)WMI htm mi Jllillil /* ■x<& THE AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION; COMPRISING A DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL D i" E-STUFFS AND CHEMICALS USED IN DYEING, THEIR NATURES AND USES ; MORDANTS, AND HOW MADE; WITH THE BEST AMERICAN, ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN PROCESSES FOR BLEACHING AND DYEING SILK, WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, FLANNEL, FELT, DRESS GOODS, MIXED AND HOSIERY YARNS, FEATHERS, GRASS, FELT, FUR, WOOL, AND STRAW HATS, JUTE YARN, VEGETABLE IVORY, MATS, SKINS, FURS, LEATHER, ETC. ETC. BY WOOD, ANILINE AND OTHER PROCESSES, TOGETHER WITH REMARKS ON FINISHING AGENTS AND INSTRUCTIONS IN THE FINISH- ING OF FABRICS, SUBSTITUTES FOR INDIGO, WATER-PROOFING OF MATERIALS, TESTS AND PURIFICATION OF WATER, MANUFACTURE OF ANILINE AND OTHER NEW DYE WARES, HARMONIZING COLORS, ETC. ETC. ; EMBRACING IN ALL- OVER EIGHT HUNDRED RECEIPTS FOR COLORS AND SHADES, ACCOMPANIED BY ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY DYED SAMPLES OF RAW MATERIALS AND FABRICS. F. J BY BIRD, PRACTICAL DYER, AUTHOR OF "THE DYEK'S HAND-BOOK.' PHILADELPHIA: HElsTRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS, AND IMPORTERS, 810 WALNUT STREET. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET STREET. 1882. Copyright by F. J. BIRD 1SS2. Com. ins, Printer. PREFACE. In preparing this volume for the press the author has taken considerable pains to make it a popular exponent of the art of coloring. As dyeing of textile fabrics is of vastly more importance than any other branch of the subject, most attention has been given to it. The various methods employed by the English, French, and German dyers, including the old methods, or standard colors, obtained from woods, roots, barks, etc., and the new methods, or aniline colors, will here be found treated upon, and as far as practicable or desirable, set side by side, or closely following each other, so that the merits of both can be seen at a glance. He has avoided technicalities and high-sounding phrases for the names and terms of the dye-house generally in use, and in most cases has made the metrical weights and measures conform to the English, in order to prevent as far as possible any error in using the formulas. As brown, blue, and black are always the prevailing colors, he has given them the greater prominence and diversity, his object in so doing being not to perplex by multiplicity, but rather to pre- sent the various schools of practice, as experience has convinced him that one man will succeed much better with a certain formula than another, though they both use the same dyestuffs, and appa- rently follow the same plan. Though red is not dyed so extensively as the prevailing colors mentioned, it has a greater variety of shades ; considerable atten- tion has therefore been given to their multiform hues and pro- IV PREFACE. cesses. Other colors receive due attention in proportion to their relative values. He has retained all the standard receipts that were in his former work, as they have given the same satisfaction to his readers as they did to him when in the trade. He has made but few alterations, as but few were required. He has, however, added many others to them, thus giving a much larger choice. A careful selection of the new developments has been made to give a fair representation of what is not only new, but what is considered the most valuable. Indeed, every effort has been made not to omit anything considered essential to make the present work an acceptable guide in silk, wool, and cotton dyeing. It will doubtless be admitted that other branches have received as full a share of notice as a book written chiefly in the interest of textiles could be expected to give, and the patterns have been chosen rather in regard to general usefulness than for novelty, greater prominence being given to colors or shades most in demand. There never was, and never will be, a book gotten up to con- tain a match for every shade that may be brought to it, but the patterns will serve as a general guide, and on account of their diversity will enable a dyer of average ability to catch the idea of how to vary the formula given to suit his purpose. They have also been chosen to represent as many different classes of work as possible, so as to make it useful in all branches of the trade, with perhaps but two exceptions, leather and fur, which are of no great interest except to those engaged in them. From the favorable reception of his former work he argues that this one will be none the less welcome, covering as it does a much larger field, and treating so extensively on aniline colors which were then comparatively in their infancy. He now remembers one solitary man (since designated by the trade, the Grumbler Generally), who wrote to him, saying that he had read the book, and found nothing in it that was of any use to PREFACE. V him. Now let it be distinctly understood that this book is not written for those who know everything, but for those who know something, and wish to know more. He had of necessity to use his discretion in selecting from the materials constantly pouring in from all parts, as — Man's works with empty chaff are stored, "While some do golden grains afford ; Reject the chaff, and spend thy pains In gathering up the golden grains. He has considered that what was most practicable was naturally the most valuable, and he found his twenty years' practice, and five years' hard study and experimenting most useful in deciding pro and con. Everything thought to be of real service has been admitted, including some of less pronounced merit, for the sake of variety, and it is believed that the selections will give general satisfaction. The silk industry having been developed into a considerable, if not national importance to this country, he has given it more prominence than can be found in any other book, as far as he knows, while felt, straw, feathers, jute, flax, linen, cocoa fibre, flowers, etc., find appropriate attention. The mordants, dyestufFs, and finishing agents are treated upon as their importance demands. While it is not claimed that this book will be a cyclopedia, yet this is claimed, that it will be a book of handy reference of strictly practical formulas, intelligible to dyers of ordinary intelligence. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Crookes' " Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing," for part of the standard methods of bleaching, and to a little English book (now out of print), "The Practical Dyer's Assistant," by Jno. Thomp- son, 1849, for some of the standard formulas for dyeing as fol- lowed by himself ; and for some foreign matter to the Chemical VI PREFACE. Review (London), and to the Industrial Record, and the Dry Goods Bulletin, New York. Having received much encouragement from those who were benefited by his former work, The Dyer's Handbook (now out of print), and entreaties to publish another, the author hopes that this revised and greatly enlarged work will prove of yet more service, by which a recompense will be received for the long hours of diligent, honest work bestowed upon it. He will add in conclusion that all the receipts given for aniline colors on mixed goods are of his discovery, he having some three years ago devoted considerable time to finding out, by practical experiment, the colors that would blend or work harmoniously to- gether for producing all the off shades of colors, in order that the woods, barks, roots, etc. might be dispensed with if desired. The success achieved was considerable, some particulars of which published in the American Trade Journals were quickly announced in the European publications. As he has held until now these receipts as trade secrets, compounded to shade and sold to order, it may seem suicidal to publish them while he is yet in the busi- ness ; but as many others since the publication referred to have turned their attention to the same thing with more or less success, and followed the track he marked out, he hereby shows his appreciation of a healthy competition by giving a general insight into his results, which it is hoped may still stimulate further re- search. He has no regrets for any pecuniary loss he may incur in such a cause, as he prefers to leave the world somewhat richer than he found it. If we cry when we come into the world, it is well so to act our part that there shall not be wanting those who will shed a tear when we leave it. F. J. BIRD. Brooklyn, N. Y., September, 1882. TO MY READERS. If thou wouldst learn the lesson well That any teacher hath to tell, Then thou must listen, ponder, weigh, And give attention every day. Don't think you know because you're old, Don't think you know because you're told, But reduce by practice carefully The thing of which you'd master be. The small details don't overlook, Or 'twill be no use to read the book, As you may contemn in letters bold What may be worth their weight in gold. I've tried to bring the useful down To the simplest forms that can be shown, And trust the least that you can say Will be, " 'Tis worth what I did pay." If less instructed there should be Who yearn to learn new plans from thee, Don't grudge to fully him make known What others may to thee have shown. The wise man liveth but to learn, Then scatters knowledge in his turn, Thus blessing, as he goes along, The anxious and inquiring throng. F. J. B. CONTENTS. SECTION I. SILK. PAGE History op the Silk Culture and Manufacture in China . 17 Early existence of the silk industry in China and Persia; Intro- duction of silk into Europe in the sixth century ; Use of silk goods in Rome . . . . . . . . .17 Introduction of silk-worm eggs into the Roman empire under the Emperor Justinian . . . . . . . . .18 Chinese observances in honor of the discoverers of the silk-worm ; Various kinds of silk-worms recognized in China . . .19 Mode of procedure in raising of silk-worms in China ... 20 The seasons or harvests in the districts of Canton . . .22 Great precautions taken to protect the worms from injury . . 23 Amount of silk produced in the province of Canton ; Gauzes produced by the city of Tang-yang-Hien ; Chinese skill in embroidery work ......... 24 Inferior class of silk-worm called the oak-spinner ... 25 Silk Industry of Paterson, New Jersey .... 25 Early beginning of this industry, and its great increase . . 25 Statistics of the silk industry of Paterson, N.J. . . .26 Can We Raise Our Own Silk? 26 States peculiarly adapted to this industry . . . . .26 Statistics of raw silk production in the United States . . .27 Silk Waste in Japan 27 Utilization of Silk Waste 28 The inventions for utilization of silk waste of Samuel Lister . 28 Cleaning, Bleaching, and Dyeing Silk . . . . .30 No. 1, To cleanse and bleach silk white; No. 2, Washing silk . 30 CONTENTS. No. 3, Sulphuring silk ; Effect upon operatives . The softening of silk ; Scouring ; Bleaching .... The softening process ........ No. 4, The dyeing of silk and cotton white. For mixing dyeing scoured silk white ; No. 5, A charge of white on scoured silk . No. 6, Pliable whites ; No. 7, The bleaching of softened silk ; No. 8, The softening process ....... No. 9, Dyeing of soft whites; No. 10, Charging softened silk; No. 11, Of whites for highly loaded silks . . . . No. 12, Whites on fancy chapes, flakes, and braids; No. 13, The dyeing of tussah silk on white ...... No. 14, Dressed cotton dyed white ...... No. 15, Salmon color with aniline; No. 16, Salmon color on silk; No. 17, Flesh color; No. 18, Eosine on silk (dyed pattern}; No. 19, Saffronine on silk ....... No. 20, Saffronine rose (dyed pattern}; No. 21, Saffronine pink (dyed pattern); No. 22, Phloxine ; No. 23, Bengal rose No. 24, Aniline scarlet (dyed pattern) ; No. 25, Flesh color and salmon; No. 26, Scarlet on silk; No. 27, Cardinal (dyed pattern) .......... No. 28, Scarlet with cochineal on silk ; No. 29, Grain, crimson grain on skein ; No. 30, Skein, grain scarlet .... No. 31, Ruby; No. 32, Aniline ruby; No. 33, Aniline claret (dyed pattern) ; No. 34, Aniline garnet ; No. 35, Maroon ; No. 3 G, Maroon on silk (dyed pattern) ...... No. 3 7, Ponceau on silk ;' No. 38, Claret on silk ; No. 39, Cinna- mon brown on silk (dyed pattern) ; No. 40, Vesuvius and Canelle on silk ........... No. 41, Olive brown on silk; No. 42, Havana brown on silk; No. 43, Snuff brown or giraffe on silk; No. 44, Light browns . No. 45, Dark brown ; No. 46, Olive brown; No. 47, Claret brown; No. 48, Seal brown (dyed, pattern) ; No. 49, Primrose on silk ; No. 50, Phosphine yellow ....... No. 51, Tropaeoline yellow; No. 52, Yellow on silk; No. 53, Straw on silk ; No. 54, Orange on silk ..... No. 55, Amber on silk; No. 56, Buff on silk; No. 57, Yellow; No. 58, Another way ; No. 59, Orange color .... No. 60, Aniline primrose or yellow (dyed pattern) ; No. 61, Ani- line yellow and amber (dyed pattern) ; No. 62, Aniline old gold color (dyed pattern) ; No. 63, Salmon; No. 64, Flesh color No. 65, Aniline orange ; No. 66, Sky blue from prussiate ; No. 67, French blue; No. 68, Royal blue; No. 69, Sky blue with indigo pa6b 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 CONTENTS. XI No. 70, Sky blue ; No. 71, Light blue from cotton blue ; No. 72, Medium shade {dyed, pattern) ; No. 73, Fine dark shade (dyed pattern) ; No. 74, Methyl blue No. 75, Nicholson or alkali blue; No. 76, Benzole blue on silk; No. 77, Serge and navy blue (dyed pattern); No. 78, Methyl green silk .......... No. 79, New Victoria green and brilliant green (dyed pattern*) ; No. 80, Light green with acid green ; No. 81, Pea green for silk ; No. 82, Grass green on silk ..... No. 83, Olive green for silk ; No. 84, Olive (dyed pattern) ; No 85, Bottle green and aniline olives (dyed pattern) ; No. 86 Aniline light bronze ....... No. 87, Aniline dark bronze; No. 88, Drab on silk; No. 89 Fawn on silk ......... No. 90, Stone on silk; No. 91, Slate on silk ; No. 92, Lavender No. 93, Another way; No. 94, Mauve (dyed pattern) No. 95, Plum (dyed pattern) ; No. 96, Wine color (dyed pattern) No. 97, Jet black with nitrate of iron on silk; No. 98, Real Paris black on silk ......... No. 99, Black on silk with extract of chestnut; No. 100, Black silk dyeing for jobber dyers; No. 101, A bluish black on silk velvet ........... No. 102, Jet black from nitro-sulphate of iron for silk; No. 103, A new mode for dyeing black on silk ..... No. 104, Rose on bleached China grass ; No. 105, Methylene Blue on China grass ; No. 106, Method for dyeing shots . No. 107, Violet; No. 108, Stiffening silks; No. 109, Finish for silk handkerchiefs ; No. 110, Finishing mixtures for silk . PAGE 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 The Weighting of Silks 62 The weighting of silk . . . . . . . .62 Report of Sir Edward Thornton on the fires traced to the chemical materials used to give weight and color to silk . . . .63 How to Test the Quality of Silk 63 Something about the Crackling Noise ok the Touch of Silk 64 Drying Silk Goods Spinning Silk Waste and Vegetable Fibre To Improve Rusty Silks 65 65 65 Xll CONTENTS. SECTION II. BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. PAGE No. 1, Bleaching wool; No. 2, Wool bleach .... 67 No. 3, Bleaching wool without stoving ; No. 4, An excellent method to bleach 22 lbs. wool ; No. 5, White on wool . . 68 No. 6, To wash white wool goods without their turning yellow in the process ; No. 7, To bleach new or old white goods ; No. 8, Thallab's bleach for wool; No. 9, The latest to bleach wool; No. 10, Dyeing wool white 69 No. 11, A new process for bleaching; No. 12, Bleaching piece goods, Kent's process . . . . . . . .70 No. 13, The continuous process of bleaching . ... .73 No. 14, Bleaching raw cotton in small quantities; No. 15, The bleaching of flax thread, etc., Hodge's process . . .75 No. 16, Patent dry process of bleaching cotton goods; No. 17, Bleaching linen . . . . . . . . .77 No. 18, New method for bleaching linen; No. 19, Method of preparing bleaching liquor; No. 20, Peroxide of hydrogen in bleaching .......... 78 No. 21, Bleaching velvets, etc., that are to be dyed light colors; No. 22, Bleaching union damask after dyeing ; No. 23, To bleach the white in chrome black . . . . . . .79 No. 24, To bleach for printing; No. 25, Bleaching Turkey red cotton stockings ; No. 26, Belgian bleach for linen or cotton ; No. 27, Bleaching ivory for fans, etc. ..... 80 No. 28, To render ivory flexible; No. 29, Bleaching gutta percha 81 The Action of Bleaching Powder on Vegetable Fibres . 81 SECTION III. WOOL DYEING. Raw Wool Dyeing, Receipts 83 No. 1, Orange (dyed pattern)] No. 2, Fast red or scarlet (dyed pattern) ; No. 3, Royal blue ; No. 4, Yellow .... 83 No. 5, Olive drab ; No. 6, Brown drab; No. 7, Stone drab; No. 8, Dark brown; No. 9, Dove color; No. 10, Bottle green; No. 11, Invisible green ; No. 12, Apple green ... .84 No. 13, Ruby on wool; No. 14, Pansy on wool; No. 15, Olive to stand fulling on wool ; No. 16, Dark olive to stand fulling on wool; No. 17, Blood color on wool ; No. 18, Claret on wool . 85 CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE No. 19, Garnet on wool ; No. 20, Dark brown ; No. 21, Cardinal ; No. 22, Fast canary {dyed pattern) ...... 86 No. 23, Malachite green (dyed pattern) ; No. 24, Fast B. red (dyed jmttern) ; No. 25, Aniline scarlets to fix for fulling ; No. 26, Eosine on wool (dyed pattern) ...... 87 No. 27, Rose color on wool ; No. 28, Acid magenta rose (dyed pattern) ; No. 29, Scarlet with cochineal on wool ; No. 30, Scarlet with lac on wool ........ 88 No. 31, Scarlet with lac and cochineal on wool; No. 32, New scarlet on wool ; No. 33, Aniline scarlet (dyed pattern) . . 89 No. 34, Fast crimson on wool; No. 35, Ponceau on wool ; No. 36, Lima- wood crimson on wool . . . . . . .90 No. 37, Cochineal crimson on wool; Nos. 38, 39, 40, and 41, Aniline scarlets ; No. 42, Acid cardinal (dyed pattern) . . 91 No. 43, Acid cardinal (dyed pattern) ; No. 44, Garnet fast ; No. 45, Maroon fast; No. 46 ¥ Maroon with aniline fast; No. 47, Ruby fast 92 No. 48, Claret fast (dyed pattern) ; No. 49, Chocolate or Mul- berry fast; No. 50, Aniline claret fast; No. 51, Plum (dyed pattern)] No. 52, Aniline primrose (dyed pattern) ... 93 No. 53, Aniline straw color; No. 54, Aniline buff"; No. 55. Ani- line yellow; No. 56, Aniline amber equal to fiavine (dyed pat- tern) ; No. 57, Aniline orange (dyed pattern) ; No. 58, Aniline salmon ; No. 59, Aniline flesh color ..... 94 No. 60, Aniline old gold color; No. 61, Buff on woollens; No. 62, Primrose on woollens ; No. 63, Yellow on woollens ; No. 64, Straw on woollens ......... 95 No. 65, Amber on woollens (dyed pattern) ; No. 66, Orange on woollens; No. 67, Orange with madder on woollens ; No. 68, Quebracho wood for dyeing wool . . . . . .96 No 69, Golden yellow dye . . . . . . .97 No. 70, To mordant wool for methyl green, and to dye woollen goods with methyl green : 1st, mordanting. 2d, dyeing . . 98 No. 71, Bluish green ; No. 72, Peacock green (dyed pattern) . 99 No. 73, Alkali peacock green ; No. 74, Pea green ; No. 75, Com- mon pale green; No. 76, Grass green; No. 77, Picric green for 60 yards damask . • . . . . . . . .100 No 78, Olive green; No. 79, Fast green; No. 80, Myrtle green (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . 101 No. 81, Bottle green ; No. 82, Olive ; No. 83, Alkali aniline green ; No. 84, Malachite green ; No. 85, Acid aniline green ; No. 86, Bronze (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . 102 No 87, Stone on wool ; No. 88, Lavender on wool ; No. 89, French gray on wool ; No. 90, Silver gray on wool ; No. 91, Dark gray XIV CONTENTS. PAGE to stand tulling on wool ; No. 92, Light gray to stand fulling on wool; No. 93, Slate on wool . . . . . ... 103 No. 94, Drab on wool ; No. 95, Light drab on wool ; No. 96, Fawn on wool; No. 97, Cinnamon on wool; No. 98, French brown (dyed pattern) . . . .. . . ... 104 No. 99, Light brown or giraffe on wool ; No. 100, Reddish chest- nut brown (dyed pattern); No. 101, Deep brown for cloth; No. 102, Bismarck brown; No. 103, Bismarck brown, another way . . . . . . . • . . .105 No. 104, Acid Bismarck brown; No. 105, Acid brown another way; No. 106, Aniline brown; No. 107, Deep seal brown (dyed pattern) ; No. 108, Olive brown on wool . . , 106 No. 109, Common dark brown on wool; No. 110, Woollen yarn brown; No. Ill, Brown, one dip on woollens . . . 107 No. 112, Victoria blue fast (dyed pattern) ; No. 113, Dark shades down to navy (dyed pattern) ; No. 114, Prussiate blue . .108 No. 115, New prussiate blue; No. 116, Splendid blue, full shade ; No. 117, Indigo blue on wool for topped hosiery ; No. 118, Dark blue for broadcloth . . 109 No. 119, Process for producing mill-fast alkali blue on wool ; No. 120, Dyeing with Nicholson or alkali blue (dyed pattern) . .110 No. 121, Puteaux blue for woollen goods ; No. 122, Soda or pot- ash vat . . . . . . . . . . .111 No. 123, A decomposed vat; No. 124, Indigo vat on a small scale for woollen and cotton goods ; No. 125, Blue on woollens, woad on indigo vat . . . . . . . . ..112 No. 126, Topping indigo blues 113 No. 127, Logwood blue; No. 128, Topped logwood blue on vat ground; No. 129, Indigo blue, part logwood; No. 130, Dark blue; No. 131, Logwood blue on wool in one bath . . .114 No. 132, Indigo dyed cloth, how to improve so that it will not wear white ; No. 133, A more expeditious way . . . 115 No. 134, Bird's Victoria blue, one dip; No. 135, One dip black on wool; No. 136, Jet black for wool . . . 116 No. 137, Fast black on wool ; No. 138, Fast blue-black for wool ; No. 139, Milling black for woollen yarn ; No. 140, New aniline black for dyeing woollens . . . . . . .117 No. 141, Cloth black; No. 142, Black dyeing of blue cloth. . 118 No. 143, Fast black on wool; No. 144, To dye flannel black and red, fast; No. 145, Good blacks from bad ones . . .119 No. 146, How to obtain a black on goods that have been over- charged with chrome; No. 147, Bird's inexhaustible one-dip black (dyed pattern) ; No. 148, Job dyers bleach for black on . . . .120 woollen goods CONTENTS. XV SECTION IY. FLANNEL DYEING. On Dyeing Wool Flannel Goods in the Piece PAGE 122 122 No. 1, B. B. aniline scarlet (dyed pattern) ..... No. 2, Maroon; No. 3, Claret (dyed pattern) ; No. 4, Dark green olive (dyed pattern) ........ No. 5, Light olive green ; No. 6, Regular shade of green ; No. 7, Sea green ; No. 8, Invisible green ; No. 9, Light brown olive ; No. 10, Seal brown (dyed pattern) . . . . No. 11, Sky blue; No. 12, Aniline blue, light shade; No. 13, Medium shade of blue ; No. 14, Crimson ; No. 15, Aniline crim- son; No. 16, Acid magenta ....... No. 17, Silver drab; No. 18, Darker shade drab; No. 19, Violet; No. 20, Blue black; No. 21, Full black; No. 22, Alkali blue (dyed pattern) ....... No. 23, Aniline navy blue (dyed pattern) ; No. 24, Night green ; No. 25, Peacock blue "... No. 26, Cardinal red ; No. 27, Dark fawn color ; No. 28, Darker silver drab ; No. 29, Bottle green (dyed pattern) ; No. 30, Mauve color . . . . . . . . . .128 No. 31, Dove color; No. 32, Lavender; No. 33, Red shade of lavender; No. 34, Brown olive ; No. 35, Green olive . . 129 123 124 125 12G 127 SECTION V. FELT PIECE DYEING. No. 1, Scarlet (dyed pattern) ; No. 2, Bright blue (dyed pattern) 130 Nos. 3, 4, 5, Dark blue [dyed pattern) ; No. 6, Brown [dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . . .131 No. 7, An excellent brown ; No. 8, Cardinal (dyed pattern) ; No. 9, Claret (dyed pattern) 132 SECTION VI. MISCELLANEOUS WOOL DYEING, ETC. One Dip Dyeing oe Extract 134 No. 1, Extract wool ; No. 2, Dark yellow with nitric acid and turmeric ..'. . . . -. . . . 134 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE No. 3, Bronze {dyed pattern) ; No. 4, Maroon or fast red (dyed pattern) ; No. 5, Darker fast red (dyed pattern) ; No. 6, Claret [dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . 135 Dark Extract Stock 136 No. 7, Light brown (dyed pattern) ; No. 8, Medium brown (dyed pattern) ; No. 9, Dark brown (dyed pattern) ; No. 10, Serge blue (dyed pattern) ......... 136 No. 11, Darker blue (dyed pattern); No. 12, Navy blue (dyed pattern) ; No. 13, Worsted, wool, yarn, and flannel dyeing mistakes corrected .. . . . . . . .137 No. 14, Yarn dyeing, two colors 138 SECTION VII. SUBSTITUTES FOR INDIGO. No. 1, Knab's indigo substitute; No. 2, J. R. Gergy's indigo sub- stitute ; No. 3, Artificial alizarin ...... 140 No. 4, A new substitute for indigo ...... 141 No. 5, Indigo, and its artificial production ..... 142 No. 6, Blue dye 143 No. 7, Compound indigo blue dye ...... 144 No. 8, Artificial indigo, Dr. Baeyev's ...... 145 No. 9, A new method of dyeing and printing by means of indigo 146 Further Remarks on Zinc Blue 149 SECTION VIII. DYEING DRESS GOODS. No. 1, Light green ; No. 2, Dark green (dyed pattern) ; No. 3, Darker green (dyed pattern) ....... No. 4, Peacock (dyed pattern) ; No. 5, Bronze (dyed pattern) ; No. 6, Olive (dyed pattern) ; No. 7, Dark bronze (dyed pattern) .......... No. 8, Darker bronze (dyed pattern) ; No. 9, Gray on cotton or mixed goods (dyed pattern); No. 10, Drab; No. 11, Dark gray (dyed pattern) ........ No. 12, Drab; No. 13, Fawn drab; No. 14, Dark fawn drab; No. 15, Lavender drab ; No. 16, Yellow drab ; No. 17, Heavy dark drab .......... 150 151 152 153 . CONTENTS. XV11 PAGE No. 18, Blue slate {dyed pattern) ; No 19, Blue, very light, for cotton and wool mixed ; No. 20, Blue for cotton and wool mixed goods (dyed pattern) ; No. 21, Blue darker shades mixed goods (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . .154 No. 22, Aniline blue on woollen mixed clothing; No. 23, Sky blue ; No. 24, Dark aniline blue ; No. 25, Navy blue ; No. 26, One dip blue .......... No. 27, Victoria blue; No. 28, Eosine on mixed goods; No. 29, Pink ; No. 30, Magenta on cotton or mixed goods ; No. 31, Claret on cotton or mixed goods (dyed pattern) No. 32, Maroon for cotton or mixed goods (dyed pattern?) ; No. 33, Maroon (dyed pattern) ; Nos. 34, 35, Claret color (dyed pattern) ; No. 36, Aniline scarlet ...... No. 37, Crimson; No. 38, Aniline cardinal; No. 39, Prune (dyed pattern) ; No. 40, Plum (dyed pattern) ; No. 41, Pansy on woollen mixed clothing ....... No. 42, Violet on cotton or mixed goods ; No. 43, Brown, light shade, on cotton or mixed goods ; No. 44, Brown, a darker shade, on cotton or mixed goods ; No. 45, Brown, dark shade, on cotton or mixed goods (dyed pattern) ; No. 46, Brown, very dark, on cotton or mixed goods (dyed pattern) . . . . .159 No. 47, Chestnut brown on dresses with cotton warp ; No. 48, Cutch brown on dress goods, mixed cotton, and wool . .160 No. 49, Brown on dresses with cotton warp ; No. 50, Chestnut brown; No. 51, Olive brown; No. 52, Bronze brown; No. 53, Light bronze 161 No. 54, Claret brown; No. 55, Chocolate brown; No. 56, Tan (dyed pattern) ; No. 57, Black on mixed goods; No. 58, Bird's one-dip black for cotton and mixed goods .... 162 No. 59, Black on silk and cotton clothes ; No. 60, Black on dresses with cotton warp . . . . . . .163 155 156 157 158 SECTION IX. DYEING MIXED AND HOSIERY YARNS. Mixed Yarns No. 1, Yellow ; No. 2, Orange color ; Nos. 3 and 4, Yellow ; No. 5, Orange ; No. 6, Gray (dyed patterns) No. 7, Dark gray (dyed pattern) ; No. 8, Dark peacock (dyed pattern) ; No. 9, B cardinal (dyed pattern) .... No. 10, R. cardinal (dyed pattern) ; No. 11, Claret (dyed pattern) ; No. 12, Dark claret (dyed pattern) ; No. 13, Aniline green on mixed goods (dyed pattern) ..... B 164 164 165 166 XV111 CONTENTS. No. 14, Methyl green upon -woollen and silk; No. 15, Aniline dark green {dyed pattern) ; No. 16, Dark green from aniline No. 17, Green bronze {dyed pattern) .... No. 18, Yellow bronze {dyed pattern) ; No. 19, Yatblue for wool silk, cotton, and mixed ....... Hosiery Yarns PAGE 167 168 168 168 No. 20, Blue (dyed pattern*) ...... No. 21, Medium blue (dyed pattern) ; No. 22, Dark blue (dyed pattern); No. 23, Yellow Bismarck (dyed pattern) ; No. 24, Brown (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . .169 SECTION X. COTTON DYEING. Raw Cotton or Cotton- Wool Dyeing 170 No. 1, Pink (dyed piattern); No. 2, Magenta (dyed pattern); No, 3, Brown (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . .170 No. 4, Dark seal brown on cotton-wool (dyed pattern) ; No. 5, Fast red on cotton with alizarin ; No. 6, Yellowish scarlet on cotton-wool, not fast . . . . . . . .171 No. 7, Blue on cotton-wool ; No. 8, Logwood blue on cotton-wool; No. 9, Apple-green on cotton-wool . . . . . .172 No. 10, Fast green on cotton-wool ; No. 11, Green on cotton-wool (dyed pattern); No. 12, Green, yellow shade, on cotton-wool ; No. 13, Methyl aniline green on cotton-wool; No. 14, Bronze (dyed pattern) . . . . . . . . .173 No. 1 5, Yellow (dyed pattern) ; No. 1 6, Orange (dyed pattern) ; No. 17, Blue with logwood .174 No. 18, Blue (dyed pattern) ; No. 19, Silver gray on cotton-wool for fulling ; No. 20, Methyl violet on cotton-wool, fast (dyed pattern) ; No. 21, Blue violet on loose cotton to stand milling . 175 Dyeing Canton Flannel 176 No. 22, Scarlet (dyed pattern) ; No. 23, Magenta (dyed pattern) ; No. 24, Blue (dyed pattern) . . . . . . .176 No. 25, Brown (dyed pattern) . . . . ... . 177 Dyeing Cotton Piece Goods .177 No. 26, Alizarin; No. 27, Scarlet shade (dyed pattern) . .177 No. 28, Blue shade (dyed pattern) ; No. 29, For darker shade ; No. 30, For yet darker shade . . . . . . .178 No. 31, A new alizarin oil preparation ; No. 32, Turkey red dye- ing with the new oil; No. 33, Examination of Turkey red oil 179 CONTENTS. XIX No. 34, Wool scarlet or azo colors on cotton ...... No. 35, Scarlet on cotton ; No. 36, Dyeing cotton with wool scar- let; No. 37, Bright scarlet to equal wool; Nos. 38, 39, Eosine on cotton .......... No. 40, Saffronine pink for cotton yarn ; No. 41, To dye saffro- nine pink on velvets, velveteens and calicoes ; No. 42, saffronine on cotton .......... No. 43, Dark pink ; No. 44, Scarlet on cotton ; No. 45, Ponceau, saffronine and scarlet on cotton, fast ; No. 46, Crimson on cotton (dyed pattern) ........ No. 47, Ponceau with magenta on cotton ; No. 48, Red; No. 49 Scarlet with red wood ....... No. 50, Crimson; No. 51, Dark red ; No. 52, Maroon; No. 53 Claret ; No. 54, Chocolate or mulberry .... PAGE 180 181 182 183 184 185 On Dyeing the Standard Shades of Navy Blue on Cotton Piece ok Yarn 185 No. 55, Prussiate blue (dyed pattern) ; No. 56, For darker shades ; No. 57, Methyline blue on cotton ; No 58, Methyline blue on cotton piece goods ; No. 59, For light shade, fast No. 60, Gaslight blue ; No. 61, Logwood blue .... No. 62, Light blue ; Nos. 63, 64, Good full blue ; No. 65, Nichol- son's blues ; No. 66, Brown with cutch on tissue (dyed pattern)] No 67, A fine shade of cure on velvets and velveteens . No. 68, Brown on black velveteens (for job dyers) ; No. 69, Orange on piece cotton ; No. 70, Orange on black cotton warps No. 71, Aniline orange on cotton ; No. 72, Orange yellow on cotton tissue ........... No. 73, Chrome orange dyeing on cotton ; No. 74, Preparation of the milk of lime ......... No. 75, Process to raise the orange ; No. 76, Orange with annatto on linen; No. 77, Drab (dyed pattern)] No. 78, Blue drab; No. 79, Slate (dyed pattern) ....... No. 80, Drab on cords or fustians and midshades ; No. 81, Dark drab on cords; No. 82, Silver drab on velvets and velveteens;- No. 83, Prussiate fast green (dyed pattern) .... No. 84, Sanders red ; No. 85, Crimson on cotton flannel*; No. 86, Scarlet on cotton flannel ; No. 87, Leather brown fast ; No. 88, Medium dull green fast ........ No. 89, Light slate gray fast; No. 90, Methyl violet, fast (dyed pattern)] No. 91, Scarlet; No. 92, On aniline black No. 93, Patent aniline black ; No. 94, Vanadium aniline black . Nos. 95, 96, Aniline black ....... 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 199 200 XX CONTENTS. PAGE No. 97, Cotton black to stand fulling; No. 98, A bright and very- deep black for cotton; No. 99, Another black, a fast color on cotton 201 No. 100, Black on linen; No. 101, Black on cotton yarn . . 202 Nos. 102, 103, Blacks . 203 No. 104, Black ; No. 105, Black on cotton velvet ; No. 106, Black velvet dyeing'for cotton piece ....... 204 No. 107, Discharging or stripping black velvets, etc. . . . 205 No. 108, For re-black velveteens ; No. 109, Black on cotton, one dip ; No. 110, Dyeing twist Turkey red by means of alizarine . 206 Dyeing Cotton Yarn 207 No. Ill, Alizarine red on cotton yarn ..... 207 No. 112, Magenta on linen yarn; No. 113, Fast sanders red for linen yarn ; No. 114, Sanders red on cotton {dyed pattern) . 208 No. 115, Mock Turkey red ; No. 116, Scarlet on cotton yarn {dyed pattern} ; No. 117, Fast maroon; No. 118, Pink {dyed pattern) 209 No. 119, Pink or rose with eosine, erythrosine, or rose bengale ; No. 120, Scarlet {dyed pattern) ; No. 121, Magenta {dyed pat- tern) 210 No. 122, Light cardinal or saffronine {dyed pattern) ; No. 123, Dark cardinal {dyed pattern) ; No. 124, Claret {dyed pattern) ; No. 125, Dark claret {dyed pattern) ..... 211 No. 126, Chrysoidine on cotton yarn; No. 127, Yellow with phos- phane; No. 128, Aniline orange {dyed pattern') ; No. 129, Gold color {dyed pattern) ; No. 130, Orange with chrome on twist- . 212 No. 131, Bright yellow on cotton yarn {dyed pattern) ; No. 132, Yellow with turmeric ; No. 133, Yellow with fustic or bark ; No. 134, Fast indigo green {dyed pattern) ; No. 135, Bronze on yarn {dyed pattern) . . . . . . . .213 No. 136, Bronze on yarn {dyed pattern) ; No. 137, Cotton green ; No. 138, Malachite green {dyed pattern) .... 214 No. 139, Moss green on twist; No. 140, Myrtle on yarn; No. 141, Peacock green or ceruleine on cotton yarn . . . 215 No. 142, Peacock blue or ceruleine on cotton yarn ; No. 143, Cotton blue {dyed patterns) ; No. 144, Navy or indigo mock blue on yarn {dyed pattern) . . . . . . .216 No. 145, Red shade indigo mock blue {dyed patteni) ; No. 146, A fast reddish-brown on twist; No. 147, Reddish-brown on yarn {dyed pattern) . . . . . . . .217 No. 148, Seal brown {dyed pattern) ; No. 149, Bedder shade {dyed pattern) ; No. 150, Violet B. {dyed pattern) . . 218 CONTENTS. XXI SECTION XI. MISCELLANEOUS DYEING, CLEANING, BLEACHING, AND OTHER PROCESSES. Feather Cleaning and Dyeing Nos. 1, 2, To clean white feathers ; No. 3, To clean old feathers No. 4, Feather dyeing ; No. 5, A simple way to dye feathers brown .......... No. 6, To dye feathers black ; No. 7, Black feathers No. 8, Black on old feathers ...... Bleaching and Dyeing Straw Hats No. 9, Bleaching straw hats ...... Nos. 10, 11, Bleaching straw hats ; No. 12, Straw dyeing black No. 13, Gray, No. 14, Maroon • No. 15, Good brown for straw; No. 1G, Brown; No. 17, Old Gold No. 18, Cardinal; No. 19, Green; No. 20, Blue; No. 21 Bronze, light shade ; No. 22, Bronze, dark shade ; No. 23 Plum color ; No. 24, Iron Gray ..... No. 25, Cutch brown; No. 26, Catechu brown ; No. 27, Dyeing straw hats black ........ Nos. 28, 29, Black Felt, Fur, and Wool Hat Dyeing No. 30, Remarks on dyeing felts . No. 31, Black for 100 felt hats; No. 32, Maroon on 100 felt hats ......... No. 33, Green; No. 34, To produce a prussiate green No. 35, Brown; No. 36, Deeper shades; No. 37, The deepest browns and even blacks ; No. 38, Dark brown on felt ; No. 39 Brown one-dip ; No. 40, Black one-dip No. 41, Bronze all shades; No. 42, To clean white felt hats No. 43, To clean colored felt hats ; No. 44, To clean dark or black felt or silk hats ; No. 45, Yellow ; No. 46, Silver gray No. 47, Common gray . No. 48, A good black ; No. 49, Red Rose ..... No. 52, Reds ; No. 53, Blue . Bleaching and Dyeing of Jute Nos. 54, 55, 56, Bleaching jute . ; No 50, Cerise ; No. 51 PAGE 219 219 220 221 222 222 222 223 224 225 226 227 227 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 233 233-236 B * XX11 CONTENTS. PAGE No. 57, Kose on bleached jute yarn ; No. 58, Blue on bleached jute yarn ; No. 59, Scarlet on bleached jute yarn No. 60, Mode yellow on bleached jute yarns ; No. 61, Copper bronze on jute yarn ; No. 62, Mode green on bleached jute yarns ; No. 63, Green bronze on jute yarns ; No. 64, Gold yellow on bleached jute yarns ; No. 65, Rusty bronze on bleached jute yarns ............ No. 66, Light yellow on bleached jute yarns; No. 67, Cerise on jute; No. 68, Brown on jute; No. 69, Red on jute; No. 70, Blue on jute; No. 71, Magenta on jute ..... No. 72, Aniline green for jute yarn ; No. 73, Golden yellow for jute ; No. 74, Dark green for jute ; No. 75, Bright green for jute; No. 76, Brown for jute . ...... 236 237 238 239 240 Dyeing Vegetable Ivory Buttons No. 77, Black; No. 78, Brown; No. 79, Drabs, grays, and modes ; No. 80, Olives ; No. 81, Spotted and marbled buttons 240 No. 82, Aniline colors for buttons; No. 83, Green; No. 84, Red; No. 85, Scarlet; No. 86, Orange; No. 87, Plum; No. 88, Bronze ........... 241 Cleaning, Dyeing, etc., of Mats, Skins, Furs, Leather, etc. 241 No. 89, To cleanse white wool mats ; No. 90, To cleanse colored wool mats 241 No. 91, Dyeing sheepskin mats ; Nos. 92, 93, To soften skins ; No. 94, To clean white furs ; No. 95, To clean colored furs . . 242 No. 96, To preserve the skins of birds and small animals ; No. 97, A mixture to soften skin and leather; No. 98, To clean white kid boots ; No. 99, To clean kid or leather gloves ; No. 100, To clean white leather gloves ...... 243 No. 101, To dye kid leather black; No. 102, Gray; No. 103, Dyeing of kid gloves and skins ...... 244 Cleaning Tissues with Mineral Oils 245 Cleaning Ribbons, Tissues, Kid Gloves, etc 248 No. 104, Durand's benzine 248 No. 105, Dry dyeing with benzine ; No. 106, Steam dyeing by job dyers 249 Water-proofing Cotton and Woollen Materials . . 250 No. 107, Water-proofing linen and cotton fabrics; No. 108, Direc- tions for rendering woollen materials water-proof ; Nos. 109, 110, To render cloth and other materials impervious to water . 250-251 No. Ill, Impregnation with India rubber; No. 112, Impenetrable double cloth 251 CONTENTS. XXlll Water Tests Test for hard or soft, for earthy matters or alkali, for carbonic acid, for magnesia, for iron, for lime Test for acid, for copper, for lead, for sulphur Waste Occasioned by Hard Water . Purification of Water No. 113, To soften hard well water No. 114, How to soften hard water Grant's Filter page 252 252 253 253 253 254 255 257 SECTION XII. FINISHING OF SILK, COTTON, WOOL, SHODDY, ETC. No. 1, Silk; No. 2, Shoddy 258 No. 3, Cotton 260 No. 4, Wool 262 No. 5, Cotton warp finish; No. 6, Giving a finish to sewing cot- ton, twist, etc. (German method) ; No. 7, A finish which can- not be chemically affected (M. Grouchy's process) . . . 263 No. 8, Starch in English cotton goods ; No. 9, To prevent gum or stiffening from becoming mouldy ...... 264 No. 10, To prevent flannels shrinking; No. 11, Another way to prevent woollen goods shrinking; No. 12, Application of sul- phate of barytes in finishing fabrics ...... 265 No. 13, Glazed black on cottons; No. 14, Finish for domestics; No. 15, Finish with farina; No. 16, Dyed yarns with a hard finish . .266 No. 17, New device for raising a nap on cloth .... 267 No. 18, Dyeing and finishing woollen goods . . . .268 No. 19, To render wood and tissues non-inflammable . . . 271 No. 20, The way to wash mixed dye-goods ; No. 21, M. Garmer's system of finishing tissues ....... 272 No. 22, Apparatus for a uniform distribution of finish by Mr. Blow ; No. 23, Beating machine for tissues . . . . .273 No. 24, Calendering machine for silk finishing ; No. 25, Yarn with fancy curls : . . . . . . . . .274 No. 26, Velvet nap on woollen .... . 275 XXIV CONTENTS. SECTION XIII SOME ANILINE AND OTHER NEW DYE WARES AND PROCESSES, ETC. PAGE No. 1, The value of bichromate of potash 276 No. 2, Glycerine in weaving, printing, and dyeing . . .277 The Use of Glycerine in Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing . 277 No. 3, Dark shades of aniline color, how to make them ; No. 4, Salmon by azo-scarlet and orange ; No. 5, Indigo blue shade ; No. G, Gold color; No. 7, Yellow bronze .... 279 No. 8, Dark bronze; No. 9, Fiery bronze; No. 10, Very dark bronze or olive ; No. 11, Brown; No. 12, Red brown ; No. 13, Dark brown ; No. 14, Fulling brown; No. 15, Dark colors on cotton or mixed goods by aniline; No. 16, Fine blue, semi- fast 280 No. 17, Puce; No. 18, Plum; No. 19, Claret; No. 20, Maroon; No. 21, Bronze; No. 22, Scarlet ; No. 23, Coal tar colors, how to choose and mix ......... 281 No. 24, First coal tar color 282 No. 25, New dyes 283 No. 26, New colors for printing tissues . . . . . 284 No. 27, Viridine 286 No. 28, "Waste of wool in dyeing • . 287 No. 29, Red, violet, and green dyes ; No. 30, Dyeing with new colors, orange, ponceau, and bordeaux colors by means of azo- conjugated dyes (Couleurs azoconjuguees) .... 288 The Dyeing of Wool in the Piece 290 No. 31, Dyeing cotton; No. 32, Decorative effects on figured and knit tissues ; No. 33, Practical examination of aniline colors . 292 No. 34, Washing and rinsing wool ; No. 35, Dyeing woollen yarns; No. 36, Method of dyeing yarn in skeins, rainbow-like ; No. 37, A new aniline dye ......... 294 No. 38, A blue dye ; No. 39, Wool dyeing .... 295 No. 40, The colors of croissant bretonniere . .... 296 No. 41, Cachou de laval 297 No. 42, Production of coloring matter from paranitrobenzol. (O. Fisher) ; No. 43, New coloring matter ; No. 44, Remarks on bleaching ; No. 45, Negrotine ....... 298 No. 46, New fast colors ; No. 47, Fast scarlet for cotton ; No. 48, Aniline black with the new oil 299 CONTENTS. XXV No. 49, Lightfoot's aniline black crystals, soluble in alcohol and water ; No. 50, Improvements in aniline black dyeing on cotton and other fibres in a raw, spun, or woven condition . No. 51, A new class of coloring matters . . . . . No. 52, Naphthaline colors ....... No. 53, Production of dyes by electricity ..... No. 54, New bleaching method ; No. 55, Sulphurous acid for the bleaching of silk ......... No. 56, New process of bleaching straw and wool; No. 57, New method of silk bleaching (MM. Pelangie and Bedu) No. 58, Discharge of aniline dyes; No. 59, To prepare everlasting flowers for dyeing ......... No. 60, Sure test for archil; No. 61, Chaudet's patent alizarine oil; No. 62, Removal of stains and spots . No. 63, To remove nitrate of silver stains from woollen or linen cloths of any kind ......... No. 64, To extract paint and tar; No. 65, To extract wax tallow spots ; No. 66, Good scouring soap ; No. 67, To make soft soap No. 68, Test for soap; No. 69, Washing crystals ; No. 70, Finest "elastic starch ; No. 71, Berlin brilliant dressing starch ; No. 72, Annualizing of vegetable fibre No. 73, Latest triumph on fixing the azo colors upon cotton No. 74, AVonders of aniline chemistry .... No. 75, The so-called dry dyeing with benzine . No. 76, Indophenol ........ PAGE 300 301 302 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 313 318 321 322 SECTION XIV. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. The Names of Colors 323 Mordants, their Nature and Use, and how to make them . 325 No. 1, Oil mordants for aniline colors ; No. 2, Tannin as a mor- dant, and how to make . . . . . . . .325 No. 3, The application of tannic acid and glue for fixing aniline colors ........... 327 No. 4, Mordant for aniline colors on cotton ; No. 5, Mordants for aniline colors . . . . . . . . .329 No. 6, Methylated spirit as a mordant ; No. 7, Tannic acid and its advantages ; No. 8, Improved aniline mordant . . .330 No. 9, Starch valuable to fixed colors ; No. 10, Aleppo galls as an aniline mordant; No. 11, China galls as an aniline mordant; No. 12, Myrobalans ; No. 13, Sumac 331 XXVI CONTENTS. No. 14, Cutch; No. 15, Valonia ; No. 16, Scarlet spirits . No. 17, Lac scarlet spirits ; No. 18, Scarlet spirits, another way ; No. 19, Solution of tin for general purposes ; No. 20, Muriate of tin; No. 21, Double muriate of tin; No. 22, Crimson spirit (for cardinal shades) ; No. 23, Nitrate of tin ; No. 24, Nitric acid or aqua-fortis . No. 25, Nitrate of iron ; No. 26, Nitrate of copper ; No. 27, Oxalic tin; No. 28, Substitute for cream of tartar ; No. 29, Mordant in lieu of tartar in wool dyeing ..... No. 30, Chrome or bi-chromate of potash; No. 31, Black mor- dant; No. 32, Pyrolignite of iron ; No. 33, Acetate of iron ; No. 34, Sulphate of iron ; No. 35, Nitrate of iron No. 36, Red liquor ; No. 37, A new mordant for dyeing aniline blue on cotton; Nos. 38, 39, Liquid tartar; No. 40, Prepara- tion of the acetate of .alumina or red liquor; No. 41, Acetate of alumina or red liquor ........ No. 42, Acetate of alumina ; No. 43, Sulphate of alum ; No. 44, Stannate of soda ; No. 45, Red liquor ; No. 46, Tartar emetic PAGE 332 333 334 335 336 337 The Dye Wares 337 Alum, Annotta . . . . . . . . . .337 Archil, Ammonia, Argol, Prussiatc of potash, Quercitron bark . . 338 Salllower, Super-argol, Camwood and Barwood, Catechu, Chemic or Sulphate of indigo . . . . . . . . .339 French berry, or Persian berry, Saunders or red sandal, Sapan wood, Suriiae, Fustic, or Young fustic . . . . . . . - 340 Galls, Indigo, Kermes or lac dye, Logwood, Peachwood, Lima-wood, and Brazil-wood, Madder . . . . . . . .341 Cochineal, Cudbear, Turmeric, Myrobalans, Glauber's salt, and its use in dyeing ........... 342 Ammonia paste, Green ebony . . . . ... . . 343 SECTION XV. COLORS. Primary or elementary colors ....... The contrasting of colors, harmony, discord, and contrast of colors 344 346 SECTION XVI. NEW RECEIPTS AND COLORS. No. 1, Bengale {dyed pattern} ; No. 2, Erythrosine (dyed pat- tern) ; No. 3, Eosine (dyed pattern) ..... 352 CONTENTS. XXV11 PAGE No, 4, Saffronine rose {dyed pattern) ; No. 5, Saffronine pink (dyed 'pattern) ; No. 6, Wool scarlet (dyed patterns) . . 353 No. 7, Neutral brown (dyed patterns) ..... 354 No. 8, Arehilline (dyedpattern) ; No. 9, Acid amber (dyed pattern) 355 No. 10, Fancy dyeing of several shades in the same skein (dyed pattern); No. 11, New cotton violet (dyedpattern); No. 12, Malachite green (dyed pattern) ...... 356 No. 13, Rich brown (dyed pattern) . . . . . .357 APPENDIX. Rules for converting avoirdupois weights and measures into metric Hydrometer tables ........ Comparison of the degrees of Baume's and Twaddle's hydrometer with specific gravities ........ Thermometer scales ......... Comparison of the degrees of Fahrenheit, Centigrade and Reaumur thermometers ......... French measures of capacity ; French measures of weight Glossary . . . . . . . 359 363 364 365 368 369 373 » s » S » AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. SECTION I. SILK. HISTORY OF THE SILK CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE IN CHINA. Silk, the product of the bombyx mori, the silk-worm of the mulberry tree, owes, as is generally believed, its origin to China; at least the silk-worm, the mulberry tree, and the manufacture of silk textiles were long known in China before any mention of them appears in the histories of any of the ancient civilized nations. In Europe silk made its appearance in the sixth century, but long before, the trade in silk manufactures existed to a considerable extent between China and Persia. After the Persians had been conquered by the Macedonians under Alexander the Great, 325 B. C, silk goods were introduced in all the Grecian markets. Some writers believe that silk was known and used as a dress material even before this time among the Jews in Palestine, and they base their belief on the passage in Hezekiah (c. xvi. 10), in which the word " meshi" appears, which they translate "silk," yet even if it is admitted that' the prophet here speaks of silk, it does not prove that the Jews manufactured it. He might have become acquainted with this textile during Babylonian captivity, but it is also doubtful if silk was known to the Babylonians. In Rome silk goods were used towards the end of the republic. Afterwards, under Tiberius, men were prohibited to wear silk 2 18 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. garments, which, it was stated, were only fit to be worn by wo- men, yet we know that A. D. 220, Heliogabalus made his appear- ance in public in silk garments. At that time the price of silk was so enormous that only the richest in Italy and Greece could afford to wear it. The Emperor, Aurelian, for instance, refused a silk dress to his wife on account of the great expense ; this high price was not the consequence of its preciousness in China, but due to the difficulties encountered by Indian and Persian mer- chants in procuring the article in sufficient quantities. The com- munications which China merchants on the one side, and Indian and Persian dealers on the other were enabled to establish were so irregular and incomplete, and the distance from Byzantium to Serica (China) so enormous that it ceases to be a matter of sur- prise that these exorbitant prices were so long maintained. The route between Byzanz and the Himalaya Mountains exceeds 2400 miles, and a caravan from Ptolemacus to Serica required not less than seven months. For several centuries after the introduction of silk into Italy and Greece, it was held to be a composition of the leaves of cer- tain trees, while others believed it to be either a very fine wool or cotton. Virgil, in his Georgics, according to his description of the Chinese evidently believed that silk was made from leaves. But at the beginning of the sixth century, better in- formation prevailed, and all the previous erroneous conjectures had disappeared. Two Nestorian monks had conceived it to be their duty during their sojourn in China to make themselves ac- quainted with the natural history of the silk-worm, and the mode of manufacturing silk as practised by the Chinese. As soon as they had gained all necessary information, they hastened back to Constantinople and reported to the Emperor Justinian the result of their researches. Fully impressed with the commercial im- portance of these reports, the Emperor induced the monks to re- turn to China, and bring from there at all hazards a collection of silk-worm eggs. The monks had no difficulty in obtaining the eggs, but the transport had to be made in hollow bamboo canes ; this importation proved so successful, and the silk-worms fed on mulberry trees multiplied so rapidly in the land of their adoption, that they were soon to be found in all southern European countries. SILK. 19 The Chinese work, Hoai-nan-wary, tells us that Si-ling-shi, the celebrated lady companion of the Emperor Hoang-ti (who reigned 2602 B. C), was the first to raise silk, but already at the time of Fo-hi, the first ruler of China, silk threads were known. The Chinese used silk threads as strings for their musical instru- ments, Kin anschi, long before they wove them -into textiles, but, since the reign of Hoang-ti, it became the especial duty of the Empress and her ladies in waiting to superintend the silk culture, and manufacture of silk stuff manufactured by the court. The Chinese celebrate every year a feast called the Concon feast, in honor of the lady discoverers of the silk-worm. On a fine day, I quote here from Mr. Murrow's Hong Kong Chronicle and Directory of the Ninth Month, the Empress appears before one of the numerous altars dedicated to the discoverer of the silk-worrn, attended by princesses and a large retinue of lady noblesses; after the sacrifice the Empress gathers in golden, and the princesses in silver chalices leaves of the mulberry tree, and feeds these to the imperial silk-worms ; they then wind up a few cocoons, and the ceremony is ended. This time-honored festivity is a counterpart of the agricultural feast executed by the Emperor in the spring of the year. This, however, is not the only homage to Si-ling-shi, as goddess of the silk-worms. She receives high adoration in several im- portant temples in the province of Tsche-Kiang, at which manda- rians act as priestly functionaries. It is natural that an adulation thus inaugurated and encouraged by the highest and noblest in the land finds many imitators in the provinces, and especially among the districts producing silk goods. According to the Chinese work,Tsau-hiry-shu, there are twelve kinds of silk-worms: — 1. The silk-worm who holds three sleeping periods, and whose papilio pairs once a year. (These were first introduced into Eu- rope, and are known in Italy, under the name of terzeni.) 2. The one who holds four sleeping periods, and whose papilio pairs twice. 3. The silk-worm with the white head. 4. The so-called Hi schi-tsan. 5. Tsu-tsan, the black silk-worm of the province Tsu. 20 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION". 6. He-tsan, the black silk-worm. 7. Hoo-cultsan, the ash-colored child. 8. Tsin-mu-tsan, bred by an autumn papilio. 9. Tsin-tschong-tsan, which appears in the middle of autumn. 10. Leu-tsin-eul-tsan, the old child of autumn. 11. Tsin-wei-cao-hiai-tsan. 12. Kin-eul-tsan, the' gold stuff child. In a description of the procedure in the manufacture of Chinese silks, it seems to me the most important point is the culture of silk- worms. Those to whom this labor is intrusted, select a number of male and female cocoons ; this is apparently not difficult, as those cocoons containing males are pointed and smaller than those containing females, whose cocoons are thick, round, and soft. After fifteen to twenty days, the caterpillars slip out and emit a fluid, through which a portion of the cocoons get loosened. All papilios whose wings stand apart at birth are considered useful, while those having crumpled wings, no feeler, etc., red abdomen, or thin back part of the body, or with down, are adjudged as worthless and killed. Of those which have been selected, the males are only put to those females which have left the cocoons on the same day, and every deviation from this practice would be contrary to the conception of a Chinese silk-worm raiser. After one day the males separate, and the females are placed on. a sheet of rough paper, where they lay their eggs. In the northern part of China pieces of cloth are substituted for paper on account of the severity of the climate. The number of eggs which a female lays amounts to about 500, and the time occupied is seventy -four hours. The females die almost immediately after they have laid their eggs, and the males also do not live long after. The eggs are about the size of a poppy seed. After the lapse of eighteen days, the eggs are carefully washed, for which purpose the sheets of paper or pieces of cloth to which they adhere are carefully drawn through earthenware or wooden vessels filled with water. During the autumn months the eggs are kept cool in a room, the sheets of paper hung up back to back on horizontally placed bam- boo canes. In the tenth month of the Chinese year, which cor- responds to our December, the sheets are brought into a clean room, which must also be free from all pernicious influences. On SILK. 21 the third day of the twelfth month the eggs are again washed and brought into the air to dry, in the spring. At last, when the eggs are ripe, the sheets placed on bamboo hurdles, are put into a clean warmed room. Bamboo is the best wood for this purpose, as it is void of all aromatic effluvia. At the time of their birth the worms are black and as thin as a hair; these diminutive crea- tures receive leaves of the mulberry tree finely cut up with very sharp knives, so that the juice of the leaf may be retained by them. During this early existence the worms are fed no less than forty- eight times in twenty-four hours, afterwards thirty times, and when full grown only three or four times a day. Occasionally, viz., once or twice in the first month, they are fed with mulberry leaves, well mixed with bean or rice flour. It is supposed that this mixture is productive of stronger and glossier silk. Like most other spinning insects, these worms have also their times of rest, for which the Chinese have different terms, the first sleep four or five days after birth lasting like all the three first sleepers. Only one day they call hair sleep. The second sleep takes place on the eighth or ninth day, the third on the fourteenth, the fourth and last on the twenty-second clay, so called on account of its longer duration (1| days), the big sleep on the approach of the sleep between which the feeding periods occur. the worms lose their appetites, they lift the fore part of their body and sleep in this position. During every sleep the worm loses its skin and does not awaken until a new one has taken its place. He relieves himself from the old burden by keeping the head out of the skin, the skin finally suddenly bursting. Sometimes the worm, not able to free the hind part of his body, dies. As soon as the skin is burst the worm begins to grow rapidly. Between the first, second and third periods of the rest these little creatures are very voracious. During the first four or five days after the big sleep the appetite of the worm is the largest. When they are thirty-two days old they are full grown, nearly as thick as a little finger, and about two inches long. During the time of their growth they are frequently separated in special vessels to give them more room. The full grown worm is of an amber color. Now is the time when they must cease to feed and 22 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. begin to spin silk (with their mouths) on to the hurdles or frames on which they were hitherto placed. While spinning, the worms move their heads from side to side until the whole body is covered in a cocoon. This takes from three to five days. As soon as this is completed the silk-worm falls into a lethargic state, loses its skin and transforms itself into a chrysalis. The attendants now bring the bamboo hurdles near to a clear and quiet wood or char- coal fire for the purpose of destroying the larvae, which otherwise would turn in about two weeks into butterflies. After the larvae are destroyed the cocoons are gathered into baskets. Women and girls wind up the cocoons by laying the same in boiling water. The outer silk, flock silk, is first removed. After which other working women, especially trained, wind up the inner silk, called " silk pulp," or gallata. With expert work-people the gathering of the silk lasts from eighteen to nineteen days, with ordinary ones twenty-four to twenty-five. Long, white and glossy cocoons yield a thin, good thread of silk ; others, which are broad and of loose texture, give a coarse thread which is mani- pulated into lining stuffs. The larvae are by the by not thrown away, but an excellent dish is prepared by the work-people and eaten. In the silk districts of Canton there are seven seasons, or har- vests. The first begins in the month' of April. During the first, second and third seasons the cocoons are mostly green, only a few are white. Cocoons are numerous. It is singular that in the first season the eggs are all allowed to develop without any at- tendance, no doubt on account of the mildness of spring weather. To attain an equal development of the eggs of all the six seasons, and to insure their being hatched at one time, the attendants pour warm water of suitable temperature upon the eggs of the latter seasons— a kind of artificial hatching, and thus the worms appear all at the same time. There is also a seventh season, called the cold season, for in the month of November, after which the mulberry trees are cut close to the ground, the mulberry trees, or better, the leaves of the same form, are a very important staple of commerce in the silk districts of China. The farmers who cultivate this tree bring the leaves by boats to the large silk cities — Wong-ling, Tuck-low, v.* %!/ SILK. 23 Kevan-tung, etc. — and it is highly interesting to see these busy marts. The foregoing description will show the great care be- stowed upon the culture of the silk-worm by the Chinese. They bestow special attention upon the proper temperature of the rooms in which the worms are kept, not by the thermometer, but by en- tering the room from time to time in a nude state. Lightning is considered injurious to them, hence they are covered with sheets of thick brown paper as soon as heavy weather approaches. Thunder also and any loud noise is detrimental to these delicate creatures, so that the attendants are only permitted to speak in very subdued voices when near them. It is important also to re- collect that the leaves with which the worms are fed must be per- fectly dry, not old and withered, but quite fresh ; else the worms will fill with waste instead of silk and become constipated. They are removed to the wicker-work frames only when the weather is bright and clear. If these rules are not followed the cocoons will be rough and incomplete. The houses devoted to this culture are large and extremely clean, free from all pernicious smell, and the greatest punctuality is enforced upon all the attendants. It is natural that so delicate a creature is liable to sickness. There are two maladies which are most prevalent, the foong-tsun, flatulency, and the tsak-foong, consumption. The first is especially fatal, and should the worms even live through, their silk will be far inferior. The second is caused by exposure to draft. The symptoms are stiffness and the appearance of a bright red color. It is therefore that the Chinese employ a special attendant to see to the careful opening and shutting of doors of a breeding-house. Flies are es- pecially kept away from them, as they not only suck their blood, but also lay their eggs upon them. Some of their precautionary measures are, however, very comical and superstitious, for instance, women when enceinte are not allowed to enter the room where the silk-worms are kept. It is also forbidden to persons in mourning for the period of forty- nine days. No attendant is allowed to eat pepper on tsam- ton beans near to the breeding places ; roasting or cooking with oil is prohibited. In fact, nothing which emits an aromatic smell is allowed ; and no visitor passes through the door of a room in which the precious silk-worms are kept without having previously 24 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. sprinkled himself with water, for which purpose a basin with water is kept near every door. In the silk districts of the north they throw a few grains of sand on the head of all strangers entering these industrial sanctums. In Tai-laong are considerable estab- lishments for silk culture. The silk towns of the province Kwang-tung are very clean and pretty, and totally different from other Chinese towns. Every establishment stands isolated, occupying much room and entirely surrounded by mulberry trees. Thus they keep away all injurious noises and exhalations. The silk houses are well built of brick and the footpaths leading to them are well paved. In the province of Kwang-tung are also the following towns of most importance : Know-hong, Kum- Schok, Loong-Schun, Loong-Kong, Sha-tow, Nam-poon, Lak-low, Wang-sui, Yoong-ak, Tai-laong, See-ne-lam, Hung-tom, Shooll- tung, Kat-ngawn-kwee-schow, Yong-kee, Kro-toong, Kulyow, Taw-Schooll, Wong-tam, Ko-schune, Wong-ngwane-hoong-kan, Kwang-wa, and Pak-kow. The total silk produced in this province is about 100,000 kilos, 220,000 lbs. per annum. In every one of these cities is a market in which the silk is sold in its rough state. These markets are covered in and surrounded by high walls. The buyers are chiefly European merchants and the weavers of Canton. The looms used by the latter in flat weaving are similar to ours; for the weaving in flowers and ornamental goods, they use a very primitive loom, and, considering the extreme conservative character of the Chinese many years will elapse before the Jacquard is adopted by them. Canton is celebrated not only for its fine gauzes, but its silks and satins also. The palm in the production of gauzes is, how- ever, carried off by the city of Tang-yang-Hien. This elegant textile is much used for summer garments by the mandarins and the Chinese upper classes. A very large number of the Canton weavers earn their livelihood by weaving those broad silk ribbons used by the Chinese ladies to envelop their little feet. They are not used, however, as some travellers have erroneously reported, as bandages to effect the shortening of the feet, for which purpose a more common material is used, but as an ornament for their crippled feet and even the whole leg. The Chinese skill in embroidery work is, as is well known, of a SILK. 25 very high order. Canton especially is celebrated for its magnifi- cent productions in this industry ; its altar cloths, banners, and state garments are of surprising beauty. The crape shawls for which the Chinese are so justly celebrated are principally manu- factured in the city of Pa-Kow in the province of Kwang-tung. They also breed in China an inferior class of silk-worms called the oak-spinner. These worms are pretty large. Their home is in Japan, but they are also found in Mongolia and Mandsuria. These worms produce the so-called mountain silk, and the textiles manufactured out of it are very rough. And it is astonishing how large a selection is kept there in addition to the immense stock of goods made on the premises. A large corps of travellers represent this house on the road, and it is safe to say that he is the leading and representative manufac- turer in his line. SILK INDUSTRY OF PATERSON, N. J. From the smallest beginning, in 1839, Paterson now lays claim to the title of the Lyons of America. The silk manufacture of Pat- erson has developed into enormous proportions, and yet we believe it is but just on the threshold of its ultimate career. The beginning was hard, the progress slow, discouragement and disappointments many, but the victory has at last been made complete. There are now made in this country, and mainly in Paterson, a great variety of silk goods of better quality than the same goods made abroad. The largest silk factories in the United States are in Paterson. Skilled operatives have been drawn to this silk centre from Macclesfield, Nottingham, Coventry, Lyons, St. Etienne, and from Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, and all have found remunerative and satisfactory work at better wages than they received in the old country. This foreign population rapidly adapt themselves to the customs of the country and settle into excellent citizens, acquiring means and homes. The total produc- tion of silk in Paterson for eleven years past has been as follows : 26 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 $4,263,260 8,017,172 9,556,700 6,977,264 5,217,616 7,162,948 7,467,756 7,454,780 9,076,968 13,306,672 1880 (6 mos.) 9,156,480 The following figures give a view of the silk manufacture of Paterson at the present time : — Silk Manufacture. Number of firms and corporations Total number of operatives . Disbursed fortnightly in wages . Disbursed annually in wages Capital in mills and machinery (about) Number of power looms Number of hand looms Number of throwing spindles Number of braiding spindles Square feet of flooring space used Pounds of raw silk used per year Value of finished product (for 1879) . Silk Dyeing. Number of firms in addition to private dye-houses Number of men employed Amount disbursed in wages per year . Capital invested (about) Value of product per year 80 12,158 $157,305 $3,869,930 $9,000,000 2,518 1,128 143,618 55,838 1,357,452 1,289,200 $13,306,672 10 742 $397,350 $280,550 $4,125,750 CAN WE EAISE OUR OWN SILK? Many of our States, especially Ohio, the eastern part of Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and northern Georgia, are very well adapted by soil and climate to the production of silk. Several species of mulberry trees, as good for feeding the worms in their early growth as the white mulberry, are found wild from Pennsylvania southward, and are readily raised in other sections. The foreign SILK. 27 mulberry has been much introduced, and is acknowledged to be superior in quality to that of Europe, and equal to that of China. Our southern climate is particularly favorable to the rearing of the worms, which, as they can be more generally fed in the open air than in Europe, are much healthier. While half of them are unproductive from disease in the Old World, the pro- portion here is only one-fourth. The business was very seriously hurt by the extraordinary speculative mania which broke out in 1830 and raged for several years. In 1844 the total product of silk cultivated in the Republic was 396,790 pounds, worth $1,400,000, and in 1850 it was only 14,763 pounds. Of late, silk culti- vation has grown materially within our borders ; and there is no reason why it should not become a very important industry in the south. Some persons have prophesied that, within a quarter of a century, if proper attention be paid to it, it will reach $25,000,000 to $35,000,000 annually. Thus far it has not received, unless in California, any proper degree of care, and when it does receive such there would seem to be no rational doubt of its prosperity. Many of the experiments of the north have been unsatisfactory, and have discouraged efforts in the south, where climate and all conditions are auspicious. Our manufactured silks are excellent in many respects, and we expend so very much for silk — all our women dress in it — we ought to raise a considerable part of it on our own soil. SILK WASTE IN JAPAN. The Japanese make a kind of silk wadding, called mawata, from the waste cocoons, which they use for the purpose of lining their clothing. They dip these otherwise useless cocoons into a lye of wood ashes, or ashes of rice straw, and then open those which require it to remove the chrysalis ; the silk taken from each cocoon is then expanded by the simultaneous action of the thumb and first finger of each hand and this thin layer put upon the ends of thick nails placed into an inclined board. When from twenty to sixty such films have been placed upon the nails they are allowed to dry. Sometimes the silk will be found in such good condition that it can with care be spun by hand, in which case it will furnish a coarse thread which is used for fabrics of a lower quality. ■ 28 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. UTILIZATION OF SILK WASTE. Accident showed Samuel Lister a new world that was waiting to be conquered. Going one day into a London warehouse, he came upon a pile of rubbish which strongly attracted his attention. He had never seen anything like it before. He inquired what it was, and was told that it was silk waste. « What do you do with it ?" he asked. « Sell it for rubbish, that is all," was the answer, ' it is impossible to do anything else with it." Mr. Lister felt it, poked his nose into it, and pulled it about in a manner that astonished the London warehousemen. It was neither agreeable to the feel, the smell, nor the touch ; but simply a mass of knotty, dirty, impure stuff, full of bits of, stick and dead mulberry leaves. In the end Mr. Lister made the offer of a halfpenny a pound for the " rubbish," and the sale was there and then concluded, the vendor being especially pleased to get rid of it on such advan- tageous terms. When Mr. Lister got this " rubbish" down to Manningham, he spent a good deal of time in analyzing and dissecting it, and he came to the conclusion that there was something to be done with it. He found silk waste was treated all the world over as he had seen it treated in the London Avarehouse — as " rubbish." Mr. Lister now set his heart upon inventing machinery that should be able to manipulate this waste and imperfect product of the silk- worm into fabrics that should vie in appearance with materials manufactured from the perfect cocoon. He engaged a number of skilled workmen from foreign countries— men well acquainted with the manufacture of silk in all its branches— and, although at first they viewed their master's experiments on silk waste with suspicion and distrust, they eventually came to think with him that there was " something in it." Mr. Lister spent £360,000 in perfecting machinery for the manufacture of silk waste before he ever made a single shilling by it. In the year 1865 Mr. Lister had accomplished his task ; he had subjected silk waste to so many intricate and delicate operations that he was able to manufacture from it velvet fabrics of great beauty. Many machines had to be invented— machines on a very gigantic scale— before the preparatory processes could be successfully \ < N \ V SILK. 29 mastered; and when this had been done there was the velvet loom to bring into operation. This loom, which is the invention of Mr. Reixach, a Spaniard, gradually grew into a tangible fact, how- ever, and it is considered to be a magnum opus as an invention. Mr. Lister bought this patent, and engaged the inventor's son to superintend its carrying out. Mr. Lister made extensive arrangements for producing the raw material in its perfect form on an estate of his own ; he accord- ingly purchased an estate of one thousand acres in Assam. It was found, however, that the difficulty of obtaining labor in that part of the East was so great that the idea of producing raw silk there had to be abandoned, and the estate was transformed into a tea plantation, and has been used as such ever since. More recently Mr. Lister has become possessed of extensive estates in the Pun- jaub and Dehra Doon, where the Assamese worm has been intro- duced with considerable success, and where, also, the Italian and Japanese worms are being largely cultivated. The Assamese worm, it may be mentioned, does not feed upon the mulberry tree, but upon the castor-oil plant, which produces five crops a year, the leaves of the plant remaining fresh all the year round. Everything that enters within the gates of Manningham Mills is utilized in some shape or other, a surprising variety of articles being produced in all from silk waste. The following may be enumerated by way of example : Silk velvets, velvets with a silk pile and a cotton back, silk carpets, imitation sealskin, plush, vel- vet ribbons, corded ribbons, sewing silks, Japanese silks, poplins, silk cleansing-cloths for machinery, bath-towels, floor-cloths, dish- cloths, and so forth. And all these from the once despised silk waste ! The consequence has been that silks have been greatly cheapened, and that a material which was regarded as worthless has come to have a value in the market, the price obtained for silk waste being now very greatly in excess of the original price paid by Mr. Lister. 30 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. CLEANING, BLEACHING, AND DYEING SILK. No. 1. — To Cleanse and Bleach Silk White. For twenty ounces of silk, make up a hot bath with five ounces of curd soap, in which the silk is turned for one hour. Then make up a new bath with four ounces of soap and work again for one hour, this ungums it. Now rinse in cold water. Sulphur three times and steam after each sulphuring. Rinse cold. Then give a few turns in a good fat soap, hot, wring up and tint in a fresh soap with Alkali Blue, wash twice, then give a few turns in a bath of cold water and acetic acid. Ammoniacal Cochineal and Alkali Blue in their proper propor- tions give all the tints desired. No. 2. — Washing Silk. While in Europe the first process in a silk-throwing mill is to wash the silk with soap in order to remove the gum contained in or upon it, the Chinese are supposed to do this without soap, though the information which has been obtained on this point is not at all reliable as to the details of the actual manipulation. At the commencement of this century a Swede (Grubbins) professed to have seen and practised himself, in China, the washing of silk, which, according to his information, consisted in submitting the silk to a kind of fermentation which destroyed the gum in the course of a few months. This mixture was said to consist, ac- cording to Persoy, of water, salt, wheaten flour, and a paste or leaven made from beans, and prepared beforehand in a peculiar manner. Those who have tried to follow these directions have not succeeded, from which we infer that some important items of ma- nipulation have not been divulged. Later information has, how- ever, led to the belief that the Chinese now decompose the gum on the silk with the assistance of carbonate of potash, which seems a more likely proceeding to attain this end. SILK. 31 No. 3. — Suljjhuring Silk. The silk to be sulphured is washed when removed from the boiler where it has been boiled, and suspended when still moist over sticks in small rooms filled with sulphurous gas. At Lyons the walls of rocks on the banks of the Saone have been utilized for the building of sulphuring chambers. Usually rooms are con- structed with masonry and their walls lined with lead, the object being to screen these chambers from all external influences. Aper- tures admit ventilation when the sulphuring is done. The knots of skeins are placed at a slight distance from each other, and when everything is ready for the operation sulphur is made to burn in the rooms, either in a cast-iron pan as is done at Lyons, or in the hollow of a big stone as is practised in Switzerland, as described by Mr. Philip David in his technical treatise. According to this gentleman there are taken 500 gr. (17.5 ozs.) sulphur to every 10 kilos. (22 lbs.) of silk ; the sulphur is crushed before it is placed in the hollow of the stone ; fire is then applied to the sulphur either by means of a red-hot iron plunged into the mass of sulphur and left to stay there, or, better still, a piece of sul- phur is fired and the burning drops from it are made to fall on the mass. As soon as the sulphur is on fire the door leading to the cham- ber is hermetically closed with strips of wood. The sulphur com- bustion continues for a time, then slackens, and ceases as soon as the atmosphere has lost most of its oxygen. The hard residue on the stone is broken to pieces and burned over again by adding a little fresh sulphur. The sulphuring is continued for twenty, thirty, or forty hours, according to the degree of whiteness to be given to the silk. After this operation shall have been performed a vigorous ventilation renews the air and the knots of skeins are withdrawn in order to desulphur them by simply smoothing them in tanks filled with water. As a moderate degree of warmth facilitates the action of the sulphurous gas, some dyers during the cold season entertain a slight circulation of steam through tubes in the sulphuring chambers, thus keeping up a suitable degree of temperature, not however to be exceeded for fear of accidents. As for the effect upon operatives a large amount of sulphurous gas inhaled by them of course affects the respiratory organs to a 32 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. certain degree, but as there is an access of plenty of air while they handle the silk in the chambers, the injurious action is neu- tralized and the workmen generally enjoy good health ; some have been known to attend to this kind of work during ten and even twelve consecutive years without injuring their health in the least. Chlorine is a great deal more detrimental to health. " The softening of silk" is a process which changes the natural color but little ; but whenever the silk is to be dyed a delicate color, a suitable bleaching has to precede the operation. Hence softened silks are either "unbleached" or "bleached," and the latter are subdivided into " half-white" for medium colors, and " all-white" for the lightest of tints. The treatment of all these species is different; we will assume "bleached soft silk," and state how the treatment is usually carried on at Lyons and St. Etienne. Scouring. — The silk is immersed in a first bath, lukewarm, and with 10 parts of soap in it to every 100 parts of silk ; the tempe- rature is then raised to 25° C. (77° F.), 30° C. (86° F.), or even 35° C. (95° F.), and the fibre allowed to remain in it for an hour or two, smoothing it three or four times, if possible, be- tween two sticks, in order to moisten it well when wringing it. The real object of this process is not so much the scouring of the silk as the one of causing the sprigs of the fibre to expand, to open its pores, and thus to get it ready for the operations to follow. This first soap-bath is followed by a second similar one, in which the above manipulations are repeated ; the silk is then washed and bleached. Bleaching. — Dyers call a " bleaching-bath" or simply "bleach- ing" an aqua regia, prepared by mixing five parts of hydrochloric acid with one part of nitric acid. Previous to being used this preparation is exposed for at least four or five days to a moderate heat of about 25° C. (77° F.). It is then very much diluted and reduced to a strength of 2.5° to 3° Beaume, which corre- sponds to about 20 litres (5.28 gals.) of the mixture for every 300 litres (79 gals.) of water. This dilution is performed in large rectangular troughs cut into silicious blocks of stone or deal tanks. The liquid must have a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.) to 35° C. (95° F.). The knots of skeins are placed on sticks and they are SILK. 33 plunged into the bath and stirred continually, smoothing them out rapidly and moving them from one end of the tank to the other. Usually the operation requires one-quarter of an hour, but at times it is finished in ten minutes and even less, as the case may be. As soon as the bleaching is terminated the silk must be taken out, so that too long an exposure to the acid may not injure the same, for if thus damaged it would be but partially discolored and then turn yellow never to lose this color ; hence great precaution is neces- sary. Besides, silk to be bleached should be of one uniform nature, so that the decoloring may take place with uniform rapidity. Some dyers have for this reason preferred a cold pro- cess, and other substances such as azoto-sulphuric acid or chlorate of potassa with mineral acids. As soon as the desired effect has been reached, the knots or skeins are taken out and immersed in succession in two tanks filled with water, so as to remove without delay the acidulated liquid adhering to them. . They are then sul- phured, as Ave have indicated above. When removed from the sulphuring chamber the silk is hard and brittle to the touch. The Softening Process. — As soon as the silk issues from the sul- phuring chamber it is plunged into boiling water for some time with an addition of cream of tartar. The operation is carried on in a wooden tank Avith about 3 kilos. (6.61bs.) of cream of tartar to every 800 litres (211 gals.) of water ; the heating is done by steam through a tinned tube. It is worked and smoothed in this bath for about an hour and a half. It will soon change in outAvard appearance and soften Avhile expanding. It becomes spongy to the touch, absorbs water with greater ease, and takes the dye more readily. Soften- ing is of the greatest importance, and it is prolonged more or less according to the kind of silk to be treated. Warps for the weaving of silk tissues of good quality have to be handled very carefully. Lighter articles require less softening. Practical familiarity with the weaving department Avill be the only guide in this matter. The operation is wound up Avith a tepid bath intended to thoroughly wash the fibre, and above all to cool it down while keeping the sprigs isolated from each other so as to prevent agglutination. It is therefore smoothed in this bath repeatedly. Cream of tartar is not indispensable ; it may be replaced by sulphuret of magnesia or acid sulphate of soda ; preference is nevertheless given to 3 34 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. cream of tartar, for it is less dangerous than the other sub- stances named, which are too much whetted by sulphuric acid, and for superior manufacturing the use of cream of tartar is therefore more advisable. It is a fact not to be overlooked that the soften- ing process causes the silk to lose more of its viscosity than per- fect cleaning. No. 4. — The Dyeing of Silk and Cotton White. For Mixing Dyeing Scoured Silk White. (By Marius Mayret.) Remarkable progress has been made in dying white both scoured and raw silk, the result to be reached being the same, that of get- ting rid of the dull yellowish color peculiar to silks, in order to replace it by tints more pleasant to the eye. The substances should not draw too fast, the same as raw silks, boiled, should be treated with very weak baths, so far as coloring matter is con- cerned, and they should be neutral. They should even be satu- rated with carbonate of lime by adding chalk or ground alabaster while in water, whenever it is intended to be dyed with indigo carmine or ammoniacal cochineal, the same as in raw. Annato and aniline violet colors may afterward be applied on soap baths and tepid. When boiled silk is removed from the dyeing bath the same care must be taken with which white or raw silk is handled, so as to be able to wash it well. It is then either enlivened or not, at the pleasure of the manufacturer. Organzines dyed white, boiled, are one of the most delicate articles for the dyer to deal with. The greatest precaution will be necessary till they are finally dried ; but in compensation this is the best shape in which silk retains both its strength and its elas- ticity. - No. 5. — A Charge of White on Scoured Silk. When silk is boiled it loses in weight according to quality from 18 to 27 per cent. It may be charged or loaded ere it is boiled, either with sulphate of barytes or bichloride of tin, called charge X. This latter charge or weighting usually adds 25 per cent., nay, even as much as 40 per cent. As they are, however, both metallic, they spoil the touch of the silk despite the soap that .wwn»r»r.r ».'S * V ^ % 1 SILK. 35 passes over them, and are therefore deprecated. A very pure syrup may be used and thus some of the loss recovered, but even this will be at the expense of the fine characteristics of the silk. There is consequently no rational charge for white, and the best the Aveaver can do is to cling to pure silk. No. 6.— Pliable Whites. White on soft silk is usually applied on the tram (or weft silk). Softening is quite a modern operation and has created a special kind of silk placed midway between scoured and raw. The dyer, whenever he wants to obtain a softened white, will, in the first place, have to endeavor to fix the boiling at a point where it leaves the silk albuminous portion of sandy matter, thus leaving it more Aveight than if the same were thoroughly boiled. The plia- ble white dyeing embraces the ensuing operations : the bleaching for the soft process, the -softening of the discolored silks, the dyeing of the softened silks, the enlivening, the charge (weight- ing) of the softened silk, and finally, the wringing operation. No. 7. — The Bleaching of Softened Silk. The bleaching of silk intended for the softening process is done precisely as though raw silk were to be manipulated. Indeed, the treatment only varies from the moment the silk leaves the sul- phuring room. When it is removed from the latter, it is not desul- phured, but is immediately subjected to the softening manipula- tion, a most delicate process. No. 8. — The Softening Process. When the softening is done for white it takes the silk as it issues from the sulphuring chamber. The methods used by various man- ufacturers differ a good deal, much being left to the judgment and caprice of the operator. The fact is that silk when treated with acidulated water, nearly at the boiling point, for some time, loses its gelatine and a waste occurs, which with French silk may reach as much as 15 per cent. Both white and colored when softened are finally wrung. 36 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 9. — Dyeing of Soft Whites. The dyeing of a white for softening takes place the same as previously indicated. As, however, the salts of lime affect the touch, granitic or soft water should be given the preference. In France the water of St. Chamond and St. Etienne is excellent, for it is always slightly alkaline, containing as it does silicate of potassa, which dispenses with adding bicarbonate of lime when- ever the silk is to be dyed with ammoniacal cochineal or indigo carmine. Softened silk may either be enlivened or not, as the case may be, i. e., according to the purpose for which the same may be in- tended. At any rate it has always a tendency to unstring and get downy, and in order to overcome this drawback there is added to the enlivening bath a little gelatine, say 5 to 6 per cent, of the weight of the silk, isinglass being the most suitable substance of a gelatinous kind. Whenever the gelatine dries on the fibre it operates as a sizing. If no enlivening process be applied, the passage through gelatine takes place alone. No. 10. — Charging Softened Silk. The same has been indicated with* reference to scoured silk. The saccharine charge with syrup is the only advisable one, and it is carried out with the same precautions. As a general thing the sugar treatment has for its object to recover the weight lost by the softening process, and consequently to restore to it the weight it possessed when the dyeing commenced. No. 11. — Of Whites for Highly Loaded Silks. These Whites do not differ much from those for scoured silk except in a few details. They are always applied to boiled silks. For grenadines they have to be boiled with a good stretching ap- paratus in which the silk does not shrivel. Brades or flakes may at pleasure be boiled with soap or caustic soda. The great point is to wash them carefully, and subsequently beat them on a stone so as to purge them thoroughly. The sulphuring is done in the same manner as fine silk, and the dyeing of well-decolored silk is also done after the same method. Another important operation «\ 4 N 4"<%'V%"V». * ' * * * * * * SILK. 37 is the finishing of grenadines, braids, and flakes. Sometimes a strong touch has to be given by enlivening with some acid, and a little strength may be imparted by means of gelatine, as has been shown in connection with soft silks. Then again, it may be neces- sary to avoid the hard touch, or it may even be requisite to give them a very soft touch, like, for example, when intended for sew- ing silk. No. 12. — Whites on Fancy Chapes, Flakes, and Braids. All fancies and chapes are treated the same as fine silk with soap, but one passage through it will suffice. The soap may be pretty greasy ; flakes and braids are in preference scoured with caustic soda which burns the down a little while boiling. As for washing it is done the same as with heavily loaded silk, i. e., the dyeing, the enlivening, if a hard touch be desired or claying to get a soft one before they are manufactured, when being dyed they undergo a special singeing process which destroys the down. All silk goods or fancies in the line heavily loaded are intended to be used for lace, upholstery, embroidery, or dress-making, and they are all treated alike, but fancies are usually more exclusively treated with caustic soda than the heavily loaded ones, and fancies and their derivatives are exclusively subjected to the singeing process. No. 13. — The Dyeing of Tussah Silk on White. Wild or tussah silk has not yet succeeded in becoming a formi- dable rival of real silk, for it is not easy to bleach and thoroughly dye. Yet as regards white silk good results have been obtained with tussah by following the method prescribed by M. Lussie du Mottay. Two operations are required, i. e., the scouring and the bleaching. The scouring requires no special manipulation beyond the ordinary one, for it is done in a diluted caustic soda bath of a temperature of 60° to 80° C. (140° to 176° F.) ; the silk is therein, properly speaking, more cleansed than boiled, and the loss of weight varies very much, fluctuating as it does between 10 and 20 per cent. When these silks are well purged they lose somewhat of their brown- ish color, of their hard touch, and disagreeable smell, and they are then well bleached. They are thoroughly washed after they are 38 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYERS COMPANION. boiled in a cold bath of hypermanganate of potassa. In this bath they first assume a dark chestnut color while the bath is discolored. This no doubt arises from the oxidation of the coloring matter of the silk by virtue of an excess of oxygen of the hypermanganate. The bath is discolored in consequence of the destruction of the hypermanganic acid, while there is precipitated on the fibre a less oxygenated product of the manganese the bioxide and the latter dyes it a chestnut color. The silk is then immersed in a slightly acidulated sulphuric acid bath, or one of bisulphite of soda, which removes the entire precipitate bioxide of manganese. The influ- ences thus brought into play in turn by the oxidating and reducing substances used, finally succeed in bleaching the wild silk. This will, however, not be possible if by chance the tussah silk-worm has found its nourishment on oak leaves, for the latter contain too much tannin, and the silk spun cannot be discolored. After the silk is bleached it receives a slight bluing, and may subsequently be dyed with other colors if desired to get the precise white wanted, coming up as it does closer to real silk than any other substitute that we know of. No. 14. — Dressed Cotton Dyed White. For about fifteen years past the high price of silk has caused manufacturers to have recourse to a substitute with which to mix, i. e., a twist called dressed cotton, which nowadays plays a pro- minent part in the weaving of silk. There are selected for it the very finest and most uniformly spun threads, and after these are boiled and bleached they are dressed, i. e., a brilliancy is imparted to them imitating as closely as possible the lustrous appearance of real silk. This dressing or glazing process is an industry of itself, and is obtained by depositing on the fibre a mixture, of true emul- sion, varying very much in its composition according to the formula adopted by the glazier who uses a fecula in the shape of starch, and when the latter is transformed into a hot paste some greasy or waxy substance is added, such as stearic acid, white wax, or paraffine. When cold this mixture remains intimately connected, particularly if it has been stirred sufficiently while in the condi- tion of a warm paste, after this substance is transferred to the » — .' V n '* x\ * ** SILK. 39 threads by means of brushes, and while they pass over two cylin- ders constantly turning, the lustre imitating silk is produced '. No. 15. — Salmon Color with Aniline. Any shade may be obtained by dissolving fast red and orange separately, and then mixing to shade ; the red will largely pre- dominate ; alum and sulphuric acid will work it, and glauber salts may be used to even it, or it may be worked in a soap bath. No. 16. — Salmon Color on Silk. For 200 yards :- 1J lb. annatto For 10 yards : — oz. 5 oz. cudbear. 4 drachms. Boil the annatto, then add the cudbear ; put off the boil, enter and winch thirty minutes ; wash in two waters, and dry. No. 17. — Flesh Color. Proceed in the same manner as for salmon, only use from \ to \ of ingredients according to the depth of shade. No. 18. — Eosine on Silk. In a soap bath add the color, and then add acetic acid ; com- mence cool and bring up to 120° F., then lift and add a little more acetic acid. No. 19. — Saffronine on Silk. Dissolve in boiling water to which a little carbonate of soda is added. Filter the solution, and dye in a bath of water at 100° to 150° F., to which some carbonate of soda is likewise added. Wash and clear the silk in cold water acidulated with lemon juice or tartaric acid. To obtain a yellow shade use a larger amount of carbonate of soda. If the silk take the color too rapidly, add a little soap water to the bath. Preparation of the bath of sul- 40 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. phate of alumina 10° B. : Dissolve the sulphate of alumina in the water ; as the sulphate of alumina of commerce always contains too little acid, it will be necessary to add some acid to the solution of carbonate of soda till the white flocculent precipitate formed re- dissolves again on agitating the liquid. • No. 20. — Saffronine Rose. To a bath of soap add the dissolved color to shade in which a little acetic acid has been added. The soap prevents the color going on too fast. No. 21. — Saffronine Pink. Proceed as for rose, simply using less materials. The following new colors may be used in the same manner: No. 22. — PJdoxine, which is a shade of yellow cast similar to eosine pink or rose. Erythrosine, a shade between saffronine and erosine. No. 23. — Bengal Rose, a bluer shade than saffronine, but not so blue as roseine. very fine shade. See phloxine and Bengal rose in wool yarn. It is a SILK. 41 No. 24. — Aniline Scarlet. Proceed in the same manner as for rose, only use B scarlet in place of saffronine. and Salmon can be produced in the same way by adding a little orange to shade. The scarlet and orange here referred to are the azo colors used for wool. No. 26. — Scarlet on Silk (20 lbs. organzine). Boil for two. hours with 5 lbs. curd soap. Squeeze well, and enter into the dye beck at 122° F., to which so much of the soap lye must be added as to froth. Then add Oil of vitriol . . . . . 8| ozs. Ponceau R. R. (Berlin Aniline Co.) . 2| " previously well dissolved. Enter, raise to a boil, wash, and take through weak vitriol sours, dry, etc., as usual. Before entering the silk the beck should be well skimmed, and the coloring matter should be added by degrees. No. 27. — Cardinal. In a soap bath made slightly sour add three parts wool scarlet and one part acid magenta. For bluer shades add more magenta. For deeper yellow shades add orange. For heavier shades add acid claret. -*msK 42 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 28. — Scarlet with Cochineal on Silk. For 200 yards lbs. annatto, tartar, Bottom I 2 lb For 10 yards : — Fully 1| oz. preparation ) ^ 2 \ 1| qt. scarlet spirits, *g> 3 lbs. cochineal. 1|<< 3i » 2i « Dyeing Bottom with annatto, 212° F., winch for fifteen or twenty minutes, and it should be a full orange. Dissolve the tartar, and put it and the spirits into 160 gallons of water. Winch in this for some time, then let it lie for twelve hours (if this preparation is made hot three or four hours will do) ; grind, and then boil the cochineal ; put off the boil ; lift out of the preparation, and enter; winch till the liquor cools, and the color will be full enough. This color may be done by giving the annatto and dyeing on the crim- son vat made as follows, viz., boil one cwt. Lima-wood ; decant the clear liquor into a wood or stone vessel. Let it stand till quite cold, and add 56 lbs. spirits. This vat may be renovated with killed spirits 7° Twaddle, viz., 3 gallons muriatic acid, 2 gallons nitric acid, 2 oz. sal ammoniac, feed with 3| lbs. of tin. No. 29. — Grrain, Crimson drain on Skein. Add to a bath of hot water three parts of nitrate of tin ; work the silk for two hours, and then wash off well, and enter a bath of three pounds of cochineal ; put it in a bag and fill a tub with boiling water ; let it be poured through a bag in the tub so as to get all the strength out of the cochineal ; enter the silk ; work for one hour, then let it soak in the bath for four hours, then wring it out, then enter a clean bath of water with a small quantity of cochineal liquor added to it, which will 'keep the silk from dulling down. No. 30.^ — Skein, Grrain Scarlet, Dye same as No. 28, and wash off the annatto, soap and ctye, with cochineal about two pounds ; dissolve, and work the silk same as No. 29. SILK. 43 No. 31. — Ruby. It is dyed with cudbear alone ; when a blue shade is required acid a small quantity of ammonia ; when a red shade is required add muriate of tin. No. 32. — Aniline Ruby. Any shade can be secured by dissolving separately acid magenta and acid claret, and mix to shade, and work with or without soap in an acid bath. No. 33. — Aniline Claret. Dissolve acid claret aniline, and add it to a soap bath made slightly acid, and wash to shade. Proceed as for claret, only use with the acid claret enough orange to give the fire to the shade. No. 35. — Maroon. Proceed as for ruby with cudbear or orchil, using fustic to shade. Muriate of tin may be used to brighten it. Some alum firsthand dye with hy pernio, and raise with tin for the bright shades. No. 36. — Maroon on Silk can be dyed with acid aniline claret and scarlet (mixed according to shade) in a hot soap bath. 44 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 37. — Ponceau on Silk requires less annato on the bottom than scarlet with cochineal (No. 28), but the same quantity of spirits and tartar in prepara- tion, and as much cochineal on dyeing. No. 38. — Claret on Silk. Prepare in a hot solution of alum for ten or twelve hours ; lift and wash in two waters ; boil or scald. For 100 yards : — For 10 yards : — 12J lbs. Lima-wood, or peach-wood, or Brazil-wood hypernic. 2 lbs. logwood. 11 lbs. oz. Decant the clear of both liquors into a tub of sufficient size ; enter and winch for thirty minutes ; air out and repeat. When dark enough wash and dry. Note. — In dyeing this it ought to get two liquors or the liquor twice, as one will hardly make the color as full as it ought to be. No. 39. — Cinnamon Brown on Silk. For 10 vards : — \\ lb. nearly, 4f oz. 3 oz. For 100 yards : — Boil 12 lbs. fustic, 3 lbs. ground madder, 2 lbs. barwood. Cool to 200° F., then enter and winch twenty minutes ; air out and repeat ; then with a little of the liquor in another dish sadden to pattern with 4 or 5 oz. copperas one or two shots ; then wash in two waters, and dry. No. 40 Canelle on Silk in the soap bath, on wool direct, and on cotton mordant with tannin. SILK. 45 No. 41. — Olive Brown on Silk. For 10 yards : — 1 lb. 3J oz. 21 oz. For 100 yards : — Boil 10 lbs. fustic, 2 lbs. logwood, 6 oz. cudbear. Cool to 200° F., then enter, and winch for twenty minutes ; air out, repeat, then sadden to pattern with 4 oz. of copperas ; wash and dry. No. 42. — Havana Brown on Silk. For a dress. Prepare a decoction of \ kilo. (0.5 lb.) cutch and in this bath of a temperature of 80° C. (176° F.) dissolve 20 gr. (0.7 oz.) blue vitriol, work the dress in this bath for half an hour after the same has been washed, take it out and put it into a fresh bath of 65 gr. (2.27 ozs.) bichromate of potassa, stir for a quarter of an hour, press it and pass it through another bath of sulphuric acid, then wash. A more lively color will be obtained by shad- ing the tissue thus treated by means of a bath containing a little Bismarck or yellowish coraline called aniline orange. Then wring, pass it into gum-water, and dress on the cylinder. No. 43. — Snuff Brown or Giraffe on Silk. For 200 yards : — For 10 yards : — 12 oz. of annatto, 9| drachms, 4 lbs. fustic, 8 oz. madder, 4 oz. cudbear. Bottom with the annatto at 212° F the fustic, madder, and cudbear together ; put off the boil, and enter ; winch fifteen minutes. If not full enough air out and re- peat, then wash and dry. No. 44. — Light Browns. For a good light brown, enter a bath of annatto and soap lather until a good orange color is produced ; then wash off and darken in weak copperas, wash off, dye with archil and fustic ; all the light shades can be made in this manner. 6| oz. 6J drachms, 3^ drachms, wash in one water, boil 46 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 45. — Dark Brown. Prepare with annatto, same as above ; sadden with stronger copperas, and dye with archil, logwood, and fustic. No. 46. — Olive Brown. Put on a strong annatto bottom at boiling point, and wash off; then add clear fustic according to shade and a little sumac liquor with it, then darken in cold water with copperas and argol ; if the shade is very yellow, add turmeric with the fustic. No. 47. — Claret Brown. Proceed as for No. 44, but use no fustic with the archil ; if re- quired very dark, a body of logwood can be given before or with the archil. No. 48. — Seal Brown. Bottom to a wine color with archil, then full to shade with serge blue and turmeric. Bird's cotton seal brown will dye silk well in one bath. For 10 yards : — 1^ oz. 1^ oz. For 200 yards : — 1J lb. barks, 1 pint muriate of tin. Scald the bark, decant the clear, add the muriate of tin ; enter and. winch fifteen minutes, then wash in two waters, and dry. No. 50. — PhospJiine Yellow. Will dve on wool direct. On silk in a soap bath. Prepare in aniline mordant for cotton. M ma a i M SILK. 47 No. 51. — Tropaeoline Yellow. Will dye on wool with sulphuric acid or tartar. On silk in soap bath. Prepare in stannate, and then in tannin, for cotton. N. B. In all cases when acid anilines are to be dyed on silk in soap, it must be understood that enough sulphuric acid has been added to curdle the soap. No. 52. — Yellow on Silk. For 10 yards 21-oz. For 200 yards : — 3 lbs. barks, 1J pint muriate of tin. 2 oz. fully. Done in the same manner as primrose (No. 49). No. 53. — Straw on Silk. For 10 yards: — 6 J drachms, 1^ oz. 1J oz. For 200 yards : — 8 oz. annatto, 1| lbs. barks, 1 pint muriate of tin. Give the annatto on the bottom 212° F. ; one water out, and then give the barks and muriate of tin same heat. Note. — Before .using annatto it must be boiled with half its weight of American ashes in the least possible quantity of soft water. This note applies to every process where annatto is used. For 100 yards: — 2\ lbs. annatto, 1J lbs. bark, 1 pint muriate of tin. Give a good body of annatto 212 c top with the bark and muriate of tin No. 54. — Orange on Silk. For 10 yards F. If oz. 1\ oz. lh OZ. wash in one water, then 1 48 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 55. — Amber on Silk. For 10 yards nearly 1J oz. For 200 yards: — If lbs. annatto, If lbs. bark, If pints muriate of tin. 2 oz. Bottom with the annatto, and top with the bark and muriate of tin, same as orange (No. 54). 14; oz. No. 56.— Buff on Silk. For 200 vards: — 2 lbs. of annatto, For 10 yards : — fully If oz. If oz. Give the annatto at 212° F., when full enough lift, wash in two waters, then raise with the vitriol. 3 gills vitriol. No. 57.— Yelloiv. This color is dyed in the following manner : Enter the silk in a bath of nitric acid ; work for half an hour, then enter a bath of soda ash ; work half an hour in the bath hand-warm, and wash off well. No. 58. — Another Way. Dissolve in a vessel six pounds turmeric ; strain off the clear liquor ; add it to a clean bath of water at boiling point ; enter goods ; work half an hour, and add to the same bath three pounds of alum ; work half hour, and wash off. No. 59. — Orange Color. Dissolve soap, and let it come to a lather, and add to it the solu- tion of two and a half pounds of annatto which has been previously dissolved with ash solution ; work until it is the shade required, and then wash off well. SILK. 49 No. 60. — Aniline Primrose or Yellow. A beautiful shade is produced with the new acid primrose in a soap bath or without, and worked in with simply sulphuric acid. No. 61. — Aniline Yellow and Amber. Can be dyed equal to flaveine or annatto, if not superior, by using acid yellow or acid amber ; dye with acid. li r . '&!. — Aniline Old G-old Color. Dissolve separately acid amber, acid brown, and acid green, only a little brown and less of green is required ; it is dyed like No. 60. No. 63. — Salmon. Dyed like No. 60, with scarlet and a trifle of acid orange. No. 64.— Flesh Color. Use 5 or J the amount of scarlet and orange as required for salmon. 4 50 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. No. 65. — Aniline Orange. Dye to shade with acid orange on a soap bath with sulphuric acid. It will dye without the soap if desired. Redder shades can be got by adding aniline scarlet, or yellower shades by adding turmeric or acid yellow. No. 66. — Sky Blue from Prussiate. Enter a bath of nitrate of iron about 1.2° Tw.; work the silk half hour ; then enter a bath of clean water with one quart of am- monia added to it ; then enter another bath with the solution of two pounds of prussiate added to it ; work half hour ; lift out and add one pint of vitriol to the same bath : work half hour in this and wash off. No. 67. — French Blue. Give about half hour in a nitrate iron bath at 5° Tw. ; then let the silk steep in it another half hour ; then wash and wring out ; then enter a bath of common soda water, have the bath hot ; then wring out ; enter a bath of prussiate, without washing, where three pints of muriatic acid have been added ; work in this bath forty minutes. It will then appear a dull color ; then it should be raised in a bath of ammonia ; to four gallons of water add one pint of ammonia ; work half hour at hand-warm. No. 68. — Royal Blue. Work one hour in a bath of nitrate of iron 6° Tw. with two pints of muriate tin added to it, and five ounces of tartaric acid ; then wash off' iron and enter another bath with the solution of two pounds of prussiate and half pint of vitriol added to it ; repeat iron and prussiate twice ; then enter a weak bath of vitriol, half pint to thirty gallons of water, to cut off all rust, which is apt to be on it. No. 69. — Shy Blue with Indigo. Dissolve extract of indigo, and strain it ; then add a little by degrees into a vessel containing water at 100° F., to which have been added alum and sulphuric acid, just a little sharp to the taste ; raise to 200° F. t.»-\4S%>'» \* - \»\ SILK. 51 No. 70. — Sky Blue. From soluble aniline china, opal, pure blue, or almost any of the fine blues will work on silk. The proportions of four parts alum and four parts sulphuric acid to one part of aniline will be found to give good results ; commence at about 100° F. and slowly raise to 200° F. No. 71. — Light Blue from Cotton Blue. For ten pounds add one ounce of dissolved color to a cold bath, and a small quantity of sulphuric acid ; gradually raise to 160° F., then wash off. No. 72. — Medium Shade. For ten pounds proceed as for No. 71, only use three ounces of aniline. No. U.—Fi ark Shade. For ten pounds use three ounces cotton blue, as No. 72, and work in the same manner for half hour ; then lift, and add li oz. 4° B. violet to the same bath; work half hour, and wash off. 74.— Methyl Blue on 20 lbs. In a soap bath add three ounces color and 1J pounds sulphuric acid ; for dark blue use double the quantity of color ; commence at 100° F. and raise to 200° F. ; then wash and pass through a weak sour. Some use it in the same way as alkali blue, dyeing with borax and raising with acid. 52 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 75. — Nicholson or Alkali Blue. Dye in a borax bath to which add some soap. The quantity of color depends entirely upon the shade required : as for twenty pounds of silk one ounce will suffice for a pale sky, while from six to ten ounces will be required in very dark. They should be en- tered at 100° F. and not exceed 200° F. The depth .can be ascertained by taking a small piece and dipping it into a weak sulphuric acid. When deep enough pass it through a sulphuric acid just sharp to the taste. For the light shades take the higher number of Bs. No. 76. — Benzole Blue on Silk (20 lbs.~). Prepare with soap, but the dye-bath must be at 140° F. It contains Acetic acid . Benzole blue The color must be previously well dissolved and added by de- grees ; dye whilst the temperature is raised to a boil ; wash, and take through weak acetic acid sours, and dry. No. 77. — Serge and Navy Blue. Serge blue is dyed with sulphuric acid. Navy blue with serge and induline or indigo extract to darken. The pattern shown was dyed with serge blue and extract of indigo, worked with sulphuric acid. I have dyed a very dark blue, resembling black, with induline and sulphuric acid, so fast that alkali or acid did not perceptibly affect it. 8J ozs. 3| " No. 78. — Methyl Green Silk. Dye in a soap bath, and raise with acetic acid ; on wool mor- dant in hyposulphite of soda and then in muriatic acid, wash and SILK. 53 dye alone ; on cotton mordant with tannin, or tannin and tartar emetic. No. 79. — New Victoria Green and Brilliant Green. On silk in the soap bath ; on wool with a little cake alum or prepared tartar ; and on cotton mordant with tannin, or tannin and tartar emetic. No. 80. — Light Green with Acid Green. On silk in a curdled soap hath ; on wool with sulphuric acid. No. 81. — Pea Green for Silk. For 100 yards : — For 10 yards : — 10 oz. extract of indigo, 1 oz. 2J lbs. ebony, 4 oz. 1 lb. alum. 1^ oz. Sour first ; wash in one water ; boil or scald the ebony ; decant the clear, and add the extract of indigo and alum ; enter in this, and winch for ten or fifteen minutes ; wash in one water. No. 82. — Grass Green on Silk. For 100 yards : — For 10 yards : — Boil 7| lbs. fustic, 12 oz. Add 2 lbs. extract of indigo, 3 oz. 3 drachms, 2 lbs. alum, 3 oz. 3 " 1J gill sulphuric acid 1| " Boil the fustic first ; then add the extract of indigo, alum, and acid ; put off the boil ; enter and winch till you get the shade re- quired. If not blue enough, give more extract of indigo. If not yellow enough, more fustic. 54 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 83. — Olive Green for Silk. For 100 yards : — For 10 yards : — 10 lbs. fustic, 1 lb. 2 lbs. logwood, 3 oz. 3 drachms. 10 oz. camwood, 1 oz. Boil all together for thirty minutes ; put off the boil ; enter and winch for twenty minutes ; air out and repeat ; sadden with three or four ounces of copperas in the same liquor in another part of bath. When the required shade is obtained, wash and dry. No. 84. — Olive. Give a light blue bottom and dye off at boiling point with tur- meric liquor and archil. No. 85. — Bottle G-reen and Aniline Olives. This bottle green was dyed first an archil bottom to a full wine color. Second bath topped off with aniline green. All of these shades can be obtained by the following ingredients proportioned according to the shade required : Acid yellow, acid green, acid orange, acid brown, and induline or extract of indigo for the dark shades. No. 86. — Aniline Light Bronze. All the prevailing shades can be got from separately dissolving, and then mixing to shade either acid primrose or acid amber with acid green and brown or archil in place of brown. SILK. 55 No. 87. — Aniline Dark Bronze. More of the acid brown and green are required than for light bronze, and archil or induline may be used with it if the shade require it. The last three receipts are worked on with acid. Any of" the above I have mixed to shade by request at a fair price. For malachite and other greens, see the woollen list, many of which formulas will do for silk. No. 88. — Drab on Silk. For 100 yards : — Boil 4 lbs. fustic, and 6 oz. logwood, For 10 yards : — 6J oz. oz. fully, 2J oz. cudbear, oz. \\ oz. copperas, 2 drachms fully. Cool to 200° F. ; enter; winch twenty minutes; air out, and repeat ; then take a little of the liquor out of the boiler ; dissolve the copperas ; reduce it to handling heat with water, and give one or two shots through it as the pattern requires ; one water out of the saddening ; then give a warm but weak sour to clear the color ; wash in two waters and dry. This will make bottom for all dark colors ; if repeated in the mordant after a wash from the iron it will darken it much. Note. — Before using cudbear, it must always be drenched with a little hot water to the consistency of paste ; then scald or boil it as occasion may require. No. 89. — Fawn on Silk. 100 yards : — For 10 yards :- 4 lbs. fustic, 6J oz. 5 oz. cudbear, 1 oz. 1| oz. copperas. 1J drachms. Done in the same manner as drab (No. 88). 56 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 90. — Stone on Silk. For 100 yards: — For 10 yards: — 3 lbs. fustic, nearly 5 oz. 7J oz. logwood, f oz. 2J oz. cudbear, 1 oz. 2 oz. copperas. nearly £ oz. Done in the same manner as drab (No. 88). " No. 91. — Slate on Silk. For 10 yards : — 1 oz. nearly, 3 oz. and 3 drachms, For 100 yards : — 8 oz. cudbear, 2 lbs. logwood, 1 lb. tartar. \\ oz. fully. Boil the cudbear and 'logwood ; put off" the boil ; enter ; winch for thirty minutes ; lift, and raise with the tartar at once, then wash and dry. No. 92. — Lavender. To dye lavender on ten pounds of silk, make up bath of warm water and add to it the solution of one quart of extract of indigo and a small quantity of magenta according to the redness or blue- ness of the shade required on the goods. No. 93. — Another Way. First enter a hot bath of water with enough cudbear to redden, then blue it to the shade in a second bath with extract of indigo in it. No. 94. — Mauve. In a soap bath add a little acetic acid, and dissolved aniline to shade. 1 B. was used for this pattern ; for bluer shades use 4 to 6 B. SILK. 57 No. 95. — Plum. To a soap bath add equal parts of acid claret and violet ; work with acetic or sul No. 96. — Wine Color Is dyed in the same way as plum, by adding acid orange to shade it. No. 9T. — Jet Black with Nitrate of Iron on Silk (200 yards). After being cleaned, prepare in a cold bath of nitrate of iron, 5° Tw., which is strong enough for light silks ; 4° to 4J° will do for dark colored ; let lie in half an hour ; wash well ; boil fourteen pounds fustic, put off the boil, and winch half hour. Then boil sixteen pounds logwood, stop the boil, and add soap sufficient to produce a good lather, and winch to shade. When soap is used on black silk it does not require to be washed, but in all cases to be hung up as soon as drained quite open, that is even, and dried in a hot stove. No. 98. — Real Paris Black on Silk. Take three parts of fustic, one part of bark liquor, two ounces of verdigris, one ounce copperas, to every pound of silk, in water at 180° F., steep the silk in all night, in the morning wash twice. Dye with logwood, and soap at 150° F., varying strength of log- wood by depth of black required, then soften in soda and neatsfoot oil. This is a first-rate black. 58 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. No. 99. — Black on Silk ivith Extract of Chestnut. A good full cheap black can be got in this way. For 10 pounds silk take 350 pints of natro-chloride of iron at 17° Tw., steep for twenty-four hours, turning occasionally ; wash well (nitrate of iron will do in place of the former). Dye with 175 pints extract of chestnut and 105 pints of hot water for one hour. Then in a liquor of 10 pounds logwood, in which is 17J ounces white soap at 191° F., till good black. Then rinse in 7 ounces ammonia water ; then in seven ounces acetic acid water. No. 100. — Black Silk Dyeing, for Jobber Dyers. All drab silks, and those that are likely to be sumached, are given a boiling in soda water, and rinsed in one water ; then pass them for a few minutes through hot nitric-acid bath which gives them a yellow bottom, and at the same time strips off old color. Rinse through two waters, one cold, the other hot, and lay down in nitrate of iron bath for one night. Rinse well out of this in three waters, and pass through your decoction of logwood and oil soap to shade ; finally pass them through a warm soap liquor to clear, and -dry in a hot stove. The hotter they are dried the better they look. For jet shades use 4 parts logwood, 1 part fustic in the soap ; some keep the nitric acid for further use in stone jars; as it takes 1 pint to 1 gallon of water, the same will do several times. No. 101. — A Bluish Black on Silk Velvet. For 1 kilo. (2.2 lbs.). Make a decoction of f kilo. (1.1 lb.) prepared cutch and 80 gr. (2.8 oz.) crystallized soda, let this settle, immerse the velvet and work it in a bath heated to 140° F., then work it for two hours cold, take it out again, wash, and let it drip off. Add a little soap, introduce it into a bath of 1 kilo. (2.2 lbs.) prussiate of potash, press it and put it again in the iron bath, treat the same as before, wash, and go with it once more into the potash bath in order to wash with soap in a bath contain- ing 375 gr. (13.12 oz.) castile soap to 50 litres (13.2 gal.) of water. If the velvet has been dark before, the bluish black would thus be finished, but if it chances not to be of a black deep enough, SILK. 59 prepare a warm bath containing a decoction of J kilo. (1.1 lb.) logwood and 150 gr. (5.25 oz.) castile soap, dye until the proper tint shall have been reached ; evaporate. take it out again, wash, gum, and No. 102. — Jet Black from JVitro-Sutyhats of Iron for Silk. For 200 yards, or 16 pounds, prepare in a hot solution of nitro-sulphate of iron, 5° Twaddle (150° F.) ; work thirty minutes in this; lift, and wash well in three warm waters, then boil 18 pounds of fustic, put off the boil, enter and winch for thirty minutes ; lift, boil 16 pounds of logwood, put off the boil, and de- cant the clear liquor into a large tub, add 1 pound of white soap; enter and winch for thirty or forty minutes in this ; lift, wash in two waters, and you will have a brilliant jet black. No. 103. — A New Mode for Dyeing Black on Silk. This process is performed by pure nitrate of iron, basic, and neutral acetate of lead. Instructions respecting this new mode of dyeing are given in Dingler's Journal, as follows: The bath for the neutral acetate of lead is prepared by dissolving 20 pounds of litharge (protoxide of lead) in 4 to 5 pounds of pyroligneous acid and as much water until the clear liquor shows at 104° F., 44 to 45 Be scale for neutral acetate of lead. It is only neces- sary to use a little more pyroligneous acid. For the prepara- tion of nitrate of iron new scrap iron has to be dissolved in nitric acid. The silk which is to be dyed, after it has been previously well boiled and washed, is to be put into the bath con- taining the nitrate of iron, and worked about for fifteen minutes ; then lifted out and exposed to the air for a short time to oxidize the iron, and afterwards washed in water, when the olive-green color turns into a rusty yellow. Treat the silk twice in exactly the same manner ; prepare a logwood bath, add to it a little quercitron or fustic liquor ; heat it up to about 86° F., and add to this a small quantity of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) pre- viously dissolved. In this bath the silk prepared with the iron is put, and worked from twenty to thirty minutes, until quite even, after which it should be allowed to remain in the bath for some time. The silk has now lost its weight, and has to be washed 60 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. again in water, and afterwards to be put into a tub containing water, to which is added olive oil that has been previously saponi- fied with a little soda. In this liquor the silk is to be worked for a few minutes, after which it has to be well wrung, the object of this last bath being to give the silk a nice soft feeling. The silk is then taken to a bath containing the basic acetate of lead, which has been heated to about 144° F., in which it is well worked about and left in for some time. This operation will give weight to the silk, but will rather weaken the appearance of the black. To re- produce the full brightness and purity of the black the silk has lastly to be treated in the following manner : When it comes out of the basic acetate of lead bath it wants wringing out well, and, if possible, pressing, in order to free it as much as possible of liquor. This silk is then slowly dried at a gentle heat in a close room in which there is a good supply of sulphide of hydrogen gas. When this process is carefully performed it produces a most beauti- ful and soft black, and will be quite as fast as that which is pro- duced from galls. No. 104. — Rose on Bleached China Grass (30 lbs.). Dissolve sulphate of soda crystals . . .3 lbs. Erythrosine, or eosine (Monnet & Co.) . . 1J oz. Enter the goods at 99°, raise the temperature gradually to 131° F., wring out and dry. It is well to enter the solution of color by degrees in two or three parts. No. 105. — Methylene Blue on China Crrass (30 lbs.). Make up a bath of curd soap and add methylene blue, No. 1 . . . . . . . •§■ oz. Enter at 130° F., give five or six turns, add 8J oz. sulphuric acid, and turn well, raising the heat to 158° F. ; wash, and take through a water very slightly soured with sulphuric acid. No. 106. — MetJiod for Dyeing Shots. When satins, satinets, sarsenets, or silks of any kind are found to contain shots — that is, warp and weft of different qualities — they must be prepared as follows : — SILK. 61 For 100 yards dissolve 1§- lb. salt of tartar in a copper con- taining 150 gallons boiling water; winch in this one hour; lift, and wash in two waters ; and then prepare for any color ; if, after dyeing black, brown, and orange color, the silk is found to contain a shot of different silk it must be discharged to the bottom, and put through the stuff' as directed above ; then prepare anew for what- ever color required. No. 107.— Violet (soluble in spirit) is dyed on silk in a curdled bath of Panama bark; on wool with prepared tartar; and on cotton with tannin and tartar emetic. No. 108. — Stiffening Silks. All light silks are better finished up with half gum and half gly- It gives body and brilliancy, and has not the unpleasant Black silks may with advantage be finished in the same way. cenne. rattle of glue. No. 109. — Finish for Silk Handkerchiefs. The pieces are pulled upon wooden cylinders traversed by an axle, and arranged so that they may be fitted upon the machine. Each roll is of 56 handkerchiefs. When rolled up they are passed at great speed through cylin- ders heated by irons made red hot and placed in the same. After this they are finished on copper cylinders, heated by steam ; with the mixture No. 5 for madder work, No. 1 for steam work, which mixture is placed in the trough of the cylinder. The pieces are then pressed. No. 110. — Finishing Mixtures for Silk. No. 1. Farina 7 oz. boiled, to which is then added salts of sorrel J oz., best hide glue 2 lbs. 3 oz. ; strain the whole. No. 2. Starch 4 lbs. 6 oz. in 7 quarts of water. No. 3. White Marseilles soap 17 oz. in 3J quarts of water. No. 4. Best white glue 3J lbs. in 27 quarts of water. Gums are also used, as are glycerine and white sugar, to give body and glace. 62 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. The same mixtures or stiffenings are used for piece silk and ribbons. Considerable body can be attained with gum and glycerine, without the objectionable harsh rattle of glue. THE WEIGHTING OF SILKS. Silk that has to be sold by weight is so weighted in the process of dyeing and finishing that 30 pounds may be made to weigh about 100 pounds. It may not be often that it is burdened to this extent, but it is a fact beyond dispute that very large frauds are carried on in its adulteration. Mixtures in some things have a compensation of some kind and on that ground are justifiable, but in this case the jobber, if he cares for good, regular custom, is not benefited; the wearer is not benefited; the warehouse that holds it, or the ship that carries such combustible goods, is not benefited by it, neither is the insurance office. Who is then ? Only the manufacturer; and not he, if he cares for reputation or has any conscience. I therefore refrain from giving the information which some may suppose should have been given, with this advice — go, and sin no more. Note. — Since writing the above, the following excellent article upon this question has fallen into my hands. I have pleasure in giving it a place here. THE WEIGHTING OF SILK. One of the most infamous adulterations lately resorted to in Europe for the purpose of swindling the silk consumer is the weighting of silk by means of chemical preparations liable to ignite. When the subject was for the first time brought to public notice a year or two since by some cases of black silk taking fire spontane- ously, there was an outburst of indignation throughout the press, and the Dry Goods Bulletin and Textile Manufacturer made some suggestions at the time. Since then the subject has slumbered, and will probably remain forgotten by the general public until some new accident startles it by the inflammable substance in a box of European silk catching fire and spreading a conflagration on board some vessel or in a warehouse, involving the loss of life, perchance, SILK. 63 as well as of millions of dollars. The London News of July 30 takes up the subject again, and we are glad of it; It expresses itself to the following effect: — ■ " In the report of Sir Edward Thornton, lately Minister at Wash- ington,, and now Ambassador at St. Petersburg, attention is drawn to certain mysterious fires both in warehouses and on board ship, which, after careful inquiry by a police committee and a board of underwriters in New York, have been traced to consignments of black silk. The immediate cause of danger is, it appears, the chemical materials now used to give weight as well as improved color to the silks. The art, says the report, has reached such per- fection that the weight of the natural silk can be increased four- fold without apparent adulteration ; but the minerals, vegetables, acids, and alkalies thus used, combined with animal substances and the natural germ of the silk, constitute a fermentable compound which generates carbonization or combustion under pressure, con- finement, and heat. That the black silk goods have ignited spon- taneously from these causes and caused serious fires is considered to be abundantly proved by the evidence." In future American consuls should be instructed from Washing- ton to certify no invoice of silk shipped from Europe, unless the same be accompanied by a certificate of chemical test that it is not weighted with any substance whatever. This will put a stop to the fraud. Steamship companies, owners of sailing vessels, insurance companies, and the public at large are all equally interested in killing this unpardonable fraud at the very root. This cannot be done except by insisting upon a "certificate of harmlessness" which will besides protect the bona-fide manufacturer, both abroad and here ; for no honest manufacturer can compete with silk thus adulterated, not to speak of the consumer who is the final and chief victim of similar frauds upon the community. HOW TO TEST THE QUALITY OF SILK. How to determine the actual quality of silk is a question that often puzzles the feminine mind. A sure plan is to take ten fibres of the filling in any silk, and if on breaking they show a feathery, dry, and lack-lustre condition, discoloring the fingers in handling, you may at once be sure of the presence of dye and artificial 64 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. weighting ; or take a small portion of the fibres between the thumb and forefinger, and very gently roll them over and over, and you will soon detect the gum, mineral, soap, and other ingredients of the one and the absence of them in the other. A simple but effect- ive test of purity is to burn a small quantity of the fibres ; pure' silk will instantly crisp, leaving only a pure charcoal ; heavily- dyed silk will smoulder, leaving a yellow, greasy ash. If, on the contrary, you cannot break the ten strands, and they are of a natural lustre and brilliancy, and fail to discolor the fingers at the point of contact, you may well be assured that you have a pure silk that is honest in its make and durable in its wear. SOMETHING ABOUT THE CRACKLING NOISE OR THE TOUCH OF SILK. The crackling noise which is noticed in the turning or pressing of silk, is not a quality which it has naturally, but has to be pro- duced artificially. The same colors on silk can be produced at will, crackling or not. It is therefore neither the color nor the fibre which gives the touch of the silk. As manufacturers consider it of value to have the silk show this peculiarity, it is of great im- portance to the dyer to know by what process this crackling can be produced. Touchy or crackling is found to be produced on silk which has received a scouring in the last, or before the last, bath. The silk will not be so if the last bath has been soapy or alkalinous, or if it has passed a neutral bath. If this quality of the silk, therefore, is wanted, it is necessary to give it, either be- fore or after dyeing, a sour bath, either by free acids or by sour salts. Now, I might ask, how is this crackling noise explained? Silk, free from gummy substances, which contains, besides the pure fibre, only albuminous matter, is easily made touchy or crackling by very diluted acid baths. I explain this noise in this way : the acid baths effect a change on the albuminous substances in the silk, probably they coagulate them, and thus cause a change of the material. SILK. 6r> DRYING SILK GOODS. Messrs. Guinon, Fils & Co. propose the employment of the vacuo for drying silk goods very rapidly without a hydro-extractor. The skeins or pieces are brought into a metallic chamber heated by means of steam, by a coil at the bottom and a false cover at the top, and the goods suspended on sticks by a proper arrange- ment. The chamber is perfectly tight, and is in communication with an air-pump. When the silk is taken out of the dye-bath and washed, it is put on sticks and put in the chamber, where it is rapidly dried by the action of the heat and vacuum combined. It is claimed for this method greater economy in time, labor, and other expenses, beside preventing any soiling of the silk. Accord- ing to Mr. Moyret the application of the vacuum for drying fibres or fabrics is not a new idea, but it has been used for desulphur- izing silks which had been exposed to sulphur for bleaching. SPINNING SILK WASTE AND VEGETABLE FIBRE. Messrs. Agache & Imbs have patented in France the following method: By mixing long-stapled vegetable fibres with silk offals, the disadvantage occurs that the former dye badly, whereby a difference in the color is produced as well as an inclination to lose its color. By the mode of procedure of these gentlemen this defect disappears, if before mixing and spinning the vegetable fibres are submitted to the following process : They are steeped in an emul- sion of animal oil with a solution of soda, then put in heaps until fermentation ensues. The fibres thus are mordanted, and when mixed with the silk offals, they are treated in the spinning like flax, either dry or wet. TO IMPROVE RUSTY SILKS. Job dyers having to contend with different old colors and plaid silks, often find when they are dyed that some are too bronzed or 5 66 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. rusty to finish. Passing them through oil soap hot, and not rinsing them, but drying them open in a hot stove has a good effect. An- other way is to pass them through a little sour, and rinse ; or they may be finished with new milk sponged on when finishing. SECTION II. BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. No. 1. — Bleaching Wool. In quantities of 100 pounds the process is very simple. The scourer should have care that the kettle is not hotter than 132° F., and that the wool does not lie in the bath long enough to become yellow. The goods or yarn are scoured in clean soap as usual, and then hung up in a closed chamber or bleach-house exposed to the vapor sulphurous acid, produced by burning in an iron pot six or more pounds of brimstone. When yarn is bleached for the market it should be put into the sulphur-house without the soap being rinsed out — only switched out well. If the white has to be colored, the wool should first be run through a cold bath containing two pounds muriate of tin, two ounces of extract of indigo, three ounces of cochineal paste, red, blue, and yellow form white, and the wool is naturally yellow, hence the method of treatment. Then take the wool into the sulphur-house. The fabric ought never to be colored after sulphuring, as it will become spotted. Carpet yarn may be afterwards run through a bath containing five pounds of whiting ; this somewhat neutralizes the offensive odor. Care should be taken in bleaching part cotton goods when poles or slats are employed. The wood absorbs sulphuric acid, and will rot the cotton if in contact with the cloth. The poles should be often washed or planed. No. 2. — Wool Bleach. To every 100 pounds of wool are added five pounds of bisul- phate of soda dissolved in water, and two pounds of hydrochloric acid. The well-washed wool is placed in this strong solution of sulphurous acid, and left five or six hours, being stirred or moved in the usual manner. The bleached wool is now put in the 00 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. bluing bath, which also serves to rinse in. Woollen yarn can also be drawn through a solution of bisulphite of soda, and afterwards through dilute muriatic acid, which thus liberates free gas. No. 3. — Bleaching Wool without Stoving. The wool is well scoured and washed. Dissolve 11 pounds crystal bisulphate of soda and add 4 pounds 6 ounces muriatic acid in a cistern large enough (made of white wood) to well work the wool. Into this enter the wool, and turn it several times for six hours; then lift, and drain. It is then blued to shade with chemic or ultramarine blue. Half the above proportions will do for other lots done at the same time. No. 4. — An Excellent Method to Bleach 22 lbs. Wool. Three-quarter fill the beck of the proper size with water ; add 4| pounds of spirits of salts ; stir up, and enter the well-cleaned wool which has previously been sprinkled very openly and regu- larly with 11 pounds bisulphate of soda in 20 gallons of water. This creates a sulphurous acid in the midst of the whole, effecting a powerful bleach in the most direct manner ; blue to shade. The same acid bath does for future use. The wool is similar to brimstone bleached, but has far less smell, and no fear of injury in the process. No. 5. — White on Wool. Clean in soap or soap and sal soda at a temperature not exceed- ing from 120° to 130° F. ; well wash. Make up a curd soap bath at 2|° Tw., tint it with indigo, and the bluest shade of violet, which have both been finely filtered. Hold the liquor up, and as it falls see if the shade is as you re- quire it; if so, enter, and turn rapidly until it is white and even? when it is at once wrung dry, and then suspend it two hours in the sulphur stove. It is then spread out in the air to dry. If it has a scent of sulphur pass it through a bath containing a little ammonia. BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 69 No. 6. — To Wash White. Wool G-oods without their turning Yellow in the Process. Use white soap to which has been added some dextrine in solu- tion. Do not exceed a gentle hand heat. Wash in clean water, and if for a pure white dry in the stove. No. 7.— To Bleach New or Old White Goods. The same plan will be pursued as in the last, only let the goods be washed in just enough of the bisulphate liquor in a cistern to wet them through, and then drain, when you can blue to shade. No. S.— T-hallaVs Bleach for Wool. Scoured wool is taken through a beck in which about 12 grains of indigo are used to 22 gallons of water; next through a solution of hydrosulphate of soda 4° B., then add acetic acid 5° B., and again run through the same bath; 35 fluidounces of the hydro- sulphate of soda are required for 300 grains of acetic acid. The wool is now exposed to the air, then wash in weak soda, and then in clean water and dry at 95° F. The indigo, which was at first only a deposit on the fibre, is by the hydrosulphate of soda reduced to white indigo, and precipitated on the fibre as indigo blue. The tint is therefore permanent. No. 9. — The Latest to Bleach Wool. (Translated from the Teinturier Pratique?) Take 1 kilo. (2.2 lb.) of oxalic acid to 100 litres (26.4 gals.) of water and ^ litre (0.7 pint) of hydrochloric acid (sp. of salts). After immersion of six hours, drip off, and wash several times ; the last wash should have in it \ litre (0.5 pint) of glycerine to 100 litres (26.4 gals.) of water slightly blued. Dry by stove or air. Tartaric or acetic acid may be used in place of the oxalic. No. 10. — Dyeing Wool White. The handsome Berlin white so celebrated, is produced in the following manner : For 5 kilos. (11 lbs.) of wool. Scour the wool carefully at a temperature of 40° to 60° C. (104° to 140° F.) in 70 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. a bath of soda-salt or soap, or, better still, with a mixture of both ; then wash thoroughly; thereupon blue with a soap solution of castile soap 2° B., and a little superfine indigo carmine and very bluish methyl violet. These blue and violet solutions should be carefully filtered ere they are added. In a china cup we can easily discover whether the white is blued to the precise point re- quired. The wool is then put into the bath and rapidly worked, and then washed in a turbine immediately, so as to prevent un- evenness of coloring. The wet wool is then suspended in the sul- phuring room for two hours, then hung out in the open air and dried. Should a smell of sulphur adhere to the wool it is treated with a solution of 10 gr. (0.35 oz.) of ammonia to the litre (2.1 pints) of water through which it is passed. This method is used by nearly all German dyers and bleachers. No. 11. — A New Process for Bleaching. In the Teinturier Pratique, M. Allion publishes a new method for bleaching fabrics. Instead of sulphur he uses bisulphate of magnesia. To increase the dissolubleness of this salt he uses a solution of a certain quantity of sulphate of aluminium. The latter acts as a weak acid to dissolve the bisulphate slowly while forming a sulphuric acid. This process is said to be very effective. No. 12. — Bleaching Piece Goods. Kent's Process. Mr. Kent, of Moscow, Russia, and of Nottingham, England, has patented an improvement in cleansing and bleaching much used by cleaners working on a small scale. The improvement consists in subjecting the cotton yarn or fabric to the following process :■ — • Lime and soda are mixed (in the proportion of about two pounds of carbonate of soda to one pound of lime) with water, and allowed to stand to settle, when the clear liquor is drawn off or separated from the solid matters. It is found that the strength of the liquor when used should mark about 1|° of Twaddle's hydrometer ; a strength of 1|° is found sufficient for fine light goods, and for heavier goods a greater strength is required. The yarn, thread, or fabric, or other preparation of vegetable fibres is steeped in this liquor for from thirty to fifty minutes, more or less as the case may require. Fine goods require about thirty minutes, and stouter BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 71 ones a longer time in proportion. The process of cleaning and bleaching is then finished in the ordinary manner by washing, and then treating the fibrous materials with dilute sulphuric or hydro- chloric acid and chloride of lime ; but this part of the process re- quires less time, by reason of the fibrous materials not having been boiled for a great length of time with crude materials. A workman will readily judge of the effect produced, and he will find that it is not necessary to retain the yarns or fabrics in either of the liquors more than from forty to fifty minutes. By these means ordinary bleaching is accomplished in a few hours instead of occupying days. When the fabrics are to be dyed with madder, in order to render them suitable to be so dyed, or as it is commonly called "madder bleached," the fabrics after being steeped and prepared as explained, are boiled for two or three hours in a weak solution of carbonate of soda and resin. The greasy matters are formed by the lime into a sort of insoluble soap easily removed by the after process. "Scouring" removes all excess of lime, and breaks up the insoluble lime soap. It still leaves the grease upon the cloth, but in such an altered state as to be easily removable by the subsequent "bowking." Hydrochloric acid is sometimes employed in this souring, but very dilute vitriol may be used. The hydrochloric acid sours are used cold, and at a strength of 3° Twaddle. The bowking or boiling with alkali and soap dis- solves and removes all grease and dirt from the cloth, leaving the cotton nearly pure. The alkali employed is soda ash ; the soap, is made from prepared resin, and having the specific effect of improving the whites during the subsequent process of dyeing. The boiling need not be so long as the dyeing ; the time required, however, depending upon the size of the kier and the number of pieces. The last process, that of passing through a clear solution of bleaching powder, destroys the slight buff or cream-colored tinge still adhering to the cotton*. The solution of bleaching powder is so weak that an ordinary sized piece of calico does not probably take up more than a quarter of an ounce soluble matter contained in it The goods are allowed to remain some time with the chloride of lime in them, and are finally passed through sours 'to complete the operation. The acid sets the chlorine free from the bleaching powder, and completes the destruction of the color, at the same mm VI AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. time removing the lime, and acting on any traces of iron that may be in the cloth. This souring should always be made with hydro- chloric acid, as it obviates the danger of any sulphate of lime being fixed in the fibres, or of giving bad whites in dyeing, effectually removes any iron, and leaves the goods softer. Tables of strengths and proportions of substances employed in bleaching are not of much value, since they must be modified according to circumstances, but as a kind of guide or example the following particulars may be quoted: For 14,000 yards of nine- eighths printing cloth, Q6 reed, 250 pounds of quicklime were used ; in the liming 110 pounds of hydrochloric acid for the first souring, and 140 pounds of soda ash at 48 per cent, alkali, and 80 pounds of prepared resin, or resin soap made with resin and caustic alkali, were used in the bowking. The last souring was sulphuric acid sour at 3° C. (37.4° F.) ; the quantity of bleaching powder was not ascertained, but the solution stood at 1° = 1.C06 sp. gr. Chloride o£ lime is generally termed chemic in the dye-house, and the solutions are made up to |° Twaddle, or 1.0025 ; but in some establishments this is increased to 5°. There is the dan- ger of rotting the cloth when very strong chemic is employed, the process generally consisting in passing the articles rapidly through with the calender in order to saturate them, and then to pass them through the acid bath, the final operation being the washing ; the calender renders the passage through the chemic very rapid, so that strong solution, even for fine goods, can be employed. ■ The chemic must be clear, for any pieces or lumps of the chloride of lime coming in contact with the cloth would rot or burn it as the term runs, leaving holes. The chloride of lime of commerce is a mixture of calcium and hypochlorite of lime. In the process of oxidizing the foreign matters, which it is the pur- pose of bleaching to remove, to chloride is inefficacious, but the hypochlorite, under the influence of the water, or that of the car- bonic acid of the air, sets free oxygen in its turn rendering the coloring matter soluble ; the oxygen is separated, according to the following equation — CaO, CIO = CaCI + 2 . That is, one atom of hypochlorite of lime sets free two atoms of BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 78 oxygen, while one of free chlorine sets free only one atom of oxy- gen, according to the equation — CI + HO = HCI -f 0. We thus see that the mixture known by the name chloride of lime contains only one -half of its chlorine in effective condition. After the cloth has been passed through the liquors employed in the process of bleaching, it becomes necessary to discharge the fluid, and this operation is effected by squeezing rollers, or squeezers. These are rollers generally worked under steam power, the upper one being caused to bear upon the cloth by its own weight, or by means of a weighted lever. There are many varieties of these machines, the description of which belongs, how- ever, to mechanical engineering, and is not an essential of the chemical process of bleaching. When squeezed, which is sometimes effected over rollers heated by steam, the cloth if required for printing needs no further operation, but if intended for the market must be "finished," that is, starched and calendered. Many bleachers prefer to prepare their own starch from flour, as they thus avoid the drying process for which the manufacturer of the starch must be paid. The starch is colored with blue, generally ultramarine. It is disseminated over the cloth by means of rollers dipping into the starch, other rollers removing the excess. The starch need not be pure ; fine clay or gypsum is sometimes employed as well. The pieces of cloth are occasionally artificially weighted with sul- phate of baryta during the finishing, or with silicate of sOda, the object of such an addition being to render the cloth solid in appear- ance. The calendering machine is really an ironing machine, surface and gloss being imparted to the cloth by means of heated rollers. The pieces when calendered and finished are subjected to hydraulic pressure. Note. — Hydrochloric acid here mentioned is the ordinary mu- riatic acid. No. 13. — The Continuous Process of Bleaching. By all dyers and bleachers having extensive business the con- tinuous process, sometimes known as the "new," the "Bently," 74 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. or "Pendleton" process, is generally adopted, effecting a con- siderable economy in time and labor. The process was first patented by David Bently, of Pendleton, in 1828, and in principle consists in drawing the goods successively through all the bleach- ing solutions, the pieces having been made continuous with the aid of the sewing machine. The following is a general outline of the operations : The pieces having been sewn together with the aid of a machine are arranged in a carefully constructed rope coil, being generally drawn through an aperture of smooth glass or earthenware to impart this form. When thft pieces have been singed they are drawn into and boiled in the first kier, containing 1 pound of caustic lime to 14 pounds of cloth. The kier is constructed to hold about 500 gallons, and the boiling is continued for thirteen hours. The pieces are next washed in the washing machine, and are then passed through a sour of hydrochloric acid at 2° Twaddle. Supposing 35C0 pounds of cloth to be used, they are next bowked in a soda ash and resin solution containing 170 pounds of soda ash, 30 pounds of resin, 500 gallons of water. This boiling is continued for sixteen hours, and the goods are again washed. The cloth is next saturated with chemic or a solution of chloride of lime for two hours, the density of the solution being about |° Twaddle, when it is again washed. The continuous length is now boiled in a kier for five hours with 100 pounds of crystals of carbonate of soda, and after washing it is chemiced as before, then soured in hydrochloric acid of 2J° Twaddle. The cloth is next allowed to drain ; is washed until quite clean, squeezed between rollers, finally being dried over steam cylinders or by means of a hydro-extractor. To effect these operations in one continuous process many improvements have been suggested upon the plan pursued originally by Bently, of which the most important recently are those patented by Mr. Barlow in 1866. This inventor combines in one machine not only the various apparatus required for bleaching, but the operations successively of dyeing, printing, and sizing, subdividing the troughs or cisterns containing the mordants and the dyes by cross partitions, so that the several threads passing through the machine at the same time may be dyed in different colors, or partly left uncolored. These machines are, however, not adapted to the bleaching of UI.'V — I -.if .. BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 75 linen. Linen does not possess the elasticity of cotton, and the strain would either pull the cloth narrow or tear it. ISTo. 14. — Bleaching Raw Cotton in Small Quantities. The bleaching of raw cotton on a small scale is easily effected by the following method : — Boil the cotton in fresh water, without any lye or soda, only a few minutes, merely to saturate it; long boiling would injure the fibre for spinning. Then pass the cotton into the bleaching vat contain- ing chloride of lime in such quantity as the operator may consider necessary. The cotton should be handled for fifteen minutes, then allowed to remain for four or five hours, being placed upon an inclined board to allow the liquor to drain back. The cotton is now rinsed in small quantities. To every rinsing add 1 pound of diluted sulphuric acid ; stir the cotton in this sour for a few minutes, then let it off, and give the cotton a few more waters so as to rinse all the acid away, then dry. The cotton will be quite white and easy to spin. The expense, inclusive of drying, will amount to about four cents per pound. No. 15. — The Bleaching of Flax Thread, etc. (By Mr. F. W. Hodges's Process.) It is well known that the use of chloride of calcium in combina- tion with an acid, suffices to completely bleach cotton, but this is not the case with flax. It was necessary for the purpose of per- fecting the bleaching process to spread out the latter on a meadow, except in cases in which the yarn Avas to retain a cream color. Too strong a solution of chloride of soda, besides, deteriorated the flax. The latter became hard to the touch, and rough, and im- parted to it so firmly its brown coloring matter that it was subse- quently almost impossible to bleach it thoroughly. Mr. F. W. Hodges has succeeded in obviating all these drawbacks by intro- ducing a new process by means of which even the threads receive a peculiar finish and finer look. The main points of the invention may be summed up as follows : — 1st. A new bleaching agent is made use of. 2d. The fibre is prepared for the bleaching. 3d. New machinery, shortening the operation. 76 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. 4th. The doing away with exposure on meadows. Instead of chloride of lime, Mr. Hodges uses hypochlorite of magnesia. Hitherto this substance had been applied, but a suitable manner of doing so had not been found, for the process in vogue was too expensive. Mr. Hodges, in the first place, discovered a novel method of preparing it, by far the most practical and least expensive one, for he uses as a raw material natural sulphate of magnesia, also called kieserite, met with in great quantities at Stassfurth among the excavated salts ("abraum sake"). To a solution thereof he adds a solution of common chloride of calcium. A double decomposition then takes place, hypochlorite of magnesia- remaining in solution, while sulphate of lime is precipitated at the bottom of the tub. This sulphate of lime is gathered and calcined; it is so fine that its commercial value is much greater than that of plaster of Paris obtained in the ordinary manner. As for the clear solution, it constitutes the discoloring liquid employed by Mr. Hodges, and we may mention how for some time past the new pro- cess worked at the factory of Mr. W. Sibbald Johnston at Hietongs, near Belfast, Ireland. The principle upon which the process rests is to set free the chlorine and the oxygen of hypochlorite, not by the action of an acid, but by that of carbonate of soda. Carbonate of magnesia is then precipitated, and the active principles are set free. In practice there are used ten vats and twelve coops fur- nished with a swivel; each coop is filled with water or an active solution, as well as furnished with steam pipes. There may be worked in it at a time 250 kilos. (550 lbs.) of yarn. On top of these coops there are contrived rails supported by posts and a movable crane for the purpose of transporting the swivels from one coop to another. In connection with this crane there is a hydraulic pump capable of transferring a swivel full from one coop to another in a few seconds. xVfter the skins are boiled, washed, and wrung in the usual manner, they are placed on a wagon which carries them to the first coop; there girls place them on the swivels, made to move by the aid of steam, first in one direction and then in another, in a solution of carbonate of soda heated by the steam pipes alluded to. As soon as the threads are well impregnated with carbonate the swivel is lifted by means of the hydraulic pump, and the crane then raises it on top of the next coop contain- BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 77 ing the discoloring liquid ; it is there made to lower by means of the hydraulic pump, and the material is worked till the desired color is obtained. In the same manner the skeins are transferred to a fresh coop filled with water, where they are washed or they are left to stay there during a night. The operation is then fin- ished, and the threads, as has been stated, possess a remarkable finish. The process may also be used for bleaching cotton and other fibre. It is decidedly to be preferred for fine tissues such as lawn, owing to the absence of caustic lime, and it is even asserted that tissues thus bleached are more susceptible of receiving coloring matter when dyed. The. magnesia salt is moreover cheaper and more rapidly effective for enlivening purposes when used in the place of hypochlorite of lime or hypochlorite of magnesia in print- ing. No. 16. — Patent Dry Process of Bleaching Cotton Goods. The patent refers especially to the treatment of cotton fillings. A wooden vat, lined with lead or enamelled sheet-iron, 9 feet long, 6 feet high, and 4| feet wide, capable of containing about 300 pounds of the goods is used. This vat communicates by a rubber tubing with an apparatus consisting of two parts, made of either earthenware or glass. ' The apparatus contains a mixture of quick- lime, chloride of lime, alcohol, acetic acid, and 4 parts of water ; the whole is treated with sulphuric acid, which develops about 2 cubic metres (2.61 cubic yards) of gas and steam. These fluids are under a pressure of two atmospheres, and, after two hours, the bleaching is finished. In order to remove every trace of odor, it is sufficient to put in the vessel a mixture of hydrogen, mixed beforehand in a wooden vessel, with carbonic acid and sulphuric ether gas. After fifteen minutes of this treatment, the goods are ready for market. No. 17. — Bleaching Linen. Make up a boiling solution of 25 pounds quicklime, and 12 pounds soda ash; let it cool; enter the yarn, and let it steep without heat for twelve hours; lift, rinse, and pass through weak sours (sulphuric aci£), rinse again; stir up 8 pounds good chloride 78 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. of lime in water, let settle, and enter the yarn. Let it steep until perfectly white; lift, rinse, and pass through weak muriatic acid sours. Dissolve two pounds curd soap in boiling water, add as much ultramarine as may be required to give a blue tint; stir well together, enter the bleached yarn, lift, and dry. No. 18. — New Method for Bleaching Linen. Hypochlorite of lime is substituted by the hypochlorite of mag- nesia, which is economically made as follows: — Take sulphate of magnesia and add a solution of the same to a solu- tion of ordinary bleaching lime. There are then formed by double decomposition hypochlorite of magnesia, which remains in solution, and sulphate of lime, which in very fine division is precipitated. The clear liquid hypochlorite of magnesia constitutes the bleach- ing liquid. Its chlorine and oxygen are liberated, not by the action of an acid, but by that of carbonate of soda. The hypochlorite of soda is very useful as a clearing agent in printing. No. 19. — Method of Preparing Bleaching Liquor. In decomposing chloride of lime for bleaching on the large scale it is advantageous to use bicarbonate of soda instead of sal soda, as by it there is formed a fine crystalline precipitate of carbonate of lime, from which the supernatant liquid is easily decanted off; whilst when soda crystals are used, an emulsion is formed which deposits but slowly. A slight excess of the bicarbonate is not in the slightest degree injurious. Bleaching liquor thus prepared bleaches perfectly and rapidly all kinds of linen and cotton fabrics. No. 20. — Peroxide of Hydrogen in Bleaching. Most bleaching agents produce more or less a rough surface. This is corrected by using peroxide of hydrogen, as it can be used in very slightly alkaline or acid baths. It is particularly good for sponge, hair, feathers, silk, ivory, bones, etc. See that the articles are well cleaned and washed. The bleach-bath is prepared with the peroxide of hydrogen in .'Viwwvvt-n BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 79 proportion to the article to be bleached ; some things are better with a slight trace of alkali added, and the goods lie in this until white. To hasten it heat may be applied, not to exceed 76° F. From two to fourteen days are required if done cold. Articles are not made brittle by this process. No. 21. — Bleaching Velvets, etc., that are to he Dyed Light Colors. (For 200 lbs.) Use a vessel at the boil which contains about 200 gallons of water and 30 pounds of soda ash. It must boil from three to four hours, and. afterwards .it must be taken out and cuddled up in a cistern of clean water ; from here run the cloth through chemic (bleaching liquor) standing about 2° T. ; then take it through a water-bath acidulated muriatic acid standing about 1|° T. The cloth must then be washed, and is then for most purposes ready for the dye-house, but should it be required for dyeing light fancy shades it is necessary that the cloth should go twice through the same bleaching process before it is ready for dyeing. No. 22. — Bleaching Union Damask after Dyeing. To 60 yards take 1 pound chloride of lime finely strained through a sieve into lukewarm water. Handle the work well for fifteen minutes or so, and then lift and add \ pound of oil of vitriol, stir well, and handle for ten minutes, lift, and wash. The acid keeps it from running. No. 23. — To Bhach the White in Chrome Blade. In bleaching the whites of goods colored chrome black, should such a process be required, to each piece of fabric dissolve 1 pound of hyposulphate of soda in two pails of water, to which add 1 pound sulphuric acid, the vessel containing the mixture being well covered so as not to lose any sulphurous acid gas. All the sulphur must be allowed to settle until the liquid is clear, and the liquid may then be run into a clean tub filled with water. In this bath the goods are to be laid for six to eight hours, when the whites will be found perfectly bleached without injury to the black. Rinse and dry. 80 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 24. — To Bleach for Printing. In the case of a large quantity of goods for printing it is more convenient to bleach them in large vats filled with water charged with sulphurous acid as follows: — Half fill a stone with pine sawdust, cover it with a wooden cover, through which is a hole to receive a lead or glass pipe. Pour on enough sulphuric acid to cover the sawdust, and insert the pipe which conducts the sulphurous acid gas into the vat of water, rendering the joints gas-tight by a luting of clay to prevent too much free acid going over. The gas may be passed through a strong solution of soda and then to the vat. The vat of course should be covered ; the goods are thrown into the water over- night, and when taken out will be found sufficiently bleached. No. 25. — Bleaching Turkey Red Cotton Stockings. Boil 100 dozen with 5 pounds of soda and 4 pounds of soap for several hours, then take them out and rinse. They should now be entered in the bleaching vat, which ought to be moderately strong. Handle the goods well, and let them lie in the liquor for a few hours, or until they are bleached enough ; then take them out, allowing them to remain in the air as short a time as possible. They should then be soured for half an hour, rinsed, and scoured with soap. Inferior Turkey red dyed goods need great care in bleaching. No. 26. — Belgian Bleach for Linen or Cotton. (100 lbs.) Slake 22 pounds quicklime and dissolve 22 pounds carbonate of soda ; pour off the clear, and boil the goods in this for one hour ; wash, then take through a water in Avhich spirit of salts has been added to show 2° B. ; then bleach in a solution of 11 pounds chlo- ride of lime for six hours ; take again through spirit of salts at 2° B.; rinse well, and blue with 5| pounds soap and ultramarine blue. No. 27. — Bleaching Ivory for Fans, etc. Place 2 quarts of peroxide of hydrogen in a stone pot, adding 4 ounces liq. ammon. fort. 880° ; immerse the .ivory and place BLEACHING WOOL, COTTON, LINEN, ETC. 81 over a common shop stove for 24 to 30 hours ; then take it out and gradually dry it in the air, not too quickly, or it will split. The deep color of the ivory is removed, and a beautiful pearly white ivory results when polished. The ivory is previously treated with a solution of common soda to get rid of greasy matter and open the pores. No. 28. — To Bender Ivory Flexible. Ivory is rendered readily quite flexible by immersion in a solu- tion of pure phosphoric acid (specific gravity 1.13) until it loses, or partially loses its opacity, when it is washed in clean cold water and dried. In this state it is as flexible as rubber, but gradually hardens by exposure to dry air. Immersion in hot water, however, restores its softness and pliancy. The following method may also be employed: Put the ivory to soak in 3 ounces nitric acid with 15 ounces of water. In three or four days the ivory will be soft. No. 29. — Bleaching Cfutta Percha. Dissolve the gutta percha in twenty times its weight of boiling benzole ; add to the solution plaster of very good quality, and agitate the mixture from time to time. By reposing for two days the plaster is deposited and carries down with it all the impurities of the gutta percha insoluble in benzole. The clear liquid decanted is introduced by small portions at a time into twice its volume of alcohol ninety per cent., agitating continually. During this opera- tion the gutta percha is precipitated in the state of a pasty mass, perfectly white. The desiccation of the gutta percha, thus puri- fied, requires several weeks' exposure to the air, but may be accelerated by trituration in a mortar, which liberates moisture that it tends to retain. THE ACTION OF BLEACHING POWDER ON VEGETABLE FIBRES. Professor G. Lunge, of Zurich, who used to be manager of a chemical works on the Tyne, communicates the results of some ex- periments undertaken for him by Mr. F. Hodges, in order to ascer- tain if there is any foundation in the general belief that the insoluble part of the chloride of lime (bleaching poAvder) has a destroying 6 82 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. effect upon the vegetable fibres. Persoz, who is the originator of this belief, thinks that this destroying action is due to a basic chlorate, but this view he could not prove by experiments. It was necessary to ascertain first, whether chloride of lime could be completely ex- tracted of all its bleaching compounds by washing with cold water, and if the insoluble residue really asserts a destroying effect on vegetable fibres. For these experiments were used: 1st, an English bleaching powder of 35.4 per cent. ; 2d, a Swiss product of 37.67 per cent., and a chloride of lime, prepared in the laboratory, of 43.18 perct. chlorine. By treating 10 gr. (0.35 oz.) of these three products for six consecutive times with 100 cc. (0.21 pint) water each time, the chlorine could be extracted until only 0.24 to 0.44 per cent, remained in the residue ; but in order to exhaust it com- pletely, 3 to 5 litres (6.3 to 10.5 pints) of water were found neces- sary. The residue, which amounted to from 7.9 to 8.1 per cent, of the original bleaching powder, proved perfectly indifferent against either cotton or linen fabrics, even when these latter were after- wards treated with weak acid, or when they were boiled for some time in the well exhausted chloride of lime residues; these reacted exactly in the same way as carbonate of lime, with which compara- tive experiments were made. Even calico printed with loose colors, by long treatment in the cold, or when heated, resisted any action, the strength of the fabric moreover not being at all injured. But if the bleaching powder was treated in the same way and with the same amount of water as used by the Irish bleachers, then 0.2 to 0.7 per cent, of chlorine was found in the residue, and some un- bleached linen, after treatment with it and passage through an acid bath, showed unmistakable signs of the bleaching action. Therefore, it is concluded that the bleaching action of this residue, as observed by Persoz and others, is not due to the insoluble sub- stance itself, but is caused by the chlorine, which has not been completely exhausted with Avater. SECTION III. WOOL DYEING. RAW WOOL DYEING RECEIPTS. (Each receipt, when not otherwise expressed, calls for 100 pounds of raw wool ) No. 1. — Orange. Boil two hours with 4 pounds of cochineal, 25 pounds of young fustic, 3 pounds tartar, 3 quarts of nitrate tin. No. 2.— Red or Scarlet. Enter a bath of boiling water with 4| pounds tartar, 25 pounds of fustic; 4 quarts of nitrate tin, 7 pounds of lac dye; keep in motion for 2J hours, and thjjjktake out. No. 3. — Royal Blue. Add to a bath of water 12 pounds of prussiate, 8 quarts of blue spirits, 5 quarts of finishing spirits ; enter the wool cold, and raise to a boil, and set it in the bath for 1 J hours. No. 4. — Yellow. Make up a bath of water and add to it 10 pounls of alum, 25 pounds of young fustic, 5 pounds of tartar, 5 quarts of nitrate of tin ; enter the wool and boil for li hours. 84 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. No. 5. — Olive Drab. Make up bath and add to it 1 pound of chrome ; enter this bath and boil 1J hour ; take out and dye off in another bath, with Im- pounds of logwood, 22 pounds of fustic, and a small quantity of redwood. No. 6. — JBrown Drab. Enter a bath with 2| pounds of fustic, six ounces of argol, 1 pound of logwood, 2 pounds of camwood ; boil 1 hour, and darken with 1 J pounds of copperas, and wash off. No. 7.— Stone Drab. Boil one-half hour in 8 ounces of chrome, and dye in another bath with 4 ounces of logwood, 1J pounds of fustic ; 6 ounces of sumac, and a small quantity of ground peachwood. No. 8. — Dark Broivn. Dye off with 30 pounds of camwood, 10 pounds of red argol, 2 quarts of oil of Vitriol, 3 pints of sulphate of indigo, 5 pounds of turmeric; boil 2 hours. No. 9. — Dove Color. Enter a bath one pound of paste cochineal, 2 pints of extract of indigo, 4 pounds of tartar ; enter the wool, and boil one hour. No. 10. — Bottle Green. Acid to a boiling-hot bath 25 pounds of fustic, 25 pounds of alum, 10 pounds of red argol, 2 quarts sulphate of indigo ; enter wool, and boil 1J hours. No. 11. — Invisible Green. Add to a hot bath 5 pints of indigo, 12 pounds of argol, 5i pounds of logwood, 12 pounds alum ; enter wool, and boil 2 hours. No. 12. — Apple Green. Add to a boiling-hot bath of water 1 quart oil of vitriol, 6 pounds of red argol, 3 pints of extract of indigo, 12 pounds turmeric ; enter wool, and boil one hour. WOOL DYEING. 85 No. 18. — Ruby on Wool (50 pounds). Preparation : 3 pounds tartar, and 2 pounds alum ; boil half an hour, and wash in three warm waters. Dyeing : 8 pounds Lima-wood ; J pound cudbear and f pound tartar ; boil half an hour, and blue to pattern with hot water in a separate bath. No. 14. — Pansy on Wool (100 pounds). Prepare with 11 pounds alum, 5| pounds argols, 1 pound tin crystals, J pound muriate of tin ; boil two hours. Dye with logwood, peachwood, or hypernic to shade. Use less for lighter shades. No. 15. — Olive to stand fulling on Wool. Sanders 2 per cent, boiled out with the fustic first. Fustic 50 per cent., bluestone 5 per cent., argol 2 per cent., copperas 1 per cent.; boil 1J hours. No. 16. — Dirk Olive to stand fulling on Wool. 50 per cent, fustic, 5 per cent, logwood, 4 per cent, bluestone, 4 per cent, argol, 3 per cent, archil, 1 per cent, copperas ; boil 1J hours. No. 17. — Blood Color on Wool (5 kilos. = 11 lbs.). Mordant with 50 grams. (1.75 oz.) chrome, 20 grams. (0.7 oz.) bluestone, 500 grams. (17.5 oz.) cream tartar, 25 grams. (0.87 oz.) oil vitriol. Dye with a filtered decoction of 100 gr. (3.5 oz.) fuchsine and 120 to 150 gr. (4.2 to 5.25 oz.) logwood. If the cast is to be darkened, the mordant is strengthened a little by doubling the dose of bichromate, blue vitriol and sulphuric acid, and finally dye with 2 kilos. (4.4 lbs.) Lima-wood, 150 gr. (5.25 oz.) fuchsine, 50 gr. (1.75 oz.) aniline orange, and J kilo. (1.1 lb.) logwood. No. 18.— Claret on Wool (50 lbs.). Preparation : 1 J pounds chrome. Dyeing: 9 pounds Lima-wood, 2 pounds logwood, J pound tartar ; boil half an hour. 80 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. No. 19. — Garnet on Wool (5 kilos. = 11 lbs.). Mordant with 50 gr. (1.75 oz.) chrome, 20 gr. (0.7 oz.) bluestone, 500 gr. (17.5 oz.) cream tartar, 25 gr. (0.87 oz.) oil of vitriol ; boil half an hour. Dye with 250 gr. (8.75 oz.) fustic, 1| kilos. (3.3 lbs.) Lima- wood, 150 gr. (5.25 oz.) logwood. No. 20.— Dark Brown (100 lbs.). Prepared tartar . . . 8f lbs. Sulphate of soda Ponceau Bordeaux Magenta Fast yellow . Indigotine dark The aniline colors and the indigotine are well dissolved before being added to the water. Enter the yarn at 100° F., raise to 212° F.; boil for one hour, and rinse. 4 " G ozs 6 " 1 3 U 7 U 8 3 lbs. 9 u 3£ " •)■ 4 lbs 2 .. 3|- ozs. u No. 21.— Cardinal (50 lbs Prepared tartar Sulphate of soda Scarlet 2 R Acid magenta .... Dissolve the colors well; enter at 100° F., and turn well whilst raising to a boil ; boil for half an hour ; lift, and raise. No. 22.— Fast Canary (100 lbs.). Dissolve 4 ounces naphthaline yellow, to which add 3 pounds sul- phuric acid and 10 pounds glauber salts. Commence at 100°, and well pole to'the boil. If commenced too hot it is liable to take unevenly. »_V •>-%. V.-XJV-' '.VV WOOL DYEING. 87 No. 23.— Malachite Green (100 lbs.). Dissolve 1 pound of green, and proceed as for canary. No. 24.— Fast B. Red. Dissolve equal parts of 1 B. scarlet and acid magenta, and pro- ceed as for canary. For yellower shade add orange. For darker shades add acid claret, or archil, or even acid violet. No. 25. — Aniline Scarlets to fix for Fulling. Dye in the usual way, but add 1 J pounds of muriatic acid and 3 pounds of sulphate of soda to 100 pounds of goods ; boil in with the color. No. 2Q.—Eosine on Wool (100 lbs.). From 2 to 2| pounds of alum (not alumina) are dissolved, and from 3 to 4 pounds eosine according to depth of shade required, dissolved and added to a cold bath, when the heat is slowly raised to a boil. The richness of this color is very intense. 88 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 27.— Rose Color on Wool (40 lbs.). 1 pound cochineal, 3 gills double muriate of tin, 1 pound tartaric acid. Enter at 100° F.; heat up; boil fifteen minutes; lift, and cool to 120° F. by throwing out part of the liquor and filling up with water; add 1 gill of ammonia paste, 12 ounces tartaric acid, (5 ounces oxalic acid; bring up to the boil; when the desired shade is obtained wash and dry well. No. 28. — Acid Magenta Rose. Pink and rose shades may also be obtained with roseine, acid magenta, eosine, safi'ronine, and phloxine. See silk dyeing on pink. No. 29. — Scarlet with Cochineal on Wool. For 50 lbs.:— For 11b.:- Boil 4 lbs. cochineal, bark, " tartar, nearly 1 and add 2 quarts scarlet spirits. 2 Enter at 200° F.; boil one hour; wash well. 1 3 U o O 1^ oz. 2 a a Note. — Sour before dyeing either cold or warm ; one water out. No. 30. — Scarlet ivith Lac on Wool. For 50 lbs. :— For 1 lb. :- Boil 5§- lbs. lac, 1| " bark, 3 " tartar, and add 2 quarts lac scarlet spirits Enter at 200° F. ; boil one hour ; wash well. Sour like scarlet with cochineal. If oz. 1 9 1 «' 2 U ii .•\.v WOOL DYEING. 89 No. 31. — Scarlet with Lac and Cochineal on Wool. Fori lb.:— 1J oz. a - For 50 lbs. : — Boil 4J lbs. lac, If " bark, 2 " tartar, fully | k ' and add 2 quarts lac scarlet spirits. 2 " Enter at 200° F. ; boil in this thirty minutes ; lift, and wash well. Then in a boiler of clean water Boil 14 oz. cochineal. 14 tartar I oz. i a 4 1* it and add 1§- pints scarlet spirits. Enter at 200° F. ; boil twenty minutes, and wash out well ; sour No. 32. — Neiv Scarlet on Wool. Yarn well scoured (60 lbs.), washed in warm water, and whizzed ; run cistern three-quarters full and boil; put in 10 ounces scarlet O O (A. Poirrier & Co.), boil well, and add 9 lbs. sulphate of soda (Glauber salts), and 1 quart vitriol (sulphuric acid) ; run up with cold water, and give a good stir up, and enter yarn ; keep turning for fifteen or twenty minutes ; heat gradually to a boil in about one hour and a quarter, and on no account enter hotter, as the dye has an affinity for the wool, it being all taken up before the boil commences. The scarlet O O mentioned above is made by A. Poirrier & Co., of Paris, and is really one of their " Pon- ceaus." No. 33. — Aniline Scarlet. Sometimes called Fast Red, and by the absurd name of Patent Crimson, and Ponceau. All belong to the same family of azo colors, and are quite as fast as lac or cochineal colors, and at the same time are quite as bright, and much cheaper. As a difference of opinion exists as to the advantages of mor- danting or not, I may say that from my experience I do not see but that I get as good results with simply sulphuric acid, and for evenness Glauber salts in the color at the start, as by mordanting first. 00 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. I purpose, however, giving the various plans of using, and leaving the reader to form his own opinion of their merits. To 100 pounds woollen goods, dissolve 2 pounds of aniline scar- let ; then run the bath up to 150° F., and add 2 pounds sulphuric acid and 10 pounds Glauber salts ; enter goods, and bring the boil slowly up. If the ingredients are added twice before raising the heat, much more certain or even results are likely to be secured. The above is given for a full shade, 1J pounds will give a fair shade. No. 34. — Fast Crimson on Wool. For 10 yards : — 1| oz. fully, n a '2 a For 200 yards: — ( 2 lbs. cudbear, bottoming ) _, , ,. ,. to »> MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 325 MORDANTS, THEIR NATURE AND USE, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. No. 1. — Oil Mordants for Aniline Colors. Say 2 pounds of oil are agitated with 7| of alcohol, T| water are added and J sulphuric acid. The whole must be thoroughly mixed to an emulsion before use. In France, where alcohol is dear, the acid is added directly to the oil, then the water poured in, and the whole agitated. No. 2. — Tannin as a Mordant and koto to make. Tannin, as Dr. K. M. Kurtz observes in the Wurt Groltt, came largely into the dyeing trade as a mordant for cotton, union cloth, silk, mixed silk, artificial wool, etc., and justly so, for while the dyer, by using other tannin materials as sumac, galls, myrobalans, divi divi (articles of which the value varies according to the degree of maturity, the time of plucking, the method of drying, etc.), is compelled to crush, grind, powder, sift, boil, and filter them. Tannin, which is a constant product of uniform composition, can be dissolved in water without further preparation. Tannin is cer- tainly not cheaper, but much time, labor, and other incidental ex- penses are saved by its use, and it works cleaner. One pound of tannin represents the effect of about 40 pounds of sumac, 18 pounds of myrobalans, 14 pounds of divi divi, and 11 pounds of galls, besides which from 5 to 7 per cent, of dye stuff is economized; hence, it arises that upon tanned goods the color comes out purer and brighter in an unequalled degree. Commercial tannin is now prepared chiefly from so-called Chinese and Japanese galls (from sumac). These are well dried, converted in a stamping mill to the finest powder, which is extracted four times systemati- cally with a mixture of three or four times its weight of the best rectified alcohol and ether, in small or large cylindrical vessels of tin plate, kept in agitation by hand or mechanical means. The alcoholic solution is then distilled off by steam in a copper retort, and the remaining tannin taken up in about double or three times the quantity of hot condensation water, and set aside for a day. There now separates a rather considerable quantity of a green, resinous body insoluble in water, on the surface of the tannin so- 326 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. lution, from which it is drawn off. If the solution is not clear, it may be passed through a charcoal filter. It is now evaporated in a double cased boiler in the steam bath till the water is driven off. As a tannin solution in the air, particularly if hot, darkens strong, ly, the access of the air is to be restricted as much as possible,- and for this a copper vacuum apparatus is recommended. When the water is driven off the thick fluid, tannin is poured into moulds of tin plate, where it is left to stiffen, after which it is powdered in the so-called indigo mills with cannon balls and sifted, as it is usually required in commerce, as a fine powder, which quickly dis- solves. The more ether is employed in the extraction of the galls in proportion to the alcohol, the whiter is the tannin. Alcohol alone dissolves a considerable amount of dyestuff. Water cannot be used for a first extract, as it dissolves too much dye and other foreign substance, which cannot then be separated from the solu- tion. For many technical purposes a tannin prepared alone with a spirit of high degree is as valuable as that prepared with alco- holic ether, to which a smell of ether obstinately adheres. The con- sumption of tannin besides being largely used in pharmacy, in the wine and beer pathology, is at present very much on the increase, and its production is a very profitable branch of many chemical manufactories. Many dyers combine with the employment of tan- nin that of so-called oil or animal mordants (olein sulphate of am- monia) which gives more fire to the color, especially carmine, and thus leads to an economy of dyeing material. The preparation is simple: In a large dish, to about 60 pounds of best cotton-seed oil are added 30 pounds of sulphuric acid, at 6Q° B. with gradual stirring. The mass becomes heated, evolves much sulphurous acid, and is stirred till it becomes quite homogeneous, when the mixture (the olein sulphuric acid) has cooled again, so much dilute spirit of ammonia is added with continued stirring, that the remaining liquid smells of it, weighs about 5 cwt., and presents a homogeneous bright, yellow, soapy paste, but whether the above preparation, in proportion to its effect, will not become too dear, Dr. Kurtz cannot decide. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 327 No. 3. — The Application of Tannic Acid and Crluefor Fixing Aniline Colors. The fixing of aniline colors on vegetable fibres, is far more difficult than on animal fibres, as in the former case mordants are always requisite, but in the latter they are mostly unnecessary, or of secondary importance. Wool is often more beautifully and vividly dyed with aniline colors, without mordanting, and the mor- dants are used chiefly either for the purpose of attaining a higher temperature in the dye bath, or to give the dye stuff greater per- manency, but especially also to avoid the unevenness which so easily occurs with aniline dyes upon wool. Cotton and linen fibres will not combine with tar colors without a mordanting medium, and it is necessary in all cases to look out for materials which are capable of rendering the soluble aniline dyes insoluble on the fibres. The series is by no means small, and it is only a question to decide which of the mordants used in practice is the most advantageous, and will yield at the same time the finest and cheapest colors. This question cannot well be decided by experiments on a small scale. It is only by operating with large quantities, and by manufacturing processes, that results are obtained which lead to a correct decision. The dyer in fine colors will for the most part have no opportunity to decide which is the most suitable method for fixing aniline colors upon cotton. In this question the productiveness of the bath employed must be well considered, and their value be deducted from the total cost in the calculation of the materials used. It would lead too far to discuss here the various methods of fixing aniline colors. They have nearly all been displaced by the method of mordanting with tannic acid, and many expert practical men have by this time decided that tannic acid is the medium to be preferred to all other mordants for dyeing with aniline colors on cotton. This is specially the case with magenta and aniline green (iodine green). These two dye-stuffs yield, with tannic acid, beautifully colored and completely insoluble com- binations, and thus tannin answers most fully the purpose of a genuine mordant. Tannin is nevertheless a tolerably expensive preparation, and consequently an effort should be made to find a 328 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. substitute for it, a mordant which either renders it quite superflous or admits of some economy in its use. The materials hitherto pro- posed, oleic and stearic acids in soaps, etc., do not satisfy the re- quirements, and it is not likely that a substitute will easily be found to displace tannin entirely ; a long series of experiments on a large scale has led to the conviction that tannin (either pure or in sumac) is temporarily at least indispensable. On the other hand, tannic acid may be considerably economized by combining it with size before dyeing, and thus using tannin and size at the same time as mordant ; in order then to produce a certain tint with magenta or iodine green, or any other aniline color, far less tan- nin is required. In fact the same result may be obtained with half the tannin, which is obtained with double the quantity, without the use of size, as the following experiment will illustrate. In the first place the cotton was dipped in a tannic acid bath, then divided into two parts, the one drawn through a weak solution of size or gelatine, and the other dyed directly in a bath of known concen- tration at a certain temperature. The portion drawn through the solution of size was then dyed in a bath exactly similar, and the two samples were then compared. The cotton mordanted with tannin and size was by far more fully and deeply dyed, and it may be affirmed that by using a size bath after the tannin bath, the latter may be used much weaker than when tannin alone is used for fixing the dye-stuff. In this way tannic acid may be economized to a considerable extent. By diluting the tannic solution more and more, and comparing the results with tannin and size, and with tannin alone, a point is reached in which both operations yield exactly the same shades. When this point is reached, by comparing the degree of concentra- tion of both tannin baths, it may be determined what the saving of tannin has been ; this depends much upon the quality of the tannin, so that the experiments have not yielded a result which could be reduced to figures. The samples of tannin obtained from different sources gave different results, and in one case, a greater saving could be effected with the use of the size bath, and in another comparatively less. Evidently a combination takes place between the size and the tannic acid, which then acts on the dye-stuff of the aniline differently from the tannin alone. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 329 The following extract from the Chemical Review shows that a much cheaper mordant than tannin has been found, as follows : — No. 4. — Mordant for Aniline Colors on Cotton. Until recently, aniline colors have been fixed on cotton -by treat- ment with animal matter as albumen, gelatine, or with galls, sumac, tannin, as well as by the use of mordants of acetate of alumina, soap, and oil. Dr. Reiman, however, directs attention to the peculiar power possessed by starch of abstracting aniline colors from solutions. This is not due to the gluten it contains, since this property is shared equally by wheat and potato starch ; and he founded upon this a beautiful method for fixing aniline colors on cotton. It is immaterial whether the color is attracted by the starch suspended in the liquid or attached to the fibre. If the cotton is saturated with a thin paste of potato or wheat starch and steeped in a dye bath of aniline color, it will receive the corre- sponding shade. No. 5. — Mordants for Aniline Colors. Many things have been introduced from time to time, with more or less success, to enable cotton goods to take up the colors quickly and brightly. The following are the various mordants and their results. Sumac has always found more or less favor, and unquestionably it has its advantages. It is cheap, the liquor can be used for other purposes ; and most dyers know how to use it, but are afraid to discontinue its use in favor of a new thing of which they know but little. Stannate of soda, the principal advantage claimed for this is that it leaves the goods whiter than sumac, it does not require much, or indeed any rinsing. On the other hand, it is considered dearer than the former, and it does not stand exposure well. In articles of dress, garment dyers are often requested to retain black stripes and spots that may be in the goods, which stannate in a great measure discharges. It certainly rots the work to some extent, and I have found in its use black spots formed upon the work, similar to those found occasionally by the tin process in cochineal scarlet dyeing. 330 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 6. — Methylated Spirit as a Mordant. As this takes about eight cents worth to about twelve yards of dress material, it is generally considered too dear. But it is clean, works tolerably even, and it retains stripes, spots, etc. N. B. Methylated spirit is much cheaper in England than alco- hol, from which it is made by adding a portion of shellac to prevent its being used for anything other than manufacturing purposes. No. 7. — Tannic Acid and its advantages. This unquestionably is superior to all the foregoing, and is ap- plicable to all purposes where any of the formsr can be used, and *n many instances where they would not avail. The chief argu- ment against it is its price, although it is affirmed by some prac- tical men, considering all things, to be as economical as either of the foregoing, as it is quite soluble, easily fixes itself, and 1 pound will mordant 100 pounds of goods in half an hour. No. 8. — Improved Aniline Mordant. This differs from all the foregoing in several important respects, it is about one-quarter the price of tannic acid, while its results are similar in every respect, it is a much brighter arid cleaner mordant than sumac, and has none of the disadvantages of stan- nate of soda. Indeed, it strengthens the work rather than other- wise, it is half the price of methylated spirits, it works evenly, and requires no rinsing. Goods can be mordanted with it in from five to fifteen minutes ; it is chiefly recommended for red, violet, brown, green, slate, grays, etc., on cotton or mixed goods. The inventor is a practical dyer, supplies printed instructions, and may be communicated with on any points relative to his inven- tion. Some think it a saving to use half the quantity of tannic or aniline mordant, and about three times its weight of glycerine ; others use about two parts of mordant and two parts of best starch ; whilst others still recommend to mordant in a prepared oil bath ; and others consider oil and glycerine combined to be an improve- ment. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 331 No. 9. — Starch Valuable to fix Colors. All loose colors, especially anilines on mixed goods, should be passed hot in a clear, well strained starch liquor. It fixes the color and gives substance to the goods, it should of course be boiled and then used thin, it hurts no color. No. 10. — Aleppo Galls as an Aniline Mordant. There are many kinds of nut galls, but the above are the best. As they are so well known it is only requisite to say that they are of a greenish blue tint and should be free from worm holes. As a mordant, they are quite valuable and only require bruising or grinding, and boiling. Decant the clear liquor and steep the goods in them. From 1 to 8 pounds are required for 100 pounds of goods according to shade. No. 11. — China G-alls as an Aniline Mordant. They are of a much later introduction in the dyeing trade. Instead of being a nut in the proper sense of the term, they are not, as they much more resemble a bony looking hollow shell, of all conceivable shapes, no two excrescences form alike as they ooze from the tree in the form of gum. ; They are much the color of dry bones. They are reduced to a fine powder, and used in the same way as nut galls. No. 12. — Myrohalans are also of recent introduction into the dyeing trade. They are more of the egg shape than otherwise, and are much the same color as low quality nut galls, a yellow drab. No doubt they had been used some time for tannin purposes before they were much thought of for dyeing purposes. For both they are very use- ful. Like galls the quality varies very much, and it requires much judgment in their selection, as some are very valuable y while others are not much stronger than sumac. They are used in the same way as sumac, and should at least be double its strength. No. 13. — Sumac. An article so well known and so easily obtained only requires a passing word for the sake of the uninitiated. 4MMV 332 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. The best kind has always been claimed as the Sicily, but at the present time a counter claim is put in for that of South American growth as being often as good as the Sicily. It is sold invariably in a ground state as a greenish drab powder, and if good, as soon as a barrel is opened it emits a scent quite strongly resembling whiskey. 8 to 100 pounds suffices for some colors, while scarlets and other spirit colors require even 40 to 100 pounds. I have seen as much as 60 pounds recommended, as the passage through the tin liquors cuts it considerable. No. 14. — Outch is the name used for catechu, and is well known as a drug for fast brown. It has likewise been used as a mordant for aniline colors. That it does contain a large amount of tannin is quite true, but as it gives a deep body or color to the goods, it can only be used to advantage as a mordant for dark colors. But as other mordants can be used for light or dark colors, this finds but little favor as an aniline mordant. No. 15. — Valonia. This is a nut containing a considerable amount of tannin, and for that reason has been used to some extent for leather, and to a less extent for mordanting purposes. I, however, find nothing in it to give it a preference over some of the other drugs as an aniline mordant. There are many other things that have been used, and which might have been described did I attach sufficient importance to them, but as I have given the best let that be a sufficient reason for omitting them. As other mordants with their auxiliaries are treated upon in the article on dye-stuffs and chemicals, I shall now leave this special branch, which may be called the dry mordants, for the other branch, which may be called the wet mordants. No. 16. — Scarlet Spirits. 3 pounds muriatic acid, 3 pounds pure double nitric acid. Add 2 ounces salammoniae, and feed with 1 J pounds granulated tin. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 333 No. 17. — Lac Scarlet Spirits. 3 gallons muriatic acid, 1 gallon nitric, 2 gallons water, kill with 6 pounds of tin. No. 18. — Scarlet Spirits, Another "Way. Put any quantity of nitric acid and the same of clear water into a stoneware pot, the water first, then 1 pound of muriatic acid to every 5 pounds of the above, and give two ounces of tin to the pound of spirits. Add it very slowly for two or three days, otherwise it may fire, which would precipitate the nitric acid, when you would lose the spirit. No. 19. — Solution of Tin for General Purposes. 9 quarts muriatic acid, 1 quart nitric, give as much feathered tin as it Avill take, the tin to be added at several times. No . 20. — Muriate of Tin . Same as (No. 17) without the nitric acid. No. 21. — Double Muriate of Tin. Take muriatic acid in a strong stone pot, and in a warm place, gradually feed it with as much tin as it will take, which should be at least 3 ounces to the pound suitable for cotton. No. 22. — Crimson Spirit (for Cardinal Shade)-. 3 quarts nitric acid, 5 quarts muriatic acid, 1 pound saltpetre, give as much tin as it will take. No. 23. —Nitrate of Tin is aqua fortis killed with tin, which is used in dyeing yellows, bufFs, scarlets, and crimsons. No. 24. — Nitric Acid or Aqua-fortis. This spirit is much used in dyeing. It is made from nitrate of potassa, or nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid. It will dye silk yellow of itself, but is generally killed with tin for worsteds and woollens. ffiRrafis i&flffiBiiJiifL&miiiEfln 334 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 25. — Nitrate of Iron is aqua fortis killed with iron or copperas. It is used for dyeing buffs upon cotton, and as a mordant or preparation for other colors. No. 26. — Nitrate of Copper is aqua fortis killed with copper (sulphate of copper). No. 27. — Oxalic Tin. This is a most valuable spirit for dyeing all grain colors, brighter colors being obtained by • it than by either nitrate of tin or mu- riate of tin. It is the best destroyer of gum sometimes found in lac, and which is very injurious in dyeing. In woollens it is very penetrating, dyeing the piece through, however strong, without leaving any white appearance. As yet it is only partially known by the dyers, but much approved by those who have tested its excellency. Note. — If not convenient to make your own spirits they can be bought ready prepared in most large cities. No. 28. — Substitute for Cream of Tartar. A mixture of 30 parts Glauber's salt with 20 parts sulphate of zinc will be in many cases an excellent substitute for cream of tartar. No. 29. — Mordant in lieu of Tartar in Wool Dyeing. The following mixtures are employed : — No. 1. Alum, 10 kilogs. (22 lbs.). Water, 10 litres (2.64 gals.). No. 2. Oxalic acid, 3.5 kilogs. (7.7 lbs.). Water, 20 litres (5.28 gals.). No. 3. Acetic acid, 2 kilogs. (4.4 lbs.). ♦ These three liquors are then mixed together producing a mix- ture which only costs 0.16 franc (3.2 cent.) the litre, (2.1 pints), or about half the price of the ordinary tartar bath. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 335 No. 30. — Chrome, or Bichromate of Potash. This is a red orange crystal, and is of very great use as a mordant in dyeing blacks and other dark colors upon worsted and woollen goods, giving greater permanency than any other mordant pre- viously employed. Its excellent properties, in this respect, have only of late been appreciated, and it is now becoming generally used. It effects a great saving of time and expense, etc. (See article upon its proper use.) No. 31. — Black Mordant. Sometimes called black iron liquor, is made thus : 40 gallons of water, 2 pounds copperas, | pound argol, 2 ounces bluestone, dissolve each separately, then add them together, and when settled pour off the clear liquor for use. No. 32. — Pyrolignite of Iron. Dissolve 10 pounds of pyrolignite of lime in 15 gallons of water, and proceed in the same way as with the acetate of iron. This method is intended for consumers. No. 33. — Acetate of Iron. Dissolve 10 pounds of lime in 15 gallons of water, then add to it gradually a solution of copperas (sulphate of iron) as long as any precipitate is perceivable. The clear liquor is the acetate of iron. No. 34. — Sulphate of Iron. Gradually dissolve 4 pounds of copperas in 5 pounds of nitric acid, then add 2 gallons of water; 1 quart of this solution to 30 gallons of water (as, a stock tub) will produce good results. The solution should be added as the tub weakens, next to no incon- venience is occasioned in the making of this as it does not fume like nitrate of iron. No. 35. — Nitrate of Iron. 2 gallons aqua fortis, 5| pounds old iron hoop with the rust beaten off; add the iron by degrees, after putting the above into 336 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. a 6 gallon pot (stoneware). In cold weather it will be required to be kept warm until dissolved. No. 36. — Red Liquor. Mix sulphate of potassa or ammonia with a solution of tersul- phate of peroxide of iron. See also 40 and 41. No. 37. — A New Mordant for Dyeing Aniline Blue on Cotton. Prepare the cotton with double muriate of zinc and without washing, take it to the dye bath, which also contains a small quan- tity of muriate of zinc, then add to the bath gradually the aniline blue dissolved, and heat the bath gradually up to boiling point. No. 38. — Liquid Tartar. Dissolve 22 pounds of alum in 35 quarts of water, and 7J pounds of oxalic acid in 17J quarts of water, mix the two, and add 4 pounds 6 ounces of acetic acid, stirring carefully. One pound of this is equal to two pounds of tartar. No. 39. — Liquid Tartar. White argol 10 pounds, sulphate of soda 10 pounds, single sul- phuric acid at 90° F. 6 quarts, Set it at 17° F. No. 40. — Preparation of the Acetate of Alumina or Red Liquor. Dissolve 120 parts of alum in 500 parts boiling water. When dissolved add a solution of 105 parts acetate of lead (sugar of lead) with 500 parts of water. Filter, and add water to the clear liquor until it marks 5° B. This clear liquor is the pure solution of ace- tate of alumina. No. 41. — Acetate of Alumina' or Red Liquor. Dissolve 4 parts of pure alum, and in a separate vessel 3 parts of sugar of lead, then add together and when settled pour off the clear liquor. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 337 No. 42. — Acetate of Alumina. Dissolve separately 40 parts sulphate of alum, 50 parts sugar of lead, 3 J parts of sal soda (washing soda), then add together and either filter or pour off the clear liquor. No. 43. — Sulphate of Alum. Alum prepared with sulphuric acid in its manufacture. No. 44. — Stannate of Soda. A preparation of tin and alkali, used as a cotton mordant. After which a run through a sulphuric acid bath standing at 2° B. is good for it. No. 45. — Red Liquor, otherwise called acetate of alumina (see former description). No. 46. — Tartar Emetic. A preparation of antimony and sulphuric acid, which is better bought than made. Methyline blue and marine blue on cotton, mordant with tannin and tartar emetic. THE DYE WARES. Alum. — This salt is prepared from certain clays containing pyrites. It is used very extensively in dyeing, in consequence of the attraction which alumina has for coloring matter. It is used as a mordant or base for mock crimson, maroon, claret, purple, etc. Alum is sometimes used after chromings, when the color is too full, being made lighter by adding a little. When the shade is too blue, a little alum will redden it. Annotta. — This is obtained from an American tree, called Bixa orellana, and is imported in the form of a paste, of a brick-red color. It is soluble, or spent by pearlash at boiling heat. It is used in dyeing various colors upon cotton and silks, viz : buff, sal- mon, flat yellow, orange, and some fawn shades of drab. The colors may be raised by running in weak acid. 22 338 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. Archil. 1 — This is a blue-red or violet paste, obtained from the Lichen orchella grown in the south of France, and in the Canary Islands, where the best is produced. Alone it produces a ruby color, and a very light violet by adding a little ammonia, or other alkalies. It reddens indigo blues, and combined with logwood produces purple. Ammonia. — Liquid ammonia is generally distilled from gas liquor. It is sometimes made from ammoniacal salts and lime, but the best for dyeing purposes is made from urine. It is very much used by dyers for the purpose of blueing crimsons, clarets, pur- ples, etc. It is also used in making paste cochineal. Argol. — It is obtained from the juice of the grape, and is a crystallized incrustation generally found in wine casks. It be- comes white when purified by solution* and crystallization, and is then called cream of tartar. In dyeing, argol combined with alum is generally used in the preparation or boiling of mock crimson, maroons, clarets, and purples. It is excellent in giving solidity to these and other colors. Being a weak acid, it is the best for dyeing bright greens, working well with extract, sulphate of indigo, and is not destructive to fustic. It is frequently used in dyeing the spirit colors, as scarlet, orange, and grain crimson, but cream of tartar is preferable for yellows, pinks, salmons, and other light spirit colors. Prussia te of Potash. — This is made from pearlash and animal substances, as horns and hoofs. It is very extensively used for d} r eing Prussian blues, varying from a sky to a royal blue upon cotton fabrics. Quercitron Bark. — This is obtained from the yellow oak, (Quercus infectoria) growing in North America. It furnishes an excellent yellow color. Alum and muriate of tin are the principal mordants employed in dyeing woollen and cotton, but oxalic tin 1 See sure test for, page 308. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 339 is the most efficient. It produces excellent drabs upon cotton with nitrate of iron. It is often only referred to as bark. Safflower. — The flowers of the CartJiamus tinctorius, grown chiefly in Spain, contain two coloring, matters, yellow and red. The yellow is carried off by well washing in water until the flowers assume a bright crimson appearance. The red coloring matter is extracted by steeping in pearlash and water, with occasional stir- ring. The liquor is then pressed from the flower, and is ready for dyeing pink upon cotton fabrics combined with a little tartaric or sulphuric acid. It is little used since the introduction of saflro- nine and eosine. Super Argol. — It is made from sal-enixum, or sulphate of soda, and sometimes from common salt cake. As an acid, it is used for dyeing drabs, and greens when turmeric is used instead of fustic, also for olives and browns. It is much cheaper than either argol or brown tartar, and in some cases is preferable. Camwood and Barwood are dark red woods containing strong coloring matter which is of a permanent nature, and is generally used for dyeing browns and reds upon wool and cotton goods. They are most soluble in sulphuric acid diluted with water. In the dyeing of woollens, it is sometimes employed as a substitute for red sanders, producing a more fiery appearance in browns of light and middle shades. Catechu. — Catechu is an extract from the heart-wood of the khair tree of the East Indies. The coloring matter is extracted by sulphate of copper. Bichromate of potash is used to darken it. It is used in dyeing cotton a variety of shades, varying from a light drab to a dark brown. Chemic or Sulphate of Indigo. — This is blue paste prepared from indigo, and contains more indigo in solution than any other preparation of it whatever. For dyeing purposes it is thus made ; put into a stone jar 36 pounds of sulphuric acid, to which add 12 pounds of ground indigo gradually, stir well for one hour. After 340 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER'S COMPANION. standing for a few hours it will be fit for use. This chemic is much cheaper than extract of indigo for dyeing some colors, as greens, olives, and browns. Extracts of indigo are only modifica- tions of this chemic, being partly neutralized and filtered. French Berry, or Persian Berry. — This is the fruit of the ffliamnus infectorius. It yields a bright yellow coloring matter, which is employed in dyeing light yellow shades upon cotton, also for light greens, with either extract of indigo or prussiate of potash. It also gives the fawn shade to drabs. Combined with alum or crystals of tin a fine golden yellow is obtained. Saunders, or Red Sandal. — This is the wood of the Ptero- carpus santalinus, grown in India. It possesses deep red color- ing matter, and is used chiefly in dyeing woollen goods. It is more permanent than peach-wood, though not of so bright a color. Sapan Wood. — This wood produces a red color similar to that obtained from peach-wood, but it is not much used for dyeing pur- poses. It is generally sold in the liquid state, and is used in padding and printing. Sumac. — This astringent vegetable production is extensively used, chiefly for cotton dyeing. It is used as the base of many colors. The best is that imported from Sicily. It has great affinity for iron, which, when combined with sumac in certain pro- portions, imparts to cotton a variety of shades from silver drab to black. It is sometimes spelled sumack, and often in the old coun- try abbreviated to mack and mac. Fustic or Young Fustic. — The best old fustic is imported from Cuba, and yields a permanent yellow coloring matter, when com- bined with alum and argol, in dyeing various shades of greens. It is also used after chroming for olives of different shades. Young fustic is chiefly used in dyeing yellows, oranges, and scarlets. It gives a bright yellow when combined with nitrate, muriate, or ox- alic tin, the last being the most effectual. The young dyes brighter shades than the old. MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 341 Galls. — The gall nut is chiefly imported from Aleppo. It yields an astringent black coloring matter when combined with copperas and logwood; and it is generally employed in dyeing silver drabs upon cotton, when combined with nitrate of iron. As a dyewood, it gives greater solidity than sumac for those light shades. Indigo is produced from the leaves of Indigofera, a plant cultivated in South America, East Indies, etc., it is a very perma- nent coloring matter, employed in dyeing the majority of colors, varying from a drab to an indigo blue. The color produced by it is often imitated by dyeing with logwood, worsteds, and woollens which have previously undergone the chroming process. Kermes or Lac Dye is obtained from an insect deposited on different species of trees in the East Indies and other places. It contains red coloring matter, very like that of cochineal, and is frequently used as a substitute for it, being thought by some chemists to possess more permanence. It dyes good scarlets along with nitrate of tin, or oxalic tin, and tartar. This dye is much cheaper than cochineal, and the difference of color is only slightly perceptible. Logwood. — This is a dark red dyewood, and is much employed in dyeing black upon silk, cotton, and woollen ; also for blues and many other colors. Logwood on first being introduced into Eng- land, was denounced by the cultivators of the native wood, and even prohibited in England by Queen Elizabeth. All imported was to be destroyed, nor was it allowed to be used till the reign of Charles the Second ; thus proving that zeal is often blind. Peachwood, Lima-Wood, and Brazil- Wood. — These are used for dyeing mock crimsons, maroons, and clarets, upon worsted, woollen and cotton goods. They dye bright colors, after a pre- paration of alum, and darker shades of the same colors, after a preparation of chrome. Hypernic is the American name for them. Madder. — This is obtained from the root of the Rubia tinctorum, which grows wild in the south of Europe, etc. It is an article of 342 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. great importance in dyeing. Madder possesses five distinct color- ing principles, viz., madder red, madder purple, madder orange, madder yellow, and madder brown. These colors are of most use to calico printers. It is also used by dyers to deaden drabs. The brighter the color, and stronger the scent the better the quality. Cochineal is a small Mexican insect containing strong coloring matter, very permanent. It is used in dyeing pinks, rose colors, oranges, scarlets, and crimsons. The mode of extracting the coloring matter is by means of nitrate of tin and muriate of tin ; oxalic tin gives the brightest color. These acids for bright shades are combined with white or brown tartar. It is largely replaced now by coal tar color. Cudbear (see also Archil).- — Cudbear is a dry powder of a fine blue-red color, and will dye a ruby itself, either upon silk, worsted, or woollen; a violet, with a little logwood; a purple or adelaide, by previously undergoing the chroming process. It is used in dyeing lavenders, drabs, and various other shades for the red part of the color. Turmeric. — This is the root of a plant cultivated in the East Indies, and contains much yellow coloring matter. It is frequently used instead of fustic, but is not so permanent. Myrabolins. — An egg-shaped nut with much the same pro- perties as galls, though not so strong but much stronger than sumac, otherwise used the same. Glauber's Salt and its use in Dyeing. — Neutral sulphate of soda is mostly known as Glauber's salt and sold in white crystals. It contains remarkable chemical properties rendering it very valuable in woollen dyeing. By combining with acid the neutral sulphate is transformed into bi-sulphate, rendering it very valuable in the tinctorial art, not only in aniline colors, but if introduced into archil, cudbear, redwoods, turmeric, madder, logwood, fustic, etc., much more of these baths are exhausted and utilized. With MORDANTS AND DYE WARES. 343 soluble indigo equally good results are obtained, though by an opposite principle, namely, preventing a too rapid or uneven fixa- tion. Its solubility presents a singular phenomena as at 32° F., with 100 parts of water only 5 per cent, is dissolved. The solu- bility then commences and rapidly reaches its maximum at 90° F. when 100 parts of water will dissolve 322 parts of the salt, and at higher temperature the solubility lessens. About 10 pounds may be used with advantage to 100 pounds of woollen goods, whether dyed with aniline or woods. Ammonia Paste. — Strong ammonia 1 quart, water 1 quart, ground cochineal 2 pounds ; stir them all well together in a stone pot, tie up the mouth of it tightly, and set it to work in a slightly warm place for two days when it will be fit for use. Green Ebony appears to be little known in the United States, but it is to be preferred to fustic for yellows and greens, as it is bright and stands the acid better. It is also used for best blacks on silk in place of fustic as not being so harsh. SECTION XV. COLORS. PRIMARY OR ELEMENTARY COLORS. There are three elementary colors, termed "primary," from which all other colors are derived, and there are three composite colors, termed "secondary," formed by the combination of two of the primary colors. The three primary colors are red, yellow, and blue ; and the three secondary colors are orange (the union of red and yellow), green (the union of yellow and blue), and violet (the union of blue and red). There is another color called indigo (the union of blue and violet), which with the three primary and three secondary colors make the seven colors of the solar spectrum, often designated as the "prismatic colors." If a pencil of white solar light be passed through a glass prism, it will be refracted into the seven colors as just mentioned, and conversely, the merging of the seven colors into one, will produce a white pencil of light. If upon a disk the seven colors, or even the three primary colors, are painted, and the disk made to revolve with sufficient rapidity to blend the colors, the effect to the eye will be a white color. This may be termed the " optical composition" of these colors. On the other hand, if the three primary colors in pigments be mixed in certain proportions, black will be produced, and this may be termed the "physical composition" of these colors. The optical composition and the physical composition of colors are two branches of the same study. The one belongs to the de- signer of the woven fabrics, and the other to the art of the dyer. There are certain expressions applied to colors that it may not be amiss to speak of, namely, tone, shade, tint, and hue. The tone of a color is a term used to denote the modification which the color, in its greatest purity, experiences by the addition of black or COLORS. 345 white. By adding black to a pure color you heighten the tone and produce what is called a shade. By adding white to a pure color, you lower the tone and produce a tint. The expression hue is em- ployed to designate the modifications that a color undergoes by re- ceiving a small quantity of another. It is most surprising that from three colors, red, yellow, and blue all the colors and shades are produced, yet such is the fact. By mixing either of the three, say for instance, blue and 3 7 ellow a green is formed, or the red and yellow an orange. These are called secondary colors, as also the blue and red by which you get a violet. Even secondary colors can be very much varied, as for example, give less of the red and more of yellow, you get an amber, or give more of the red and less of the yellow, you have a scarlet. By the same rule take less of the yellow and more of the blue, and you have a peacock, or take most of the blue and less of the red you have a purple. Now from these secondary colors come all the fuller, richer, and darker colors, and they in their turn, by being made thinner, produce what may be called their own reflections. Thus*- a pea- cock produces sea-green ; violet a mauve or lavender, according to its blueness or redness ; brown in like manner produces a drab. The reflection is complete, as a yellow brown produces a yellow drab, while a red shade produces a red drab. Now a brown must at least have three colors in its formation, red, yellow, and blue. It will at once be seen that its hue will depend upon the relative proportions of these three colors which go into its composition. For instance, where yellow and red prevail it will be medium, and when the blue prevails it will be dark just in proportion to the in- tensity of the blue. Brown then can be used according to its tem-. perament, to mix with other colors to darken them, provided always that the colors chosen have the desired sympathy to unite. As for example, take 4 parts roseine and 1 part Bismarck you get a maroon, or in lieu of Bismarck add violet and you have a claret ; or take your proportions according to the strength of the colors, say 4 parts green, 2 parts blue violet, 2 parts Bismarck, and you have a slate color bordering upon black. But vary them and you can ring what changes of brown you desire with them. Again, take violet and green, by them you can get a decided blue or any 346 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. shade of peacock, as they unite perfectly, the green being actually made from violet. It was in watching the actions and transforma- tions of such things in my laboratory, that I conceived the idea of working out into a system of practical development all the missing links in the aniline colors and shades. The general principles of the same I now for the first time introduce to the reader. THE CONTRASTING OF COLORS. Field's theory is, that colors complementary to each other present a neutral gray, as their mean color, and this theory is still taught in the schools from his text-book. Now this is more fanciful than correct, as will be admitted if the harmonious grouping of colors is carefully studied. Let me give some examples: — The mean color between pure red and pure green is not gray, but olive green, a sort of dull yellow. The mean between pure yellow and pure purple is reddish gray. The mean between pure blue and pure orange is also reddish gray. Nothing is more self-evident than that the complementary of pure red is a sea green, such as may be seen in fresh verdigris which is as much green as blue. The true complementary of pure green is clear pink of the blue cast. The true complementary of pure blue is a pure yellow. HARMONY, DISCORD, AND CONTRAST OP COLORS. By harmony of colors we understand colors placed side by side in such a manner that they do not injure the effect of each other, rather, on the contrary, complete each other, i. e., they gain in intensity. Harmony in colors does not depend on the will or caprice or per- sonal taste of an individual, but it is based on the unchangeable laws of nature, which we shall immediately discuss. Red and Grreen. — A red body reflects green rays, while, on the other hand, a green body reflects red rays. Therefore, green is the color which completes red, and similarly, red completes green. Both, therefore, gain in intensity. Blue and Orange. — A blue body often reflects orange rays, and, inversely, an orange body will frequently reflect the blue COLORS. 347 rays. Orange is, therefore, the complementary color of blue, and vice versa ; therefore each intensifies the other. Violet and GrreenisJi Yellow. — A violet body reflects greenish- yellow, and, inversely, a greenish-yellow body reflects violet. Both colors, therefore, complete and intensify each other. Indigo and Yellow. — Indigo reflects yellow, and yellow indigo rays; hence they are complementary, and intensify each other. It would carry us too far to describe all the other colors which are complementary. A. Two simple colors. Med and Yellow. — Red appears darker purple, because the in- digo rays are imparted to it from the yellow ; yellow appears greenish, because green rays are imparted to it from the red. Yellow and Blue. — Yellow takes away the orange rays from the blue, and appears reddish ; blue absorbs the indigo rays from the yellow, and appears darker. Blue and Red. — Blue appears greenish from the effects of the green rays of the red; red, on the contrary, from the orange rays of the blue, appears yellowish. B. A compound color and a primary color, the latter being con- tained in the former. Red and Orange. — Red absorbs the blue rays from the orange and appears bluish violet; orange is influenced by the green rays of the red and appears yellowish, i. e., lighter. Red a?id Violet. — Red beside violet appears yellower, because it receives the yellow rays from the latter ; violet appears darker, more dusky, because greenish rays are absorbed by it. Orange and Yellow. — Orange loses from its yellow and appears redder ; the yellow appears more greenish. G-reen and Yellow. — Green loses its yellow and appears darker, more blue ; the yellow is influenced by the reddish rays of the green, and it appears reddish, i. e., orange. Green and Blue. — The green appears lighter, more yellow, as if it were faded ; the blue appears reddish alongside of the blue, i. e., like violet. 348 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. Violet and Blue. — The violet loses its blue and assumes a red- dish appearance in comparison with the blue, that is, greenish. C. Two compound colors which have one primary color in common. Orange and Green. — Both colors contain rays of yellow, and each loses some of its tint by contact ; the orange appearing more red, and the green more blue. Green and Violet. — Both of these colors have blue in common, and hence by contact each loses its appearance ; the green becom- ing more blue, and the violet more red. Violet and Orange. — These two colors have the red rays in common, which are lessened by contact ; the violet becoming more blue, while the orange appears more yellowish. It has been stated above that red reflects green rays and the green reflects the red rays, that all colors have their completing or complementary shades, which may be observed by the eye. This statement will be confirmed in the following : — If one fixes his eye for some time on a red object and then quickly looks away or closes the eye, it appears just as if the same object appeared before him in green. Similarly, a green object when stared at, produces a red effect when the eye looks away. When one looks at a blue object for some time, there is produced in the eye the sensation as if one saw an orange object, and contrariwise, an orange-colored object appears as if it were blue. When these colors are seen singly, as for instance in the form of flowers or .some other ornamentation, on a light gray background, and closely watched for some time, it will be found that after a while the gray ground will appear slightly tinged by the comple- mentary coloring in the same way ; with Bed, the gray ground is tinged with greenish. Green, " " reddish. Blue, Orange, Violet, a a a u a a orange. bluish. yellowish, With wall-papers and woven fabrics these facts have often been noticed and even have led to serious disputes. Thus, for instance, COLORS. 349 at Paris, in a factory of wall-papers, a case occurred in which a color mixer was found fault with for having used greenish gray instead of an ash gray as a background for a pattern of red flowers and garlands. His justification, however, was at hand, in the shape of a remnant of the gray pigment, which, when examined by itself, was in reality of ash gray tint. It was Chevreul, the distinguished chemist and director of the Gobelin Manufactory at Paris, who related the previous case, and the difficulty was settled by his showing that the red flowers imparted the greenish tint to the gray ground. A similar circumstance occurred to a weaver. He received some black and blue yarn from a dealer, by which he was to produce a blue and black checkered cloth. When the goods were given to the merchant, he saw that the black was not so intense as the sample, and immediately charged the innocent weaver with having fraudulently substituted his beautiful black for a faded one. The weaver was on the point of being punished by the law, when Chevreul, in his expert testimony on the matter, clearly showed that the blue portions of the fabric reflected suffi- cient of the yellow rays to make the black appear brownish. Hence it is shown by experience that in such cases, as with the manufacturer of wall paper, the gray ground of the paper should contain some of the color which is to be used for the design which is to be placed on the same, in order to satisfy the complementary color. If, in the case of the Parisian wall-paper, just mentioned, some red had been mixed with the gray, the ground would not have appeared greenish ; and also, if the black yarn in the case of the weaver had been dyed a little more blue, the orange rays from the blue yarn would not have shown so much on the black. Another interesting case of deception by the gradual contrast of colors is the following : A lady desiring to purchase some silk ribbons, and being undecided as to which shade to select, had samples of blue, violet, and green shown her at the same time. After a close examination of the blue ribbon she turned to look at the violet ; to her astonishment it was not violet, but brown. Perfectly correct, from looking at the blue ribbons, the comple- mentary color of the blue — orange — was found in her eye and was imparted to the violet, giving it the appearance of brown. 350 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. From the violet ribbon she proceeded to examine the green sample. Here she was again deceived, for, from previously looking at the violet, light yellow was imparted to the green, and it had the ap- pearance of being faded. If, after her examination of the blue ribbon, the lady had turned to an orange object, her eye would have been refreshed, and in a fit condition to look at the violet. After finishing with the violet ribbons she should have looked at something light yellow, and then her eye would have been sensi- tive to the green. Therefore dealers should take pains to always show goods on papers of the complementary colors, L e., red materials on green paper, etc. All observations on gradual contrast, according to Sherffer's explanation, produce the following result: — " That in the first part of the observation of a color, a portion of the cornea of the eye becomes affected and tired by it, and that this tired portion, during the second part of the time (i. e., the time of rest) perceives the complementary." If purple (red-purple red) is placed beside a brilliant carmine, the first appears darker, less bright, while the latter, on the con- trary, becomes brighter, more fiery, almost like vermilion ; if, however, the same carmine is placed beside vermilion, the carmine appears darker, that is, less bright ; so that in one case the car- mine appears fiery like vermilion, while in the other it appears darker purple. The same takes place with vermilion, it appears alongside of the carmine much lighter, almost orange, puce-colored, but when brought in contact with orange puce it appears darker, carminish. Orange puce, which alongside of vermilion appears yellowish, when in contact with yellow shows reddish. Yellow in contact with orange puce appears yellowish green, and in contact with yel- lowish green it appears orange. Yellowish green alongside of yellow seems darker, i. e., blue, and in contact with blue green, lighter, that is, more yellow. Blue green in contact with yel- lowish green looks almost blue, and in contact with blue, yellow green. Blue appears violet in contact with blue green, and blue green when in contact with violet. An additional example of similar contrast is shown in the fol- lowing : When light gray and dark gray are brought in contact, COLORS. 351 the former appears lighter and the latter darker than they are in reality. Any one can try this by a simple experiment. Take two strips of light gray, and two strips of dark gray paper, and paste one light gray strip in contact with one dark strip, and then compare them from a short distance. It will soon be found that the light gray strip, which is in contact with the dark gray, ap- pears much lighter than its isolated companion, while the dark gray seems darker, so that, therefore, the gray surfaces appear lighter and darker than in reality. A strong contrast is always noticeable between black and white. A black object on a white ground will appear much larger than it is in reality. For instance, a white stripe on a black surface seems broader than a black stripe on a white surface, although both are of the same width. The phenomena of simultaneous contrast, according to Scherffer, may be physiologically explained as follows: — " When one of our senses receives a double sensation, one of which is active and strong, while the other is weak, it will be found that the latter is not felt. This must be particularly the case when both impressions are of the same kind, or when a strong effect from an object on one of our senses is followed by another of the same kind, which is milder and weaker." To test the correctness of the same, let any of the colors be placed upon a rotating disk, or by the method of reflection and transmission by means of a slip of polished glass, and their correct- ness will at once be recognized. Why more correct views do not prevail, is, I take it, because pupils have been content to be pupils, and not students. They have been too willing to accept the tradi- tions of their fathers rather than give themselves the trouble to stop every now and then, and say, Is this so ? SECTION XVI. NEW RECEIPTS AND COLORS. The colors, or the methods of producing them, being mostly new, attention can be better called to them by presenting the same in a separate section. No. 1. — Ben gale. No. 2. — Erytlirosine. No. 3. — Eosine. All three are worked on in an alum bath from 5 to 10 pounds of alum to 100 pounds of goods; commence at 100° F., adding the dissolved color to shade, it may be brought up to a slow boil, but much boiling dulls the shades. The eosine will color from the flesh shade shown, to a full intense scarlet, which has mostly been displaced with azo scarlet. NEW RECEIPTS AND COLORS. 353 Cotton dyeing. 1st bath. 6 parts Marseilles soap, 3 parts glue for one-half hour at 100° F. 2d bath. Cold tin liquor 5° B. one hour. 3d bath. Red liquor "8° B. = ll T. two hours cold. 4th bath. Dissolved color to shade, raising heat from 100 to 200° F. ; it requires a strong bath for dark shades, which does not get exhausted, and requires about one-third of color to next lot. For light shades, 10 ounces of color and 10 pounds Glauber's salt may be used in one bath to 100 pounds goods. No. 4 anine Hose. No. 5. — Saffr anine Pink. Saffranine is faster than the three former colors and more per- manent, either on wool, silk, or cotton. On wool. Dissolve about 4 ounces for the light, or 8 ounces for the dark shade, and add 4 to 6 pounds Glauber's salt to 100 pounds goods ; commence at 100° and raise to boil. On silk, see page 39. Cotton. Mordant with tannin, then run through tin liquor, from which well wash in three waters and dye to shade at hand heat. No. 6.— Wool Scarlet. (50 percent, mixed goods.) For 100 pounds of goods in yarn, felt, or mixed goods, in whatever proportion of cotton they may contain. 1st. bath. Prepare in cold red liquor for two hours, standing at 4° B., and without rinsing, dye in from 3 to 4 pounds wool scarlet 23 354 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION". either shade required, commencing at 100° F. and only raising the heat when the cotton is full enough ; then raise, or even boil, until the wool is as full as required ; 2 pounds color will do after lots. They will not bear washing, but will bear exposure. For goods not particular about smutting it will produce a bright shade with little trouble, and on cotton it smuts little if any. B. BB. No. 7. — Neutral Broivn. (50 per cent, mixed yarn.) This is the most successful brown ever invented, and will dye equally well on all animal and vegetable fibres, indeed on nearly everything. For wool, dissolve 2 pounds color and add 10 pounds Glauber's salt, enter at 100°, and bring to the boil till the color is taken up ; it will do well for hosiery or other things requiring to be washed. On mixed yarn, prepare with tannin or sumac, and for light colors, use 1 pound of color, for dark, 2 pounds, for seal, 2 J or 3 pounds; commence at a 100° F. and raise to the boil when wool and cotton will be a match. Cotton, same as for mixed goods. Silk, it will dye perfectly on silk, far quicker than archil or other processes, and at a moderate expense. Jute, fibre, and other things require no mordant. Turmeric may be used with it for yellow shades, fuchsine for redder, and green for bronze hues with the turmeric, using less brown. 50 per cent. Mixed Yarn Wool Yarn. NEW RECEIPTS AND COLORS. 355 No. 8. — Arcliilline. This is an acid color after the nature of fast reds, clarets, etc. It is perfectly fast and is an excellent substitute for archil, which shade it is made to exactly match, in place of which it can in every case be used. No doubt it will largely displace acid magenta, which has been much used, rather as a substitute for archil than for its direct shade. Archilline, like acid magenta, can be used equally well for car- dinals conjointly with orange, and for navy with indigo paste, or olive and bronze with indigo and turmeric, or browns with orange and indigo paste, any of which dark colors it is quite a saving of one half as against either archil or acid magenta. Wool, 100 pounds, dissolve 1 pound color and add 10 pounds Glauber's salt, and 2 pounds oil vitriol. Commence at 100° F and raise to the boil ; unlike archil it will readily take all the color up. If dyed hotter, the color should be added at two or three times. Silk, dye in soap with a little acid. No. 9. — Acid Amber. Aniline acid amber is the last new yellow, and supplies the shade between yellow and orange so much desired, and no doubt will meet with large success as it is fast, bright, and cheap. 100 pounds on wool, dissolve 8 ounces color, 5 pounds Glauber's salt, add 2 pounds oil vitriol ; enter at 100° F., and bring to boil; one-quarter the above will dye splendid straw color, and 1 ounce will color 100 pounds corn color clear and bright. Silk, dye in soap and a little acid. Mixed goods, prepare in red liquor. Cotton, prepare as for mixed goods, neither of which requires to be washed from the preparation. 356 AMERICAN PRACTICAL DYER S COMPANION. No. 10. — Fancy Dyeing of several shades in the same skein. Any colors can be made use of for this class of work, provided they require no mordant, or if a mordant, it must be one that does not discolor the white, but the best colors for it are those that work on with oil of vitriol in with the dye. The yarn is placed on the usual sticks and lowered into the prepared dye bath to the depth of the required darkest part, and when that is dark enough, lower for the lighter shade, and then for the third, the part on the stick not having been removed from its first position is still white. If they have to be Avashed, the stick is taken up and removed to the wash-tub without being taken off, and clipped into the height of the dyed part only, then drain well before wringing. The color shown was dyed with acid magenta, in four shades, each to be decidedly lighter than the last. No. 11. — New Cotton Violet. 8 ounces of this color will dye 100 pounds goods without any assistance at a hand heat. For darker colors, prepare with just a little tannin or acid the tannin with the color. No. 12. — Malachite Green, sometimes called acid green, not because it will work well in an acid bath, but for the reason that after dyeing it will look brighter if rinsed in a slightly soured water. Take 8 ounces crystals, 8 ounces bicarbonate of soda to 100 lbs. of goods, commence at 100° F. and raise to boil, in yarns for half 1 NEW RECEIPTS AND COLORS. 357 an hour, in raw wool one hour. Add 2 pounds oil vitriol to cold water and well wash. Should yellower shades be required, give it picric in an acid bath after the color is on. Silk is dyed in a soap bath in which a little acetic acid is added. For cotton, see page 1TB, No. 11. No. 13. — Rich Brown. This full color, red shade brown, is dyed in the same manner as archillin, No. 8 ; it cannot be said to stand fulling for any great length of time, at the same time it will stand a fair amount of soaping ; like all other colors intended to be fulled or soaped, it should be dyed a shade darker than required, as they lose a little in the operation in depth but not in brightness. It is a com- bination of archillin, double strength induline, and orange ; one pound will dye a good shade at 2J cents, and the full shade as sample, with two pounds, costing 5 cents per pound. For further particulars about any of the anilines mentioned in this work, apply to the author who keeps them in stock. (See Adver.) .,.»! .... APPENDIX. RULES FOR CONVERTING AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO METRIC. To convert avoirdupois pounds into grammes, multiply by 500, and deduct 10 per cent., and then add 55J grains for exactness to every 1000 lbs. avoirdupois. To convert avoirdupois pounds into half kilos, or pints into half litres, deduct about 10 per cent. To convert avoirdupois ounces into grammes, multiply by 30 and divide by 5, then add 22 grains to the ounce. To convert yards into metres deduct 10 per cent. The following may be useful for mixing: — One Troy grain or minim is equal to 0.06 gramme or fluid- gramme, or 6 centigrammes. One drachm orfluiddrachm is equal to 4 grammes orfluidgrammes. One ounce is equal to 30 grammes. One gramme is equal to 15 grains or minims. ■ An average drop is equal to 0.05 fluidgramme. An average teaspoon holds 5 fluidgrammes. A dessert spoon 10 fluidgrammes. A tablespoon 20 fluidgrammes. A wine glass 75 fluidgrammes. HYDROMETER TABLES. Baume's scale for liquids heavier than water is graduated from 0° to 72°. Its relation to direct specific gravity is shown in the following Table: — oo - = 1.000 27o = 1.216 51° = 1.505 3 1.020 30 1.246 54 1.551 6 1.041 33 1.277 57 1.600 9 1.063 36 1.310 60 1.652 12 1.086 39 1.345 63 1.708 15 1.109 42 1.382 66 1.767 18 1.134 45 1.421 69 1.831 21 1.160 48 1.462 72 1.900 24 1.188 360 APPENDIX. The scale for liquids lighter than water extends from 10° to 40°, the lowest number representing the specific gravity of water, and the higher ones those of lighter liquids. 10o = 1.000 21o = 0.930 1 81" = 0.874 11 0.993 22 0.924 32 0.869 12 0.986 23 0.918 33 0.864 13 0.980 24 0.913 34 0.859 14 0.973 25 0.907 35 0.854 15 0.967 26 0.901 36 0.849 16 0.960 27 0.896 37 0.844 17 0.954 28 0.890 38 0.839 18 0.948 29 0.885 39 0.834 19 0.942 30 0.880 40 0.830 20 0.936 Beck's scale, for liquids heavier than water, runs from 1°, w r hich is slightly above the specific gravity of water, to 70°. It is a most inconvenient scale. lo 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1.0059 1.0119 1.0180 1.0241 1.0303 1.0366 1.0429 1.0494 1.0559 1.0625 1.0692 1.0759 1.0828 1.0897 1.0968 1.1039 1.1111 1.1184 1.1258 1.1333 1.1409 1.1486 1.1565 1.1644 250 = 1.1724 26 1.1806 27 1.1888 28 1.1972 29 1.2057 30 1.2143 31 1.2230 32 1.2319 33 1.2409 34 1.2500 35 1.2593 36 1.2687 37 1.2782 38 1.2879 39 1.2977 40 1.3077 41 1.3178 42 1.3281 43 1.3386 44 1.3492 45 1.3600 46 1.3710 47 1.3821 48° = 1.3934 49 1.4050 50 1.4167 51 1.4286 52 1.4407 53 1.4530 54 1.4655 55 1.4783 56 1.4912 57 1.5044 58, 1.5179 59 1.5315 60 1.5454 61 1.5596 62 1.5741 63 1.5888 64 1.6038 65 1.6190 66 1.6346 67 1.6505 68 1.6667 69 1.6832 70 1.7000 Cartier's scale for liquids lighter than water runs from 10° = water, to 44°. Its relation to direct specific gravity is shown in the following Table: — APPENDIX. 10o = 1.000 22o = 0.916 340 = 0.845 11 0.992 23 0.909 35 0.840 12 0.985 24 0.903 36 0.835 13 0.977 25 0.897 37 0.830 14 0.970 26 0.891 38 0.825 15 0.963 27 0.885 39 0.819 16 0.956 28 0.879 40 0.814 17 0.949 29 0.872 41 0.809 18 0.942 30 0.867 42 0.804 19 0.935 31 0.802 43 0.799 20 0.929 32 0.856 44 0.794 21 0.922 33 0.851 361 The direct scale of specific gravity assumes water to be 1, or 1.000, all heavier liquids requiring larger numbers, and all lighter ones numbers smaller than unity. This scale shows at once the weight per gallon of any liquid, the first two figures to the left hand representing pounds (avoirdupois), and the two or more fol- lowing to the right being decimal fractions of a pound. Thus, if a sample of double muriate marks 1.450, a gallon of it weighs 141 lbs. Twaddle's scale makes water = 0, and the strongest oil of vitriol = 170°. Unlike direct specific gravity, it extends only to liquids heavier than water. For greater accuracy, the scale is arranged on a set of six instruments, numbered progressively up- wards. Thus a No. 1 Twaddle ranges from 0° to 32°. The relation between Twaddle's scale and direct specific gravity is very simple. To convert a degree of Twaddle into the corre- sponding degree of direct specific gravity, multiply by 5, and add 1.000 to the product. Thus, if a bleaching liquor marks 7° Twaddle, its specific gravity is — 7 5 35 1.000 1.035 A sample of single aquafortis marks 33° Twaddle. Its spe- cific gravity is then — 362 APPENDIX. 33 .165 1.000 1.165 If the specific gravity has been taken, the degree of Twaddle may be found by reversing this rule, subtracting 1.000 and divid- ing the remainder by 5. Thus, a sample of double aquafortis marks specific gravity 1.350. Its degree on Twaddle's scale will be — 1.350 1.000 5).350 70° Twaddle. In some hydrometers, graduated for direct specific gravity, the first figure is omitted. On such, water marks 0°, and the above- mentioned sample of double aquafortis 350°. A peculiar hy- drometer — called the ammonia glass or ammonia meter — is used in some districts for the sale of ammonia. It ranges from 10° (water) to 45°, representing the lightest liquors. It very nearly agrees with Baume's light glass. Hydrometers give inaccurate results if applied to — a. Hot liquids. 6. Glutinous liquids, solutions of gum, starch, size, etc. c. Effervescing liquids. d. Liquids holding solid matters in suspension. Hot liquids should be allowed to cool, or, if it be necessary to observe their specific gravity at elevated temperatures, a compara- tive trial should be made on the liquid while hot, and on a portion when cold, so that the indication may be corrected. If it be needful to take the specific gravity of any liquid coming under the heads 5, Reaumur. ,=> a P U

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