis (now Lord) Grenfell attacked them at Kosha and Ginnis 011 December 30th, and about 1,000 of the Khalifa’s troops were killed and wounded. Towards the close of this year Osman Dikna withdrew from A D j886 Sawakin t0 Omdurman, partly because the Arabs about Sawakin had defeated his troops and occupied Tamai, and partly because he hoped for much benefit from the Khalifa’s attack on Egypt. In June Osman Dikna returned to Sawakin with about 2,000 AD 188 Bakkara Dervishes, but failed to move the '* people of the country ; in the following month he returned to Omdurman, but hearing that the Egyptian garrison at Sawakin had been reduced, he returned with 5,000 men and determined to capture the city. On January 17th Colonel (now Lord) Kitchener, at the head of A D 1888 some friendl y Arabs, attacked and captured the Dervish camp, but eventually the Dervishes re-formed and turned the Egyptian victory into a defeat. On December 20th General Grenfell, with reinforcements, attacked Osman Dikna’s troops and killed and wounded 500 of them. In April Wad an = Nagumi had advanced as far north as Hafir AD 88 wlt ^ a b° ut 5>°°° men > aR d another 1,000 were 1 at Sarras, only about 33 miles south of Wadi Haifa. On July 1st Colonel Wodehouse, with about 2,000 Egyptian soldiers, defeated the Dervishes, under Wad an-Nagumi, at Argin, near Wadi Haifa, killing 900 and taking 500 prisoners. On the 5th, General Grenfell left Cairo for the south with reinforcements, and made arrangements to meet the attack of Wad an-Nagumi, who, undaunted by his defeat at Argin, was marching north ; and on August 1st this redoubtable warrior collected his force of 3,300 men and 4,000 followers on the hills to the south of Tushki, or Toski. On the 3rd General Grenfell disposed his British and Egyptian troops in BATTLE OF TOSKI. 267 such a way as to check the advance of Wad an-Nagumi, who, AH ee however, only wished to get away and not to 1 fight. He was at length forced to fight, and he fought bravely, but General Grenfell’s tactics were so thoroughly well planned and carried out, that the Dervish force was completely routed and destroyed. About 1,200 were killed and 4,000 were taken prisoners, and the Egyptian loss only amounted to 25 killed and 140 wounded. The effect on the country was marvellous, for, as Mr. Royle says (op. cit ., p. 485), “The victory of Toski marked the turning point in the invasion, and was a shock to the cause of Mahdiism, which it took years to recover.’ 7 The Dervish reinforcements beat a hasty retreat, and the Khalifa suspended all further operations for the invasion of Egypt. . p. £ Osman? Dikna continued to make raids upon 1 90. g aw ^kj n f rom Tokar. In January, Colonel (now Sir C.) Holled-Smith set out to AD 18 attack Osman Dikna, and on February 19th ^ * he routed the enemy at Tokar, killing 700 men. Osman Dikna continued to harass the Arabs round Sawakin, A D 18 - 8 ar >d ma de raids wherever he thought he 9 - 95 * p ac [ an y chance of success. On January 7th, 1892, the Khedive, Tawfik Pasha, died after a short illness at Helwan, and he w r as succeeded by his eldest son, ‘Abbas IF. Hilmy ; the Imperial Firman from the Porte confirming his succession cost about ^6,154, and w T as read on April 14th. In the early part of this year Osman Dikna’s forces were AH c /c attacked and defeated wfith great loss by 1 ^ Colonel Lloyd, Major Sydney, and Captain Fenwick. On February 29th the Italians were defeated by the Abyssinians with severe loss at Adow r a, and the Italian garrison at Kasala was in imminent danger from the Dervishes. With a view of assisting Italy by making it necessary for the Dervishes to turn their attention elsewhere, the British Government determined to advance to ‘Ukasha (Akasha) and Donkola. In the hands of General Kitchener, who had succeeded General Grenfell as Sirdar of the Egyptian Army in April, 1892, the conduct of the new Sudan Expedition was placed. On March 21st he left Cairo for the south, and the first serious skirmish between the Dervishes and Egyptians took place on May 1st. Early in June the 268 DEFEAT OF THE KHALIFA. Sirdar divided his forces, and one column marched upon Ferket A d 1 8 6 k- v way of the river, and another across the desert. ^ * On June 7th the two columns joined hands, and a fierce fight ensued. The Sirdar’s arrangements were so skil- fully made and carried out, that the Dervishes were utterly routed ; they lost about 1,000 killed and wounded, and 500 were made prisoners. Among the killed were about 40 of their chief men. The Egyptian loss was 100 killed and wounded. On September 19th the Sirdar occupied Hafir after a fight, and four days later the Egyptian troops entered Donkola ; Dabba, Korti, and Marawi were next occupied, and the country as far as the foot of the Fourth Cataract was once more in the hands of the Egyptians. Early in this year the decision to make the Wadi Haifa and AD 18 Abu-Hamed Railway was arrived at, for the 97 * Si r da. r regarded it as absolutely necessary; by this route nearly 350 miles of difficult river transport would be avoided. When the railway had advanced considerably more than half-way to Abu-Hamed, General Hunter marched from Marawi to Abu-Hamed and defeated the Dervishes, who held it in force, and occupied it on August 7th. Of the Dervish garrison of 1,500 men, about 1,300 were killed and wounded. Soon afterwards the Dervishes evacuated Berber, which was entered by General Hunter on September 13th. On October 31st the railway reached Abu-Hamed. On April 8th, Good Friday, the Sirdar utterly defeated the AH c c great Dervish force under Mahmud at the 1 ^ Battle of the Atbara* ; the Dervish loss was about 3,000 killed and 2,000 were taken prisoners, while the Sirdar’s loss was under 600 killed and wounded. The forces engaged on each side were about 14,000. On Septem- ber 2nd the capture of Omdurman and the defeat of the Khalifa ‘Abdu-Allahi were accomplished by the Sirdar. The Khalifa’s forces numbered at least 50,000, and those of the Sirdar about 22,000. The Dervish loss was at least 11,000 killed and 16,000 wounded, and over 4,000 were made prisoners ; the Sirdar’s loss was rather more than 400 killed and wounded. The Khalifa escaped and fled south, having first taken care to bury his treasure ; the body of the Mahdi was removed from its tomb, and burnt, and the ashes were * All the vowels are short in this name ; in Ethiopic and Amharic, however, the name is pronounced “ Atbara.” FLIGHT AND DEATH OF THE KHALIFA. 269 thrown into the Nile ; the head is said to be buried at Wadi AD 18 8 The tomb was destroyed because, if left ^ * untouched, it would always have formed a centre for religious fanaticism and sedition. On Sunday, Septem- ber 4th, the Sirdar held a memorial service for General Gordon at Khartum, when the British and Egyptian flags were hoisted. On the 19th the Sirdar hoisted the Egyptian and British flags at Fashoda, which had been occupied by Major Marchand, the head of a French expedition, who sought to claim as a right a position on the Nile on behalf of France. On September 22nd Colonel Parsons defeated the Dervishes at Kadaref (Gadaref). On December 7th Colonel Collinson occupied Kalabat (Galabat), and hoisted the British and Egyptian flags by the side of the Abyssinian flag on the old fort there. On Decem- ber 26th Colonel Lewis defeated Ahmad Fadil, near Dakhila, and killed 500 of his men. On January 7th Colonel Nason occupied Famaka and ^ p g Fazogli. On January 25th General Kitchener set out to catch the Khalifa, who had fled towards Ivordofan, but his expedition failed for want of water. In November it was said that the Khalifa was at Gebel Kadir, which lies to the north-west of Fashoda, on the west bank of the Nile, and about 160 miles from the river. The Sirdar pursued with a large force, but the Khalifa fled towards Khartum, On November 22nd Colonel (now Sir) F. R. Wingate (now Sirdar of the Egyptian army) pursued him to Abba Island on the Nile, and learning that he was encamped at Umm Dabrekat, attacked him on the 24th. After a fierce but short fight in the early morning Colonel Wingate defeated the Khalifa, killing over 600 of his men, and taking 3,000 prisoners, besides 6,000 women and children. The Khalifa met his fate like a man, and, seeing that all was lost, seated himself upon a sheepskin with his chief Emirs, and with them fell riddled with bullets. The Egyptian loss was 4 killed and 29 wounded. The death of the Khalifa gave the death-blow to Mahdiism. On December 17th Al-Obed was occupied by Colonel Mahon, D.S.O. On December 22nd Sir Reginald Wingate was appointed Sirdar and Governor- General of the Sfidan. "f* On March 4th of this year, Mr. John M. Cook, the late head of the firm of Thomas Cook and Son, died at Walton-on- Thames. The services which he rendered to the Egyptian 270 DEATH OF MR. JOHN M. COOK. Government were very considerable. In the Gordon Relief . n 2 Expedition his firm transported from Asyut to 1 99 * Haifa, a distance of about 550 miles, Lord Wolseley’s entire force, which consisted of 11,000 British and 7,000 Egyptian troops, 800 whalers, and 130,000 tons of stores and war materials. In 1885, 1886, and 1896 his firm again rendered invaluable services to the Government, and one is tempted to regret, with Mr. Royle {The Egyptian Campaigns , p. 554), that, in view of the melancholy failure of the Gordon Relief Expedition, his contract did not include the rescue of Gordon and the Sudan garrisons. He transported the wounded to Cairo by water after the battle of Tell al-Kebir, and when the British Army in Egypt was decimated by enteric fever, conveyed the convalescents by special steamers up the Nile, and made no charge in either case except the actual cost of running the steamers. He was greatly beloved by the natives, and the Luxor Hospital, which he founded, is one of the many evidences of the interest which he took in their welfare. Thousands of natives were employed in his service, and it would be difficult to estimate the benefits which accrued indirectly to hundreds of families in all parts of the country through his energy and foresight. In January Osman Dikna was in hiding near Tokar, and Muhammad ‘Ali, the loyal Gamilab Shekh, . . 1900. f oun( j that he had entered his country. Captain F. Burges and Ahmad Bey left Sawakin on January 8th and 10th respectively, and a few days later they arrived at the Warriba range, which lies about 90 miles to the south-west of Sawakin ; and there Osman was seen, apparently waiting to partake of a meal from a recently killed sheep. At the sight of his pursuers he fled up a hill, but was soon caught, and was despatched from Sawakin in the s.s. “ Berbera,” and arrived at Suez on January 25th, en route for Rosetta, where he was imprisoned for some years. He has been released, and now lives at Geli, a little to the north of Khartum. On September 25th Slatin Pasha was appointed British Inspector of the Sudan. On November 2nd Major Hobbs opened a branch of the Bank of Egypt at Khartum. On November 29th, Colonel Sparkes set out from Omdurman to occupy the Bahr al-Ghazal Province. On December 31st, 1900, the outstanding capital of the Egyptian Debt amounted to ^103,710,000, of which ^7,273,000 was held by the Debt PROGRESS IN EGYPT. 271 Commissioners, leaving a balance in the hands of the public of ^96,437,000. Early in 1901, Tong, Waw, Rumbek, Amadi, Kiro, Shambi, AD 1 01 Zuber, Forga, Telgona, and other places in 1901. p> a ] ir ’al-Ghazal Province were occupied. The revenue was £E. 12,160,000 and the expenditure ^E. 1 1,396,000, leaving a surplus of ^E. 1,460,000 in excess of the estimates, which were ^E. 10, 700,000 and 10,636,000 respectively. The net financial result was a surplus of ^E. 700,000. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was, on December 31st, 1901, ^E. 3, 795,000, and on the same date the sum of ^E. 1,287,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. Debt to the extent of ^445,000 was paid off in 1901, and on December 31st, 1901, the out-standing capital of the Debt amounted to ^103, 265,000, ^95,000,000 being in the hands of the public. On March 1st postal savings banks were opened at 27 first-class post offices; the rate of interest allowed is 2\ per cent, per annum. The number of depositors was 6,740, and the amount deposited ^E.87,oco. Of Domains lands, 13,764 acres were sold for ^219,000, leaving in the hands of the Commissioners 165,051 acres valued at ^3,330,454. Profit on railways amounted to ^E. 150,000. The new Port Safid Railway was estimated to cost between ^E.350,000 and ^'E.400,000. The profit on telegraphs was ^"E. 1 2,000. Of salt, 52,221 tons were sold ; the revenue was ^E. 223,000. The imports amounted to ^E. 154,245,000 and the exports to ^E. 15, 730,000. The tobacco imported weighed 6,120,548 kilos, and the tambak 325,661 kilos. ; the quantity exported was 529,034 kilos., which is equivalent to 380,000,000 cigarettes. The profit on the Post Office was ^E.28,000. About ^E. 490, 000 were spent on irrigation works. On the Aswan Dam ^E. 900, 000 were spent, and on the Asyut Barrage 800, 000. The total number of men called out for the corvee was 8,763 for 100 days. The Cairo roads cost in upkeep ,£10,772, and 2 7,000 were spent on public buildings. There was a general increase in crime, 2,382 cases being reported. Prison administration cost ,£E. 60, 000. In Egypt slavery was practically non-existent. There were 23,447 in-patients in Government hospitals. The Zoological Gardens were visited by 52,711 persons, and the gate money amounted to £E. t, i 14. The fees paid by tourists for visiting the temples, &c., 272 PROGRESS IN EGYPT., amounted to ^E.3,213. On the preservation of Arab and A D 1 01 Coptic monuments ^E 7,000 were spent. Lord 1901. Q romer re ported that the year “was one of steady and normal progress . . . The fiscal system has been placed on a sound footing. The principal irrigation works are either com- pleted or are approaching completion. Means of locomotion, both by rail and road, have been improved and extended. The institution of slavery is virtually defunct. The corvee has been practically abolished. Although both the judicial system and the organization of the police admit of further improvement, it may be said that law and order everywhere reign supreme. The courbash is no longer employed as an instrument of government. The army is efficient and well organized ; the abuses which existed under the old recruiting system have been swept away. New prisons and reformatories have been built. The treatment of prisoners is in conformity with the principles generally adopted in Europe ; the sick man can be nursed in a well-equipped and well-managed hospital ; the lunatic is no longer treated like a wild beast. Means have been provided for enabling the peasantry to shake themselves free from the grip of the money-lenders. A very great impulse has been given to education in all its branches. In a word, all the main features of Western civilization have been introduced with such adaptations as have been necessi- tated by local requirements. Broadly speaking, it may be said that all that is now required in Egypt is to persevere in the course which has been already traced out, and to gradually introduce into the existing system such requirements as time and experience may show to be necessary.” The revenue was ^E. 12, 148,000, the expenditure a n ^E. 1 1,432,000, and the surplus ^E. 7 16,000, . . 1902. |- )e j n g 506,000 in excess of the estimate. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was, on December 31st, 1902, ^E.2, 93 1,000, and on the same date the sum of ^E. 1,678,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. Debt to the extent of ^527,000 was paid off in the course of the year, and on December 31st, 1902, the outstanding capital of the Debt amounted to ^103, 245,000, ^94,471,000 being in the hands of the public. The Government lent to the Fellahin, or peasant farmers, the sum of ^E. 202,942, the number of borrowers being 34,532. The balances on deposit in the PROGRESS IN EGYPT. 273 Post Office Savings Bank increased from ^E.38,000 to a n ^E. 86,000, the number of depositors being 1902. The debt on the Domains Administra- tion was reduced to ^E. 1,932,000. The amount of French capital invested in Egypt was more than ^57,000,000. The net receipts from the railways were ^E.1,059,000, and the Kena- Aswan Railway brought in ^E. 60, 000. The profit on tele- graphs was ^ Err 4, 000, and on telephones ^E. 1,350. Out of 5,097,431 acres of land, 554,409 were held by Europeans. The circulation of notes amounted to ^E. 116,000. About 53,425 tons of salt were sold, and the royalties were ;£E.i8i,ooo. The value of the imports was ^E. 14, 211,000, and of the exports ^£E. 17,617,000. The eggs exported numbered 79,500,000. The total amount of tobacco with- drawn from bond was 6,336,700 kilos., and of tambak 379,100 : 54 per cent, came from Turkey, 33*5 per cent, from Greece, and 12 *5 per cent, from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The average consumption per head was 1 lb. 6 ozs. ; the number of cigarettes exported amounted to 385,000,000. The profit from the Post Office was ^E. 3 7, 500. The amount of unirrigated land was 143,000 acres, as compared with 947,000 in E877. The number of men employed in corvee work was 4,970 for 100 days. About ^E. 50,000 were spent on repairs of Government buildings, p£E. 154,000 on new buildings, and ^E.79,000 on drainage. The number of persons in prison was 9,256. During the year 238 slaves were freed. There were 22,717 patients in the Government hospitals. In all, 1,489 deaths from cholera occurred in Cairo. The revenue was ^E. 12,464,000, and the expenditure A.D. iQoi. 1,720,000, and the surplus ^E. 7 44,000, y being ^E. 719,000 in excess of the estimates. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was on December 31st, 1903, ^E.2,761,000, and on the same date the sum of ^E. 2,1 28,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. The value of the sums invested on behalf of the Conversion Economics Fund was ^E.5,507,000, as against ^E.4,991,000 in 5902. Debt to the extent of ^1,289,000 was paid off during the year, and on December 31st, 1903, the outstanding capital of the Debt amounted to ^102,187,000, ^93,383,000 being in the hands of the public. On December 31st the loans to s 274 PROGRESS IN EGYPT. the Fellahin amounted to 2, 186,746, the number of A D 1 o borrowers being 78,911 persons. The debt I 9 ° 3 * on Domains Administration was reduced to ^E. 1,685,042, and that on the Daira Administration was reduced to about ^E.4, 986,000. The railways carried in 1903 about 15,000,000 people and 3,000,000 tons of goods, as against 2,800,000 people and 1,200,000 tons of goods in 1883, and in that period of 20 years the receipts rose from ^E. 1,200,000 to ^E. 2, 260,000. The receipts from telegraphs amounted to ^E, 76,000, and the expen- diture was ^E. 5 7,000 ; 1,618,000 messages were despatched. The sum of 3, 439, 864 was paid for the Aswan Dam and the Asyut Barrage. Some 170,000 acres of basin land were converted into perennial irrigation at a cost of ^E. 190,000 ; as a result, the annual rental of these acres has been increased by ^E.5 10,000, and the present sale value by ^E.5,100,000. In corvee work 11,244 men were called out in 1903. The imports were ^E. 16, 146,000 and the exports ^E. 19, 118,500. About 96,500,000 eggs were exported. Of the imports 42^5 per cent, were from Great Britain and her possessions, and of the exports 52.8 went to Great Britain. The tobacco imported amounted to 6,517,000 kilos., and the tambak to 379,000 kilos.; the average consumption per head was 1 lb. 7 ozs., or 1 oz. more than in 1902. About 74,400 passengers landed at Port Safid and Alexandria. The average daily circulation of currency notes was 2 18,000, and the value of the notes in circulation was ^E. 382,000. About 57,000 tons of salt were sold, and the gross revenue was ^'E. 189,000. The profit of the Post Office was ^E.46,000. It was decided that executions were to be conducted within the prison walls in the presence of certain authorized officials, and that representatives of the Press were to be admitted. About 2,121 persons were convicted of crimes, and the number has been on the increase since 1896, when it was 1,866. About 176,474 certificates of Moslem marriages were issued, and there were 52,992 cases of divorce. It is said that in a great many cases the husband takes his wife back again after divorcing her, and the Inspectors believe that if account could be taken of these reunions, the number of divorces would be reduced to about 18,000. The Cairo tram- ways were used by 18,957,000 people. The following are the sums which have been spent on education, beginning PROGRESS IN EGYPT. 275 A.D. 1903. with the year 1887, when the expenditure on this department of the Government had sunk to its lowest figure : — 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 '893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 is defrayed fropTthree sources £& 63,00° 70.000 91.000 104.000 1 19.000 125.000 138.000 142.000 139.000 151.000 1 58.000 160.000 154.000 156.000 173.000 185.000 197.000 203,500 235. 000 276.000 The expenditure of the Department of Public Instruction — (1) The Government Grant, which has risen from p£E.63,ooo in 1887 to ^E. 121,000 in 1904; (2) School fees, which in 1904 amounted to ^E.90,000 ; (3) Revenue from endowments, &c., which it was estimated would produce ^E. 23,000 in 1904. Writing early in 1904, Lord Cromer concludes his Report (Egypt, No. 1, 1904) with the following noteworthy sentences : — “ As regards moral progress, all that can be said is that it must necessarily be slower than advance in a material direction. I hope and be- lieve, however, that some progress is being made. In any case, the machinery which will admit of progress has been created. The schoolmaster is abroad. A reign of law has taken the place of arbitrary personal power. Institutions, as liberal as possible under the circumstances, have been established. In fact, every possible facility is given and every encourage- ment afforded for the Egyptians to advance along the path of moral improvement. More than this no Government can do. It remains for the Egyptians themselves to take advantage s 2 276 PROGRESS IN EGYPT. of the opportunities of moral progress which are offered to a n them.” 1904. April t p e Anglo-French Agreement was signed, wherein it was declared : “ His Britannic Majesty’s Government declare that they have no intention of altering the political status of Europe, and the Government of the French Republic, for their part, declare that they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation, or in any other manner.” Thus England was freed from an irregular position, into which, through no fault of her own, she was forced by circumstances, and the material interests of France at stake in Egypt were secured by specific engage- ments, and for any apparent loss of political influence in Egypt she received ample compensation elsewhere. By the sign- ing of the Agreement, forty-six Khedivial Decrees relating to the Caisse de la Dette have been wholly repealed, and six partially so. A new Decree on the subject was promulgated on November 28th, 1904, and it came into operation on January 1, 1905. The revenue for 1904 was ^E.13,906,152, and the expenditure ^E. 1 2,700,332, and the surplus 1, 205,820, being £E. 2, 406, 000 in excess of the estimates. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was on December 31st, 1904, ^E. 3, 185,094. The value of the sums invested on behalf of the Conversion Economies Fund was ^E.6,031,345, as against ^E.5,507,000 in 1903. Debt to the value of ^911,580 was paid off during 1904, and on December 31st the outstanding capital of the Debt amounted to ^'102,186,920, about ^92,358,060 being in the hands of the public. The Army of Occupation cost Egypt ^E. 97, 500. Some 2,958 acres were sold by the Domains Administration, and the price realized was ^191,903, or ^64 ijs. per acre. The value of the currency rates in circulation in 1904 was ^E. 454,000. Exclusive of tobacco, the value of the imports was ^E. 19, 889, coo, or ^E. 3,742,000 more than in 1903 ; and the exports £E 20,316,000, or ^E. 1, 200,000 more than in 1903. The Customs revenue was ^E.3, 2 16,000. Tobacco produced ^E. 1,420,000, and tambac ^E. 5 7,000. About 620,500 kilos, of cigarettes were exported. Salt produced ^E. 182,000, and Railways ^E. 1,244,000. The conversion of the Port Said tramway into a railway cost ^CE. 240,000. Telegraphs produced ^E.84,000, profit ^E.26,000 ; telephones ^E.3,423 ; Post GREAT IRRIGATION PROJECTS. 2 77 Office ^E. 190,000, profit ^E.62,000. A plague of locusts ^ 0 attacked Cairo in April, 1904, and 241,528 1904. men were ca n ec j upon to destroy the creatures ; the labour was “forced,” but no complaints were made. 21,369 kilos, of hashish , or Indian hemp, were confiscated. In 1904 there were 4,015 drinking shops in all Egypt. Systematic slave trade no longer exists in Egypt. The prisons contained 12,491 prisoners on December 31st, 1904. The number of persons admitted into the Government hospitals was 27,921. Education cost ^E. 203,500, and there were 140,000 boys under the management of the Department. In 1904, about 1,346,708 acres were planted with cotton, and the yield was rather less than 6,000,000 kantars. The loss caused by the cotton worm was between one and two millions sterling. Nearly ^E. 600, 000 were spent between 1894 and £904 on Archaeology, Museums, and the preservation of Arabic monuments. In the middle of August Sir William Garstin’s Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile (Cd. 2165, “Egypt,” No. 2, 1904) appeared. He suggested the expenditure of ^E.2 1,000,000, of which ^E. 13,000,000 would be in the Sudan, and ^E. 8, 000,000 in Egypt. The proposed expen- diture in the Sudan will not benefit only that country. The main item of ^E. 5, 500,000 is for works in the Bahr al- Gebel, and this expenditure would be almost entirely on Egypt’s account. Broadly speaking, the whole plan is based on the principl^of utilizing the waters of the White Nile for the benefit of Egypt, and those of the Blue Nile for the benefit of the Sudan. It is proposed to spend on : — £E» Middle Egypt canals ... ... ... 1,000,000 Railways ... ... ... ... ... 3,000,000 Raising the Aswan Dam ... ... ... 500,000 Remodelling Rosetta and Damietta branches 900,000 Works on the Bahr al-Gebel ... ... 5,500,000 Making a new channel between Bohr and the Sawbat River ... ... ... 3,400,000 Regulation of the lakes ... ... ... 2,000,000 Barrages between Asyut and Kena ... 2,000,000 Conversion of the Upper Egypt basins ... 5,000,000 Reservoir at Rosaires ... ... ... 2,000,000 Barrage on the Blue Nile... ... .. 1,000,000 Gezireh Canal system ... ... ... 2,000,00 o 278 PROGRESS IN EGYPT. Sir William Garstin estimates that when the whole of his ^ Egyptian project is carried out, 750,000 acres of 1904. will be converted from basin into perennial irrigation ; 100,000 acres will be made capable of being irrigated by pumps; 800,000 additional acres will be brought under culti- vation ; and that, at very moderate rates, the increased revenue to be derived from taxation will be ^1,205,000 a year. The Sawakin-Berber Railway was to cost ^E. 1,750,000, and to be finished in the spring of 1906. Its actual cost was ^E. 1,375,000, i.e., about ^E.4,150 per mile. This line is now known as the u Nile-Red Sea Railway,” or the “ Atbara- Port Sftdan Railway.” An expenditure of ^E.500,000 will carry out the Kash scheme of irrigation in the Sftdan, and bring under cultivation 100,000 acres; assessing the land tax at 50 piastres an acre, the increased revenue would amount to ^E. 50,000. The whole or at least the greater part of this money would, of course, be utilized to diminish the contribution now paid annually by Egypt to the Sftdan Government. In fact, the only hope of rendering the Sudan ultimately self-supporting lies in the judicious expenditure of capital on railways and irrigation. An attempt will certainly be made in the near future to carry out an Egyptian railway and irrigation programme, involving a capital expenditure of 5,400,000, and it will involve raising the Aswan Dam and remodelling of the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile. On August 17th the Greek Orthodox Convent of Old Cairo was destroyed by lire. The convent was a very old foundation, and had been standing for centuries. It was one of the oldest monuments of the Eastern Church in Egypt, and was associated with many important historical events. As the result of the abolition of the Bridge Tolls in 1900, 35,732 boats passed through the lock of the Delta Barrage in 1903, and 41,740 in 1904. The revenue in 1905 was ^E. 14,813,000, and the ex= A D 1 o penditure ^E. 12, 125,000 ; surplus about 9 5 - ^£1^2,689,000. After deducting ^E. 3, 050, 000, which was paid to the Caisse de la Dette early in the year, the amount standing to the credit of the Reserve Fund on January 1st, 1905, was ^E. 10,038,055, and on January 1st, 1906, was ^E. 12,088,000. The total capital of the Debt was on December 31st, 1905: — PROGRESS IN EGYPT. 279 A.D. 1905. £> Guaranteed 3 per cent. 7, 849, ooo Preference 3 2 ^ 5 5 31,128,000 Unified 4 55?97 2 >oo° Domains 4 i „ L535i°°° ^96,484,000 The interest charge has been reduced from ^4,268,000 to ^3,704,000, a decrease of 559,000. The Imports in 1905 were worth ;£E.2 1,564,000, and the Exports ,-£E.20,36 o,ooo. The specie imported amounted to ^E.4,782,000, and that exported to ^E.3,870,000. Some 702,800 kilos, of cigarettes were exported. Customs revenue amounted to ^E.3,322,148. The Currency Notes in circulation were worth ^E.913,000. On December 31st, 1905, the Savings Banks Deposits amounted to 236, 420; the Children’s Savings Banks had 2,645 depositors. The share capital and reserves of the purely Egyptian deposit banks rose from ^2,939,000 in 1901 to ^6,300,000 in 1905 ; and their assets during the same period from ^10,585,000 to ^26,424,000. The share capital and reserves of the mortgage banks rose from ^7,263,000 in 1901 to ^29,749,000 in 1905, and their total assets during the same period from ^7,744,000 to ^32,655,000. The Domains Administration sold 2,979 acres for ^120,765, i.e., at the rate of ^40 105-. per acre. The Daira Debt has now been entirely liquidated. In 1905 a penny postal rate between Egypt and Great Britain was established. The increase in the number of letters passing through the Egyptian Post Office is illustrated by the following figures : — 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 No. of Letters. 12.500.000 16.300.000 22.400.000 31.900.000 50.700.000 Land Tax produced in 1905 ^E. 4, 902,608, Land Sales Registration 943,000, and the Date Tax ^E. 122,000. 28 o PROGRESS IN EGYPT. The net earnings of the railways were jQE. 1,32 7,000, and the AD 1 o capital expenditure ./^E.647, 000. The following I9°5* figures illustrate the growth of passenger traffic : — - Passengers carried. Receipts. 1903 ... ... 14,952,000 £E. 996,000 1904 ... ... 17,725,000 ^E. 1, 188,000 1905 20,014,000 ^E.1,313,000 Passengers between Egypt and Europe : in 1902, 60,000 ; in 1903, 74,000; in 5904, 90,400; in 1905, 99,922. The revenue from the telegraphs was ^E. 101,000 (profit, ^E.26,500); about 667,000 European and 1,248,000 Arabic telegrams passed over the wires. The Alexandria Telephone produced ^E.3,728. The cost of the Prisons Department was £E. 107,080. Education cost ^E. 235,000. Manu- mission papers were granted in 5905 to 63 male and 90 female slaves in Cairo, and everyone must rejoice that a systematic trade in slaves is dead in Egypt. Would that the British authorities in Cairo had rule in other parts of Africa l* On April 1 st, at 3.50 p.m., one of the Pyramids at Giza was struck by lightning, just below the apex, and several of the stones fell to the ground with a crash. Rain fell in torrents, and the low-lying parts of Cairo were flooded. On February 20th H.H. the Khedive visited the Oasis of AH ^iwa, with a suite consisting of Dr. Butler, ! ^° Mr. Fals, Dr. Kautsky, an Egyptian Secretary, and an engineer. In the same month a steamer service was inaugurated on Lake Menzala, and the journey from Karputy (Port Said) to Mataria occupies about four hours. The steamers are of the stern-wheel type and have double promenade decks. Tug-boats and cargo barges have also been constructed. Good progress has been made with the Roda Bridge which is being built by Messrs. Arrol & Co. It has been decided to build another bridge over the Nile, between the Kasr an-Nil and Embaba Bridges, The new bridge i? to be named the “Abbas Bridge,” and is to have a drawbridge for the passage of vessels, and a footbridge at a higher elevation * According to Bishop Tucker, who writes from Uganda (Times, April 12th, 1906), “Slavery under the British flag may be found in a pure, unadulterated and unquestioned form in British East Africa. In Mombasa, Lamu, Malindi, and all the territory within the ten-mile limit, slavery is still a legalized institution.” PROGRESS IN EGYPT. 281 A D i 6 ^° r P e ^ estr ^ an tra ffi c when the drawbridge is • * 9 ° • j-aise^ jik e the Tower Bridge in London. On January 12th the Sultan complained to the British Ambassador in Constantinople and to the Khedive of Egypt, that Bramly Bey, an Egyptian Officer, had pitched his camp on the Gaza Road near Akaba, and had declared his intention of erecting a guard house there in Turkish territory. The Egyptian Government denied that there had been any invasion of Turkish territory, and proposed that a Commissioner should be appointed to delimit the Frontier. This the Sultan refused to agree to, and claimed that the district of Akaba was in Turkish territory. Subsequently the matter reached an acute stage, and Turkish troops occupied 1'aba. The Egyptian Government resisted the Sultan’s claims, and at length His Majesty agreed to the appointment of a Frontier Commission. In April, Maryam, an Abyssinian outlaw at Noggara, raided several villages near Kadaref, killed 101 villagers, and carried off 41 men and 133 women, and numbers of cattle. In May, the natives who lived in the Nuba Mountains in the Southern Sudan, incited by the Arab slave-raiders, attacked the Government Fort at Talodi and killed a number of soldiers. The Sudan Government despatched Major O’Connell with a force to punish the rebels, and this officer, in spite of the rains and flooded state of the country, reached Talodi quickly, and, in the fight which followed, killed 300 of the natives, whose wish was to re-open the slave trade. The little garrison had held out bravely, but were in sore straits when relief arrived. Order was soon restored, and the natives in the neighbourhood of Gebel Kadir, where the Madhi first preached his Mission, supported Major O’Connell. In June, five officers of Mounted Infantry went to shoot pigeons at Denshawi, near Tanta, but were surrounded by natives, and so evilly treated that Major Pine Coffin was knocked down, and Captain Bull died of the injuries he received. The attack was premeditated, and was due to the fanatical feeling which exists in that part of the Delta. A large number of arrests were made, and the leaders of the attack w T ere tried by a special court ; four were hanged, others were whipped, and others were sentenced to terms of imprisonment. CHAPTER XVI. The Modern Egyptians. The census of 1897 showed that the population of Egypt was 9,734,405 souls. Of these, 5,676,109 were in Lower Egypt, and 4,058,296 were in Upper Egypt. The population of Egypt to-day comprises the Fellahin, Copts, Bedawin, Jews, Turks, Negroes, Nubians, Abyssinians, Armenians, and Europeans. The Fellahin, or what may be termed the Arab-Egyptians, form the bulk of the population of Egypt, and it has been asserted that seven-eighths of the population of Egypt belong to this class. They are descended from the Arab tribes which settled in Egypt soon after the conquest of the country by ‘Amr, the commander-in-chief of ‘Omar, the Khalifa. When these tribes left the desert and began to live a non -nomad life, they married among the indigenous people, and their offspring, most of whom embraced Islam, resembled in many particulars the ancient Egyptians. Arab-Egyptians are usually about 5 feet 8 inches or 5 feet 9 inches in height, and in mature age most of them are remarkably well proportioned; the men are muscular and robust, and the women are beautifully formed, and neither sex is too fat. In Cairo and the northern pro- vinces they have a yellowish but clear complexion, but further south it is darker and coarser. In the extreme south the people have a brown complexion, which becomes darker as we approach Nubia. The countenance of the men is of an oval form, the fore- head is of moderate size, seldom high, but generally prominent. The eyes are often deep-sunk, and are black and brilliant ; the nose is straight, but rather thick ; the mouth is well formed, the lips are rather full, the teeth are particularly good and white, and the scanty beard is black and curly. The Fellahin, from constant exposure to the sun, have a habit of half-shutting their eyes, which often causes them to appear more deep-sunk than they are. Formerly a great number THE FELLAHIN. 283 of the Egyptians were blind in one or both eyes, which was due partly to dirt and disease (ophthalmia), and partly to their own act, for many men, it is said, used to make one eye blind by squeezing into it the juice of a plant, in order to avoid military service. It is said that one of the autocratic rulers of the land, who refused to be defeated by such an artifice, raised a battalion of men who were blind in one eye ; and when the people began cutting off a finger from the right hand in order to disqualify them for military service, the same Pasha raised another battalion, each member of which lacked a finger of the right hand. In 1902 Sir Ernest Cassel constituted a Trust with a capital of ^40,000, the interest of which was to be devoted to the treatment of those suffering from diseases of the eye. In July, 1903, Dr. MacCallan, an English ophthalmic surgeon, was appointed to be in charge of the work connected with this Fund. Tents, equipment, and instruments were purchased, and a native medical attendant, together with the necessary staff, was engaged, and a travelling hospital was erected at Menuf. The Egyptians generally shave portions of the beard above and below the lower jaw, and likewise a small portion under the lower lip, leaving, however, after the example of the Prophet, the hairs that grow in the middle under the mouth ; sometimes they pluck out these hairs. None shave the moustache ; the grey beard is much respected, and only those of Persian origin colour it by treatment with lime. Usually the Egyptians shave all the hair, or leave only a small tuft, which is called shiisha , upon the crown of the head. Hair which is cut off the human head is usually buried. The tuft of hair is left so that, should the head ever be cut off by an infidel, he may have something to hold it by, and so be prevented from putting his fingers into the mouth to carry it. The women are characterized by a broad, oval countenance, and their eyes are black, large, and of a long almond shape, with long and beautiful lashes. The eyes are beautified by blackening the edges of the eyelids, both above and below the eye, with a black powder called “ kohl,” which is made from the smoke-black of a kind of aromatic resin, and also from the smoke-black of almond shells. These kinds of “ kohl ” are used merely for ornament, but several mineral preparations are known, and these are believed to possess healing properties. Kohl is applied to the eyelids with a small instrument made of wood, ivory, or silver, tapering towards the end, but blunt ; this is moistened, and, having been dipped in the powder, is 284 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. drawn along the edges of the eyelids. The ancient Egyptians and the Hebrews also used kohl for the eyes, and there is little doubt that in the earliest times the object of its use was medicinal rather than ornamental. The nose is straight, the lips are usually fuller than those of men, and the hair is black and glossy, sometimes coarse and crisp, but never woolly. Fellahin women, as well as those of the upper classes, stain the nails of the fingers and toes with “henna,” which gives them a deep orange colour. Some dye the tips of the fingers and toes as high as the first joint, and the whole of the inside of the hand and the sole of the foot. Many women tattoo blue marks upon the face, hands, arms, feet, and the middle of the breast; the punctures are made with a bundle of seven needles, and the colouring substance which is rubbed in is usually indigo. The dress of the fellah consists of a pair of drawers, a long blue gown of linen or cotton, and a white or red girdle or a belt. The turban is wound round the tarbush , when the fellah has money enough to buy one, and in cold weather a skull-cap and cloak are worn. The dress of both men and women in Egypt, as elsewhere, varies according to their means and individual fancies. Most of the women of the low r er classes w T ear a number of cheap ornaments, such as nose-rings, ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets, etc. The nose-ring is usually made of brass, and has a few beads of coloured glass attached to it. The Fellahin usually lead hard lives, and their earnings are small. Their food consists of maize or millet, bread, milk, new cheese, eggs, salted fish, cucumbers, melons, gourds, and onions and other vegetables, which they eat raw. The ears of maize are often roasted and eaten ; among the poorest people of all rice is rarely seen, and meat never. Nearly every man smokes, and formerly he bad nothing but native tobacco, which was very cheap ; the leaves of the plant were merely dried and broken up. The women work harder than the men, for they have to prepare and cook the food, bring the water from the river, and make the fuel, which is composed of cattle dung and chopped straw ; formerly they had to make the linen or cotton cloth required by the family, but much of this is now purchased in the bazaars. In many districts the wife is still practically a maid-of-all-work and the bearer of all burdens, and the husband perpetuates in respect of her many of the customs which have come down to him from his ancestors, the wild, marauding tribes of the desert. THE COPTS. 285 The Copts are the direct descendants of the ancient Egyptians, and inhabit chiefly the cities of Upper Egypt. They number about 608,000, and most of them are engaged in the trades of. goldsmiths, cloth-workers, etc., and a large number of the clerks in the postal, telegraph, and other Government offices in Egypt are drawn from their community. The name “ Copt ” (Kubt or Kibt) is the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name for “Egyptian,” Ai^v 7 ttio?, though some would derive it from “ Kubt,” the name of the city of Coptos, to which large numbers of the Egyptian Christians retired during the fierce persecutions which broke out against the Christians in Roman times. Though there are some striking points of resemblance between the Copts and the ancient Egyptians, there is a considerable difference between them ; this difference is. however, easily accounted for by the intermarriage of the ancestors of the modern Copts with foreigners. The complexion of the Copts varies from a pale yellow to a deep brown, according to the part of the country in which they live. The eyes are large, elongated, and black, and they incline from the nose upwards ; the nose is straight, but is wide and rounded at the end ; the lips are rather thick, and the hair is black and curly. In stature the Copts are slightly under middle size. The women paint their eyes with kohl, and many of them tattoo the cross on their faces and hands. Their male children are circumcised. The Copts wear garments of a subdued colour, and can frequently be distinguished from the Muhammadans by their dress. The women veil their faces, both in public and private, and a generation or so ago the unmarried women wore white veils. The Copts are Christians, and belong to the sect of the Eutychians,, or followers of Eutyches, whose confession of faith was as follows : “ I worship the Father with the Son, and the Son with the Father, and the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son I acknowledge that the bodily presence of the Son arose from the body of the Holy Virgin, and that He became perfect man for the sake of our salvation. I acknow- ledge that our Lord, before the union (of the Godhead and manhood) had two natures ; but, after the union, I confess but one.” In other words, he abandoned “ the distinction of the two natures in Christ to the unity of the person to such an extent as to make the incarnation an absorption of the human nature by the divine, or a deification of human nature, even of the body. ’ He believed that Christ had but one composite nature, 286 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. and his followers in their liturgies declared that God had been crucified. The doctrines which Eutyches rejected were embodied in the “ Definition of Faith ” which was promulgated by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, thus : “We then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent teach men to confess one and the same Son. One Lord Jesus Christ; the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood ; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body ; con- substantial with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the manhood ; in all things like unto us without sin ; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of Mary, the Virgin Mother of God, according to the Manhood ; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-Begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably, the dis- tinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one person and one hypostasis, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son and Only-Begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ, as the prophets from the beginning have declared concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the creed of the holy Fathers has delivered to us.” Because the Copts held the belief in Christ possessing one nature only they are called “ Monophysites,” and they are also known as “Jacobites” because they followed views of Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian, who was an active propagator of the doctrine of Eutyches. The Copts who adhered to the Greek faith are called “ Melkites,” or “ Melchites,” i.e ., “ Royalists,” because they agreed in faith with the Emperor of Constantinople. The dissensions between the Melchites and the Jacobites were of a very serious character, and they were carried on with great bitterness on each side until the Arabs invaded Egypt ; the Jacobites then threw in their lot with the Arabs, and rejoiced to lend them their help in expelling the Greeks. As soon as ‘Amr became master of Egypt he appointed a number of Copts to positions of dignity and importance and wealth, but finding them to be unworthy of his confidence, he degraded them, and very soon afterwards they were persecuted with terrible rigour. The Copts declare that St. Mark, who is said to have been the first to preach the Gospel in Alexandria, was their first THE COPTS. 287 Patriarch, and their list of the Patriarchs of Alexandria begins with his name. The Coptic Patriarch is also the head of the Abyssinian Church, for the dwellers in Ethiopia profess the Monophysite doctrine. The Patriarch governs the Coptic Church by means of a Metropolitan of Ethiopia, 12 bishops, two kinds of priests, and deacons. He lives in Cairo, and is chosen from among the order of monks of the Convent of St. Anthony, who have always been very numerous among the Copts. The Coptic community is a very wealthy one, and the property, of which the Patriarch has almost unlimited control, is enormous ; it is asserted on good authority that a great deal of peculation goes on among those who assist the Patriarch to administer ecclesiastical property, and it is to be hoped that the Reform Party in the Coptic Church will succeed in forcing them to render accounts of the moneys which come into their hands, and to submit to some kind of audit. Until com- paratively recently the Coptic Patriarch had the power to excuse Copts from military service on the payment of certain fees to him, and it was only renounced under considerable pressure. Coptic monks and nuns form a very numerous body, and there is no doubt that the best of them lead lives of great austerity. They emulate the lives of St. Anthony and his immediate followers, and fast and pray with extraordinary zeal and persistence ; they wear woollen shirts, and live chiefly upon vegetable food. They do not cultivate their minds or advance learning, and but few of them can read Coptic, their ancient language ; speaking generally, they know nothing of their own history and literature, and their ignorance, super- stitution, and narrow-mindedness are almost incredible. In certain villages in Upper Egypt where Coptic monasteries exist the monks do not enjoy a reputation for sanctity. The Copts baptize their sons when 40, and their daughters when 80 days old ; the Holy Spirit is believed to descend upon the child in baptism, and it is thought that an unbaptized child will be blind in the next life. Like the ancient Egyptians they practise circumcision, and the custom is probably to be regarded more in the light of a survival of a wide-spread habit of the ancient indigenous people of Egypt than a religious rite. Boys are taught the Psalms in Arabic, and the Gospels and Epistles both in Arabic and Coptic ; but Coptic does not appear to be taught grammatically in Coptic schools. Prayers are said and portions of the Bible are read in Coptic in the churches, but it is doubtful how much the readers know of the language. In 288 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. manuscripts an Arabic version of the Coptic text is usually written side by side with it, and recourse is always had to this in cases of difficulty. The Copts who are engaged in commerce have a lively appreciation of the education in modern subjects which will fit their sons for business, and it is a remarkable fact that the percentage of Muhammadan pupils in schools and colleges under the Department of Public Instruction is less than the percentage of Muhammadans in the total popu- lation, whilst the percentage of Coptic pupils in the same schools is almost treble the percentage of Copts throughout Egypt. Thus Muhammadans form 92 per cent, of the total population, and the number of their children in the schools forms 78 per cent, of the pupils. The Copts form 6 per cent, of the total population, but the number of their children in the schools forms 17 per cent, of the pupils. The Copts owe their ability to perform the duties of clerks in Government offices in Egypt entirely to the American missionaries, who have taught them English, and educated them on modern lines, and helped them to lead lives based upon a high standard of public and private morality. The Copts, like the Jews and Muhammadans, pray several times daily, namely, at daybreak, at the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, and twelfth hours, and at midnight. The strictest of them recite in Arabic the seventh part of the Psalter, and a chapter of one of the four Gospels each time they pray, and then either with or without the help of a rosary, they say : “ O my Lord, have mercy ! ” 41 times. They then say a short prayer in Coptic. The poor and the illiterate say the Lord’s Prayer seven times at each season of prayer, and, 4 O my Lord, have mercy ! ” 41 times. The Copts usually wash before praying, and they face the east when praying. Coptic churches usually contain four or five divisions. The first contains the altar, and is separated from the second by a screen with a door in the centre which is covered by a curtain with a cross worked upon it. The second division is devoted to the priests, choir, ministrants, and the more influential or important members of the congregation ; it is separated from the third by a high wooden lattice with three doors in it. The third, or third and fourth divisions, are set apart for the less important male members of the congregation, and in the last division come the women. The walls are ornamented some- times with pictures of saints, but no images are admitted. Every member of the congregation removes his shoes on COPTIC FASTS AND FESTIVALS. 289 entering the church, and as the services are frequently very long, and he has to stand most of the time, he supports himself upon a kind of crutch. The service usually begins at daybreak, and lasts from three to five hours. In spite of the mats which are laid upon the floors the churches are very cold in winter. The strict decorum which a European associates with behaviour in church is not carefully observed, and many members of the congregation may frequently be seen conversing with each other on business matters, and the long service appears to be monotonous and uninteresting. At intervals a priest cerises the congregation, and blesses various members of it. In the Eucharist only the priests partake of the wine ; the sacramental bread is made in the form of small round cakes or buns, which are stamped with the cross, etc. ; after being moistened with wine they are administered to the congregation. The Copts make use of confession, which is obligatory before the receiving of the Eucharist, and they observe the following fasts : — (i ) The Fast of Nineveh, which is kept one week before Lent, and lasts three days and three nights ; (2) the Great Fast, /.5 windows which form such an important characteristic of Arab houses have their openings carefully covered over with wooden shutters and with blinds made of wood, and if they are glazed the glass is either painted or allowed to become so dirty that it is almost impossible to obtain a clear view of what is going on in the street through it. Speaking generally, the outer walls of the house are not ornamented, but the layers of stone in the lower courses are often coloured red and white alternately. The doors of the houses which were built from 70 to 100 years ago are often beautifully ornamented, and the stone arches above them are frequently carved with intricate and delicate Plan of a House in Cairo — First Floor. (After Ebers and Poole.) A. Servants’ Room. E. Reception Room. B. Store closet. F. Space over Reception Room. C. Space over Rooms. G. Court. D. Men’s Rooms. H. Guest Rooms. designs. A short passage leads the visitor into the courtyard | of the house, where there is often a tree by the side of a well, or even several trees. The rooms which are on the ground 1 floor are devoted chiefly to the servants and the male occupants of the house, and among them is the chamber in which male visitors are received. The floor of one portion of this room is higher than the rest, and on it are laid carpets and cushions or 306 MUHAMMADAN ARCHITECTURE. mattresses on which the visitors are expected to sit cross- legged. Sometimes long, low, wooden benches, with arms and backs, are arranged along each side of this room, and on these the cushions are placed. The walls above the cushions are often only limewhitened or distempered red or some shade of blue or green ; usually there are a number of small niches in them, with shelves, and these take the place of cupboards with us. Wealthy folk have their walls panelled with wood, inlaid with bone or ivory, mother-of-pearl, etc., and the roof and beams are often inlaid and painted. On one side of such a Plan of a House in Cairo — Second Floor. (After Ebers and Poole.) A. Miscellaneous Rooms. D, E. Spaces over rooms. B. Bath. _ F. Court. C. Ladies’ Apartments. G. Guest Rooms. room there are often several windows, and there is generally a window at the end which faces the door. The visitors sit or recline on the cushions, and if they are partaking of a meal they group themselves round the tray of food which is placed on a low stand ; in some houses in Egypt strict attention is paid to the position in a room which a visitor is invited to take. If he is an honoured or a very welcome guest he is invited to sit up at the end of the room near the master of the house • if he HOUSES OF EGYPT. 3°7 is not he takes his seat near the door. The floor of the room near the door is lower than the portion on which the visitors sit, and it is here that they leave their shoes or sandals before they walk up on to the carpets. In a house of two or three storeys the rooms of the hartm , i.e., the women’s apartments, are on the upper floor or floors, and here the women of the household live with their servants, often in very considerable comfort. The husband and sons often have their rooms on this same floor, and there is also a guest room, which can be turned into a bedroom by night by bringing into it a few cushions, a pillow, and a padded blanket. The houses even of the best Arabs have little furniture in them, and almost any chamber can be turned into a reception room, or a dining room, or a bedroom, in half-an-hour. All the ornamentation of the older houses is in good taste, but in recent years the cheap wall-mirrors and tawdry coloured glass vases, and hideous oleographs, which are exported to Egypt by civilized nations, have become common, and the signs of a refined and cultivated taste are rapidly disappearing under Western influence. The arrangement of the rooms on the third storey is much the same as of those on the second, but they are usually much smaller in size, and are occupied by the least important female members of the house- hold. The roofs are flat, and the inmates of the houses bring up their cushions and sleep in the open air during several months of the year. On the roof of every house of a certain size will be seen a sloping construction made of wood, the open part of which always faces the north. The object of this is to catch the north wind, and to conduct it dow n a passage or flight of stairs into the house. Sometimes it is made large enough for people to sit in. In the construction of dwelling-houses there seems to be no hard and fast rule, and the above remarks must be taken to refer to a comfortable house such as a middle class family w ould live in. Wealthy folk usually live in houses which stand each in its own garden or grounds, which are planted with trees, and have tiled walks and fountains, raised balconies, etc., and in such cases the decoration of the interiors of the rooms, and of the doors, doorways, etc., is extremely fine. The European who is interested in architecture in general, and is accustomed to admire the work of Western architects, will probably be disappointed with the mosques and tomb- buildings of the Muhammadans in Cairo. Different reasons for u 2 3°8 MUHAMMADAN ARCHITECTURE. this have been urged by different writers, but the most con- clusive, probably, are those which are described by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, in his Art of the Saracens, where he says (p. 83), “ The Saracen builders do not seem to have been possessed with an architectural idea ; the leading consideration with them seems to have been not form, but decoration. For the details of the decoration it is impossible to feel too much admiration ; they are skilfully conceived and worked out with remarkable patience, honesty, and artistic feeling. But the form, of which they are the clothing, seems too often to want purpose ; there is a curious indefiniteness about the mosques, a want of crown and summit, which sets them on a much lower level than the finest of our Gothic cathedrals. It is perhaps unfair to judge of them in their more or less ruinous state ; yet their present picturesque decay is probably more effective than was the sumptuous gorgeousness of their colours and ornament when new. The want of bold relief in the ornament is one of the most salient defects to us of the north : we find the surfaces of the mosque exteriors flat and monotonous. The disregard of symmetry is another very trying defect to eyes trained in other schools of architecture ; the windows, minarets, etc., are scattered with no sense of balance • and the dome, instead of crowning the whole edifice, covers a tomb at the side of the building, and thus infallibly gives it a lop-sided aspect. It is chiefly to the grace of their minarets, the beauty of their internal decora- tion, and the soft effects of the Egyptian atmosphere upon the yellowish stone of which they are built, that the mosques of Cairo owe their peculiar and indestructible charm. A charm they have undoubtedly, which is apparent and fascinating to most beholders ; but it is due, I believe, to tone and air, to association, to delicacy and ingenuity of detail, and not to the architectural form. . . . Nevertheless, when all has been said, the mosques and older houses of Cairo possess a beauty ot their own, which no architectural canons can gainsay. The houses in particular, by their admirable suitableness in all respects to the climate of Egypt, their shady, restful aspect, and subdued light, must take a high place among the triumphs of domestic architecture. We may detect a lack of meaning in this feature and in that, but we are forced to admit that the whole effect is soft and harmonious, sometimes stately, always graceful, and that the Saracenic architecture of Cairo, whatever its technical faults, is among the most characteristic and beautiful forms of building with which we are acquainted.” MINARETS, 309 10 MUHAMMADAN ARCHITECTURE. MUHAMMADAN ART* 312 The art of the Muhammadans expresses itself chiefly in the ornamentation of surfaces, which it covers with intricate and beautiful designs. One of the oldest forms of decoration is the plaster frieze, which was worked with a tool when moist, and was not cast; for about 600 years (640-1320) designs in plaster were commonly employed in the ornamentation of great mosques, and then plaster work was abandoned in favour of carved stone or marble. In stone, as in plaster, the floral motif predominates, but the designs in stone are far less intricate than those in plaster. The stone pulpit set up in 1483 by Ka’it Bey in the Mosque of Barkfik is believed to be “ the most splendid example of stone chiselling that can be seen in Cairo,” and the finest geometrical ornament and pure arabesque work belong to this period. The Wekala or Khan built by Ka’it Bey on the south side of Al-Azhar Mosque was beautifully ornamented with designs of every kind, and the front of it, which faces the mosque, still exhibits a fine variety.* The stalactite or pendentive bracketing, which is so marked a characteristic of Saracenic art, is also well displayed in the Mosque of Ka’it Bey. Its first and principal use is for masking the transition from the square of the mausoleum to the circle of the dome. The pendentive was speedily adopted by the Arabs of Egypt in a great variety of shapes, and for almost every conceivable architectural and ornamental purpose ; to effect the transition from the recessed windows to the outer plane of a building ; and to vault, in a similar manner, the great porches of mosques, which form so grand a feature characteristic of the style. All the more simple woodwork of dwelling-houses was fashioned in a variety of curious patterns of the same character ; the pendentive, in fact, strongly marks the Arab fashion of cutting off angles and useless material, always in a pleasing and constructively advantageous manner.! The mosaic work of the Muhammadans appears to have been borrowed from the Copts ; it is unlike any mosaic work known in Europe, and is highly characteristic, and often very beautiful. Pieces of marble or hard stones of different colours, small plaques of porcelain, and pieces of mother-of- pearl are arranged in geometrical patterns, and are set in * Casts of a number of these, made from paper squeezes taken by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, are to be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. t See E. Stanley Poole in Lane’s Modern Egyptians , 5th edit., pp. 586-588. METAL WORK. 313 plaster. Certain portions of mosques are ornamented with mosaic work, and mosaic pavements are not uncommon. Like the ancient Egyptians, the modern inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal, and whether in chasing, or engraving, or inlaying with gold, silver, or copper, the best artists have produced most beautiful specimens of their handicraft. The designs which are inlaid in metal panels, Panel from the Pulpit in the Mosque of Tiilun. lamps, bowls, caskets, tables, etc., are chiefly of a geometrical and floral character, and are remarkable alike for their beauty and their continuity ; the best examples belong to the four- teenth century, and suggest that they were developed from a system of ornamentation which was introduced into Egypt from the East by way of Baghdad and Damascus. 314 MUHAMMADAN ART. The arts of wood = carving and ivory-inlay work appear to have been borrowed from the Copts, in whose churches carved panels and panels inlaid with ivory were well known before the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs. Glass = making 1 is an art which was practised in Egypt in very early times., well-known examples of glass objects being the opaque blue glass vase inscribed with the pre- nomen of Thothmes III, and the glass vessels from the tomb of Amen-hetep II, now in the British Museum. The earliest examples of Muhammadan glass objects in Egypt are the glass coin standards, which are stamped with the names of Egyptian governors who ruled by the grace of the Khalifas of Damascus and Baghdad in the eighth, ninth, and eleventh POTTERY, MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 315 centuries of our era. In the eleventh century there seems to have been a glass lamp market near the Mosque of ‘Amr, and in the fourteenth century the art of glass-making reached its highest pitch of perfection. The oldest Arab glass vessel known is said to be in the collection of M. Charles Schefer ; it was made before 1277 for Badr ad-Din. Muhammadan glass-workers excelled in the making of lamps for mosques, and these show that their makers were tolerably expert glass-blowers, and could produce vessels of considerable size ; but the glass is of bad colour, and full of bubbles and imperfections. The makers had learned, probably from the Byzantines, the art of gilding and enamelling glass, and made much use of it. Inscriptions in large characters are favourite ornaments ; figures of birds, animals, sphinxes and other monsters are found. The outlines are generally put on in red enamel, the spaces between being often gilt. The enamels are used sometimes as grounds, and sometimes for the ornaments ; the usual colours are blue, green, yellow, red, pale red, and white.* A fine collection of more than 60 enamelled glass lamps is exhibited in the National Museum of Arab Art in Cairo, and it is thought that they were all made in Egypt. The art of making pottery of a high class has died out in Egypt, and it is now only represented by the porous water-bottles which are made in Upper Egypt, and by the red-glazed cups, jugs, etc., which are made at Asyut. This is a curious fact, especially when we remember that the potters of the Pre-Dynastic Period were past-masters in their craft, and that in the eleventh century of our era the potters of Cairo were famous for the delicateness of their vessels, the gracefulness of their shapes and forms, and the beauty of the iridescent glaze with which they were sometimes covered. Glazed porcelain tiles were largely used for mosques and other buildings in the Middle Ages in Cairo, but experts are not agreed as to which exactly were home- made, and which were imported from Damascus. A good specimen of modern tile-work, on which the Ka'aba at Mecca is represented in perspective, is No. 167, Room 6 of the National Museum of Arab Art at Cairo. Finally, those who wish to gain an idea of Muhammadan art as illustrated by the writing and binding of manuscripts should visit the Khedivial Nesbitt, A., Descriptive Catalogue , p. lxiv. 316 MUHAMMADAN ART. Library and the Museum of Arab Art. In the former building there have been collected the fine illuminated copies of the Kur an which originally belonged to the chief mosques of Cairo. The oldest of these is written in the Cufic, or Kfifi, character; the titles of the chapters are ornamented with golrl, and there are several coloured letters in the text. It is said to have been written by Ja £ far As-Sadik, who lived early in the eighth century, but, although the book is undoubtedly very old, no one believes this story. From an artistic point of view the Kur’ans which were written in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are more interesting. The characters of the copy written for Muhammad An-Nasir are all gilded, and the opening pages of that written for Khamend Baraka in the 769th year of the Hijra contain wonders of illumination and penmanship. The bindings of many Arab MSS. are beautiful pieces of work, but they have, of course, all the characteristics of Saracenic ornamentation, and many find the minute designs and all their intricacies disappointing, and fatiguing to the eye. Designs with polygonal figures are often employed, and the arabesques appear frequently. According to some authorities a change came over the binder’s art when the Turks conquered Egypt, and the native industry perished. The Turks abandoned the polygonal design and the arabesque, and introduced a series of ornaments, the Persian origin of which was pro- claimed by their naturalistic motifs . The next step was to make use of a mould-stamp for the cover, and designs now became filled with figures of men and animals ; at a later time designs were pinked out, and portions of the leather were gilded or coloured according to the somewhat garish taste of the workman. The varnished bindings appear to be of Persian origin, and they do not in any case concern us, for they are too modern. At the present day fine binding is a lost art in Egypt. 3 T 7 CHAPTER XVIII. The Modern Egyptians — Narcotics and Amusements. One of the greatest enjoyments of many classes of the modern Egyptian is to do nothing, especially if he has sufficient means to provide himself with coffee, and with some narcotic in the form of tobacco, opium, hashish, i.e ., Cannabis Indica, or Indian hemp, etc. The drinking of wine and strong drink of every kind is prohibited to the true believer with no uncertain voice in the Kur’an, and the passages in which the prohibition is laid down have formed the subject of much comment by Muhammadans in all countries. A passage in Sura II says : “They will ask thee concerning wine and lots; answer in both there is great sin, and things of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than their use.” Some are of opinion that excess in wine-drinking only is here forbidden, but the stricter Muhammadans hold that men should not taste, touch, or handle wine, spirits, or strong drink of any kind. In spite of this, however, it is quite certain that Muhammad the Prophet did drink a kind of wine called nebidh , and many of his followers considered that its use was lawful. Nebidh is made by soaking dried grapes or dates in water for a few days, until the liquor ferments slightly, or acquires sharpness or pungency. The Prophet drank the liquor in which grapes or dates had been soaked for one or two days, but on the third day he either gave it to his servants or had it poured on the ground. At the present time Muhammadans drink in private many kinds of European wines and spirits and beer, and excuse themselves for so doing by calling them “ medicine.” Arab literature proves that the Muhammadans were great drinkers of nebidh , and contains records of many disgraceful acts committed by the illustrious when drunk, and shows that the punishments prescribed by the law for the drinking of wine and spirits did not act as deterrents. A freeman might be beaten with 80 stripes, and a slave with 40, and if the crime were committed in the day- 3 I B THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. time daring the month of Ramadan, i.e., during the great fast, the punishment for the offender was death. At the end of 1904 there were in all Egypt at least 4,015 drinking shops. In 1905 about 466 applications for licences to sell alcoholic drinks were made, and 370 were refused. There is little or no drinking in the villages in Egypt, but in the towns there is a certain amount of intoxication. The amount of alcohol made in Egypt is increasing yearly. The place of wine was taken by coffee, which is called to this day by a very ancient name for old wine, i.e ., “ ‘Kahwah.” The properties of the coffee berry were discovered accidentally by one ‘Omar, who had fled into Yemen from persecution with a few followers in the thirteenth century. Being reduced by want of provisions to cook the berries of the coffee plant which grew there in abundance, he experienced the effects familiar to all who indulge in strong “black” coffee. About two centuries later coffee was drunk publicly in Aden and its neighbourhood, and it was introduced into Egypt at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century by some natives of Southern Arabia. The use of coffee has been the subject of fierce debates, and the number of the decisions by Muhammadan divines condemning its use are as numerous as those which permit it. Its sale has been alternately prohibited and legalised, and at the present time it is drunk by every class of Muham- madan presumably without scruple. The modern coffee-house is a most popular institution among the lower classes, and is mostly frequented in the afternoon and evening ; the benches outside the shop, which are provided by the proprietor, are well filled, and men sit on them, and play games of chance and smoke their cigarettes or pipes. In the evening professional story-tellers appear, and being provided with a seat and a cup of coffee proceed to entertain the company with narratives of a vivid character. At intervals a collection is made in the story-teller’s favour, the amounts given varying, of course, in proportion to the pleasure which the listeners have derived from the entertainer. In times past coffee-houses have been hotbeds of sedition and conspiracy, and even now a better idea of the opinion of the Egyptian “man in the street” on any given social question can be obtained from the coffee-shop than elsewhere. Tobacco was introduced into Egypt about a century later than coffee, and its use has been discussed with as much keenness as that of coffee. Few Muhammadans scruple about TOBACCO, HASHiSH, OPIUM. 3 T 9 smoking in these days, even though the following saying is traditionally ascribed to their Prophet : — “ In the latter days there shall be men who bear the name of Muslims, but they shall not be really such, for they shall smoke a certain weed which shall be called Tobacco”! Coffee and tobacco are considered so important that the following sayings have become proverbial : — (i) “ A cup of coffee and a pipe of tobacco form a complete entertainment ” ; and (2) “ Coffee without tobacco is meat without salt.” For several centuries past the Egyptians have been addicted to the use of hashish, or Indian hemp, which when smoked produces a species of intoxication, which is more or less intense according to the length of time it is smoked. The properties of the plant were well known in ancient times, for the Indians have from time immemorial chewed the leaves and seeds, and employed them in many ways, both for good and evil. The seeds pounded with sweet and aromatic substances in the form of jam have often been administered as an aphrodisiac. From India the herb passed into Persia, and subsequently into Con- stantinople and Egypt, where it is beloved by the lower classes. Its importation is prohibited, but although the coastguard service watches the ports and the neighbouring shores with sleepless vigilance, a very large quantity is smuggled into the country. In 1902 about 16,768 kilos, were seized and confiscated, and in 1903 about 24,349 kilos. ; in 1902 its price was 60 francs per kilo., and in 1903 it was even higher. In each pipe a piece of hashish, weighing about 2 grains, value 1 \d., is placed with some hot charcoal ; the pipe is then handed to a company of eight persons, each of whom pays about three farthings for a long pull. The regular use of this drug is said to induce insanity, and of the 366 patients who were admitted to the lunatic asylum in 1903, some 67 were declared to be suffering from insanity due to hashish. The Government does all in its power to prevent the spread of hashish smoking, and in 1903 ! the tribunals ordered 22 cafes owned by Europeans, and 1,681 I belonging to natives, where hashish was sold, to be finally closed. In 1904 about 21,369 kilos were confiscated. The hashish is now brought from Greece to Tripoli, where it is landed. From Tripoli it is canned by camels to the Oasis of I Siwa, then to the Oases of Bahariya and Dakhla, and so into Egypt. The regular smoker of hashish is called “ hashshash,” and the word indicates that the man to whom it is applied is a debauchee. Many Egyptians smoke opium, but as its 3 2 ° THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. effects are not so noisy or dangerous to his neighbours, the opium smoker is not regarded with such contempt as the smoker of hashish. Gambling has in all ages been one of the delights of the Egyptians. In recent years the Government have made serious attempts to put down gambling in Cairo and Alexandria, but to put a stop entirely to the vice is beyond the power of any Government. Lord Cromer hopes to do good by limiting the facilities for gambling. Next to smoking the Egyptian’s chief enjoyment is the Bath, which is of the kind commonly called “ Turkish ” ; the word for bath is “hammam.” Some baths admit male Arabic customers only, others women and children only, and others both men and women, the former in the morning and the latter in the afternoon. When the bath is appropriated to women a piece of linen or drapery is hung over the entrance to warn men not to enter. The old baths of the city are built of brick, have domes in the roof, and are paved with earthenware and marble tiles. The Muhammadan believes that baths and lava- tories are haunted by spirits of a more or less evil and malicious nature, and when he enters them often does so with his left foot foremost, and he should say a prayer for protection against the spirits. The modern bath is much more luxuriously fitted than the old native bath, but the appointments and fittings of a bath in Egypt as elsewhere depend upon the class of customers who visit it. The older baths are not so clean as the new ones, the supply of towels is not so abundant, and the service is inferior. On the other hand, very expert bathmen are found in the older institutions, and these thoroughly under- stand how to knead the limbs, rub the feet, and crack the joints, in such a way as to do the bather the most good. The real view taken by the Egyptians about music, sing = ing, and dancing is not easy to find out, but no people are more pleased than they with these amusements. Music was forbidden by Muhammad himself, for he thought that it excited men’s passions and predisposed them to vice, and even in the Arabian Nights (No. 899) we read of the damsel who dressed herself in black, built a tomb, and repented that she had sung to the lute. As a matter of fact the Egyptians sing whenever they have a chance, and the boatmen and artisans, even when engaged in the most laborious duties, can find breath enough to sing a kind of rhythmic chant, for song, in MUSIC, SINGING, DANCING, ETC. 32 1 our sense of the word, it can hardly be called. Among the learned the art of chanting passages from the Kur’an is carefully taught, and the member who has the best voice of the clergy of a mosque is usually chosen to sing the call to prayer from the minaret. Formerly blind men were chosen because they could not look down into the courts or rooms of their neighbours’ houses. The system of music which was in use among the ancient Arabs is not understood by the modern Egyptians, who appear to have borrowed such music as they possess from other more Eastern nations. Mr. Lane has pointed out that in the Arab system the tone is divided into thirds, which, naturally, cannot be produced by native instruments. The construction of the tune is simple, and it contains many repetitions, but in the mouth of an expert singer it usually produces a restful effect. The old Arab songs usually chant the praises of the camel, the glory of war and fighting, the beauty of some maiden, or the exploits of some hero ; modern songs are usually about love, which is treated of in the characteristic Oriental manner. Many of the popular songs sung in Egypt at the present time consist merely of a number of obvious descriptions of facts, which are strung to a sort of monotonous chant ; others are of a ribald or obscene character, and such are often heard in the mouths of children. In every town and village of considerable size there exist professional musicians and singers whose services are hired for public and private entertainments. The male singer is called “Alati,” and the female “Almah” (plural, ‘Awalim) : the better classes of each sort can usually play some instrument. When employed in the house of a man of wealth a sort of ,£ musicians’ gallery ” is set apart for them near the largest room of the house, where the master and his family can hear them in comfort. Strolling singers are often met with on the great caravan roads, and the songs which they sing by the camp fire are weird and plaintive ; taken in conjunction with the surroundings, the clear starry sky, the shadowy forms of the camels and donkeys, and the picturesque forms of the members of the caravan, with their interested, fire-lit faces, produce a curious effect upon the listener. The principal instruments are the kemangeh , i.e., a two-stringed lute, the rababah , or one-stringed lute, the kanfin , or dulcimer, the 'fid, another kind of lute, which is played with a plectrum, the nai, or flute, the rikk , or tambourine, the nakkarah , or kettledrum, the baz, another kind of drum, the x 322 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. kas , or cymbals, the sagat , or castanets, the tar> a kind of tambourine, the durabukah , which is made of wood, and is covered sometimes with mother-of-pearl or tortoise shell (this instrument is often made of earthenware), the zummarah , or double-reed pipe, and the arghul , or double-reed pipe, one pipe of which is shorter than the other. The dancing girls are called “ Ghawazi,”and they used to perform unveiled in the streets ; their public exhibitions are now prohibited, but when they are hired to give an entertainment in the courtyard of some large house in the provinces, large numbers of people of all classes attend, and the performance is to all intents and purposes a public one. The dancing girls of Kena in Upper Egypt were notorious for their freedom and license. The snake charmers, who belong to the Rifab dervishes, perform some marvellous feats with serpents, and they certainly seem to possess wonderful powers in dealing with snakes and serpents of every kind known in Egypt. They handle them with the greatest freedom, and the reptiles appear to do what- ever they wish, and never attack them. These men, by means not apparent to the uninitiated, can detect the presence of a hidden snake wheresoever concealed, and they are frequently employed by the natives who suspect that serpents have made their homes in the walls and ceilings of their houses. It has been said by those who understand the art of snake charming as practised by experts in India that snake charmers inoculate themselves with solutions of snake poison, the strength of which they gradually increase until they are able to endure the bites of snakes of the most venomous character wdthout losing their lives. They are also said to anoint themselves with snake fat, whereby they acquire an odour which is pleasing to the living reptiles, and to be able to know when a serpent is near them by their sense of smell. Be this as it may, they certainly discover the hiding places of snakes with great cor- rectness, and many of them must possess some physical means whereby the presence of snakes is made known to them. Jugglers also thrive in Egypt, and they are warmly welcomed wherever they appear ; many of their tricks are quite ordinary, but every now and then a juggler is met with whose skill is quite equal to that of the best Indian performers. In former days numerous tumblers and rope = dancers attracted large audiences in the streets, and the Ape = men and the JUGGLERS AND BUFFOONS. 3 2 3 Buffoons earned a good livelihood. The performances of the last two classes were of a most varied character, and they usually ended in representations of scenes of gross obscenity. In recent years they have been rarely seen in the better parts of Cairo, but in the purely native quarters and the outskirts of the city they are still exceedingly popular. The fact is that the lower orders of Egypt love lewd stories, lewd jests, and lewd buffoonery of all kinds, and sooner or later all dancers, jugglers, and others who offer entertainment for an Egyptian crowd, introduce the element of indecency or obscenity, for the simple reason that it pays them better to do that than to persevere in the exhibition of tricks of skill in sleight of hand or strength. The Egyptians delight greatly in the class of men called Shu‘ara, literally, “ poets,” who provide entertainment for the public by reciting compositions, which are part prose and part poetry, outside the cafes. A “poet,” or rather story = teller, is usually hired by the owner or keeper of the cafe, and having taken up his position on some raised place outside the shop he proceeds to relate some story, such as that of Abu Zeyd, to the customers who, as they sip their coffee or smoke, listen with great attention to the adventures of this hero. At intervals he, or a companion, plays some notes on a kind of lute which he has with him. He knows the composition which he relates by heart, and if he has a pleasing manner and a good voice he makes an hour or two pass agreeably for his audience, and with profit for himself, for many of the customers give him small sums of money, especially if, knowing his audience, he is able to make “ topical allusions ” successfully. In Egypt the fortune-telling Gipsies abound, and marvellous stories are told of their prophetic powers, and of the success with which they forecast events. Few of them, however, possess the skill in their work which characterizes the fortune-tellers in India, and the European who consults them is usually disappointed with their efforts. On the other hand, it must be admitted that they possess considerable ability in reading character from faces, and among the older I gipsies there are many whom long experience has made shrewd I and correct exponents of men’s. dispositions by observing their j gait, actions, and manner of speech. On the whole, the result of the great invasion of Europeans and of Western civilization j and methods, which has taken place in Egypt during the last 20 years, has been to thrust native amusements from the main 1 x 2 3 2 4 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. streets of Cairo in the winter, and there is little chance now of the traveller enjoying the sights and scenes of Cairene life in the easy way that was possible some 50 years ago. The Egyptians themselves in large towns seem to be indisposed to amuse themselves in the old way, and their most characteristic customs are now best observed in provincial towns and villages. This result is not to be wondered at when we con- sider the number of the forces of Western civilization which the Occupation of Egypt by the British has caused to be brought to bear on her people. The children of well-to-do families in the large towns now attend schools, and the great object of parents is to get their sons into Government em- ployment. At the Government Schools, and in the Schools of the various Missions which are scattered throughout the country, the boys are taught to be clean in person, and the wearing of European clothes follows as a natural result. The life and amusements which satisfied their fathers do not please them, and youths and young men endeavour to assimilate Western ideas and Western culture as much as possible. The status and condition of women have greatly improved in recent years, and at the present time a great change is pass- ing over the habits of a large portion of the population which must have far-reaching results. 325 CHAPTER XIX. Sketch of the History of the Arabs, and of Muhammad and his Kur’an, Religious Beliefs, etc. The home of the Arabs is the peninsula of Arabia, which is about 1,450 miles long and 700 wide ; the greater part of the country is desert and mountain, and only in the south-west portion of it are perennial streams found. The Arabs are Semites, and the modern descendants of them trace their origin to the Hebrews through Kahtan, who is identified with Joktan, the son of Eber, and to Adnan, the direct descendant of Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. The kingdoms of Yaman and Hijaz were founded by Yarab and Yorhom, sons of Kahtan. The provinces of Saba and Hadhramaut were ruled by princes of the tribe of Himyar, whose king- doms lasted two or three thousand years. In the third century before Christ a terrible calamity befell the Arabs, for the great dam which Saba, the builder of Saba and Mareb, built to hold up the rain w T ater and mountain springs, suddenly burst, and the widespread ruin brought by the flood which was thus let ioose on the plains caused eight great Arab tribes to leave their country. The water is said to have been held up to a height of about 180 feet, and the people felt so sure of the security of the dam that they built their houses upon it. In the second century after Christ the Arabs migrated northwards and established petty kingdoms at Palmyra* and al-Hira,! and came at times into conflict with the Roman authorities in Syria and with the Persian powers in Eastern Mesopotamia. The Arabs of Palmyra embraced Christianity in the time of Constantine, but those of al-Hira did not accept it until after a.d. 550 ; the Arabs of the desert, however, continued to be for the most part idolaters. The rule of the Himyar princes came to an end in the first half of the sixth century of our * The Arabs of Palmyra were descended from the tribe of Azd. t The Arabs of al-Hira were descended from Kahtan. 3 26 MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET. era, when the king of Ethiopia overthrew a base usurper called Dhu-Nuwas, who inflicted tortures of the worst descrip- tion on the Christians, and who is said to have destroyed 20,000 of them ; the Ethiopian rule was of short duration, for before the end of the century the Persians were masters of the country. Strictly speaking, the Arabs, as a nation, have never been conquered, and no ruler has ever been able to make his authority effective in all parts of their dominions. In pre-Muhammadan times, which the Arabs call “ Jahiliyah,” tLsL&l:^ i,e^ the “epoch of ignorance,” their religion was the grossest idolatry, and the dominant phase of it was the religion of Sabaism. They believed in One God, but worshipped the stars, planets, and angels. They prayed three times a day, and fasted three times a year ; they offered up sacrifices, they went on a pilgrimage to a place near Harran, and they held in great honour the temple at Mecca, and the Pyramids of Egypt, believing these last to be the tombs of Seth and of his sons Enoch and Sabi. Three great powers worshipped by the whole nation were Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat ; the Kur £ an (Koran) mentions five very ancient idols, viz., Wadd, Sawa‘a, Yaghuth, Ya‘uk, and Nasra. The first of these had the form of a man, the second that of a woman, the third that of a lion, the fourth that of a horse, and the fifth that of an eagle. Sabaism taught that the souls of the wicked will be punished for 9,000 ages, but that after that period they will obtain mercy. Many Arabs, however, believed neither in the creation nor in the resurrection, and attributed all things to the operations of nature. Magianism, of Persian origin, found many followers in Arabia, but Judaism and Christianity exerted a profound influence upon the religion of the Arabs. The Arabs prided themselves upon their skill in oratory and in making poetry, and in the arts of war, and they made a boast of their hospitality ; but they always had the character of being fierce, cruel, and vindictive, generous to friends, but implacable to foes, and addicted to robbery and rapine. Muhammad, commonly known as the “ Prophet,” was born at Mecca on August 20th, a.d. 570 ; his mother was called Amina, and his father ‘Abd-Allah, and his ancestors were men of high rank in the city of Mecca, many of them holding offices in connection with the temple there. His parents were poor, and Muhammad’s inheritance consisted of five camels, a flock of goats, and a slave girl. He was suckled by Tbueba MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET. 3 2 7 and Halima, and reared by his grandfather ‘Abd al-Muttalib, and was instructed in the trade of merchant by his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of six his mother took him to Madina, but on the way home she died ; at the age of 12 (a.d. 582), Abu Talib took him to Syria. At the age of 20 he visited the fair at Okas, three days to the east of Mecca, where he heard the great Arab poets declaim their compositions, and met numbers of Christians and Jew's. In 595 he began to do business as a merchant on behalf of Khadijah, a wealthy lady of the Koreish tribe, and his trafficking was successful ; soon after his return from Syria, this lady, wffio w r as about 40 years of age, determined to marry him, and the ceremony was performed by Khadijah’s father, whom she had made drunk for the purpose. By this marriage he had two sons and four daughters. In 605 the great Ka £ aba was built, and the lot fell upon Muhammad to build the famous Black Stone into its eastern corner, where it may be kissed by all who visit it When he arrived at the age of 40 he began to formulate a system for the reform of the religion of the Arabs, and he became convinced that he v T as destined by God to carry out that reform At times, however, he w T as very despondent, and he often meditated suicide, from which Khadijah dissuaded him. About this time he declared that Gabriel appeared to him and entrusted to him the divine mission of reforming the religion of the Arabs. When Muhammad w r as 45 years old he had collected a sufficiently large number of influential converts about him to provoke great opposition and persecution in and about Mecca, and in 6 1 5 his First H i jra, or “ flight,” to Abyssinia took place. At this time Muhammad relaxed his exertions somewiiat, for he became doubtful about the value of his mission, and seemed to be willing to tolerate the worship of idols. In December, 619, his beloved wife Khadijah died, aged 70, and about a month later Abu Talib, his uncle, also died, and in the midst of these afflictions Muhammad had the vexation of seeing that his converts were not increasing in number. In 620 he set out to call Taif to repentance, but he w T as expelled from the city : a few' weeks later he married a widow called Sawda, and betrothed himself to ‘Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, a child of six or seven years of age. In the same year Muhammad made converts at Madina, a city which lies about 250 miles to the north of Mecca, and on June 20th, a.d. 622, the year on which the Arabs base their chronology, 328 HIS FAMILY. the Second Hijra, or “flight,” to Madina took place. He arrived in that city on June 28th, and at once began to build a mosque on the spot where his camel Al-Kaswa had knelt down. At the age of 53 he married ‘Aisha, aged 10, and it is said that the bride carried her toys to her husband’s house, and that at times he joined in her games. In 623 he ceased to pray towards Jerusalem, and ordered his followers to pray towards the Ka‘aba at Mecca ; in this year the battle of Badr was fought, in which he vanquished his opponents in Mecca. In 624 his power and influence con- tinued to grow, and he married Hafsa, the daughter of ‘Omar. In 625 was fought the battle of Uhud, in which Muhammad was wounded, and a number of powerful Jews were expelled from Madina. In January, 626, he married Zenab, the daughter of Khuzema, and a month later Umm-Salma, the widow of Abd-Salma ; in June he married Zenab bint-Jahsh, who was divorced by her husband Zed, the adopted son of Muhammad, and later in the year he married a seventh wife, called Juwerya. In 627 Madina was besieged, and the Beni-Kureba were massacred, and Muhammad’s power and influence con- tinued to increase ; the people of Mecca then began to come to terms with him. In 628 he despatched letters to Heraclius, and to the king of Persia, and to the governors of Yaman, Egypt, and Abyssinia, calling upon them to acknowledge the divine mission of Muhammad. In the same year he betrothed himself to Umm Habuba, and conquered Khebar, where he married Safia, the bride of Kinana ; and the Jews bribed a sorcerer to bewitch Muhammad by tying knots of his hairs upon a palm branch, which was sunk in a well, and he is said to have begun to waste away. But the Archangel Gabriel revealed the matter to him, and when the branch had been taken out of the well and the hairs untied he recovered his health. Soon after this he went to Mecca and married Memuna, and his power increased in the city ; in 630 he conquered the city and destroyed the idols, and was successful in many raids which he made upon the tribes who had not acknowledged his divine mission. At this time George the Makawkas sent to him from Egypt two sisters, called Shinn and Maryam (Mary) j the latter Muhammad married, and she bore him a son called Ibrahim, who, however, died in June or July, 631. In this year many tribes sent envoys to Muhammad tendering their submission, and among them were men who MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET. 329 represented the Christian Arabs ; the answer given to the latter proves that Muhammad only tolerated the Christian religion, and that he expected the children of Christians to be brought up in the faith of Al-Islam. In 632 Muhammad ordered an expedition against Syria, but he died early in the month of June. In personal appearance he was of medium height, and he had an upright carriage until his later years, when he began to stoop, and he walked fast. He laughed often, and had a ready wit and a good memory ; his manners were pleasing, and he was exceedingly gracious to inferiors. Of learning he had none, and he could neither read nor write. He was slow and dignified of speech, and prudent in judgment. He was not ashamed to mend his own clothes and shoes, and his humility was so great that he would ride upon an ass. He ate with his thumb and the first and second fingers, and he greatly liked bread cooked with meat, dates dressed with milk and butter, pumpkins, cucumbers, and undried dates ; onions and garlic he abhorred. His garments were of different colours, but he loved white, although he was very fond of striped stuffs ; it is said that he once gave 17 camels for a single garment. His hair was long, like his beard, but he clipped his moustache ; he painted his eyelids with antimony, and greatly loved musk, ambergris, and camphor burnt on sweet-smelling woods. His life was simple, but his disposition was sensual, and his polygamous inclinations sorely tried the convictions of his followers. He was a staunch friend to his friends, and a bitter foe to his enemies, whom he often treated with great cruelty ; he had the reputation for sincerity, but at times he behaved with cunning and meanness ; his urbanity hid a determination which few realized, and the sword was the real cause of the conversion of the nations to his views. The religion which he preached was, and is, intolerant and fanatical, and, although it has made millions of men believe in one God, and renounce the worship of idols, and abhor wine and strong drink, it has set the seal of his approval upon the unbridled gratification of sensual appetites, and has given polygamy and divorce a religious status and wide-spread popularity. Al = Kur’an* (the Koran, or Coran) is the name given to the revelations or instructions which Muhammad declared had been sent to him from God by the Archangel Gabriel. The word means “ the reading,” or “what ought to be read.” 330 THE KUR’AN. During the lifetime of Muhammad these revelations were written upon skins, shoulder-bones of camels and goats, palm leaves, slices of stone, or anything which was convenient for writing upon, and then committed to memory by every true believer ; they thus took the place of the poetical compositions which the Arabs had, from time immemorial, been accustomed to learn by heart. It is tolerably certain that copies of the revelations were multiplied as soon as they were uttered by the Prophet, and their number must have been considerable. On the death of the Prophet, the Arabs of the south revolted, and Abu-Bakr was obliged to suppress the rebellion with a strong hand, but the false prophet Musailima had many adherents, and the fight was fierce and bloody, and many of those who best knew the Kur‘an were slain. At this time the various sections of the book were not arranged in any order, and ‘Omar, fearing that certain sections might be lost, advised Abu-Bakr to have all the revelations gathered together into one book. This was a.d. 633. By Abu-Bakr’s orders, a young man called Zed ibn-Thabit, who had been Muhammad’s secretary and had learned Syriac and Hebrew, was entrusted with the task, and he collected the sections from every con- ceivable source, and made a fair copy of them in the order in which they have come down to us. This copy was given by ‘Omar, the successor of Abu-Bakr, to his daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. Before long, however, varia- tions sprang up in the copies which were made from that of Hafsa, and these variations became so numerous, and caused such serious disputes, that the Khalif ‘Othman ordered Zed ibn-Thabit and three men of the Koreish tribe to prepare a new recension of the Kur’an. At length the new recension was finished, and copies were sent to Kufa, Basra, Damascus, Mecca, and Madina, and all the pre-existing versions were ruthlessly burnt. Hafsa’s copy was restored to her, but it was afterwards destroyed by Merwan, the governor of Madina. The Arabs regard the language of the Kur’an as extremely pure, and incomparable for beauty and eloquence ; it is also thought to be under God’s special protection, and therefore to be incorruptible. To explain the existence of slight variations, it was declared that the book was revealed in seven distinct dialects. The Kur’an contains 114 sections, each of which is called a sura ; some were revealed at Mecca, and others at Madina, and others were revealed partly at Mecca and partly at THE TABLET OF DESTINY. 33 Madina. The number of verses in the whole book is given as 6,000, or 6,214, or 6,219, or 6,225, or 6,226, or 6,236, according to the authority followed ; the number of words is said to be 77,639, or 99,464; and the number of letters 323,015, or 330,113, for, like the Jews,* the Arabs counted the letters of their Scriptures. At the head of each section, after the title, come the words, “ In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate,” which formula, Sale thinks, was borrowed from the Magians. That Muhammad, assisted by his friends, composed the Kur’an is certain, yet his followers declare that the first transcript of it existed in heaven, written upon the Mother of the Book, also called the Preserved Table or Tablet from all eternity, and that it subsists in the very essence of God. A copy on paper was sent down to the lowest heaven by Gabriel, who revealed it to the Prophet piecemeal, but showed him the whole book, bound in silk and set with the gold and precious stones of Paradise, once a year. Hence the Kur’an is held in the greatest reverence by the Muhammadans, who are said never to touch it unless they are ceremonially pure. The Muhammadans divide their religion, which they call “Islam,” into two parts, i.e . 9 Imam , faith, or theory, and Din , religion, or practice ; it is built on five fundamental points, one belonging to faith and four to practice. The confession of faith is, “ There is no god but God,” and “Muhammad is the xApostle of God.” Under the division of Faith the Arabs comprehend: — (Tl Belief in God; (2) in his Angels ; (3) in His Scriptures ; (4) in His Prophets ; (5) in the Resurrection and Day of Judgment; (6) in God’s absolute decree and predetermination both of good and evil. The four points of Practice are : — (1) Prayer and ablutions ; (2) alms ; (3) fasting ; (4) pilgrimage to Mecca. 1. The belief in God is thus expressed: “Say, God is one God ; the eternal God ; he begetteth not, neither is he begotten ; and there is not any one like unto him ” ( Sura cxii). 2. The Angels are beings of light who neither eat nor drink, and who are without sex ; they are without sin, and perform God’s behests in heaven and upon earth, and adore * The number of times which each letter occurs in the Hebrew Bible will be found in the Massoreth ha-Mnssoreth of Elias Levita (ed. Ginsburg), p. 332 MUHAMMADAN BELIEFS. Him. There are four Archangels, Gabriel, Michael, Azrael, the angel of death, and Israfel, the angel who will sound the trumpet at the end of the world. Every believer is attended by two angels, one writing down his good actions, and the other his evil actions ; the guardian angels are variously said to be 5, 60, or 160. The angels Munkar and Nakir examine the dead, and torture the wicked in their graves. The Jinn were created before Adam, and are beings of fire, who eat and drink and marry ; they include Jann, Satans, ‘Afrits, and Marids. The head of them is ‘Azazel or Iblis, who was cast out of heaven because he refused to worship Adam. 3. The Scriptures are the uncreated word of God which He revealed to His Prophets ; of these alone remain, but in a corrupt state, the Pentateuch of Moses, the Psalms of David, the Gospels of Christ, and the Kur’an, which surpasses in excellence all other revelations. Ten books were given to Adam, 50 to Seth, 30 to Enoch, and 10 to Abraham, but all these are lost. 4. The Prophets are in number 124,000 or 224,000, of whom 313 were Apostles ; among the Apostles of special importance are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ, and Muhammad, who is declared to be the last, and greatest, and most excellent of them all. It is admitted that Christ is the Word of God, and the Messiah, but the Muhammadans deny that He is the Son of God. 5. Resurrection and Day of Judgment. When the body is laid in the grave two angels, called Munkar and Nakir, appear there, and make the dead man sit upright, and question him as to his faith ; if the answers are satisfactory he is allowed to rest in peace, but if not the angels beat him on the temples with iron maces, and having heaped earth upon the body, it is gnawed by 99 dragons, each having seven heads. All good Muhammadans have their graves made hollow and two stones placed in a suitable position for the two angels to sit upon. The souls of the just when taken from their bodies by the angel of death may be borne to heaven, but various opinions exist on this point. Some think that the souls remain near the graves either for seven days or for a longer period ; others think they exist with Adam in the lowest heaven ; others that they live in the trumpet which is to wake the dead ; and others that they dwell in the forms of white birds under the throne of God. The souls of the wicked having been rejected bv heaven and by this earth, are taken THE GENERAL RESURRECTION. 333 down to the seventh earth, and thrown into a dungeon under a green rock, or under the Devil’s jaw, where they will be tortured until called upon to rejoin their bodies. Muham- madans generally believe in the resurrection both of the body and of the soul. All parts of the bodies of the dead will decay except the cuckoo bone (coccyx), wherefrom the whole body shall be renewed, and this renewal shall take place through a rain of 40 days, which shall cover the earth to a depth of 12 cubits, and cause the bodies to sprout like plants. The time when the resurrection is to take place is known only to God. The first blast of the trumpet will shake heaven and earth ; the second will cause all living creatures to die, the last being the angel of death ; and the third, which is to take place 40 years after the second, will raise the dead, Muhammad being the first to rise. The general resurrection will include animals. Some say the day of judgment will last 1,000 years, and others 50,000; the place of judgment will be the earth, and Muhammad is to be the intercessor with God on behalf of man. A book wherein is written an account of his actions will be given to each man, and all things will be weighed in a balance ; the judgment over, the souls of the good will turn to a road on the right, and those of the bad to a road on the left. All will, however, have to pass over the bridge Al-Sirat, which is laid over the midst of hell, and is finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword ; the good will have no difficulty in passing over this, but the wicked will fall from it and meet their doom in Gehenna, which is divided into seven storeys, one below the other. Between hell and paradise is a partition or gulf, which is not, however, so wide that the blessed and the damned cannot discourse together. The blessed wili drink out of a lake, the water of which comes from Paradise, .and is whiter than milk, and sweeter in smell than musk. Paradise was created before the world, and is situated above the seven heavens, near the throne of God ; its earth is made of fine wheat flour, or musk, or saffron ; its stones are pearls ; its walls are inlaid with gold and silver ; and the trunks of all its trees are of gold. Therein is the Tfiba tree, laden with every kind of fruit, and it will supply the true believer with everything he needs, /.., He, that is, God. It is this exclamation which has caused certain travellers to describe them as “Barking Dervishes.” In Egypt, as in all Muslim countries, the number of orders of dervishes is legion ; new ones spring up each generation, and others disappear. The profession of dervish is followed by many beggars, who succeed in obtaining a good livelihood from the well-to-do and benevolent Muhammadans, who have usually a kindly feeling for the wandering poor. In the first half of the XIXth century there might often be seen in Cairo and Tanta Dervishes who were considered -to be specially holy on account of pilgrimages which they had per- formed with great labour to the shrines of certain Muhammadan saints. Some would visit Karbala, where the descendants of ‘All are specially venerated, not by walking or riding there in the ordinary way, but by lying down at full length on the ground and getting upright on their feet many thousands of times until they had literally measured the whole way, from the place where they started to their destination, with their bodies. Others would shout “ Hu,” /. 9° 6 , U 2 1897 . .. 11,093,000 1905 ... 14,813,000 Up to the end of 1902 about ^E,9,ooo,ooo had been devoted to drainage and irrigation, and as a result land tax is paid on 5,540,900 acres instead of on 4,758,474 as in 1882 ; BRITISH FINANCIAL POLICY IN EGYPT. 365 the value of the imports has increased from about ^E. 8, 000,000 in 1883-84 to over ^E. 2 1,564,000 in 1905 ; and in the same period the exports have grown from ^E. 12, 000,000 to ^E.20,360,000. The cotton crop varied 20 years ago from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 kantars (about 100 lbs.), and in 1905 the total crop was 6,352,000 kantars. The total receipts of the Egyptian Government from 1882 to 1901, both inclusive, were ^E. 224, 206,151. This money was spent in the following ways : — Ordinary expenditure— 1. Khedivial Civil List 5 > 9 * 9 , 9 J 7 2 . Justice 7 ,° 54 , 5°3 3. Public Works 10,419,807 4. Education ... 1,822,547 5. Medical Department 1,852,515 6. Other administrative expen- diture 22,152,310 7. Expenses of revenue-earning Administrations ... 20,769,036 8. Army 12,368,109 9. Pensions 8,655,745 10. Tribute 13, 393 , 9 10 11. Interest on Debt ... 79,448,786 12. Suppression of Corvee 5 , 977,454 13. Stidan ... ... ... 3,678,889 Extraordinary expenditure — (A) 1. Alexandria Indemnities... 4 T 43 , 95 6 2. Irrigation and drainage ... 4,120,121 3. Emission of loans 988,014 4. Commutations of pen- sions, etc. 5. Public buildings... 3 , 633 , 6 12 943 T 83 6. Postal steamers ... 210,569 7. Railways... 966,727 8. Sfidan 2,618,827 9. Miscellaneous ... 759,943 I 93 » 5 I 3 » 5 28 1^,384,952 3 66 JUSTICE AND EDUCATION. (B) i. Public buildings 38,209 907,618 24,367 2. Railways... 3. Miscellaneous 970,194 III. Paid into Sinking Fund Total of all expenditures ... i 9>355j i 46 896,741 2137765,415 leaving a balance of 10,440, 736, which was spent on Conversion Economics, the General and Special Reserve Funds, etc. Thus we see that every piastre which has passed through the Government Treasury during the last 20 years is accounted for. There has been no “ leakage,” and no sums of money, like those which used to be sent to Constantinople, of which it can be said, “ On n’a pu rendre compte.” In 1878 the ruling Khedive agreed to accept a Civil List in lieu of the revenue which was derived from the properties which afterwards served as the security on which the Domains Loan of ^8,500,000 was raised. In 1882 the Civil List amounted to ^E. 384,000 a year; in 1889 a number of allowances of the Khedivial family were commuted for ^E. 1,310,000, and the Civil List now costs rather more than a quarter of a million a year. On Justice a large amount of money has been spent, and it may be noted that the receipts from fees and stamp duties have risen from ^E.200,000 to 5 2 1,000 a year. The cost of the Native Courts has risen from ^E.54,000 in 1882 to ^E. 1 73,000 in 1901. As regards Education, the sum of 1,822,547 does not really represent all that has been spent on this important item. The money spent on education in 1882 was ^CE. 7 6,000, but in 1901 the sum was ^E. 17 3,000, out of which were maintained nine colleges and 40 schools ; 87 village schools were under Government control, and the number of pupils had risen to 11,931, and of teachers to 760. In 1887 only 1,919 pupils were under the direct management of the Department of Public Instruction. In 18S2 the principal European language taught in the Government schools was French ; English was either altogether neglected, or was very badly taught. The schools of the American missionaries were the only places in which instruc- tion in English could be obtained, and the splendid services rendered by these institutions in this respect must not be BRITISH FINANCIAL POLICY IN EGYPT. 367 forgotten. Until the last few years nearly every railway, postal, or telegraph official who possessed any competent knowledge of the English language owed his instruction to the American missionaries. The following figures illustrate the growth of the study of English in Government schools-: — 1889 Pupils learning Pupils learning English. French. 1,063 2,994 1890 T j 747 3 . 1 99 1891 2,052 2,852 1892 2,237 2,864 i8 93 2,434 2,585 1894 2,669 3,748 i8 95 2.665 3,417 I896 2,800 3,363 1897 3 ,° 5 8 3,150 1898 3. 8 59 1,881 1899 4 . 4 oi 1,210 Thus in 1899 about 78 per cent, of the pupils were studying English and 22 per cent. French; in 1889 the figures were 26 per cent, and 74 per cent, respectively. In 1882 the State grant for the Medical Department was ^E.70,000 a year, but in 1901 it was ^E. 108,000. The Army in 1904 cost about ^E. 745, 000 a year instead of ^E. 864,000 in 1881. Pensions cost about ^E.430,000 a year, and Tribute, paid to Turkey, about ^E.665,000 a year. The late Ismail Pasha obtained certain privileges from the Sultan of Turkey, and the Egyptians had to pay a considerably higher tribute than formerly. In 1863 the Public Debt of Egypt amounted to ^E.3, 293,000, but 13 years (1876) later it had grown to £E. 94,000,000, for which there was absolutely nothing to show except the Suez Canal. Enormous sums of money were sent to Constantinople by Ismail Pasha, the building of numerous palaces absorbed a great deal more, and among small items Lord Cromer notes that ^150,000 was due to a Paris dressmaker. Moreover, Ismail and his own Finance Minister engaged in an operation on the Stock Exchange, the basis of which was that he was to “ bear ” his own stock ! And on one occasion the Govern- ment, in part payment of a debt due to a local bank, handed over ^230,000 worth of Unified Stock at a price of 31^; in other words, in order to pay ^72,000, the Government saddled 368 BRITISH FINANCIAL POLICY IN EGYPT. the country permanently with a debt of ^2 30, 000, of which the interest charge, at the then prevailing rate of 6 per cent., amounted to ^13,800 a year. The productive and recuperative powers of Egypt have been proverbial from time out of mind, but the most sanguine reformer in 1883 could never have expected to witness such a state of prosperity in the country as now exists. Lord Cromer laid it down as an axiom that “ sound finance must form the basis of all good government, [and] reforms in every other direction must necessarily be made dependent on the assured main- tenance of financial equilibrium, without having recourse to fiscal measures of a vexatious or oppressive nature,” and the prosperity of Egypt illustrates daily the truth of these pregnant words. He admits that in spending ^E. 224, 000, 000 some minor errors may have been made, but it need hardly be said that if such errors were made, they were due to circumstances caused by the reckless extravagance of Ismafil and his Ministers, and not to any defect in the financial policy which the British have pursued unswervingly in the country. Egypt’s “ race against bankruptcy” has been won by Lord Cromer, whose strong hand has ceaselessly guided and supported every detail of the wise, honest, and far-sighted plans for the resurrection of the country which he himself inaugurated, and by the little band of civil and military officials who have performed their duties with fidelity and discretion. Owing to the signing of the Anglo-French Agreement in 1904, a new impetus has been given to Egyptian progress and reform, and Lord Cromer reports that in 1905 “the whole machine of Government “worked very smoothly,” and he thinks that “there is every “ reason to believe that this steady and uniform rate of progress “ will be maintained in future years, but nowhere must there be “ undue haste.” 369 CHAPTER XXI. Comparative Table of the Muhammadan and Christian Eras. The era in use among the Arabs is that of the Hijra, or “ Flight,” and is reckoned from Friday, June 20th, a.d. 622, on which day Muhammad the Prophet fled from Mecca to Medina. As, in most works dealing with the Muhammadan section of the history of Egypt, the dates given are those of the Hijra, the following short table giving the Christian era equivalents of a number of years of the Arab era will be useful : — A. H. a.d. A. H. A.D. A.H. A.D. A.H. A.D. I 622 28 648 55 674 82 701 2 623 29 649 56 675 83 702 3 624 30 650 57 676 84 703 4 625 31 651 58 6 77 85 704 5 626 32 652 59 678 86 705 6 62 7 33 653 60 679 87 705 7 628 34 654 61 680 88 706 8 629 35 655 62 681 89 707 9 630 36 656 63 682 90 708 10 631 37 657 64 683 9 i 709 11 632 38 658 65 684 92 710 12 633 39 659 66 685 93 7 11 13 634 40 660 6 7 686 94 712 14 635 41 66 l 68 687 95 7 i 3 15 636 42 662 69 688 96 7 i 4 16 637 43 663 70 689 97 715 17 638 44 664 7 i 690 98 716 18 639 45 665 72 691 99 717 19 640 46 666 73 692 100 718 20 640 47 66 7 74 693 IOI 719 21 641 48 668 75 694 102 720 22 642 49 669 76 695 103 721 23 643 50 670 77 696 104 722 24 644 5 i 671 78 69 7 !05 723 25 645 52 672 79 698 106 724 26 6 4 6 53 672 80 699 107 725 27 647 54 673 81 700 108 726 2 a A. D. 727 728 729 730 731 73 2 733 734 735 736 737 737 738 739 740 74i 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 75i 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 A. D. 878 879 880 88l 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 9i3 914 9i5 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 AND CHRISTIAN A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. l6l 777 213 828 162 778 214 829 163 779 215 830 164 780 2l6 831 i6 5 78i 217 832 166 782 2l8 833 167 783 219 834 168 784 220 835 169 785 221 835 170 786 222 836 171 787 223 837 172 788 224 838 i73 789 225 839 i74 790 226 840 i75 791 227 84I 1 76 792 228 842 1 77 793 229 843 178 794 230 844 179 795 23I 845 180 796 232 846 181 797 233 847 182 798 234 848 183 799 235 849 184 800 236 850 185 801 2 37 851 186 802 238 852 187 802 239 853 188 803 240 854 189 804 241 855 190 805 242 856 191 806 243 857 192 807 244 858 193 808 245 859 194 809 246 860 i95 810 247 86l 196 811 248 862 197 812 249 863 198 813 250 864 199 814 251 865 200 815 2152 866 201 816 253 867 202 817 254 868 203 818 255 868 204 819 256 869 205 820 257 870 206 821 258 871 207 822 259 872 208 823 260 873 209 824 261 874 210 825 262 875 21 1 826 263 876 212 827 264 877 A. D. 929 930 931 932 933 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 95 1 952 953 954 955 956 957 95 8 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 vIMADAN AND CHRISTIAN ERAS. 371 A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. 369 979 421 IO30 473 I080 370 980 422 io 3 ° 474 Io8l 371 981 423 1031 475 1082 372 982 424 1032 476 1083 373 983 425 io 33 477 1084 374 984 426 1034 478 1085 375 985 427 io 35 479 1086 376 986 428 1036 480 1087 377 987 429 •037 481 1088 378 988 43 ° 1038 482 1089 379 989 43 i 1039 483 IO90 380 990 432 1040 484 1091 38 i 991 433 1041 485 1092 382 992 434 1042 486 IO93 383 993 435 1043 487 IO94 384 994 43 6 1044 488 1095 385 995 437 1045 489 1095 386 996 438 1046 490 IO96 387 997 439 1047 491 1097 388 998 440 1048 492 [098 389 998 441 1049 493 IO99 390 999 442 1050 494 I IOO 39 i I coo 443 1051 495 I IOI 392 IOOI 444 1052 496 1102 393 [002 445 io 53 497 IIO3 394 1003 446 1054 498 I IO4 395 TOO4 447 io 55 499 IIO5 396 1005 448 1056 500 1 106 397 1006 449 io 57 5 oi I IO7 398 1007 45 ° 1058 502 1 108 399 1008 45 i io 59 503 I IO9 400 1009 452 1060 504 iiio 401 TOIO 453 1061 505 mi 402 IOII 454 1062 506 1 1 12 403 1012 455 1063 507 1113 404 1013 45 6 1063 508 1114 405 IOI4 457 1064 5°9 1115 406 1015 458 1065 5 io 1116 407 1016 459 1066 5 ii 1 1 17 408 1017 460 1067 512 1118 409 1018 461 1068 5 i 3 1 1 19 410 1019 462 1069 5 H 1120 411 1020 463 1070 5 i 5 1 121 412 1021 464 1071 5 i 6 1122 4 i 3 1022 465 1072 5 i 7 1123 414 1023 466 1073 518 1124 415 1024 467 1074 5 i 9 1125 416 1025 468 io 75 520 1126 4 i 7 1026 469 1076 521 1127 418 1027 470 10 77 522 1128 419 1028 47 i 1078 >23 1128 420 1029 472 1079 i 524 1129 2 A 2 372 MUHAMMADAN AND CHRISTIAN ERAS. A. H. A.D. A. H. A.D. A. H. A. D. A. H. A.D. 525 1130 577 Il8l 629 1231 68l 1282 526 II3I 578 1 182 630 1232 682 1283 527 1132 579 1183 631 1233 683 1284 528 1133 580 II84 632 1234 684 1285 529 1134 58 i II85 633 1235 685 1286 530 1135 582 Il86 634 1236 686 1287 531 II36 583 H87 635 1237 687 1288 532 1137 584 Il88 636 1238 688 1289 533 II38 585 H89 6 37 1239 689 I290 534 1139 586 1 190 638 I24O 690 1291 535 1 140 587 II 9 I 639 I24I 691 I291 536 II4I 588 I I92 640 1242 692 I292 537 I [42 589 1193 641 1243 693 I293 538 1143 590 1193 642 I244 694 1294 539 II44 59 i 1194 643 1245 695 1295 540 1145 592 1195 644 1246 696 1296 54 i 1 146 593 1 196 645 I247 69 7 I297 542 1147 594 1197 646 1248 698 1298 543 1 148 595 1 198 647 I249 699 I299 544 II49 596 1199 648 I250 700 1300 545 US 0 597 1200 649 1251 701 1301 546 1151 598 1201 650 1252 702 1 302 547 1 1 52 599 1202 651 1253 703 1303 548 ii 53 600 1203 652 1254 704 1304 549 ii 54 601 1204 653 1255 705 1305 550 ii 55 602 1205 654 1256 706 1306 55 i 1156 603 1206 6 55 1257 707 1307 552 ii 57 604 1207 656 1258 708 1308 553 1158 605 1208 657 1258 709 1309 554 ii 59 606 1209 658 1259 710 1310 555 1160 607 1210 659 1260 7 11 1311 556 1 160 608 121 1 660 I26l 712 1312 557 1 161 609 1212 661 1262 7 i 3 1313 558 1 162 610 1213 662 1263 7 H 1314 559 1163 61 1 1214 663 1264 7 i 5 1315 560 1 164 612 1215 664 1265 716 1316 561 1 165 613 I2l6 665 1266 717 1317 562 1166 614 1217 666 1267 718 1318 563 1167 615 I2l8 667 1268 719 I 3 I 9 564 1168 616 1219 668 1269 720 1320 565 1 169 617 1220 669 1270 721 1321 566 1170 618 1221 670 1271 722 1322 567 1171 619 1222 671 1272 723 1323 568 1172 620 1223 672 12 73 724 x 3 2 3 5 6 9 ii 73 621 1224 673 1274 725 1324 57 o 1174 622 1225 674 1275 726 1325 57 i ii 75 623 1226 675 1276 727 1326 572 1176 624 1226 676 12 77 728 1327 573 1177 625 1227 6 77 1278 729 1328 574 1178 626 1228 678 1279 730 1329 575 1179 627 1229 679 1280 73 i 1330 576 1180 628 1230 680 1281 73 2 i 33 i MUHAMMADAN AND CHRISTIAN ERAS. 373 A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. 733 1332 785 1383 837 H 33 889 1484 734 1 333 786 1384 838 1434 890 1485 735 1334 787 1385 839 1435 891 i486 736 1335 788 1386 84O 1436 892 i486 737 1336 789 1387 84I 1437 893 1487 73 ** 1337 790 1388 842 1438 894 1488 739 1338 791 1388 843 1439 895 1489 740 1339 792 1389 844 I44O 896 1490 74 i 1340 793 1390 845 I44I 897 1491 742 1341 794 1391 846 1442 898 1492 743 1342 795 1392 847 1443 899 1493 744 1343 796 1393 848 I444 900 1494 745 1344 797 1394 849 1445 901 1495 746 1345 798 1395 850 I446 902 1496 747 1346 799 1396 851 1447 903 1497 748 1347 800 1397 852 1448 904 1498 749 1348 801 1398 853 1449 905 1499 750 1349 802 1399 854 1450 906 1500 75 i 1350 803 I4OO 855 I 45 I 907 1501 75 2 i 35 i 804 I4OI 856 1452 908 1502 753 1352 805 1402 857 1453 909 1503 754 1353 806 1403 858 1454 910 1504 755 J 354 807 I404 859 1454 911 1505 756 1355 808 1405 860 1455 912 1506 757 1356 809 I406 86l H 5 6 913 1507 758 I 35 6 810 I407 862 1457 9 H 1508 759 1357 811 I408 863 1458 915 1509 760 1358 812 I409 864 1459 916 1510 761 1359 813 I4IO 865 1460 917 I 5 II 762 1360 814 I4II 866 1461 918 1512 763 1361 815 I4I.2 867 1462 919 1513 764 1362 816 1413 868 1463 920 I 5 I 4 765 1363 817 I414 869 1464 921 ‘515 766 1364 818 1415 870 1465 922 1516 767 1365 819 1416 871 1466 923 1517 768 1366 820 1417 872 1467 924 1518 769 1367 821 1418 873 1468 925 1519 770 1368 822 1419 874 1469 926 1519 77 1 1369 823 1420 875 1470 927 1520 772 i 37 o 824 1421 876 1471 928 1521 773 i 37 i 825 1421 877 1472 929 1522 774 1372 826 1422 878 1473 930 1523 775 1373 827 1423 879 1474 931 1524 776 1374 828 I424 880 1475 932 1525 777 1375 829 1425 881 1476 933 1 526 778 1376 830 1426 882 1477 934 i 5 2 7 779 1377 831 I427 883 1478 935 1528 780 1378 832 1428 884 1479 936 1529 781 1379 833 I429 885 1480 937 1530 782 1380 834 1430 886 1481 938 i 53 i 783 1381 835 1431 887 1482 939 1532 784 1382 836 1432 | 888 1483 940 1533 374 MUHAMMADAN AND CHRISTIAN ERAS. A. H. A.D. 941 1534 942 1535 943 1536 944 1537 945 1538 946 1539 947 1540 948 1541 949 1542 95 ° 1543 95 i 1544 952 1545 953 1546 954 1547 955 1548 956 1549 957 1550 958 1551 959 1551 960 1552 961 1553 962 1554 963 1 555 964 1556 965 1 557 966 1558 967 1559 968 1560 969 1 56 1 970 1562 971 1563 972 1564 973 1565 974 1566 975 1567 976 1568 977 1569 978 i 57 o 979 i 57 i 980 1572 981 1573 982 1574 983 1575 984 1576 985 1577 986 1578 987 1579 988 1580 989 1 581 990 1582 991 1583 992 1584 A. H. A.D. 993 1585 994 1585 995 1586 996 1587 997 1588 998 1589 999 1590 1000 1591 1001 1592 1002 1593 1003 1594 1004 1595 1005 1596 1006 1597 1007 1598 1008 1599 1009 1600 1010 l6oi 101 1 1602 1012 1603 1013 1604 1014 1605 1015 1606 1016 1607 1017 1608 1018 1609 1019 l6lO 1020 l6ll 1021 l6l2 1022 1613 1023 1614 1024 1615 1025 l6l6 1026 1617 1027 1617 1028 l6l8 1029 1619 1030 1620 1031 1621 1032 1622 1033 1623 1034 1624 1035 1625 1036 1626 1037 1627 1038 1628 1039 1629 1040 1630 1041 1631 1042 1632 1043 1633 1044 1634 A. H. A.D. 1045 1635 1046 1636 1047 1637 1048 1638 1049 1639 1050 1640 1051 1641 1052 1642 1053 1643 10^4 1644 1055 1645 1056 1646 1057 1647 1058 1648 1059 1649 1060 1650 1061 1650 1062 1651 1063 1652 1064 1653 1065 1654 1066 1655 1067 1656 1068 1657 1069 1658 1070 1659 1071 1660 1072 1661 1073 1662 1074 1663 1075 1664 1076 1665 1077 1666 1078 1667 1079 1668 1080 1669 1081 1670 1082 1671 1083 1672 1084 1673 1085 1674 1086 1675 1087 1676 1088 1677 1089 1678 1090 1679 1091 1680 1092 1681 1093 1682 1094 1682 1095 1683 1096 1684 A. H. A.D. IO97 1685 IO98 1686 IO99 1687 I IOO 1688 IIOI 1689 1102 1690 IIO3 1691 IIO4 1692 1105 1693 II06 1694 1107 1695 IIO8 1696 IIO9 1697 1 1 IO 1698 I III 1699 1 1 1 2 1700 III3 1701 III 4 1702 III 5 1703 IIl6 1704 I 1 17 1705 1 1 18 1706 1 1 19 1707 1120 1708 II2I 1709 1 122 1710 1123 17 1 1 1124 1712 1 125 1713 1 126 1714 1127 1715 1128 I?I 5 1129 1716 1130 1717 II3I 1718 1132 1719 1133 1720 1134 1721 1135 1722 II36 1723 1137 1724 1138 1725 1139 1726 1 140 1727 I I4I 1728 1 142 1729 1143 1730 II44 1731 1145 1732 1 146 1733 1147 1734 I I48 1735 A. D. 1736 1 737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1748 1749 i75° i75i 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 HAMMADAN AND CHRISTIAN ERAS 375 A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. A. H. A. D. 1193 1779 1237 1821 I 28 l 1864 1194 1780 1238 1822 1282 1 865 1195 1780 1239 1823 1283 1866 1 196 1781 I 24 O 1824 1284 1867 1197 1782 I 24 I 1825 1285 1868 1 198 1783 1242 1826 1286 1869 1199 1784 1243 1827 1287 1870 1200 1785 I 244 1828 1288 1871 1201 1786 1245 1829 1289 1872 1202 1787 1246 1830 I 290 1873 1203 1788 1247 1831 1291 1874 1204 1789 1248 1832 1292 1875 1205 1790 I 249 1 833 I 293 1876 1206 1791 I 250 1834 1294 1877 1207 1792 1251 1835 1295 1878 1208 1793 I2 52 1836 1296 1878 1209 1794 1253 1837 1297 1879 1210 1795 1254 1838 1298 1880 1 21 1 1796 1255 1839 1299 l 88 l 1212 1797 1256 1840 1300 1882 1213 1798 1257 1841 1301 1883 1214 1 799 1258 1842 1302 1884 I2I 5 l 800 1259 1843 1303 1885 1216 1801 1260 1844 1304 1886 1217 1802 1261 1845 1305 1887 1218 1803 1262 1845 1306 1888 1219 1804 1263 1846 1307 1889 1220 1805 1264 1847 1308 1890 1221 1806 1265 1848 1309 1891 1222 1807 1266 1849 1310 1892 1223 1808 1267 1850 I3II 1893 1224 1809 1268 1851 1312 1894 I22 5 1810 1269 1852 1313 1895 1226 181 1 1270 1853 I3H 1896 1227 1812 1271 1854 1315 1897 1228 1813 1272 1855 1316 1898 1229 1813 1273 1856 1317 1899 1230 1814 1274 1857 1318 1900 1231 1:81 5 1275 1858 1319 I 9 OI 1232 1816 1276 1859 1320 1902 1233 1817 12 77 i 860 1321 1903 1234 1818 1278 l 86 l 1322 1904 1235 1819 1279 1862 1323 1905 1236 1820 1280 1863 1324 1906 377 PART II. — — ♦ SECTION PAGE I. — Alexandria, Pompey’s Pillar, the Catacombs, Abukir, Rosetta, &c. ... ... ... ... 379 II. — Alexandria to Cairo ... ... ... ... 394 III. — -Port Sa‘id, Ismahliya, Suez, and the Suez Canal ... ... ... ... ... ... 400 IV. — Port Sa‘id to Suez, via the Suez Canal ... 409 V. — Port Sa‘id to Cairo ... ... ... ... 414 VI. — Cairo ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 j VII. — Cairo to Damietta, via Mansura ... ... 501 VIII. — Cairo to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon ... ... 508 IX. — The Oases ... ... ... 513 X. — Cairo to Mount Sinai ... ... ... ... 523 XI, — The Exodus ... ... ... ... ... 561 cook’s map NILE -DELTA 379 LOWER EGYPT. I. -ALEXANDRIA, POMPEY’S PILLAR, THE CATACOMBS, ABUKIR, ROSETTA, & c. The traveller from Europe or America who wishes to visit Egypt may enter the country either by Alexandria or Port Sa‘id. Formerly the majority of travellers disembarked at Alexandria, for facilities for so doing were greater than at Port Said, the hotels were better, and quick trains to Cairo ran at comparatively frequent intervals. All the great mail steamers called there, and the Indian and Australian mails began their journey to Suez at Alexandria. In recent years it has been found better to disembark the mails at Port Sa‘id, and as travellers usually adopt mail routes, the passengers to Port SaPd have greatly increased, while those to Alexandria have diminished in number, and this notwithstanding the fact that it takes some hours longer to reach Cairo from Port Sa‘id than from Alexandria. At the present time the Suez Canal Company’s steam tramway is being converted into a railway, and when this is done, the time occupied in journeying from Port Sa‘id to Cairo will probably be reduced from 7J to about 5^ hours. Though it is more convenient in many ways to enter Egypt via Port Sa‘id, there is a great deal to be said for the traveller entering Egypt via Alexandria. No one would venture to assert that the attractions of Alexandria, the Ptolemaic capital of Egypt, are equal to those of Cairo, the Arab capital of the country, still the city has an extremely well-defined interest of its own, and if the traveller does not visit it at the beginning of, or early in, his stay in Egypt, he is apt to find that at the end of his visit he has only a couple of hours to devote to it, or he may even be obliged to leave the country without seeing Alexandria at all. One or two days 380 ALEXANDRIA. are sufficient to see what is best worth seeing in Alexandria, and less time is wasted if these are devoted to Alexandrian antiquities at the beginning of a tour in Egypt, than in the middle or at the end. Alexandria, i.e., the city of Alexander, was founded b.c. 332 by Alexander III of Macedon, or Alexander I of Egypt, who is commonly known as Alexander the Great. The site chosen by him was close to the old Egyptian town called Raqetit, ^ , hence the Coptic name Rakoti, and was opposite the Island of Pharos, and was situated between Lake Mareotis and the Mediterranean Sea. Alexander’s object in building a city on this site is clear : he intended it to be easy of access for the Mediterranean merchant ships, and to make it a central seaport of his empire, and there was no other site anywhere in the Delta which was so suitable for the purpose. The city, which was defended by a small guard, was in the form of a soldier’s coat, and had one large and well-built street running almost through the middle of the town. The architect was called Deinocrates, and his plans were carried out by Cleomenes of Naucratis, assisted by Heron, Krateros, Hyponomos, and others. It is said that Alexander made all the people within a distance of 30 miles come and live in the new city, and that he called them “ Alexandrians.” As, however, Alexander only spent about five months in Egypt, he cannot have seen more than the foundations of Alexandria’s walls and houses, and he can never have realized the importance to which his city was to attain. Ptolemy Soter made Alexandria his capital, and did a great deal to develop the city ; he founded the Museum and the famous Alexandrian Library, and he brought numbers of Jews to Alexandria and made them settle in the eastern part of it ; these were followed by others who were tempted “by the goodness of the soil, and by the liberality of Ptolemy,” and the Jewish colony soon became a wealthy and powerful element in the city. Ptolemy introduced into Alexandria the worship of Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and caused to be ascribed to him the attributes of Osiris and Apis, thus Hades became known as Osiris-Apis, or Serapis, and a god was found whom both Greeks and Egyptians could worship with one accord. Ptolemy II appointed first Zenodotus of Ephesus to be Keeper of the Great Library, THE ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. 38 1 which is said to have contained at that time 400,000, or according to some 700,000 volumes, and afterwards Callimachus the poet, who arranged and labelled the papyri. Ptolemy III added largely to the great Library, and procured for it the original MSS. of the works of ^Eschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles ; the keepers in his reign were Aristophanes of Byzantium and Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy after Ptolemy added to the public buildings of Alexandria, and, thanks to the energy and enterprise of both Greeks and Jews, the city became one of the wealthiest in the world, and its inhabitants were renowned for their learning and enlightenment. In b.c. 48 Julius Caesar succeeded in entering the city, but unfortunately, if the tradition be true, the Library and Museum were burnt to the ground. Antony, Caesar’s successor in the affections of Cleopatra, is said to have attempted to make good this loss by presenting to her the Pergamenian Library, which was founded by Eumenes II, King of Pergamus b.c. 197, and was supposed to contain 200,000 MSS. During the Roman Period Alexandria was frequently the scene of terrible bloodshed and murder, and fighting between the Romans and Jews, and the Emperor Caracalla massacred large numbers of Alexandrians, because some of the more ribald of them dared to mock at his appearance and sacred person. Tradition asserts that St. Mark began to preach Christianity in Alexandria about a.d. 69, and the Coptic Church regards him as the first Patriarch of Alexandria ; whether this be so or not matters relatively little, for there is no doubt that there were many Christians in that city at the beginning of the second century. As their numbers grew they became the objects of intense hate, both of Romans and Jews, but their presence was tolerated, and a century later they possessed a church and schools, and learned men directed their lives and religion. Under Decius, Valerianus, Diocletian, Julian the Apostate, and other Emperors the Christians suffered severe persecution, and neither peace nor security was to be enjoyed in the city for about 100 years, /. site of the Egyptian town Temai-en- \ , which the Romans called Hermo- capital of the province of MAAM /v p Damanhfir is the NAUCRATIS, SAIS. 395 Bahera, and is a prosperous place, being an important cotton centre. There is little of interest in the town, and the mosques are not very attractive. West of the railway at about mile 50 is the village of Nebireh, with 1,765 inhabitants, and quite close to it are series of mounds which mark the site of Naucratis, a city in which the Greeks were permitted to settle and trade by the kings of the XXVIth dynasty, who bestowed upon them many privileges. The Egypt Exploration Fund carried on a series of excava- tions at Nebireh in 1884-5, an d the results are described in the Third Me?noir published in 1888. The ruins do not repay the traveller who visits them for his time as it is four miles to and from the railway. At mile 54 is Atiai al-Barud, com- monly called Teh = AUBarud, a village with about 2,300 inhabitants ; there are in the neighbourhood several mounds which probably contain the remains of Ptolemaic or Roman towns, but none appears to have been explored. At mile 64 Kafr Az = zayyat, a town on the east side of the Rosetta arm of the Nile, with nearly 10,000 inhabitants, is reached. The town is prosperous and thriving, but has little interest for those who are not occupied with the study of native character and customs. From Kafr Az-zayyat a journey may be easily made by river to the mounds at Sa al-Hagar, the hieroglyphic inscriptions. They lie on the east side of the Rosetta arm of the Nile, and prove that Sais, the home of the kings of the XXVIth dynasty, must have been a large and a thriving city. The chief deity of Sais was the goddess Net, or Neith, to whom was ascribed ail the powers of a self-produced deity. The city was raised artificially above the level of the surrounding country, and its walls were 100 feet high and 70 feet thick. The kings Amasis and Psammetichus were buried there. The mysteries of Neith, or Isis, were performed on the lake behind the temple of the goddess, who was made to declare, “ I am what hath been, what is, and what will be ; they were, no doubt, a sort of sacred play in which scenes con- nected with the incidents of the death and sufferings of Osiris were represented. The temple of Neith, or Minerva, as the classical writers called her, must have been a wonderful building, and it won the admiration of Herodotus, who appears to have been much impressed with all that he heard about Sais. From Sa al-Hagar by steamer down the arm of the Nile to Rosetta which mark the site of Sais, the Saut, 396 TANTA. is an easy journey, and the traveller may obtain many interesting examples of Delta scenery on the way. About mile 75 we arrive at Tanta, a town which in 1897 had a population of 57,289 souls; it is the capital of the great province of Gharbiya, and is a great commercial, social, and religious centre. From Tanta railways run to Mansura on the north east and to Menuf on the south-west, and to Benha, and in this way the town is easily accessible from all parts. From one point of view it has a holy character, and Muham- madans flock thither from outlying and seaport villages, and from the Western Delta, their object being to pay their vows at the tomb of Sayyid Ahmad al-Badawi, a famous saint who was born at Fez in Morocco in the twelfth century, and who lived for many years at Tanta, and died there. A mosque has been built there in his name, and folk having sicknesses of all kinds come to his tomb for healing. The festivals of this saint are three in number : one is observed in January, one at the end of March, and one in the beginning of August, but the last named is the greatest of all. Each festival begins on a Friday and ends on the next Friday. The inhabitants of Tanta are somewhat fanatical at the best of times, but during the August festival they become much more so, for the whole town is given over to riotous rejoicings of every description, all the ordinary business of life is suspended, and clowns and buffoons of every class fill the main streets and open spaces of the town, and carry the revelry far into each night of the festival. In some quarters the scenes are indescribable. In view of the great interest which has recently been taken in the Tomb of Shekh Sayyid Ahmad al-Badawi the following facts about his life may be useful. Abfi al-‘Abbas Ahmad ibn ‘Ali al-Badawi was descended from Muhammad the Prophet on both his father’s and mother’s side. He was born at Fez in Morocco, whither his parents had emigrated during the time of Al-Haggag, who was slaying the Ashraf, or noble families in Mecca, towards the end of the Xllth century of our era. When he was seven years old his father took him back to Mecca (1206), and the whole family were welcomed by the inhabitants; here he lived until his father died in 1229. He was of so bold and fearless a disposition that he was nick- named Al-Badawi, i.e ., the lf desert man ” and the “ destroyer.” He was deeply versed in the Kur’an, and, after several years of profound study, adopted the life of a saint and became a recluse ; he shunned society of all kinds, avoided conversa- SAYYID AHMAD AL-BADAWI. 397 tion with his fellow-men, and having taken a vow of silence only talked to his friends by means of signals. In 1235 he saw three visions in one night, and in each of them a being appeared and said to him, “ Arise, young man, and get thee to the place of sunrise, and when thou hast reached it, get thee to the place of sunset. And thou shalt go to Tanta, and there shalt thou live.” In obedience to these commands he rose up, and, having told his relatives what he had seen, went to ‘Irak, where he was welcomed by the shekhs. Having visited the tombs of the saints, he set out for Umm Obeda, where there lived a courtesan of great renown and beauty called Fatma bint Bar‘i ; he visited her, and preached to her, and she repented. Ahmad then left for Egypt and went to Tanta, where he took up his abode in the house of Shekh Shuhet. He went up to the roof and lived there, and spent his days and nights in gazing fixedly at the heavens. At length the pupils of his eyes turned from black to a fiery red, and they blazed like fire. It is said that he took neither food nor drink, and slept not for forty days at a time. Subsequently, he left the roof of the house and went to the village of Fisha, where a certain man called ‘Abd al-‘All became his disciple. Ahmad wore two veils, so that his glances, which were said to be death-dealing, might not injure those on whom he looked. One man insisted on seeing his face, and having done so fell sick and died. Ahmad was tall of stature, with thick legs and long arms. His face was large, his eyes black, his nose aquiline, his skin brown ; on his face were three smallpox marks, and on his nose two black spots, one on each side. He wore his turban and clothes until they dropped off him. His fame was great, and on his birthday Muhammadans came to visit him from all parts of the East. He died in 1276,* having nominated Shekh ‘Abd al-All his successor. The Mosque of Ahmad at Tanta is a fine and imposing building, and its courts and halls are of grand dimensions. The tomb of the saint is surrounded by a fine brass railing, with a massive gate, which is thronged with men and women, who, in turn, grasp the handles, and invoke the saint’s help. The men ask his blessing on their business undertakings, and * I owe these facts to Mr. Elias G. Aggane, of Tanta, and to Dr. Murad, of the same town. The former gentleman obtained permission for me to go through the Mosque of the Saint, and showed the interesting objects which are preserved in it. The visit was a most interesting one, and the scenes which we saw in the Courts of the Mosque were extremely instructive. 39$ THE AMERICAN MISSION HOSPITAL. the women pray for children. On the right-hand side of the gate is a large wooden, metal-bound chest, with a slot, through which the visitors to the Mosque drop their offerings. About ^"E. 35,000 are collected yearly in this box, chiefly in small coin, and the widow’s mite (which in this case is one para, i.e., one-fourth of a farthing !) ranks equally with the gold coin of the cotton merchant. On the walls of the tomb-chamber are several beautiful large tiles, with extracts from the Kur‘an on them, and in one corner is a stone with deep hollows impressed in it, which are said to have been caused by the Prophet’s foot. A portion of the hair of the Prophet is treasured in the Mosque. The mimbar , or pulpit, is a fine object. All day long the courts are crowded with pupils and students, who sit in circles on the floor round learned Mullas as they explain the Kur‘an, and take voluminous notes. The teaching here is carried on just as in the great Mosques of Damascus, Baghdad, Kadem, and Kerbela, and the Mosque of Ahmad is undoubtedly the stronghold of uncompromising Muhammadanism in Egypt, and, it may be added, of fanaticism. The students of the Mosque number about 5,000. In the Mosque are also the tombs of ‘Abd al-‘All and his brethren, and the tomb of Shekh Mugahid. The bodies of the dead are sometimes brought into the Mosque to receive Ahmad’s blessing before burial. The American Mission Hospital.— Within spacious grounds, in a fine location to the north of the city, are the new and commodious buildings of the Tanta Hospital. The hospital wards are located in two roomy buildings, along the entire length of which extend wide verandahs shaded from the hot sun by tiled roofs. In another building near these are the kitchens, &c., and the nurses’ quarters. At the front is the administration building, which also contains the residence of the physicians ; and on the ground floor are the rooms where a clinic is daily held, when hundreds receive treatment, a great many of them coming especially for eye diseases. Here also the patients receive religious instruction while waiting for treatment. This institution was opened in 1904, and is unique among the hospitals of Egypt in that it is intended solely for the treatment of women and children. Some hundreds are received annually as in-patients, and thousands are treated at the daily clinics. The physicians are women, assisted by a corps of American and English trained nurses, the Director being Dr. Lawrence, an American lady. The hospital was built with money contributed entirely by women and children KALYUB. 399 in the United States, and from these it receives its support. In addition to the medical and surgical treatment given, an effort is made to instruct the wives and mothers in the principles of cleanliness and hygiene, and in the care and feeding of children. At mile ioi we arrive at the important junction of Ben ha, or more fully Benha al-‘Asal, i.e ., “ Benha of the Honey,” so called because formerly it was famous for iis honey, a pot of which is said to have been sent to Muhammad the Prophet by the Copt Makawkas, who betrayed the fortress of Babylon to the Arabs. Benha is the capital of the province Kalyftb, and had in 1897 a population of 8,462 inhabitants. Close to the town are a number of mounds which mark the site of the ancient city of Athribis. The ancient town was founded by the Egyptians, who called it Het-ta-her-abt, 0 ° ^ i.e., “the temple of the middle land,” or nrz 1 O © the temple in the province between the two great arms of the Nile, and was an important place under the Ptolemies, who enlarged it and set up many splendid buildings in it. In the fourth century of our era it was held by Ammianus Marcellinus to be one of the largest cities in the Delta. In Christian times a beautiful church stood here: it was 250 feet long, it contained 160 pillars, the sculptured sanctuary was ornamented with gold and silver, and in it was a figure of the Virgin inlaid with precious stones, and arrayed in silk, and close by were portraits of Michael, Gabriel, and other saints. The gold and silver lamps burned continually. The chief deity worshipped here by the Egyptians was the goddess Hathor, and the Christians appear to have transferred many of her attributes to the Virgin Mary. At mile 120 is the town of Kalyub, with a population of 1 1,680 inhabitants, the capital of a district. From this town runs the main line to Zakazik, in a north-easterly direction, and a short line, which runs due west, will take the traveller to the Barrages, which were designed and partly built by Mougel Bey, and finished by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff and Sir W. Willcocks. The Barrages are usually reached by train from Cairo to the little station of Al-Menashi, on the western bank of the Nile, or by steamer from Cairo. After Kalyub the railway runs nearly due south, and in a very short time the traveller has passed through the verdant suburbs to the north of the capital, and at mile 130 he enters Cairo. 400 III.— PORT SA ID, ISMA ILiYA, SUEZ, AND THE SUEZ CANAL. Port Sa‘id is a town of very recent growth, and it owes its being entirely to the Suez Canal; in 1897 its population was 42,972, but the number must be far higher now, for in recent years large numbers of houses have been built there, and the inhabitants have increased greatly. Not very many years ago the site on which Port Sa‘id now stands was a spot whereon dwelt a few Arabs, who gained their livelihood as fishermen. When the engineers of the Suez Canal Company commenced operations on this narrow strip of sand there was barely suffi- cient room to erect a few tents and sheds. At first wooden houses, raised on piles, were constructed ; and the dredgings from the harbour and from the channel leading to the mouth of the canal were employed for reclaiming and extending this sandbank. When the site for a port in the Mediterranean, at the entrance to the Suez Canal, had to be selected, it was difficult to find on the flat shore a spot possessing some natural advantages that might prove of use in the construction of a harbour. The reason which finally led the Company’s engineers to select the position which Port Sa‘id now occupies was that the line of deep water was found to be less distant from the shore at that point — 30 feet of water at 2,870 yards — than at any other in the vicinity of that part of the Gulf of Pelusus. The port is formed by two breakwaters or moles ; the western mole is about 2,726 yards long, and the eastern 1,962 yards, and the area which they enclose is triangular, and of about 550 acres. These moles are 26 yards wide at the base, 12 yards high, 6 yards wide on the summit, and the slope of the sides is 1 in 1. Each block weighs 22 tons, and cost about ^17. At the entrance to the port the depth of water is 30 feet, but the uniform depth of water in the harbour is 26 feet. On the west mole is a lighthouse nearly 180 feet high, and the flash of its electric light can be seen on a clear ' NZALEB COOK’S MAP SUEZ CANAL [rMT J*. sa ^i 3 " > *~ ) v ^- u ih * f ip-h~~ ; I LL'5/* »,>»«»«■ 1 J i \ \ /Q i v \ f V..- ,f \ 1 GREAT \ 'UTTER \ ■ ■ raisVi(\JW.k AsHivrtaHL 3Asj~V(^y^t -s-cVS>ai 1 »3L^jft c JB ttft v li tr,« 9 i.sl‘1 vHajAsX' v>aii#K«*sVL va-vuM %vri>it&ML‘\y¥L / friusqsTsS 'fc> <: run 8 ^rvs ;tvjjuroYv T K3 l 51B / a sfTiaj ti\inAm»¥k. ./ iowo'MJarfB * lss<>% . < ’V,U;0| OS. HISTORY OF THE SUEZ CANAL. 401 night at a distance of about 20 miles. Beyond the lighthouse, on the same mole, is a fine statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was born in 1805 and died in 1894, and who is famous as the builder of the Suez Canal. In Port Said there is little to be seen which is not connected with shipping and the Canal, but the coaling operations which are here carried out on a very large scale, however unpleasant to the traveller, are always a source of interest. Loaded barges are brought alongside the vessel which is to be coaled, but before they are made fast gangways are run up, and scores of men, each bearing a basket of coal, immediately begin their work amid shouts and cries and singing. The largest steamer, which may require several hundreds of tons of coal, can be supplied in about two hours, and when the work is carried on at night, the huge fires which illumine the barges produce a peculiarly weird effect. The steam tramway on the west bank of the Canal, which connected Port Said with Ismalliya, has been converted into a railway, and the visitor is now able to journey to Cairo in four and a half hours instead of seven as formerly. The Suez Canal Company are carrying on extensive works at Port Said, and in about five years’ time the harbour will have been increased to more than twice its present size. On the eastern side a large basin is being dredged for the use of colliers and petroleum ships, and the Sherif basin on the western side is being doubled in size and deepened to 30 feet. It is proposed to renew the old eastern breakwater and to continue it towards the western breakwater. The Suez Canal. — A glance at the map of Africa will show that this vast country is attached to Asia by means of a relatively very narrow strip of land, i.e., the Isthmus of Suez, and a closer examination reveals the fact that this strip of land, though consisting chiefly of swamp and sand, has for thousands of years been a serious obstacle to communication by ship between Europe and the East. At the south end of the Isthmus is the Gulf of Suez, and at the north of it rolls the Mediterranean. It is possible that in remote ages th£ sea flowed entirely over the place where the Isthmus now is, but some authorities hesitate to assert this, because the marine fauna of the two seas neither resemble each other, nor are found together. In historic times probably nothing more than a series of salt-water lagoons existed between the two seas, and this must certainly have been the case in the Pharaonic period, otherwise the kings of Egypt would never have felt compelled 2 c 402 HISTORY OF THE SUEZ CANAL. to attempt the great work of constructing a canal. The Egyptians in the reign of Rameses II, b.c. 1330, seem to have contrived to make a canal, about 92^ miles long, which ran from the city of Bubastis to the head of the Gulf of Suez : this canal passed through the Bitter Lakes for a distance of about 27 miles. Some 720 years later, Nekau (Necho), the son of Psammetichus, determined to make a canal to connect the Nile with the Red Sea, and he began the work. Herodotus tells us that he was warned to desist from the undertaking by an oracle which declared that he was only con- structing it for the use of the barbarians. Notwithstanding the threats of famine and disaster which the oracle indulged in, Necho carried on the work until he lost 120,000 Egyptians, when he was compelled to abandon it. The labours of Necho were, however, not in vain, for Darius the Persian made use of them in the construction of his canal, and this channel was maintained and improved by the Ptolemies, and later by the Romans under Trajan. Herodotus says that the canal was sufficiently wide to admit two triremes abreast, and the navi- gation from sea to sea occupied about four days ; Pliny estimated its width at 100 feet, and .Strabo at 100 cubits, i.e., 150 feet, and both writers are probably correct, for the traces of the canal which still exist indicate that its width varied between 100 and 200 feet. Cleopatra, after her defeat at Actium, endeavoured to save the remnant of her fleet by passing it through this canal into the Red Sea, but she failed, owing to the lowness of the Nile at that season. Of the history of the canal during the early centuries of the Christian era we know nothing, but it seems that it must have become blocked, for shortly after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in 640 ‘Amr ibn-al-‘Asi, Muhammad’s general, proposed to make a canal direct from Suez to the Gulf of Pelusium, and to restore the old canal of the Pharaohs. His object was to connect Egypt with Arabia, and to make a route for the transport of grain from one country to the other. ‘Amr’s commander-in-chief opposed the scheme until 649, when the canal was reopened, and it remained in a navigable condition for about 18 years; it was filled up in 767 by a Caliph who was fighting against Mecca and Medina, and who hoped, by stopping the supply of grain, to starve out the populations. Between the ninth and the eighteenth centuries many far-sighted rulers wished either to open up the old canal or to make a new one, but the cost and labour of such an M. FERDINAND DE LESSEPS. 403 undertaking prevented the translation of the wish into work. In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte, having himself found remains of the old Egyptian canal near Suez, at once perceived the importance of water communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and appointed a Commission to inquire into the matter ; and M. Le Pere was directed to prepare a plan for a line of canal across the Isthmus of Suez, which should include the restoration of the old channel. M. Le Pere worked under great difficulties, for the country was so unsettled that on several occasions he and his surveyors had to beat a hasty retreat, under the escort of soldiers, to places of safety. Moreover, by some extraordinary mistake he declared the level of the Red Sea to be 30 feet higher than that of the Mediterranean, and he proposed to overcome the difficulty as to levels by a series of locks. He was so certain of the correctness of his views that he wrote : — “ It is therefore “ certain, after a careful study of the surveys we have made, “ that the Delta is liable to be inundated by the waters of the “ Red Sea, and that the fears entertained by the ancient “ Egyptians of submersion in case a canal were made were “ well grounded in past times, when the Delta, and the bed of “ the Nile itself, were undoubtedly at a lower elevation.” On hearing M. Le Pere’s conclusions, Napoleon, though baffled, did not give up the idea of carrying out the scheme, and, had circumstances permitted, we may well believe that he would have caused the canal to be made. During the early years of the last century many schemes were propounded, all of which assumed the correctness of M. Le Pere’s views as to the difference in the level of the two seas, and among them was one by M. Talbot, who proposed to build a canal from Suez to Cairo, to take it by an aqueduct over the Nile at Cairo, and thence to the Mediterranean at Alexandria. In 1846 M. Bourdaloue, after making a double survey from Suez to Tineh, and from Tineh to Suez, decided that the difference between the levels of the two seas was so slight that, if the canal were made, it would be unnecessary to face the embank- ments, except in places near the Red Sea. In 1849 M. Ferdinand de I.esseps began to study M. Le Pere’s report, and to work out a scheme for a canal across the isthmus, and very soon afterwards he came to the conclusion that it was possible to make one. He possessed influence at Court, and 2 c 2 404 HISTORY OK THE SUEZ CANAL. a close friendship existed between Muhammad ‘Ali and his successors and the family of De Lesseps. In 1854 he brought his plans before Sa‘id Pasha, who supported them warmly and gave him a preliminary concession which authorised him to form a company for the purpose of excavating a canal between the two seas. M. de Lesseps visited England, and found many capitalists ready to help him, but the British Govern- ment under Lord Palmerston looked coldly on the scheme, and even the French Government were not over-pleased with h. When it became evident that the Company would certainly be floated, the British Government, through the British Minister at Constantinople, brought all its influence to bear on the Porte to induce it to veto the making of the canal. As soon as possible M. de Lesseps had a new survey of the route made by Linant Bey and Mougel Bey, which was finished in 1855, an d submitted to an International Commission nominated by the Great Powers of Europe. The Commission declared the scheme to be possible, and M. de Lesseps obtained a second concession, notwithstanding that the Sultan had declined to confirm the previous one which had been submitted to him by the Viceroy. The Suez Canal Company was then finally organised, nearly on the same basis on which it at present stands ; the concession is to last 99 years from the date of the opening of the canal, and the Government to receive 1 5 per cent, annually of the earnings of the Company. In January, 1856, a new clause was inserted in the concession, which provided that four-fifths of the workmen should be Egyptians. This implied that the Egyptian Government was bound to find this proportion of labourers, which at that time amounted to 20,000 fellahin , or peasant farm-labourers. The Porte objected to some of the details connected with the working of the scheme, and so brought everything to a standstill for nearly two years. Finally, the whole matter was submitted for arbitration by the Viceroy of Egypt to the Emperor Napoleon, who in July, 1864, awarded the Company an indemnity of ^3,360,000. Meanwhile M. de Lesseps had many serious difficulties to contend against, and he and his engineers were ordered to leave the country ; and on one occasion, when cholera was raging, all their workmen ran away. When the works were commenced, the engineers were con- fronted with the difficulty of obtaining drinking water. In 1856 the Egyptian Government had agreed to make a fresh- water canal from Ismafiliya to Port Sa‘id, but having experience OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL. 405 of the tactics of high officials, M. de Lesseps soon realised that if it was to be made within any reasonable period his Company must make it. Before the fresh-water canal was constructed, 3,000 camels and donkeys were employed in carrying water from the Nile to the works ; when the Company had made the fresh-water canal, the Egyptian Government in 1863 purchased it for ^400,000. The machinery employed in the making of the Suez Canal cost ^2,400 000 and it is calculated that 96,938,066 cubic yards of mud, sand, etc., were dredged and excavated ; the cost of the coals consumed was ^40,000 per month. Mention has already been made of the difference in level which exists between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, and we may a^o note in passing the action of the tide, which is felt in the southern portion of the canal between Suez and the Bitter Lakes. There is a regular flow and ebb, the flow running in for seven hours, and the ebb running out for five hours. At the Suez entrance the rise at spring tides, unless affected by strong winds, is between 5 feet and 6 feet ; about half way from Suez to the Small Bitter Lake, a distance of 6 miles, it is under 2 feet ; at the north end of the Small Bitter Lake, a few inches only ; while at the south end of the Great Bitter Lake there is scarcely any perceptible tidal influence. Since the filling of Lake Timsah by the waters of the Mediterranean in April, 1867, the level of the Great Bitter Lake has risen 4 inches, and there is a current of from half a mile to a mile per hour always running from Lake Tirmah towards the Mediterranean. The exact distance across the isthmus from Tineh, which marks the site of Pelusium, to Suez is only 70 miles, but the actual distance which the canal traverses from Port Safid to where it enters the Red Sea, a little to the south-east of Suez, is 100 miles. This additional length is amply compensated by the natural advantages gained in the adoption of the present line, and the credit of suggesting this particular route is due to M. Lavallay, who saw how the work would be facilitated, and the moneys economized by making the beds of Lakes Menzaleh, Balah, Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes form parts of the bottom of the new canal. About 60 miles of the canal’s course lies through these lakes. The width of the canal at the Suez end is about 300 yards in the widest part. The average width of the dredged channel is about 90 yards, and the average depth about 28 feet. 406 HISTORY OF THE SUEZ CANAL. The inauguration of the Suez Canal took place on November 16th, 1869, with splendid ceremonies. A benedic- tion of the canal in Arabic was pronounced by the Shekh Apagada of Cairo, and Monsignor Bauer, Archbishop of Alexandria, conducted an impressive service in the presence of the Khedive, the Emperor of Austria, the Empress of the French, and a crowd of notables of every nationality, and pronounced an eloquent encomium on M. de Lesseps, and on the “obscurs illustres” who had fallen in the course of the work. The cost of entertaining the guests and the inaugural fetes is said to have been about ^2,000,000 ; some declare that they cost ^4,000,000, and some name even a higher figure. The Opera House at Cairo cost ^60,000, the palace built at Ismalliya for the occasion ^40,000, and for several weeks hospitality was dispensed lavishly to everyone who asked for it from one end of the canal to the other. At the opening ball 6,000 persons were present, but of these 2,000 were uninvited. The total amount of money received by the Suez Canal Company up to April 30th was ^13,853,866. The original capital was subscribed in 400,000 shares of ^20. In 1868 an additional sum of ^4,000,000 was needed, and 333,333 bonds at were issued; only ^1,143.687 of this amount were subscribed, and the balance of ^2,856,313 was raised in a few days by lottery. In 1871 a loan of ^800,000 was raised, and further loans were raised in 1880 and 1887. Besides the ordinary shares there were 100,000 founders’ shares, which gave their owners the right to participate in the surplus profits under certain conditions. In 1875 Ismail Pasha sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British Govern- ment for ^3,976,582 sterling ; these shares are now worth more than ^25,000,000. The following figures will illustrate the development of traffic on the Suez Canal : — Year. No. of Vessels. Gross Tonnage. Receipts. 1869 10 io ,557 Francs. 54.460 1870 486 654,915 5 ,H 9,327 1871 7 65 1,142,200 1,744,481 8 , 993,732 1872 1,082 16,407,591 i 873 i,i 73 2,085,072 22,897,319 1874 1,264 2,423,672 24,85 9,383 ' TRAFFIC, RECEIPTS, ETC. 407 Year No. of Vessels. Gross Tonnage. Receipts. i 875 i ,494 2,940,708 Francs. 28,886,302 1876 i ,457 3,072,107 29 , 974,998 18 77 1,663 3 , 4 t 8,949 32 , 774,344 1878 B 593 3 , 29 G 535 31,098,229 1879 B 477 3,236,942 29,686,060 1880 2,026 4 , 344 , 5 I 9 39,840,4 87 1881 2,727 5 , 794,491 51,274,352 1882 3 A 98 7,122,125 60,545,882 1883 3,307 8,051,307 65,847,812 1884 3,284 8,319,967 62,378,115 1885 3, 62 4 8,985,411 62,207,439 1886 3,100 8,183,31 3 56 , 527,390 1887 3 A 37 8,430,043 57,862,370 1888 3,440 9 , 437,957 64,832,273 1889 3,425 9,605,745 66,167,579 1890 3,389 9,749,129 66,984,000 1891 4,207 12,217,986 10,866,401 83,422,101 74,452,436 1892 3,559 1893 3 , 34 i io, 753,798 70,667,361 1894 3,352 11,283,854 73,776,827 1895 3,434 11,833,637 78 , 103,717 1896 3,409 12,039,858 79 , 569,994 1897 2,986 11,123,403 72,830,545 1898 3,503 12,962,631 85,294,769 1899 3,607 13,815,991 91,318,772 1900 3 , 44 i 13 , 699,237 90,623,608 1901 3,699 15,163,233 15 , 694,359 100,386,397 1902 3 , 7 o 8 103,720,020 1903 3 , 76 i 16,615,309 103,620,268 1904 4,237 18,661,092 115,818,479 1905 4,116 18,310,442 1 13,866,796 Of the 4,116 vessels which passed through the canal in 1905, 2,484 were British, 600 German, 272 French, 219 Dutch, 139 Austro-Hungarian, 70 Russian, 91 Italian, 26 Spanish. 66 Norwegian, 26 American, 23 Danish, 21 Turkish, 12 Greek, 8 Swedish, 2 Egyptian, 5 Portuguese, 1 Chinese, and 1 Argentinian. Since the introduction of the electric light, ships have passed through the canal bv day and by night. In 1905 the mean duration of passage for all vessels navigating the canal was 18 hours 35 minute's; in T904 it was 18 hours 8 minutes, notwithstanding that the percentage of vessels navigating by night increased from 957 per cent, in 1904 as compared with 96*1 per cent, in 1905. The following 408 TRAFFIC RECEIPTS; ETC. figures illustrate the increase in the number of passengers carried : — Year. Total. Year. Total. 1870 ... 26,758 1888 ... 183,895 1871 48,422 1889 180,592 1872 67,640 1890 i 6 i, 35 2 1873 ... 68,030 1891 194,473 1874 ... 73,597 1892 189,820 1875 ... 84,446 1893 ... 186,498 1876 ... 59 , 6 i 4 1894 ... 166,003 1877 ... 72,821 1895 ... 2 16,940 1878 ... 96,363 1896 308,241 1879 ... 82,144 1897 ... ]9I,224 1880 98,900 1898 2 r 9 , 7 2 9 1881 ... 86,806 1899 ... 221,348 1882 12 1,872 1900 282,203 1883 ... 119,176 1901 2 7 O, 2 2 I 1884 ... 151,916 1902 223,775 1885 ... 205,949 1903 ... 195,232 1886 ... T 7 I , 4 I ° 1904 ... 210,849 1887 ... 182,996 I 1905 ... 252,694 The saving of distance effected by the Suez Canal for a ship sailing from New York, or England, or Marseilles, or St. Petersburg, to the East amounts to 3,600, 4,840, 5,940, and 4,840 nautical miles respectively. The Suez Canal Company’s Steam Tramway from Port Safid to Ismafiliya, which has now been converted into a railway, was 80 kilometres long ; stations were passed at Ras al-‘Esh (kilometre 15), at kilometre 24, at kilometre 34, at Al-Kantara (kilometre 45), at kilometre 55, and at Al-Ferdan (kilometre 65). IV.— PORT SA‘ID TO SUEZ, via THE SUEZ CANAL. On leaving Port Sa‘id the canal at once enters Lake Menzala, through which the channel runs for 29 miles : the waters of the lake are shallow, and the bottom is mud, which has been deposited by the Pelusiac, Tanitic, and Mendesian branches of the Nile, all of which flow through the lake. The banks on each side of the canal were formed of the materials which were dredged up from the bottom. Enormous flocks of water fowl may be seen standing in shallow lagoons at a short distance from the tramway. In the district which is now nearly all covered by Lake Menzala stood the famous city of Tanis, the capital of the Tanitic Nome, which is familiar to all under the name of Zoan {see Numbers xiii, 22) ; the whole district itself is probably that which is called the “Field of Zoan” in Psalm lxxviii, 12, 43. The fields for many miles round were exceedingly fertile, and wheat and vines were grown abundantly. About the eighth or tenth century, through causes which have been explained elsewhere, the sea invaded the district which, until the present day, has remained a shallow marsh. The draining of Lake Menzala has been begun, and in a few years’ time we may hope to see the ground occupied by crops of wheat, etc. At the end of Lake Menzala is AUKantara, i.e., “the Bridge”; the place bears this name because it stands on the narrow strip of land which divides Lake Menzala from Lake Balah, and which may be regarded as a bridge. As a matter of fact the old caravan route between Egypt and Syria passed over this “ bridge.” A little to the north of Al-Kantara are the mounds of Tell Defenna, which mark the site of the city Tahapanes (Jeremiah ii, 16), i.e., the Daphnse of the Greeks. The canal runs for two miles between low sand hills, when it enters Lake Balah, which is eight miles long ; at the end of the lake is Al = Ferdan, and here the canal enters a cutting which extends to Lake Timsah. Four miles south of Al-Ferdan is Al = Gisr, which is the deepest cutting along the whole course ol the canal, for mud and sand had to be 4io CROCODILE LAKE. excavated to a depth of about 70 feet. Three lines of tram- way were laid down, and six engines and 250 wagons were employed in removing the soil ; the work was finished in January, 1868. It was to this point that, during the early stages of the undertaking, the 20,000 fellahin who were supplied by the Government were sent in order to make a narrow channel wherein the dredgers could be floated and utilised. Two years were spent in making this channel, and then the waters of the Mediterranean flowed into the basin of Lake Timsah, which took five months to fill. Most of the excava- tion was done by piece work, and each labourer earned from is. 6d. to 2 s. 6d. per day. The circumference of Lake Timsah is nine miles, and 95,000,000 cubic yards of water were required to fill it. On the north bank of Lake Timsah, /. |l |XV-V^ khen shd en Abtet er A me?itet carry sand of the east to west. thes rer Again =*Y maku - a here am I /WWVA Li M I ka - ten [when] call ye. That is to say, the deceased addresses each figure and says, “O ushabiiu figures, if the Osiris,’ that is, the deceased, “is decreed to do any work whatsoever in the underworld, may all obstacles be cast down in front of him !” The figure answers and says, “ Here am I ready when ye call.” The deceased next says, “ 0 ye figures, be ye ever watchful to work, to plough and sow the fields, to water the canals, and to carry sand from the east to the west. The figure replies, “ Here am I when ye call.” Amulets. — 1. The Buckle or Tie, ||, usually made of some red stone, the colour of which was intended to represent the blood of Isis ; it was placed on the neck of the mummy which it was supposed to protect. It was often inscribed with the CLYIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. 2 . The Tet, jj|, which had sometimes plumes, disk, and horns, ^ , attached to it, was also placed on the neck of the mummy, and was often inscribed with the CLVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 435 3. The Vulture, was placed upon the neck of the mummy on the day of the funeral, and brought with it the protection of the “mother” Isis. 4. The Collar, was placed upon the neck of the mummy on the day of the funeral. 5. The Papyrus Sceptre, was placed upon the neck of the mummy, and typified the green youth which it was hoped the deceased would enjoy in the nether world. 6. The Pillow, usually made of haematite, was generally inscribed with the CLXVIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead 7. The Heart, O. represented the “soul of Khepera.” 8. The Ankh, ^*, represented “ Life.” 9. The Utchat, or Symbolic Eye, typified “ good health and happiness,” and was a very popular form of amulet in Egypt. 10. The Nefer, J, represented “good-luck.” 11. The Sma, represented “union.” 12. The Menat, (t^f, represented “virility.” 13. The Neha, [p 3 , represented “ protection.” 14. The Serpent’s Head, f) , was placed in mummies to prevent their being devoured by worms. 15. The Frog, represented “ fertility ” and “abund- ance.” 16. The Stairs, , were the symbol of ascending to heaven. 17. The Fingers, index and medius, found inside mum- mies, represented the two fingers which the god Horus stretched out to help the deceased up the ladder to heaven. 2 e 2 43 6 SCARABS. Scarabs. — Scarab or Scarabaeus (from the Greek aicapapos) is the name given by Egyptologists to the myriads of models of a certain beetle, which are found in mummies and tombs and in the ruins of temples and other buildings in Egypt, and in other countries the inhabitants of which, from a remote period, had intercourse with the Egyptians. M. Latreille considered the species which he named Ateuchus Aegyptiorum , or yXioxavOapo ?, and which is of a fine greenish colour, as that which especially engaged the attention of the early Egyptians, and Dr. Clarke affirmed that it was eaten by the women of Egypt because it was considered to be an emblem of fertility. In these insects a remarkable peculiarity exists in the structure and situation of the hind legs, which are placed so near the extremity of the body, and so far from each other as to give them a most extraordinary appearance when walking. This peculiar formation is, nevertheless, particularly serviceable to its possessors in rolling the balls of excrementitious matter in which they enclose their eggs. These balls are at first irregu- larly shaped and soft, but by degrees, and during the process of rolling along, become rounded and harder ; they are propelled by means of the hind legs. Sometimes these balls are an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, and in rolling them along the beetles stand almost upon their heads, with the heads turned from the balls. They do this in order to bury their balls in holes which they have already dug for them, and it is upon the dung just deposited that the larvae when hatched feed. Horapollo thought that the beetle was self-produced, but he made this mistake on account of the females being exceedingly like the males, and because both sexes appear to divide the care of the preservation of their offspring equally between them. The Egyptians called both the scarabaeus Khepera (j i , and the god represented by this insect also Khepera The god Khepera was supposed to be the “ father of the gods,” and the creator of all things in heaven and earth ; he made himself out of matter which he himself had made. He was identified with the rising sun and thus typified resurrection. The verb Kheper ^ D ) , which is usually translated “ to exist, to become,” also means “ to roll,” SCARABS. 437 and “ roller,” or “revolver,” was a fitting name for the sun. In a hieratic papyrus in the British Museum (No. io, 188), the god Khepera is identified with the god Neb-er-tcher, who, in describing the creation of gods, men, animals, and things, says : — “ I am he who evolved himself under the form of the “ god Khepera. I, the evolver of evolutions, evolved myself, “ the evolver of all evolutions, after a multitude of evolutions " and developments* which came forth from my mouth (or at “ my command). There was no heaven, there was no earth, “ animals which move upon the earth and reptiles existed not “ at all in that place. I constructed their forms out of the 11 inert mass of watery matter, I found no place there where “ I could stand. By the strength which was in my will “ I laid the foundation [of things] in the form of the god “ Shu and I created for them every attribute which they “ have. I alone existed, for I had not as yet made Shu to “ emanate from me, and I had not ejected the spittle which “became the god Tefnut; there existed none other to work “ with me. By my own will I laid the foundations of all things, “ and the evolutions of the things, and the evolutions which “ took place from the evolutions of their births which took “ place through the evolutions of their offspring, became “ multipled. My shadow was united with me, and I pro- “ duced Shu and Tefnut from the emanations of my body, “ thus from being one god I became three gods “ I gathered together my members and wept over “ them, and men and women sprang into existence from the “ tears which fell from my eye.” Scarabs may be divided into three classes : — i. Funereal scarabs ; 2. Scarabs worn for ornament ; 3. Historical scarabs. Of funereal scarabs the greater number found measure from half an inch to two inches, and are made of steatite glazed green, * The duplicate copy of this chapter reads, OBELISK AT HELIOPOLIS. baiu Annu meri dnkh tchetta ankh mestu Hern- nub tieter nefer Rd- kheper- ka hru tep Set madt dri- f ta dnkh of the spirits of Annu (Heliopolis) beloved, living for ever. The Golden Horus, the one born of life, the beautiful god, ^Kheper-ka-RaJ . On the first day of the Set Festival true At Si he made [this obelisk], the giver of life for ever. tchetta THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZA. 477 ii. The Pyramids of Giza. The Arabs call the pyramids of Giza “ Al-Ahram,”* which seems to mean something like “old ruined buildings.” The pyramids of the Sudan are called by the natives “TARABiL,”f the exact meaning of which is unknown. The ancient Egyptian word for "pyramid” appears to have been Per-em-us with a sloping side.” On the western bank of the Nile, from Abu Roash on the north to Medum on the south, is a slightly elevated tract of land, about 25 miles long, on the edge of the Libyan desert, on which stand the pyramids of Abu Roash, Giza, Zawyet el- ‘Aryan, Abusir, Sakkara, Lisht, and Dahshur. Other places in Egypt where pyramids are found are El-lahfin in the Fayyfim, Hawara, and Kulla near Esna. The pyramids built by the Nubians or Ethiopians at Kurrh, Zuma, Tankasi, Gebel Barkal, Nuri, and Bagrawiya (Meroe), are of various dates and are mere copies, in respect of form only, of the pyramids in Egypt. The pyramids were tombs and nothing else. There is no evidence whatever to show that they were built for purposes of astronomical observations, and the theory that the Great Pyramid was built to serve as a standard of measurement though ingenious is worthless. The significant fact, so ably pointed out by Mariette, that pyramids are only found in cemeteries, is an answer to all such theories. The ancient writers who have described and treated of the pyramids are given by Pliny (. Natural History, xxxvi, 12, 17). If we may believe some of the writers on them during the Middle Ages, their outsides must have been covered with inscriptions ; which were, probably, of a religious nature. In modern times they have been examined by Shaw (1721), Pococke (1743), Niebuhr (1761), Davison (1763), Bruce (1768), Denon and Jomard (1799), Hamilton (1801), Caviglia (1817), Belzoni (1817), Wilkinson (1831), Howard Vyse and Perring (1837-38), Lepsius (1842-45), and Petrie (1881). probably meant, “a building 478 THE PYRAMIDS OF GlZA. It appears that before the actual building of a pyramid was begun a suitable rocky site was chosen and cleared, a mass of rock if possible being left in the middle of the area to form the core of the building. The chambers and the galleries leading to them were next planned and excavated. Around the core a truncated pyramid building was made, the angles of which were filled up with blocks of stone. Layer after layer of stone was then built around the work, which grew larger and larger until it was finished. Dr. Lepsius thought that when a king ascended the throne, he built for himself a small but complete tomb-pyramid, and that a fresh coating of stone was built around it every year that he reigned ; and that when he died the sides of the pyramids were like long flights of steps, which his successor filled up with right-angled triangular blocks of stone. The door of the pyramid was walled up after the body of its builder had been laid in it, and thus remained a finished tomb. Another explanation of the method employed in the building of pyramids was put forward by Professor Petrie, but recent researches have proved that Lepsius’s view is the correct one. During the investigations made by Lepsius in and about the pyramid area, he found the remains of about 75 pyramids, and noticed that they were always built in groups. The pyramids of Giza were opened by the Persians during the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ; it is probable that they were also entered by the Romans. The Khalifa Mamtin (a.d. 813-833) entered the Great Pyramid, and found that others had been there before him. The treasure which is said to have been discovered there by him is probably fictitious. Once opened, it must have been evident to every one what splendid quarries the pyramids formed, and for some hundreds of years after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs they were laid under contribution for stone to build mosques, etc., in Cairo. Late in the twelfth century Malik al-Kamil made a mad attempt to destroy the third pyramid at Giza, built by Mycerinus; but after months of toil he only succeeded in stripping off the covering from one of the sides. Muhammad ‘All ordered the Barrage to be built with stones from the Great Pyramid, and was only persuaded to give up the plan because it was cheaper to get stone from the quarries.* * The outer casings and inscriptions of the Pyramids have been recently discussed by Mr. A. E. Hudd, in the Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club (Exetet, 1906). THE GREAT PYRAMID. 479 The Great Pyramid, the largest of the three pyramids at second king of the IVth dynasty, b.c. 3733, who called it upon the blocks of stone inside it. All four sides measure in greatest length about 775 feet each, but the length of each was originally about 20 feet more; its height now is 451 feet, but it is said to have been originally about 481 feet. The stone used in the construction of this pyramid was brought from Tura and Mukattam, and the contents amount to 85,000,000 cubic feet. The flat space at the top of the pyramid is about 30 feet square, and the view from it is very fine. The entrance (a) to this pyramid is, as with all pyramids, on the north side, and is about 45 feet above the ground. The passage a b c is 320 feet long, 3^ feet high, and 4 feet wide ; at b is a granite door, round which the path at d has been made. The passage at d e is 125 feet long, and the large hall, e f, is 155 feet long and 28 feet high; the passage e g leads to the pointed-roofed Queen’s Chamber, h, which measures about 17 feet by 19 feet by 20 feet. The roofing in of this chamber is a beautiful piece of mason’s work. From the large hall, e f, there leads a passage 22 feet long, the ante-chamber in which was originally closed by four granite doors, remains of which are still visible, into the King’s Chamber, j, which is lined with granite, and measures about 35 feet by 17 feet by T9 feet. The five hollow chambers, k, l, m, n, o, were built above the King’s Chamber to lighten the pressure of the superincumbent mass. In chamber o the name Khufu was found written. The air shafts, p and Q, measure 234 feet by 8 inches by 6 inches, and 174 feet by 8 inches by 6 inches respectively. A shaft from e to r leads down to the subter- ranean chamber s, which measures 40 feet by 27 feet by 10J feet. The floor of the King’s Chamber, j, is about 140 feet from the level of the base of the pyramid, and the chamber is a little to the south-east of the line drawn from t to u. Inside the chamber lies the empty, coverless, broken, red granite sarcophagus of Cheops, measuring 7J feet by 3^ feet by 31 f eet. The account of the building of this pyramid is told by Herodotus (Book ii, 124-126) as follows : — “ Now, they told Giza, was ^ A Khut. His name was found written in red ink 480 THE GREAT PYRAMID. “ me, that to the reign of Rhampsinitus there was a perfect “ distribution of justice, and that all Egypt was in a high state of “ prosperity ; but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over “ them, plunged into every kind of wickedness. For that, “ having shut up all the temples, he first of all forbade them “ to offer sacrifice, and afterwards he ordered all the Egyptians SECOND PYRAMID AT GIZA. 481 “ to work for himself ; some, accordingly, were appointed to “ draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain down “ to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones when trans- “ ported in vessels across the river, and to drag them to the “ mountain called the Libyan. And they worked to the number “ of 100,000 men at a time, each party during three months. “ The time during which the people were thus harassed by toil “lasted 10 years on the road which they constructed, along “ which they drew the stones, a work, in my opinion, not much “ less than the pyramid ; for its length is 5 stades (3,051 feet), “ and its width 10 orgyae (60 feet), and its height, where it is the “ highest, 8 orgyae (48 feet) ; and it is of polished stone, with “ figures carved on it : on this road these 10 years were expended, “ and in forming the subterraneous apartments on the hill, on “ which the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial “ vault for himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from “ the Nile. Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid “ itself : of this, which is square, each face is 8 plethra (820 feet), “ and the height is the same ; it is composed of polished stones, “ and jointed with the greatest exactness ; none of the stones are “ less than 30 feet. This pyramid was built thus ; in the form of “ steps, which some call crossae, others bomides. When they “ had first built it in this manner, they raised the remaining “ stones by machines made of short pieces of wood : having “ lifted them from the ground to the first range of steps, when “ the stone arrived there, it was put on another machine that “ stood ready on the first range, and from this it was drawn to “ the second range on another machine, for the machines were “ equal in number to the ranges of steps, or they removed the “ machine, which was only one, and portable, to each range in “ succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone higher, for “ I should relate it in both ways, as it is related. The highest “ parts of it, therefore, were first finished, and afterwards they “ completed the parts next following, but last of all they finished “ the parts on the ground and that were lowest. “ On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian “ characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and “ garlic for the workmen ; which the interpreter, as I well “ remember, reading the inscription, told me amounted to 1,600 “ talents of silver. And if this be really the case, how much “ more was probably expended in iron tools, in bread, and in “ clothes for the labourers, since they occupied in building the “ works the time which I mentioned, and no short time besides, 2 H 482 SECOND PYRAMID AT GIZA. “ as I think, in cutting and drawing the stones, and in forming “ the subterraneous excavation. [It is related] that Cheops “ reached such a degree of infamy, that being in want of money, “ he prostituted his own daughter in a brothel, and ordered her “ to extort, they did not say how much ; but she exacted a “ certain sum of money, privately, as much as her father “ ordered her ; and contrived to leave a monument of herself, u and asked every one that came in to her to give her a stone “ towards the edifice she designed : of these stones they said “ the pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three. “ before the great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron “ and a half in length.” (Cary’s translation.) The second pyramid at Giza was built by Kha=f=Ra, (s^_o]|,or Chephren, the third king of the IVth dynasty, b.c. 3666, who called it A; ur - His name has not been found inscribed upon any part of it, but the fragment of a marble sphere inscribed with the name of Kha-f-Ra, which was found near the temple, close by this pyramid, confirms the statements of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, that Chephren built it. A statue of this king, now in the Cairo Museum, was found in the granite temple close by. This pyramid appears to be larger than the Great Pyramid, because it stands upon a higher level of stone foundation ; it was cased with stone originally and polished, but the greater part of the outer casing has disappeared. An ascent of this pyramid can only be made with difficulty. It was first explored in 1816 by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823), the discoverer of the tomb of Seti I and of the temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel. In the north side of the pyramid are two openings, one at the base and one about 50 feet above it. The upper opening led into a corridor 105 feet long, which descends into a chamber 46 \ feet by 167L feet by 22 \ feet, which held the granite sarcophagus in which Chephren was buried. The lower opening leads into a corridor about 100 feet long, which, first descending and then ascending, ends in the chamber mentioned above, which is usually called Belzoni’s Chamber. The actual height is about 450 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 700 feet. The rock upon which the pyramid stands has been scarped on the north and west sides to make the foundation level. The history of the building of the pyramid is thus stated THIRD PYRAMID AT GfZA. 483 by Herodotus (Book ii, 127): — “The Egyptians say that “ this Cheops reigned 50 years ; and when he died his brother “ Chephren succeeded to the kingdom ; and he followed the “ same practices as the other, both in other respects and in “ building a pyramid ; which does not come up to the dimen- “ sions of his brother’s, for I myself measured them ; nor has “ it subterraneous chambers ; nor does a channel from the “ Nile flow to it, as to the other; but this flows through an “ artificial aqueduct round an island within, in which they say “ the body of Cheops is laid. Having laid the first course of “ variegated Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by “ 40 feet, he built it near the large pyramid. They both stand “ on the same hill, which is about 100 feet high. Chephren, “ they said, reigned 56 years. Thus 106 years are reckoned, “ during which the Egyptians suffered all kinds of calamities, “ and for this length of time the temples were closed and never “ opened. From the hatred they bear them, the Egyptians are “ not very willing to mention their names ; but call the “ pyramids after Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept “ his cattle in those parts.” (Cary’s translation.) The third pyramid at Giza was built by Men = kau = Pa, ~j|, the fourth king of the IVth dynasty, about b.c. 3633, who called it < ^ > /\ , Her. Herodotus and other ancient authors tell us that Men-kau-Ra, or Mycerinus, was buried in this pyramid, but Manetho states that Nitocris, a queen of the Vlth dynasty, was the builder. There can be, however, but little doubt that it was built by Mycerinus, for the sarcophagus and the remains of the inscribed coffin of this king were found in one of its chambers by Howard Vyse in 1837. The sarcophagus, which measured 8 feet by 3 feet by 2^ feet, was lost through the wreck of the ship in which it was sent to England, but the venerable fragments of the coffin are preserved in the British Museum, and form one of the most valuable objects in the famous collection of that institution. The inscription reads : “ Osiris, king of the North and South, “ Men-kau-Ra, living for ever ! The heavens have produced “ thee, thou wast engendered by Nut (the sky), thou art the “ offspring of Seb (the earth). Thy mother Nut spreads “ herself over thee in her form as a divine mystery. She has “ granted thee to be a god, thou shalt nevermore have enemies, “ O king of the North and South, Men-kau-Ra, living for 2 h 2 484 THIRD PYRAMID AT GtZA. Section of the Pyramid of Mycerinus at Giza. THIRD PYRAMID AT GIZA. 48s “ ever.” This formula is one which is found upon coffins down to the latest period, but as the date of Mycerinus is known, it is possible to draw some interesting and valuable conclusions from the fact that it is found upon his coffin. It proves that as far back as 3,600 years before Christ the Egyptian religion was established on a firm base, and that the doctrine of immortality was already deeply rooted in the human mind. The art of preserving the human body by embalming was also well under- stood and generally practised at that early date. The pyramid of Men-kau-Ra, like that of Chephren, is built upon a rock with a sloping surface ; the inequality of the surface in this case has been made level by building up courses of large blocks of stones. Around the lower part the remains of the old granite covering are visible to a depth of from 30 feet to 40 feet. It is unfortunate that this pyramid has been so much damaged ; its injuries, however, enable the visitor to see exactly how it was built, and it may be concluded that the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren were built in the same manner. The length of each side at the base is about 350 feet, and its height is variously given as 210 feet and 215 feet. The entrance is on the north side, about 13 feet above the ground, and a descending corridor about 104 feet long, passing through an ante-chamber, having a series of three granite doors, leads into one chamber about 40 feet long, and a second chamber about 44 feet long. In this last chamber is a shaft which leads down to the granite-lined chamber about 20 feet below, in which were found the sarcophagus and wooden coffin of Mycerinus, and the remains of a human body. It is thought that, in spite of the body of Mycerinus being buried in this pyramid, it was left unfinished at the death of this king, and that a succeeding ruler of Egypt finished the pyramid and made a second chamber to hold his or her body. At a short distance to the east of this pyramid are the ruins of a temple which was probably used in connec- tion with the rites performed in honour of the dead king. In a.d. 1196 a deliberate and systematic attempt was made to destroy this pyramid by the command of the Muhammadan ruler of Egypt. The account of the character of Mycerinus and of his pyramid as given by Herodotus is as follows: ‘‘They said “ that after him, Mycerinus,* son of Cheops, reigned over Book ii, 129, 134, 486 THE SPHINX. “ Egypt; that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him ; “ and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people, “ who were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their “ employments, and to sacrifices ; and that he made the most “ just decisions of all their kings. On this account, of all the “ kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praise him most, for “ he both judged well in other respects, and, moreover, when “ any man complained of his decision, he used to make him “ some present out of his own treasury and pacify his anger. “ . . . This king also left a pyramid much less than that of “ his father, being on each side 20 feet short of three plethra ; “ it is quadrangular, and built half-way up of Ethiopian stone. “ Some of the Grecians erroneously say that this pyramid is “ the work of the courtesan Rhodopis ; but they evidently “ appear to me ignorant who Rhodopis was ; for they would “ not else have attributed to her the building of such a pyramid, “ on which, so to speak, numberless thousands of talents were “ expended ; besides, Rhodopis flourished in the reign of “ Amasis, and not at this time ; for she was very many years “ later than those kings who left these pyramids.” (Cary’s translation.) In one of the three small pyramids near that of Mycerinus the name of this king is painted on the ceiling. The age of the Sphinx is unknown, and few of the facts connected with its history have come down to these days. Some years ago it was generally believed to have been made during the rule of the kings of the Middle Empire over Egypt, but when the stele which recorded the repairs made in the Temple of the Sphinx by Thothmes IV, b.c. 1533, came to light, it became certain that it was the work of a far older period. The stele records that one day during an after dinner sleep, Harmachis appeared to Thothmes IV, and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. At the end of the inscription part of the name of Kha-f-Ra or Chephren appears, and hence some have thought that this king was the maker of the Sphinx ; as the statue of Chephren was subsequently found in the temple close by, this theory was generally adopted, but an inscription found by Mariette near one of the pyramids to the east of the pyramid of Cheops shows that the Sphinx existed in the time of Khufu or Cheops. The Egyptians called the Sphinx hu, \ and he represented the god Harmachis, i.e , 3 Heru- THE SPHINX. 487 em-khut , rOi , “ Horus in the horizon,” or the rising sun, the conqueror of darkness, the god of the morning. On the tablet erected by Thothmes IV, Harmachis says that he gave life and dominion to Thothmes III, and he promises to give the same good gifts to his successor, Thothmes IV. The discovery of the steps which led up to the Sphinx, of a smaller Sphinx, and of an open temple, etc., was made by Caviglia, who first excavated this monument ; within the last few years very extensive excavations have been made round it by the Egyptian Government, and several hitherto unseen parts of it have been brought to view. The Sphinx is hewn out of the living rock, but pieces of stone have been added where necessary ; the body is about 150 feet long, the paws are 50 feet long, the head is 30 feet long, the face is 14 feet wide, and from the top of the head to the base of the monument the distance is about 70 feet. Originally there probably were ornaments on the head, the whole of which was covered with a limestone covering, and the face was coloured red ; of these decorations scarcely any traces now remain, though they were visible towards the end of the last century. The condition in which the monument now appears is due to the savage destruction of its features by the Muhammadan rulers of Egypt, some of whom caused it to be used for a target. Around this imposing relic of antiquity, whose origin is wrapped in mystery, a number of legends and superstitions have clustered in all ages; but Egyptology has shown (1) that it was a colossal image of Ra-Harmachis, and therefore of his human representative upon earth, the king of Egypt who had it hewn, and (2) that it was in existence in the time of, and was probably repaired by, Gheops and Chephren, who lived about 3700 b.c. In 1905 Mr. L. Dow Covington proposed to clear the Sphinx and to excavate the temple at a cost of ^E.4,000. At a meeting held at the Egyptian Institute in Cairo on Friday, May 1 2th, a Committee of three was appointed to make the plans necessary for the carrying out of the work. A little to the south-east of the Sphinx stands the large granite and limestone temple excavated by M. Mariette in 1853 ; it was probably dedicated to the god Seker, but is commonly known as the Temple of the Sphinx. Statues of Chephren (now in Cairo) were found at the bottom of a well or pit in one of its chambers, and hence it has been generally supposed 488 PYRAMIDS OF ABUSIR. that he was the builder of it. It is a good specimen of the solid simple buildings which the Egyptians built during the Ancient Empire. In one chamber, and at the end of the passage leading from it, are hewn in the wall niches which were probably intended to hold mummies. The Tomb of Numbers was made for Kha-f-Ra-ankh, a “ royal relative ” and priest of Chephren (Kha-f-Ra), the builder of the second pyramid. It is called the “tomb of numbers,” because the numbers of the cattle possessed by Kha-f-Ra-ankh are written upon its walls. CampbelPs Tomb, named after the British Consul-General of Egypt at that time, was excavated by Howard Vyse in 1837 ; it is not older than the XXVlth dynasty. The shaft is about 5 5 feet deep ; at the bottom of it is a small chamber, and near it are niches in which were found four sarcophagi. The pyramids of Giza are surrounded by a large number of tombs of high officials and others connected with the services carried on in honour of the kings who built the pyramids. Some few of them are of considerable interest, and as they are perishing little by little, it is advisable to see as many of the best specimens as possible. The Pyramids of Abu Roash lie about six miles north of the Pyramids of Giza, and are thought to be older than they. Nothing remains of one except five or six courses of stone, which show that the length of each side at the base was about 350 feet, and a passage about 160 feet long leading down to a subterranean chamber about 43 feet long. A pile of stones close by marks the site of another pyramid ; the others have disappeared. Of the age of those pyramids nothing certain is known. The remains of a causeway about a mile long leading to them are still visible. The Pyramids of Abusir lie about eight miles to the south of the Pyramids of Giza. These pyramids were originally 14 in number, and the largest of them were built by kings of the Vth dynasty. On the way thither the ruins of Riga are passed. The investigations made here in 1898-1901 by Dr. Borchardt and Dr. Schaefer proved that the ruins were not those of a pyramid, but of a temple dedicated to the worship of the Sun-god, whose emblem was an obelisk. The builder was Usr=en = Ra f 0 \ /WWW S3’ a king of the Vth dynasty. The most northerly of the Pyramids of Abusir was built SAKKARA. 489 by Sahu=Ra the second king of the Vth dynasty, about b.c. 3533 ; its actual height is about 120 feet, and the length of each side at the base is about 220 feet. The pyramid next this was built by Usr = en = Ra, whose name as the son of Ra was An The largest pyramid of all was built by Nefer = ka = ari = Ra, son of Ra, Kakaa, O J ^ U bJ l| J ; its height is about 160 feet. The ruins near are those of the Mastaba of Ptah-shepses, who flourished under the IVth dynasty. 12. The Necropolis of Sakkara, Pyramids of Dahshur, etc. The ruins of Memphis and the antiquities at Sakkara are usually reached by steamer or train from Cairo to Badrashen, a village with 5,584 inhabitants, which lies about 14 miles south of Cairo. Leaving the river or station the village of Badrashen is soon reached, and a short ride next brings the traveller to the village of Mit-Rahina. On the ground lying for some distance round about these two villages once stood the city of Memphis, though there is comparatively little left to show its limits. According to Herodotus (ii, 99), “ Menes, “ who first ruled over Egypt, in the first place protected “ Memphis by a mound ; for the whole river formerly ran close “ to the sandy mountain on the side of Libya ; belt Menes, “ beginning about a hundred stades above Memphis, filled in “ the elbow towards the south, dried up the old channel, and “ conducted the river into a canal, so as to make it flow “ between the mountains : this bend of the Nile, which flows “ excluded from its ancient course , is still carefully upheld by “ the Persians, being made secure every year; for if the river “ should break through and overflow in this part, there would “ be danger lest all Memphis should be flooded. When the “ part cut off had been made firm land by this Menes, w r ho “ was first king, he in the first place built on it the city that is “ now called Memphis ; for Memphis is situate in the narrow 490 STATUES OF RAMESES II. “ part of Egypt ; and outside of it he excavated a lake from “ the river towards the north and the west ; for the Nile itself “ bounds it towards the east. In the next place, they relate “ that he built in it the temple of Vulcan, which is vast and “ well worthy of mention.” (Cary’s translation.) Whether Menes built the town or not, it is quite certain that the city of Memphis was of most ancient foundation. The reason why the kings of Egypt established their capital there is obvious. From the peoples that lived on the western bank of the river they had little to fear, but on the eastern side they were always subject to invasions of the peoples who lived in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia ; with their capital on the western bank, and the broad Nile as a barrier on the east of it, they were comparatively safe. Added to this, its situation at the beginning of the Delta enabled it to participate easily of the good things of that rich country. The tract of land upon which Memphis stood was also fertile and well wooded. Diodorus speaks of its green meadows, intersected with canals, and of their pavement of lotus flowers; Pliny talks of trees there of such girth that three men with extended arms could not span them ; Martial praises the roses brought from thence to Rome ; and its wine was celebrated in lands remote from it. The site chosen was excellent, for in addition to its natural advantages it was not far from the sea-coast of the Delta, and holding as it were a middle position in Egypt, its kings were able to hold and rule the country from Philse on the south to the Mediterranean on the north. In the inscriptions it is called “the beautiful dwelling,” “the temple of the double of Ptah,” and “the white-walled city.” The last name calls to mind the “ White Castle ” spoken of by classical writers. Teta, son of Menes, built his palace there, and Ka-Kau , the second king of the Ilnd dynasty, b.c. 4100, established the worship of Apis there. During the rule of the Illrd, IVth, and Vlth dynasties, the kings of which sprang from Memphis, that city reached a height of splendour which was probably never excelled. The most celebrated building there was the temple of Ptah, which was beautified and adorned by a number of kings, the last of whom reigned during the XXVIth dynasty. The Hyksos ravaged, but did not destroy the city ; under the rule of the Theban kings, who expelled the Hyksos, the city flourished for a time, although Thebes became LJ ^=5) J COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMESES II. 49 1 the new capital. When Rameses II returned from his wars in the east, he set up a statue of himself in front of the temple of Ptah there ; Piankhi the Ethiopian besieged it ; the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal captured it ; Cambyses the Persian, having wrought great damage there, killed the magis- trates of the city and the priests of the temple of Apis, and smote the Apis bull so that he died ; he established a Persian garrison there. After the founding of Alexandria, Memphis lost whatever glory it then possessed, and became merely the chief provincial city of Egypt. During the reign of Theodosius, a savage attack, the result of his edict, was made upon its temples and buildings by the Christians, and. a few hundred years later the Muhammadans carried the stones, which once formed them, across the river to serve as building materials for their houses and mosques. The circuit of the ancient city, according to Diodorus, was 150 stadia, or about 13 miles. The Colossal Statue of Rameses II. — This magnificent statue was discovered by Messrs. Caviglia and Sloane in 1820, and was presented by them to the British Museum. On account of its weight and the lack of public interest in such matters, it lay near the road leading from Badrashen to Mit- Rahina, and little by little became nearly covered with the annual deposit of Nile mud ; during the inundation the greater part of it was covered by the waters of the Nile. During the winter of 1886-87 Sir Frederick Stephenson collected a sum of money in Cairo for the purpose of lifting it out of the hollow in which it lay, and the difficult engineering part of the task was ably accomplished by Colonel Arthur Bagnold, R.E. This statue is made of a fine hard limestone, and measures about 42 feet in height ; it is probably one of the statues which stood in front of the temple of Ptah, mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus. The prenomen of Rameses II Ra-usr-maat-setep-en-Ra, is inscribed on the belt of the statue, and on the end of the roll which the king carries in his hand are the words “ Rameses, beloved of Amen.” By the side of the king are figures of a daughter and son of Rameses. The famous temple of Ptah founded by Menes was situated to the south of the statue. A portion of another colossal statue lies comparatively near it. Sakkara. — The name Sakkara probably represents in sound the name of the Egyptian god Seker who was con- 49 2 THE PYRAMID OF UNAS. nected with the resurrection of the dead. The tract of land at Sakkara which formed the great burial ground of the ancient Egyptians of all periods is about 4J miles long and one mile wide ; the most important antiquities there are : (1) The Step Pyramid; (2) The Pyramid of Unas; (3) The Pyramid of Teta ; (4) The Pyramid of Pepi I ; (5) The Serapeum ; (6) The Tomb of Thi ; (7) Mariette’s house ; (8) Tomb of Ptah-hetep ; (9) Tomb of Kaqemna; etc. 1. The Step Pyramid was built by the third king of the Illrd dynasty (called Tcheser in the Tablet of Abydos), who is said to have built a pyramid at Kochome (i.e., Ka-Kam) near Sakkara. Though the date of this pyramid is not known accurately, we are undoubtedly right in asserting that it is older than the pyramids of Giza. The door which led into the pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of the stelae in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31, and 29^ feet in height : the width of each step is from 6 to 7 feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south, 352 feet; east and west, 396 feet; and the actual height is 197 feet. In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly face the cardinal points. The arrangement of the chambers inside this pyramid is quite peculiar to itself. 2. The Pyramid of Unas , called in Egyptian Neter-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M. Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son. Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of each side at the base 220 feet. Owing to the broken blocks and sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to give exact measurements. Several attempts had been made to break into it, and one of the Arabs who took part in one of these attempts “ Ahmed the Carpenter,” seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in red ink. It is probable that he is the same man who opened the Great Pyramid at Giza, a.d. 820. A black basalt sarcophagus, from which the cover had been dragged off, and an arm, a shin-bone, some ribs, and fragments of the skull from the mummy of Unas, were found in the sarcophagus chamber. The walls of the two largest chambers and two of THE PYRAMIDS OF TETA, PEPI I. 493 the corridors are inscribed with ritual texts and prayers of a very interesting character. Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about 30 years. The Mastabat el-Fir‘aun was thought by Mariette to be the tomb of Unas, but other scholars thought that the “ blunted pyramid ” at Dahshfir was his tomb, because his name was written upon the top of it. 3 . The Pyramid of Teta , called in Egyptian Tet-asu, lies to the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and was opened in 1881. The Arabs call it the “Prison Pyramid,” because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined. Its actual height is about 59 feet, the length of each side at the base is 210 feet, and the platform at the top is about 50 feet. The arrangement of the chambers and passages and the plan of construction followed is almost identical with that of the pyramid of Unas. This pyramid was broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the sarcophagus chamber have literally been smashed to pieces by the hammer-blows of those who expected to find treasure inside them. The inscriptions, painted in green upon the walls, have the same subject-matter as those inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the Vlth dynasty, reigned about 50 years, and was murdered by one of his guards. The Pyramids of Tcheser, Unas, and Teta belong to the Northern Group at Sakkara. 4. The Pyramid of Pepi I, or “ Ra-meri, son of the Sun, Pepi,” lies to the south of the Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of pyramids at Sakkara, where it is called the Pyramid of Shekh Abu Mansur ; it was opened in 1880. Its actual height is about 40 feet, and the length of each side at the base is about 250 feet; the arrangement of the chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different. It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from the quarry, it was more easily injured. The granite sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments of which were found lying about on the ground ; the cover too, 494 THE SERAPEUM. smashed in pieces, lay on the ground close by. A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also found in the sarcophagus chamber. The inscriptions are, like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas and Teta, of a religious nature ; some scholars see in them evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi, who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty. The pyramid of Pepi I, the third king of the Vlth dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, 53 years, was called in Egyptian by the same name as Memphis, /. (j(), was a man who held the dignities ol smer , royal councillor, superintendent of works, scribe of the court, confidant of the king, etc. ; he held also priestly rank as prophet, and was attached to the service of the pyramids of Abusir. He had sprung from a family of humble origin, but his abilities were so esteemed by one of the kings, whose faithful servant he was, that a princess called Nefer-hetep-s was given him to wife, and his children, Thi and Tamut, ranked as princes. Thi held several high offices under Kakaa and User-en-Ra 1 P kings of the Vth dynasty. The tomb or mastaba of Thi is now nearly covered with sand, but in ancient days the whole building was above the level of the ground. The chambers of the tomb having been carefully cleared, it is possible to enter them and examine the very beautiful sculptures and paintings with which the walls are decorated. To describe these wonderful works (uufl 49<5 mariette’s house. of art adequately would require more space than can be given here ; it must be sufficient to say that the scenes represent Thi superintending all the various operations connected with the management of his large agricultural estates and farmyard, together with illustrations of his hunting and fishing expeditions. 7. Mariette’s House. — This house, which lies a little to the east of the Serapeum, was the headquarters of M. Mariette and his staff when employed in making excavations in the Necropolis of Sakkara in 1850 and 1851. It is not easy to estimate properly the value to science of the work of this distinguished man. It is true that fortune gave him the opportunity of excavating some of the most magnificent of the buildings of the Pharaohs of all periods, and of hundreds of ancient towns ; nevertheless, it is equally true that his energy and marvellous power of work enabled him to use to the fullest extent the means for advancing the science of Egyptology which had been put in his hands. It is to be hoped that his house will be preserved on its present site as a remembrance of a great man who did a great work. 8. The Tomb of Ptah = hetep, a priest who lived during the Vth dynasty, is a short distance from Mariette’s house. The scenes in this mastaba are splendid examples of the best class of the artistic work of the period as applied to tomb ornamentation, and well worthy of more than one visit. It has been suggested that this pyramid was built by Seneferu, P J ^5 ^ 31 ’ a ^ dynasty. 9. To the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and close to the pyramid of Teta, are the tombs of Kaqemna, a high official under the Vth or Vlth dynasty, which was excavated under the direction of M. de Morgan ; the family vault of Mereruka, wherein his wife and son had separate tombs ; and a group of tombs, which were excavated by M. Victor Loret in 1899. Further to the south are the Mastabat al = Fir‘aun,* a royal tomb, probably of the Vth dynasty; the Pyramid of Mer = en = Ra, a king of the Vlth dynasty ; the “ Pyramid of Pumice-stones ” (Haram ash-Shawwaf ), etc. * The Mastabat Al-Fir‘aun was visited by Edward Melton in the second half of the seventeenth century, and he says that the Arabs told him that the Pharaohs used to climb on to the top of it each time they had a new law to declare to the people. ( Zee-en Land-Reizen , Amsterdam, 1681, P- 54 -) PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 497 The most interesting of all the pyramids at Sakkara are those having chambers and corridors inscribed with hieroglyphic texts, viz., the Pyramids of Unas, Teta, Pepi I, Pepi II, Mer-en-Ra, etc. 13. Pyramids of Dahshur. The Pyramids of Dahshur, four of stone and two of brick, are 1^ miles from the Mastabat el-Fir £ aun, once thought to be the Pyramid of Unas. The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 700 feet ; beneath it are three subterranean chambers. The second stone pyramid is about 321 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is 620 feet ; it is usually called the Blunted Pyramid, because the lowest parts of its sides are built at one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger of the two brick pyramids is about 90 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet ; the smaller is about 156 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 343 feet. The brick pyramids have recently been excavated by M. de Morgan. The Northern Pyramid is built of unburnt bricks laid without mortar, in place of which sand is used, and an examina- tion of them shows that they belong to the period of the Xllth dynasty. Soon after the work of clearing had been begun, a stone bearing the cartouche of Usertsen III, q 2 l] was found, and thus a tolerably exact date was ascertained ; on February 26th, 1894, the entrance to a pit was found, and in the east corner there appeared an opening which led through a gallery and sepulchral chamber to several tombs. In one chamber were the fragments of a sarcophagus and statue of Menthu = nesu, and in another was the sarcophagus of Nefert = hent; it was quite clear that these tombs had been wrecked in ancient days, and therefore to the pit by which they were reached M. de Morgan gave the name “ Pit of the Spoilers.” Along the principal gallery were four tombs, and in the second of these a queen had been buried ; on the lower stage eight sarcophagi were found, but only two were inscribed. Subsequently it was discovered that the burial-place of a series of princesses had been found, and in consequence M. de Morgan called the place “ Gallery of Princesses.” In one of 2 1 498 PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. the tombs (No. 3) a granite chest containing four uninscribed alabaster Canopic jars was found, and in another similar chest a worm-eaten wooden box, containing four Canopic jars, was also discovered. The four sides of the box were inscribed, but the jars were plain. While the ground of the galleries was being carefully examined, a hollow in the rock was found, and a few blows of the pick-axe revealed a magnificent find of gold and silver jewellery lying in a heap among the fragments of the worm-eaten wooden box which held it. The box was about 11 inches long, and had been inlaid with silver hieroglyphics which formed the name of the princess Hathor = Sat, for whom the ornaments had been made. In the same tomb was A. The Northern Pyramid, built of bricks. B. The Southern Pyramid, built of bricks. found a box full of the jewellery of the lady Merit. It would seem that special care had been taken by the friends of the deceased to conceal the boxes of jewellery, and thus the ancient spoilers of the tomb had overlooked them. These beautiful objects are now to be seen in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The wooden boats and sledge which were discovered outside the wall enclosing the pyramid are worthy of note, and are of considerable interest. The southern brick pyramid of Dahshfir is on a lower level than the northern, and much of its upper portion has been removed by the felloMn , who treated it as a quarry for PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 499 the bricks with which they built their houses. It is, however, in a better state of preservation than its fellow, and is still an imposing object in the Egyptian landscape. M, de Morgan’s estimate of the length of each side is 125 feet ; this pyramid is, like the northern, built of unburnt bricks, and it was surrounded by a wall of unbaked bricks, which enclosed the ground wherein the members of the royal family were buried. While excavating in this spot, M. de Morgan found some fragments of a base of a statue inscribed with the prenomen of Amen-em hat III, and, judging from this fact and from the general appearance of the site, he would ascribe this necropolis to the period of the Xllth dynasty. About 20 feet from the enclosing wall, at the north-east corner of the pyramid, two pits were found, and the second of these proved to be the entrance to a tomb. An inclined brick wall led to a small vaulted door, and in the ruins here the workmen found a small beautifully worked gilded wooden statue, on the base of which was inscribed, “ Horus, the son of the Sun, of his body, giver of Near the statue were two Canopic jars of alabaster, inscribed with the pre- nomen of a new king ( O “O’ egent wi king was Au-ab-Ra, who it seems was co-regent with Amen-em-hat IV ; the nomen of this :^| Hem. In the tomb of this king were found: — (1) A magnificent wooden shrine for the statue of the ka [_J of King Au-ab-Ra or Heru ; (2) Statue in wood of the ka [_J of King Au-ab-Ra, a unique object of highest interest ; the execution is simply wonderful ; (3) Rectangular alabaster stele with an inscription of King Au-ab-Ra in 14 lines; the hieroglyphics are painted blue, etc. In the coffin the wrecked mummy of the king was found. On February 15th and 16th, 1895, M. de Morgan succeeded in bringing to light, in the necropolis of Dahshur, a further “find” of jewellery. These beautiful and interesting objects were found in the tombs of the Princesses Ita and Khnemit, which are situated to the west of the ruined pyramid of Amen- 2 1 2 5 °° QUARRIES OF MA £ SARA AND TURA. em-hat II. By good fortune they had been overlooked by the plunderers of tombs in ancient days, and so both the tombs and the coffins inside them remained in the state in which they had been left by the friends of the deceased more than 4,000 years ago. On the east bank of the Nile, at a distance of about five miles from Helwan, are the Quarries of Ma‘sara and Tura. These quarries have supplied excellent stone fot building purposes for 6,000 years at least. During the Ancient Empire the architects of the pyramids made their quarrymen tunnel into the mountains for hundreds of yards until they found a bed of stone suitable for their work, and traces of their excava- tions are plainly visible to-day. The Egyptians called the Tura Quarry < ~j => Re an, or Ta-re-au, from which the Arabic name Tura is probably derived. An inscription in one of the chambers tells us that during the reign of Amenophis III a new part of the quarry was opened. Una, an officer who lived in the reign of Pepi I, was sent to Tura by this king to bring back a white limestone sarcophagus with its cover, libation stdne, etc. The Demotic inscriptions which are found in the galleries were examined, and many of them copied, by Dr. Spiegelberg in 1903. He found there the names of Heker Qq] and Khnem-Maat-Ra-setep-en- Khnemu, f Q f) ^ If and a number of votive texts to the god Miysis, ^ or Mau-hes , ^ J P . 5oi VII. -CAIRO TO DAMIETTA via MANSflRA. In addition to the sites of archaeological interest in the Delta which have been mentioned in the descriptions of the routes to Cairo from Alexandria and Port Sa‘id respectively, there are several to which visits may be paid by those who can spare the time and are not averse from long donkey rides and journeys in boats across portions of Lake Menzala. Among such sites may be mentioned — (i) Tell al-Yahudiya ; (2) Khata‘ana ; (3) San ; (4) Nabesha ; (5) Tamai al-Amdid ; (6) Saft Al-Henna. 1. The ruins of Tell al = Yahudiya lie near the modern town of Shibin al-Kanatir, about 20 miles from Cairo. At this place Raineses III built a small palace which contained a chamber lined with beautifully glazed tiles ornamented with floral designs, figures of birds, animals, representatives of foreign conquered tribes, etc. In the reign of Ptolemy VII, a young Jew called Onias, the son of the high priest of the same name who had been put to death by Antiochus, petitioned the king to allow him to build a temple wherein the Jews could worship God according to their own customs. Ptolemy’s answer is said to have run thus : — “ King Ptolemy and Queen Cleopatra “ to Onias send greeting. We have heard the petition, wherein “ thou desirest leave to be given to thee to purge that temple “ which is fallen down at Leontopolis, in the Nomus of Helio- “ polis, and which is named from the country Bubastis ; on “ which account we cannot but wonder that it should be “ pleasing to God to have a temple erected in a place so “ unclean, and so full of sacred animals. But since thou “ sayest that Isaiah the prophet foretold this long ago (see “ chapter xix, 19), we give thee leave tc do it, if it may be “ done according to your law, and so that we may not appear “ to have at all offended God therein.” Onias then built a tower 60 feet high, with a burnt brick girdle wall, and with gates of stone ; the altar was like that at Jerusalem, and over it hung, by a gold chain, a lamp which was beaten out of a 502 TANIS. piece of gold. The place was called “ Onion ” by the Jews, and “Scenae Veteranorum ” by the Romans, and it appears to have been built on the site of the temple of Ra, which lay to the north of Heliopolis. It was looted by Lupus, Governor of Alexandria in the reign of Vespasian, and was destroyed by his successor Paulinus, 343 years after it had been founded. The site was exhaustively excavated by Emil Brugsch Pasha, who obtained from it some valuable antiquities, which are now in the Egyptian Museum and in the British Museum. A plan of the site was published by Prof. Hayter Lewis in 1882. An examination of the ruins recently made has produced little except fanciful theories. 2. Near Khata‘ana lie a number of mounds, several of which were excavated by Professor Naville in 1885; these mark the site of a large frontier town under the XHIth dynasty, and the names of some of its kings were inscribed upon the fragments and remains that were exhumed by him.* * Khata‘ana lies to the north of Tell Fakus, which is reached by train from Cairo via Benha and Zakazik. 3. Near San, i.e., a little to the south of it, and about 25 miles north of Tell Fakus, lie the ruins of the ancient city of Tanis, which was built on the arm of the Nile called Tanitic. The town which the Greeks called Tanis , and the Copts TA-MCCJOC or was named by the ancient Egyptians ° r sekhet Tchant (which is accurately translated “ Field of Zoan,”f Tchart ; © it was the capital of the fourteenth nome of Lower Egypt, -Ab I Khent-abt. The two determinatives "T IE indicate that the place was situated in a swampy district, and that * See the Seventh Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund, London, 1890, p. ^6, col. 2 ; also Fourth Memoir , London, 1887, p. ff. f Zoan must have been considered a place of great importance by the Hebrews, for they date the founding of Hebron by it (Numbers, xiii, 22), and Isaiah, describing the future calamities of Egypt, says, “ Surely the princes of Zoan are fools” (Isaiah xix, n). TAN IS. 5 6 3 foreigners dwelt there. The Arabs have adopted the shorter name of the town, and call it San. Dr. H. Brugsch endeavoured to show that Tanis represented the town of Rameses, which was built by the Israelites, but his theory has not been generally accepted, although there is no doubt whatever that Tchar and Tanis are one and the same town. The other names of Tanis given by Dr. Brugsch in his great Dictionnaire G'eograpliique are “ Mesen, Mesen of the North, Teb of the North, and Behutet of the North.” Tanis was situated on the right or east bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile, about 30 miles nearly due west of the ancient Pelusium ; and as it was near the north-east frontier of Egypt, it was always one of the towns which formed the object of the first attack of the so-called Hyksos, Syrians, Assyrians, Greeks, Arabs, and Turks. The excavations which have been made in the ruins round about San by Mariette and Petrie prove that Tanis must have been one of the largest and most impor- tant cities in the Delta. The earliest monuments found here date from the time of Pepi I, Vlth dynasty, about b.c. 3233 ; the next oldest are the black granite statues of Usertsen I and Amenemhat II, a sandstone statue of Usertsen II, an inscribed granite fragment of Usertsen III, and two statues of Sebek-hetep III. Following these come the most interesting black granite sphinxes, which are usually said to be the work of the so-called Hyksos, but which are, in the writer’s opinion, older than the period when these people ruled over Lower Egypt. The cartouches inscribed upon them only prove that many kings were anxious to have their names added to these monuments. The greatest builder at Tanis was Rameses II, who erected a temple with pylons, colossal statues, obelisks, and sphinxes. Pasebkhanu, Shashanq I, and Shashanq III repaired and added to the buildings in Tanis, and they took the opportunity of usurping sphinxes, obelisks, &c., which had been set up by earlier kings. The famous red granite “ Tablet of four hundred years ” was found at San. The inscription upon it, which is of the time of Rameses II, is dated in the four hundredth year of a Hyksos king named “ Aa-peh-peh-Set, son of the Sun, Nub-Set ” , which appears to prove that this king reigned 400 years before the time of Rameses II. 5°4 THMUIS— MENDES. The last native king of Egypt whose name is mentioned at Tanis is Nectanebus II, and after him come the Ptolemies. The stele, commonly called the “ Decree of Canopus,” which was set up in the ninth year of Ptolemy III, Euergetes 1 (b.c. 238), was found here. Under the Roman Empire Tanis still held a high position among the towns of the Delta, and the Egyptians considered it of sufficient importance to make it an episcopal see. In the list of the bishops who were present at the Council of Chalcedon (a.d. 451), the name of Apollonius, Bishop of Tanis, is found. Tanis must not be confounded with Tennis, the sea-port town which grew and increased in importance as Tanis declined ; and it is difficult to understand why Tanis should have dwindled away, considering that Arab writers have described its climate as being most salubrious, and its winter like summer. Water was said to flow there at all times, and the inhabitants could water their gardens at their will ; no place in all Egypt, save the Fayyum, could be compared with it for fertility, and for the beauty of its gardens and vines. After the sixth century of our era the sea invaded a large portion of the territory around Tanis, and it went on encroaching each year little by little, until all its villages were submerged. The inhabitants removed their dead to Tennis, and established themselves there ; Tennis was evacuated by its inhabitants a.d. 1192, and the town itself was destroyed a.d. 1226. 4. About half-way between San and As-Salakiyeh is Tell = Nabesha, which marks the site of a frontier town which was fortified by Rameses 1 1 , and no doubt formed one of the chain of fortresses which he built across the north-east border of the Delta. The town existed in the XXVIth dynasty, for some of the kings of that dynasty repaired the temple of the local goddess. There is nothing of interest at Tell-Nabesha. 5. Near Sinbellawen, which is on the main line between Zakazik and Manshra, is the mound which the Arabs call Tamai al = Amdid, and which marks the site of the classical Thmuis. Close by is another mound, to which ancient Arab writers gave the name of Al = Mandid ; this marks the site of Mendes. In, and a little before, the Ptolemaic Period Thmuis and Mendes were incorporated, probably because the inhabitants of both places worshipped the ram. In the fourth century of our era Thmuis was a flourishing town, and possessed its own magistrates, and was exempt from the jurisdiction of the Governor of Alexandria. It was also an SAFT AL-HENNA. 5°5 episcopal see, and Serapion, one of its bishops, is mentioned by Herakleanus. The importance of Thmuis-Mendes is proved by the fact that Amasis II dedicated a shrine to the Ram-god which was 23 feet high, and Ptolemy II restored the sanctuary, and took part in the ancient ceremonies which were performed in that city at the installation of a new Ram. The statues of Ptolemy II and his wife Arsinoe were placed near the Ram in the procession, and were carried through the streets followed by the chief men of the city, and by crowds of rejoicing citizens. A few Egyptian monuments are still to be seen at this place. The name Tamai al-Amdid represents the two names Thmuis and Mendes. Tamai = Thmuis, and Amdid is a corruption of Mendes, which is the Greek form of great many mounds in this district which conceal remains of ancient Egyptian buildings, and there is no doubt that under the XIXth dynasty the whole region was full of small towns, many of which were strongly built and fortified, so that they might resist the attacks of the nomad tribes from the Eastern Desert and Syria. It seems, however, that they had to be built on mounds artificially constructed, the object being to keep them above the waters of the inundation. The saturated soil and the storms of war and conquest do away with any hope that many fragile objects or papyri will be found among the ruins. 6. Close to the railway which joins Zakazik and Abu Hammad, and a little to the south of it, is Saft al = Henna, which was explored by Professor Naville in 1884; it marks the site of a large, ancient Egyptian town, in which Rameses II built a fine temple, for a colossal statue of this king in black granite was found in a cornfield near the village. Some 40 or 50 years ago the fellahin discovered a rectangular, monolithic shrine, measuring 7 feet by 6 feet 9 inches by 6 feet, covered inside and out with beautifully executed inscriptions and scenes. The local Pasha, who thought that gold was hidden inside it, promptly had it broken in pieces, two of which were carried to his farm, and the remainder were used for building the bridges of Saft and Tahra Hamed ! The shrine was dedicated to the Ram-god and the Hawk-god of the East by Nectanebus II, the last native king of Egypt, about b.c. 360. A restoration of the sanctuary of these gods was made by Ptolemy II, probably about 100 years later. the Egyptian name There are a 5°6 DAMIETTA. 7. West of the railway which runs from Mansura to Mit Samannud are the remains of a town which the Arabs call Behbtt al = Hagar; these mark the site of an ancient Egyptian town which was either founded or rebuilt by Nectanebus II. At this place stood a temple of Isis, which was begun by Nectanebus II, and finished by Ptolemy II. The Egyptians called the town Pa-Hebet, from which the first part of the modern name is derived. The traveller who is visiting places in the Delta which are off the beaten track should not fail to include Damietta and Mansura in his route, for though nothing much is known of the early history of these towns, each possesses an interest peculiar to itself, and there are no places quite like them in the Delta. Damietta, the Dutnyat of the Arabs, the Tamiati of the Copts, and the Thamiatis of the Greeks, is a flourishing town containing 31,515 inhabitants; it stands on the east bank of the Phatnitic arm of the Nile (now called the Damietta branch), is about no miles from Cairo, and from four to six miles from the sea. A seaport town of considerable size must have existed here when the Pharaohs were reigning, and under the Ptolemies and Romans it was, no doubt, a position of great importance ; the old town probably stood nearer the sea than the modern one. Brugsch identified it with the Het-nebset, L, Jfl©’ of the texts, but this identification is doubtful, and that town is probably that which the Arabs called Banabus. Damietta formed £ port of call for many fleets, and the harbour was, as now, generally filled with sailing craft of all kinds. In the Middle Ages it did a large trade in a kind of linen stuff called, from the name of the place, “ dimity” (just as “damask ” is called after the name of Damascus), oil, coffee, dates, fish, etc. It was attacked in 1169 by the King of Jerusalem, who set up siege-towers and mangonels against it, but Saladin defended it ably, a storm wrecked many of the ships of the invaders, and they were obliged to return to Palestine. In 1218 it was besieged by John of Brienne in April of that year, and on St. Bartholomew’s Day, August 24th, it capitulated ; but after a two days’ battle the Crusaders were beaten, on August 31st they were obliged to evacuate Damietta, and on September 7th the whole of the Crusading army left Egypt in shame. In June, 1249, Louis IX landed at Damietta, the garrison fled, and the French king occupied it without striking MANSURA. 5°7 a blow. The French made the same mistakes as John of Brienne, they were defeated in many fights, their ships were captured, and at length Louis and his army were held at ransom for 10,000,000 francs ; a large proportion of the ransom was paid, and the remnant of the force of the Crusaders sailed for Acre in November, having utterly failed to break the Arab power in Egypt. Damietta was then destroyed, and a new town was built further inland. The French took possession of Damietta in 1798, and gained a victory over the Turks in the following year ; they were, however, expelled soon after by the British under Sir Sydney Smith. Under the rule of Muhammad Ali some attempt was made to increase the com- mercial prosperity of the town, but the good effect was not permanent; in recent years the town has, suffered greatly through the growth and development of Port Sa‘id. Mansura, the u citv of victory,” is about 95 miles from Cairo, and has a population of 33,580 inhabitants, the principal occupations of which are connected with the cotton trade. There are numerous large manufactories here where cotton is worked and oil is pressed from the seeds, and the town is a thriving one. Several of the streets are wide, and the houses are large and well built, according to the French pattern. The mosque is well worth a visit, for several of the pillars of its arches were taken from buildings which were probably Christian, and the pulpit is of carved woodwork. The town stands on the right or east bank of the Phatnitic (Damietta) branch of the Nile, which is here both broad and deep. Mansura is not older than the time of the Crusaders, and it was to this place that the Egyptians fled when Louis IX of France seized Damietta. During this unfortunate crusade Louis and his three armies charged right through the Muslim camp into Mansura, and out on the other side ; but here he was attacked by 10,000 Mamluks, and Robert, Count of Artois, and 300 of his men, and nearly all the Templars, and William Longsword and nearly all the English were slain. The Muslims counted 1,500 knights and nobles among the dead. 5°8 VIII.— CAIRO TO THE OASIS OF JUPITER AMMON. A journey to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon may be made either from Cairo or Alexandria, but the shorter route is from Cairo via Gara. If the traveller decides to start from Alexandria, two ways are open to him : he may journey along the sea-coast from Alexandria to Baralum, the Paraetonium of classical writers, and then march southwards to Siwa, that is to say, to the Oasis, or, he may travel still further along the sea-coast until he reaches Katabathmus Major, the modern ‘Akabet al-Kabir,' when, marching southwards, he will reach Siwa without difficulty. In each case the length of time required for the journey varies between 18 and 20 days; it is impossible to make a more definite statement, for so much depends upon the individual traveller and his mounts. Apart from this, sandstorms are more frequent and intense at some seasons of the year than others, and caravans, small or great, may be delayed for days at a time by them. If the traveller prefers to start from Cairo, he must set out from the neighbour- hood of Giza, and follow the old Pilgrim Route, which runs in a north-west direction until he arrives at the south-east end of the Wadi Natrun or “Natron Valley.” From this point he travels almost due west for about 15 days, when Siwa is reached. The ancient Egyptians called the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon the Arabic name is Siwa. Of the early history of the Oasis nothing is known. Herodotus tells us (iii, 25) that when Cambyses reached Thebes he sent 50,000 men to reduce the inhabitants of this Oasis to slavery, and to burn their temple. It is said that this force marched for several days from Thebes, and reached the Islands of the Blessed, i e., the Oases of Kharga and Dakhla, but that having attempted to proceed to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, when they were about half way, “as they were taking dinner a strong and vehement south by the name of Sekhet-Amit, and OASIS OF JUPITER AMMON. 5°9 “ wind blew, and carrying with it heaps of sand, covered them “ over, and in this manner they disappeared.” Alexander the Great visited the Oasis, and on his way the Cyrenseans brought him gifts ; the god worshipped there was Amen, who was incarnate in a ram, and was represented by a figure of a ram in a boat. The figure was made of emerald, surrounded by precious stones, and was, as Prof. Naville has shown, set in the circular hollow" of a shield-shaped object which was placed in a boat. Amen saluted Alexander, and acknowledged him as his son ; this was the whole point of the visit. The Oasis* is about six miles long, and from a quarter of a mile to four or five miles wide ; it possesses hot springs and a sulphur mine, and the Fountain of the Sun (18 feet deep), and about 150 springs. It contains 300,000 olive and palm trees, and in 1897 its inhabitants were 5,200. The hill called Gebel Mfita is full of ancient tombs, which have never been properly examined. The principal towms of the Oasis are Siwa and Akerrni, each being in the possession of a powerful tribe ; these two tribes are often at war, but hostilities are not carried so far as formerly, when the Oasis was independent of Egypt. In the town of Akerrni apparently was situated the Egyptian fortress which is described by Diodorus, and the temple which belonged to it stood on the site now occupied by the village of Umm al-Beda. In the latter place Cailliaud and Minutoli found the remains of a sanctuary, with many lines of hieroglyphic writing, and close by were discovered reliefs, with figures of the gods, and the ordinary descriptions of the gifts which they gave to the king accom- panied them. The size of the reliefs suggested that the temple was one of considerable importance, and it is probable that the Oasis was fortified at the end of the XIXth dynasty, when the Libyans began to occupy the outlying lands of the Western Delta. The remains which have been found in various parts of the Oasis prove beyond a doubt that the occupation of the place by the Egyptians was a very effective one. The advantage of visiting the Oasis of Siwa from Cairo is that, either going or returning, the traveller can pay a visit to the Monasteries in the Wadi Natrftn, or Natron Valley. f * See the “ Report on Siwa Oasis,” published by the Egyptian Govern- ment at Cairo in 1900. t The latest description of the Wadi Natrun is by the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild and the Hon. Francis Henley ; see W. E. de Winton in Novitates Zoologicae , Vol. X, August, 1903. THE NATRON VALLEY. 5 TO Those who do not wish to see more of the desert than they can help, and who only care to visit the Monasteries, had better go by train from Cairo to Al-Wardan or Beni Salama, and then cross the desert to the Natron Valley. The Natron Valley obtains its name from the muriate of soda * which has always been obtained there in large quantities ; the Egyptians called the salt hesmen , § (1 , and the classical writers “ natron.” According to Strabo (xvii, i, 23), this was produced by two lakes, but other writers give the number of lakes as six, and some enumerate eight; the old inhabitants of the Natron Valley worshipped Serapis, and Strabo says they were the only people in Egypt who sacrificed the sheep. The length of the Natron Valley is about 20 miles, and near the middle of it was the town, commonly called “ Scete,” where the Christian monks built a large settlement ; Scete is said to have been one and a half days’ journey from Lake Mareotis. Ecclesiastical writers distinguish carefully between the different parts of the Natron Valley, thus there was the town of Nitria, the town of Scythia (Scete), Petra, the (t Cells,” and the “ Ladder ” (/cX/^af). At the end of the first half of the fourth century Christian recluses began to assemble there, and, led by Macarius the Egyptian, they emulated the lives of Anthony the Great, and other early ascetics. Some 5,000 monks lived there, and there were 600 anchorites in the desert near ; there were seven bakeries there, a church, and a guest house or khan , where doctors practised. The monks fasted all the week, went to church on Saturday evening and Sunday, and ate a meal on the latter day, and drank water. They maintained themselves by the weaving of mats, which, incidentally, gave their hands something to do, and yet permitted them to think of their sins. The place called the “Ladder” was 18 miles from water; the “Cells” were 10 miles from Nitria and four from the church. The buildings which may now be seen in the Natron Valley are :■ — - The Monastery of Macarius : contains three churches, and two or three chapels; the saint is said to be buried in this Monastery. (2) About 10 miles to the west is the Monastery of Anba Bishai, and in the chapel dedicated to the Virgin the saint is said to be buried. (3) A little further * Also sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, chloride of sodium, etc. LIBRARIES OF THE NATRON VALLEY. 511 to the west is the Syrian Monastery, or Der Suryam, which was built by John the Dwarf, in the reign of Constantine, the son of the Empress Helena, who, tradition asserts, found the True Cross ; it was formerly in a very flourishing condition, and in the fifth and sixth centuries possessed a very valuable library. It contains three churches, the chief one, of course, being dedicated to the Virgin. (4) The Monastery of Baramus lies six or eight miles further to the west, and also contains a church dedicated to the Virgin. The few monks who live in these monasteries are poor, but their courtesy and hospitality are well known ; their possessions are few, and, though they may not equal Macarius in their ascetic strenuousness, no one will deny that their lives are sufficiently hard, and that they are dead to the world. The Natron Valley has been the resort of ascetic Christians from the earliest times, for Frontonius took up his abode there in the second century ; Habib, the Arab, the friend of the Prophet, also withdrew there in troublous times. In the seventh century the monks there numbered 3,500. In modern times the Valley has been visited by Egidius Lochiensis in 1633, who saw 8,000 MSS. there ; Wansleb in 1672 and 1673, who saw three or four chests full of MSS.; Huntingdon in 1678 and 1679; Gabriel Eva in 1706, who saw a cellar full of MSS. ; J. E. Assemani in 1707, who bought some MSS., which came to the Vatican; J. S. Assemani in 1715 (with Claude Sicard) ; Granger in 1730; Sonnini in 1778; Andreossi in 1799, who brought away some MSS. with him. In 1828 Lord Prudhoe went to the Natron Valley, and acquired a number of Coptic MSS. from the Monastery of Baramfls ; in 1837 the Hon. R. Curzon also obtained several vellum MSS. at the Monasteries, and in 1838 the Rev. H. Tattam purchased 49 Syriac MSS., which he sold to the Trustees of the British Museum. The same year the Trustees of the British Museum sent Mr. Tattam to Egypt to obtain the MSS. which were still there, and of these he was so fortunate as to secure about 314, which arrived at the British Museum in 1843. 1845 M. A. Pacho* went and lived with the monks for six weeks, and in the end succeeded in obtaining the remainder of the MSS., about 190 in number; 172 of these came to the British Museum in 1847, 10 were sold to the Trustees in 1851, and M. Pacho kept * He has sometimes been confounded with the traveller Pacho, who committed suicide on January 26th, 1829. 5 12 LIBRARIES OF THE NATRON VALLEY. back and sold several to the Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg in 1852. All these MSS. really came from the Convent of St. Mary Deipara (Der Suryani), and the import- ance of the Library cannot be over-estimated, for it has supplied us with some of the oldest dated books in existence, has given us the Syriac Bible in several versions, the Epistles of Ignatius, the works attributed to Clement, Patristic litera- ture of all kinds, and a considerable number of native Syrian works, most of which were unknown prior to the discovery of the Library. As we are told that the Natron Valley held about 100 monasteries during the sixth and seventh centuries, it is not difficult to imagine what literary treasures their Libraries must have contained. At the present time there are no MSS. of importance in the Natron Valley, and only those who are interested in archaeology are recommended to visit it. The reader who is interested in the history of the discovery of the MSS. should read Visits to Monasteries in the Levant , by the Hon. R. Curzon, 5th ed. 1865, p. 86, ff\ an article by Cureton in the Quarterly Review, No. CLIII, p. 51 ; and the privately printed “Journal” kept by Miss Platt, who accompanied her stepfather, the Rev. H. Tattam, on his journey in search of MSS. in 1839. 5 r 3 IX.— THE 0ASE5. To the west of the Nile, in the Great Libyan Desert, at various distances from the river, are a number of fertile tracts of land, with trees, wells, etc., which have been inhabited from time immemorial. To such a place the ancient Egyptians gave the name of Uahet rvW whence the Copts derived their word OTA^e, and the Arabs Al-Wdh , and western nations the word “ oasis.” The exact meaning of the Egyptian word is unknown, but it no doubt was intended to convey the idea of the limited area which could be irrigated by the natural springs or wells which existed in it. The principal Oases in the western desert are : — (t) The Oasis of Siwa, or Jupiter Ammon. (2) The Oasis of Bahariyah. (3) The Oasis of Farafra. (4) The Oasis of Dakhla. (5) The Oasis of Al-Kharga. (6) The Oasis of Kurkur. (7) The Oasis of Selima. The Oasis of Siwa may be reached without difficulty from Cairo or Alexandria ; both routes have already been described (see p. 508). It may be reached in 12 days by camel from Damanhhr. The Oasis of Bahariyah, t.e., the Northern Oasis, is thought by some to represent the “ Little Oasis,” or the “ Second Oasis ” of classical writers. This Oasis lies between the parallels 27 0 48' and 28° 30' of north latitude, and between the meridians 28° 35' and 29 0 10' east of Greenwich, about no miles to the west of the Nile, and 202 miles from the Oasis of Siwa. It was visited by Belzoni, who arrived there on May 26th, 1819, and stayed eleven days; by Cailliaud and Letorzec, who stayed there six weeks in 1820; by Pacho and Muller in 1823-24 ; by Wilkinson in 1825 ; by Rohlfs in 1874 ; by Aschenson, who found there the remains of temples, one being a temple of Thothmes II, in 1876 ; by Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., in 1894; by Dr. Steindorff in 1900; and by Messrs. Ball and Beadnell. This Oasis is really a large, natural excavation in the Libyan desert plateau (Ball and 2 K THE OASES. 514 Beadnell, Baharia Oasis , Cairo, 1903, p. 37). Its greatest length is 80 miles, and its greatest width 25 miles. In 1897 it contained : apricot trees 4,863, olive trees 5,370, palms 93,000 ; three-fourths of the dates grown are exported. It is situated to the north of Farafra, and is easily reached in four or five days starting from Al-Madina in the Fayyfim. The route runs through Rayan, and, travelling in a south-westerly direction, the Kasr, or “ Fort,” will be found without difficulty. At Sabu, Hez, and elsewhere, Cailliaud saw ruins of the Roman and Christian (Coptic) Periods, but most of these have now disappeared. Portions of two temples of the XXVIth dynasty are still visible. Several of the villages on the Oasis were at one time occupied by Copts, a fact proved by the ruins of their churches which have been described by various travellers. The population in 1897 was 6,081. The Arabic name seems to be a translation of the old Egyptian name for this Oasis, viz., Uahet meht “Oasis of the North”: • o I o © o V ' but on the other hand there seems to be some reason for believing that at one time this name referred to the Oasis of Dakhla. The Oasis of Farafra, 27 0 3' 30" north latitude, and 28° o' 15” east longtitude, lies a little to the south of Bahariyah, and rather less than halfway between it and Dakhla. The Egyptians called it Ta-Ahet, (j ^ ^ , i.e., the “land of Cattle,” and it possessed some importance as a halting place between Siwa and Dakhla and Bahariyah and Dakhla. The population in 1897 was 542. This Oasis can be reached from Minyah on the Nile in eight days on a good camel. It lies about 203 miles to the west of Asyfit. It was visited by Rohlfs, Zittel, and Jordan in 1874. 'This Oasis contains about 29 springs, which are enumerated by Beadnell ( Farafra Oasis , Cairo, 1901, p. 10). Wheat, barley, dhurra, rice, dates, olives, and onions are grown, but the crops barely suffice for the wants of the people. The population in 1897 was 542, i.e. y 270 males and 272 females; the houses are in in number. Farafra is the healthiest of the Oases. The amount of cultivated land in this Oasis is very small, and it seems impossible that it can ever have been a flourishing place through its own resources. On the north are numbers of Muhammadan graves, and on the east are several rock-hewn THE OASES. 5 X 5 tombs ; the latter were probably made for Roman travellers, but may have been usurped by Christian refugees or monks. To the west of Farafra is the recently discovered Oasis of Ad = Daila, with two water holes or springs ; that on the east is called Bir Labayyad, and that on the west ‘Ain ad-Daila. The Oasis of Dakhla lies to the south-east of Farafra, about four days’ journey from that Oasis, and four days’ journey from Al-Kharga Oasis, and six or seven days’ journey from Asyut in Upper Egypt. It is 75 miles due west of Al-Kharga, and about 203 miles due west of Armant, or Erment. It has been visited by Drovetti, Edmonstone in 1819, Cailliaud in 1819, Rohlfs in 1874, and Captain H. G. Lyons in 1894. Mr. Beadnell (. Dakhla Oasis , Cairo, 1901, p. 12), describes its position as “between the 25th and 26th parallels of lat. north, to the west of long. 30° 15' east of Greenwich.” Dakhla is divided into two parts : in the western part are Kasr Dakhla, Budkhulu, Mushia, Rashida, Gadida, Kalamhn, Hindaw, Smint, Ma‘sara, and Mut, the present capital, and in the eastern part are Belat, Tenida, Bashendi, Dumeria, and Kamula. The revenue is ^E. 2,483, and is derived chiefly from a tax* on the date palms, which are 196,172 in number. The area of the low ground is about 97,617 acres. The entire water supply is derived from an underground bed of sandstone. The wells bored by the Romans are about 420. many of which are in working order ; the modern wells are 162 in number. The temperature at Kasr Dakhla varies from 93 to 102 -5 Fahrenheit. The Egyptian name of this Oasis was was 17,089. The capital of the Oasis is Al-Kasr, with between 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants, and some springs of sulphur and other waters. The principal ruins are those of Der al-Hagar, which have nothing to do with a monastery, as the name suggests, but with a temple of the Roman Period, which was dedicated to Amen-Ra, or Horus of Behutet, by Titus and other Roman Emperors. Of the history of the Oasis in ancient Egyptian times nothing is known, but the Romans kept an ala of soldiers here, and we may assume that they had some good reasons from a commercial point of view for doing so. This Oasis no doubt afforded a home for large numbers of Christian recluses Tches-Tcheset, The population in 1897 OASIS OF KHARGA. and monks from the third to the fifth centuries of our era, especially as the leaves of the palm trees would afford abundant material from which they could weave mats and ropes for the use of the caravans, and so earn a living. In recent years Dakhla has exported a large quantity of dates each year, and the date trade must always have formed the principal source of income for its inhabitants. The name Dakhla means “Inner,” as opposed to Kharga, the “ Outer ” Oasis. The Oasis of Kharga, i.e., the “Outer Oasis,” called in and commonly known as the “ Great Oasis,” lies east of Esna in Upper Egypt, a journey of from four to six days. In 1897 it had a population of 7,200. Kharga may be reached by several roads, and the traveller may journey thither from Asyiit, Sahak, Girgah, Farshut, and Esna. The road from Asyut is a part of that by which slaves were formerly brought from Dar Fur and Kordofan into Egypt. There is nothing of interest between the town and the Oasis ; the two wells on the road are ‘Ain Karam Muhammad and ‘Ain al-Ghazal. By this route Kharga is 126 miles from the Nile, and Captain H. G. Lyons traversed it in 51 j hours. The shortest route to Kharga is from Girgah, the distance being 120 miles, and the journey cannot be made in comfort under about 60 hours’ riding ; this route is unin- teresting. The route from Farshut was followed by Hosiyns in 1825, the author of Visit to the Greai Oasis in the Libyan Desert. 1 he route from Esna is the longest, for the distance is about 138 miles; the time occupied in travelling is about 60 hours. In recent years the Great Oasis has been visited by Dr. Schweinfurth and Dr. H. Brugsch, and the work published by the latter scholar on the Egyptian remains there is, as we should expect, the best on the subject. Our knowledge of the topography and geology of the Oasis has been put on an entirely new base by the researches of Captain Lyons and Mr. John Ball, who wrote the Geological Survey Report of 1899 (. Kharga Oasis , Cairo, 1900). The level of Kharga above the sea is about 280 feet, and its longitude is 30° 33' 18" east of Greenwich; in February, 1898, the magnetic variation was 4° 15' W. The seat of the Government of the Oasis is at Kharga, where the head officials and the Government doctor reside. The taxes are collected by an official from the province of Asytit ; each palm tree above a certain age is taxed Egyptian “Uahet reset, 5 X 7 I T Plan of the Temple of Hibis. OASIS OF KHARGA. 15 milliemes ( 3 f^.) a year, and each 250 cubic metres of water are taxed 1 millieme (one farthing) a year. The total amount paid in taxes in 1897 was about ^E. 1,061, /. Shunnar or Bir ash = Shunnar. The road starts in the Wadi Leja, and passes through a ravine containing many Sinaitic inscriptions, and, having passed the Partridge’s Well, Mount Katarina is reached. This mountain has three peaks, Jebel Katarina, Jebel Zebir, and Jebel Rumel ; the second is the highest, 8,536 feet above sea level, and consists of one huge block of porphyry. To the north-east is Jebel Mfisa, on the 55 2 SARBUT AL-KHADIM. right are Jebel ad-Der, and Ras as-Safsaf, beyond which is Nabb al-Hawi. Westward are Jebel al-Benat, Al-Joza, and Serbal. From this spot may be seen Jebel at-Tiniyah, with a white edifice on its highest point. This is the half-finished- palace of the Khedive ‘Abbas, who was ordered here for the benefit of his health. He lived with the monks of St. Catherine whilst his palace was being built, but before it was finished he changed his mind, and decided to live in the great monastery. He began to build the Pasha’s Road, but the Arabs say that one day as he was going along it Moses met him and shook him, and frightened him so much that he cursed Sinai and everything in it, and departed to Egypt, where a few weeks later he was murdered. .. 4. Mount Sinai to Sue?: via Wadi ash = Sh£kh and Sarbtit aUKhadim, or Sarabit al = Khadim. Taking the road towards the north, the traveller makes his way along the Wadi ad-Der, and after a few miles arrives at the tomb of Shekh Salih, an early Muhammadan saint, and “ companion of the Prophet ” ; he must have lived, therefore, early in the seventh century. The tomb belongs to the Tawara Arabs, and is visited by them alone ; it is a small, square, white- washed building with a dome. The saint is buried in the ground, and an empty wooden coffin stands above the grave ; round about are hung the gifts of the faithful. The Shekh was a good man, and worked miracles, and his tomb is the Mecca of Sinai. Once a year, in May, the Arabs sacrifice sheep and camels at the tomb, and sprinkle their blood on its walls ; the people dance and run races, and funeral games of various kinds are celebrated. Continuing the route, the pass of Al-Watiyah is traversed, and soon after the Wadi ash = Sh£kh is entered: crossing numerous valleys, the route proceeds via Wadi Solef, Wadi Berah, Wadi Lebwah, and Wadi Barak, which is long and broad, and is enclosed by steep gneiss rocks. At the entrance of this valley is a group of the “ mosquito huts ” already mentioned, and soon after are seen the ruins of the fortifications which the Arabs raised against Muhammad ‘Ali. The Wadi Sik is next entered, and in a short time Debebet Shekh Ahmed is reached ; the tomb of the Shekh is seen by the side of the road, and in the neighbourhood are several other tombs. tele set up at Sarbut al-Khadim by an official of Amen-lietep III, b.c 145°- The King is seen making offerings to Hathor, the goddess of the district, (From the Ordnance Survey , Part III, PI. 14 .) THE TURQUOISE AND COPPER MINES. 555 Traversing Wadi Khamilah, and descending into Wadi Suwik by a winding path, the traveller soon arrives at Wadi Merattameh, near which is the famous Sarbut aU Khadim. To reach Sarbflt al-Khadim a climb of about 700 feet up very difficult road must be made. “ A scramble over a rough slide “ of loose sandstone at the upper end of the valley, a “ treacherous sloping ledge of rock overhanging an awkward “ precipice, and a steep ravine which brings into play all one’s “ gymnastic capabilities, leads to an extensive plateau broken “ up by many deep ravines and rising knolls.” On one of the small peaks is a heap of ruins of walls made of sandstone, and round about are broken columns and sandstone stelae, some still in situ , but the greater number have fallen down ; all these are enclosed by the ruins of an outer wall. In the reign of Amen-hetep III a small rock-hewn sanctuary was made here, and furnished with an ante-chamber, and Thothmes III enlarged the building on the west, and added a small pylon, with an outer court. Within the walls of these numerous stelae, recording the lives and deeds of Egyptian officials, were set up, and from time to time additions to the main building were made by later kings. The temple was dedicated to Hathor, the lady of Mafkat, HTlkwYS!’ U ’ the “ lalld ° f the turquoise,” who was also the presiding deity of Maghara ; in it were niches, intended to hold statues of the higher mining officials and military officers, but these were all found to be empty. The form under which this goddess was worshipped was that of a cow, and the “molten calf” which Aaron made (Exodus xxxii, 4) for the Israelites to worship during the absence of Moses was, no doubt, “fashioned with a graving tool ” into a resemblance of Hathor. The Israelites, in fact, influenced by the prevailing local worship of Hathor, forced Aaron to fall in with the custom of the natives of Sinai, and gave him their gold ornaments to make the “ molten calf.” The walls were ornamented with painted reliefs, and traces of the inscriptions which described them, and recorded the titles of the king and the names of his gods, still remain. The outer wall encloses a space about 175 feet long and 70 feet broad, and there is reason for believing that a sanctuary stood here for more than 1,300 years, i.e., from the XHth to the XXth dynasty, during which period the mines in the neigffi 556 SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS. bourhood were worked by the Pharaohs with more or less regularity. The mines were situated in the Wadi- Nasb, and between them and the temple the valley was occupied b} the miners and by the soldiers who guarded them. To the east and west of the temple are mounds, one of which is 500 feet long and 200 feet broad, covered with layers of slag which vary in thickness from 1 2 feet at the base to 4 feet at the tops ; this slag is not natural, and authorities are agreed in thinking that it represents the remains of the smelting operations which were carried on near the temple. Lepsius thought that the place was chosen on account of the keen draught of wind which is always blowing there, and which would form an excellent blast for the smelting fires. As large quantities of fuel would be required for smelting the Gopper ore, we may assume that the neighbourhood was well wooded, and that the country enjoyed a larger rainfall than at present. About the meaning of the name “ Sarbut (plur. Sarabit) al Khadim ” there is a difference of opinion. “ Sarbtit ” means “hill” no doubt, and “Khadim,” in Arabic, means “ servant,” and so the name of the place has been translated “ Hill of the servant.” Some colour is given to this view by the statements of the Arabs, who affirm that the hill obtains its name from the black statue of an official, or king, which formerly stood there and was carried off by the French during their occupation of Egypt. On the other hand, the word “ Khadim ” may be the equivalent of the old Egyptian “ khetem ” ^ ^ Q c~i] , a “fortress,” and if this be so “ Sarbut ” may also be a form of one or more Egyptian words. Leaving the mines the route is resumed in the Wadi Stiwik, and eventually Wadi abHomr is reached; this leads into Wadi Shebekah, and in due course the traveller arrives at Suez. In the brief descriptions of the places, etc., passed on the roads to and from Sinai no attempt has been made either to trace the course of the Israelites in their journey to Sinai, or to identify their halting places. A mere statement of the opinions of one authority or another would be misleading in most cases, and the space available here is too limited to admit the intro- duction of general arguments. On one point, however, it is important to state a few facts, viz., the Sinaitic Inscriptions, for the most extraordinary statements have been made - about SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS. 557 them. According to the old traveller Cosmas Indicopleust'es (a.d. 536) they were written by the Hebrews themselves, in the time of Moses, at the various stations in the desert at which they halted, and he asserted that the letters were identical with those with which the Tables of the Law were written. In 1636 Athanasius Kircher wrote great nonsense about them, and many other travellers, etc., described their contents entirely after their own imagination. Copies were made by Egmontvan der Nyenburg (1 72 1), Pococke (1738), who transcribed 86; Niebuhr (1766), Wortley Montagu (1766), Coutelle and Roziere (1799), Seetzen (1807), Burckhardt (1812), Riippell (1817), Grey (1820), Henniker (1820), Laborde (1828), Lord Prudhoe and Major Felix (1835), Laval (1850), Frazer (1855), etc. In 1866 Professor E. H. Palmer copied about 300 of the Sinaitic inscriptions,' and in 1888 and 1889 M. G. Benedite, under the auspices of the French Academy, copied about 2,400 inscriptions. "J'his splendid material has been published in Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum , Pars II, Tom. 1, fasc. Ill, Paris, 1902, and it is now possible to discuss the inscriptions as a whole. The first to attempt the decipherment of the Sinaitic inscriptions was E. F. F. Beer in 1840, who declared them to be the work of the Nabateans ; he was followed by Tuch in 1848, Lenormant in 1859, Levy in i860, and J. Euting in 1891, who published and translated about 600 inscriptions. The labours of these scholars have proved that the translations made by C. Forster and Samuel Sharpe in 1875 were the result of guesses, and that they were utter nonsense. The Sinaitic inscriptions are funereal in character, whether they be found in Petra or Arabia ; they are quite short, and merely record the names of deceased persons, with exclamations, thus : — “ Peace, ‘Abdaharetat the “ Eparch, and Garmu his servant (No. 790); “ May ‘Amru “ the son of Ashbatu be eternally remembered for good ” (No. 788); “Peace, ‘Ammayu, the son of Harishu, priest of “ ‘Uzzia” (No. 611). The inscriptions are cut in the rocks in letters of different sizes, some being only 1 inch in height, and others 13 inches; they have all the appearance of having been cut in a hurry, for the forms of the letters are often very careless. In fact, most of them commemorate persons who died when travelling, and were buried by their friends in a hurry. The language in which they are written is Nabatean, i-e ., Aramean, with an admixture of Arabic words ; the writers were Pagans, and they worshipped various Semitic gods, one 558 SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS. being D^shra (?), but among 2,000 texts scarcely 20 mention a god’s name. Though the inscriptions are so numerous, the men who wrote them were few, in fact, barely four generations ; and it is now believed that all the texts were cut in the rocks in the second and third centuries of our era by the Nabateans, who were masters of the Peninsula of Sinai at that time, not in fulfilment of a pious desire, and not as an act of worship. The following are three of the Sinaitic inscriptions, with transcrip- tions into Hebrew letters, and an alphabet Inscription for Wa’ilu and Others. A) lai mi pr:-? •nm ib M2M m VT nton von “ May be remembered Wa’ilu and Harisu, and ‘Oyaidu, “ (he sons of Abu-Aushu for good ” ! (No. 812.) Inscription for Faridu. “ Peace! Faridu, the son of Wa’ilu, the son of Sa‘idat, “ who is called the free man Kalbu. ” (No. 1296a.) sinaitic inscriptions. 559 Greek and Nabatean Inscription for Aushu. i fyt) Mnhcq HA YCD C fp for KAA I TA 1 0 Y/V\ A £*> nm viw win -a to tote “ May Aushu, the son of Hirshu, the son of Turiyu, be remembered for good.” MNHC0H AYCOC EPCOY KAAITAI OYMAPOY E[N ArASOIC] (No. 1044. SINAITIO INSCRIPTIONS! 56.O Nabatean Alphabet. r *% t > JV J3 J 3 B ; VQ \\ 5 G J 'f Y U £ n H S' <\ 1 W - 3 1 T Z - - J* f\ N n KH f 6 D T 1 53} > Y r !J 3 K & 1 j] 5<5i XI. — THE EXODUS. The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt is a subject of general interest, and, with special reference to the account of the holy places of Sinai, it may be well to refer briefly to the principal views on the subject. The facts of Egyptian history show that a vast number of people, probably Semites, were expelled from the Delta about b.c. 1700, and the process of expulsion went on under the reigns of the first three or four kings of the XVIIIth dynasty ; this being so, there must have been on several occasions an exodus of Semites, or at least of Canaanites, from Egypt. Traditions of these expul- sions must have lingered among the Canaanitish tribes of Palestine, and when the Hebrews had occupied the country, their annalists incorporated them in their accounts of the emigration of their own ancestors from Egypt. Even Egyptian writers confused the traditions of two distinct events, /. Het-Suten-henen, or Henen-suten simply, from which the Copts made their name g^ItRC ; the Greeks made their city the capital of the nome Herakleopolites, and called it Herakleopolis. No date can be assigned for the founding of the city, but it was certainly a famous place in the early empire, and in mythological texts great importance is ascribed to it. According to Manetho, the kings of the IXth and Xth dynasties were Herakleopolitans, but in the excavations which Messrs. Naville and Petrie carried on at Hanassiyah or Ahnas they found nothing there older than the Xllth dynasty. Passing Bibah we come to Feshn, near which are the ruins of the city of Het-Bennu, where the Phoenix was worshipped, and after Fant we arrive at Maghaghah, 108 miles from Cairo. This town is now celebrated, for its large sugar manu- factory, which is lighted by gas, and is well worth a visit ; the manufacturing of sugar begins here early in January. About 24 miles further south, lying inland, on the western side of the Nile, between the river and the Bahr Yfisuf,. is the site of the town of Oxyrrhynchus, so called by the Greeks on account of the fish which they believed was THE CONVENT OF THE PULLEY. 577 worshipped there The Egyptian name of the town was Per-matchet, whence the corrupt Arabic form Behnesa. The excavations made here by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt have been attended with important results. A little above Abu Girgah, on the west bank of the Nile, is the town of El-Kais, which marks the site of the ancient Cynopolis or “Dog-city”: it was the seat of a Coptic bishop. Thirteen miles from Abft Girgah, also on the west bank of the Nile, is the town of Kulusna, 134 miles from Cairo, and a few miles south, lying inland, is SamaUut. Farther south, on the east bank of the Nile, is Gebel et = Ter, or the “ Bird mountain,” so called because tradition says that all the birds of Egypt assemble here once a year, and that they leave behind them when departing one solitary bird that remains there until they return the following year to relieve him of his wa;ch, and to set another in his place. As there are mountains called Gebel et-Ter in all parts of Arabic- speaking countries, because of the number of birds which frequent them, the story is only one which springs from the fertile Arab imagination. Gebel et-Ter rises above the river to a height of 600 or 700 feet, and upon its summit stands a Coptic convent dedicated to Mary the Virgin, Der al-‘Adhra, but commonly called Der aUBakarah, or the “Convent of the Pulley,” because the ascent to the convent is generally made by a rope and pulley. Leaving the river and entering a fissure in the rocks, the traveller finds himself at the bottom of a natural shaft about 120 feet long. When Robert Curzon visited this convent, fie had to climb up much in the same way as boys used to climb up inside chimneys. The convent stands about 400 feet from the top of the shaft, and is built of small square stones of Roman workmanship ; the necessary repairs have, however, been made with mud or sun- dried brick. The outer walls of the enclosure form a square which measures about 200 feet each way; they are 20 feet high, and are perfectly unadorned. Tradition says that it was founded by the Empress Helena,* and there is in this case no reason to doubt it. Minyah, T53 miles from Cairo, with 20,404 inhabitants, on the west bank of the Nile, is the capital of the province of the same name ; its Arabic name is derived from the Coptic Mone, which in turn represents the Egyptian Merit . * Died about a.d. 328, aged 80. (Sozomen, Eccles , Hist ii, 2.) 2 O 578 BENI-HASAN. There is a large sugar factory here, in which about 2,000 men are employed. A few miles to the south of Minya are a number of tombs which were excavated by Mr. George Fraser in 1893 ; they are near the ancient site now called Tahna al-Gabal. These tombs are mast abas cut in the solid rock. In all the undisturbed burials Mr. Fraser found that the body was placed with the head to the north ; it lay on its left side with the face to the east, the knees drawn up and the arms straight, and a dome of stones and mud was built over each body. In one of the tombs the cartouches of Userkaf and Men-kau-Ra were found. In 1903 MM. G. Lefebure and Barry excavated the temple of Tahna which was, apparently, built in the reign of Nero, whose cartouches are found here in the following forms : — The hypostyle hall contained eight columns, and was built close to the mountain, and was approached by a ramp ; in each wall was a door. The sanctuary consisted of four chambers hewn out of the rock ; in the first was a rectangular well, or pit, which contained a black granite figure of Sekhet, and in the fourth was an altar. The hypostyle hall is 20 metres long and nj metres wide; the sanctuary, or speos, which is probably an ancient tomb, is about 28 metres long. The ramp was 25 metres long and 7 metres wide, and had a row of statues on each side of it ; half way up was a terrace 1 1 metres long which extended to the right and left of the ramp. A few miles south, on the eastern side of the river, is the village of Zawiyat al = Metin, near which are the remains of some tombs of the Vlth dynasty. They appear to be the tombs of the nobles of the city of Hebenu, the capital of the XVIth nome of Upper Egypt. Beni = Hasan, 167 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, is remarkable for the large collection of fine historical tombs which are situated at a short distance from the site of the villages known by this name. The villages of the “ Children of Hasan ” were destroyed by order of Muhammad ‘Ali, on account of the thievish propensities of their inhabitants. The Speos Artemidos is the first rock excavation visited BENI- HASAN. 579 here. This temple was built by Thothmes III and Hatshepset ; about 250 years later Seti I added his name to several of the half obliterated cartouches of Queen Hatshepset, but it seems never to have been finished. The cavern was dedicated to the cat-goddess Pakhet, who was called Artemis by the Greeks ; hence the name “cavern of Artemis.” The Arabs call the cavern the “ Stable of ‘Antar,” a famous Muhammadan hero. The portico had originally two rows of columns, four in each ; the cavern is about 21 feet square, and the niche in the wall at the end was probably intended to hold a statue of Pakhet. The famous Tombs of Beni = Hasan are hewn out of the living rock, and are situated high up in the mountain ; they are about 39 in number, and all open on a terrace, somewhat similar to the terrace outside the tombs at Aswan. Each tomb preserves the chief characteristics of the mastabas of Sakkara, that is to say, it consists of a hall for offerings and a shaft leading down to a corridor, which ends in the chamber con- taining the sarcophagus and the mummy. The tombs were hewn out of a thick layer of fine white limestone, and the walls were partly smoothed and then covered with a thin layer of plaster, upon which the scenes in the lives of the wealthy men who ordered them to be made might be painted. Lower down the hill are some scores of mummy pits, with small chambers attached, wherein, probably, the poorer class of people who lived near were buried. Of the 39 tombs at Beni-Hasan only 12 contain inscriptions, but it is clear from these that the men who made the necropolis there were well-born, independent, and almost feudal proprietors of the land in the neighbourhood, who filled various high offices in the city of Menat-Khufu, which was situated not far off, and that they flourished during the Xlth and Xllth dynasties. Of the 12 inscribed tombs, eight are of governors of the nome Meh, two are of princes of Menat-Khufu, one is of the son of a prince, and one is of a royal scribe. The 39 tombs were divided by Lepsius into two groups, northern and southern ; in the former are 13 and in the latter 26 tombs. Six of the inscribed tombs belong to the reigns of Amenemhat I, Usertsen I, and Usertsen II, and the other six were probably made during the rule of the kings of the Xlth dynasty. In 1903 and 1904 Mr. John Garstang opened a series of tombs here, from which he brought out a large number of beautiful and interesting objects, coffins, wooden figures, etc. 202 5 So beni-hasan. No. 2. Tomb Tomb of Ameni, 1 | lj[j , or Amenemhat, — Ameni was the governor of the XVIth nome of Upper Egypt, called Meh by the Egyptians and Antinoe by the Greeks, and he flourished in the reign of Usertsen I. hie was by birth the hereditary prince of the district, and he held the rank of “ha” or “duke,” and the office of priest to various gods and goddesses • he seems to have combined in his own person the offices of almost every high state official in the nome. Architecturally his tomb is of great interest, and it is instructive to find examples of the use of octagonal and polyhedral pillars in the same tomb ; the shrine is at the east end of the hall, and two shafts, which lead to mummy chambers below, are on one side of it. The inscriptions show that Ameni was buried in the forty-third year of the reign of Usertsen I, on the fifteenth day of the second month of the Inundation, i.e., about the end of May ; the feudal lords of the nome seem to have had an epoch of their own by which to reckon, for we are told that the forty-third year of Usertsen I was the equivalent of “year 25 of the nome of Meh.” No. 3. Tomb of Khnemu = Hetep II. Q I ^Tn Khnemu-hetep was the governor of the Eastern Mountains, i.e ., of the land on the eastern side of the nome of Meh as far as the Arabian mountains : and he flourished in the reign of Usertsen II. He was by birth the hereditary prince of the district, and he held the rank of “ ha ” or “ duke,” and the office of priest to various gods and goddesses. The scenes painted on the walls of this tomb are of great interest, and represent West wall {over the doonvay) a shrine with a statue of the deceased being drawn to the tomb ; {south side) carpenters, washers of clothes, boat-builders, potters, weavers, bakers, and others at work, and {middle rozv) the wives and family of Khnemu-hetep sailing in boats to Abydos ; {north side) the storage and registration of grain, reaping, treading of corn, ploughing, gathering of grapes and other fruit, watering the garden, oxen fording a river, a fishing scene, and {middle row) the passage of the mummy of the deceased to Abydos. {North wall) Khnemu-hetep, armed with bow and arrows, and his sons hunting in the desert ; with him went the scribe Menthu-hetep, who kept an account of the bag made. On the right is a large figure of Khnemu-hetep, who is accom- panied by one of his sons, and by an attendant, and by three BENI-HASAN. 581 dogs, and the four lines of text above him state that he is inspecting his cattle and the produce of his lands. Of the four rows of figures before him, the first is perhaps the most important, for it illustrates a procession of foreign people who visited him in his capacity of governor of the nome. The procession consists of 37 persons of the Aamu, a Semitic people or tribe, and they are introduced by Nefer-hetep, a royal scribe, who holds in his hand a papyrus roll, on which is inscribed “Year 6, under the majesty of Horus, the leader of “ the world, the king of the South and North, Ra-Kha-Kheper “ (i.e., Usertsen II). List of the Aamu, brought by the son “ of the Duke Khnemu-hetep, on account of the eye-paint, “Aamu of Shu; a list of 37 [persons].” Behind the scribe stands the official Khati, and behind him the Aamu chief, or desert shekh ; these are followed by the other members of the foreign tribe. The men of the Aamu wear beards, and carry bows and arrows, and both men and women are dressed in garments of many colours. The home of the Aamu was situated to the east of Palestine. In this picture some have seen a representation of the arrival of Jacob’s sons in Egypt to buy corn, but there is no evidence for the support of this the -ry ; others have identified the Aamu with the Hyksos. The company here seen are probably merchants who brought eye-paint, spices, and the like, from their own country, and sold their wares to the rich officials of Egypt. On the East and South Walls are series of scenes in which Khnemu-hetep is depicted hunting the hippopotamus, and snaring birds, and spearing fish, and receiving offerings. No. 13. Tomb of Khnemu = hetep III, a royal scribe, the son of Neteru-hetep. This tomb consists of one small rectangular chamber with one mummy pit. The inscriptions record the name and titles of the deceased, and petitions to those who visit the tomb to pray that abundant offerings may be made to him. This is one of the oldest tombs at Beni- Hasan, and was probably made long before the site became a general burial-ground for the nobles of Menat-Khufu. No. 14. Tomb of Khnemu = hetep I, the governor of the nome of Meh, and prince of the town of Menat-Khufu. His father’s name and titles are unknown, and the rank of his mother, Baqet, is also unknown; his wife was called Satap, and his son Nekht succeeded to his rank, title, and dignities. He flourished during the reign of Amen-em-hat I. On the 582 BENI-HASAN. south-west wall of the main chamber of this tomb is an inscrip- tion which contains the cartouches of Amen-em-hat I, and which states that Khnemu-hetep I went on an expedition with his king in boats to some country, probably to the south. No. 15. Tomb of Baqet III, governor of the nome of Meh. Baqet held the rank of “ ha,” or “duke,” and flourished before the rule of the kings of the Xllth dynasty. This tomb contains seven shafts leading to mummy chambers. The North Wall is ornamented with some interesting scenes in which men and women are seen engaged in various handicrafts and occupations, and the deceased is seen enjoying himself hunting in the desert, and fishing in the Nile. On the East Wall wrestling scenes are painted, and over 200 positions are illus- trated ; below these are illustrations of the events of a pitched battle. On the South Wall are scenes connected with the work on Baqet’s estates, and pictures of men engaged in their work or amusements. No. 17. Tomb of Khati, governor of the nome of Meh, and commandant of the Eastern Desert ; the main chamber is crossed by two rows of three quatrefoil columns of the lotus- bud type, and of these two remain perfect. Each column represents four lotus stems with unopened buds, tied together below the buds, and is brilliantly painted in red, blue, and yellow. This tomb contains two shafts leading to mummy chambers, and is decorated with a large number of scenes which have, however, much in common with those in the other tombs already described. In December, 1902, Mr. John Garstang began a systematic excavation of the cemetery at Beni-Hasan, or at least of that portion of it which remained untouched by the Egypt Explora- tion Fund. By May, 1903, the number of tombs which he examined was about 500, and by March, 1904, this number had risen to 888. A description of certain typical tombs was published by him in Aimales du Service , tom. v, p. 215 ff., and we are promised a full account of his operations in a volume which we hope will appear at no distant date. Roda, T76 miles from Cairo, the seat of a large sugar manufactory, lies on the west bank of the river, just opposite Shekh ‘Abadah, or Antinoe, a town built by Hadrian, and named by him after his favourite Antinous, a Bithynian youth, who was drowned here in the Nile. To the south of Antinoe lies the Coptic convent of Abu Honnes (Father 11 AL-BARSHA. 583 John), and in the districts in the immediate neighbour- hood are the remains of several Coptic buildings which date back to the fourth century of our era. A little to the south- west of Roda, lying inland, are the remains of the city of Hermopolis Magna, called in Egyptian Khemennu , in Coptic Shmun, and in Arabic E^hmunen ; the tradition which attributes the building of this city to Eshmiin, son of Misr, is worthless. The Greeks called it Hermopolis, because the Egyptians there named by the Greeks Hermes. A little distance from the town is the spot where large numbers of the ibis, a bird sacred to Thoth, were buried. About five miles south of Antinoe, and seven miles from Eshmunen in a direct line across the Nile, on the north side of the rocky valley behind the modern Coptic village of Der AUNakhlah, is a very important group of ancient Egyptian tombs at the place called Al = Barsha. The most important of these is the Tomb of Tehuti = hetep, the chief of the XVth nome of Upper Egypt, who flourished during the reigns of Amen-em-hat II, Usertsen II, and Usertsen III, in the Xllth dynasty. The facade consists of two fine columns with palm-leaf capitals, supporting a massive architrave, all coloured pink, and marbled with pale green to represent rose granite ; the ceiling is painted blue and studded with quatrefoils, and the walls were sculptured with hunting and other scenes. The main chamber measures 25 feet by 20 feet by 13^ feet, and on the upper part of the left-hand wall is the famous painting of the “Colossus on a Sledge,” in which we see a huge alabaster statue of the deceased being dragged along by nearly 200 men. This statue, we are told in the inscriptions, was 13 cubits in height, i.e.y nearly 21 feet, and it must have weighed about 60 tons ; the work of transporting this mass from the mountain many miles distant, where it was quarried, must have been enormous. Of Tehuti-hetep’s career little is known, but the wealth and position of the man are sufficiently indicated by the fact that he was able to undertake such a work. The tomb was discovered by Messrs. Mangles and Irby about August 26th, 1817. Melawi, 185 miles from Cairo, is situated on the west bank of the river ; it is the Manlau of Coptic writers, and there were many Christian churches in the town, among others one worshipped Thoth, scribe of the gods, who was 5 8 4 TELL AL-‘AMARNA. dedicated to Abatir, one to Mercurius, one to St. George, one to Gabriel the Archangel, one to Raphael the Archangel, and two to the Virgin and to Michael the Archangel. Passengers by rail alight at Der Mawas for Haggi Kandil, or Tell al = ‘Amarna, 195 miles from Cairo. It lies on the east bank of the river, about five miles from the ruins of the city built by Khu-en-aten, Amenophis IV, the famous “ heretic ” king of the XVIIIth dynasty, whose prenomen was Nefer- kheperu-Ra ua-en-Ra. Amenophis IV was the son of Amenophis III, by Thi, the daughter of Iuaa and Thuau, whose tomb was discovered by Mr. T. M. Davis in 1905. When the young prince Amenophis IV grew up, it was found that he had conceived a rooted dislike to the worship of Amen-Ra, the king of the gods and great lord of Thebes, and that he preferred the worship of the disk of the sun to that of Amen-Ra ; as a sign of his opinions he called himself “spirit of Aten,” and “beloved of Aten,” instead of the usual and time-honoured “ beloved of Amen.” In answer to the objections of the priesthood of Amen, the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father’s names. Rebellion then broke out, and Khu-en-aten thought it best to leave Thebes, and to found a new city for himself at a place between Memphis and Thebes, now called Tell al-Amarna. The famous architect Bek, whose father Men served under Amenophis III, designed the temple buildings, and in a very short time a splendid town, with beautiful granite sculptures, sprang out of the desert. As an insult to the priests and people of Thebes, he built a sandstone and granite temple at Thebes in honour of the god Harmachis. When Ivhu-en-aten’s new town, Khut-aten, “ the spirit (?) of the sun’s disk,” was finished, his mother Thi came to live there ; and here the king passed his life quietly with his mother, wife, and seven daughters. He died leaving no male issue, and each of the husbands of his daughters became king. The length of the king’s reign does not seem to have been more than 12 or 15 years, and certainly long before the reign of Rameses II the beautiful city which Khu-en-Aten built had been made to fall into ruins. Fortunately, however, the ruins are very instructive, and they allow visitors to follow its plan with success. In 1887 a number of important cuneiform tablets were found by a native woman near the palace, and most of these may be seen in the Museums of London, Berlin, and MANFALUT. 585 Cairo. They are inscribed with letters and despatches from kings of countries in and about Mesopotamia and from governors of cities in Palestine and Syria, and those from the last-named countries show that, whilst the heretic king was occupying himself with theological problems and artistic developments, his Empire was falling to pieces. Among the tombs of special interest are : — {Northern Group ) No. 1. Tomb of Pa = nehsi, which seems to have been used as a church by the Copts; No. 2. Tomb of Pentu, inscribed with a hymn to Aten ; No. 3. Tomb of Meri = Ra, which is probably the most characteristic of the period, with sacrificial scenes, hymns to Aten, plans of houses, and scenes of the crowning of officials ; No. 4. Tomb of Aahmes, with a hymn to Aten ; No. 5. Tomb of an unknown official which was being built when King Ra-saa-ka came to the throne ; and No. 7, a tomb which mentions the receipt of tribute from vassal nations. The scenes and portraits in this tomb are of great interest. {Southern Group .) The Tomb of Tutu, with hymns to Aten; and the Tomb of Ai, the successor of King Khu-en-Aten. The Tomb of Khu = en = Aten lies at a considerable distance from the river, and it is chiefly interesting on account of the scenes of sun-worship which are depicted in it. Gebel Abu Fedah. — Seventeen miles south of Haggi Kandil, 209 miles from Cairo, on the east side of the river, is the range of low mountains about 12 miles long known by this name. Lying a little distance inland is the village of Al = Kusiyah, which marks the site of the Greek city of capital of the XISTh nome of Upper Egypt. The name seems to mean, “the town of the mummy bandages.” According to ./Elian (H.A. x, 27), the goddess of the city was worshipped under the form of a white cow. Towards the southern end of this range there are some crocodile mummy pits. Manfalut, 220 miles from Cairo on the west bank of the Nile, occupies the site of an ancient Egyptian town. Leo Africanus says that the town was destroyed by the Romans, and adds that it was rebuilt under Muhammadan rule. In his time he says that huge columns and buildings inscribed with hieroglyphs were still visible. The Coptic name Ma-en-balot, “ place of the sack,” is the original of its Arabic name to-day. Quite close on the east bank is Ma‘abdah, in the Cusae, the hieroglyphic texts, and the 586 ASYUT THE AMERICAN MISSION. hills of which was found a burial place full of mummies of Crocodiles. Asyut, 249 J miles from Cairo, with 42,012 inhabitants, is the capital of the province of the same name, and the seat of the Inspector-General of Upper Egypt ; it stands on the site of the ancient Egyptian city called Saul , whence the Arabic name Siut or Asyut, and the Coptic Siout. The Greeks called the city Lycopolis, or “ wolf city,” probably because the jackal- headed Anubis was worshipped there. In ancient Egyptian times the sacred name of the city was Per-Anpu, and it formed the capital of the XVI Ith or Anubis nome of Upper Egypt. Asyut is a large city, with spacious bazaars and fine mosques ; it is famous for its red pottery and for its market, held every Sunday, to which wares from Arabia and Upper Egypt are brought. The American Missionaries have a large estab- lishment, and the practical, useful education of the natives by these devoted men is carried on here, as well as at Cairo, on a large scale, d'he Asyut Training College was specially estab- lished to provide and prepare workers to carry on the educa- tional and evangelistic operations of the Evangelical community in Egypt, and nearly all the male teachers, in number 215, have been trained in it. At the end of 1898 there were 604 boarders and day scholars in the institution, who represented 1 1 2 towns and villages, and came from all parts of Egypt. In the same year the American Mission had in all Egypt 180 schools with 11,872 pupils, and 295 teachers, and of its Protestant com- munity 365 per 1,000 knew how to read, as against 48 per 1,000 of the entire population in Egypt. If the evangelical community were deducted from the entire population, the latter figure would become smaller still. Of the males of the evangelical community in Egypt, 521 per 1,000 knew how to read, and of the females, 200 per 1,000. The number of the stations belonging to the Mission, including churches, is 207, and in 1898 the pupils paid 26,741 dollars in tuition fees. In recent years the work of the Mission has extended in all directions, and it has now a flourishing station on the Sobat River in the Sudan.* The Arabic geographers described Asyut as a town of con- siderable size, beauty, and importance, and before the abandon- * The history of the work which the Mission has carried on with such conspicuous success is modestly told by Dr. Andrew Watson in the “ American Mission of Egypt, 1854-1896,” Pittsburgh, 1898. WHITE MONASTERY. 587 ment of the Sudan by the Khedive all caravans from that region stopped there. In the hills to the west of the town are a number of ancient Egyptian tombs, which date back as far as the VUIth dynasty. The most important of these are the tombs of Khati and Tef-ab. A large number were destroyed during the last century for the sake of the limestone which forms the walls. When M. Denon stayed here he said that the number of hieroglyphic inscriptions which cover the tombs was so great that many months would be required to read and many years to copy them. The disfigurement of the tombs dates from the time when the Christians took up their abode in them. The Barrage at Asyut has already been described in a separate section of this work (see pages 92-95). Fifteen miles farther south is the Coptic town of Abu Tig, the name of which appears to mean “granary ” ; and 14^ miles beyond, 279 miles from Cairo, is Kau aUKabir (the TKUOO'tf of the Copts), which marks the site of Antaeopolis, the capital of the Antaeopolite nome in Upper Egypt. The temple which formerly existed here was dedicated to Antaeus, the Libyan wrestler, who fought with Hercules ; he was the son of Poseidon and Ge, and was invincible as long as he remained in contact with his mother earth. In the plain close by it is said by Diodorus that the battle between Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, and Set or Typhon, the murderer of Osiris, took place ; Typhon was overcome, and fled away in the form of a crocodile. In Christian times Antaeopolis was the seat of a bishop. Tahtah, 291^ miles from Cairo, contains some interesting mosques, and is the home of a large number of Copts, in con- sequence of which, probably, the town is kept clean. Suhag, 317 \ miles from Cairo, with 13,930 inhabitants, is the capital of the province of Girgah ; near it are the White and Red Monasteries. The Der al-Abyad or “ White Monastery,” so called because of the colour of the stone of which it is built, but better known by the name of Amba Shenudah, is situated on the west bank of the river near Suhag, 3 I 7 i miles from Cairo. The convent was built by the Empress Helena, in the ancient Egyptian style. The walls slope inwards towards the summit, where they are crowned with a deep overhanging cornice. The building is of an oblong shape, about 200 feet in length by 90 feet wide, very well built of fine blocks of stone ; it has no windows outside larger than loop- 5 88 AKHMIM-PANOPOUS. holes, and these are at a great height from the ground. Of these there are 20 on the south side and nine at the east end. The monastery stands at the foot of the hill, on the edge of the Libyan desert, where the sand encroaches on the plain. There were formerly six gates ; the single entrance now remaining is called the “mule gate,” because when a certain heathen princess came riding on a mule to desecrate the church, the earth opened and swallowed her up. r J he walls enclose a space measuring about 240 feet by 133 feet. The convent was dedicated to Shenuti, who was born a.d. 333 ; he died at midday on July 2nd, a.d. 451 ! The library once con- tained over a hundred parchment books, but these were destroyed by the Mamluks when they last sacked the convent. In this monastery the bodies of St. Bartholomew and Simon the Canaanite are said to be buried, but the body of its founder was laid in the monastery which stood on the Mountain of Athribis, a name derived from the Egyptian Het-erpat. The Der al-Ahmar or “ Red Monastery/’ so called because of the red colour of the bricks of which it is built, was also built by the Empress Helena ; it is smaller and better preserved than the White Monastery, and was dedicated to the Abba Besa, the disciple and friend of Shenuti. The pillars of both churches were taken from Athribis, which lay close by ; the orientation of neither church is exact, for their axes point between north-east and north-east by east. The ruined church of Armant near Thebes is built on the same model. All lovers of Coptic buildings will be grateful to Lord Cromer for the promptitude which he has shown in connec- tion with the repairing of these monasteries, which contain the two most important churches in Egypt. Mr. Somers Clarke called attention to the ruined state of the monasteries, and very soon after Herz Bey, Architect to the Comite de Conservation, took steps to preserve the buildings and to clear out the squalid houses which had been built up within the walls. The Egyptian Government granted ^E.4,000 for the work of restoration, nnd to this sum the Coptic Patriarch added ^E. 1,000. A few miles south of Suhag, on the east bank of the river, lies the town of Akhmim, with over 28,000 inhabitants, called Panopolis by the Greeks; Strabo and Leo Africanus say that it was one of the most ancient cities of Egypt. The ithyphallic god Amsu, identified by the Greeks with Pan, was worshipped here, and the town was famous for its linen ABYPOS. 5 8 9 weavers and stone cutters. Its Egyptian name was Apu. Of this city Herodotus (ii, 91) says : “There is a large city called “ Chemmis (i.e., Panopolis), situate in the Thebaic district, “ near Neapolis, in which is a quadrangular temple dedicated “ to Perseus the son of Danae ; palm trees grow round it, and “ the portico is of stone, very spacious, and over it are placed “ two large stone statues. In this enclosure is a temple, and “ in it is placed a statue of Perseus. The Chemmitae affirm “ that Perseus has frequently appeared to them on earth, and “ frequently within the temple, and that a sandal worn by him “ is sometimes found, which is two cubits in length ; and that “ after its appearance, all Egypt flourishes. They adopt the “ following Grecian customs in honour of Perseus : they cele- “ brate gymnastic games, embracing every kind of contest ; and “ they give as prizes, cattle, cloaks, and skins. When I “ enquired why Perseus appeared only to them, and why they “ differed from the rest of the Egyptians in holding gymnastic “ games, they answered, ‘ Perseus derived his origin from their “ ‘ city ; for that Danaus and Lynceus, who were both natives “ ‘ of Chemmis, sailed from there into Greece ’ ; and tracing the “ ‘ descent down from them, they came to Perseus : and that “ he coming to Egypt, for the same reason as the Greeks “ allege, in order to bring away the Gorgon’s head from Libya, “ they affirmed that he came to them also and acknowledged “ all his kindred ; and that when he came to Egypt he was “ well acquainted with the name of Chemmis, having heard it “ from his mother ; they add, that by his order they instituted “ gymnastic games in honour of him.” Akhmim is still famous for its linen weavers, who seem to have inherited the skill of their predecessors in making many coloured woven fabrics. The city is also famous as the birth place of Nonnus, the poet, a.d. 410, and as the burial place of Nestorius, a.d. 450. This wretched man was banished first to Petra, in Arabia, and then to the Oasis of Kharga in 435 ; he was seized by the Blemmyes and carried off, but eventually found his way to Panopolis. He was again banished and tortured by sufferings and privations, and at length died of a disease in the course of which his tongue was eaten by worms : his religious opponents declared that rain never fell on his tomb. In ancient days Akhmim had a large population of Copts, and large Coptic monasteries stood close by. The Necropolis of Akhmim was discovered by M. Maspero in 1882-3. AUMenshah, on the west bank of the river, 328J miles 59 ° ABYDOS. from Cairo, stands on the site of a city which is said to have been the capital of the Panopolite nome ; its Coptic name was Psoi. In the time of Shenuti the Blemmyes, a nomad warlike Ethiopian tribe, invaded Upper Egypt, and having acquired much booty, they returned to Psoi or Al-Menshah, and settled down there. Girgah, with 17,271 inhabitants, on the west bank of the river, 34 miles from Cairo, has a large Christian population, and is said to occupy the site of the. ancient This, whence sprang the first dynasty of historical Egyptian kings. A few miles further on is Al-Balyana, CuJjJl » where travellers usually start for Abydos. Abydos,* in Egyptian J Abtu, Arabic ‘Arabat al- Madfunah, on the west bank of the Nile, was one of the most renowned cities of ancient Egypt ; it was famous as the chief seat of the worship of Osiris in Upper Egypt, and the chief sanctuary of this god was here. The town itself was dedicated to Osiris, and the temple in it, wherein the most solemn ceremonies connected with the worship of this god were celebrated, was more reverenced than any other in the land. Tradition declared that the head of Osins was preserved at Abydos. The town and its necropolis were built side by side, and the custom usually followed by the Egyptians in burying their dead away from the town in the mountains was not followed in this case The town of Abydos, a small town even in its best time, was built upon a narrow tongue of land situated between the canal, which lies inland some few miles, and the desert, and owed its importance solely to the position it held as a religious centre ; from this point of view it was the second city in Egypt. The necropolis of Abydos is not much older than the Vlth dynasty, and the tombs found there belonging to this period are of the mastaba class. During the Xlthand Xllth dynasties the tombs took the form of small pyramids, which were generally built of brick, and the ancient rectangular form of tomb was revived during the XVIIIth dynasty. Abydos attained its greatest splendour under the monarchs of the Xlth and Xllth dynasties, and though its plain was used as a burial ground so late as Roman times, it became of little or no account so early as the time ol Psammetichus I. It has often been assumed that the town of Abydos is to be identified with This, the home of Menes, the * In ancient times the name was pronounced Abydos, and not Abydos. ABYDOS. 59 1 first historical king of Egypt ; the evidence derived from the exhaustive excavations made by M. Mariette does not support this assumption. No trace of the shrine of Osiris, which was as famous in Upper Egypt as was the shrine of the same god at Busiris in Lower Egypt, has been found in the temple ; neither can any trace be discovered of the royal tombs which Rameses II declares he restored. Plutarch says that wealthy inhabitants of Egypt were often brought to Abydos to be buried near the mummy of Osiris, and curiously enough, the tombs close to certain parts of the temple of Osiris are more care- fully executed than those elsewhere. Of Abydos Strabo says (Bk. xvii, cap. i, sec. 42): “Above this city (Ptolemais) is “ Abydos, where is the palace of Memnon, constructed in a “ singular manner, entirely of stone, and after the plan of the “ Labyrinth, which we have described, but not composed of “ many parts. It has a fountain situated at a great depth. “ 'There is a descent to it through an arched passage built “ with single stones of remarkable size and workmanship. “ There is a canal which leads to this place from the great “ river. About the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus, “ dedicated to Apollo. Abydos seems once to have been a “ large city, second to Thebes. At present it is a small town. “ But if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the “ Egyptians, the I abyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the “ work of the same person who constructed those at Abydos “ and at Thebes ; for in those places, it is said, are some “ Memnonia. At Abydos Osiris is worshipped ; but in the “ temple of Osiris no singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on “ the cithara, is permitted to perform at the commencement “ of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of the god, as is “ usual in rites celebrated in honour of the gods ” (Bk. xvii, 1, 44, Falconer’s translation). The principal monuments which were brought to light by the excavations of M. Mariette at Abydos are : — 1. The Temple of Seti I, better known as the Mem = nonium ; it is built of fine white calcareous stone upon an artificial foundation made of stone, earth, and sand, which has been laid upon a slo ing piece of land ; it was called Menmaat-Ra, after the prenomen of its builder. The Phoeni- cian graffiti show that the temple must have ceased to be used at a comparatively early period. It would seem that it was nearly finished when Seti I died, and that his son Rameses II 59 2 . ABYDOS. only added the pillars in front and the decoration. Its exterior consists of two courts, a and b, the wall which divides them, and the facade ; all these parts were built by Rameses II. The Plan of the Temple of Seti I at Abydos (Mariette). pillars are inscribed with religious scenes and figures of the king and the god Osiris. On the large wall to the south of the central door is an inscription in which Rameses II relates all that he has done for the honour of his father’s memor ABYDOS. 593 how he erected statues of him at Thebes and Memphis, and how he built up the sacred doors. At the end of it he gives a brief sketch of his childhood, and the various grades of rank Plan of the Temple of Rameses II at Abydos. and dignities which he held. In the interior- the first hall, c, is mainly of the time of Rameses II, but it is possible to see under 594 NEOLITHIC GRAVES AT ABYDOS. the rough hieroglyphics of this king the finer ones of Seti I ; this hall contains 24 pillars, arranged in two rows. The scenes on the walls represent figures of the gods and of the king offering to them, the names of the nomes, etc., etc. The second hall, D, is larger than the first, the style and finish of the sculptures are very fine, the hieroglyphics are in relief, and it contains 36 columns, arranged in three rows. From this hall seven short naves dedicated to Horus, Isis, Osiris, Amen, Harmachis, Ptah, and Seti I respectively, lead into seven vaulted chambers, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, beautifully shaped and decorated, which are dedicated to the same beings. The scenes on the walls of six of these chambers represent the ceremonies which the king was supposed to perform in them daily ; those in the seventh refer to the apotheosis of the king. At the end of chamber g is a door which leads into the sanctuary of Osiris, l, and in the corridor m is the famous Tablet of Abydos, which gives the names of 76 kings of Egypt, beginning with Menes and ending with Seti I. 2. The Temple of Rameses 11 ; it was dedicated by this king to the god Osiris ; it lies a little to the north of the temple of Seti I. Many distinguished scholars thought that this was the famous shrine which all Egypt adored, but the excavations made there by M. Mariette proved that it was not. It would seem that during the French occupation of Egypt in the early part of the last century this temple stood almost intact ; since that time, however, so much damage has been wrought upon it, that the portions of wall which now remain are only about 8 or 9 feet high. The fragment of the second Tablet of Abydos, now in the British Museum, came from this temple. The few scenes and fragments of inscriptions which remain are interest- ing, but not important. A little to the north of the temple of Rameses II is a Coptic monastery, the church of which is dedicated to Amba Musas. In recent years a number of excavations which have been productive of important results have been carried on near Abydos. In 1896 M. de Morgan discovered a number of remarkable tombs of the Neolithic Period at. Al-‘Amrah, about three miles to the east of Abydos. In 1895, 1896, and 1897 M. Amelineau excavated the tombs of a number of kings of the first three dynasties .at Umm a!-Ka‘ab, which lies to the west of the necropolis of the Middle Empire, and in the course of his work at Abydos he also discovered a shrine which the ancient Egyptians placed on a spot where they seem to have TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. 595 believed that the god Osiris was buried, or at any rate where some traditions declared he was laid. In the winter of 1 899-1900 Professor Petrie also carried on excavations on M. Amelineau’s old sites at Abydos, and recovered a number of objects of the same class as those found by M. Amelineau. The greater part of the site, however, still remains to be excavated, and it may be asserted confidently that the clearing of it will occupy several excavators for many years. The next station reached is Abu Tisht, and the next Farshut, with 9,839 inhabitants, 368 miles from Cairo, on the west bank of the river. At Nag‘ Hamadi, with 4,365 inhabitants, 373 miles from Cairo, is the iron railway bridge, 1,362 feet in length, across the Nile. Kasr es=Sayyad, or “ the hunter’s castle,” 376 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, marks the site of the ancient Chenoboskion, i.e., the “ Goose-pen,” or place where geese were kept in large numbers and fattened for market. The Copts call the town Sheneset, which is probably a corruption of some old Egyptian name, meaning the place where geese were fattened. The town is famous in Coptic annals as the place where Pachomius (he died about a.d. 349, aged 57 years) embraced Christianity, and a few miles to the south of it stood the great monastery of Tabenna, which he founded. In the neighbourhood are a number of interesting tombs of the Early Empire. Passing the stations Al = Dab‘ih, and Faw Kibli, at mile 387 from Cairo Dashna is reached. Kena, or Kenah, with 24,364 inhabitants, 405^ miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, is the capital of the province of the same name. This city is famous for its dates, and the trade which it carries on in the porous ware drinking bottles, which are made here in myriads. The Arabic name for this kind of bottle is “kullah,” , which is commonly called gullah ; its plural is either Iculal, or ki/al, JJj > or A short distance from the river, on the west bank, a little to the north of the village of Denderah, stands the Temple of Denderah, which marks the site of the classical Tentyra or Tentyris, where the goddess Hathor was worshipped. During the Middle Empire great quantities of flax and linen fabrics were produced at Tentyra, and it gained some reputation thereby. In very ancient times Khufu, or Cheops, a king of the 2 p 2 S9 6 TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. IVth dynasty, founded a temple here, but it seems never to have become of much importance, probably because it lay so close to the famous shrines of Abydos and Thebes. The Plan of the Temple at Denderah. wonderfully preserved Temple now standing there is probably but little older than the beginning of our era ; indeed, it cannot, in any case, be older than the time of the later Ptolemies : hence TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. 597 it must be considered as the architectural product of a time when the ancient Egyptian traditions of sculpture were already dead and nearly forgotten. It is, however, a majestic monument, and worthy of careful examination. Strabo says (Bk. xvii, ch. i, 44) of this town and its inhabitants : “ Next to “ Abydos is . . . the city Tentyra, where the crocodile is held “ in peculiar abhorrence, and is regarded as the most odious of “ all animals. For the other Egyptians, although acquainted with “ its mischievous disposition, and hostility towards the human “ race, yet worship it, and abstain from doing it harm. But the “ people of Tentyra track and destroy it in every way. Some, “ however, as they say of the Psyllians of Cyrenaea, possess a “ certain natural antipathy to snakes, and the people of Tentyra “ have the same dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury “ from them, but dive and cross the river when no other person “ ventures to do so. When crocodiles were brought to Rome to “ be exhibited, they were attended by some of the Tentyritae. “ A reservoir was made for them with a sort of stage on one of “ the sides, to form a basking place for them on coming out of “ the water, and these persons went into the water, drew them in “ a net to the place, where they might sun themselves and be “ exhibited, and then dragged them back again to the reservoir. “ The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the back of the “ fane of Venus is a temple of Isis ; then follow what are called “ Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos, a city common “ both to the Egyptians and Arabians.” (Falconer’s trans- lation.) On the walls and on various other parts of the temples art the names of several of the Roman Emperors ; the famous portraits of Cleopatra and Caesarion her son are on the end wall of the exterior. Passing along a dromos for about 250 feet, the portico, a, supported by 24 Hathor-headed columns, arranged in six rows, is reached. Leaving this hall by the doorway facing the entrance, the visitor arrives in a second hall, b, having six Hathor-headed columns and three small chambers on each side. The chambers held the priestly apparel and stores of the temple. The two chambers, c and d, have smaller chambers on the right and left, e was the sanctuary, and in f the emblem of the god worshipped in the temple was placed. From a room on each side of c a staircase led up to the roof. On the ceiling of the portico is the famous “ Zodiac,” which was thought to have been made in ancient Egyptian times ; the Greek inscription written in the 59 8 TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. twenty-first year of Tiberius = a.d. 35, and the names of the Roman Emperors, have clearly proved that, like that at Esneh, it belongs to the Roman time. The Zodiac from Denderah, now at Paris, was cut out, with the permission of Muhammad ‘Ali, in 1821, from the small temple of Osiris, generally called the “Temple on the Roof.” The Iseium is situated to the south of the temple of Hathor, and consists of three chambers and a corridor ; near by is a pylon which was dedicated to Isis in the thirty-first year of Caesar Augustus, The Mammisi, or birth-house, was built by Augustus ; this is the dwelling where the goddess was supposed to have brought forth the third person of the triad which was adored in the temple close by. The Typhonium stands to the north of the Temple of Hathor, and was so named because the god Bes, Jj^, figures of whom occur on its walls, was confused with Typhon ; it measures about 120 feet by 60 feet, and is surrounded by a peristyle of 22 columns. If time permits, the Crypts should be visited, for the late Ptolemaic bas-reliefs are of interest. A few miles beyond Denderah, on the east bank of the river, lies the town of Kuft, the Qebt of the hieroglyphics, and Keft of the Copts, with 4,187 inhabitants • it was the principal city in the Coptites nome, and was the Thebais Secunda of the Itineraries. From Kuft the road which crossed the desert to Berenice on the Red Sea started, and the merchandise which passed through the town from the east, and the stone from the famous porphyry quarries in the Arabian desert, must have made it wealthy and important. It held the position of a port on the Nile for merchandise from a \ery early period ; and there is no doubt that every Egyptian king who sent expeditions to Punt, and the countries round about, found Kuft most usefully situated for this purpose. A temple dedicated to the ithyphallic god Amsu, Isis, and Osiris, stood here. It was nearly destroyed by Diocletian a.d. 292. A copy of a medical papyrus in the British Museum states that the work was originally discovered at Coptos during the time of Cheops, a king of the IVth dynasty; thus it is certain that the Egyptians considered this city to be of very old foundation. Kus, with 12,646 inhabitants, 425 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, marks the site of the city called NEOLITHIC GRAVES AT NAKADA. 599 Apollinopolis Parva by the Greeks, and Qeset by the Egyptians. To the west of the city stood the monastery of St. Pisentius, who flourished in the seventh century, and the well of water which is said to have been visited by our Lord and the Virgin Mary and Joseph. The Copts built numbers of churches in the neighbourhood. Nakada, with 6,231 inhabitants, 428 miles from Cairo, on the west bank of the river, nearly opposite the island of Matarah, was the home of a large number of Copts in early Christian times, and several monasteries were situated there The four which now remain are dedicated to the Cross, St. Michael, St. Victor, and St. George respectively, and tradition says that they were founded by the Empress Helena ; the most important of them is that of St. Michael. In 1897 M. de Morgan carried on some important excavations here, and discovered a large number of pre-historic tombs, and the tomb of a king called Aha, who has, by some, been identified with Mena, the first King of the 1 st dynasty. 6oo IV.— THE TEMPLES AND TOMBS OF THEBES. Luxor, 450 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, is a small town with 12,000 inhabitants, and owes its import- ance to the fact that it is situated close to the ruins of the temples of the ancient city of Thebes. The name of Luxor is a corruption of the Arabic name of the place, El-Ukstir, which means “ the palaces.” About twenty-five years ago, Luxor was nothing more than a cluster of poorly built mud-houses, which stood close to the edge of the river bank, and inside the various courts of the Temple of Luxor. The village, as we may call it, was ill-kept and ill-scavenged, its alleys were unlit at nights, and it was not in a prosperous condition. In 1886 a great change came over the place, for, owing to the enterprise of Messrs. Thos. Cook and Son, British tourists began to come to Upper Egypt in comparatively large numbers, and prosperity for the town followed in their train. In December of that year Messrs. Thos. Cook and Son inaugurated a new line of steamers which ran at regular intervals from Cairo to Aswan and back. The advent of these steamers on the Nile marked a new era in the history of river travel in Egypt, and the late Mr. John M. Cook, who superintended their journeys personally, and devoted much time and care to every detail of their management, was the first to undertake the transformation of the dusty village of Luxor into a town suitable for European travellers to live in. He first caused steps to be built up the bank, the convenience of which the natives were not slow to perceive, and he improved the river front, and induced the local authorities to clean the streets and alleys, and to remove the stones which blocked the ways. He first enlarged and then rebuilt the old Luxor Hotel, and inaugurated improvements everywhere. Gradually the streets were widened, and as the trade which followed in the wake of his steamers grew, the natives began to build better houses for themselves, and European wares began to fill the bazaars. Quite early in the history of the modern development of Luxor, Mr. Cook founded a hospital, and hundreds of the sick and suffering gladly and promptly availed themselves of the medical assistance which he provided gratis. In this, as in many other things too numerous to mention, his sound advice, shrewd business capacity, and ready generosity, laid the foundation of the prosperity which THEBES. 601 has subsequently come to Luxor. He encouraged the natives to learn new methods, and ' quietly and unostentatiously supported struggling local undertakings until they were estab- lished, and the trade which he enabled the natives to do with his steamers literally “ made ” scores of villages on both banks of the river. The great organizer of the tourist traffic of Egypt was well called the “friend of the poor,” and the “father of Luxor.” Next came the excavations of the Temple of Luxor, begun by Prof. Maspero in 1883, and continued with conspicuous success by M. de Morgan. The houses inside the temple were pulled down, the road along the river front was widened, and the quay built, and several improvements were made at both ends of Luxor. The sacred lake of the temple of Mut, which had degenerated into a mere stagnant pool, was filled up, to the great benefit of the community. The advent of the railway from Cairo led to the introduction of carriages, and these have brought about a great improvement in the roads to Karnak and in those which traverse the town itself. The resultant of the forces of civilization which have been brought to bear on Luxor during the last few years, is a clean, well-kept town, and the waste of time, fatigue, and annoyance which used to accompany a prolonged series of visits to the temples on each side of the river are now things of the past. Nowhere in Egypt can time more profitably or more comfortably be spent than at Luxor. In recent years much has been done to improve the town by the natives themselves, and many of the new houses are substantial and comfortable dwellings. In the year 1906 a new and handsome mosque was built and dedicated to the service of Almighty God by a native of the town, Al-Hagg Muhammad Muhassib Musa Ash-Shairi, who is descended from one of the Ashraf or “ nobles ” of Mekka, w r ho settled at Luxor in the fourteenth century, when Abu Hagag, the builder of the old mosque, which stood in one of the temple courts, came to the town. The building stands in the heart of Luxor, and is 59 feet long, 52 feet wide, and 23 feet high; the height of the minaret is about 122 feet. The roof is supported by six columns of hard stone from Akhmim, and has six windows, three on the north side, two on the w r est side, and one on the south side ; there are doors on the west, north, and south sides. Within the mosque is a Hanafiya, and the decoration is of a partly Muslim and partly ancient Egyptian character. Over the main door is 602 THEBES. the inscription in Arabic : “ In the Name of God, the “ Merciful, the Compassionate ! Say : May God pray for the “ Apostle of God, and give him peace. He who buildeth for “ God a house of worship shall the face of God, the Most “ High, follow, and God shall build for him therein a “ house of Paradise. Al-Hagg Muhammad Muhassib Musa “ Ash-Shairi founded this House of Assembly in the year of “ the Hijra 1323” Provision has been made for a garden, and when the buildings of the mosque are complete they will include a number of alms-houses. In connexion with the American Mission at Luxor (Rev. Chauncey Murch, D.D.) must be mentioned the Boarding School for Girls. This new and commodious school, which stands on the right hand side of the road to Karnak, is managed by Miss C. M. Buchanan, assisted by Miss A. B. Atchison and Miss Jeanette Gordon, and was opened to receive boarders and day pupils on 24th February, 1905. It contained in 1905 about 52 boarders and 256 day pupils. Ancient Thebes stood on both sides of the Nile, and was generally called in hieroglyphics Uast ; that part of the city which was situated on the east bank of the river, and included the temples of Karnak and Luxor, appears to have been called Apti, whence the Coptic T"A.ne and the name Thebes have been derived. The cuneiform inscriptions and Hebrew Scriptures call it No, i.e., Nut, “ the City ” (Ezek. xxx, 14), and No-Amon,* /. w,th the p fe - nomen of Mer-ankh-Ra ^0 ^ j , and a portion of a statue of a king called Se-ankh-ka-Ra (oPfu], Of kings of the XHIth and XIVth at Karnak supplies the following dynasties the “ find rare names : — Khu-taui- Ra (o . ::i^ | • Mer-sekhem-Ra Nefer-hetep (III) [j J|» an d Mer - hetep - Ra Sebek - HETEP (VIII) r^r l lSL\ ^ J A fragment 620 THEBES — LEFT BANK. of a small obelisk also supplies the Horus name of Sebek-em- sa-f I Hetep-neteru, and a portion of his prenomen. Statues of the XVIIIth dynasty are numerous, and the most important of them historically is that of Tut- ankh-Amen, which was usurped by Heru-em-heb. The statues which belong to the XXIInd dynasty are of great value historically, and supply a number of important data, which enable us to fix the order of some of its kings with considerable accuracy. Of_a later period the statues of king Tirhakah and the princess Ankh-nes-nefer-ab-Ra are of special interest, and we learn that the prenomen of the latter was Mut-heq-nefert j m l • Of the circumstances under which these statues were buried we know nothing, but care appears to have been taken to prevent any breakage of them on a large scale, and honourable oblivion was afforded them. It is too early yet to attempt to summarize the results which the inscriptions on these statues will yield, and we must wait for the catalogue of them which, we understand, is in preparation by M. Legrain. Meanwhile the facts given above* will indicate the importance of the “ find,” and show what a mass of new material awaits investigation by the Egyptologist. 4. The Temple of Medamut. It was founded by Amen- hetep II, and is worth a visit. Left or West Bank of the Nile : — 1. The Temple of Kurna. — This temple was built by Seti I in memory of his father Rameses I ; it was completed by Rameses II, by whom it was re- dedicated to the memory of his father Seti I. Two pylons stood before it, and joining them was an Avenue of Sphinxes. This temple was to all intents and purposes a cenotaph, and as such its position on the edge of the desert, at the entrance to a necropolis, is ex- Plan of the Temple at Kurna. plained. In the temple were six * See Legrain in Maspero’s Recueil, tom. xxvii, and a supplementary paper which is to appear in a forthcoming volume of the same work. 622 THE RAMESSEUM. columns, and on each side were several small chambers. The sculptures on the walls represent Rameses II making offerings to the gods, among whom are Rameses I and Seti I. According to an inscription there, it is said that Seti I went to heaven and was united with the Sun-god before the temple was finished, and that Rameses II made and fixed the doors, finished the building of the walls, and decorated the interior. The workmanship in parts of this temple recalls that of certain parts of Abydos ; it is probable that the same artists were employed. 2. The Ramesseum. — This temple, called also the Memnonium and the Tomb of Osymandyas (Diodorus I, iv), was built by Rameses II, in honour of Amen-Ra. As at Kurna, two pylons stood in front of it. The first court had a single row of pillars on each side of it ; passing up a flight of steps, and through the second pylon is a second court, having a double row of round columns on the east and west sides, a single row on the north, and a row of pilasters, to which large figures of Rameses II under the form of Osiris are attached, on the north and south sides. Before the second pylon stood a colossal statue of Rameses II, at least 60 feet high, which has been thrown down (by Cam- byses ?), turned over on its back, and mutilated. In the hall are 1 2 huge columns, arranged in two rows, and 48 smaller ones arranged in six rows. On the interior face of the second pylon are sculptured scenes in the war of Rameses II against the Plan of the Ramesseum at Kurna. Kheta, which took place in the fifth year of his reign ; in them he is represented slaying the personal attendants of the THE COLOSSI AND MADlNAT HABU. 623 prince of the Kheta. Elsewhere is the famous scene in which Rameses, having been forsaken by his army, is seen cutting his way through the enemy, and hurling them one after the other into the Orontes near Kadesh. The walls of the temple are ornamented with small battle scenes and reliefs representing the king making offerings to the gods of Thebes. On the ceiling of one of the chambers is an interesting astronomical piece on which the 12 Egyptian months are mentioned. 3. The Colossi. — These two interesting statues were set up in honour of Amenophis 111, whom they represent; they stood in front of the pylon of a calcareous stone temple which was built by this king ; this has now entirely disappeared. They were hewn out of a hard grit-stone, and the top of each was about 60 feet above the ground ; originally each was monolithic. The statue on the north is the famous Colossus of Memnon, from which a sound was said to issue every morning when the sun rose. The upper part of it was thrown down by an earthquake, it is said, about b.c. 27 ; the damage was partially repaired during the reign of Septimius Severus, who restored the head and shoulders of the figure by adding to it five layers of stone. When Strabo was at Thebes with ^Elius Gallus he heard “ a noise at the first hour of the day, “ but whether proceeding from the base or from the colossus, “ or produced on purpose by some of those standing round the “ base, I cannot confidently assert.” It is said that after the colossus was repaired no sound issued from it. Some think that the noise was caused by the sun’s rays striking upon the stone, while others believe that a priest hidden in the colossus produced it by striking a stone. The inscriptions show that many distinguished Romans visited the “ vocal Memnon ” and heard the sound ; one Petronianus, of a poetical turn of mind, stated that it made a sighing sound in complaining to its mother, the dawn, of the injuries inflicted upon it by Cambyses. The inscriptions on the back of the colossi give the names of Amenophis III. 4. Madinat Habu. — This village lies to the south of the colossi, and its foundation dates from Coptic times. The early Christians established themselves around the ancient Egyptian temple there, and, having carefully plastered over the wall sculptures in one of its chambers, they used it as a chapel. Round and about this temple many Greek and Coptic inscriptions have been found, which prove that the Coptic 624 THEBES LEFT BANK. community here was one of the largest and most important in Upper Egypt. The Egyptian name of the site was Aat-tcha-Mutet, which the Copts turned into Tcheme. The principal buildings at Madinat Habu are : — The Little Temple, the chapels built by royal personages in the XXVIth dynasty, the “ Pavilion of Rameses III,” and the Great Temple. The collection of buildings which forms the Little Temple belongs to various periods, the oldest dating from the reigns of the early kings of the XVIIIth dynasty (Thothmes II and III), and the most recent from the time of the Roman rule over Egypt. The paved courtyard (a) is the work of the Roman period, and in it are inscriptions which record the addresses made to various gods by the Emperor Antoninus. The pylon (c), which was built by Ptolemy X and Ptolemy XIII, is reached by crossing a smaller court (b), also of the Roman period; the reliefs upon it represent these kings making offerings to the great gods of Egypt, and below them is the text of a hymn to the Sun. This pylon leads to the courtyard built by Nectanebus II (d), and to the pylon built at the end of it by royal Ethiopian personages (e). The scenes on the walls of the court of Nectanebus represent the king slaughtering prisoners, processions of the personifications of nomes, the king making offerings, etc. The pylon was built by Shabaka, and additions were made by Tirhakah, Nectanebus II, and Ptolemy X. Beyond this pylon is another courtyard, of uncertain date, containing 16 pillars, eight on each side (f). The oldest part of the building is the XVIIIth dynasty temple (g), which consists of a shrine chamber (h), open at each end, and surrounded by an open gallery, and a group of six small chambers beyond (1). The royal name most frequently found on the temple is that of Rameses III, who added several reliefs, in which he is represented making offerings to the gods. In the open gallery are the names of Thothmes III, Heru-em-heb, Seti I, and Ptolemy IX ; on one of the pillars is a text showing that Thothmes III dedicated the temple to Menthu, the lord of Thebes. Repairs were carried out on some of the pillars in this gallery by Queen Amenartas and Achoris. On the walls of the shrine chamber Thothmes III and Ptolemy Physkon are depicted making offerings to the gods of Thebes, and the inscriptions show that the chamber was rebuilt by the latter king. In one of the chambers beyond is an unfinished red granite shrine TEMPLE OF MADINAT HABU. 625 Plan of the Temples and other Buildings at Madinat Habu. (After Lepsius. ) 2 R 626 THEBES — LEFT. in which the boat or emblem of the god Amen-Ra was kept. The Little Temple was, like all other temples, enclosed within a wall of unbaked bricks, but its extent and position were i The Little Temple of Thothmes II at Madinat Habu. modified at different periods to suit the arrangements made by the various kings who restored old buildings or added new ones to the site. TEMPLE OF MADINAT HABU 627 To the left of the Little Temple and the Pavilion of Rameses III lie the Temple of Queen Amenartas, the daughter of Kashta, and three small chapels dedicated by Shep-en-ap, daughter of Piankhi, Meht-en-usekht, wife of Psammetichus I, and Nit-aqert (Nitocris), daughter of Psammetichus I. The scenes on the walls of the chapels are of the same class as those on the Temple of Amenartas, and, though interesting, are of no great importance. The Pavilion of Rameses III is a most interesting and instructive building, for it represents an attempt to reproduce in Egypt a small fort or strong city of the class with which the Egyptians must have become familiar in their campaigns against the Kheta and other allied peoples in Northern Syria. It seems to have been designed to take the place of a pylon, and to have been intended to add to the dignity and grandeur of the Great Temple of Rameses III, which lay beyond it. It was approached through an opening in the eastern side of the great unbaked mud brick wall, some 30 feet high and 30 feet thick, with which this king surrounded the temple buildings at Madinat Habft. In front of the building was a stone crenelated wall, nearly 10 feet thick and 11 feet high, with a doorway nearly 5 feet wide, and in each side of this was a small room which served as a guard chamber. On the outside of these chambers are scenes representing Rameses III and Rameses IV making offerings to the gods. The pavilion consists of two large rectangular towers, about 26 feet wide, and, when complete, their height must have been about 72 feet; the distance between them is about 22 feet 6 inches. The walls behind them open out and form a small court, but they soon contract, and, becoming still narrower, at length the two wings of the building unite ; in the portion where they unite is a door, above which are two windows. On each side of the stone walls which remain were a number of chambers built of brick, and it appears that these filled the whole of the thickness of the great mud brick wall which enclosed all the temple buildings. The wall of the front of the pavilion slopes backwards, and its lower part rests upon a low foundation wall which slopes rapidly. On the south tower are reliefs representing Rameses III clubbing his enemies in the presence of Harmachis, who hands him a sword. The peoples depicted here are the Ethiopians and the tribes that lived in the deserts to the west of the Nile ; and those on the north tower are the 2 r 2 628 THEBES— LEFT BANK. Kheta, the Ameru, the Tchakari, the Shardana of the sea, the Shakalasha, the Tursha of the sea, and the Pulasta, i.e., the sea-coast dwellers of Phoenicia and the neighbouring coasts and islands (?) The scenes on the towers represent the king bringing his prisoners before Amen-Ra, and the texts give the words spoken by the god and the king and the chiefs of the vanquished peoples. In the widest part of the space between the towers are scenes depicting Rameses III making offerings to the gods Anhur-Shu, Tefnut, Temu, Iusaaset, Ptah, Sekhet, Thoth, etc. On the walls further in the king is being led to Amen by Menthu and Temu, and he receives a crown from Amen, while Thoth inscribes his name upon a palm-branch for long years of life. The entrance to the upper rooms was by a staircase in the south tower. The walls of the rooms are decorated with scenes in which the king is seen surrounded by naked women, who play tambourines, and bring him fruit and flowers, and play draughts with him. The Great Temple of Rameses III is one of the most interesting of the funerary chapels on the western bank of the Nile at Thebes, and was built by this king to his own memory; its length is nearly 500 feet, and its width about 160 feet. The upper parts of the towers of the first pylon have neither texts nor sculptures, but the lower parts have both. The reliefs on both sides of the doorways are, substantially, the same. Here we see Rameses III clubbing a number of representatives of vanquished peoples, and near these are 86 captives with their names enclosed within ovals upon their bodies. It is clear from some of the names that the peoples here repre- sented lived in Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, and parts of Africa. Here also is the god Thoth, who inscribes the king’s name upon the leaves of a tree, probably a kind of acacia, for which the neighbourhood was in ancient days famous ; and close by are Amen, Mut, and Khonsu, before whom the king kneels. The text on the north side is a poetical description of the king’s conquest of the Libyans. To the right of one of the flag-pole channels, on the south side, is a stele, dated in the twelfth year of the king, in which his benefactions to the temples are extolled, and a speech of the god Ptah is reported. The door leading to the First Court is decorated with reliefs in which Rameses III is seen adoring various gods. The first temple of madinat habu. 62c court (a), which mea- sures hi feet by 136 feet, contains two porticoes : that on the right has seven rectangular pillars, in the front of each of which is a statue of the king, nearly 20 feet high, in the form of Osiris, and that on the left has eight columns. On the back of the pylon leading into this courtyard the defeat of the Libyans and the triumph of the Egyptians are de- picted; in one portion of the relief on the right side the hands of the dead are being cut off, and the num- bers of men killed and mutilated, as well as lists of the spoil, are set forth with evident care. The accom- panying text of course describes the battle, and the great valour of Rameses III. The seven rectangular pil- lars of the north por- tico are ornamented with battle scenes and representations of the king making offerings to the gods, etc. ; in the statues the king has all the attributes of Osiris, and by the side of the legs are The Temple of Rameses III at Madinat Habu. □ 3 ° THEBES— LEFT BANK. small statues of the sons and daughters of Rameses III. The eight columns with cup-shaped capitals of the south portico have each a double relief representing the king slaying prisoners in the presence of Amen-Ra or Menthu. On the north side of the face of the second pylon is a long inscription recording the triumph of the king over some tribes of Western Asia, and on the south side are a representation of Rameses III, reviewing his army, and battle scenes, etc. The Second Court (b) is about the same size as the first, and on each of the four sides is a portico; on the north and south sides the roof is supported by five columns with lotus capitals, and on the east and west sides by eight rectangular pillars, each of which had a statue of the king as Osiris in front of it. The walls on the south = east side are decorated with reliefs of battle scenes, among them being : — The Theban triad giving the king victory over the invaders of Egypt ; defeat of northern tribes by the Egyptians ; counting the hands (3,000!) cut off from dead enemies; Rameses leading three rows of captives ; and captives being offered to Amen ; the accompanying text celebrates the king’s victories. On the north = east side are representations of religious processions at the festival of Seker, the festival of Amen, and the festival of Amsu ; these reliefs are of great interest. This courtyard was turned into a church by the Copts, who removed the middle column of the northern portico, and built an altar against the wall behind it. On the west wall are figures of a number of the king’s sons. Passing into the Hall of Columns (c), it is seen that this part of the temple is not as well preserved as the First and Second Courts, for of the 24 columns which supported the roof only the bases remain. This damage is said to have been wrought by the earthquake of b.c. 27, and the portions of the overthrown columns were probably used by the Copts and Arabs to make stones for corn mills. This hall measures about 87 feet by 62 feet. On the walls are reliefs in which the king is seen making offerings of various kinds to the gods of Thebes. On the south side are five small chambers wherein the treasures of the temple were kept. After the Hall of Columns come two small chambers, each with eight columns ; the first, the reliefs of which are destroyed, measures about 56 feet by 27 feet. On each side are a number of small chambers, the walls of which are decorated with mythological, TEMPLE OF MADINAT HABU. 631 astronomical, and other scenes, and some were clearly set apart for the service of special gods ; in most of them are sculptured figures of the king adoring the gods. The spaces left hollow by the foundation walls, commonly called crypts, were often used as tombs. On the outside of the temple walls are series of reliefs which refer to — (1) Calendar of Festivals (- South Walt). ; (2) Wars against the people of the Sudan, etc. ( West Wall)', and (3) Wars against the Libyans and peoples of Asia Minor {North Wall and part of West Wall). For a full account of the temple, see M. Daressy’s excellent Notice Explicative des Ruines de Medinet Habou , Cairo, 1897. 5. The Temple of Queen Hatshepset at Der al = Bahari. — -The unique and famous Temple of Der al-Bahari* was built in terraces on a wide open space, bounded at its further end by the semi-circular wall of cliffs which divides this space from the valley of the Tombs of the Kings ; it is approached from the plain on the western side of the river through a narrow gorge, the sides of which are honey-combed with tombs. At the end of the last century (1798) MM. Jollcis and Devilliers visited it, and made a plan of the ruins as they found them : they declared that the approach from the plain was by an avenue of sphinxes, and that the avenue was about 42 feet wide and 437 yards long, omitting to count a break of 54 yards; but they, apparently, did not know the building, which they imperfectly described, by the name it now bears, “ Der al-Bahari,” i e., the Northern Monastery. In 1827 Wilkinson made excavations on the site, and Lepsius seems to have done the same, but no serious clearance of the ruins was begun until Mariette began to work at them in* 1858, in which year he uncovered the bas-reliefs which depict the Expedition to Punt. At an early stage in his labours he recognised that Hatshepset’s Temple was, like many another temple on the western bank of the Nile at Thebes, a funerary temple, and that it must be classed with buildings like the Ramesseum and the great temple at Madinat Habu. In other words, the temple of Der al-Bahari was a huge private chapel which was built by the great queen for the express purpose * The correct transcription is, of course, “ Bahri,” but many natives insert the sound of a short a after the h in this word, and few Europeans can pronounce the word at all correctly. The Arabic form of the word is , fem. and it means “northern. 632 THEBES — LEFT BANK, TEMPLE OF DER AL-BAHARI. 633 that offerings might be made to her ka , or “ double,” on the appointed days of festival, and to that of her father, Thothmes I. The site which she chose for the temple was holy ground, for ruins of a building, which was probably a funerary temple of Menthu = hetep Neb = hept = Ra, a kingof theXIth dynasty, were found to the south-west of the open space on which the queen built her temple. The whole temple was surrounded by an enclosing wall, most of which has disappeared, and was approached by means of an avenue of sphinxes. It was entered through a pylon, in front of which stood two obelisks. Passing through this pylon the visitor, following the pathway, arrived at an incline which led to the raised colonnade of the Eastern Terrace (a). The bas-reliefs on its wall were protected by a roof (b), supported by one row of rectangular pillars, and by one row of polygonal pillars. From the centre of the platform (c) an inclined plane or flight of steps led to the Western Terrace (d), and the face of the supporting wall was protected by a portico (e), formed by two rows of square pillars. At each end of the portico are rock cut shrines, which are approached through a 12-columned portico, the roof of which is in perfect preservation. The Northern Shrine is decorated with religious scenes, and the Southern or Hathor Shrine, which is entered through a covered vestibule having pillars with Hathor-headed capitals, contains scenes relating to the rejoicings which took place at Thebes on the return of the queen’s successful expedition to Punt. Everywhere will be seen the marks of the erasure of the queen’s name which was carried out by Thothmes III, her ward, who hated Hatshepset with a deadly hatred ; in many places will be found marks of the vandalism of Amenophis IV, who erased the name and figure of the god Amen from the walls, because he hated this god and preferred to worship Aten ; and every- where will be seen the cartouche of Rameses II, who, because in places he tried to repair the mischief done by Amenophis IV, added his own name wherever possible. At the end of the building is a small rectangular court, which is entered through a granite gateway, and directly opposite it is a rock-hewn shrine with a vaulted roof. The plan of the temple given on p. 632 is from Mariette’s work,* and will be found useful ; from it, how- ever, the reader would think that the northern part of the buildings on the Western Terrace was similar to that on the Deir-el-Balcari , Leipzig, 1877. 634 THEBES LEFT BANK. south, but this is not sp. The total length of the whole building, not including the Avenue of Sphinxes, was about 800 feet. Hatshepset, the builder of the temple, was the daughter of Thothmes I and of his half-sister Aahmes, and the grand- daughter of Amenophis I and one of his wives ; her father, however, had another wife, Mut-nefert, called Senseneb, who bore him a son, Thothmes II, who married Aset, or Isis, a woman of low rank, who bore him a son, Thothmes III. Hatshepset was half-sister to Thothmes II and aunt to Thothmes III. and she became the wife of the former and the guardian of the latter, her step-son. The inscriptions on her temple record that she was associated with her father, Thothmes I, in the rule of the kingdom, and that she herself was enthroned at a very early age. From her childhood she is always represented in Pa-rehu, the Prince of Punt, his wife and his two sons, and a daughter. (This portion of the relief was stolen from the temple, and has not been recovered.) male attire, and in the inscriptions, masculine pronouns and verbal forms are used in speaking of her, and masculine attributes, including a beard, are ascribed to her ; only when considered as a goddess is she represented in female form. She reigned for about 16 years, and the chief event of her reign, omitting the building of the temple, was the famous expedition to Punt, a general name of the land on both sides of the Red Sea as far south as, and including, Somaliland. The queen sent five ships to the coast of Africa, and M. Maspero believes that they were sailed by their crews up the Elephant River, near Cape Guardafui, and made fast near one of the native villages inland. Then followed the exchange of objects brought from Egypt for native produce, and the natives appear to have given large quantities of gold in return for almost valueless articles. The bas-reliefs which illustrate these scenes TEMPLE OF DER AL-BAHARI. 635 are found on the southern half of the wall which supports the Western Terrace, and it is easy to see that what the natives are giving to the Egyptians is both valuable and bulky. The chief of Punt, called Pa-rehu, with raised hands, wears a dagger in his belt ; he is followed by his wife, a lady with a remarkable figure, who wears a single yellow garment and a necklace, and by his two sons and a daughter. The drawing above illustrates this scene. The native products given by the Prince of Punt to the Egyptians consisted of aromatic woods, spices, incense, anti , rare trees and plants, which were afterwards planted in the gardens of Amen at Thebes, gold, etc. : these things were given to the Egyptians in such large quantities that their boats were filled with them, and they formed a very substantial offering to the god Amen. Among the gifts of th& Prince of Punt were leopards, panthers, and other wild animals. Hatshepset seems to have been a capable ruler and adminis- trator, but the conquests of foreign lands during her reign were few. Her husband, Thothmes II, waged war against the nomad, raiding tribes of the Eastern Desert, and he conducted a campaign of considerable importance in Nubia ; he seems to have died while he was comparatively young. After his death, Hatshepset associated Thothmes III with her in the rule of the kingdom, but, as after her death he always obliterated her name from her temple, it seems that the relations between the rulers were not always happy. M. Naville thinks that Thothmes III hated Hatshepset because her husband, Thothmes II, had not raised his (Thothmes Ill’s) mother Aset to royal rank, and that he was jealous of his mother’s honour ; Hatshepset had no son, and she seems to have been obliged to associate Aset’s son with her in the rule of the kingdom. Thothmes III seems to have married first Neferu-Ra, a daughter of Hatshepset, and secondly another daughter of the great queen called Hatshepset-meri-Ra. It would be unjust to the memory of a great man and a loyal servant of Hatshepset if we omitted to mention the name of Senmut, the architect and overseer of works of Der al-Bahari. The tomb of this distinguished man is still to be seen. It is cut in a hill about a mile from the temple, of which it commands a good view. There is little doubt now that he was influenced in the plan which he made by that of the temple of Menthu-hetep, but it says much for the good sense of the ablest woman who ever sat on the throne of Egypt, that she gave this distinguished architect the opportunity of building the unique and beautiful 6 3 6 THEBES — LEFT BANK. temple which has shed glory on the name both of the subject and of his great sovereign. The visitor to the temple of Der al-Bahari owes the ease with which he is able to visit every part of it to the labours of M. Naville, assisted by Mr. Hogarth, who spent three winters in clearing it at the expense of the Egypt Exploration Fund. An idea of the vastness of the work may be gleaned from the fact that in two winters the enormous amount of 60,000 cubic metres of rubbish and stones were removed from the site and carried away to a distance of 200 yards. This temple now presents a striking appearance, whether seen from the Luxor or Kurna side, and every visitor will much appreciate the excellent results which have attended the completion of the undertaking.* Archaeologists ‘will be interested to know that the newly-found fragments of the wall upon which the expedition to Punt is depicted all agree in pointing to the eastern side of Africa as the country which the Egyptians called Punt ; some of the animals in the reliefs are identical with those found to this day on the Abyssinian coast, and the general products of the two countries are the same. Punt was famous for its ebony, and all tradition agrees in making Abyssinia, and the countries south and east of it, the home of the ebony tree. The tombs at Der al-Bahari were opened many, many years ago, and a very large number of the coffins with which Mariette furnished the first Egyptian Museum at Bulak came from them ; since that time the whole site has been carefully searched by diggers for antiquities, hence comparatively few antiquities have been unearthed by M. Naville. In the course of the work he discovered an interesting mummy pit, and in a small chamber hewn in the solid rock, about 12 feet below the pavement, he found three wooden rectangular coffins (each containing two inner coffins), with arched lids, wooden hawks and jackals, wreaths of flowers, and a box containing a large number of ushabiiu figures. These coffins contained the mummies of a priest called Menthu- Tehuti-auf-ankh, and of his mother, and of his aunt ; they belong to the period of the XXVIth dynasty, or perhaps a little earlier. During the last days of the excavations at Der al-Bahari M. Naville’s workmen came upon a very interesting “founda- tion deposit,” which they discovered in a small rock-hewn pit. * M. Naville’s description of the temple has been published under the title, The Temble of Deir el Bahari, 4 parts, London, 1894-1898. TOMB OF HATSHEPSET. 637 It consisted of fifty wooden hoes, four bronze slabs, a hatchet, a knife, eight wooden models of adzes, eight wooden adzes with bronze blades, fifty wooden models of an implement of unknown use, ten pots of alabaster, and ten baskets; above these were a few common earthenware pots, and over all were some mats. All the objects bear the same inscription, i.e., the prenomen and titles of queen Hatshepset. 6. The Tomb of Hatshepset. — The great interest which attaches to the name of this queen, and the romantic circum- stances under which she lived and reigned, have induced many to endeavour to discover her mummy and her tomb, and during his excavations M. Naville kept this object steadily before him. Good fortune, tenacity of purpose, and a lavish but enlightened expenditure of money, gave the clue to the well-known American archaeologist, Mr. Theodore M. Davis, and this gentleman, having overcome difficulties of a more than ordinary character, early in 1904 declared that he had found the tomb of the Great Queen. He was assisted in his work by Mr. Howard Carter, one of the two English Inspectors of Egyptian Anti- 6 3 8 THEBES — LEFT BANK. quities, and he superintended the excavation operations. An account of the works and the discovery Of the tomb appeared in the Times of March 14th, 1904, and from that the following statements are taken : — “ Like the other royal sepulchres in the Valley of the Tombs “ of the Kings at Thebes, the tomb of ‘ the great Queen ’ “ consists for the most part of a corridor sloping downward at “ a somewhat sharp angle into the heart of a limestone “ mountain. The entrance of the tomb, commonly called “ ‘ Number Twenty,’ was already known to the members of the “ French Commission, and it was excavated by Lepsius for a “ distance of 56 metres. Beyond this point he had not the “ patience, or perhaps the means, to go ; and an idea grew up “ that the corridor did not lead to a tomb at all, but was an “ underground passage from the Valley of the Royal Tombs to “ the Temple of Der el-Bahari. “ A clearance of the rubbish near the mouth of it, made by “ Mr. Davis last spring, settled the question. Here a number “ of small articles were found which showed not only that it “ was the entrance to the tomb, but that the tomb was that of “ Hatshepsu. The work of clearing out the tomb itself was at “ once taken in hand, and has but just been brought to a con- “ elusion. The mouth of the corridor happened to be in the “ path of a watercourse, the result being that whenever a “ thunderstorm took place the water poured down a sloping “ passage, filling it with boulders of stone and breccia almost “ harder than the rock itself. All this it has been necessary to “ move foot by foot for a distance of no less than 194 metres. “ The latter part of the work of excavating has been par- “ ticularly difficult owing to the foul air and excessive heat of “ the interior. “ The direction taken by the long corridor of the tomb, is “ most remarkable. The entrance is in the axis of the temple “ of Der el-Bahari, which stands on the other side of the cliff, “ and it was natural to suppose that the corridor was intended “ to lead to the temple. Instead of doing so, it suddenly “ curves southward, and, after continuing for more than “ 60 metres in a southerly direction, once more turns to the “ west. At a distance of 56 metres a chamber is reached- — the “ extreme point attained by Lepsius ; then, after another “ 60 metres, there is a second chamber, and after 36 metres “ more a third. From this third chamber a passage curves TOMB OF HATSHEPSET. 6 39 “ inward and leads to the burial chamber, in which two “ sarcophagi have just been found. The sarcophagi are of “ hard sandstone, which has been polished like a copper disk, “ and are covered with beautifully formed hieroglyphics. From “ these we learn that one of the sarcophagi contained the “ mummy of Hatshepsu, and the other that of her father “ Thothmes I. The lids of the sarcophagi lie on the floor, and “ by the side of that of Hatshepsu is a canopic jar of polished “ sandstone. “ The sarcophagi are empty ; the mummy of Thothmes I, in “ fact, was one of those which were found in the pit at Der “ el-Bahari, and is now in the Cairo Museum. The mummy “ of Hatshepsu may still be lying in one of the unexplored side “ chambers of the tomb, where it would have been deposited “ for the sake of safety in some period of danger. But the “ work of completely clearing out the burial chamber and such “ chambers as exist will be a long one. The rock through “ which the Tomb has been cut is bad — the cause, probably, “ both of the length and of the curious curvature of the “ corridor — and the chambers are blocked with fragments of it “ which have fallen from the ceiling. This is more especially the “ case with the third chamber, the roof of which was originally “ supported by columns, whose heads now appear above the “ masses of fallen rock. It would seem that the sides of the “ chamber were coated with limestone, since square blocks of “ fine limestone have been found among the debris , painted with “ representations of scenes from the Book of the Dead. The “ chamber is 40 feet to 50 feet in length, and there are several “ side chambers opening off from it. These are still filled with “ fallen rock and rubbish, but enough is visible to show that “ they also were panelled with painted limestone. “ Until the debris are removed, it will be impossible to tell “ whether any objects of historical importance await the “ explorer. In the third chamber, however, fragments of large “ and beautiful vases have been picked up ; and the fact that “ the sarcophagus of Thothmes I has been found by the side of “ that of Hatshepsu throws a new light on the history of the “ tomb, and explains why it has no connection with the temple “ of Der el-Bahari. It was made, as we now learn, not by the “ queen, but by her father. Indeed, a fragmentary inscription “ on a vase from the third chamber has even suggested the “ possibility that it was of still older origin, constructed in the “ earliest years of the XVIIIth dynasty, and intended to be 640 . THEBES LEFT BANK. “ the common burial place of the Royal family. Whether this “ suggestion is right or wrong cannot be definitely settled until “ the summer, when the work of removing all the rubbish from “ the chambers may be expected to have come to an end.” Since the above was written the tomb has been completely cleared out, but the mummy of the Great Queen has not been found. 7. The Temple of Menthu = Hetep Neb=hept=Ra. — In the winter of 1903-4, Professor Naville and Mr. H. R. Hall, M.A., of the British Museum, continued their excavations at Der al-Bahari on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund, and in the course of their work they were so fortunate as to discover the remains of the Temple of Menthu-Hetep. This discovery is the most important which has been made for some years, for the temple of Menthu-Hetep is the oldest at Thebes, and its ruins throw a flood of light upon temple construction and ornamentation at a period of which extremely little is known. It is too soon to attempt to sum up the additions which the discovery will make to our knowledge, for the excavation of the temple will probably not be completed until 1907. The excavators, however, drew up a statement on the subject, which appeared in the Times of April 23rd, 1904, and from that the following remarks are taken : — “ After four years of excavation, the beautiful temple erected “ by the Queen Hatshepsu or Hatasu of the XVIIIth dynasty “ (b.c. 1500) was entirely cleared of the chaotic mounds of “ rubbish and Coptic walls which almost hid it from view. But “ after the conclusion of the excavations an unexplored space “ still remained to the south of the temple, between it and the “ southern horn of the semicircle of cliffs which rise at the back “ of Deir el-Bahari. This space was likewise covered by “ confused mounds of rubbish. During the winter season of “ 1903-4 the systematic exploration of this untouched tract has “ been begun by us, working on behalf of the Egypt Explora- “ tion Fund, and has already met with a success which promises “ well for further work on the same site. The chief result has “ been the discovery of another temple side by side with the “ great building of Hatshepsu ; this is the most ancient shrine “ yet discovered at Thebes, being the funerary temple or “ mortuary chapel of the King Mentuhetep Neb-hept-ra of the “ Xlth dynasty (b.c. 2500). Fragments of architraves, etc., “ bearing the name of this king had previously been found at TEMPLE OF MENTHU-HETEP III. 641 “ Deir-el-Bahari by MM, Mariette, Maspero, and Brugsch Bey, “ so that it had always been known that an Xlth dynasty “ building existed hereabouts. Also some fragments of “ octagonal sandstone columns, lying on the rubbish, had been “ conjectured to belong to this building, and the present “ excavations have shown this conjecture to be correct. But “ the precise condition and nature of the building itself were “ unknown until now. It is in an unexpectedly good state “ of preservation, and is, as far as can be seen, one of the “ best preserved of the few Egyptian temples which can show “ any structures in situ older than the time of the XVIIIth “ dynasty. It has already yielded results of great importance “ to our knowledge of Egyptian art and architecture. A large “ number of the sculptured slabs which once adorned the “ walls of its pillared hall, some in good preservation, others “ fragmentary, have been found among the ruins. These “ originally depicted the coronation of the king in whose honour “ it was built, his reception of the magnates and chief warriors “ of his court and of tribute bearers, his servants driving the “ cattle belonging to the domain of his temple, and cutting “ down reeds to build boats with, the procession of funeral “ boats on the Nile — all scenes appropriate to the ante-chamber “ of a royal tomb at that period. These reliefs vary in artistic “ quality ; some are of the rough style which has usually been “ supposed typical of the work of the Xlth dynasty, but others “ are of very good work, equal to the best Xllth dynasty, “ delicate in touch and at the same time bold and free in style. “ Further, the aspect of the new temple forces us to modify “ various speculations which have been made with regard to “ the origin of the peculiar style in which the great temple of “ Deir-el-Bahari, that of Hatshepsu, was built. One of the “ greatest charms of this temple is the unconventionality of its “ design, with its ramps or ascents leading up from court to “ court, its colonnades on either side of the ramps, and its “ simple ‘ proto-Doric ’ columns, like those of the tombs at “ Beni Hasan. Hitherto this design has been unparalleled in “ Egypt, and various theories have been propounded to account “ for it. It has been supposed that the great queen wished to “ model her temple on the terraced hills of Somaliland (Punt), “ from which her famous naval expedition brought back the “ strange animals and plants, the frankincense and myrrh, “ which are depicted on the walls of her temple. The real “ explanation has only come to light with the discovery of the 2 s 642 THEBES — WEST BANK. “ temple of Mentuhetep. This was built on an artificially- “ squared rock-platform, approached by an inclined ramp, “ flanked by colonnades (only one has as yet been excavated). “ The pillars of the colonnade are of the same square form as “ those of Hatshepsu’s lower colonnades, and its sculptured “ facing wall has the same batter or slope. Further, the pillars “ of the temple-hall on the platform are of the ‘ proto-Doric 5 “ type of those of Hatshepsu’s upper colonnades, the Shrine of ££ Anubis, etc. j the only difference being that they are eight- “ sided, while Hatshepsu’s are sixteen-sided. We are now “ reminded that the ‘ proto-Doric ’ column is unknown after ££ the Middle Empire, except in Hatshepsu’s temple, whereas “ its most typical form is found in the XHIth dynasty tombs “ at Beni Hasan, and it occurs in other early tombs ; further, “ we find a modification of it used as a decorative motive in “ the ‘ proto-Doric ’ pillar form commonly given to the central “ supports of the head-rests which are found in tombs of the “ Vth and YIth dynasties. It is, in fact, typically early. The “ conclusion is obvious : Hatshepsu’s architects simply imitated “ and enlarged upon the design of the older temple of “ Mentuhetep which had already existed at Deir-el-Bahari for “ a thousand years before they began their work ; for some reason “ they chose, instead of building in the style of their time, to “ imitate an Xlth dynasty temple ; the great temple of Deir-el- “ Bahari is then simply a magnificent piece of archaism. Since “ Hatshepsu copied her temple from one of the Xlth dynasty, “ a further interesting possibility presents itself. Hatshepsu’s “ expedition to Bunt is the only one known to us at the “ comparatively late period of the New Empire ; all other ££ known relations between Egypt and Punt are confined to the ££ period between the Vth and Vlth dynasties. Mentuhetep ££ Sankhkara, a follower of Neb-hept-ra on the throne, sent an ££ expedition to Punt. It may well be that Hatshepsu’s ££ expedition was merely an echo of those of Sankhkara and his ££ predecessors ; she copied the Xlth dynasty in her temple ££ building, and carried her archaistic tendencies so far as to ££ imitate them also in sending an expedition to Punt. The ££ new discovery explains why Hatshepsu’s architects, instead of ££ building in the exact centre of the circus of Deir-el-Bahari, ££ crammed the new temple up against the northern slope of £< the cliffs, leaving the great space to the south which had ££ seemed unoccupied until this season’s work. We now see ££ that they were compelled to do this by the presence, which we TEMPLE OF MENTHU-HETEP III. 643 “ moderns had hardly suspected, of the older temple at Deir- “ el-Bahari. This temple, the newly discovered one, certainly “ existed side by side with the new temple of Hatshepsu, “ throughout the XVIIIth dynasty, and did not fall into ruin “ until the Ramesside period or later. One of the pillars of “ the hypostyle hall bears the royal label of a Rameses. The “ relief-slabs of the hall and the pillars of the colonnade are “ covered with Ramesside graffiti, both written and incised, “ and the colonnade seems indeed to have been used as a sort “ of school or practice ground for young scribes and decorators, “ This would hardly have been tolerated if the building had “ still been in good repair, so that we can date its decadence “ with some certainty to the Ramesside period. As it was, in “ order to obtain room for their temple at all, Hatshepsu’s “ architects were compelled to plant its upper platform, and the “ shrine of the goddess Hathor adjoining, right on the top of “ part of the temenos-wall of the older temple. This comes “ out from under the XVIIIth dynasty building and passes “ along masking the face of the cliff, till it joins, at a remark- ably acute angle, the facing-wall of the platform of the “ Xlth. dynasty temple. This platform, which was originally “ about 15 feet to 18 feet high, is separated from the Hathor shrine of Hatshepsu’s temple by an open court some 60 feet i£ broad. Its facing-wall, of remarkably fine stonework, remind- “ ing one of Knossos and of the nearly contemporary walls of “ Dahshur in its general effect, and far superior to anything of “ the kind in Hatshepsu’s temple, is about 120 feet long, “ running nearly east and west, roughly parallel with the later “ temple. The platform is rectangular ; its eastern side is cut “ off vertically like the northern side, and the facing-wall “ follows its right-angled turn round into the colonnade. The “ stone pavement of the colonnade is perfectly preserved ; “ it is 68 feet long and 14 feet wide. Of its columns, which “ originally numbered 24, disposed in two parallel rows of “12 each, the row nearest the platform is complete. The “ columns, which are a little over 2 feet square, were originally “ 1 1 feet or 12 feet high. They are broken off short at a “ height of from 4 feet to 7 feet above the ground. The ramp “ at the southern end of the colonnade has not yet been “ excavated. This ramp led up to a great entrance gate on “ the platform, of which the original finely-polished red granite “ threshold, measuring 9 feet by 5 feet, was discovered in “ position, with its door-socket, etc. This gate leads directly 2 s 2 644 THEBES WEST BANK. “into the hypostyle hall of octagonal ‘proto-Doric’ columns “ which has already been mentioned. These pillars are small “ and thin ; they are about 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, and “ rest upon circular bases 4 feet across. The bases of all are “ in position, but of the pillars themselves only a few remain ; “ the highest (now covered up again for the summer) is about “ 9 feet high. Each bears the royal titles of King Mentuhetep, “ as do also the square columns of the colonnade below, and, “ like these also, they are made, not of the white limestone “ which was used for the facing-walls and relief-blocks of the “ temple and for the similar columns of Hatshepsu’s temple, “ but of a grey sandstone which seems to have been specially “affected by Mentuhetep Neb-hept-ra; we find it also in “ work of his at Abydos. At Deir-el-Bahari the sand- “ stone columns are covered with a white co^ur-wash ; the “ hieroglyphs are sometimes blue, sometimes yellow. There “ seem to have been eight rows of columns on either side of the “ central axis of the hall ; the inter-columniation is very “ narrow, measuring only 7 feet from centre to centre. The “ half-width of the platform from the northern corner to the “ central axis is about 80 feet. The hall was surrounded by “ a thick wall of limestone, which was decorated with the “ reliefs already mentioned. On the facing-wall of the colon- “ nade below remain the only reliefs still in their original “ position. They represent a procession of boats. Outside “ the pillared hall, on the platform, an upper colonnade seems “ to have existed, with pillars of greater size than those in the “ colonnade below ; of this colonnade only the base-slabs of “ the pillars remain. Only the north-eastern corner of the “ platform has as yet been uncovered ; there remains, therefore, “ much important work to be done, which, it is hoped, will “ produce results even more important than those gained in “ the present season’s work. Several tombs of the Xlth- “ Xllth dynasty, in the court and on the platform, were opened “ in the course of the work. Though violated by tomb- “ robbers, probably in Ramesside times, they have yielded “ objects typical of interments of the period, in good con- “ dition.” In the winter of 1904-5, Prof. Naville and Mr. Hall continued their work at Der al-Bahari, and discovered the remains of the tomb-temple of Menthu-hetep III. They found tnat the lower part of it was rectangular in shape, and that it TEMPLES OF MENTHU-HETEP AND HATSHEPSET. 645 The Temple of Hatshepset as excavated by Prof. Naville for the Egypt Exploration Fund. 6 4 6 THEBES — WEST BANK. was surrounded by a colonnade ; the outside is cased with limestone slabs, behind which is a “wall of rough and heavy nodules of flint, and the middle is filled with rubbish and loose stones.” On this rectangular building, or base, a small pyramid probably stood, at least that is what we should expect. This base was surrounded by a triple row of columns, which supported a ceiling and formed a hypostyle passage or colonnade, which must have been quite dark, or nearly so, for the outside was closed by a thick wall. Beyond this wall and the edge of The temples of Menthu hetep III (A) and Hatshe[:set (B) at Der al-Bahari. (From a photograph by H. R. Hall, Esq.) the platform on which the building stood was an outer colonnade of square pillars, but the pillars no longer exist. In the rock below the pavement of this colonnade a number of tombs were hewn ; each consisted of a pit from twelve to fifteen feet deep, which led to a small rectangular chamber, wherein originally stood a limestone sarcophagus. In these tombs women who were both priestesses of Hathor and members of the royal harirn were buried. COW OF HATHOR. 647 In the winter of 1904-5, Prof. Naville and Mr. Hall, assisted by Mr. Ayrton and Mr. Currelly, directed their energy towards that portion of the site which was behind the temple, for it was important to find out how the building was connected with the mountain of Der al-Bahari. Mr. Hall, who was in charge of the work from November 21st, 1905, to January 18th, 1906, assisted by Mr. Currelly, discovered a series of brick, stucco-lined chambers, built over a well of the Xlth dynasty, and the South Cow of Hathor. (From a photograph by E. Brugsch Pasha. Temenos wall of the temple. This wall is of the same type as the southernmost wall of Hatshepset’s temple, but it now seems to be the North Temenos wall of the temple of Neb-hept-Ra. The walls of this type at Der al-Bahari are therefore of the Xlth dynasty. When the site at the west end of the temple was attacked, at the spot beyond the tombs of the priestesses, an open space was discovered, bordered by columns six on 6 4 8 THEBES — WEST BANK. each side. In the course of the work numerous small objects were found, including fragments of reliefs of the Xlth dynasty, and a head of Menthu-hetep from an Osiride figure. When the open space was excavated, the dromos of a tomb, probably that of the king, was visible, and here was found the magnificent stele of Usertsen III which is now in the Museum at Cairo. In clearing the western end of the temple-platform, Messrs. Hall and Ayrton, assisted by Mr. Currelly, discovered in 1904 a building of the XVIIIth dynasty, which turned out to be the forecourt of a shrine of Hathor ; it was. hewn out cf the rock, and was lined with painted and sculptured blocks. In February, 1906, whilst the building itself was being cleared, a statue of a scribe of the XIXth dynasty was found. Further search led to the discovery of a small chapel, about 10 feet long and 5 feet wide, which was wholly covered with painted sculptures. The roof is vaulted, and is painted blue, and strewn with stars in yellow. In this chapel stood a beautifully formed cow, in limestone, painted reddish brown with black spots. The head, horns, and flanks bore traces of having been over- laid with gold. The cow is supposed to be standing among reeds, grass, and flowers, and these reach up to her neck ; she is in the attitude with which all are familiar from the vignette in the last section of the Ani Papyrus. On her head she wears the head-dress of Hathor, i.e., the lunar disk and two feathers. No cow of such beautiful workmanship and such size has hitherto been discovered, and it is probably the first time that a goddess has been found undisturbed in her sanctuary. Beneath her is a kneeling figure of the king as a boy, whom she is suckling, and standing under her head we see the king as a grown-up man. Behind the head of the cow is the cartouche of Amen-hetep II, the son of Thothmes III, whose sculptures cover the walls. The authorities in Cairo were at once informed of this important discovery, and soldiers arrived the same night to guard the “ find.” As soon as possible both the cow, symbol of Hathor, and her shrine were removed to Cairo, and the monument has been established in a suitable place in the Museum. The excavations mentioned above prove that the site which Prof. Naville has been clearing at Der al-Bahari is a most important one, and it is much to be hoped that the Egypt Exploration Fund will receive a sufficient number of subscriptions to make the complete examination of the temple of Neb-hept-Ra possible. This Fund has continued and completed Mariette’s work in the temple at Der al-Bahari, and DER AL-MADINAT. 649 it has laid bare the oldest temple at Thebes, namely, that of Neb-hept-Ra, and it would be a sad pity if the remainder of the work on this ancient site had, for want of funds, to be left undone. 8 . Der al = Madinat. The temple built in this place owes its name to the Coptic Der, or Monastery, which stood near here when Thebes was the home of a flourishing Coptic community, and was dedicated to Saint Paul of Pikolol, of whom, however, nothing is known. The monastery must have contained a society of considerable size, for it is said to have possessed two stewards. The small Egyptian temple which stands between the Colossi and Madinat Habu, was begun by Ptolemy IV, Philopator, and continued by Ptolemy VII, Philometor, and finished by Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II. It is built of the ordinary sandstone of the district, and though in many respects it resembles most of the funeral temples built by the Ptolemies, it is a beautiful little example of its class. It appears to have been dedicated to more than one of the goddesses of the underworld, but Hathor was regarded as its tutelary deity. The capitals of some of the columns are Hathor-headed, and over the doorway of the large chamber are the heads of the Seven Hathors, who, in their forms of cows, supplied the deceased with food in the underworld. In one of the chambers is a relief representing the Judgment Scene, which forms the Vignette of the CXXVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead . The chief interest of the scene here is that it proclaims the nature of the building, and proves how anxious the Ptolemies were officially to adopt and to maintain the principal religious views of the Egyptians. The temple was much visited by travellers in ancient times, as the number of names written on the w T alls testify, and by both Greeks and Copts it w r as regarded as very holy. 9 . The principal cemeteries at Thebes are: — (1) Drah Abu’l = Nekka, which lies between the Temple of Seti 1 and the Temple of Der al-Bahari ; graves were made here at the time when the princes of Thebes began to acquire power, i-e ., so far back as the Xlth dynasty, and many officials under the XVIIIth dynasty were buried here. The coffins of the Antef kings (Xlth dynasty), now in the Louvre and British Museum, were discovered here, and here was made the mar- vellous “ find ” of the jewellery of Aah-hetep, wife of Karnes, a king of the XVIIth dynasty, about b.c. 1750. A little more 650 THEBES — WEST BANK. to the south is the necropolis of Asasif, where during the XIXth, XXIInd, and XXVIth dynasties many beautiful tombs were constructed. Most of the tombs are in a ruined state, and do not repay a visit. (2) Shekh ‘Abd al = Kurna, which contains a large number of important tombs, chiefly of the XVIIIth dynasty. (3) Kurnet Murrai, which contains the Tombs of the Queens, and the tombs of many of the officials of the XIXth and XXth dynasties. The tombs of Shekh ‘Abd aUKurna are extremely interesting, for in many of them are depicted events which took place under the rule of the greatest of the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty, and they illustrate scenes in the public and private life of some of the officials who played a prominent part in the development of Theban conquest and civilization. The tombs in their leading features resemble each other, and there is at times a sameness in the subjects represented, and even in the treatment of them. The scenes depicted comprise representa- tions of agricultural operations, of the amusements of the deceased, of festivals and banquets, of official functions in which the deceased played a prominent part — e.g., in the receipt of tribute from vassal nations, and of funeral rites and ceremonies. The scenes are usually painted in tempera upon a thin layer of white plaster laid upon the bedding of mud, or perhaps very poor dark-coloured mortar, with which the lime- stone slabs that formed the walls were covered. Among such tombs may be specially mentioned (t) The Tomb* of Rekhmara, which is situated in the hill behind the Ramesseum called Shekh ‘Abd al-Kurna ; it is one of the most interesting of all the private tombs found at Thebes. The scenes on the walls represent a procession of tribute bearers from Punt carrying apes, ivory, etc., and of people from parts of Syria and the shores of the Mediter- ranean bringing gifts consisting of the choicest products of their lands, which Rekhmara receives for Thothmes III. The countries can in many cases be identified by means of the articles depicted. The scenes in the inner chamber represent brick-making, rope-making, smiths’ and masons’ work, etc., superintended by Rekhmara, prefect of Thebes ; elsewhere are domestic scenes and a representation of Rekhmara sailing in a boat, lists of offerings, etc. No 35 according to Wilkinson, and No. 15 according to Champollion. TOMB OF NEKHT. 651 (2) Tomb of Nekht. — This beautiful little tomb was opened out in the year 1889, but there is little doubt that it was known to the inhabitants of Kurna some time before. Though small, it is of considerable interest, and the freshness of the colours in the scenes is unusual ; it is, moreover, a fine example of the tomb of a Theban gentleman of the Middle Empire. As the paintings and inscriptions are typical of their class, they are here described at some length. The tomb of Nekht consists of two chambers, but the larger one only is ornamented ; the ceiling is painted with a wave pattern, and the cornice is formed of the khakeru pattern On the left end wall a granite stele is painted, with inscriptions containing prayers for funeral offerings, etc. On the upper part of the stele the deceased Nekht and his sister and wife Taui, a lady of the College of Amen, are represented sitting before a table of offerings ; the inscription reads : “ A coming forth always to the table of the lords of “ eternity every day, to the ka of the temple servant, Nekht, “ triumphant, and to his sister, the lady of the house, “ triumphant ! ” On the right of the stele are : — (i) Kneeling figure of a man offering ^3-, and the legend, “ the giving of beer to the scribe Nekht.” (ii) Kneeling figure of a man offering two vases XJ\J, and the legend, “ The giving of a vase of wine to Osiris the temple- “ servant, the scribe Nekht. Thou art pure, Set is pure.” (iii) Kneeling figure of a man offering 111 , and the legend, “ The giving of linen bandages to Osiris, the scribe Nekht.” On the left of the stele are : — (i) Kneeling figure offering Q, f|, etc., and the legend, “ The giving of holy offerings to the scribe Nekht.” (ii) Kneeling figure of a man offering \J, and the legend, “ The giving of a vase of water to the double of Osiris, the “ temple-servant of Amen, the scribe Nekht, triumphant ! “ Thou art pure, Horus is pure.” 652 THEBES — WEST BANK. (iii) Kneeling figure of a man offering ) "g, and the legend, “ The giving of fresh unguents and eye-paint to the “ scribe Nekht, triumphant ! ” Beneath the stele is shown a pile of funereal offerings con- sisting of fruits and flowers, bread and cakes, ducks, haunches of beef, etc. ; on each side is a female wearing a sycamore, the emblem of the goddess Hathor, upon her head, and holding offerings of fruit, flowers, etc., in her hands, and behind each is a young man bringing additional offerings. The scene on the wall at the other end of the chamber was never finished by the artist. In the upper division are Nekht and his wife Taui seated, having a table loaded with funereal offerings before them ; a priestly official and the nine smeri bring offerings of oil, flowers, etc. In the lower division also are Nekht and his wife Taui seated, having a table Qf offerings before them, and four priestly officials are bringing haunches of veal or beef to them. On the wall to the left of the door- way leading into the smaller chamber are painted the following scenes connected with agriculture: — 1. An arm of the Nile or a canal — on one side are two men ploughing with oxen, and labourers breaking up hard sods with mallets, while a third scatters the seed ; on the other are seen men digging up the ground with hoes and the sower sowing seed. At one other is a tree having a water-skin on one of the branches, from which a man drinks. 2. Men reaping, a woman gleaning, men tying up sheaves in a sack, women twisting flax. 3. The measuring of the grain. 4. Winnowing the grain. Above the head of Nekht, who sits in a sell chamber, is the inscription : — “ Sitting in the seh seeth his fields the temple-servant of “ [Amen, Nekht], triumphant before the great god.” On the left of the agricultural scenes stands Nekht pouring out a libation over an altar loaded with all manner of funereal offerings ; behind him is his wife Taui holding a menat emblem of joy and pleasure, in her right hand, and a sistrum S in her left. Beneath the altar two priests are sacrificing end sits the deceased Nekht in the sell hall, TOMB OF NEKHT. 653 a bull. The inscription above the whole scene reads : — “ Offering of things all beautiful, pure, bread, beer, oxen, ducks, “ heifers, calves, to be made upon the altars of . . . . . . “ Harmachis to Osiris, god great, and Hathor, president of the “ mountain of the dead, to Anubis upon his mountain by the “ temple-servant Nekht. His sister, his darling, of “ the seat of his heart, the singing priestess of [Amen, Taui, “ triumphant !] ” On the wall to the right of the doorway leading into the smaller chamber are painted the following scenes : Upper register ; Nekht in a boat, accompanied by his wife and children, spearing fish and bringing down birds with the boomerang in a papyrus swamp. Above is the inscription : — “ Passeth “ through wild-fowl marshes, traverseth wild-fowl marshes with “ gladness, speareth fish Nekht, triumphant ! ” On the bank stand two of Nekht’s servants holding sandals, staff, boomerang, etc., and beneath is another servant carrying to Nekht the birds which Nekht himself has brought down. The inscriptions above read — (i) “ Rejoiceth, seeth happiness [in] making the chase, [and] “ in the work of the goddess Sekhet, the friend of the lady “ of the chase, the temple-servant, the scribe Nekht, “ triumphant ! ” (ii) “ His sister, the singing priestess of [Amen], the lady “ of the house, Taui, saith, ‘ Rejoice thou in the work of “ ‘ Sekhet, [and] the birds [which] he setteth apart for his “ ‘ selection.’ ” (iii) “ Rejoiceth, seeth happiness in the produce of the fields “ of the land of the north, the temple-servant the scribe Nekht, “ triumphant ! ” Lower register: Nekht and his wife sitting in a summer- house “ to make himself glad and to experience the happiness “ of the land of the north ” (z.e., Lower Egypt) ; before them funereal offerings are heaped up. In the upper division of this register are seen Nekht’s servants gathering grapes, the treading of the grapes in the wine-press, the drawing of the new wine, the jars for holding it, and two servants making offerings to Nekht of birds, flowers, etc. In the lower division we see Nekht instructing his servants in the art of snaring birds ^54 THEBES — WEST BANK. in nets, the plucking and cleaning of the birds newly caught, and two servants offering to Nekht fish, birds, fruit, etc. In the other scenes we have Nekht, accompanied by his wife Taui, making an offering of dnta unguent and incense to the gods of the tomb, and a representation of his funereal feast. Other sepulchres worthy of a visit are : — (i) The tomb of Amsu (or Menu) = nekht, ? an overseer of granaries. Plan of the Tomb of Amsu (or Min) -Nekht. (2) The tomb of Sen = nefer, an official of Amen-hetep II, and an important member of the brotherhood of Amen. TOMBS OF OFFICIALS. ^Plan of the Tomb of Ra-men-kheper-senb. ■ ■■■■■ i * Plan of the Tomb of Pelj-su-kher. THEBES — WEST BANK. 656 (5) The tomb of Mentu = her = khepesh=f, a prince and chancellor. n Plan of the Tomb of Mentu-her- khepesh-f. (6) The tomb of Amu = netcheh, official of Thothmes III. Plan of the Tomb of Amu-netcheli. /WWNA 5 ^ (5 I TOMBS OF OFFICIALS. 657 (8) The tomb of Nefer = hetep, J of Amen under Heru-em-heb. Plan of the Tomb of Nefer-hetep 2 T 6 5 8 THEBES — WEST BANK. (9) The tomb of Kha = em = hat, Q of Amen-hetep IV. 0 °) The tomb of Amen = em -heb, one of the generals of Thothmes III. an official a Plan of the Tomb of Amen-em-heb. (n) The tomb of Heru = em = heb, | , the chancellor of Thothmes IV. During the winters of 1902-1903 Mr. Robert Mond cleared out and repaired, at his own expense, a number of the tombs of officials who flourished under the XVII Ith and XIXth dynasties ; among these may specially be mentioned the tombs of Qen-Amen, Sen-nefer, Menna, Ra-men-kheper-senb, TOMBS OF OFFICIALS. 659 Kha-em-hat, Userhat, a priest,. Tehuti-em-heb, a baker, and the mummy pits of User and Amen-mes. He also began to excavate some tombs of the Xlth dynasty, which lie* between Der al-Madina, and Der al-Bahari. His work at _ Thebes 2 T 2 Plan of the Tomb of Peta-Amen-em-apt. 66o THEBES — WEST BANK. may be thus summarized. He began to work at the end of December, 1903, and, first of all, cleared out the tomb of Men-kheper-Ra-senb, wherein he found 185 funeral cones. Next in order he cleared out and repaired the tombs of Kha-em-hat and Userhat ; the former was discovered by Lloyd in 1842. Userhat was a priest of the ka, or “double,” of Thothmes I. Mr. Mond excavated the tomb of Amen-em- hat, and examined a large brick wall which had formed part of the court of the tomb of Meri-Ptah, and cleared the mummy pit of User, a high official. At Kurna he examined two mummy pits, and the tombs of Api, Amen-em~apt, Uah and Amen-mes. At Der al-Bahari, in the “ second circus,” he also carried on work, and he discovered a number of small but interesting objects. Between Kurna and Der al- Madina he found in a pit the coffin of Puam □ the XVIIIth dynasty. He cleared out the tomb of Tehuti-em- heb, which lies near that of Kha-em-hat, and excavated the tombs of Qen-Amen and Sen-nefera. The excavations and restorations which Mr. Mond has carried out are of a most useful character, and he deserves the thanks of all lovers of the civilization of Egypt for the pains and money which he has spent on his work. In the cemetery at Kurnet Murrai are large numbers of tombs, also of the XVIIIth dynasty, but few of them are sufficiently important to need careful examination. The most interesting, that of Hui, a viceroy of Nubia under the XVIIIth dynasty, has been provided with a door by the Administration of Antiquities, and many will be glad that the uncommon scenes depicted on the walls will be preserved. Those who have the time and are prepared to face a large number of bats, should visit the tomb of Peta = Amen = em = apt, a nobleman and priest who flourished under the XXVIth dynasty- During his own lifetime this priest prepared for himself a tomb containing 22 rooms, and a large number of corridors, all hewn out of the living rock, and he decorated the walls of these with texts and scenes referring to the making of funeral offerings, according to the use employed in the Pyramid Period ; the ritual of Funeral Sacrifice, with scenes ; the “ Book of the Gates of the Underworld ” ; and a number TOMB OF QUEEN 1HI. 66l of hymns and religious scenes copied from documents of a much older period. A great many of these have, unfortu- nately, been destroyed, but large numbers of passages may be restored by the help of the texts on the walls of the corridors and chambers in the pyramids at Sakkara. In the Valley of the Tombs of the Queens the most important sepulchre is that of Queen Thi ; the colouring of the scenes is very good, and the paintings are comparatively well preserved. In 1903-1904 Messrs. Schiaparelli and Bellerini opened the tomb of Queen Ast (No. 51), and the tomb of a person without name (No. 46), and they discovered the tombs of Queen Nefert- ari-meri-Mut (No. 66), of Amen-her-khepesh-f (No. 55), of P-Ra-her-unami-f (No. 42), and of Aahmeset, the daughter of Seqenen- Ra. Mr. Seton Karr has shown that the tombs at Thebes, and elsewhere in Egypt, were dug out by means of tools made of chert, and that metal tools were used for the final shaping and smoothing of the chambers. He has found numbers of chert chisels and other tools near the tombs and among the stone fragments which were cast out from them in ancient days, and there is reason to believe that tools of this material were in use for hewing stone so far back as the Neolithic Period. The light used by the workmen in the course of their work was, no doubt, that of ordinary lamps, which were probably suspended from stands. In 1905 a lamp, with stand complete, was found in a tomb a few miles to the south of Thebes. 10. The Tombs of the Kings, called in Arabic Biban Tcmb of Queen Thi. 662 THEBES WEST BANK. al-Muluk, are hewn out of the living rock in a valley, which is reached by passing the temple at Kurna ; it is situated about three or four miles from the river. This valley contains the tombs of kings of the XVIIIth, XIXth, and XXth dynasties, and is generally known as the Eastern Valley ; a smaller valley, the Western, contains the tombs of some of the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty. These tombs consist of long inclined planes with a number of chambers or halls receding into the mountain, sometimes to a distance of 300 feet. Strabo gives the number of these royal tombs as 40, 17 of which were open in the time of Ptolemy Lagus. In 1835, 21 were known, but the labours of Mariette, Professor Maspero, M. Victor Loret, and Mr. Theodore M. Davis have brought 20 others to light. The Tombs of the Kings form a very important and interesting class of monuments, the like of which exists nowhere else in Egypt. They were all made between b.c. 1700 and b.c. 1050, that is to say, they were hewn and built during the most flourishing period of Egyptian history, and at a time when tribute flowed into the country from Syria, Palestine, Libya, Nubia, and a part of the Northern Sudan. When we consider the group as a whole it is easy to see that all are built practically on one and the same plan ; the modifications which occur in the details of each are due partly to structural difficulties and partly to the difference in the lengths of time which were devoted to the making of them. If the king began to build his tomb early in life, and had a long and successful reign, his tomb would be large, and contain many chambers, and be elaborately decorated with scenes and texts from the religious works which were most esteemed at the time j if his reign were short and supplies were not forthcoming to provide the food of the workmen and others employed on the work, the corridors had to be shortened, and the number of rooms diminished. It may well be assumed that these tombs were built by forced labour. One of the commonest religious views of the Egyptians was that the Tuat, or Underworld, was a long, narrow valley which ran parallel with Egypt, and was neither above nor below the level of this earth. It had a river flowing through the whole length of it. This valley began on the west bank of the Nile, ran due north, bent round towards the east when the Delta was approached, and terminated at the pla-'e where the sun rose* It was divided into 10 sections, and TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 663 at each end was a sort of vestibule or chamber. The ante- chamber at its beginning was called Amentet, and was a place of gloom ; as the passenger through this valley went onwards each of the first five sections grew darker and darker, until at the end of the fifth section the darkness was absolute. As the passenger moved on through the last five sections the darkness grew less and less dense, until at the end of the tenth section he entered the chamber, the gloom of which resembled that of the chamber at the beginning of the valley. The whole night, which was supposed to consist of 12 hours, was occupied in passing through the Tuat, and the two chambers and the 10 main divisions of it were traversed each in one hour. The Tuat was a difficult place to pass through, for portions of it were filled with hideous monsters and horrible reptiles, and a lake of boiling and stinking water. Religious tradition declared that the Sun-god Ra had made his way in it seated in his boat, but that he was only enabled to do so by employing his words of magical power, and by the exercise of the functions of deity. The priests declared that they possessed the knowledge of such words of power, and people believed that if they learned them, and learned to recognise the various divisions of the Tuat and the beings in them by means of the pictures which the priests provided, they could make the journey through the Tuat in safety, and would rise in the next world with the sun. The priests of Amen, who promulgated this view, which was based upon an older system of indigenous belief, presided over the building of the royal tombs in the XVIIIth dynasty, and made each tomb to resemble the long, narrow valley of the Tuat by providing it with long corridors. When the body was deposited in the tomb the priests repeated the words of power which Ra was believed to have uttered, and performed ceremonies in i mitation of those of the acts of the god ; in fact, made very full use of sympathetic magic, and the worshippers of Amen believed that their kings would surely and certainly pass safely through the dark valley, and would overcome all their foes, and would rise together with the sun to a new life in the next world. Now, the Sun-god traversed this valley each night in his boat, and, of course, rose each day ; the aim, then, of every one of his wor- shippers was to secure a passage in his boat, for if only this could be obtained resurrection was certain. The doctrine of the sun-worshippers and the priests of Amen taught that th§ 66 4 THEBES — WEST BANK. souls of all who died during the day made their way to Amentet, where, provided they were equipped with the knowledge of the necessary “ divine words,” they entered the boat of the Sun- god. When they arrived at the kingdom of Osiris at midnight they were judged, and the blessed were rewarded, and the wicked were annihilated ; this done the boat of the Sun-god passed on towards the East, where, having destroyed all the nature powers of night and darkness, i.e., cloud, mist, rain, etc., he rose on this world in glorious strength, and the souls who had chosen to stay with him rejoiced in renewed light and were happy. All the inscriptions on these tombs were written to effect this object, and they may be thus grouped: — (i) The Book of the Praisings, or Litanies, of Ra, which contains 75 short paragraphs ; each paragraph supplies one of Ra’s names, and a certain attribute. (2) The Book of the Oates, i.e ., the 12 Gates or Pylons of the 12 divisions of the Tuat. This book gave the names of the Gates and of their guardians, and described the various beings that were to be found in each section, and the texts repeated the addresses which they made to Ra, and the answers which Ra made to them. One portion of this book is exceedingly old, and the sympathetic magic described in it must date from pre-dynastic times. (3) The Book of what is in the Underworld, which treats of the 12 divisions of the Underworld, and contains texts, the knowledge of which was of vital importance to the deceased. It describes at some length the kingdom of the god Seker, and the monster serpents which guard it, and reveals the belief in the existence of a place of doom where the darkness was impenetrable and the depth unfathomable. This work appears to represent the dogmas of the most ancient inhabitants of Egypt with the modifications which were approved of by the priests of Amen, and it seems that they tried to eliminate the belief in Osiris, so far as was possible, from their writings, and to make their god Amen-Ra all sufficient. They did not, how- ever, succeed in doing so, and the best proof of this fact is supplied b}' the sarcophagus of Seti I, now in the Soane Museum in London. Seti I allowed the “ Book of what is in the Underworld ” to be inscribed in full on the walls of the chambers of his tomb, but he had the full text, with all the vignettes, chiselled on his sarcophagus, including the magical part of it, and to make quite certain of his future welfare he caused some important chapters to be added from the ojd Book TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 665 of the Dead. Similarly Thothmes III allowed the walls of his tomb to be covered with the “ Book of what is in the Underworld,” but on one of the swathings of his mummy we find a copy of the CLIVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. The group of sepulchres called the Tombs of the Kings may be now briefly enumerated ; the order is chronological : — I (No. 38). Tomb of Thothmes I. -This tomb, the oldest of the Biban al-Mulfik, is a small one ; it was discovered by M. Victor Loret in 1899. It contains the royal sar- cophagus. II (No. 20). Tomb of Hatshepset. — This tomb was excavated by Mr. Theodore N. Davis in 1903 and 1904. It has already been described. III (No. 34). Tomb of Thothmes III. — This tomb was discovered by M. Victor Loret in 1899, and lies about 325 feet from the tomb of Rameses III. The walls of the various chambers are ornamented with figures of the gods and inscrip- tions, among others being a long list of gods, and a complete copy of the “ Book of what is in the Underworld.” The sarcophagus was, of course, found to be empty, for the king’s mummy was taken from Der al-Bahari, where it had been hidden by the Egyptians during a time of panic, to the Gizeh Museum about 18 years ago. On a column in the second chamber we see depicted Thothmes followed by his mother Aset, his wife Mert-Ra, his wives Aah-sat and Nebt-kheru, and his daughter Nefert-aru. It is to be hoped that steps will at once be taken to publish the texts and inscriptions in this tomb. The mummy of Thothmes III was found at Der al-Bahari by Professor Maspero. IV (No. 35). Tomb of Amen = hetep II. — This tomb was found by M. Victor Loret in 1899, and in it is the mummy of the king lying in its sandstone sarcophagus. Thanks to the exertions of Sir William Garstin, the royal mummy and the mummies of the private persons that were found in the tomb and were at first removed, have been replaced, and the visitor is now able to look upon an impressive scene of death. The tomb is lit by electric light. The tomb of Amenophis, the son and successor of Thothmes III, in many respects resembles 666 THEBES— WEST BANK. that of his father ; the walls are covered with figures of the gods with the text of the “ Book of what is in the Under- world, and scenes similar to those in the older tomb. Among the numerous objects found in the tomb may be mentioned • Three mummies, each with a large hole in the skull, and a gash in the breast; fragments of a pink leather cuirass worn by the king ; a series of statues of Sekhet, Anubis, Osiris Plan of the Tomb of Thothmes IV. Horus, Ptah, etc. ; a set of alabaster Canopic vases, a collection of amulets of all kinds ; a large series of alabaster vessels ; and a number of mummies of kings and royal personages, among whom are Thothmes IV, Amenophis III, Menephthah’ Rameses IV, Rameses V, and Rameses VI. Thus in the tomb of Amenophis II we have another hiding-place of royal mummies similar to that of Per al-Bahari, TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 667 V (No. 43). Tomb of Thothmes IV. — This tomb was excavated in 1902 and 1903 by Mr. Theodore N. Davis, who has most generously published a detailed description both of it and its contents ( The Tomb of Thothmes IV \ London, 1904), Thothmes IV in his Chariot Charging his Foes. (From the body of the Chariot discovered by Mr. Theodore N. Davis, 1903.) 668 THEBES — WEST BANK. The tomb lies on the eastern side of the valley, and the descent to it is made by a flight of steps ; it consists of a well, a hall, a flight of steps, a sloping corridor, a second flight of steps, a vestibule, a short passage, and the chamber which contains the sarcophagus. The sarcophagus was found to be empty. In the paintings on the walls of the well and vestibule the king is depicted standing before Osiris, Anubis, Hathor, and Khenti- Amenti. A hieratic inscription states that the tomb was repaired or restored in the reign of Heru-em-heb, the last king of the XVIIIth dynasty. The inscribed sarcophagus is rounded at the top and measures io feet by 6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 4 inches. The mummy is that of a man, “ young, clean-shaven, and effeminate,” 5 feet 6 inches high ; the head has a cephalic index of 777, which places it in the mesaticephalic group. Circumcision had been performed. According to Mr. G. Elliot Smith, Thothmes IV was about 25 years of age when he died. In the sarcophagus chamber the body of a chariot was found. This magnificent object is now in the Museum at Cairo, and is one of the most interesting objects of the period which has ever been found. No one who is interested in Egyptian antiquities should fail to see it. On the right side of the chariot (exterior) the king, accompanied by the god of war, Menthu, is seen in his chariot charging the foe and shooting arrows among the hostile charioteers ; on the left side (exterior) the king is seen in his chariot riding down his foes and slaying numbers of them. On the inside of the chariot Thothmes is depicted in the form of a human-headed lion, the paws of which rest upon the prostrate forms of enemies. The nations con- quered come from Nehiren, Sanker, Tunep, Shasu, Ketesh, Thikhisa, and other regions. (For further particulars about the chariot, see Professor Maspero’s account in Mr. Davis’s Tomb of Thothmes IV) In a corner of a small chamber by the side of the sarco- phagus chamber, “resting in an erect position against the “ wall, was a denuded mummy of a boy, whose stomach and “ cage had been ripped open by the ancient plunderers “ with a very sharp knife ” (Mr. Howard Carter, in Tomb of Thothmes IV, p. 10). VI (No. 22). Tomb of Amen = hetep III. — This tomb is ip the Western Valley, and it seems not to have been finished. TOMBS OF THE KINGS. | : ^669 Its total length is about 370 feet, and, like many of the best tombs, it contains a deep, rectangular shaft, commonly called a well, which was intended either to bar the way of the thief, or to mislead him. The scenes on the walls represent the king standing before gods of the Underworld, and are unimportant, but the astronomical scenes painted on the ceilings are of considerable interest. The sarcophagus is broken, and the Plan of the Tomb of Amen-hetep III. mummy was hidden in a chamber in the tomb of Amen hetep II, where it was found by M. Loret in 1899. VII (No. 23). Tomb of Ai. — This tomb is in the Western Valley, and is called Tomb of the Apes, because of the picture of 12 apes, which probably forms part of the vignette of the First Hour of the Night. 670 THEBES — WEST BANE. To the XVIIIth dynasty probably belong : — » VIII (No. 16). Tomb of Rameses I. — This tomb was discovered by Belzoni and excavated by M. Loret ; the royal sarcophagus, made of granite, is in its chamber. The mummy was found at Der al-Bahari by Professor Maspero, and is now in the museum at Cairo. IX (No. 17). Tomb of Seti I, called also “ Belzoni’s Tomb,” because it was discovered by him ini8i7. This is the most important and interest- ing of all the royal tombs, and should be carefully ex- amined, because it may be regarded as the best known type of the tombs which were planned by the priests of Amen. The walls are ornamented with texts and mythological and religious scenes which refer to the passage of the Sun, and of the king also, through the Underworld. On the walls of the sloping corridor is a copy of the “Book of the Praisings of Ra,” and on those of the chambers are the texts and vignettes of 1 r of the 1 2 sections of the “ Book of what is in the Underworld ” ; the twelfth section is, for some extra- ordinary reason, omitted. A copy of the first half of the short form of this work is also written on some of the walls, and the scribe was stopped so suddenly in his work that he did not finish the section which he had begun. It will be noticed that some of the figures of gods, etc., are only traced in outline, a fact which suggests that the tomb was not finished when the king died, and that afterwards no attempt was made to finish it. It is impossible to describe the scenes on the walls in detail ; it is sufficient to draw attention to the excellence and beauty of the paintings and sculptures, and to point out that TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 671 the whole series refers to the life of the king in the Under- world. The tomb is entered by means of two flights of steps, vO vO ro O *£3 C W C , £ I v-H ° a x 03 •*-' at the bottom of which is a passage terminating in a deep well. Beyond this are two halls having four and two pillars respec- tively, and to the left are the passages and small chambers 672 THEBES — WEST BANK. which lead to the large six-pillared hall and vaulted chamber in which stood the sarcophagus of Seti I. Here also is an inclined plane which descends into the mountain for a con- siderable distance ; from the level ol the ground to the bottom of this incline the depth is about 150 feet; the length of the tomb is nearly 500 feet. The designs on the walls were first sketched in outline in red, and the alterations by the master designer or artist were made in black. The mummy of Seti I, Plan of the Tomb of Rameses II. Plan of the Tomb of Amen-meses. found at Der al-Bahari, is preserved in the Museum at Cairo. The beautiful alabaster sarcophagus of Seti I, inscribed with the texts and scenes of the “ Book of the Gates,” was taken to London by Belzoni and sold by him to Sir John Soane for ^2,000 ; this magnificent object is now in the Soane Museum in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London. In 1903-1904 Mr. Howard Carter carried out a series of repairs in various parts of the tomb of Seti I. More than one half of the cost of these was 20 Metres PLAN OF THE TOMB OF MENEPHTHAH I. 6 73 Plan of the Tomb of Menephthah I. 2 U 674 THEBES WEST BANK. defrayed by Mr. Robert Mond, who also assisted in making a plan for work. X (No. 7). Tomb of Rameses II. — This tomb has become choked with sand and limestone fragments, in such a way that it appears to have been filled up on purpose ; it was probably faulty in construction. The mummy of the king was found at Der al-Bahari in a coffin, which may possibly be the work of the XXIInd dynasty, and is now in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo. XI (No. 10). Tomb of Amen = meses. — A man who usurped the royal power for a short time ; the tomb is in a ruined con- dition. y/XII (No. 8). Tomb of Mer = en = Ptah (Menephthah). — This tomb is decorated with texts from the “ Book of the Praisings “ of Ra,” and from the “ Book of the Gates the sarcophagus is in its chamber. The mummy of the king was found by M. Loret in the tomb of Amen-hetep II in 1899, and is now in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo. This tomb was completely excavated in I 9°3 -I 9°4 by Mr. Howard Carter, from whose description of it, in Annales du Service , tom. VI, fasc. 2, p. 116, I have taken the plan given on page 673. XIII (No. 15). Tomb of Seti II.— This tomb appears not to have been finished. It was completely cleared out by Mr. Howard Plan of the Tomb Carter in 1903-1904 at the expense of of Seti II. Mrs. Goff. It has been provided with an iron gate. XIV (No. 14). Tomb of Set = nekht, father of Rameses III ; the tomb was originally made for the queen Ta-usert, whose inscriptions and figures were obliterated by Set-nekht. XV (No. 3). This tomb was made for Rameses III ; it is now choked with sand. XVI (No. n). Tomb of Rameses III. — This tomb is commonly called “ Bruce’s Tomb,” because it was discovered Plan of the Tomb of Setnekht. Plan of the Tomb of Rameses III. 2 U 2 TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 676 THEBES — WEST BANK. by this traveller, and the “Tomb of the Harper/’ on account of the scenes in which men are ^represented playing harps. The walls are inscribed with texts from the “ Book of the Praisings of Ra,” and the “ Book of what is in the Under- world,” and the “ Book of the Gates, ” and several vignettes from the last two works are painted upon them. The architect did not leave sufficient space between this and a neighbouring tomb, and hence, after excavating passages and chambers to a distance of more than 100 feet, he was obliged to turn to the right to avoid breaking into it. The flight of steps leading into the tomb is not as steep as that in No. 17, the paintings and sculptures are not so fine, and the general plan of ornamentation dif- fers. The scenes on the walls of the first passage resemble those in the first passage of No. 17, but in the other passages and ; chambers warlike, domes- ■ tic, and agricultural scenes and objects are depicted. The body of the red granite sarcophagus of Rameses III is in Paris, the cover is in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and the mummy of this king is in the Egyptian Museum Plan of the first Tomb of Rameses III. at Cairo. The length of the tomb is about 400 feet. XVII (No. 2). Tomb of Rameses IV. — This tomb is probably the finest example of the royal tombs of the XXth dynasty, which are built on a comparatively small scale. The texts and scenes which ornament the walls of the chambers and corridors are from the three works quoted above, but several of the vignettes that appear in this tomb are not found elsewhere. It is interesting to note that in the first TOMBS OF THE KINGS. room copies of Chapters CXXIII, CXXIV, and CXXVII of the Book of the Dead are given. The granite sarcophagus of the king, of colossal proportions (12 feet by 9 feet by 7 feet), is in its proper chamber. A peculiar interest attaches to this tomb, for it is the only Egyptian tomb of which an Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IV. (From a Papyrus.) ancient plan has been found ; this plan is traced on a papyrus, now unfortunately in a mutilated condition, which is preserved at Turin, and was published by Lepsius and Chabas. These scholars succeeded in deciphering the descriptions of the chambers of the tomb given in the docu- 677 Plan of the Tomb of Rameses IV. TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 679 ment, and the former, having made careful measurements of the dimensions of the various sections of the rooms, decided that the work had been substantially carried out in accordance with the plan. XVIII (No. 9). Tomb of Rameses VI. — This tomb was well known to Greek and Roman visitors to Thebes, several of whom, with very questionable taste, left behind them records of their visits in the form of inscriptions on its walls. From some of these “ graffiti ” it is clear that their writers regarded this tomb as that of Memnon, who has usually been identified with Amen-hetep III ; this mistake was caused by the fact that the prenomen of Amen-hetep III and the first part of that of Some of the graffiti belong to a period so late as the fourth century of our era. The paintings of an astronomical character in the sarcophagus chamber are the only points of special interest in this tomb. XIX (No. 6). Tomb of Rameses IX. — This tomb is remarkable for the variety of sculptures and paintings of a nature entirely different from those found in the other royal tombs ; they appear to refer to the idea of resurrection after death and of immortality, which is here symbolized by the principle of generation. XX (No. 1). Tomb of Rameses X. XXI (No. 18). Tomb of Rameses XI. (Now used as an engine room.) XXII (No. 4). Tomb of Rameses XII. — T his tomb was not finished. XXIII (No. 5). An entrance to a corridor or chamber, uninscribed. XXIV (No. 12). An uninscribed mummy pit. XXV (No. 13). Tomb of Bai, an official of Sa-Ptah. XXVI (No. 19). Tomb of Ment-her-khepesh-f, already mentioned. XXVII (No. 21). An uninscribed mummy pit. Rameses VI, are identical. 68o THEBES WEST BANK. XXVIII (No. 24). Uninscribed tomb in the Western Valley. XXIX (No. 25). Uninscribed tomb in the Western Valley. XXX-XXXVII (Nos. 26-33). Uninscribed mummy pits or tombs. XXXVIII, XXXIX (Nos. 36, 37). Tombs not royal. XL-XLII (Nos. 39-41). Uninscribed mummy pits. Plan of the Tomb of Plan of the Tomb of Plan of the Tomb of Rameses VII (?) Rameses X. Rameses XII. XLIII (No. 42). Tomb of Sen-nefer, XVIIIth dynasty. XLIV (No. 44). Tomb of Thentkaru. XLV (No. 45). Tomb of Userhat. XLVI. The tomb of Sa-Ptah was excavated by Mr. Theo- dore M. Davis, assisted by Mr. Ayrton, in 1905. TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 681 XLVII. Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau, the father and mother of Thi, wife of Amen-hetep III, about b.c. 1450. This important tomb was discovered by Mr. Theodore M. Davis on February 12th, 1905. Early in that year this gentleman began to excavate a site which had been chosen for him by Prof. Maspero, Director-General of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt, mid-way between the tombs of Rameses IV and Rameses XII, on the west bank of the Nile. Inscribed Coffer from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau. In the course of the work a flight of steps leading down into the ground was discovered, and at its foot the way was blocked by a doorway filled with large stones. When some of these had been removed, a boy was sent through the opening, and he returned with a staff of office in one hand, and a yoke of a chariot plated with gold in the other. Mr. Davis then passed through the opening, and found himself at the head of a second flight of steps, twenty in number, on which were lying some 682 THEBES — WEST BANK. objects which had been stolen from the tomb some thirty-four centuries ago. The thieves had been disturbed in their work, and probably dropped these as they fled. On the following day the tomb was formally opened in the presence of the Duke of Connaught, and those who were allowed to enter it saw the most curious and gorgeous funeral furniture which has ever been seen in an Egyptian tomb. Mum my- cases plated with gold, exquisitely formed alabaster vases, painted boxes and chairs, a chariot, etc., lay piled one above the other in barbaric profusion. The sepulchral chamber is about 30 feet Set of Vases from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau. long, 15 feet wide, and 8 feet high. To the left of the entrance were two large wooden sarcophagi, painted blue and gold, each containing two coffins, two for the man and two for the woman, who were the occupants of the tomb. Each outer case was plated with gold outside and lined with silver, and each inner case was plated with gold outside and lined with gold leaf. Near the wall to the right were two mats made of palm leaves, which are commonly called “ Osiris beds.” On the mats layers of damp earth were laid, and in the earth wheat was planted in such a fashion as to outline figures of Osiris. When TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 683 the grain grew up the form of the god appeared in living green. Primarily the placing of an Osiris mat in the tomb was merely an act of sympathetic magic, but there is reason to believe that in the XVIIIth dynasty spiritual beliefs of a high character were connected with the custom. At the western end of the tomb were several large sealed jars full of wine and oil, and small boxes containing pieces of cooked meat wrapped up in black muslin. Above these was the chariot already mentioned, and close by was the set of “ Canopic ” jars, which contained some of the intestines of the deceased. Elsewhere in the tomb were found sandals made of papyrus and leather, boxes to hold ushabtiu boxes, and ushabtin made of wood, alabaster, gold Inside of Head of Bedstead of Iuaa and Thuau. and silver, and painted wooden vases. Worthy of special note’ are: — (1) A box for holding the clothes of the deceased made of palm-wood and papyrus ; inside it is a shelf pro- vided with papyrus flaps. (2) A box plated with gold and blue porcelain. (3) A box, on four legs, with a rounded cover, inlaid with ivory ; the names and titles of Amen-hetep and Thi are given in gold painted on a blue ground. (4) A long bed, with the head-piece ornamented with panels, wherein are figures of the old deities Bes and Ta-urt made of gilded ivory. This is undoubtedly the bed whereon the deceased had slept during their lives, and the plaited flax on which they lay is curved by use. (5) A chair ornamented 68 4 THEBES WEST BANK. with reliefs in gilded plaster. On each side is a figure of a gazelle, and a triple emblem of “ life.” In it is a cushion stuffed with goose-feathers. (6) A chair of state, with solid sides and back, ornamented with figures of gods and of Sat- Amen, daughter of Queen Thi. In front, at each side just above the legs, is a carved female head ; the seat of the chair is made of plaited palm-leaves. (7) A chair of state which, like the preceding, belonged to Sat-Amen, with a representation of the deceased sitting with a cat under her chair. The picture is lined by the so-called “ Greek fret,” the result, some think, of Chair of State from the Tomb of Iuaa and Thuau. intercourse between Egypt and the ^Egean. All the objects in the tomb are beautiful, and nearly all of them are plated with gold, or covered with gold leaf, or decorated in some way with the precious metal. The effect of so much gold is to give many of the objects a garish appearance, but it in no way destroys the beauty of their shapes and forms. When we remember that Amen-hetep III was master of all the gold-producing districts in the Sfidan, we need not be surprised at such a display of gold on the funeral furniture of one of his fathers-in-law and TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 685 one of his mothers-in-law. The forms of the name of Queen Thi’s father are luaa, Aaa, Aaa, and Aaaa, (j (j (j Ilk Ok’ on and his titles were “ Erpa ha,” “ Smer-en-smeru,” for which it is impossible to find exact modern equivalents, and he was called the “ mouth of the king of the South, and the ears of the king of the North,’ 1 ° T AAAAAA 1 1 / n The offices which he held were those of “ seal-bearer ” or Chariot from the Tomb of luaa and Thuau. “ chancellor,” and “ priest of Menu ” (or, Amsu), and he was the “overseer of the cattle of the god Menu in the city of Apu” (Panopolis). His wife Thuau 5=3 ^ (j ^ is called the “ornament of the king,” and she was a “priestess (+■ qemat ) of Amen.” Her husband is described as the “divine father (i.e., father-in-law) of the lord of the two lands,” and she is often mentioned as the “royal mother of the great royal wife.” Nowhere on the objects found in the tomb have 686 THEBES — WEST BANK. we a hint as to their nationality, but it seems quite clear that they were not Egyptians. On the scarabs which Amen-hetep III had made to commemorate his marriage with Thi, the names of her father and mother are given without the addition of any title of honour, and without the sign ], or jJvj which would indicate that her parents were foreigners, but it is nevertheless probable that they were. From the way in which Queen Thi is addressed by some of the writers of the Tell al-‘Amarna Tablets, we are justified in assuming that they were addressing a countrywoman, and this is probably the case. The titles of Iuaa and Thuau mentioned above afford no reason for doubting this, for nothing would be more natural than for Amen-hetep III to bestow high rank and titles upon his chief wife’s parents. Meanwhile there is reason for believing that Queen Thi’s influence made her son reject the pretensions of the priests of Amen, and it seems that her religious opinions were unlike those of the orthodox Egyptians of Thebes. Further light will undoubtedly be thrown on this point by the publication of a volume by Mr. Theodore M. Davis, which, we learn from him, is to appear shortly. 687 V.— LUXOR TO ASWAN. The first station passed after Luxor is Armant, or Erment, with over 10,000 inhabitants ; it is 458^ miles from Cairo, and nine from Luxor. Here is a large, flourishing sugar factory, which is the property of the Egyptian Government. Close by stood the ancient town of Annu qemat, i.e., the Southern On, in distinction to the Northern On, i.e., Heliopolis ; classical writers called the town Hermonthis, and Strabo says that Apollo and J upiter were worshipped there. In ancient Egyptian times the chief deity of Hermonthis was Menthu, a local god of war, whose attributes were merged into those of a form of Horus. The ruins near are those of the temple dedicated to Isis, which was built by Cleopatra VII, Tryphaena, and is commonly known as the Iseion. It is certain that an Egyptian town must have stood here in very early times, and the numerous remains which are found in the neighbourhood indicate that it was in its most flourishing state before the princes of Thebes attained to the supreme power in the country, and before they made Thebes their capital. A little to the east of Armant lies the village of Tud, which some have identified with the Tuphium of classical writers ; Tud, we know, was a flourishing village in early Coptic times, but Tuphium was probably further south. Gebelen, an Arabic name meaning the “Two Mountains,” is a village about nine miles from Armant, and lies on the west bank of the river ; it marks the site of the Greek town Crocodilopolis, the chief god of which was Sebek, who was incarnate in the crocodile. The district was inhabited in the earliest times, for large numbers of flints, pottery, dried human bodies, etc., of the pre-dynastic period have been found here ; and the ruins in the neighbourhood prove that a town existed nere early in the dynastic period. The next railway station is Asfun al-Mata ‘na ; the village has 5,600 inhabitants. On the west bank, a few miles to the north, stood the ancient Egyptian city of Hetsfent ; the classical 688 TEMPLE OF ASNA. writers turned the name into Asphynis, and it forms the base of the name of the modern Arab village. Asna, or Esna, with 13. 564 inhabitants, 484^ miles from Cairo, has its station on the east bank of the river. The Plan of Temple of Esna, with restorations by Grand Bey. Egyptians called the city which stood on the west bank Sent, and it marks the site of the ancient Latopolis, and was so called by the Greeks because its inhabitants worshipped the Latus AL-MAHAMiD. 689 fish. Thothmes III founded a temple here, but the interesting building which now stands almost in the middle of the modern town is of late date, and bears the names of some of the Roman Emperors, e.g., Vespasian, Decius (a.b. 249-251). The portico is supported by 24 columns, each of which is inscribed ; their capitals are handsome. The Zodiac here, like that at Denderah, belongs to a late period, but is interesting. The temple was dedicated to the god Khnemu, his wife Nebuut, and their offspring Kahra. The mountains near Esneh afforded homes for Christian recluses and monks in very early times, and in the third century the population of ascetics here was very consider- able. Under Decius a systematic attempt was made to suppress Christianity in Egypt, and the monks were forced to perform military service ; their persistent refusals to do this had a great deal to do with the furious persecutions of Christians which took place under Decius and Diocletian. Coptic records are full of allusions to monks who lived in and about Esneh, and the district is remarkable from being the birthplace of Pachomius, one of the greatest leaders and preachers of asceticism, and the founder of a famous monastery. In the reign of Decius, the last of the Roman Emperors whose name and figure occur on the walls of the temple of Esneh, it was decreed that every man should offer sacrifice to the gods of Rome ; those who complied received certificates from the magistrates, and those who did not were punished or put to death. In 1906 Mr. John Garstang completed the excavation of a site in the neighbourhood of Esna which has proved of considerable importance from the historical standpoint, inas- much as it has provided what is possibly the most representative and complete series of Egyptian antiquities of the Hyksos Period. During the course of these excavations a systematic exploration has been made of the desert lying to the south of Esna for a distance of sixty miles. In 1905 Professor Sayce carried out the excavation of a Xllth dynasty cemetery at Ad-Der, close to Esna, and he brought to light a number of antiquities which illustrate the characteristics of the local manu- factures of the city called Latopolis by the Greeks and of its neighbourhood. The next large village on the railway is AI = Mahamid, with 3,609 inhabitants, and on the opposite bank of the river is the ruined pyramid of Al-kula, which is probably the tomb of some prince or high official who lived in the city of Hierakonpolis, a few miles further south. 2 x 690 AL-KAB. Al = Kab, 502 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, marks the position of the ancient Egyptian city of Nekheb, which existed in the earliest times. The deity worshipped here was called Nekhebet, and she was regarded as the greatest goddess of Upper Egypt ; she became incarnate in the vulture. The city of Nekheb was the oldest ecclesiastical centre of Upper Egypt, just as Per-Uatchet was of Lower Egypt, and in dynastic times kings were proud to boast of their dominion over these two cities, which they symbolised by the signs , and each chose a title for himself by which this fact was made known. It would seem that the goddess Nekhebet was the special protectress of women with child, for the Greeks identified her with Eileithyia, their own goddess of childbirth, and they called her city Eileithyiaspolis. At a very early period the inhabitants of Nekheb surrounded their little fortress-city with a wall, and this being apparently insufficient to protect it, they added a second wall ; the buildings within the inner wall probably consisted of a temple, containing no doubt the original sanctuary of Nekhebet, the offices of government, and the house of a small number of officials. The outer wall seems to have enclosed an area measuring 470 feet by 440 feet. Near this portion of Al-Kab a large number of graves of the pre-dynastic and archaic periods have been found, side by side with mastaba tombs, built of crude bricks. The small pre-dynastic graves were found chiefly inside the fort of Al-Kab, but there were a few outside the walls, and it was evident, from the position in which the bodies were buried, and the style and character of the objects found in the graves, that they belonged to the same class of graves as those which wei e excavated at Abydos, Balias, and Nakada between 1894 and 1897 and in 1900 by Messrs, de Morgan, Amelineau, and Petrie. At a later period, probably in dynastic times, the old fortress-town and some additional space were enclosed by a massive mud brick wall some _jo feet thick, and probably from 25 to 30 feet high ; remains of this wall, 20 feet high, are still to be seen. The area enclosed by this wall is about 1,900 feet long and 1,800 feet wide. Thothmes IV built a small temple here, Amen-hetep III dedicated a small temple to Nekhebet, and Seti I and Rameses II carried out some small works at Al-Kab. Of the Ptolemaic period the chief remains are the rock-hewn TOMBS OF AL-KAB. 691 temple dedicated to Nekhebet by Ptolemy IX and Ptolemy X. In 1892-93 Mr. Somers Clarke and Mr. J. J. Tylor examined and described many of the buildings and tombs at Al-Kab, and subsequently Professor Sayce made some excavations here. In 1898 Mr. Quibell excavated the cemetery of the Ancient Empire. In 1901 Mr. Somers Clarke and Professor Sayce excavated a group of tombs of the Ilnd and Illrd dynasties which they found on the southern side of the north line of the great wall ; on a granite fragment they identified the Horus name of Kha-sekhemui. Most of the graves, they think, belong to the period of the reign of Seneferu, i.e.. about the end of the Illrd dynasty. In 1902 Messrs. Clarke and Sayce continued the excavation of the cemetery, and in one grave found a copper mirror and some stone beads. The tomb pit was filled up they noticed, “ and the filling was raised above the “ ground level and finished with a curved section. Over this “ brickwork was laid, and in result it had externally an arched “ form, but the structure was not in any way a constructed “ arch. 5 ’ These tombs resembled the tombs of the Ilnd dynasty found at Nagaa ad-Der by Dr. Reisner. In T904 the excava- tion of the cemetery was again continued, and a tomb near that of Sebek-neferu was cleared out ; it was made for a man called Usertsen. The graves of Dynasties I-IV are to the north of the temple, and those of the Middle Empire to the east of it. Mr. Somers Clarke has collected a series of facts connected with the great wall of Al-Kab and its foundations which will, when finally worked out, decide the question as to when the dynastic town was enclosed, and its wall built. For the details see Annales du Service , tom. vi, Cairo, 1905, page 264 ff. In the hills are the tombs of : — Aahmes (Amasis), the son of Abana, an officer born in the reign of Seqenen Ra; he fought against the Hyksos, and served under Amasis I, Amenophis I, and Thothmes I. The insciiption on the walls of his tomb gives an account of the campaign against some Mesopotamian enemies of Egypt and the siege of their city. Amasis was the “ Captain-General 01 Sailors.” It is an interesting text both historically and gram- matically. The Tomb of Paheri is a little over 25 feet long, and ii| f eet wide, and when complete consisted of a platform before the entrance in which the shaft leading to the mummy 2x2 692 TOMBS OF AL-KAB. chamber was sunk, a sculptured facade, an oblong chamber with an arched roof, and a shrine, which contained three statues, at the end of the chamber. Subsequently two chambers and a shaft were hewn through the last wall. The shrine contains three life-size statues of Paheri and his mother and wife. The man for whom the tomb was made was the governor of the Latopolite nome in the reign of Thothmes III, and he was descended from ancestors who had served the State for several generations. His maternal grandfather was the celebrated Aahmes, the son of Abana, and the inscriptions mention at least seven generations of his family. The scenes in the tomb are worthy of careful examination, and, as they are all described in hieroglyphics, they are of peculiar interest. They unfortunately tell us little or nothing of the biography of Paheri, who was an Egyptian gentleman of high rank and social position, but who did little towards making history ; that he was a pious man who worshipped the gods of his country diligently, is attested by the sacrificial scenes on the East Wall, and the prayers on the ceiling. The Tomb of Aahmes, the son of Pen-nekheb, a fellow- officer with Aahmes, the son of Abana. This distinguished man served under four kings — Aahmes I, Amen-hetep I, Thothmes I, and Thothmes II, and he appears to have lived on until the reign of Thothmes III ; he fought in Nubia, Syria, Palestine, and other countries of Western Asia, and on one occasion he saved his master’s life by hacking off the trunk of an elephant which had attacked him. The Tombs of Setu and Renna, both priestly officials who flourished under the XIXth dynasty. The Tomb of Sebek = Nekht, a comparatively small tomb, is of considerable interest, because it belongs either to the period of the Xlllth dynasty or a little later. The scenes and inscriptions are characteristic of this period, and illustrate the manners and customs of the time rather than the perform- ance of the religious ceremonies which were depicted on the walls of the tombs of a later date. On the west bank of the river, about four miles south of Al-Kab, on the skirts of the desert, he the ruins of the ancient city called by the Greeks Hierakonpolis, because the chief god worshipped there was a hawk ; the modern name of the hill near is Kom aUAhmar, />., “Red Hill.” At this place TEMPLE OF EDFti. 693 Mr. Quibell discovered a number of important monuments of the Archaic Period, including the remarkable green slate object with reliefs upon it, which has been commonly but erroneously called a “ palette.” This object appears to have been made for a king called Nar-mer, and is in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo ; no visitor who is interested in the archaic art of Egypt should fail to see it. Prof. Naville has proved that the object probably contained the emblem or symbol of some god which occupied the circular hollow in the centre of it. This symbol was, no doubt, made of some valuable sub- stance, perhaps of gold inlaid with precious stones, and was therefore stolen in ancient days. Here also was discovered the life-size bronze statue of King Pepi I, which illustrates the great skill of workers in bronze under the Vlth dynasty. This also is in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and should certainly be inspected. Edfu, with 4,760 inhabitants, 5 1 5 J miles from Cairo, on the west bank of the river, was called in Egyptian Behutet, and in Coptic Atbo ; it was called by the Greeks Apollinopolis Magna, because a form of Horus, the Sun-god, was worshipped in the city The crocodile and its worshippers were detested. The Temple of Edfti, for which alone both the ancient and modern towns were famous, occupied 180 years, 3 months, and 14 days in building, that is to say, it was begun during the reign of Ptolemy III, Euergetes I, b . c . 237, and finished b.c. 57. It resembles that of Denderah in many respects, but its complete condition marks it out as one of the most remarkable buildings in Egypt, and its splendid towers, about 112 feet high, make its general magnificence very striking. The space enclosed by the walls measures 450 feet by 120 feet; the front of the propylon from side to side measures about 252 feet. Passing through the door the visitor enters a court, around three sides of which runs a gallery supported on . 3 2 pillars. The first and second halls, a , b , have 18 and 12 pillars respectively; passing through chambers c and d, the sanctuary e is reached, where stood a granite naos in which a figure of Horus, to whom the temple is dedicated, was preserved. This naos was made by Nectanebus I, a king of the XXXth dynasty, b.c. 378. The pylons are covered with battle scenes, and the walls are inscribed with the names and sizes of the various chambers in the building, lists of names of places, etc. ; the name of the architect, I-em-hetep, or Imouthis, has also been inscribed. From the south side of the pylons, and from a small chamber 694 TEMPLE OF ED Fl). on each side of the chamber c, staircases ascended to the roof. The credit of clearing out the temple of Edffi belongs to M. Mariette. Little more than 35 years ago the mounds of rubbish outside reached to the top of its walls, and certain TEMPLE OF REDESIYAH. 695 parts of the roof were entirely covered over with houses and stables. Some two years ago the great wall on the west side of the Edfii Temple collapsed, and there was reason to fear that the whole of the roofing of the temple would fall in likewise. Sir William Garstin took the matter in hand at once, and Lord Cromer secured a grant of ^E. 1,500, and Monsieur Barsanti was despatched to rebuild the wall and repair any damage which the building had suffered through its fall. M. Barsanti has completed the work of restoration in a most satisfactory manner, and the whole temple is now stronger than it has been for centuries. A few miles to the south of Edfu, on the eastern bank of the Temple of Seti I on the road between Redesiyah and Berenice. (From Lepsius. ) Nile, is the village of Redesiyah, from which a road runs to the emerald mines of Mount Zabara ; these lie about 40 miles from the town of Berenice on the Red Sea, about 210 miles distant from Edffi. The road is a very old one, and was provided with wells at long intervals, and it was traversed by officials and others until the end of the fourteenth century of our era. About 40 miles from the Nile is an ancient well, which was, apparently, either cleared out or deepened by Seti I, about b.c. 1370; this king dug some new wells close by, and also built there a temple, with a rock-hewn sanctuary, which he dedicated to the god Amen-Ra. The reliefs depict the king vanquishing the peoples of the Eastern Desert, and making offerings to the gods. The mining district, or perhaps the whole road, seems to have been 696 SALWA. under the Egyptian Governor of Nubia, for a stele there makes mention of Ani, the commander of the Matchai, or Nubian soldiers, whose duty was to protect caravans returning from the mines with emeralds and mother-of-emerald to Egypt. This desert station seems to have been commanded by a Nubian, even in the days of Amen-hetep III, for Merimes, “royal son “of Kesh,” has left his name there. The official who dug the well or wells for Seti I was called Ani. The local goddess of the place was called Aasith, the correct reading of whose name we owe to M. Golenischeff ; she is represented on horseback, and as she holds a shield in one hand she was a goddess of war, probably of Asiatic origin. The town of Berenice Troglo- dytica was founded by Ptolemy II, about b.c. 275, no doubt on the site of a much older seaport town, where the products of India were disembarked and sent across the desert routes to large towns on the Nile, or along the desert road which followed the sea-coast to the cities at the head of the Delta. In 1905 the Egyptian Government established a station of the Mining Department, and made the town the headquarters for the Special Police Corps. Rough roads are being made between the mining districts and the Nile, and the ancient wells are being cleared out. The object is to make lines of communication between the Red Sea and the Nile, for through these material and food-stuffs and labour can be economically despatched to the mining centres, and the various districts kept under effective control. The first well on the Edfu Road to the mines, 12 miles from the Nile, has been reached by motor-car in forty-five minutes, and the third well, 45 '50 miles from the Nile, in two and a quarter hours by motor-cycle as against eleven hours by trotting camel. The next station on the railway is Salwa, which serves a village of over 7,000 inhabitants. Nearly opposite to this village, on the west bank, is Al-Hosh, where there are numerous quarries, which do not appear to have been worked before the Roman period. Quite close to AUHosh is a small valley called Shatt = ar= Regal. Here, near the river bank, is a relief containing a figure of one of the Antef kings standing in the presence of King Menthu-hetep III ^ — x"jj| Neb- hept-Ra. The former is styled “Son of the Sun,” and is followed by his chancellor, Khati • the latter wears the crowns of the South and North, , and is called “ King of the South and GEBEL SILSILA. 697 “ North,” j and is followed by the “ royal mother,” a Aahet. This scene is usually described as the paying of an act of homage by Antef to Menthu-hetep, but this is not certain ; it was discovered by Mr. Harris, who made a drawing of it some 40 or 50 years ago. Hagar (or Gebel) Silsila, 541 J miles from Cairo, on the east and west banks of the river, derives its name probably not from the Arabic word of like sound meaning “chain,” but from the Coptic tcholtchel, meaning “ stone wall ” ‘ the place is usually called Khenmi in hieroglyphic texts. The ancient Egyptians here quarried the greater part of the sandstone used by them in their buildings at Thebes, and the names of the kings inscribed in the caves here show that these quarries were used from the earliest to the latest periods. The most extensive of these are to be found on the east bank of the river, but on the west bank we have the little rock-hewn temple of Heru-em-heb, the last king of the XVIIIth dynasty, conquering the Ethiopians ; here we have figures of this king, and figures of Seti I, Rameses II his son, Menephthah, etc. At Silsila the Nile was worshipped, and the little temple which Rameses II built in this place seems to have been dedicated chiefly to it. There are numerous inscriptions in many places in many of the quarries, and these and the figures they accompany are well worthy of examination for those who have the time. At Silsila the Nile narrows very much, and it was generally thought that a cataract once existed here ; there is, however, no evidence in support of this view, and the true channel of the Nile lies on the other side of the mountain. Kom Ombos, 5 56 J miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, was an important place at all periods of Egyptian history ; it was called by the Egyptians Per-Sebek, “ the temple of Sebek ” (the crocodile god), and Nubit, and Embo by the Copts. The oldest object here is a sandstone gateway which Thothmes III dedicated to the god Sebek. The ruins of the temple and other buildings at Kom Ombos are among the most striking in Egypt, but, until the clearance of the site which M. de Morgan made in 1893-94, it was impossible to get an exact idea of their arrangement. It is pretty certain that a temple dedicated to some god must have stood here in the Early Empire, and we know from M. Maspero’s discoveries here in 1882, that Amenophis I and 6 9 8 KOM OMBOS. Thothmes III, kings of the XVIIIth dynasty, carried out repairs on the temple which was in existence in their days ; but at the present time no parts of the buildings at Kom Ombos are older than the reigns of the Ptolemies. Thanks to the labours of M. de Morgan, the ruins may be thus classified : — The Mammisi, the Great Temple, and the Chapel of Hathor; and all these buildings were enclosed within a surrounding wall. The Mammisi, or small temple wherein the festivals of the birth of the gods were cele- brated, stood in front of the great temple, to the left ; it consisted of a small courtyard, hall of columns, and the shrine. It was built by Ptolemy IX, who is depicted on the walls making offerings to Sebek, Hathor, Thoth, and other deities. The best relief re- maining {see de Morgan, Kom Ombos , p. 50) is on the north wall, and represents the king on a fowling expedition through marshes much frequented by water fowl. The Great Temple. — The pylon of the great temple has almost entirely disappeared, and only a part of the central pillar and south half remains. A few of the scenes are in good preservation, and represent the Emperor Domitian making offerings to the gods. Passing through the pylon the visitor entered a large courtyard; on three sides was a colonnade containing 16 pillars, and in the middle was an altar. The large hall of 10 columns was next entered, and access was obtained through two doors to another, but smaller, hall, of 10 columns. The shrines of the gods Sebek and Heru-ur, i.e., “ Horus the elder ” (Haroeris), to whom the temple was dedicated, were approached through three chambers, each having two doors, and round the whole of this section of the Plan of the Temple of Kom Ombos. KOM OMBOS. 699 building ran a corridor, which could be entered through a door on the left into the second hall of columns, and a door on the right in the first chamber beyond. At the sides and ends of the sanctuary are numerous small chambers which were used probably either for the performance of ceremonies in connec- tion with the worship of the gods, or by the priests. The reliefs on the courtyard represent Tiberius Caesar making offerings to Heru-ur, hawk-headed, Sebek, crocodile-headed, Osiris Unnefer, and other gods. The colouring of the relief in which this Emperor is seen making an offering to the lady of Ombos and Khonsu (Column IV) is in an admirable state of preservation. On the facade is an interesting scene in which the gods Horus and Thoth are represented pouring out the water of life over Ptolemy Neos Dionysos. The reliefs in the first hall of columns are very fine examples of the decorative work of the period, and worthy of notice are : — ( West Wall) : The king in the company of Heru-ur, Isis, Nut, and Thoth ; the king adoring four mythical monsters, one of which has four lions’ heads. {East Wall ) : Harpocrates, seated in the Sun’s disk in a boat, accompanied by Shu, Isis, Nephthys, Maat, Nut, etc.; the 14 kas or “doubles” of the king; the king making offerings to the gods. ( Ceili?ig ) : The gods of the stars in boats in the heavens, gods and goddesses, etc. Here it is interesting to note that certain sections of the ceiling are divided by lines into squares with the object ot assisting the draughtsman and sculptor, and that the plan of the original design was changed, for unfinished figures of gods may be seen on it in quite different positions. In the small hall of columns are reliefs similar in character to those found in the larger hall. An examination of the great temple shows that the building was carried out on a definite plan, and that the decoration of the walls with reliefs was only begun after the builders had finished their work. The oldest reliefs and texts belong to the period of the Ptolemies, and are found in the main buildings, and begin with the shrines of the gods Sebek and Heru-ur; the reliefs and inscriptions of the courtyard belong to the Roman period. The Chapel of Hathor also belongs to the Roman period, and seems not to have been completed. Drawings made in the early part of the nineteenth century show that the ruins of the temples and other buildings were in a much better state of preservation than they are at present, and as the ruin which has fallen upon them since that date 7 oo KOM OMBOS. cannot be justly attributed to the natives, it must be due to the erosion of the bank by the waters of the Nile, which has for centuries slowly but surely been eating its way into it. The building which Amenophis I erected there was destroyed by the encroachment of its waters, and, according to M. de Morgan, a strip of ground from the front of the temple nearly 20 feet in width has been swallowed up in the waters during the last 60 years, and with it there probably went the greater part of the Mammisi. This being so, all lovers of antiquities will rejoice that a stone platform has been built in front of the temple to prevent the further destruction of it by the Nile. A few years ago large portions of the walls of the Temple of Kom Ombo collapsed, but thanks to the prompt measures taken by the Government, and the skill of M. Barsanti, the damage has been made good, and the ruin of the whole building arrested. The stations on the railway and the principal villages between Silsila and Aswan are : Daraw, with over 9,000 inhabitants; Al = Khattara, with over 1,000 inhabitants; and Al = Gazira, with 500 inhabitants. 7oi PART IV. SUCTION. PAGE I. — Aswan, the Island of Elephantine, and Philae ... 703 II.— Philae to Wadi Haifa ... ... ... ... 722 III. — The S?idan-Wadi Haifa to Khartum ... ... 735 IV. — Khartum to Ruseres on the Blue Nile ... ... 795 V. — Khartum to the Great Lakes ... ... ... 799 VI. — Kena to Kuser on the Red Sea, and the Wadi Hammamat .. ... ... ... ... 814 VII. — Elementary Facts of Arabic Grammar ... ... 818 se i^rgftwsA cr.^'W li .acne CL xoax/a a A KjaSl. J3u \^rfev6')J3Eu;e j&.vr^yH I* uSXQ •VOiVgSs iyRiXjWftCL ’V. pc&rrrooCsAri«^c(pT'!i >5 » ^oSAW^^svSSL s> J*> y o T#f^,anT ... ji. . o jp\ fcja £ ^'wr^xnO |. >W51^fc ,w ^ AkjHnVip [( 0 $>ft.A~w sW-oiLm'l iJ5wv ttji ^LA^Jlo ^.awsScSL -1T \\o n.ir>-ve»»o\A ■ te-r&Jl > 4 n ^ A r r Jf p ^ ..:&, r&srs .WAjSy*sv-Y TNttr^Avo^f vn 5 5' iy>.fY,A j*wAl£- U'ayW* *1 - .Arwl vv ^ 7°3 I — ASWAN,* THE ISLAND OF ELEPHANTINE, AND PHIL/E. Aswan (or Uswan), with over 13,000 inhabitants, the southern limit of Egypt proper, 587 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, was called in Egyptian, Sunt, in Coptic, Souan ; the Greek town of Syene stood on the slope of a hill to the south- west of the present town. Properly speaking, Syene was the island of Elephantine, which the early dynastic Egyptians called Abu, i.e., “ elephant,” probably on account of its shape ; it formed oco the metropolis of the first nome of Upper Egypt, , TFTT f Ta-kens. As we approach the time of the Ptolemies, the name Sunnu, i.e., the town on the east bank of the Nile, from whence cor. es the Arabic name Aswan, takes the place of Abu. The town obtained great notoriety among the Greeks from the fact that Eratosthenes and Ptolemy considered it to lie on the Tropic of Cancer, and to be the most northerly point where, at the time of the summer solstice, the sun’s rays fell vertically ; as a matter of fact, however, the town lies o° 37' 23'' north of the Tropic of Cancer. There was a famous well there, into which the sun was said to shine at the summer solstice, and to illuminate it in every part. In the time of the Romans three cohorts were stationed here, and the town was of considerable importance. In the twelfth century of our era it was the seat of a bishop. Of its size in ancient days nothing definite can be said, but Arabic writers describe it as a flourishing town, and they relate that a plague once swept off 20,000 of its inhabitants. Aswan was famous for its wine in Ptolemaic times. The town has suffered greatly at the hands of the Arabs and Turks on the north, and from the Nubians, by whom it was nearly destroyed in the twelfth century, on the south. The * The Arabic form adopted by the eminent Arab geographer, Yakut, is Uswan, 7°4 ENVIRONS OF ASWAN. oldest ruins in the town are those of a Ptolemaic temple, which are still visible. Under Dynasties I-VI it was the frontier town of Egypt on the south, and was the starting point of all expeditions into the Sftdan. Under the Xllth Dynasty the frontier town on the south was Semna, in the Second Cataract, and Abu, or Sunt, lost some of its importance. At the close of the XXth Dynasty this town became once more the chief southern frontier city, and continued to be so until the rule of the Ptolemies. THE ISLAND OF ELEPHANTINE. 705 The Island of Elephantine * lies a little to the north of the cataract just opposite Aswan, and has been famous in all ages as the key of Egypt from the south ; the Romans garrisoned it with numerous troops, and it represented the southern limit of their empire. The island itself was very fertile, and it is said that its vines and fig trees retained their leaves throughout the year. The kings of the Vth dynasty sprang from Elephantine. The gods worshipped here by the Egyptians were called Khnemu, Sati, and Sept, and on this island Amenophis III built a temple, remains of which were visible in the early part of last century. Of the famous Nilometer which stood here Strabo says: “The Nilometer “ is a well upon the banks of the Nile, constructed of close- “ fitting stones, on which are marked the greatest, least, and “ mean risings of the Nile ; for the water in the well and in the “ river rises and subsides simultaneously. Upon the wall of “ the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the “ river, and other degrees of its rising. Those who examine “ these marks communicate the result to the public for their “ information. For it is known long before, by these marks, “ and by the time elapsed from the commencement, what the “ future rise of the river will be, and notice is given of it. This “ information is of service to the husbandmen with reference “ to the distribution of the water ; for the purpose also of “ attending to the embankments, canals, and other things of “ this kind. It is of use also to the governors, who fix the “ revenue ; for the greater the rise of the river, the greater it is “ expected will be the revenue.” According to Plutarch, the Nile rose at Elephantine to the height of 28 cubits ; a very interesting text at Edfu states that if the river rises 24 cubits hands at Elephantine, it will water the country satisfactorily. The Nilometer at Elephantine is on the east side of the Island, opposite to the town of Aswan, at the foot of the Cataract. To-day it cortsists of a single stairway of 52 steps, parallel to * “A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where the* boatmen exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors. The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a ridge of rocks, the upper part of which is level, and thus capable of receiving the river, but terminating in a precipice, where the water dashes down. On each side towards the land there is a stream, up which is the chief ascent for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat to the precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.” (Strabo, Bk. xvii, chap, i, 49, Falconer’s translation.) Thus it appears that “ shooting the cataract ” is a very old amusement. 2 Y 706 ASWAN. the quay-wall, after which it turns to the east, and opens on the river through a doorway in the wall. In 1799, besides this stairway, there was an upper stairway, about 20 metres long, leading westwards into a small room through which the Nilometer was reached. All this upper stairway has disappeared except the bottom seven steps. There are two scales, one the scale of 1869 divided into piks and kirats, and the marble scale now in use, which is divided metrically, and numbered to show the height above mean sea-level. On the west wall are the remains of two other scales, one Arabic, and one numbered with Greek numerals ; the latter was used in late Egyptian times. On the wall of the stairway are the remains of Greek inscriptions dating from the reigns of several of the Roman Emperors, and giving the year of the reign, and the height of the Nile flood. From these it is clear that about 100 a.d. the Nile often rose to 24 and sometimes above 25 cubits on the Nilometer scale ; so that the high floods of that time reached the level of 91 metres above sea-level. To-day they reach 94 metres as in 1874, or 3 metres above the level of 1900 years ago, corresponding to a rise of the bed of cr 16 metre per century at this point. Lyons, Physiography , p. 315. A mile or so to the north of the monastery stands the bold hill in the sides of which are the rock = hewn tombs which General Sir F. W. Grenfell, G.C.B., excavated; this hill is situated in Western Aswan, the Souan en-Pement of the Copts, and is the Contra Syene of the classical authors. The tombs are hewn out of the rock, tier above tier, and the most important of these were reached by a stone staircase, with a sarcophagus slide, which to this day remains nearly complete, and is one of the most interesting antiquities in Egypt. At the top of the staircase are four chambers, two on each side, from which coffins and mummies were taken out in 1886. The tombs in this hill may be roughly divided into three groups. The first group was hewn in the best and thickest layer of stone in the top of the hill, and was made for the rulers of Elephantine who lived during the Vlth and Xllth dynasties. The second group is composed of tombs of different periods ; they are hewn out of a lower layer of stone, and are not of so much importance. The third group, made during the Roman occupation of Egypt, lies at a comparatively little height above the river. All these tombs were broken into at a very early period, and the largest of them formed a common sepulchre for people of all classes from the XXVI th dynasty downwards. TOMBS AT ASWAN. 7o 7 They were found filled with broken coffins and mummies and sepulchral stelae, etc., and everything showed how degraded Egyptian funereal art had become when these bodies were buried there. The double tomb at the head of the staircase was made for Sabna and Mekhu ; the former was a dignitary of high rank who lived during the reign of Pepi II, a king of the Vlth dynasty, whose prenomen J Uj, Nefer-ka-Ra, is inscribed on the left side of the doorway; the latter was a smer , prince and inspector, who appears to have lived during the Xllth dynasty. The paintings on the walls and the proto-Doric columns which support the roof are interesting, and its fine state of preservation and position make it one of the most valuable monuments of that early period. A little further northward is the small tomb <*U9, Heqab, and beyond this is the fine, large tomb hewn originally for Sa = Renput, one of the old feudal hereditary governors of Elephantine, but it was appropriated by Nub = kau = Ra = nekht. He was the governor of the district of the cataract, and the general who commanded a lightly-armed body of soldiers called “runners”; he lived during the reign of Usertsen I, the second king of the Xllth dynasty, and his tomb must have been one of the earliest hewn there during that period. Another interesting tomb is that of Heru = khuf, who was governor of Elephantine, and an inscription from it (now in the Cairo Museum) shows that this official was sent by Pepi II to bring back a pygmy, c Q JA , tenk , from the interior of Africa. The king /WWNA promised Heru-khuf that if he brought back a pygmy alive and well he would confer upon him a higher rank and dignity than that which King Assa conferred upon his minister Ba-ur-Tettet, who performed the same office about 80 years before. fcly] The following is a list of the principal tombs at Aswan : 1. Tomb of Mekhu and Sabna, % and [l ' V ^ AAA/WS jj In this tomb is an interesting scene of the deceased in a boat spearing fish. In front of the tomb of Mekhu is a staircase by which sarcophagi were rolled up into 2 Y 2 708 ASWAN. the tombs ; down the centre is a flat surface with steps on each side of it. The staircase was first cleared of sand in 1886, and in the same year the four chambers near the top were dis- covered. hetep. (No. 31.) 1 . T 2 . Si 3- T 4- T 5- T 6. T 7- T 8. T The Tombs at Aswan. 6. Tomb of Khunes (?). 7. Toml of Khennu = sesu, D son of Satet- 4. Tomb of Aku, (No. 32.) 8 5. Tomb of Khuua, 9. Tomb of Pepi-nekht L-vj. TOMBS AT ASWAN. 709 to. Tomb of Sen = mes, 1 11. Tomb of Sa = renput = a, This tomb is the finest of all the tombs at Aswan. It faces the north, and lies round the bend of the mountain. Before it is a spacious court, which was enclosed by a wall; the limestone jambs of the door were ornamented with reliefs and hiero- glyphics, and were, until recently, still in situ. At the south end of the court was a portico supported by eight rectangular pillars. The first chamber contains four pillars, and leads through a wide corridor to another chamber with two pillars ; in this last are two flights of steps which lead to two other chambers. The walls of the court were without reliefs, but the pillars of the portico were decorated with figures of the deceased and with inscriptions on each of their sides. The face of the tomb is inscribed with a long text in which the deceased tells how he “ filled the heart of the king ” ( i.e ., satisfied him), and enumerates all the work which he did in Nubia on behalf of his lord ; to the left of the doorway is a relief in which Sa-renput is seen in a boat spearing fish (?), and to the right we have a representation of ancestor worship. On the wall of the first chamber inside is a long inscription which fortunately enables us to date the tomb, for it mentions the prenomen Kheper-ka-Ra ("0 jjxj) Ll J of Usertsen I, a king of the XI 1th dynasty : else- where are depicted a number of boats, fishing scenes, etc. The other scenes in the tomb refer to the storage of wheat, jars of wine, etc. When the writer first cleared this tomb for Sir Francis Grenfell in 1886, the shrine, containing a figure of Sa-renput-a, was in situ , and was of considerable interest. In the sand which filled the first chamber almost to the ceiling were found the bodies of two or three Muhammadans, who appear to have been hastily buried there. The shaft, which is entered from the right side of the second chamber by means of a flight of steps, was cleared out, and two or more small chambers, lined and barricaded with unbaked bricks, were entered. In the floor of one of these an entrance to a further pit was made, but the air was so foul that candles ceased to burn, and tne work had to be abandoned. 710 aswAn. Lower down in the hill are the following tombs : — i. Tomb of Sebek=hetep, ^ □ 2. Tomb of Khnemu = khenu, 3. Tomb of Thetha, [] . v 4. Tomb of Sen, 5. Tomb of Aba, In 1902 and 1904 Lady William Cecil excavated a large number of the tombs which lie to the south of the Grenfell group, but nothing of importance was found in them. Nearly every tomb had been used by two occupants at least. For an account of the work done see Annales du Service , tom. iv, p. 51 ff; and tom. vi, p. 273-283. The Monastery of St. Simon, or Simeon. On the western bank of the Nile, at about the same height as the, southern point of the Island of Elephantine, begins the valley which leads to the monastery called after the name of Saint Simon, or Simeon. It is a large, strong building, half monastery, half fortress, and is said to have been abandoned by the monks in the thirteenth century, but the statement lacks confirmation ; architecturally it is of very considerable interest. It was wholly surrounded by a wall from about 19 to 23 feet high, the lower part, which was sunk in the rock, being built of stone, and the upper part of mud brick ; within this wall lay all the monastery buildings. The monks lived in the north tower, in the upper storeys, where there were several cells opening out on each side of a long corridor ; on the ramparts were a number of hiding places for the watchmen, and there are evidences that the building was added to from time to time. The church con- sisted of a choir, two sacristies, and a nave, the whole being covered with a vaulted roof, which was supported by columns. In the church were the remains of a fine fresco in the Byzantine style, which formerly contained the figures of Christ and 24 saints, etc., and also a picture of Christ enthroned. In a small rock-hewn chapel at the foot of the staircase which leads to the MONASTERY OF ST. SIMON. 7ii corridor, the walls are ornamented with figures of our Lord’s Apostles or Disciples. Every here and there are found inscrip- tions in Coptic and Arabic. The Coptic texts usually contain prayers to God that He may show mercy upon their writers, who regard the visit to the monastery as a meritorious act • the oldest Arabic inscription states that a certain Mutammar £ Ali visited the monastery in the year a.h. 694, i.e., towards the end of the thirteenth century of our era. About a fifth of a mile to the east of the monastery lay the ancient cemetery, which was cleared out about 17 years ago ; the bodies of the monks had been embalmed after a fashion, but they fell to pieces when touched. M. Cledat made excavations here in 1903-1904 and brought to light some 34 Coptic stelae. If the position of the Copts in Egypt in the thirteenth century be considered, it will be seen to be extremely unlikely that the monastery of St. Simon was flourishing at that time, and it is far more probable that it was deserted many scores of years before. From Abu Salih, the Armenian, we learn that there were several churches and monasteries at Aswan. Thus he says that on the island of Aswan, i.e., Elephantine, there was a church in which was laid the body of Abti Hadri, and near this church was a monastery, which was in ruins in the days of Abu Salih, with 300 cells for monks. There were also the churches of Saint Mennas, the Virgin Mary, and the archangels Gabriel and Michael. The church of St. Ibsadah stood on the citadel of Aswan, on the bank of the Nile, and the saint was said to have the power of walking upon the water. The monastery of Abu Hadri was “ on the mountain on the west,” and it is probable that the monastery now called by the name of St. Simon is here referred to. The gold mines, which are often referred to by writers on Aswan, appear to have been situated in the Western desert and in the Wadi al-‘Alaki, to the south-east of Aswan, in the country of the Bisharin ; these were the mines which were worked by the Egyptians in the XVII Ith, XIXth, and later dynasties, and after them by the Romans and Arabs. Modern miners consider the ancient methods of working them to have been very wasteful. The clay quarries were situated on the east bank of the Nile, just opposite to Elephantine Island, and were famous for red and yellow ochres, and for a fine clay, called the “ clay of art,” which was much used in making jars to hold Aswan wine. These quarries were worked in dynastic times, and the stratum of clay was followed by the miners to very 712 THE FIRST CATARACT. considerable distances into the mountains ; the entrance to the workings is buried under the sand. Aswan was as famous for its granite quarries, which lie to the left of the railway in going to Shellal, as Silsila was for its sandstone. The Egyptian kings were in the habit of sending to Aswan for granite to make sarcophagi, temples, obelisks, etc., and it will be remembered that Una was sent there to bring back in barges granite for the use of Pepi I, a king of the Vlth dynasty. It is probable that the granite slabs which cover the pyramid of Mycerinus (IVth dynasty) were brought from AswUn. The undetached obelisk, which still lies in the northern quarry, is an interesting object ; in the southern quarry are unfinished colossal statues, &c. Near the quarries are two ancient Arabic cemeteries, in which are a number of sandstone gravestones, many of them formed from stones taken from Ptolemaic buildings, inscribed in Cufic* characters with the names of the Muhammadans buried there, and the year, month, and day on which they died. We learn from them that natives of Edfu and other parts of Egypt were sometimes brought here and buried.' In the desert between Aswan and Shellal are numbers of inscriptions to which numbers were affixed by M. de Morgan ; here also are the remains of an ancient massive brick wall, built to protect the villages on the Cataract. The First Cataract, called Shellal by the Arabs, begins a little to the south of Aswan, and ends a little to the north of the island of Phike; six great cataracts are found on the Nile, but this is the most generally known. Here the Nile becomes narrow and flows between two mountains, which descend nearly perpendicularly to the river, the course of which is obstructed by huge boulders and small rocky islands and barriers, which stand on different levels, and cause the falls of water which have given this part of the river its name. On the west side the obstacles are not so numerous as on the east, and sailing and rowing boats can ascend the cataract on this side when the river is high. The noise made by the water is at * A kind of Arabic writing in which very old copies of the Kur’an, etc. , are written ; it takes its name from Kufah, Al-Kufa , a town on the Euphrates. Kufah was one of the chief cities of ‘Irak, and is famous in the Muhammadan world because Muhammad and his immediate successors dwelt there. Enoch lived here, the Ark was built here, the boiling waters of the Flood first burst out here, and Abraham had a place of prayer set apart here. STELE OF THE SEVEN YEARS’ FAMINE. 713 times very great, but it has been greatly exaggerated by both ancient and modern travellers, some of whom ventured to assert that the “water- fell from several places in the mountain more “ than 200 feet.” Some ancient writers asserted that the fountains of the Nile were in this cataract, and Herodotus* reports that an official of the treasury of Neith at Sais stated that the source of the Nile was here. Many of the rocks here are inscribed with the names of kings who reigned during the Middle Empire ; in many places on the little islands in the cataract quarries were worked. The island of Sahal should be visited on account of the numerous inscriptions left there by princes, generals, and others who passed by on their way to Nubia. On February 6th, 1889, Mr. Wilbour was fortunate enough to discover on the south-eastern part of this island a most important stele consisting of a rounded block of granite, eight or nine feet high, which stands clear above the water, and in full view from the river looking towards Philae. Upon it are inscribed 32 lines of hieroglyphics which form a remarkable document, and contain some valuable information bearing upon a famous seven years’ famine. The inscription is dated in the eighteenth year of a king whose name is read by Dr. Brugsch as Tcheser, who reigned early in the Illrd dynasty ; but internal evidence proves beyond a doubt that the narrative contained therein is a redaction of an old story, and that it is, in its present form, not older than the time of the Ptolemies. In the second line we are told : — “ By misfortune the very greatest not had “ come forth the Nile during a period lasting years seven. “ Scarce [was] grain, lacking [was] vegetable food, [there was “ a] dearth of everything [which men] ate.” In this time of distress the king despatched a messenger to Matar, the governor of Elephantine, informing him of the terrible state of want and misery which the country was in, and asking him to give him information about the source of the Nile, and about the god or goddess who presided over it, and promising to worship this deity henceforth if he would make the harvests full as of yore. Matar informed the messenger concerning these things, and when the king had heard his words he at once ordered rich sacrifices to be made to Khnemu, the god of Elephantine, and decreed that tithes of every product of the land should be paid to his temple. This done the famine came to an end and the Nile rose again to its accustomed height. There can be no Bk. ii, chap. 28. 7*4 ASWAN. connection between this seven years’ famine and that recorded in the Bible, for it must have happened some 2,000 years before Joseph could have been in Egypt; but this remarkable inscription proves that from time immemorial the people of Egypt have suffered from periodic famines. The village of Mahatah, on the east bank of the river, is prettily situated, and worth a visit. For an account of the Aswan Dam, see above, pp. 196 ff. Until the last few years the railway which joined the two ends of the First Cataract had its summer terminus at the little village of Shellal, where dwelt 100 or 200 people, chiefly Nubians ; besides these there was a small European population, consisting of Greeks and others, who were employed in working the railway and in connection with the steamers’ traffic between Shellal and Wadi Haifa. The village flourished during the winter season when tourists were numerous, and during the great expeditions to the Sudan. When, however, the Aswan Dam was finished, and the process of holding up the water began, Shellal was drowned, and its site lies several feet below the surface of the vast lake which begins at the dam and ends beyond Korosko. Philae is the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the two islands which are situated at the head of the First Cataract, about six miles south of Aswan ; the larger island is called Biggah, the Senemet of the Egyptian texts, and the name Philte now generally refers to the smaller island, on which stands the group of ancient buildings of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. The name Philae is derived from the Egyptian words P-a-lek, i.e ., “ the Island of Lek ” ; from these words the Copts formed the name Pilakh, and the Arabs the name Bilak. A well-known name for Philae in the inscriptions is “ the city of “ Isis,” and one text speaks of it as the “interior of heaven that it was held to be a most holy site is evident from its titles, Auset abt and P-a-ab, i.e., “ Holy House ” and “ Holy Island ” respectively. Of the history of the island of Philae during the Early and Middle Empires nothing is known ; only it is certain that the Egyptians made use of it for military purposes in very early times. Whether they built forts upon it cannot be said, but the site was an excellent one for a garrison. Judging by analogy, shrines to local gods or temples must have stood upon one or both of the islands, for it is impossible to imagine that such a well-protected and picturesque spot for a temple 7i5 7i6 ISLAND OF PHILAE. or temples should have remained unoccupied. The early travellers in Egypt declare that slabs of granite and sandstone inscribed with the names of Amenophis II, Amenophis III, and Thothmes III, were visible on this island, as well as on that of Biggah ; but it is certain that nothing of the kind remains there now. The island is 1,418 feet long, i.e., from north to south, and 464 feet wide, i.e., from east to west, and is formed by a mass of crystalline rock, mainly hornblendic granite, on which Nile mud has been deposited. The main portion of the Temple of Isis is founded on the solid rock of the island, while the other buildings have foundations usually from 4 to 6 metres in depth, which rest on Nile mud ; a portion of one of the buildings rests upon an artificial quay made of stone. The oldest portion of a building on the island are the remains of a small edifice which was set up at the southern end of it by Nectanebus II, the last native king of Egypt (b.c. 358— 340). Of the other buildings, all the temples date from the Ptolemaic period, and were the works of the Ptolemies and of one or two Nubian kings. Under the Roman Emperors a few of the existing buildings were enlarged, and a few architectural works of an ornamental character were added. In b.c. 22, Candace seized Philae, Aswan, and Elephantine, but her forces were attacked by the Romans, who defeated her and scattered her army. She was probably the Meroitic queen who built the temple at ‘Amara, a little above Kosha. In a.d. 250 the Blemmyes followed her example, and they raided Upper Egypt so far north as Thebes. In the reign of Diocletian (284-305) the Blemmyes invaded the neighbourhood so frequently that this Emperor came to terms with them, and eventually ceded Nubia to them on the understanding that they allowed no inroads upon Egypt from the south. In fact the Blemmyes on the east, and the Nobadae on the west were kept quiet by the payment of an annual subsidy. Mean- while, Christianity had spread in Egypt, and was making its way into Nubia, but the worship of Osiris and Isis was con- tinued at Philae, apparently without much interruption. In a.d. 380 Theodosius the Great issued the edict for establishing the worship of the Trinity, and a year later he prohibited sacrifices, and ordered some of the temples to be turned into Christian churches, and the rest to be shut ; but in spite of everything, sacrifices were offered at Philae, and the worship cf Osiris was carried on there, just as was the worship of the gods of Greece and Rome in Italy and elsewhere, until quite ISLAND OF PHIL.E. 717 the end of the fifth century. Nubia was converted to Christianity about a.d. 540, and a few years later the Emperor Justinian sent the Pers- Armenian Narses to Philae with authority to destroy the worship of Osiris and Isis. When Narses arrived he removed the statues of the gods from the great temple of Isis and sent them to Constantinople ; their subse- quent fate is unknown. He then closed the temple, and threw all the priests into prison, and, of course, confiscated all the revenues on behalf of his master. The custom of sacrificing human beings to the Sun-god was abolished, and Christians entered Nubia from the Thebaid in large numbers. A local Nubian king called Silko was sufficiently strong to seize the whole country from the First to the Fourth Cataract, and he founded the Christian Nubian kingdom, making Donkola his capital. In Christian times the Copts built at Phike one church in honour of Saint Michael and another in honour of Saint Athanasius, and recent excavations have shown that many small churches were built there. From a Coptic inscription recently discovered* we know that a church dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary existed at Philae in the first half of the VUIth century, and it tells us that in the 439th year of the Era of the Martyrs (a.d. 723), a certain Joseph, son of Dioscurus, placed an altar in the sanctuary. Abu Salih says that there are “ many idols and temples ” on the island, and that on the west bank of the river there were several churches overlooking the cataract, but adds that they were in ruins in his day. When Strabo visited Philae he says that he came from Syene (Aswan) in a wagon, through a very flat country. “ Along the “ whole road on each side we could see, in many places, very “ high rocks, round, very smooth, and nearly spherical, of “ hard black stone, of which mortars are made ; each rested “ upon a greater stone, and upon this another; they were like “ unhewn stones, with heads of Mercury upon them. Some- “ times these stones consisted of one mass. The largest was “ not less than 12 feet in diameter, and all of them exceeded “ this size by one-half. We crossed over to the island in a “ pacton, which is a small boat made of rods, whence it “ resembles woven-work. Standing there in the water (at the “ bottom of the boat), or sitting upon some little planks, we “ easily crossed over, with some alarm, indeed, but without By M. Barsanti in 1902 ; it is now in the Museum at Cairo. 7 J 8 ISLAND OF PHIL^E. “ good cause for it, as there is no danger if the boat is not “ overturned.” Of Philae itself he says : “ A little above the “ cataract is Philae, a common settlement, like Elephantina, of “ Ethiopians and Egyptians, and equal in size, containing “ Egyptian temples, where a bird, which they call hierax (the “ hawk), is worshipped ; but it did not appear to me to resemble “ in the least the hawks of our country nor of Egypt, for it “ was larger, and very different in the marks of its plumage. “ They said that the bird was Ethiopian, and is brought “ from Ethiopia when its predecessor dies, or before its “ death. The one shown to us when we were there was “ sick and nearly dead.” — (Strabo, xvii, 1-49, Falconer’s translation). In 1893 the project for a dam and reservoir at Aswan was submitted to the Government of Egypt, and in order to obtain an accurate idea of the stability of the temples, etc., Sir W. Garstin, K.C.M.G,, caused an exhaustive examination of the island to be made by Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., whose labours prove that, contrary to the general practice of the ancient Egyptian architects, the foundations of all the main buildings go down to' the bed-rock, and that consequently there is nearly as great a depth of masonry below the ground as there is above it. In the course of his excavations Captain Lyons discovered a trilingual inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek, and Latin, recording the suppression of a revolt mentioned in Strabo (xvii, i, § 53) by Cornelius Gallus, the first prefect of the country in the reign of Augustus Caesar. The principal buildings of interest on the island are : — 1. The Temple of Nectanebus II, the last native king of Egypt, which was dedicated to Isis, the lady of Philae ; it contained 14 columns with double capitals, but few of them now remain. The columns were joined by stone walls, on which were reliefs, in which Nectanebus is depicted making offerings to the gods of Philae. The southern part of the temple either fell into the river, or was removed when the quay wail was built across the south end of the island, cutting off the remainder of the court, and leaving only the front portion to mark the place of the original temple. The present building rests on a course of blocks which formed part of an earlier wall, and the cartouches prove that it was repaired by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. TEMPLES OF PHIL/E. 719 2. The Temple of Ari = hes = nefer, hes-nefer was the son of Ra and Bast, and this temple was dedicated to him by Ptolemy IY ; it was restored or repaired by Ptolemy V, the Nubian king Ergamenes, and the Emperor Tiberius, all of whom are represented in the reliefs on the walls. The present building stands upon the site of an older temple, and part of it was turned into a church by the Copts ; a number of the stone blocks from its walls were used in the building of some Coptic houses which stood near. 3. The Temple of I=em = hetep, which was finished in the reign of Ptolemy V, Epiphanes. In later times, when the east colonnade was built against it, a forecourt was added, with a narrow chamber on the east side of it ; and in still later times the Copts lived in some portions of it. 4. The Temple of Hathor, which was dedicated to this goddess by Ptolemy VII, Philometor and Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II. The forecourt was added in Roman times, and it contained columns with Hathor-headed capitals. The Copts destroyed the forecourt and built a church of the stones of which it was made. On the south side are the ruins of houses which were built before the temple was destroyed. Over the door of the one remaining room of the temple is a dedicatory inscription of Ptolemy IX in Greek. 5. The Gateway of Hadrian. This gateway stands on a portion of the enclosing wall of the Temple of Isis, on the western side, and was connected with the temple by two parallel walls, which were added at a later time. On the lintels are reliefs in which the Emperor Hadrian is depicted standing before a number of the gods of Philae, and inside the gateway is a scene representing Marcus Aurelius, who must have repaired the gateway, making offerings to Isis and Osiris. 6. The Temple of Caesar Augustus, which was built about a.d. 12, and is thought to have been destroyed by an earthquake in Coptic times. In the centre of the paved court in front of it were found in the north-west and south-west corners the two halves of a stele which was inscribed in hieroglyphics and in Greek and Latin, with the record of a revolt against the Romans, which was suppressed by Cornelius Gallus about b.c. 22. The temple was built of sandstone, with granite columns and pedestals, and diorite capitals, and was; 720 ISLAND OF PHIL/E. dedicated to the Emperor by the people of Philae and of that part of Nubia which was under the rule of the Romans. 7. The Temple of Isis. The buildings of this edifice consist of : — (1) A pylon, decorated with the reliefs of Nec- tanebus II, Ptolemy VII, Ptolemy IX, and Ptolemy XII, Neos Dionysos ; (2) a court, containing the Mammisi and a colonnade, and decorated with the reliefs of Ptolemy IX, Ptolemy XIII, and of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius ; (3) a second pylon, ornamented with reliefs by Ptolemy IX and Ptolemy XIII (at the foot of the right tower a portion of granite bed-rock projects, and the inscription upon it records the dedication of certain lands to the temple by Ptolemy VII); (4) a temple, which consists of the usual court, hypostyle hall, and shrine. In the various parts of this temple are the names of Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III, Ptolemy IX, and the Emperor Antoninus. Of special interest is the Osiris Chamber, wherein are reliefs referring to ceremonies which were connected with the death and resurrection of Osiris. The texts on the outside of this group of buildings mention the names of the Emperors Tiberius and Augustus. 8. The Temple of Heru = Netch = tef =f, which consisted of a court, having four columns on the eastern face, and a large chamber in which stood the shrine, with a narrow passage running round it. It was built on a part of the old surrounding wall of the Temple of Isis, and the greater number of its stones were removed by the Copts, who built a church with them. 9. The Nilometer. The doorway leading to the Nilometer is in the old surrounding wall of the temple, and the hinge and the jamb can still be seen. Three scales are cut in the walls, two on the north wall, and one on the south ; the oldest is probably the vertical line chiselled on the face of the north wall, and showing whole cubits only, which are marked by horizontal lines. The average length of the cubit in each portion of the scale except the second is about ’520 metre. In the second scale on the north wall the cubit is divided into 7 palms, and each palm into 4 digits ; two of the cubits are marked by Demotic numerals. The third scale, which is on the south wall, is in a perfect state of preservation ; the mean length of the 17 cubits marked is ’535 metre. Over the 1 6th cubit is cut the sign ankh , i.e. y “ life.” This sign probably indicates that when the waters of the inundation rose to the height marked by it, there would be abundance and TEMPLES OF PHIL/E. 721 prosperity in the land. The river level of the tops of scales Nos. 1, 2, and 3 is 99*654, 99*890, and 99*990 metres respectively, and the river level of the present time is 99*200 metres ; therefore Captain Lyons, who made these measure- ments, concludes that there is very little difference between the flood level of to-day and that of about 2,000 years ago. 10. The “Kiosk,” which is one of the most graceful objects on the island, and that by which Philae is often best remembered ; the building appears to be unfinished. Its date is, perhaps, indicated by the reliefs in which the Emperor Trajan is depicted making offerings to Isis and Horus, and standing in the presence of Isis and Osiris. 2 z 722 II.—PHIL/E TO WADl HALFA. The country which is entered on leaving Philse is generally known by the name of Nubia ; the latter name has been derived by some from nub , the Egyptian word for gold, because in ancient days much gold was brought into Egypt from that land. In the hieroglyphics Nubia and Ethiopia are generally called Kesh (the Cush of the Bible), and c=^ ? Ta-kenset ; from the latter name the Arabic Al-Kenfis is derived. The Egyptian King Seneferu, about b.c. 3800, raided the Sfidan and brought back 7,000 slaves, and it is known that under the Vlth dynasty the Egyptians sent to this country for certain kinds of wood. All the chief tribes that lived round about Korosko hastened to help the Egyptian officer Una in the mission which he undertook for King Pepi I. It seems pretty certain too, if we may trust Una’s words, that the whole country was made to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Egyptian king. Her-khuf, an Egyptian officer and native of Elephantine, made several journeys to the Southern Sfidan, and brought back gold and slaves for King Pepi II. From the Vllth to the Xlth dynasty nothing is known of the relations which existed between the two countries, but in the time of Usertsen I, the second king of the Xllth dynasty, an expedition was under- taken by the Egyptians for the purpose of fixing the boundaries of the two countries, and we know from a stele set up at Wadi Haifa by this king that his rule extended as far south as this place. Two reigns later the inhabitants of Nubia or Ethiopia had become so troublesome that Usertsen III found it necessary to build fortresses at Semnah and Kummah, south of the Second Cataract, and to make stringent laws forbidding the passage north of any negro ship or company of men without permission. The Hyksos kings appear not to have troubled greatly about Nubia. When the XVIIIth dynasty had obtained full power in Egypt, some of its greatest kings, such as Thotnmes III and KALABSHAH. 723 Amenhetep III, marched into Nubia and built temples there; under the rulers of this dynasty the country became to all intents and purposes a part of Egypt. Subsequently the Nubians appear to have acquired considerable power, and as Egypt became involved in conflicts with more northern countries, this power increased until Nubia, about b.c. 850, was able to declare itself independent under Piankhi. For nearly 2,000 years the Nubians had had the benefit of Egyptian civili- zation, and all that it could teach them, and they were soon able to organise hostile expeditions into Egypt with success. A second Nubian kingdom rose under Tirhakah, who conquered all Egypt and occupied Memphis. The capital of both these Nubian kingdoms was Napata, opposite Gebel Barkal. About two centuries before the birth of Christ the centre of the Nubian kingdom was transferred to the Island of Meroe, and this upper kingdom of Nubia lasted until the rise of the Graeco-Ethiopian kingdom, which had its capital at Axum. After leaving Philae, the first place of interest passed is Dabud, on the west bank of the river, 599^ miles from Cairo. At this place, called Ta-het in the inscriptions, are the ruins of a temple founded by Atcha-khar-Amen, a king of Ethiopia who may have reigned about the middle of the third century b.c. The names of Ptolemy VII, Philometor, and Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II, are found engraved upon parts of the building. Dabftd probably stands on the site of the ancient Parembole, a fort or castle on the borders of Egypt and Ethiopia, and attached alternately to each kingdom. During the reign of Diocletian it was ceded to the Nubae by the Romans, and it was frequently attacked by the Blemmyes from the east bank of the river. At Kartassi, on the west bank of the river, 615 miles from Cairo, are the ruins of a temple and large quarries, from which the stone for building the temples at Philae was obtained ; seven miles further south, on the west bank of the river, is Wadi Tafah, the ancient Taphis, where there are also some ruins ; they are, however, of little interest. Contra-Taphis lay on the east bank. Kalabshah, , on the west bank of the river, 629 miles from Cairo, stands on the site of the classical Talmis, called in hieroglyphics Thermeset, and Ka-hefennu ; it was for a long time the capital of the country of the Blemmyes, /. SIMBEL. 731 are eight columns with large figures of Osiris about 17 feet high upon them, and from which eight chambers open ; a second hall having four square columns ; and a third hall, without pillars, from which open three chambers. In the centre chamber are an altar and four seated figures, viz., I. Plan of the Temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel. II. The seated Colossi and Front of the Temple at Abu Simbel. (From Lepsius’s Denhndler , Bd. iii, Bl. 185.) 732 ABft SIMBEL. Harmachis, Rameses II, Amen-Ra, and Ptah ; the first two are coloured red, the third blue, and the fourth- white. In the sculptures on the walls Rameses is seen offering to Amen-Ra, Sekhet, Harmachis, Amsu, Thoth, and other deities ; there is a list of his children, with many small scenes of considerable importance. The subjects of the larger scenes are, as was to be expected, representations of the principal events in the victorious battles of the great king, in which he appears putting his foes to death with the weapons which Harmachis has given to him. The accompanying hieroglyphics describe these scenes with terse accuracy. One of the most interesting inscriptions at Abh Simbel is that found on a slab, which states that in the fifth year of the reign of Rameses II, his majesty was in the land of Tchah, not far from Kadesh on the Orontes. The outposts kept a sharp look-out, and when the army came to the south of the town of Shabtfin, two of the spies of the Shasu came into the camp and pretended that they had been sent by the chiefs of their tribe to inform Rameses II that they had forsaken the chief of the Kheta, and that they wished to make an alliance with his majesty and become vassals of his. They then went on to say that the chief of the Kheta was in the land of Khirebu* to the north of Tunep, some distance off, and that they were afraid to come near the Egyptian king. These two men were giving false information, and they had actually been sent by the Kheta chief to find out where Rameses and his army were ; the Kheta chief and his army were at that moment drawn up in battle array behind Kadesh. Shortly after these men were dismissed, an Egyptian scout came into the king’s presence bringing with him two spies from the army of the chief of the Kheta ; on being questioned, they informed Rameses that the chief of the Kheta was encamped behind Kadesh, and that he had succeeded in gathering together a multitude of soldiers and chariots from the countries round about. Rameses sum- moned his officers to his presence, and informed them of the news which he had just heard ; they listened with surprise, and insisted that the newly-received information was untrue. Rameses blamed the chiefs of the intelligence department seriously for their neglect of duty, and they admitted their fault. Orders were straightway issued for the Egyptian army to march upon Kadesh, and as they were crossing /.*?., Aleppo. ABt> SIMBEL. 733 an arm of the river near that city the hostile forces fell in with each other. When Rameses saw this, he “growled “ at them like his father Menthu, lord of Thebes,” and, having hastily put on his full armour, he mounted his chariot and drove into the battle. His onset was so sudden and rapid that before he knew where he was he found himself surrounded by the enemy, and completely isolated from his own troops. He called upon his father Amen-Ra to help him, and then addressed himself to a slaughter of all those that came in his way, and his prowess was so great that the enemy fell in heaps, one over the other, into the waters of the Orontes. He was quite alone, and not one of his soldiers or horsemen came near him to help him. It was only with great difficulty he succeeded in cutting his way through the ranks of the enemy. At the end of the inscription he says, “ Every thing that my “ majesty has stated, that did I in the presence of my soldiers “ and horsemen.” This event in the battle of the Egyptians against the Kheta was made the subject of an interesting poem by Pen-ta-urt ; this composition was considered worthy to be inscribed upon papyri, and upon the walls of the temples which Rameses built. A little to the south of the Great Temple is a small building of the same date, which was used in connection with the services, and on the walls of which are some interesting scenes. It was reopened some years ago by Mr. McCallum, Miss Edwards, and party. In 1892, at the instance of Mr. Willcocks, Colonel J. H. L’E. Johnstone, R.E., and a detachment of soldiers arrived at Abu Simbel with a view of carrying out certain repairs to the face and side of the great rock temple. They began by clearing away several enormous masses of overhanging rock which, had they fallen in, must have inflicted very great damage on the colossal statues below ; and having broken them into smaller pieces, Colonel Johnstone used them for building two walls at the head of the valley to prevent the drift sand from burying the temple again, and for making a hard stone slope. The cynocephali which form the ornament of the cornice were carefully repaired and strengthened, and the original rock was in many places built up with stone and cement. The whole of the sand and broken stones which had become piled up in front of the entrance to the small chamber reopened by Mr. McCallum some years before was cleared away, and any dangerous break in the rock was carefully repaired. 734 WADf HALFA. Faras Island, about ‘30 miles from Wadi Haifa, is the most northerly point of the SMan Administration of the Nile. Gebel Sahaba, a hill on the east bank, marks the point where the 22nd parallel of north latitude crosses the river, and, as the traveller passes this, he enters the Sudan. On the east bank of the Nile, 802 miles from Cairo, the town of Wadi Haifa, with its new suburb Tawfikiya, marks the site of a part of the district called Buhen in the hiero- glyphic inscriptions, where, as at Derr and Ibrim, the god Harmachis was worshipped. On the plain to the east of the town some interesting flint weapons have been found, and a few miles distant are the fossil remains of a forest. On the western bank of the river, a little further south, are the remains of a temple which was built by Thothmes II and restored by Thothmes III. It was repaired and added to by later kings of Egypt, but it seems to have fallen into disuse soon after the Romans gained possession of Egypt. It was first excavated by Colonel (now Sir) C. Holled-Smith in 1886-7 1 it was cleared out by Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., who also excavated the ruins of two temples which stood to the north of it in 1890, and found some interesting remains of buildings on the west bank. A few years later it was again cleared by Colonel Hayes Sadler and Mr. Somers Clarke, and in 1905 Sir Reginald Wingate caused it to be again cleared and ordered a wall to be built round it, and a portion of it to be covered over with a light roof. The carrying out of this work was superintended by Messrs. J. W. Crowfoot and Scott Moncrieff. A few miles south of Wadi Haifa begins the Second Cataract, a splendid view of which can be obtained from the now famous rock of Abusir on the west bank of the river. Nearly every traveller who has visited Abfl Simbel has been to this rock and inscribed his name upon it ; the result is an interesting collection of names and dates, the like of which probably exists nowhere else. r~ ~n . «jaic z'jiood 10 3h:t ASM/CTHAtnorarv or atjah kjaw mo; a tvOOT If'tJ’v'i A JisirnDLotfA^v jatrt auYLiyiJ ■io«njstai’ ■J%'L \b -.vy(Sh >Y&, .f ■ i rottj \ m.\ m(\b nu 1 h cyiyp'A. YK M'tjAmX. ^'V . , iSu’cm\? ^ V^C'" O #nA',4 735 III.— THE SUDAN— WADI HALFA TO KHARTUM. History. — Speaking generally, the town of Wadi Haifa marked the limit of the rule of the ancient Egyptians on the south between the Xlth and XXth dynasties, and the famous forts of Semnah and Kummah, which lie at a distance of 35 miles up in the Second Cataract, can in reality only be regarded as advanced outposts. We know from the tomb of Heru-khu-f at Aswan that, in the Early Empire, certain kings sent their officials so far south as the Land of the Pygmies to bring back to the Pharaohs specimens of this remarkable people, and it is certain that a trade in gold and slaves was carried on at a still earlier period ; the earliest known raid into the Sudan is that made by King Seneferu, about b.c. 3800. In the Xllth dynasty we hear of expeditions to the south, and the faces of the rocks from the First to the Third Cataract proclaim that the Egyptian kings sent their officers “ to enlarge the borders of Egypt” in that direction. Under this dynasty the Sftdan was practically annexed by Egypt. The peoples and tribes south of Wadi Haifa caused the great kings of the XVII I th and XIXth dynasties much trouble, and it is very doubtful if they had any effective dominion south of the Fourth Cataract. The “ royal son of Kesh ” (Cush) was no doubt a great official, but Kesh, or “ Ethiopia,” as the word is generally translated, was a geographical expression with limited signifi- cation, and that the country of his rule included the whole country which is now called Ethiopia is an unwarranted assumption. The fact is that the Second and Third Cataracts and the terrible, waterless Eastern Desert proved almost insuper- able barriers in the way of moving large masses of men from Egypt to the south, for the cataracts could only be passed in boats during a few weeks at the period of the inundation, and the desert between Korosko and Abft Hamed, and that between Wadi Haifa, or Buhen, to use the Egyptian name, struck terror into the hearts of those who knew the character of the roads and 736 THE S&DAN HISTORY. the fatigues of travelling upon them. So long as the natives were friendly and rendered help, small bodies of troops might pass to the south either by river or desert, but any serious opposition on the part of the natives would invariably result in the destruction of the Egyptians. So long as trade was brisk and both buyer and seller were content, and the nation to which each belonged could hold its own, wars were unnecessary; but so soon as the tribes of the south believed it possible to invade, conquer, and spoil Egypt, they swooped down upon it in much the same fashion as the followers of the Mahdi and Khalifa did in recent years. They saw the power of Egypt waning under the kings of the XXIst and XXI Ind dynasties, and the people of an important district of Southern Nubia, whose capital was Napata, who had been foremost in adopting the civilization, and gods, and hieroglyphic writing of the Egyptians, became the dominant power in the country, and extended their rule even north of Aswan. Their king Piankhi, at a favourable moment, /.., there was an apparent deficit of ^E. 1 19,000, which had to be made good by the Egyptian Government. From the showing of Lord Cromer, however, it is clear that a considerable sum of money was obtained by Egypt from Customs’ duty on goods destined for the Sudan, and that the real deficit was only £E.33,ooo (Egypt, No. 1 (1906), p. 130). The revenue since the re-occupation of the Sfidan has been as follows 746 THE SUDAN HISTORY. 1898 £&■ 35 , °°° i8 99 126,000 1900 156,000 1901 242,000 1902 270,000 1903 ... 462,000 T 9°4 ••• 535 )°°° I 9°5 ... 569,000 Imports. — The value of the imports, via Wadi Haifa, in 1905 was ^E. 1,092,000 as compared with ^E.75 1,000 in 1904; the value of the imports, via Sawakin, was ^E. 17 1,000 as compared with ^E. 137,000 in 1904. The exports, via Wadi Haifa, were ^E. 2 5 1,000, and via Sawakin, ^E. 58,000. The area under cultivation in 1904 was 529,239 acres, and in 1905 it was 704,872. The principal crops were barley, cotton, dhurra, millet, maize, onions, lubia, beans, wheat, and simsim (sesame). The areas planted with cotton and wheat were 23,898 and 22,000 acres respectively. 184,950 kantars of gum were exported, and the values of the ivory and ostrich feathers which passed through the Customs Houses were ^E.42,000 and ^E. 15,000 respectively. The Govern- ment made agricultural loans to the value of ^E. 15,000 in 1905, interest being at the rate of 7J per cent. The total area of land taxed was 178,789 acres. The Sudan Police Force contains [,819 men. Posts and telegraphs: receipts, ^E. 29,000. There are about 3,925 miles of telegraph lines open in the Sfidan, and in 1905 about 164,000 private tele- grams were despatched. The value of the money which passed through the Post Office was ^E. 808, 000. Civil public works cost ^E. 130,000. At least 50,000 persons were vaccinated in 1905. Education : 1,533 boys were being instructed in the Government schools, and of these 392 were at the Gordon College. An education rate is about to be levied in the Blue Nile Province and in Sennaar. Slavery : The professional slave dealers and raiders finding that their trade becomes more dangerous every year, and that the Government are serious in their intention to destroy the business, are gradually abandon- ing it. To transport slaves is now a very risky and difficult matter, and only the most devious routes can be used, for the British Inspector is ubiquitous. Moreover, the natives are beginning to realize that the slave traffic is punishable by law. THE SUDAN — HISTORY. 747 Domestic slavery must necessarily linger on for some years, but the natives will soon find that paid servants are cheaper than slaves, and then it will die a natural death. The slavery department needs more inspectors, especially near the Abys- sinian Frontier. Justice. — The greatest care is taken by officials in the Sudan that the law shall be administered without fear and without favour, and the method of procedure in a matter of criminal inquiry and as to arrest is borrowed from the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure ; that at the hearing is that of an Egyptian (or, substantially, of a British) court-martial. Magis- trates and judges have two classes of people to deal with, the negro and the Arab. As an illustration of the caution with which the principles of European criminal justice have to be applied Mr. Bonham-Carter quotes the following case. It appears that a man called Kwat Wad Awaibung was tried on the charge of murdering Ajak Wad Deng, and having pleaded guilty he added : “ The murdered Ajak Wad Deng owed me “ a sheep, but would not pay me. He said he would show “ me his work, and next day my son was eaten by a crocodile, “ which was, of course, the work of Ajak Wad Deng, and for “ that reason I killed him. We had had a feud for years, as I “ was a more successful hippopotamus hunter than he was, and “ for that reason he was practising witchery over me and my “ family.” Railways. — There are four railways in the Sudan, with a total mileage of 1,142 miles. These are : — 1. The line from Haifa to Kosha, distance 120 miles. 2. The line from Haifa to Khartum, distance 575 miles. 3. The line from Atbara Junction to Port Sfidan, distance 307 miles. 4. The line from Abu Hamed to Karema, distance 140 miles. The Sudan is not under a military Government, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, for all its more important features are essentially civil, even though the Governor-General and his principal subordinates are military officers. In 1884 General Gordon wrote : “ The Soudan is a useless possession, “ ever was so, and ever will be so ” ; and Colonel Stewart added, “ I quite agree with General Gordon, that the Soudan “ is an expensive and useless possession.” On this Lord Cromer remarks: “Without incurring a charge of excessive “ optimism, it may be anticipated that, with the judicious “ expenditure of capital, and the continuous application of a 748 THE SUDAN RAILWAY. “ system of government such as that which is now being very v “ skilfully directed by Sir Reginald Wingate and his staff, the il future of the country will be far less gloomy than was predicted “ by the two high authorities quoted above. But progress will “ be slow.” Writing in 1906 ( Egypt ; No. I, p. 156), he also says : “ There must be no undue haste. The progress of the Sudan depends upon steady, continuous, unostentatious, and com- “ bined efforts along the lines of a well-defined policy, from “ which there should be no divergence.” The traveller wishing to visit Khartum from Wadi Haifa may do so by two routes. He may either travel there direct by the Wadi Halfa-Khartum Railway, or he may ride to Kerma through the Batn al-Hagar, and proceed by steamer from Kerma to Kasingar at the foot of the Fourth Cataract, by horse or camel to Abu Hamed, and thence to Khartum by the main line. The distance by the former route is about 575 miles, and by the latter about 950 miles. A glance at the map will show how much time and distance are saved by the Shdan Railway, which, in going direct to Abu Hamed, cuts off the great bend of the Nile between Korosko and Abu Hamed ; on the other hand, the traveller who goes direct to Khartum from Wadi Haifa will see nothing of the temples and other rerriains which still stand in certain parts of the Cataracts, and at Kurru, Zhma, Gebel Barkal, Nuri, etc. The Wadi = Halfa = Kerma Line (gauge 3 feet 6 inches) was begun in 1877 by the Khedive Ismail, who had the rails laid as far as Sarras, a distance of 33 miles, and it was con- tinued by the British to Akasheh, 55 miles further south, in 1884. In 1896, when the reconquest of the Sudan was ordered by the British Government, Lord Kitchener determined to carry the line on to Kerma, at the head of the Third Cataract, a distance of 201 miles. It was found that the original piece of line had been badly laid ; that the Dervishes had torn up 55 miles of it, and burnt the sleepers and twisted the rails ; that only two engines were capable of moving ; and that practically an entirely new line from Wadi Haifa to Kerma would have to be built. This wonderful work was done in 13 months by a few young Royal Engineer officers under Lieut, (now Sir Percy) Girouard, R.E. On March 21st the Sirdar ordered the advance ; by June 4th the line was working to Ambukol Wells, 68 miles from Wadi Haifa ; on August 4th it reached Koshah, 108 miles from Wadi Haifa; and on THE SUDAN RAILWAY. 749 May 4th it reached Kerma, 201 miles from Wadi Haifa. Of the 13 months occupied in its construction, five had been almost wasted for want of engines and material, and in repairing the damage caused by rain storms, and meanwhile, at intervals, the Sirdar, Lord Kitchener, fought and defeated the Dervishes at Ferket (June 7th) and elsewhere, and reconquered the Donkola province. The working expenses of the Kerma line were in 1903 ^E. 18,000, and the receipts were only ^E. 11,000, of which over ^E. 5,000 were on account of the Government. As the line had been lightly laid, and any idea of rebuilding it was out of the question, owing to lack of funds, the Government decided to close the line to general traffic in 1904. The portion of it from Koshah to Kerma (95 miles) had been laid by the British with new rails, and it was further decided to take these up and send them over to the Atbara, for use in the construction of the Nile-Red Sea Railway. This was accordingly done, and now the section from Haifa to Koshah is only used for administrative purposes. The Wadi Halfa = Abu Harried Line, which is 232 miles long, was begun on May 15th, 1897, and- reached Abfi Hamed on October 31st of the same year; the average daily progress was about 1^ miles, but 3^ miles were made in one day early in October. The gauge is 3 feet 6 inches. The line was laid by Lieut. Girouard, R.E., Lieut. E. C. Midwinter, R.E., and other officers, during the hottest time of the year, through a previously unmapped and waterless desert, and the work was so well done that trains carrying 200 tons of stores and supplies, drawn by engines weighing, without tender, 50 tons, could travel over it in safety at the rate of 25 miles per hour. The survey camp was always six miles in advance of railhead, the embankment party, 1,500 strong, followed at the average rate mentioned above, and the plate-laying party, 1,000 strong, came next. One section of the last party unloaded the sleepers, and another laid and spaced them, a third party adjusted them, a fourth party fixed and spiked the rails, and a fifth party levelled the line with levers. This done, the engine and train advanced, and so kept supplies of material at hand for the workers in front, whilst gangs of men behind straightened, levelled, graded, and ballasted the line. The camp moved forward about six miles every tour days, and rations and water were supplied from Wadi Haifa. Every 20 miles a loop siding was made to allow trains to 75 ° THE SUDAN RAILWAY. pass each other, and each station had a station master, two pointsmen, and a telephone clerk. Between Wadi Haifa and Abu Hamed the line rises about 1,200 feet. The stations are ten in number, and the various sections of the line may be thus described : — Wadi Haifa to Abu Hamed by Railway. Wadi Haifa to No. 1 — 17 miles, up-hill the whole way. No. 1 to No. 2 — 19 miles, with short up-gradients. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 to Abu Hamed — 18 miles. 3 — 19 4 — 22 5 — 26 6— 23 7 — 22 8 — 24 9— 27 1 1 miles level, the rest steep and curved, all down hill, slight down gradient, fairly level, slight down gradient. 10 (Junction) 13 miles, irregular, with curves. At No. 4 station are three wells, two of which yield water from a depth of 90 feet, and a reservoir was made there ; at No. 6 station are two wells, 84 feet deep, which join each other, and there is no reservoir. The water is pumped up by Worthington pumps. At other places in the desert small supplies of water were found, but they were too highly charged with mineral salts to be used in the engine boilers. From No. 6 a narrow gauge (2 feet) railway runs to the gold mines in the Eastern Desert. Nos. 2, 4, 6, and 9 are coaling stations, but all coals had formerly to be brought up from Alexandria. The head shop for railway repairs was at Wadi Haifa, where there were lathes, drilling machines, planing machines, steam hammer, lathe for turning up the 5-feet wheels of the American engines, etc. ; in 1899 the number of workmen was 150, of all nationalities, the heads of de- partments being all Royal Engineers. The locomotives and rolling stock are of all kinds and classes, but in recent years many substantial additions to both have been made ; the up- keep of engines has always been a serious matter, for it is difficult to make the native clean and oil the running parts regularly. In 1899 the Sftdan Military Railway possessed about 40 locomotives, varying in weight from 30 to 70 tons. The most powerful type of locomotive on the line was that built by Neilson, of Glasgow, which is said to be able to haul 600 tons at the rate of 1 5 miles per hour ; it was used in laying the greater part of the Wadi Halfa-Atbara line, but it is useless on the Wadi Halfa-Kerma line, because of the curves. The SEMNAH AND KUMMAH. 751 sight of one of these “ steamers on wheels,” as the natives call them, hauling its tender, and water tanks, and a long row of trucks piled up with 400 tons dead weight of railway material across the desert at night, and breathing forth fire and smoke like a genuine ‘Afrit in the Arabian Nights, impressed the imagination or the dwellers in the desert with the idea of Lord Kitchener’s “ magic ” more than did the British soldier. When the first locomotive reached Berber, many of the natives hastened to touch its oily and dusty tender, believing it to possess magical powers, and some of them declared that the touch had cured their ailments ! There are no antiquities in the desert between Wadi Haifa and Abu Hamed. Wadi Haifa to Abu Hamed by river. — At mile 5 Khor Musa is passed, and 2 miles further on is the famous rock of Abu = Sir. Close to Maatuka are the ruins of a temple of the Xllth dynasty (mile 10). At mile 33 is S arras, from which place the Dervishes raided the country round ; it was taken and re-occupied by the Egyptian troops at the end of August, 1889, shortly after the crush- ing defeat of the Dervishes under Wad * an-Nagfimi at Tushkah (Toski) on August 4th. About 1 mile south of Sarras are the ruins of an Egyptian Fort. At mile 40 is the Island of Qazirat al = Malik, on the north-east corner of which is a small temple of the XVlIIth dynasty. At mile 43 is the Cataract of Semnah ; here the river is about 430 yards wide. On the top of the west bank (300 feet high) is an Egyptian fortress of the Xllth dynasty, and on the top of the east bank (400 feet high) is an Egyptian fortress of the same date. The fortress on the west bank is called Semnah, and that on the east bank Kummah. Here were found inscriptions dated in the eighth and sixteenth years of the reign of Usertsen III, who conquered Nubia as far south as this point, and made stringent laws to regulate the entry of the Nubians into the territory newly acquired by Egypt ; it seems that only traders and merchants were allowed to bring their boats north of Semneh. Of special interest also are the series of short inscriptions which mark the levels of the waters of the Nile during the inundations in a number of years of the reign of Amenemhat III, to whom tradition assigns the con- struction of Lake Moeris. These inscriptions show that at that time the river level duringthe inundation was about 26 feet higher Wad = Walad, i.e. f “son of.” 752 SEMNAH AND KUMMAH. 2ndCatarac rWADY HAIFA 5 * RR * S than it is at the present time, and they seem to indicate that Amenemhat III set to work in a systematic manner to endeavour to understand the effects upon the agriculture of Egypt caused by inundations of varying heights. The ruins at Semnah and Kummah are of considerable interest from many points of view, and especially because they represent buildings which were primarily fortresses of great strength. The two buildings, the left Kummah the Nile, D0NC0lAV RG0l5lM that of Semnah on bank, and that of on the east bank of occupy positions of ex- treme strategical importance, and when well garrisoned must have formed a formidable obstacle to the progress north of the raid- ing river tribes. Inside the forti- fications at Semnah are the ruins of a temple which was founded by Usertsen III, and restored by Thothmes III and Amenophis III ; it consisted of a single chamber measuring about 30 feet by 12 feet, with an extremely plain front. In 1 905 Mr. J. W. Crowfoot and my- self discovered here and excavated a temple which Tirhakah built in honour of Usertsen III, the first conqueror of Nubia. The inscribed rectangular altar was in situ . In- side the fortifications at Kummah are the ruins of a larger temple which date from the period of Thothmes II and Thothmes III. The traveller now finds himself journeying through the moun- tainous district called the Batn al-Hagar, i.e. } the “ Stone Belly,” and a more terrible desert it would be difficult to find, blackened rocks and bright yellow sand meet the eye in every direction, and the heat and TEMPLE OF SOLEB. 753 glare in the afternoon even in the winter months are very fierce. After passing the Atiri, Ambukol, and Tangur Rapids, and the hot sulphur spring at Ukma, the village of ‘Ukashah is reached at mile 85. Here the railway touches the river. At ‘Ukashah (Akasha) (mile 88), an action was fought between 240 of the Egyptian Cavalry and the Dervishes, on May 1st, 1896 ; the Egyptians routed the Dervish force of 1,300 men, 300 of whom were mounted, and killed 18 and wounded 80. At mile 98 is Dal Cataract, where the fall is about 5 feet ; Gebel Dal on the east is 1,973 feet high. On an island in the Cataract is a Turkish fortress. At Ferket, 107 miles from Wadi Haifa, a famous battle was fought on June 7th, 1896. The Sirdar (Lord Kitchener) attacked the Dervishes at 5 a.m., killed and wounded about 1,000 of them, including 40 amirs, or chiefs, and took 500 prisoners, his own loss being 20 killed and 80 wounded ; the battle was over in two hours. The Second Cataract begins at Ferket. At Koshah (mile 1 13), died Captain Fenwick and Surgeon-Captain Trask, in July, 1896. At Ginnis (mile 115), the Dervishes were defeated on December 30th, 1885. On the Island of Sai, about 130 miles from Wadi Haifa, are the remains of a small temple with inscriptions of Thothmes III and Amenophis II, and a number of gray granite pillars from a Coptic church, on which are cut the Coptic cross. Opposite to the north end of the island, on the east bank, are the ruins of the Temple of Amarah, The foundations are of brick, but the columns, eight in number, are of sandstone, and are 3.I feet in diameter. The temple measured about 54 feet by 30 feet, and the doorway, which had a column on each side, was 19 feet wide. It was built by an Ethiopian queen whose pyramid-tomb is at Meroe, on the top of the hill behind Bagrawiya. At mile 142 is Sadden ga, where there are the ruins of a temple built by Amenophis III in honour of his queen ,Thi, and a broken statue. A little to the north, on the east bank of the Nile, is Suwarda, which became the Sirdar’s advanced outpost after the Battle of Ferket. Six miles to the south of Saddenga is Gebel Dush (Dosha), a mass of sandstone in which was hewn a tomb in the reign of Thothmes III; the spot is extremely picturesque. One mile further south is Sulb, or Soleb, near which are the remains of a large and magnificent temple which was built by Amenophis III ; they are the best preserved 3 b 754 TEMPLE OF SESEBI. ruins of a temple and undoubtedly the most interesting of all the ancient Egyptian remains south of Semnah. The Egyptian name of the city of Sulb was Menen-en-kha-em-maat, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Q. MAMA w * /VSAAAA memorate the king’s victories over the Nubians, many of the names of the tribes of which are found inscribed on its walls. The temple was approached through two pylons. The court between the two pylons measured about 70 feet by 45 feet, and contained six columns ; the second pylon, 167 feet wide, was approached by steps. The second court measured about 90 feet by 113 feet, and a colonnade ran round all four sides ; the columns, 28 in number, are 6^ feet in diameter. The sanctuary was approached through two hypostyle halls, the second of which measured 78 feet by 113 feet, and contained 32 columns 5! feet in diameter. Almost opposite the railway “ triangle ” at Dulgo, about 19 1 miles from Wadi Haifa, on the west bank of the Nile, lie the ruins of the Temple of Sesebi, which bear inscriptions of Seti I, about b.c. 1370. At mile 203 is the Kaibar (or Kagbar) Cataract, and at mile 231 the village of Hannek is passed. The village of Abu Fatma marks the boundary between the Provinces of Haifa and Dongola. On the Island of Tombos, near Kerma, and on the banks of the river, at the head of the Third Cataract, 201 miles from Wadi Haifa, are gray granite quarries, in one of which the two statues, now lying on the Island of Arko, were quarried; nearly 70 years ago Mr. Hoskins saw lying here a broken statue of the same material 12 feet long. Kerma, at mile 246, was the terminus of the railway. Between June and March a steamer runs every fortnight between Kerma and Marawi. Al = Hafir, about two miles to the south of Kerma, on the left bank of the river, is famous in Anglo-Egyptian annals as the scene of the action between the Egyptian artillery and gun- boats and the Dervishes on September 20th, 1896. The Dervishes had made along the river a long line of shelter trenches, with loopholed mud walls, and they had five small guns, which were well worked by ex-gunners of the Egyptian army. The Sirdar’s gunboats, Tamaai , Abu Klea , and Metammeh , attacked the forts ; the Egyptian artillery kept up a strong fire, but it was the fire from three batteries of artillery and a Maxim battery, which were landed on the Island p, and the temple was built there to com- DONKOLA. 755 of Artaghasi, that silenced the Dervish guns. On the Island of Arko (the north end is 252 miles from Haifa) which is about 20 miles long, are two gray granite statues, which, together with the pedestals, must have stood about 24 feet high ; they seem not to have been finished. One is broken, and the other has lost part of an arm. Lepsius assigned the statues to the Hyksos period, but this is clearly im- possible ; and there is no reason for doubting that they belong to the period when the Nubian kingdom of Napata or of Meroe was flourishing. From their positions it appears that they were set up in front of the temple, the ruins of which lie close by, after the manner of the colossal statues of kings that were placed before the pylons of temples in Egypt. The temple which stood on this island must have been of considerable size. On the right bank of the Nile, near Arkaw, at Karman, are the ruins- of a very large town, and in the necropolis are the remains of two rectangular mud-brick tombs which, in Lepsius’ day, measured 150 feet by 66 feet by 40 feet, and 132 feet by 66 feet by 40 feet respectively ; they are called Dafufa and Karman. Al = Urdi, or New Donkola, a little over 280 miles from Haifa, on the west bank of the Nile, was re-occupied by Egyptian troops on September 23rd, 1896. In the Western Desert, at no great distance from the town, are large quantities of salt deposit. During the revolt of the Mahdi this town, under the rule of Mustafa Yawar, who doubted the divinity of the Mahdi, remained loyal for a long time, and its people actually defeated the Dervishes at Kfirta (Korti) ; finally, however, it was compelled to submit to the rebel, and the loss of the Donkola Province was a serious blow to Egypt. The town was large and prosperous, but, like every place which fell under Dervish rule, was destroyed. The old town lay 2 miles south of the modern town. Seven miles to the south are the ruins of a small Egyptian temple, which was discovered and partially excavated by Colonel Hon. J. Colborne, in 1885. At mile 291 is Lebab Island, where the Mahdi was born. Khandak marks the site of an ancient Egyptian town, and the ruins of several churches prove that there was a flourishing Christian community here in the Coptic period. Christian remains are also found at Firgi, Khalewa, Amentogo, Arab Hag, to the south of Khandak. At Arab Hag, an obelisk inscribed with the name of Piankhi was found. 3 B 2 756 AL-DABBAH. Old Donkola is situated on the east bank of the Nile, and is 351 miles from Haifa. At the present time it is simply a deserted town, filled with the ruins of mud-brick houses, and containing about 30 able-bodied men. The people belonging to it usually live on a little island in the Nile close by, and on the western bank. It is built on a rocky height overlooking the river and the Eastern Desert, and has always been of great strategic importance, from its commanding position. The current is very strong here, and the steamer in which the writer passed it in September, 1897, with difficulty made one mile in an hour. An obelisk inscribed with the name of Piankhi was found here ; it was probably brought to Donkola from Gebel Barkal. A fine stele, dated in the eighth year of the Nubian king Nastasenen (now in Berlin) which was discovered here some years ago, proves that the town was of considerable size and importance long before the Christian era began, and at the end of the first half of the sixth century a.d. the Christian king Silko, who defeated the Blemmyes, adopted the town as his capital. Abu Salih describes it as a large city, and says that it “contains “ many churches, and large houses, and wide streets. The “ king’s house is lofty, with several domes of red brick, and “ resembles the buildings in Al- £ Irak ; and this novelty was “ introduced by Raphael, who was king of Nubia, a.h. 39?, “ i.e., a.d. 1002.” The Nubians are said to have been star- worshippers, and the first who was converted to Christianity was Bahriya, the son of the king’s sister, who built many churches and monasteries in Nubia, some on the river banks, and some in the desert. The northern frontier of Nubia was at Aswan, which was said to be distant a journey of 40 days, and was called Maris, a name derived from two ancient Egyptian words meaning the “ south land.” The south wind is commonly called “ Marisiyah,” as belonging to the south. The king of Nubia had dominion over Makurrah and ‘Alwah. The Mosque at Old Donkola was dedicated to the service of God a.d. 1317 ; it stands in a prominent place, and commands the country and the river. Abu Kussi, 356 miles from Haifa, is the starting point of the great Kordofan and Dar Fur caravan road. AUDabbah (Debbeh), 371 miles from Haifa, originally a small village, was turned into a fortified place by the Turks; at this point the Nile is 750 yards wide. Debbah is the starting point of the direct caravan road to Omdurman. NAPATA. 757 Kfirta (Korti), 416 miles from Haifa, on the west bank of the river, was the headquarters of Lord Wolseley’s expedition to rescue General Gordon in 1884 ; nearly all the forces were concentrated there on Christmas Day of that year, and the withdrawal from the place began in March, 1885. From this point on the Nile to Matammah is a distance of 176 miles. Water is first met with 37 miles from Korti or Ambukul, and 1 8 miles further on are the Wells of Al-Huweyat ; 100 miles from Ambukol are the Gakdul Wells, which are situated in one of the spurs of the Gebel Gillif range. The wells are water-worn basins at the bottom of a granite gorge, and the largest of the pools measures 180 feet by 30 feet; the water is sweet. At the distance of 150 miles from Ambukol are the Wells of Abu Klea (Abu Talih), and 18 miles further on is the Well of Shabakat, which is 12 feet in diameter and 50 feet deep. At Kurru, Zuma (east bank), and Tankasi (west bank), 7 to 10 miles from Marawi, are the remains of large groups of pyramids, but the stone casings have been removed by many generations of Muhammadans for building their tombs, and for making the foundations of the supports of their water-wheels. The cores of most of these pyramids were built of mud bricks, but in each pyramid field are the ruins of at least one well-built step pyramid made of stone. Marawi (east bank), and Sanam Abu = Dom (west bank), 447 miles from Haifa, mark the site of the ancient and famous city of Napata, the ^ ^ § Nept, or AA n^ ^ Nepita, of the Egyptian inscriptions. The ancient city seems to have been situated on the west bank, over which, on account of the bend in the river, the sun rises. It must have been a city of very considerable size, for when- ever any excavations were made for the purpose of building block-houses, etc., in 1897, when Sanam Abu-Dom was the headquarters of the Frontier Field Force of the Egyptian Army, remains of buildings and portions of large sandstone columns were generally found at the depth of a few feet below the surface. Away in the low hills on the west bank, a few miles from the river, are the remains of a number of rock-hewn tombs, and on the east bank, about ten or eleven miles up-stream from Sanam Abu-Dom, lie the pyramids and ruins of the temples of Napata. The name Sanam Abu-Dom means “ the place of graven images which is situated among- dom 758 GEBEL BARKAL. “ palms,” and proves that there were ancient ruins of one or more temples in the immediate nighbourhood. At Marawi, just opposite, are the ruins of one of the brick and stone forts which are so common in the country, and a mosque, and close by is a settlement of the brave Shaikia Arabs, whose ancestors several centuries ago came from Arabia and possessed con- siderable power in the country. Next comes the village of Shibba, and straight ahead is the striking mountain called Gebel Barkal by the Arabs, and Tu-ab, the “Holy (or Pure) Mountain ” in the Egyptian inscriptions. This mountain is 302 feet high, and is about five-eighths of a mile long ; it is the most prominent The Pyramids and Temples of Gebel Barkal. (Drawn from Lepsius. ) A. Temple of Tirhakah. C. Pyramids. B. Temple of Piankhi. D. Gebel Barkal. object in the landscape, and can be seen for many miles round. On the plain by the side of the mountain are the ruins of eighteen or nineteen pyramids, and on the crest of the rising ground are eight more ; they are, however, much dwarfed in appearance by the huge mass of the mountain. The pyramids in the plain vary in size from 23 feet to 88 feet square ; those on the hill vary from 33 feet to 65 feet square, and from 35 feet to 60 feet in height. Before each pyramid there stood a chapel containing one or more chambers, the walls inside being decorated with reliefs, in which the deceased was represented TEMPLE OF TIRHAKAH. 759 standing in adoration before the gods of the Holy Mountain, and receiving offerings of incense, etc., from priests and others. The writer excavated the shafts of one of the pyramids here in 1897, and at the depth of about 25 cubits found a group of three chambers, in one of which were a number of bones of the sheep which was sacrificed there about 2,000 years The Temple of Tirhakah at The Temple of Piankhi at Gebel Barkal. Gebel Barkal. (Drawn from Lepsius. ) (Drawn from Lepsius. ) ago, and also portions of a broken amphora which had held Rhodian wine. A second shaft, which led to the mummy chamber, was partly emptied, but at a further depth of 20 cubits water was found, and, as there were no means for pumping it out, the mummy chamber could not be entered. The principal ruins of temples are : — 1. The Temple of Tirhakah (a). Taharqa, the Tirhakah of the Bible, was the third king of the XXVth dynasty; he 760 TEMPLE OF PIANKHI. began to reign about b.c. 693, and reigned over 25 years. From the excavations which Mr. Hoskins made at Gebel Barkal, it is clear that four pillars of a porch or portico stood before the pylon, which was n feet deep and 63 feet wide. The court, which measured about 59 feet by 50 feet, contained 16 columns, eight round and eight square; their diameter was about 3-^ feet, and their height 18 feet. A small hypostyle hall with eight columns led into the sanctuary, wherein was the shrine of the god and his companions ; on the west side of the sanctuary is one room, and on the east are two. The total length of the temple was about 120 feet. The chambers are decorated with reliefs, in which the king is depicted worshipping the gods of Gebel Barkal ; many of the reliefs were painted with bright colours. Since Hoskins and Lepsius were at Gebel Barkal, a huge mass of rock crashed down from the top of the mountain and did great damage to the ruins of this temple. Between the temples of Tirhakah and Piankhi are the ruins of a small temple building which consisted of two chambers, the first containing four columns, and the second an altar; about 250 yards to the north of these are the ruins of the pylon of a temple which was decorated with sculptured scenes. 2. The Temple of Piankhi (b). Piankhi ruled at Napata in the last quarter of the eighth century b.c., and is famous as the Nubian monarch who invaded and conquered all Egypt. His temple, according to the figures of Mr. Hoskins, measured 500 feet in length and 135 feet in width. The first court, which contained 26 columns about 6 feet in diameter, measured 150 feet by 135 feet; the second court, which contained 46 columns about 5^ feet in diameter, measured 125 feet by 102 feet; the hypostyle hall, which contained 10 columns about 4 feet in diameter, measured 51 feet by 56 feet; the chamber leading to the sanctuary measured 40 feet by 28 feet ; and the sanctuary, which contained three shrines, probably for Amen-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu, 37 feet by 21^ feet. The pylon which divided the two courts was decorated with battle scenes, processions, and the like. Close in under the hill are the remains of a temple which seems to have been built and added to by later Nubian kings, for the reliefs which were on its walls belong to the class which is found in the island of Meroe, further south. An idea of the style of the reliefs in this temple will be gained from the above illustration, which is taken TEMPLE OF PIANKHI. ?6 from Cailliaud’s Voyage. Here we see the Nubian king, who calls himself “ the pacifier of the two lands, king of the South “and North, Se-kheper-ren-Ra, the son of the sun, the lord of “ diadems, Senka-Amen-seken, giver of life, like the sun.” The prenomen of this king, Se-kheper-ren-Ra, means “ Ra createth name ” (or renown), and his nomen shows that he was a devotee of the god Amen-Ra. He is here depicted in the act of clubbing the representatives of a number of vanquished peoples in the presence of the god Amen, who is offering him a short sword. An interesting collection of stelae containing Senka-Amen-seken, King of Nubia, clubbing his Foes. (Drawn from Cailliaud.) inscriptions of Piankhi and Heru-sa-tef, and the texts of the histories of the Dream, and the Enthronement, and the Excommunication, drawn up for certain Nubian kings, was found some years ago among the ruins of the great temple of Piankhi at Gebel Earkal ; all these are now in the Museum in Cairo. The condition of the ruins at Gebel Barkal renders it extremely difficult to gain any exact idea of the appearance of the temples as a whole, but they can never have impressed the beholder with the sense of massiveness and dignity which seems to be the peculiar attribute of the great temples of Egypt. The temple remains at Gebel Barkal are naturally not to be compared Dvith those of Sulb, but the site is one of great 762 PYRAMIDS OF NURI. historic interest, for there is little reason to doubt that the Egyptian occupation of the country is certainly as old as the time of the kings of the Xllth dynasty. At Nuri, or Nurri, 7^ miles from Marawi, on the west bank of the Nile, are the remains of 35 pyramids, which probably formed the tombs of the kings and royal personages of Napata. These pyramids are better and more solidly built than any others which the writer has seen in the Sudan, and in very few cases do their cores consist of anything besides well-hewn sandstone blocks laid in regular courses. Each pyramid had The Pyramids of Nuri at the foot of the Fourth Cataract. originally a chapel in front of its face on the south-east side, but every building of the kind has long since disappeared, and there is not an inscription or bas-relief left by which any of them may be dated. The style of building suggests the Middle Empire, but only excavations of an extensive character can decide this question. The remains of two temples are to be found there, and the ruins of buildings which are found all the way between Sanam Abu-Dom and Nuri prove that in the flourishing times of the kingdom of Nubia a great city must have extended nearly the whole way between these places. The whole district could, under an honest government, become very THE FOURTH CATARACT. 763 flourishing, but it will need many years to recover from the misery and desolation caused in the first place by the incapacity, cruelty, and dishonesty of the officials who represented the Turkish Government, and secondly by the Mahdi and the Khalifa. At Karema, quite close to Marawi, is the terminus of the new line which runs from No. 10 Station in the Abu Hamed Desert along the right bank of the Nile to Marawi. The line is about 138 miles long, and is of great importance, for it brings the Provinces of Dongola and Marawi into close touch with the main line and makes Sawakin or Port Sudan their sea-port. At Belal, or Belial, 7J miles from Marawi, is the foot of the Fourth Cataract, which extends to Abu Hamed, a distance of 140 miles. A few miles beyond Belal, on the west bank, are the remains of a Coptic building, part monastery and part fortress, which contained a church, and opposite Hamdab Island, about six miles further on, are the ruins of a pyramid. The journey from Belal to Abu Hamed is difficult, but the following places in the Cataract will always possess interest for the British. Birti, 5 t miles from Marawi, the headquarters of the River Column in the Nile Expedition of 1 884 ; Kirbekan, 59 miles from Marawi, where the British defeated the Dervishes, February 10th, 1885, and General Earle was killed by a Dervish who “sniped” him from a hut; Salamat, 90 miles from Marawi, which was occupied by the British on February 17 th ; and Hebbah, 101 miles from Marawi. On September 18th, 1884, the steamer “ Abbas,” with Colonel Stewart on board, was run aground on the west side of the island of Hebbah, and every one of the 44 men on board, except four, was treacherously murdered by the arrangement of Suleman Wad Kamr, the shekh of the Munasir tribe. The British troops, on February 17th, 1885, destroyed the house and palm-trees and water-wheels of this shekh, and three days later the property of Fakri Wad Atman, in whose house at Hebbah Colonel Stewart had been murdered, was also destroyed. The ill-fated steamer was seen tightly fixed on a rock about 200 yards from the river, with her bottom about 20 feet above low-water level ; she was pitted with bullet marks and rent by fragments of shell. Near Abu Hamed, 587 miles from Wadi Haifa by river and about 232 by rail, is the head of the Fourth Cataract. On August 7th, 1897, the village was captured by General Sir A. 764 MAP OF THE SUDAN RAILWAYS. THE FIFTH CATARACT. 765 Hunter, and about 1,200 men of the Dervish garrison there were slain ; at this battle Major Sidney and Lieutenant Fitz- Clarence were killed. Abu Hamed derives its name from a local shekh who is buried here, and whose memory is greatly venerated in the neighbourhood, and it owes its importance entirely to the fact that the caravans, which crossed the Nubian Desert, started from it. It is said that any article left at the tomb of the shekh by a traveller on his departure, will be found there uninjured on his return ! At Abft Hamed are excellent baths for ladies and gentlemen. Abu Hamed — Karema Line. — From No. 10 Station in the desert, 18 miles north of Abu Hamed, a branch line runs to Karema, a village near Marawi, a distance of about T38 miles. As the river bank is exceedingly hilly the line has been laid in the desert, and between Abfi Hamed and Marawi it only touches the Nile at one point, namely at Dakhfili. The traveller who wishes to visit the pyramids and temples of Gebel Barkal and the Pyramid Fields of Nuri, Tankasi, Kurru, and Zhma, can now do so without difficulty. From Marawi he can journey by steamer and see Dongola, the Island of Arko, Khandak, New Dongola, and Kerma. From Kerma to Haifa he must either ride or travel in a native boat at the time when the Nile is sufficiently high to allow the passage of the Cataracts to be made in safety. The Abft Hamed-Karema line was opened on March 8th, 1906, by Sir Reginald Wingate, Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sftdan. Abu Hamed to Khartum by Railway. On the railway between Abil Hamed and Khartum the traveller will pass the following stations: — Mashra ad- Dakesh (mile 248) ; Abu Dis (mile 267) ; Sherek (mile 291) ; Abu Sallim (mile 318); Al-Abidiyah (mile 343); and Berber (North) is reached at mile 361. For the first 70 miles the line runs close to the Nile, it then turns sharply into the desert, in which it runs for 20 miles, when it returns to the Nile bank, along which it runs into Berber. Before Abfi Hamed and Berber were connected by railway, the journey was made partly by river and partly by land, the reason being that between Nedeh, 68 miles from Abft Hamed, and Bashtanab, the navigation was impeded for four miles by rocks, and by the Fifth Cataract, which extended from Umm Hashiya to Ganenetta, a distance of about 14 miles. Nedeh is at the foot of the Abu Sinfin Cataract, better known 766 BERBER. as the Al-Bakara Rapid; the Fifth Cataract is called Shellal al-Himar, or the “Cataract of the Wild Ass[es],” and the end of it is about 88 miles from Abft Hamed. Berber (latitude N. i8° i', longitude E. 33 0 59'), on the east bank of the river, marks the northern boundary of the country of the Barabara, which extended as far south as Abyssinia, and included all the land on the east bank of the Nile between the Niles and the Red Sea. To this point on the Nile, from very ancient times, the products of the Sudan, gum, ivory, ebony, gold, curious animals, slaves, etc., have been brought on their road to the coast of the Red Sea at Sawakin, and it is probable that, for many reasons, the Sudan boatmen were not in the habit of proceeding further north. The country round about Berber is rich, and was, and still is, with care, capable of pro- ducing large crops of grain of various kinds, which are sufficient for the needs of a city of considerable size ; the city, however, owed its importance, not to the grain-producing qualities of the neighbourhood, but to its position on the great caravan routes to and from the Shdan, and the facilities which it offered for traffic and barter. The distance from Berber to Sawakin is about 245 miles. Two principal routes are laid down by the Intelligence Department of the Egyptian Army, but the ordinary caravan route is via Obak, 57 miles from Berber; Ariab, in miles from Berber ; Kokreb, 145 miles from Berber ; Dissibil, 200 miles from Berber; and Tambuk, 219 miles from Berber. The old town of Berber is described as having been much like a town of Lower Egypt, with dusty, unpaved streets, and houses built of unbaked bricks, and having flat roofs ; in the early years of the nineteenth century it possessed a few large mosques, and abundant palm and acacia trees. Under Turkish rule the town lost much of its prosperity, and the Dervishes ended what the Turkish officials began. The new town lies to the north of the old town, and contained many large, well-built houses, but most of them have been without tenants for years, and are now in ruins. Old and new Berber straggle along the river bank for a distance of six miles. Captain Count Gleichen estimated the population of Berber in 1897 at 12,000, of which 5,000 were males. Berber fell into the hands of the Mahdi’s forces on May 26th, 1884, but it was re-occupied by the Egyptian troops on September 6th, 1897, and a week later General Sir A. Hunter entered the town with his army. At mile 384 from Haifa is BERBER. 767 Atbara Junction, whence travellers can proceed by rail to Sawakin and Port Sudan. The Nile-Red Sea Railway was opened by Lord Cromer on January 27th, 1906. By means of it the route from Khartum to the sea is shorter by 900 miles than the old Nile route. The length of the line from Atbara Junction to Sal Lorn Junction is 307 miles, and from the latter place to Port Sftdan is 24 miles ; total length of line 331 miles. The cost of the line being ^E. 1,3 7 5,000, or ^E.4,150 per mile. The line was begun in August, 1904, and in October, 1905, through communication between the The Nile-Red Sea Railway. Nile and the Red Sea was complete. The line was built by Colonel Macauley, C.M.G., R.E., assisted by Captain E. C. Midwinter, D.S.O., R.E., Captain W. E. Longfield, R.E., Captain M. E. Sowerby, R..E., Lieutenant S. F. New- combe, R.E., Lieutenant Percy C. Lord, R.E., Lieutenant W. B. Drury, R.N., Mr. C. E. Hickley, Hon. A. Pelham, Mr. R. W. Windham, Mr. C. G. Hodgson, Mr. G. B. Macpherson Grant, Mr. H. V. Hawkins, Colonel Mahmud Bey Kher-Allah, ’All Effendi Shawki, Husen Effendi Yusri, 768 BERBER. Hassanen Effendt Rifat, Muhammad Effendi ’All. The following are the stations on the line : — Port Shdan. Sawakin. Asotriba* ... 12 miles. Handub ... 13 miles. Sal Lorn June. 25 „ Sal Lorn June. 15 ,, Obo... 35 miles from Port Shdan. Karnobsana 47 55 55 Erba 61 55 55 Gebeit 72 55 55 “ Summit ” ... *7 55 5 5 Barameyu ... 99 55 55 Erheib 1 16 55 55 Thamiam . . . 124 55 55 Einha 141 51 55 Shidieb 156 57 55 Talgwareb ... 166 55 55 Musmar 187 5’ 55 Rogel , 202 55 55 Togni 212 55 55 Zehteb 232 55 5? Ogrein 242 5’ 55 Dogain , 262 55 55 Hudi . 282 55 5' Zullot . 292 55 55 Atbara • 3°4 55 55 The River Atbara, f or Mukran, the Astaboras of Strabo, which flows into the Nile on the east bank, is at this point about 450 yards wide, and in the rainy season has a depth of water in it which varies from 25 to 30 feet. It brings down the entire drainage of Eastern Abyssinia, and its principal tributaries are the Setit, Royan, Salam, and Ankareb Rivers ; it carries into the Nile more soil than any other of the Nile tributaries, and the dark brown colour of its waters has gained for it the name of Bahr al-Aswad or “ Black River.” For more than 150 miles before its junction with the Nile its bed is perfectly dry from the beginning of March to June, and the late Sir Samuel Baker says that “ at intervals of a few miles there “ are pools or ponds of water left in the deep holes below the * The spelling of the names of the stations are those given on the official map. t All the vowels are short ; in Amharic the name is pronounced Atbara. THE RIVER ATBARA. 769 “ general average of the river’s bed. In these pools, some of “ which may be a mile in length, are congregated . . . croco- “ diles, hippopotami, fish, and large turtle in extraordinary “ numbers, until the commencement of the rains in Abyssinia “ once more sets them at liberty by sending down a fresh “ volume of water.” The rainy season begins in Abyssinia in May, but the torrents do not fill the bed until the middle of June. From June to September the storms are terrific, and every ravine becomes a raging torrent, and the Atbara becomes a vast river. “ Its waters are dense with soil washed down “ from most fertile lands far from its point of junction “ with the Nile ; masses of bamboo and driftwood, together “ with large trees and frequently the dead bodies of elephants “ and buffaloes, are hurled along its muddy waters in “ wild confusion.” The rains cease about the middle of September, and in a very short time the bed of the Atbara becomes a “sheet of glaring sand,”' and the waters of its great tributaries, though perennial streams, are absorbed in its bed and never reach the Nile. The velocity of the A tbara current is so great, and its waters so dense, that in flood it forces the water of the Nile across on to the western bank. The railway is carried over the Atbara by means of an iron bridge of six spans of nearly 200 feet each, the piers of which are built upon the rock, which was reached at a depth of about 30 feet below the bed of the river. The Battle of the Atbara was fought on April'8th, 1898, at a place called Nakhila, about 37 miles from the junction of the river with the Nile, on the right bank. The Dervish force numbered about 14,000 men, and of these about 3,000 were killed and wounded, and 2,000 were made prisoners. The Anglo-Egyptian loss was 5 officers and 78 men killed, and 475 officers and men wounded; large numbers of swords, spears, rifles, 100 banners, and 10 guns, fell into the victors’ hands, and Mahmftd, the Dervish general, was captured. Having crossed the Atbara the traveller now enters the country which Strabo (xvii, 2, § 2) calls the Island of Meroe ; the name “ island ” was probably given to it because it is, generally speaking, bounded by the Atbara, the Nile, and the Blue Nile. Strabo says that its shape is that of a shield, and goes on to mention that it is “ very mountainous and contains “ great forests ” ; but from this statement and the fact that he speaks of the “mines of copper, iron,. gold, and various kinds “ of precious stones,” we may conclude that he is referring to the country south of Khartfim. Of the early history of the 3 c 77 ° ISLAND OF MEROE. country nothing is known, and the statements made by Greek writers about its peoples and their manners and customs must have been derived from the garbled traditions left by ancient Egyptian officials who travelled to the south, and perhaps from merchants who were not well informed, and soldiers who were quartered in Nubia. The name given to the chief city of the Island by the Egyptians is Marauat, i , whence the name Meroe clearly is derived. The last determinative indicates that the town was built in a mountainous district, and lends support to Lepsius’ derivation of the name from a Berber word merua or meraui , “ white rocks,” “ white stones.” If this The Largest Group of Pyramids at Meroe. These are the nearest to the river. (Drawn from the plan of Lepsius.) derivation be correct, it would rather point to Napata (Marawi) opposite Gebel Barkal as the original city of Meroe. A little above the mouth of the Atbara, on the right bank, are the ruins of the once flourishing little town of Ad = Damar, which was famous, like Marawi near Gebel Barkal, as a seat of Muhammadan learning. The modern town has a railway station, and is 392 miles from Haifa. It is now the capital of the Berber Province. From this place to Shendi the ISLAND OF MEROE. 771 east bank is flat and covered with a thick growth of scrub, thorn bushes, and halfa grass, which have swallowed up every- thing, and the strip of cultivable ground is of considerable width ; on the west bank the ground is also flat, and the strip is less wide. Here and there ravines, or “ khors,” run back from the river, and in flood time these are filled with rushing torrents. The whole district bears emphatic testimony to the results of the misgovernment of the Turkish Governors-General, and the rule of the Dervishes. When the writer first visited the neighbourhood in 1897-98 there were hardly any people to be seen, no cattle existed, only here and there was a water- wheel at work, and only here and there a few sheep or goats were found ; the gazelles in the desert were almost as numerous as the sheep. Not a donkey could be obtained for many miles, and the very dogs had been exterminated by the Dervishes. Scores of houses in each village were empty and desolate, and at the sight of them the traveller might wonder what would have been the fate of Egypt at the hands of the Dervishes, whom some described as “brave men fighting for their “ independence.” Zedab (404 miles), Aliab (416 miles), Muhmiyah, or Mutmir (429 miles), and Kabushiyah (448 miles). At a distance of about 40 miles from the mouth of the Atbara, and about 2 \ miles east of the railway, the district of Bagarawiyah,* or Bagrawiyah is reached, and from this point a visit may be made to the groups of pyramids, commonly called the Pyramids of Meroe, the most distant of which lie about three miles from the river. These pyramids are the tombs of the kings and royal personages who reigned over the Island of Meroe in the capital city, which seems to have stood near the modern town of Shendi, and are also called the Pyramids of As-Sur. The general arrangement of the largest group, which is in the plain, about i| miles from the river, is illustrated by the following plan ; nearly all are in ruins, for the stone casings have been removed by generations of natives. At no great distance from these pyramids are the ruins of a temple and the remains of an artificial depression, which seems to mark the site of the sacred lake of the temple. The other two groups of pyramids are situated further to the east, and are built on low hills, the smaller group lying to the south-east of the larger ; and some of their pyramids are quite * Hoskins calls it Bagromeh. 3 C 2 7 7 2 * PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. The Second and Third Group of Pyramids at Meroe. (Drawn from the plan of Lepsius. ) PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. 773 in ruins. The most interesting group is that which is built on a comparatively high hill, and which at the beginning of the nineteenth century was in a good state of preservation, as the plates which illustrate Cailliaud’s Voyage prove. The 29 pyramids of this group vary in size at the base from 20 feet to 63 feet. In front of each pyramid was a chapel which consisted of one or more chambers, the walls of which were decorated with reliefs, in which kings and queens were depicted worshipping the local gods and making offerings to them. There is little doubt that the sites of these groups of pyramids were used as burial grounds from an extremely early period, but the inscriptions of the pyramids now standing there show that they belong to a period which lies between about b . c . 200 and a.d. 250. Both reliefs and inscriptions prove that the Nubians, or Ethiopians as they are often called, were borrowers from, and not the originators of, the Egyptian civilization, with its gods and religion, and system of writing, as some, following Diodorus, have thought. The royal names found in some of the Chapels are those of the builders of the great temples at Nagaa, and others are those which are known from buildings at Dakkah, ‘Amara, and Gebel Barkal. In them also are inscriptions in the character called Meroitic, which, in some respects, resembles the Demotic : Lepsius had no doubt that they were contemporaneous. It is not at present possible to arrange the royal names of the Nubian or Ethiopian kings in chronological order, especially as many of them seem to be peculiar to certain parts of the old kingdom of Meroe, and it is possible that many of their owners were contemporary. It is, however, evident that when this kingdom was in its most flourishing state, the rule of its kings extended from the Blue Nile to Aswan. In 1834 an Italian doctor called Eerlini selected one of the largest pyramids on the crest of the hill at Bagrawiyah (i.e., the one marked F in Cailliaud’s plan, and the most westerly of the group), and began to pull it down. In the course of the work an entrance to a chamber was accidentally discovered, wherein were found a large quantity of jewellery, boxes, etc., of a most interesting character. This treasure was not buried, as one would expect, in a chamber below the surface of the ground, but in a small chamber within the masonry of the pyramid near the top. One good result attended this lucky “find,” for it became certain that the period when the jewellery was placed in the pyramid was Roman, and 774 PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. the inscriptions on the chapel of the pyramid showed that the queen for whom the pyramid was built was the great queen who is depicted on the walls of the ruins at Nagaa with richly decorated garments and pointed nails some inches long. The ill result that followed the discovery was the destruction of several pyramids by treasure seekers, and Lepsius relates that when he was there Osman Bey, who was leading back his army of 5,000 men from Taka (Kasala), offered him the help of his battalions to pull down all the pyramids, in order to find treasure as Ferlini had done. The few natives found by the writer at Bagrawiyah would hardly approach the pyramids by day, far less in the evening or by night, and the shekh Ibrahim, who had been in the employ of General Gordon, declared that it was “ not nice ” to intrude upon the “ spirits “ of the kings who were taking their rest in the mountain.” Seen from the river at sunset, the western sides of the pyramids appear to be of a deep crimson colour. In 1903 the writer excavated a number of the Pyramids of Meroe for the Governor-General of the Sftdan, Sir F. R. Wingate, and he is convinced that the statements made by Ferlini are the result of misapprehension on his part. The pyramids are solid throughout, and the bodies are buried under them. A discussion of the evidence will be found in the first volume of the writer’s History of the Egyptian Sudan. The following is a brief description of the Pyramids of Groups A and B : — A. Northern Group. No. 1. The step - pyramid of Queen Kenthahebit Ml J, whose name Lepsius believed to be ^ AA/W\ the original of the “Candace” of classical authors. She was also called Amen-arit ci £25 /WW\A The reliefs in the chapel are of considerable interest, and many off them will be familiar to the visitor who has examined the tombs in Egypt. This pyramid is probably one of the oldest of the group. No. 2. In a very dilapidated state; the figures on the west wall of the chapel were mutilated in Cailliaud’s time. Some PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. 775 of the figures in the reliefs were coloured. The chapel has been used as a sleeping place by many natives, who have left graffiti behind them, and some of the stones have been injured by bees. In front of the door a set of iron fetters was dug up in 1903, and it was thought that they were of the class used by the Dervishes for captives of the better class ; they are now in the museum at Khartfim. On the outside of the north wall of the chapel are sculptured some fine figures of Sudani bulls. No. 3. A pyramid much ruined ; the chapel is without reliefs and inscriptions. No. 4. Pyramid of Amen- -akha : — Q wo 1 « s. AAAAAA ] No. 5. Pyramid of Arkenkherel ( Q l /vwwv whose prenomen was Ankh-ka-Ra ] The inside walls of the chapel are ornamented with reliefs which refer to the making of funeral offerings, and the performance of religious ceremonies on behalf of the dead by the Stem priest. On the north wall, in tabular form, are all the vignettes save one of the CXLIVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, and on the south wall is the Judgment Scene. Over the door inside is cut in large letters “ P.C. Letorzec, 1820 the name of Cailliaud’s fellow traveller. The king for whom this pyramid was built was a priest of Osiris, and he probably lived during the early part of the Ptolemaic Period. No. 6. Pyramid of Queen Amon-Shipelta (?) A/VSAAA T&TP 9 d £? ] When complete it was nearly 80 feet high. It was pulled down by Ferlini, an Italian, who declared that he found in a chamber near the top the collection of jewellery, one portion of which was purchased by the Berlin Museum, and the other by the Antiquarium at Munich. Half way down, in the middle of the pyramid, he stated that he also found two bronze vessels, with handles, of very fine workmanship. A portion of the chapel, with a vaulted roof, still remains, and on the walls are still visible reliefs in which the queen who had the pyramid built, is seen 776 PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. wearing a number of elaborate ornaments of curious and interesting workmanship. On the face of the pylon of the chapel may still be traced figures of the queen in the act of spearing her enemies. No. 7. Pyramid of Murtek ^ ^ j < ~^ > J , who was surnamed “ Alu-Amen, the ever-living, beloved of Isis.” On the angle-stones of the tenth layer from the ground are cut the two eyes of Horus, each of which looks toward the chapel • The walls of the chapel are ornamented with vignettes and 'texts from the Saite, or Ptolemaic, Recension of the Book of the Dead. No. 8. A large, well-built pyramid; the chapel is buried under the stones, sand, etc., which have fallen from its top. No. 9. A large pyramid, the east side of which is in a state of collapse. The chapel is built of massive stones, but contains neither inscriptions nor reliefs. It is probable that the sepulchral chamber beneath the pyramid was never occupied. No. 10. The pyramid which stood here was removed in ancient days. Portions of the chapel still remain, and from these we see that its walls were ornamented with the Judgment Scene from the Book of the Dead, the weighing of the heart, and representations of funeral ceremonies. No. 11. This is the largest sepulchral monument on the Island of Meroe. The pyramid was about 80 feet high, and is about 65 feet square, and it is formed of well-cut stones. The buildings in front of it, which consisted, when complete, of a fore-court, a pylon, a hall, and a chapel, were about 80 feet long, so that the total length of the monument was nearly 150 feet. In 1903 the hall and the greater part of the chapel were cleared out by Captain Lewin, R.F.A., Captain Drake, R.F.A., and myself, and the rest of the chapel was emptied in 1905 by Mr. J. W. Crowfoot and myself. In the latter year the sculptures from the west wall of the chapel, and other objects were found, and were taken to Khartum. The north and south walls of the chapel were removed stone by stone, the former being sent by Sir Reginald Wingate’s orders to Khartum, and the latter to the British Museum, where it has been built up at the south end of the Egyptian Gallery. The reliefs on both the north and south walls of the PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. Ill chapel are very elaborate, and are the finest examples of Meroitic funeral sculpture known. Nos. 12 and 13. The chapels of these pyramids have not been cleared out. No. 14. A passage was driven through this pyramid from the east to the west side, and a shaft cut through it from the top to the bottom, with the view of proving the impossibility of sepulchral chambers existing in the pyramids of Meroe, as those who accepted Ferlini’s statements thought. In 1903 we found the pit which led to the short corridor by which the deceased was taken into the sepulchral chamber beneath the pyramid. No. 15. The remains of this pyramid were removed in 1903 to test the truth of the assertion that the sepulchral chamber was placed sometimes behind the chapel. No such chamber was found here, and the deceased was buried below his pyramid, as was always the case. When clearing out the shaft under the remains of the chapel, we found pieces of a blue-glazed altar inscribed in the Meroitic character • these are now in the Museum at Khartum. No. 16. This pyramid is unlike any other of the group, for the chapel is within the pyramid itself, its roof being formed by the stones of the sides of the pyramid, which project one over the other and so make the enclosed space vault- shaped. No. 17. Pyramid of a Negro king of Meroe who was called /WWV\ WWW WW\A HI S3 s prenomen was Neb-Maat-Ra C ° $ The western end of the south wall, on which is a good representation of the king, where- from it is clear that he was of Negro origin, was removed to Berlin by Lepsius. No. 18. The important and interesting ruin of the pyramid of King Amen - Khetashen A a AAAAAA /WWVA The eastern face, which was standing in 1905, is nearly 40 feet high, and well-cut figures of the king are to be seen on each wing of the pylon. The Meroitic inscription which Cailliaud saw on the “ face principal ” of the building was removed to Berlin by Lepsius. 778 PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. No. 19. Pyramid of King Tirikanlat (?) The reliefs prove that its builder was a Negro, and that he slew his enemies in the traditional manner. No. 20. A well-built pyramid. Its shaft was excavated in 1903, and the burial place of the deceased found. No. 21. A pyramid of little interest. A pole projects from the platform on the top ; it was probably driven through it by searchers after the sepulchral chamber who thought it was situated at the top of the pyramid. No. 22. Pyramid of Amen-netek f (j J or r 1 'WWVA ^ ’ whose prenomen was Kheper - ka - Ra (eluj- His wife was called Amen - tarit OiS=? iiu and both their names are found on an altar which Lepsius removed from Wad Ba Nagaa to Berlin. Nos. 23-26. These pyramids were excavated in 1903. No. 27. Pyramid of a late king of Meroe called lib ka-Ra ( 0 ( 0 ( 3 ; J > whose prenomen was Kheper- Cifu]- Nos. 28-30. Ruined pyramids. No. 32. Pyramid of a queen; her name is wanting. Nos. 33-36. Ruined pyramids. Nos. 37-39. (Lepsius’ numbers). Already described (Nos. 16-18). Nos. 40-43. Small pyramids excavated in 1903. B. Southern Group. These pyramids lie to the south-east of the northern group. No. 1. Ruined pyramid. Many of its stones were used in the construction of the other pyramids. No 2. The chapel of this pyramid was not decorated with reliefs and is in ruins. PYRAMIDS OF MEROE. 779 No. 3. This pyramid was removed in ancient days, and its chapel is in ruins. ). 4. Pyramid of Queen Kenreth ( v 1 ■ J x V aaaam ©— ' h No. or Kenrethreqn G A her other name was berren m Other names or titles found in the text are Perui ‘(Si] and Ka-nefert CyifDI- In the reliefs we see the gods Tat, Thoth, Horus, Anubis, Khnemu, and Qeb taking part in the funeral ceremonies of the queen. No. 5. Pyramid of Queen Asru - meri - Amen msm ab-Ra whose prenomen was Nefer - ankh - There are few pyramids in the Sudan in which the ancient spirit and character of Egyptian art are so well preserved. No. 6. Pyramid of Arq-neb-Amen (T“ i 1 AAAAAA J J whose prenomen was Khnem-ab-Ra ^ O MI No. 7. This pyramid and its chapel are partially ruined. No. 8. The chapel of this pyramid was pulled down to make room for No. 9. No. 9. A complete pyramid, built of well-cut stones, with a ruined chapel. No. 10. Pyramid of Kaltela ^ I) ^ J > whose prenomen was Kalka ^ [J |_J "J . The other pyramids of this group are in ruins and nothing useful can be said about them. C. The third group of pyramids, about forty in number, lies about a mile to the west of the northern and southern groups. They are half buried in sand, are unimportant, and many of them were built of stones taken from the southern group. 780 SHENDI. D. The fourth group of pyramids, about 112 in number, lies still farther to the west, on the edge of the desert, near the cultivable land by the river. Cailliaud called the group the “ Pyramids of As-Sur ” and Lepsius £ *' Group C.” They varied in height from 10 to 60 feet, and the largest of them stood in walled enclosures. From two of them Lepsius obtained a stele and an altar bearing inscriptions in the Meroitic character. Between Kabushiyah and Shendi the populous village of Taragrna is passed at mile 460 from Haifa. Shendi, on the east bank of the river, was once a large town, containing several thousands of inhabitants, and possessed a considerable trade with the northern and southern provinces on the east bank of the Nile. In the year 1820 Muhammad ‘All sent his son Ismail Pasha with 5,000 soldiers to conquer Sennaar, and another force of about the same strength to conquer Kordofan. Ismail was successful in his mission, but the year following he was invited by Nimr, the Nubian governor, to a banquet in his palace at Shendi, and during the course of the entertainment the palace was set on fire and the Egyptian prince was burned to death. Muhammad Bey the Deftardar, son of Muhammad ‘All, at once marched to Shendi, and, having perpetrated awful cruelties upon nearly all its inhabitants, destroyed houses and gardens and property of every kind. Shendi was a Dervish stronghold for some years, but it was re-occupied by the Egyptian troops on March 26th, 1898. Shendi is the Headquarters of the Sudan Cavalry. New bazaars have been built, and in a very few years’ time the town will be as important as it was before the revolt of the Mahdi. Matammah, on the west bank of the Nile, a few miles above Shendi, had, in 1885, about 3,000 inhabitants, two or more mosques, and a market twice a week. In 1897 the Gaalin Arabs in and about the town revolted against the Khalifa’s authority, and having fortified the place they awaited the result. Mahmud, by the Khalifa’s orders, attacked it on July rst, and after a three days’ fight, all their ammunition being expended, the Gaalin were compelled to submit, for Mahmud had surrounded the town with his troops. The victors promptly slew 2,000 men, and women and children were massacred mercilessly ; the prisoners were drawn up in a line and treated thus : the first was beheaded, the second lost a right hand, the third his feet, and so on until every man had been mutilated. TEMPLES OF NAGAA. 7 8l Plan of the Large Temple at Nagaa. (From Lepsius.) The Gaalin chief, ‘Abd-Allah wad Sud, was walled up at Omdurman in such a position that he could neither stand nor sit, and was thus left to die of hunger and thirst (Royle, op. cit ., p. 521). General Sir A. Hunter bombarded the town on October 16th, 17th, and November 3rd, 1897, and it was evacuated by Mahmud in March, 1898. At mile 483 the station of Al- Goz is passed. Plan of a small Temple at right angles to the Large Temple at Nagaa. (From Lepsius.) About 25 miles south of Shendi, on the east bank, is the railway station of Wad Ba = Nagaa, about 496 miles from Wadi Haifa ; here is the entrance to the Wadi Ba- Nagaa, and near it is a little village called Ba= Nagaa. Three miles down the river are the ruins of a small ancient Nubian temple, which, according to Hoskins, measured about 150 feet in length ; it con- tained six pilasters about 5 feet 782 TEMPLES OF NAGAA. square. The principal remains are two columns on which are figures of Bes in relief. Here are found two kneeling statues of Amen-hetep II, which proves that this king founded, or added to, a temple in this place, and this fact indicates that the authority of the Egyptians extended over the Island of Meroe as far as the Blue Nile. Travelling in a south-easterly direction, and passing Gebel Plan of a small Temple near the Plain of Nagaa. (From Lepsius.) Buerib, about 25 miles distant, we come to the ruins of Nagaa ; these are usually called by the natives of the district, Musawwarat* an-Nagaa, i.e., the “sculptures of Nagaa,” as opposed to the Musawwarat al-Kirbekan, i.e., the sculptures of Ba-Nagaa, in the Wadi Kirbekan, and the Musawwarat as-Sufra, i.e., the sculptures of the Wadi as-Sufra. The ruins like. Arabic, 5 sculptures, bas-reliefs, images, paintings, and the TEMPLES OF NAGAA. 783 consist of the remains of at least seven temples, and there is no doubt that they belong to the late Ptolemaic or early Roman period. The reliefs here will illustrate how closely the architects and masons tried to copy Egyptian models, and the cartouches show that the kings, whoever they were, adopted prenomens formed on the same lines as those used by the old kings of Egypt. The gods worshipped were the same Plan ol Temples on the brow of the Hill at Nagaa. (From Lepsius.) as those of Napata and other Nubian cities, but there are here in addition to them a god with three lions’ heads, a god who resembles Jupiter Sarapis, and a god, with rays emanating from his head, who is probably a form of Helios or Apollo. Before satisfactory plans of the temples here could be drawn, excavations and clearances on a large scale would have to be made. 784 THE SIXTH CATARACT. Twelve miles from Nagaa, in a north-easterly direction, is a comparatively small circular valley, which, because it resembles in shape a circular brass tray, is called As-Sufra. Here are the Musawwarat As = Sufra, or ruins of a group of buildings enclosed within walls, without inscriptions and without reliefs, which, according to Hoskins, measured 760 feet by 660 feet; there were no entrances on any side except the north-west, where there were three. The walls enclosed five or six small temples, in one of which were several pillars. Cailliaud thought that the ruins of the main building were those of a school, and Hoskins of a hospital, while Lepsius offered no opinion ; but it is useless to theorize until systematic excavations have shown what the plan of the group of buildings actually was. Close by are the ruins of a small temple with reliefs, on which men are depicted riding elephants, lions, panthers, and other wild animals ; all the ruins in this neighbourhood seem to belong to the Roman period. A very interesting phase of desert life, viz., the watering of the flocks, is to be seen at Bir Nagaa, or “Well of Nagaa,” which claims a visit. Each tribe has a place for its representative at the well, and the water is drawn up in skins. From Shendi an almost direct route runs to Nagaa, distance about 30 miles, and there is another to As- Sufra, distance about 26 miles. At mile 51 1 Al-Mega is passed. Near Gebel GarT, 524 miles from Wadi Haifa, begins the Sixth Cataract, commonly called the Shabluka Cataract ; it begins at the north end of Mernat Island, on which General Gordon’s steamer, the “Bordein,” was wrecked on January 31st, 1885, and extends to Gebel Rawyan, a distance of n miles. At the entrance to the Shablfika gorge, the channel turns sharply to the east, and is only 200 yards wide; in July the rate of the current through this channel exceeds 10 miles per hour. The Dervishes guarded the northern end of the channel by five forts, four on the western, and one on the eastern bank. From this point to Omdurman there is little to be seen of general interest. At mile 538 the station of Rawyan is passed, and at mile 547 is Wad Ramla ; near the latter place is Geli, where Zuber Pasha has taken up his abode. At mile 560 is Kubalab. The hills of Kerreri, 7 miles from Omdurman on the east bank, opposite Gebel Surkab on the east bank, mark the site of the great Battle of Omdurman, on Friday, September 2nd, 1898, when the Khalifa’s army was practically annihilated ; on the same day the Sirdar marched KHARTUM. 785 into the city of Omdurman, and the rule of the Khalifa was at an end. At mile 575 from Wadi Haifa the station of Halfaya is reached. Halfaya owes whatever importance it may possess to the fact that it is the terminus of the railway, for the native village has always been insignificant. It lies on the right bank of the Blue Nile, a little above Tuti Island, and is exactly opposite Khartum. There is no bridge, at present, across the river, but the passage by steam ferry is short. Borings are now being made in the river-bed with the view of finding a suitable place for a bridge to connect Halfaya (Khartum North) and Khartum. It is also intended to build a bridge to join Khartum and Omdurman. Khartum stands on the left bank of the Blue Nile, on the tongue of land formed by the junction of the Blue and White Niles, just above Tuti Island, which has the Blue Nile on two of its sides and the White Nile on the third ; its exact position is given as north lat. 15 0 36', east long. 32 0 32'. It was founded by the sons of Muhammad ‘Ali between 1820 and 1823, by their father’s orders, for he quickly realised the import- ance of the site on which it stands as a commercial centre for the trade of the Gazira * and of the remote regions of the Blue and White Niles. The name “ Khartum ” means an “ elephant’s trunk,” and it may be noted in passing that the old Egyptian name of the Island of Elephantine off Aswan was “Abu,” i.e ., “ Elephant ” ; these names were, of course, given because the site on which Khartum was built and the Island of Elephantine resembled the trunk and body of an elephant respectively. Between 1825 and 1880 Khartum became a very flourishing city, and its inhabitants gained much wealth from the slave trade which was carried on briskly between the country south of Khartum and Egypt, Turkey, and other northern countries. The Turkish officials, and most of the rich merchants, were in one form or another engaged* in the trade, and the Pashas of Egypt were content to look on quietly so long as gold flowed into their pockets from the Stidan trade. In 1884 General Gordon went to Khartum to withdraw the Egyptian garrison, but very soon after the city was besieged by the Mahdi and his followers, and Gordon’s position became desperate ; famine, too, stared him in the face, for he distributed daily among the * I.e., the grain-producing land between the Blue and White Niles. 3 D 786 KHARTUM. On January 15th, 1885, Faragalla, the commander of the loyal troops in the fort of Omdurman, capitulated to the Khartum and Umm Durman, or Omdurman, in 189"?. FALL OF KHARTUM. 787 Dervishes, and the whole of that town received the Mahdi’s pardon. During the whole of January Gordon continued to feed all the people in Khartum ; “ for that he had, no “ doubt, God’s reward, but he thereby ruined himself and “ his valuable men. Every one was crying out for bread, and a “ the stores were almost empty ” (Slatin, Fire and Sword, p. 338). On the night of January 25th, Gordon ordered a display of fireworks in the town to distract the people’s attention, and in the early dawn of the 26th the Mahdists crossed the river, ^ D 2 788 DEATH OF GORDON. and, swarming up the bank of the White Nile where the fortifica- tions had not been finished, conquered the Egyptian soldiers, who made but feeble resistance, and entered the town. Numbers of Egyptians were massacred, but the remainder laid down their arms and, when the Mahdists had opened the gates, marched out to the enemy’s camp. The Dervishes rushed to the Palace, where Gordon stood on the top of the steps leading to the diw&n, and in answer to his question, “Where is your master, “ the Mahdi ? ” their leader plunged his huge spear into his body. He fell forward, was dragged down the steps, and his head having been cut off was sent over to the Mahdi in Omdurman. The fanatics then rushed forward and dipped their spears and swords in his blood, and in a short time the body became “a heap of mangled flesh.” The Mahdi professed regret at Gordon’s death, saying that he wished he had been taken alive, for he wanted to convert him. As soon as Gordon was murdered, “ the man who was anxious about the “ safety of every one but himself,” Khartum was given up to such a scene of massacre and rapine as has rarely been witnessed even in the Shdan ; those who wish to read a trustworthy account of it may consult Slatin Pasha’s Fire and Sword in the Sudan , p. 344 ff. On September 4th, 1898, Sir Herbert Kitchener and some 2,000 or 3,000 troops steamed over to Khartum from Omdurman and hoisted the English and Egyptian flags amid cheers for Her Majesty Queen Victoria, and the strains of the Khedivial hymn, and the thunders of the guns from the gun- boats. The rebuilding of the city began immediately after the arrival of the British, and the visitor can judge for himself of the progress made in this respect during the eight years of peace which have followed its occupation by a civilized power. Colonel Stanton, the Governor, says, “ During 1905 there was a steady and general progress throughout the province and city of Khartum. The past year has seen the extension of the steam tramways to Omdurman, the construction of a new carriage road to the Mogren Ferry, along the Blue Nile, and a road from Khartum North due east, to connect eventually with Kassala. Plots of building land which two years ago were bought and sold for^E.30 and ^E.40 have this year changed hands at over ^E. 1,000.” The most noticeable building in Khartum is the Palace of the Sirdar, built by Lord Kitchener on the site of the old palace, on the steps of which Gordon was speared. The British and Egyptian flags float over its roof, and two sentries guard its GORDON MEMORIAL COLLEGE. 789 door, one British and one Sudani ; by the wall on each side stands a 40-pounder siege gun, which was brought up to shell Omdurman. A short distance up the river on the same bank is the Gordon Memorial College* (Director, Mr. James Currie), built by Lord Kitchener with subscriptions collected in England in 1898. A new wing has been built and furnished at a cost of ^11,500. It is attended by 392 boys. Here there are workshops, presented by Sir William Mather, and managed by Mr. S. C. Rhodes, and a Research Laboratory, presented by Mr. Henry Wellcome. The Chemist to the Laboratories is Dr. Beam, and the Travelling Pathologist is Dr. Sheffield Neave. The Head Master of the Primary School and Train- ing College is Ahmad Effendi Hadayat. Dr. A. Balfour, the Director, is investigating the causes of the diseases which afflict animal and vegetable life in the Sudan, and the destruc- tion of mosquitoes and their larvae is going on apace. Colonel Stanton reports that there has been a decrease of malaria, and attributes this result “ entirely to the peisistent and successful “ efforts of the Mosquito Brigade” (Lord Cromer’s Egypt, No. 1. 1 904). The Museum in the Gordon College is well worth a visit, for the exhibits are arranged in a clear and instructive manner. Worthy of special note are the objects connected with Gordon, i.e.f the manuscript history of the Taeping Rebellion, the specimens of the paper money which he issued, the litho- graphic stones from which his proclamations were printed, etc. A beginning, too, has been made in forming a collection of Egyptian and Meroitic antiquities which have been found in the Sudan. The able Director-General of Education, Mr. Currie, reports favourably of the progress of the boys who are studying in the Gordon College, and Mr. Bonham Carter is of opinion that justice is, on the whole, well and honestly administered by military and civilian judges. The extraordinary progress which has been made in the Sftdan in recent years has been much assisted by the skilful administra- tion of the finances of the country by Colonel Bernard, the Financial Secretary. A very interesting object in the town is * Patron : H. M. the King. President : Lord Kitchener. Hon. Treasurer : Lord Hillingdon. Hon. Sec. : Baldwin S. Harvey, Esq. The Committee and Tiustees are : Lord Kitchener, Sir Reginald Wingate [ex-officio), A. Falconer Wallace ( ex-offcio ), Lord Cromer, Lord Rothschild, Lord Hillingdon, Lord Revelstoke, Sir Ernest Cassel, H. Colin Smith, Sir H. Craik, K.C.B., H. S. Wellcome, Esq., Sir W, Mather. 790 OMDURMAN. the Statue of General Gordon, which has been set up in a prominent place in a main thoroughfare. It is a copy in bronze of the famous statue made by the late Mr. Onslow Ford for the Mess of the Royal Engineers at Chatham. The Mosque which has been built by the Government at a cost of over ^E. 8,000 is a fine building, and is the largest in the Sudan. The Zoological Gardens, which are under the direction of Mr. Butler, are not yet fully developed, owing to want of funds, but a good beginning has been made, and in a few years’ time we may hope to see a thoroughly representa- tive collection of Sudan animals and birds living here in comfort. Climate. — The three hottest months of the year are April, May, and June ; the three most pleasant months are August, September, and October. The coolest month of the year is January; the north wind blows form November to April. Thunderstorms occur at intervals from May to October. The town of Umm Durman, or Omdur- man, is situated on the General Gordon Pasha. west bank of the Nile, about 200 miles south of the Atbara, and five miles from Khartfim, from which it is reached by steamer or by a steam ferry ; it straggles along the river for nearly six miles, and the southern part of it, the oldest, is nearly opposite Khartum. About 1792 it was a small village inhabited by brigands, and was of no importance till after the fall of Khartfim on January 26th, 1885. General Gordon built a fort there, which was called “ Omdurman Fort,” and was under Faragallah Pasha, and this, together with the fort khalifa’s house. 791 on Tuti Island, formed the chief external defences of Khartum. After the fall of Khartum the Mahdi settled here and gave to the place the name “Al = Buk‘ah,” i.e., the ‘'country” (of the Mahdi) par excellence. In 1885 the Khalifa settled in Omdur- man, and declared it to be “ the sacred city of the Mahdi ” ; on the other hand, the Mahdi said he looked upon the place merely as a temporary camp, for the Prophet had revealed to him that he should die in Syria, after conquering Egypt and Arabia. At first the town, which is nowhere more than three miles wide, was a collection of thousands of straw huts ; the mosque was simply an oblong enclosure, with a mud wall, 460 yards long and 350 yards wide. This was replaced by a mosque built of burnt brick, whitewashed. The population of the town is at present nearly 50,000. Adjoining the mosque was the Khalifa’s House ; the former contains several courts, all of which communicate, and the private apartments were near the mosque. He added a second storey to his house, with windows on all four sides, so that he might overlook the whole city ; but he allowed no other two-storeyed house to be built. His house was furnished with brass and iron bedsteads with mosquito curtains, carpets, silk-covered cushions, curtains of rich colour and texture, and the panels of his doors were made of precious woods, carved and sometimes inlaid ; his bath room was lit from the roof, and he often enjoyed a bath in sesame oil, with the sunlight streaming upon him. Close to the bath was a small basin with brass taps that had been taken from Gordon’s bath in Khartfim. To the east of the Khalifa’s house is that which belonged to his son, Ya‘kfib. A granite tablet let into a wall close by marks the spot where the Hon. H. G. L. Howard, special correspondent of the New York Herald and Times, was struck by the fragment of a shell and killed in September, 1898. The Bet al = Amana, or arsenal, is near Ya‘kftb’s house. The Bet al = Mal, or treasury, is on the north side of the city, close to the river ; the Slave Market lay to the south of it, and the Prison is near the river, about the middle of the town. Formerly, gallows and cemeteries existed in several parts of the city, but these have been abolished ; numerous wells, dug by forced labour, also existed. The walls of Omdur- man varied from n to 30 feet in height, and from 9 to 12 feet in thickness. The Mahdi’s Tomb, or Kubbat al-Mahdi, was built by the Khalifa Abd-Allah, and was 36 feet square and 30 feet high ; its walls were 6 feet thick. Above this was a 792 MAHDl’S TOMB. hexagonal wall, 15 feet high, and above this rose a dome, 40 feet high; thus the whole building was 85 feet high. On the corners of the main building were four smaller domes. It had 1 o large arched windows and two doors, and in the hexag- onal portion were six skylights ; the building was whitewashed, and surrounded by a trellis-work fence. Over the Mahdi’s grave was a wooden sarcophagus, covered with black cloth, The Mahdi’s Tomb before the Bombardment of Omdurman. and from the centre of the dome hung an immense chandelier taken from the old Government Palace at Khartum. The Khalifa made a pilgrimage to the Mahdi’s tomb obligatory, and prohibited the pilgrimage to Mecca. The dome was badly injured in the bombardment of Omdurman on September 2nd, and since the building was the symbol of successful rebellion, up to a certain point, and fanaticism, and had become a goal KERRERI, GEBEL SURKAB. 793 for pilgrimages, and the home of fraudulent miracles, it was destroyed by charges of guncotton by the British. For the same reasons the Mahdi’s body was burnt in the furnace of one of the steamers, and the ashes thrown into the river, and this was done on the advice of Muhammadan officers and notables ; the Mahdi’s head is said to have been buried at Wadi Haifa. There is little of interest in Omdurman for the traveller from a historical or archaeological point of view, but the bazaars which are springing up in the northern portion of the town are worth a visit, for there trade is making itself felt on the old lines. The products of Dar Ffir and Kordofan are being brought north, and are exchanged for the products of Europe in the shape of scents, scented soaps, small mirrors, pins, needles, nails, and a hundred other useful articles of daily life. The workers in metal are finding more and more work each year, and the leather dressers and workers are beginning to do a good trade. In Khartum itself business is increasing, and under the just and equitable government which the country now enjoys will continue to do so. The future prosperity of the country will depend in a great measure upon the Sawakin-Berber Railway, and upon the successful issue of Sir W. Garstin’s irrigation schemes. A pleasant afternoon’s ride may be taken to Kerreri and Gebel Surkab,* about seven miles north of Omdurman. At the former place the Egyptian cavalry, the British Horse Artillery, and the Camel Corps were posted on September 2nd, 1898; they were charged at 6.30 a.m. by the Dervishes, who came on in two bodies, and were supported by Bakkara horse- men, but by 8 a.m. the greater number of them were killed, and the remainder retired to the hills about three miles distant. The body of Dervishes led by the Khalifa’s son Ya‘kilb, Shekh ad-Din, numbered 10,000. On the night of September 1st the Khalifa bivouacked his army of some 40,000 men behind Gebel Surkab, and the next morning divided his force into three sections ; one of these attacked the front and left of the Sirdar’s position, the second moved on to the Kerreri Heights with the view of enveloping his right, and the third, under the Khalifa himself, remained behind Gebel Surkab ready to fall on the Sirdar’s flank as he advanced to Omdurman. About 9.30 General Macdonald found himself faced by a strong body of Dervishes, some 20,000 in number, and commanded by the * Commonly called Gebel Surgam, 794 KERRERI, GEBEL SURKAB. Khalifa himself ; he at once halted, and deployed into line to the front to meet the attack. Whilst he was receiving and disposing of this attack, he suddenly found that the Dervishes under the Shekh ad-Din and ‘Ali Wad Helu were advancing upon him from the Kerreri Heights, and that both his front and rear were threatened, and that he was also in danger of being outflanked. He at once moved some of his battalions to the right, and deployed them into line, so as to form with the remainder of his brigade a sort of arrowhead, one side facing north and the other west. With the help of Lewis’s and Wauchope’s brigades this second and determined attack was crushed, and “ the masterly way in which Macdonald handled “ his force was the theme of general admiration.” Maxwell’s and Lyttelton’s brigades pushed on over the slopes of Gebel Surkab, driving before them the remainder of the Dervish forces, and cutting off the retreat on Omdurman. The battle was then practically over. About 10,800 Dervishes were counted dead on the battlefield, and for some time after the battle groups of skeletons could be seen marking the spots where they were mown down by the awful rifle fire of the British and Egyptian troops, and the shell-fire from the gun- boats. On the day following the battle numerous parties of British and Egyptian soldiers were told off to bury the dead, and of the 16,000 wounded Dervishes from 6,000 to 7,000 were treated in the hospital which Hassan Effendi Zeki improvised in Omdurman. Visitors to the battlefield of Surkab-Kerreri may even to this day find weapons and small objects belonging to those who were killed there. 795 IV.— KHARTUM TO RUSERES ON THE BLUE NILE.* 'The length of the Blue Nile from the cataracts at Ruseres to Khartum is, according to Captain H. G. Lyons, 639 kilometres, or nearly 400 miles, and the average width of its channel is about 1,650 feet. From Ruseres to Lake Sana, a distance of 563 miles, the river is called the “ ’Abai.” From the source of the Blue Nile to Lake Sana is a distance of 150 miles; therefore the total length of the Blue Nile is 1,113 miles. The source of the Blue Nile was discovered by James Bruce in 1760. The river is lowest in April; signs of the coming flood appear in May, but the real rise does not begin until June. Its maximum is reached in August. The velocity of its current is 3 miles per hour in February, and in flood it is double that rate. In the winter its water is very clear, and is said to be of a “ beautiful limpid blue,” but in flood the water is of a deep chocolate colour. In flood the Blue Nile is charged with an immense quantity of matter in suspension, formed by the sweepings of the leaf mould of the forests, and the scourings of the volcanic and metamorphic rocks of the Abyssinian plateau and spurs. The chief crop of the Blue Nile is “ dhurra ” \sorghum vulgare ) ; a little cotton is grown on the foreshore of the river, and sugar millet is cultivated round about Sennaar. Other crops are lubya, sesame, termis, lentils, millet, and wheat and barley ; no tobacco is now grown. The sheep of the country have no horns, and have hair instead of wool. At mile 14, on the east bank of the river, is Soba, where stood the ancient capital of the kingdom of ‘Alwah. The province is said to have contained 400 churches, and it lay to the east of Tuti Island ; its inhabitants were Jacobite Christians, * Called the or Abawi N)T- The Astapos is compounded of the old word ast or asta “ river,” and the old Ethiopian name ’Abay, or ’Abai. 79 6 ABU HARAZ. and owed ecclesiastical allegiance to the Patriarch of Alexandria. There was a considerable number of monks in the neighbour- hood, for monasteries existed both in the town and on the river. The chief church in the town was called “ Church of “ Manball.” Colonel Stanton, Mudir of Khartum, and the writer examined the ruins at Soba in 1903, and came to the conclusion that the chief ruins there were those of a large Coptic church, which had existed until the Middle Ages, and that some of the granite pillars in it had been obtained from a temple of the late Ptolemaic or Roman Period. An examina- tion of a few of the graves there proved that men, probably monks or officials of the church, had been buried within its walls, and the construction of the tombs suggested the class of Coptic church tomb which is usually associated with the seventh or eighth century of our era. Ruins of some of the stone gate- ways of the ancient city exist in several places not very far from the ruins of the church. A very comfortable rest house has been built at Soba and at other places up the Blue Nile for the officials of the Egyptian Government, but travellers will no doubt be allowed to make use of them. At mile 55, on the west bank of the river, is Maggad ; it is a large village, the people of which live in beehive-shaped straw “tukls” instead of mud-walled and flat-topped dwellings. At mile 65, on the west bank of the river, is Kamlin, a village perched on a high gravelly ridge, and inhabited by Danakla and Gaalln Arabs. Between Maggad and Kamlin there is low jungle on the east bank, and open country on the west bank. There are no trees outside the thorny belt, and there are no date palms. At Kamlin are the remains of the old indigo vats which Isma‘il Pasha built when he attempted to introduce the cultivation of the indigo plant into the Sftdan. The headquarters of a modern administrative division are here. At mile 95, on the east bank, is Rufa‘a, inhabited by Shukriyah Arabs ; it is said to be the second largest town on the Blue Nile. Opposite to Rufa‘a is the town of Arbagi, the Herbagi of Bruce, where there are remains of buildings of an old Meroitic kingdom. At mile 106, on the western bank, is Massalamiyah, inhabited by the Halawi Arabs, and the seat of an adminis- trative official ; the village was in ruins in 1899, and its people were thought to favour the Khalifa’s rebellion. At mile 118, on the east bank, is the military station of Abfi Haraz, and from this point onwards both banks are covered SENNAAR. 797 with jungle, which might even be called forest. To the north of the camp lies the old village, called “Abu Haraz al-Bahri,” and the columns and minarets of an old brick mosque which the Mahdi destroyed are to be seen here. At Abu Haraz a Nilometer has been erected. The old trade route to Kadaref, 150 miles distant, starts from here ; it runs by the bank of the Rahad River for 40 miles, to ‘Ain al-Luega, passes the well of Al-Fau in an open plain at mile 80, and then proceeds due eastwards for 70 miles more. Kadaref has been called the granary of the Sftdan. Kallabat, the frontier town between Abyssinia and the Sftdan, is 94 miles from Kadaref, and 364 miles from Khartum. The old fort of Kallabat stands on a hill about 150 feet above the village. About five miles above Abu Haraz, the river Rahad enters the Blue Nile on the east bank, 122J miles from Khartum. At mile 123, on the west bank, is the large and important town of Wad Madani, which has quite taken the position formerly occupied by Sennaar. North of the town are the remains of a mosque, built by the founder of the Madani tribe, but destroyed by the Mahdi ; the tomb is still standing. The population of Wad Madani is about 14,000, and consists of Fung and Hamag Blacks, and numbers of several tribes of Arabs ; this town is the seat of a governor, and the telegraph runs through it. There is a market twice a week, Mondays and Thursdays ; vegetables of many kinds are abundant, and a brisk trade is done in soap, sesame oil, and native leather goods, and in European wares, e.g., beads, mirrors, cutlery, coloured cottons, Manchester goods, sugar, tobacco, &c. Sir W. Garstin thinks Wad Madani the most prosperous town in the Sudan. At mile 172 is Shiberga ; the scenery is wild and beautiful, troops of baboons and small grey monkeys are to be seen, the woods are filled with birds of bright plumage, and the forest trees are covered with creepers. At mile 213, on the east bank, is Sennaar, formerly the capital of a province of that name The country has always been extremely fertile, for large quantities of rain fall each year ; the production of wheat and barley has therefore been very considerable, and large herds of cattle can always find grazing ground. The inhabitants in former years were well-to-do, and have contributed large sums to the revenues of the Khedives of Egypt- The Mahdi sent a force to take the town of Sennaar, and the inhabitants were besieged for some time; they were, however, relieved by Sanjak Salih Wad al-Mek and an army of 798 LAKE SANA. the Shaildyah Arabs. Later the Mahdi sent ‘Abd al-Karim against it, but he failed to take it. In 1885, however, the garrison was forced to surrender to An-Nagumi, and the fall of the town was a signal for the most brutal atrocities and cruelties. The Dervishes slew almost every man they found, they burned large quantities of stores and crops, and all the young women were sent to the Khalifa. The town has never recovered from the blow dealt it at that time, and now Wad Madani has taken its place. Formerly the Dinder River district was famous for its cotton, and attempts are now being made to revive the cotton industry on a large scale. At Sennaar a Nilometer has been erected. At mile 266 is Senga, the capital of the Sennaar Province ; it stands on the east bank. The town was founded by ‘Abd- Allah Wad Al-Hassan in 1896. At mile 185, on the west bank, is Al = Barriab, and three miles further up the Dinder River enters the Blue Nile from the east. The Dinder rises in the same country as the Rahad, and flows parallel with it for about 65 or 75 miles. About mile 287 is Karkog, and at mile 382 is Ruseres, which is famous as the scene of the great fight wherein Colonel Lewis and 400 soldiers of his gallant 10th battalion defeated Ahmad Fadil with some 3,000 of his followers in 1898. Above Ruseres the course of the Blue Nile is to the south-east ; above Kamamil it bends round and turns nearly due east for about 40 miles. For over 100 miles it runs towards the south- east, and then bends round to the north, and eventually the valley down which the river flows is seen to open out into Lake Sana. From Ruseres upwards the name of the Blue Nile is the “ River 'AbAi.” This river leaves the lake by a series of channels and light rapids, which unite in a fine broad stream nearly 700 feet wide; it then has a moderate slope for some miles, when it becomes narrower and more rapid. About 24 miles down is the old bridge which the Portuguese built over the falls at Agam Deldi ; it is the only bridge over the Blue Nile in its whole length. The area of Lake Sana is about 3,000 square kilometres. It receives 6,572,000,000 cubic metres of water in the year; it loses 3,641,000,000 by evapora- tion, and 2,924,000,000 are discharged in the ’Abai, or Blue Nile. 799 v. kharjOm to the great lakes. The length of the Nile between Khartum and its source at the Ripon Falls is estimated at about 1,560 miles. From Khartum to Lake No the Nile is called the Bahr al = Abyad, or “ White Nile.” The following are the principal places passed between Khartfim and DuwerrC : — Kalakla. Mile 8. Shekh Salim. Mile 11. Gemmueya District. Mile 17. Hanek. Mile 27. Arda Island begins. Gebel Auli. Mile 28. Gebel Mandara. Mile 32. Gebel Barima. Mile 40. Abu Hagar. Mile 52. Katena. Mile 55. Christian antiquities have been found here. Salahiya. Mile 59. Garazi. Mile 76. Wad Shabai. Mile 82. Tura As=Suk, Zif. Mile 100. Dabasi. Mile 108. ‘Amara, Gebel Arashkol. Mile 109. Manir Island. Shabasha. Mile 112. Ghobesha. Mile 121. Between Khartum and Ad-Duwem the Nile banks are uninteresting ; the river is very wide, sometimes as much as a mile and a half. Water-fowl are seen in large numbers, and on the banks and mud flats crocodiles abound. Ad- * For the details of this section I am greatly indebted to Sir William Garstin’s Report on the Upper Nile Batin, London, 1904 ; and Count Gleichen’s Handbook, 2nd edition, London, 1905. 8oo HASSANlYA ISLAND— MASRAN ISLAND. Duwem is about 125 miles above Khartum, and a British official resides here ; a Nilometer has been erected, and the river levels are recorded daily. The business done here is chiefly in gum, which is brought from the interior, packed on camels in large bales covered with matting made of Lahaw grass. Here the gum is shipped by steamer or native boat to Omdurman, where the merchants pay the Government duty. The transport service to Al-Obed, the capital of Kordofan, starts from this point. An action was fought here between the the Egyptians and the Mahdi on August 23rd, 1883. Hassaniya Island. Mile 130. Umm Gar. Mile 138. Mashra Al=Hella. Mile 143. Pieces of Sadd (Sudd) begin to appear here. Kawwah, on the east bank, 146 miles from Khartum, is a large village, with Government offices, and a gum depot and a small grain store. The district is showing signs of reviving prosperity, and new villages are springing up everywhere. Mashra Shaggara. Mile 154. Tomb of Shekh Nfir At=Tayyib. Mile 162. Shawwal. Mile 163. North end of Aba Island. Marabiya. Mile 174. Mahdi’s Place. Mile 175. Zenuba. Mile 191. South end of Aba Island. Koz Abu Gtima, on the east bank, about 192 miles from Khartum, is a Government station, and possesses a telegraph office. Opposite this place is the southern end of Abba Island, which is 28 miles long, and divides the river into two channels. This island is famous as the dwelling-place of Muhammad Ahmad, “the Mahdi,” and the ruins of his house are still pointed out. On the west bank of the river, about 16 miles north of Koz Abh Guma, is Fashi Shoya, wherefrom Sir F. R. Wingate started in 1899 on the expedition which ended in the defeat and death of the Khalifa at Umm Dabrekat. ‘Abbasiya Gadida. Mile 200. Colony of old Shdani soldiers. At Abu Zed, mile 208, is a ford ; steamer traffic is at times wholly interrupted here. Hippopotami begin to be seen here. Masran Island (North End). Mile 209. DANKO SHUSH — KAKA. 801 Danko Shush. Mile 213. Danko Salim. Mile 227. Masran Island (South End). Mile 236. Here the rocks run right across the river. Gebelen. Mile 238. Here is the boundary between the White Nile and Upper Nile Provinces. On the eastern bank are five granite rocks, the highest being 600 feet high. The ruins of the “ Dem” or camp of Ahmad Fadil are still visible here. Here the seriit fly makes its appearance. Bulli Island. Mile 247. Gamus. Mile 276. South end of Bulli Island. Agang. Mile 296. Mashra Ar = Renk. Mile 298. An action was fought here between the Egyptians and Dervishes on September 15th, 1898. The Dervish camp was bombarded and taken, and a steamer captured. A British Inspector resides here. Post and Telegraph station. The village is about five miles inland. Khor Duleb. Mile 300. Warrit, or Loingwin. Mile 310. Here there is a ford. Umm Hadeda. Mile 320. Elephants come here at night to drink. Leungtom Al = Wat. Mile 326. Wad Dakona Island ends (16 miles long). Dabba Al=Zawiya. Mile 331. Anok. Mile 335. Dabba Ibrahim Sharak. Mile 344. Dabba Abu Teba. Mile 350. Gebel Ahmad ‘Agha. Mile 353. This hill is 250 feet high. Edor Gamoia. Mile 357. Gamus. Mile 363. Alumbal. Mile 367. Rum Umm Gursan. Mile 372. Ardeb Al = Maryam. Mile 378. Mashra ar = Rum, and Tereti. Mile 380. Kaka and Debek. Mile 391. A collection of Shilluk villages. Ajok. Mile 397. Kaka (Hellet Al-Niam-Niam). Mile 404, 3 e 802 MELUT TAWF1KIYAH. Melut. Mile 413. Demtemma. Mile 416. Shekh Dalai. Mile 418. Fashoda, or Kodok, at mile 459, is situated on a small peninsula, which juts out into the river, and is connected with the ridge by a narrow strip of land ; on three sides of the peninsula is a deep swamp. A long, low island, nearly a quarter of a mile long, stretches in front of the station. Kodok is on the west bank, in lat. 9 0 53' N., and long. 32° 8' E. The channel between the island and the mainland dries up in hot weather, and water has to be fetched from a long distance. The Mekh, or king of the Shilluk tribe, lives near Kodok, and many of the roads from Kordofan converge here; in the Mahdi’s time it was a place of some importance, but it is not, and never can be, a healthy spot, because of the prevalence of fever. In the dry season (March) the tem- perature ranges from 98° to 105° in the shade. Kodok is the name now given to the place which became so famous in 1898 as Fashoda. This miserable place was occupied by Major Marchand on July 10th, 1898, and was attacked on August 25 th by the Dervishes, who were, however, repulsed. On September 19th Lord Kitchener landed the Egyptian troops, and hoisted the Egyptian flag on a ruined bastion of the fortifications, and had it saluted with all ceremony by the gunboats ; thus he reoccupied the Egyptian territory which had been seized by the Dervishes. On November 4th Lord Salisbury announced that France had decided to with- draw her gallant soldier from Fashoda, and soon after Major Marchand continued his journey into Abyssinia, and his officers travelled northwards by way of the Nile. Kodok is the Head- quarters of the Fashoda Province, and has a telegraph station and a post office. Major Marchand’s guns and buildings are still to be seen, and his garden is kept up. The place is infested by “ millions of mosquitoes,” and it has been aptly described as a “damp hell for men, and a heaven for mosquitoes.” Lai, at mile 51 1, is one of the stations of the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission. The Mission is prosperous, and the staff in 1905 consisted of about five Fathers and three Sisters. Tawfikiyah, mile 518, on the east bank of the river, was the station where Sir Samuel Baker passed the whole summer AMERICAN MISSION. 803 of 1870. The cantonments cover 10 acres of land, and the Commandant’s house is at the south end of the station ; it is a very unhealthy place, and in 1900 about 50 per cent, of the small garrison were incapacitated from fever. Five miles above Tawfikiyah the Bahr aUAsfar, or Yellow River, commonly known as the Sobat, joins the Nile on the eastern bank. The colour of the Sobat water, when in moderate flood, is a milky wdiite, and in full flood a pale brick red; the effect of the mingling of this water with that of the White Nile is remarkable, and is observable some distance down stream. The tributaries of the Sobat River are the Adura, Baro, Upeno, Birbir, Nigol, Aluro, Gelo, Akobo, Agwei, Pibor, and Khor Filus. About 173 miles from the junction of the Sobat with the Nile is Naser, where there is a Government post. At Duleb Hill, about five miles up the Sobat River, the American Mission of Egypt has estab- lished a station under Mr. and Mrs. Giffen and Dr. and Mrs. McLaughlin. The Mission is manifestly conducted on those sound, commonsense principles which are strongly character- istic of American mission work in Egypt. No parade is made of religion. In fact, the work of conversion, properly so-called, can scarcely be said to have commenced. By kindly and considerate treatment Mr. Giffen is allaying those suspicions which are so easily aroused in the minds of the savages. Lord Cromer found there considerable numbers of Shilluks, men and women, working happily at the brick-kiln which Mr. Giffen has established in the extensive and well-cultivated garden attached to the Mission. Cotton, apparently of good quality, has already been produced. The houses in which the members of the Mission live have been constructed by Shilluk labour. Lord Cromer adds : “ Not only can there “ be no possible objection to mission work of this description, “ but I may add that, from whatever point of view the “ matter is considered, the creation of establishments con- “ ducted on the principles adopted by Mr. Giffen and “ Dr. McLaughlin cannot fail to prove an unmixed benefit to “ the population amongst whom they live. I understand that “ the American missionaries contemplate the creation of “ another Mission post higher up the Sobat. It is greatly to “ be hoped that they will carry out this intention. They may “ rely on any reasonable encouragement and assistance which “ it is in the power of the Soudan Government to afford. “ It is, I venture to think, to be regretted that none of the 3 e 2 804 LAKE N6. “ British Missionary Societies appear so far to have devoted “ their attention to the southern portions of the Sudan, which “ are inhabited by pagans. Not only do these districts present “a far more promising field for missionary enterprise than “ those provinces whose population is Muhammadan, but the “ manifest political objections which exist in allowing mission “ work in the latter do not in any degree exist in the former “ case. I entirely agree with the opinion held by Sir Reginald “ Wingate, and shared, I believe, by every responsible official “ who can speak with local knowledge and authority on the “ subject, that the time is still distant when mission work can, “ with safety and advantage, be permitted amongst the Moslem “ population of the Sudan. Subsequently to writing these “ remarks I visited the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission, “ situated a short distance south of Fashoda. It is also very “ well conducted, and deserves the same amount of encourage- “ ment as that accorded to the American establishment. I “ should add that although mission work, properly so called, “ cannot as yet be permitted amongst the Moslem population “ of the Sudan, I see no objection to the establishment of “ Christian schools at Khartfim. Parents should, of course, “ be warned, before they send their children to the schools, “ that instruction in the Christian religion is afforded. It will “ be then for them to judge whether they wish their children to “ attend or not. Probably the best course to pursue will be to “ set aside certain hours for religious instruction, and leave it “ optional to the parents whether or not their children shall “ attend during those hours. It must be remembered that, “ besides the Moslem population, there is a small number of “ Christians at Khartfim. These might very probably wish to “ take advantage of the schools.” At mile 521 is Tonga, and at mile 547 is the mouth of the Bahr al = Zarafa or “ Giraffe River.” This river is about 205 miles long. At mile 600 is the Maya Signora, which was first explored by the brave and philanthropic lady Alexandrine Tinne. At mile 612 Lake No is entered. At the western end of Lake No is the mouth of the Bahr al-Ghazal or Gazelle river. The principal stations now occupied on the latter river are Waw, Rumbek, Dem Zuber, Shambi, Chak Chak, Tonj, Mashra ar-Rek. A passage through the sudd of this river was cut between Mashra ar-Rek and Waw by the late Lieutenant Fell, R.N. Lake No is situated in lat. 9 0 29' N., AUSTRIAN MISSION STATION. 805 and is the reservoir for all the watershed between the Congo and the Nile, i.e., 5° and 8° N., and long. 24 0 and 30°. The chief affluents of the Bahr al-Ghazal, or “Gazelle River,” are the Rohl, the Jau, the Tonj, the Bahr al-Arab, the Bahr al-Homr, and the Jur. On the “ Sudd,” see the chapter on the Nile. From Lake No to Lake Albert the Nile is called the Bahr al = Gebel, i.e., the “Mountain River,” or Upper Nile. On leaving Lake No the Sadd region is entered. Most of the blocks of Sadd which obstructed the waterway have now been removed. At mile 139 from Lake No is Hellet AUNuwer or Aliab Dok. At mile 253 from Lake No the northern end of the Shambi Lagoon is reached ; it is about five miles long by rather more than one mile wide. On the west bank of this water is the post of Ghaba Shambi, or the “Forest of Shambi,” in lat. 7° 6' 30" N. ; it is now an important place, for it is the Nile post of the Bahr al-Ghazal Province. The scenery is mourn- ful in the extreme, endless tracks of swamps extending in all directions. Hippopotami abound here. Abu Kuka, at mile 293, is situated in lat. 6° 54' N. ; here the papyrus-covered marshes stretch in all directions. Kanisa,' i.e., the “ Church,” at mile 304, is in lat. 6° 46' N. The place has obtained this name from the Austrian Mission Station which was located here for many years. The church and buildings were on the east bank, but traces of them have disappeared. The Mission was founded by Father Knoblecher in 1849, assisted by Fathers Beltrame, Uorvak, Morlang, Rylls, Ueberbacher, Vinci, and eleven others, all of whom, save two, died of the fever of the country. The Mission was abandoned in 1864 or 1865 because of the deadly effects of the climate.* Kanisa is the principal wooding station for steamers making * “ The mission-station consists of about twenty grass huts on a patch of “ dry ground close to the river. Herr Morlang acknowledged, with great “ feeling, that the mission was absolutely useless among such savages ; that “ he had worked with much zeal for many years, but that the natives were “utterly impracticable. They were far below the brutes, as the latter “ show signs of affection to those who are kind to them ; while the natives, “ on the contrary, are utterly obtuse to all feelings of gratitude .... “ The Mission having given up the White Nile as a total failure, Herr “ Morlang sold the whole village and mission-station to Khurshid ‘Agha “ this morning for 3,000 piastres, ^E. 30 ! . . . . It is a pitiable sight to “ witness the self-sacrifice that many noble men have made in these fright- “ ful countries without any good results.” Baker, Albert N'yanza , p. 53. 8o6 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY. the journey through the sudd. The forest here is very thick, and extends to the Rohl River 65 miles distant. At mile 344 Lake Powendael is passed, but is separated from the river by a belt of swamp. At mile 360 and round about, hippopotami are very numerous ; the natives live by their slaughter and by fishing. Here, too, the Sadd district begins, although the real swamps are not reached until south of Ghaba Shambi ; papyrus, ambatch, etc., take the place of the grasses which are found more to the north. At mile 380 the swamps end. and the forest comes down to the river. At mile 384 is Bor, or Bohr, on the east bank, in lat. 6° 12' 46". Here the forest stands back from the river, and a number of Dinka villages are seen, and a few Duleb palms. The village of Bor is well kept, neat, and clean. The circular, mud-plastered huts have conical thatched roofs ; each has a small door through which the inhabitants crawl. Six miles upstream is the “ Dem ” or camp and fort so long held by the Dervish chief Arabi Dafa‘a Allah. It lies on the east bank, the river sweeps round on two sides, and on the other two is a mud wall. The enclosure measures 2,300 feet by 1,300 feet. In October, 1905, the Church Missionary Society sent out a party of Missionaries to establish a station at Mongalla. The party consisted of the Rev. F. B. Hadow, M.A., the Rev. A. Shaw, B.A., the Rev. A. M. Thom, M.A., Mr. E. Lloyd, B.A., B.C., and Messrs. J. Comely and R. C. J. S. Wilmot, Industrial Agents, and they reached Mongalla on January 8th, 1906. Mongalla is a purely military post, and acting on the advice of the Mudir of the Province, Cameron Bey, and of the Commandant, Captain Logan, the party decided to make their headquarters at Bor, and their boat was therefore towed down the river on January 18th. At mile 398 is the Military Post of Bor, which is to be the headquarters of the new Administrative District of Bor. At mile 431, on the east bank, is a magnificent tree, which forms a prominent landmark. The scenery here is extremely picturesque. Kiro, at mile 460, on the west bank, is in lat. 5 0 12' or 5° 13'. It is a picturesque place, surrounded by forest, in which are some fine trees. Kiro, Lado, and Raggaf are the principal Nile stations of the Belgian Enclave. The huts at Kiro are well built, and the cantonment is surrounded by a wooden stockade, armed with Krupp guns. On the island opposite are many Paw-Paw trees. The Belgian garrison con- LAD6 — GONDOKORO. 807 sists of 400 men, and the soldiers are largely recruited from the cannibal tribes. The settlement has a paddle steamer, the “ Van Kerckhoven,” and several steel boats. Two or three miles upstream, on the western bank, is Lado Mountain. Mongalla, on the east bank, at mile 474, marks the limit of the Sudffii Government on the White Nile. A British Inspector and Police Officer are stationed here, and all the Government offices, hospital, barracks, etc., are built of brick. Lado, at mile 495, on the west bank, is in lat. 5° 1' 33" N. It was the capital of the Equatorial Provinces of Egypt, and here Emin Pasha ruled. The greater number of the houses are of burnt brick, and have conical roofs. The place is desolate and swampy, and fever is rife. Gondokoro, at mile 504, on the east bank (lat. N. 4 0 54' 29", long. E. 31 0 43' 46"), has been much improved in recent years ; the roads are good and the jungle has been cleared away. The English officials have comfortable houses. The ground upon which the Austrian Church and Mission stood has been eaten away by the river, and it is thought that the rest of the settlement will disappear for the same reason. The Mission Station had to be abandoned, for the Bari tribe and the climate together made the lives of the missionaries unbearable. The Nile gauge set up in 1901 was carried away, but a new one has been set up near the collector’s house. At mile 513 is Ibrahirmyah ; from this place the hills of Kurrak and Kajur are seen some miles inland. At mile 516 is Lungwi Mountain, on the east bank. Near this place are the Belgian settlement of Raggaf and Raggaf Hill or “ Earthquake Mountain.” The hill is a perfect cone, and was once, probably, a volcano. The Belgian Fort is on the north of the hill, and in the plain the Belgians defeated the Dervishes. There are no trees here, and the district is subject to earthquakes. The houses have thatched roofs and verandahs. At mile 519 is the Kit River, which enters the Nile on the east bank ; it rises in the Lumoga Mountains, near the Atappi, in lat. 3 0 53', and is about 90 miles long. The Arabs call it Bahr Ramliya, or “ Sandy River,” and its upper reaches are called “ Comoro.” At mile 525 is Fort Berkeley, which is garrisoned by retired Sudanese soldiers ; it is merely a collection of straw huts within a zariba. 8o8 THE FOLA RAPIDS. At mile 526 are Bedden Island and Bedden Rapids ; there are no other Rapids between this place and the Sixth Cataract, at Shablfika. Upstream a mile or two the Peki and Lagogolo Rivers enter the Nile on the east side. At mile 537 the Khurru torrent enters the Nile on the east side; two miles above is the village of Armoji. At mile 546 are the two granite hills of Kiri ; the Fort of Kiri was on the western hill. Here begin the Makedo Rapids. A mile or so above the Kweh River enters the Nile on the east bank. At mile 551 is Kaniye, a collection of villages; near this place the Niumbe River enters the Nile on the east side. At mile 566 the Gougi Rapids begin; they are ii or 12 miles long. At mile 569 is the Karpeto River. At mile 571 is the village of Lakki. At mile 581 are the Umi River and the Madi village of Kuio. At mile 584 is Labori, Emin Pasha’s old fort. At mile 587 is the Madi village of Mougi. At mile 599 is Gebel Kurdu, in the Kirefi country, where there are herds of elephants. Near this place the Asua River joins the Nile, about 100 miles from Gondokoro. At mile 608 is Nimuli, the headquarters of the Nile Province, with an Assistant Commissioner and a Commandant of the military force stationed on the Nile. Close by is the Unyami River, and to the north-east are the Arju Mountains. Here the rapids of the White Nile begin. A little below Nimuli the Fola Rapids begin, and these constitute the most formidable obstacle to the course of the White Nile in the whole of its course between Albert N’yanza and Khartum. Sir W. Garstin says that it is doubtful “ whether in the cataracts “ between Shabluka and Aswan any such demonstration of “ the force and power of water is to be seen. The main “ volume of the river passes down the right hand or eastern “ channel. Except in flood the amount of water in the channel “ to the left of the central island is insignificant. The scene from “ the rocks on the right bank is an extraordinary one. At the “ south end of the islands the rapids commence in two or “ more falls with a drop of some five or six metres, and a total “ width of about 60 metres. These break the surface of the “ river into a sheet of foam, but it is only after they have been DUFILl. 809 “ passed that the real struggle commences. Below the falls “ the stream rushes down an extremely narrow gorge with a “ very heavy slope, enclosed between vertical walls of rock. “ This can best be compared to a gigantic mill-race or water- “ slide too metres in length. The water tears through this “ channel in a glassy, green sheet with an incredible velocity. “The width of this ‘gut’ is nowhere more than 16 metres “ across, and in places it is less ! What the depth of the “ water may be it is impossible to say. At the foot of this u race the river leaps into a deep cauldron or pot, which it fills “ with an apparently boiling mass of white water, lashed into “ foam and affording a remarkable example of the rage with “ which water attacks any serious obstacle in its course. The “ length of this cauldron is only 50 metres, but its width is “ not more than 12 metres across! Immediately below this “ the channel widens out to some 30 metres, and eventually “ more, while the river thunders down, in a series of rapids, for “ a considerable distance. It is difficult in words to give even “ a faint idea of this unique scene. The best photographs do “ not satisfactorily reproduce it. They cannot show the colouring “ of the picture or really depict the wild beauty of the surround- “ ings. On either side of the channel are vertical walls of “ rock from 7 to 10 metres above the water. These rocks are “ polished like black marble, and stand up in vertical ribs, “ indicating how severe must have been the dislocation of the “ strata at the time when they were originally forced to the “ surface. In many places they are hidden by masses of “ vegetation, and creepers hang down in graceful festoons, “ forming a curtain resembling green velvet. The inky black- “ ness of the rocks and the variegated greens of the foliage, “ contrast vividly with the seething mass of white water, above “ which the spray is tossed high in the air in a misty cloud. “ Above all, a deep blue sky and a brilliantly clear atmosphere “ add to the effect of an exceptionally lovely scene. In the “ distance, but a long way down stream, the pointed peaks of “ the Kuku Mountains form an effective background to this “ enchanting picture.” Dufili, 130 miles from Magungo, and 1,190 from Khartum, is in lat. 3 0 34' 35” N., and long. 32 0 30” E. It consists of a collection of huts within a fortified enclosure, and is armed with Krupp guns ; behind it is Elengua Mountain. Here are the .historic fig trees under which Emin Pasha transacted 8io VICTORIA NILE. business. It is said to be very unhealthy, and blackwater fever is prevalent. At mile 640 (from Lake No) is “Mosquito Camp”; traces of the track of the Belgian Railway are here visible. At mile 645 is the Jokka River, on the east bank. At mile 665 is Abu Karar, on the east bank. At mile 685 is the site of the old Egyptian station of Bora. At mile 700, a little below the junction of the Umi River with the Nile, on the east bank is Wadelai ; it is the head- quarters of a district, and here a British collector and a European medical officer are stationed ; the garrison consists of police only. At mile 715 the Achwa River joins the Nile on the eastern bank. At mile 730, on the east bank, is the Luri village of Otiak. About six miles up stream the north end of Albert N’yanza is reached. Albert N’yanza, or Lake Albert, was discovered by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864; it lies within the parallels of lat. i° 9' and 2 0 17' N., and between the meridians of 30° 35' and 31 0 30' east of Greenwich. It is about 2,169 f eet above sea level. Its greatest length is about 100 miles, and it varies in width from 20 to 26 miles. Its main tributary is the Semliki River, which enters it at the southern end, but it also receives the drainage of Ruenzori Mountains, and of a chain of hills on the west. The Semliki river is about 162 miles long. The Victoria Nile enters Lake Albert in lat. 2 0 17' N., and the waters of the lake are 2,211 feet above sea level ; the depth of the lake in the centre has never been ascertained, but for some way from each shore the water varies from 32 to 40 feet in depth. The shore waters are brackish, but in the centre they are sweet ; their general colour is a dark sea green. The scenery is in many parts very beautiful. At Mahagi, or Mswa (lat. i° 52' N.), on the western shore was Emin Pasha’s station. The chief feeders of the Lake are the Rivers Msisi, Ngusi, Nyakabari or Horo, Wahamba, Hoima, Wakki, and Waiga. The Victoria Nile, i.e ., the Nile between Victoria N‘yanza or Lake Victoria, and Albert N’yanza, is 242 miles long; it leaves Lake Victoria at the Ripon Falls, and flows in a north-westerly direction for many miles. Three or four miles down are the Owen Falls, from which place for 35 miles rapids are continuous. At mile 70 from the Ripon Falls is KARUMA FALLS. 8n Lake Choga, which is 85 miles long, and lies nearly east and west. The Nile next passes through Lake Kwania, which it leaves at mile 120 from the Ripon Falls. At mile 124 is Mruli, with the ruins of Gordon’s old Fort. At mile 170 is Fuwera, or Foweira, and a little down stream are the Karuma Falls. At about mile 210 from the Ripon Falls, the Nile, after a sharp bend to the north-west, turns west again, and leaps over the escarpment in the cascade, named by its dis- coverer, Sir Samuel Baker, the Murchison Fails. (Mile 218 from the Ripon Falls). Just below these is the village of 8l2 VICTORIA N’YANZA. Fajao ; the river is here infested by crocodiles, which may be seen in scores on the rocks below the Falls. About 20 miles down stream is Lake Albert. Lake Albert Edward was discovered by Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875 ; it lies between lat. o° 8' and o° 40' S., and is bounded by the meridians of 20° 32' and 30° 6' E. The Wanyoro call Lake Albert Edward “ Dueru,” but this name is now usually given to the small lake at the north-east corner of Lake Albert Edward. The length of both lakes, including the connecting channel, is about 90 miles. Lake Albert Edward receives the waters of many rivers, but it has only one outlet, viz., the Semliki River. The colour of the water is a light green, and it has a brackish taste ; in the dry season the lake is covered by a thick haze. Victoria N’yanza, or Lake Victoria, the source of the Nile, lies between the parallels of lat. 20 N. and 3 0 S., and the meridians of 31° 40' and 35° east of Greenwich. Its greatest length is 250 miles, and greatest breadth 200 miles, and its area is as large as that of Scotland ; the deepest sounding known is about 230 feet. It is fed by many rivers, but it has only one outlet, the Victoria Nile, which flows from the Ripon Falls, in the Napoleon Gulf on the northern shore. Its principal affluents are the Rivers Sio, Nzoia, Lukos, Nyando, Tuyayo, Sondo, Katonga, Ruizi, and Kagera. This last-named river enters the lake north of the point where the Anglo- German boundary touches the coast, and a current sets across from the Kagera to the Ripon Falls, due partly to the volume of water and partly to the prevailing trade wind. The Kagera is the most important of all the affluents of Lake Victoria, and it has been recently declared to be the real source of the Nile, but as the Kagera represents the united streams of the Nyavarongo, the Akanyaru, and the Ruvuvu, any one of these may equally well be declared to be the source of the Nile. On this point Sir W. Garstin, the final authority on the question, says : — “ If it can be considered that any one river supplying a “ sheet of water of the size of this lake, has a special influence “ on its rise and fall, then undoubtedly the Kagera is the real “ source of the Nile. Taking the area of the lake and the “ evaporation of its surface into consideration, such a supposi- “ tion can, however, hardly be allowed, and the Kagera can “ only be considered as an item, an important one, it is true, “ in the great system of streams which pour into the lake, and “ not as in any way influencing the discharge at the Nile LENGTH OF THE NILE. 8*3 “ outlet. It is true that it is asserted that there is a drift or “ slight current across the lake from the Kagera in the south “ to the Ripon Falls in the north, but it seems scarcely credible “ that this can be due to the volume of the former river. “ Moreover, this drift is perceptible, even when the volume of “ the Kagera is low, and it seems most probable that it is due “ to the prevailing wind which blows over the lake from the “ south to the north for the greater portion of the year. It “ cannot then be seriously considered that the Kagera is the “ source of the Nile. The lake itself constitutes the true “ source of this river, and forms a vast reservoir, receiving “ the waters of numerous streams, and discharging a certain “ limited portion of their united volume into the great river “ which forms the life of the Soudan and Egypt .” — (. Report on Basin of the Upper Nile , p. 19.) The length of the Nile from the Ripon Falls to the Rosetta Mouth of the Nile is, according to the most recent calculations of Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., 3,473 miles, or 5,589 kilometres. VI.— KENA TO KUSER ON THE RED SEA, AND THE WADI HAMMAMAT. The portion of the Eastern Desert between Kena and the Red Sea, and north and south of a line drawn between these two places for hundreds of miles has from very ancient times been traversed by caravans occupied in the trade in gold and minerals. The whole district is full of fine hard stone of different kinds and colours, and quarries in certain parts of it were worked as early as the Vth dynasty; the most important of these quarries have been examined in recent years by experts, who declare that the stone which still remains in them is valuable, and that it would pay to work it, provided some means of transport other than that of camels existed. In addition to the stone trade, the main road which ran from Kena to Kuser on the Red Sea was the great highway for trade between Upper Egypt and the Red Sea, and it appears to have been used as such from time immemorial. In the first place Kuser was the seaport to which the copper and turquoises produced by the mines at Wadi Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai would be brought for importation into Egypt ; the turquoise mines were worked quite early in the dynastic period, and it was easier to bring the products from the Sinaitic seaport to Kuser than to take them by sea to some place near Suez, and then transport them by camel to the Delta or Upper Egypt. The Sinai mines were worked by the Pharaohs, and the quarries also, therefore we are justified in assuming that an important trade route existed between the Nile and Wadi Maghara at least 6,000 years ago. The Egyptians, no doubt, took care to fortify the route seaports on each side of the Red Sea, and small garrisons were probably maintained along the desert roads. Apart from this traffic, however, a considerable business was done between Egypt and the towns on the shores of the Red Sea and beyond, along the coast of Somaliland, and southern Arabia, and both the inward and the outward trade centred at Kuser. It is very probable that even in early WADI HAMMAMAT. 815 times there was a subsidiary port at the place on the east coast, north of Kuser, called at the present time Abu Sar al = Kibli, where Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, founded Myos = Hormos, or, as it was subsequently called, “Aphrodites-Hormos.” A road ran from this place to Coptos (Kuft) on the Nile, which is said to have been first made by Ptolemy II, but all that is known of this region makes it tolerably certain that this king only developed therein desert routes which had existed for a very long time, and established new towns on or near old trade centres. The natives of the desert have from time immemorial had places on these roads whereat they stopped regularly, and Ptolemy II assisted traders greatly by estab- lishing guest-houses, or “khans,” where caravans could pass the night, and their bales of goods could be unloaded in safety from the camels. Such “ khans ” were built at regular intervals, and were under Government supervision, and the keepers were 8i6 WADI HAMMAMAT. probably soldiers, each in command of a small guard. Stations of this sort existed between Myos-Hormos and Kuser, the Leukos Limen of the classical writers, and between Kuser and Berenice, and between Coptos and Berenice. In Christian times a considerable number of pilgrims from Upper Egypt passed over the Kena -Kuser road on their way to visit the holy places on and about the mountains which were tradition- ally pointed out as Sinai and Horeb. They crossed the Red Sea from Kuser to Tur, and made their way to Sinai, a distance of only 43 miles from the coast, by one or other of the two principal roads which lead from Tftr to the Holy Mountain. The traveller to the Wadi Hammamat starts from Kena, and makes his first halt at Bir Am bar ; in ancient days caravans started from Coptos, the modern Kuft, and modern travellers, especially the pilgrims to Mecca, usually march from Kena to the south-east until they join the old road. At Bir Ambar is a large “khan,” built, as Lepsius tells us, by Ibrahim Pasha. Passing Gebel al-Karn the road proceeds to Lek£ta, where the roads from Kena, Kuft, Kfis, and Luxor meet, about 35 miles from Kena; here there were five wells when Lepsius visited the place, but some of these have now become choked. The next halting place is Kasr al = Banat, or the “ Fortress of the Women,” near which stood the old Roman station of Hydreuma, and several graffiti may be noticed. Traversing a plain, about six miles from Kasr al-Banat is Gebel Abu Ku‘eh, where Lepsius discovered the cartouches of Amen- hetep IV. A few miles further on is the entrance to the Wadi Hammamat, where there are large numbers of hieroglyphic inscriptions ; several of these were copied and published by Lepsius in his Denkmdler , and in recent years the Russian Egyptologist Golemscheff visited the Wadi, and copied several more, which Lepsius either did not discover or thought unimportant. The inscriptions prove that the Egyptians quarried here the famous diorite, breccia, and granite, which they made into vases, statues, etc., and many other kinds of stone used in buildings from the Vth dynasty down to the latest period of their history ; and an ancient papyrus map, published by Lepsius, Chabas, and Lauth, makes it quite certain that gold mines existed in the neighbourhood. The most impor- tant inscriptions here are those dated in the reigns of Assa, a king of the I Vth dynasty, Seankhka=Ra, a king of the Xlth dynasty, and Rameses IV. Assa appears to have made WADI HAMMAMAT. 817 a journey to Wadi Maghara in the Sinaitic Peninsula by way of the Wadi Hammamat, which is called Ant Rehennu, (j ^5^ < rn > ^5 l ' e 'i the Valley of Rehennu ; Seankhka-Ra sent an expedition to Punt through it, under the command of Hen nu, whose orders were to bring back large quantities of anti perfume; and Rameses IV employed 8,368 workmen in quarrying stone for the temples at Thebes, among them being a number of the Aperiu , who were at one time identified with the Hebrews. Another very important inscription is that of Khnemu = ab = Ra, an architect who flourished in the reign of Darius I ; this official gives his whole pedigree, i.e., the names of 25 ancestors, all of whom, save one, had been an architect like himself, and many of whom had held high ecclesiastical offices. The family is traced back to an ancestress, who probably lived some 700 years before the last link in the chain, and she may, as a child, even have seen Rameses II. The Well of Hammamat was said by Lepsius to be 80 feet deep; it is lined with stones, and could be descended by a winding stair- case. At Gebel Fatireh, two days from Hammamat, is found the old quarry where the Egyptians obtained their white and black granite, and two days further to the north is Gebel Dukh = khan, the Mons porphyrites of the ancients. Here a temple was built under the Emperor Hadrian to Zeus Helios Sarapis by the Eparch Rammius Martialis, and close by are the ruins of a square fort and a well. The porphyry quarries lie in a mountain adjoining, and are approached by a difficult road. From Hammamat the road runs to Kuser, via the Wadi Rusafa, and the Bir al-Ingliz, “English Well,” is passed. Kuser, i.e ., the “Little Fortress,” is a town which in 1897 had 1,610 inhabitants; it is about no miles from Kena, and Boinet Bey makes it a six days’ journey by camel from that place. It lies a little to the north of the old seaport town, which existed in mediaeval times, ruins of which still remain, and south of Leukos Limen, where the roads from Myos-Hormos and Coptos joined and continued to Berenice. There is nothing of interest at Kuser, but the bazaars are increasing in size, and since the British occupation of Egypt the local trade has developed considerably. 3 F VII.— ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR. The Arabic language was introduced into Egypt at the time of the conquest of the country by ‘Amr ibn al-Asi, the general of the Khalifa ‘Omar, a.d. 640. Since that time the Arabic spoken in Egypt has changed, and the Arabic of Egypt is now a well-recognized dialect, with many characteristic peculiarities. It must be remembered that in literary com- position the Egyptians always strive to imitate the classical style, of which the best representative is held by Muhammadans to be the Kur’an, and the best educated Egyptians strive to model their language upon that of the old teachers of Syria and Baghdad. Arabic belongs to the southern group of Semitic languages, and has more in common with Himyaritic than with the northern dialects of Hebrew and Syriac. The Arabic language is written from right to left. The Arabic Alphabet. Name of Letter. Arabic Letter. English Equivalent. Alif Soft breathing of the Greeks Ba B Ta w? T, but softer Ta TH, as th in thing Jim £ G, usually J, but hard in Egypt Ha £L H, sharp, smooth guttural aspiration Kha e KH, like ch in loch Dal j D, but softer than in English Dhal j DH, TH, like th in that Ra J R Za J Z Sin S, like s in mist Shin LT SH Sad S, like ss in hiss ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR. 819 Name of Letter. Arabic Letter. English Equivalent. pad L/= D, like th in this Ta \s T, a strongly articulated palatal t Za )c Z, a strongly articulated palatal 2 ‘Ain L ‘ , unpronounceable to Europeans Ghain i GH, like the Northumbrian r Fa i ? F Kaf j K, a strongly articulated guttural k Kaf K Lam J L Mim r M Nun N Ha $ H Waw J W Ya 0 Y The Arabic letters are used as numbers, thus : — 1 = 1 CJ = 20 — 300 L-J = 2 J = 3° = 400 TL ~ 3 (* = 40 L *** » = 5OO J — 4 u = 5° c = 600 a = 5 =60 J = 700 ft J 6 t = 70 ^ = 800 J 7 < J =80 b = 900 Z = 8 ^ = 90 ^ = IOOO t = 9 - =100 = ] [O J = 200 The Arabs borrowed from the Indians ten signs to express the ten special numerical figures ; these are : — \ r r P or t £ 1 V A ^ * I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 3 F 2 820 ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR! The long vowels are indicated by the three consonants which come nearest them in sound, viz., \ d, t, and ^ u . To indicate the short vowels the Arabs invented the three following signs : — x , called fatha = a, e (as in pet), etc. , ,, kasra — i, (like i in pin) -f_ , „ damma = u , (like u in bull) The end of a syllable is marked by the sign _i_, called C ^ s sukun , e.g., Jj bal , safsafa. The doubling of a letter is expressed by the sign -JL- , called teshdid , e.g., Jy kawwila . S Letters are divided into two classes, sun letters, and moon letters; the sun letters are c,' J j j ^ ^ ^ 1; 1; J All other letters are lunar. There is only one article in Arabic, viz., the definite article, J\ al, or as it is commonly pronounced el. Examples : — al-kitdb the book al-khdtim ' j> the ring al-fulus the money Masculine nouns form their plurals in in ^j, e.g., naggdr “ carpenter,” , plur. naggarm j this is the ordinary and regular plural. Feminine nouns form their regular plural by adding at t - d to the singular ; thus sitt “lady,” plur. sittat ✓ ^ Adjectives form their regular plurals in the same way. Plurals of this kind are often called “ unbroken.” The “ broken ” plurals are formed in various ways, and to learn ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR. 821 them all is a difficult matter. The following examples indicate the commoner sorts : — Singular. Plural. Ragily man Riga /, men 0 ✓ kalb , heart, v kulub hearts L-J jJi wa/ad, boy 4 awlad boys husan , horse / s> ahsinah horses kitab , book kutub books J>S> l maktub letter L y\c >> \ makatib letters ndr , fire A mran fires u'A bdsha, pasha Lib bashawat pashas uy^Lib The adjective follows the noun. Adjectives ; are made more emphatic by the addition of one or other of the following words : — giddan kathir khalis much, many Y much, many, pronounced kefir in Egypt wholly, entirely The comparative is formed by prefixing \ , thus : — C / / C / sahl easy ashal easier gahil ignorant aghal more ignorant J«*r' khafif light akhaff lighter ui>l Or by mm , thus “ akbar min Yusuf ” greater than Joseph t _ o . 822 ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR. The superlative is expressed by placing the article before the comparative, thus al-akbar most great y£V\ . The possessive pronominal suffixes are : — i st Pers. sing. 1 my 2nd „ cJ koxka thy fern. J ki 3 rd „ a hu his fern. u ha 1st „ plur li na our 2nd „ ^ kum your 3rd „ „ hum their fern. VJ _P hunna Example : — kitabi my book kitabak thy book, fern, kitabki , thy book kitabuh his book kitabha her book kitabna own book kitabkum your book kitabhum their book, fern, kitabhunna These suffixes are added to the plural in the same way, thus : kutubi , kutubak , etc., they are also added to prepositions, thus : — ‘ andt with me (I have) > w\ A j: l andak with thee, fern. l andika (thou hast) ‘ anduh with him, fern. ‘ andha (he has) 2 > ‘ andna with us (we have) l) AAi: ‘ andkum with you (you have) ‘ andhum with them, fern. ‘ andhunna (they have) \ “To have ” may also be expressed thus : — It to me ma l t L5^ lak , lik to thee cJJ ma^ak) maHk ^ ELEMENTARY FACTS OF ARABIC GRAMMAR, 823 lahu to him 4] ma c uh lahct to her ma^ha land to us U! mcfna lakum to you ma^kum lahum to them met hum l * i In Egypt we have commonly the following as equivalents of these : — wiyydi to me, with me ob . wiyyak to thee, with thee vM •55 wiyyahum to them, with them A-fcb • The separate personal pronouns are : — Masc. Fem. Common. 1 st Pers. sing, and — — — bl I 2nd ,, „ anta anti 1, » ^ j \ — thou 3rd „ „ huwa y* 1st „ plur. nahnu — Iviya J* he, she we 2nd ,, ,, antum 1 antunna | w — ye, you 3rd „ ,, hum ^ hunna > — — Dual common antuma huma ye two they two 824 PRONOUNS, NUMERALS. The interrogative is expressed by \ , and by hal J.&. There are also the pronouns : — man ^ or mm , who ? , e what, what kind of?, en or fen where? In Egypt we have esh iJlA what ? The demonstrative pronouns are : — hadha this (masc.) /- ✓ 9-9 fem. hadhi ; plur. Midi . Vulgar forms are dhd , dhi) dol. The Numerals from 1 to 10 are Masc. Fern. I wahid wahidah 2 ethnen ( etnen ) ethneten (etneten) 3 thalathah (falatah) thalath (talat) 4 arba^ah IxjJ\ arba £ 5 khamsah khams 6 sittah <-Lw sitt 7 sab 1 ah sab ‘ t-H 8 thamanyah J LiJ thaman nA>*j 9 tis l ah ttsa‘ i they have killed j* ye have killed we have killed "]> they two killed ye two killed Participial Forms. Sing. masc. „ fem. katil kdtilat THE VERB. 827 Imperative : — Sing. 2nd masc. uktul ,, fem. uktuli Dual com. uktula Plur. 2nd masc. uktulu fem. uktulna With the personal pronominal object we have : — katalm , katalak , katalki , kataluh , katalha , katalna , kotalkum , katalhian , etc. In common speech the pluperfect is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb kan to the persons of the perfect \—kan katal (for kan kata/a), kanat katalat , etc. Present and Future Tenses. In the large grammars the forms of these tenses are given under the Imperfect, of which five sets of forms are dis- tinguished, viz., Indicative, Subjunctive, Jussive, Energetic I, Energetic II. The forms most commonly used in Egypt are : — Sing. 3rd masc. fem. yaktul taktul he kills, or will kill she kills, or will kill 2nd masc. fem. taktul J taktuli J [ thou killest, or shalt kill 1 st com. aktul I kill, or shall kill Dual 3rd masc. fem. yaktula "| taktula J \ They two kill, or will kill 2nd com. taktula Ye two kill, or shall kill Plur. 3rd masc. 3rd fem. 2nd masc. fem. yaktuln "j yaktulna \ taktuln taktulna | They kill, or shall kill j. Ye kill, or shall kill 1 st com. naktul We kill, or shall kill In Egypt and Syria the present and future tenses often have a b prefixed to all persons except the 1st person plur., when we have b'yakitul^ b'taktul \ etc.; the 1st person plur. is either b’nafctuL or m'naktul. 828 PARTICLES. The Prepositions are : or J l liT* mi?i 5 an J* ‘ ala • er ft Particles are : — ilia en ba ‘ ad ben *M> , thumma \JJ rubbama gher kij fakat ki £al ik kama Mi UK kullama kam 3 la U! lima V law la bt, in, with, by to from away from upon, above in if not, except, but for where after between then, next, afterwards perhaps, peradventure except, besides only never as, according to always how much ? not why ? except for, unless COMMON PHRASES. 829 u met not mata when tr* mo 4 with U1 amnia but y aw or, unless lakin but 1 . wa -j > Oh, alas ! woe t Jii wel J b yd O Common Phrases. Good day neharak sa l id Good evening misakum bil-kher 1 .' f Good night leltak sa l idah Good morning sabdh al-kher How are you ? esh zeyak kef halak Praise be to God, I am very well (literally, in all good), al-hamdu lilldh bikull kher Jjo May your day be happy and blessed, nahdrak sa l id wa- mubarak CJ CJj l$3 830 COMMON PHRASES. Please God, you are in good health, inshd Allah takun ft ghdyat as-sahat \ Bad sharr J Baker khabbdz j • Banana moz Barber muzayyin Jh* Barley sha l ir Bat witwat A-b Bath hanimam Beans fula Beat (he) zarab Because lian Bed farshah Beer birah bv Beer buza Beetle khunfisah Beetroot bangar .rsA.* v • Beginning ibtada \*b\ 834 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Bell garas Belt hizam Between ben Bicycle ‘cigala Bird ter Jo V" Black iswid Blacking boyah 4 .' •* 7- Blessed mubdrak Blind, sightless a‘ma Blue azrak ■iW’ Boat sefinah Bride ‘arus LPJj* Bridge ktibri ^yf Bridle ligam ♦UJ Bring hat (he brought) Bring gab Broom miknasah ; • / Brush furshah IWi , J Buffalo gamusa Bug, gnat bakka Burn harak (he burned) V Busy mashghfil But lakin Butcher gazzar M Butler sufragi . L S^J***" Butter samn * vW w Butter zibdah Button zirr Buy ishtara (he bought) J 3 G 2 836 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. ' Transliteration. Arabic word. Cabman ‘ arbagi Cake kahkah Calico bagtah 'idski Call nadah (he called) Camel gamal Cap tarbush Carat kirat Card warakah Ho Carpet, rug basat Carpet siggada Carriage ‘ arabiyoh V * . c. Cartridge khartusha Castle kaVat Cat kutt L* Cavalry khel Chair kursi Cheap rikhis Cheerful, happy mabsut If Cheese gabinah Chess shitrang Child walad a!., plur. ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 837 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Cholera (literally “ yellow air ”) Christ hawa asfar Al-Masih J v Church kamsa Cigar sigarah Clean nadif Clever shatir j Cloak burnus Clothing libs Coal fahm hagar Coat sitra Coffee kahwah Cognac kunvak | cJl Cold barid & Colour law?i Comb misht Come ga (he came) u Complete tamam r Contented mabsut J Cook (noun) tabbakh •U, Cork fallina ijuJj Corkscrew barrimah 8 3 8 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Cotton kutn Cotton articles kumash Country bildd Sh Crab abu galambo Cream kishtah tDnJhJ Crocodile timsah Cup fingan Cup kds uJS Cupboard dulab Date (fruit) balaha Daughter bint L^-U Day nahar > Day yom r* Dead man met Deaf atrash Dear (expensive) ghali J u Deep £ amtk Delay mahla V Delicious ladhidh jj jJ Dentist hakim si nan ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 839 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Desert sahra Devil ablis Diamond mas Diarrhoea ishdl cM Dictionary kamus Difficult sa l ab 1.. Dine itghadda (he dined) Dirty wasikh z 3 Dishonest khdyin Do ‘ amal (he worked) Doctor hakim Dog kalb (dog, plur.) )J "J- Enough kafayah LUa Entered dakhal (he went in) Envelope zarf Europe bilad al-Afrang jL European Afrangi *\ • r ] Evening misa C '041 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 841 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Falsehood kidhb Far off min ba‘id •* • w Farewell ma ‘ sal amah we Farmer fallah jh. Farrier betdr , UaJO Father ab Feather walid Fell (he) waka 1 Ferry ma'‘addiyah Fever himma Fig tma Aajo Filter zir jij Fire nar ,u Fish samakah Flag bander ah i ' JOJ J" Flea barghut —ib 1 Flower zahr St • > J Fly (insect) dhababah h l> j Food akl Food tabikh 842 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. i Arabic word. Forage ‘ alik Fork shukah 7 Fountain (natural) * en Fountain (artificial) sibil Fowl farkhah Franc afrank Frenchman Fransawi Fresh (of meat) taza ^ / Friend habib Frightened khaif Fruit fakha Garden ganenah Gazelle ghazal Gift bakshish Give adda (he gave) Ojl Glass (tumbler) kubbayah 1>\1< Glove kaff “ / Go Go out God rah (he went) kharag Allah r * — .2>- "«dl ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 843 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Gold dhabab L. Good tayyib Goods mal (jLc Goose 7uizza Gown thub < 5*3 • J Gracious karim Grape l ( mb Grass hashish Great ‘ azim Greatness kibriya U "J • Green akhdar Gunpowder barud Hard gamid wVv Hand yad Handkerchief mandil Hammer shakush u~y Happy sa^id Haste ista^agil Hat burnetah ' •• jd Head 1 ras 844 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. - English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Health sihhah Hear simi ‘ (he heard) w- Heart kalb d. Heaven sama Heavy thakil Hell gahannam 1 Here hena .IJcfc Hold misik (he held) Honey l asal i Horse husan Hospital isbitaliyah Hot har Hot sukhan w Hotel lokandah (Ital. locanda ) i A-O 'jl Hour sa l ah isL ! House bet House dar How ? azai o'j' How kef . / How much ? kam / ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 845 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. 1 ' ' Hungry ga l an Husband gdz Ice talg jj - Isthmus barzakh • • J • Jam marabba Jeweller gawahirgi Judge kadi 846 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Key miftah Killed (he) katala JJo mawwata King malik Kiss bosa 4 .' J- Kitchen matbakh Knew (he) 1 araf Knife sakkin Lad shabb Lady sitt Lake birkah .s tejJ Lamb kharuf •-v 6 - Lame a^rag Lamp kandil Large kablr Last akhir Laundress ghasscilat Lazy kislan JL£ Lead (of pencil, etc.) rasas U°^*J Learned 1 alim JU 1 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 847 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. 1 Leather gild Leave taraka (he left) -9 Left hand shamal (jU-i Leg sdk j*- Lemon lamunah j Length till j> Letter maktub Liar kadhdhdb Likeness mithl Lily siisan Light nar ,u Linen til Loaf raghif Long tawil Luck bakht Lunch ghada l.vi Mad magnun Magazine viakhzan Man insdn Many kelhir .Jsli 848 ENGLISH- ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. ' Mare faras Market silk dr Marriage gawdz jVr Match (lucifer) kibrit . *• / .JO "j ' Mattress farshah Meat lahm H Medicine daw a V Melon batikhah Merchant taggd? ,Lsr / 1 Milk laban Money changer sarrdf Month shahr Moon kaviar More kaman Morning sabah _L- Mother umm ? Mountain gabal Mouth fum \ Mule baghl Nail mismar S' ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 849 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Name ism r' Near kanb '-r-'-r Necessary Needle lazim ibrah v' New gadid A.' A.^ News khabar Night lei JjJ North shamal iJU-i Not la a lain J les Not yet lissa u Now alan Number £ adad Obelisk misalla Obliged, grateful mamnun Officer zabit kit Oil zet Ointment dahan Old kadhn 850 ENGLISH-AR ABIQ yOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Opened (he) fatah if Orange burtakanah dj \sijji Outside barra !> Owl buvia V • Ox tur jy Paper warak Pair zawg Passport tadhkarah b S jj j Pay dafa i (he paid) Pear kummitra C— y. a /%■ ~ Pen kalam r b Pencil kalam rasas Pepper juju Perfume l atr J** Perhaps yimkin • j rubbama Physician hakim Piastre kirsh u~r pig khanzir Pigeon 1 haviam ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 8 5 r English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Pillow makhadda I Pin dabus .. Pincers malkat ja&L-o Pipe shubuk ' / A l AA-Jj Pistachio fistuka Pistol tabanga Plate sahn Pleasant malih Plum barkuka di , • j J j • Poor fakir r jJii x •• Poor mesltin / Pork lahm al-khanzir Porter hammdl JU- shayyal J Postage stamp warak al-busta Aa.^a) 1 V i ■ CJ' Post-Office diwan al-Bustah • tA«~ » A; | A.' J 1 Potato batata ILlk Poultry firdkh c'A Pound rati (plur. art at) Jh- Pretty kaivayyis Price thaman 852 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Price si^r V Priest kasis Prison sign or? 8 * - Prophet nabi Purse kis / Quickly sari'an Quilt /aha/ -iW Radish figlci Js :\V.J Railway sikkat hadid Rain matar Razor mils Ready haqir Readily ha lan Red atinur jA,S>~\ Religion din Remainder baki J V Rest rahah -J Rhubarb rawind Ribbon shnrit jZi Rich ghana ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 8 53 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Ride rikib (he rode) s Rifle bundukiyeh A-U Righteous sddik Right hand yamin River nahr Road sikkah Road tarik /jj .L Room odah Rope habl Rose wardah Saddle sarg Sailor bahri Salt vialh t L< Saw (he) nazar J Say kal (he said) Scales mizdn School kuttub C-AjAi School madrasah t\~l , -V V Scissors makass Scorpion 1 akraba tO JLZ. ■-J 854 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Sea ! 1 bahr See shaf ( he looked) < iLi Sent (he) bedath Servant khadim Shave halak (he shaved) Shawl shal Shekh shekh C Ship markib Shirt kamis Shoe guzmah ' - Shop kukan Short kasir Sick ‘ ayyan Silent (be) uskut Silk harir Af* Silver faddah Z2J Sister iihkt L Small daghir Smoke dukhkhan Soap sabun ' UJ: Soldier \iska ? | ENGLISH- ARABIC VOCABULARY. 855 •English -word. • - T ransl-ite v-ation. Arabioword. - Son ibn cd Soul nafs Soup shurba South gunub Spirit ruh ZpJ Spoon mal'akah Spring of year rabi‘ Star nagm \ Stick l asa las. Stocking gurab Stop istanna UU Straight dughri Street shari 1 Strong kawwa oy Strong shadid A.’ AAj Sugar sukkar Summer sef Ulx* Sun shems Sunset maghrub Supper l ashd Sword sef L 0 1 ,,,. 8 5 6 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Table tarabezah » Tailor khayyat Talked (he) 1 takallam iks l Tea shai Temple ‘(ruined) birbah b y Tent khemd LfcXC*-- There henak Thimble kistaban Thing hagah Thread khet Throw rama (he threw) Ticket tadhkarah *> Time (a) marrah ( [yiarraten , *> twice) Time wakt Tin can safihah Tired ta'ban To-day al-yom Tomb kabr ji* To-morrow bukra i Xj J * Took (he) akliadh T own mcdina | ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 857 English word. Transliteration. Arabic word. Traveller musafir J Tree shegerah Trousers bant alun True hakik Turkey dik ar-Rumi Umbrella shamsiyah «*) Uncle l amm Under taht Unoccupied (empty, of a cab) fazi Useful nafi ‘ *j\j CT Useless battal ju* Vase tasah «~-c Water-bottle kulla ajjj Water-carrier sakkd liLs Week asbu 1 tr J ' Weight wazn Well Mr J±> Went (he) mashi L 5^ West 1 arb Wheat kamh Whip kurbdg & White abyad Why? le Wide wasi 1 t-'j Wind rill & Window shabak CJV Wine nibit Winter shita Wise dikil JjsU Wood hatab Woman mada | *^6 ENGLISH-ARABIC VOCABULARY. 8 S9 English word, Transliteration. Arabic word. W onderful ‘agib Work l amal World danya Lu A Wool suf ‘“V Year sanah Yellow asfar ■ Ju>\ Yes aiwah S?\ J •* na'am Yesterday I ambarih Youth gada‘ Cw\> ^ • COOK’S NILE STEAMERS AND DAHABEAHS. THOS. COOK & SON . . . have unequalled facilities for Travellers visiting EGYPT. Their Fleet of ELEVEN LARGE PASSENGER STEAMERS consists of the finest vessels on the Nile, specially built, luxuriously appointed throughout, and fitted with every modern convenience. TOURIST SERVICE.- These large and handsomely fitted Steel Steamers j make Two Sailings per week, one from Cairo and one from Assiout, ] the Sailings from Cairo beginning in November, and from Assiout in January. EXPRESS SERVICE. — The Express Steamers leave Cairo Twice a Week, the Friday departures commencing in November, and the Monday departures in December. There is thus a Service of FOUR COOK'S STEAMERS PER WEEK ascending the Nile to the First Cataract during the Season — three from Cairo and one from Assiout — calling at all points of interest on the Nile, in connection with which complete arrangements for sightseeing and excursions are made, enabling Travellers to visit to the best advantage all the famous . Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, Ruined Cities, &c. In connection with these services there is also a Bi- Weekly Service by First'dass Steamer from the First to the Second Cataract, with Through Bookings to Khartoum, The Sudan and Uganda. PRIVATE STEAMERS AND DAHABEAHS.-Thos. Cook & Son have several Small Steamers for charter at moderate rates, specially adapted to the requirements of Families, Private Parties, Sporting Parties, etc., accommodating from eight to sixteen passengers, with competent crews, and thoroughly equipped. Also a large fleet of First-Class Sailing Dehabeahs, the best on the Nile. TOURS IN PALESTINE AND SYRIA. PALESTINE is but a 30 hours’ journey from Cairo and interesting Tours in the Holy Land and Syria may be made by taking steamer to Jaffa, Haifa, or Beyrout, at each of which ports Thos. Cook & Son have their own offices and staff, as well as at Jerusalem. Full Particulars are given in the Illustrated Palestine Pamphlet which together with the Nile Pamphlet may be had on application to— THOS. COOK 6? SON [Managing Agents for THOS. COOK & SON (EGYPT), LIMITED] LONDON : Ludgate Circus. CAIRO : Near Shepheard’s Hotel. INDEX. Aah-hetep, Queen Queen PAGE 86, 195, 225, Aahmes. Aahmes Tomb of ... 585, Aahmes, son of Pen-nekheb, Tomb of Aahmes I (Amasis 649 226 691 691 Aah-mes-sa-pa-ari Aa-qenen-Ra Aaron... Ab Aba, Tomb of Ab-aa Abacus 1 77 > Ababda Tribe ’ Abai ... Abba 1 95 * 395 , I95i 692 225, 691 225 194 540 1 1 5 7*0 223 179, 180, 181 292 795 Island of 262, 269, 348, 800 Abba Benus ‘Abbas Bridge ‘Abbas II, Hilmy ... 260, “ Abbas ” Steamer wrecked ‘Abbasid Khalifas, The ‘Abbasiyeh Quarter of Cairo Abbas Pasha ‘Abd-Allah (Father Prophet) ... ‘Abd al-‘Azlz ‘Abd-Allah (Khalifa) 62 280 267 348 246 466 257 90, of the 326 ••• 254 246, 296, 268 ‘Abdallah ibn Sa‘ad ‘Abd-Allah wad Sud ‘Abd al- Melik Abdin Palace Abercromby, Sir Ralph 391 246 781 246 260 256, . 392 PAGE Abkeh, or Am k eh 729 Ablutions 334 Aboccis 729 Abolition of Bridge : Tolls ... 278 Absence of Fossils 49 Abu al-Akhdar ... 418 Abu Bakr 245, 330 Abu Bakr Mazhar, Mosque of 458 Abu Dhahab • •• 255 Abu Dis 765 Abu Fatma ... 754 Abu Girgah . . 577 Abu Haggag... 601, 610 Abu Hamed ... 268, 750, 763 Abu Hammad 418 Abu Haraz ... 796 Abu Honnes (Father John), Coptic Convent c rf ... 582 Abu Karar 810 Abu Kuka 805 Abu Kussi . . . 756 Abukir Bay ... 255, 256, 392 Abukir, Lake 52, 394 Abukir, Village of 392 Abu Klea 264 Battle of 264, 265 Abu Kru (Gubat) 264 Abu l-‘Asakir ... 247 Abu 1 - Hasan ‘Ali 248 Abu 1 - Kasim... 248 Abu 1 -Misk Kaffir 248 Abu Musa Harun 247 Abu Roash (Pyram id of) ... 488 Abu Sar al-Kibli 815 Abu Sargah, Church of ... 468 Abu’s Sefen, Der 0 f ... 468 Abu Sallim ... 765 Abusir, Pyramid of 220, 488 Rock of... 734 862 INDEX. Abu Simbel PAGE 2, 49, 228, 729- 734 *79» 729, 732 4 1 5 Temple of Abu, Suwer ... Abu Tig Abu Tisht Abu Zed Abu Zena, Legend of Abu Zeyd, Story of . . . Abydos 60, 106, I 18, 228, 229, 580, 590 594 Excavations at . . . Necropolis of Tablet of Abyssinia 282, 587 595 800 534 323 216, 59L 622, 690 594 Acacia Achoris Achwa River Acre ... Siege of... Ad-Daila, Oasis of . . Ad-Damar Ad-Der, Cemetery at Ad-Duem Aden ... 590, 594 492, 594 292, 327, 328, 769 742, 55 624 710 507 257 515 770 689 799 3 i 8 Adh-Dhahir, Mosque of 297, 303 Adowa, Italians defeated at Adultery (punishment) 29 1 ‘Adwa Aegyptus AgamDeldi... Agricultural Bank ... Agriculture ... 104, 159 ZEmilius Rectus ZElius Gallus... 240, 623 Aha ... ... ... Ahmad Ahmad Bey ... Ahmad . i bn Tfilun ... 247 Ahmad Kamal Bey ... Ahmadiyeh Dervishes Ahnas ‘Ain Umm Dababib (Abbas Oasis) 517 Ai 227 Ai, Tomb of 585, 669 Air, dryness of ... 39, 94 Aird, J. & Co. ... 95, 96 Akaba ... ... ... 280 ‘Akabet al-Kabir ... ... 508 267 345 570 7* 798 74 218 240 725 219 254 270 296 43* 358 576 Akasha Aker ... Akerblad Akhsemenes, Death of Akhmim Necropolis of Akka (Acre) ... Aksunkur, Mosque of Aku, Tomb of AI- Abadiyah . . . Al-‘Adid ... ... 250, Al-‘Adil II ... Al-‘Adil Ketburgha Al-‘Adil Selamish Al- ! Adil Seyf-ed-din Al-Amin Al-Amir Al-Arish ... ... 45, Al-Ashraf Bars Bey, Mosque of ... Al-Ashraf Inal, Mosque of Al-‘Arish, Treaty of Al-Ashraf Khalil Al-Ashraf Kuguk Al-Ashraf Musa Al-Ashraf Sha’ban ... Al-Ashraf Tuman-Bey Alati (male singer) ... Al-‘Ayat AI- ‘ Ayu'n Al-Azhar, Mosque of 248, 303, 310, 449 Al-‘Aziz ... ... 248, Al-‘Aziz‘Othman AI- Aziz Yusuf Al-Baguat Christian Necro- polis ... Al-Balyana ... Al-Barriab ... ... ... Al-Barsha “ Al-Buk‘ah ” Albert N‘yanza, or Lake • Albert 78, 79 Albert Edward, Lake Al-Buweb ... ... ... Alcohol, amount made in- creasing ... ... ... Al-Dabbah (Debbeh) Al-Dab £ ek Aleppo ... ... 250, PAGE 267, 753 ... 125 135 234 429 , 588 ••• 589 ... 252 2 97> 303 708 765 25* 25* 253 252 251 246 250 255 304 304 255 252 253 25* 253 254 321 569 5*7 297, - 450 , 249 25* 254 5*9 590 798 583 79* , 810 812 539 3*8 756 595 254 INDEX. 863 PAGE Alexander ... 136, 1 39, 380 Alexander the Great 205, 236, 237 , 380, 509 Shrine -of ... ... 612 Alexander II 237,615 Alexander IV ... ... 206 Alexandria 2, 40, 51, 67, 237, 239, 240, 255, 256, 280, 379 390 Alexandria, Battle of ... 256 Alexander, Bishop of .. . 243 Bombardment of ... 261 Caesarion ... 239, 384 Caesarion Library ... 383 Canopic Gate ... ... 385 Capture of ... ... 239 Catacombs ... 384* 385 Cleopatra’s Needles ... 390 Climate of ... ... 40 Foreign Business Houses in 294 Foundation of ... 237, 380 Gymnasium ... ... 384 Heptastadium ... ... 382 Hippodrome ... ... 384 Hotels at .. 379 Jewish population destroyed Museum and Library ... Museum of Graeco Roman Antiquities "Pharos or Lighthouse ... Paneum... ... Pompey’s Pillar 241 380 242, Serapeum S6ma ... Theatre Trade ... Alexandria to Cairo Alexandrian Library Destruction of Al-Faiz Al-Fasher Al-Ferdan Al-Fustat (Cairo) Al-Gazira Al-Ghuri, Mosque of Tomb of Al-Gisr 390 382 384 383 , 385 ... 383 ... 384 ... 384 390 394-399 237, 238, 380, 381 ... 383 ... 250 743 409 421, 424 700 458 463 409 246, PAGE Al-G6z ... 781 Al-Hadi ... 246 Al- Hafir • 754 Al- Hafiz ... 250 Al-Hakim ... 249 Mosque of 297, 303 , 458 Alhambra 303 Al-Hira 325 Al-Hosh ... 696 ‘All ... 246 Aliab ... 77 1 All Bey ... 255 Al-Ka‘a, Plain of ... 542 Al-Kab 429, 690 Al-Kahira (Cairo) ... ... 248 Al-Kamil Muhammad ... 251 Al-Kamil Sha‘ban ... 253 Al-Kantara ... 409 Al-Katai ... 247 Al-Kharga, Oasis of... 54 , 5*9 Al-Khattara ... 700 Al-Kur’an, see Kuran. Al-Kusiyah ... ... 585 Almah (female singer) 321 Al-Mahamid ... ... 689 Al-Mahdi 246 Al-Makaukas (Cyrus) ... 245 Al-Ma‘mun ... ... 246 Al-Mandara ... 570 ALMandid ... 504 Al- Mansur ... ... 246 Al-Mansur Abu Bakr 253 Al-Mansur ‘All 253 Al-Mansur ‘Ali ibn Aybek ... 252 Al-Mansur Kala‘un ... ... 252 Al-Mansur Lagin 253 Al-Mansur Muhammad 25*, 253 Al-Maridany ... 297 , 303 Al-Markha ... 535 Al-Maslub 570 Al-Medawwa 537 Al-Mehair 534 Al-Meharret ... 539 Al-Menshah ... 589 Almohades ... 347 Al-Mo c tasim . . . 246 Al-Mo‘tezz ... 247 Alms-giving ... ... ... 338 Al-Mu‘ayyad 254 Mosque of 298, 3 °°? 3 °b 304 , 3 ' » , 458 , 459 864 INDEX. Al-Mu‘ayyad Ahmad Al-Mu‘azzam Turanshah PAGE 254 25 ! 248, 292 ... 252 ... 247 ... 247 254 ... 250 ... 247 ... 253 253 ... 252 263, 269, 742 *37 Al-Mu‘izz Al-Mu‘izz Aybek Al-Munta‘in Al-Muntasir ... Al-Musta‘in ... Al-Musta‘li ... Al-Mutawekkil Al-Muzaffar Bebars II Al-Muzaffar Haggi ... Al-Muzaffar Kutuz ... Al-‘Ob£d Alphabet Al-Urdi, or New Donkola ... 755 Al-Walid I ' ... 246 Al-Walid. II 246 Al-Wardan (Beni Salalma) ... 510 Al-Wasta 570 Al-Wathik ... ... ... 247 Al-Watiyah, Pass of... ... 552 ‘Amada ... ... ... 729 Amadi ... ... ... 271 Amalarick ... ... 250, 251 Amarah, Temple of ... ... 753 “ Amasis ” Steamer .. . ... 30 Amasis I ... ... 195,225, 233 * 395 , 691 Amasis II 188, 204, 233, 495 Amba Shenudah - 587 Ambukol ... ... ... 753 Ambukul Wells Station 748 Ameilhon ... ... ... 135 Amelineau, Professor 595, 690 Amen III, I 1 4, I I7» *25, 165, 17 1 , 172 , 175 , 225, 227, 229, 474, 509, 614, 619, 663 Amen, Temple of ... 172, 614 Amenartas, Queen, Temple of 627 Amen-em-apt 230 Amen-em-heb, Tomb of ... 658 Ankh 435 Amen-em-hat I 192, 222, Buckle, The 434 579 , 729 Collar, The 435 Tomb of... ... 580 Fingers, The ... 435 Amen-em-hat II 192, 222, 503 , 583 Frog, The 435 Heart, The 435 Statue of 503 Menat, The 435 Amen-em-hat III 89, 192, 223, Nefer, The 435 499 , 529 , 572 , 752 Neha, The 435 Statue of ... 572 Papyrus Sceptre, The... 435 PAGE Amen-em-hat IV 1 92, 223, 529 Amen-hetep, see Amenophis. Amen-meri-en-Heru-em-heb 197 Amen-meri Piankhi 202 Amen-meses ... 198, 229, 674 Tomb of... _ 674 Amenophis I (Amen-hetep) 195, 225, 6 1 5," 69 1, 692 Amenophis II 196, 226, 229, 314, 614, 617, 665, 669 Slays Seven Chieftains 225 Tomb of 665 Amenophis III 178, 196,226, 229, 438 , 555 , 56 l, 6 ll, 612, 613, 614, 666, 690 Amenophis III, Birth of ... 612 Colossi of 241 Court of ... ... 6 1 1 Tomb of ... ... 668 Amenophis IV ill, 184, 197, 227, 228, 584, 633 Amen-Ra 55, 109, 1-17, 126 Amenrut (Amyrtseus) 203, 235 Amentet ... ... 114, 663 American Mission ... ... 803 American Mission Hospital 398 American Mission Schools 366, 586, 602 Amina (mother of the Prophet) ... Ammon ‘Amr Mosque of 296, 315,447 ‘Amr ibn al-‘Asi 245 297 , , 448 245 , 384 , I 17 326 46 282 303 , 472 382, 421 126 Amset Amsu ... 1 17, 126, 588 Amsu (or Min)-nekht, Tomb of 654 Amulets ... 114 , 434,435 INDEX. 865 PAGE Amulets ( contd .) — Pillow, The 435 Sma, The 435 Serpent’s Head 435 Stairs, The 435 Tet, The 435 Utchat, The 435 Vulture, The 435 Amu-netcheh, Tomb of 656 Amusements 317 An 191 Anab ... ... ... 223 Anastasius 244, 245 Anatomy 157 Anba Bisha'i, Monastery of 510 Ancestors, Tablet of ... 615 Andrews, Dr. 64 Anglo-Egyptian Condominium 741 Anglo-French Agreement 276, 368 An-Heru ... 1 1 8 Ani * 1 17, 696 Papyrus of 146-156 Animals 55, 61, 62, 65, 66 Anit ... 1 17, 126 Ankh, The ... 435 An-Nasir Ahmad 253 An-Nasir Hasan 253 An-Nasir (in the Citadel), Mosque of 303, 460 An-Nasir Muhammad 252, 253, 254 Kuran of 316 Mosque of ... 297 Annihilation of Christian Army ... 252 Annu (Heliopolis) ... 220 Annu qemat ... ... 687 Anopheles Mosquito ... 410 Anpu ... 1 17, 126 Anqet i 18, 126 Antaeopolis ... ... 587 Antef, Antef-aa ... 224 An that 1 17, 126 Anthropomorphists . . . ... 382 Anti Perfume ... 817 Antinoe ... 582 Ani inoopolis ... 241 Antinous 241, 582 PAGE Antiochus the Great, Defeat of 238 Antiochus III ... ... 238 Antiochus IV ... ... 238 Antiquities ... 20, 429-435 Genuineness of... ... 465 Antoninus ... 412, 532, 624 Antoninus Augustus Pius 214, 241 Antoninus (Caracalla) 215, 381 Antony Antuf ... Anubis 239 , 38 ] ... 164 108, I 13, I 18, 125, 521 Ape, dog-headed ... ... 125 Ape-men (Street Performers) 322 Apepa ... ... 194, 224 Aperiu identified with the Plebrews ... ... ... 817 Apes, Tomb of the ... ... 669 Apis Bull ... 1 18, I 19, 125, 219,234,241,494,495 Temple of ... ... 241 Aphorisms ... ... ... 165 Aphroditopolis ... ... 570 Apostacy (punishment) ... 341 Apricots ... ... 55 Apries, see Uah-ab-Ra. Apt ... ... ... ... 118 Apti ... ... ... ... 602 Apu .. 589 Ap-uat ... ... I 18, 125 Aquarium, The, at Gazira ... 446 Arab Art, Museum of 444, 445 Arab Songs ... ... ... 32 1 Arabi Pasha (Ahmad Arabi) 260, 261, 262, 361, 417, 418 Arabia 325* 347 “ Arabia,” The ... ... 29 Arabic Cemeteries ... ... 7 12 Arabic Language ... 2, 7 1 1 Alphabet and Grammar 818-830 English Vocabulary 831-859 Arabs, Historical Sketch of 325368 Character of ... 326 Descent of ... ... 3 2 5 Embrace Christianity ... 325 3 1 866 INDEX. PAGE Arabs, Historical Sketch of (contd .) — Pre-Muhammadan belief of • • 326 Revolt of 330 Sacrifices ... 552 Semitic Origin ... ... 325 Arabs, The Sinai ... 527 Arcadius ... 244 Archaic Period, Sketch of 164-187, 216-219 Archangels, the Four 332 Architecture ... ... 167 Ardeb 7 Argin ... ... 266 A rgh id (double reed pipe) ... 322 Arko, Island of 262, 754 , 755 Ari-hes-nefer, Temple of 7*9 Arithmetic ... ... 160 Arius (Theologian) ... 243, 382 Armant 588 , 687 Armenians ... 293 Armoji ... 808 Army, Cost of 367 Condition of, Improved 361 Ar-Raha 530 , 540 Ar- Rashid ... 246 Arrol and Co. ... 280 Arsinoe 136, 206, 237, 505, 57 * Arsinoe, City... 237 , 57 * Arsinoe I 237 Arsinoe II 237 Arsinoe III ... 207, 238 Arsu ... 229 Art ... 3*2316 Artabazos ... 237 Artacama 237 Artaxerxes I ... 205, 234 Artaxerxes II ... 235 Artaxerxes III 235 Artemis 579 Articles, Miscellaneous, re- quired by Traveller 20 Artists 21 Ancient Egyptian ... *84 Art of the Saracens ... 303, 308 Asar ... ... 1 18, 126, 127 Asar-Hap 118, 127 Asasif, Necropolis of ... 650 Ascetic Dervishes ... 357 PAGE Aset (wife of Thothmes II)... 226 Asfun al-Mata‘na (Asphynis) 687 Ashraf ... ... ... 262 Tomb of 463 Ashmant ... ... ... 576 Ash-Shafifi, Mosque of .. 303 Ashur-bani-pal 23 1, 232, 49 1 Asna, or Esneh ... ... 688 Asp 239 Asphynis ... ... ... 688 Ass ... ... ... ... 61 Assa ... 191,816 As-saffah 246 As-Sa‘id Baraka Khan ... 252 As-Salahiya 418, 504 As-Salih Ayyub ... ... 251 As-Salih Haggi ... ... 253 Assassination of the Mamluks 256 As-Salih Isma‘il ... ... 253 As-Salih, Mosque of 297, 303 As-Salih Muhammad ... 254 As-Salih Salih ... ... 253 As-Sufra ... 784 As-sur, Pyramids of... ... 771 Ast I 18, 127, 661 Astes ... ... ... ... I 1 8 Astronomy ... ... ... 159 Asua River ... ... 808 Aswan 2, 43, 44, 71, 79, 81, 83, 95, 217, 429, 579, 687 703 Aswan Dam ... 82, 89, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 271, 274, 277 , 36i, 569, 7 M, 718 Asyut 72, 73, 84, 89, 92, 94 , 221, 271, 274, 429, 5*6, 586 Barrage 92, 99, 271, 274, 277 , 36 l, 587 Pottery made at ... 315 Training College ... 586 Atbara 80, 83 Atbara, Battle of 268, 740, 769 Junction ... 767 River 736, 768, 769 Atcha-Khar-Amen ... ... 723 Atemu ... ... 1 1 8, 127 Aten, Sun-god ... Ill, 227 Hymns to ... ... 585 Shrine destroyed by Heru- em-heb ... ... 228 INDEX. 867 PAGE Ateth... ... ... ... 190 At fih ... 570 Atf-neter-Ai-neter-heq-Uast 197 Athanasius (Theologian) 243,382 Athribis 399, 588 Atmu 108, HO Atsiz ... ... ... ... 250 Attack on British Officers ... 281 At-Teb 263 Aurelian ... ... ... 242 Aurelius Antoninus ... ... 214 Ausar 146, 147, 148, 15 1, 154 Austrian Roman Catholic Mission 802, 805 Avaris (Chief City of the Hyksos) ... 224, 225, 575 Aven ... ... ... ... 220 Avenue of Sphinxes... 494? 613 A vidius Cassius ... ... 241 Avillius Flaccus ... ... 240 Ayun Musa (Wells of Moses) 532 Ayyub ... 251 Ayyubid Khalifas, The ... 251 Az-Zafir ... ... ... 250 Az-Zahir Barkuk ... ... 254 Az-Zahir Rukn ad-din Bebars 252 B. Ba 115 Baal ... 118 Baba ... 118 Bab Al-Futuh 423 Bab al-Mandib •03 Bab An-Nasr 423 Bablun, Der of 470 Babylonia • 03, 233 Bab Zuwela ... 423 Bacchias 574 Badawin 292, 424, 527 Badr ad-Din... 3 ' 5 Badr, Battle of 328 Badrashen 569 Bagarawiyah 77 * Baggage Insurance 23 Baghdad 224, 247, 251, 313 Bagnold, Col. A. 49 i Bagrawiyah ... 77 1 , 773 Baherah 72, 395 Bahr al-Abyad 80 Bahr al-Asfar ... 803 1 Bahr al-Azrak Bahr al-Gebel Bahr al-Ghazal PAGE 79 78, 277, 805 52, 66, 78, 82, 270, 349 , 742 Bahr al-Zaraf ... 804 Bahrite Mamluks, The 252, 462 Bahariya, Oasis of ...54, 72, 513 Bahr-Yusuf ... 57 G 572 , 57 <> Bai, Tomb ot ... ... 679 Bakenrenf (Bocchoris) 202, 23 I Baker Pasha defeated ... 263 Baker, Sir Benjamin ... 94 Sir Samuel 77, 739, 768, 8n Bakkara Tribe ... ... 3 50 Bakshish 3, 24-26, 36 1, 465 , 525 Balah, Lake ... 409 Baldwin, King of Jerusalem 250 Balfour, Dr. A: ... 789 Ball, Mr. John 516 , 519 Balias ... 690 Ba-haga ... 781 Bananas 55 Bank of Egypt ... 270 Bankes, Mr. ... 136 Baptism ... 287 Baqet ... 7 b 581 Baqet III, Tomb of... • 582 Bar ... 1 18 Barabara ... 766 Baradaeus, Jacob ... 286 Baralum ... 508 Baramus, Monastery of 5 *' Bargains 464 Bar Hebraeus 384 Barking Dervishes ... 360 Barkuk ... 253 Barkuk, Mosque of 297 , 303 , 3 1 0. . 3«2 , 457 Tomb of 4 63 Barkuk (in the Cemetery) Mosque of... 303 Bardlet, M. ... ... 466 Barley 56 Barrages 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 274 ,361 , 399 Barracks, Ancient ... •83 Bars Bey ... 254 Tomb of 463 Barsanti, M. 695 , 700 3 1 2 86 8 INDEX. Bas-reliefs Basilianus Basin Irrigation Bast ... Festivals of Bat Bath (Hammam) Bathing Batn al-IJagar Bazaars Beadnell, Dr. Beam, Dr. Beans ... 183 ... 242 ... 84 1 19, 125 419 63 320 21, 320 80, 752 463-466 5 1 4 , 515 ... 789 56 157 235 Bedden Island and Rapids 808 Bedrashen ... 489,491,569 Bedstead of Iuau and Thuau Head of Beetle 64, 125 Behbit al-Hajar Behnesa Belal, or Belial Belbes “ Bell Mountain,” The Belzoni, M. ..: Belzoni’s Chamber ... Belzoni’s Tomb Benha 47, 72, 257, 683 436 506 57 1 763 418, 564 541 482, 672 ... 484 399, 670 4*8, 420 538 579 582 576 Beni-Hasan ... Tombs of • •• 578 , Excavations at . . . Beni-Huder ... Beni-Kureba, Massacre of, by Muhammad ... ... 328 Beni-Suwef ... 47, 72, 576 Bennu 127 Berber 262, 263, 264, 268, 348, 742, 766 Berenice, City 237, 241, 598, 695 Berenice I ... 136, 206, 237 Berenice II ... ... 207,237 Berenice III ... ... ••• 210 Berenice Troglodytica ... 696 Beris 5*7 Bernard, Colonel 789 Berti 265 Berut 55 , 228 Bes 119,127,683 Bet al-Amana, The ... ... 79 * Bet al-Mal 79 * 245, 570 250 Bet-al-Wali ... Temple of . - Bet Khallaf ... Beybars II, Mosque ot Biban al-Muluk Bibah Bjggah Bihamu Bilbes Binding, Arabic Biography Birak ... Bir Ambar ... Bird Mountain Birds Birket-al-Kurun Bir Naga Birth ... Birthday of the Prophet Bird ... Bisharin Tribe Bitter Lakes 53, 405, Black Art Black Stone, The ... Blasphemy (punishment) Blemmyes, The 242, 244 PAGE 79 , 724 50,52, 57 44 724 220 303 661 576 7*4 > 572 251 3*6 165 52 816 577 63 , 574 784 350 342 763 292 564 164 339 34* 536, 537, 589, 7*6, 723, 738 Blest, Islands of the... 54, 5°8 de 259 * *9 Blignieres, M Blind Horus ... Blind Men sing the Call to Prayer Blood-money, System of Taking Blue, Mr. John A. C. Blunted Pyramid, The Boarding School for Girls (Luxor) Bocchoris Bodies, Burning of Bohr ... Boinet Bey ... Bolbitine, Site of Bonomi,Mr. ... Book of the Dead 134, * 57 » 164, 167, 219, 220, 433, 639, 649, 665 Book of the Gates 664,672,676 Book of the Litanies of Ra 664, 670, 676 Book of Medicine *58 321 527 97 497 602 23* *72 277 73 392 724 1 62, 424, , 677 INDEX. 869 PAGE Book of what is in the Under- world ... 664, 665, 666 , 670, 676 Boots for Ladies and Gentle- men ... ... 20 Bor, or Bohr... 78, 806 Bora ... ... ... 710 Botany ... ... ... 158 Botti, Dr. ... 385, 389* 390 Bourdaloue, M. ... ... 403 Boussard, M. ... 1 35 * 393 Boys Circumcised ... ... 350 Bramly Bey ... ... 281, 528 Bricks without Straw ... 417 Bridge Tolls, Abolition of ... 278 British Financial Policy in Egypt 362 British Government purchases Suez Canal Shares ... 258 British Interference in Egypt 257 British Museum 470, 483, 49 *» 502, 51 I, 724 Monuments in ... 220, 224 British Rule in Egypt 261-281 Moral Progress under 271, 361 Brown, Major... 91, 223, 572 “ Bruce’s Tomb ” ... ... 674 Brugsch, Dr. 1 36, 2 1 9, 43 1 , 503, 506, 516, 518, 564, 64 1 ^ 7 1 3 Brugsch, Emil, Pasha 43 1, 502 Bubastis Buckle, The . Buffalo Buffoons Buildings 175* Buiuuaua Bulak Island of Museum Printing Press Bull Bull, Captain, killed Buller, General Bulrushes Burges, Major Burgite (or Circassian) Mam- luks, The ... 253, 254, 462 Burhamiyeh Dervishes ... 359 Burial 291, 352, 353 * 438-444 in, 1 19, 230, 402, 419, 420 434 61 322 82, 302-305 230 466, 517 467 58, 427, 636 257, 467 '25 ... 281 265 ... 58 ... 270 PAGE Burlus, Lake... ... ... 52 Burning Bush, Chapel of the 546 Bush 576 Busiris 118,603 Butler, Dr. 245, 280, 384, 468, 469, 470 Buzzard ... ... ... 63 Byzantine Architecture ... 295 Byzantines ... ... ... 3*5 Byzantine Period ... 244, 245 C. Caesar (Augustus) ... 211,240 Temple of ... ... 7 1 9 Caesareum, Church of ... 244 Caesarian Library ... ... 383 Caesarion ... ... 239, 384 Cailliaud 509, 514, 515, 761, 763* 765 Cairo (Al-Fustat, Kahira) I, 2, 3, 41, 73, 81, 89, 135 , 185, 186, 220, 222, 251* 253, 263, 267, 270, 273, 280, 295- 347, 361, 4 * 4 , 501 , 508, 523, 569 ‘Abbasiya Quarter 466 Aqueduct of ... ... 251 Bazaars of (Suk) 463-466 Citadel of 251, 423, 460 Climate ... ... ... 4 1 Coptic Churches 467-471 Cost of Living ... ... 3 Dervishes of ... 357* 3^0 Egyptian Collection in 431 Ezbekiya Gardens ... 467 Foundation of . . . ... 421 Greek Orthodox Con- vent destroyed by Fire 278 Isma‘iliyeh quarter 465, 467 Jewish .Synagogue ... 469 Khalig Canal ... ■ 466 Modern quarters of 466, 467 Mosques of ... 3 ° 3 * 3 ° 4 > 447 463 Muhammadan Architec- ture and Art in ... 295 Museum of Egyptian An- tiquities 227, 426-435, 639 870 INDEX. PAGE Cairo — ‘Abbasiya Quarter (i contd ) — Museum of Arab Art 291, 444,445 Occupied by the British 261, 361 Occupied by the Turks 254 Plans of Houses 304, 305 Population of ... 73, 424 Railway, Cairo-Suez 4 1 4-420 Stone Gates ... ... 423 Synagogue at ... ... 469 Tombs of Khalifas ... 462 Tramways ... 274, 425 Visited by Plague ... 254 Width of Walls ... 423 Zoological Gardens ... 445 Cairo-Damietta Railway ... 414 Calendar, Muhammadan ... 357 Caligula ... ... ... 240 Calls to Prayer ... 321, 354 Mr. Lane’s rendering of 355 Cambyses 204, 2 33, 234, 495, 508, 603, 604 Camel ... ... ... 61 Camels, obtaining ... ... 54 ° Campbell’s Tomb ... ... 488 Canaan ... ... ... 102 Canal, fresh water ... 258, 404 Candace ... ... ... 737 Rebellion of Nubians under... ... ... 240 Canopic Gate (Alexandria)... 385 Jars 442, 443, 666 Canopus 236, 392 Stele of... 237,432,504 Capitals “Capitulations,” The 176-182 741 Cappadocia, George of 243 Caracalla ... 242 Caravan to Mecca ... 34 1 , 342 Carob ... 55 Carter, Mr. Bonham ... 789 Carter, Mr. Howard 637, 672, 674 Cartouches 188-215 Significance of ... ... 188 Cartridges 19 Cook & Son supply 20 Cassel, Sir Pirnest ...95, 96, 283 Castanets (Sagat) ... 322 “ Castle of the Candle ” 421 PAGE Cat 62, 125 Catacombs 384, 385 Cataract of Semnah ... ... 751 Cataracts 2, 30, 80, 8 1, 712, 7 M, 745 , 748, 753 , 754 , 765, 784 Cataracts, The Great — First 81, 221, 712 Second ... 80, 704 Third ... 80, 754 Fourth ... 80, 268, 763 Fifth ... 80, 765 Sixth ... 80, 784 Cat-Goddess ... H 9 , 579 Cavalla 256 Cavan, Earl of 391 Cave of Moses ••• 550 Cave of Thaur 245 Cavern of Artemis 579 Caviglia and Sloane, Messrs. 491 Cecil, Lady William ... 7 1 0 Cedar Wood... ... ... 55 Cemeteries ... ... 44,712 Census ... ... ... 73 Ceylon, A rabi exiled to ... 262 Chabas 136 Chair of State from Tomb ... 684 Chalcedon, Council of 244, 286 Champollion . . . ... 136, 137 Chanting, Art of ... ... 321 Chapel of the Burning Bush 546 of the Cow of Hathor ... 648 of Elijah ... ... 549 of .the Virgin ... ... 549 on Summit of Jebel Musa 549 Chariot from Tomb... ... 685 Chariot of Thothmes IV ... 668 Charrington, Lieut., Murder of ... 533 Chenoboscion ... ... 595 Cheops 190, 220, 479-482 Pyramid of 220, 479-482 Sarcophagus of... ... 482 Chephren, see Kha-f-Ra. Chert, Tools made of ... 661 Chicken ... ... ... 63 Children < f Hasan 578 Children’s Savings Bank ... 279 I Choga, I.ake ... ... 8 1 1 Cholera 9<>, 273 | Christian Era ... ... 369 INDEX. 8 7 I PAGE Christianity preached in Egypt by St. Mark 240, 286, 381 Christians, Edict issued against, A.D. 193 242 Persecution of 242, 249, 326, 381, 689 Torture of Christ’s Thorn Tree... Chromis Nilotica Churches ... ... 288, Church Missionary Society ‘ ‘ Church of Manbali ” Cigarettes Cigars, Duty on Circassians ... Circular Notes Circumcision Citadel of Cairo 342, 423, Civil List accepted by Khedive Civil Time ... Clarke, Mr. Somers 326 55 63 545 806 796 6 1 19 253 3 350 460, 461 366 19 588, 691, 734 Claudius Tiberius ... 212,240 Clay quarries ... ... 7 1 I Cleomenes of Naucratis ... 380 Cleopatra 136, 208, 238, 402 Cleopatra (Wife of Philo- metor I) ... ... 208, 238 Cleopatra III ... ... 239 Cleopatra V... ... ... 210 Cleopatra VII ... 210,239 Cleopatra’s Needles... ... 390 Inscription on ... ... 391 Clerk, Mr. J. 4 1 * “ Clift in the Rock,” The ... 550 Clot Bey ... ... ... 89 Clover ... ... ... 56 Clysma ... ... 412, 4 13 Coal ... ... ... ... 67 Coaling ... ... ... 4 01 Codex Aureus ... ... 547 Sinaiticus ... ... 547 Coelesyria and Palestine lost to Egypt ... ... 238 Coffee Drinking prohibited. . . 318 Coffee House popular insti- tution ... ... ... 318 Coffee (Kahwah) ... ... 318 Coffin, Major Pine ... ... 281 Coffins painted ... ... 1 63 Coinage established... ... 234 PAGE Collar, The 435 Collinson, Col. ... ... 269 Colonnade ... ... ... 611 Colossi ... ... 241, 623 “ Colossus on a Sledge,” painting of 583 Commission of Enquiry, Re- port of ... 363 Commission of Liquidation appointed... ... .. 258 Commodus Antoninus 215,241 Comparative Table of Mu- hammadan and Christian Eras 369-375 Conflicts between Greeks and Jews ... 240,241,244 Connaught, H.R.H., the Duke of 97 Constantine the Great 243, 381 Constantinople ... 243, 245 257, 260, 381 Constantius ... ... ... 243 Convent, Greek, destroyed... 278 Convent of the Pulley ... 577 Cook, The late Mr. J. M. ... 269 Beloved by the Natives 270 Death of ... ... 269 Luxor Hospital founded by 270 Luxor Improvements in- augurated by ... 600 Transport of Gordon Relief Expedition ... 270 Copper ... ... ... 67 Copper Mines ... 220,529 Coptic ... ... 134, 285 Churches, description of 288 Coptic Church, Baptism of Christ Commemorated 289 Decorum in ... ... 289 Eucharist m ... ... 289 Fasts and Festivals ... 289 Marriage Ceremonial ... 290 Mode of Government ... 287 Wealth of 287 Coptos, City of ... ... 285 Copts 242, 285, 286, 598, 599 Baptism of ... ... 287 Character of ... ... 291 Confession obligatory .. . 289 Doctrines of ... 244, 245 Prayers of ... ... 288 872 INDEX. PAGE Cornelius Gallus 240, 718, 719 Corporal punishment necessary 34 Corvee, The... 85, 86, 87, 90 272, 673, 274 Abolition of 362 Cost of mummifying ... 440 of new Canals ... ... 85 of travelling ... 3,29,30 Cotton Crop •■•56, 91, 418 Coupons ... ... 27, 28 Court of Amenophis III ... 611 Cow 1 10, 125 Creation ... 1 1 o Crete, Excavations in ... 224 Crime ... 167,341,747 Statistics of .... ... 277 Crocodile ... 64, 1 09, 125 Lake ... ... ... 410 Mummies of ... ... 586 Crocodilopolis ... 571, 687 Cromer, Earl of 27, 63, 68, 69, 88, 95, 96, 99, 272, 275, 320, 361, 363, 368, 428, 527, 588, 618, 695, 747, 803, 804 Crops 56, 362 Crowfoot, Mr. J. W. ... 232 Crows... ... ... ... 63 Crusaders 250,251,252,507 Crypts 548, 598 Crystalline Rocks 48 Cubit 720 Cufic Characters ... 471,712 Koran Written in ... 316 Cultivation, area under ... 73 Cuneiform Tablets ... ••• 584 Currency Notes ... ... 24 Average daily circulation of 276, 279 Currie, Mr. James ... ... 789 Curzon, Hon. R. 51 1, 512, 577 Cusae... ••• 585 Cush 102,722,735 Customs ... ... ... 19 Cymbals (kas) ... ... 322 Cynocephali ... ... ... 730 Cynopolis ... ... ... 577 Cyprus ... ... 239, 254 Seti I Claims to be Master of .. ... 228 Cyril (Patriarch of Alexandria) 244, 382 PAGE Dabba ... ... ... 268 Dabud 723 Dafufa 755 Dahabiyyeh ... ... ... 2, 29 Dahshur ... ... 186, 497 Necropolis at ... ... 498 Pyramids-of 220, 477, 489, 497, 498 Daira Administration ... 274 54, 517 ... 72 72, 508, 515 238, 725-727 238, 725 753 Dakhakhin . . . Dakhaliya Dakhla, Oasis of Dakka Temple of Dal Dam ... ... 44, 96-101, 472 Dam of Saba bursts... ... 325 Damanhur 72, 73, 394 Damascus 247, 296, 297, 313, 3M, 315 Damietta 73, 81, 85, 90, 252, 254, 278, 501, 506 Cairo-Damietta Railway f 252, 232, 431 348, 350 204 Taken by Louis IX Dancing Dervishes Girls (Ghawazi] Daphnse (Defenna) Daraw Darazi (Founder Druzes) Daressy, M. G. Darfur Darius (Hystaspes) Darius Xerxes (Nothus) 204 Dashna Date Palm ... Davis, Mr. T. M. 229, 637, Dawson, Sir W. Dead, The ... Death... Debebet Shekh Ahmed Decius... 215, 242 Decoration, the earliest Decree of Canopus ... De Guignes ... Deinocrates (architect) 414 506 320 359 322 409 ... 700 the ... 249 631 743 234 235 • 595 ... 55 226, 227, 638, 662, 667, 681 565 162, 291 350, 352 • •• 552 381, 689 ... 183 504 135 ... 380 INDEX. 873 PAGE Deleterious Salts ... ... 1 0 1 Delta 52, 1 19, 217, 223, 232, 244) 251, 403 Demotic Writing ... ... 134 Dem Zuber ... ... ... 27 1 PAGE Docks built by Isma’il Pasha 382 Dodecaschoenus ... 728 Dog ... ... ... ... 62 Dog City 577 Dog River ... ... ... 228 Denderah, Temple of 595 ) 596 Dollar 4 Dendur ... 725 Domitianus ... 213, 241, 698 Denshawi ... 281 Donkey Rides 501 Deposition of Isma‘il de- Donkola (Dongola) ... 244, 246, manded 259 264, 266, 267, 268, 742 Der al-Abyad • •• 587 Old 756 Der al-Ahmar ... 588 Doseh, Ceremony of 343 , 358 Der al-‘Arba‘in 55 1 Dourgnon, M. ... 428 Der al-Bahari 172 , 222, 225, Dragomans ... • • 3 , 27 226, 427, 631, 644, 659, Drah Abu’l-Nekka ... ... 649 672 Dress ... 20 Temple of 631 of the Fellahin ... ... 284 Der al-Bakarah ... 577 Drink ’ ... 21 Der al-Madinat, Temple of 649 Drinking Bottles, Manufac- Der al-Madina 659 tory of 595 Der al-Nakhleh ... 584 Drinking Shops ... 318 Derby, Lord... ... 258 Dromos 175 Derma 51 Drum (baz) ... 321 Der Mawas ... ... 584 Drunkenness (punishment)... 34 1 De Rouge 136 Drury, Lieutenant . . . ... 78 Derr 729 Drury- Lowe, General 418, 424 Der Suryani ... 511 Dry Measure 7 Dervishes 262, 263, 264, 265, Duff Gordon, Lady ... 363 266, 267, 268, 269, 342, Dufili... 78, 809 357 - 360 , 766, VI 00 0 V) 'C Dulcimer (kanun) ... 321 Barking . . . ... 360 Dulgo... 228, 754 Dancing 359 Diileb Hill ... 803 Howling 360 Dum Palm ... 56 Whirling 359 Durabukah ... 322 Determinatives 140 ) * 44 ) M 5 Dush 5'7 Dew ... 38 , 41 Duwem ... 742 Dhul-higgah ... 344 Duwem ... 263 Dhurra 56 Dwarf-god 119 Diarrhoea 21 Dwellings 182, 183 , 302 305 Didius Julianus ... 242 Dykes 76 Dikka 303 Dynastic Period, Sketch of Dimah, Ruins of ••• 574 2 1 6 236 Dinder River 66, 798 Dynasties 188 236 Diocletian 242, 380 ) 689, 723 I 190, 819 Statue of 385 II ... 219 Diodorus 102, 440, 441, 491, Ill 190, 220 509 ) 603, 725 IV 190, 220 Dirgham 250, 251 V 1 9 1 , 220 Dirham ... 7,8 VI 191, 221 Divorce 291 , 340 , 352 VII ... 221 Abuse of 352 VIII ... 221 Statistics of ... 274 IX ... 221 874 INDEX. Dynasties (contd .) — X 22 1 XI 222 XII 192, 222 xiii 193, 223 XIV 223 XV 194, 224 XVI 194, 224 XVII ... 194,195,224 XVIII 195-197, 225-228 XIX ... 198, 199, 228 XX ... 199-200, 229 XXI 230 XXII ... 201-202, 230 XXIII 231 XXIV 202, 231 XXV 203,231 XXVI 203, 204, 232, 233 XXVII 204, 205, 234, 235 XXVIII 235 XXIX 235 XXX 205, 235 XXXII 205 XXXIII (Ptolemies) 206-215, 237-239 Dysentery ... ... ... 21 E. Eagle ... ... ... 63 Earle, General, Death of ... 265 Ebers Papyrus ... ... 158 Ebers and Poole 304, 305, 306 Ecclesiasticus 165 Edfu ... 49, 238, 239, 693 Temple of 235, 238, 693, 694 Edku, Lake ... ... 52 Education 274,351 statistics of 275 Edward, Lake 78 , 79 Eggs, Exportation of 273 , 274 Egypt... 2, 379 Egypt, Ancient and Divisions ... Modern 71 72 45 , 46 Egypt, Area of Birds 63 Census of ... 73 Character 32 Climate of • •• 37 Cultivation of .. 73 , 85 PAGE Egypt, Area of {contd . ) — Custom House ... ... 19 Domestic Animals ... 6 1 Education 280, 366, 367, 746 European Population ... 293 Geology of ... ... 46 Gods of Ancient 1 06- 1 13, 126-132 Health Resorts... Houses of Insects ... Irrigation of Language and Writing Minerals Nomes ... Plants ... Population Renting Value of Reptiles Routes to Rulers of Taxation of 6 363, 5 40 304 64 84 133 66 72 55 73 ... 61 64 ... 28 188-281 259, 362, 7 L 745 Trade of... ... ... 69 Trees 55 Vegetables ... ... 57 Wild Animals ... ... 62 Egyptian Alphabet ... ... 137 Egyptian Debt ... ... 270 Egyptian Exploration Fund 395, 419, 528, 582, 636 Egyptian Government, policy of 74 Egyptian and English Money 8 Egyptian Pound ... ... 5, 9 Egyptian Silver and Nickel Coinage ... ... ... 5-6 Egyptian Year ... ... *59 Egyptians, Ancient 1 02- 1 05 Agriculture ... ... 159 Anatomy .. ... 157 Anthropological teristics Artistic Skill of Astronomy Botany ... Dwellings of . Gods, Forms of Language Learning of ... I57» Literature charac- 102 , 82, 126 282 185 159 158 183 132 133 ■*7 164 INDEX. 875 PAGE Egyptians, Ancient ( contd , .) — Mathematics ... ... 160 Medicine ... ... 157 Modern ... ...31, 32, 282 Mummifying of 438-444 Pre-dynastic ... ... 216 Religion of ... 1 06- 1 16, 662-664 Resemblance to Copts .. 285 Writing 133 136 242 73 65 784 238 63 4 81, 238 57 i 549 Egyptology, Modern, Science of ... Elagabalus ... El-‘Arish Elephant Depicted on Ruins of Naga Elephant Hunts Elephant River ... 46, Elephantine, Island of 43, 220, 221, 232, 705-714 Elephants Employed in Mili- tary Service El-Kais (Cynopolis)... Elijah, Chapel of 412, 532 El-Mu‘allaka (Church of the Virgin) Elysian Fields Embaba, Battle of Embaba Bridge Emerald Mines Emesa, Battle of Emin Pasha ... Emir Yusuf, Torn! Empress Eugenie Enamelling ... Entomologists Envoys sent to Muhammad Epiphanes ... “ Epoch of Ignorance,” The Era of the Martyrs ... Eras ... Eratosthenes ... Erment Ergamenes ... Esarhaddon ... Eshmunen Esna (Asne), Esneh. 255 , 280, of Etham Ethiopians Euphrates 469 1 13 457 467 67 257 809 463 473 .87 21 328 *35 326 242 375 238 687 238 491 60 48, 516, 688, 689 565 102, 234, 326 226, 228, 233 369, 23 1 PAGE European Languages ... 366 European Population ... 283 Euty chians ... • •• 285 Eutyches of Constantinople* 244 Confession of Faith of... 285 Evangeliarium Theodosianum, Description of ••• 547 Evans, Mr. A. J. ... ... 224 Evans, Sir John ... 187 Evil Eye, Fear of the 350 Excavations ... 389, 395 , 619 Exodus, The... 561 565 Date and Route of 5^3 Not mentioned in de- scriptions or on Monu- ments,.. 303 Pharaoh of ... 228 Theories concerning 563 Expedition to Punt ... 1 631, 634, 636, 650 Expeditions to obtain Wood 55 Expenditure 272-276, 365-366 I Expense of Visit to Sinai ••• 525 Exports 69 Express Boat 30 Ezbek 304 Ezekiel (Prophet) ... ... 418 F. Faience 187 220 Fairy Stories ... 166 Fajao ... 812 Falcons 63 Fals, Mr ... 280 False Pyramid, The... 569 Famaka ... 269 Famine • 253 Fanaticism, Muhammadan 294, 396 Fant. . 57 6 Farafra, Oasis of 72, 5'4 Farag... 254 Tomb of 463 Fares ... 29, 30 Farms ... 182 Farshut 5 * 6 , 595 I Fashoda 262, 269, 742, 802 Fasting 338 Fatigue 1 I Fatihah, The 35 C 354 876 INDEX. PAGE Fatimid Khalifas, The 247, 25 O Faults in Construction of Buildings ... ... ... 180 Faw Kibli ... ... ... 595 Fayyum, The ... 37, 50, 72, 569599,571 Excursions to the 569-599 Neolithic Settlement ... 570 Febrifuge, Dr. Warburg’s ... 21 Feddan ... ... ... 7 Fellahin ... 181, 282-284 Dress of ,.. ... 284 Food 284 Government Loans to 272, 273 Female Musicians ... ... 174 Fenwick, Captain ... 267, 753 Ferguson, Mr. ... 296, 297 Ferket 268, 753 Battle of ... 740,753 Ferlini, Dr. ... ... ... 773 Feshn 576 Festivals 175, 289, 34 1 , 342 Muhammadan ... ... 341 Fever... ... ... 21,410 Fiction ... ... ... 166 “ Field of Zoan ” 53, 409, 502, 564 Fields of Aaru ... ... 113 Fifth Cataract ... 80,765 F jgs 55 Financial Policy ... 361-568 Fingers, The 335 Firan, Oasis of 36 First Cataract 81, 221, 712 Fish 63, 64, 125 Fitr 8 Fitzmaurice, Mr M. ... 97 Flax 57 Flies ... ... ... ... 64 Flood Watchmen ... ... 88 Flower, Captain ... ... 4 46 Flute (Nai) ... ... ... 321 Fola Falls ... ... ... 78 Rapids ... ... ... 808 Foreign Banking and Ex- change, Special Facilities 3 Foreign Consuls ... ... 741 Forga... ... ... ... 271 Fort Berkeley ... ... 807 Fortress, Roman ... 5*7, 5*9 Fossils 49 PAGE Foundations, Depth of ... 718 Fourth Cataract 80, 268, 763 Sir J Fowler Fox .. Frangi Fraser, General Fraser, Mr. G. W. 91 62 3G32 ... 256 222, 574, 578 French and Egyptian Money 12 French Rule Fresh Water Canal ... Frog, The Frogs... Frontier Commission pointed Funeral Chamber Funerary Chapels ... Fustat 246, 248, 255, 256 258, 404, 418 435 64 ap Future State 281 387 168 252 06, 113, 291 249, G. Gaalin Arabs ... 780 Gabriel, Archangel, appears to Muhammad ... ... 328 Gaga 5*7 Gaius (Caligula) ... 211,240 Gaius Petronius ... ... 240 Gakdiil Wells ... 264,757 Gakmak ... ... ... 254 Galba 240 Gallienus ... ... ... 242 Gambling ... ... ... 320 Attempts to put down... 320 Game, Abundance of ... 66 Ganbalat ... ... ... 254 Garden of Kafur ... ... 247 Garf Husen ... ... ... 7 2 5 Garstang, Mr. J. 220, 579, 582, 689, 727 Garstin, Sir Wm. 77, 94, 95, 98, 99, 277, 278, 43 1 , 618, 66 5, 7*8, 797 808 Gate of Sebek 697 “ Gate of the Barbers ” ... 449 Gateway of Hadrian ... 7*9 Gawhar (“ the Roman ”) 248, 422 Gaza ... ... ... ... 250 Gaza Road ... ... ... 281 Gazelle ... ... ... 62 River ... ... ... 78 INDEX. 877 Gazira Gazira, The Aquarium at Gazirat al Malik Gebel Abu Fedah ... Gebel Ahmar Gebel Barkal ... 80 , 17 1 , 226 , 758 Pyramid of Gebel Dukhkhan Gebel Dush, or Doshe Gebelen ... 49 , 106 , 687 Gebel et-Ter... Coptic Convent on Gebel Gaddir ... 269 Gebel Gari ... Gebel Hammam Musa Gebel Harun... Gebel Kadir Gebel Kurdu... Gebel Silsila ... Gebel Surkab or Surgam Gebel Zet (Oil Mountain) Geese Gehenna Geli ... Gentlemen’s Dress Geologists Geology of Egypt Geometry George of Cappadocia Germanicus, Caesar Geta ... Gezireh Gbaba Shambi Ghaba Shambi ... ... 805 Gharbiya ... ... 72 , 396 Ghoriya, Mosque of ... ... 304 Giegler Pasha ... ... 262 Gill, Captain, Murder of ... 533 Ginnis ... ... 266 , 753 Gipsies (Fortune-telling) ... 323 Giraffe River ... ... 804 Girga ... 72 , 84, 590 Giris’ Schools, increased de- mand for ... Girouard, Lieutenant, R.E. Giza 63 , 72 , 169 , 25 742 446 751 585 49 179, 759 758 817 753 801 577 577 348 784 54i 540 281 808 50 784 , 793 67 63 333 ... 784 20 21 46-52 ... 160 243 , 382 ... 240 215 277, 467 78 Dyke ... Palace of Pyramids of 251 220 33 748 280 , 569 423 427 477 PAGE Glass coin standards ... 314 Glass Lamp Market... 315 Glass-making, Art of 314 Gnats... 23 Goat ... 61 Goddesses 109 Gods, Abode of the... ... no Gods of Ancient Egypt 106-1 13 Gods, List of Principal— Aker 125 Amen III, 114 , 1 17 , 125 , 165 , 1 7 1 > 172, 225 Amen-Ra 55 , 109 , 1 17 , 126 Amset ... ... 117, 126 Amsu ... 1 17 , 126 , 5 88 An-Heru ... 118 Ani, Anit 1 17 , 126 Anpu 1 17 , 126 Anqet ... 1 18 , 126 Anthat ... 1 17 , 126 Anubis 108 , I 13 , 1 18 , 125 Apt ... 118 Ap-uat ... 1 18 , 125 Asar ... 1 1 8 , 126 , 127 Asar-Hap 118 , 127 Ast 1 18 , 127 Astes ... 1 18 Atemu ... 1 18 , 127 Atmu 109 , 1 10 Baba ... 118 Bar 1 1 8 Bast 1 1 9 , 125 Bennu ... 127 Bes 1 19 , 127 Hapi 1 19 , 127 Hapi (the Nile God) 1 19 , 127 Hapi (the Apis Bull) 119 Hathor ... 125 , 128 Heru 1 19 , 127 Heru-Khenti-an-maati... 119 Heru-Khuti 119 Heru-netch-tef-f 119 Heru-p-Khart . . . 1 1 9, >28 Heru-shefi 120 Heru-ur 1 19 , 699 Het-Heru 120 878 INDEX. PAGE Gods, List of Principal ( contd .) — Horus 109, I IO, 1 17, I 18, 122, 125, 148, 162, 188, 219 Hu 120 I-em-hetep 120 Isis 44, 109 , I IO, I 12 , I l8, 162 Iusaaset ... 120 Ketesh . . . 128 Khensu ... 120, 128, Khensu-nefer-hetep ... 120 Khepera . . . 108 , I IO, 120 , 125, 128 Khnemu 120, 125, 128 Maat 120, 129, 151 Meh-urt ... 1 2 I Memphis, Triad of ... 109 Menhet ... 121, 129 Menthu ... 12 I, 129 Mersekert I 2 I Mert 129 Meskhenet 12 I Mnevis ... 125 Mut 109, 121, 125, 129 Neb-er-tcher 12 I Nebt-het I 2 1 , 129 Nefer-Temu 109, 12 1, 129 Neheb-ka 122 Nekhebet ••• 122, 125, 129, 69O Nephthys 1 10, 162 Net (Neith) 1 2 1 , 130, 395 Nu 122 Nut 1 10, 122, 130 Nut-Hekau 132 Osiris (Asar) 107, 108, 109, 148, 151, 154, 162, 163, 164, 219 Pakhet . . . 122 Ptah ... 109, 122, 130 Ptah-Seker 122, 130 Ptah-Seker-Asar ... a 22 Ptah-Tatenen 122 Oebh-sennuf 122, 130 Ra 108, 109, 110, ill, 1 12, 1 13, 1 14, 1 16, 1 17, 120, 123, 146 156, 221 Ra-Harmachis 130 Ra-Herukhuti 123 Renenet. . . 123, 130 PAGE Gods, List of Principal {contd .) — Rennut 123 Reshpu 123, 130 131 Sa 123 Satct 123, 131 Seb no, 123, 131 Sebek 108, 123, 125, 131, 574, 687, 697 Seker 123, 125, 131 Sekhet 109, 124, 131 Sept 123 Serqet 109, 124, 131 Seshetat (Sefekh-Abui) 124, 131 Set no, 124, 131, 224, 651 Shai 123 Shu 1 10, 124 Sutekh 124 Tanen 124 Ta-Tenen 124 Ta-urt ... 124, 132 Tefnet 124 Tefnut 1 10 Tehuti Tem Temu 125, Tet Tetun ... Thoth i 1 3, Tuamutef Uatchit ... Un-nefer Urt-hekau Gold Gold Mines ... Golden Calf, Hill of Golden Horus 132, 149 ... 108 1 IO, 125 107. 132 125 149, 162 124. 132 125. 132 125 ... 125 ... 66 71 1 55i 188 GolenischelT, M. Gondokoro . . . Gordon, General Charles G 265, 348 , 740 , 747 696 807 263, 735 - 788 Memorial Service for ... 269 Murder of ... 265, 788 Statue of 790 Gordon, Lady Duff... ... 363 Gordon Memorial College ... 789 Gordon Relief Expedition, Transport of ... ... 270 Goshen, Land of 416, 418, 561, 564 , 565 INDEX. 879 PAGE Gougi Rapids. ... 808 Government Schools ... 324 Graham, General 263, 265, 417 Grand Bey, M. ... ... 607 Granite Quarries ... ... 712 Grant, Capt — ... ... 77 Grapes 55 Great Britain, Exports to ... 273 Great Festival ... ... 344 Great Pyramid ... ... 220 Great Temple ... ... 698 Grebaut, M. ... 429, 430, 607 Greek Mercenaries ... ... 232 Greek Orthodox Convent ... 278 Greek Period ... 236-239 Grenfell, General Lord 266, 2 67, 427, 706 Grenfell, Dr. 574, 575 , 577 Grief, Sign of (Women) ... 354 Gubat 264, 265 Gudayadet al-Hala ... ... 420 Guest Room... ... ... 3°7 “ Guide to the Cairo Museum”... ... ... 43 1 Gum Trade ... ... ... 800 Gunboats ... ... ... 754 H. Haa-ab-Ra ... Hadad (King of Axum) Hadanduwa Tribe ... Hadrian ... ... 214, Gateway of Hadhramaut... Hafir... ... ... 266, Hagar (or Gebel) Silsila Hagg or Pilgrimage to Mecca Haggi Kandil (Tell al- ‘Amarna) ... Hair, Methods of Dressing... Haker (Akhbris) Haifa Halfaya Hall, Mr. R. H. 172, 222, Hall of Columns of Maat... of Science Ham ... 614, 188 245 292 241 719 325 268 697 342 584 283 235 742 785 640 644 630 * *3 249 102 PAGE Hamadab ... ... ... 697 Hamdab Island 763 Hannek ... ... ... 754 Hapi 1 19, 126 Hapi (the Apis Bull) .. 119 Hapi (The Nile God) 1 1 9, 127 Hare 62, 125 Harim 3 07 Harmachis . . . 487, 627, 653, Harp ... Plarper, Song of the Tomb of the Harpocrates ... Harris, Mr. ... ... Hasan, Mosque of ... Hashin, Battle of ... Hashish, importation hibited Hashish, Properties and Uses ’ of 317, 3 1 9 Hashish smuggling ... Hathor ... 125 Chapel of Temple of Hathor-head... 178 Hathor-Sat, Princess Jewellery of Hat-mehit Hatshepset, Tomb of 730 165 ... 164 ... 676 119 697 452-456 265 3*9 340 3*9 7*9 698 7*9 649 555 498 *25 638, 665 Hatshepsu, Queen (Hatshep- ‘ set)... 172, 196, 225, 579, 615, 631, 634 Temple of 631-636, 640- 644 Tomb of 637-640 pro- 128 555 18 1 498 637 , Hawamdiyah 569 Hawara 572 , 575 Pyramid of 223, 572 Hawk ... 63, 109, 125 Hay, Mr 724 Headache 21 Health 21 Health Resorts in Egypt 40 Heart, The ... 435 Heat ... 1 Hebbeh 763 Hebenu ••• 578 Hebt 5*9 Heftband 22 Height of Fellahin ... ... 282 88o INDEX. PAGE Helena, Empress 51 1, 542, 577, 587, 588 Heliopolis IIO, 112, 118, 220, 222, 229, 232, 473 476 Chief Deity of ... ... 473 Obelisk at, Inscription on same ... 475 , 476 Traditions concerning ... 474 Helwan ... ...40 , 42, 267 Observatory 42 Henna ... 284 Hennu 222, 817 Henoticon 244 Heptanomis ... ... 72 Heptastadium ... 382 Heqab, Tomb of ... 707 Hequ-Shasu ... ... 224 Heiaclius ... 245, 328, 382 Herakleopolis III, 221, 576 Her-Heru 229, 230 Her-Khuf, Mission of ... 221 Tomb of ... 708 Hermonthis ... ... 687 Hermopolis M agna . . . ••• 583 Herodotus 46, 81, 223, 402, 419, 440, 441, 442, 479, 483, 485, 489, 494 , 508, 520, 573, 588, 603, 713 Heron 63 Heru .. 119, 127 Relics found in Tomb of 499 Heru-em-heb 227, 610, 617, 620 Tomb of ... 658 Heru-netch-tef-f 119 Temple of ... 720 Heru-ur 1 19, 699 Heru-p-Khart 1 19, 128 Heru-Khenti-an-maati 119 Heru-Khuf, Tomb of ... 707 Heru-Khuti 119 Heru-Shefi ... ... 120 Herz Bey 444, 588 Ilesepti 219 Hesi al-Khattatin 536 Het-Heru ... 120 Heterodox Sects 345 Het-ka-Ptah ... 7* Hetsfent, or Asphynis ... 687 Het-Uart (Avaris) ... ... 575 PAGE Hezekiah (King of Judah) ... 231 Hibis, Temple of ... ... 517 Hicks (Pasha), Colonel W. 263, 348 Hidden T reasures . . . ... 548 Hierakonpolis 237, 689, 692 Hierasycaminus ... ... 728 Hieratic Writing ... ... 134 Hieroglyphics ... 1 33“ 1 45 Hijra, Era of the 245, 327, 328 369 Hill of the Golden Calf ... 551 Himyar 325 Hincks ... ... ... 136 Hippodrome of Alexandria 384 Hippopotamus 62, 65, 66, 118, 125 Hisham ... ... ... 246 History of the Arabs, Sketch 325 History of Egypt I 65, 1 88, 2 1 6- 281 Hobbs, Major ... ... 270 Hogarth, Mr. D. G. 389, 574 , 636 Holland, Mr 537 Holled-Smith, Sir C. ... 267 Holy Belt of the Virgin Mary, Chapelof 55 * Holy Land ... ... ... 1 “ Holy of Holies” ... 172,226 Homer ... ... ... 7 1 Homeritse ... ... ••• 245 Homophones... ... ... 14 ° Hophra, see Uah-ab-Ra. Horapollo (quotation from) 436 Horeb, Mount ... 53 ° 5 3 2 Rock of ... ... • • • 55 1 Horse ... ... ... ••• 61 Horus 109, IIO, 1 17, I 18, 122, 125, 148, 162, 188, 219, 2 35 , 442 , 475 , 712 Horus of Busiris ... ... 109 Horus-Ra ... ... ••• 474 Hoskyns, Mr. ... 5 16,781 Hospital, American Mission 398 Hospital, Travelling ... 283 Hotel Coupons ... ••• 28 Hotels ... ••• 4 1 , 43 Hours, Ancient Method of Counting ... ... ••• *59 “ House of God ” ... ••• I7 2 INDEX. 88l PAGE Houses, Plans and Descrip- tions of ... 182,304-307 Howling Dervishes ... ... 360 Hu 120, 360 Hull, Professor 524 Hulugu ... 252 Humidity, Mean Relative ... 40 Huni ... ... 190 Hunt, Dr. 575 , 577 Hunter, General ... 268 Hunter’s Castle ••• 595 Hur al-‘uyun... 333 Hyena 62 Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings 223, 224, 225, 474, 490 , 575 , 722 Expulsion of 561 Sphinxes of 503 Hymn of Triumph ... ... 229 Hymn to Ra ... 146-156 Hymns 164 Hypatia, Murder of ... 244, 382 I. Ibex ... 62 Ibis 63, 125 Ibrahim (Khalifa) ... ... 246 Ibrahim 256, 257 Ibrahimiyah ... ... 807 Canal ... 84, 87, 92, 94 Ibrim ... 729 Ichneumon ... 62, 125 Ideographs ... 139 145 Idols, ancient 326 I-em-hetep ... 120, 693 Temple of 7 1 9 Ikhshid ... 247 Illahun, Pyramid of 222, 574 Illnesses 21, 22 • 338 Imam or Preacher ... Imam Shafe‘i 343 Imam Shafe £ i, Tomb of ... 462 Immortality ... 1 12,115 Antiquity of Belief in... 485 Imports 69 Inaros, Revolt of 234 Incense I I 5 Independence of Palestine and Syria ... PAGE Inscribed Coffer from Tomb 68 1 Inscriptions at Wadi Maghara 528 On Cleopatra’s Needle 391 Insects 64 Inundation ... ... 83, 159 Invasion ... ... ... 218 Iron ... •... ... ... 67 ‘Irabiyun ... ... ... 292 Irrigation 46, 83, 223, 240, 277 279 Basin ... ... ... 84 Perennial ... ... 84 Isaiah, the Prophet... ... 501 Iseium ... ... ... 598 Isidore, Revolt of ... ... 241 Isis 44, 109, 1 10, 1 12, 118, 162, 207, 210, 211, 212, 241, 721 Temple of 506, 598, 687, 720 Islam 331 Island of Pharos ... 380, 382 Isma‘il 256, 257, 258, 259, 738 Financial Difficulties ... 259 Isma'il Pasha 84, 87, 258, 259, 260, 367, 444, 473 Finance of ... ... 367 Isma‘iliya 400,410,411,414, 417,564 Ismahliyah Palace ... ... 260 Israelites, Bricks made with- out Straw ... ... ... 417 Build Treasure Cities ... 562 Course of Journey to Sinai ... ' 556 Exodus of ... 225,561 Forced to Labour ... 562 Halting Places ... ... 556 Miserable Condition under Rameses the Great 563 Rameses II, the Oppres- sor of . . . ... ... 228 Ita, Princess, Jewellery found in Tomb of ... ... 499 Iuaa, Tomb of ... 227, 68 1 Iusaaset .. ... ... 120 230 882 INDEX. PAGE 1 66 366 PAGE J. Jackal ... 62, 1 17, 125 Jacobites ... ... ... 286 Ja‘far As-Sadik, Specimen of Kuran accredited to ... 316 Jebel ad-Der 552 Jebel al-Benat ... ... 552 Jebel al-Joza ... ... ... 552 Jebel al-Munaya 539 Jebel al-Tahunah ... ... 537 Jebel al-Tiniyah ... ... 552 Jebel as-Safsafa ... ... 5 40 Jebel Hammam Fir‘aun ... 533 Arab Legend concerning 534 Jebel Katarina ... 526, 551 Jebel Musa 524, 530, 540, 548, Jebel Nakus ... Jebel Ras as-Safsaf Jebel Rumel . Jebel Serbal . Jebel Zebir . Jeremiah Jeroboam Jerusalem 550 , 551 541 524 551 524, 529, 537 • 551 233 617 230, 241, 247, 250, 290, 296, 328 Jethro, Well of ... 540,549 Jewellery, Ancient Egyptian 186, 498 , 499 Jews 240, 244, 293, 328, 339 Jinn, The ... ... ... 332 Johnstone, Colonel ... ... 7 33 Jokka River ... ... ... 8lO Jollois and Devilliers, Messrs. 631 Joseph, the Patriarch 493*563, 572 Joseph’s Well ... ... 461 Josephus .. ... 561 Josiah (King of Judah) ... 233 “Journal de Geneve ” (extract from) ... ... ... 100 Journey up the Nile... ... 29 Judd, Professor ... ... 47 Judgment ... 1 13, >14, 117, 353 Jugglers 322 Julian the Apostate ... 243, 381 Julius Caesar ... 239, 381, 383 Jupiter Ammon, Oasis of ... 234, 508, 513 Jur River 78 Justice Cost of ... Reforms in Administra- tion of ... ... 362 Justinian ... 245, 350, 542 Juvenal ... . . ... 241 K. Ka 1 15, 168 Ka‘aba (Black Stone) 327, 328, Kabdah 339 8 Kabushiyah 77 1 Kadaref 281, 797 Kadesh, Battle at ... ... 228 Kadiriyeh Dervishes ... 358 Kafr Ad-Dawar 394 , 4i8 Kafr ‘ Ammar 569 Kafr Az-zayyat 395 Kafur ... 248 Garden of ... 247 Kagera River 77, 812 Kahira 423 ‘Kahwah (Coffee) ... ... 318 Kaibar Cataract ... 754 Ka’it Bey 254, 312 Mosque of 298, 302, 304 Tomb of 312 , 450 463 Kaka ... 801 Kakaa 489, 495 Ka-Kam (Kochome) ... 492 Kakau 219, 490 Kalabsha 48, 179 , 723, 724 Kala’un, Mosque of ... 297 , 303 , 311, 452, 453 Tomb of ... ... 452 Kallabat ... ... ... 797 Kallimma-Sin (or Kadashman Bel), King of Babylonia ... 226 Kalyub ... 47, 399 , 414 Kalyubiya ... 72 Kamal Bey, Ahmad... 43 i Ka-meri-Ra ... ... 221 Karnes, King 195, 225 Spear-Head of ... ... 187 Kamlin 796 Kanisa ... 805 Kaniye ... 808 Kansuh ... 254 Kansuh al-Ghuri ... 254 INDEX. 883 PAGE Kantar ... ... ... 7 Kaqemna ... ... ... 165 Tomb of ... ... 496 Karaduniyash (Babylonia) ... 227 Karakush ... ... 251, 461 Karanis ... ... ... 574 Karbala .. ... ... 360 Karbaniti ... ... ... 231 Karema 763, 795 Karkemish ... ... ... 233 Karkog ... ... ... 798 Karman ... ... ... 755 Karnak, or Thebes 43,272,225, 602 Great Hall ... ... 614 Ruins at . . . ... ... 617 Sanctuaries ... ... 225 Temple of ... 228,613 Karpeto River ... ... 808 Karputy (Port Said) ... 280 Kartassi ... 49, 723 lvaruma Falls ... ... 81 1 . Kasabah ... ... ... 7 Kasasin ... ... ... 417 Kash Scheme of Irrigation... 278 “ Moonlight charge ” of 417 Kashta 202,231,627 Kasr al-Banat ... 816 Kasr al-Gehda, Temple of ... 518 Kasr as-Sayyad (Hunter’s Castle) 7 595 Kasr Karim ... ... ... 574 Kasr Zeyan, Temple of ... 518 Kasala 267, 742 Kau-al-Kebir ... ... 587 Kautsky, Dr. ... ... 280 Kawwah ... ... ... 800 Kefiyyeh ... ... ... 20 Kerne... ... ... ... 71 Kemi ... ... ... ... 71 Kena, or Keneh 48, 50, 60, 72, 73, 84, 277, 595, 814 Dancing Girls of ... 322 Kena-Aswan Railway ... 273 Kerma ... ... 80, 754 Kerreri 784, 793 Kesh, or Cush .. 722, 735 Ketesh ... ... 234 Kettledrum (nakkarah) . .. 321 Khabbesha, Revolt of . 128 Khadijah (wife of the Pro- phet) 327 PAGE Kha-em-hat, Tomb of ... 606 Kha-f-Ra (Khephren) 185, 190, 220, 432, 482 Pyramid of Khaibit Khakeru Decoration Khaki Khalifa (Abd-Allahi) Death of Defeat of Khalifas, Tombs of. Khalifa’s House Khalig Canal Khamend Baraka, Khamsin Khandak Khans 183, Kharagi Land Kharga, Oasis of Khartum 77, 79 262, 263 269, 270 739 , 742 482 115 651 22 246, 2 66, 350 74 i 268 462 79 i 466, 472 Kuran of 316 38 755 312, 815, 816 61 72, 508, 516 82, 223, 232, 264, 265, 348, 349, 748 , 785- 794 739 790 268 265, 349 Khat ... ... ••• ••• 1 1 5 Khata‘ana ... ... ... 5° 2 Khati 221,582 Khati II 22 1 Khedive ... ... ... 258 Khedive ‘Abbas, Palace of... 552 Khedi vial Library ... 3 * 5,445 Kheme ... ... ... 71 Khennu-sesu, Tomb of ... 708 Khensu (Khonsu) ... ... 120 Khensu-nefer-hetep . . . . . 120 Temple of ... ... 235 Khepera 108, 1 10, 120, 125, 128, 148, 436, 437 Kheper-sekhet-Ra-setep-en-Ra Khartum, P'ounded ... Climate ... Taken by the British Taken by the Mahdi (Osorkon I) Khephren Kher-aha Kheta... Victory over the Kheyr Bek ... Khian 89 185, 220 424 228, 617 165, 622 255 ... 224 K 2 884 INDEX. PAGE I Khnemit, Princess, Jewellery found in tomb of ... ... 499 ; Khnemu ... 120, 125, 1128 Khnemu ab-Ra ... ... 817 Khnemu -Hetep I, Tomb of 581 Khnemu-Hetep II, Tomb of 580 Khnemu- Hetep III, Tomb of 581 Khnemu- Khenu, Tomb of ... 708 Ivhonsu of Thebes . . . 3 09 , 634 lvhor Musa ... ••• 75 1 Khu ... 1 15, 3 16 Khubasa ... 247 Ivhu-en- Aten ( Amen-hetep IV) ill, 197, 227 Tomb of ••• 585 Khufu (Cheops) 190, 220 Khumaraweyh ... 247 Khunes, Tomb of ... ... 708 Khurru ... 808 Khiishkadam 253 , 254 Khusrau ... 382 Khu-taui-sebek-hetep I 393 Khu-taui-Ra ... ... 223 Khuua, Tomb of ... 708 Kibla ... 3^3 Kigmas, Mosque of... 304 Kila ... 7 Kilkipa ... 226 King’s Chamber 479 Kings of Egypt 188- Aah-hetep 186, *95, 225, 649 Aah-mes-sa-pa-ari *95, 225 \a-qenen-Ra ... 194 Alexander the Great ... 205, 236, 237 , 380 Alexander IV ... ... 206 Amasis I (Aahmes) ••• * 95 , 225, 395 Amasis II 188, 204, 233 , 495 Amen-em-hat I... 192, 222, 579 , 729 Amen-em-hat II 192, 222 Amen-em-hat III 89, 192, 223, 572, 752 Amen-em-hat IV 192, 223 A.men-hetep, see Amenophis. Amen-meri-en-Heru -em- heb *97 PAGE Kings of Egypt (rontd .) — Amen-meri P-ankhi ... 202 Amen-meses 198, 229, 674 Amenophis I (Amen- hetep) ... 195, 225, 615, 691, 692 Amenophis II ... 196, 266, 229, 314, 614, 617, 665, 669 Amenophis III... 178, 196, 226, 229, 438, 555, 561, 6 11, 612, 613, 614, 666, 668, 690 Amenophis IV ... ill, 184, 197, 223, 227 Amen-rut ... 203, 235 An 1 9 1 Antoninus Augustus Pius 214, 241 Antoninus (Caracalla) ... 215 Apepa ... ... 194, 224 Arsinoe I 136, 206, 237, Arsinoe II Arsinoe HI (wife Philopator I)... Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II ... Artaxerxes III ... Assa ... ... Ateth 571 237 of 207-238 205, 234 235 ••• 235 191, 816 ... 190 Atf - neter - Ai - neter-heq uast 197 Aurelius Antoninus 214, 242 Bakenrenf (Bocchoris)... 202, 23] Berenice I Berenice II Berenice III Caesar (Augustus) Cambyses Claudius Tiberius Cleopatra I 136, 206 207, 237 ... 210 210, 239 204, 233 212, 242 136, 208, 238, 402 Cleopatra II (wife of Philometor I) ... 208 Cleopatra V ... ... 210 Cleopatra VII ... 210,239 Commodus Antoninus ... 215, 241 INDEX. 885 Kings of Egypt ( contd . ) — PAGE I Kings of Egypt {contd .) — PAGE Darius (Hystaspes) Darius Xerxes ... Decius ... 215, Diocletian Domitianus Gaius (Caligula) Geta Hadrian ... Heru-nest-taui ... Huni Ka-meri-Ra Kames ... 187, Kashta ... 204, 234 205, 235 242, 689 242, 689 ... 213 21 I, 240 ... 2 214, s> 241 193 ... 190 ... 221 195 , 225 202, 23I Kha-f-Ra (Chephren) 185 190, 220, 432, 482 Khati I ... ... ... 221 Ivhati II 221 Khian 194, 224 Khu-en-Aten ill, 197, 227 Khufu (Cheops) 190, 220 Khu-taui-sebek-hetep I 1 93 Lucius ... ... ... 215 Marcus Otho ... 212, 240 Mehti-em-sa-f ... ... 19 1 Mena (Menes) 189, 190, 216, 219, 489 Menephthah I ... 198, 229, 666, 674 Menephthah II... 199, 229 Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus) 190, 220, 432, 483 485 Mer-en-Ptah ... ... 229 Mer-en-Ra (Mehti-em- sa-f) 1 9 1, 221 Necho II 203, 232, 402 Nectanebus I Nectanebus II ... 205, 235, 613, 693 189, 205, 236, 718 Nefer-neferu-aten-Nefei ti- ith 197 Per-ab-sen ... ... 190 Philip Arrhideeus 205, 237 Philotera ... ... 206 P-ankhi... 202,231,723 Psammetichus I 203, 232, 395 Psammetichus II 204, 233, 395 Psammetichus III 204, 233, 395 Ptolemy I (Soter I) 206, 237 Ptolemy II (Philadel- phus)... 165, 206, 237 Ptolemy III (Euergetes I) 159, 207, 237, 693 Ptolemy IV ( Philopator I ) 207, 238, 649 Ptolemy V (Epiphanes) 208, 238 Ptolemy VI (Eupator) 208, 238 Ptolemy VII ( Philo - metorl) 208, 238, 501, 649 Ptolemy VIII ( Philo - pator II) ... 209,239 Ptolemy IX (Euergetes II) 209, 239, 613, 614, 649, 691, 698 Ptolemy X (Soter II, Philometor II) 209, 239, 691 Ptolemy XI (called Alex- ander) 209, 239 Ptolemy XII (Alexan- der II) ... ... 2 10 Ptolemy XIII ... 210, 239 Ptolemy XIV ... 210, 239 Ptolemy XV 239 Ptolemy XVI 239 Queen Hatshepset 172, 196, Nero 2 J 2 , 24O N erva 213, 241 Nub- Set . . . 194 Nubti ... .. 224 Osorkon I 201 , 230, 613 Osorkon II 201, 230 Pa-mai ... 202, 230 Pepi I ... 191 , 22 1, 712 Pepi II ... I 9 1 , 22 1 225, 579, 615, 631, 634 Queen Thi ... 196,226, 495> 661 Rameses I 198, 228, 620, 622, 670 Rameses II 112, 165, 177, 198, 228, 416, 491, 503, 608, 610, 613, 620, 622, 674 , 727 * 732 886 INDEX. PAGE Kings of Egypt ( contd . ) — Raineses III 166, 199,229, 614, 615, 627, 628, 629, 630, 674 Raineses IV 199, 229, 627, 666, 676, 677, 816 Rameses V 199, 229, 666 Rameses VI 199, 229, 666, 679 Rameses VII 200, 229, 680 Rameses VIII ... 200,229 Rameses IX 200, 229, 679 Rameses X ... 200,679 Rameses XI 200, 229, 679 Rameses XII 200, 229, 679 Sabina ... ... 214, 241 Sahu-Ra ... 19 1, 220 Seaa-ka-nekht-kheperu Ra 1 97 Seankhka-Ra ... ... 816 Sebek-em-sa-f I . . . 193, 223 Sebek-em-sa-f II 193,223 Sebek-hetep I ... ... 193 Sebek-hetep II ... 193, 223 Sebek-hetep III ... 193, 223 Sebek-hetep IV ... 193, 223 Sebek-hetep V ... 193,293 Sebek-neferu-Ra 192, 223 Sem-ti ... ... 190, 219 Seneferu ... 1 90, 220, 496 Sent ... ... ... 220 Seti’l 171,198,228,579, 614, 617, 664, 672, 690 Seti II 165,198,229,674 Setnekht... 199,229,674 Severus ... ... 215, 242 Shabaka (Sabaco) 203, 231, 6!Q Shabataka ... 203, 231 Shashanq (Shishak) I 89, 20 1 , 230 Shashanq II ... 201, 230 Shashanq III ... 202,230 Shashanq IV ... 202, 230 Tahrq (Tirhakah) 203, 231 Takeleth II ... 201, 230 Tau-aa ... ... ... 194 Tau-aa-aa ... ... 194 Tau-aa-qen ... ... 195 Tcheser ... 190, 220, 529 Tefaba ... ... ... 22 1 Teta 189,221 PAGE Kings of Egypt [contd .) — Thekeleth ... 201,230 Thothmes I 195, 225, 665 Thothmes II ... 196, 225 Thothmes III ... 196, 226, 232, 3M, 579) 613, 614, 615, 617, 624, 635) 665, 689 Thothmes IV ... 196,226, 667, 668 Tiberius Caesar ... 136, 211, 240 Titus Caesar ... 213, 241 Trajan ... 213,214,241 Tui ... 198 Tut - ankh - Amen - heq- Annu-Resu ... 197, 227 Uah-ab-Ra (Apries) ... 188, 204, 233 Unas 1 9 1, 221 Usertsen I 192, 222, 474, 475 , 579 , 709 , 722 Usertsen II 192, 222, 574, 579 Usertsen III 192, 222, 497, 722, 752 Usr-ka-f... ... ... 19 1 Verus ... ... ... 215 Vespasianus 212, 213, 241 Vitellius 2 12 Xerxes the Great 204, 234 Kiosk (Philae) ... ... 721 Kipldpi ... ... ... 232 Kirbekan ... ... ... 763 Battle of 265 Kiri ... ... ... ... 808 Kirrat ... ... ... 7 Kiro 271, 806 Kiswah, The... ... ... 344 Kitchener, Lord 266, 267, 269, 428, 748 Kite ... ... ... ... 63 Kit River ... ... ... 807 Kleber, General 255, 256, 542 Kodok 742, 802 Kohl, Uses of ... ... 283 Kom al-Ahmar (Red Hill) ... 692 Kom esh-Shukafa ... ... 3&5 Kom Ombo ... ... 49 , 82, 429 Kom Ombos... ... ... 697 Temple of ... ... 697 Kordofan ... 269, 742 INDEX. 887 Korosko Korti 264, 265 Kosha ... ... 266 Koz Abu Gum a Kubalab Kubban Kubt or Kibt Kuft (Keft) ... Kuio ... Kulusna Kumma 222, 223, 75 Kurna, Temple of ... Kur’an (Koran) 303, 31b 326, 329-332, 35 G Compilation of . . Number of Verses in ... Passages chanted from Revelation ot PAGE 222 , 268 * 753 800 784 727 285 598 808 577 . 752 620 317 , 352 , 354 330 33 1 321 Version of opening Chapter 354 Kurban Bairam or Great Festival 344 Kurbash, abolition of by Lord Dufferin 33 Kurkur, Oasis of 521 Kurnet Murrai ... 650, 660 Kurru ... 757 Kurta ... 728, 757 Kurun, Lake... 51 Kuruskaw (Korosko) ... 728 Kus 598 Kuser... 104, 817 Kusun, Mosque of .. 297 Kwania, Lake 811 Kweh River ... ... 808 Kysis (Kasr Dush), Temple of 5 17, 518 , 519 L. Labori ... 808 Labour 179, 180 Labyrinth 223, 572 Ladies’ Dress 20 Ladikiyyeh ... 61 Lado 78, 82, Lagogolo River Lake Abukir, Drainage of Lake of the Horns . . . Lake Sana 83, 807 808 394 50 798 Lake, Temple PAGE 175 Lakes, Great Equatorial 799 Lakki... 808 Land ... ... ... 6 1 , 362 Difficult to Reclaim 53 Tax 61 Lane, Mr. 32, 289, 290, 321, 341, 342, 352, 355, 359, 447 > 463 Lane-Poole, Mr. 78, 248, 303, 308, 421, 447, 454, 460, 472 Language, Growth of English 366 Languages, 2, 104, l 33 -* 45 » 818-859 Lantern, The, in Mosque of Sultan Hasan ... ... 454 Larks... ... ... ... 63 Lascelles, Mr. ... ... 259 Latreille, M ... ... 436 Latus ... 63 Lawrence, Dr. ... ... 398 Laws ... ... ... ... 166 Lead ... ... ... ... 67 Learning of Ancient Egyptians 157 Lebbek Tree... ... 55, 410 Legends ... ... ... 162 Legrain, M. 602, 603, 618, 619 ... 816 ••• 55 ... 56 585, 588 63 403 Leketa Lemons Length of Visit Lentils Leo Africanus Leopard Le Pere, M. ... Lepsius 80, 136, 415, 478, 525, 572, 579 , 677, 730, 755 Lesseps, M. Ferdinand de ... 258, 262, 403, 404 , 405 , 41 1 Lesser Festival ... ... 344 Letters of Credit ... ... 3 Letters of Egyptian Alphabet 137-139 Levantines ... ... ... 293 Lewd Entertainments ... 323 Lewis, Col. ... ... ... 269 Lewis, Prof. Hayter ... 502 Library, Alexandrian 237, 380, 383 Khedivial ... ... 445 Libya 228 888 INDEX. PAGE Libyan Desert ... 45, 50 Lice ... ... ... ... 64 Licence for Quail Shooting... 20 Life, High Conception of . . . 167 Limestone ... ... 48, 49 Linant de Bellefonds Bey 90, 91, 404 Linen... ... ... ... 186 Linnet 63 Lion ... ... ... 62, 125 Lisht, Pyramid of ... 222, 477, 569 Village of ... ... 222 Literary Treasures in Mon- astic Libraries ... ... 512 Literature 164 Advance of in Xllth Dynasty ... ... 223 Liwan ... ... ... 303 Lizards ... ... ... 64 Lloyd, Colonel ... ... 267 Loat, Mr. W. S 63 Locke-King ... ... ... 42 Locusts 64, 277 Londinian formation ... 50 Loret, M. Victor 225, 431, 496, 669, 670 Lotus... 58, 109, 1 18, 176, 217 Louis IX defeated by the Saracens ... ... ... 252 Louis Philippe of France ... 461 Love songs ... ... ... 164 Lubiya ... ... ... 56 Lucas and Aird 265 Lucerne 56 Lucius ... ... . . 215 Lucius Domitius Domitianus, Revolt of ... ... ... 242 Luggage, Examination of ... 20 Lid 802 Lungwi Mountain ... ... 807 Lute, one-stringed (rababah) 321 Lute, two-stringed (keman- geh) 321 Lute (ud) 321 Luxor 2, 43, 49» 217, 569, 576, 600-686 Cook, Mr. J. M., the Father of ... 600, 601 Damage wrought by Christians ... ... 60 8 PAGE Luxor ( contd .) — Excavations at . . . ... 601 Hospital ... 270 Hotel at... ... 600 Improvements ... ... 600 Temple of 605-612 Lycopolis, or Wolf City ... 586 Lynx ... 63 Lyons, Capt. H. G. 37, 39, 40, 47 , 48, 51, 77 , 79 , 82, 513, 516,7*8, 734 , 795 Lysimachus ... 237 M. Ma‘abdeh ••• 585 Ma‘add ... 249 Maaman ... 729 Maat ... 120, 129, * 5 *, *67 Maatet Boat ... *47 Maatuba ••• 75 * Macarius the Egyptian 5 *o Monastery of ... 5 *o MacCallan, Dr. ... 283 Macedon 236 Machinery ... 180 Macrinus ... 242 Madamut, Temple of ... 620 Madina 245, 295, 327, 330 , Converts at 33 *, 369 327 Madinat al-Fayyum ... 72 , 570 , 57 *, 574 Madinat Habu 623, 625, 626 Temple of 623 Maecianus, Murder of ... 241 Magdal 4*2 Maggad 796 Maghaghah ... 576 Magianism ... 326 Magic 161 164 Magical Figures *63 Papyri ... 164 Words and Ceremonies 1 63 Mahatah 7*4 Mahdi, False ... 257 Mahdi, The, Extent of Dominions 349 Mahdi, The (Muhammad Ahmad) 262, 264, 266, 345, 347 , 740 , 755 , 788 INDEX. 251 Mahdi, The, Admiration for General Gordon Mahdi, The, Personal Sketch of Mahdi, The, Tomb of Mahmil, The Mahmudiyeh Canal... Mahmud Sami Mahon, Col. Mahsamah ... Mai, Tomb of Maize... Makedo Rapids Maks Mamluk Sultan Mamluks Assassination of Bahrite .. Burgite ... Tombs of Mammisi, The Manetho 165, 219 494 , Manfalut Mangles and Irby, Messrs Manslaughter (punishment) Mansurah 72, 73, 252, 4 * 8, 501 , 5 ° 4 , Battle at Manuel Manufactory of Drinking Bottles 595 60 5 ' *, 349 347 795 342 382 26 J 269 4*5 657 56 808 517 452 255 256, 464 ... 462 ... 462 462, 463 598, 698 224, 237, 576 585 583 34 * 396 , 507 507 246 Manure Manuscripts 3 * 5 , 3*6, Binding of Map of — Aswan, Environs of Equatorial Lakes, The Great ... Khartum and Omdurman in 1893 and 1905 ... 786, 787 Nile (Wadi Haifa to Lake Victoria) Peninsula of Sinai Sudan Railways... 764, Thebes (Temples) 609, Wadi Hammamat and Kuser Route ... ... 815 Marah ... ... . . 412 Marathon, Battle of... ... 234 704 81 1 752 523 767 62 1 Marawi PAGE ... 268, 757 Marchand, Major 269, 802 Marcianus 244 Marcius Turbo 241 Marcus Aurelius 214, 241 Itinerary of 241 Marcus Otho... 212, 240 Marea 232 Mareotis, Lake 52, 394 , 5*0 Mar Girgis ... 470 Mariette, M. F. A. 172, 223, 426, 427, 428, 477, 486, 492, 494, 495, 496, 613, 623, 633, 636, 641, 694 Mariette’s Ilouse 496 Maristan, The ... ... 252 Marisiyah (South wind) ... 756 Marius ... ... ... 242 Marmarica Coast ... ... 51 Mar Mina, Church of 467 Marriage 33 , 35*b 35 *, 352 Ceremonies, Copts ... 290 Ceremonies, Moslem ... 352 Contracts, Copts ... 290 Moslem, Certificates of 274 Mars ... ... ... ... 248 Maryam ... ... ... 281 Maryut, Lake ... ... 394 Masaherth 230 M a ‘sara Quarries ... ... 500 Mashra ad-Dakesh ... ... 765 Mashuasha ... ... ... 232 Maspero, Professor ... 101, 102, 107, 223, 429, 43 *, 492, 520, 570, 601, 605, 64 j, 662, 670, 697 Massacre of Muhammadans 250 Massalamiyah ... ... 796 Mastabas "..168, 220, 569, 570, 578 , 579 Mastabat al Fir’aun, Tomb of 493 , 496 M as c udi (Historian)... ... 247 Matammah ... 264, 348, 780 Mataniyah ... ... ... 569 Matar ... •• 7*3 Matariya ... 256, 280, 473 Mathematical Papyrus ... 1 60 Mathematics... ... ... 1 60 Matthews, Major ... ... 78 Maya Signora ... ... 804 Mayan ash-Shunnar, Well of 551 890 INDEX. Maz‘una Mazhar Bey ... McCullum, Mr. McNeil], General Measure, Dry Measures of Length, face, etc. ... Mecca ... 245, 248 3*5 Sur- 569 90 733 265 7 7 290, 296, 326, 327, 338 , 340 , 341 Caravan... ... ... 340 Ceremonies at ... ... 339 Pilgrimage to ... 319,342 Medical Advice Needed in Selecting Sites ... ... 37 Medical Department, State Grant for ... ... ... 367 Medicine ... ... ... 157 Medicine Case, Pocket ... 22 Medicines ... ... 21-23 Ancient... ... 157, >58 Medum, Pyramid of 220, 569 Tomb of ... ... 569 Megiddo, Valley of ... ... 233 Meht-en-usekht ... ... 230 Meh-urt 12 1 Meks 390 Melawi ... ... ... 583 Melkites ... ... 248, 286 Melons ... ... ... 55 Memnon, Colossus of ... 623 Memnon, see Amen-hetep III. Memnonium ... ... ... 622 Memphis 71, 109, III, 219, 220, 221, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 393, 489-491,736 189 , 219, Men (Fellahin) Mena House ... Mena (Menes) “ Mena,” The Menat-Khufu Menat, The ... Mendes Menephthah I (Mer-en-Ptah) 198, 229, Tomb of Menephthah II ... * 99 , Menhet ... ... 12 1 , Men-Kau-Ra (Mycerinus) 282 40, 42 190, 216 489, 594 29 579 435 505 235, 504 666 674 229 129 192, 226, 432, 483, 578 PAGE Menkheper-Ra ... ... 230 Men-Kheper-Ra-senb, Tomb of 655 Menna, Tomb of ... ... 658 Menou, General .. ... 256 Menthu 12 1, 129 Menthu-hetep ... ... 222 Menthu-hetep Neb-hept-Ra, Temple of... 172, 633, 640 Menthu-nesu, Statue of ... 497 Mentu-her-khepesh-f, Tomb of ...’ 656, 679 Mentuhetep Sankhkara ... 642 Menuf Hospital ... ... 283 Menufiya ... ... ... 7 2 Menzala, Lake 52, 280, 4 ° 9 , 501 742 229 674 191, 22 1 496 496 585 498 Meroe, Island of 17 I, 226, 234, 736 , 769 770 780 121 129 246 246 121 226, 247, 251, 325, 490 , 585 Merawi Mer-en-Ptah... Tomb of Mer-en-Ra (Mehti-em-sa-f) Pyramid of Mereruka, Tomb of... Meri-Ra, Tomb of ... Merit, Lady, Jewellery of . Pyramids of Mersekert Mert ... Merwan I Merwan II Meskhenet Mesopotamia Metals, Working of Metal work . Migdol Miharrakah . Mihrab Military Post of Bor Mimbar Mina Al-Kamh Minaret of — Al-Azhar Al-Mu‘ayyad ‘Amr Barkuk ... Iskandar Pasha Ka‘it Bey Kala‘un ... 86 3 i 3 564 728 303 806 303 420 310 3i 1 309 310 309 310 3*1 INDEX. 891 Minaret of ( contd )— Sultan Hasan . Tulun Minarets Minerva, Temple of Mines, Copper Gold Turquoise 222, 529 Min-nekht, Tomb of Minutoli, M Minya ... 72, 251 Miscellaneous articles Misgovernment of Turkish Officials ... ... 763 Misr (“ Babylon of Egypt ”) Missionaries ... 586, 803 Mission Schools ... 325 Mission Station abandoned... Mitani Mithkal Mit-Vazid Mizraim Mnevis Bull Mo'awiya Mode of obtaining Granite Modern Egyptians, Narcotics and Amusements ... ... 317 Modern Quarters of Cairo ... 466 Moeris, Lake 50, 223, 571, 572, 574 * 575 “ Molten Calf,” an imita- tion of Hathor Mommsen, Prof. Monastery of Anba Bishai of Baramus Red of Macarius in Natron Valley 5*0 3 1 1 ... 309 308-31 1 395 220, 529 711 535 654 509 577 20 771 245 804 366 807 226, 227 8 420 102 *25 219 246 180 555 73 5 io 5" 588 510 5'2 of St. Catherine 524, 525, 532, 540, 542 of St. Simon ... 710,711 Syrian Monastery ... 5 1 1 White 587 Money Exchange ... 3,5-11 English-Egyptian ... 8-12 French- Egyptian ...12 16 Orders ... ... ... 24 Mongalla ... ... 742 Mongols ... ... ... 252 Monks, Courtesy and Hospi- tality of ... ... ... 5 1 1 Monophysites 244, 245, Months for Travelling Months, Names of the Months, Number of. .. for visiting Sinai Moral Aphorisms Morgan, M. de 222, 430, 497* 499* 594* 599, 697 , PAGE , 286 I 357 '59 525 165 496, 601 , „ . ; 698 Moritz, Dr ... 445 Mosaics 312,545 Moses 4 ' 6 , 532 , 536 , 542, 550 , 55 '* 552 Cave of ... Well of... Mosil... Mosque of Abu Bekr Mazhar Adh-Dhahir ... 297, Ahmad ... Aksunkur ... 297, Al-Ashraf Bars Bey Al-Ashraf Inal ... Al-Azhar 248, 297, 550 412 248 458 303 397 303 304 304 303* 3'0, 3*2, 449 Al-Ghuri, Ghoriya 304, 458 Al-Hakim 297, 303, 458 Al-Maridany ... 297, 303 Al-Mu‘ayyad ... 295, 300, 361, 304, 31 1, 458, 459 ‘Ami 249, 296, 297, 303, 309, 3*5, 447* 448 An-Nasir (in the Citadel) 303, 460 An-Nasir Muhammad ... 297 Ash-Shafi‘y As-Salih Barkuk 297 Barkuk (in the tery) ... Beybars II Ezbek . . . Hasan . . . Husen . . . Ibn-TCilun 296, 309,3*3 on Jebel Musa ... Ka’it Bey 254, 304, Kala‘un 297, 303 303 297, 303 303, 3*o, 3*2, 457 Ceme- 303 303 304 452 456 449 297* 303, 3*4, 450 549 298, 302, 3*0, 457 3**, 452 892 INDEX. PAGE Mosque of Khartum ... 790 Kigmas 304 Kusun ... ... ... 297 Muhammad ‘Ali 460, 462 Sheykhu ... ... 303 Sim>ar Al-Gawaly and Salar ... 303 Suleman Pasha... ... 460 Sultan Hasan ... 297-299, 303 , 3*1 Suyurghatmish .. ... 303 Umm Sha’ban ... ... 303 Zenab ... ... ... 460 Mosques 295, 296, 297, 423, 447-460, 546 Fridays, Service in ... 337 “ Mosquito Camp ”... ... 802 Mosquitoes ... ... 23, 410 Mother of the Book (Kur’an) 33 1 Mougel Bey ... ... 90, 404 Mougel’s Barrage ... 90,361 Mougi 808 Mount Safsafa ... ... 550 Mount Sinai, The, of the Bible ... ... ... 529 Mountain River ... 78, 805 Mourning not worn by Men 354 Mucianus ... ... ... 571 Mud (Nile) ... ... ... 47 Mudir of the Customs ... 20 Muhammad Ahmad (the Mahdi) 346, 740 Muhammad ‘Ali 84, 86, 89, 90, 256-260, 382, 390, 507, 578 , 738, 739 Muhammad ‘Ali, Mosque of 460, 462 Tomb of ... ... 462 Muhammad al-Khalangi ... 247 Muhammad an Nasir ... 316 Muhammad Sherif ... ... 262 Muhammad, The Prophet ... 245, 326 329 Character ... ... 329 “ Flight ” to Abyssinia, or First Hijra ... 327 “ Flight ” to Madina, or Second Hijra 328, 369 Food and Garments ... 329 Habits, etc. ... ... 329 Plistorical Sketch of ... 326 Marriage ... ... 327 PAGE 327 329 ... 295 3*2 33 * ••• 357 34 * 245-254 Mar- Customs Muhammad ( contd .) — Meditates Suicide Personal A ppearance . . . Muhammadan Architecture and Art in Cairo Muhammadan Art ’Belief ... Calendar Festivals Period ... Muhammadan Birth riage, and Death 350-354 Muhammadan Fanaticism ... 294 Muhammadan Institutions not observed ... ... 292 Muhammadan Law, Punish- ment of Crime under ... 341 Muhammadan Religion 331-346 Muhammadan Sects ... 345 Muhammadans 3 1, 171,288, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 3 * 7 , 33 Era of ... Muhammed al Khen Muharram, Month of Muhmiyah ... Mu‘izz Canal Mukattam Hills 249, 479 Mukhtar Mulberries Mule ... Mulid al-Hasanen ... Mulid al-Nebi, or Birthday of the Prophet 342 Mummies ... ... 438-444 Cost of mummifying ... 440 of Crocodiles ... ... 586 Method of Mummifying 440- 442 Mummy Chamber Painting of 340 , 354 369 375 ... 262 34 * 77 * ... 418 570 347 55 61 343 Mummifying, Belief Munkar Munzinger Bey Murad Murakki Murchison Falls Murder Punishment for Murder of Col. Stewart Muristan Kaia’un Musawwarat as-Sufra 1 14 , 332 , 327 , 68 442 439 354 739 255 328 811 34 * 348 450 784 INDEX. 893 Museum, Alexandrian PAGE ... 380 of Antiquities ... 390 of Arab Art 444 , 445 Bidak 430 Gordon College ... 789 Mushrabiyeh ... ... 468 Music... 165, 320 Music forbidden by Muham- mad 320 Musical Instruments 165, 321 Musicians 174 Musicians’ Gallery ... 321 Muski (Street in Cairo) 465 Mut ... 109, 1 2 1, 125, 129 Temple of ... 613 Mutawekkil ... 254 Mutilation 167, 283 Mutmir 77 1 Mut-nefert, Queen ... ... 225 Mycerinus (Men-kau Ra) ... 220 Pyramid of 483, 712 Myos-Hormos ... 815 N. PAGE Native Courts, Cost of ... 366 Natron ... ... ... 440 Lakes ... ... ... 52 Re,ort of Ascetic Christians 5 b J Valley ... 52, 508, 509 Natural History (Egypt) ... 55 Naucratis 233, 395 Naville, Professor 100,172,222, 236, 405, 4 b6, 417, 502, 505, 509, 565, 636, 637, 640, 641, 644, 648, 693 Neave, Dr. Sheffield ... 789 Neb-er-tcher ... ... 121 Neb-hetep ... 222 Nebidh (Wine) 3«7 Nebireh 395 Neb-Khau ... 189 Neb-Khepesh ... 1 88 Neb T'aui ... 189 Nebt-het 121 1129 Nebt-Unnut ... 149 Nebuchadnezzar II ... 233 Necho II (Nekau) 203, 232, 234, 402 Nabatean Alphabet .. . ... 560 Nabatean Inscriptions 530, 559 Nadura ... ... ... 518 Temple of ... ... 518 Nag ‘Hamadi ... ... 595 Nagaa, Ruins at ... 782-784 Temple of 782-783 Naif-aaiu-rvt I (Nepherites) 235 Naif-aaiu-rut II (Nepherites) 235 Nakada 106, 216, 219, 599, 690 Excavations at ... ... 599 Nakb al-Budra, Pass of ... 535 Nakb al-Hawi ... ... 539 Naklr 332, 354 Names of the Month ... 357 Napata 1 1 2, 226, 240, 736, 737 , 757 , 783 Napoleon Bonaparte... 81, 89, Napoleon (Coin) Napoleon III Narcotics N arses Naser Nason, Col. ... Nastasenen ... 255 , 403 , 423 5 404 3 1 7 ... 245 803 269 234 , 756 Defeats Josiah, King of Judah 233 Defeated by Nebuchad- n ezzar II 233 Necropolis of Abydos 590, 594 of Akhmim ... ... 589 of Asasif ... ... 650 at Dahshur ... ... 498 of Said; ara . . . 489-49 I Nectanebus I 205, 235, 613, 693 Nectanebus II 205, 236, 506, 718 Legend of 236 Temple of ... 624 , 718 Nefer, The ... 435 Nefer-hetep ... 223 Tomb of 657 Nefer-ka-ari-Ra 489 Nefermaat, Tombs ... 570 N efer-neferu-aten-Neferti-ith 197 Nefer-Temu ... 109 Nefert-hent, Sarcophagus of 497 Nefisha 4 1 5 Negro and Negroid Tribes... 103 Negroes 293 Neha, The ... 435 894 INDEX. Neheb-ka Nekheb Nekhebet Temple of Nekht Tomb of Nekht Heru-hebt Nelson, Lord Nemareth Neolithic Period Nephthys Nero ... Nerva... N es-ba-neb-T ettet Nestorius Net (Neith) .... Neter... Neter-nefer ... Neterit Netert Neteru Nicaea, Council of . Night of Power Nile, The, 2, 29, 1 13, 180, 232 PAGE 122 69O 122, 125, 129, 188, 2 I 8, 690 690 651 65! 235 392 230 661 162 578 241 230 589 395 109 189 109 109 109 243 343 75 , 76 , 96, 240, 472, 212, 255 , 594 , 109, 240, 2131 244, 121, 130, 742, 795-813 Barrages on ... ... 89 Battle of 390 Blue 79, 80, 82, 277, 742, 795-798 Cultivation on ... ... 795 Gauge ... ... ... 807 Inundation of ... 83, 795 Mysterious River ... 75 Names of Ancient Mouths 81 Protection of Banks of 87, 88 Sources of Upper . Victoria .. White ., 77 ' Worship of Nile-god Nile-Red Sea Railway Nilometer 81, 107, 705, 720, 721 Nimr ... Nimuli Nineveh Nineveh, Fast of “ Nitocris, The ” Niumbe River Nobatse, The N6, Lake Noggara Nomes ... 71, 72, 409 Northern Pyramid, The Notes, Circular 122, PAGE ... 808 242 , 244 ... 804 ... 77 ... 77 ... 810 262, 277, 348 , 742 ••• 75 77 , 472 278, 767 47 i, 472 , , 797, 800 257 , 739 ... 808 232 ... 289 ... 29 28: 703 497 3 Nu 122, 153 Nuba 72 Nubar Pasha... ... ... 259 Nubia .. 1 12, 171, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 231, 240, 244, 292, 716, 717,751 Nubia, Pyramids in ... 17 1, 172 Nubian King of Egypt ... 23 1 Nubians (Berbers) ... 222, 230, 293 , 738 Nubians, Entry of, Regulated 751 Nub-kau-Ra-nekht, Tomb of 707 Nub-Set 194, 503 Nubti... ... ... ... 224 Numbers, Tomb of ... ... 488 Nur ed Din 250, 25 1 Nuri, or Nurri 17 1, 762, 763 Pyramids of ... ... 762 Nut ... 1 10, 1 14, 122, 130 Nut-IIekau 132 Nyanza, Victoria and Albert 49 77, 79, 810-813 O. Oases 50, 53, 513-522 Crops .... 514,517,522 Population ... ... 514 Taxes ... ... 515, 517 Oasis of Al-Kharga (Great)... 54 234 , 516 , 517 , 520, 521 Ad-Daila 515 Bahariya ... 54 , 5 1 3 Dakhla 54 , 5*5 Farafra 54, 514 Firan 536 Jupiter Ammon... 54,234, 5085 12 Kurkur ... ... ... 521 Little 54 Sekhet-hemam ... ... 54 Selima ... ... ... 521 Siwa ... 54,280,513 INDEX. 8 95 PAGE Obedallah ... ... ... 347 Obelisks 180, 18 1, 225, 390, 474, 610, 613, 614, 712 Observatory at Helwan ... 42 Observatory on Mukattam Hills ... ... ... 249 O’Connell, Major ... ... 281 Octavianus ... ... 239, 240 Ohrwalder, Father ... 348, 743 Old Testament, Translation of into Coptic ... 134 Olympias (Mother of Alex- ander) 236 ‘Omar ibn £ Abd ah ‘ Aziz 245,246 ‘Omar, Khalifa 246, 328, 330, 382, 472 ‘Omayyad Khalifas, The ... 246 Omdurman 266, 268, 270, 348, 784, 786, 794 Battle of ... 740,784 On (City) 220 Onias 238, 501 Onion, Temple Fortress of... 238, 502 PAGE Oxford Museum, Monuments in 220 Oxyrhynchus 63, 576 176- 182, 29 3 * 9 , 340 22, 283 55 “ Oonas, The Opium Ophthalmia . . . Oranges Ornamentation Orontes (River) Orthodox Sects Oryx ... Osiris (Asar) 44, 107, 108, IIO, I I 2, II 3, I I 4, I 17, 125, 146, I47, 1 5 1, * 54 , 162, 163, 219, 291, 424, 629, 721 Osiris Chamber ... ... 720 Osiris, Judgment Hall of ... 157 Osman Dikna 263, 265, 266, 267, 270 309 228 345 62 109, 1 1 6 , 128, 164, Osman Rifki... Osorkon I ... 201,230, Osorkon II ... ... 20 1 , Osymandyas, Tomb of ‘Othmaa ... 246, 254, Otho ... Otiak ... Owen Falls ... Owen, Professor, on Ancient Egyptians ... Ox 260 613 230 622 330 240 8lO 810 443 61 419 595 691 230 230 230 230 184 122, P. Pa-Bast (or Pi-beseth) Pachomius ... Paheri, Tomb of Paiankh Painetchem I Painetchem II Painetchem III Paintings 183, Pakhet, the Cat Goddess 579 Palace of the Sirdar... ... 788 Palaces ... ... ... 183 Palestine 1, 28, 226, 228, 230, 250 Palestine Exploration Fund 524 Palmer, Professor 524, 530, 534, 549 Murder of ... ... 533 Palmerston, Lord ... ... 404 Palmyra ... ... ... 325 Pamai 202, 230 Pa-Nehsi, Tomb of .. . ... 585 Panel from Pulpit in Mosque of Tulun 313 Panerpn of Alexandria ... 384 Papremis, Battle of ... ... 234 Papyrus ... 58, I 16, 217 of Ani 146-156 Ebers 158 Magical Greek ... ... 164 Mathematical ... ... 160 Sceptre 435 Uses of the ... ... 58 Westcar... ... ... 161 Para 5 , 25 Paradise, Description of 334,336 Parcel Post ... ... ... 24 Pa-rehu, Prince of Punt ... 635 Parembole ... ... ... 723 Parisian strata ... ... 50 Parties ... ... ... 2 Parsons, Col. ... ... 269 Partridge’s Well ... ... 551 Pasebkhanut I ... ... 230 Pasebkhanut II ... ... 230 8 9 6 INDEX. PAGE Passengers’ Baggage Insurance 23 Passengers carried by Raii- ways ... 280 Passports 19 Patriarch 248, 287 Pavilion of Rameses III ... 627 Peaches 55 Peake, Colonel ... 78 Peas ... ... 56 Peasant, Story of ... 166 Pehsuker, Tomb of... ... 655 Peki River ... 808 Pelican 63 Pelusium 232, 233, 238, 245, Battle of 250 , 405, 563 238 Pensions, Cost of 367 Pentateuch ... 332 Pen-ta-urt 610 Song of ... *65 Pentu, Tomb of 585 Pepi I I 9 I, 22 1, 712 Bronze Statue of ... 693 Pyramid of 493 Pepi II 191, 221, 707 Pepi N< kht, Tomb of ... 708 Per-aa (Pharaoh) J89 Per-ab-sen B 9 0 Period, Archaic 21 6-2 I 9 Byzantine ... 244-245 Dynastic . . . 219-236 Greek 236-239 Muhammadan 245-254 Neolithic ... 594, 661 Pre-dynastic 216-219 Roman . . . 240 243, 575 Per-Ra pa temai ... ... 729 Perrennial Irrigation ... 84 Persecution of Christians ... 242, 249, 326, 381, 689 Persia 233, 234, 235, 245, 325 Persian binding ... ... 316 Pert 56 Pertinax ... ... ... 242 Per-Uatchet ... ... ... 188 Pescennius Niger ... ... 242 Peshamut (Psammuthis) ... 235 Peta-Amen-em-apt, Tomb of 660 Peta-sa-Bast ... ... ... 231 Peter Monpus, Death of ... 244 Petrie, Professor 478 , 503 , 570 , 572 , 576 , 595 , 890 PAGE Petroleum 67 Phagrus ... ... ... 63 Pharan 536, 537 Pharaohs ... 86,179,534 Derivation of Name ... 189 Pharaoh’s Bath, Mountain of 533 Pharaoh’s Bed ... ... 10 1 Pharos, The 237, 382 Pharsalia, Battle of .. . ... 239 Philse, Islands of 44, 81, 95, 96, IOO, IOI, 186, 236, 240, 245, 7*3, 722 Philae, History of ... 7 14-72 1 Temple destroyed ... 245 Temples, etc., of 718-721 Philip Arrhidaeus ... 205, 237 Philotera ... ... ... 206 Phoenicia ... ... ... 226 Phonetics ... 139, 144, 145 Photographic Films ... ... 21 Phut ... ... ... ... 102 Piankhi ... 202, 231, 723 Temple of ... ... 761 Piastre tariff (P.T. ) 5, 6, 8, 1 1-16 Pi-beseth ... ... ... 418 Pig 61 Pigeon ... ... 63 Pik 7 Pilgrimage 339 Pillar, Pompey’s 242, 383, 385 Pillars, Details of ... 1 76- 1 82 Pillow, The ... ... ... 435 Pithom ... ... 416, 562 Plans of — Barrage at Asyut ... 93 Dams at Aswan 97, 98 Houses in Cario 304, 305 Island of Philae... ... 715 Monastery of St. Cathe- rine 543 Mosques 448, 450, 45 F, 453 , 455 , 456, 457, 459 Pyramid Tomb... ... 169 Roman Tomb ... ... 386 Temples 5*7, 5*8, 5 * 9 , 553 , 592 , 593 , 596 , 608, 609, 6 1 6, 620, 622, 625, 626, 629, 632, 637, 688, 694, 698, 726, 73*, 759, 781-783 INDEX. 897 PAGE Plans of ( contd .) — Tombs 654-659 ,661,666, 669-678 , 68a, 708 Platt, Miss ... • •• 5»2 Pliny 223, 477, 490 , 57 L 737 Plough ... 58 Plutarch 59 1 , 7^5 Pocket Medicine Case 22 Poets (Shu‘ara) 323 Polygamy 340 Polyphones ... ... 140 Pomegranates 55 Pompey ... 239 Pompey’s Pillar 242, 383, 385 Population . 73, 282, 293, 527 Porcelain •87, 3115 Porphyry Quarries . . . ... 48 Port Sa’id 73, 26 1 , 276, 379, 400, 409 Railway, cost of 273 Port Sudan ... ... 767 Post Office, Profits on ... 277 Savings Bank .. 279 Postage 23 Postal Steamers 2 Pottery ... 187 Art of Making... 315 Powendael, Lake ... 806 Prayer, Mode of 334 Call to ... 354 356 Prayers at Death 353 Precepts 165 Predestined Prince, Story of 1 66 Predestination ... 334 Pre-dynastic Period, Sketch of . . . ... 216 Prescriptions, Ancient 158 Presents for the Men of Sinai 526 Preserved Table (Kur‘an) ... 331 Priest- Kings ... 184, 230 Principal Places passed between Khartum and Durvena ... ... 799 Prison (Omdurman).., 791 Prisons 183, 280 Probus ... ... 242 Prophets 332 False 330 Proverbs, Book of ... 165 PAGE Prudhoe, Lord Psalms Psammetichus I Psammetichus II Psammetichus III 5 h 1 332 203, 232, 395 204, 233, 395 204, 233, 395 Ptah 109, I 22, 130, 208-212 Ptah-hetep, Precepts of ... B65 Tomb of ... ... 496 Ptah of Memphis, Temple of 613 Ptah-Seker _ 122, 130 Ptah-Seker-Asar ... ... 122 Ptah-Tatenen ... ... 122 Ptolemaic Period 178, 179, 186, 474 » 575 , 690 Ptolemies ... ... ... 1 1 2 Ptolemy I (Soter I), Ptolemy Lagus ... ... 206, 237 Ptolemy II ( Philadelphia) ... 165, 206, 237, 506 Ptolemy III (Euergetes I) ... 159, 207, 237, 693 Ptolemy IV (Philopator I) ... 207, 238, 649 Ptolemy V (Epiphanes) ... 208, 238 Inscription of ... * 35 , *36 Ptolemy VI (Eupator) 208, 238 Ptolemy VII (Philometor I) 208, 238, 501, 649 Ptolemy VIII (Philopator II) 209, 239 Ptolemy IX (Euergetes II).. 209, 239 , 613, 614, 649, 691, 698 Ptolemy X (Soter II, Philo- metor II) ... 209, 2*39, 691 Ptolemy XI (called Alex- ander) ... ... 209, 239 Ptolemy XII (Alexander II) 210, 239 Ptolemy XIII (Neos Dionysos) 210, 239 Ptolemy XIV ... 210,239 Ptolemy XV... ... ... 239 Ptolemy XVI (Gesarion) ... 239 Public Debt ... ... .. 367 Pulpit, Stone ... ... 312 Pumps for Irrigation ... 91 Punt 153, 222, 226 Expedition to ... 631, 634, 636, 650 3 L 8 9 8 INDEX. PAGE Purgatory ... ... ... 114 Pylon 172, 175, 6lO Pyramid of Abu Roash 477, 488 of Abusir 220, 477, 488 of Al-kula ... ... 689 of Al-lahun 574 The Blunted ... ... 497 of Cheops (the Great) ... 220, 479, 480-482 King’s Chamber ... 479 Queen’s Chamber ... 479 Sarcophagus of Cheops 479 Sarcophagus of My- cerinus 483 of Chephren ... ... 482 of Dahshur 220, 222, 477, 489, 497-500 of Illahun ... 222,574 The False ... ... 569 of Gebel Barkal ... 758 of Giza ... 220, 280, 477 of Hawara ... 223,572 of Lisht ... 222, 477, 569 Med um ... of Mer-en-Ra at Meroe of Mycerinus 'I he Northern of Nuri ... of Pepi I of Sakkara 220 The Southern Brick 220, 569 496 -780 483 497 691 493 All, 489-497 498 77 22 The Step ofTeta ... of Unas ... of Zawyet el- Pyramids 90, Battle of the 220, 492, 496 221, 493, 497 221, 492 ‘Aryan ... 477 169, 444, 477- 500, 758 255, 424, 447 Q. Qebh-sennuf . . . ... ... 122 Qebt 34 Qemt 7 1 Qen Amen, Tomb of ... 658 Qerti ... ... ... ... 8 1 Quail ... ... ... ... 63 Shooting, Licence for... 20 PAGE Quarantine Board ... 9 1 4, 541 Quarries, Clay ... ... 7 1 1 At Hagar Silsila ... 697 Granite ... ... ... 712 Ma’sara and Tura ... 500 Queen’s Chamber ... ... 479 Quibell, Mr ... 691, 693 Quinine ... ... ... 2 1 R. Ra 108, 109, I 10, ill, I 12, I 13, I 14, I l6, I 17, 120, 123, 151, 154, 155, 162, l88, 189, 221, 291 Ra, Temple of Raamses Ra-en-user .. Raggaf Raggaf Hill . . Rahad, Lake.. River Ra-Harmachis Ra-PIerukhuti Ra, Hymn to Railways 502 416, 562, 564 ... 220 ... 807 ... 707 263 66 , 797 130, 487 123 ... 146-156 30, 265, 278 Rain ... I, 38, 41, 82, 280 Rainy Season ... ... 82 in Abyssinia ... ... 769 Raithou ... ... ... 536 Rakoti (Raqetit) 237, 380, 382 Ram 62, 1 17, 125, 504 Ramadan ... 318, 338, 341 Ramadan Bairam, or Lesser Festival ... ... ... 344 Ra-men-kheper-senb, Tomb of 655 Rameses I ... ... 198, 228, 620, 622, 670 Tomb of ... ... 670 Rameses II ... 112, 165, 177, 198, 228, 416, 491, 503, 608, 610, 613, 620, 622, 614 , 727, 732 Colossal Statue of ... 491 Court of... Temple of Tomb of... Rameses III ... 614, 615, 610 2, 594 674 1 66, 199, 229, 627, 628, 629, 630, 674 INDEX. 899 PAGE Rameses III, Pavilion of ... 627 Mummy in Cairo ... 229 Sarcophagus at Cam- bridge ... ... 229 Temple of ... 628-631 Tomb of ... 674,675 Rameses IV ... 199, 229, 627, 666, 676, 677, 816 Tomb of Rameses V ... Rameses VI . . . Tomb of Rameses VII... Tomb of Rameses VIII Rameses IX 200 Tomb of Rameses X ... Tomb of Rameses XI ... Tomb of Rameses XII 676 229, 666 229, 679 679 200, 229 ... 680 200, 229 614, 679 679 200, 229, 199 199 229, 200, 229, 679 679 200, 229, 679 679 614, 679 Tomb of ... ... 679 Ramesseum, The ... 429, 622 Ramleh ... ... ... 390 Ra-neb-hap ... ... ... 222 Ra neb-taui ... ... ... 222 Ra-nub ... ... ... 492 Raphia, Battle of ... ... 238 Ras Abu Zemmeh ... ... 534 Ras as-Safsaf... ... 540,548 Ra-se-ankhka ... ... 222 Ra-sekhem-ka ... ... 223 Rashid Bey ... ... ... 262 Rashid Pasha ... ... 257 Rauf Pasha ... ... ... 262 Rawyan ... ... ... 784 Redesiyeh ... ... ... 695 Red Hill 692 Red Monastery ... ... 588 Red Sea 402, 403, 405, 466, 55H 564* 565, 634, 695, 814 Red Sea Province ... ... 742 Reeds ... ... ... 58 Reform, Impetus given to by Anglo-French Agreement 368 Rehoboam, Expedition against 230 Rekhmara, Tomb of ... 650 Religion, Muhammadan ... 106- I 16, 285-290, 331-346 Religious Festivals .. . ... 175 PAGE 21 21 21 I 15 130 123 61 537 64 750 131 333 342 Remedies for Diarrhoea Head-ache Sunstroke Ren Renenet ... ... 123, Rennut Renting Value (Egypt) Rephidim, Battle of Reptiles Reservoirs Reshpu ... 123, 130 Resurrection ... 1 14, 332 Return of Caravan to Mecca Revenue 270-276, 364, 745 Rhinoceros ... ... ... 62 Rhinocolura ... ... ... 45 Riaz Pasha ... ... ... 260 Ribton, Mr. ... ... ... 261 Rice^ 56 Rifa‘iyeh Dervishes ... 322, 358 Riga, Ruins of ... ... 488 Rikka ... ... ... 569 Ripon Falls ... ... 799, 810 Ritual of Amen ... ... 175 Riyai--.. 5 Roda Bridge... ... ... 280 Rock of Abusir ... 734, 751 Roda, Island of 82, 250, 252, 427 , 458, 462, 466, 582 Roman Period ... 240-243 Rope Dancers ... ... 322 Rosaires ... ... ... 277 Rosetta 81, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92 , 135 * 238, 270, 277, 392 Rosetta Stone Ross, Major ... Rothschild, Hon. Rotl Rousseau Pasha Routes to Egypt Royalty on Sait > 34 , 135 , 238, 392 , 393 4io N. C. ... 509 7 9 i 28, 29 67 Royle, Mr., Egyptian Cam- paigns 259, 261, 262, 265, 267, 270 Rufa‘a Rumbek Rundle, Gen. Ruseres 795 796 271 9 i -798 3 L * 9 °° INDEX. s. PAGE Sa 123 Sa’a 7 Sa al-Hagar ... 395 Sa-Amen 230 Saba ... 325 Sabaism 326 Sabina 214, 241 Sabna arid Mekhu, Tom’, of 707, Sachot Sacred Animals, Birds, &c. Sadd 78, 805, 227, 708 412 125 806 753 550 505 • *5 7*3 350 220, 489 404, 426 753 Saddenga, Temple at Safsafa, Mount Saft al- Henna Sah ... Sahal, Island of Sahra (wife of Khalifa) Sahu-Ra ... 19!, Sa‘id Pasha 87, 258, Sai, Island of St. Anthony emulated by the Copts ... ... ... 287 St. Barbara, Church of ... 470 St. Catherine, Monastery of 524, 525 , 532 , 540 , 542 Chapel of the Burning Bush ... ... ... 546 Church of the Trans- figuration . ... 545 Crypt 548 Library 547 Valuable MSS. in ... 547 Mosque ... ... ... 546 Relics of . . 546 St. Ibsadah ... ... 71 1 St. Jerome ... ... ... 62 St. Mark, Copts claim as Patriarch ... ... 287, 381 St. Menas ... 467, 71 1 St. Onuphrius, Chapel of ... 55 s St. Pisentius, Monastery and Holy Well of 599 St. Simon, Monastery of 7 1 o, 7 1 1 Sais in, 231, 232, 235, 395 Sakkara 220, 221, 426, 489, 491, 494, 579, 661 Necropolis of ... 489-49 1 Sakiya .. ■ .. 58 PAGE Salah ed-Din (Saladin) 250, 251, 423, 460, 465 Salamat Salt ... Royalties on Salted Fish .. . Salwa Samallut 763 42, 51, 67 276 67, 273, 276 ^3 ... 696 577 San (Tanis) 223, 392, 502, 503 Sana, Lake Sanam Abu-D 6 m Sanctuary for Animals Sandbars Sandstone Sanehat, Story of ... ... Sannures Sa-Ptah ... ... 229 Saracen Tomb Builders ... Saracens Saracenic Architecture Saracenic Art Sarbut al-Khadim 529, 80 • 757 65 52 , 53 . 48 165 570 680 462 252 308 312 534 , 552 , 553 , 554 , 555 Sarcophagi ... 168, 479-500 Sarcophagus of Seti I pur- chased by Sir J. Soane ... 672 Sa-renput, Tomb of... Sa-renput-a, Tomb of Sargon Sarras Satet ... Sawakin 264, 265 270, 741 707 709 231 266, 751 *23, 131 266, 267, 742 , 767 Sawakin-Berber Railway 265, 767 Sawbat (Sobat) River Sayce, Professor Sayf-ad-din Tatar Sayf-eddin Inal Sayyid ‘Abd-Allahi 79, 82, 277, 803 689, 691 254 254 350 Sayyid Ahmad al-Badawi, Tomb of ... ... ... 396 Scales, Thermometric 1 6- 1 8 Scarabs ... 432, 436-438 for Ornament Funereal Historical Scenge Veteranorum., Scete ... ... Schaefer, Dr. Schefer, M. Charles Schoinos 437 , 437 , 437 , 239 , 438 438 438 502 5io 488 3*5 727 INDEX. 90I PAGE Schools ... ... ... 325 Schweinfurth, Dr. ... 5 1 , 5 I 6 Scorpions ... 23, 64, 109, 125 Scott-Moncrieff, Sir Colin 92, 95, 399 Scott-Moncrieff, Mr. P. ... 734 Scriptures ... ... ... 332 Sculpture ... ... 184, 185 Seaa-ka-nekht-Kheperu-Ra 1 97 Season for Travelling ... I Seankhka-Ra ... ... 816 Seasons. 56 Seb (Qeb) ... 1 10, 123, 13 1 Sebbakh ... ... ... 60 Sebek... 108, 123, 125, 131, 574, 687, 697 Sebek-em-sa-f I ... 193,223 Sebek-em-sa-f II ... ... 1 93 Sebek-hetep, Tomb of ... 7 I O Sebek-hetep I ... ... 193 Sebek-hetep II ... 193,223 Sebek-hetep III ... 193,223 Statue of ... ... 503 Sebek-hetep IV ... 193,223 Sebek-hetep V ... 193, 223 Sebek -neferu-Ra ... ... 223 Sebek-nekht, Tomb of ... 692 Sebennytus ... ... ... 235 Second Cataract ... 80,704 Section of Mosque ... 299,302 Pyramid (Giza)... 480, 484 Tomb 17 ' Sects, Muhammadan 345, 3 46 Seker ... 123, 125, 131 Sekhem ... 1 1 5 Sekhet 109, 124, 13 I, 578 Sekhet-hemam ... ... 54 Sektet boat ... . . . 1 5 2 Sela 570 Selim 255, 4 2 3 Selima, Oasis of ... ... 521 Semliki River ... 8 1 0, 812 Semna 80, 89, 222, 232, 704, 75 G 752 Semti ... ... ... 1 90, 2 1 9 Semitic Settlers ... ... 224 Sen, Tomb of ... ... 710 Sennaar ... ... 742, 797 Battle of 739 Seneferu 190, 220, 496, 569 Senekht-en-Ra ... ... 225 Sengah 742, 798 Senka-Amen-seken , Sen-mes, Tomb of . Sen-Mut, Architect . Sennacherib ... Sen-nefer, Tomb of. 226, PAGE 76I 709 172 , 635 231 654 > 658, 680 ... 220 ... 688 123 Sent ... Sent, or Latopolis Sept ... Septimius Severus 81, 242, 623 Septuagint ordered to be made by Ptolemy II ... 237 Sepulchral Stele ... ... 163 Seqenen-Ra I— III ... ... 224 Serapeum 383, 4 2 8, 49 2 > 494 Serapis 1 12, I 1 8, 241, 494 Temple of 241,244,392, 494 Destruction of “ Serapis, The ” Serdab Serpent Serpent’s Head, The Serqet ... 124 Service in Mosque ... Sesebi, Temple of ... Seshetat (Sefekh-Abiu) Sesostris 382, 384 29 168, 170 109, 125 435 125, 13* 337 754 124, 1 3 1 ... 222 Set 110,124,131,224,651 Seti I ... 171,198,228,579, 614, 617, 664, 672, 690 Mummy, Coffin, etc., of 228, 672 672 591,594 1 7 1, 670 98, 229, 674 674 199,229 674 Sarcophagus of Temple of Tomb of Seti II ... 865, Tomb of Setnekht ... ... l Tomb of ... Setu and Renna, Tomb of Seuatch taui Shabaka (Sabacc S ha ‘ban Shabataka Shablanga Shaduf Shai ... Shaluf Shambi Lagoon 203, 231 203 692 188 610 336 231 420 58, 68 123 411 78, 271 ... 805 902 INDEX. Sharkiya Shashanq (Shishak) I Shashanq II ... Shashanq III Shashanq IV Shat ... Shatt-ar- Regal Shawar Sheep Sheger ad-Durr, Queen Shek of the Sa’diyeh vishes Shekh ‘Abd al-Ktirna Shekh al-Beled Shekh Khalid, Tomb of Shekh Muhammad Sherif Shekh Salih, Tomb of Shellal ' Shemut Shendi Shep-en-Apt ... Sherek Sherif Pasha... Sheykhu, Mosque of Shibba Shiberga Shibin-al-Kanalir ... Shibr... ' ShFites, or Imamians 72 , 89, 230 201 201 201 250 Der- 429 , 85, PAGE 418 201, 617 , 230 , 230 , 230 56 696 , 251 6 1 252 342 650 255 5 i 7 262 552 7 1 4 56 226, 770, 780 232 763 259 303 758 797 501 8 248, 249, 346 Shirkuh ... ... 250,251 Shop-keepers ... ... 293 Shrew-mouse 125 Shu I IO, 124 Shu’ara (poets) ... ... 323 Shubra ... 466 Shusha ... ... ... 283 Shutarna (King of Mitani) ... 226 Sickenberger, Dr. ... ... 52 Sign of Grief, Women ... 354 Sikket Shu‘aib ... ... 551 Silko 244, 738 Silsila 49, 50, 697 Silurus 63 Sinai, Mount... ... 521-560 Authorities on ... ... 524 Copper Mines ... ... 220 Dispute as to Boundary 528 Geology... ... ... 526 Holy Places of... 542-552 History of ... 529-532 PAGE Sinai, Mount (contd .) — Map Months for Visiting of the Bible Peninsula of Population of ... Tourist Arrangements Turquoise Mines Sinaitic Inscriptions Decipherment of Work of the Nabataeans Sinaru Sinbellawen Singar Al-Gawaly and Salar, Mosque of, Singers Strolling Singing Singing Girls (2,660) Starved in a Mosque Sinkat Sinking Fund Sinn al-Kiddab Sins, enumeration of Sirdar Sirius (Dog-Star) Sir John Soane’s Museum ... 523 525 529 526 527 525 * 526 ... 222 536 , 556 , 557 557 536 570 504 503 165 321 320 249 263 366 49 167 172 159 228, 672 Siwa, Oasis of ..- 54 * 72,280, 508, 512, 513 Sixth Cataract ... 80, 784 Sketch of Mosaic 545 Skill 167 Slatin Pasha ... 270, 348, 350, a 743 , 787 Slave Market (Omdurman)... 791 Slave Raiding Slave Trade .. 220, 738 738 , 739 , 740 , 785 Slaves Sluices Sma amulet ... Smerkha Smelting Operations Smith, Mr. G. Smith, Sir Sydney ., Smyrna Snake Charmers Snakes So, see Shabaka. 244, 255 64, 352 97 435 529 556 668 507 260 322 109 INDEX. 9°3 66, Soba ... Sobat River Soda ... Solar Year Soleb . . . Temple of Solomon, Comparisons with Soma... Somaliland ... Somerset River Sothic Period Sothis, star ... Soudan Game Ordinance Southern Brick Pyramid Sow ... Sparkes, Colonel Sparrows Spectacles, tinted Speke, Capt — Speos Artemidos, The Sphinx, Age of Sphinx, Excavation Thothmes IV Sphinx, Temple of ... Sphinxes ... 175, Avenue of Remarkable find of Spiegelberg, Dr. Spirits Spitta Bey, Dr. Sprained Ankle Stable of ’Antar Stairs, The ... Stanley, Dean 524, Stanton, Col. Stars, First surveys of Steam Tramway 379, Steam Dahabiyahs ... Steamers, Tourist and of by PAGE ••• 795 79, 803 ... 68 ... 159 • • 753 753 164, 165 • 384 634 . 78 159 159 65, 66 . 498 125 270 63 22 77 578 486 226, 486 172, 487 486, 487 494 223 500 161 • •• 445 22 579 435 537539 ... 788 08, 109 408, press Steamship Companies Stelae, Sepulchral 163, 438, 504, 554, 159 414 29 Ex- 29, 30 28 164, 432 651, 707, 756, 761 Stele of Canopus ... 237, 432 Stele set up at Sarbut al- Khadim ... ... ... 554 Step Pyramid, The 220, 492, 496 Stephenson, General Sir F. 263, 266, 491 PAGE Stern, Dr. ... ... ... 445 Stewart, Col. 265, 348, 763 Stewart, General Sir H. ... 264 Stone 185 of Moses ... ... 551 Stone Pulpit ... ... ... 312 Story-tellers ... ... ... 323 Strabo... 494 , 510 , 573 , 597 , 603, 604, 623, 662, 705, 7 * 7 , 725 , 738 Strawberry ... ... ... 55 Streeter, Mr. E. W. 67 Strolling Singers ... ... 321 Stuart, Mr. Villiers ... ... 317 Suakim, see Sawakin. Succoth (Thuku) ... 416,564 Sudan 19, 45, 220, 232, 249, 256, 262, 264, 267, 281, 347, 348 , 704 Boundaries ... ... 74* Education 746 History of ... 735~747 Justice ... 747 Language 745 Map of the Railways ... 764 Military Railway ... 750 Natives of the ... ... 743 Population of ... ... 744 Proposed Expenditure in 277 Provinces of ... ... 742 Railways ... 747 - 75 *, 765-768 Religion... ... ... 745 Revenue and Expendi- ture ... 745746 Slavery ... ... ... 746 “Sudan,” The 29 Sudd 78, 79, 805, 806 Sudan Campaign ... ... 264 Suez 73, 270, 400-408, 409, 4 * *, 564 Suez Canal 258, 262, 400-408 Ancient Canals... ... 402 Bitter Lakes ... 405,411 Canal of Darius ... 4 02 Canal of Necho ... 402 Canal of Rameses II ... 402 Cost of Inaugural Enter- tainment ... ... 406 Cost of Machinery ... 405 Cutting of ... .. 400 Distances Saved by ... 408 INDEX. 9°4 Suez Canal ( contd . ) — Inauguration of... Length of Receipts of .. 4°6 Shares purchased by British Government . . . Statistics of ... 4 07 Steam Tramway 379, Tides ... Sufism Sugar ... Manufactories 578 , Suhag (Siihak) 47, 72, 84* Suhakiya Canal Suk ... ... Suleman Tomb of Suleman Pasha, Mosque of Suleman Wad Kami - ... 265 Sulphur Sulphur Springs ... 42 Sultan Hasan, Mosque of ... 299, 303 Summer Sun, Boat of... Sun-god ... ISO, 1 1 l t 3 12 Sunnites Sunstroke Sunt .... Surname Sura II, passage from Sutekh Suwarda Suyurghatmish, Mosque of... Swallow Sycamore (emblem of Hathor Sydney, Major Syene... ... ••• 240 Synagogue, Cairo ... Syria ... 1, 23, 224, 225, 227, 228, 230, 238, 250, 251, 257 System of Counting T. Tabah occupied by Turkish troops Tabenna, Monastery of PAGE 406 405 , 407 258 , 408 408, 414 405 345 56 582, 687 587, 588 84 463 246 463 460 , 7 63 67 , 543 297- , 3 1 1 2 1 162 ,118 346 2 3 703 350 3«7 324 753 303 63 ) 652 267 , 243 469 226, 247 > , 564 160 281 595 PAGE Table, Comparative, of the Muhammadan and Chris- tian Eras ... 369375 Tablet of Abydos ... 492, Tablet of Ancestors... Tablet of Four Hundred Years Table, Preserved Tachompso, or Metachompso Tadrus, Der of Tafnekhth (King of Sa'is) ... Tahapanes Taharqa (Tirkakah)... Tahna al-Gabal 594 635 503 33 * 727 470 231 409 231 578 2 33 587 327 335 403 723 281 263, 265, 266 203, Tahpanhes .. Tahtah Tai'f .V. Takbir, The .. Talbot, M. .. Talmis Talodi Fort .. Tamai Tamai al-Amdid, Mound of 504 Tamanib 263 Tamarisks ... ... ... 55 Tambak ... 6 3 , 274, 276 Tambourine (rikk) ... ... 323 Tanganyika, Lake ... ... 79 Ta-mera ... ... ... 71 Tanen ... ... ... 124 Tanis, or Zoan 53, 230, 23 1, 409 502, 503, 562 Apollonius, Bishop of... 504 Treaty of ... ... 228 Tankassi ... ... ... 757 Tanta 72, 73 , 358, 396 Tanuath-Amen (Tandamanie) 232 Tar (tambourine) ... ... 322 Taragma ... ... ... 780 Ta-Tanen ... ... ... 124 Tattam, Rev. H. ... ... 5 * * Tattooing, prevalence of ... 284 Tau-aa ... ... 194 Tau-aa-aa 194 Taui ... 662-665 Ta-urt ... ... S24, *3 2 Tawfik Pasha 259, 260, 267, 359 Tawfikiyeh ... ... ... 802 Tax on travellers ... ... 3 ° Taxation 64, 259, 362, 363, 5 * 7 , 745 INDEX. 905 Taxation [contd .) — Misery caused by exces- sive Reduction of ... Taxes collected with cruelty Tchad, Lake... Tche-hra (Teos or Tachos)... Tcheme (Aat-tcha-Mutet) ... Tcheser 190, 220, 529 Pyramid of Temple of Tchonemyris... Tefaba Tefnet Teh-al-Barud Tehuti Tehuti-em-heb, Tomb of ... Tehuti Hetep, Tomb of Tekrit Telegraphs, Telephones, etc. Profit on Telgona Tell-al-Kabir, Battle of 262,270, 363 363 259 51 235 624 713 220, 492 172, 226 ... 519 221 124 395 132 659 583 251 23- 24 274 271 1 10, 125, 417 Tell al-Maskhuta (Raamses) 415 Tell al-Yahudiya ... 239,501 Tell Defenna ... ... 409 Tell al-‘Amarna 184, 227, 584 Paintings and drawings from ... ... ... 184 Tablets preserved in Cairo, British Museum and Berlin ... 227, 584 Tell Nabesheh ... ... 504 Tern ... ... ... ... 108 Tamai al-Amdid ... ... 504 Temai-en-Heru, Site of ... 394 Tempera ... ... ... 650 Temperature... ... ... 38 Mean Monthly... ... 39 Temples 167, 172-175, 621 Grandeur of ... ... 179 Temple Buildings, Details of 175 of Abu Simbel 179 , 228. 730-733 ofAmarah ... ... 753 i of Amen ... 172,234,614 of Ari-hes-nefer . . 719 | at Bet-al-Wali ... ... 724 of Caesar Augustus ... 719 of Dakka ... 238,725,726 PAGE Temple Buildings, Details of [contd .) — - of Denderah 595 , 596 at Der al-Bahari 631 at Der al-Madinat 649 ofEdfu ... 238, 693, 694 of Esneh ... 688 of Hathor 555 , 7»9 of Heru-netch-tef-f ... 720 ofHibis... 5 1 7 ofl-em-lietep ... 719 of Isis 506, 598, 687, 720 at Karnak ... 613 of Kasr al-Gheda ... 518 of Ivhensu Nefer-hetep 235 of Ivom Ombos... 697, 698 of Kurna ... 620 of Kysis ... 5*8, 519 of Luxor 605 612 of Madamut ... 620 of Madinet Habii 623 of Menthu-hetep Neb- hept-Ra 172, 633, 640 of Minerva 395 of Mut ... 613 at Nadura ... 518 at Nagaa 782, 783 of Nectanebus II ... 718 ofNekhebet ... 690 of Piankhi 760, 761 of Ptah of Memphis 613 of Queen Amenartas . 627 of Queen Hatshepse t 631 of Rameses II ... 594 of Rameses III... 628 631 at Semna ... 232 of Serapis 241, 244 , 392 , 494 of Sesebi 754 of Seti I (or Memnonium) 59 1 ofSoleb 753 of the Sphinx ... 172,487 ofTahna ... ... 578 of Tcheser Tcheser u . .. 172 of Thothmes II and III 624 ofTirhakah ... 759,7^0 Temples, the Rock-hewn ... 179 Ternu 1 10, 125 Tennis, Town of ... ... 5°4 Tep-.ihet 570 Tet 107, 132, 434 906 INDEX. PAGE Teta 189, 221, 493 Pyramid of 221,492,493, 497 Tetun, god of the Nubians ... 226 Thais.. 237 Theatre of Alexandria ... 384 Theban Necropolis ... ... 43 Thebes, or Karnak 43, 89, 109, I 17, I 18, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 216, 217, 219, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 236, 257, 600-686 Burnt by Cambyses ... 603 Cemeteries of ... ... 649 Derivation of Name ... 602 Greatness and Antiquity of 603 Homer refers to 603 Temple and Tombs of... 600 Tombs of the Kings ... 665 Theft (punishment) ... 341 Thekeleth I . . . 201, 230 Thekeleth II 201, 230 Thentkaru, Tomb of ... 680 Thent-sepeh ... 230 Theodosius I... 243 * 38 l Theodosius II ... 244 Theophilus, Patriarch of Alex- andria ... 244, 381, 383 Thermometric Scales 1618 Thetha, Tomb of ... ... 710 Thi, Queen 196,226,495,661 Tomb of... ... ... 661 Thi, Tomb of Third Cataract ... 80, This 1 18, Thmuis Thoth, or Tehuti 1 13, 125, 149, 162, 167, Thothmes I (Tehuti-mes) 225, 614, 615, 630, 634, 639, Tomb of... Thothmes II.. Temple of Thothmes III 3 M, 579 * 617, 624, Tomb of... 196, 225, 624, 634, 196, 226, 613, 614, 634 , 635, 495 754 219 504 132, 583 195 , 617, 665 66 5 615, 635 624 232, 615, 665, 689 665 PAGE Thothmes IV 196-226,612, 667, 668, 690 Sarcophagus of . . . ... 668 Thothmes IV, Tomb of ... 667 Thuau, Tomb of ... 227, 681 Tiberius Caesar 136, 21 I, 240 Tickets to visit Antiquities ... 31 Tigris 251 Tiles, glazed 220, 315, 501 Timburgha 253, 254 Time Civil .. ... ... 19 “Times, The” ... 638-644 Timsah, Lake 53,410,411,564 Tinne, Alexandrine ... ... 804 Tinnis ... 250 Tinted Spectacles ... ... 22 Tirhakah (Taharqa)... ... 231 Tirhakah, Temple of 759 * 760 Tischendorf ... ... ... 547 Titus Caesar ... ... 213, 241 Toads... ... ... ... 64 Tobacco 19, 60, 273, 274, 284, 318 Tofrik, Battle at ... ... 265 Tokar ... 263, 267, 270 Defeat of Baker Pasha at 2 63 Tomb Architecture, decline of 1 7 1 Tomb of Aahmes 585, 691 Aahmes, son of Pen- nekheb 692 Aba 710 Ai 585, 669 Aku 708 Amenemhat 580 Amen-em-heb ... 658 Amen-lietep II ... 665 Amen-Meses 674 Amsu (or Menu) -nekht 654 Amu-Netcheh ... 656 Bai ... ' 679 Baqet III 582 Beni-Hasan 579 Campbell’s of Hatshepset Her-khu-f Heru-em-heb Heqab ... Iuaa Kala’un ... ... 488 637* 638, 665 707, 708 ... 658 707, 708 227, 681 ... 452 INDEX. 9°7 Tomb of Kaqemna ... Kha-em-hat Khati Khennu-sesu Khnemu-Hetep I Khnemu-Hetep II Khnemu-Hetep III Khnemu-Khenu Khu-en-Aten ... Khunes ... Khuua ... the Mahdi Mai the Mamluks ... Mastabat al Fir’aun Medum ... Men-kheper- Ra-senb Menna ... Mentu-her-khepesh-f 65 PAGE 496 659 582 708 581 580 581 710 585 708 708 -793 657 462, 463 496 569 79 Mereruka Meri-Ra Min-nekht Nefer-hetep Nekht * Nub-kau-Ra-nekht Numbers Osymandyas Paheri ... Pa-Nehsi Pehsukher Pentu Pepi-Nekht Peta-Amen-em-apt Ptah-hetep Qen-Amen Rameses I Rameses II Rameses III ... 674 Rameses IV Rameses VI Rameses VII ... Rameses IX Rameses X Rameses XI Rameses XII ... Ra-men-kheper-senb Tomb of Sabna and Mekhu Rekhmara Roman Period discovered by De Botti ... 655 658 656, 679 496 585 654 657 65 * 607 488 622 691 584 655 585 708 660 496 658 670 674 675 676 679 680 679 679 679 679 655 , 658 650 385 PAGE 707 * 708 Sa-Ptah... ... ... 680 Sa-renput ... 707, 708 Sa-renput-a ... ... 709 Sebek-hetep ... ... 7 1 0 Sebek nekht ... ... 692 Sen 7*0 Sen-mes... ... ... 7°9 Sen-nefer 654, 658, 680 Seti I 171,670 Seti II 674 Setnekhet 674 Setu and Renna ... 692 Shekh Salih 552 Tehuti-em-heb ... ... 659 Tehuti Hetep ... ... 583 Thentkaru ... ... 680 Thetha ... ... ... 7 *° Thi 495 Thi, Queen ... ... 661 Thothmes I ... ... 665 Thothmes III ... ... 665 Thothmes IV 667 Thuau 227, 681 Tutu 585 Userhat ... 659, 680 Tombos, Island of ... ... 754 Tombs 167 172, 385-389, 43 *, 5 * 9 , 578, 649, 706 710 Disfigurement of Tombs of the Kings, Valley of 170, 225, 228, Tombs of the Khalifas Queens, Valley of Tonga Tools made of Chert Tong Tor, Arabs of Toski, Battle of 266, 267, 729* 75 * Tortoise ... ... ••• 64 Tourist Steamers ... ... 2 Tours, cost of 3 > 28, 29, 30 Training College at Asyut ... 586 Trajan ... 213, 214, 241 Trams, Electric ... ... 3 Tramways in Cairo ... 274, 425 Transfiguration, Church of the 545 Description of Mosaic in 545 587 661 462 661 804 66 s 271 527 908 INDEX. Translation ... ... 143 Transmission of Power 1 6 1 , Trask, Surgeon Captain Travellers, Practical, Inform ation for ... Agreement with Cap tain of Boat ... Egyptian opinion of .. Foreign Banking anc Exchange In Egypt Tax on ... Travelling Arrangements PAGE 145 162 753 540 3 i Coupons Travels Trees, plants, etc. Trials, Records of Tribute Amount of Tricon M. Triremes, Fleet of Tuamutef Tuat (Underworld) * >3 3 3 i 30 27-29, 525 27-28 165 55 1 66 367 367 259 232 132 662, 663 687 198 47 1 Tud, or Tuphium Tui Ibn-Tulun ... ... 247 Mosque of 296, 297, 303, 3 <> 9 , 3 * 3 , 3 M, 450 Tulunid Khalifas, The ... 247 T uman Bey ... ... . .. 254 Tumblers ... ... ... 322 Tur 540 Turanshah 252, 297 Turbo, Fortress of ... ... 245 Turkish Army defeated by the French ... ... ... 256 Turkish Bath ... 21,320 Pound ... ... ... 5 Rule in Egypt 255 Turkish Fleet destroyed ... 257 Turks 293 Turquoise made into Amulets 535 Turquoise Mines ... 222, 535 Tura Quarries ... 479, 500 Turtles ... ... 64 Tushki 266 Tushratta ... ... ... 226 Tusun _ , 256,257 Tut-ankh-Amen-heq-Annu resu 197, 227 PAGE Tuti Island 264, 785 Tutu, Tomb of ... ... 585 Tutun... ... ... ... 61 Twelve Apostles, Chapel of 551 Twelve Gates ... ... 114 Two Brothers, Story of ... 166 Two Dynasties (XXIst) ... 230 “ Two Lands,” The 72,217 “ Two Mountains ” ... ... 687 Tylor, Mr. J. J 691 Typhonium ... ... ... 598 Tyre, Conquered by Crusaders 250 u. Uah-ab-Ra (Apries Uahet Uasarkena ... Uatchet 124 Uaua, The ... Uhud, Battle of ‘Ukashah Ukiyah Ukka ... ‘Ukmeli Umi River Umm al-Beda Umm al-Ka‘ab Umm al-Kuman Umm Dabrekat Umm Sha‘ban Una ... Unas ... 88, 204, 233 54, 513, 520, 521 231 132, 188, 218 222, 728 328 753 7 7 753 808 509 594 576 269, 741 Mosque of... 303 221, 494, 500 191, 200, 221 Mummy of ... ... 49 2 Pyramid of ... 220, 49 2 Underworld ... iso, I 13, B! 4 » 170, 664, 665, 666 Unified Debt... Un-nefer Unu-Amen, Journey of Upper Egypt Upper Nile ... Urseus ... 64, Urban Urt-hekau User hat Tomb of ... Usertsen I 92 Statue of 670 367 *25 165 292 805 188 292 125 680 222, 474 , 475 , 579 , 709 , 722 503, 574 259 , 125, 659 , INDEX. 909 PAGE Usertsen II ... 192, 222, 574, 579 , 583 Statue of 503 Tomb of 574 Usertsen III... 192, 222, 497, 583, 722, 752 Statue of 503 Ushabtiu figures 162, 433 Ushuri Land... 6 1 Usr-en-Ra 488 Usr-ka-f ... I 9 L 578 Usr-khau-Ra-setep-en-Ra- meri-Amen Sekt-Nekht ... 189 Ut 54 Utchat, The ... 435 V. Vaballathos ... ... ... 242 Valerianus ... ... 242, 380 Valley of the Tombs of the Kings 170, 225, 228, 661 Valley of the Tombs of the Queens ... ... ... 66 1 Value of Crops and Land doubled ... ... ... 361 Vases, Set of, from Tomb ... 682 Vegetables ... ... ... 57 Vendetta in force ... ... 527 Verschoyle, Mr. ... ... 88 Vespasian 73, 212, 213, 241, 502 Victoria, Lake 78, 79, 82, 812 Victoria N ’yanza ... 8 1 o , 8 1 2 Vine 55 Virgin, Church of ... 469, 470 Chapel of ... ... 549 Virgin Mary, Chapel of the Holy Belt of the 551 Virgin’s Tree, Fall of ... 473 Virgin’s Well, The ... ... 473 ! Visit, Length of ... ... 1 Visit to Jerusalem (Copts) ... 290 j Vitellius ... ... 212-240 1 Vocabulary (English -Arabic) 831 859 “ Vocal Memnon” ... ... 623 j Vollers, Dr. ... ... ... 445 j “ Voyage ” (Cailliaud’s) 761,773 Vulture 63, 109, 125, 188, 435 Vyse, Howard 483, 488, 492 PAGE w. Wad an Nagumi 266, 267, 751 Wad Ba Nagaa 226, 78s Waddington, M. 2 5 8 Wadelai 8lO Wadi ad-Der 540 ‘Ajjawi ... 539 ‘Alaki ... 728 Wadi al-Homr 534,556 ar-Raha ... 540 ash -Sheikh 539 , 552 as-Sle ... 542 at-Tal 534 Barak 552 Bir-Nagaa 784 Berah 552 Budra . . . 535 Firan 530 , 536 , 539 Gharandel 533 Haifa 2, 45, 48, 60, 64, 80, 179, 222, 228, 264, 266, 268, 269, 349, 714, 722, 734, 748 , 754 Hammamat 103, 816 Hanak al-Lakam 535 Hawara ... 533 Hebran ... 542 Khamileh ■■■ 555 Kuwesah 533 Ledwah... ... 552 Leja 55 i Maghara 67, 529, 532, 535, 536 Mines at 535 Mukattab 530, 53 *, 536 Nasb 556 Natrun ... 54, 68, 508, 509 Rayan ... 51 Sabu‘a ... ... 728 Selaf 539 Shebekeh 534, 556 Shellal ... 535 Sidr 535 , 536 Sik ^ 552 Sudur 532 Suwik ... ... ••• 555 Tafah (Taphis)... 723 Tayyibah 534 Tumilat... 4 * 5 , 564 Uset 533 Werdan... 533 910 INDEX. PAGE Wad Medani 742, 797 Wad Ramla ... ... ... 784 Waghorn, Thomas ... 411,412 Advocates Overland Route... ... ... 412 Dies in Penury... ... 4 12 “ Wakala ” (Store) 463 Warriba Range ... ... 270 Water Supply regulated ... 361 WaterWheel ... ... 70 Watson, Captain ... ... 424 Waw 79, 271, 742 Weights ... ... ... 7 Weights and Measures, French and English com- pared ... ... ... 8 Wekala ... ... ... 3 12 Well of Hammamat... ... 817 Jethro Moses 540 , 549 412 Of the Winding Stairs 25* Shabakat 757 Wells of Abu Klea ... 757 Bored by Romans 5*5 Moses ... 532 Wells, Mr. J 67 Westcar Papyrus ... 16 1 , 1 66 Wheat 56 White Monastery 587 St. Bartholomew and Simon the Canaanite said to be buried there Whirling Dervishes Wilbour, Mr. Wild Animals Wdkinson, Sir Gardner Willcocks, Sir W. 48, 49, 50 5b 53, 56 , 59, 60, 77, 79, 82, 85, 9 b 94 , 95 , 399 , 472, 575 Wilson, Sir Charles... 264, 265 Wilson, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Erasmus Wind Window of the Mosque of Tulun ... Windmill Hill Wine forbidden by Kuran 588 359 7*3 62 73 259 390 38 3*4 4 66 3*7, 340 Care to be observed in drinking ... ... 2 1 Puniship§i}t for Drjnking 3 1 7 PAGE Wingate, Sir R. 65, 172, 269, 743 , 774,776 Winter ... ... ... 21 Wodehouse, Colonel ... 266 Wolf 62 Wolseley, Lord 261, 263, 265, 266,270,417 Women (Fellahin) ... ... 283 Women and Children, Medical Treatment of ... 398 Wood scarce in Egypt ... 55 Wood-carving ... ... 314 Workers in Metals ... ... 313 Works at Port Sa‘id ... 401 Worship of Stars, &c. ... 326 Writing, Hieroglyphic, Cur- sive, Demotic, Enchorial, Hieratic, &c. ... I 33~*45 X. Xerxes, Darius the Great Xo'is 205 , 235 204, 235 ... 223 Y. “YamSuph” 565 Year, Pigyptian ... ... 159 Yel-Bey ... ... ... 254 Yemen ... 248, 318, 328 Yeshkur, Hill of ... ... 451 Yezid (‘Abdallah ibn Zubeyr) 246 Yezid III ... ... ... 246 Young, Dr. T. 136 Yussuf Pasha 262 z. Zahir ... ... ... ... 249 Zakazik 47, 72, 399, 410, 4 * 4 , 418, 420, 504, 564 Zam-zam, Sacred Well of ... 342 Zankalun ... ... ... 420 Zawyet al-‘ Aryan, Pyramid of 477 Zawyet al-Metin ... ... 578 Zedab 771 Zedeldah (King of Judah) 233 INDEX. PAGE Zed ibn-Thabit 330 Zenab 343 Zenab, Mosque of ... 460 Zeno ... 244 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invades Egypt 242 Zikrs ... 359 Zobah 230 Zodiac 598 Zoega 135 Zoological Gardens (Cairo)... Khartum Zoroaster Zuber Pasha ... Zuma ... Zummarah (double-reed pipe) 911 PAGE 689 188 445 790 34i 740 757 322 e©OK’S TOURS ROUND AND ABOUT THE WORLD. IkUm Cook’s Tickets are available all over the World, _ * either for simple journeys or the most complex tours, and give special facilities with regard to break of journey and conveyance of luggage. Clients are entitled to the free assistance of special interpreters in attendance at principal stations and seaports. 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COLOMBO— Victoria Arcade, York St. [Coupon.] CONSTANTINOPLE-12, Rue Cabristan. LCook.] COPENHAGEN — 34, Kongens Nytorv. [Cook.] FLORENCE— 10, Via Tornabuoni. [Cook. GENEVA — 90, Rue du Rhone. [Cook.] GENOA — 17, 19, 21, Piazza della Meridiana, Via Cairoli. [Cook.] GIBRALTAR— Waterport Street. [Cook.] HAIFA — Near Hotel Carmel. [Cook. ] HAMBURG— 39, Alsterdamm. [Coupon ] INNSBRUCK— 14, Meinhardstrasse. [Cook.] (Summer only.) OFFICES: INTERLAKEN— Hoheweg. [Cook.] (Summer only.) JAFFA— German Colony. [Cook.] JERUSALEM— David Street. [Cook.] LAUSANNE— 16, Place St. Francois. [Cook.] LUCERNE— Schwanenplatz. [Cook.] MADRID— 5, Carrera de San Geronimo. [Cook.] MALTA— 308, Strada lteale, Valetta. [Cook.] MARSEILLES— llB, Rue Noailles. [Coupon.] MENTONE— 22, Avenue Felix Faure. [Coupon.] (Closed from May to November.) MILAN — 7, Via A. Manzoni. [Cook.] MONTE CARLO— Credit Lyonnais, Avenue des Beaux Arts. [Coupon.] (Winter only.) MONTREUX— Arcades du National, Bon Port. [Cook.] NAPLES— Piazza dei Martiri. [Cook.] NICE— 16, Avenue Massena. [Coupon.] PARIS— 1, Place de l’Opera. [Coupon.] 250, Rue de Rivoli. RANGOON- 71, Merchant Street. [Coupon.] ROME— 54, Piazza Esedra di Termini. [Cook ] 1b, Piazza di Spagna, [Cook.] (Closed during Summer.) SALZBURG— 7, Schwarzstrasse. [Cook.] SAN REMO— Via Vittorio Emanuele. [Coupon.] TURIN— 2, Via Sacchi rCook.] VENICE— Piazza dei Leoncini, Piazza San Marco. [Cook.] Cook. [Cook. VIENNA— Stefansplatz, 2. ZURICH — 2, Fraumiinsterstrasse, CHIEF AMERICAN OFFICE-245, Broadway, New York. [Coupon.] SOUTH AFRICAN OFFICES— Cape Town, corner of Strand and St. George's Streets. [Coupon Durban, Smith Street. [Coupon.] AUSTRALASIAN OFFICES— Melbourne, Sydney, Wellington, Auckland, &c. & SON (EGYPT), LIMITED: KHARTOUM— Grand Hotel. (Season only.) LONDON— Ludgflte Circus. [Nepthis.j LUXOR— Luxo Hotel. PORT SAID — Quai Francois Joseph. i Cook. "SUEZ — Mr. W. Haydn. OFFICES OF THOS. COOK ALEXANDRIA — 2, Rue Porte Rosette. [Cook.] ASSOUAN — Grand Assouan Hotel. CAIRO (Egypt)— Near Shepheard’s Hotel. [Cook.] HALF A — Near Railway Station. For Office hours see “ The Traveller’s Gazette.” Cook’s Tourist Offices are not open o’ - Christmas Day. Those marked with an asterisk are Correspondents authorised only for the issue of indays or ' j r nr