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FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 Class.^:RO Rook Accession:2330:i 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
1 
 
 Digitized by 
 
 the Internet Archive 
 
 
 
 
 in 2015 
 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/mechanicscompaniOOnich 
 
NICHOLSON'S 
 
 MECHANIC'S COMPANION. 
 
WATT S DOUBLE ACTJNO KN{}\N}\ / Jee/^a^essy 
 
THE 
 
 MECHANIC'S COMPANION; 
 
 OR, THE 
 
 ELEMENTS AND PEACTICE 
 
 CARPENTRY, JOINERY, BRICKLAYINGl, MASONRY, 
 SLATING, PLASTERING, PAINTING, 
 SMITHING, AND TURNING, 
 
 COMPREHENDING THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS; 
 
 AND CONT.UNING A FTOL 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS 
 
 BELONGING TO EACH BRANCH OF BUSINESS, WITH COPIOUS DIRECTIONS 
 FOR THEIR USE ; 
 
 AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN EACH ART; 
 
 AND AN 
 
 ;iiji'iidi5JiJ0'irJ(>jsr ^ijoi j^R^iiiiTjoAL geometry. 
 
 PETER NinROLSON. 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE STEAM-ENGINE, 
 
 ITS MANAGEMENT, USES, &c. 
 
 WITH FORTY-SIX ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 PUBLISHED BY F. 
 
 1853. 
 
 BELL. 
 
THE GETTY RESEARCH 
 INSTITUTE LIBRAaY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 MORE than a ceiitury has elapsed since an in- 
 genious and useful work on the Arts connected 
 with Building was published under the title of 
 Mechanical Exercises, by the celebrated Joseph 
 Moxon: that it was both useful and popular the 
 various editions t estify, and at this time it is become 
 scarce and rarely to be met with. I* can be no 
 disparagement to its ingenious author, to say that 
 the progress of science, and the changes in matters 
 of art have rendered the work obsolete and useless. 
 It treated on Smithing, Joinery, Carpentry, Turning, 
 Bricklaying, and Dialling. 
 
 I have followed the excellent plan of Moxon and 
 treated each art distinctly : I have first described the 
 several tools belonging to each branch of business, 
 next the methods of performing the variouf^ manual 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 operations or exercises, to which they are applicable, 
 these are further illustrated and explained by nume- 
 rous plates : the descriptions are made as plain and 
 familiar as possible ; and there are few operations 
 but will be found fully and clearly explained : finally 
 to each is added an Index and extensive Glossary of 
 terms used by workmen in each art, with references 
 also to the plates : and it has been my endeavour 
 that the description with its definition should be 
 clear, and show the connection between the science 
 and the art, thereby producing a pleasing and lasting 
 effect upon the mind. 
 
 The arts treated of are as follow: Carpentry, 
 Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, Slating, Plaster- 
 ing, Painting, Smithing, and Turning, the whole 
 preceded by a slight introduction to Practical 
 Geometry, and illustrated by forty copper-plates. 
 
 These exercises commence with those arts which 
 work in wood, namely, Carpentry and Joinery which 
 are much alike in their tools and modes of working : 
 then comes Bricklaying, which with Carpentry are 
 certainly the most essential of all in the construction 
 of a building. 
 
 \ 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 Masonry and Bricklaying are in reality branches 
 of the same art, and both founded upon principles 
 truly Geometrical, yet I have given the precedence 
 to Bricklaying, because it is of the most general use 
 in this country; yet it is generally admitted, thai 
 Masonry is the more dignified art of the two, or 
 indeed of all the arts concerned in the formation of 
 an edifice. On that difficult and intricate subject, 
 the Theory of Arches, I have endeavoured to give a 
 familiar, and I hope a satisfactory illustration. 
 
 Slating comes next to cover in the building: then 
 Plastering, which is used in the finishing of buildings, 
 and furnishes the interior with elegant decora- 
 tions, and conduces both to the health and comfort 
 of the inhabitants : Painting is not less useful than 
 ornamental; it adds to the elegance of buildings, 
 and tends to the preservation of the materials, 
 whether wood or plaster. 
 
 Smithing or Smithry is extensively useful in almost 
 every department of art as well as building; by it 
 are made the tools which perform all the operations 
 of the before mentioned arts, and therefore, though 
 last, should not be least in our esteem. The use of 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 iron has also of late years been very much extended ; 
 in wheels for machinery, Iron Bridges, Rail roads, 
 Boats, Roofs, Floors, and various other articles not 
 necessary to enumerate here. 
 
 Turning is a curious Mechanical Exercise, and 
 though not absolutely necessary in building, may be 
 employed with advantage in many of its decorations. 
 In this article I have given a legitimate definition of 
 elliptic turning, by which, its principles are deduced 
 to be that of the ellipsegraph or common trammel, 
 and this without entering into further demonstration. 
 This art is illustrated by plates, showing the princi- 
 ples of the machines, as well as by views of the 
 machines and tools 
 
 As the practice of the arts here treated of, is 
 founded in Geometry, and as the descriptions ot 
 the materials and of the tools may be referred to the 
 several figures of that science, I have prefixed to 
 the work such definitions as are necessary to the 
 comprehension of any drawing or design, which is 
 to be executed, accompanied by many useful pro- 
 blems, which will enable the mechanic to understand 
 the configuration of its several parts in practice. 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 and to perform many useful problems upon true 
 scientific principles. The problems for setting out 
 work upon the ground, and those for reducing 
 drawings to any scale or proportion, even without 
 knowing the scale of the original drawing, will be 
 found interesting, and very useful in practice. 
 
 This work, which treats of the first rudiments of 
 practice, will be found particularly interesting and 
 useful to gentlemen who practise, or are fond of the 
 mechanical exercises, and to young men or appren- 
 tices in any of the professions, though, on some 
 occasions, the older workmen may be benefitted 
 by a perusal. The terms introduced are those in 
 general use amongst workmen in London : and on 
 this account it will be of essential service to young 
 men coming to the metropolis. An art cannot be 
 taught but by its proper terms. Other branches of 
 art might have been introduced into this work, but 
 those here treated of are intimately connected with 
 each other, and have a natural affinity, and will, it is 
 presumed, form upon the whole, a very interesting 
 work to young mechanics ; those who wish for fur- 
 ther information in the building art, and particularly 
 
 B 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 on what relates to Geometrical Construction, may 
 consult my other publications on Practical Carpentry. 
 
 Every art is improved by the emulation of its 
 competitors : it is therefore the ardent hope of the 
 author that the reader may not be disappointed of 
 meeting with abundance of that information which 
 his mind may be desirous to obtain. 
 
 PETER NICHOLSON. 
 
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 GEOMETRY is the science of extension and magnitude : by 
 Geometry the various angles of a building and the position of its 
 sides are determined, as a square, a cube, a triangle, &;c. : Boards 
 and all Tools used by the Carpenter and Joiner are geometrical 
 constructions : by Geometry all kinds of roofs and various other 
 things laying in oblique angles are determined : the proper con- 
 struction of all sorts of arches and groins depend entirely upon 
 the principles of Geometry. I have, therefore, prefaced this work 
 with an explanation and definition of such geometrical figures as 
 will frequently occur in carrying on of works, and which are 
 therefore necessary to be well known by all artizans and workmen, 
 as well as by those who may superintend them : this slight in- 
 troduction to Geometry will also be useful to all persons who 
 wish to understand the practice and descriptions of the handy- 
 works herein explained. 
 
 Geometry is the science of extension, and magnitude, and 
 consists of theory and practice. 
 
 The theoretical part is founded upon the reasoning of self- 
 evident principles ; it demonstrates the construction, and shows 
 the properties of regularly defined figures. The theory is the 
 foundation of the practical part ; and without a knowledge of it, 
 no invention to any degree certain can be made. The use of 
 Geometry is not confined only to speculative truths in Mathematics. 
 
l2 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 but the operations of mechanical arts owe their perfection to it ; 
 drawing and setting out every description of work, are entirely 
 dependent upon it. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 1. A point is that which has position, but not magnitude. 
 
 2. A line is the trace of a point, or that which would be 
 described by the progressive motion of a point, and consequently 
 has length only. 
 
 3. A superfices has length and breadth. 
 
 4. A solid is a figure of three dimensions, having length, 
 breadth, and thickness. Hence surfaces are extremities of solids, 
 and lines the extremities of surfaces, and points the extremities ot 
 lines. 
 
 If two lines will always coincide, however applied, when any 
 two points in the one coincides w^ith the two points in the other, 
 the two lines are called straight lines, or otherwise right lines. 
 
 A curve continually changes its direction between its extreme 
 points, or has no part straight. 
 
 Parallel lines are always at the same distance, and will never 
 meet, though ever so far produced. Oblique right lines change 
 their distance, and would meet if produced. 
 
 One line is perpendicular to another, when it inclines no more 
 to one side than another. 
 
 A straight line is a tangent to a circle, when it touches the 
 circle without cutting when both are produced. 
 
 An angle is the inclination of two lines towards one another in 
 the same plane, meeting in a point. 
 
 Angles are either right, acute, or oblique. 
 
 A right angle is that which is made by one line perpendicular 
 to another, or when the angles on each side are equal. 
 
 An acute angle is less than a right angle. 
 
 An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 13 
 
 A plane is a surface with which a straight Hne will every where 
 coincide : and is otherwise called a straight surface. 
 
 Plane figures, bounded by right lines, have names according to 
 the number of their sides, or of their angles, for they have as 
 many sides as angles : the least number is three. 
 
 An equilateral triangle is that whose three sides are equal. 
 
 An isosceles triangle has only two sides unequal. 
 
 A scalene triangle has all sides unequal. 
 
 A right-angle triangle has only one right angle. 
 
 Other triangles are oblique-angled, and are either obtuse or acute. 
 
 An acute-angled triangle has all its angles acute. 
 
 An obtuse-angled triangle has one obtuse angle. 
 
 A figure of four sides, or angles, is called a quadrilateral, or 
 quadrangle. 
 
 A parallelogram is a quadrilateral, which has both pairs of its 
 opposite sides parallel, and takes the following particular names: 
 
 A rectangle is a parallelogram, having all its angjes right ones. 
 
 A square is an equilateral rectangle, having all its sides equal, 
 and all its angles right ones. 
 
 A rhombus is an equilateral parallelogram whose angles arc 
 oblique. 
 
 A rhomboid is an oblique-angled parallelogram, and its opposite 
 sides only are equal. 
 
 A trapezium is a quadrilateral, M'hich has neither pair of its 
 sides parallel. 
 
 A trapezoid hath only one pair of its opposite sides parallel. 
 
 Plane figures having more than four sides, are in general called 
 polygons, and receive other particular names according to the 
 number of their sides or angles. 
 
 A pentagon is a polygon of five sides, a hexagon of six sides, 
 a heptagon seven, an octagon eight, an eneagon nine, a decagon 
 ten, an undecagon eleven, and a dodecagon twelve sides. 
 
 A regular polygon has all its sides, and its angles equal ; and 
 if they are not equal, the polygon is irregular. 
 
 An equilateral triangle is also a regular figure of three sides, 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 and a square is one of the four ; the former being called a trigon, 
 and the latter a tetragon. 
 
 A circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve line, called the 
 circumference, which is every where equi-distant, from a certain 
 point within, called its centre. 
 
 The radius of a circle is a right line drawn from the centre to 
 the circumference. 
 
 A diameter of a circle is a right line, drawn through the centre 
 terminating on both sides of the circumference 
 
 An arc of a circle is any part of the circumference. 
 
 A chord is a right line joining the extremities of an arc. 
 
 A segment is any part of a circle bounded by an arc and its chord. 
 
 A semicircle is half a circle, or a segment cut off by the diameter. 
 
 A sector, is any part of a circle bounded by an arc, and two 
 radii, drawn to its extremities, 
 
 A quadrant, or quarter of a circle, is a sector having a quarter 
 part of the circumference for its arc, and the two radii perpendi- 
 cular to each other. 
 
 The height or altitude of any figure is a perpendicular, let fall 
 from an angle or its vertex, to the opposite side, called the base. 
 
 The measure of any right lined angle, is an arc of any circle 
 contained between the two lines wh'ch form the angle, the angular 
 point being the centre. 
 
 A solid is said to be cut by a plane, when it is divided into two 
 parts, of which the common surface of separation is a plane, and 
 this plane is called a section. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF SOLIDS. 
 
 A prism is a solid, the ends of which are similar, and equal 
 parallel planes, and the sides parallel grams. 
 
 If the ends of the prism are perpendicular to the sides, the prism 
 \^ called a right prism. 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 15 
 
 If the ends of the prism are oblique to the sides, the prism is 
 
 called an oblique prism. 
 
 If the ends and sides are equal squares, the prism is called a cube. 
 If the base or ends are parallelograms, the solid is called a 
 
 parallelepiped. 
 
 If the bases and sides are rectangles, the prism is called a 
 rectangular prism. 
 
 If the ends are circles, the prism is called a cylinder. 
 
 If the ends or bases are ellipsis, the prism is called a cylindroid. 
 
 A solid, standing upon any plane figure for its base, the sides of 
 which are plane triangles, meeting in one point, is called a pyramid. 
 
 The solid is denominated from its base, as a triangular pyramid 
 is one upon a triangular base, a square pyramid one upon a 
 square base, &;c<, 
 
 If the base is a circle or an ellipsis, then the pyramid is called 
 a cone. 
 
 If a solid be terminated by two dissimilar parallel planes as 
 ends, and the remaining surfaces joining the ends be also planes, 
 the solid is called a prismoid. 
 
 If a part of a pyramid next to the vertex be cut off by a plane 
 parallel to the base, the portion of the pyramid contained between 
 the cutting plane and the base is called the frustum of a pyramid. 
 
 A solid, the base of which is a rectangle, the four sides joining 
 the base plane surfaces, and two opposite ones meet in a line 
 parallel to the base, is called a cuneus or wedge. 
 
 A solid terminated by a surface which is every where equally 
 distant, from a certain point within it, is called a sphere or globe. 
 
 If a sphere be cut by any two planes, the portion contained 
 between the planes is called a zone, and each of the parts con- 
 tained by a plane and the curved surface is called a segment. 
 
 If a semi-ellipsis, having an axis for its diameter, be revolved 
 round this axis until it come to the place whence the motion 
 began, the solid formed by the circumvolution is>' called a spheroid. 
 
 If the spheroid be generated round the gre&ter axis, the solid 
 is called an oblong spheroid. 
 
16 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 If the solid be generated round the lesser axis, the solid is 
 called an oblate spheroid. 
 
 A solid of any of the above structures, hollow within, so as 
 to contain a solid of the same structure, is called a hollow solid. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A an acute angle. 
 
 B two lines inclined, and would meet and form an angle il 
 produced. 
 
 C a perpendicular c cZ is said to be perpendicular to a b, and 
 the angles c d c b d are both right angles. 
 
 D several angles meeting at a point ; when this is the case, 
 each is denoted by three letters, the right angle is the criterion of 
 judging of every other angle ; d b c is a right angle, a 6 c an 
 obtuse angle, e b c an acute angle. 
 
 E a rglit angle. 
 
 F an .cute angle, being less than a right angle 
 
 G an obtuse angle, being greater than a right angle. 
 
 H, I, K, L triangles. 
 
 H an equilateral triangle all the three sides a b, be, c a being 
 equal. 
 
 I an isosceles triangle, a b and b c being only equal. 
 K a scalene triangle, all the sides being unequal. 
 L a right angled triangle. 
 
 M, N, O, P, Q, R quadrilaterals or quadrangles, M N O P 
 are parallelograms; M N rectangles ; M an oblong; N a square; 
 O a rhomboid; P a rhombus; Qa trapezium; and R a trapezoid. 
 T, U,V polygons, T a pentagon, U a hexagon, and V an octagon 
 W a circle, a the centre, b a point in the circumference, aba. 
 radius. 
 
 X a circle, c the centre, d and e points in the circumference, 
 f/ eaadiameter, or a chord passing through the centre. 
 
GEOMETRY. 17 
 
 Y a circle, d and e points in the circumference, tZ e a chord ; 
 d / e the less segment, -mA d g e the greater. 
 
 A 1, B 1 segments, ach.ach arcs, ah, ah chords; B 1 a 
 semicircle. 
 
 C 1, D 1 sectors, D 1 a quadrant, c a,ch radii at right angles, 
 a h arc. 
 
 E 1 a triangle, ah, h d, da the sides, a h the base, d c a 
 perpendicular to the base called the altitude. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 are all parallelopipeds and consist of six sides ; 
 when two opposite sides are perpendicular to the other four, the 
 parallelopiped is denominated a rectangular prism, and if the four 
 sides be equal rectangles, the prism is called a square prism as 
 fig. 1,2; and if all the four sides are equal squares, the prism is 
 called a cube, as fig. 1. The reason why called a parallelopiped 
 is because each pair of opposite sides are parallel planes. The 
 structure of a rectangular prism occurs more frequently in the 
 practice of carpentry and joinery than any other form whatever, 
 ill timbers and boards for the use of building are cut into this 
 form. Doors, shutters, &;c. are thin rectangular prisms, as fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5 is a cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 6 a hollow cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 7 the section of a cylinder cut oflT by a plane parallel to 
 the axis. 
 
 Fig. 8 the sector of a cylinder contained by two planes forming 
 an angle, and the curved surface of the cylinder; the line of con- 
 course of the planes being parallel to the axis of the cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 9 a prismoid ; the ends of chisels which contain the 
 cutting part is of this form. 
 
 Fig. 10 a wedge; the end of a chisel contained by the face 
 and tb^ basil are of this f)rni 
 
18 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Fig, 11a square pyramid. 
 
 Fig. 12 an octagonal pyramid inverted 
 
 Fig. 13 a cone. 
 
 Fig. 14 inverted liollow cone. 
 
 Fig. 15 a sphere. 
 
 Fig. 16 a spheroid. 
 
 Pbob. I. From a given point in a given straight line, to erect a 
 perpendicular. Pl. 3. Fig. i. 
 
 Let F F be the given straight line, and C the given point. Take 
 any two equal distances C a and C 6 on each side of the point 
 iC : from the points a and b with any equal radii greater than 
 C a or C 6, describe arcs cutting each other in D. Draw D C 
 and it will be the perpendicular required. 
 
 Pkob. II. To let fall a perpendicular from a given point to a given 
 straight line. Pl. 3. Fig. 2. 
 
 Let C be the given point and E F the given straight line. From 
 the point C describe an arc cutttng E F at a and h. With any 
 equal radii greater than the half of a 6 describe arcs cutting each 
 other at D. Draw C D and it will be the perpendicular required. 
 
 pROB. III. When the point is at or near the end of the line. 
 Metlwd first, Pl. 3. Fig. 3. 
 
 Let C be the given point, E F the given line. In E F take 
 any point a and with the radius a C describe an arc C D. 
 Take any other point 5 in E F, and with the distance b C describe 
 an arc, cutting the arc C D, at C and D, draw C D and it is the 
 perpendicular required 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 10 
 
 Prob. IV. To draw a perpendicular from a point at the end of a 
 line, Pl. 3. Fig. 4. 
 
 Let E F be the given straight line, and F the given point. 
 Take any point a above the line and with the radius a C describe 
 an arc C F 6 cutting E F at 6. Draw h aC; then draw C F 
 and it will be the perpendicular required. 
 
 Prob. v. To bisect a straight line, Pl. 3. Fig. 5. 
 
 Let E F be the given straight line. From E and F as centres, 
 and with any distance greater than the half of E F as radii, 
 describe two arcs cutting each other at A and B. Draw A B 
 cutting E F at C, then E F is bisected in C. 
 
 Prob. vi. To bisect a given angle, Pl. 3. Fig. C. 
 
 Let E F G be the given angle. From the point F describe an 
 arc a b cutting F E and F G at the points a and b, also from the 
 points a and b, with the same radius, or any other equal radii, 
 describe arcs cutting each other in C. Draw F C and it will be- 
 sect the angle as required. That is, the angle E F G is divided 
 into two equal angles E F C and C F G. 
 
 Prob. vii. To make an angle equal to a given angle, Pl. 3. 
 Fig. 7 and 8. 
 
 Let E F G be the given angle. Draw the straight line H I 
 From the point F describe an arc a h cutting E F and F G at 
 the points a and h. From H as a centre, with the same radius, 
 describe an arc c i cutting H I at c. Make c d equal to a b. 
 Draw dG and the angle I H G is equal to E F G. as required. 
 
20 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Prob. VIII. Through a given point to draw a line 'parallel to a 
 given right line. Pl. 3. Fig. 9. 
 
 Let A B be the given right line, and D the given point. Draw 
 any right Hne DA; in A B take any point c and make the angle 
 B c E equal to the angle BAD, make c E equal to A D ; draw 
 D E, then D E is parallel to A B. 
 
 Prob. ix. To draw a line parallel to another line at a given distance. 
 Pl. 3. Fig. 10. 
 
 Let A B be the given right line, C the given distance from any 
 two points in A B, as A and B as centres describe two arcs d\{ e 
 and fig' Draw II I to touch the arcs at the points H and I ; 
 and H I is parallel to A B and at a given distance C. 
 
 Pkob. X. Three straight lines, of which any two are greater than 
 the third, being given to describe a triangle, the sides of which will 
 be respectively equal to the three given lines, Pl. 3. Fig. IL 
 
 Let the three straight lines be A B C : Make D E equal to C, 
 from D as a centre with the distance of B describe an arc at F. 
 From E as a centre with the distance A describe another arc, 
 cutting the former at F. Join F D and F E ; and D E F is the 
 triangle required. 
 
 Prob. xi. The side of an equilateral triangle being given to describe 
 the triangle. Pl. 4. Fig. 1. 
 
 Let A be the given side. Place A upon any straight line B C 
 and with the same extent from the points B and C as centres 
 
i 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 21 
 
 describe arcs, cutting each other in D. Join D B and D C, and 
 B C D is the equilateral triangle required. 
 
 Pros. xii. To describe a square, the sides of which shall he equal 
 to a given right line, Pl. 4. Fig. 2. 
 
 Let A be the given right line, which place upon any straight 
 line B C. Make the angle C B E a right angle, and B E equal 
 to B C through the points E and C. Draw E D and D C paral- 
 lei to B C, and B E, and B C D E is the square required. 
 
 Prob. XIII. To describe a hexagon, the sides of which shall be 
 equal to a given line, Pl. 4. Fig. 3. 
 
 Let k be the given line, which place upon any straight line 
 B C. From the points B and C, with the distance B C describe 
 arcs cutting each other at L With the distance I B or I C 
 describe the circle B C D E F G, then apply the side B C succes- 
 sively to the circumference as chords, the circumference will be 
 divided into equal parts, and the hexagon formed as required. 
 
 pROB. XIV. To describe any regular polygmi, the sides of which 
 shall be equal to a given line, Pl. 4. Fig. 4. 
 
 Set the given line upon any other convenient line, and with a 
 radius equal to the given line, describe a semicircle upon this line. 
 Divide the semicircle into as many equal parts as are to be sides 
 in the pol3^gon ; then the half of the diameter is one side of the po- 
 lygon, through the centre of the semicircle, and through the 
 second division from the other end of the diameter draw another 
 right line, which will form an adjoining side to the former ; bisect 
 
22 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 each of these adjoining sides by perpendiculars, and the meeting 
 of these perpendiculars will give the centre of a circle, which will 
 contain the straight line given. 
 
 Fig. 4 is an example of a pentagon. 
 
 Fig. 5 is an example of a hexagon. 
 
 Fig. 6 is an example of an eneagoh. 
 
 Prob. XV. To inscribe a polygon in a given circle, Pl. 4. Fig. 7, 8 
 
 Draw the diameter of the circle, and another diameter at right 
 ^ angles, produce this last diameter so that the part produced shall 
 be three quarters of the radius ; divide the first diameter into as 
 many equal parts as the polygon is to consist of sides : through 
 the second division, and the extremity of the part produced of the 
 other diameter, draw a line to cut the circumference without 
 the points, the chord of the arc intercepted between the point 
 in the circumference thus found and the diameter, applied 
 successively to the arc, as other chords will form the polygon 
 required. 
 
 Fig. 7 example in a pentagon, Fig. 8 example in an oc- 
 tagon. 
 
 Prob. xvi. A square being given to form an octagon, of which four 
 of the sides at right angles to each other, shall be common to the 
 middle parts of the sides of the square, Pl. 4. Fig. 9. 
 
 Let I G K L be the square given. Draw the diagonals I K 
 and G L cutting each other at m ; from the centres I, G, K, L 
 and with the radius I m, or G m, &;c. describe arcs G m B, A 
 
 D, C F, E m H cutting the sides of the square, at A, B, C, D, 
 
 E, F, G, H ; join B C, D E, F G, H A and A B C D E F G H 
 will be the polygon as required. 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 23 
 
 Pbob. XVII. In a given circle to inscribe a hexagon or an equaliieral, 
 Pl. 4. Fig. 10. 
 
 Apply the radius successively as chords A B, B C, C D, 
 D E, E F, FA, and A B C D E F A will be the hexagon. 
 
 From A with the radius A B or A F describe the arc B F. 
 Join the chord B F. Make B D equal to B F; and join D F 
 and B F D is the equilateral triangle required. 
 
 Prob. xvin. In a given circle io inscribe a square or an octagon. 
 Pl. 4. Fig. 11. 
 
 Let A B C D E F G H A be the circle. Draw the diameters 
 A E and C G at right angles. Join A C, C E, E G, G A and 
 A C E G A will be the square required. 
 
 Bisect any two adjacent angles by diameters, and the whole 
 circumference will be divided into eight equal parts, A B, B C, 
 C D, D E, E F, F G, G H, H A ; the chords of which being 
 joined will form the octagon ABC D E F G H A as re- 
 quired. 
 
 Prob. xix. In a given circle io inscribe a jpentagon, Pl. 4. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Let A B C D E A be the given circle. Draw the diameters 
 A /and g h <xX. right angles, cutting each other in the centre at I: 
 bisect g I at i: from i as a centre, with the distance i A, describe 
 an arc A k cutting g h vit k: from A as a centre, with A A; as a 
 radius, describe an arc k E, cutting the circumference at E : join 
 A E, then apply A E successively to the circumference as chords, 
 and A B C D E will be the pentagon required. 
 
24 (H^OMETRY. 
 
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS PERFORMED ON THE 
 GROUND. 
 
 Prob. I. To erect a perpendicular from a given point C to a rigJU 
 line A B, by means of a Tape or String. Pl. 5. Fig. i. 
 
 Take two equal distances C A and C B, extend the tape to any 
 length greater than A B, double it, put a pin in the meeting, open 
 out the tape ; place one end of the double distance, or the ring al 
 A, and let another person hold the other end at B, and a third 
 person take hold of the string at the pin, and stretch it out to D, 
 then the stake at D and the point C will be in a perpendicular to * 
 A B. To illustrate this, suppose C A, C B each ten feet, then A 
 B is twenty feet ; you may extend the line to forty feet, which 
 being doubled, the division will fall upon twenty feet, let the ring 
 be put upon A, the divison of forty upon B; let the division oJ 
 twenty feet in the middle of the line be extended out to D, while 
 the ends A and B are held fast : then drive in the stake D, and il 
 will give the point whence the perpendicular may be drawn to 
 C, upon the right line A B. 
 
 N. B. Though three persons are mentioned here, one may 
 accomplish the business by sticking an arrow in at A, and hooking 
 the ring over it ; then take a stake with two cross draughts, and 
 drive it in at B, hook the line at forty feet round two of the cross 
 draughts, then extend the middle at twenty as before. 
 
 Prob. II. To erect a perpendicular at or near the end of a right 
 line, A B, by means of a Tape, Pl. 5. Fig. 2. 
 
 Take any distance D B (say ten feet) extend the tape to any 
 greater length, (say twenty feet,) fjisten the ring at D, and the other 
 end (twenty) at B, lay hold of the middle (at ten) and stretch it out 
 to C, carry the end of the taj^e B round to E, until the point F^ be 
 in a straight line with C and D, keeping C and D fast, and the string 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 2o 
 
 completely stretched, drive in a stake or pin at E, then shall the 
 points B and E be in a straight line, perpendicular to A B as 
 required. 
 
 PiiOB. III. Another metJiod hy the Tape, Pl. 5. Fig. 3. 
 
 Suppose the perpendicular erected upon B C from B. Take 
 the numbers 3, 4, and 5, or any multiple of these numbers, say, 
 6, 8, and 10; then 6 and 8 make 14, and 10 make 24; make 
 B C six feet, put an arrow in at C, on which hook the ring of the 
 tape; and fasten the division six feet at B and twenty-four feet 
 again at C ; lay hold of the line on the division fourteen feet, 
 which carry to the point A, until both parts of the line become 
 stretched, and the points A and B will be in a perpendicular to 
 BC. 
 
 The same Figure, 
 
 To do the same thing by means of a jive foot rod. Make 
 E c three feet, with four feet; and the end of the rod resting 
 on B, describe an arc at A, with five feet, and the end of the 
 rod resting on C, describe another arc crossing the former at 
 A ; then shall the points A and B be in a line perpendicular 
 to B C. 
 
 Prob. IV. To describe the segment of a circle to any length, A B 
 and perpendicular height C D. Pl. 5. Fig. 4. 
 
 Take the middle of A B at C : fix the angle of the square at 
 C, direct the outer edge of the stock in the straight line A B, lay 
 a rule upon the outer edge of the blade, and draw the perpendi- 
 cular D C F. In the same manner take the middle of the line 
 
 D 
 
26 
 
 GEOMETRY 
 
 A D at E, and draw the perpendicular E F, the meeting F of the 
 two perpendiculars will give the centre of the segment : take a 
 slip of wood, and mark the distance D F from one end, put a brad- 
 awl or nail through the rod at the mark, and through the point F, 
 lay hold of the other end of the rod at D, and with a pencil at D, 
 carry it round from A to B, pressing the pencil gently to the plane, 
 and the point will describe the arc^ B D. 
 
 N, B. Segments of circles are generally described upon a floor: 
 but when this cannot be conveniently obtained, a temporary rough 
 boarding is laid, which will be sufficient for brick or stone arches; 
 but if the arc to be drawn is for joinery, and where different pieces 
 of wood are to befitted, the surface would require to be traversed 
 and straightened in length and breadth. 
 
 The foregoing method may be readily applied where the space 
 is unlimited, or the radius of a moderate length : when the radius is 
 very great, so that a rod of sufficient length cannot be obtained, 
 and where there is sufficient room, a wire may be used for a 
 radius instead of a string, which cannot be depended upon in such 
 cases, being liable to stretch ; but if you have an arc to describe, 
 and are confined to limits, which the radius would exceed, the 
 most eligible method will be as follows : 
 
 Fig. 5. Let A, B, C be any three points whatever, it is required 
 to draw the arc of a circle through them without making use of the 
 centre. 
 
 Prepare two rods, each having one of its edges straight, and 
 each at least equal to A C the chord; lay the edge of one of the 
 rods close to the points A and B, having one end at B ; lay 
 the straight edge of the other rod to coincide with the points B 
 and C, having the one end also at B ; notch and fix the rods 
 together at B, and to keep the angle invariable nail a strip F G 
 across the legs B D and B H; move the whole round, keeping the 
 edge of the rod B D close upon the nail, pin, or brad-awl at A, and 
 the other leg B E close to the nail, pin, or brad-awl at C ; a pencil 
 placed at their meeting B pressing the point gently to the surface 
 will describe the arc required. 
 
\ 
 
W. S.Z nmard , Sc. 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 27 
 
 pROB. V. To describe a semi-ellij)iic arch to any length A B and 
 height C D with a pair of compasses, Pl. 5. Fig. G. 
 
 Take the height C D and apply to the length from B to E towards 
 the centre ; divide the distance E C into three equal parts, set one 
 of them towards B from E to F. Make C G equal to C F, and 
 with the distance G F from G describe a small arc at H, and with 
 tlie same distance from F describe another cutting the former arc 
 H. Draw H G I and H F K. From the centre H with the dis- 
 tance H D describe the arc I K. From the centre G with 
 the distance G I describe the arc I A. From the centre F with the 
 same distance, or F B describe the arc K B, then A I D K B will 
 be the semi-ellipse required. 
 
 N. B. This is a mere representation, and cannot be true ; for 
 no part of a circle is to be found in the mathematical ellipse, since 
 the curvature is continually varying from one axis to the other. It 
 is always lame at the junctions, and is only a makeshift, for want of 
 better means. The following method by the trammel is correct, 
 being derived from geometrical principles. 
 
 Fig. 7. The instrument called the trammel, consists of two pieces 
 of wood joined together at right angles, with agroovein the middle 
 of each; the trammel rod is a square bar with three points, or pins, 
 made exactly to fill the grooves, and to slide easily in them, so that 
 two of the pins must be made moveable, and to be always in a 
 straight line with the third, which maybe a pencil passing through 
 a hole. The machine is thus prepared : set the first pin from 
 the pencil to the height, and the second from the pencil to half the 
 length, then put the pins in the grooves, which being fixed upon 
 the axis, move the point B round from A to B, and describe the 
 curve A B C D, it will be the true ellipse required. 
 
 Prob. VI. Any three straight lines being given to find a fourth 
 proportional, Pl. 6. Fig. 1. 
 
 Let C A, A E be any two straight lines forming an angle. 
 
GEOMl^^rRY. 
 
 Make A B equal to the first of the given lines, A C equal to the 
 second, A D equal to the third. Join B D, and draw C E parallel 
 to B D, cutting A E produced at E. Then will A E, be a fourth 
 proportional to A B, A C, A D, or A B, A C, A D, A E. 
 
 Pkob. VII. To divide a line in the same proportion as another is 
 divided, Pl. 6. Fig. 2. 
 
 Let A E be the given line, divided into the parts A B, B C, 
 C D, D E and A 1, the line to be divided, forming any angle 
 with A B. Join E I, and draw B F, C G, and D H, parallel to 
 E I, catting A 1 at F G H, then the parts A F, F G, G H, 
 H I, will be to one another, or to the whole line A I, as the 
 parts A B, B C, C D, D E, are to one another, or to the whole 
 line A E. 
 
 Prob. VIII. Any distance being given in feet and inches^ of a part 
 of one drawing to divide a given length of a similar part of 
 another drawing into feet and inches, so as to form a propor- 
 tional scale, Pl. 6. Fig. 3. 
 
 Let A B represent 57 feet 2 inches, the length of one drawing, 
 the part between 40 and A being 7 feet 2 inches, then the dis- 
 tance between 40 and B will contain 50 feet ; and let C B be 
 the length of another drawing, either of greater or less extent 
 than the former, it is required to find the scale of the new draw, 
 ing. Join A C ; draw 0, 0 : 10 10 : 20, 20 : 30, 30 : 40, 40, 
 parallel to A C, cutting C B in 0 : 10, 20, 30, 40 ; then the dis- 
 tance of every two adjacent divisions will be 10 fee of the new 
 scale. The first 10 feet may be sub-divided into feet, by divisions 
 parallel lines in the same manner, and by this means the scale of 
 a new drawing may be found, when the whole length, or any parr, 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 29 
 
 and the scale of the original drawing, and the whole length, or any 
 similar part of the required drawing are given. 
 
 Prob. IX. A drawing being given without a scale to proportionate 
 another, having the dimension or extent of some part of the intended 
 drawing. Pl. 6. Fig. 4. 
 
 Draw two lines A B, B C, forming any angle ABC with each 
 other, as before, from the angular point ; on one of the lines B C 
 set off the extent of the part of the required drawing, from B to C ; 
 from the same point B set the extent of the corresponding part of 
 the other drawing, from B to A on the other line, and join A C. 
 Make A B a scale of any number of divisions, as five, divide B C 
 in the same proportion; sub-divide one of the extreme parts of A 
 B into tentlis, find the proportionate tenth of the corresponding part 
 of B C ; then will A B be a scale for the original drawing, and 
 B C a corresponding scale for the required drawing. 
 
 Example^ Figures 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Suppose A B C D A to be an original drawing, as a plate for a 
 book, and to be of greater length or height than the page will admit 
 of: then let the given height be E H, construct two proportional 
 scales, fig. 7, as described in this problem, then all the dimensions 
 and distances of the diagrams of fig. 6. will easily be proportioned 
 to the corresponding dimensions and distances of the diagrams, 
 fig. 5. A very accurate method, where any of the diagrams are 
 very oblique, is to produce the sides to the boundary lines in 
 the original drawing, then finding the corresponding points in the 
 boundary lines of the required drawing, and by this means the an- 
 glep of position may be had with the greatest correctness. In 
 
30 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 circles, the position of their centres must be found by measuring 
 from the corresponding boundaries, and then their radii from the re- 
 spective scales. Parallel lines may be drawn by the parallel ruler. 
 
 Prob. X. To draw a diagonal scale. 
 
 Suppose A B to be a scale agreed upon, consisting of 50 feet, 
 the divisions separating each two adjacent 10 feet, being 0, 10, 20. 
 SO. Draw the parallel lines AC, . 0, . . 10, 10 . . 20, 20 1 
 30, SO . . B D. Take any convenient opening of the compass, 
 run ten parts from A to C, and from B to D, through the divisions, 
 draw parallels ; then C D being numbered as A B : divide A 0 
 into 10 equal parts, and also C 0 ; from the points 0, 1,2, 3, 4, 
 &c. in A B to the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. draw 0, 1 ; 1, 2 : 2, 3: 
 3, 4, &c. By this means you may obtain the hundreth part of 
 the distance AO, or C 0, according to the parallel you measure 
 upon ; thus, suppose you required 32 feet, and 4 tenths of a foot, 
 you must place the foot of your compass on the fourth division 
 from 30, on the line A B, in the vertical line 30, 30, and extend the 
 other leg along the fourth parallel, till it fall upon the diagonal 2, 
 3, and this extent will bo equal to 32.4 feet, and thus any extent 
 whatever may be found. 
 
 Draftsmen seldom or never make use of a diagonal scale, as 
 persons in the habit of drawing, will judge of any small part 
 as nearly by the eye, as if measured by the best divided diagonal 
 6cale, at least without the assistance of a glass ; and thus employ- 
 ing a common scale will be a great saving of time. However, in 
 the solution of a mathematical problem in mensuration, it may be 
 applied with advantage where time would be of less consideration, 
 in order to obtain the accuracy desired, or to confirm t!ie truth of 
 a calculation. 
 
CARPENTEY. 
 
 § 1. Carpentry in civil architecture, is the art of employing 
 timber in the construction of buildings. 
 
 The first operation of dividing a piece of timber into scantlings, 
 or boards, by means of the pit saw, belongs to sawing, and is 
 previous to any thing done in carpentry. 
 
 § 2. The tools employed by the carpenter are a ripping saw, 
 a hand saw, an axe, an adze, a socket chisel, a firmer chisel, a 
 ripping chisel, an augur, a gimlet, a hammer, a mallet, a pair of 
 pincers, and sometimes planes, but as these are not necessarily 
 used, they are described under the head of joinery, to which they 
 are absolutely necessary. 
 
 §3 OF SAWS. 
 
 A saw IS a thin plate of steel, indented on the edge, so as to 
 form a series of wedges, with acute angles, and for the conveni- 
 ency of handling, a perforated piece of wood is fixed to one end, 
 by means of which the utmost power of the workman may be 
 exerted in using it. 
 
 Saws have various names, according to their use. It is obvious, 
 m order that the saw should clear its way in the wood, that the 
 plate should decrease in thickness from the cutting edge towards 
 
32 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 the back, and for this purpose also, besides this additional thick 
 ness, most saws have their teeth bent towards the alternate sides 
 of the plate, this must always be the case where the plate is broad : 
 in very narrow plates the cutting edge is made thicker than usual. 
 Such saws as are not intended to cut into the wood their whole 
 breadth, have strong iron or brass backs, in order to stiffen them, 
 and keep them from buckling or bending ; both external and 
 internal angles of the teeth of saws are made to contain sixty 
 degrees, and the magnitude of the teeth is proportioned to the size 
 of the saw, and accommodated to its 'ise. 
 
 Some saws are used for dividing the wood in the direction of 
 the fibre, and to any extent of distance exceeding the breadth 
 of the plate, at pleasure ; others are only employed in cutting in 
 a direction perpendicular to the fibres, to any breadth or thickness ; 
 the former case requires the front edges of their teeth to stand 
 almost perpendicular to the line passing through their angles, in 
 order to cut through, or make a way through in less time than if 
 set backwards, which is better adapted to the latter case : foi 
 otherwise, the points #f the teeth would run so deep into the 
 wood, as to prevent the workmen from pushing the saw forward 
 without breaking it. The saws commonly used by the carpenter, 
 are the ripping saw, and the hand saw; v/hich are particularly 
 described under the head of joinery, as well as other saws used 
 in that branch. 
 
 § 4. THE AXE 
 
 Is an edged tool, having a long wooden handle, for reducing 
 timber to a. given form or surface, by paring away slices of 
 unequal thickness ; is used by a reciprocal motion in the arc 
 of a circle, generally in a vertical plane, forming the surface 
 always in the same plane, and has therefore its cutting edge in 
 a lor^gitudinal plane, passinjr through the handle ; the slices cut 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 33 
 
 away are called chips, the operation is called chopping, and the 
 surface reduced to its form is said to be chopped ; but among 
 woodmen the operation is called hewing. 
 
 § 5. THE ADZE 
 
 Is also an edge tool with a long wooden handle for reducing 
 timber to a given form of surface, by paring away thin slices of 
 unequal thickness, by a reciprocal motion in the arc of a circle, 
 and in a vertical plane ; but its cutting edge is perpendicular to a 
 longitudinal plane passing through the handle. It forms a much 
 more regular and smooth surface than the axe. The operation is 
 also called chopping. 
 
 The use of the adze is to chop and pare wood in a horizontal 
 position. 
 
 § 6. THE SOCKET CHISEL 
 
 Is used for cutting excavations ; the lower part is a prismoid, 
 
 the sides of which taper in a small degree upwards, and the edges 
 
 considerably downwards: one side consists of steel and the other 
 
 of iron: the under end is ground into the form of a werf' e, 
 
 forming the basil on the iron side, and the cutting edge on ...e 
 
 lower end of the steel face. From the upper end of the prismoidal 
 
 part rises the frustum of a hollow cone, increasing in diameter 
 
 'inwards ; the cavity or socket contains a handle of wood of the 
 
 same conic form : the axis of the handle, the hollow cone, and 
 
 the middle line of the frustrum are all in the same straight line. 
 
 The socket chisel, most commonly used, is about an inch and 
 
 quarter or an inch and a half broad. It is chiefly used in mortising, 
 
 and is the same in carpentry, as what the mortise chisel is in 
 
 joinery. 
 
 Nos. 3 & 4. E 
 
34 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 § 7. THE FIRMER CHISEL 
 
 Is formed in the lower part similar to the socket chisel ; but 
 each of the edges above the prismoidal part falls into an equal 
 concavity, and diminishes upwards, until the substance of the 
 metal between the concave narrow surfaces, becomes equal in 
 thickness to the substance of the metal between the other two 
 sides, produced in a straight line, meet a protuberance projecting 
 equally on each side : the upper part of the protuberance is afl at, 
 or straight surface, from the middle of which rises a pyramid, to 
 which is fastened a piece of wood in the form of a frustrum of a 
 pyramid, tapering downwards ; this piece of wood is called the 
 handle : the middle line of the handle, of the pyramids of the con- 
 cave, and of the prismoidal parts, are all in the same straight line. 
 
 § 8. THE RIPPING CHISEL 
 
 Is only an old socket chisel used in cutting holes in walls for 
 inserting plugs, and for separating wood that has been nailed to. 
 gether, &c. 
 
 §9. THE GIMLET 
 
 Is a piece of steel of a cylindric form, having a transverse han. 
 die at the upper end, and at the other end a worm or screw; and 
 a cylifidric cavily called the cup above the screw ; forming in 
 its transverse section, a crescent. Its use is to bore small holes; 
 the screw draws it forward in the wood, in the act of boring, while 
 it is turned round by the handle ; the angle formed by the exterior 
 and interior cylinders, cuts the fibres across, and the cup contains 
 the core of wood so cut : the gimlet is turned round by the appli- 
 cation of the fingers, on alternate sides of the wooden lever at 
 the top. 
 
CARPExMTRY. 
 
 35 
 
 § 10. THE AUGER 
 
 Is the largest of all boring tools, it has a wooden handle at the 
 upper end at right angles, to a long shaft of iron and steel ; at 
 the lower end is a worm or screw of a conic form, for entering 
 the wood ; so far it is similar in construction to the gimlet : the 
 lower part of the shaft, axis, or spindle is steel, and is of a pris- 
 nioidal form, to a certain distance, from the end upwards. The 
 edges are nearly parallel, and the sides taper in a small degree 
 upwards ; the part of the shaft above the prismoid is arbitrary ; but 
 it is obvious, that in order to pass the bore freely, its transverse 
 dimensions must be less than the lower part. The worm has its 
 axis in the same straight line with the axis of the shaft. The 
 lower end is hollow, or cut into a cavity on one side of the cone, 
 and forms a projecting edge on the narrow surface of the prism 
 called the tooth, which is brought to a cutting edge. 
 
 The part of the lower end on the other side of the cone projects 
 before the face of the prismoidal part in the form of a wedge, the 
 line of concourse of the two sides of the wedge forming a cutting 
 edge. The vertex of the cone is the greatest extremity of the 
 lower end ; the cutting edge of the tooth is something higher or 
 nearer to the handle, and the cutting edge of the wedge-like part 
 still nearer to the handle. Any point being given as the centre of 
 a cylindric hole on the surface of a piece of timber, the vertex 
 of the conic screw is placed in that point ; then keeping the mid- 
 dle line of the shaft perpendicular to, or at the inclination to be 
 given to the surface of the timber ; turn the auger round with both 
 hands, the screw will draw it downwards into the wood, and when 
 it has got a certain depth, the tooth will begin to cut a portion of 
 the cylindric surface of the hole : when the part of the cylindric 
 surface is cut half round the circumference, or perhaps a little 
 more, the projecting wedge-like part will begin to cut out the 
 bottom, and the core will rise in the form of a spiral shaving, by 
 continuing to turn the handle. This construction of the auger is 
 of very late invention, and is certainly a great improvement. 
 
 The lower part of the old form of the auger is a semi-cylinder 
 
36 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 on the outside, and the inside a less portion of a larger cylinder, 
 the bottom of the cutting part is formed like a nose-bit : before 
 this auger can be entered in the wood, a cavity must be first made 
 with a gouge. 
 
 § 11. THE GAUGE 
 
 Is made out of a solid piece of wood notched with an internal 
 right angle, or consisting of two narrow planes perpendicular to 
 each other ; one of these straight surfaces forms a shoulder, the 
 other surface has two iron teeth placed in a perpendicular to 
 the intersection of the two surfaces, so distant from one another as 
 to contain the thickness of the tenon, or breadth of the mortise, 
 and the tooth next to the shoulder so far distant from the interscc- 
 tion, as the tenon is distant from the face. When you gauge, 
 press the shoulder close to the wood, and the other surface of the 
 gauge which contains the teeth, close to the other surface of 
 the wood to be gauged ; then draw and pull it backwards and 
 forwards, and the iron teeth will scratch the wood so as to make a 
 sharp incision or cut. When carpenters have occasion to alter 
 their gauge for other work, they either file away the old teeth and 
 put in new ones ; or, if the distance between the old ones will 
 answer, they cut away a parallel slice from the shoulder, or put a 
 new piece on before it. 
 
 § 12. THE LEVEL 
 
 Consists of a long rule, straight on one edge, about 10 or 12 
 feet in length, and another piece fixed to the other edge of the. 
 rule, perpendicular to, and fn the middle of the length, and the 
 sides of this piece in the same plane as the sides of the rule ; this 
 last piece having a straight line on one side perpendicular to the 
 straight edge of the rule. The standing piece is generally mo! • 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 37 
 
 tised into the other, and firmly braced on each side, in order to 
 secure it from accidents, and has its upper end kerfed in tiiree 
 places, one through the perpendicular line, and one on each side. 
 The straight edge of the transverse piece has a hole or notch cut 
 out on the under side equal on eacli side of the perpendicular lines, 
 A plummet is suspended by a string from the middle kerf at the 
 top of the standing piece, so that when hanging at length, the bottom 
 of the plummet may not reach to the straight edge, but vibrate 
 freely in the hole or notch. When the straight edge of the 
 level is applied to two distant points, and the two sides placed 
 vertically, the plummet hanging freely, and coinciding with the 
 straight line on the standing piece, then these two points are level: 
 but if not, let us suppose that one of the points is at the given 
 height, the other point must be lowered or heightened according 
 as the case may require ; and the level apphed each time, until the 
 thread is brought to a coincidence with the perpendicular line. 
 By two points, is meant two surfaces of contact, as two blocks of 
 wood or chips, or the upper edges of two distant beams. 
 
 The use of the level in carpentry, is to lay the upper edges of 
 joists in naked flooring horizontal, by first levelling two beams as 
 remote from each other as the length of the level will allow ; the 
 plummet may then be taken off, and the level may be used as a 
 straight edge. In the levelling of joistSi it is best to make two 
 remote joists level first in themselves, that is, each throughout its 
 own length, then the two level with each other; after this, bring one 
 end of the intermediate joists straight with the two levelled ones, 
 then the other end of the joists in the same manner, then try the 
 straight edge longitudinally on each intermediate joist, and such as 
 are found to be hollow, must be furred up straight. 
 
 § 13. TO ADJUST THE LEVEL. 
 
 Place it in its vertical situation upon two pins or blocks of wood 
 then, if the plummet be hanging freely, and settle U7»on :he line on 
 
38 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 the standing piece, or if not, one end being raised, or the other 
 end lowered, to make it do so, turn the level end for end, and if 
 the plummet fall upon the line, the level is just ; but if not, the 
 bottom edge must be shot straight, and as much taken off the one 
 end as you may think necessary; then trying the level first one 
 way and then the other as before, and if a coincidence takes place 
 between the thread and the line, the level is adjusted ; but if not, 
 the operation must be repeated till it come true. 
 
 § 14. THE PLUMB RULE 
 
 is a prismatical piece of wood, with a line drawn down the mid- 
 die of one of the sides, parallel to the two adjacent arrises on the 
 same face. Its use is to try the vertical position of posts, or 
 other work perpendicular to the horizon, by means of a plummet 
 suspended from the upper end of the rule, and a notch cut out at 
 the foot, in order to allow room for the plummet to vibrate freely. 
 
 In order to put up a post perpendicular to the horizon, place the 
 bottom of the post in its situation, and the sides as nearly vertical 
 as the eye may direct ; if the post stands insulated, it must be fixed 
 in this position with temporary braces, at least from two adjoining 
 sides ; but if very heavy, fi'om all the four sides ; then try the plumb 
 rule upon one side, and if the thread coincides v*^ith the line, that 
 side of the post is already plumb, but if not, the top must be moved 
 forwards or backwards, accordingly as it leans or hangs, as much 
 as appears to be wanted, by previously moving the front and rear 
 braces, and fixing them anew, while the other two remain, to stay the 
 other sides : apply the plumb rule again as before, and if there be a 
 coincidence between the line and the plummet thread, then that 
 face is perpendicular, but if not, the several similar operations must 
 be repeated till found to be so. Proceed in the same manner with 
 the other two parallel sides of the post, until they are made plumb, 
 and by this means the post will be set in a true vertical position. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 § 15. THE HAMMER 
 
 Consists of a piece of steel, through which passes a wooden 
 handle perpendicularly ; the steel is fiat at one end, or in a small 
 degree convex. The use of the hammer is for driving nails into 
 • wood by percussive force. The other end of the hammer, that is not 
 used for driving nails, is sometimes made with claws, and sometimes 
 with a rounucd edge, like a semi-cyhnder. The claws are for 
 laying fast hold of the head of a nail, to be drawn out of a piece of 
 wood ; for this purpose the back of the hammer is rounded, so that 
 the hammer, in the act of drawing the nail, may not penetrate with 
 its other extremity into the wood ; and this also lessens the distance 
 of the force to be overcome from the fulcrum, and consequently 
 increases the power employed. When the hammer is used, place 
 the back of it upon the wood, and the claws so as to have the nail 
 fast between them, lay hold of the handle and pull the contrary 
 way to that side of it on which the nail is ; then, if the force be 
 sufficient, the nail v/ill be drawn out of the wood, and the nail thus 
 drawn will come out almost straight. Some people, instead of 
 pulling the handle of the hammer the contrary way to the side on 
 which the nail is on, (and thereby making it describe a circle in a 
 plane, perpendicular to the surface of the wood, and through the 
 longitudinal direction of the head,) turn the hammer sideways ; 
 the nail is easier drawn by this way, but then the surface of the 
 wood is more injured, as well as the nail, which is frequently so 
 much bent as not to be of any more use. Claw hammers are 
 chiefly used in the country ; and those with their other extremity 
 rounded like a cylinder, are used in town for clinching and rivet- 
 ting. In driving a nail, when the hammer comes in contact with 
 the head of the nail, if the striking surface is not perpendicular to 
 the shank of the nail, the nail v^ill not be driven into the wood, or 
 only in a small degree, but will be bent sideways towards an oblique 
 angle, and will thus frequently break the nail, unless it be well enter- 
 ed, and so strong as to resist the force acting thus obliquely. The 
 reader must here observe, that no force can act with its full effect 
 upon another, unless in a line perpendicular to the surface of contact. 
 
40 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 § 16. THE MALLET 
 
 Is similar in its construction to the hammer, but the head is 
 a thick block of wood, of a structure in form of the frustum of 
 a pyramid, the side of this frustum tending to some point in the 
 handle continued. Itc use is for mortising and driving pins into 
 wood. The object is struck by the narrov/ sides of the mallet. 
 
 § 17. THE BEETLE OR MAUL 
 
 Is a large mallet to knock the corners of framed work, and to 
 set it in its proper position, and is sometimes used for driving short 
 piles into the ground, where it would be unnecessary to use greater 
 power. The handle is about three feet in length, and for these 
 heavy purposes both hands are employed. This is more used in 
 the country than in London, where they use a sledge hammer 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 § 18. THE CROW 
 
 Is a large bar of iron, used as a lever to lift up the ends of heavy 
 timber, in order to lay another piece of timber, or a roller, under 
 it. One end of the crow has claws. 
 
 § 19. THE TEN FOOT ROD 
 
 is a rod about an inch square, divided in its length into feet and 
 niches, for the purpose of setung out work. The method of raising 
 a perpendicular by a ten foot rod, is described in the Practical 
 Geometry, page 25, Prob. hi. Instead of a ten foot rod, some 
 use two five foot rods for the same purpose. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 41 
 
 § 20. HOOK PIN 
 
 Is a conical piece of iron, with a hooked head, declining up- 
 wards in the form of a wedge. The top is flat, for the purpose of 
 driving it down ; and the shoulder which rises from the cone, 
 stands perpendicular to the axis, and is used for driving it out of a 
 hole, when it is fixed fast. The hook pins are the same in carpen- 
 try, as what the draw bore pins are in joinery, viz. they are 
 employed after the tenons have been entered in the mortise and 
 bored, as shall be presently shown, in drawing the shoulders of 
 the tenons home to their abutments in the mortise cheeks : when 
 there are several mortises and tenons in the same frame, as many 
 hook pins are employed. The method of boring, and using 
 the hook pins, is thus: bore a hole first through the mortise cheeks, 
 not very distant from the abutments ; enter the tenon, and force it 
 home to its shoulders as near as you can ; mark the tenon by the 
 hole, and draw the tenon out of the mortise. Then pierce a hole 
 through the tenon, about one third of its diameter nearer to the 
 shoulder, and enter the tenon again, bringing the shoulder as near 
 to its abutment as possible ; drive in the hook pin with consider- 
 able force ; the convex circumference will bear upon alternate 
 sides of the mortise and tenon, viz. upon the farther side of the 
 hole of the tenon, and upon the nearest side of the mortise from 
 the joint; the shoulder of the tenon being brought home to its 
 abutment, the hook pin may be drawn out of the hole ; for this 
 purpose there is a hole through the upper part of it, by which it is 
 sometimes drawn out with another hook pin ; but if driven in very 
 fast, it will require the assistance of a hammer to strike it upon 
 the shoulder upwards, and two or three smart blows will soon 
 loosen it ; when drawn out, enter the pin, and drive it home with 
 force, or till it be sufficiently through and fast, so as not to be 
 
 driven farther without breaking. 
 
 F F 
 
42 CAR. EiNTRY. 
 
 § 21. THE CARPENTER'S SQUARE 
 
 Is a square of which both stock and blade consists of an iron 
 plate of one piece ; it is in size and construction thus : one leg is 
 eighteen inches in length, numbered from the exterior angle, 
 the bottom of the figures are adjacent to the interior edge of the 
 square, and consequently their tops to the exterior edge : the other 
 leg is twelve inches in length, and numbered from the extremity 
 towards the angle ; the figures are read from the internal angle, 
 as in the other side ; each of the legs arc about an inch broad. 
 This implement is not only used as a square, but it is also used as a 
 level, and likewise as a rule : its application as a square and as 
 a rule is so easy as not to require any example : but its use as a 
 level, in taking angles, may be thus illustrated ; suppose it were 
 required to take the angle which the heel of a rafter makes with 
 the back, apply the end of the short leg of the square to the heel 
 point of the rafter, and the edge of the square, level across the 
 plate, extend a line from the ridge to the heel point, and where 
 this line cuts the perpendicular leg of the square, mark the inches, 
 and this will show how far it deviates from the square in twelve 
 inches. 
 
 §22. OPERATIONS. 
 
 Having now mentioned the principal tools, and their application, 
 it will here be proper to say something of the operations of Car- 
 pentry, which may be considered under two general heads ; one of 
 individual pieces, the other the combination of two or more pieces. 
 
 Individual pieces undergo various operations as sawing, planing, 
 rebating, and grooving, or ploughing : the operation of the pit saw 
 is so well known as hardly to need a description ; planing, rebating;, 
 grooving, or ploughing, are more frequently employed in Joinery, 
 and will be there fully described. The other general head may 
 be sub-divided into two others, viz. that of joining one piece ot 
 timber to another, in order to make one, two, or four angles, the 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 43 
 
 other that of fastening two or more pieces together, in order to 
 form one piece, which could not be got sufficiently large or long in 
 a single piece ; there are two methods of joining pieces at an angle, 
 one by notching, the other by mortise and tenon. 
 
 Notching is the most common and simple form that prevails in 
 permanent works, and in some cases the strongest for joining two 
 pieces of timber together, at one, two, or four angles : the form of 
 the joint in this is varied according to the situation, the positions 
 of the sides of the pieces, the number of angles, the position of 
 the pieces, and the quantity and direction of the force impressed 
 on one or both pieces, or according to any combination of those 
 circumstances. The most useful are the following. 
 
 § 23. To join two pieces which are to form four angles, and the 
 surfaces of one piece are both parallel and perpendicular to tlwse 
 of the other. 
 
 A notch may be cut out of one piece, the breadth of the other, 
 which may be let down on the first piece, or the two pieces may 
 be reciprocally notched to each other, and for further security, 
 nails, spikes, or pins, may be driven through both : this form is 
 applicable where each of the pieces are equally exposed to strain 
 in any direction : when one piece has to support the other 
 transversely, the upper piece may have a notch cut across it to a 
 breadth; suppose two-thirds of the thickness of the piece below, 
 and the lower piece must have an equal notch cut out on each 
 upper arris, leaving two-thirds of the breadth of the middle entire, 
 by which the strength of the supporting, or lower piece, is less di- 
 minished than if a notch of much less depth had been cut the whole 
 breadth: this mode is applicable to carcass roofing, in letting the 
 purloins down upon the principal rafters, and the common rafters 
 again upon these; also in carcass flooring, it is employed in letting 
 down the bridg/'ng joists upon the binding joists. 
 
44 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 § 24. To join one piece of Timber to another, to form two right 
 angles with each other, and the surfaces of the one to be parallel 
 and perpendicular to those of the other, and to be quite immoveable, 
 when the standing piece is pulled in a direction of its length, while 
 the cross piece is held still. 
 
 Dovetail the end of the perpendicular piece, that is, fornn it like 
 a truncated isosceles triangle, the wide part being on the extremity, 
 make a corresponding reverse in the other, and if both these pieces 
 be horizontal, and the former laid upon the latter, they will answer 
 the intended purpose without the addition of nails, spikes, or pins: 
 in this mode, if the timber is not sufficiently seasoned, the perpen- 
 dicular piece may be drawn out of the transverse piece, to a certain 
 distance, according to the degree of shrinking. 
 
 § 25. Another mode. 
 
 Which prevents the perpendicular piece from being drawn out 
 of the transverse piece, allowing that the timber should shrink, is to 
 notch the transverse piece, so as that, if the breadth be supposed 
 to be divided into five equal parts, and three of these be notched from 
 one edge, and one from the other, leaving one part entire, obser- 
 ving that these two notches should not be cut more than one third 
 of the thickness through ; then cut a notch out of the perpendicu- 
 lar, to fit the entire part of the transverse, leaving two-fifths entire 
 towards the extremity, and when the two pieces are joined together, 
 the notch and the entire part of the perpendicular piece will re- 
 ispectively fit the entire part, and the broad notch of two-fifths of 
 the transverse piece. If the upper piece press upon the under 
 piece, by its own weight, or with an additional force, neither nails, 
 spikes, nor pins will be necessary. 
 
 These methods of framing a piece of timber, at right angles to 
 another, are used in cocking down the beams of a building upon 
 the wall-plate ; but the latter method is more generally employed 
 
CARPENTRY. 45 
 
 than the former, as being more perfect ; either method is infinitely 
 superior to mortise and tenon for such purpose. 
 
 ) 26. To notch one piece of Timber to another, or join the two, so 
 as to form one right angle, in order that they may he equally strong, 
 in respect to each other. 
 
 Notch each piece half through, and nail, spike, or pin them to- 
 gether ; or they may be partly notched on each other, and the 
 inner edge of one again no-tched, leaving the substance sufficiently 
 thick below each notch, and a part entire at the inner edge ; cut 
 the corresponding reverses in the other piece, and when the two 
 are joined, neither can be drawn out of the other : these two 
 methods of joining a piece of timber to form a right angle with 
 another, are applied to wall-plates and bond timbers at the corners 
 of a building ; but wherever the thickness of the walls will admit, 
 it is much better to make the end of each piece to pass the breadth 
 of the other as much as possible, so that by this means four right 
 angles will be formed instead of one ; then the two may be equally 
 notched as in the former case 
 
 §27. To fx one piece of Timber to another, forming two oblique 
 angles, so thai the standing piece cannot be drawn out of the 
 transverse. 
 
 Cut a dovetail notch in the transverse piece, keeping the edge 
 straight upon the side next to the obtuse angle, that is, forming the 
 dovetail on the side of the acute angle ; make the corresponding 
 notch upon the piece which has the two angles on the same side, 
 and nail, spike, or j in them together if necessary: this form is 
 particularly applicable to roofing. 
 
40 
 
 CARPExNTRY. 
 
 §28. To cut a rebated notch in the end of a Scantlings or piece 
 
 of Wood, 
 
 If the piece is not above three or four inches in either dimen- 
 sion, it may be cross-cut with the hand-saw to the depth, and 
 the piece may be cut longitudinally out, or in the direction of the 
 Gores with the same : but if the stufl' is very broad, as a plank or 
 board, and the notch is to be cut in the breadth of the board, then 
 you may cross-cut the face wkh the band-saw as before, and cut 
 the piece out with the adze to the depth required ; if it is to be 
 cut from the edge of a board or plank, you may proceed as at first 
 with the hand-saw only. 
 
 § 29. To cut a grooved notch, or socket in a piece of Timber. 
 
 Cross-cut the two ends or sides with the hand-saw to the intended 
 depth ; then, if the notch is sufficiently long or broad to admit of 
 the breadth of the blade of the adze, you may cut out the wood 
 between the two kerfs with the adze ; but if the width or breadth 
 of the tenoned piece is not of sufficient extent, you may then cut 
 out the intermediate wood between the kerfs with the socket chisel, 
 and smooth the bottom of the notch with the paring chisel. 
 
 § 30. To cut a Tenon, 
 
 This operation is only a double rebated notch ; and consequently 
 the methods for cutting the tenon are the same under like circum- 
 stances of size and dimensions. See also the next article. 
 
 §81. To frame one Timber at right angle s to, and at some distance 
 from, either end of another, both pieces being of the same quality. 
 
 To do this, the piece of timber which is to stand perpendicular 
 
47 
 
 to the other, nmst be reduced of its thickness by cutting ciway two 
 rectangular prisms from both ends, and leaving another rectangu- 
 lar prism in the middle of the thickness, commonly called a tenon, 
 which is made to fit a corresponding excavation, called a mortise, 
 taken out of the other piece, so that when both pieces are joined 
 together, two of the surfaces of the one piece will be straight with 
 two of the surfaces of the other, and the other two remaining sur- 
 taces of the one piece will be perpendicular to the other two 
 remaining surfaces of the other ; and if properly joined, the super- 
 fices of both pieces will come in contact with each other, so as to 
 leave no interstice or cavity. 
 
 Before the mortise and tenon is made, it will be proper to say 
 something of the proportion between the thickness of the tenon, 
 or breadth of the mortise, and the thickness of the stuff : Suppose 
 the tenon to be entered in the mortise, and driven home ; and 
 suppose the piece which has the mortise, to be held still, while a 
 force is applied to the other end of the tenoned piece, so as to act 
 transversely to the mortised piece, then one or other must give 
 way. It is evident that if the mortise cheeks are too thin, they 
 , will split, or if the tenon be too thin, it will break transversely ; 
 there is, therefore, some proportion between the breadth of the 
 mortise and the thickness of the stuff, so that the one shall be 
 equally strong with the other, to resist this kind of strain. Another 
 thing which will affect this proportion, is, whether the junction is 
 to be supported, as in wall-plates, or unsupported, as in joisting ; 
 a thinner tenon will be required if unsupported, than if supported ; 
 for suppose that the junction has no support, the surface of both 
 parts lying horizontally ; and suppose a weight or force upon the 
 tenoned piece, near to the shoulder, pressing vertically downwards, 
 while the mortised piece is fixed at both ends, and the tenoned 
 piece is also fixed at its remote end ; likewise suppose that the 
 width of the mortise is one third of the thickness of the stuff, it 
 will perhaps be found that the under cheek of the mortise will split 
 away, while the tenon will remain unbroken ; the mortise, there, 
 fore, requires to be still less: but there is another reason, equalW 
 
48 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 powerful, which corroborates this practice, which is, that by cut. 
 ting away one third of the substance, the mortised piece woulo be 
 weakened too much when thus unsupported, as is the case in 
 joisting. Though we cannot determine with mathematical accu- 
 racy, nor by any result of experiments, common practice has 
 sanctioned the thickness of the tenon to be about one fifth of the 
 thickness of stuff ; this being fixed, we shall now proceed to the 
 practice. 
 
 First square the shoulder, by drawing three hnes, one perpen- 
 dicular to the thickness of the tenon, and each of the other two to 
 meet this line perpendicular to the adjoining arrises, on which the 
 first line was drawn ; then mark the breadth of the tenon, at the 
 place where the mortise is to be cut, in the length of the mortised 
 piece ; through each extremity draw a line by the iron square, 
 perpendicular to the arrises on the one side on which the mortise 
 is to be cut, and at the intersection of the lines, with one of the 
 adjoining arrises, draw two other lines on the co is side : 
 then, where each of these lines meet the other arrib, . lines in 
 the same manner upon the third, side ; so that each of the three 
 contiguous sides will have two lines at right angles to the arrises 
 of that side. Take the gauge, described in section 11, and gauge 
 the tenon from the face, and the mortise from the same side, which 
 is to be flush with it. Then entering the handsaw by the lines 
 drawn on the shoulder, cut the shoulders to the gauge lines, and 
 saw off the tenon cheeks, and thus you have the ten9n completed. 
 Then with the socket chisel and mallet knock out the core of the 
 mortise ; then drawbore your work together with the hook pins as 
 m section 20, and the work will be completed. 
 
 ^ 32. To join two Timbers by Mortise and Tenon, at a right angles 
 so that the one shall not pass the breadth of the other. 
 
 Let us suppose that each of the pieces to be framed are of yel- 
 low fir, or both of the same quaHty of wood. It is evident, thatil 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 41) 
 
 the mortise were cut away the whole breadth of the tenon, and 
 the tenon of the same breadth as the piece it is formed on, that 
 the one could not make any resistance to the other without the 
 assistance of a pin. In order to accomplish this, the mortise must 
 not be cut to its full breadth, but must want a certain part of that 
 towards the end of the tenoned piece ; our next inquiry must be 
 ihe proportion between the length of the mortise, and breadth of 
 the tenoned piece, as it must be considered the strain which the 
 mortise is liable to, is splitting, and that of the tenon, is in break- 
 ing transversely to the fibres ; for there is a certain proportion be- 
 tween the breadth of the tenon, and breadth of the piece on which 
 it is cut, so that the one will resist equally the other This is a 
 point that has not been mathematically ascertained ; however, 
 common practice allows the tenon to bejreduced about one third 
 of its breadth, and consequently the breadth of the tenon two 
 thirds, and the length of the mortise two thirds also. As to the 
 thickness of the tenon, or breadth of the mortise, it is the same as 
 we mentioned in the preceding case, and will differ according as 
 it is to lie hollow, or lie upon a solid. The cutting of the tenon, 
 and taking out of the mortise, is the same as has been shewn in 
 the preceding case, the pinning the same as in section 20, 
 
 ^ 33 Of Foundations and Timbers, in joisting and walling. 
 
 The foundations being excavated to the intended depth, the 
 ground must be examined, by trying whether it is sufficiently firm 
 in all places, so as to support the weight of the intended building. 
 There are several meann of securing foundations without piling, 
 should any artificial meaa* be required ; but as our present subject 
 is carpentry, and as theae do not come under the carpenter's pro- 
 fession, we will first suppose that the intended building is to be 
 brick or stone, and thht the foundation is infirm, piles must then 
 be prepared, such, thfj^t their thickness may be about a twelfth part 
 
 of their length. The lii^nnces which these piles will require to be 
 Nos. 3 & 4. F 
 
50 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 disposed, and the momentum required to drive them, will depend 
 on the weight of the building ; for the weight of the ram used in 
 driving them, ought not to be more than what would be sufficient 
 for the purpose, as a greater number of men, or power, would 
 need to be employed, which would occasion an unnecessary ex- 
 pense. We will now suppose the piling to be completed, so as to 
 be sufficient for supporting the intended building ; some people lay 
 a level row of cross bearers, called sleepers, and plank above ; 
 but then observe, before the planking is laid, that all the interstices 
 should be levelled up to the top of the sleepers, with bricks, &;c. 
 The planking, however, will not be necessary, provided that the 
 piling be sufficiently attended to, and thus the expense of the foun- 
 dation will be materially lessened. All timber whatever, of which 
 the thickness stands vertical in the building, being liable to shrink, 
 will also make the building liable to crack, or split, at the junctions 
 with the return parts. In cases where the ground is not very soft, 
 a balk is sometimes slit in halves, and these either laid immediately 
 at the bottom, or at the height of two or three courses, and this 
 will frequently prevent settlements, which are occasioned by an 
 unequal pressure of the piers, and the intermediate brick-work or 
 masonry, under apertures. Suppose the foundation to be brought 
 up to its height, or to the level of the under sides of the ground 
 joists; the ground plates must be laid, and sleepers, at eight or ten 
 feet distance where the floors are intended to be boarded: these 
 sleepers are supported upon small pillars or piles of brick, or by 
 stones, at five, six, or eight feet distance, according to the sub- 
 stance of timber used for the sleepers, and their ends supported by 
 the walls. The next thing is to lay the ground joists. When the 
 bricklayer has got to the top of the first windows, the carpenter 
 may lintel the windows : but if the joisting of the next floor is laid 
 upon the lintels, the wall-plate and the lintels will form one con- 
 tinued length of timber, which will be much stronger than lintels, 
 having only nine or ten inches bearing upon the walls. Suppose 
 now the wall-plates laid round the exterior walls, and returned in 
 flank or party-walls, except at the flues, and likewise laid in cross. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 51 
 
 walls of brick or stone; or if a timber partition is required, and 
 the joisting to be supported by this partition, the partition is seldom 
 carried up, the joisting is first laid and levelled; instead of the 
 partition, a plank or other piece bf timber is laid under the joisting 
 at the place, and this supported by uprights, which are forced up 
 with wedges, so as to bring the top of the joists to a level; before 
 the joisting is put down, the trimmers of stairs and chimnies must 
 be framed in. If a double floor is to be laid with girders, be sure 
 to lay templets, or short pieces of timber, under the girders, as this 
 will distribute the pressure over a greater surface, and thereby 
 prevent settlements. The naked flooring being laid, in carrying 
 up the second story, bond timbers must be introduced opposite to 
 all horizontal mouldings, as bases and surbases. It is also custom- 
 ary to put a row of bond-timber in the middle of the story, of 
 greater strength than those for the bases and surbases. The work 
 being so far advanced, we will suppose the building roofed in and 
 completed; as there will be immediate occasion for resuming the 
 subject in the description of a wooden building. 
 
 § 34. Stud-work, and Plaster Buildings. 
 
 The foundation being made secure, and the several scantlings 
 for ground. plates, principal posts, posts, bressummers, girders, 
 trimmers, joists, &c. being prepared and framed, agreeable to their 
 several situations. Timbers laid on the foundation, or next to the 
 ground, are generally of oak, as ground-plates, which should be 
 about eight inches broad, and six inches vertically. The front and 
 rear plates are to be framed by mortise and tenon, the front and 
 rear plates being mortised, and the flank \>ieces consequently 
 tenoned. Sometimes the flank pieces are mortised to receive 
 the joists. The ground plates are to be bored with an inch and 
 half auger, and pinned together with oak pins, made taper towards 
 the point, and so strong as to withstand the blows of the mallet, 
 when driven tight into the hole. As the wood which carpenters 
 work upon is generally heavy timbers, a block is laid under the 
 
52 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 corner to bear the plate off the foundation, so as to allow room f(,r 
 driving of the hook pins ; when the wooden pins are driven, re- 
 move the blocks, and let the plates bed firmly on the foundation. 
 But before the pins are driven, if .there be any girders it must be 
 fitted in, and all the joisting and trimmers, for they cannot be got 
 in afterwards. We shall suppose that every thing is got to its 
 birth, and the work pinned together. Four corner posts, eight 
 inches by six, viz. of the same scantling as the ground plates, are 
 erected, presenting their narrow sides to the front, and extending 
 the whole height of the building, till they meet the wall-plates. 
 These corner posts are called principal posts, and are mortised and 
 tenoned into the ground-plates, and also for the purpose of being 
 inserted into the rising-plates. At the height of the principal story, 
 two mortises must be cut in each principal post ; which being set 
 up, enter the tenons of the next bressummers into the morlises, 
 and stay the principal posts, by means of temporary braces, fixed 
 to the framed work of the floor. Set up the several intermediate 
 story posts, or those which are framed into the interstices, and ten- 
 on the ends of these posts into the bressummers or interstices, as 
 it may happen whether there are interstices between the bressum- 
 mers or not. Proceed in like manner with the bressummers, gir. 
 der, and joists, of the next story. It does not always happen that 
 there is a girder, but if one side of it should prove to be wainy, 
 that side must be turned upwards, and the shoulders of the joists 
 must be scribed upon the wains. 
 
 We shall now suppose, the principal posts, story posts, or other 
 intermediate posts, bressummers, girders, floor joists, trimmers, 
 and trimming joists, all completely fitted together, you may proceed 
 to pin the work together, and put on the raising plates, which are 
 let down upon the tenons of the principal posts, and then complete 
 the roof ; you may then begin to put up the truss partitions, if there 
 be such, and fill in the larger interstices in the outside framirt<r, 
 and in these partitions with quarters. 
 
 § 35. What now remains to be done belongs to the joiner, on! 
 will therefore be found under the article Joinery. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 53 
 
 In the description of this wooden fabric, as there are several 
 jiarticulars respecting the scantHngs and bearings of timbers, not 
 mentioned, the following table may be referred to, not only to sup 
 ply these wants, but on various other occasions. 
 
 In the folio wirg tables, the first vertical column contains the 
 heights or bearings in the clear of timbers; the second, the scant- 
 lings in inches for firwood : and the third, the scantlings in inches 
 for oak wood ; the corresponding parts are to be found in each ho- 
 rizontal row, as is sufficiently plain from the tables. 
 
 §36. TABLE I. 
 
 I ■vw* X/^/X/X "X/W* ■*/v%*^'vx/v/% 
 
 BEARING POSTS. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 X 10 
 
 7 X 12 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 X 11 
 
 8 X 13 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 X 12 
 
 9 X 14 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 X 13 
 
 10 X 15 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 X 14 
 
 11 X 16 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 X 15 
 
 12 X 17 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 X 16 
 
 13 X 18 
 
 * ^./WVVX/W WX/\*' 
 
 X/X/X/V%/X/W %/X/X/\« 
 
 ^ 37. The table of bearing posts here given, is considered gs 
 sufficient only for supporting two or three stories of a dwelling 
 house, it is impossible to give a table that will be adequate to 
 every class of building. These scantlings do not depend upon 
 the height of the building, but upon the weight with which the 
 several floors are loaded. 
 
 The supporting timbers required for the construction of a ware- 
 house, ought to be very diffisrent from those employed in a com- 
 mon dwelling house. It must be farther observed ihat all bearing 
 f2 
 
54 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 posts which stand insulated, ought to be exactly square ; but, as 
 in general they are stayed sideways by doors, windows, or in 
 tertices ; the sides of the pieces employed are of unequal 
 dimensions : giving a greater depth, requires less timber to make 
 them equally strong, and by making them thinner, gives more 
 ample area for light, which is particularly wanted in shop stories. 
 Another observation ; the table above is not constructed, so as to 
 make the story posts at different heights equally strong, even under 
 the same circumstances of weight, as higher posts would be more 
 liable to accidents than lower ones, so that there is a continued 
 increase of strength from the lower to the higher posts. We cannot 
 say positively, what the exact scantlings for bearing posts of given 
 heights ought to be, though the weight which they have to support 
 were known, as we have no detail of experiments sufficient to 
 enable us to establish a principle of calculation. We have ttere- 
 fore, nothing else to depend upon but our experience, and what 
 we see commonly put in practice. Two practical men will not 
 always exactly agree, in what ought to be a standard under par- 
 ticular circumstances. The breaking of timber by compression, 
 is so intricate of itself, that men of science have not agreed as to 
 the general law by which a transverse fracture is produced. With 
 regard to the difference of strength between fir and oak, Muchen- 
 broek asserts, on the authority of his own experiments, that 
 although oak will suspend half as much again as fir, it will not 
 support as a pillar, two thirds of the load : upon this authority also, 
 the author has ventured to make the oak scantling larger than 
 the fir. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 55 
 
 §38. TABLE II. 
 
 I GIRDERS. I 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 ' Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 12 
 
 10 X 8 
 
 9X7 
 
 16 
 
 12 X 10 
 
 11 X 9 
 
 23 
 
 14 X 12 
 
 13 X 11 
 
 24 
 
 16 X 14 
 
 15 X 13 
 
 §39. TABLE III. 
 
 BRIDGING JOISTS. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches, 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 4 
 
 4 X 2^ 
 
 3i X 21 
 
 6 
 
 5X4 
 
 4^ X 21 
 
 8 
 
 6X2^ 
 
 51 X 21 
 
 10 
 
 7X2^ 
 
 6^ X 21 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 §40. TABLE IV. 
 I BINDING JOISTS. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 8 
 
 7X4 
 
 6X4 
 
 10 
 
 8X4 
 
 7X4 
 
 12 
 
 9X4 
 
 8X4 
 
 14 
 
 10 X 4 
 
 9X4 
 
 ^VVVXlVX'VX.V>/VVV«/VVW%/VV«/«/X^%/VV%V%/X/VV«/VVVVVV%'VVV%/VVVVX/V^%^^ 
 
 §41. TABLE V. 
 
 I TIE BEAMS. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 X 4 
 
 7 X 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 X 6 
 
 9 X 51 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 X 8 
 
 11 X 7i 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 X 10 
 
 13 X 91 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 X 12 
 
 15 X lU 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 §42. TABLE VI. 
 I PRINCIPAL RAFTERS. \ 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 12 
 18 
 
 24 
 30 
 36 
 
 5X3 
 61 X 4 
 8X5 
 91 X 6 
 11 X 7 
 
 61 X 31 
 71 X 41 
 
 H X H 
 
 101 X 61 
 121 X 71 
 
 §43. TABLE VII. 
 
 PURLINES. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 6 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 
 7x4 
 8X5 
 9X6 
 
 10 X 7 
 
 11 X 8 
 
 61 X 31 
 71 X 41 
 
 81 X 51 
 
 91 X ei 
 lOi X 71 
 
 G 
 
58 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 § 44. In table VI. As principal rafters are always in a state 
 of compression, the oak scantlings are increased according to the 
 aforesaid experiments. All ties should therefore be made of oak, 
 and all compressed or straining pieces of fir. 
 
 §45. TABLE VIII. 
 
 SMALL RAFTERS. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 Inches by Inches. 
 
 8 
 
 H X ^ 
 
 4 X 21 
 
 10 
 
 6 X 21 
 
 51 X 21 
 
 12 
 
 ^ X 2i 
 
 7 X 2^ 
 
 All beams ought to be cut or forced to a camber, an inch for 
 every 20 feet : as all framed work will shrink, and sag after being 
 put together. 
 
 Roofs are much stronger when the purlines run above the prin- 
 cipal, than when framed in. 
 
 In all case or tail bays, in floors or roofs, the bearings of either 
 joists or rafters, ought not to exceed 12 feet. 
 
 Abstract of the Building Act, as far as regards the Carpenter y 14 
 Geo. III. which refers only to London, and the several Parishes 
 within the Bills of Mortality 
 
 Those timber partitions between building and building, that were 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 59 
 
 erected, or begun to be erected before the passing of the act, may 
 remain till one of the adjoining houses is rebuilt, or till one of the 
 fron-ts, or two thirds of such fronts, which abut on such timber par. 
 tition, is taken down to the bressummer, or one pair of stairs floor, 
 and rebuilt. 
 
 Proprietor of a house or ground to give three months notice to 
 pull down such wooden partitions when decayed, or of insufficient 
 thickness, and to be left with the owner or occupier of such a 
 house, and if empty, such notice to be stuck up, in and on the 
 front door, or front of such house. 
 
 No timber hereafter to be laid in any party arch, nor in any party 
 wall, except for bond to the same ; nor any bond timber, within 9 
 inches of the opening of a chimney, nor within 5 inches of the 
 flue, nor any timber^ within 2 feet of any oven, stove, copper, still, 
 boiler, or furnace. 
 
 All framed work of wood for chimney breasts, to be fastened to 
 the said breast with iron work as hold fasts, wall hooks, spikes, 
 nails, &c. nor driven more than 3 inches into the wall, nor nearer 
 than 4 inches to the inside of the opening of the chimney. 
 
 No timber bearer to wooden stairs let into an old party wall, 
 must come nearer than 8 and a half inches to the flue, nor nearer 
 than 4 inches to the internal finishing of the adjoining building. 
 
 No timber to be laid under any hearth to a chimney, nearer than 
 18 inches to the upper surface of such hearth. 
 
 No timber must be laid nearer than 18 inches to any door of 
 communication through party walls, through warehouses or stables. 
 
 Bressummers, story posts, and plates thereto, are only permitted 
 in the ground story, and may stand fair with the ouiside of the 
 wall, but must go no deeper than 2 inches into a party wall, nor 
 nea-rer than 7 inches to the centre of a party wall, where it is two 
 bricks thick, nor nearer than 4 inches and a half, provided the 
 party wall does not exceed one brick and half in thickness. 
 
 Every cornerstory post must be of oak, at least 12 inches square 
 when employed for the support of two fronts. 
 
 Window frames and door frames to the first, second, third, and 
 
GO 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 fourth rate classes, are to be recessed in reveals, 4 inches at 
 least. 
 
 Doorcases and doors to warehouses only of the first, second, 
 third or fourth rate classes may stand fair with the outward face of 
 the wall. 
 
 No external decoration to be of wood, except cornices or dres- 
 sings to shop windows, frontispieces to door-ways of the second, 
 third, and fourth rate classes, covered ways or porticos to build- 
 ings ; but not to project beyond the original line of the house in 
 any street.or way ; such covered way or portico not to be covered 
 with wood. 
 
 Nor such cornice, covered way, or the roof of portico to be 
 higher than the under side of the cill to the windows of the one 
 pair of stairs floor. 
 
 No flat gutter or roof, nor any turret dormer, or lanthorn light, 
 or other erection placed on the flat of the roof belonging to the 
 first, second, third, fourth, and fifth rate classes to be of wood or 
 timber 
 
 No wooden water trunks must be higher from the ground, than 
 the tops of the windows of the ground story. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Fig. 1 the axe used in chopping timber by a reciprocal circu- 
 lar motion, generally in a vertical plane, and with the cutting edge 
 in that plane. 
 
 Fig. 2 the adze used also in chopping timber by a reciprocal 
 motion, generally in a vertical plane, but with the cutting edge 
 perpendicular to the plane, and thereby forming a horizontal 
 surface. 
 
 Fig. 3 the socket chisel used in mortising; it must be observed, 
 that the socket chisel is not always the breadth of the mortise, bu* 
 generally less, particularly when the mortise is very wide. 
 
 Fig. 4 mortise and tenon guage. 
 
V.S.Bai-rtur^.Se. 
 
4 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 61 
 
 Fig. 5 the carpenters* square. 
 
 Fig. 6 the plumb rule. 
 
 Fig. 7 the level. 
 
 Fifj. 8 the auger. 
 
 Fig. 9 a hook pin for drawboring. 
 
 Fig. 10 the crow. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 Fig. 1 the manner of cocking tie beams with the wall plates 
 fitted together. See § 25. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the manner by which the cocking joint is fitted 
 together, No. 1 part of the end of the tie beam, with the notch to 
 receive the part between the notches in No. 2, which is a part of 
 the wall plate. See § 25. 
 
 Fig. 3 dove-tail cocking; No. 1 the male or exterior dove-tail cut 
 out on the end of the tie beam : No. 2 the female or interior dove-tail 
 cut out of the wall plate, to receive the male dove-tail. See § 24. 
 
 Fig. 4 the manner of joining two pieces together to form a 
 right angle, so that each piece will only be extended on one side 
 of the other, by halving the pieces together, or taking a notch out 
 of each, half the thickness. See § 26. 
 
 Fig. 5 two pieces joined together, forming four right angles, 
 when one piece only exceeds the breadth of the other by a very 
 short distance : No. 2 the socket of one piece, which receives the 
 neck or substance of the other. This and the preceding are both 
 employed in joining wall plates at the angle ; but the latter is pre- 
 ferable, when the thickness of walls will admit of it. 
 
 Fig. 6 the method of fixing angle ties : No. 1 part of angle 
 tie, with part of the wall plate : No. 2 the wall plate, vshowing the 
 socket or female dove-tail. Though the angle tie is here shown 
 flush with the wall, in order to show the manner of connecting the 
 two pieces together ; the angle tie is seldom, or never let down 
 flush, as this would not only weaken the angle tie, but also the 
 plate into which it is framed. See § 27. 
 
62 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 Fig. 1 plan of a floor where the joists would have too great a 
 bearing without a girder, and where the walls in the middle of the 
 apartment are perforated with windows below. If there were no 
 wiDdows, the place of the girder would be obviously in the middle 
 of the wallj in order to make the strongest floor out of timber of 
 given scantlings, or to make it equally strong with the least quan- 
 tity of timber ; but as there is an opening, and if the end of the 
 girder were to be laid over that opening, it would render the walls 
 liable to fracture, which would be still a greater error than the for- 
 mer ; to avoid this evil, the girder must then lie upon a solid pier, 
 and to make the best of this circumstance, so as to be at the least 
 expense in timber, or to make the strongest floor out of given tim- 
 bers, the end of the girder must be placed as near to the aperture 
 as possible, so as to have a solid bearing, and the other end as far 
 distant from the middle line, upon the alternate side of this line ; 
 and thus the middle of the girder would still be in the middle of 
 the length. Some objections may be raised against this method of 
 placing the girder, as it only divides the centre joists equally; but 
 the answer to this is, that the greatest stress upon the floor is al- 
 ways in the middle: and therefore, as the joists are equally divided 
 in the middle, there is the greatest strength where there is most 
 occasion for it ; and likewise, taking all circumstances together, 
 the middle is not capable of sustaining the same weight as other 
 parts of the floor nearer to the extremes are : however, it still re- 
 mains as a question, whether a girder placed in this position, or 
 stronger joists running the other way, would make the cheapest 
 Hoor : this I shall leave, as circumstances in practice may determine. 
 
 Fig. 1. Explanation of the Timbers in a single Floor, 
 
 A, A, A, &c. plan of walls, 
 
 B, B, B. the flues of chimnies. 
 
/ 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 63 
 
 C, C, C, the upper side of wall plates. 
 
 D, D, girder. 
 
 E, E, fire-places. 
 
 e/, e /*, e/, &;c. tail bays of joists framed into girder. 
 
 gh, gh, g h, tail trimmers framed into trimming joists, m order 
 to prevent the ends of the timbers as much as possible from going 
 into the wall, according to the Building Act. 
 
 ikjiJc, hearth trimmers. 
 
 m 0 a. quarter partition between rooms. 
 
 71 op a nine inch wall, inclosing stairs. 
 
 Fig. 2. Explanation of the Timbers in a double Floor. 
 
 In this, the plans of the walls, flues of chimnies, and upper side 
 of wall plates are denoted by the same letters as the same things 
 in the preceding explanation are. The other parts are as follow : 
 
 ab,ab, ab, binding joists. 
 
 cd,cd, c dj &c. bridging joists. 
 
 ef, stair trimmer. 
 
 g hy single joists framed into stair trimmer. 
 
 It may be proper here to observe, in this explanation, that any 
 fow or compartment or joisting to which the flooring boards are 
 attached, whether in a double or single floor, between any two 
 adjacent supports, is called a bay of joisting ; a bay of joisting 
 xext to the wall, is called a tail bay : and those between two gird- 
 ers, or between two binding joists, are called case bays : thus in 
 fig. 1 the joisting on either side of the girder is called a tail bay: 
 and in fig. 2 there are two case bays, and two tail bays. 
 
 In the framing of floors, some persons leave the stair trimmer 
 out until the stairs are put up, and then the trimmer is put up by 
 the stair case hand, or joiner. 
 
G4 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 Fig. 1 section of a double floor, with a girder, taken trans 
 versely to the bridging joists 
 A section of girder. 
 B C, B C binding joists. 
 df dy d, &c. ends of bridging joists. 
 
 c, e, e, &c. ends of ceiling joists, chace mortised into binding 
 joists. 
 
 Fig. 2 section of a double floor, taken transversely to the bind- 
 ing joist. 
 
 A, A sections of the binding joists. 
 B C part of a bridging joist. 
 D E ceiling joists. 
 E F, E F parts of ceiling joists. 
 
 Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, show the manner of scarfing or lengthening 
 of beams. 
 
 Fig. 3 an oblique plain scarf. 
 
 Fig. 4 a single oblique tabled scarf. 
 
 Fig. 5 a parallel scarf keyed together. 
 
 Fig. 6 the method of building beams with small pieces. 
 
 The third, fourth, and fifth figures must be firmly bolted with at 
 least two bolts. Fig; 4 and 5 have each an opening for a key to be 
 driven through, which must be done previously to the bolting. 
 These beams would be much stronger at the scarfing, if an iron 
 strap were placed on each side of it, in order to resist the heads 
 and nuts of the screws more effectually than the wood. 
 
 Fig. 7 a truss for a span roof. 
 
 A, A wall plates. 
 
 B C tie beam. 
 
 C D king post, crown post, or middle post. 
 
 E F, E F struts. • 
 
 g h, g h puncheons. 
 
 I G, I G principal raflers. 
 
 K, K pole plate. 
 
# 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 G5 
 
 L, L sections of purlines. 
 K M, K M small rafters. 
 M M ridge piece section 
 
 PLATE XI 
 
 The framing for a small wooden house, the lower story construct- 
 ed of 9 inch brick work, being more secure against external vio. 
 lence, and the upper part of 4 and a half inch stud work, to be 
 covered with lath and plaster. This house is supposed to be con^ 
 structed where timber is abundant, and brick or stone expensive. 
 The ground story. Fig. 1, consists of a passage, front and back 
 parlour; the one-pair story may be a drawing room, and back 
 room, which may communicate by means of a pair of folding 
 doors; the upper story, which is partly taken out of the roof, may 
 be divided into bed rooms. If two adjoining houses were to be 
 built on the present plan, placing the fire places of the contiguous 
 back to back, so that the same wall, containing the flues, may be 
 common to both, it would not only be a great saving, but strengthen 
 the whole. The partition between the back rooms of the two 
 houses is of wood, and the fire place is placed in the angle of each 
 room, the brick work being continued from the front in order to 
 receive it. The end or gable, is constructed entirely of stud work, 
 to be lathed and plastered. Not only two contiguous houses may 
 be done in this manner, but any series of houses forming a street, 
 by constructing every alternate wall with flues, and every other 
 intervening wall of stud work. The rear fronts will consist en- 
 tirely of stud work. Wooden houses ought always to stand upon 
 a stone or brick foundation ; if, instead of the parlour, the front 
 room were a shop, and the window extending from the door to the 
 wall, then there would be no occasion for any brick work, and the 
 whole would be constructed of stud work, excepting the party wall 
 for the flues. Houses constructed of wood are forbidden in Lon- 
 
 don, by the Building Act: also all interior timbers, within a certain 
 Nos. 5 & 6. H 
 
06 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 distance of chimnies, as the foregoing abstract which contains 
 what belongs to the carpenter, shows : however, they are much 
 used in country towns, where they are not bound under such re- 
 strictions. 
 
 Fig. 1 plan. 
 
 Fig. 2 elevation. 
 
 Fig. 3 gable flank, or division between houses. 
 A B, B C ground plates, or ground sills. 
 
 B D, B E, C F principal posts, extending the whole height of 
 .the building, from the ground plate to the roof plate. 
 
 A G, H I, K L story posts : all intermediate posts are also called 
 •story post3, which extend in altitude from floor to floor. 
 
 G P, I Q, R S, T U bressummers, supported by the story posts : 
 the bressummers RS, TU are also interstices, being framed be- 
 tween posts, which in this example are principal posts. 
 
 M N, D O Fig. 2 the edges, E P, P F the sides of the extreme 
 rafters. 
 
 All the oblique pieces, or those which are placed diagonally 
 within the framing, are called braces. 
 
 The tie beam is not placed at the feet of the rafters, but higher, 
 in order to give head room, in consequence of which a brace is 
 extended from the foot of each story post, adjacent to the middle, 
 in the upper story, to each rafter foot; and as these braces per- 
 form the office of ties in this situation, they ought to be well 
 strapped at the ends. 
 
 Fig. 4 a longitudinal purline truss. 
 
 Fig. 5 a longitudinal truss, placed vertically under the ridge 
 for supporting the intermediate rafters, and restraining them from 
 descending down the inclined plane, and thereby preventing all 
 lateral pressure from the walls ; for it is evident, that if the upper 
 *^nds of the rafters are held in their situation, the lower ends would 
 describe vertical circles, and from their gravity would descend, 
 and consequently approach nearer together, and therefore, instead 
 of pushing out the walls, would rather have a tendency to draw 
 ihem in. This principle, as well as trussing the inclined sides of 
 
CARPEiNTRY. 
 
 67 
 
 a roof, was discovered by the author many years ago, in conse- 
 quence of a dispute, in which he was chosen arbiter on behalf of 
 the architect ; but the principle was so bad, that he was under the 
 disagreeable necessity of giving judgment in favour of the con- 
 tractor. 
 
 LAW REGULATING BUILDLNGS IN THE CITY OF 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 The fire limits include all that fart of the city laying south of a line 
 beginning upon the North River, opposite Spring street, then run- 
 ning up Spring street to Broadway, up Broadway to Art street, 
 from Broadway along Houston street to the Bowery, down the 
 Bowery to Division street, from thence up Division street to Gover- 
 neur streets, down Governeur street to the East River, including 
 one hundred feet on the northerly and easterly sides of said line, 
 except that of Division street : and the regulations of buildings 
 extend to one hundred feet north of Fourteenth street. 
 
 An Act to amend the Acts heretofore passed for the prevention of 
 Fires in the City of New Yorh. — Passed April 20th, 1830. 
 
 The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
 Assembly: Do enact as follows — 
 
 Walls— Roof 
 
 § 1. The outside and party walls of all dwelling houses, store 
 houses, and other buildings hereafter to be erected, or built within 
 the fire limits of the City of New York, as the same now exist, or 
 may hereafter be extended, shall be constructed of stone or brick. 
 
 2. The outside and party walls of such buildings shall not be 
 less than eight inches thick, except flues of chimnies, in any part 
 
68 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 thereof; and the party or end walls of such buildings shall rise 
 and be extended to the roof, and so far through the same as to 
 meet and be joined to the slate, tile or other covering thereof, by 
 a layer of mortar or cement. 
 
 3. The planking or sheeting of the roof of any such building 
 shall in no case be extended across the party or end walls thereof; 
 and all such buildings, and the top and sides of all dormer windows 
 therein, shall be roofed or covered with tile, slate or other fire proof 
 material. 
 
 4. All beams or other timbers in the party walls of such build- 
 ings shall be separated from each other at least four inches, by 
 brick or mortar ; and all plate pieces in the front or rear walls 
 thereof shall recede from the outside of the wall at least four inches ; 
 and such wall shall be built up and extended to the slate or other 
 fire-proof covering of the roof. 
 
 5. All discharging or arch pieces, used in the chimneys of any 
 such building, shall recede from any flue in any such chimney ai 
 least four inches. No such chimney shall be started or built upon 
 the floor of the building, or be cut off to be supported below by 
 wood ; and all hearths shall be supported with arches of stone or 
 brick. 
 
 6. No timber shall be used in the front or rear of any building, 
 within such fire limits, where stone is now commonly used. Each 
 lintel on the inside of the front or rear wall of every such kuilding 
 shall have a secure brick arch over it, and no bond timber in any 
 wall thereof shall, in width and thickness, exceed the width and 
 thickness of a course of brick ; and such bond timber shall be laid 
 at least eighteen inches apart from each other on either side of 
 any wall respectively. 
 
 7. All wooden gutters of any such building over thirty feet in 
 height from the level of the side-walk to the foot of the rafter>^, 
 ishali be lined or covered on the upper surface thereof with copper, 
 zmc, or other fire proof material. 
 
 8. All scuttles on any such buildings shall be made or coveu c 
 mth copper, zinc, iron, or other fire oroof material ; and all v 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 69 
 
 dovv shutters and doors in the rear of any such building, if such 
 building be over thirty feet in height as aforesaid, which shall be 
 used as a warehouse, or storehouse for goods, shall be made of 
 iron or copper. 
 
 9. All plate pieces in any such building as is described or men- 
 tioned in the first section of this Act, shall be firmly secured with 
 iron anchors, and the cornice of every such building shall be hung 
 m iron anchors. 
 
 10. The anchors so to be used at each end of any such cornice 
 shall be at least four feet long, including an angle of at least one foot, 
 and shall be worked or built into the side or end walls of the build- 
 ing ; and such anchors used for supporting the centre of the cor- 
 nice shall return down the front of the building on the inner side, 
 and shall be firmly secured to the front beam. 
 
 11. Every building of more than thirty feet in height from the 
 level of the sidewalk to the foot of the rafters, which shall hereaf- 
 ter be erected or built to the southward of a line distant one hun- 
 dred feet north of the northerly side of Fourteenth street, shall be 
 subject to all the provisions of this Act. 
 
 12. Every building within the fire limits, as the same now 
 exist, or may hereafter be extended, which may hereafter be dam- 
 aged by fire to an amount equal to two-thirds of the whole value 
 thereof, after the lapse of at least fifteen years from the time of its 
 first erection, shall be repaired or rebuilt according to the provi- 
 sions of this Act. 
 
 13. The amount or extent of such damage may be determined 
 by three indifferent persons resicJing in the said City, one of whom 
 shall be appointed by the owner or owners of the building, another 
 by the fire-wardens of the ward in which such building is situated, 
 and the third by the two persons so appointed, and the decision in 
 writing of such three persons, or of any two of them, shall be final 
 and conclusive, in all cases where such mode of determining the 
 extent of such damage shall have been agreed upon. 
 
 14. All roofs, steeples, cupolas, and spires of churches, or other 
 
 public buildings, Cwhere such public buildmg shall stand at least 
 G 2 ' 
 
70 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 ten feet distant from any and every other building,) may be co- 
 vered with boards or shingles. 
 
 15. Public buildings, as mentioned in the last preceding section, 
 are hereby defined to be such buildings as shall be owned and oc- 
 cupied for public purposes, by this State, the United States, the Cor- 
 poration of the City of New York, or the Public School Society. 
 
 16. All privies not exceeding ten feet square and fifteen feet in 
 height, and all fire engine houses belonging to the Corporation of 
 the said City, and all lime and ferry houses which shall be erected 
 with the express permission of the said Corporation, may be built 
 and covered with wood, boards, or shingles. 
 
 17. The owner or owners of any building who shall violate any 
 of the foregoing provisions of this Act, shall, for every such offence, 
 forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars ; and every builder 
 
 ^ who shall be employed, or assist in so doing, whether he be an 
 owner of such building or not, shall, for every such ofience, forfeit 
 and pay the additional sum of two hundred and fifty dollars. 
 
 18. The foregoing provisions of this Act shall not apply to any 
 building heretofore erected by any lessee, or lessees, or other per- 
 son possessed of a leasehold interest in any lands, tenements, or 
 hereditaments, and which by any express exception in any law 
 heretofore passed, relative to the prevention of fires in the City of 
 New York, would be exempt from the provisions of suzh law. 
 
 19. All ash holes or ash houses within the said City shall be 
 built of stone or brick, without the use of wood in any part thereof. 
 
 20. No wooden shed exceeding twelve feet in height, at the 
 peak or highest part thereof, shall*be erected witi.in the fire limits 
 of the said City, as the same now exist, or m v hereaftei be ex- 
 tended. 
 
 ' 21. No wooden building shall be raised, enlarred, i built upon, 
 or removed from one lot to any other lot, withir such fire limits as 
 the same now exist, or may hereafter be extended. 
 
 22. The owner or owners of any ash house, or ash hole, wooden 
 shed, or wooden building, who shall violate any of the provisions 
 of the nineteenth, twentieth, or twenty-first sections of this Act, 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 71 
 
 and every master builder who may be employed, or assist therein, 
 shall, for every such offence, severally forfeit and pay the sum of 
 two hundred and fifty dollars : and such owner or owners shall 
 forfeit and pay the additional sum of fifty dollars for every twenty, 
 four hours during which such ash house or ash hole, wooden shed, 
 or wooden building shall remain, in violation of any such provision 
 after due notice shall have been given to remove the same. 
 
 23. Every hou?e, shed, or other building of any descripti<»n 
 whatsoever hereinbefore mentioned, which shall hereafter be erect- 
 ed; built, roofed, repaired, altered, enlarged, built upon, or remov. 
 ed, contrary to any of the foregoing provisions of this Act, shall 
 be deemed a common nuisance. 
 
 24. It shall not be lawful for any person or persons to have or 
 keep any quantity of gunpowder exceeding twenty-eight pounds in 
 weight, in any one house, store, building, or other place in the 
 City of New York, to the southward of a line running through the 
 centre of Fourteenth street, f»om the North to the East River, or 
 to lade, receive, have or keep any greater quantity of gunpowder 
 than as aforesaid, on board of any ship, vessel, boat, or other water 
 craft whatever, within three hundred yards from any wharf, pier 
 or slip in that part of the City lying southward of the said line. 
 
 25. All gunpowder which may be kept in the said City, or oh 
 board of any ship, vessel, boat, or other water craft, to the south- 
 ward of the line mentioned in the last section, shall bo kept in 
 stone jugs or tin canisters, which shall not contain mo'-s u^m. 
 seven pounds each. 
 
 26. If any person or persons shall have or keep any gunpowder 
 in the City of New Y'^ork, or on board of any ship, vessel, boat, or 
 other water craft, to the southward of the said line, in any manner 
 contrary to the foregoing provisions of this Act, either as to quan- 
 tit y or as to the manner of keeping the same, he, she, or ihey shall 
 forfeit and pay the sum of one hundred and twenty-five dollars for 
 every hundred pounds of gunpowder so had or kept, and in that 
 proportion for a greater or less quantity ; and all such gunpowder 
 shall be forfeited to the Fire Department of the said Citv. 
 
12 CARPENTRY. 
 
 27. The commander, or owner or owners of every ship, or other 
 vessel, arriving in the harbour of New York, and having more than 
 twenty-eight pounds of gunpowder on board, shall within forty- 
 eight hours after such arrival, and before such ship or vessel shall 
 approach within three hundred yards of any wharf, pier, or slip, 
 to the southward of a line drawn through the centre of Fourteenth- 
 street as aforesaid, cause the said gunpowder to be landed by 
 means of a boat, or boats, or other small craft, at any place with- 
 out the said limits, which may be most contiguous to any maga- 
 zine for storing gunpowder, and shall cause the caid gunpowder 
 to be stored in such magazine, on pain of forfeiting the same to 
 the Fire Department of the City of New-York. 
 
 28. It shall be lawful either to proceed with any such ship or 
 vessel to sea, within forty-eight hours after her arrival, or to 
 transship such gunpowder from one ship or vessel to another, for 
 the purpose of immediate exportation, without landing such gun- 
 powder as in the last section is directed ; but in neither case shall 
 it be lawful to keep such gunpowder for a longer time than forty- 
 eight hours in the harbour of New-York, or to approach with the 
 same within three hundred yards of any wharf, pier, or slip in 
 the said. City, to the southward of the line specified in the last 
 section, on pain of forfeiture as therein mentioned. 
 
 29. All gunpowder which shall be conveyed or carried through 
 any of the streets of the City of New-York, in any cart, carriage, 
 wagon, wheelbarrow, or otherwise, shall be secured in tight casV 
 or kegs, well headed and hooped, each of which shall be put into 
 and entirely covered with a leather bag or case, sufficient to pre« 
 vent any of such gunpowder from being spilled or scattered ; and 
 all gunpowder which shall be conveyed or carried through any of 
 the said streets, in any other manner than as above directed, shall 
 be forfeited to the Fire Department of the said City. 
 
 30. In every case of a violation of any provision of this Act, 
 where the penalty prescribed thereby for such violation is the 
 forfeiture of any gunpowder to the said Fire Department, it shall 
 be lawful for any fire warden of the said City to seize such 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 73 
 
 gunpowder in the day time, and to cause the same to be convey- 
 30 to any magazine used for the purpose of storing gun- 
 powder. 
 
 31. It shall be the duty of every person wlio shall have made 
 any such seizure forthwith to inform the Mayor or Recordei and 
 Miiv two Aldermen of the said City thereof; and the said Mayor 
 or Recorder and Aldermen shall thereupon mquire into the fiicts 
 and circumstances of such alleged violation and seizure, for which 
 purpose they may summon any person or persons to testify before 
 them, and they shall have power, in their discretion, to order any 
 gunpowder so seized to be restored. 
 
 32. Whenever any inhabitants of the said City shall make oath 
 before the Mayor, or Recorder, or any two Aldermen, or any two 
 of the Special Justices thereof, of any fact or circumstance which, 
 in the opinion of the said Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, or Special 
 Justices, shall afford a reasonable cause of suspicion, that any 
 gunpowder has been brought, or is kept, within the said City, or 
 in the harbour thereof, contrary to any provision contained in this 
 Act, it shall be lawful for the said Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, or 
 Special Justices, to issue his or their warrant or warrants, under 
 his or their hand and seal, to any sheriff, marshal, constable, or 
 other fit person or persons, commanding him or them to search 
 for such gunpowder in the day time, wheresoever the same may 
 be in violation of this Act, and to seize and take possession of the 
 same if found ; but no person having or acting under any such 
 search warrant shall take advantage thereof to serve any civil 
 process whatsoever. 
 
 33. It shall be lawful for any person or persons who by virtue 
 of any such warrant, shall have seized any gunpowder, to cause 
 the same within twelve hours, in the day time, after such seizure, 
 to be conveyed to any magazine used for storing gunpowder, and 
 unless the said Mayor or Recorder and any two Aldermen of the 
 said City, should in the manner directed by the thirty-first section 
 of this Act, order the same to be restored, such gunpowder shall 
 be detained in such magazine until it shall be delermined by due 
 
 I 
 
74 
 
 CxVRPENTRY. 
 
 course of law, whether the same may have become forfeited by 
 virtue of this Act. 
 
 34. All actions or suits for the recovery of any gunpowder 
 which may have been seized and stored in any magazine, by virtue 
 of this Act, or for the value thereof, or for damEiges sustained by 
 the seizure or detention thereof, shall be brought against the Fire 
 department of the City of New York, and shall be commenced 
 wthin three calendar months next after such seizure shall have 
 been actually made ; and in case no such action or suit shall 
 have been commenced within such period, such gunpowder 
 shall be deemed absolutely forfeited to the said Fire Department, 
 and may be immediately delivered to the proper officers thereof 
 for its use. No penal damages shall be recovered in any such 
 action or suit, and such gunpowder may at any time during the 
 pendency of any such action or suit, by consent of the parties 
 thereto, be removed from any magazine where the same may have 
 been stored, or may be sold, and the moneys arising from such 
 sale may be paid into the Court where such suit or action may be 
 ^endmg, to abide the event thereof, 
 
 35. Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to apply to 
 any ship or vessel of war in the service of the United States, or 
 of any foreign government while lying distant three hundred yards 
 or upwards from the Miiarves, piers or slips of the said City. 
 
 36. If any gunpowder exceeding twenty-eight pounds in quan- 
 tity, shall be found in the possession or custody of any person, by 
 any fireman of the said City, during any fire or alarm of fire 
 therein, it shall be lawful for such fireman to seize the same with- 
 out any warrant, and to report such seizure without delay to the 
 Mayor or Recorder' of the said City, and it shall be determined by 
 the said Mayor or Recorder and any two Aldermen of the said 
 City, in the manner directed by the thirty-first section of this Act 
 whether such gunpowder should be restored, or the same shall be 
 conveyed to a magazine for storing gunpowder and there detained, 
 until it be decided by due course of law, whether such gunpowder 
 be forfeited by virtue of this Act. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 75 
 
 37. No greater quantity of sulphur than ten hundred weight, or 
 of hemp or flax, than twenty hundred weight, or of pitch, tar, tur- 
 pentine, rosin, spirits of turpentine, varnish, linseed oil, oil of 
 vitriol, aquafortis, aether, or shingles, than shall be allowed by the 
 Common Council of the City of New York, shall be put, kept, or 
 stored in any one place in the said City, to the southward of a line 
 drawn through the centre of Fourteenth street, unless with the 
 permission of the said Common Council. 
 
 38. Every person who shall violate either of the provisions of 
 tl'e last section, shall for every such offence forfeit and pay the 
 sum of twenty-five dollars ; and in case any such person or per- 
 sons shall neglect or refuse to remove any of the articles prohibited 
 by the said section, within such time as may be allowed for that 
 purpose by the Mayor or Recorder, or any two Aldermen of the 
 said City, he, she or they shall, for every such neglect or refusal, 
 forfeit and pay an additional sum of twenty. five dollars. 
 
 39. Nothing hereinbefore contained shall be construed to pro- 
 hibit any ship chandler from keeping at any time, in any enclo- 
 sure in the said City, any quantity of pitch, tar, rosin, or turpentine, 
 not exceeding twenty barrels in the whole. 
 
 40. All pecuniary penalties imposed by this Act, may be sued 
 for and recovered with costs of suit, in any court having cogni- 
 zance thereof, by the proper officers of the Fire Department of 
 the said City, for the use of the said Fire Department. 
 
 41. All actions for any forfeiture or penalty incurred under this 
 Act, shall be commenced within one year next after the time of 
 incurring such forfeiture or penalty. 
 
 42. All laws or parts of laws, heretofore passed, mconsistent 
 with the provisions of this Act, are hereby declared to be repealed ; 
 but such repeal shall not affect any suit or prosecution already 
 commenced, or any penalty, forfeiture, or offence already incurred 
 or committed under any such la w or part of a law. 
 
76 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 LIEN LAW. 
 
 An Act for the better security of Mechanics and others, erecting 
 Buildings in the City and County of New York, — Passed April 
 20, 1830. 
 
 The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
 Assembly: Do enact as follows — 
 
 § L Every mechanic, workman, or other person, doing or per- 
 forming any work towards the erection, construction, or finishing 
 of any building in the city of New York, erected under a contract 
 in writing, between the owner and builder, or other person, whe- 
 ther such work shall be performed as journeyman, labourer, cart- 
 man, sub-contractor, or otherwise, and whose demands for work 
 and labour done and performed towards the erection of such 
 building, has not been paid and satisfied, may deliver to the ownef 
 of such building an attested account of the amount and value of the 
 work and labour thus performed and remaining unpaid, and there- 
 upon such owner shall retain, out of his subsequent payments to the 
 contractor, the amount of such work and labour for the benefit ol 
 the person so performing the same. 
 
 2. Whenever any account of labour performed on a building 
 erected under a contract in writing, as aforesaid, shall be placed 
 in the hands of the owner of such building, or his authorized 
 agent, it shall be the duty of such owner or agent to furnish his con- 
 tractor with a copy of such papers, in order that if there shall be 
 any disagreement between such contractor and his creditor, they 
 may, by amicable adjustment between themselves, or by arbitration, 
 ascertain the true sum due, and if the contractor shall not, within 
 ten days after the receipt of such papers, give the owner written 
 notice that he intends to dispute the claim, or if in ten days after 
 giving such notice, he shall refuse or neglect to have the matter 
 adjusted as aforesaid, he shall be considered as assenting to the 
 demand, and the owner shall pay the same when it becomes due 
 
CARPEiNTRY. 
 
 77 
 
 3. If any such contractor shall dispute the claim of his journey- 
 man or other person for work and labour performed as aforesaid, 
 and if the matter cannot be adjusted amicably between themselves, 
 it shall be submitted, on the agreement of the parties, to the ar- 
 bitrament of three disinterested persons, one to be chosen by each 
 of the parties, and one by the two thus chosen, and the decision in 
 writing, of such three persons, or any two of them, shall be final 
 and conclusive in the case submitted. 
 
 4. Whenever the amount due shall be adjusted and ascertained, 
 as above provided, and if the contractor shall not, within ten days 
 after it is so adjusted and ascertained, pay the sum due to his ere- 
 ditor, with the costs incurred, the owner shall pay the same out of 
 the funds as above provided, and which amount due may be reco- 
 vered from the said owner by the creditor of the said contractor, 
 in an action for money had and received to the use of said creditor, 
 and to the extent in value of any balance due by the owner to his 
 contractor under the contract with him at the time of the notice 
 first given as aforesaid, or subsequently accruing to such con- 
 tractor under the same, if such amount shall be less than the sum 
 due from the said contractor to his creditor. 
 
 6. If by collusion, or otherwise, the owner of any building erect- 
 ed by contract in writing, as aforesaid, shall pay to his contractor 
 any money in advance of the sum due on said contract, and if the 
 amount still due the contractor, after such payment has been made, 
 shall be insufficient to satisfy the demand, made in conformity with 
 the provisions of this act, for work and labour done and performed, 
 the owner shall be liable to the amount that would have been due 
 at the time of his receiving the account of such work, in the same 
 manner as if no such payment had been made. 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 I SED IN 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 N. B. Tfiis Mark § refers to the preceding Sections, according to 
 the Number. 
 
 Adze, § 5. 
 Axe, § 4. 
 Auger, § 10. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back of a Hip is the upper edge of a rafter, between the two 
 sides of a hipped roof formed to an angle so as to range with 
 the rafters on each side of it. 
 
 Baulk, a piece of foreign fir, or deal, being the trunk of a tree of 
 that species of wood, generally brought to a square, for the use 
 of building. In London the term is only applied to small lengths, 
 from 18 to 25 feet, generally under 10 inches thick, having a 
 considerable taper, and the wains left, so that the baulk is not 
 brought to a square. In some parts of the country these obtair. 
 the name of Dram timber, as coming from the place of that 
 name. In London the largest pieces of timber, such as Mcmel, 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 79 
 
 Dantzic, cVc. seem to have no common appellation, being lami. 
 liarly called pieces of timber, and frequently by the vulgar name 
 of sticks; these expressions seem to define nothing, as they ap- 
 ply equally to all sizes. Different names seem to obtain in 
 different parts of the country : in some parts of the north, large 
 pieces of fir wood are called logs ; but in London log is restric- 
 ted to the largest pieces of oak or mahogany. 
 
 Beam, a horizontal timber, used to resist a force, or weight, as a 
 tie-beam, where it acts as a string, or chain, by its tension ; as 
 a collar beam, where it acts by compression ; as a bressummer, 
 where it resists a transverse insisting weight. 
 
 Bearer, any thing used by way of support to another. 
 
 Bearing, the distance that a beam or rafter is suspended in the 
 clear : thus if a piece of timber rests upon two opposite walls, 
 
 the span of the void is called the bearing, and not the whole 
 
 ■p. 
 
 length of the timber. 
 Beetle, § 17. 
 
 Board, a substance of wood contained between two parallel planes; 
 as when the baulk is divided into several pieces by the pit saw, 
 the pieces are called boards. The section of boards is some- 
 times, however, of a triangular, or rather a trapazoidal form, that 
 is with one edge very thin : these are called feather edged boards. 
 
 Bond Timber, § 33. 
 
 Brace, a piece of slanting timber, used in truss partitions, or in 
 framed roofs, in order to form a triangle, and thereby rendering 
 the frame immovable ; when a brace is used by way of suppoit 
 to a rafter, it is called a strut. Braces in partitions, and span 
 roofs, are always, or should be, disposed in pairs, and placed in 
 opposite directions. 
 
 Breaking down, in sawing, is dividing the baulk into boards or 
 planks ; but if planks are sawed longitudinally through their 
 thickness, the saw-way is called a ripping cut, and the former a 
 breaking cut. 
 
 Beessummkr, or Breastsummer, a beam supporting a superincum- 
 bent part of an exterior wall, and running longitudinally below 
 that part. See Summer. 
 
80 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Bridging Joists are the smallest beams in naked flooring, for sup. 
 
 porting the boarding for walking upon. See Plate, 
 Bring up. See Carry-up. 
 
 C. 
 
 Camber is the convexity of a beam upon the upper edge, in order 
 to prevent its becoming straight or concave by its own weight, 
 or by the burden it may have to sustain, in course of time. 
 
 Camber Beams are those used in the flats of truncated roofs, and 
 raised in the middle with an obtuse angle, for discharging the 
 rain water towards both sides of the roof. 
 
 Cantilevers are horizontal rows of timbers, projecting at right 
 angles from the naked part of a wall, for sustaining the eaves or 
 other mouldings. Sometimes they are planed on the horizon- 
 tal and vertical sides, and sometigfies the carpentry is rough and 
 cased with joinery. 
 
 Carcass of a Building, is the naked walls, and the rough timber 
 work of the flooring and quarter partitions, before the building 
 is plastered, or the floors laid. 
 
 Carpenter's Square, § 21. 
 
 Carpentry, § 1. 
 
 Carry-up, a term used in discourse among builders and workmen, 
 denoting that the walls, or other parts, are intended to be built 
 to a certain given height ; as the carpenter will say to the brick, 
 layer, Carry-up that wall ; carry-up that stack of chimnies, i, e, 
 build up that wall or stack of chimnies. 
 
 Chisels, § 6, 7, and 8. 
 
 Crown Post, the middle post of a trussed roof. See King Post. 
 
 D, 
 
 Dbal Timber, the timber of the fir tree, as cut into boards, planks, 
 
 &c. for the use of building. 
 Discharge, is a post trimmed up under a beam, or part of a build 
 
 ing which is weak, or overcharged by weight. 
 DuRMER, or Dormer Window, is a prqjectinxr window in the roof 
 
CARPKiNTRY. 
 
 81 
 
 of a house, the glass frame, or casement, being set vertically, and 
 not in the inclined sides of the roof ; thus dormers are distingushed 
 from sky-lights, which have their sides inclined to the horizon. 
 Dovetail Notch, § 27. 
 
 Dragon Beam, the piece of timber which supports the hip ratter, 
 
 and bisects the angle formed by the wall plates. 
 Draw Bore Pins. See Joinery. 
 
 E. 
 
 Enter, wiien the end of a tenon is put into a mortise, it is said to 
 
 enter the mortise. ^ 
 EntertIce. See Intertie. 
 
 F. 
 
 Feather-edged Boards. See Board. 
 
 FiLLiNGaN-PiECEs, short timbers less than the full length, as £h. 
 
 jack rafters of a roof, the puncheons, or short quarters in parti. 
 
 tions, between braces and sills, or head-pieces. 
 Fm P^LE, small trunks of fir trees, from 10 to 16 feet in length, 
 
 used in rustic buildings, and out-houses. 
 Firmer Chisel, § 7. 
 Floor. See Naked Flooring. 
 Foundations, § 33. 
 
 FuRRiNGS, are slips of timber nailed to joists or rafters, in order 
 to bring them to a level, and to range them into a straight sur. 
 face, when the timbers are sagged, either by casting or by a set, 
 which they have obtained by their weight in length of time. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gain, a term now out of use. See Tusk. 
 Gauge, § 11. 
 Gimlet, § 9. 
 
 Girder, the principal beam in a floor for supporting the bind 
 
 ing joists. 
 • No«. 6. K 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 Grooved Notch, § 29. See Plate U.* 
 
 Gbound Plate, or Sill, is the lowest plate of a wooden building 
 for supporting the principal and other posts. See Plate V. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hammer, § 16. 
 Hand Saw, § 3. 
 Hook Pins, § 20. 
 
 Handspike, a lever for carrying a beam, or other body, the weight 
 being placed in the middle, and supported at each end by a man, 
 
 1. 
 
 Intektie, a horizontal piece of timber, framed between two post'. 
 
 in order to tie them together. 
 Jack Timber, a timber shorter than the whole length of other 
 
 pieces in the same range. 
 Jack Rafters are all those short rafters which meet the hips. 
 Jack Ribs are those short ribs which meet the angle ribs, as in 
 
 groins, domes, &ic. 
 Joggle Piece is a truss post, with shoulders and sockets for abutting 
 
 and fixing the lower ends of the struts. 
 Joining of Timbers, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. 
 Joists are those beams in a floor which support, or are necessary in 
 
 the supporting of th^ boarding or ceiHng, as the binding, bridg. 
 
 ing, and ceilin g 'oistfs ; girders are, however, to be excepted, as 
 
 not being joists. 
 
 Juffers, stuff of about four or five inches square, and of severol 
 lengths. Thm term is out of use, though frequently found in old 
 books. 
 
 K. 
 
 King Post, the middle post of a stuffed roof, for supporting the 
 
 tie-beam at the middle, and the lower ends of the struts. 
 Kekf, the Wiiy made by the saw in sawing timber. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 83 
 
 L. 
 
 Law regulating buildings in the City of New York, page 67, 
 Level, an instrument used for levelling floors, § 12. 
 Lien Law, page 76. 
 
 Lintels, short beams over the heads of doors and windows, foi 
 supporting the inside of an exterior wall, or the superincumbent 
 part over doors, ifi brick or stone partitions. 
 
 Lutiiorn windows. See Dormer. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mallet, § 16. 
 
 Mortise and Tenon, § 31. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naked Flooring, the timber work of a floor for supporting the 
 
 boarding or ceiling, or both. 
 Notching, § 28, 29. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pitch of a Roof, the inclination which the sloping sides make with 
 the plane or level of the wall-plate ; or it is the proportion which 
 arises by dividing the span by the height. Thus if it is asked, 
 What is the pitch of such a roof ^ the answer is, quarter, 3 quar- 
 ters, or half; when the pitch is half, the roof is a square, which is 
 the highest now in use, or that is necessary in practice. 
 
 Plank, all boards above nine inches wide, are called planks. 
 
 Plate, a horizontal piece of timber in a wall, generally flush 
 with the inside, for resting the ends of beams, joists, or 
 rafters, and is therefore denominated floor, or roof plates, ac 
 cordingly. 
 
 Plumb Rule, § 14. 
 
 Posts, all upright or vertical pieces of timber, whatever, as truss 
 posts, door posts, quarters in partitions, &c. 
 
84 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Prick Posts, intermediate posts in a wooden building framed be. 
 
 tween principal posts. 
 Principal Posts, the corner posts of a wooden building. See 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 PuDLAiEs, pieces of , timber to do the office of handspikes. 
 Puncheons, any short posts of timber; the small quarterings in a 
 
 stud partition above the head of a door, are called puncheons. 
 PuRLiNES, the horizontal timbers in the sides of a roof, for sup- 
 
 porting the spars or small rafters, 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarters, the timbers to be used in stud partitions, bond in 
 walls, dec. 
 
 Quartering, the stud work of a partition. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rafters, all the inclined timbers in the sides of a roof, as princi- 
 pal rafters, hip rafters, and common rafters, which are other, 
 wise called, in most countries, spars. 
 
 Raising Plates, or Top Plates, are the plates on which the 
 roof is raised. 
 
 Rebated Notch, § 28. 
 
 Ridge, the meeting of the rafters on the vertical angle of the roof. 
 
 See Plate V. 
 Ripping Chisez,, § 3, 
 Ripping Sav^, §3, 
 
 Roof, the covering of a house ; but the word is used in carpen- 
 try for the wood work which supports the slating and other 
 covering. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saw, § 3. 
 
 Shaken Stuff. Such timber as is rent or split by the heat of iho 
 sun, or by the fall of the tree, is said to be shaken. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 85 
 
 Shingles, thin pieces of wood used for covering, instead of 
 tiles, &c. 
 
 SaREADiNGs, a term not much Jised at present. See Furrings, 
 
 Skirts of a Roof, the projecture of the eaves. 
 
 Sleepers, pieces of timbers for resting the ground joists of a floor 
 upon, or for fixing the planking to in a bad foundation. The 
 term was formerly applied to the valley rafters of a roof. 
 
 Socket Chisel, § 6. 
 
 Spars, the term by which the common rafters of a roof are best 
 known in almost every provincial town in Great Britain, though 
 generally called in London commoxi rafters, in order to distin- 
 guish them from the principal rafters. 
 
 Stancheons. See PuncJiecKis, 
 
 Struts, pieces of timber which support the rafters, and which are 
 
 supported by the truss posts. 
 Summer, a large boam in a buxMinj, either disposed in an outside 
 
 wall, or in the middle dpcrtment, parallel to such wall. 
 
 When a summer iz placed uiidor a superincumbent part of an 
 
 outside wall, it iz irMod a bressummer, us it comes in a breast 
 
 with the front of the building. 
 Studwokk, § 33. 
 
 T. 
 
 Templets, § 33. 
 Tenon, § 30. 
 
 Tie, a piece of timber placed in any position acting as a string or 
 tie, to keep two things together which have a tendency to a 
 more remote distance from each other. 
 
 Timbers, how joined, §§22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. 
 
 Troimers are joists into which other joists are framed. 
 
 Trimming Joists, the two joists into which a trimmer is framed. 
 
 Truncated Roof, is a roof with a flat on the top. 
 
 Truss, a frame constructed of several pieces of limber, and divided 
 
 into two or more triangles by oblique pieces, in order to pre- 
 II 2 
 
86 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 vent the possibility of its revolving round any of the angles of 
 the frame. 
 
 Truss Post, any of the posts of a trussed roof, as king post, 
 
 queen post, or side post, or posts into which the braces are 
 
 formed in a trussed partition. 
 Trussed Roof is one so constructed within the exterior triangu. 
 
 lar frame, so as to support the principal rafters and the tie 
 
 beam, at certain given points. 
 Tusk, the beveling upper shoulder of a tenon, in order to give 
 
 strength to the tenon. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valley Rafter, that which is disposed to the internal angle of 
 a roof. 
 
 W. 
 
 (Yall Plates, are the joists' plates, and raising plates. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 § 1. Joinery is a branch of Civil Architecture, and consists of 
 the art of framing or joining together wood for internal and external 
 finishings of houses ; as the coverings and linings of rough walls, 
 or the coverings of rough timbers, and of the construction of 
 doors, windows, and stairs. 
 
 Hence joinery requires much more accurate and nice work- 
 manship than carpentry, which consists only of rough timbers, 
 used in supporting the various parts of an edifice. Joinery is used 
 by way of decoration only, and being always near to the eye, 
 requires that the surfaces should be smooth, and the several junc- 
 tions of the wood be fitted together with the greatest exactnes-s. 
 
 Smoothing of the wood is called planing, and the tools used for 
 the purpose, planes. 
 
 The wood used is called stuff, and is previously formed into 
 rectangular prisms by the saw; these prisms are denominated 
 battens, boards, or planks, according to their dimensions in breadth 
 or in thickness. For the convenience of planing, and other opera- 
 tions, a rectangular platform is raised upon four legs, called a 
 bench. 
 
 § 2. The Bench, Pl. 12. Fig. 1^. 
 
 Consists of a platform A B C D called the top, supported upon 
 four legs, E, F, G, H. Near to the further or fore end A B is an 
 upright rectangular prismatic pin a, made to slide stiffly in a mor- 
 
I 
 
 6S JOINERY. 
 
 use through the top. This pin is called the bench hook, which 
 ought to be so tight as to be moved up or down only by a blow of 
 a hammer or mallet. The use of the bench hook is to keep the 
 stuff steady, while the joiner, m the act of planing, presses it 
 forward against the bench hook. D I a vertical board fixed to 
 the legs, on the side of the bench next to the workman, and made 
 flush with the legs : this is called the side board. At the farther end 
 of the side board, and opposite to it, and to the bench hook, is a 
 rectangular prismatic piece of wood b ft, of which its two broad 
 surfaces are parallel to the vertical face of the side board : this is 
 made moveable in a horizontal straight surface, by a screw passing 
 through an interior screw fixed to the inside of the side board, and 
 IS called the screw check. The screw and screw check are to- 
 gether called the bench screw ; and for the sake of perspicuity, 
 we shall denominate the two adjacent vertical surfaces of the 
 screw check, and of the side board, the checks of the bench screw. 
 The use of the bench screw is to fasten boards between the checks, 
 in order to plane their edges ; but as it only holds up one end of a 
 board, the leg II of the bench and the side board are pierced with 
 holes, sa as to admit of a pin for holding up the other end, at 
 various heights, as occasion may require. The screw check has 
 also a horizontal piece mortised and fixed fast to it, and made 
 to slide through the side board, for preventing it turning rounds 
 and is therefore called the guide. 
 
 Benches are of various heights, to accommodate the height ol 
 the workman, but the medium is about two feet eight inches, 
 They are ten or twelve feet in length, and about two feet six 
 inches in width. Sometimes the top boards upon the farther side 
 are made only about ten feet long, and that next the workman 
 twelve feet, projecting two feet at the hinder part. In order to 
 keep the bench and work from tottering, the legs, not less than 
 three inches and a half square, should be well braced, particularly 
 the two legs on the working side. The top board next to the 
 workman may be from one and a half to two inches thick : the 
 thicker, the better for the work ; the boards to the farther side 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 89 
 
 may be about an inch, or an inch and a quarter thick. If the work- 
 man stands on the working side of the bench, and looks across the 
 bench, then the end on his right hand is called the hind end, and that 
 on his left hand the fore end. The bench hook is sometimes covered 
 with an iron plate, the front edge of which is formed into sharp teeth 
 for sticking fast into the end of the wood to be planed, in order to 
 prevent it from slipping ; or, instead of a plate, nails are driven 
 obliquely through the edge, and filed into wedge-formed points. Each 
 pair of end legs are generally coupled together by two rails dove- 
 tailed into the legs. Between each pair of coupled legs, the length 
 of the bench is generally divided into three or four equal parts, and 
 transverse bearers fixed at the divisions to the side boards, the 
 upper sides being flush with those of the side boards, for the pur- 
 pose of supporting the top firmly, and keeping it from bending. 
 The screw is placed behind the two fore legs, the bench hook 
 immediately before the bearers of the fore legs, and the guide at 
 some distance before the bench hook. For the convenience of 
 putting things out of the way, the rails at the ends are covered 
 with boards ; and for farther accommodation, there is in some 
 benches a cavity, formed by boarding the under edges of the side 
 boards before the hind legs, and closing the ends vertically, so that 
 this cavity is contained between the top and the boarding under 
 the side boards; the way to it is by an aperture made by sliding 
 a part of the top bo .rd towards the hind end : this deposit is called 
 a locker. 
 
 § 3. Joiners^ Tools, 
 
 The bench planes are, the jack plane, the fore plane, the trying 
 plane, the long plane, the jointer, and the smoothing plane ; the 
 cylindric plane, the compass and forkstaff planes ; the straight 
 block, for straightening short edges. Rebating planes are the mo- 
 ving fillister, the sash fillister, the common rebating plane, the side 
 
 rebating plane. Grooving planes are the plough and dado grooving 
 L 
 
90 JOINERY. 
 
 planes. Moulding planes are sinking snipebills, side snipebills, 
 beads, hollows and rounds, ovolos and ogees. Boring tools are, 
 gimlets, brad-awls, stock, and bits. Instruments for dividing the 
 wood, are principally the ripping saw, the half ripper, the hand 
 saw, the panel saw, the tenon saw, the carcase saw, the sash saw, 
 the compass saw, the keyhole saw, and turning saw. Tools used 
 for forming the angles of two adjoining surfaces, are squares and 
 bevels. Tools used for drawing parallel lines are guages. Edge 
 tools, are the firmer chisel, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, 
 the gouge, the hatchet, the adze, the drawing knife. Tools 
 for knocking upon wood and iron are, the mallet and hammer. 
 Implements for sharpening tools are the grinding stone, the rub 
 stone, and the oil or whet stone. 
 
 § 4. Definitions, 
 
 If a plane be set with the under surface upon the wood it is in- 
 tended to operate upon, and placed before the workman, and if 
 four surfaces are perpendicular to the under surface, each of these 
 surfaces is said to be vertical ; the one next the workman is called 
 the hind end, and the opposite one, the fore end, and the two in 
 the direction which the plane works, the sides : the under surface 
 is called the sole, the side of the plane next to the workman is 
 called the right hand side, and the opposite side to that, the left 
 hand side of the plane. 
 
 The depth of a plane is the vertical dimension from the top to 
 the under surface ; the length of a plane is the horizontal dimen- 
 sion in the direction in which the plane is wrought ; the breadth 
 or thickness of a plane is the horizontal dimension at right angles, 
 to the length and depth. 
 
 In order to make a distinction between the tool, the under sur- 
 face is called the sole of the plane. 
 
 The reason for being so particular in defining these common 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 91 
 
 place terms which might be supposed to be known to every one, 
 is from a desire of the author to prevent ambiguity ; as in the 
 term depth, which implies a distance from you in whatever direc- 
 tion it runs, as the depth of a well is the vertical or ^>luinb distance ; 
 but the depth of a house is the distance from tho front to the rear 
 wall, and consequently is a horizontal distance 
 
 ^5. The Jack Plane, Pl. 12. Fig. 1. 
 
 Is used in taking off the rough and prominent parts from the 
 surface of the wood, and reducing it nearly to the intended form, 
 in coarse slices, called shavings; this plane consists of a block of 
 wood called the stock, of about seventeen inches in length, three 
 inches high, and three inches and a half broad. All the sides of 
 the stock are straight surfaces at right angles to each other. 
 Through the solid of the stock, and through two of its opposite 
 surfaces is cut an aperture, in which is inserted a thin metal plate 
 called the iron, one side of the plate consisting of iron, and the 
 other of steel. The side of the opening which joins the iron part, 
 is called the bed, which is a plane surface, making an angle of 
 forty.five degrees with the hind part of the underside of the plane. 
 
 The end of the iron next to the bottom is ground to an acute 
 angle off the iron side, so as to bring the steel side to a sharp 
 edge, having a small convexity. The sloping part thus formed, 
 is called the basil of the iron. The iron is fixed by means of a 
 wedge, which is let into two grooves of the same form, on the sides 
 of the opening ; two sides of the wedge are parallel to each othei, 
 and to the vertical side of the plane, and consequently to two ot 
 the sides of the groove ; the two sides of the grooves, parallel 
 to the, vertical sides of the plane are called cheeks, and the two 
 other sides inclined to the bed of the iron are called the abutments 
 or abutment sides : the wedge and the iron being fixed, the open- 
 ing must be uninterrupted from the sole to the top, and must be 
 no more on the sole side of the plane, than what is sufficient for 
 the thickest shaving to pass with ease ; and as the shaving is dis 
 
92 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 charged at the upper side of the plane, the opening through must 
 expand or increase from the sole to the top, so as to prevent the 
 shavings from sticking. In conforniity to analogy, the part of 
 the opening at the sole, which first receives the shaving, is called 
 the mouth. In order for the shaving to pass with still greater 
 ease, the wedge (PI. 12. Fig. 5.) is forked to cut away in the mid- 
 dle, leaving the prongs to fill the lower parts of the aforesaid 
 grooves. On the upper part of the plane, behind the iron, rises a 
 protuberance, called the tote, so formed to the shape of the hand, 
 and direction of the motion, as to produce the most power in push, 
 ing the plane forward. 
 
 The bringing of the iron to a sharp cutting edge is called sharp, 
 ening. The cutting edge of the iron must be formed with a con- 
 vexity, and regulated by the stuff to be wrought, whether it is hard 
 or soft, cross grained or curling, so that a man may be able to 
 perform the most work, or to reduce the substance most, in a given 
 time. To prevent the iron from tearing the wood to cross grained 
 stuflT, a cover is used with a reversed basil, (PI. 12. Fig. 4.) and 
 fastened by means of a screw, the thin part of which slides in a 
 longitudinal slit in the iron, and the head is taken out by a large 
 hole near the upper end of it. The lower edge of the cover is so 
 formed, as to be concentric or parallel to the cutting edge of the 
 iron, and fixed at a small distance above it, and to coincide en- 
 tirely with the steel face. The basil of the cover must be rounded, 
 and not flat, as that of the iron is. The distance between 
 the cutting edge of the iron, and the edge of the cover, depends 
 altogether on the nature of the stuff. If the stuff is free, the edge 
 of the cover may be set at a considerable distance, because the 
 difficulty of pushing the plane forward becomes greater, as the 
 edge of the cover is nearer the edge of the iron, and the contrary 
 when more remote. 
 
 The convexity of the edge of the iron depends on the texture of 
 the stuff, whether it is free, cross grained, hard or knotty. If the 
 stuff is free, it is evident that a considerable projection may be 
 allowed, as a thicker shaving may be taken : the extreme edges 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 93 
 
 of the iron must never enter the wood, as this not only retards the 
 progress of working, but chokes and prevents the regular dis- 
 charge of the shavings at the orifice of the plane. 
 
 § 6. To Grind and Sharpen the Iron, 
 
 When you grind the iron, place your two thumbs under it, and 
 the fingers of both hands above, laying the basil to the stone, 
 and holding it to the angle you intend it shall make with the steel 
 side of it, keeping it steady while the stone is turning, and pressing 
 the iron to the stone with your fingers ; and in order to prevent 
 the stone from wearing the edge of the iron into irregularities, 
 move it alternately from edge to edge of the stone with so much 
 pressure on the different parts, as will reduce it to the required 
 convexity ; then lift the iron to see that it is ground to your mind' 
 if it is not, the operation must be repeated, and the steel or basiJ 
 side placed in its former position on the stone, otherwise the basi! 
 will be doubled ; but if in the proper direction it will be hollow, 
 which will be more as the diameter of the stone is less. The 
 basil being brought to a proper angle, and the edge to a regular 
 curvature, the roughness occasioned by the gritty particles of the 
 grindstone may be taken away, by rubbing on a smooth flat wet 
 stone or Turkey stone, sprinkling sweet oil on the surface ; as he 
 basil is generally ground something longer that what the iron 
 would stand, for the quicker despatch of wetting it, you may incline 
 the face of the iron nearer to the perpendicular, rubbing to and 
 fro with the same inclination th-roughout : having done it to your 
 mind, it may be fixed. When there is occasion to sharpen it 
 again, it is commonly done upon aflat rub stone keeping the proper 
 angle of position as before, then the edge may be finished on the 
 Turkey stone as before : and at every time the iron gets dull or 
 blunt, the sharpening is produced by the rub stone and Turkey 
 stone, but in repeating this often the edge gets so thick that it 
 requires so much time to bring it up, that recourse must be had 
 again to the grindstone. 
 
94 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 7. To Fix and Unfix the Iron, 
 
 In fixing the iron in the plane, the projection of the cutting edge 
 must be just so much beyond the sole of the plane, as the work- 
 man may be able to work it freely in the act of planing. This 
 projection is called iron, and the plane is said to have more or less 
 iron as the projection varies : when there is too much iron, knock 
 with the hammer on the fore end of the stock ; and the blows will 
 loosen the wedge, and raise the iron in a certain degree, and the 
 head of the wedge must be knocked down to make all tight again: 
 if the iron is not sufficiently raised, proceed agam in the same 
 manner, but if too much, the iron must be knocked down gently 
 by hitting the head with a hammer : and thus, by trials, you will 
 give the plane the degree of iron required. When you have 
 occasion to take out the iron to sharpen it, strike the fore end 
 smartly, which will loosen the wedge, and consequently the iron. 
 
 § 8. To Use the Jack Plane, 
 
 In using the jack plane, lay the stuff before you parallel to the 
 sides of the bench, the farther end against the bench hook : then 
 beginning at the hind end of the stuff, by laying the forepart of 
 the plane upon it, lay hold of the tote with the right hand, and 
 pressing with the left upon the fore end, thrust the plane forward 
 in the direction of the fibres of the wood and length of the plane, 
 until you have extended the stroke the whole stretch of your arms; 
 the shaving will be discharged at the orifice : draw back the plane, 
 and repeat the operation in the next adjacent rough part; proceed 
 in this manner until you have taken off the rough parts throughout 
 the whole breadth, then step forward so much as you have planed, 
 and plane off the rough of another length in the same manner : 
 proceed in this way by steps, until the whole length is gone over 
 and rough planed ; you may then return and take all the protu- 
 berant parts or sudden risings, by similar operations 
 
JOINERY. 96 
 § 9. The Trying Plane, Pl. 12. Fig. 2. 
 
 Is constructed similar to the jack plane, except the tote of the 
 jack plane is single, and that of the trying plane double, to give 
 greater strength ; the length of this plane is about tvventy-two 
 inches, the breadth three and a quarter, and the height three and 
 an eighth. Its use is to reduce the ridges made by the jack plane, 
 and to straighten the stuff : for this purpose it is both longer and 
 broader, the edge of the iron is less convex, and set with less 
 projection : but as it takes a broader though finer shaving, it still 
 requires as much force to push it forward. 
 
 § 10. The Use of the Trying Plane. 
 
 The sharpening of the iron, and the operation of planing is 
 much the same as that of the jack plane; when the side of a piece 
 of stuff has been planed first by the jack plane, and afterwards by 
 the trying plane, that side of the stuff is said to be tried up, 
 and the operation is called trying. 
 
 When the stuff is required to be very straight, particularly if 
 the broad and narrow side of another piece is to join it, instead of 
 stopping the plane at every arm's length, as with the jack plane, 
 the shaving is taken the whole length, by stepping forwards, then 
 returning, and repeating the operation throughout the breadth, as 
 often as may be found necessary. 
 
 Ml. The Long Plane 
 
 Is used when a piece of stuff is required to be tried up very 
 straight; for this purpose it is both longer and broader than the 
 trying plane, and set with still less iron ; the manner of using it 
 is the same. Its length is twenty six inches, its breadth three 
 inches and five eighths, and depth three inches and one eighth. 
 
96 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 12. The Jointer 
 
 Is still longer than the long plane, and is used principally for 
 planing straight edges, and the edges of boards, so as to make 
 them join together; this operation is called shooting, and the edge 
 itself is said to be shot. The length of this plane is about two feet 
 six inches, the depth three inches and a half, and the breadth three 
 inches and three fourths. The shaving is taken the whole length 
 in finishing the joint, or narrow surface. 
 
 § 13. Tlie Smoothing Plane, Pl. 12. Yw. 3. 
 
 Is the last plane used in giving the utmost degree of smoothness 
 to the surface of the wood : it is chiefly used in cleaning ofT 
 finished work. The construction of this plane is the same with 
 regard to the iron wedge and opening for discharging the shaving, 
 but is much smaller in size, being in length seven inches and a 
 half, in breadth three, and in depth two and three quarters, and 
 difl^ers in form, on account of its having convex sides, and no tote. 
 
 There is also this difference in giving the iron a finer set, that 
 you may strike the hind end instead of the fore part. 
 
 § 14. Bench Planes. 
 
 The jack plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the jointer and 
 the smoothing plane, are denominated bench planes. 
 
 § 15. The Compass Plane 
 
 is similar to the smoothing plane in size and shape, but the sole 
 J- convex, and the convexity is in the direction of the length of 
 the plane. The use of the compass plane is to form a concave 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 97 
 
 Cylindrical surface, when tlie wood to be wrought upon is bent 
 with the fibres in the direction of the curve, which is in a plane 
 surface perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Consequently 
 compass planes must be of various sizes, in order to accommodate 
 different diameters. 
 
 § 16. The Forkstaff Plane 
 
 Is similar to the smoothing plane in every respect of size and 
 shape, except that the sole is part of a concave cylindric surface, 
 having the axis parallel to the length of the plane. The use of 
 the forkstaff plane is to form cylindric surfaces, by planing paral- 
 lei to the axis of the cylinder. Planes of this description must 
 likewise be of various sizes, to form the surface to various radii : 
 these two last planes are more used by coach-makers than by 
 joiners. 
 
 § 17. The Straight Block 
 
 Is used for snooting short joints and mitres, instead of the jointer, 
 whxh in such cases would be rather unhandy ; this plane is al«o 
 made without the tote, and as it is frequently used in straight- 
 ening the ends of pieces of wood perpendicularly to the direction 
 of the fibres, the iron is inclined more to the sole of the plane, 
 that is, it forms a more acute angle with it : in order that it may 
 cut clean, the inclination of the basil, and the face of the iron, is 
 therefore less on this account : the length of the straight block 
 is twelve inches, its breadth three and one eighth, and depth two 
 and three quarters. 
 
 REBATE PLANES IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 18. The Rebate Plane 
 
 Is used after a piece of stuff has been previously tried on one 
 iSTos. 7 & 8. M 
 
98 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 siile and shot on the other,' or tried on both sides, in taking away 
 a part next to one of the arises of a rectangular or oblong section, 
 the whole part therefore taken away is a square prism, and the 
 superfiees formed after taken away the prism is two straight 
 surfaces, forming an internal right angle with each other ; so that 
 the stuff will now have one internal angle and two external angles. 
 The operation of this reducing the stuff is called rebating. Re- 
 bating is either used by way of ornament, as in the sinking of 
 cornices, the sunk facias of architraves, or in forming a recess for 
 the reception of another board, so that the edge of this board may 
 coincide with that side of the rebate, next to the edge of the re- 
 bated piece. The length of rebating planes is about nine inches 
 and a half, the vertical dimension or depth is about three and a 
 half, they are of various thickness, from one and thi^oe quarters to 
 half an inch. Rebate planes are of several kinds, some have the 
 cutting edge of the iron upon the bottom, and some upon the side 
 of the plane. Of these which have the cutting edge on the 
 bottom, some are used for sinking, and some for smoothing or 
 cleaning the bottom of the rebate ; and these which have the cut- 
 ting edge upon one side are called side rebating planes, and are 
 used after the former in cleaning the vertical side of the rebate. 
 Rebate planes differ from the bench planes, before mentioned, in 
 their having no tote ; the cavity is not open to the top, but the 
 wedge is made to fit completely, and the shaving is discharged on 
 one side or other, according to the use of the plane. 
 
 § 19. Sinking Rebating Planes 
 
 Are of two denominations, the moving fillister and sash fillister* 
 the moving fillister is for sinking the edge of the stuff next to you, 
 and the sash fillister the farther edge ; consequently these planes 
 have their cutting edges on the under side. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 99 
 
 §20. Of the moving Fillister, Pl. 13. Fig. 
 
 Upon the bottom of the moving fillister is a slip of wood, so re- 
 gulated by two screws as one of the vertical sides of the slip may 
 be fixed parallel to the edge of the sole ; then the breadth between 
 this side of the slip and the edge of the sole of the plane is equal 
 to the breadth of the rebate. This slip is called a fence, and the 
 vertical side of it next to the stock, the guide ; as the rebate is 
 made upon the right edge of the stuff, the fence is always upon 
 the left side of the sole. The iron between the guide and the 
 right hand edge of the sole of the plane must project the whole 
 breadth of the uncovered part of the sole, otherwise the plane 
 will not sink, so long as it is kept in one position ; the right hand 
 point of the cutting edge of the iron must stand a small degree 
 without the vertical right hand side of the plane ; for if this point 
 of the iron stood within, the situation of the point would also pre- 
 vent the sinking of the rebate ; it is also necessary that the cutting 
 edge of the iron should stand equally prominent m all parts out of 
 the sole, otherwise the plane cannot make shavings of an equal 
 thickness, and consequently instead of keeping the vertical posi- 
 tion, .will turn round and incline to the side on which the shavings 
 are thickest, and thus the part cut away will not have a rectangular 
 section, for the bottom of the rebate will not then be parallel to 
 th« upper face of the stuff; and the side which ought to have been 
 vertical, will be a kind of ragged curved surface, formed by as 
 many gradations or steps as the depth consists of the number of 
 shavings. Observe, that whatever regulates any plane which 
 takes away a portion of the stuff next to the edge, to cause the 
 part taken away on the upper face of the stuff from the edge to be 
 of one breadth, is called a fence ; in like manner, whatever pre- 
 vents a plane working downwards beyond a certain distance, is 
 called a stop. Therefore the fence regulates the horizontal breadth 
 of what is taken away, and the stop the vertical dimension or depth, 
 and this is to be understood, not only of rebate planes, but of 
 moulding planes, where the moulding is regulated in its horizontal 
 
100 JOINERY. 
 
 dimension, in the breadth or thickness ol the stuff, and the vertical 
 on the adjacent vertical side. 
 
 Returning to the moving fillister, the guide is the bottom surface 
 of a piece of metal which is regulated by a screw, so as to move it 
 to the required distance from the sole. Though the bottom of this 
 piece of metal is properly the stop, yet it is altogether called a 
 stop by plane makers and carpenters ; but to avoid a confusion of 
 words, we shall call the bottom of the stop the vertical guide. The 
 stop moves in a vertical groove in the side of the fillister, and has 
 a projection with a vertical perforation, which goes farther into 
 the groove, or into the solid of the stock. The stop is placed 
 on the right hand side of the fillister, between the iron and the fore 
 end of the plane, and is moved up and down by a screw, which is 
 inserted in a vertical perforation from the top of the plane to thp. 
 groove, and passes through the perforation in the projecting part 
 of the stop, which has a female, or concave screw adapted to that 
 cut on the convex screw. The convex screw is always kept sta- 
 tionary by a plate of metal, let in flush with the upper side of the 
 plane ; below this plate, and on the same solid with the screw, is 
 a collar, and above, another which projects still farther upwards 
 by way of a lever, for the ease of turning the screw. This part 
 which turns round, is called the thumb screw. It is evident, as 
 the axis of the thumb screw can neither move up or down as it 
 turns round its axis, the inclination of the threads will rise or fail 
 according to the direction of the thumb screw, and cause the stop 
 to move up and down in the groove on the side of the plane, and 
 thus the stop may be fixed at pleasure. In this plane, the opening 
 for discharging the shaving is upon the right side of the fillister, 
 and in this case the shaving is said by workmen to be thrown on 
 the bench, that is, upon the right side of the plane ; but when the 
 orifice of discharge is upon the left, and consequently the shaving 
 thrown upon the left, the plane is said to throw the shaving off the 
 bench ; and these expressions are applied to all planes whic': 
 throw the shavings to one side. 
 
 In the moving fillister, as well as in several other planes, ihe 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 103 
 
 upper part on the sides of the stock is thinner than the lower part; 
 this part is called the hand-hold, and the thick part the body. In 
 the nnoving fillister, the reduction made for the hand-hold is equally 
 upon both sides of the plane, that is, the rebates are of equal 
 depth. The edges of these rebates, which is the upper surface ol' 
 the body, are called shoulders ; this plane is therefore double 
 shouldered. The same appellation is given to the iron, when a 
 part is taken from one or both sides, so as to make the upper part 
 equally broad, but the sides parallel to the sides of the bottom 
 part. The part of the iron so diminished, is called the tang of the 
 iron, and the broad part at the bottom, which has the cutting edge, 
 is called the web, and the upper narrow surtaces of the web are 
 called the shoulders of the iron, in analogy to those of the plane. 
 The iron of the moving fillister is only single shouldered. Besides 
 the above-mentioned parts, the moving fillister has another, wliich 
 is a small one-shouldered iron, inserted in a vertical mortise, 
 through the body, between the fore end of the stock and the iron. 
 The web of this little iron is ground with a round basil, from the 
 left side, so as to bring the bottom of the narrow side of the iron 
 to a very convex edge. This little iron is fastened by a wedge, 
 upon the right side of the hand-hold, passing down the mortise 
 in the body. The use of this little iron is principally for cutting 
 the wood transversely when wrought across the fibres, and by tliis 
 means it not only cuts the vertical side of the rebate quite smooth, 
 but prevents the iron from ragging or tearing the stuff. The whole 
 of this little iron is called a tooth, and the bottom part may be 
 distinguished by the name of the cutter. The cutter must, there- 
 fore, stand out a little farther on the right hand side of the plane 
 than the iron, but must never be placed nearer to the fence than 
 the narrow right hand side of the iron. In this plane, the steel 
 side of the iron, and consequently the bedding side of it, is not 
 perpendicular to the vertical sides of the plane, but makes oblique 
 angles therewith, the right hand point of the cutting edge of the 
 iron being nearer to the fore end of the plane than the left hand 
 point of the cutting edge. Bv this obliquity, the bottom of tho 
 i2 
 
102 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 rebate is cut smoother, particularly in a transverse direction to 
 the fibres, or where the stuff is cross grained, than could other- 
 wise be done when the steel face of the iron is perpendicular to 
 the vertical sides of the plane. The principal use is, however, 
 to contribute, with the form of the cavity, to throw the shaving 
 into a cylindrical form, and thereby making it issue from one side 
 of the plane. 
 
 § 21. Of the Sash Fillister in general. Pl. 12. Fig. 6. 
 
 The sash fillister is a rebating plane for reducing the right hand 
 side of the stuff to a rebate, and is mostly used in rebating the bars 
 of sashes for the glass, and is therefore called a sash filHster. The 
 construction of tliis plane differs in several particulars from the 
 moving fillister. The breadth of iron is something more than the 
 whole breadth of the sole, so that the extremities of the cutting 
 edge are, in a small degree, without the vertical sides of the stock. 
 In the moving fillister, the fence is upon the bottom of the plane, 
 and always between the two vertical sides of the stock ; but in this 
 it may be moved to a considerable distance, the limit of which will 
 be afterwards mentioned. The fence is not moved, as in the mov. 
 ing fillister, by screws fixed in the bottom, but by two bars, which 
 pass through the two vertical sides of the stock at right angles to 
 their sides, fitting the two holes exactly through which they pass 
 in the stock. Each of the bars which thus passes through the 
 stock, is called a stem, and is rounded on the upper side, for the 
 convenience of handling. That part of each stem, projecting from 
 the lei\ hand side of the plane, has a projection downwards, of the 
 same thickness as the parts which j^ass through the stock ; the bot- 
 tom sides of these projections are flat surfaces, parallel to the sole 
 of the plane ; the other tvvo sides of the said projections are also 
 straight surfaces, parallel to the vertical sides of the plane, and are 
 called the shoulders, so that each stem has three vertical straight 
 surfaces. The left end of each stem, viz. the end on the left side 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 103 
 
 of the stock, opposite to the shoulder, may be of any fanciful 
 form. The end of each stem which contains the projection, is 
 called the head of the stem. To each of the heads of the stem, and 
 under each of the lower flat surfaces of the projecting parts, is 
 fixed a piece of wood by iron pins, passing vertically through each 
 head, and through this piece ; one of the sides of this piece, next 
 to the stock of the plane, is vertical, and goes about half an inch 
 lower than the sole. The small part of each stem, from the head 
 to the other extremity on the right hand of the stock, is called the 
 tail. The prismatic part is by workmen called the fence. The 
 surface of the fence next to the stock of the vertical plane, and pa- 
 rallel to the vertical faces, is called the guide of the fence. The 
 pins which connect the stem and fence, have their heads on the 
 under side of the fence ; the heads are of a conical form ; the up- 
 per ends of the pins are rivetted upon a brass plate on the round 
 surface of the stem. These pins fix the two stems and the fence 
 stifHy together, but not so much as to prevent either stem from 
 turning round upon the fence, or to make oblique angles with the 
 guide. The upper surface of each stem is rounded, and the two 
 ends ferruled, to prevent splitting when the ends are hit or struck 
 with a mallet, in order to move the guide of the fence either nearer 
 or more remote from the stock, as may be wanted. On the most 
 remote opposite, or vertical sides of the stem, and close to these 
 sides, are cut two small wedge-formed mortises, in which are in- 
 serted two small tapering pieces of wood called keys ; so that 
 when driven in, or towards the mortise, they will stick fast, and 
 press against the stem, and keep it fast at all points of the tail, and 
 thereby regulate the distance of the fence from the left vertical 
 side of the stock. In order to prevent the keys from being drawr 
 out, or loosing, each has a small elliptic nob at the narrow end, 
 which is also of greater breadth than the mortise upon the left ver 
 tical side of the stock. Theic are two kinds of sash fillisters, one 
 for throwing the shaving on the bench, and the other for throwing 
 it off: their construction is the same so far as has been described. 
 
i04 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 §22. The Fillister which throws the Shavings on the Bench, 
 Pl. 12. Fig. 6. 
 
 Has its discharging orifice in course upon the right hana verti- 
 cal side of the stock, and the left extremity of the cutting edge of 
 the iron is nearer to the fore end of the plane, than the right hand 
 extremity of the said edge. On the left side of the stock, and 
 from the sole, is a rebate, the depth of which is equal to the depth 
 of the rebate made on the stuff. The upper side of the fence 
 ranges exactly with the side of the rebate which is parallel to the 
 sole of the plane ; and by this means, the guide of the fence may 
 be brought quite close to the vertical side of the rebate, or as far 
 upon the side of the rebate, parallel to the sole of the plane, as may 
 be found necessary. The depth of the rebate to be made in the 
 stuff, is regulated by a stop, which coincides vertically with the 
 vertical side of the rebate ; the guide of the stop is parallel to the 
 sole of the plane, and the stop is moved up and down by a thumb 
 screw, in the same manner as that of the moving fillister, but not 
 in a groove on the side of the plane, but in a mortise : the side of 
 the rebate parallel to the sole of the plane, is mortised upwards, 
 that the guide may be screwed up so as to be flush with that side 
 of the rebate. The ^ron of this plane is single shouldered, and 
 the projection of the web at the bottom, beyond the tang, is on 
 the right hand side of the plane, and consequently the narrow 
 side of the tang and web parts of the iron are in the same straight 
 line. 
 
 § 23. Of the Sash Fillister for throwing the Shavings 
 off the Bench, 
 
 The sash fillister wnich throws the shavings off the bench, dif- 
 fers only from the last, in having no rebate on the left hand side 
 of the plane ; the stop slides in a vertical groove on the left hand 
 verticle side of the stock, in the same manner as the stop of the 
 moving fillister, and not in a vertical mortise cut in the vertical 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 105 
 
 side of the body of the plane : it has also a cutter on the left side, 
 in order to cut the vertical side of the rebate clean. One extre- 
 mity of the cutting edge of the iron, on the right hand side of the 
 plane, is nearer to the fore end than the other ; consequently the 
 steel face of the iron makes angles with the vertical sides of the 
 plane the contrary way to the sash fillister, which throws the 
 shavings on the bench. 
 
 § 24. Rebating Planes without a Fence, 
 
 Rebating planes which have no fence, are of two kinds ; in 
 both, the cutting edge of the iron extends the whole breadth of the 
 sole ; and the upper part of the stock is solid on the two vertical 
 sides, but the lower part is open on both sides; the opening in- 
 creases from the sole regularly upwards, until it comes to a large 
 cavity, which opens abruptly into a curved form on the side next 
 to the fore end of the plane. The web of the iron is equally 
 shouldered on both sides of the tang. 
 
 § 25. Skew-mouthed Rebating Plane, 
 
 The thickest stocks, or broadest sole planes, of this description, 
 are made with the face of the iron standing at oblique angles with 
 the vertical sides. The right hand extremity of the cutting edge 
 of the iron, stands nearer to the fore end of the plane than the left 
 hand extremity of the said cutting edge, and the large cavity is 
 greater upon the left side of the plane than upon the right. The 
 shaving is therefore. thrown off the bench. The use of this piano 
 is not for sinking the rebate, but rather for smoothing the bottom, 
 after the moving fillister, or after the sash fillister, next to the 
 vertical edge of the rebate. In this manner it is used in cleaning 
 the bottom entirely of rebates which do not exceed the breadth 
 of its sole ; but where the rebate exceeds this breadth, it is only 
 used next to the vertical side of the rebate as before, and the 
 
 N 
 
106 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 remaining part of the bottonfi of the rebate is cleaned off with the 
 trying and smoothing planes. When the iron is set at oblique 
 angles to the vertical sides of the plane, the cutting edge of the 
 sole is said to stand askew, that is, at oblique angles with the sides 
 of the plane. This is therefore called a skew rebating plane. The 
 thickness of this rebating plane is about one inch and five eighths. 
 
 § 26. Square-mouthed Rebating Planes, 
 
 The common rebating planes have the steel side of the iron, or 
 the bed, perpendicular to the vertical sides of the stock, and throw 
 the shaving off the bench ; the cavity for the discharge of the 
 shaving is much the same as the skew rebatmg plane ; and since 
 the shaving is thrown off the bench, the widest side of the cavity 
 is on the left hand side of the stock, to clean the internal angles 
 of fillets, and the bottoms of grooves, dz;c. 
 
 ^ 27. Side Rebating Planes 
 
 Are those which have their cutting edge on one side of the 
 plane, and discharge the shaving at the other, the lower part oi 
 the stock is therefore open upon both sides. The use of this plane 
 is to clean or plane the vertical sides of rebates, grooves, &;c : for 
 this purpose, they are made both right and left : a right hand side 
 rebating plane has its cutting edge on the right hand side of the 
 plane, and consequently throws the shaving off the bench, and 
 the contrary of the left hand rebating plane. The side of the 
 plane containing the mouth, is altogether vertical ; but the opposite 
 side is only in part so, from the top downwards to something more 
 than half the height, then recessed and beveled with a taper to 
 the sole ; the orifice of discharge for the shaving is beveled. The 
 iron stands askew, or at oblique angles with the m.outh side, but 
 perpendicular with regard to the sole or top of the plane ; the cut- 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 10/ 
 
 ling edge stands nearer to the fore end than the opposite edge. 
 The mortise for the wedge of the iron is without a cavity, as in 
 the other rebating planes, and the iron shouldered upon one side. 
 The web is cut sloping to answer the beveling of the stock. 
 
 § 28. The Plough, Pl. 12. Fig. 8. 
 
 Is used in taking away a solid in the form of a rectangular 
 prism, by sinking any where in the upper surface, but not close to 
 the edge, and thereby leaving an excavation or hollow, consisting 
 of three straight surfaces, forming two internal right angles 
 with each other, and the two vertical sides, two external right 
 angles with the upper surface of the stuff. The channel cut is 
 called a groove, but the operation is called grooving or plowing. 
 The plow consists of a stock, a fence, and a stop. There are two 
 kinds of plows, one where the fence and stop is immoveable, and 
 the other which is universal, of which, both fence and stop are 
 moveable, and will admit of eight or ten irons of various breadths, 
 from one eighth of an inch to three fourths. This is what I shall 
 chiefly describe. The fence has two stems with keys and a stop, 
 moved by a thumb screw, as in the moving fillister for throwing 
 the shaving on the bench. The sole of this plane is the bottom 
 narrow side of two vertical iron plates, which are something thinner 
 than the narrowest iron. The wedge and iron are inserted in the 
 same manner as in the rebating planes, the fore end of the hind 
 plate forms the lower part of the bed of the iron, and has a pro- 
 jecting angle in the middle, and the bed side of each angle has an 
 external angle adapted to the same. This prevents the iron from 
 being removed by the resistance of knots or such sudden obsta- 
 cles : the fore iron plate is cut with a cavity similar to the common 
 rebate planes. The stop is placed between the fence and sole : 
 this plane is in length about seven inches and three eighths, and 
 in depth three inches and five eighths, and the length of each stem 
 eight inches and a half. 
 
108 JOIiNERY. 
 
 § 29. Dado Grooving Plane, 
 
 Is a channel plane, generally about three eighths of an inch 
 broad on the sole, with a double cutter and stop, both placed beforo 
 the edge of the iron which stands askew ; it throws the shaving , 
 off the bench. The best kind of dado grooving planes have screw 
 stops of brass and iron ; the common sort are made of wood, to 
 slide stiffly in a vertical mortise, and are moved by the blow of a 
 hammer or mallet, by striking the head, when the groove is 
 required to be shallow : but when required to be deep, and con- 
 sequently the stop to be driven back, a wooden punch must be 
 { laced upon the bottom of the stop, and the head of the punch 
 struck with the hammer or mallet, until the guide of the stop 
 arrives at the distance from the sole of the plane that the groove 
 is to be in depth : the use of this plane is for tongueing dado at 
 internal angles, for keying circular dado, grooving for library 
 shelves, or working a broad rebate across the fibres. 
 
 § 30. Moulding Planes 
 
 Are used in forming curved surfiices of many various fanciful 
 prismatic sections, by way of ornament; thee surfaces have there- 
 fore this property, that all parallel sections are similar figures. 
 Single mouldings or different mouldings in assemblage have various 
 names, according to their figure, combination, or situation; mould, 
 ings are formed either by a plane reversed to the intended section, 
 by a fence and stop on the plane, which causes them to have the 
 same transverse section throughout, or otherwise, by several planes 
 adapted as r. jarly as possible to the different degrees of curvature ; 
 this is called working mouldings by hand. All new or fanciful forms 
 afe o-enerally wrought by hand, and particularly in an assemblage of 
 mouldings, where it would be too expensive to make planes adapted 
 to the whole section, or to any particular member or members of 
 that section. The length of moulding planes is nine inches and 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 109 
 
 three eighths, and the depth about three inches and three eighths. 
 Mouldings are said to be stuck when formed by planes, and the 
 operation is called sticking. In mouldings, all internal sinkings 
 which have one flat side, and one convex turned side, are called 
 quirks. 
 
 §31. Bead Plane 
 
 Is a moulding plane of a semi-cylindric contour, and is generally 
 used in sticking a moulding of the same name on the edge, or on 
 the side close to the arrise : when the bead is stuck upon the edge 
 of a piece of stuff, so as to form a semi-cylindric surface to the 
 whole thickness, the edge is said to be beaded or rounded. When 
 a bead is stuck on, and from one edge on the upper surface of a 
 piece of stuff, so tha-t the diameter may be contained in the breadth 
 of that surface, but not to occupy the whole breadth : then the 
 member so formed has a channel or sinking on the farther side 
 called a quirk, and is therefore called bead and quirk. When the 
 edge of a piece of stuff has been stuck with bea-d and quirk ; then 
 the vertical side turned upwards and stuck from the same edge in 
 the same manner, another quirk will be form*ed u-pon this side 
 provided the breadth of this side be equal to that of the bead ; 
 then the curved surface will be three fourths of a cylinder, this is 
 called bead and double quirk or return bead. The fence is of a 
 solid piece with the plane. The guide of the fence is parallel to 
 the sides of the plane, and tangential to the concave cylindric 
 surface, and its lower edge comes about one fourth or three 
 eighths of an inch below the cylindrical part, the other edge o! 
 the cylindrical part forms one side of the quirk, and is on a level 
 with the top of the guide of the fence. The other side of the quirk 
 •9 a vertical straight surface, and reaches as high as the most pro-' 
 minent part of the cylindric surface of the bead. From the upper 
 edge of this flat side of the quirk, and at right angles to the ver. 
 tical sides of the plane, proceeds the guide of the stop, which 
 
V 
 
 no JOIiNERY. 
 
 prevents the bead from sinking deeper than the semi-diameter of 
 the cylinder, and the guide of the fence prevents the plane from 
 taking more of the breadth than the diameter. When one, two, 
 or more, contiguous semi-cylinders are ^unk within the surface of 
 a piece of wood, with the prominent parts of the curved surface 
 of each, in the same surface as that from which they were sunk, 
 this operation is called reeding, being done in imitation of one or 
 a bundle of a reeds, and each little cylinder is called a reed. In 
 this case, the axis of the reed is in the same straight surface : but 
 this is not always the case, they are sometimes disposed round a 
 staff or rod. Bead planes are sometimes so constructed, as to 
 have the fence taken off or on at pleasure, by screws, for the 
 purpose of striking any series of reeds. When the fence is taken 
 off, the two sides form quirks, and are exactly similar and equal 
 to each other. 
 
 The least sized bead is about one eighth of an inch, the next 
 the regular progression stands thus : i i\ I A Hi i h 
 the first two only differ the next three ,V, and from f to | 
 of an inch, they differ by } of an inch each, the f and f inch beads 
 are torus planes as well as bead planes. The torus only differs 
 from the bead in having a fillet upon the outer edge of the stuff : 
 consequently the torus consists of a fillet and semi-cylinder. It 
 may be observed, that whether there be one or two semi-cylinders 
 stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, that without there is a fillet 
 upon the edge they only take the name of beads. The torus is in 
 general much larger than the bead : but when there are two semi^. 
 cylinders with a fillet upon the outer edge, the conibination is 
 called a double torus, and if there is no fillet, it is called a double 
 beadj even though the one should be much larger than the other. 
 
 § 32. A Snipeshill 
 
 Is a moulding plane for forming a quirk : snipesbills are of two 
 kinds, one for sinking the quirk, called a sinking snipeshill, and 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Ihe other for cleaning the vertical flat side of the quirk, called a 
 side snipesbill. Each of these two kinds are right and left. 
 
 In the sinking snipesbill the cutting edge is on the sole, and the 
 extremity of the iron comes close to the side of the plane, which 
 forms the vertical side of the quirk ; the sole consists of two parts 
 of a cylindric surface of contrary curvature : one next to the edge 
 which forms the quirk, is concave, and the part more remote, is 
 convex. 
 
 The side snipesbill has its iron placed very nearly perpendicu- 
 Jar, with regard to the sole of the plane, the top of the iron leaning 
 about five degrees forward : this plane has its cutting edge upon 
 one side or the other, according to the side or to the hand it is 
 made for. The iron stands askew to the vertical sides of the plane. 
 
 5 33. Hollows and Rounds 
 
 Are mouldings for striking convex and concave cylindrical sur- 
 faces, or any segment or parts of these surfaces ; they have 
 therefore their soles exactly the reverse of what is intended. 
 Hollows and rounds are not confined to cylindric surfaces, but will 
 also stick those of cylindrical forms, or those which have elliptic 
 sections, perpendicular to the direction of the motion by which 
 they are wrought. Mouldings depressed within the surface of a 
 piece of wood, or those which form quirks, must first be sunk by 
 the snipesbill, and formed into the intended shape by hollows and 
 rounds. The hollow is only used in finishing a convex moulding; 
 the rough is generally taken ofT with the jack plane, when there 
 is room to apply it, if not, with the firmer chisel. In making a 
 hollow, a rough excavation is first made with a gouge, and then 
 finished with the round, and sometimes with two rounds, of which 
 the sole of the one that comes first is a little quicker, and the iron 
 set more rank 
 
112 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 34. Stock and Bits, Pl. 13. Fig. 8. 
 
 The stock is a wooden lever, to be turned round an axis swiftly 
 by hand, in order to give the same rotative motion round the axis, 
 to a piece of steel fixed in the said axis, the steel being sharpened 
 at the extremity, so as to cut a cylindric hole, in the same direction 
 as the axis of the stock. 
 
 The axis is continued on both sides of the handle or winch part ; 
 one part of the axis is made with a broad head, to be placed 
 against the breast while boring, even when pressing pretty hard 
 upon the stock, and is so constructed with a joint, as to be sta- 
 tionary, while all the other parts are in motion ; the lower part of 
 the stock is brass, and is fixed to it by means of a screw passing 
 through two ears of the brass part, and through the solid of the 
 wood. The brass part is called the pad, which is so contrived, 
 as to admit of different pieces of steel called bits, for boring and 
 widening holes of various diameters in wood, and countersinking, 
 both in wood and iron ; that is, forming a cavity or hollow cone 
 on the outer side of a cylindric hole to receive the head of a 
 screw, or the like. The upper part of each bit inserted in the 
 stock, is the frustum of a square pyramid, which goes into a hollow 
 mortise of the same form, and is secured by means of a spring fixed 
 in the pad, and which falls into a notch at the upper end of the bit. 
 
 The construction of bits depends upon their use. Small bits 
 are used for boring of wood, and have an interior cavity for con- 
 taining the core, separated from the wood by the under edge. 
 The lower part of the cavity is the surface of a cylinder, and the 
 upper part where the cavity ends is a part of a long hollow oblong 
 spheroid, terminated upon the sides of the bit : the exterior side is 
 also cylindrical, as high as that of the interior, and thence dimi- 
 nishes for a considerable way above the hollow, that it may 
 turn in the hole with the greater case. The section of the 
 bit is the figure of a crescent. The cutting edge has its basil 
 on the inside, and stands prominent in the middle ; this bit is 
 also called a pin or gouge bit from its being mostly used in 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 113 
 
 framing : it bores soft wood, as deal, with greater rapidity than 
 any other tool. 
 
 § 35. The Centre BU 
 
 Is constructed wkh a projecting conical point nearly in the mid- 
 dle, called the centre of the bit ; on the narrow vertical surface, 
 the one most remote from the centre is a tooth with a cutting edge. 
 The under edge of the bit on the other side of the centre, has a 
 projecting edge inclined forward. The horizontal section of this 
 bit upwards is a rectangle. The axis of the small cone in the 
 centre is in the same straight line as that of the stock ; the cutting 
 edge of the tooth is more prominent than the projecting edge on 
 the other side of the centre, and the vertex of the conic centre 
 still more prominent than the cutting edge of the tooth. 
 
 The use of the centre bit is to form a cylindric excavation, 
 having the upper point of the axis of the intended hole, given on 
 the surface of the wood : the centre of the bit is first fixed in this 
 point, then placing the axis of the stock and bit in the axis of the 
 intended hole to be bored, with the head of the stock against your 
 breast, lay hold of the handle and turn the stock swiftly round, 
 then the hollow cone made by the centre will cause the point of 
 the tooth to move in the circumference of a circle, and cut the 
 cylindric surface progressively as it is turned round, and the pro- 
 jecting edge upon the other side of the centre, will cut out the 
 core in a spiral formed shaving : centre bits are of various sizes, 
 in order to accommodate bores of different diameters. 
 
 § 36. Countersinks 
 
 Are bits for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron, 
 for the head of a screw or pin, and have a conical head. Those for 
 wood have one cutter in the conic surface, and have the cutting 
 edge more remote from the axis of the cone than any other part of 
 
 No. 8. o 
 
114 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 the surface. Countersinks for brass have eleven or twelve cutters 
 round the conic surface, so that the horizontal section represents 
 a circular saw. These are called rose countersinks. The conic 
 angle at the vertex is about ninety degrees. Countersinks for 
 iron have two cutting edges, forming an obtuse angle. 
 
 § 37. Rimers 
 
 Are bits for widening holes : for this purpose they are of a py- 
 ramidical structure, having their vertical angle about three degrees 
 and a half. The hole must first be pierced by means of a drill or 
 punch ; when the rimer is put into the stock, and the point into 
 the hole, and being turned swiftly round, the edges will cut or 
 scrape off the interior surface of the hole as it sinks downwards, 
 by pressing upon the head of the stock. Brass rimers have their 
 horizontal sections of a semicircular figure, and those for iron 
 polygonal : of these some have their sections square, some hexa. 
 gonal, and some octagonal, 
 
 § 38. The Taper Shell Bit 
 
 Is conical both within and without, and the horizontal section a 
 crescent, the cutting edge is the meeting of the exterior and in. 
 terior conic surface. The use of this bit is for widening holes in 
 wood. 
 
 Besides the above bits, some stocks are provided with a screw 
 driver for sinking small screws into wood with greater rapidity 
 than could be done by hand. 
 
 § 39. The Brad Awl, Pl. 13. Fig. 3. 
 
 Is the smallest boring tool, its handle is the frustum of a eone 
 tapering downwards. The steel part is also conical, but tapering 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 115 
 
 upwards, and the cutting edge is the meeting of two basils, ground 
 equally from each side. A hole is made by placing the edge 
 transverse to the fibres of the wood, and pushing the brad awl into 
 the wood, turning it to and fro by a reciprocal motion. The core 
 is not brought out as by the other boring instruments ; but the 
 wood is displaced and condensed around the hole. Brad awls are 
 used for making a way for brads, and are of several sizes ; they 
 are not so apt to split the wood as the gimlet. 
 
 § 40. CJiisels in general. Pl. 13. Figs. 3, 4, 5. 
 
 A chisel is an edge tool for cutting wood, either by leaning on 
 it, or by striking it with a mallet. The lower part of the chisel is 
 the frustum of a cuneus or wedge, the cutting edge is always on, 
 and generally at right angles to the side. The basil is ground 
 entirely from one side. The two sides taper in a small degree 
 upwards, but the two narrow surfaces taper downwards in a greater 
 degree. The upper part of the iron has a shoulder, which is a 
 plain surface at right angles to the middle line of the chisel. From 
 this plain surface rises a prong in the form of a square pyramid, 
 the middle line of which is the same as the middle iin.e of the 
 cuneus or wedge : the prong is inserted and fixed in a socket of a 
 piece of wood of the same form. This piece of wood is called the 
 handle, and is generally the frustum of an octagonal pyramid, 
 the middle line of which is the same as that of the chisel ; the 
 tapering sides of the handle diminish downwards, and terminate 
 upwards in an octagonal dome. The use of the shoulder is for 
 preventing the prong from splitting the handle while being struck 
 with the m.allet. The chisel is made stronger from the cuttins 
 edge to the shoulder, as it is sometimes used as a lever, the prop 
 being at or near the middle, and the power at the handle, and the 
 resistance at the cutting edge ; some chisels are made with iron on 
 one side, and steel on the other, and others consist entirely of steel. 
 
 There are several kinds of chisels, as the paring chisel, the 
 mortise chisel, the socket chisel, and the ripping chisel. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 ^ 41. The Firmer Chisel, Pl. 13. Fig. 4. 
 
 Is used both by carpenters and joiners in cutting away the 
 superfluous v/ood by thin chips. The best are made of cast steel. 
 
 When there is a great deal of superfluous wood to be cut away, 
 sometimes a strong chisel consisting of an iron back and steel face 
 is first used, by driving it into the wood with a mallet, and then a 
 slighter one, consisting entirely of steei sharpened to a very fine 
 edge, is used in the finish. The first used is called a firmer, and 
 the last, a paring chisel, in working which, only the shoulder or 
 hand is employed in forcing it into the wood. 
 
 § 42. The Mortise Chisel, Pl. 13. Fig. 5. 
 
 Is made exceedingly strong, for cutting out a rectangular pris- 
 matic cavity across the fibres, quite through or very deep in a 
 piece of wood, for the purpose of inserting a rectangular pin of the 
 same form on the end of another piece of wood, and thereby fas- 
 tening the two pieces of wood together. The cavity is called a 
 mortise, and the pin inserted a tenon : and the chisel used for 
 cutting out the cavity is therefore called a mortise chisel. As 
 the thickness of this chisel from the face to the back is great, in 
 order to withstand the percussive force of the mallet ; and as the 
 angle which the basil makes with the face is about twenty-five 
 degrees, the slant dimensio-n of the basil is very great. This chisel 
 is only used by percussive force, given by the mallet. 
 
 § 43. The Gouge 
 
 Is used in cutting an excavation of a concave form, and is similar 
 to the chisel, except that the bottom part is cylindrical both within 
 and without ; the basil is made on the inside ; the best are those 
 which are made of cast steel. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 117 
 
 § 44. The Drawing Knife 
 
 Is an oblique ended chisel, or old knife, for drawing in the ends 
 of tenons, by making a deep incision with the sharp edge, by the 
 edge of the tongue of a square : for this purpose a small part is 
 cut out in the form of a triangular prism, and consequently the 
 hollow will contain one interior angle and two sides, one side next 
 ;he body of the wood being perpendicular, and the other inclined. 
 The use of this excavation is to enter the saw, and keep it close 
 to the shoulder, and to make the end of the rail quite smooth, for 
 the saw will not only be liable to get out of its course into a new 
 direction, but may tear and scratch the wood at the shoulder. 
 
 § 45. Of Saws in general Pl. 18. Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9, 13. 
 
 A saw is a thin plate of steel indented on the edge for cutting, 
 by a reciprocal change in the direction of motion, pushing it from, 
 and drawing it towards you. The cut which it makes, or the part 
 taken away in a board, is a thin slice, contained between parallel 
 planes, or a deep narrow groove of equal thickness. Saws are of 
 several kinds, as the ripping saw, the half ripper, the hand saw, 
 the panel saw, the tenon saw, the sash saw, the dove-tail saw, the 
 compass saw, and the key-hole or turning saw. The teeth of these 
 saws are all formed so as to contain an angle of sixty degrees, both 
 external and internal angles, and inchne more or less forward as 
 the saw is made to cut transverse to, or in the direction of the 
 fibres : they are also of different lengths and breadths, according 
 to their use. The teeth of a saw are bent alternately to each 
 side, that the plate may clear the wood. 
 
 § 46. The Ripping Saw 
 
 Is used in dividing or slitting wood in the direction of the fibres; 
 
 the teeth are very large, there being eight in three inches, and 
 k2 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 the front of the teeth stand perpendicular to the line which ranges 
 with the points: the length of the plate is about twenty eight inches. 
 
 § 47. The Half Ripper 
 
 Is also used in dividing wood in the direction of the fibres : the 
 .cngth of the plate of this is the same as the former, but there are 
 only three teeth in the inch. 
 
 § 48. The Hand Saw, Pl. 13. Fig. 6. 
 
 Is both used for cutting the wood in a direction of the fibres and 
 cross cutting : for this purpose the teeth are more reclined than 
 the two former saws : there are fifteen teeth contained in four 
 inches. The length of the plate is twenty six inches. 
 
 §49. Tlie Panel Saw 
 
 Is used for cutting very thin wood, either in a direction of, or 
 transverse to the fibres. The length of the plate is the same as 
 that of the hand saw, but there are only about six teeth in the 
 inch. The plates of the hand saw and panel saw are thinner 
 than the ripping saw. 
 
 § 50. The Tenon Saw, Pi. 13. Fig. 7. 
 
 Is generally used for cutting wood transverse to the fibres, as 
 the shoulders of tenons. The plate of a tenon saw is from four- 
 teen to nineteen inches in length, and the number of teeth in an inch 
 from eight to ten. As this saw is not intended to cut through the 
 wood its whole breadth, and as the plate would be too thin to make 
 a straight kerf, or to keep it from buckling, there is a thick piece 
 of iron fixed upon the other edge for this purpose, called the back. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 119 
 
 The opening through the hajidle for the fingers of this and the 
 foregoing saws is inclosed all round ; and on this account is called 
 a double handle. 
 
 § 51. The Sash Saw, Pl. 13. Fig. 8. 
 
 Is used by sash makers in forming the tenons of sashes : the 
 plate is eleven inches in length. The inch contains about thirteen 
 tee-th ; this saw is sometimes backed with iron, but more frequently 
 with brass. 
 
 § 52. The Dove-tail Saw 
 
 Is used in dove-tailing drawers. The length of the plate is 
 about nine inches, and the inch contains about fifteen teeth. This 
 plate is also backed with brass. The handles of the two last saws 
 are only single* 
 
 § 53. The Compass Saw, Pl. 13. Fig. 9. 
 
 Is for cutting the surfaces of wood into curved surfaces : for 
 this purpose it is narrow, without a back, thicker on the cuttmg 
 edge, as the teeth have no set. The plate is about an inch broad, 
 next to the handle, and diminishes to about one quarter of an inch 
 at the other extremity ; here are about five teeth in the inch. 
 The handle is single. 
 
 § 54. The Key.hole, or Turning Saw 
 
 Is similar to the compass saw in the plate, but the handle is 
 long, and perforated from end to end, so that the plate may be 
 inserted any distance within the handle. The lower part of the 
 Handle is provided with a pad, through which is inserted a screw, 
 for the purpose of fastening the plate in the handle : this saw is 
 
120 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 used for turriitig out quick curves, as key-holes, and is therefore 
 frequently called a key-hole saw. 
 
 § 55. The Hatchet 
 
 Is a small axe, used chiefly in cutting away the superfluous 
 wood from the edge of a piece of stuff, when the part to be cut 
 away is too small to be sawed. 
 
 § 56. The Square, Pl. 13. Fig. 11. 
 
 Consists of two rectangular prismatic pieces of wood, or one of 
 wood, and the other which is the thinest, of steel, fixed together, 
 each at one of their extremities, so as to form a right angle both 
 interjially and externally ; the interior right angle is therefore 
 called the inner square, and the exterior one the outer square. 
 The side of the square which contains the mortise, or through 
 which the end of the other piece passes, is made very thick, not 
 only that it may be strong enough for containing the tenon of the 
 other piece, but that it should keep steady and flat when used ; 
 and the piece which contains the tenon is made thin, in order to 
 observe more clearly whether the edge of the square and the 
 wood coincide. The thick side of the square is called the stock 
 or handle, and the narrow surface of the handle is always applied 
 to the vertical surface of the wood. The thin side of the square 
 is called the blade, and the inner edge of the blade is always 
 applied to the horizontal surface of the wood. Squares are of 
 different dimensions according to their use : some are employed 
 in trying-up wood, and some for setting out work ; the former is 
 called a trying square, and the latter a setting-out square ; the 
 blade ought to be of steel, and always ought to project beyond the 
 end of the stock, particularly if made of wood. The stock is 
 always made thick, that it may be used as a kind of fence in keep- 
 ing the blade at right angles to the arris. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 121 
 
 § 67. To prove a Square. 
 
 Take a straight edged board which has been faced up, and 
 apply the inner edge of the stock of the square to the straight 
 edge of the board, laying the side of the tongue upon the face of 
 the board ; with a sharp point draw a line upon the surface of the 
 board by the edge of the square : turn the square so that the other 
 side of the blade may lie upon the fice of the board ; bring the 
 stock close to the straight edge of the board, then if the edge of 
 the square does not lie over the line, or any part of the Hue, the 
 square must be shifted until it does, then if the edge of the tongue 
 of the square and the line coincide, the square is already true : 
 but if there is an open space between the farther side of the board 
 and the straight edge, that is, if the farther end of the edge of the 
 tongue of the square meets the farther end of the line from the 
 straight edge, draw another line by the edge of the tongue of 
 the square, and these two lines will form an acute angle with each 
 other, the vertex of which will be at the farther side of the board, 
 and the opening towards the straight edge : take the middle of the 
 distance between the two .lines at the arris, and draw a hne from 
 the middle point to the point of concourse of the lines : then the 
 blade of the square must be shot or made straight, so as to coin 
 cide with this last line. The same, or a similar operation, must be 
 repeated, if the contrary way. 
 
 § 58. The Bevel, Pl. 13. Fig. 12. 
 
 Consists of a blade and handle the same as the square, except 
 
 that the tongue is made movealle on a joint that it may be set to 
 
 any angle. When many pieces of stuff are to be tried up to a 
 
 particular angle, an immoveable bevel ought to be made for the 
 
 purpose, for unless very great care be taken in laying down the 
 
 moveable bevel, it will be liable to shift, 
 p 
 
122 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 59. The Gauge, Pl. 13. Fig. 13. 
 
 Is an instrument for drawing a line parallel to the arris of a 
 piece of stuff, on one or both of the adjoining surfaces. It con- 
 sists of a thick rectangular prismatic part, with a mortise of the 
 same figure, cut perpendicularly through it, between two of its op- 
 posite sides, and this prism is called the head. In the mortise is 
 inserted another prism exactly made to fill its cavity, this prism is 
 called the stem ; at one end of the stem is a steel tooth projecting 
 perpendicularly from the surface, so that by striking one end or 
 other with the mallet, the tooth is moved farther or nearer to the 
 adjacent surface of the head, as the distance may be wanted be 
 tween the arris of the stuff and the line to be marked out by the 
 tooth. 
 
 §60. The Mortise Gauge 
 
 Is constructed similar to the common gauge, but has two teeth 
 instead of one. One tooth is stationary at the end of the stem, 
 and the other is moveable in a mortise between the fixed tooth and 
 the head, so that the distances of the teeth from each other, and 
 of each tooth from the head, may be set in any ratio or propor- 
 tion to each other, that the thickness of a tenon or wood may re- 
 quire. The use of this gauge is, as its name implies, for gauging 
 mortises and tenons. 
 
 § 61. The Side Hook, Pl. 12. Fig. 11. 
 
 Is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood with two projecting knobs 
 upon the alternate sides of it. Every joiner ought to be provided 
 with at least two side hooks of equal size. Their use is to hold a 
 board fast, the fibres of the board running in the direction of the 
 length of the bench, while the workman is cutting across the fibres 
 with a saw or grooving plane, or in traversing the wood, which is 
 planing in a direction perpendicular to the fibres, or with very little 
 obliquity, s 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 123 
 
 § 62. Tlie Mitre Box 
 
 Is used for cutting a piece of tried-up stuff at an angle of forty- 
 five degrees with two of its surfaces, or at least to one of the ar- 
 rises, and perpendicular to the other two sides, or at least to one 
 of them obliquely to the fibres. The mitre box consists of three 
 boards, two called, the sides being fixed at right angles to the 
 third, the bottom : the bottom and top of the sides are all parallel : 
 the sides are of equal height, and cut with a saw into two direc- 
 tions of straight surfaces at right angles to each other and to l\io 
 bottom, forming an angle of forty-five degrees with the sides. 
 
 § 63. The Shooting Block 
 
 Is two boards fixed together, the sides of which are lapped upon 
 each other, so as to form a rebate for the purpose of making a 
 short joint, either oblique to the fibres, or in their direction. By 
 this instrument the joints of panels for framing are made, also the 
 joints for the mitres of architraves, or the like. 
 
 § 64. The Straight Edge 
 
 Is a piece of stuff or board made perfectly straight on the edge, 
 in order to make other edges straight, or to plane the face of a 
 board straight. 
 
 Straight edges are of different dimensions, as the magnitude of 
 the work may require. 
 
 § 65. Winding Sticks 
 
 Are two pieces of wood of equal breadth for the purpose of as- 
 certaining whether a surface be straight or not ; if not, the surface 
 must be brought to a straight by trial. 
 
124 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 66. The Mitre Square 
 
 Is so called, because it bisects the right angle, or mitres the 
 square, and is therefore an immoveable bevel, made to strike an 
 angle of forty-five degrees with one side or edge of a piece of stuff, 
 upon the adjoining side or edge of the said piece of stuff : it con- 
 sists of a broad thin board let in, or tongued into a piece on the 
 edge, called the fence or handle ; the fence projects equally upon 
 each side of the thin piece or blade, of which one of the edges is 
 made to contain an angle of forty-five degrees with the nearest 
 edge of the handle, or of that in which the blade is inserted. The 
 inside of the handle is called the guide: the handle may be about 
 an inch thick, two inches broad, the blade about a quarter of an 
 ineh, or about one eighth and a sixteenth. The blade may be 
 about seven or eight inches broad ; but mitre squares must be of 
 various sizes, according to the work, and consequently of different 
 thicknesses. 
 
 To use the mitre square, lay the guide of the handle upon the 
 arris, slide it along the stuff until the oblique edge comes to the 
 place required, then draw a line by this edge ; the angle of the 
 mitre may be struck either way, according to the direction re- 
 quired, by turning the mitre square. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 125 t 
 
 § G7. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES LN JOINERY. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 Fig. 1 the jack plane, a the stock, h the tote or handle, being 
 a single tote, c the iron, d the wedge for tightening the iron, e the 
 orifice or place of discharge for the shavings. 
 
 Fig. 2 the trying plane, the parts are the same as the jack 
 plane, except that the hollow of the tote is surrounded with wood, 
 and is therefore called a double tote. 
 
 Fig. 3 is the smoothing plane without a tote, the hand-hold 
 being at the hind end of the plane. 
 
 Fig. 4 the iron, No. 1. the cover for breaking the shaving, 
 screwed upon the top of the iron, in order to prevent the tearing 
 of the wood, in a front view : No. 2. front of the iron without the 
 cover, showing the slit or the screw which fastens the cover to 
 the iron : No. 3. profile of iron and cover screwed together. 
 
 Fig. 5 the wedge for tightening the iron: No. 1. longitudinal 
 section of the ^\edge : No. 2. front, showing the hollow below for 
 the head of the screw. 
 
 Fig. 6 sash fillister, for throwing on the bench, a head of one 
 stem, h tail of the other, c iron, d wedge, e thumb screw for moving 
 the stop up and down,ff fence for regulating the distance of the 
 rebate from the arris. 
 
 Fig. 7 the moving fillister for throwing the shaving on the 
 bench : No. 1. right hand side of the plane, a brass stop, h thumb 
 screw of do. c d e tooth, the upper part c d on the outside of the 
 neck, and the part d e passing through the solid of the body with 
 a small part open above, e, for the tang of the iron tooth, / f the 
 guide of the fence : No. 2. bottom of the plane turned up, a the 
 guide of the stop, ff the fence, showing the screws for regulating 
 the guide, g g the mouth and cutting edge of the iron. 
 
 Fig. 8 the plow, the same with regard to the stem fence and 
 stop, and also in other respects as the sash fillister, except the 
 sole, which is a narrow iron. 
 
126 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Fig. 9 the mallet. 
 Fig. 10 the hammer. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 the side hook for cutting the shoulders of tenons. 
 Fig. 12 the v/ork bench, a the bench hook, h h the screw 
 check, c c handle screw, d end of guide. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 Fig. 1 stock, into which is fixed a centre bit. 
 
 Fig. 2 No. 1. the gimlet : No. 2. the lower part at full size. 
 
 Fig. 3 No. 1. the brad awl : No. 2. the lower end turned edge- 
 ways : No. 3. the lower end turned side-ways. 
 
 Fig. 4 No. 1. the paring chisel: No. 2. the lower end turned 
 edge-ways with the basil. 
 
 Fig. 5 the mortise chisel : No. 1. side of the chisel: No. 2. 
 front : No. 3. lower end with the basil. 
 
 Fig. 6 hand saw. 
 
 Fig. 7 tenon saw, with back generally of iron. 
 
 Fig. 8 sash saw, backed generally with brass. 
 
 Fig. 9 compass saw for cutting curved pieces of wood. 
 
 Fig. 10 key hole saw, a the pad in which are inserted a spring 
 and two screws, for fixing the saw to any length. 
 
 N. B. The hand saw and tenon saw have what are called 
 double handles, and the tenon and compass saws single handles. 
 The position and form of the handle depends on the position of 
 the working direction of the saw. 
 
 Fig. 11 the square, a b c the outer square, d e f the inner 
 square, a d e the stock or handle, b cf e the blade. 
 
 Fig. 12 the moveable bevel, a h the stock, b c the blade. 
 
 Fig. 13 the gauge, a a the stem, b b the head which moves, e 
 the tooth which marks. 
 
 \ 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 127 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 MOULDINGS. 
 
 § 68. To draw the several kinds of Mouldings made by Joiners, 
 
 An astragal is a moulding of a semi-circular profile ; its con. 
 struction is so simple that it would be unnecessary to say any 
 thing concerning it. Fig. 1. 
 
 There are two kinds of beads, one is called a cocked bead, 
 when it projects beyond the surface to which it is attached, see 
 Fig. 2 ; and the other is called a sunk bead, when the sinking is 
 depressed beneath the surface of the material to which it is at- 
 tached, that is, when the most prominent part of the bead is in the 
 same surface with that of the material. Fig. 3. 
 
 A torus in architecture is a moulding of the same profile as a 
 bead ; the only difference is, when the two are combined in the 
 same piece of work, the torus is of greater magnitude, as Fig. 4 ; 
 in Joinery the torus is always accompanied with a fillet. Fig. 5. 
 single torus moulding. 
 
 The Roman ovolo or quarter rounds as called by joiners, is the 
 quadrant of a circle. Fig. 6. When the projection and height are 
 unequal, as in Fig. 7, take the height B C, and from the point B 
 describe an arc at C, and with the same radius from A, describe 
 another arc cutting the former at D, with the distance A D or D B 
 describe the profile A B. This is generally accompanied with 
 fillets above and below, as in Fig. 7. 
 
 The cavetto is a concave moulding, the regular profile of which 
 is the quadrant of a circle, Fig. 8 ; its description is the same as 
 the ovolo. 
 
 A scotia is a concave moulding receding at the top, and pro- 
 jecting at the bottom, which in this respect is contrary both to the 
 ovolo and cavetto ; it is also to be observed, that its profile consists 
 of two quadrants of circles of different radii, or it may be consi- 
 dered as a semi-ellipse taken upon two conjugate diameters. Fig. 9. 
 
 To describe the scotia* divide the height A B into three equal 
 
128 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 parts, at the point 2 draw the line 2 C D, being one-third from 
 the top, draw E C perpendicular to C D, with the centre C and 
 and distance C E describe the quadrant E F ; take the height A 2 
 and make F D equal to it : draw D G perpendicular to F D, from 
 D with the distance D F describe the arc F G, and E F G will be 
 the profile of the scotia. This moulding is peculiarly applied to 
 the bases of columns, and makes a distinguishing line of shadow 
 between the torii. 
 
 The ogee is a moulding of contrary curvature, and is of two 
 kinds : when the profile of the projecting part is concave, and 
 consequently the receding part convex, the ogee is called a cima- 
 recta. Figs. 10 and 11 ; and when the contrary, it is then called 
 a cima-reversa. Fig. 12. 
 
 To describe the cima-recta when the projection of the moulding 
 is equal to its height, and when required to be of a thick curvature, 
 Fig. 10. Join the projections ot the fillets A and B by the straight 
 line A B; bisect A B at C, draw E C D parallel to the fillet F A, 
 draw A D and B E perpendicular to F B ; from the point E 
 describe the quadrant B C, and from the point D describe the 
 quadrant A C, then B C A is the profile. 
 
 To describe the cima-recta when the height and projection are 
 unequal, and when it is required to be of a flat curvature, Fig. 11. 
 Join A B and bisect it in C, with the distance B C or C A from 
 the point A describe the arc C D, from C with the same radius 
 describe the arc A D cutting the former in D, the foot of the 
 compass still remaining in C describe the arc B E, from B with 
 the same radius describe the arc C E, from the point D describe 
 the arc A C, from the point E describe the arc C B, then will 
 A C B be the profile required. 
 
 The cima-reversa, Fig. 12, is described in the same manner. 
 Quirk mouldings sometimes occasion confusion as to their figure 
 particularly when removed from the eye, so as frequently to make 
 one moulding appear as two. 
 
JOIxNERY. 
 
 129 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 § 69. MOULDINGS. 
 
 The names of mouldings according to their situatioa and com. 
 bination, in various pieces of joiners' work- 
 Fig. 1 edge said to be rounded. 
 Fig. 2 quirked bead or bead, and quirk. 
 Fig. 3 bead and double quirk, or return bead. 
 Fig. 4 double bead, or double bead and quirk. 
 Fig. 5 single torus. 
 
 Fig. 6 double torus. Here it is to be observed, that the dis- 
 tinction between torus mouldings and beads in joinery is, the outer 
 edge of the former always terminates with a fillet, whether the 
 torus be double or single, whether in beads there is no fillet on 
 the outer edge. 
 
 Figs. 7, 8, 9 single, double, and triple reeded mouldings; semi- 
 cylindric mouldings are denominated reeds, either when they are 
 terminated by a straight surface equally protuberant on both sides, 
 as in these figures, or disposed longitudinally round the circum 
 ference of a shaft ; but if only termmated on one side with a flush 
 surface, they are then either beads or torus mouldings. 
 
 Fig. 10 reeds disposed round the convex surface of a cylinder. 
 Figs. 11, 12, 13 fluted work. When the flutes are semi-circu- 
 lar, as in Fig. 11, it is necessary that there should be some dis- 
 tance betvveen them, as it would be impossible to bring their 
 junction to an arris ; but in flutes, the sections of which are flat 
 segments, the flutes generally meet each other without any inter- 
 mediate straight surface between them. The reason of this is, 
 ihat the light and shade of the adjoining hollows are more con- 
 trasted, the angle of their meeting being more acute, than if a flat 
 space were formed between them. See Figs. 12 and 13, fluting 
 round the convex surface of a cylinder. 
 
 Nos. 9 & 10. Q 
 
130 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 § 70. Mouldings of Doors, 6fC, 
 
 The different denominations of framed doors, according to their 
 mouldings and panels, and framed work in general. The figures 
 in the plates to which these descriptions refer, are sections of 
 doors, through one of the stiles taking in a small part of the panel, 
 or they may be considered as a vertical section through the top 
 rail, showing part of the panel. 
 
 Fig. 1 the ffaming is without mouldings, and the panel a straight 
 surface on both sides : this is denominated doors square and flat 
 panel on both sides. 
 
 Fig. 2 the framing has a quirked ovolo, and a fillet on one side, 
 but without mouldings on the other, and the panel flat on both 
 sides ; this is denominated doors quirked ovolo, fillet and flat, with 
 square back. 
 
 Fig. 3 diffors only from the last in having a bead instead of a 
 fillet, and is therefore denominated quirked ovolo bead and flat 
 panel, with square back. 
 
 Fig. 4 has an additional fillet on the framing, to what there is 
 in Fig. 3, and is therefore denominated quirked ovolo bead, fillet 
 and flat panel, with square back. 
 
 Note. When the back is said to be square, as in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 
 the meanin<i that there are no mouldings on the framing, and 
 the panel is a straight surface on one side of the door. 
 
 Fig. 6 the framing struck with quirk ogee and quirked bead on 
 one side, and square on the other; the surface of the panel 
 straight on both sides : this is called quirked ogee, quirked bead, 
 and flat panel, with square back. 
 
 Fig. 6 diflprs from the last only in having the bead raised above 
 the lower part of the ogee and a fillet. This is therefore deno- 
 minated quirked ogee, cocked bead, and flat panel, with square 
 back. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 131 
 
 PLATE XVJL 
 
 Mouldings for Doors, S^c, 
 
 Fig. 1 is denominated cove, cocked bead, and flat panel, with 
 square back. 
 
 Fig. 2 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fillet, and raised 
 panel on front, with square back. The rising of the panel gives 
 strength to the door, and on this account they are often employed 
 in street doors, though the fashion at present is discontinued in the 
 inside of building. 
 
 Fig. 3 the framing is the same as the last, but the panel is 
 raised in front, and has an ovolo on the rising. This is therefore 
 denominated quirked ovolo, bead, and raised panel, with ovolo 
 on the rising on front of door, with square back. 
 
 Fig. 4 is denominated quirked ogee, raised panel, ovolo, and 
 fillet on the rising and astragal on the flat of panel in front and 
 square back. 
 
 Note. The raised side of the panel is always turned towards 
 the street. 
 
 Fig. 5 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fillet, and flat pa- 
 nel, on both sides ; doors of this description are used between 
 rooms, or between passages and rooms, where the door is equally 
 exposed on both sides. When the panels are flat on both sides, 
 or simply chamfered on one side and flat on the other, and the 
 framing of the door moulded on the side which has the flat pa- 
 nels ; such doors are employed in rooms where one side only is 
 exposed, and the other never but when opened, being turned 
 towards a cupboard or dark closet. 
 
132 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 Mouldings for Doors ^ ^c. 
 
 Fig. 1 is denominated bead, but, and square, or more fully be^d 
 and but, front and square back. In bead and but work, the bead 
 is always struck on the outer arris of the top or flat of the pane 
 in the direction of the grain. 
 
 Fig 2 is denominated bead and flush front and quirked ogee, 
 raised panel, with ovolo on the rising, grooved on flat of panel, 
 on back. Bead and flush, and bead and but work are always 
 used where strength is required. The mouldings on the inside 
 are made to correspond with the other passage or hall doors. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a collection or series of mouldings the same on both 
 sides, and project in part without the framing on each side ; the 
 mouldings are laid in after the door is framed square and put 
 together. If braded through the sides of the quirks, the heads 
 will be entirely concealed ; but observe, that the position of the 
 brads must not be directed towards the panels, but into the solid 
 of the framing. The mouldings of doors which thus project are 
 termed belection mouldings ; belection moulded work is chiefly 
 employed in superior buildings. 
 
 Fig. 4 another form of a belection mouldino^. 
 
 The following is a geometrical description of reeded mouldings, 
 sash bars, and the manner of springing mouldings. 
 
 Fig. 5 to inscribe a circle in a given sector A B C of a circle, 
 bisect the angle B A C by G A ; produce the sides A B, AC, to 
 D and E, and A G to meet the arc in F, draw D E perpendicular 
 to A F, bisect the angle D E A of the triangle A D E by E G, 
 and G is the centre of the inscribed circle, and G F the radius. 
 
 Fig. 6 a reeded staff, the reeds described as in Fig. 5 
 
JOINERV 
 
 133 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 Mouldings for Sasltes and Cornices. 
 
 Fig. 1 simple astragal or half round bar for sashes. 
 
 Fig. 2 quirked astragal bar. 
 
 Fig. 3 quirked Gothic bar. 
 
 Fig. 4 another form of a Gothic bar. 
 
 Fig. 5 double ogee bar: this and the preceding forms are 
 easily kept clean. 
 
 Fig. 6 qiiirked astragal and hollow: bars of this structure have 
 been long in use. 
 
 Fig. 7 double reeded bar. 
 
 Fig. 8 triple reeded bar. 
 
 Fig. 9 base moulding of a room with part of the skirting. 
 
 When the base mouldings are very large, they ought to be sprung 
 as in this diagram. A the base moulding, B part of the plmth. In 
 order to know what thickness it would require a board to be of, to 
 get out a moulding upon the spring; the best method is to draw 
 the moulding out to the full size, then draw a line parallel to the 
 general line of the moulding, so as to make it equally strong 
 throughout its breadth, and also of sufficient strength for its in- 
 tended purpose. 
 
 Fig. 10 a cornice. The part A forming the corona, is got out 
 of a plank. B is a bracket, C the moulding on the front spring, 
 D a cover board forming the upper fillet, E a moulding sprung 
 below the corona, F a bracket. 
 
 § 71. Defnitions. 
 
 A piece of stuff is said to be wrought when it is planed on one 
 or more sides, so as to make a complete finish as far as required 
 by a plane ; hence if it is only planed with the jack plane, and no 
 farther operation of any other plane required, in this case it is 
 l2 
 
134 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 said to be wrought ; and if the stuff requires to be made straighter 
 with the trying plane, the stuff is still said to be wrought. 
 
 The operation of planing the first side of a board or piece of 
 stuff straight, is called facing, the side so done is called the face, 
 and the board itself is said to be faced-up. 
 
 The operation of planing the edge of a board straight, is called 
 shooting, and the edge is said to be shot. 
 
 When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of stuff are planed so 
 as to form a right angle, the piece of stuff is said to be squared. 
 
 When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of stuff are planed so 
 as to form an acute or obtuse angle by the inclination of these 
 surfaces, this piece of stuff is said to be bevelled ; and if one 
 surface is narrower than the other, the narrower surface becomes 
 the edge, the edge is then said to be bevelled ; but this is only 
 meant in reference to the face, as the expression could have no 
 meaning, except in the relation of the adjoining surfaces. The 
 same is also applied to a piece of wood that has been squared, 
 the edge is said to be squared, instead of the adjoining surfaces 
 said to be squared. 
 
 When a line has been drawn on the face or edge of a piece of 
 stuff parallel to the arris or line of concourse of the two surfaces 
 that are planed, that surface is said to be gauged, and is generally 
 done by means of the implement or tool called a gauge. 
 
 When the stuff is planed on one, two, three, or all the four 
 sides, as may be required, then the stuff is said to be tried up ; the 
 term try-up is sometimes applied to facing, but in what follows, 
 the term facing, is only applied to the side first wrought. 
 
 § 72. To make a Straight Edge, 
 
 • 
 
 Fasten two boards together in the checks of the bench screw, 
 at one end, and support the other end with the side pin, inserted 
 in one of the holes of the side board ; plane the upper edges as 
 straight as the eye can observe : unscrew the check board, place 
 
JOINERY. 135 
 
 one u^^t4 t^^^ \he other, with the planed edges together, and the 
 faces of ih^ li^\-'lk! in a straight hne with each other ; then if 
 the edges coi.icide, ■ hv?.y are straight, but if not, they will be alike 
 round or alike holbv" ; tho prominent parts must be marked, and 
 the operation repeated us often as may be found necessary. In 
 shooting the edges, the sro'v3gh is first taken off with the jack plane: 
 in convex places, stand siiJl, drawing and pushing the plane to 
 and from you by the motion of ihe arms, until the prominent part 
 or parts have been reduced by lepeated shavings, which will be 
 taken off the wood, every time the plane is driven forwards ; then 
 having got the edges very nearly straight, you may take one or 
 two shavings by going the whole ierigth from the hind to the fore 
 end, without drawing back the plane; then with the trying or long 
 plane walk from end to end as before, pushing the plane con- 
 tinually forward, and if it take a shaving of unequal breadth, or 
 unequal thickness, or both, repeat the operation again until this is 
 not the case. If the edges are very long, the same operation 
 must be performed with the jointer, viz. by pushing it forward 
 from end to end. Then, when two edges coincide in working 
 them together in this manner, you will have two straight edg^s. 
 Straight edges are easier made when the board has been previously 
 faced. Here the workman must keep the definition of a straight 
 Une continually in view. 
 
 §73. To face a Piece of Stuff, 
 
 Here the workman must not lose sight of the definition of a 
 straight surface, viz. it is that which will every where coincide with 
 a straight line : apply the edges of a pair of winding sticks, one 
 to the farther end of the surface, and the other to the nearer; di- 
 rect:rg the eye* in any straight line coinciding with the upper 
 edges : then if by keeping the eye at the same point, and if straight 
 
 * That is, shutting one eye and chserving with the other. This depends on vision 
 being always performed in straight lines. 
 
136 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 lines can be directed from it to all other points in the upper edge 
 of each winding stick, then the ends of the surface are in a plane. 
 Draw a line by the edge of each winding stick on the surface, 
 and if the surface will every where coincide with a straight line, 
 then it is already straight, there will be very little to do but plane 
 the rough away. But if on applying the edges of the winding 
 sticks to the surface, a straight line can only be directed from the 
 eye to one point in the upper edge of each winding stick, then 
 the surface is said to wind, and is called a winding surface ; in 
 such a case, tnere will always be two corners of the surface higher 
 than the other two : then with the jack plane, reduce the surface 
 at the corners, until both edges of the winding sticks are in the 
 same plane ; draw a line by the edge of each winding stick on 
 the surface as before, then with the jack plane reduce all the 
 prominent parts between the lines : having obtained a surface 
 very nearly straight by one or several trials by the jack plane, 
 plane off the ridges which the jack plane has left, with the trying 
 plane, and apply the winding sticks in the same manner, in order 
 to be certain whether you are keeping the surface true or not. 
 
 § 74. To shoot the Edge of a Board, 
 
 First rough plane the side o-f the board with the jack plane, or 
 plane the rough off the side of the board next to the joint. Then 
 setting the sides of the board in a vertical position, and placing it 
 in the bench screw, proceed in the same manner in the operation of 
 planing, as in making a straight edge ; except that there is only one 
 edge planed at a time in shooting. If the joint is not very long, 
 it is brouglit to a straight by the eye : but if very long, a straight 
 edge must be used ; in shooting the edge, the hand must be carried 
 regular from end to end. 
 
JOINERY. 137 
 § 75. To join two Boards together. 
 
 Shoot the edge of each board first, or if they are very thin, they 
 may be shot together : apply each of the edges together, then if 
 they are quite close, both face and back of the board, and the faces 
 of the two boards straight with each other, they may be glued 
 together ; but if not, the operation must be repeated until there is 
 no space left on either side, and the sides quite straight with each 
 other : when properly shot, spread the edges over with strong 
 thin glue, of a proper consistence, made very hot, one of the 
 boards being fixed, the faces adjoining each other, and the edges 
 straight ; then turn the loose board upon the fixed board, applying 
 fhe edges that are shot together, rub the upper board backwards 
 and forwards until the two begin to stick fast, and the glue mostly 
 rubbed out; tho faces must be brought as nearly straight as 
 possible. 
 
 § 76. To join any number of Boards, edge to edge, with glue, so as 
 to form one Board. 
 
 First shoot the edges of two boards, so as to bring them to a 
 joint, mark the faces of these boards next to the joint, then shoot 
 the other edge of one of the boards, and another edge of another 
 board, and bring these to a joint also, marking them as before, 
 proceed in this manner until as many boards have been jointed as 
 make the entire breadth required, always numbering the boards 
 in regular order. Glue the first two together ; when suflSciently 
 dry, glue the second and third board, and so on till all the joints 
 are glued. 
 
 If the boards or planks be very long, the edges which are to do 
 united, will require to be warmed before a fire. And in order to 
 keep the faces fair with each other, three men will be necessary 
 also in helping to rub, one to guide the middle, and one to guide 
 each end. 
 
 R 
 
138 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 § 77. To square and try-up a Piece of StuJ. 
 
 First face the side of the stuff, apply the edge of the stock of a 
 square to this side, and the edge of the tongue to the other side 
 or edge to be planed, keeping the stock of the square at right 
 angles to the arris ; try the square in the same manner in several 
 places, then plane the side or edge of the stufl', until the inner edge 
 of the tongue coincide with one side or edge of the stuff, while 
 the inner edge of the stock coincides with the face. 
 
 § 78. To try -up a Piece of Stuff all round* 
 
 When the two sides of the face and edge have been squared, 
 gauge the stuff to its thickness by the gauge, then plane the other 
 Side to the gauge line opposite to the face, but observe that it 
 must be planed so as to coincide with the blade of the square, 
 while the stock coincides with the other side, on which the gauge 
 line was drawn, both handle and tongue being at the same time at 
 right angles to the arris. Having now finished three sides, set 
 the gauge to the intended breadth, then apply the guide of the 
 head of the gauge upon the edge or side that is wrought, and 
 which adjoins the other two wrought sides, and the stem and tooth 
 upon the side to be gauged, draw a line upon that side, turn the 
 stuff over to the other side, and place the head upon the same side 
 as before, but not upon the same edge, and the tooth end of the 
 stem upon the side of the wood ; draw a line upon this side. In 
 gauging, you must press the head of the gauge pretty hard against 
 the surface of the stuff on which it rests, otherwise the grain of 
 the wood will be liable to draw the tooth of the gauge out of its 
 straight lined course ; then by working the wood between the 
 gauge lines straight across, the piece of stuff will be completely 
 tried-up, and this last side will be planed up without the use of 
 the square : and, indeed, the third side might also have been done 
 when the rough edge, whence the gauge line was drawn, is pretty 
 near the square. 
 
JOLNERY 
 
 139 
 
 § 79. To rebate a Piece of Stuff, 
 
 First, when the rebate is to b.e made on the arris next to you, 
 the stuff must be first tried-up on two sides ; if the rebate is not 
 very large, set the guide of the fence of the moving filHster to be 
 within the distance of the horizontal breadth of tiie intended re- 
 bate ; and screw the stop, so that the guide may be somethinor 
 less than the vertical depth of the rebate from the sole of the 
 plane ; set the iron so as to be sufficiently rank, and to project 
 equally below the sole of the plane ; make the left hand point of 
 the cutting edge flush with the left hand side of the plane : the 
 tooth should be a small matter without the ri^ht hand side of the 
 plane. Proceed now to gauge the horizontal and vei>tical dimen- 
 sions of the rebate : begin your work at the fore end of the stuff; 
 the plane being placed before you, lay your right hand partly 
 on the top hind end of the plane, your fore fingers upon the left 
 side, and your thumb upon the right, the middle part of the palm 
 of the hand resting upon the round of the plane between the top 
 and the end ; lay the thumb of your left hand over tlie top of the 
 fore end of the plane, bending the thumb downwards upon 
 the right hand side of the plane, while the upper division of the 
 fore-finger, and the one next to it goes obliquely on the left side 
 of the plane, and then bends with the same obliquity to comply 
 with the fore end of the plane ; the two remaining fingers are 
 turned inwards : push the plane forward without moving your feet, 
 and a shaving will be discharged equal to the breadth of the re- 
 bate ; draw the plane towards you again to the place you pushed 
 it from, and repeat the operation : proceed in this manner until 
 you have gone very near the depth of the rebate ; move a step 
 backward, and proceed as before ; go on by several successive 
 steps, operating at each one as at first, until you get to the end ; 
 then you may take, a shaving or two the whole length, or take 
 down any protuberant parts. 
 
 In holding the fillister, care must be taken to keep the sides 
 vertical, and consequently the sole level: then clean out the hot- 
 
i40 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 torn and side of the rebate with the skevv-faced rebate plane, that 
 is, plane the bottom and side smooth, until you come close to the 
 gauge lines : for this purpose the iron must be set very fine, and 
 equally prominent throughout the breadth of the sole. 
 
 If your rebate exceeds in breadth the distance which the guide 
 of the fence can be set from the right side of the plane, you may 
 make a narrow rebate on the side next to you, and set the plow to 
 ^he full breadth, and the stop of the plow to the depth : make a 
 groove next to the gauge Ime ; then with the firmer chisel, cut off 
 me wood between the groove and the rebate, level with the bot- 
 tom ; or should the rebate be very wide, you may make several 
 mtermediate grooves, leaving the wood between every two adja- 
 cent grooves of less breadth than the firmer chisel, so as to be 
 easily cut out ; having the rebate roughed out, you may make the 
 bottom a little smoother with the paring chisel ; then with a com- 
 mon rebate plane, about an inch broad in the sole, plane the side 
 of the bottom next to the vertical side, and with the jack plane 
 take off the irregularities of the wood left by the chisel : smooth 
 tlTie farther side of the bottom of the rebate with the skew rebate 
 piane, as also the vertical side : with the trying plane smooth the 
 remaining part next to you until the rebate is at its full depth. If 
 any thing remain in the internal angle, it may be cut away with 
 a fine set paring chisel ; but this will hardly be necessary when 
 the tools are in good order. 
 
 When the breadth and depth of the rebate is not greater than 
 the depth which the plow can be set to work, the most expeditious 
 method of making a rebate, is by grooving it within the gauge 
 ines on each side of the arris, and so taking the piece out whhout 
 he use of the chisel : then proceed to work the bottom and side 
 of the groove as before. By these means you have the several 
 methods of rebating, when the rebate is made on the left edge of 
 the stuff : but if the rebate is formed from the right hand arris, it 
 must be planed on two sides, or on one side, and an edge as be- 
 fore ; place the stuff so that the arris of the two planed sides may 
 be next to you. Set the sash fillister to the whole breadth of *he 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 141 
 
 btuff that is to be left standing, and the stop to the depth, then you 
 may proceed to rebate as before. 
 
 § 80. To relate across the Grain, 
 
 Nail a straight slip across the piece to be rebated, so that the 
 straight edge may fall upon the line which the vertical side of the 
 rebate makes upon the top of the stuff, keeping the breadth of the 
 slip entirely to one side of the rebate ; then having set the stop of 
 the dado grooving plane to the depth of the rebate, holding the 
 plane vertically, run a groove across the wood, repeat the same 
 operation in one or more places in the breadth of the rebate, 
 leaving each interstice or standing-up part something less than 
 the breadth of the firmer chisel: then with that chisel cut away 
 these parts between every two grooves, but be careful in doing 
 this that you do not tear the wood up ; pare the bottom pretty 
 smooth, or after having cut the rough away with the chisel, take 
 a rebating plane with the iron set rather rank, and work the pro- 
 minent parts down to the aforesaid grooves nearly. Lastly, with 
 a fine set screwed rebating plane, smooth the bottom next to the 
 vertical side of the rebate ; the other parts of the bottom may be 
 taken completely down with a fine set smoothing plane : in this 
 manner you may make a tenon of any breadth. 
 
 § 81 . To frame two Pieces of Stuff togetlier. 
 
 For this purpose it will be necessary to face-up, and square 
 each of the pieces at least on two sides ; the thickness of the 
 tenon or width of the mortise ought not to exceed in general one- 
 third of the thickness of the stuff ; but this will in some cases de- 
 pend upon the work, and whether the materials that are to be 
 framed together be of the same kind or not, and consequently the 
 
142 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 })roportion greater or less according as the piece on which the 
 tenon is cut, is of a stronger or weaker texture than the piece 
 which is to receive it. If the two pieces are to be joined at a 
 right' angle, and the piece which has the mortise project only on 
 one side of the piece which has the tenon, you must then set the 
 mortise a little farther in than the breadth of the piece which has 
 the tenon, in order to prevent the piece at the end of tlie tenon 
 from splitting ; mark the length of your tenon a little more than 
 the breadth of the mortised piece ; strike a square line through the 
 mark; then at the place where the hne meets the arris, strike 
 another square line : if the work is to be very nicely put together, 
 this will be best done with the drawing knife: square two pencil 
 lines on the two sides of the mortised piece opposite to, or in the 
 same straight line with, the inside of the tenoned piece ; strike 
 other two square pencil lines upon the sides of the mortised piece 
 next to the end opposite to the outer edge of the tenoned piece, or 
 in the same straight line with it, and thus the distance between 
 each pair of square lines upon each of the sides, will be equal to 
 the breadth of the tenoned piece ; but this distance would be too 
 long for the mortise, as when finished, one piece of stuff does not 
 pass by the breadth of the other ; therefore if the mortise came 
 close to the end, there would be nothing to resist and keep the 
 tenon in its place : for this reason, the mortise must never be cut 
 out to the extremity, but always at least one fourth of the whole 
 breadth farther in ; if the insides of the pieces are intended to be 
 entirely square, you may make the length of the mortise from the 
 inside pencil lines equal to, or nearly two-thirds of the breadth of 
 the tenoned piece. Set the distance of the teeth of the mortise 
 gauge equal to the thickness of the tenon or breadth of the mor- 
 tise, and the distance from, and of the nearer tooth to the head, 
 equal to the thickness of the cheek of the mortise or shoulder of 
 the tenon, then gauge both pieces on the inner edges from the 
 face, and also on the outer edges from the same face, return the 
 pencil lines upon the outer edge of the mortised piece. Lay the 
 piece to be mortised upon the mortise stool, with the side upper- 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 143 
 
 most which is to be the inside, and mortise half through: turn the 
 other edge uppermost, and mortise the other half; the reason of 
 mortising one half at a time is obvious, when it is considered, that 
 the holding of the mortise chisel at right angles to the surface, is 
 all guess work; the mortise would therefore be liable to go not 
 only obliquely, but uneven : the length of the mortise must be a 
 little more on the outer edge than on the inner, as the tenon when 
 it comes to be stationed to its place, is secured by wedges and 
 glue : the ends of the piortise must be quite straight, though in- 
 clining towards each other next to the inside or shoulder of the 
 tenon ; the sides of the cheeks of the mortise must be cut smooth 
 with the paring chisel: and for the purpose of having the width of 
 the mortise, when finished, the exact thickness of the tenon, the 
 mortise chisel ought to be rather of less thickness than that of the 
 tenon. 
 
 To form the tenon : cut the shoulders in with the drawing knife ; 
 place the side hooks at right angles to the sides of the bench, the 
 knob or catch of each against the side board ; place the tenoned 
 piece upon the side hooks, and against the other knobs on the 
 bench, and with the tenon saw cut the shoulders of the tenon on 
 one side, and turn the other side up arid cut the other shoulder ; 
 take the piece and fix it in the bench screw, and with a hand saw 
 cut off the two outside pieces called the tenon cheeks from the 
 sides of the tenon, keeping the stufT entire between the gauge 
 lines ; and if the saw is in good order, it will not be necessary to 
 do any more to the sides; but if the saw has been led away from 
 the draughts, cither from carelessness or from its beng in bad or- 
 der, recourse must be had to the paring chisel, so as to take away 
 the superfluous wood to the gauge lines, and lastly to the skew- 
 faced rebate plane. Having finished the sides of the tenon, it 
 must be reduced from the outer edge to a breadth equal to the 
 length of the mortise, this reduction is called haunching, but it is 
 better to have a little piece to project beyond the shoulder, and 
 then to cut a shallow mortise of the same depth close to the far 
 
144 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 ther end of the mortise piece ; this little tenon is called slump 
 haunchings. Insert the tenon in a mortise, driving the end of the 
 tenoned piece wjtfh a mallet, until the shoulder comes home to the 
 face of the mortise : then if your work has been truly tried-up and 
 set out, both shoulders will be quite close to the inner edge of the 
 mortised piece ; having thus finished the mortise and tenon, you 
 may take it out and glue the shoulders of the tenon and inner edge 
 of the mortise with very hot glue ; then drive the tenoned piece 
 home ; if very stiff, it will be necessary to. use a cramp ; however, 
 the use of this will be better understood in making a complete 
 frame. 
 
 § 82. Boarding Floors, 
 
 Boarded floors are those covered with boards. The operation of 
 boarding floors should commence as soon as the windows are in, 
 and the plaster dry. The preparation of the boards for this pur- 
 pose is as follows: 
 
 They should first be planed on their best face, and set out to 
 season till the natural sap is quite exhausted ; they may then be 
 
 ned smooth, shot and squared upon one edge : the opposite 
 edges are brought to a breadth, by drawing a line on the face pa- 
 rallel to the other edge, with a flooring gauge; they are then 
 gauged to a thickness with a common gauge, and rebated down 
 on the back to the lines drawn by the gauge. 
 
 The next thing to be done is to try the joists, whether they be 
 level or not : if they are found to be depressed in the middle, they 
 must be furred up, and if found to protuberant must be reduced 
 by the adze. The former is more generally the case. 
 
 The boards employed in flooring are either battens or deals of 
 greater breadth. The quality of battens are divided into three 
 kinds; the best is that free of knots, shakes, sap-wood, or cross, 
 grained stuff*, and well matched, that is, selected with the greatest 
 care; the second best is that in which only small, but sound knots 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 145 
 
 are permitted, and free of sliakes and sap-wood ; the most common 
 kind is that which is left, after taking away the best and second 
 best. 
 
 With regard to the joints of flooring boardll^they are either 
 quite square, plowed and tongued, rebated, or doweled ; in fixing 
 them they are nailed either upon one or both edges ; they are al- 
 ways necessarily nailed on both edges, when the joints are plain 
 or square without dowels. When they are doweled, they may be 
 nailed on one or both edges ; but in the best doweled work, the 
 outer edge only is nailed, by driving the brad obliquely through 
 that edge without piercing the surface of the board ; so that the 
 surface of the floor, when cleaned off*, appears without blemish. 
 
 In laying boarded floors, the boards are sometimes laid one 
 after another; or otherwise, one is first laid, then the fourth, 
 leaving an interval somewhat less than the breadth of the seccnd 
 and third together: the two intermediate boards are next laid in 
 their places, with one edge upon the edge of the first board, and 
 the other upon that of the fourth board ; the two middle edges 
 renting upon each other, and forming a ridge at the joint ; to 
 force down these joints, two or more workmen jump upon the 
 ridge till they have brought the under sides of the boards close to 
 the joints, then they are fixed in their places with bracks. In this 
 last method, the boards are said to be folded. Though two boards 
 are here mentioned, the most common way is to fold four at a 
 time ; this mode is only taken when the boards are not sufficiently 
 seasoned, or suspected not to be so. In order to make close 
 work, it is obvious that the two edges forming the joint of the 
 second and third boards, must form angles with the faces, each 
 Jess than a right angle. The seventh board is fixed as the fourth, 
 and the fifth and sixth inserted as the second and third, and so on 
 till the completion. 
 
 The headings are either square, splayed, or plowed and tongued. 
 
 When it is necessary to have a heading in the length of the floor, 
 
 it should always be upon a joist. One heading should never meet 
 
 another. 
 
 Nos. 9 & 10. .s 
 
146 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Whsn floors are doweled, it is better to place dowels over the 
 middle of the interjoist, than over the joists, in order to prevent 
 the edge of one^board from passing that of the other. When the 
 boards are onlyibraded upon one edge, the brads are most fre- 
 quently conceded, by driving them slanting through the outer edge 
 of every successive board, without piercing the upper surface. In 
 adzing away the under sides of the boards opposite to the joists, 
 m order to equalize their thickness, the greatest care should be 
 taken to chip them straight, and exactly down to the rebates, as 
 the soundness of the floor depends on this. 
 
 § 83. Hanging of Shutters to be cut. 
 
 Shutters to oe cut must first be hung the whole length, and taken 
 down and cut ; but observe that you do not cut the joint by the 
 range of the middle bar, but at right angles to the sides of the sash 
 frame, for unless this be done, the ends will not all coincide when 
 folded together. In order to hang shutters at the first trial, set off 
 the margin from the bead on both sides, then take half the thickness 
 of the knuckle of the hinge, and prick it on each side from the 
 margin, so drawn towards the middle of the window, at the places 
 of the hinges ; put in brads at these pricks ; then putting the shut- 
 ter to its place, screw it fast, and when opened it will turn to the 
 place intended. 
 
 § 84. Hanging of Doors, 
 
 Doors should be hung so as to rise above the carpet ; for this 
 purpose, the knuckle of the bottom hinge should be made to pro- 
 ject the whole pin beyond the surface of the door, while the centre 
 of the upper pin comes rather within the surface. To render this 
 still more efl^ectual, the floor is sometimes raised immediately un- 
 der the door. A door wider at the bottom than at the top, in c 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 147 
 
 trapezoidal form, will also have the effect of clearing the floor : 
 most of the ancient doora were of this figure. 
 
 § S5. To Scribe one Piece of Board or Stuff to another. 
 
 When the edge end or sidp of one piece of stuff is fitted close 
 to the superficies of another, the former is said to be scribed to 
 the latter. Thus the skirting boards of a room should be scribed 
 to the floor. In moulded framing, the moulding upon the rails, if 
 not quirked, are scribed to the styles, and muntins upon rails. 
 To scribe the edge of a board against any uneven surface : lay 
 the edge of the board over its place, with the face in the position 
 in which it is to stand : with a pair of stiff compasses opened to the 
 widest part, keeping one leg close to the uneven surface, move or 
 draw the compasses forward, so that the point of the other leg may 
 mark a line on the board, and that the two points may always be 
 in a straight line parallel to the straight line in which the two 
 points were at the commencement of the motion : then cut away 
 the wood between this line and the bottom edge, and the one will 
 coincide with the other. 
 
 §86. Doors. 
 
 Doors ought to be made of clean good stuff, firmly put together, 
 the mitres or scribings brought together with the greatest exact- 
 ness, and the whole of their surfaces perfectly smooth ; particu- 
 larly those made for the best apartments of good houses. In order 
 to effect this, the whole of the work ought to be set out and tried- 
 up with particulai care ; saws and all other tools must be in good 
 order ; * the mortising, tenoning, plowing, and sticking of the 
 mouldings, ought to be correctly to the gauge lines ; these being 
 strictly attended to, the work will of necessity, when put together, 
 close with certainty ; but if otherwise, the workman must expect 
 a great deal of trouble in paring the different parts before the work 
 
148 
 
 JOINERY 
 
 can be made to appear in any degree passable ; this will also oc 
 casion a want of firmness in the work, particularly if the tenons 
 and mortises are obliged to be pared. 
 
 In bead and flush doors, the best way is to mitre the work 
 square, afterwards put in the panels, and smooth the whole off 
 together; then, marking the panels at the parts of the framing they 
 agree to, take the door to pieces, and work the beads on the 
 stiles, rails, and muntins. 
 
 If the doors are double margin, that is, representing a pair of 
 folding doors, the staff stile which imitates the meeting stiles, must 
 be centred to the top and bottom of the door, as well as the hang- 
 ing ; and lock stiles, by forking the ends into notches, cut in the 
 top and bottom rails. 
 
 §87. Stairs. 
 
 Stairs are one of the most important things to be considered in 
 a building, not only with regard to the situation, but as to the de- 
 sign and execution : the convenience of the building depends on 
 the situation ; and the elegance on the design and execution of the 
 workmanship. A stair-case ought to be sufficiently lighted, and 
 the head-way uninterrupted. The half paces and quarter paces 
 ought to be judiciously distributed. The breadth of the steps ought 
 never to be more than fifteen inches, nor less than ten ; the height 
 not more than seven, nor less than five ; there are cases, however, 
 which are exceptions to all rule. When you have the height of 
 the story given in feet, and the height of the step in inches, you 
 may throw the feet into inches, and divide the height of the story 
 in inches by the height of the step ; if there be jno remainder, or 
 if the remainder be less than the half of the divisor, the quotient 
 will show the number of steps ; but if the remainder be greater 
 than the half of the divisor, you must take one step more than the 
 number shown by the quotient : in the two latter cases, you must 
 divide the height of the story by the number of steps, and the quo- 
 tient will give the exact height of a step : in the first case, you 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 149 
 
 Ijave the height of the steps at once, and this is the case what- 
 ever description the stairs are of. In order that people may pass 
 freely, the length of the step ought never to be less than four 
 feet, though in town houses, for want of room, the going of the 
 stair is frequently reduced to two feet and a half. 
 
 Stairs have several varieties of structure, which depends prin- 
 cipally on the situation and destination of the building. Geome- 
 trical stairs are those which are supported by one end being fixed 
 in the wall, and every step in the ascent having an auxiliary 
 support from that immediately below it, and the lowest step, con- 
 sequently from the floor. 
 
 Bracket stairs are those that have an opening or well, with 
 strings and newels, and are supported by landings and carriages, 
 the brackets mitering to the ends of each riser, and fixed to the 
 string board, which is moulded below like an architrave. 
 
 Dog-legged stairs are those which have no opening or well- 
 hole, the rail and balusters of both the progressive and returning 
 flights fall in the same vertical planes, the steps being fixed to 
 strings, newels and carriages, and the ends of the steps of the 
 inferior kind, terminating only upon the side of the string, without 
 any housing. 
 
 §88. Of Dog.Iegged Stairs. 
 
 The first thing is to take the dimensions of the stair and height 
 
 of the story, and lay down a plan and section upon a floor to the 
 
 full size, representing all the newels, strings, and steps : by this, 
 
 the situation of string boards, pitching pieces, rough strings, long 
 
 bearers, cross bearers, and trimmers will become manifest : the 
 
 quantity of room allowed for the stairs, the situation of apertures 
 
 and passages, will determine whether there are to be quarter 
 
 paces, half paces, one quarter or two quarter winders. In this 
 
 description, in order to give all the variety possible, we shall 
 
 suppose the flight to consist of two quarter winders. 
 
 The strings, rails, and newels being framed together, they musr 
 M 2 
 
150 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 then be fixed, first with temporary supports, the string board will 
 show the situation of the pitching pieces, which must be put up 
 next in order, wedging the one end firmly into the wall, and fixing 
 the other end to the string board ; this being done, pitch up the 
 rough strings, and thus finish the carriage part of the flyers. In 
 dog-leg staircases, the steps and risers are seldom glued up, 
 except in cases of returned nosings ; we shall therefore suppose 
 them to be separate pieces, and proceed to put up the steps : place 
 the first riser to its situation ; having fitted it down so as to be 
 close to the floor, the top being brought to a level at its proper 
 height, and at the same time, the face in its right position, fix it 
 with flat headed nails, driving them obliquely through the bottom 
 part of the riser into the floor, and then nailing the end to the 
 string board. Proceed then to cover the riser with the first tread, 
 observing to notch out the farther bottom angle opposite the rough 
 strings, so as to make it to fit closely down to a level on the top 
 side, while the under side beds firmly upon the rough strings at 
 the back edge, and to the riser towards the front edge ; nail down 
 the tread to the rough strings, driving the nails from the seat or 
 place on which the next riser stands, through that edge of the 
 riser into the rough strings, and then naiUng the end to the string 
 board ; begin with the second riser, having brought it to a breadth, 
 and fitted it close to the top side of the tread, so that the back 
 edge of the tread below it may entirely lap over the back of the 
 riser, while the front side is in its regular vertical position ; nail 
 the head to this riser, from the under side, taking care that the 
 nails do not go through the face of the riser, for this would spoil 
 the beauty of the work. 
 
 Proceed in this manner as in the last, with tread and riser al- 
 ternately, until the last parallel riser. The face of this riser must 
 stand the whole projection of the nosing back from the face of the 
 newel. Then fix the top of your first bearer for the first winding 
 tread, on a level with the top of the last parallel riser, so tha^ 
 the farther edge of this bearer may stand about an inch forward 
 from the back of the next succeeding riser, for the purpose of 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 151 
 
 nailing the treads to the risers upwards, as was done in the treads 
 and risers of the flyers, and having fitted the end of this bearer 
 against the back of the riser, and nailed or screwed it fast thereto; 
 this being done, fix a cross bearer, by letting it in half its thick- 
 ness, into the adjacent sides of the top of the riser, and into the 
 top of the long bearer, so as not to cut through the horizontal 
 breadth of the long bearer, nor through the thickness of the riser, 
 for this would weaken the long bearer, and spoil the look of the 
 riser. Then fix the riser to the newel, driving a nail obliquely 
 from the top edge of the riser into the newel ; you may then pro- 
 ceed to put down the first winding tread, .fitting it close to the 
 newel, in the bird's-mouth form ; proceed with all the succeeding 
 risers and heads, always fixing in the bearers previously to the 
 laying of each successive tread, until the steps round the winding 
 part are entirely completed. Proceed then with the upper retro- 
 gressive range of flyers, as those below. Fit the brackets into 
 the backs of the risers and treads, so that their edges may join 
 each other upon the sides^of the rough strings to which they are 
 fixed by nails, and thus the work is completed. There are some 
 workmen who do not mind the close fitting to the riser ; but cer- 
 tainly it makes the firmest work. 
 
 In the best kind of dog-leg stairs, the nosings are returned, and 
 sometimes the risers mitred to brackets, and sometimes mitred 
 with quaker strings : in this case, there is a hollow mitred round 
 the internal angle of the under side of the tread, and the face ot 
 the riser. Sometimes the string is framed into the newel, and 
 notched to receive the ends of the steps, and at the other end a 
 corresponding notch board, then the whole flyjrs are put up as a 
 step ladder. 
 
 In order to get the lower part for the turning, set on the thick- 
 ness of the capping on the return string board, and where that 
 falls on the newel below, is the place of the under limit ot the 
 turning. 
 
 To find the section of the cap of the newel for the turner, draw 
 a circle to its intended diameter, draw a straight line from the 
 
152 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 centre to imy point without the circumference^ and set half the 
 breadih of the rail on each side of that hne, and through the point 
 draw a line parallel to the middle straight line, then the two ex- 
 treme lines will contain the breadth of the rail ; draw any radiust 
 of the circle, and set half the breadth of the rail from the centre 
 toward the circumference, and through the point where this 
 breadth falls, draw a concentric circle from the point where this 
 circle cuts the middle line of the rail; draw two lines to the points 
 where the breadth of the rail intersects the outer circle, and these 
 lines will show the mitre. The section may then be found by ths 
 following method. 
 
 After having drawn the outline of the cap and rail as above, 
 take a small portion of the rail, and cut it to the mitre as drawn, 
 then take a block ot sufficient size for the cap, and cut out the 
 internal mitre of the cap to answer the external mitre of the rail: 
 place the mitre of the rail into its mitre socket, and draw a line 
 where the surface of the piece meets the mitre ; draw the middle 
 line of the rail upon both sides of the bldck, which will bisect each 
 mitre ; take the distance from the centre of'the circle above drawn 
 to the mitre point, and set it on each side of the block for the cap 
 upon the middle line of the breadth of the rail, from the mitre 
 point towards the centre of the block, pricking the block at the 
 other extremity of this distance ; then these points will be the 
 centres for turning. Fit a piece of wood to the internal mitre, 
 pare off the top part of this piece next to the mitre of the cap, so 
 as to correspond to the line drawn by the top of the rail, then with 
 weak glue stick in this piece to i's birth ; and being so fitted, send 
 it to the turner. 
 
 In order to eradicate a prevalent false idea which many work- 
 men entertain, when the outer edge of the mitre cap is turned so 
 as to have the same section as that of the rail, they suppose this 
 to be all that is necessary for the mitring of the above : but from 
 a very little inves<igation of the nature of the lines, they will easily 
 be convinced that the sides of the mitre can never be straight 
 surfj^ce;) cr planes, hut must be curved, when this is the case. 
 
JOINERY 
 
 153 
 
 §89. Bracket Stairs. .. 
 
 The sam methods must be observed with regard to taking tne 
 dimensions, and laying down the plan and section, as in dog-Iegget^ 
 stairs. In all stairs whatever, after having ascertained the numoer 
 of steps, take a rod the height of the story, from the surface of tne 
 lower floor to the surface of the upper floor: divide the rod into as 
 many equal parts as there are to be risers, then if you have a level 
 surface to work upon below the stair, try each one of the risers as 
 you go on ; this will prevent any excess or defect, which even the 
 smallest difference will occasion: for any error, however small, 
 when multiplied, becomes of considerable magnitude, and even 
 the difference of an inch in the last riser, being too high or too 
 low, will not only have a bad effect to the eye, but will be apt to 
 confound persons not thinking of any such irregularity. In order to 
 try the steps properly, by the story rod, if you have not a level sur- 
 face to work from, the better way will be to lay two rods or boards, 
 and level their top surface to that of the floor, one of these rods 
 heing placed a little within the string, and the other near or close 
 to the wall, so as to be at right angles to the starting line of the 
 first riser, or, which is the same thing, parallel to the plan of the 
 string; set off the breadth of the steps upon these rods, and number 
 the risers ; you may set not only the breadth of the flyers, but that 
 of the winders also. In order to try the story rod exactly to its 
 vertical situation, mark the same distances on the ba^-'-^ of the 
 risers upon the top edges, as the distances of the plan of the string 
 board and the rods are from each other. 
 
 As the internal angle of the steps is open to the end, and noi 
 closed by the string, as in common dog-legged stairs, and the neat- 
 ness of workmanship is as much regarded as in geometrical stairs- 
 the balusters must be neatly dove-tailed into the ends of the steps 
 two in every step ; the face of each front baluster must be in a 
 straight surface with the face of the riser; and as all the balusters 
 must be e*[ually divided, the face of the middle baluster must m 
 course stand in the middle of the face of the riser of the preceding 
 
 • 
 
154 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 step, and the face of the riser of the succeeding step. The risers 
 and treads are all glued and blocked previously together ; and when 
 put up, the under side of the step nailed or screwed into the under 
 edge of the riser, and then rough bracked to the rough strings, as 
 in the dog-legged stairs; the pitching pieces and rough strings being 
 similar to those. In gluing up the steps, the best method is to make 
 a templet, so as to fit the external angle of the steps with the nosing. 
 
 § 90. Geojnetrical Stairs, 
 
 The steps of geometrical stairs ought to be constructed so as to 
 have a very light and clean appearance when put up : for this 
 purpose, and to aid the principle of strength, the risers and treads 
 when planed up, ought not to be less than one inch and an eighth, 
 supposing the going of the stair or length of the step to be four 
 feet ; and for every six inches in length, you may add one-eighth 
 part more ; the risers ought to be dove-tailed into the cover, and 
 when the steps are put up, the treads are screwed up from below, 
 to the under edges of the risers ; the holes for sinking the heads 
 of the screws ought to be bored with a centre bit, and then fitted 
 closely in with wood well matched, so as to conceal the screws 
 entirely, and to appear a9 one uniform surface without blemish. 
 Brackets are mitred to the riser, and the nosings are continued 
 round : in this mode, however, there is an apparent defect, for the 
 brackets, instead of giving support, are themselves unsupported, 
 depending on the steps, and are of no other use in point of 
 strength, than merely tying the risers and treads of the internal 
 angles of the steps together; and from the internal angles bemg 
 hollow, or a re-enterant right angle, except at the ends, which 
 terminate by the wall at one extremity, and by the brackets at the 
 other, there is a want of regular finish. The cavetto or hollow 
 is carried all round the front of the slip returned at the end, re. 
 turned again at the end of the bracket, thence along the inside of 
 the same, "^.r-d then along the internal angle of the back of the riser. 
 
JOINERY 
 
 155 
 
 This is a slight imitation of the ancient mode, which was to 
 make the steps solid all the way, so as to have every where 
 throughout its length a bracket-formed section. This, though 
 more natural in appearance, would be expensive and troublesome 
 to execute, particularly when v/inders are used, but much stronger. 
 
 The best mode, however, of constructing geometrical stairs, is 
 to put up the strings, and to mitre the brackets to the risers as 
 usual, and finish the soffit with lath and plaster, which' will form 
 an inclined plane under each flight, and a winding surface under 
 the winders. In elegant buildings, the soffit may be divided into 
 panels. If the risers are got out of two inch stuff, it will greatly 
 add to the solidity. The following is the method of drawing and 
 executing the scroll and other wreathed parts of the hand rail. 
 
 PLATE XX. 
 
 To describe the scrool of a Hand Rail, 
 
 From any convenient point, o, Fig. 1, Plate 20, as a centre 
 describe a circle, e f g and describe the square a b c d, oi 
 which the centre is the same, point o, and of which the sides a, h, 
 b c, c d, da, are each one third of the diameter of the circle. 
 Divide each side of the square into six equal parts, (see also Fig. 
 2, drawn at large,) and through the points of division draw lines 
 parallel to the sides; taking ihe distance 0, 1, equal to the side 
 of one of the lesser squares ; the distance from 1 to 2, equal in 
 length to twice the side of one of the little squares ; the distance 
 from 2 to 3, equal to three times the side of one of the little 
 squares, and so on increasing each line by the side of one of the 
 lesser squaies, for the other distances, from 3 to 4, and from 4 to 
 5, and from 5 to 6, in such a manner, that the distance from 1 
 to 2, from 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, from 4 to 5, from 5 to G, may be 
 respectively perpendicular to the distances from 0 to 1, from 1 to 
 
156 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 2, from 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, and from 4 to 5. See the centres 
 constructed to a larger scale, Fig, 2. 
 
 Let the distance between 1 and 0 be produced to meet the circle 
 f. Then from the centre 1, with the radius if, describe the quadrant 
 ft; from the centre 2, with the distance 2 i, describe the qua- 
 drant ih; from 3, with the distance 3 describe the quadrant 
 h I ; from 4, with the distance 4 Z, describe the quadrant 1 m ; 
 from 5, with the distance 5 m, describe the quadrant m n, and 
 lastly from 6, with the radius 6 n, describe the quadrant n p. 
 
 In the radius 6 p, make p q equal to the breadth of the hand-rail, 
 say two inches ; then, from the centre 6, describe the quadrant q r, 
 meeting the radius 5 n in r ; from the centre 5, with the radius 5 r, 
 describe the arc r s, which will complete the scroll. The shank of 
 the scroll is drawn from the points p and q, parallel to the radius 6 n. 
 
 Curtail step is the lowest step of the stair, one end being formed 
 into a spiral, agreeable to the scroll of the hand rail. 
 
 JiCt the balusters be so placed, that the distances between every 
 two nearest may be all equal, that two balusters may stand upon 
 every step, and that the front of a baluster may be in the plane of 
 every riser. Likewise that the middle of every baluster, may be 
 in the middle of the breadth of the hand-rail, and that the' middle 
 of the balusters which support the scroll, may also be in the mid- 
 dle of the breadth of the scroll, and that the outer edges of these 
 balusters, may be all at the same distance from the curved edge 
 of the curtail step, and lastly, that none of the distances between 
 those which support the scroll, be greater than those which rise 
 from the flyers to support the rail, and that the distances of the 
 balusters which rise from the curtail step to support the scroll, 
 may be less and less, as the radius of curvature for describing the 
 plan of the scroll is less. 
 
 Hence the plan of the rail will be in the middle of the plan of 
 the curtail step, and because the projection of the nosing from the 
 outside the baluster, is greater than the projection of the outside 
 of the rail, the breadth of the scroll of the hand-rail, will be less 
 than the breadth of the scroll worked on the end of the curtail step. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 157 
 
 To describe tJie Curtail Step. 
 
 Let the balusters be properly placed in the order now described, 
 arid let k be the angle of the baluster in the front of the second 
 riser, and let n o be the breadth of a baluster in the breadth of the 
 ?eil. Make o d each equal to the projection of the nosing, and 
 through the point d describe the spiral d e f g i, to follow the 
 nearest spiral in the place of the rail ; also through the point p 
 describe the spiral p m l, so as to be every where equidistant 
 I'rom that which forms the other edge of the plan of the scroll. 
 These two last described spirals may be drawn from the same 
 centres, as those from which the edges of the scroll were drawn. 
 To render this description evident to workmen, b c is a section of 
 the nosing of the front of the curtail step, and c d is a plan of the 
 nosing attached to the straight part of the curtail step. Likewise 
 L M is the plan of the nosing which projects from the strong board. 
 
 To describe tlie Face Mould for tJie meathed part of the Scroll. 
 
 Draw the straight line u v, parallel to the shank of the scroll, 
 to touch the interior part nearest the centre, and let it meet the 
 outside of the scroll in v. Make v u equal to the breadth of one of 
 the flyers, and draw u w, perpendicular to v w, and make w w equal 
 to the height of a step, and join v w. From the curved edge of 
 the scroll, draw ordinates perpendicular to u u. Transfer the 
 several distances from w, where the ordinate or ordinates pro- 
 duced, intersect v w, to the line v Fig. 5, and draw the ordi- 
 nates in Fig. 5, and make them respectively equal to the ordinates 
 both of the outside and inside curves of Fig, 5, and the ends, then 
 the shadowed figure of Fig. 5, will be the face mould. 
 
158 
 
 JOliNEilY. 
 
 To Jind the Falling Moulds, 
 
 Let Q be that point in the outside spiral which separates the 
 wreathed part of the scroll from the level next to the centre. 
 
 In Fig, 4, describe the right-angled triangle a c b, identical to 
 the right-angled triangle uvw, Fig, 1, a b being equal to the height 
 of a step. Produce a c to e, and make d e equal to the develope- 
 inent of the next line, tjyvno,. 
 
 Divide a b into six equal parts, and let d be the first point of 
 division. Draw d f parallel to a e, and e f, parallel to a d, inter- 
 secting B c in G. Describe a parabola b h f, to touch g f and 
 G B at B and f ; this may be conveniently formed by the intersec- 
 tions of lines ; also draw another curve, i k L, under the other, 
 and every where 2 inches distant from it, which distance must be 
 the depth of the rail, and the falling mould, Fig, 4, for the convex 
 side will be complete. Fig. 3, inside falling mould. 
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 
 explanation. 
 
 Showing the Construction of a Dog-leg Staircase, 
 
 No. 1. the plan. 
 No. 2, the elevation. 
 
 A B, No. 2. the lower newel, the part B C being turned 
 a No. 1. the seat of the newel on the plan. 
 G H, No. 2. the upper newel. 
 g, No. 1. its seat on the plan. 
 
 D E and F G, No. 2. lower and upper string boards framed 
 mto the newels. 
 
 K L, No. 2 a joist framed into the trimmer I. 
 
 kl,n 0, q r, &c. No. 2. the faces of the risers ; m n, p q, s t, 
 the treads of the cover boards. 
 
 m, p, 5, &;c. No. 2. the nosings of steps. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 150 
 
 The dotted lines on the plan, represent the faces of the risers ; 
 and the continued lines, the nosings of the steps. 
 M O and F Q, upper and lower ramps. 
 
 The method of drawing the ramp is as follows : suppose the 
 upper ramp to be drawn ; produce the top H M of the rail to P 
 draw M N perpendicular to the horizon, and produce the straigh 
 part O N of the pitch of the rail, to meet it in N ; making N O 
 equal to N M : draw O P at right angle to O N : from P as a 
 centre, describe the arc M O, and then the other concentric cir- 
 cle, which will complete the ramp required. 
 
 R S the story rod ; a necessary article in fixing the steps, for 
 if put up only by a common measuring rule, will frequently occa- 
 sion an excess or defect in the height, so as to render the stair 
 extremely faulty, which cannot be the case, if the story rod is 
 applied to every riser, and the riser regulated thereby. In the 
 aforesaid case, the error is liable to multiply. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 To draw the Scroll of a Hand-rail, 
 
 In Fig. A, make a circle for. the eye three inches and a half 
 diameter, divide the diameter into three equal parts, and make a 
 square in the centre to one of those parts, and divide each side of 
 the square into six equal parts ; this square is shown in E, at the 
 bottom, in full size for practice, and laid in the same position as 
 the little square, above, so that the centres may be more readily 
 found. These centres are all marked in a regular position ; the 
 centre at 1 draws from i round to k, the centre at 2 draws from 
 k to Z, and the centre at 3 draws from I to ttz, (fee. which will 
 complete the outside revolution at a, with the centre c; then set 
 the thickness of the rail from a to /, and go the reverse way to 
 draw the mside ; then the scroll will be completed. 
 
160 JOINERY. 
 
 Note, In order to prevent confusion, the letters are not Kiarked 
 in the small square, Fig. A. 
 
 To draw the Curtail Step, 
 
 Set the balusters in their proper places on each quarter of the 
 scroll in Fig. A ; the first baluster shows the return of the nosing 
 round the step, the second baluster is placed at the beginning of 
 the twist, and the third baluster a quarter distant, and straight 
 with the front of the last riser : then the projection of the nosing 
 is set without, and drawn concentric with the scroll, which will 
 give the form of the curtail. 
 
 To draw the Face Mould for squaring the Twist Part of the Scroll, 
 
 The reader will observe here, that the joint is made at 3, 6, 
 just to clear the side of the scroll ; draw ordinates across the scroll 
 at discretion, to cut the line d b, a b c being the pitch board ; take 
 notice that lines be drawn from 3 and 6 to meet d, b, so that you 
 may have the said points exact at 3 and 6 in your face mould ; 
 then take the line 5, and mark the places of the ordinates upon 
 a rod, and transfer the divisions to (2 5 in B, then trace B, from 
 Fioj. A, according to the letters. 
 
 To find the falling Mould C, 
 
 In C, ab c 13 the pitch-board ; the height is divided into six 
 parts, to give the level of the scroll ; the distance a d is from the 
 face of the riser to the beginning of the twist ; and the distance 
 from d to k in C, is the stretch-out from «, the beginning of the 
 twist to h in Fig. A ; each being any point taken at discretion 
 
JOINERY 
 
 161 
 
 more than the first quarter ; divide the level of the scroll, and the 
 rake of the pitch-board, into a like number of parts, and complete 
 the top edge of the mould by intersecting lines, and the under 
 edge parallel to it to the depth of the rail. 
 
 To Jind the parallel thicJeness of Stuff for the Twist and Scroll. 
 
 Extend the curve abode, to 6, in Fig. A, upon the base of 
 the pitch-board from d to g, in Fig. C ; draw g h perpendicular to 
 intersect with the top of the mould ; draw the dotted line h f 
 parallel to the level of the scroll both ways ; apply the distance 
 6 1, in Fig. A, that is, the length of the plan, for the twist part, 
 from cZ to e in C, and draw e f perpendicular, to cut the parallel 
 fh; draw a dotted line through/, parallel to c b, the longest side 
 of the pitch-board, which gives the thickness of stuff for the twist, 
 about three inches and a half; and the parallel line fromy* to the 
 base, shows the thickness of the scroll. 
 
 Note. The falling mould D, for the outside, is found in the 
 same manner as the other falling mould C. 
 
 In order to get a true idea of the twist of the hand rail, the 
 section of the rail by a plane passing through the axis of the well- 
 hole or cylinder is every where a rectangle, that is, the plumb or 
 vertical section, tending to the centre of the stair. This rect- 
 angle is every where of an equal breadth, but not of an equal 
 vertical dimension in every part of the rail, unless that the risers 
 and treads were every where the same, from the top to the hot- 
 tom : the height is greatest above the winders, because the tread 
 is of less breadth, and it is of less height above the flyers ; the 
 tread being the greatest. If you cut the rail after squaring it, 
 perpendicular to any of its curved sides, the section will not then 
 be a rectangle, three of the sides will at least be curved. Hence 
 two falling moulds laid down in the usual way, will not square the 
 rail, though in wide openings, they may do it sufficiently near 
 
 Nos. 11&12. u 
 
162 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Hence in squaring the rail, the square can never be applied at 
 right angles to any one of the four arrises, for the edge of the stock 
 will not comply with the side of the rail, being curved ; this would 
 be easily made to appear by making a wreathed part of a rail, of 
 unusual dimensions, and cutting it in both directions. Therefore, 
 to apply the square right, keep the stock to the plumb of the stair; 
 and to guide the blade properly, the stock ought to be very thick, 
 and made concave to the plan, so as to prevent the possibility of 
 its wabbling or turning from side to side ; as a little matter up or 
 a little down, in the direction of the blade, would make a great 
 difference in the rectangling or squaring of the rail. 
 
 All this might easily be conceived from the cylinder itself, for 
 there is no direction in which a straight line can be drawn on the 
 surface of a cylinder, but one, and this line is in a plane passing 
 through the axis of the cylinder ; and as the two vertical surfaces 
 of the rail are portions of cylinders, there can be no straight line 
 upon such surface, but what must be vertical ; all others from this 
 principle are curves ; o^ the sections of the rail are bounded by 
 curves, or by a curve on that side. 
 
 In gluing a rail up in thicknesses, it will be sufficiently near to 
 get out a piece of wood to the twisted form by two falling moulds, 
 provided the well-hole be not less than one foot diameter ; the 
 thickness of this piece, as is there stated, must be equal to the 
 thickness, or rather the horizontal breadth of the rail, together 
 with the thickness which the number of saw kerfs will amount to; 
 and also the amount of the substance, taken away by planing the 
 veneers. We are now supposing the plan of the rail to be semi- 
 circular, with two straight »'arts one above and one below; a 
 plan more frequently ad from motives of economy, than from 
 any propriety of elegance. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to make a cylinder of plank to the 
 size of the well-hole. Draw two level lines round the surface of this 
 cylinder, at the top and bottom ; upon each of these lines, set off the 
 treads of the steps, at the end next the well-hole. Draw lines 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 163 
 
 between every two corresponding points at the head and foot, 
 and these lines will be all parallel to the axis of the cylinder. 
 Upon the two lines where the cylindric part begins to commence, 
 and also upon a middle line between these lines, set the heights 
 of the winders, and the height of one of the flyers above and 
 below, or as much as is intended to be taken ofl* the straight 
 of the rail. Take a pliable slip of wood, straight on one edge, and 
 bend it round, and keep the straight edge of it upon the three cor- 
 responding points at the height of the last rise of the flyer; then draw 
 the tread of the first winding step by the straight edge from the line 
 where the cylindric part commences to the first perpendicular line 
 on the curved surface ; take the next three points higher, and draw 
 a line between the second and third perpendicular lines*, proceed in 
 like manner with the next three higher points, and draw a line 
 between the next two adjoining cylindric lines, and the hnes so 
 drawn between each three points will be the section of the treads of 
 the succeeding winding steps. 
 
 Having thus gone through the cylindric part, draw a step at the 
 top, and another at the bottom, and thus the sections of the steps 
 will be completed ; draw the hypothenusal or pitch lines of the flyer 
 on the lower part, and that of the upper part, and whatever differ- 
 ence you make in the height of the rail between the flyers and the 
 winders, you must set it up from the nosings of the steps of the 
 winders upon two of the perpendicular lines : draw a line through 
 the two points, by bending a straight edged slip round the cylinder, 
 the straight edge of the slip coinciding with these points ; this line 
 will represent the top of the rail over the winders, and the hypothe. 
 nusal lines at the bottom and top that of the flyers, then curve 3f! 
 the angles at the top and bottom where the rail of the winding parts 
 meets that of the flyers above and below, then a line being drawn 
 parallel to this, will form the falling mould. The reason of making 
 the vertical elevation of the rail more upon the winders than the 
 flyers, is, that the sudden elevation of the winders diminishes the 
 height of the rail in a direction perpendicular to the raking line, and 
 by this means persons would be liable to fall over it. 
 
164 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 To lay the veneers upon the cylinder, if bed screws or wedges 
 are used, you may try the veneers first upon the cylinder, screwing 
 them down without glue ; prepare several pieces of wood, to lie 
 from six to twelve inches apart, according to the diameter of the 
 well-hole, with two holes in each, distant in the clear something 
 more than the breadth of the rail. Then having marked the posi- 
 tions of the places of these pieces on the cylinder, pierce the cy- 
 linder with corresponding holes on each side of the depth of the 
 rail. If the cylinder is made of plank two inches thick, it will be 
 sufficient for the screws : but if of thinner stuff, it will be conve- 
 nient to set it an end upon stools to get underneath, confining the 
 top with nuts. Unscrew one half, three men being at work, one 
 holding up all the veneers, another gluing, and the third laying them 
 down successively, one after the other, until all are glued : screw 
 them down immediately. Unscrew the other half, and proceed in 
 like manner, and the rail will be glued up. The glue that is used 
 for this purpose, ought to be clear, and as hot as possible : the rail 
 ought likewise to be made hot, as otherwise the glue will be liable 
 to set before all the veneers are put down, and ready for the 
 screws : this operation should therefore be done befc/e a large 
 fire ; the veneers thoroughly heated previous to the commencement, 
 in order that the heat may be as uniformly retained as possible, 
 throughout the process. The glue in the joints of the rail, will take 
 about three weeks to harden in dry weather. 
 
 that the light and shade of the adjoining hollows are more con- 
 trasted, the angle of their meeting being more acute, than if a flat 
 space were formed between them. See Figs. 12 and 13, fluting 
 round the convex surface of a cji^linder 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 165 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII. 
 
 Showing the Construction of Geometrical Stairs* 
 
 No. 1. the plan. 
 
 No. 2. the elevation or section. 
 
 A B, No. 1. the curtail step, which must be first fixed. 
 
 C, C, C, &c. flyers supported below upon rough carriages 
 and partly from the string board D H E F, No. 2 ; sometimes the 
 ends next to the wall are housed into a notch board, and the steps 
 made of thick wood, and no carriages used. 
 
 G, G, G, &c. winders fixed to bearers, cross bearers, and 
 pitching pieces, when the flyers are supported upon carriages: 
 sometimes the winders are made of strong stuff, firmly wedged 
 into the wall, the steps screwed together, and the other ends of 
 the steps fixed to the string D E H F. The strength of the stair 
 may be powerfully assisted by a bar of wrought iron, made to 
 coincide with the inside, and screwed to the string immediately 
 below the steps ; this would make a very light stair, and if well 
 attended to in the workmanship, will be equal in firmness to one 
 of stone. 
 
 H I K, the wall line of the soffit of the stair for winding the 
 part, 
 
 L M N, part of the rail supported by two balusters upon 
 every step. 
 
 n2 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 JOINERY, 
 
 N B nis Mark § refers to the preceding Sections according to 
 
 the Number 
 
 A. 
 
 AsRis, the line of concourse or meeting of two surfaces. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baes for sashes, § 70. See Plate XIX. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8. 
 Basil, § 5. 
 
 Batten, a scantling of stuiT from two inches to seven inches in 
 breadth, and from half an inch to one inch and a half thick, § 82. 
 , Beads, § 31, 68, 69. See Plaie XIV. Figs, 2, 3. Plate XV. 
 Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Bearing Joint is the joint formed by the meeting of several 
 heading joists in one continued line, which is sometimes the 
 case in folded floors. 
 
 Bench, § 2, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 12. 
 
 Bench Hook, § 2. 
 
 Bench Planes, § 14. See Plate XII. Figs, 1, 2, 3. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 167 
 
 Bench Screw, § 2. 
 
 Bevel. One side is said to be bevelled with respect to another, 
 when the angle formed by these two sides, is greater or less 
 than a right angle. 
 
 Bevel, the tool, § 58, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 12. 
 
 Bits, § 34. See Plaie XIII. Fig. 1. 
 
 Blade is expressed of any part of a tool that is broad and thin, 
 as the blade of an axe, of an adze, of a chisel, of a square. 
 The blade of a saw is more frequently called the plate. 
 
 Boarding Floors, § 82, 
 
 Bottom Rail, the lowest rail of a door. 
 
 Bead, a small nail without any projecting head, except on one 
 edge. The intention is to drive it within the surface of the 
 wood, by means of a hammer and punch, and fill the cavity flush 
 to the surface with putty. 
 
 Brad Awl, § 39, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 3. 
 
 Brace and Bits, the same as stock and bits. 
 
 Bbeaking Joint, is, not to allow two joints to come together. 
 
 C. 
 
 Casting or Warping, is the bending of the surfaces of a piece 
 of wood from their original position, either by the weight of the 
 wood, or by an unequal exposure to the weather, or by unequal 
 exture of the wood. 
 
 Cavetto, § 68. 
 
 Centre Bits, § 35. 
 
 Chisels, § 40. See Plate XIII. Figs. 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Cima.Recta, § 68 See Plate XIV. Figs. 10, 11. 
 
 Cima.Reversa, § 68. See Plate XIV. Fig. 12. 
 
 Clamp, a piece of wood fixed to the end of a board, by mortise 
 and tenon, or by groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the 
 one piece thus fixed, transverse those of the board, and by this 
 means prevents it from casting ; the piece at the end is called 
 a clamp, and the board is said to be clamped. 
 
168 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Clear Story Windows are those that have no transom. 
 Countersinks, § 36. 
 Compass Plane, § 15. 
 
 Compass Saw, § 53. See Plate XIIL Fig. 9. 
 
 Cross-grained Stuff, is wood havi-ng its fibres running in con. 
 trary positions to the surfaces, and consequently cannot be made 
 perfectly smooth, when planed in one direction, without turning 
 it or turning the plane. This most frequently arises from a 
 twisted disposition of the fibres, mmmmm mmmm 
 
 Curling Stuff, is that which is occasioned by the winding or 
 coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree, when they 
 begin to shoot out of the trunk. The double iron planes now 
 in use, are a most complete remedy against cross-grained and 
 curling stuff ; the plane will nearly work as smooth against the 
 grain as with it. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dado Grooving Planes, § 29. 
 
 Door Frame, the surrounding case into, and out of which the 
 door shuts and opens, consisting of two upright pieces and a 
 head, generally fixed together by mortise and tenon, and 
 wrought, rebated, and beaded. 
 
 Doors, § 70. See Plates XVI, XVII, XVIII. 
 
 Door Hung, § 84. 
 
 Double Torus, § 69. See Plate XV 
 Dove-tail Saw, § 52. 
 
 Draging in the hanging of doors, is a depression or lowering o! 
 the door, so as to make it rub on the floor, occasioned by the 
 loosening of the hinges, or the settling of the building. 
 
 Draw Bore Pins, two iron pins with wooden handles, for the pur- 
 pose of forcing the shoulders of tenons against the abutments on 
 the cheeks of the mortises, so as make a close joint. Draw 
 bore pins are in joinery, what hook pins are in carpentry, and 
 used in a similar manner. See Carpentry, § 20. 
 
 Drawing Knife, § 44. 
 
JOINERY 169 
 £. 
 
 Edge Tools, all tools made sharp so as to cut. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fence, the guard of a plane which obliges it to work to a certain 
 horizontal breadth from the arris. All moulding planes, except 
 hollows and rounds, and snipesbills, have fixed fences as well as 
 fixed stops, but in fillisters and plows, the fences are moveabloj 
 §20, 21,22, 23, 28, 31. 
 
 Fine Set, when the iron has a very small projection below the 
 sole of the plane, so as to take a very thin broad shaving, it is 
 said to be fine set. 
 
 Firmer Chisel, § 67. See Plate XIII. 
 
 Floors, § 82. 
 
 FORKSTAFF PlANE, § 16. 
 
 Framing, § 81. 
 
 Free Stuff, that which is quite clean or without knots, and works 
 
 easily, without tearing. 
 Frowy Stuff, the same as free stuff. 
 
 6. 
 
 Gauge, § 59, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 13. 
 Gimlet, § 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. No. 1, 2. 
 Gouge, § 43. 
 
 Grind Stone, a cylindric stone, which being turned round its 
 axis, edge tools are sharpened by applying the basil to the con- 
 vex surface. 
 
 Grinding the Iron, § 6. 
 
 Groove, § 28. 
 
 Grooving Planes, § 28. See Plate XII. Fig. 8, 9. § 2. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hammer, See Carpentry. § 15. 
 
 X 
 
170 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Hand Saw, § 48, 67. See P/ate XIII. Fig, 6. 
 Hanging Dooks, § 84. 
 Hanging Shutters, § 83. 
 Hatchet, § 65. 
 
 Hinging Doors and Shutters, § 83, 84. 
 Hollows and Rounds, § 33. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack Plane, § 6, 8, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 1. 
 Jointer, § 12» 
 
 E. 
 
 Kerf, the way which the saw makes in dividing a piece of wood 
 
 into two parts. 
 Key-hole Saw, § 64, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 10. 
 Knot, that part of a branch of a tree where it issues out of the 
 
 trunk. 
 
 L 
 
 Long Plane, § 11. 
 
 Lower Rail, the rail at the foot of a door next to the floor. 
 Lying Panel, a panel with the fibres of the wood disposed 
 
 horizontally. Lying panels have their horizontal dimensions 
 
 generally greater than the vertical dimension. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mallet. See Car^eniry^ § 16. Joinery, § 67. and Plate XII. 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Margins or Margents, the flat part of the stiles and rails of 
 framed work. 
 
 Middle Rail, the rail of a door which is upon a level with the 
 hand when hanging freely and bending the joint of the wrest. 
 The lock of the door is generally fixed in this rail. mmm 
 
 Mitre. When two pieces of wood are formed to equal angles, or 
 each two sides of each piece at equal inclinations, and two 
 sides, one of each piece, joined together at their common vertex, 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 171 
 
 so as to make an angle, or an inclination double to that of either 
 piece, they are said to be mitred together, and the joint is called 
 the mitre. The angle which is thus formed by the junction o' 
 the two, is generally a right angle. 
 Mitre Square, § 66. 
 
 Mortise Chisels, § 42, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig, 5. 
 Mortise and Tenon, § 81. 
 Mortise Gauge, § 60. 
 Moulding Planes, § 30. 
 
 Mouldings, § 68, 69,70. ^eePZateXIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX. 
 Moving Fillister, § 20. 
 
 MuLLioN, the large bars or divisions of windows. 
 
 MuNNioN, a large vertical bar of a window frame, separating two 
 
 casements or glass frames from each other. 
 MuNTiNs or MoNTANTS, the vertical pieces of the frame of a door 
 
 between the stiles. 
 
 O. 
 
 Ogee, a moulding, the transverse section of which consists of two 
 curves of contrary flexture, § 68. See Plate XIV. Figs, 10, 
 11,12. 
 
 P. 
 
 Panel, a thin board, having all its edges inserted in the grooves 
 
 of a surrounding frame. 
 Panel Saw, § 49. 
 
 Plow, § 28, 67. See Plate I. Fig. 8. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarter Round, § 68. See Fig, 7, 
 
 R. 
 
 Rails, the horizontal pieces which contain the tenons in a piece of 
 framing, in which the upper and lower edges of the panels are 
 inserted. 
 
 Raisers. See Risers, 
 
172 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Rank Set, is when the edge of the iron projects considerably 
 
 below the sole of the plane, so as to take a thick shaving. 
 Rebate, § 18. 
 Rebating, § 79, 80. 
 
 Rebating Planes, § 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, also 
 
 67. See Plate XII. Fig, 6, 7. 
 Reeded Mouldings, § 69. See Plate XV. Figs, 7, 8, 9. 
 Return. In any body with two surfaces joining each other at an 
 
 angle, one of the surfaces is said to return ir. respect of the other ; 
 
 or if standing before one surface, so that the eye may be in a 
 
 straight line with the other, or nearly so ; this last is said to return 
 Rimers, § 37. 
 Ripping Saw, § 46. 
 
 Risers, the vertical sides of the steps of stairs. 
 Rub Stone, § 6. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sash Fillisters, § 21, 22. See Plate XII. Fig. 8. 
 Sash Saw, § 51, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 8. 
 Saws, § 45. 
 
 Scantling the transverse dimensions of a piece of timber, sometimes 
 also the small timbers in roofing and flooring, are called scantlings. 
 Scotia, § 68. See Plate XIV. Fig, 9. 
 Scribe, § 85. 
 Shoot, a joint, § 74. 
 Shooting Block, § 63. 
 Shutters Hung, § 83. 
 
 Side Hook, § 61, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 11. 
 Side Rebating Planes, § 27. 
 Side Snipesbills, § 32. 
 
 Single Torus, § 69. See Plate XIY. Fig. 5. Plate XV. Fig. 5 
 Smoothing Plane, § 13, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 3. 
 Snipesbills, § 32. 
 
 Square, § 56, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 11. 
 
 Staff, a piece of wood fixed to the external angle of the two 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 173 
 
 upright sides of a wall for floating the plaster to, and for de. 
 fending the angle against accidents. 
 Stiles of a door, are the vertical parts of the framing at the edges 
 of the door. 
 
 Stock and Bits, § 34, 67. See Plate 13. Fig, 1. 
 Straight Block, § 17. 
 Straight Edge, § 64. 
 Stuff, § 1. 
 
 SuRBASE, the upper base of a room, or rather the cornice of the 
 pedestal of the room which serves to finish the dado, and to 
 secure the plaster against accidents, as might happen by vhe 
 backs of chairs or other furniture on the same level 
 
 T. 
 
 Tang of an Iron is the narrow part of it which passes througn 
 
 the mortise in the stock. 
 Taper, the form of a piece of wood which arises from one end of 
 
 a piece being narrower than the other. 
 Tenon Saw, § 50, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig, 7. 
 Tooth, a small piece of steel with cutting edge in fillisters and gauges 
 Torus, § 69. See Plate XIV. Fig, 5. Plate XV. Figs, 6, 6. 
 Transom Windows, those which have horizontal mullions. 
 Trussels, four-legged stools for ripping and cross-cutting timber 
 
 upon. For this purpose there are generally two required, and 
 
 when the timber is very long, an additional trussel in the middle 
 
 will be found necessary. 
 Try, § 78. 
 Trying, § 78. 
 
 Trying Plane, § 9, 10, 67. See Plate XII. Fig, 10. 
 Turning Saw, § 54, 67. See Plate XIV Fig. 20. 
 
 W. 
 
 Warp. See Cast 
 
 Web of an Iron is the broad part of it which comes to the sole of 
 the plane, the upper edge or end of the web has generally one 
 shoulder, and sometimes two, where it joins ;he tang. 
 
 Winding Sticks. § 64. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 §1. Bricklaying is an art by which bricks are joined and ce- 
 mented, so as to adhere as one body. 
 
 This art, in London, includes the business of walling, tiling, 
 and paving, with bricks or tiles ; and sometimes the bricklayer 
 undertakes the business of plastering also : but this is only done 
 by masters in a small way. In the country, bricklaying and plas- 
 termg are generally joined : and not unfrequently the art of ma- 
 sonry also ; which has a nearer affinity to it than that of plastering. 
 
 The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and mortar at his work 
 by a man, called a labourer, who also makes the mortar. 
 
 The materials used are mortar, bricks, tiles, laths, nails, and 
 tile pins ; bricks and tiles are of several kinds, which, as well as 
 other descriptions of work, are treated of under their respective 
 heads: viz. 1. The tools. 2. Of cements. 3. Of brick-making, 
 and the various sorts of bricks. 4. The several kinds of tiles and 
 laths. 5. The oVfTerent methods of treating foundations, according 
 to the quality of the soil, whether of an uniform or mixed texture. 
 6. Walling. 7. A description of the plates. Lastly, An expla- 
 nation of such terms as have not been defined in the course of the 
 work, or such as may require a farther explanation ; with an index 
 to the principal technical terms used in this art, and in connection 
 therewiin, 2he terms and index being placed under an alphabetical 
 wrangement, as to the former branches of carpentry and joinery. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 BRICKLAYING TOOLS DESCRIBED. 
 § 2. A List of Walling Tools. 
 
 1. A brick trowel , 2. a hammer; 3. a plumb rule ; 4. a level , 
 5. a large square ; 6. a rod; 7. a jointing rule; 8. a jointer; 9. a 
 pair of compasses; 10. a raker; 11. a hod ; 12. a pair of line 
 pins ; 13. a rammer ; 14. an iron <cro\v ; 15. a pick axe ; 16. a 
 grinding stone ; 17. a banker ; 18. a camber slip ; 19. a rubbing 
 stone ; 20. a bedding stone ; 21. a square; 22. a bevel; 23. a 
 mould ; 24. a scribe ; 25. a saw ; 26. an axe ; 27. a templet ; 
 28. a chopping block ; 29. a float stone. 
 
 § 3. A List of Tools used in Tiling, 
 
 1. A lathing hammer; 2. a laying trowel ; 3. a boss ; 4. a 
 pantile strike ; 5. a scurbage. 
 
 TOOLS FOR WALLING DESCRIBED. 
 
 §4. THE BRICK TROWEL 
 
 Is used for taking up mortar, and spreading it on the top of the 
 Wills, in order to cement together the bricks which are to be laid, 
 and also to cut the bricks to any required lengths. 
 
 §6. THE HAMMER 
 Is used for cutting holes in brick- work. 
 
 §6. THE PLUMB RULE 
 
 Is about four feet long, with a line and plummet, in order to cany 
 the faces of walls up vertically. See also Carpentry, § 14. 
 
lie BRICKLAYING. 
 
 §7. THE LEVEL 
 
 Ls about ten or twelve feet long, in order to try the level of walls 
 at various stages of building, and particularly at window sills and 
 wall plates. See also Carpentry, § 12, 13. 
 
 §8. THE LARGE SQUARE 
 
 Is used for setting out the sides of a building at right angles, 
 which is also obtained by Prob. 1, 2, 3. Geometry, page 24. 
 
 §9. THE ROD 
 
 Is either five or ten feet in length, and used for measuring 
 lengths, breadths, and heights, with more despatch than could be 
 done by a pocket rule. 
 
 § 10. THE JOINTING RULE 
 
 Is about eight or ten feet long, according to whether one or two 
 bricklayers are to use it, and about four inches broad. By this 
 rule, they run the joints of the brick- work. 
 
 §11. THE JOINTER 
 
 A^ith which, and the jointing rule the horizontal and vertical 
 joints are niarked ; it is shaped like the letter S, and is of iron. 
 
 §12. THE COMPASSES 
 Is used for traversmg arches and vaults. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 177 
 
 §13. THE RAKER 
 
 Is a piece of iron with two knees or rngles, which divide it into 
 three parts at right angles to each other ; the two end part? are 
 pointed and of equal lengths, and stand upon contrary sides of the 
 middle part. Its use is to pick decayed mortar out of the joints in 
 old walls, for the purpose of replacing the same with new mortar. 
 
 § 14. THE HOD 
 
 Is a wooden trough, shut up at one end and open at the other, 
 the sides consisting of two boards at right angles to each other ; 
 from the meeting of the two sides projects a handle at right angles : 
 this machine is used by the labourer for carrying mortar and bricks; 
 he strews the inner surface over with fine dry sand before he putb 
 in the mortar, which prevents it sticking to the wood, then placing 
 it upon his shoulder, carries the load to the bricklayer. 
 
 § 15. THE LINE PINB 
 
 Are two iron pins for fastening and stretching the line, at pro- 
 per intervals of the wall, in order to lay the course of brick-work 
 level on the bed, and straight along the face of the wall. The line 
 pins have generally a length of sixty feet of line, fastened to each 
 pin. 
 
 §16. THE RAMMER 
 
 Is used for ascertaining whether the ground be sufficiently solid 
 
 for building '\.on, also for beating the ground to a firm bearing, 
 
 so as to give it the utmost degree -^f compression ; for if ground is 
 
 built upon in a loose state, in all probability fractures in the walls 
 
 would ensue, and endanger the whole building. See Foundations, 
 No. 12. Y 
 
178 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 § 17. THE IRON CROW AND PICK AXE 
 
 Are used in conjunction for cutting or breaking through walls, 
 or raising large and ponderous substances out of the ground, or 
 the like. 
 
 § 18. THE GRINDING STONE 
 Is used for sharpening axes, hammers, and other tools. 
 
 § 19. THE BANKER 
 
 Is a bench from six to twelve feet in length, according to the 
 number of those who are to work at it, and from two feet six 
 inches, to three feet in breadth, and may be an inch thick, and 
 raised about two feet eight inches from the ground. It is generally 
 made of an old ledged door, set upon three or five posts in front, 
 and its back edge against a wall. It is used for preparing the 
 bricks for rubbed arches, or other gauged work upon. 
 
 §20. THE CAMBER SLIP 
 
 Is a piece of wood generally about half an inch thick, with at 
 least one curved edge rising about one inch in six feet, for drawing 
 the soffit lines of straight arches, when the other edge is curved, 
 it rises only about one half of the other, viz. about half an inch in 
 six feet, for the purpose of drawing the upper side of the said arch, 
 so as to prevent it from becoming hollow by the settling of the arch. 
 The upper edge of the arch is not always cambered, some persons 
 preferring it to be straight. The bricklayer is always provided 
 with a camber slip ; which being sufficiently long, answers to many 
 different widths of openings; when he has done drawing his arch, 
 he gives the camber shp to the carpenter, in order to form the 
 centre to the required curve of the soffit. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 179 
 
 §21. THE RUBBING STONE 
 
 Is of a cylindric form, about twenty inches diameter, but may 
 be more or less at pleasure, fixed at one end of the banker upon 
 a bed of mortar. By this, the bricks which have been previously 
 axed, are rubbed smooth ; also the headers and stretchers m re- 
 turns, which are not axed, called rubbed returns, and rubbed 
 headers and stretchers. 
 
 §22. THE BEDDING STONE 
 
 Consists of a straight piece of marble, not less than eighteen or 
 twenty inches in length, about eight or ten inches wide, and of any 
 thickness. Its use is, to try the rubbed side of the brick, which you 
 must first square, in order to prove whether the surface of the brick 
 be straight, so as to fit it upon the leading skew back, or leading 
 end of the arch. 
 
 §23. THE SQUARE 
 
 Is used in trying the bedding of the bricks, and squaring the 
 soffits across the breadth of the said bricks. 
 
 §24. THE BEVEL 
 For drawing the soffit line on the face of the bricks. 
 
 §25. THE MOULD 
 Is used in forming the face and back of the brick, in order to 
 its being reduced in thickness to its proper taper, one edge of the 
 mould being brought close to the bed of the brick already squared 
 the mould has a notch for every course of the arch. 
 
180 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 §26. THE SCRIBE 
 
 Is a spike or large nail ground to a sharp point, to mark tho 
 bricks on the face and back by the tapering edges of the mould, in 
 order to cut them. 
 
 §27. THE TIN SAW 
 
 Is used for cutting the soffit lines about one-eighth part of an 
 inch deep, first by the edge of the bevel on the face of the brick, 
 then by the edge of the square on the bed of the brick, in order 
 to enter the brick axe, and to keep the brick from spaltering. 
 The saw is also used in cutting the soffit through its breadth, in 
 the direction of the tapering lines, drawn upon the face and back 
 edge of the brick, but the cutting is always made deeper on the 
 face and back of the brick than in the middle of its thickness, for 
 the said purpose of entering the axe : the saw is likewise used for 
 cutting the false joints of headers and stretchers. 
 
 §28. THE BRICK AXE 
 
 Is used for axing off the soffits of bricks to the saw cuttmgs, 
 and the sides to the lines drawn by the scribes. As the bricks are 
 alvvays rubbed smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed, 
 the less labour there will be in rubbing. 
 
 §29. THE TEMPLET 
 
 Is used in taking the length of the stretcher and width of the 
 header. 
 
 Note. The last ten articles relate entirely to the cutting of gauged 
 arches, which are now the principal things that occur in gauged 
 work. 
 
BRICKLAYLNG. 
 
 181 
 
 §30. THE CHOPPING BLOCK 
 
 Is for reducing the bricks to their intended form by axing them, 
 and is made of any chance piece of wood that can be obtained, 
 from six to eight inches square, supported generally upon two 
 fourteen-inch brick piers, provided only two men be to work at it 
 but if four men, the chopping block must be lengthened and sup 
 ported by three piers, and so on according to the number. It iS 
 about two feet three inches in height. 
 
 §31. THE FLOAT STONE 
 
 Is used for rubbing curved work smooth, such as the cylindrical 
 backs and spherical heads of niches, so as to take out the axe 
 marks entirely : but before its application, it must first be brought 
 to the reverse form of the intended surface, so as to coincide with 
 it, as nearly as possible, in finishing. 
 
 §32. Of Cements, 
 
 Calcarious cements may be classed according to the three fol- 
 lowing divisions: namely, simple calcarious cement, water ce- 
 ment, mastichs, or maltha. 
 
 1. Simple calcarious cement includes those kinds of mortar 
 which are employed in land building, and consists of lime, sand, 
 and fresh water. 
 
 Calcarious earths are converted into quick lime by burning, 
 which being wetted with water, falls into an impalpable powder, 
 with great extracation heat ; and if in this state it is beat with sand 
 and water, the mass will concrete and become a stony substance, 
 which will be more or less perfect according to its treatment, or 
 to the quality and quantities of ingredients. When carbonated 
 lime has been thoroughly burnt, it is deprived of its water, and 
 
182 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 all or nearly all of its carbonic acid. Much of the water, during 
 the process of calcination, being carried off in the form of steam. 
 
 Lime-stone loses about four-ninths of its weight by burning, and 
 when fully burnt it falls freely, and will produce something more 
 than double the quantity of powder or slacked lime in measure, 
 that the burnt lime-stone consisted of. 
 
 Quick lime, by being exposed to the air, absorbs carbonic acid 
 with less or greater rapidity, as its texture is more or less hard ; 
 and this by continued exposure, becomes unfit for the composition 
 of mortar : and hence it is that quick-lime made of chalk, cannot be 
 kept for the same length of time between the burning and slacking, 
 as that made from stone. 
 
 Marble, chalk, and lime-stone, with respect to their use in ce- 
 ments, may be divided into two kinds, simple lime-stone, or pure 
 carbonate of lime, and argillo-ferruginous lime, which contains 
 from one-twentieth to one-twelfth of clay and oxide of iron, previous 
 to calcination : there are no external marks by which these can be 
 distinguished from each other, but whatever may have been the 
 colour in the crude state, the former, when calcined, becomes 
 white, and the latter more or less of an ochery tinge. The white 
 kinds are more abundant, and when made into mortar, will admit 
 of a greater portion of sand than the bsown ; consequently, are 
 more generally employed in the composition of mortar ; but the 
 brown lime is by far the best for all kinds of cement. If white, 
 brown, and shell lime recently slacked, be separately beat up 
 with a little water into a stiff paste ; it will be found that the white 
 lime, whether made from chalk, lime-stone, or marble, will not 
 acquire any degree of hardness ; the brown lime will become con- 
 siderably indurated, and the shell lime will be concreted into a 
 firm cement, which, though it will fall to pieces in water, is well 
 qualified for interior finishings, where it can be kept dry. 
 
 It was the opinion of the ancients, and is still received among 
 our modern builders, that the hardest lime-stone furnishes the best 
 lime for mortar; but the experiments of Dr. Higgins and Mr. 
 Smeaton, have proved this to be a mistake ; and that the softest 
 
BRICKLAYING. 183 
 
 chalk lime, if thoroughly burnt, is equally durable with the hardest 
 stone-lime, or even marble : but though stone and chalk lime are 
 equally good, under this condition, there is a very important 
 practical difference between them, as the chalk lime absorbs car- 
 bonic acid with much greater avidity ; and if it is only partially 
 calcined, on the application of water it will fall into a coarse pow- 
 der, which stone lime will not do. 
 
 For making mortar, the lime should be immediately used from 
 the kiln, and in slacking it, no more water should be allowed than 
 what is just sufficient : and for this purpose, Dr. Higgins recom- 
 mends lime water. 
 
 The sand made use of should be perfectly clean ; if there is any 
 mixture of clay or mud, it should be divested, of either or both, 
 by washing it in running water. Mr. Smeaton has fully shown by 
 experiment, that mortar, though of the best quality, when mixed 
 with a small proportion of unburnt clay, never acquires that hard- 
 ness, which without this addition, it speedily would have attained. 
 If sea sand is used, it requires to be well washed with fresh water, 
 to dissolve the salt with which it is mixed, otherwise the cement 
 into which it enters, never becomes thoroughly dry and hard : the 
 sharper and coarser the sand is, the stronger is the mortar, also a 
 less proportion of lime is necessary. It is therefore more profita- 
 ble to' use the largest proportion of sand, as this ingredient is the 
 cheapest in the composition. 
 
 The best proportion of lime and sand in the composition of 
 mortar, is yet a desideratum. 
 
 It may be affirmed in general, that no more lime is required to 
 a given quantity of sand, than what is just sufficient to surround 
 the particles, or to use the least lime so as to preserve the necessary 
 degree of plasticity. Mortar in which sand predominates, requires 
 less water in preparing, and therefore sets sooner; it is harder and 
 less Uable to crack in drying, for this reason, that lime shrinks 
 greatly in drying, while sand retains its original magnitude. We 
 are informed by Vitruvius, lib, 2. c. 5. that the Roman builders 
 allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river or sea sand, to one 
 
184 
 
 BRiCKLAYlNG. 
 
 of lime ; but by Pliny, (Hist. Nat. lib, xxxvi.) four parts of coarse 
 sharp pit sand, and only one of lime. The general proportion 
 given by our London builders, is one hundred weight and a half, or 
 thirty -seven bushels of lime and two loads and a half of sand; but 
 if proper caution were taken in the burning the lime, the quality 
 of the sand, and in tempering tlie materials, a much greater quan 
 tity of sand might be admitted. 
 
 Mr. Snieaton observes, that there is scarcely any mortar, that 
 if the lime be well burnt, and the composition well beat in the 
 making, but what will require two measures of sand, to one oi 
 unslacked lime ; and it is singular, that the more the mortar is 
 wrought or beat, a greater proportion of sand may be admitted. 
 He found that by good beating, the same quantity of hme would 
 take in one measure of tarras, and three of clean sand, which 
 seems to be the greatest useful proportion. 
 
 Dr. Hitrgins found that a certain proportion of coarse and fine 
 sand, improved the composition of mortar ; the best proportion ol 
 ingredients, according to experiment made by him, are as follow, 
 by measure : 
 
 Lime newly slacked ... 1 part. 
 Fine sand . . • • • 3 parts 
 Coarse sand - - - - . 4 parts. 
 He also found that an addition of one-fourth part of the quantity 
 of lime, of burnt bone ashes, improved the mortar by giving the 
 tenacity, and rendering it less liable to crack in drying. 
 
 The mortar should be made under ground, and then covered up 
 and kept there for a considerable length of time, the longer the 
 better; and when it is used, it should be beat up afresh. This 
 makes it set sooner, renders it less liable to crack, and more 
 hard when dry. 
 
 The stony consistence which it acquires in drying, is owing tn 
 the absorption of carbonic acid, and a combination of o .rt of the 
 water with the lime : and hence it is that lime that has been long 
 k«pt after barning, is unfit for the purpose of mortar ; for in the 
 course of keenin^y, -^o iT^^ch nrbonic ncid has been im^ii>ed, as to 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 185 
 
 have little better effect in a composition of sand and water, than 
 chalk or lime-stone reduced to a powder from the crude state 
 would have in place of it. 
 
 Grout is mortar containing a larger proportion of water than is 
 employed in common mortar, so as to make it sufficiently fluid to 
 penetrate the narrow irregular interstices of rough stone walls. 
 Grout should be made of mortar that has been long kept and 
 thoroughly beat ; as it will then concrete in the space of a day ; 
 whereas if this precaution is neglected, it will be a long time 
 before it set, and may even never set. 
 
 Mortar made of pure lime sand and water, may be employed in 
 the linings of reservoirs, and aqueducts, provided that it has suf- 
 ficient time to dry ; but if the water be put in while it is wet, it 
 will fall to pieces in a short time, and consequently, if the circum- 
 stances of the building are such as render it impracticable to keep 
 out the water, it should not be used ; there are, however, certain 
 ingredients put into common mortar, by which it is made to set 
 immediately under water, or if the quick lime contain in itself a 
 certain portion of burnt clay, it will possess this property. 
 
 This is all that is necessary to say under this head ; what re- 
 lates to mortars employed in aquatic buildings will be treated of 
 under water cements. 
 
 From the friable and crumbling nature of our mortar, a notion 
 has been entertained by many persons, that the ancients possessed 
 a process in making their mortar, which has been lost at the pre- 
 sent day ; but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton, Dr. Higgins^ 
 and others, have shown this notion to be unfounded ; and that 
 nothing more is wanting, than that the chalk, lime-stone, or mar- 
 ble, be well burnt and thoroughly slacked immediately, and to 
 mix it up with a certain proportion of clean, large-grained, sharp 
 sand, and as small a quantity of water as will be sufficient for 
 woi'king it; to keep it a considerable time from the external air, 
 and to beat it over again before it is used ; the cement thus made 
 will be sufficiently hard. 
 
 The practice of our modern builders is to spare their labour, 
 Z 
 
186 
 
 BJ lICKL VYING 
 
 and o increase the quai tity of materials they produce, without 
 anj regard to its goodness ; ths badness of our modem mortar 
 is td be attributed both to the fauUy nature of the materials, and 
 to the slovenly and hasty methods of using it. This is remarkably 
 instanced in London, where the lime employed is chalk lime, in- 
 differently burnt, conveyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten 
 or twenty miles, then kept many days without any precaution to 
 prevent the access of external air : now in the course of this time, 
 it has absorbed so much carbonic acid as nearly to lose its cement- 
 ing properties ; and though chalk lime is equally good with the 
 hardest lime-stone, when thoroughly burnt, yet by this treatment, 
 when it is slacked, it falls into a thin powder, and the core or 
 unburnt lumps are ground down, and mixed up in the mortar, and 
 not rejected as they ought to be. 
 
 The sand is equally defective, consisting of small globular 
 grains, containing a large proportion of clay, which prevents it 
 from drying, and attaining the necessary degree of hardness. 
 
 These materials being compounded in the most hasty manner, 
 and beat up with water in this imperfect state, cannot fail of pro- 
 ducing a crumbling and bad mortar. To complete the hasty hash, 
 screened rubbish, and the scraping of roads, also are used as sub- 
 stitutes for pure sand. 
 
 How very different was the practice of the Romans ! the lime 
 which they employed, was perfectly burnt, the sand sharp, cleaned, 
 and large grained : these ingredients were mixed in due proportion 
 with a small quantity of water, the mass was put into a wooden 
 mortar, and beat with a heavy wooden or iron pestle, till the com- 
 position adhered to the mortar ; being thus far prepared, they kept 
 it till it was at least three years old. The beating of mortar is of 
 the utmost consequence to its durability, and it would appear that 
 the effect produced by it, is owing to something more than a mere 
 mechanical mixture. 
 
 Water cements are those which are impervious to water, gene- 
 rally made of common water, or of pure lime and water, with the 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 187 
 
 addition of some other ingredient which gives it the property ot' 
 hardening under water. 
 
 For this purpose, there are several kinds of ingredients that may 
 be used. 
 
 That known by the name of pozzolana, which is supposed to 
 consist of volcanic ashes thrown out of Vesuvius, has been long 
 celebrated, from the early ages of the Romans, to the present day. 
 It seems to consist of a ferruginous clay, baked and calcined by 
 the force of volcanic fire ; it is a light, porus, friable mineral, of 
 a red colour. The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in the 
 construction of the Eddystone light-house, was composed of equal 
 parts by measure, of slacked aberthaw lime and pozzolana ; this 
 proportion was thought advisable, as this building was exposed to 
 the utmost violence of the sea ; but for other aouatic works as 
 locks, basins, canals, dec. a composition made of lime, pozzolana, 
 sand, and water, in the following proportion : viz. two bushels of 
 slacked aberthaw lime, one bushel of pozzolana, and three of 
 clean sand, has been found very efiectual. 
 
 § 33. Description of Bricks, 
 
 Bricks are a kind of factitious stone, composed of argillaceous 
 earth, and frequently a certain portion of sand, and cinders of 
 sea-coal, tempered together with water, dried in the sun, and 
 burnt in a kiln, or in a heap or stack called a clamp. 
 
 Bricks are first formed from the clay into rectangular prisms, 
 in a mould of ten inches in length, and five in breadth ; and when 
 burnt, usually measure nine inches long, four and a half broad, 
 and two and a half thick : so that a brick generally shrinks one 
 inch in ten ; but the degree of shrinking is not always the same, 
 it depends upon the purity and tempering of the clay, and also 
 upon the burnmg. 
 
 For brick-making, the earth should be of the purest kind, dug 
 
188 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 in autumn, and exposed during the winter's frost ; this allows the 
 air to penetrate, and divide the earthly particles, and facilitates the 
 subsequent operations of mixing and tempering. 
 
 To make real good bricks, the earth should be dug two or three 
 years before it is used, in order to pulverize it ; and should be 
 mixed with a due proportion of clay and sand, as too much argil- 
 laceous matter causes the bricks to shrink, and too much sand 
 renders them heavy and brittle. The London practice of mixing 
 sea-coal ashes, and in the country light sandy earth, not only 
 makes tliem work easy and with greater despatch, but tends also 
 to save coals or wood in burning them. The earth should be 
 entirely divested of stony particles, and should be often beat or 
 turned over, with as little water as possible, in order to incorpo- 
 rate the soil with the ashes or sand, until the whole be converted 
 into an uniform paste ; and note, that too much water prevents 
 the adhering of the parts ; before the bricks are burnt, they should 
 be thoroughly dry, or they will crack and crumble in the burning. 
 
 Bricks made of good earth, well tempered, become solid, smooth, 
 hard, durable, and ponderous ; but require half as much more 
 earth, also a longer jtiipe in drying and burning them, than 
 common bricks, which are light, spongy, and full of cracks. 
 Bricks are either burnt in clamps or kilns ; the former is the 
 practice about London, and the latter in the country; bricks burnt 
 in kilns, are less liable to waste, require less fuel, and are sooner 
 burnt than in clamps. It must be observed, that steeping of bricks 
 in water, after once burning, and then burning them afresh, makes 
 them more than doubly strong. 
 
 There are several kinds of bricks, as marls, stocks, and place 
 brick. The only difference in making them is, that marls are 
 prepared and tempered with the greater care ; the construction 
 of the clamp is the same for each, but for marls, greater care 
 is taken not to over-heat the kiln, but that it burn equally and 
 moderately, and as diffusively as possible. The finest kind of 
 marls called firsts, are selected, and used as cutting bricks, for 
 arches, over doors, windows, and quoins, for whicJa they are gauged 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 189 
 
 are rubbed to their proper forms. The next best called seconds, 
 are selected and used for principal fronts. 
 
 Marls are every way superior to stock bricks, not only in co- 
 lour, which is a pleasant pale yellow, but also in point of smooth- 
 ness and durability. Hence the gray stocks are an inferior kind, 
 The place bricks, or as they are otherwise called peckings, and 
 sometimes sandal or semel bricks, are those that are left of the 
 clamp after taking away the rubbers and maris ; their inferior 
 quality is occasioned by not being sufficiently and uniformly 
 burnt : they also differ from stock bricks in being of a redder 
 colour, and of a more uneven texture. Burrs are over-burnt 
 brick, sometimes two or three are quite vitrified and run together. 
 There are also red stocks ; these are made in the country, and 
 burnt in kilns ; the best kind are used as cutting bricks, and are 
 called red rubbers. Fine bricks are made at Hedgerly, a village 
 near Windsor, and are therefore also called Windsor bricks. 
 These are very hard, of a red colour, and will stand the utmost 
 fury of the fire ; their length and breadth are the same as stock 
 bricks, but their thickness is only about one inch and a half. 
 Bricks are sold by the thousand. Stock and place bricks made 
 for sale, shall not be less than eight inches and a half long, four 
 inches wide, and two inches and a half thick, when burnt, by 17 
 Geo. III. cap, 69. 
 
 Besides the bricks of our own manufacture, Dutch clinkers are 
 also imported for the purpose of paving yards and stables. These 
 are very hard, of a brimstone colour, and almost vitrified in burn- 
 ing. They are about six inches long, three broad, and one thick, 
 and look extremely well when laid herring-bone ways. 
 
 As a building material, bricks have several advantages over 
 stone, being lighter, and from their porus structure they unite 
 better with the mortar, and are not so liable to attract damp. 
 
 Bricks for paving floors, also called paving tiles, are of several 
 magnitudes, and are made of a stronger clay. The largest are 
 about twelve inch^js square, and one and a half in thickness ; the 
 second are about nine inches square, though called ten, being 
 
190 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 formerly so, and one and a quarter thick ; these may be rubbed 
 smooth, and when laid diagonally, have a very pleasing effect. 
 Bricks for paving are about nine inches long, four and a half 
 broad, and one and a half thick. 
 
 The chief covering for roofs in and about London is slate: 
 however, in the interior of the country, tiles are almost uniformly 
 used for the roofs of houses, and in some instances on barns j tiles 
 for roofs are of several kinds, as pan tiles, plain tiles, ridge tiles, 
 and hip tiles. Pan tiles are about 13 inches long, 8 inches broad, 
 and about half an inch thick ; their transverse section is a figure of 
 contrary curvature, the form of the tile being two portions of cylin- 
 dric surfaces on both sides ; the part which is of the greatest 
 radius serves as a channel for discharging the rain water, and the 
 other part, which is of much less radius, serves to iap over the 
 edge of the adjoining tile : at the upper end of the tile projects a 
 knob from the under and convex side, for the purpose of hanging 
 it to the laths. The laths used for pan tiles are about three quarters 
 of an inch thick, and one and a quarter broad, made of deal. Fie- 
 mish tiles are sometimes imported from Holland; they are very 
 hard and durable, and are glazed of a leaden colour. 
 
 § 34. Foundations, 
 
 Having dug the trenches for the foundations, the ground must 
 be tried with an iron crow, or with a rammer, and if found to shake 
 it must be pierced with a borer, such as is used by well diggers : 
 then if the ground proves to be generally firm, the loose or soft parts 
 If not very deep, must be excavated until a solid bed appears ; but 
 observe in building up these parts that the bottom of the excavation 
 must widen upwards in a gradual slope, in the direction of the 
 trenchers, in form of a series of steps, whch will admit of a firmer 
 bed for the stones, so that they will have no tendency to slide, as 
 would be the case if built upon inclined planes : and thus in wet 
 seasons, the moisture in the foundations would induce the inclined 
 
BRICKLA^IiNG. 
 
 191 
 
 parts to slide, and descend by their gravity towards the lowest 
 parts, and in all probability would fracture the walls, and endanger 
 the whole fabric. 
 
 If the ground proves soft in several places to a great depth under 
 apertures, and firm upon the sides on which the piers between the 
 windows of the superstructure are to be erected, the better way is 
 to turn inverted arches under the apertures, {see Plate XXVI.) and 
 indeed at all times where there is sufficient height of wall below 
 the apertures to admit of il:.em, it is a necessary precauf ion. 
 
 For the small base of the piers will more easily penetrate the 
 ground than one continued base : and as the piers are permitted to 
 descend in a certain degree, and so long as they can be kept from 
 spreading, will carry the arch along with them, and compress the 
 ground,^ which will therefore re-act against the under sides of the 
 inverted arch, which, if closely jointed will not yield, but act with 
 the abutting piers as one solid body. On the contrary, if no 
 inverted arches were used, the low piece of walling under the 
 apertures not having a sufficient vertical dimension would give 
 way from the resistance of the ground upon its base, and thereby, 
 not only fracture the spaces of brick^work which lie vertical 
 between the apertures, but breaks the sills of the windows. Where 
 the precaution of inverted arches is omitted, and the building is 
 weighty, the probability of the event of fracturing the walls is 
 almost certain ; the author, who has had great practice in con- 
 ducting buildings, never experienced any instance to the contrary, 
 in the numerous buildings in which he has been concerned. It is 
 therefore of the utmost consequence to throw these arches with 
 the greatest care ; they ought not to be less in height than half 
 their width, and as a parabolic curve is very easily described, it 
 would be still more efi*ectual in resisting the re-action of the 
 ground than one of uniform curvature, as the arc of a circle; the 
 parabolic arch or vault being the form adapted more nearly to the 
 laws of uniform pressure. From the equality of the curvature of 
 the circle, it is only capable of resisting a uniform pressure upon 
 all points directed to the centre, and thus a cylindric vessel sur- 
 
192 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 rounded with water is a proper form of a hollow body to be con. 
 structed of the least quantity of materials, or at the least expense. 
 
 The bed of the piers ought to be as uniform as possible, for 
 though all the parts of the bottom of the trenches may be very 
 firm, if there be any difference, as they will all sink, the quantity 
 which they will give will be according to the softness of the 
 ground, therefore the piers erected upon the softer, will descend 
 more than those on the firmer ground, and occasion a vertical 
 fracture in the building. 
 
 If the hard parts of the foundation are only to be found under 
 apertures, then build piers in these places, and instead of inverted 
 arches suspend arches between the piers. In the construction of 
 the arches some attention must be paid to the breadth of the in- 
 sisting pier, whether it will cover the arch or not : for suppose the 
 middle of the piers to rest over the middle of the summit of the 
 arches, then the narrower the piers, the more curvature the sup. 
 porting arch ought to have at the apex. When arches of suspen- 
 sion are used, the intrados ought to be clear, so that the arch may 
 have the full effect ; but as observed before, it will also be requi- 
 site here, that the ground be uniformly hard on which the piers 
 are erected, for the reasons already given ; but it might be farther 
 observed, that even where the ground is not very hard under the 
 piers, if it is but uniform, the parts will descend equally, and the 
 building will remain uninjured. 
 
 If the foundation be not very insufficient, it may be made good 
 by ramming large stones closely laid with a heavy rammer, of a 
 breadth at the bottom proportioned to the insisting weight, and 
 this breadth in ordinary cases may project a foot on each side of 
 the wall, then another course may be laid upon this so as to bring 
 the upper bed of the stones upon a general level with the trenches, 
 and to project about eight inches on each side of the wall, or to 
 recede four inches on each side within the lower course. In lay- 
 ing of these courses, care should be taken to chop or hammer- 
 dress the stones, so as to have as little taper as possible, and to 
 make the joints of the one course fall as nearly to the middle of 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 193 
 
 the stones in the adjoining course as possible ; and this principle 
 must be strictly adhered to in all walling whatever; and though 
 there are various modes of disposing stones or bricks, the end is 
 to obtain the greatest uniform lap upon each other, throughout the 
 whole. 
 
 If the foundation is very bad, the whole must be piled as already 
 described in the department of Carpentry. 
 
 §35. Walls. 
 
 We shall now suppose that the ground is either naturally suf- 
 ficient for building upon, or is prepared for the purpose by means 
 similar to what have already been described : and the different 
 qualities of mortar and bricks being also described : such materials 
 must be employed in the construction of the whole, or in the 
 different parts, as are sufficient for the end proposed ; thus, iu 
 places exposed to the weather, more durable materials must be 
 employed than in those which are covered ; but in this, some re- 
 gard must also be had to the importance of the fabric, or whether 
 long duration may be required or not. 
 
 When you slack the lime, wet it only with so much water as is 
 sufficient to reduce it to a powder, and only about a bushel at a 
 time, covering it over with a layer of sand, in order to prevent the 
 gas, which is the virtue of the lime, from escaping. The best 
 proportion of the ingredients of lime and sand for mortar has been 
 fully specified, but in ordinary cases, where time will not permit 
 to prepare the materials to the best advantage, or where the end 
 proposed would not be a compensation for the expense, about two 
 or two and a half measures of sand to one of lime may be used, 
 but even this proportion will not always hold, for some lime will 
 require more and some less sand ; this being understood, slack 
 the same quantity of lime alternately, until the whole is made ups 
 this is a better mode than to slack the whole at once, as the ex- 
 posure is less in the former, than in the latter case. 
 
 Nos. 13 & 14. 2 a 
 
194 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 Beat your mortar with the beater three or four times over be 
 fore it is used, so as to incorporate the lime and sand, and to break 
 the knots that pass through the sieve ; this will not only render 
 the texture uniform, but will make the mortar much stronger by 
 permitting the air to enter the pores : and observe here also, as 
 we have before stated, to use as little waler in the beating as pos- 
 sible. Should the mortar stand any time after beating, it should 
 be beat again immediately before it is used, so as to give tenacity 
 and to prevent labour to the bricklayer. In summer dry hot wea- 
 ther use your mortar pretty soft, but in winter rather stiff*. 
 
 If you lay your bricks in dry weather, and if you require firm 
 work, you must use^ mortar prepared in the best way, and before 
 using the bricks, they must be wetted or dipped in water as they 
 are laid on the wall, but in moist weather this will be unnecessary^ 
 The wetting of the bricks causes them to adhere to the mortar, 
 whereas, if laid dry, and covered with sand or dust, they will 
 never stick, but may be taken off without the adhesion of a single 
 particle of mortar. 
 
 In winter, as soon as the frost or stormy season begms to set 
 in, the walls must be covered ; for this purpose straw is usually 
 employed, and sometimes in particular buildings a capping of 
 weather boarding, in form of a stone coping, for throwing the 
 water equally to both sides, is used ; but even in this case, it would 
 be better to have straw under the wood, which would be still a 
 farther proof against frost. There is nothing so prejudicial to a 
 building as alternate rain and frost, if exposed ; for the rain makes 
 way through the pores into the heart of the stone and mortar, and 
 when the freezing comes on, the water is converted into ice, 
 which expands beyond the original bulk with such power, that no 
 known force of compression is capable of preventing it from ex- 
 pansion. In consequence of this, the heaviest stones and even 
 the largest rocks have been burst. Though this is the cause why 
 buildings decay in lapse of time, yet the vertical surfaces exposed 
 to the weather suffer but in an incomparably small degree to hori- 
 zontal surfaces thus exposed. 
 
BRICKLAYLNG. 
 
 195 
 
 In working up the -wall it would be proper not to work more 
 than four or five feet at a time, for as all walls immediately- 
 after building shrink, the part which is first brought up will remain 
 stationary, and when the adjacent part is also brought up, it will 
 shrink in altitude by itself, and consequently will separate from 
 the other which has already become fixed. In carrying up any 
 particular part, the ends should be regularly sloped oflT so as to 
 receive the bond of the adjoining parts on the right and left. 
 There is nothing that will justify one part of a wall being carried 
 higher than one scaffold, except it be to forward the carpenter in 
 some particular part, or the like. 
 
 In brick work there are two kinds of bond, one in which a row 
 of bricks laid lengthways in the length of the wall, is crossed by 
 another row laid with their breadth in the said length, and thus 
 proceeding to work up the courses in alternate rows, which is 
 called English bond. The courses in which the length of the 
 bricks are disposed in the length of the wall are called stretching 
 courses, and the bricks themselves are called stretchers. The 
 courses in which the length of the bricks run in the thickness 
 of the wall are called heading courses, and the bricks thus dis- 
 posed are called headers. The other kind of brick work is the 
 placing of header and stretcher alternately in the same course ; 
 this disposition of the bricks is called Flemish bond. This latter 
 mode, though esteemed the most beautiful, is attended with great 
 inconveniences in the execution, and in most cases is incapable 
 of uniting the parts of a wall with the same degree of firmness as 
 the English bond 
 
 ID enter mto me particular merits of these two species of bond 
 would carry this department beyond its allowed limits ; the reader 
 who wishes farther satisfaction will consult the explanation of the 
 Plates, and an ingenious tract on Brich Bond, by Mr. G. Saun 
 ders, where the defects of Flemish bond, and the superiority of 
 the old English bond, are pointed out in the most satisfactory 
 manner. However, it may be proper to observe in general, that 
 vvhalever advantages are gained by any disposition of placmg the 
 
196 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 bricks in Flcmioh bond in the particular direction, is lost in 
 another : thus, if an advantage is gained in tying a wall togethei 
 in its thickness, it is lost in the longitudinal bond, and the contrary. 
 In order to remedy this inconvenience in thick walls, some place 
 the bricks in the core at an angle of forty-five degrees, and pa- 
 rallel to each other throughout the length of each course, so as to 
 cross each other at right angles in the succeeding course : but 
 even the advantages obtained by this disposition are not satisfactory, 
 for though those bricks in the middle of the core have sufficient 
 bond, yet where they join to the bricks on the sides of the wall, 
 they form triangular interstices, and therefore the sides must be 
 very imperfectly tied to the core. 
 
 § 36. Vaulting and Groining* 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 A simple vault is an interior concavity extended over two pa- 
 rallel opposite walls, or over all diametrically opposite sides of 
 one circular wall. 
 
 The concavity or interior surface of the vault is called the intrados. 
 
 The intrados of a simple vault is generally formed of the por- 
 tion of the surface of a cylinder, cylindroid, or sphere, never 
 greater than that of half the solid, and the springing lines which 
 terminate the walls that the vauk rises from, are generally straight 
 lines, parallel to the axis of the cylinder or cylindroid. 
 
 When the vault is spherical, the circular wall terminates in a 
 level plane at top from which the vault springs, and forms either 
 k complete hemisphere, or a portion of the sphere less than the 
 hemisphere. 
 
 Conic surfaces are seldom employed in vaulting, but when a 
 conic surface is employed for the intrados of a vault, it should be 
 semi-conic with a horizontal axis, or the surface of the whole cone 
 with its axis vertical. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 197 
 
 All vaults which have a horizontal straight axis, are called 
 straight vaults. 
 
 All vaults which have their axis horizontal, are called horizon- 
 tal vaults. 
 
 A groin is the excavation or hollow formed by one simple vault 
 piercing another, or a groin is that in which two geometrical solids 
 may be transversely applied one after the other, so that a portion 
 of the groin will have been in contact with the first solid, and the 
 remaining part in contact with the second solid, when the first 
 is removed. The most usual kind of groining is one cylinder 
 piercing another, or a cylinder and cylindroid piercing each other, 
 having their axis at right angles. 
 
 The axis of each simple vault forming the intrados of a groin is 
 the same with the axis of the geometrical solids, of which the in- 
 trados of the groin is composed. 
 
 When the breadths of the cross pages or openings of a groined 
 vault are equal, the groin is said to be equilateral. 
 
 When the altitudes of the cross vaults are equal, the groin is said 
 to be equi-altitudinal. 
 
 Groins have various names, according to the surfaces of the 
 geometrical bodies, which form the simple vault. 
 
 A cylindric groin is that which is formed by the intersection of 
 one portion of a cylinder with another. 
 
 A cylindroidic groin is that which is formed by the intersection 
 of one portion of a sphere with another. 
 
 A spheric groin is that which is formed by the intersection of 
 one portion of the sphere with another. 
 
 A conic groin is that which is formed by the intersection of one 
 portion of a cone with another. 
 
 The species of every groin formed by the intersection of two 
 vaults of unequal heights, is denoted by two preceding words, the 
 former of which ending in o, indicates the simple vault which has 
 the greater height, and the latter ending in i c indicates the sim- 
 ple vault of the less height. 
 
 When a groin is formed by the intersection of two unequal cy 
 p2 
 
 t 
 
198 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 lindric vaults, it is called a cylindro-cylindric groin, and each arch 
 so formed is called a cylindro-cylindric arch. 
 
 When a groin is formed by the intersection of a cyliridric vault 
 with a spheric vault, and the spheric portion being of greater 
 height than the cylindric portion, the groin is called a sphero- 
 cylindric groin, and each arch forming the groin is called a sphe- 
 ro-cylindric arch. 
 
 When a groin is formed by the intersection of a cylindric vault, 
 with a spheric vault, and the spheric portion of less altitude than 
 the cylindric portion, it is called a cylindro-spheric groin ; and 
 each arch forming the groin is called a cylindro-spheric arch. 
 
 When one conic vault pierces another of greater altitude, the 
 groin formed by the intersection is called a cono-conic groin ; and 
 each arch forming the groin, a cono-conic arch. 
 
 A rectangular groin is that which has the axis of the simple 
 vault in two vertical planes, at right angles to each other. 
 
 A multangular groin is that which is formed by three or more 
 simple vaults piercing each other, so that if the several solids 
 which form each simple vault be respectively applied, only one 
 at a time to succeeding portions of the groined surface, every 
 portion of the groined surface will have formed successive conlftct 
 with certain corresponding portions of each of the solids. 
 
 An equi-angular groin is that in which the several axes of the 
 simple vaults form equal angles, around the same point, in the 
 same horizontal plane. 
 
lV.S.B/trn,aTd,. Seulp. 
 
F. 4 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 199 
 
 §37. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES IN 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 PLATE XXIIL 
 
 Fig. 1 the brick trowel. 
 Fig. 2 the brick axe. 
 Fig. 3 the square. 
 Fig. 4 the bevel. 
 Fig. 5 the jointing rule. 
 Fig. 6 the jointer. 
 Fig. 7 the hammer. 
 Fig. 8 the raker. 
 Fig. 9 the line pins. 
 Fig. 10 the rammer. 
 Fig. 11 the pick axe. 
 Fig. 12 the camber slip. 
 
 Fig. 13 the banker, with the rubbing stone placed at one end 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 
 Various specimens of English bond according to the different 
 thicknesses of walls ; in these the heading and stretching courses 
 mutually cross each other in the core of the wall, and therefore 
 produce an equality of strength. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the bond of a nine inch wall : here as well as in 
 iho following it must be observed, that as the longitudinal extent 
 of a brick is nine inches, and the breadth four and a half inches, 
 in order to prevent two vertical joints from running over each 
 other at the end of the first stretcher from the corner, after placing 
 the return corner stretcher, which becomes a header in the face 
 that the stretcher is in below, and occvpies half the length of 
 this stretcher ; a quarter brick is placed upon the side, so that the 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 two together extend six inches and three quarters, and leave a lap 
 of two inches and a half for the next header, which being laid, 
 lies with its middle upon the middle of the header below, and in 
 this manner the bond is continued. The brick-bat thus introduced 
 next to the corner header is called a closer. The same effect 
 might be obtained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner 
 in the stretching course, for then when the corner header comes 
 to be laid over it, a lap of two inches and a quarter will be left at 
 the end of the stretchers below for the next header, which being 
 Uid, the joint below the stretchers will coincide with its middle, 
 and in this manner the bond may be continued as before. 
 
 Fig. 2 a fourteen inch, or brick and half wall. In this the 
 stretching course upon the one side is so laid, that the middle of 
 the breadth of the bricks in the heading course upon the opposite 
 side falls alternately upon the middle of the stretchers, and upon 
 the joints between the stretchers. 
 
 Fig. 3 a two brick wall. In the heading course, every alter- 
 nate header is only half a brick thick on both sides in order to 
 break the joints in the core of the wall. 
 
 Fig. 4 a two brick and a half wall, bricks laid as in Fig. 3. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 Contains various specimens of Flemish bond according to the 
 different thicknesses of walls. The dotted lines show the disposi- 
 tion of the bricks in the courses above. 
 
 Fig. 1 a nine inch wall where two stretchers lie between two 
 headers, the length of the headers and the breadth of the stretchers 
 extending the whole thickness of the wall. 
 
 Fig. 2 a brick and a half wall, one side being laid as in Fig. 1, 
 and the opposite side, with a half header opposite to the middle of 
 the stretcher, and the middle of the stretcher opposite the middle 
 of the end of the header. 
 
 Fig. 3 another disposition of Flemish bond where the bricks 
 
I 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 201 
 
 are similarly disposed on both sides ot the wall, the tail of the 
 headers being placed contiguous to each other, so as to form 
 square spaces in the corner of the wall for half bricks. 
 
 Fig. 4 a reversed arch supposed to come under a window, in 
 t;ruer to prevent the fracturing of the wall under the lowest win- 
 dow. Arching under the apertures should never be omitted in 
 any building whatever, provided there be room ; if not, pieces of 
 timbers ought to be laid, so as to present the most inflexibihty to 
 the ground, and make the wall act longitudinally as one solid 
 body. 
 
 Fig. 5 supposed to be the case where the ground stands firm 
 under the apertures, the weight of the pier is therefore discharged 
 from the soft part under the piers. In this case if the bond of the 
 pier is good, there will be very little danger of the wall fracturing 
 unde- the apertures. 
 
 PLATE XXVI. 
 
 Fig. 1 part of the upright of a wall, at the return, laid with 
 Flemish bond. 
 
 Fig. 2 a scheme arch, being two bricks high. 
 
 Fig. 3 a semi-circular arch two bricks high. 
 
 Fig. 4 a straight arch, which is usually the height of four 
 courses of brick work : the manner of describing it will be shown 
 in the following figure. 
 
 Fig. 5. To draw the joints of a straight arch, let A B be the 
 width of the aperture; describe an equilateral triangle ABC upon 
 this width ; describe a circle around the point C equal to the thick- 
 ness of the brick. Draw D E parallel to A B at a distance equal 
 to the height of four courses, and produce C A and C B to D and 
 E. Lay the straight edge of a rule from C to D, and with a pair 
 of compasses, opened to a distance equal to the thickness of a 
 
 brick, cross the line D E at F, removing ihe rule from the points 
 2 B 
 
202 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 C and D. Place the straight edge against the points C and l\ 
 and with the same extent, between the points of the compass, 
 cross the line D E at G : proceed in this manner until you come 
 to the middle, and as it is usual to have a brick in the centre to 
 key the arch in, if the last distance which we will suppose to be 
 H I is not equally divided by the middle point K of D E, the pro- 
 cess must be repeated till it is found to be so. 
 
 Though the middle brick tapers more in the same length than 
 the extreme bricks, it is convenient to draw all the bricks with the 
 same mould, which is a great saving of time, and though this is 
 not correctly true, the difference is so trifling as not to affect the 
 practice. It may however be proper to observe, that the real 
 taper of the mould is less than in the middle, but greater than ei- 
 ther extreme distance : but even the difference between this is so 
 small, that either may be used, or taking half their difference W'U 
 come very near the truth. This difference might easily be shown 
 by a trigonometrical calculation, the middle being an isosceles 
 triangle, of which the base and perpendicular are given, the base 
 being a certain part of the top line. In the triangle upon the sides 
 you have one angle equal to 60 degrees, and the side D F is 
 given, and D C = (D K^XK C^) one half, can easily be found, 
 so that in this triangle the two sides and the contained angle are 
 given. 
 
 Fig. 6 an elliptic arch, the top is divided into equal parts, and 
 not the underside. 
 
'UNI 
 
BRICKLAYING 
 
 203 
 
 PLATE XXVII. 
 
 Contairis piers of various substances according to the Flemish 
 bond disposition of bricks, with designs of brick cornices. 
 
 Fig. 1 a pier, two brick square : No. 1. the bottom course, 
 No. 2. the upper course. 
 
 Fig. 2 a two and a half brick pier : No. 1. the bottom course, 
 No. 2. the upper course. 
 
 Fig. 3 a three brick pier : No. 1. the bottom course, No. 2. 
 the upper course. 
 
 Fig. 4 a three and half brick pier : No. 1. the bottom course. 
 No. 2. the upper course. 
 
 Ornamental Brick Cornices^ 
 
 In the construction of any thing destined to answer a particular 
 end, it frequently happens that different kinds of materials may be 
 employed for the purpose : it is evident that every distinct species 
 of material will require its own peculiar manner of treatment, and 
 the sizes of the parts which are to compose the thing required, 
 must depend upon what the material will most conveniently admit 
 of : thus brick, wood, stone, or iron, may be employed to con- 
 struct a body for any proposed end : the manner of working these 
 will not only differ, but the sizes of the things which are to com- 
 pose the whole, and not only so, but sometimes a change in the 
 general form also. 
 
 In brick cornices, from the various kinds of bricks and tiles, a 
 variety of pleasing symmetry may be formed by various disposi- 
 tions of the bricks, and frequently without cutting, or if cut, 
 chamfering only may be used. 
 
 Fig. 5 a cornice in imitation of the Grecian Doric. 
 
 Fig. 6 a dentil cornice , in this last the upper member is cham- 
 fered to give it the appearance of a moulding. 
 
'204 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 Contains groins of various kinds. 
 
 Fig. 1 a semi-cylindric equi-angular groin, the centre of one 
 vault being generally boarded in without any regard to the other, 
 and the other boarded in afterwards. 
 
 Fig. 2 a cylindroidic-cylindric groin, being the intersection of 
 a cylinder with a cylindroid. 
 
 Fig. 3 a cylindro-cylindric groin, being the intersection of one 
 cylinder with another, and the cylindro vault being the highest. 
 
 Fig. 4 an improvement to the common four-sided groin, by Mr. 
 Tappen, Architect, by raising the angles from an octagonal pier, 
 instead of a square one ; by this means, the pier may be made 
 equally strong, by giving it more substance, and cutting away the 
 angles will be more commodious for the turning any kind of goods 
 round the corner ; this may therefore be looked upon as a very 
 considerable improvement in the vaultings of cellars of warehouses. 
 This convenience is not the only improvement which this con- 
 struction admits of, but the angles of the groin are strengthened 
 by carrying the band round the diagonals of equal breadth, which 
 affords better bond to the bricks, which are usually so much cut 
 away, that instead of giving support, are themselves supported by 
 the adjacent fiUing-in arches. 
 
 Fig. 5 the centreing for an hexagonal Gothic groin, such as are 
 frequently seen in chapter houses. 
 
 Fig. 6 the piers of an hexagonal groin, and the angles obtunded 
 according to the plan of Mr. Tappen. This construction is purely 
 Gothic, the springers would cover the obtunded parts of the 
 groined angles, and columnar mouldings those of the piers. 
 
1 V.S JjaniaJ-ii Si- ■ 
 
BRICKLAYmG. 
 
 205 
 
 PLATE XXIX. 
 
 The method of cutting the bricks for a cylindro-cylindric arch, 
 and two different methods for the joints of the heads of niches. 
 
 Fig. 1 the cyhndro-cylindric arch, with a frame of wood so 
 constructed, that the two horizontal pieces have their outer edges 
 in circles concentric with the circle of the wall : this is shown by 
 the plan of the wall No. 2. The edges of the circular pieces are 
 graduated with divisions perpendicularly over each other, A B : 
 No. 2, is a rule to be moved vertically along the said concentric 
 edges, which vertical position is always known by the correspond- 
 ing divisions ; on the front edge of the rule is a hook projecting 
 so as to come to the cylindric surface of the wall : the hook is 
 shown at No. 3, with a part of the rule. The use of this machine 
 is for drawing the edges of the bricks in order to cut them to the 
 circle. 
 
 Fig. 2 two different methods of forming the joints for the heads 
 of spherical niches. In the right hand half the joints run hori- 
 zontally, but this is a very bad method ; as all the beds are 
 conical, the bricks at the summit have little or no hold. In the other 
 half the joints run radially in planes from the face to the centre. 
 The work is not only more firm when executed by this last me- 
 thod, as bedding the courses on planes, but much more easily 
 executed ; nothing is more difficult to form than conical surfaces ; 
 and in this both conical and spherical surfaces occur ; whereas 
 when the joints run radially, only the spheric surface * occurs, 
 which may be formed by one bevel, only one side being straight 
 and the other circular. 
 
206 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 PLATE XXX. 
 
 Shows the method of steening wells. 
 
 The first thing is to make a centre, which consists of a boarding 
 of inch or inch and a half stuff, ledged within with three circular 
 rings. The bricks are laid between these rings, and all headers. 
 The wide joints next to the boarding are filled in with tile or 
 broken bricks. Where the soil is firm, centreings are not ne- 
 cessary, but they are requisite in sandy ground. The centreing 
 remains permanently with the brick work ; as the well digger ex- 
 cavates the soil, the first centre sinks, then a second centre is 
 made, and put above the first, and built in with brick work in the 
 same manner : and thus the number of centreings depend on the 
 depth of the well. This method is that used in London : but in 
 the country other methods are used. One is with several rings 
 of timber without the boarding : they first build upon the first 
 ring, four or five feet, then a second ring, and build again, and so 
 on to the depth of the well. This however is not so good a method 
 as the foregoing, as the sides of the brick work are very apt to 
 bulge, particularly if great care be not taken iji filling and ram- 
 ming the sides in uniformly, so as to press equally at the same time. 
 
 Abstract of the Building Act, as far as regards the Bricklayer, 14 
 Geo. IIL which refers only to London, and the several Parishes 
 within the Bills of Mortality, 
 
 Every master bricklayer to give twenty-four hours notice to 
 the Surveyor of the district from the first to the seventh rate, 
 concerning the building to be altered or erected ; but if the build- 
 ing is to be piled or planked, or begun with wood, it becomes the 
 business of the carpenter to give such notice. 
 
 The footings of the walls are to have equal projections on each 
 side : but where any adjoining building will not admit of such 
 
# 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 ^07 
 
 projection to be made on the side adjoining to such building, to 
 be done us near as the case will admit according to each of the 
 four rates* 
 
 The act calls every front, side, or end wall, (fee. (not being a 
 party. wall) an external wall. 
 
 The timbers in each rate may be supposed to be girders, beams, 
 or trimming joists, &c. and their bearing in all cases, and in all 
 the above four rates, may bo as much as the nature of the wall 
 will admit, provided there is left four inches between the ends of 
 such timber and the external surface of the wall. 
 
 The joints of the brick work may also be shown, and may 
 answer to the express number of bricks of which such wall is to 
 be composed. 
 
 It may now be necessary here to say something farther relative 
 to external walls. 
 
 External Walls, 
 
 And other external enclosures, to the first, second, third, fourth, 
 and fifth rate of building, must be of brick, stone, artificial stone, 
 lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, or iron ; or of brick, stone, artificial 
 stone, lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, and iron together, except the 
 planking, piling, &c. for the foundation, which may be of wood of 
 any sort. 
 
 If any part to an external wall of the first and second rate, is 
 built wholly of stone, it is not to be less in thickness than as 
 follows : 
 
 First rate, fourteen inches below the ground floor, nine inches 
 above the ground floor ; second rate nine inches above the ground 
 floor. 
 
 Where a recess is meant to be made in an external wall, it 
 must be arched over, and in such a manner, as that the arch and 
 the back of such recess shall respectively be of the thickness of 
 one brick in length: it is therefore plain, that where a wall is not 
 more than one brick thick, it cannot have any recess. 
 
 No external wall to the first, second, third, and fourth rate, is 
 
208 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 ever to become a party wall, unless the same shall be of the height 
 and thickness above the footing, as is required for each party- wail 
 to its respective rate. 
 
 Of Party Walh. 
 
 Buildings of the first, second, third, and fourth rate, which are 
 not yet designed by the owner thereof to have separate and dis- 
 tinct side walls, on such parts as may be contiguous to other 
 buildings, must have party-walls ; and they are to be placed halt 
 and half on the ground of each owner, or of each building re- 
 spectively, and may be built thereon, without any notice being 
 given to the owner of the other part ; that is to say, the first builder 
 has a right so to do, where he is building against vacant ground. 
 
 Party-walls, chimnies, and chimney shafts hereafter to be built, 
 must be of good sound bricks or stone, or of sound bricks and 
 stone together, and must be coped with stone, tile, or brick. 
 
 Party-walls or additions thereto, must be carried up thirteen 
 inches above the roof, measuring at right angles with the back of 
 the rafter, and twelve inches abov*3 the gutter of the highest 
 building which gables against it ; but where the height of a party, 
 wall so carried up, exceeds the height of the blocking course or 
 parapet, it may be made less than one foot above the gutter, for 
 the distance of two feet six inches from the front of the blocking 
 course or parapet. 
 
 Where dormers or other erections are fixed in any flat or roof, 
 within four feet of any party-wall, such party- wall is to be carried 
 up against such dormer, and must extend at least two feet wider, 
 and to the full height of every such dormer or erection. 
 
 No recess is to Tse hereafter made in any party-wall of the first, 
 second, third, and fourth rate, except for chimney.flues, girders, 
 &c. and for the ends of walls or piers, so as to reduce such wall 
 in any part of it to a less thickness than is required by the act, 
 for the highest rate of building to which such wall belongs. 
 
 No openmg is to be made m any party-wall except for commu- 
 nication from one stack of warehouses to another, and from one 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 209 
 
 staple building to another, all which communications must have 
 wrought-iron doors, and the panels thereof are not to be less 
 than a quarter of an inch thick, and to be fixed in stone door-cases 
 and sills. But there may be openings for passages or ways on 
 the ground, for foot passengers, cattle, or carriages, which must 
 be arched over throughout with brick or stone, or brick and stone 
 together, of the thickness of a brick and a half at the least, to the 
 first and second rate, and one brick to the third and fourth rate. 
 And if there is any cellar or vacuity under such passage, it is to 
 be arched ever throughout in the same manner as the passage 
 over it. 
 
 No party wall or party arch, or shaft of any chimney, new or 
 old, must be cut into, other than for the purposes as follows : 
 
 If the fronts of buildings are in a line with each other, a recess 
 may be cut, both in the fore and back fronts of such buildings, (as 
 may be already erected) for the purpose of insertmg the end of 
 such other external wall, which is to adjoin thereto, this recess 
 must not be more than nine inches deep from the outward faces 
 of such external walls, and to be cut beyond the centre of the 
 party-wall thereto belonging. 
 
 And further, for the use of inserting bressummers and story 
 posts, that are to be fixed on the ground floor, either in the front 
 or back wall, the recess may be cut from the foundation of such 
 new wall to the top of such bressummer, fourteen inches deep 
 from the outward face of such wall, and four inches wide in the 
 cellar story, and two inches wide on the ground story. 
 
 And further, for the purpose of tailing-in stone steps, or stone 
 landings, as for bearers to wood stairs, or for laying-in stone 
 corbels for the support cf chimney jambs, girders, beams, pur- 
 lins, binding or trimming joists, or other principal timbers. 
 
 Perpendicular recesses may also be cut in any party-wall, whose 
 
 thickness is not less than thirteen inches, for the purpose of insert. 
 
 ing walls and piers therein, but they must not be wider than fifteen 
 
 inches, or more than four inches deep, and no such recess is to 
 
 be nearer than ten feet to any other recess. 
 No. 14. 2 c 
 
210 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 All such cuttings and recesses must be immediately made good, 
 and effectually pinned up, with brick, stone, slate, tile, shell, or 
 iron, bedded in mortar. 
 
 No party-wall to be cut for any of the above purposes, if the 
 same will injure, displace, or endanger the timbers, chimnies, 
 flues, or internal finishings of the adjoining buildings. 
 
 The act also allows the footing to be cut off on the side of any 
 party-wall, where an independent side-wall is intended to be built 
 against such party-wall. 
 
 When any buildings (inns of court excepted) that are erected 
 over gate-ways or public passages, or have different rooms and 
 floors, the property of different owners, come to be rebuilt, they 
 must have a party-wall, with a party arch or arches of the thick- 
 ness of a brick and a half at least, to the first and second rate, 
 and of one brick to the third and fourth rate, between building 
 and building, or between the different rooms and floors, that are 
 the property of different owners. 
 
 All inns of court are excepted from the regulation as above, and 
 are only necessitated to have party-walls, where any room or 
 chamber communicates to each separate and distinct stair-case, 
 and which are also subject to the same regulations as respect 
 other party-walls. 
 
 If a building of a lower rate is situated adjoining to a building 
 of a higher rate, and any addition is intended to be made thereto, 
 the party-wall must be built in a such a manner, as is required for 
 the rate of such higher rate of building as adjoinmg. 
 
 When any party-wall is raised, it is to be made the same thick- 
 ness as the wall is of, in the story next below the roof of the high- 
 est building adjoining, but it must not be raised at all, unless it 
 can be done with safety to such wall, and the building adjoining 
 tnereto. 
 
 Every dwelling house to be built, which contains four stories 
 m height from the foundation, exclusive of rooms in the roof, 
 must have its party-wall built according to the third rate, although 
 such dwelhng-house may be of the fourth rate. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 211 
 
 And every dwelling-house to be built in future which exceeds 
 four stories in height, from the foundations, exclusive of the 
 rooms in the roof, must have its party-wall built according to the 
 first rate, although such house may not be of the first rate. 
 
 Chimnies, iSfC, 
 
 No chimney is to be erected on timber, except on the piling, 
 planking, &c. of the foundations of building. 
 
 Chimnies may be built back to back in party.walls ; but in that 
 case, they must not be less in thickness from the centre of such 
 party. wall than as follows : 
 
 First rate, or adjoining thereto, must be one brick thick in the 
 cellar story, and half a brick in all the other stories. 
 
 Second, third, and fourth rate, or adjoining thereto, must be 
 three-quarters of a brick thick in the cellar story, and half a brick 
 in all the upper stories. 
 
 Such chimnies in party-walls as do not stand back to back, may 
 be built in any of the four rates as follows : 
 
 From the external face of the party-wall to the inward face of 
 the back of the chimney in the cellar story, one brick and a half 
 thick, and in the upper stories, one brick thick from the hearth 
 to twelve inches above the mantel. 
 
 Those backs of chimnies which are not in party-walls to the 
 first rate, must not be less than a brick and a half thick in the 
 cellar story, and one brick thick in every other story, and to be 
 from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantel. 
 
 If such chimney is built against any other wall, the back may 
 bo half a brick thinner than that which is above described. 
 
 Those backs of chimnies which are not in party-walls of the 
 second, third, and fourth rate, must be in every story one brick 
 thick at least, from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantel. 
 
 These backs may be also half a brick thinner, if such chimnej 
 is built against any other wall. 
 
 All breasts of chimnies, whether they are in paity.walls or not, 
 
212 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 are not to be less than one brick thick in the cellar story, and 
 half a brick thick in every other story. 
 
 All withs between flues must not be less than half a brick thick. 
 
 Flues may be built opposite to each other in party-walls, but 
 they must not approach to the centre of such wall nearer than two 
 mches. 
 
 All chimney breasts next to the rooms, and chimney backs 
 also, and all flues, are to be rendered or pargetted. 
 
 Backs of chimnies and flues in party-walls against vacant 
 ground, must be lime whited, or marked in some durable manner, 
 but must be rendered or pargetted as soon as any other building is 
 erected to such wall. 
 
 No timber must be over the opening of any chimney for sup- 
 porting the breast thereof, but must have a brick or stone arch, or 
 iron bar or bars. 
 
 All chimnies must have slabs or foot paces of stone, marble, 
 tile, or iron, at least eighteen inches broad, and at least one foot 
 longer than the opening of the chimney when finished, and such 
 slabs or foot paces must be laid on brick or stone trimmers at least 
 eighteen inches broad from the face of the chimney breast, except 
 there is no room or vacuity beneath, then they may be bedded on 
 the ground. 
 
 Brick funnels must not be made on the outside of the first, 
 second, third, or fourth rate, next to any street, square, court, 
 road, or way, so as to extend beyond the general line of the 
 buildings therein. 
 
 No funnel of tin, copper, iron, or other pipe for conveying 
 smoke or steam, must hereafter be fixed near any public street, 
 square, court, or way, to the first, second, third, or fourth rate, 
 and no such pipe is to be fixed on the inside of any building 
 nearer than fourteen inches to any timber, or other combustible 
 material whatever. 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 N. B. This Mark § refers to the 'preceding Sections^ according ?« 
 th^ Number. 
 
 A. 
 
 Act, Building, page 206. 
 Arches, § 37. See Plate XXV. 
 Arris Ways, tiles laid diagonally. 
 Axis of a Vault, § 36. 
 
 B. 
 
 Banker, § 19, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, 13.* 
 
 Bed of a Brick, the horizontal surfaces as disposed in a wall. 
 
 Bedding Stone, § 22. 
 
 Bevel, § 24, 37. See Plate X^ll. Fig. A. 
 
 Bond, § 35. 
 
 Bone Ashes, § 32. 
 
 Borer, § 34. 
 
 Boss, a short trough for holding water, when tiling the roof ; it is 
 hung to the lath. 
 
 Brick Axe, § 28, 37. Se^. Plate XXIII. Fig, 2. 
 
 Ci2 
 
214 
 
 BRICKLAYL\G. 
 
 Brick Trimmer, a brick arch abutting upon the wooden trimmei 
 under the slab of the fire place, to prevent the communication 
 of fire. 
 
 Brick Trowel, § 4, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, I. 
 Bricklaying, § 1. 
 Bricks, § 33. 
 Building Act, § 38,. 
 
 C. 
 
 Camber Slip, § 20, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, 12. 
 Cements, § 32. 
 
 Centering to Groins. See Plate XXVIII.' 
 Chopping Block, § 30. 
 Clamp, § 33. 
 
 Clinkers, hard bricks imported from Holland, § 33. 
 
 Closer, a brick-bat inserted where the distance will not permit of 
 
 a brick in length. See Plate XXIV. 
 Compass, § 12. 
 Conic Surfaces, § 36. 
 CoNo-coNic Arch, § 36. 
 CoNo-coNic Groin, § 36. 
 
 Course, a horizontal row of bricks stretching the length of a wall. 
 
 Cross Passages, § 36. 
 
 Cutting Bricks, § 33. 
 
 Cylindric Groin, § 36. 
 
 Cylindro-cylindric Arch, § 36. 
 
 Cylindro-cylindric Groin, § 36. 
 
 Cylindro-spheric Arch, § 36. 
 
 Cylindro-spheric Groin, § 36. 
 
 Cylindroid, § 36. 
 
 Cylindkoid Groin, § 36 
 
 D- 
 
 Dutch Clinkers, § 33. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 E. 
 
 English Bond, § 35. 
 
 EaUI-ALTITUDINAL GrOIN, § 36. 
 
 Equi-angular Groin, § 36. 
 
 F. 
 
 Flemish Bond, § 35. See Plate XXV. 
 Flemish Tiles, § 33. 
 Float Stone, § 31. 
 Foundations, § 34. 
 
 6. 
 
 Geometrical Solid, § 36. 
 Grinding Stone, § 18. 
 Groins, § 36. 
 Grout, § 32. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hammer, § 5 and 37. 5^ee Plate XXIII. K^. 7 
 Headers, § 35. 
 
 Heading Courses, § 35. See Plate XXIV. 
 Hemisphere, § 36. 
 
 Hexagonal Groin. See Plate XXVIII. 
 Hod, § 14. 
 
 Horizontal Vault, § 36. 
 
 L 
 
 Intrados, § 36. 
 Inverted Arches, J 34, 
 Iron Crow, § 17. 
 
2 ID 
 
 BillCKLAYING. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jointer, § 11, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, 6. 
 Jointing Rule, § 10, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 5 
 
 K 
 
 Kilns, § 33 
 
 L. 
 
 Large Square, § 8. 
 
 Lath, small slips of wood nailed to rafters for hanging the tiles oi 
 
 slates upon. 
 Lathing Hammer, § 3. 
 Laying Trowel, § 3. 
 Level, § 7. 
 Lime, § 32. 
 Lime Water, § 32. 
 
 Line Pins, ^ 15, 37. ^ee Plate XXIII. Te^. 9. 
 
 M. 
 
 Marls, § 33. 
 Mortar, § 32. 
 Mould, § 25. 
 
 Mult-angular Groin, § 36 
 
 O. 
 
 Ornamental Cornices. See Plate XXVIL 
 
 P. 
 
 Pantile, § 33. 
 Pantile Strike, § 33. 
 Paving Tiles, ^ 33. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 217 
 
 Place Bricks, § 33. 
 Plumb Rule, § 6. 
 pozzolona, § 32. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raker, § 13, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 8. 
 Rammer, § 16, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, 10. 
 Rectangular Groin, § 36. 
 Rod, § 9. 
 
 Rubbing Stone, § 21, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 13. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sail-over, is the overhanging of one or more courses beyond the 
 
 naked of the wall. 
 Saw, § 27. 
 Scribe, § 26„ 
 scurbage, § 3. 
 Simple Vault, § 36. 
 
 Skew Back, the sloping abutment for the arched head of a window. 
 SoMMERiNG, the continuation of the joints of arches towards a 
 
 centre or meeting point. 
 Spheric Groin, § 36. 
 Spheric Vault, § 36. 
 Spheric-cylindric Arch, § 36. 
 Sphero-cylindric Groin, § 36. 
 Springing Lines, § 36. 
 Square, § 23, 37. ^ee Plate XXIII. Fig. 3. 
 Steening Wells. See Plate XXX. 
 
 Straight Arches, heads of apertures, which have a straight 
 trados in several pieces, with radiating joints or bricks tapering 
 downwards. 
 
 Straight Vaults, § 36. 
 
 Stretchers, § 35. 
 
 Stretching Courses, § 35. 
 2 D 
 
218 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 T 
 
 Templet, § 29. 
 Tin Saw, § 27. 
 
 Toothing, bricks projecting at the end of a part of a wall, in 
 
 order to bond a part of the said wall not yet carried up. 
 Trimmer, See Brick Trimmer. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vaulting, § 36. 
 
 Walls, § 35. 
 
 Water Cements, § 32. 
 
 Water Table, bricks projecting below the naked of a wall, in 
 order to rest the upper part firo^y^ 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 § 1. Masonry is the art of preparing and combining stones by 
 such a disposition as to tooth or indent them into each other, and 
 form regular surfaces for shelter, convenience, and defence, as 
 the habitation of men, animals, goods, fortifications, bridges, se- 
 paration of property, &c. and may be said to consist either of 
 walling or arching. 
 
 §2. MASONS' TOOLS 
 
 The tools employed by the mason, are different in different 
 counties, according to the quality of the stone employed : in 
 some counties of England the stone is soft, with so little grit as to 
 be wrought by planes into mouldings, as in joinery work ; the 
 naked surfaces of a building are generally finished with an instru- 
 ment called a drag : the Bath and Oxfordshire stone is of this de- 
 scription. In other parts, the stone is so hard as only to be 
 wrought by a mallet and chisel. In London, the value of stone 
 occasions it to be cut into slips and scantlings by a saw ; the ope- 
 ration is done by a labourer. In those countries were stone 
 abounds, it is divided into smaller scantlings, by means of wedges. 
 In most descriptions of stone, whether hard or soft, a hammer is 
 employed in knocking and axing off the prominent parts. Hard 
 stone and marble are reduced to a surface by means of a mallet 
 and chisel. In rough stone from the quarry, whore the saw 
 has not been employed, a narrow chisel, called a point, aoout a 
 quarter of an inch at the entering part, is first used ; but the in 
 equalities of sawn stone if not very prominent, are reduced b / 
 
220 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 mecins of an inch chisel, and sometimes more or less, according 
 to the quantity to be wrought off. Chisels are from a quarter of 
 an inch to three inches in breadth, at the cutting part : those of 
 the greatest breadth are called tools, and employed finally on the 
 surface, which is more regular after having gone over it, than that 
 left after the operation of a narrow chisel. When the surface is 
 wrought into narrow furrows or channels at regular distances, like 
 small flutings which completes the finish of the face, the operation 
 is called tooling, and the surface itself is said to be tooled. When 
 the surface is required to be smoothed, it is done by rubbing it 
 with a flat stone of the same kind with sand and water, and the 
 larger the stone the more regular will the surface be. 
 
 The form of masons' chisels is like that of a wedge, the cuttmg 
 edge is the vertical angle ; they are wholly constructed of iron, 
 except the steel end, which enters the stone. The end which is 
 struck by the mallet, is a flat portion of a spheric surface, and 
 projects on all sides beyond the handling part, which tapers 
 upwards with an equal concavity on each side. The other tools 
 used by the mason are a level, a plumb rule, a square, a bevel, 
 a trowel, a mallet, a hammer, and sometimes a pair of compasses. 
 These have been sufficiently treated under the former departments 
 of Carpentry and Bricklaying, to which the reader is referred. 
 The saw, as has been observed, though an appendage of Ma 
 sonry, is used by the labourer. 
 
 § 3. Of Marbles and Stones. 
 
 Marble is polished by being first rubbed with grit stone, after- 
 wards with pumice stone, and lastly with emery or calcined tin. 
 Marbles with regard to their contexture and variegation of colour, 
 are almost infinite ; some are black, some white, and some of a 
 dove colour ; the best kind of white marble is called statuary, 
 which when cut into thin slices, becomes almost transparent, 
 which orooertv the other kinds do not possess. Other species of 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 221 
 
 marble are streaked with clouds and veins. The texture of mar- 
 ble is not altogether understood, even by the best workmen, but 
 they generally know upon sight, whether it will receive a polish 
 or not. Some marbles are easily wrought, some are very hard, 
 other kinds resist the tools altogether. Artificial marble or scag- 
 liola, is real marble, pulverized and mixed with plaster, and is 
 used for columns, baso relievos, and other ornaments. 
 
 The chief kind of stone used in London, is Portland stone, 
 which comes from the island of Portland in Dorsetshire ; it is 
 used for buildings in general, as strings, window sills, balusters, 
 steps, copings, &c, ; but under great weight or pressure, it is apt 
 to splinter, or flush at the joints. When it is recently quarried, it 
 is soft and works easily, but acquires great hardness in length of 
 time. St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Bridge, are con- 
 structed of Portland stone. 
 
 Purbeck stone comes from an island of the same name, also in 
 Dorsetshire, and is mostly employed in rough work, as steps and 
 paving. 
 
 Yorkshire stone is also used where strength and durability are 
 requisites, as in paving and coping. 
 
 Ryegate stone is used for hearths, slabs, and covings. 
 
 Mortar is used Dy masons in cementing their works. This haa 
 already been fully handled under the bricklaying department, 
 which the reader may consult. In setting marble or fine work, 
 they use plaster of Paris ; and in water works, tarras is employed. 
 
 Tarras is a coarse mortar, durable in water, and in most situa- 
 tions. Dutch tarras is made of a soft rock stone, found near Co- 
 logne on the Rhine. It is burnt like lime, and reduced to powder 
 by mills, from thence carried to Holland, whence it has acquired 
 the name of Dutch tarras. It is very dear, on account of the 
 great demand there is for it in aquatic works. 
 
 An artificial tarras is formed of two parts of lime, and one of 
 plaster of Paris; another sort consists of one part of lime, and two 
 parts of well-sifted coal ashes. 
 
222 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 § 4. Stone Walls 
 
 Are those built of stone, with or without cement in their joints 
 the beading joints have most commonly a horizontal position in 
 the face of the work, and this ought always to be the case when 
 the top of the wall terminates in a horizontal plane or line: in 
 bridge buildings, and in the masonry of fenced walls upon inclined 
 surfaces, the beading joints on the face sometimes foilov/ the di- 
 rection of the top or terminating surface. 
 
 The footings of stone v/alls ought to be constructed of large 
 stones, which if not naturally nearly square from the quarry 
 should be reduced by the hammer to that form, and to an equal 
 thickness in the same course, for if the beds of the stones of the 
 foundation taper, the superstructure will be apt to give way, by 
 resting upon mere angles or points, or upon inclined surfaces : 
 the courses of the footing ought to be well bedded upon each other 
 with mortar ; and all the upright joints of an upper course should 
 break joint, that is, they should fall upon the solid part of the 
 stones in the lower course, and not upon the joints. 
 
 The following are methods practised in laying the footings of a 
 stone foundation : when the walls are thin, and stones can oe go. 
 conveniently, that their length may reach across each course, 
 from one side of the wall to the other, the setting of each course 
 with whole stones in the thickness of the wall, is to be preferred. 
 But when the walls are thicker, and bond stones in part can only 
 be conveniently procured, then every other succeeding stone in 
 the course, may be a whole stone in the thickness of the wall ; 
 and every other interval may consist of two stones in the breadth, 
 that is, placing the header and stretcher alternately, like Flemish 
 bond in nine inch brick work. But when bond stones cannot be 
 had conveniently, every alternate stone should be in length two- 
 thirds of the breadth of the footing upon the same side of the wall; 
 then upon the other side of the wall a stone of one-third of the 
 breadth of the footing, should be placed opposite to one of two- 
 ihirds, and one of two-thirds opposite to one of one-third : so that 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 ^23 
 
 the stones may be placed in the same manner as those of the 
 other side. 
 
 In broad foundations where the stones cannot be procured for a 
 length equal to two-thirds of the foundation, then build them alter- 
 nately, with the joints on the upper bed of each footing, so that the 
 joint of every two stones may fall as nearly as possible in the mid- 
 dle of the length of one or of each adjoining stone, observing to 
 dispose the stones on each side of every footing. 
 
 A wall which is built of unhewn stone, laid with or without 
 mortar, is called a rubble wall : they are of two kinds, coursed 
 and uncoursed; the most kind of rubble is the uncoursed, of 
 which the greater part of the stones are crude as they came out of 
 the quarry, and a little hammer dressed. This kind of walling is 
 very inconvenient for the building of bond timbers, but if they are to 
 be preserved to plugging, the backing must be levelled at every 
 height in which the bond timbers are disposed. 
 
 The best kind of rubble is the coursed ; the courses are all of 
 accidental thicknesses, adjusted by a sizing rule, the stones are 
 either hammer dressed or axed: this kind of work is favourable 
 for the disposition of bond timbers ; but as all buildings constructed 
 either in whole or in part of timber are liable to be burnt, strong 
 well built walls should never be bonded with timber, but should 
 rather be plugged, for if such a";cident takes place, the walls will 
 be less liable to warp. 
 
 Walls faced with squared stones, hewn or rubbed, and backed 
 with rubble, stone, or brick, are called ashlar : the medium size 
 of each ashlar measures horizontally in the face of the wall obout 
 twenty-eight or thirty inches, in the altitude twelve inches, and in 
 the thickness eight or nine inches. The best figure of stones for 
 an ashlar facing are formed like truncated wedges, that is to say, 
 they are thinner at one end than at the other in the thickness of 
 the wall, though level on the beds; so that when the stones of one 
 course, or part of a course, are shaped in this manner, and alike 
 situated to each other, the backs of the course will form an indenta- 
 tion, like the teeth of a joiner's saw, but more shallow in proportion 
 
224 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 to the length of a tooth : the next course has its indentations 
 found in the same way, and the stones so selected that the upright 
 joints break upon the sohd of the stones below. By these means 
 the facing and backing are toothed together, and unquestionably 
 stronger than if the back of each ashlar had been parallel to the 
 front surface of the wall ; as the stones are mostly raised in the 
 quarries of various thicknesses, in an ashlar facing it would con- 
 tribute greatly to the strength of the work, to select the stones in 
 each course, so that every alternate ashlar may have broader 
 beds than those of every ashlar placed in each alternate interval. 
 
 In every course of ashlar facing, bond stones should be intro- 
 duced, and their number should be proportional to the length 
 of the course ; this should be strictly attended to in long ranges 
 of stones, both in walls without apertures, and in the courses that 
 form wide piers ; when they are wide, every bond stone of one course 
 should fall in the middle of every two bond stones in the course 
 below. In every pier where the jambs are coursed with the other 
 ashlar in front, and also in every pier where the jambs are one 
 entire height, every alternate stone next to the aperture in the former 
 case, and every alternate stone next to the jambs in the latter case, 
 should bond through the wall, and also every other stone should 
 be placed lengthways in each return of each angle, not less than 
 the average length of an ashlar. Bond stones should have no 
 taper in their beds, the end of every bond stone, as well as the 
 end of every return stone, should never be less than a foot, there 
 should be no such thing as a closer permitted, unless it bond 
 through the wall. All the uprights or joints should be square, or 
 at right angles to the front of the wall, and may recede about 
 thrce-fourths of an inch from the face with a close joint from the 
 face, with a close joint from thence, gradually widening to the 
 back, and thereby make hollow wedge-formed figures, which will 
 give sufficient cavities for the reception of packing and mortar. 
 Both the upper and lower beds of every stone should be quite 
 level, and not form acute angles as is often the case ; the joints 
 from the face to about three-fourths of an inch within the wall, 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 should either !)0 cemented with fine nriortar, or with a mixture of 
 oil, putty, and white lead : the former is the practice both in Lon- 
 don and Edinburgh, and the latter in Glasgow. The putty cement 
 will stand longer than most stones, and will remain prominent 
 when the face of the stones has been corroded with nge. The 
 whole of the ashlar, except that mentioned of the joints towards 
 the face of the wall, the rubble work and the core should be sei 
 and laid in the best mortar, and every stone should be laid on its 
 natural bed. All wall-plates should be placed upon a number of 
 bond stones, and particularly those of the roof where there are no 
 tie-beams, by which means they may either be joggled upon the 
 bonds, or fastened to them by iron and lead. 
 
 In building walls or insulated pillars of very short horizontal 
 dimensions not exceeding the length of stones that can be easily 
 procured, every stone should be quite level on the bed, without 
 any degree of concavity, and should be one entire piece, between 
 every two horizontal joints. This should be particularly attended 
 to in piers, where the insisting weight is great, otherwise the stones 
 will be in danger of splintering, and crushing to pieces, and per- 
 haps occasion a total demolition of the fabric. 
 
 Vitruvius has left us an account of the manner of constructing 
 
 the walls of the ancients, which was as follows: the Riticulated, 
 
 is that wherein the joints run in parallel lines, making angles of 
 
 forty degrees each, with the horizon in contrary ways, and con. 
 
 sequently the faces of the stones form squares, of which cue 
 
 diagonal is horizontal, and the other vertical. This kind of wall 
 
 was much used by the Romans in his time. The Incertam 
 
 wall was formed of stones of which one direction of thu joints was 
 
 horizontal, and the other vertical : but the vertical joints of the 
 
 alternate courses were not always arranged in the same straight 
 
 line, all that they regarded was, to make them break joint : this 
 
 manner of walling was used by the Romans antecedent to the time 
 
 of Vitruvius, who directs that in both the reticulated and incertain 
 
 walls, instead of filling the space between the sidas with rubble 
 
 promiscuously, they should be strengthened with abutments ot 
 Nos. 15 & 16. 2 E 
 
226 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 hewn stone or brick, or common flints, built in cross walls 
 two feet thick, and bound to the facing and backing with 
 cramps of iron. The Emplection consisted of two sides or shells 
 of squared stone, with alternate joints, and rubble core in the 
 middle. 
 
 The walls of the Greeks were of three kinds, named Isodomum, 
 Pseudisodomum and Emplection. The Isodomum had the courses 
 all of an equal thickness, and the other called Pseudisodomum 
 had the courses unequally thick ; in both these walls, when- 
 ever the squared work was continued, the interval or cere was 
 filled up with common hard stones laid in the manner of bricks 
 with ' alternate joints. The Emplection was constructed wholly 
 of squared stones, in these bond stones were placed at regular 
 intervals, and the stones in the intermediate distance were laid 
 with alternate joints in the same manner as those of the face 
 so that this manner of walling must have been much stronger than 
 the emplection of the Roman villages. This is a most strong 
 and durable manner of walling, and in modern tin\es it may be 
 practised with the utmost success, but in the common run of 
 buildings it would be too expensive. 
 
 § 5. Stairs. 
 
 When stairs are supported by a wall at both ends, nothing dif- 
 ficult can occur in the construction, in these the inner ends of the 
 steps may either terminate in a solid newel, or to be tailed into a 
 wall surrounding an open newel ; where elegance is not required, 
 and v/here the newel does not exceed two feet six inches. The 
 ends of the steps may be conveniently supported by a solid pillar, 
 but when the newel is thicker, a thin wall sarrounding the newel 
 would be cheaper. 
 
 In the stairs of a basement story, where there are geometrical 
 stairs above, the steps next to the newel ure generally supported 
 uuon a dwarf wall. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 227 
 
 § 6. Geometrical Stairs. 
 
 Have the outer end fixed in the wall, and one of the edges of 
 every step supported by the edge of the step below, and con- 
 structed with joggled joints, so that they cannot descend in the 
 inclined direction of the plane, nor yet in a vertical direction, the 
 sally of every joint forms an exterior obtuse angle, on the lower 
 part of the upper step, called a back rebate, and that on the 
 upper part of the lower step of course an interior one, and the joint 
 formed of these sallies is called a joggle, which may be level from 
 the face of the risers, to about one inch within the joint. Thus 
 is the plane of the tread of each step continued one inch within 
 the surface of each riser, the lower part of the joint is a narrow 
 surface, perpendicular to the inclined direction or soffit of the 
 stair at the end next to the newel. 
 
 In stairs constructed of most kinds of stone, the thickness of 
 every step at the thinnest place of the end next to the newel, has 
 no occasion to exceed two inches, for steps of four feet in length, 
 that is, by measuring from the interior angle of every step per- 
 pendicular to the rake. The thickness of steps at the interior 
 angle, should be proportioned to the length of the step; but allow- 
 ing that the thickness of the steps at each interior angle is suffi- 
 cient at two inches, then will the thickness of steps at the interior 
 angles be half the number of inches that the length of the steps 
 has in feet : thus a step five feet long, would be two inches and a 
 half at that place. 
 
 The stone platforms of geometrical stairs, viz. the landings, 
 half paces and quarter paces, are constructed of one, two, or 
 several stones, according as they can be procured. When the 
 platform consists of two or more stones, the first platform stone is 
 laid upon the last step that is set, and one end tailed in and wedged 
 into the wall ; the next platform stone is joggled or rebated into 
 one set, and the end also fixed into the wall, as that and the pre. 
 ceding steps are, and every stone in succession, till the platform 
 IS completed. If there is occasion for another flight of steps, the 
 
228 
 
 MASOiNRY, 
 
 last platform becomes a spring stone for the next step, tlie joint is 
 to be joggled as well as all the succeeding steps, in the same 
 manner as the first flight. 
 
 Geometrical stairs executed in stone depend upon the following 
 principle : that every body must at least be supported by three 
 points, placed out of a straight line ; and consequently, if two 
 edges of a body in diflTerent directions be secured to another body, 
 the two bodies will be immoveable in respect to each other. This 
 last is the case in a geometrical stair, one end of a stair stone is 
 always tailed into the wall, and one edge either rests on the ground 
 itself, or on the edge of the preceding stair stone, whether the 
 stair stone be a plat or step. The stones forming a platform, are 
 generally of the same thickness as those forming the steps. 
 
 § 7. JL short Account of the Origin of the Arch, and Authors who 
 may he consulted. 
 
 The arch is perhaps one of the most useful inventions that ever 
 took place in the art of building ; by it we are enabled to cross 
 the deepest rivers and valleys, and places which are rendered 
 impassable by rocks or precipitous banks. In such situations, 
 without its aid, goods conveyed by inland navigation, or by any 
 other means, could never obtain the same celerity of transportation, 
 nor have been conducted at so easy a rate of expense. By the 
 use of the arch we are enabled to build apartments secure from 
 fire, to cover apertures where it would be impossible to lintle 
 them with stone, and to support walls or their tops almost to any 
 height. 
 
 The theory of the equilibrium of arches depends on the deepest 
 principles of mathematical science. Those who are desirous of 
 obtaining the fundamental part of the art of building arches, will 
 do well to consult the fifth article of Emerson^s Miscellanies^ and 
 Hutton^s and GwlWs Principles of Arches, and for a knowledge of 
 the practice, it will be well to peruse a work in French, by Per- 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 229 
 
 ronet, which has gained him great reputation, as containing the 
 whole result of his experience in the practice of building bridges 
 and arches : also a work by Semple, containing many excellent 
 practical remarks; there are other authors, but those here spoken 
 of, have acquired the most celebrity. 
 
 Arches are to be found in the Greek theatres. Stadia and 
 Gymnasia, some of them erected probably 400 years before the 
 Christian era. The most ancient arches of which we have any 
 thing like dates, are the Cloaca at Rome, begun by Tarquinius 
 Priscus. The emperor Adrian threw a bridge over the Cephisus 
 between the territories of Attica and Elusis, on the most frequented 
 road of Greece. The ancient bridges at Rome were eight in 
 number : the most considerable of which was the Pons jElius, now 
 the bridge of- Santo Angelo. There are several other Roman 
 bridges in and out of Italy, but the most celebrated was that 
 erected over the Danube by the emperor Trajan, the span of the 
 arches is supposed to have been 170 feet each : but even this is 
 considerably surpassed in horizontal extent by the ancient bridge 
 of Brioude in France, consisting only of one arch of 181 feet span. 
 Several of the French bridges are remarkable for the great extent 
 of the arches. The bridge of Neuilly, built by M. Perronet over 
 the Seine, consists of five elliptic arches, each 128 feet span, 
 composed of eleven arcs of circles, of different radii. The mosi 
 considerable arch in Great Britain, is that over the river TatF, 
 near Llantrissent in Glamorganshire, consisting of one arch of 
 140 feet span : the curve is the arc of a circle of 175 feet diame- 
 tey. Sarah, or Island bridge over the Liffey, above Dublin, 
 consists of one arch of lOG feet span. The bridges at Westmin- 
 ster, and Blackfriars, London, though among the boldest and finest 
 undertakings of modern times, have their arches of less horizontal 
 extension than those above mentioned ; the arches of the former 
 are semi-circular, the central one is seventy-six feet diameter or 
 span. The arches of the latter are nearly elHptic, nine in number, 
 and the central one is 100 feet wide, and the arches on each side 
 
 decrease regularly to the land piers. 
 r2 
 
230 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 PLATE XXXI. 
 
 Observations on the customary Problems in Masonry respecting 
 Arches, and Methods of describing Elliptic Arches, 
 
 The operation of describing an ellipse with a string, though 
 true in principle, is useless in practice, as the string stretches in 
 such a degree as not to be depended on, and the degree of ten- 
 sion is in proportion to the length of the string, which is therefore 
 unfit to be used for describing the curve of an arch of large ex- 
 tent. The trammel or elliptic compass is a very accurate instru- 
 ment, but it can only be used for works upon a small scale : this 
 method of description will be found in Problem V. Geometry. The 
 description of an ellipse with a beam compass may be put in exe- 
 cution in arches of any extent, as has been fully verified in the 
 practice of that distinguished French engineer, M. Perronet. But 
 the common method with three centres only is extremely lame, 
 owing to the sudden variation of curvature, which takes place at 
 the junction of two very different radii. 
 
 Pkob. I. To render the Compass Method useful, not only in describ- 
 ing the Curve, but in finding the Joints perpendicular thereto, so 
 as to form an Arch which shall not have any sensible variation in 
 Practice from the true Elliptic Curve, nor in the Perpendicularity 
 of the Joints. 
 
 Find a number of points in the curve equidistant on each side of 
 Ihe extremity of the conjugate axis : find the centre of a circle pass- 
 ing the middle point, and the other two points one on each side of 
 it: join the centre with the last two points of the curve, and describe 
 an arc through the three points ; then to complete the half curve, 
 join one of the next points of the curve and the end of the arc by 
 a straight line ; or suppose these two points to be joined, and 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 231 
 
 bisect this line by a perpendicular, which produce until it meet 
 the first of the radii : join the last point of the curve, and the con- 
 co.irse of the two last radii : from the point of concourse describe 
 an arc from the end of the arc last described to the next point ifi 
 the curve ; proceed in like manner with the next succeeding arcs, 
 if more than two, until the last arc but one, is described : continue 
 ihe last arc until it meet a diameter parallel to the transverse 
 axis : draw a line from the meeting of the arc and diameter 
 through the extremity of the transverse axis, and produce this line 
 till it meets the arc ; from the point where the line meets the 
 arc draw a line to the centre of the arc ; from the point where 
 the line so drawn cuts the transverse axis as a centre, describe an 
 arc from the end of the arc last described to the extremity of 
 the transverse axis. 
 
 Example^ Fig. 1« Let A B be the transverse axis, and C D 
 the semi-conjugate. 
 
 Draw E D parallel to A C and A E parallel to C D. Divide 
 C A and A E each into three equal parts at the points /, g, h, L 
 Produce D C to X making C X equal to C D. Draw X / Z and 
 X g k, also hk d and il d, then the points k and I will be in the 
 curve, bisect the distance Z D at right angles by m n meeting D 
 X produced at n. Join Z « cutting A C at j/. The points t and u 
 being on the line or semi-transverse C B, make C t equal to C y, 
 and draw n t v. From n with the distance n D or w Z, describe 
 the arc Z D v. Bisect the distance A; Z by a perpendicular o y 
 meeting I n at p. From p with the distance p I describe the arc 
 / k q. Draw p q parallel to A B. Join q A which produce to 
 meet the axclkq 'mr\ also join r p cutting A B in ^. From g 
 with the distance g r describe an arc r A, and the half A D and 
 part of the other half D u of the arch will be completed. Make 
 t u equal to fg, n s equal to n p. Draw suw. From * describe 
 the arc v w, and from u describe the arc w B which will complete 
 the other half of the arch. 
 
232 
 
 xMASONRY. 
 
 Prob. II. To Jind the Joints of an Elliptic Arch at right Angles to 
 
 the Curve, 
 
 Fig. 2. Find the centres p, 5, g, y, t, u as in Problem 1., 
 then radiate the joints between D and v by the centre n, the joints 
 between v and w by the centre 5, and the joints between w and B 
 by the centre u, and the other half of the arch A D in the same 
 manner, or thus : 
 
 If the arch A D B is described with a trammel. Take the semi- 
 transverse A C, and from D describe an arc cutting C A at F, 
 and another cutting C B at F, then the points F, F are called the 
 focii. Now to draw a line at right angles to the curve from any 
 point H. Draw H K F and H L F, making H K equal to H L. 
 From K and L as centres, describe arcs of equal radii cutting 
 each other at I, and draw I H, which will be a joint at the required 
 point H. In <hc same manner may any other joint i h or as many 
 as required be obtained. 
 
 Prob. hi. To describe the Parabolic Arch, and thence to draw the 
 Joints at right Angles to the Curve. 
 
 First, to draw the Curve, 
 
 Fig. 3. Let C D be the abscissa or height of the curve, and 
 E B the base or a double ordinate. Draw A E parallel to C D 
 and E D parallel to A B. Divide C A and A E each into the 
 like number of equal parts. Draw t a, 2 6, 3 c, &;c. parallel to 
 C D ; also draw 1 D, 2 D, 3 D, &c. cutting the parallels at a, 6> 
 c, &;c. which are points in the curve, then the curve may be 
 drawn with a bent rule through the points, a, 5, c, &c. and the 
 other half B D being drawn in like manner will complete the 
 whole curve. 
 
F/nh' X\'XII . 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 233 
 
 Secondly i to Jind the Joints. 
 
 Let it be required to find a joint to any point E. Join E B, 
 which bisect at^; draw g h i perpendicular to A B cutting the 
 curve at h : make h i equal to h g, and join E i ; draw E F at a 
 right angle with E i and E F will be a joint at right angles to the 
 curve. In the same manner all other joints may be obtained. 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 With respect to the power which arches have of supporting 
 themselves, It depends upon the load insisting on all points of the 
 arch, it is evident that there may be such a relation between the 
 curve and the weight on every point of it, so as the weight may 
 have on more tendency to break or spring the arch in one point 
 than another ; and it is evident, that if the materials are of the 
 same specific gravity, that the wall erected at a given height upon 
 the arch will obtain a certain form, so as to keep the arch in 
 equilibrio, and that the form of the terminating line of the wall 
 will depend on the curve of the supporting arch. 
 
 Fig. 1. If the intrados of the arch be a semi-circle, or semi- 
 elliptic, the extrados or terminating line of the wall will be a curve 
 running upwards at the ends, so as to make the two vertical lines 
 which are tangents at the extremes of the arch asmytotes of the 
 curve, and consequently, neither the semi-circular nor semi-ellip- 
 tic arch are adapted to bridge building ; and it may be pronounced 
 with safety, that though these curves are frequently employed in 
 bridge building, were the materials only placed in contact without 
 cohesion or friction, the mass supported could not stand when 
 the road way is straight, or a convex curve throughout the length 
 of the arch, and that it is only in consequence of friction or the 
 cementing quality of the mortar in connecting the whole of the 
 materials in one mass, that such arches stand for so many centu- 
 tries as they are found to do. However, by employing only the 
 2 F 
 
234 
 
 MASOiNRY. 
 
 middle portions of these curves, a road way or extrados of tolera- 
 bie convenient form may be obtained. 
 
 Fig. 3. Is an arch of equilibration, the intrados of which is 
 parabolic, which requires an extrados of the same form and 
 curvature, both being similar and equal. The vertical heights 
 between the two are everywhere equal. 
 
 Fig. 4 is another equilibrated arch, the intrados is an hyperbolio 
 curve, and the extrados requires a curve, such that the vertical 
 lines between the two curves are continually less from the crown 
 towards the feet of the arches. 
 
 Fig. 5 is another equilibrated arch, the intrados being a cate- 
 narian, or such as would be formed with a heavy chain suspended 
 at its extremities from two points at less distance from each other 
 than the length of the chain ; the extrados to this curve may admit 
 of different forms, it may either be a convex curve, as when the 
 wall erected upon it is low, or a straight surface or plane, as when 
 the wall erected on it is enormously high, or a concave curve, 
 as when the wall is still higher : neither of the three last curves 
 are at all adapted to bridge building, the extrados line at a mode- 
 rate height of wall being too rapid in its acclivity and declivity. 
 
 Fig. 6 is an arch of equilibration, where the top is a straight 
 line : the intrados at a given height of wall is calculated to answer 
 thereto, this arch is therefore well adapted in most situations for 
 the arch of a bridge. 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 N. B. This Mark § refers io'the preceding Sections, according to 
 the Number* 
 
 A. 
 
 Abutments of a Bridge, the walls adjoining to the land, which 
 support the ends of the extreme arches or road way. 
 
 Arch, in masonry, is a part of a building suspended over a hollow 
 and concave towards the area of the hollow ; the top of the wall 
 or walls which receives the first area stones is called the abut, 
 ment or springing, § 7. 
 
 4RcravoLT OF THE Arch OF A Bridge, is the curve line formed 
 by the upper sides of tho arch stones in the face of the work, 
 or the archivolt is sometimes understood to be the whole set of 
 arch stones that appear in the face of the work. 
 
 Ashlar, § 4. 
 
 B. 
 
 Banquet, the raised footways adjoining to the parapet on the 
 sides of a bridge. 
 
236 MASONRY. 
 Bath Stone, § 3. 
 
 BatteRj the leaning back of the upper part of the face of a wall, 
 
 so as to make the plumb line fall within the base. 
 Battardeatt, or Cofferdam, a case of piling without a bottom, 
 
 for building the piers of a bridge. 
 Beds of a Stone, are the parallel surfaces which intersect the 
 
 face of the work in lines parallel to the horizon, § 4. 
 BoNDj is that connection of lapping the stones upon one another 
 
 in the carrying up of the work, so as to form an inseparable 
 
 mass of building. 
 Bond Stones, stones running through the thickness of the wall 
 
 in order to bind it. 
 Bond Timbers, § 4. 
 BuiDGE Buildings, § 4. 
 
 *jridge, in masonry, is an edifice or structure, consisting of one 
 or a series of arches, in order to form a road way over a rive 
 canal, &c. for passing the same. 
 
 Butments. See Abutments, 
 
 C. 
 
 Caisson, a chest or box in which the piers of a bridge are built 
 by sinking it as the work advances till it comes in contact with 
 the bed of the river, and then the sides are disengaged, being 
 constructed for the purpose. 
 
 Cfntres, the frames of timber work for supporting arches during 
 their erection. 
 
 Chest, the same as Caisson. 
 
 C/rrsELs, § 2. 
 
 Coi ferdam, the same as Battardeau 
 
 D. 
 
 Drag, a tliin plate of steel indented on the edge, like Jhc teeth ol 
 a saw, used in soft stone which has no grit, for finishing the 
 surface. A piece of a jomer's hand-saw makes a good drag, § 2. 
 
MASONRY. 237 
 
 Drift, the horizontal force of an arch, by which it endeavours to 
 
 overset the piers. 
 Dutch Tarras, § 3. 
 
 E. 
 
 Emi'lection, § 4. 
 
 Entrados of an Arch, the exterior or convex curve or the top 
 of the arch stones ; the term is opposed to the intrados or con. 
 cave side. 
 
 ExTRADos OF A Bridge, the curve of the road way. 
 
 F. 
 
 Feis'ce Walls, those used to prevent the encroachments of men 
 
 or animals. 
 Figures of Stones, § 4. 
 
 Footings, projecting courses of stone without the naked of the 
 superincumbent part, in order to rest the wall firmly on its 
 base, § 4. 
 
 G. 
 
 Geometrical Stairs, § 6. 
 
 H. 
 
 Headers, stones disposed with their length horizontally in the 
 thickness of the wall. 
 
 L 
 
 Impost or Springing, the upper part or parts of a wall in order 
 
 to spring an arch. 
 Incertain, § 4. 
 Insulated Pillars, § 4. 
 
 IsODOMUM, § 4. 
 
238 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jette, the border made round the stilts under a pier. 
 
 Joggled Joints, the method of indenting the stones, so as to 
 
 prevent the one from being pushed away from the other by 
 
 lateral force, § 6. 
 
 K. 
 
 Key Stone of an Arch, the stone at the summit of the arch, put 
 
 in last of all, for wedging and closing the arch. 
 Key-Stone, the middle voussoir of an arch over the centre. 
 Key-Stones, used in some places for bond stones. 
 
 L. 
 
 Level, horizontal or parallel to the horizon. 
 Level, an instrument, the same as that used in bricklaying and 
 carpentry. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mallet, the implement or tool which gives percussive force to 
 the chisel ; in figure it approaches to a hemisphere, with a 
 handle projecting from the middle or pole of the convex side, J 2. 
 
 Marble, § 3. 
 
 Masonry, § 1. 
 
 Mortar. See Bricklayings § 32, and in Masonry, § 3. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naked of a Wall, is the vertical or battering surface, whence 
 all projectures arise. 
 
 O. 
 
 Off Set, the upper surface of a lower part of a wall left by re- 
 ducing the thickness of the superincumbent part upon one side 
 or the oVher, or both. 
 
 Oxfordshire Stone, § 2. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 239 
 
 P. 
 
 Parapets, the breast walls erected on the sides of the extrados 
 
 of the bridge for preventing passengers from falling over. 
 Paving, a floor or surface of stone for walking upon. 
 Piers, the insulated parts of a bridge between the apertures, or 
 
 arches for supporting the arches and road way. 
 Piers in Houses, the walls between apertures, or between an 
 
 aperture and the corner. 
 Piles, timbers driven into the bed of a river, or the foundation of 
 
 a building for supporting a structure. 
 Plaster of Paris, § 3. 
 
 Pitch of an Arch, the height from the springing to the summit 
 of the arch. 
 
 Point, the narrowest of all the chisels, and used in reducing the 
 
 rough prominent parts of stone, § 2. 
 Portland Stone, § 3. 
 pseudisodomum, § 4. 
 PuRBECK Stone, § 3. 
 
 Push of an Arch, the same as Drift, which see. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarry, the place whence stones are raised. 
 
 R. 
 
 Random Courses in Paving, unequal courses without any regard 
 
 to equi.distant joints. 
 Reticulated Wall, § 4. 
 Rubble Wall, § 4. 
 Ryegate Stone, § 3. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saw, a thin plate of iron of considerable lengtn, regulated by a 
 
240 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 frame of wood and cording : the operation is performed by the 
 labourer, § 2. 
 
 Shoot of an Arch, the same as Drift or Push. See Drift, 
 Statuary, § 3. 
 
 Sterlings, a case made about a pier c^f stilts in order to secure it. 
 
 Stilts, a set of piles driven into the bed of a river, at a small 
 distance from each other, with a surrounding case of piling 
 driven closely together ; the tops of the piles being levelled to 
 low water mark, and the interstices filled with stones, forms a 
 foundation for building the pier uoon. 
 
 Stone Stairs, § 5. 
 
 Stone "V^'alls, § 4. 
 
 Stretchers, those ctones which have their length disposec, hori- 
 zontally in the length of the wall. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tarras, § 3. 
 
 Through Stones, the term used in some counties for bond stones, 
 which see. 
 
 Thrust, the same as Push, Shoot, or Drift. See Drift. 
 Tooling, § 2. 
 Tools, § 2. 
 
 u. 
 
 Under Bed of a Stone, the lower surface generally horizontally 
 posited. 
 
 Upper Bed of a Stone, the upper surface generally horizontally 
 posited. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vault, a mass of stones so combined as to support each other 
 over a hollow. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 241 
 
 VoussoRS the arch stone in the fiice or faces of an arch, the mid 
 die one is called the key-stone. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wall, an erection of stone generally perpendicular to the horizon 
 and sometimes battering, in order to give stability. 
 
 I 
 
 Yorkshire Stone, § 3, 
 
 No. 16. 2 G 
 
SLATING. 
 
 § 1. Slating is the operation of covering the top or other in. 
 clined parts of a building with slate. 
 
 SLATERS' TOOLS 
 
 Are a scantle^ a trowel, a hammer, a zas, a small hand pick, 
 a hod, a board for mortar^ See the following explanation of 
 terms. 
 
EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back of a Slate, is the upper side of it. 
 
 Backeb, is a narrow slate put on the back of a broad square- 
 headed slate, when the slates begin to get narrow. 
 Bed of a Slate, is the lower side. 
 
 Bond or Lap op a Slate, is the distance between the nail of 
 the under slate, and the lower end of the upper slate. 
 
 C. 
 
 Course, is any row of slating, the lower ends of which are hori- 
 zontally posited. 
 
 Eave, the skirt or lower part of the slating hanging over the naked 
 of the wall. 
 
 H. 
 
 HoLiNo, the piercing of the slates for nails. 
 
244 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 Lap. See Bond. 
 
 Maegin of a Couese, Uiose parts of the backs of the slates ex. 
 posed to the weather. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nails, painted iron or copper of a pyramidal form for fastening 
 the slates to the lath or boarding 
 
 P. 
 
 Patent Slating, large slates used without boarding, and screwed 
 to the rafters with slips of slates bedded in putty to cover the 
 joints. 
 
 S. 
 
 Soantle, is a gauge by which slates are regulated to their propei 
 length. 
 
 Slates used in London are of several kinds, as Westmoreland, 
 rags, imperial, dutchess, countess, ladies, doubles. The West- 
 moreland are the best ; they are from three feet six inches, to 
 one foot in length, and from two feet six inches to one foot 
 broad. Rags are the second best, and run nearly of the same 
 size. The third in order, of inferior quality, are the imperials, 
 they run from two feet six inches long, to one foot long. The 
 other kinds will be understood by the order under which they 
 are named, being inferior in size accordingly. 
 
 Sorting is the regulating of slates to their proper length by means 
 of the scantle. 
 
 Squaeing, the cutting of the sides and bottom of the slates. 
 
SLATING. 
 
 245 
 
 T. 
 
 Tail, the bottom or lower end of the slate. 
 Trimming, the cutting or paring of the side and bottom edges, the 
 head of the slate never being cut* 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zax, the tool for cutting the slate. 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 § 1. Plastering is the art of covering walls or ceilings with 
 one, two, or three layers of any plastic or tenacious paste, so as 
 to admit of a smooth and hard surface when the material is dry, 
 and also of ornamentmg walls and ceilings, either by being run 
 or cast into moulds. 
 
 § 2. PLASTERERS' TOOLS. 
 
 Tools used by the plasterer, are plastering trowels of several 
 descriptions, joint trowels, and jointing rules, a hawke, a hand float, 
 a quirk float, and a derby. A scratoher, and wooden skreeds for 
 running mouldings. 
 
 §3. MATERIALS 
 
 Generally employed are lime, hair, sand, plaster of Paris; and 
 those are variously compounded, as the following alphabetical 
 arrangement of terms will show, which also explains the tools and 
 their uses. 
 
 Walls consisting of brick or stone in the best houses, are always 
 lathed by the plasterer, previous to the operation of plastering, 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 247 
 
 particularly interior walls ; and it is more requisite to lath walls 
 constructed of stone, than those constructed of brick, which is a 
 dry substance, and not liable to attract damps. 
 
 Ceilings are generally plastered upon laths, particularly in 
 London. In some parts of the country, reeds are employed 
 in their stead : the reeds are spread out on the ceiling, so as to 
 form a regular surface, and are confined to their situation by 
 nailing laths to the joists, the reeds running transversely between 
 them and the joists. The reeds are cheaper than laths, but 
 require more material of plaster and labour: so that when finished, 
 the difference of cost is very trifling. Other matters in plastering 
 will be seen in the following explanation of terms 
 
EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 IN 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 A. 
 
 Ahole Float, is a float made to any internal angle to the planes 
 of both sides of the room. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bastard Stucco, is three coat plaster, the first generally rough, 
 ing-in or rendering, the second doating is in troweled stucco, 
 out the finishing coat contains a little hair besides the sand : 
 it is not hand floated, and the troweling is done with less 
 labour than what is denominated troweled stucco. 
 
 Bay, a strip or rib of plaster between skreeds for regulating the 
 floating rule. 
 
 C. 
 
 Ceiling, the upper side of an apartment opposite to the floor, 
 generally finished with plastered work. Ceilings are set in two 
 difierent ways, the best is where the setting coat is composed of 
 plaster and putty, commonly called gauge. Common ceilings 
 have plaster but no hair, this last is the same as the finishing 
 coat in walls set for paper 
 
I 
 
 PLASIERING. 249 
 CoAESK Stuff. See Lime and Hair. 
 
 Coat, a etratum or thickness of plaster work, done at one time 
 
 D. 
 
 Derby, a two-handed float. 
 
 Die, is when plaster loses its strength. 
 
 Dots, patches of plaster put on to regulate the floating rule in 
 
 making skreeds and bays. 
 Double Fir Laths, are laths three-eighths of an inch thick, 
 
 single fir laths being bare by a quarter. All the ceilings on 
 
 the entrance and drawing-room floors and best stair-cases should 
 
 be lathed with double fir laths. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fine Stuff is made of lime slacked and sifted through a fine 
 sieve, and mixed with a due quantity of hair, and sometimes a 
 small quantity of fine sand. Fine stuff" is used in common 
 ceilings and walls, set for paper or colour. 
 
 Finishing, is the best coat of three coat work, when done for 
 stucco. The term setting is commonly used, when the third 
 coat is made of fine stuflf for paper. 
 
 First Coat of two coat work is denominated laying, when on 
 lath, and rendering on brick, in three coat work upon lath it is 
 denominated pricking-up, and upon brick, roughing-in. 
 
 Float, an implement for forming the second coat of thref* coal 
 work to a given form of surface. Floats are of three kinds : 
 namely, the hand float, the quirk float, and the derby. 
 
 Floated Lath and Plaster set fair for paper, is three coat 
 work, the first pricking-up, the second floating, and the third or 
 setting coat of fine stuff*, understood to be pricked-up, as there 
 is no floated work without pricking-up. 
 
 Floated, rendered and set, this is the common term. 
 
 Floated Work, is that which is pricked-up, floated and set, or 
 roughed-in. ^ 
 
250 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 Floating, is the second coat of three coat work. There is no 
 floating without pricking.up or roughing-in first, and then the 
 finishing or setting. Floating consists of the same stufi* as 
 pricking-up, but more hair is used in the former than in the 
 latter. The floating should be brushed with a birch broom, in 
 order to rough the surface, for stucco or setting for paper. 
 Floating is always used in stuccoed work, walls prepared for 
 paper, and in the best ceilings. 
 
 Floating Skreeds differ from cornice skreeds in this, that the 
 former is a strip of plaster, and the latter wooden rules for run- 
 ning the cornice. 
 
 Floating Rules are of every size and length. 
 
 a. 
 
 Gauge, a mixture of fine stuff and plaster, or putty and plaster, 
 or coarse stuff* and plaster, used in finishing the best ceilings 
 and for mouldings, and sometimes for setting walls. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hair used in plastering, ought to be long fresh hair. 
 Hawke, a board with a handle projecting perpendicularly from 
 the under side for holding the plaster. 
 
 J. 
 
 Joint-Rules and Tools are narrow trowels and rules of wood 
 for making good mitres. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lath Floated and Set Fair. These words bear the same 
 meaning as lath pricked-up and floated and set, which see. 
 
 Lath Layed and Set, is two coat work, only the first coat called 
 laying, is put on without scratching, except it is swept with a 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 251 
 
 broom. This is generally coloured on walls, and whited on 
 ceilings. 
 
 Lath Plastered Set and Coloured, is the same with lath layed 
 set and coloured, which see. 
 
 Lath Pkicked-up Floated and Set for Paper, is three coat 
 work, the first is pricking-up, the second floating, and the finish- 
 ing is fine stuff. 
 
 Laying, is the first coat on lath of two coat plaster or set work 
 it is not scratched with the scratcher, but its surface is roughed 
 by sweeping it with a broom. It differs only from rendering on 
 its application. Rendering is applied to the first coat work upon 
 brick, whereas laying is the first of two coat work upon lath. 
 
 Laying-on Trowels, the trowels used for laying on the plaster. 
 
 Lime and Hair, is a mixture of lime and hair used in first coating 
 and floating. It is otherwise denominated coarse stuff: in 
 floating more hair is used than in first coating. 
 
 M. 
 
 Materials in plastering are, coarse stuff, fine stuff, stuff, 'putty, 
 
 plaster, gauge, and stucco. 
 MiTERiNG Angles, in making good internal and external angles 
 
 of mouldings. 
 
 Mouldings, when not very large, are first run with coarse gauge 
 to the mould, then with fine stuff, then with putty and plaster, 
 and lastly, run off or finished with raw putty. When mouldings 
 are large, coarse stuff is first put on, then it is filled with tile 
 heads or brick bats, and run off successively, with coarse gauge, 
 fine stuff gauge, putty gauge, and finished with raw putty : in 
 running cornices there must always be skreeds upon the ceiling, 
 whether the ceiling is floated or not. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pail, a vessel for holding water to moisten the plaster. 
 
252 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 Plaster, is the material with which ornaments are cast, and with 
 which the fine stuff of gauge for mouldings and other parts are 
 mixed. 
 
 Pricking.up is the first coating of three coat work upm laths. 
 
 The material used is coarse stuff, and sometimes mixed up in 
 
 London with road dirt or Thames sand, and its surface is always 
 
 scratched with the scratcher. 
 Pugging, the stuff laid upon sound boarding, in order to prevent 
 
 the transmission of, or deaden the sound in its passage from one 
 
 story to another. 
 
 Putty, is a very fine cement made of lime only. It is thus pre- 
 pared : dissolve in a small quantity of water, as two or three 
 gallons, so much fresh lime, (constantly stirred with a stick,) 
 until the lime be entirely slacked, and the whole becomes of 
 the consistency of mud ; so that when the stick is taken out 
 of it, it will but just drop ; then being sifted or run through a 
 hair sieve, to take out the gross parts of the lime, it is fit for 
 use. Putty differs from fine stuflT in the manner of preparing 
 it, and in its being used without hair. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quirk Float. See Angle Float. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rendered and Floated, is three coat work, more commonly 
 called floated, rendered and set. 
 
 Rendered Floated and Set, for paper, should be termed 
 roughed-in ; floated and set for paper is three coat work, the 
 first lime and hair upon brick work, the second the same stuff 
 with a little more hair floated with a long rule, the last fine 
 stuff mixed with white hair. 
 
 Rendered and Set, the same as set work, see Set Work. Ren- 
 dering is the first of two coat work upon naked brick or stone 
 work whited on walls or vaults: roughing-in being the first 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 253 
 
 coat of three work on naked brick, but the compound term 
 pricking-up, is used for the first of three coat work upon lath, 
 or on brick work, which has been previously rendered. Though 
 the term rendering is sometimes used in three coat work, it is 
 improper. The material for rendering is the same as that for 
 pricking-up. 
 
 Rough Cast, is the overlaying of walls with mortar, without 
 
 smoothing it with any tool whatever. 
 Rough Renderiivg, is one coat rough. 
 
 Rough Stucco, is that which is finished with stucco floated and 
 
 brushed in a small degree with water, much used at present. 
 Roughing-in, is the first coat of three coat work. 
 RuNiNiNG Mouldings. See Mouldings, 
 
 S. 
 
 ScRATCHER, is the instrument for scratching the plaster, as its 
 name implies. 
 
 Second Coat, is either the finishing coat, as in layed and set, or 
 
 in rendered and set ; or it is the flor ting, when the plaster is 
 
 roughed-in floated and set for paper. 
 Set Fair, is used after roughing-in and floated, or pricked up 
 
 and floated : it should be well troweled, as it does not answer 
 
 for colour without. 
 Set Work, two coat work upon lath : the plasterers denominate 
 
 set work by the compound term of layed and set. 
 Setting Coat, on ceilings or walls in the best work, is gauge, or 
 
 a mixture of putty and plaster ; but in common work it consists 
 
 ef fine stuff", and when the work is very dry, a little sand is used. 
 The setting coat may either be a second coat upon laying or 
 
 rendering, or a third coat upon fl.oating; the term finishing is 
 
 applied to the third coat when of stucco, but setting for paper. 
 Setting, is also the quality that any kind of stufl" has to harden 
 
 in a short time. 
 
254 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 Single Fir Laths are something less than one fourth of an inch 
 in thickness. 
 
 Skreeds are wooden rules for running mouldings. Skreeds are 
 also the extreme guides upon the margins of walls and ceihnga 
 for floating, to the intermediate ones being called bays. In 
 running cornices, where the ceilings are not floated, there must 
 always be skreeds. 
 
 Stopping, making good holes in the plaster. 
 
 Stucco, or Finishing, is the third coat of three coat plaster, con- 
 sisting of fine lime and sand ; the best is twice hand floated 
 and well troweled ; bastard succo has a little hair. See Finish' 
 ing. Rough stucco is only floated and brushed in a small 
 degree with water: troweled stucco is accounted the best. 
 
 T. 
 
 Traversing the skreed for cornices, is putting on gauge stuflf on 
 the ceiling skkCeds, for regulating the running mould of the 
 cornice above. 
 
 Three Coat Work, is that which consists of pricking-up or 
 
 roughing-in, floating, and a finishing coat. 
 Troweled Stucco for paint, the same as roughed-in on brick 
 
 work, and set or pricKed-up, floated and twice hand floated. 
 Third Coat, is the stucco for paint or setting for paper. 
 Two Coat Work, is either layed and set, or rendered and set. 
 
 See these articles. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wall, is the coating of plaster layed and set, and applied to 
 brick work only where there are two coats. 
 
PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 Painting is the art of covering the surfaces of wood, iron, <8cc. 
 with a mucilaginous substance, which shall acquire hardness on 
 the surface, and thereby protect from the weather, and produce 
 any colour proposed. It is intended here to treat only of com- 
 mon painting in oil, which comprehends the mechanical process 
 for preserving and ornamenting stuccoed walls and wood work of 
 houses also iron and wooden rails, &c. 
 
 In this branch, the requisite tools are brushes of hogs' bristles 
 of various sizes, suitable to the work, a scraping or pallet knife, 
 earthen pots to hold the colours, a tin can for turpentine, a grind 
 ing stone and muller, &c. ; the stone should be hard and close 
 grained, about eighteen inches diameter, and sufficiently heavy to 
 keep it steady. 
 
 The Process for Painting on new Wood Work. 
 
 As the knots in wood (particularly deal) are a great annoyance 
 in painting, great care is required in what the painters term killing 
 them, and the most sure way of doing this has been found to be, 
 by laying upon those knots which retain any turpentine, a groat 
 substance of lime, immediately on its being slacked, with a stop- 
 pmg knife, (this process dries or burns up the turpentine which 
 the knots contain,) and when the lime has remained on about 
 twenty.four hours, scrape it off, then do them twice over with size 
 
256 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 knotting, which is made with red and white lead ground very fine 
 with water on a stone, and mixed with strong double glue-size to 
 be used warm, after which, if you have any doubts of their not 
 being sufficiently covered, do them over with red and white lead 
 ground very fine in linseed oil, and mixed with a proportion of that 
 oil, taking care to rub them down with fine sand paper, each time 
 you do them over, to prevent their appearing more raised than 
 the other parts, by the repetition of a greater number of coats than 
 the other parts of the work will have ; when this is quite dry, lay 
 on your priming colour, which is made with white and a little red 
 lead mixed thin with linseed oil. When the priming is quite dry, 
 and if the work is intended to be finished white, mix white lead", 
 and a very small portion of red with linseed oil, adding a very 
 little spirits of turpentine, and second colour your work ; it is well 
 to let the work remain in this state for some days to harden : then 
 your care must be (before you lay on your third coat) to rub it 
 down with fine sand paper, and stop with oil putty wherever it 
 may be necessary, observing particularly if any of the knots show 
 through your work, in which case take silver leaf, and lay it upon 
 them with japan gold size ; the third coat is white lead mixed 
 with linseed oil and turpentine in equal portions, and if the work 
 is intended to be finished with four coats, let your finishing coat 
 be made of good old white lead and thinned with bleached linseed 
 oil and spirits of turpentine, of the portion of one of oil and two of 
 turpentine ; a very small quantity of blue black may be used in 
 the two last coats ; and if the work is to be flatted dead white, 
 the above process is prepared to receive. Dead white is fine old 
 Nottingham lead, and thinned entirely with spirits of turpentine. 
 
 In painting on stucco, it is necessary to give it one coat more 
 than wood work, therefore the fourth coat should be mixed with 
 half spirits of turpentine and half oil. and this will receive the 
 finishing coat of all turpentine or flatting. But if not to be flatted, 
 then the finishing coat should be done with one part oil and two of 
 turpentine. As the colours used on stucco walls are very nume- 
 rous, it would far exceed my limits to treat of them distinctly : let 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 257 
 
 it therefore suffice to say, that the same process must be observed 
 in usuig them as in white, only that each coat should incline to 
 the colour they are intended to be finished. 
 
 The Process for Painting on old Work* 
 
 Let all the work you intend to paint be well rubbed down with 
 dry pumice stone, and carefully dusted off, and where the work 
 may require, let any cracks or openings be well stopped with oil 
 putty, after which mix white lead, addiiig a very small portion of 
 red lead, and with turpentine and oil of equal parts, paint your 
 work (this coat is technically called by painters second colouring 
 old work) after this is done and the work dry, mix good old white 
 lead with half bleached oil and half turpentine, adding a very 
 small portion of blue black, and finish your work: or if it is in. 
 tended to be flatted, the former process is a proper preparation to 
 receive the dead white ; the same process is to be observed for 
 stuccoed walls, observing, lhat if they require a great number of 
 coats, the mixture of half oil and half turpentine is proper. The 
 more you nix your colours with oil, and the less with turpentine 
 for outside work the better, as turpentine is more adherent to 
 water than oil, and consequently, not so well calculated to pre- 
 serve v/ork exposed to the weather; yet as oil will discolour 
 white, it is necessary to finish that with a portion of half oil and 
 half turpentine : hut in dark colours, such as chocolate, greens, 
 lead colour, &;c. &c. boiled linseed oil and a little turpentine is 
 the best, or boiled oil only. 
 
 White lead is used in all stone colours ; white painting is en- 
 
 tirely white lead ; lead colours are white lead and lamp black ; 
 
 pinks and all fancy colours have a portion of whhe lead in their 
 
 composition : but chocolates, black, brown, and wainscoats have 
 
 no portion whatever. 
 
 Clear coaling is made of white lead ground m water and mixed 
 Nos. 17 & 18. 2 I 
 
258 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 with size ; it is used instead of a coat of paint, but by no means 
 answers the end, as not possessing a sufficient body, and will scaUi 
 off in time, and change the colour in damp situations. Clear 
 coaling is most useful where the- work is greasy and smoky, as it 
 prepares it better to receive a coat of paint : but when used for 
 joiners' work where mouldings are concerned, it destroys ihe 
 accuracy of the workmanship by filling up the quirks and mitres 
 of the mouldings. Clear coaling is not much used at present. 
 
 Some colours dry badly, and in damp weather all colours re- 
 quire something to expedite their drying ; a good dryer may be 
 prepared of equal parts of copperas and litharge ground very fine, 
 to be added as wanted. 
 
 Putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well beaten together. 
 
 The brushes when done with should be put into a pan with 
 water, which prevents their drying and becoming hard ; also if 
 any colour is left, water should be put upon it to prevent ita 
 drying. 
 
 Drying oil is made thus : to every gallon of linseed oil put one 
 pound of red lead, one pound of umber, and one pound of litharge. 
 The oil and the materials to be boiled for two or three hours. 
 Note. If the pot in which the oil is boiled will contain fifteen 
 gallons, it is not prudent to boil more than five gallons at a time 
 as the oil and material will swell so much as to endanger boiling 
 over and setting the place on fire. After having boiled a sufficient 
 time, the pot may then be filled up with oil, and made to simm 
 gently, and then it is finished. 
 
 A List of useful Colours for House Painting. 
 
 Black — lamp black. 
 
 W7wte— white lead. 
 
 Yellow — ochers, also patent yellow. 
 
 Blue — ^Prussian blue, and blue black. 
 
 Bed — red lead, vermilion and purple brown, or India red. 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 259 
 
 Red — crimson, lakes, to which add vermilion or white according 
 
 to the tone. 
 Green — grass, verdigiise. 
 
 invisible, dark ocher, blue, and a little black. 
 
 a good, patent yellow and Prussian blue. 
 
 pea, mineral green. 
 
 Chocolate — India red and black. 
 Lead Colour — black and white. 
 Brown — umber raw and burnt. 
 
 mix black, red, and dark ocher. 
 
 Purple — mix lake blue, and white. 
 Yellow and red lead, make an orange colour. 
 Red and blue make a purple and violet colour. 
 Blue and yellow make a green colour. 
 
 Black, blue, white, and a little India red make a pearl colour. 
 Light ocher, Prussian blue, and a little black make an olive colourc 
 India red and white, make a Jlesh colour , 
 White and umber, make a stone colour. 
 
S M I T II I N G. 
 
 Smithing is the art of uniting several lumps of iron into one 
 mass, and of forming any lump or mass of iron into any intended 
 
 § 1. Description of the Forge. Pl. 33. 
 
 The forge consists of a brick hearth raise-d about two feet six 
 mches, or sometimes two feet nine inches from the floor ; heavier 
 work requires a lower forgo than lighter work : its breadth must 
 also depend upon the nature of the work; the brick-work may be 
 built hollow below for the purpose of putting things out of the way. 
 The back of the forge is carried up to the top of the roof, and is 
 enclosed over the fire in the form of a funnel to collect and dis- 
 charge the smoke into the flue, the funnel is very wide at its 
 commencement, but decreases rapidly to the fiue, whence it is 
 carried up of a proper size to take off the smoke. The wide part 
 is called the hood or hovel, which in modern forges, particularly 
 in London, is constructed of iron. The air drawn in by the bcl- 
 lows is communicated to the fire by means of a taper pipe, the 
 small end of which passes through the back of the forge, and is 
 fixed into a strong iron plate, called a tue-iron or patent back, in 
 order to preserve the bellows and the back of the forge from the 
 injuries of the fire. A trough for coals and another for water are 
 placed on one side of the forge, generally extending the whole 
 breadth. See the Plate, 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 261 
 
 The best position of the bellows is on a level with the fire-place, 
 but they are frequently placed higher for the purpose of getting 
 room below. 
 
 The Tools are as follow. 
 
 § 2. THE ANVIL, Pl. 33. Fig. G. 
 
 Is formed of a large block or mass of iron with a smooth hori- 
 7.ontal face on the top, generally hollowed upon three sides, and 
 on the fourth has a projecting part of a conic figure called a 
 pike, or beckern, or beak iron. The face must be made of steel, 
 so hard as to be incapable of being filed. The anvil is fixed upon 
 a wooden block in order to keep it steady. 
 
 § 3. THE TONGS, Pl. 33. 
 
 Are of several forms, straight and crooked nosed : the former 
 are used in short flat work, and the crooked nosed in the forging 
 of bars. The chaps, or parts which hold the iron, are placed 
 near the joint, and in order to keep it with greater firmness, a ring 
 is slipped over the ends of the handles of the tongs. 
 
 §4. HAMMERS 
 
 Are of several kinds, as hand-hammers, which are of different 
 
 sizes, according to the weight of the work ; the up-hand sledge is 
 
 used by under workmen, when the work is not of the largest kind 
 
 in battering, in order to draw it out to its required dimensions, and 
 
 for this purpose both hands are used. The about-sledge is the 
 
 biggest of all the hammers, also used by under workmen in bat. 
 
 tering the largest work : the former hammer is only lifted up and 
 t2 
 
262 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 down, but this is slung entirely round with both hands nearly at 
 the extremity. The riveting hammer is the smallest of all ; it is 
 not used at the forge, but in riveting, as its name implies. 
 
 § 5. THE VICE, Pl. 34. Fig. B. 
 
 Is used to hold any piece of iron or work for the purpose of 
 bending, riveting, fihng, polishing, &;c. It must be placed firmly 
 and vertically on the side of the work bench, with its chaps paral- 
 lel to the edge of the said bench. The inner surface of the chaps 
 is roughed with teeth, and well tempered ; there is a spring which 
 acts against the screw pin and opens the chaps ; the screw pin is 
 cut with a square thread, as also the screw, which is brazed into 
 the nut box. 
 
 § 6. THE HAND- VICE 
 
 Is of two kinds, viz. the broad-chapt hand-vice, and the square 
 nosed hand-vice. The office of the former is to hold small work 
 m the act of filing ; it is held in the left hand, and the parts of the 
 iron turned successively to the file v/hich is used by the right. 
 The square nosed hand-vice is seldom used, but in filing small 
 globulous work. 
 
 §7. THE FLYERS 
 
 Are of two kinds, flat nosed and round nosed : the former is 
 used to hold small work while it is fitting to its place, and the 
 latter for turning or bending wire, or small plates. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 263 
 
 § 8. DRILLS, Pl. 34. Fig. E. 
 
 Are used in boring holes which cannot be punched, owing to 
 the thickness of the iron, or which require more exactness than 
 can be performed by the punch, which is very apt to set the work 
 out of order and shape- Drills are required of various sizes, and 
 to be made of the best steel. The drill consists of a cutting point, 
 a shank, and drill barrel, which must be of a diameter sufficient 
 to turn the drill with the required velocity. The drill is turned 
 by a bow and string, the string is coiled round the barrel, the bow- 
 goes with 0 reciprocating motion, and causes the drill to perform 
 several revolutions in each progressive and retrogressive motion 
 of the bow, and different kinds of work will require different bows, 
 according to the force required to turn the drill, for lighter or 
 stronger work : there is also a drill plate or breast plate, in which 
 the blunt end of the shank of the drill is inserted, and by which 
 the drill is pressed to the work. 
 
 To make large holes, more force is required than can be given 
 by the bow and string, instead of which a brace similar to that 
 used by joiners is employed, and the drill itself is fitted in as a 
 bit, instead of the end of the stock, which remains stationary while 
 the other part is turning ; there is a long tapering spindle of iron, 
 which is carried round with the brace ; the upper end of this 
 spindle is inserted in the lower horizontal side of an iron plate, 
 which is fixed to the under side of a beam, called the drill beam. 
 The drill beam turns upon a transverse pin horizontally posited at 
 one end, and is drawn down by a weight at the other, and thus 
 presses the brace downwards by the ponderosity of the beam and 
 that of the weight, while the brace is revolved by hand. A piece 
 of iron being laid under the drill bit, where the hole is intended, 
 and the drill turned swiftly round will be bored through, or to any 
 required depth. See Plate 34, Fig. E. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 §9. SCREW PLATES 
 
 Are plates of well tempered steel with several cylindric holes of 
 different diameters, with screw threads wrought into square 
 grooves from the surface of the interior concavity; to these plates 
 belong as many pins, tapering to their ends, called taps, which 
 are the frustrums of cones, not differing materially from cylinders ; 
 the convex surface is threaded in the same manner, and made to 
 fit their respective holes. 
 
 §10. SHEARS, 
 
 An instrument for cutting iron, consisting of two equal and si. 
 milar pieces moveable round a joint, near to two of the ends, and 
 may be considered as a double lever, so that when two of the ends 
 are opened or shut, the other ends will be opened or shut also. 
 The cutting edges which meet each other are brought to an acute 
 angle, and the surfaces of the inner faces gradually come more 
 and more in contact in the same plane, as the longer ends which 
 are employed as handles are brought nearer together. Shears 
 are used in cutting iron plates, and even bars, and are conse- 
 quently of various sizes, according to the stiffness or strength of 
 the iron to be cut. When the shears are used, one handle is 
 screwed fast in the vice, and the other only is moveable ; the iron 
 to be cut is laid between the edges which close together. 
 
 §11. SAWS 
 
 In general oave been sufficiently defined in § 45 Joinery. They 
 are used by sm.iths to cut pieces of iron or bars of all dimensions, 
 •\nd for cutting grooves and notches to any required depth. Shears 
 have an advantage over saws in cutting with more rapidity, but 
 saws cut with more exactness, and save the whole or much labor 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 265 
 
 in filing ; and may be also used in cutting bars or pieces of the 
 greatest dimensions, where shears cannot be used. Smiths' saws 
 must be very narrow and stiflT, with a bow of iron, by which the 
 ends are made fast, and the plate stretched by a screw at one 
 end ; the bow has a projecting part in a straight line with the 
 saw, which forms the handle. 
 
 § 12. Of Forging. 
 
 In forging, the fire must be regulated by the size of the work, 
 and in heating the iron, beat the coals round the outside of the 
 fire close together with the slice, in order to prevent the heat from 
 escaping as often as the flame begins to break out, and in order 
 to save fuel, wet or damp the outside of the coals : to know whe- 
 ther the work takes the heat, draw it a small degree out of the 
 fire, and thrust it quickly in again if not hot enough : if the iron 
 be too cold the hammer wjjl make no impression upon it, or in the 
 language of smiths, it will not batter ; if too hot it will break or 
 crack. 
 
 §13. Of Heats, 
 
 Heats are of several kinds, depending on the destination of the 
 work, as blood-red heat, white-flame heat, and sparkling o-r weld- 
 ing heat. The blood-red heat is used when the shape of the iron 
 is not required to be altered, and when the surface is only re- 
 quired to be smooth hammered : this operation is performed by 
 the hand-hammer with light flat blows until the protuberances and 
 hollows are brought to the required surface, whether planed or 
 curved, the work is then prepared for the file. The hammering 
 of the work to a true surface, will save much trouble in filing. 
 
 The white-flame heat is used in forming the iron from o«e shape 
 to another ; in the execution of this, one, two, or more men must 
 be employed to batter the work with sledges, until it acquires 
 2 K 
 
266 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 nearly its proposed form and size ; afterwards smooth it with the 
 hand hammer. 
 
 A sparkling or welding heat is used when the iron is required 
 to be doubled, or two or more pieces consolidated, in order to 
 make the piece of the required dimensions. In joining two or 
 more bars together, heat them to that degree as to be nearly in a 
 state of fusion ; they must then be taken out of the fire with the 
 utmost despatch, and the scales or dirt which will hinder their 
 incorporation being scraped off, put the pieces in contact at the 
 heated part, and hammer them together until there is no seam or 
 fissure left: this operation will require two or more men, accord, 
 ing to the magnitude of the bars. If the particles of the iron have 
 not been sufficiently incorporated by the first heat, more heats 
 and the operations of hammering must be repeated until the work 
 is perfectly sound ; after which it is formed into the shape pro- 
 posed, and finished by smoothing, &c. To make the iron come 
 sooner to a welding heat, stir the fire with the hearth staff, and 
 throw out the cinders the iron may have run upon, as they will 
 prevent the coals from burning ; to prevent the iron melting, throw 
 some sand over it while in the fire. In this operation care must be 
 taken to prevent the iron from running, which will make it so brittle 
 as to prevent its forging, and so hard as to resist the action of the 
 file. In welding, some smiths strew a little sand upon the face of 
 the anvil, as they conceive it makes the iron incorporate better. If 
 by ill management the iron be wrought too thin or too narrow, and 
 should there be substance enough to make it thicker, give it a 
 flame heat, and set the heated end upright upon the anvil, and 
 hammer upon the cold end until the heated end be beat to the 
 size or turned into the body of the work ; the part so beat is said 
 to up.set, and the operation is called up-setting. When your 
 work is forged, let it cool gradually, and do not by any means 
 quench it in water, which will harden it too much. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 207 
 
 § 14. To punch a Hole, 
 
 Take a punch of the size and shape of the hole required, the 
 point or narrow end of it nnust be hardened without tempering, as 
 the heat of the iron will sofleu ii sufficiently, and sometimes too 
 much, and then it must be re-hardcned : if the work is not very 
 large, bring the iron to a blood heat, but if very large, bring a 
 almost to a liame heat, and lay it upon the anvil : and place the 
 point of the punch at the spot where the hole is to be made, then 
 with the hammer punch the hole. If the work is very heavy, fix 
 the punch in a wooden rod, and place it on the intended situation 
 of the hole ; let another person strike till the punch is forced 
 about halfway through, then reverse the iron and punch through 
 on the contrary side ; the hole is afterwards smoothed, and per 
 fected by a mandrill being driven through. But in punching take 
 care to plunge the punch into water as often as it is heated, or as 
 often as it changes colour, in order to re-harden it otherwise it 
 will spoil both the work and the punch. 
 
 § 15, Filing mid Polishing. 
 
 Fihng is the operation of cutting or tearing iron in particles or 
 very small parts, called filings, by means of an instrument toothed 
 all over its surface ; the instrument itself is called a file. Files 
 are differently formed, and of various sizes for different purposes, 
 their sections being either square, oblong, triangular, or seg- 
 mental ; the files of these sections are respectively denominated 
 square, flat, three square, and half round ; they also differ in the 
 magnitude of their teeth, as the iron may be required to be more 
 or less reduced in a given time : it is evident that in the operation 
 of filmg, the surface of the iron will be full of scratches, and these 
 scratches will be larger or smaller according as the teeth of the 
 ri\es are coarser or finer : files have therefore obtained the follow, 
 mg names, according to the number of teeth cut on the same 
 
268 SMITHLNG. 
 
 area : the largest roiioh tool file is called a rubber, and is used 
 after the hammer in taking away the prominent parts on the sur 
 face of the iron ; the bastard tooth file is employed to fake out the 
 marks made by the rubber, the fine-toothed file is employed in 
 taking out the scratches made by the bastard-toothed file ; and 
 lastly, the smooth-toothed file is employed in taking out the 
 scratches of the last : the surface is at last made perfectly smooth 
 by means of emery and tripoli. And whatever be the surface 
 of the work, whether flat, cylindrical, or conical, the file must 
 always be made to describe that surfece as near as the hand 
 and judgment can direct: these matters, by keeping the principle 
 of motion in view, are soon obtained by practice. 
 
 After the surface of the iron has been smoothed by the emery 
 and tripoli, it is then polished by a piece of very hard and highly 
 polished steel, called a burnisher, with a handle at one or both 
 ends, according to the pressure required, which will depend on 
 the magnitude of the surface. The sides of the burnisher are 
 either flat or convex, according to the surface to be polished. 
 
 § 16. To cut thick Iron Plate to any required Figure. 
 
 Having drawn or scratched the figure upon the surface of an 
 iron plate, place it on the anvil, if large; if small, upon the stake : 
 a chisel being in your left hand, with its edge set upon the mark, 
 strike it with the hammer till the substance is nearly cut through, 
 so as to leave a very thin portion of the thickness below it : 
 observe, if the iron were cut through, the face of the anvil being 
 steel, it will batter or break the edge of the chisel, and for this 
 reason when the edge comes very near the under side of the plate, 
 strike only with light blows : repeat this operation till the whole 
 of the figure is gone over ; the part intended to be taken away, 
 may be broken oflT with the fingers or with a pair of plyers, or by 
 pinching the plate in the vice, with the cut part close to the chaps, 
 and then wriggle it, till it comes asunder. 
 
SxMlTHING. 
 
 209 
 
 § 17. Rwetiug 
 
 Is the art of fixing the end of a pin into a hole, by battering or 
 spreading the end which has passed through the hole, so as not 
 only to fill the hole, but to increase its dianneter on the opposite 
 side, and thereby prevent its being drawn out again. 
 
 § 18. To rivet a Pin to a Plate or Piece of Iron. 
 
 Having formed the shank to the size of the hole, with a shoulder, 
 and something longer than the thickness of the plate, file the end 
 of the shank flat, so that it may batter more easily ; slip the shank 
 into the hole, and keeping the shoulder in contact Avith the surface 
 of the plate ; the end of the pin abutting upon the stake, and the 
 pin standing perpendicular, strike the edge of the end of the 
 shank with light blows, until it is spread all round, then lay heavier 
 blows, sometimes with the face, and sometimes with the pen of 
 the hammer, till the end of the shank is sufficiently battered over 
 the plate : in performing this operation, care must be taken to 
 keep the pin at right angles to the plate, and the shoulder close. 
 
 § 19. To make small Screw-Bolts and Nuts. 
 
 Supposing the shank of the screw-bolt to be let into a square 
 hole, in order to keep it from twisting by the turning of the nut ; 
 take a square bar or rod of iron near the size of the head of the 
 screw-pin, and bring it to a fiame heat ; take as much of the length 
 of the bar as is equal to the length of the shank, and lay one side 
 flat upon the nearer side of the anvil, and hammer it down to the 
 intended thickness; this will forge two of the sides at once, 
 the under side being forged by the anvil, and the upper beat flat 
 
270 
 
 SxVllTHiNG. 
 
 with the hammer ; but if the iron get cold before the forging is 
 finished, it must have another heat. Then lay one of the un- 
 wrought sides upon the nearer side of the anvil, and hammer this 
 side straight as before, so that the two other sides will also be 
 made ; then beat in the angles so as to make it nearly round, and 
 of such length as is equal to the intended length of the screw pin.' 
 Having forged the shank square, and formed the head either 
 square or round as may be intended ; file also the screw pin so 
 as to make it taper in a small degree, and to take out the irregu- 
 larities of the forge ; the conic form makes it enter more easily, 
 and the irregularities being taken away, makes the screw more 
 exact in the distances of the threads : the quantity of taper may 
 be something more than twice the depth of the threads. Then fix 
 the bolt with the head downwards into the vice, and with a screw 
 plate equal to the interior diameter of the cylinder from which the 
 screw is to project, lay the hole upon the end of the screw pin, 
 and press it hard downwards. Then turn the screw plate parallel 
 to the horizon from right to left with a uniform pressure round 
 about the pin, both progressively and retrogressively, and the plate 
 will begin to groove out the channel between the thread of the 
 screw : proceed with this process until as much of the screw be 
 formed as is required. 
 
 To make the nut, the hole must be equal to the diameter of the 
 cylinder from which the thread is made in the shank of the screw, 
 and the tap must be made tapering, in order to enter the hole. 
 Proceed and screw the nut in the vice, with the axis of the cylin- 
 dric bole vertical, and enter the screw tap, which turn by the 
 handle as before, and it will begin to cut the interior groove of 
 the nut ; proceed working until the groove between the thread be 
 of its full depth : the thread and groove in the nut will thus be 
 made to fit the groove and thread of the screw pin. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 271 
 
 §20. Of Iron. 
 
 Iron is a metal of a bluish white colour, of considerable 
 hardness, but easily formed into any shape, and is susceptible of 
 a very fine polish. It is the most elastic of all the metals, and 
 next to platina, is the most difficult of fusion. Its hardness in some 
 states is superior to that of any other metal, and it has the addi- 
 tional advantage of suffering this hardness to be increased or 
 diminished at pleasure, by certain chymical processes, without 
 altering its form. Its tenacity is also greater than that of any 
 other metal, except gold ; an iron wire, the tenth part of an inch 
 in diameter, has been found capable of sustaining mo^e than 5001b. 
 weight without breaking. Its ductility is such as l:o allow it to be 
 drawn into wire as fine as a hair. 
 
 Iron ore is found mixed with sand, clay, chalk, and in many 
 kinds of stones and earths. It is also found in the ashes of 
 vegetables, and the blood of animals in great abundance. Iron 
 ores are therefore extremely numerous. 
 
 Iron is obtained from the ore by an operation called smelting, 
 and in this state it is called crude iron, cast iron, or pig iron, but 
 it is very impure. Cast iron is scarcely malleable at any tempe- 
 rature, it is generally so hard as to resist the file, and is extremely 
 brittle ; however, it is equally permanent in many applications with 
 wrought iron, and is less liable to rust ; and being easily cast into 
 various forms by melting, is much cheaper. Indeed the labour to 
 wrought iron if applied to many of the purposes to which cast iron 
 is used would be incredible, and in some cases insurmountable. The 
 use of cast iron is sufficiently obvious in the wheel work of every 
 department of machinery, in crane work, in iron bridges, in beams 
 and pillars for large buildings, and in numerous articles of manu 
 facture. 
 
 Cast iron is reduced into wrought or bar iron, or forged iron, by 
 divesting it of several foreign mixtures with which it is incorpo- 
 rated. The varieties of wrought iron are the follov/ing : hot.short 
 
272 
 
 SMiTHLNG. 
 
 iron is so brittle when heated that it will not bear the weight of a 
 small hammer without breaking to atoms, but is malleable when 
 cold, and very fusible in a high temperature ; cold-short iron 
 possesses the opposite qualities, and is with difficulty fusible in a 
 strong heat, and though capable while hot of being beaten into 
 any shape, is when cold very brittle, and but slightly tenacious. 
 The iron in general use, which though in a chymical point of view 
 is not entirely pure, is so far perfect that it possesses none of these 
 defects ; its principal properties are the following ; 1st. When 
 applied to the tongue it has a styptic taste, and emits a peculiar 
 smell when rubbed : 2d. Its specific gravity varies from 7*6 to 
 I'S ; a cubic foot of it weighs about 580ib. avoirdupoise : 3d. It 
 IS attracted by the magnet or loadstone, and is itself one of its 
 ores, the substance which constitutes the loadstone. It is also 
 capable of acquiring itself the attraction and polarity of the mag- 
 net in various ways; iron, however, that is perfectly pure, retains 
 the magnetic virtue only a very short time : 4th. It is malleable 
 m every temperature, which as it rises, increases the malleability. 
 It cannot, however, be hammered out so thin as gold or silver, or 
 even copper. Its ductihty is very great, and its tenacity is such, 
 than an iron wire something less than the twelfth of an inch in 
 diameter, is capable of supporting without breaking 549ilb. avoir- 
 dupoise ; 5th. it melts at about 158" of Wedgewood : 6lh. it com- 
 bines very readily with oxygen ; when exposed to the air its 
 surface is soon tarnished, and is gradually changed into a brown 
 or yellow colour, usually called rust : this change takes place 
 more rapidly, as it is more exposed to moisture. 
 
 To preserve iron from rust, particularly when polished, various 
 methods have been tried with more or less success : among 
 others, the partial oxidation, known by the term bluing, has beer 
 adopted ; the slightest coat of grease is sufficient to prevent rust. 
 
 Iron is the most useful and the most plentiful of all metals. It 
 requires a very intense heat to fuse it, on which account it can 
 only be brought into shape of tools and utensils by hammering : 
 this high degree of infusibility would prevent the uniting of several 
 
 / 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 273 
 
 masses into one, were it not from its being capable of welding, a 
 property which is found in no other metal except platina. In 
 a white heat, iron appears as if covered with a kind of varnish, and 
 in this state, if two pieces be applied together, they will adhere, 
 and may be perfectly united by forging. 
 
 Steel is made of the purest malleable iron by an operation called 
 cementation, by which it acquires a small addition to its weight, 
 amounting to about the hundred and fiftieth or two hundredth 
 part. In this state it is much more brittle and fusible than before. 
 It may be welded like bar iron, if it has not been fused or over 
 cemented ; but its most useful and advantageous property is, that 
 of becoming extremely hard when healed and plunged into cold 
 water ; the hardness which it thus acquires is greater, as the steel 
 is hotter and the water colder. The sign which directs the me- 
 chanic in the tempering of steel, is the variation of colour which 
 appears on its surface. If the steel be slowly heated the colours 
 which it exhibits are a yellowish white, yellow, gold colour, pur- 
 ple, violet, deep blue. If the steel is too hard, it will not be 
 proper for tools which are intended to have a fine edge, as it will 
 be so brittle that the edge will soon become notched : and if it is 
 too soft, the edge will soon turn aside, even by very slight usage. 
 Some artists heat their tools and plunge them into cold water, 
 after which they brighten the surface of the steel upon a stone ; 
 the steel being then laid upon hot charcoal, or upon the surface 
 of melted lead, or placed on a bar or piece of hot iron, gradually 
 acquires the desired colour, and at this instant it must be plunged 
 into water. If a hard temper is required, as soon as a yellow 
 tinge appears, the piece is dipped again and stirred about in the 
 cold water. In tempering of tools for working upon metals, it 
 will be proper to bring it to a purple tinge before the dipping. 
 Springs are tempered by bringing the surface to a blue tinge. 
 This temperature is also desirable for tools employed in cutting 
 soft substances, such as cork, leather, and the like ; but if the 
 steel be plunged into water when its surface has acquired a deep 
 blue, its hardness will scarcely exceed the temperature of iron. 
 
 No. 18 2 L 
 
274 
 
 SMITHING 
 
 When soft steel is heated to any one of these, and then plunged 
 into water, it does not acquire so great a degree of hardness as ii 
 previously made quite hard. The degree of heat required to 
 harden steel, is different in the different kinds. The best knds 
 require only a low red heat ; the harder the steel, the more coarise 
 and granulated its fracture will be. Steel, when hardened, has 
 less specific gravity than when soft ; the texture of steel is ren- 
 dered more uniform by fusing it before it is made into bars, and in 
 this state it is called cast steel, which is wrought with more diffi- 
 culty than common steel, because it is more fusible, and will 
 disperse under the hammer if heated to a white heat. Every 
 species of iron is convertible into steel by cementation ; but the 
 best steel can only be made from iron of the best quality which 
 possesses stiffness and hardness as well as malleability. Swedish 
 iron has been long remarked as the best for this purpose. 
 
 The Cast Steel of England is made as follows : a crucible about 
 ten inches high, and seven inches in diameter, is filled with ends 
 and fragments of the crude steel of the manufactories, and the 
 filings and fragments of steel works ; they add a flux, the compo- 
 nent parts of which are usually concealed. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that the success does not much depend upon the flux. This 
 crucible is placed in a wind furnace, like that of the founders, 
 but smaller, because intended to contain but one pot only. It is 
 likewise surmounted by a cover and chimney, to increase the 
 draught of air ; the furnace is entirely filled with coke, or charred 
 pit-coal. Five hours are required for the perfect fusion of the 
 steel. It is then poured into long, square, or octagonal moulds, 
 each composed of two pieces of cast iron fitted together. The 
 ingots when taken out of the mould, have the appearance of cast 
 iron. It is then forged in the same manner as other steel, but 
 with loss heat and more precaution. Cast steel is almost twice as 
 dear as other good steel ; it is excellent for razors, knives, joiners' 
 chisels, and for all kinds of small work that require an exquisite 
 polish : its texture is more uniform than common steel, which is 
 an invaluable advantage. It is daily more and more used in Eng. 
 
Ni.S.Sam ar-ci. Sc. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 275 
 
 land, but it cannot be employed in works of great magnitude, on 
 account of the facility with which it is degraded in the fire, and 
 the difficulty of welding it. 
 
 To conclude : British cast iron is excellent for all kinds of 
 castings ; our wrought iron also of late has been much improved 
 in the manufacture, and by many persons is thought not to be in- 
 ferior to that of Sweden, which till lately had a decided preference, 
 and is to be attributed to the use of charcoal in the process of 
 smelting, which cannot be procured in sufficient quantity in Eng- 
 land, where pit coal has of necessity been substituted. The Navy 
 Board and East India Company, however, now contract for British 
 iron only. 
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 Perspective View of a SmitVs Work Shop, shewing a double Forge 
 with its Apparatus J and some Tools in general Use, 
 
 A back of the forge. 
 B the hood. 
 
 C Bradley's patent back, showing the nozel or the iron of the 
 bellows. 
 
 D end of the forge. 
 
 E bellows with the rock stafl?*. 
 
 F troughs for coals and water. 
 
 G anvil, shewing the beak iron, and a hole for holding the tools 
 on the top. The anvil being supported upon a wooden blocko 
 
 H a strong stool for supporting the chasing tool I. 
 
 I the chasing tool for rounding bolts, and punching holes in 
 iron; the holes are called bolsters, and those upon the sides are 
 called rounding tools ; the whole is called generally a bolster. 
 
 K a sledge hammer. 
 
 Near D is a horse to hold up long pieces of iron at the end of 
 the forge, when found necessary. 
 
276 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 The square hole near A is used for discharging the ashes, which 
 slide down a hollow, and come out at the bottom of the front. 
 
 The coal trough is placed next to the forge, and the water 
 trough next to the front. The tongs are shewn in the water trough, 
 and a pair of hp and straight tongs are shewn on it. 
 
 In smiths' shops, where heavy articles are manufactured, cranes 
 are employed for taking the work out of the fire. 
 
 PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 View of another Part of a Smithes Work SJiop^ sliewing the Work 
 Benches with the Vices, the Drill in the act of Boring, and a Turn- 
 ing Machine, as wrought by a Winch and Wheel, as also by the 
 Foot. 
 
 A, A work benches. 
 
 B, B, B vices. — 
 
 C the bench anvil. 
 
 D, E, F, G various parts of a drill machine. 
 D the drill block. 
 E the drill and brace. 
 
 F the drill beam, shewing the lever to pull it up. 
 
 G a rod to hang a larger or smaller weight, for giving more oi 
 less power to the drill, as may be required in boring a greater oi 
 less hole. 
 
 H, I, K, L parts of the turning lathe. 
 
 H handle to turn the large wheel. 
 
 I the large wheel. 
 
 Pulleys for the cord. 
 
 L puppets, rest, collar, and mandril. 
 
 N wheel and crank for revolving the mandril by the foot, <kc 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 N. B. This Mark § refers to iJic jpreceding Sections, according to 
 the Number, 
 
 A. 
 
 About Sledge, the largest hammer used by smiths; it is slung 
 round near the extremity of the handle, generally useJ by under 
 workmen, § 4. 
 
 Anvil, a large block or mass of iron with a very hard smooth 
 horizontal surface on the top, and a hole at one end of the 
 surface, for the purpose of inserting various tools, and a strong 
 steel chisel, on which a piece of iron may be laid and cut into 
 two. Anvils are sometimes made of cast iron, but the best are 
 those which are forged, with the upper face made of steel. 
 Small anvils are also used in more delicate parts of the business, 
 § 2, See Plate 33. Fig. G. Plate 34. Fig, C. 
 
 B. 
 
 ixR Iron, long prismatic pieces of iron, being rectangular paral- 
 lopipeds, prepared from pig iron, so as to be malleable for the 
 use of blacksmiths. For the method of joining bars, see § 13 
 
278 
 
 SMITHIiNG. 
 
 Bastard Cut, § 15. 
 
 Bastard-toothed File, that employed after the rubber, § 15. 
 
 Batter, to displace a portion of the iron of any bar or other piece 
 by the blow of a hammer so as to flatten or compress it inwardly, 
 and spread it outwardly on all sides around the place of impact. 
 
 Beak Iron, the conic part of the anvil, with its base attached to 
 the side, and its axis horizontal, § 2. See Plate 33. Fig, G. 
 
 Bellows, the instrument for blowing the fire, with an internal 
 cavity, so contrived as to be of greater or less capacity by re- 
 ciprocating motion, and to draw in air at one place while the 
 capacity is open upon the increase, and discharge it by another 
 while upon the decrease. The bellows are placed behind the 
 forge, with a pipe of communication through the back to the fire, 
 and are worked by means of a lever, called a rocker. See 
 Plate 33. Fig, E. 
 
 Bench, an immoveable table, to which one or more vices are 
 fixed, for filing, drilling, and putting work together. See Plate 
 34. 
 
 Blood-red Heat, the degree of heat which is only necessary to 
 reduce the protuberances of the iron by the hammer, in order 
 to prepare it for the file, the iron being previously brought to its 
 shape. This heat is also used in punching small pieces of 
 iron, § 13. 
 
 Bolster, a tool used for punching holes, and for making bolts. 
 
 See Plate 33. Fig. 1. 
 Brace, an instrument into which a rimer is fixed, also part of the 
 
 press drill. 
 
 Breast Plate, that in which the end of the drill opposite the 
 boring end is inserted, § 8. 
 
 Brittleness in iron is a want of tenacity or strength, so as to be 
 easily broken by pressure or impact. When iron is made too 
 hot, so as to be nearly in a state of fusion, it becomes so brittle 
 as to prevent forging, and so hard as to resist the action of the 
 file. This is also the disposition of cast iron. 
 
 Broad Chapt Hand-vice, § 6. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 279 
 
 Burnisher, an instrument used in polishing, § 15. 
 
 C. 
 
 Callipers, a species of compasses, with legs of a circular form, 
 used to take the thickness or diameter of work, either circular 
 or flat ; used also to take the interior size of holes. 
 
 Cast Iron, § 20. 
 
 Cast Steel, § 20. 
 
 Cementation, is the process of converting iron into steel, which 
 is done by stratifying bars of iron in charcoal, igniting it, and 
 letting it continue in a kiln in that state for five or six days, by 
 which the carbon of the charcoal is absorbed by the iron, and 
 causes it to become steel. 
 
 Chaps, the two planes or flat parts of a vice or pair of tongs or 
 plyers, for holding any thing fast, which are generally roughed 
 with teeth. 
 
 Chisel, a tool with the lower part in the form of a wedge, for 
 cutting iron plate or bar, and with the upper part flat, to receive 
 the blows of a hammer, in order to force the cutting edge through 
 the substanc*? of the iron. For its use, see § 15. 
 
 Cold Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20. 
 
 Compasses, an instrument with two long legs, working on a centre 
 pin at one extremity ; used for drawing circles, measuring dis- 
 tances, setting out work, &;c. 
 
 CouNTER-siNK, a tool uscd to make the necessary bevel, to admit 
 the bead of a screw, rivet, &;c. See Joinery, § 36. 
 
 Crooked Nosed Tongs, § 3. 
 
 D. 
 
 Draw, to draw is the act of lengthening a bar of iron by hammer- 
 ing, also wire reduced from any size to a smaller, is said to be 
 drawn. 
 
 Drill, a boring tool which forms a cylindric hole with the greatest 
 
280 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 exactness. Drills are particularly used where the substance ii 
 too great for the operation of the punch, or where very exact 
 cylindric holes are required, § 8. 
 Drill Bow, § 8. 
 
 E. 
 
 Emery, a very fine powder, prepared from iron, used in polish- 
 ing, § 15. 
 
 F. 
 
 File, § 15. 
 Filing, § 15. 
 
 FiNE-TOOTHED FiLE, § 15. 
 
 Flame Heat, is that which is required in forming the iron from 
 its original shape. This degree of heat is also required in up- 
 setting, § 13. 
 
 Flux, any substance, which^ mingled with a body, accelerates its 
 melting. Fluxes are salt, bone-ash, charcoal, lime-stone, 
 borax, &;c. 
 
 Forge, to form a piece of iron into any required figure or shape, 
 by means of heat and the hammer, or to weld several pieces of 
 iron, § 13. 
 
 Forge, the furnace for heating the iron so as to become mallea- 
 ble, and thence prepare it for forging, § 1. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gauge, an instrument for taking the size of any bar, &;c. made 
 from one-eighth of an inch to any size, is a piece of iron with 
 regular notches of the sizes required. 
 
 Grind-stone, used for sharpening tools, &;c. used also previous 
 to the file in many cases. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hammers used by smiths are of four kinds, viz. tne nand-hammer. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 281 
 
 the up-hand sledge, the about sledge, and the riveting ham- 
 mer, § 4. 
 
 Hand Hammer, that which is held by one hand while the iron is 
 
 held by the other, for smoothing work. Hand hammers are of 
 
 different sizes, § 4. 
 Hand Vice, used for turning about small pieces of iron, while 
 
 filing on the large vice, which would otherwise be too small for 
 
 the hand to command with sufficient povv'er, § G 
 Hearth Sxaff, a bar or poker of iron for stirring the fire. 
 Heats, the several degrees or intensities of heat necessary for 
 
 performing certain operations of forging. Heats are of three 
 
 kinds, viz. blood-red heat, white-flame heat, sparkling or weld- * 
 
 ing heat, § 13. 
 
 Hood, the lower part of the chimney, expanding in its horizontal 
 dimension downwards from the flue to its mouth, which is con- 
 siderably above the hearth of the forge. See Plate 33. Fig, B- 
 
 HoT Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20. 
 
 Hovel, the same as Hood. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ingot, a mass of metal. 
 
 Iron, the material used by smiths, § 20. Ornamental work, such 
 as brackets and lanjp irons, is charged at least one third more 
 than plain hammered work, such as rails, window bars, &c. 
 and sometimes more than twice the sum, according to the quan- 
 tity of ornament. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lathe, an instrument used in turning rounds, ovals, &;c. See 
 Plate 34. Fig. H. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mandril, a cylindric pin of iron, used to perfect a hole after the 
 2 M 
 
2S2 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 punch ; also a conical tool of iron three or four feet high, used 
 for making rings, or other circular work ; also a part of the 
 turning lathe. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nippers, an instrument like a pair of pinchers, with sharp edges, 
 used to cut iron wire, &c. , 
 
 Nut of a Screw, a piece of iron pierced with a cylindric hole, 
 the circumference of which contains a spiral groove. The 
 internal spiral of the nut is adapted to an external cylindric 
 spiral on the end of a bolt. The use of the bolt and nut is to 
 screw two bodies together, a head being wrought on one end of 
 the bolt, in order to counteract the action of the nut. By this 
 means the two bodies are held together by compression, and the 
 bolt between the head and the nut becomes a tie, § 19. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pig Iron, short thick bars of iron, in the state in which it comes 
 from the smelting furnace. 
 
 Plate or Sheet Iron, plates of iron flattened by a roller, of va- 
 rious sizes and thickness, m 
 
 Plyers, small tongs for holding small pieces of iron, § 7. 
 
 Punch, a kind of chisel with two flat ends for piercing iron by a 
 hammer, one end which has the greater area receives the blows 
 of the hammer, and the other, which has the less, makes its 
 way through the iron, and forms a hole, § 14, 
 
 R. 
 
 Red Sear, is when the iron is made so hot as to crack by the 
 hammer. 
 
 Rimer, a tapering instrument, square, triangular, &c. used to 
 
 enlarge holes. See Joinery, § 37. 
 Rivet, to fasten the end of a pin or bolt by battering the end of it. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 283 
 
 Wo^> Siiif^ 01 RoLREE, the lever which gives motion to the 
 bellows. 
 
 Rod Iron, smuU Sdfs :>f iron, square, round, or flat. 
 
 Rounding Tool, a tool used for rounding a bar of iron, of two 
 pieces, each with a semi^csrcular cavity, accordinj; to the size 
 wanted; one piece is fixed into the anvil, while the other, held 
 by a rod or handle, is applied over the iron, and is struck with 
 a hammer. 
 
 Rubber, the file which is first used upon the iron in reducing the 
 protuberant parts left by the hammer ; it has fewer teeth on the 
 same area than any other file, § 15. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saws, § 11. 
 
 Scales, the laminated parts accumulated on the surface of the iron 
 by heat. 
 
 Screw, a pin with a spiral groove cut within the surface of a 
 cylinder, and with a nut having a hole adapted thereto, 
 § 19. 
 
 Screw Driver, a tool used to turn screws into their places. 
 Screw Plate, that which cuts the spiral groove within the cylin- 
 
 dric surface of the pin, § 9. 
 Screw Threads, the parts which are left standing between the 
 
 spiral grooves of the screw. 
 Shears, § 10. 
 
 Shut, the same as weld, which see. 
 
 Side Set, a hammer used to set shoulders of rivets to a true square 
 
 or bevel, as required. 
 Slice, the instrument for beating the fire close. 
 Smooth-toothed File, the finest of all the files, and the last used 
 
 in polishing the surface, § 15. 
 Sparkling Heat, the intensity necessary in welding two or more 
 
 pieces of iron together, § 13. 
 Square, an instrument used to examine if the work be done to a 
 
SMiTMLNG. 
 
 right angle ; for a particular description, See Joinery, § 36. 
 
 The smith's square is all iron. 
 Square-nosed Hand Vice, § 6. 
 Steel, § 20. 
 
 Swages, all instruments used to give the form or contour of any 
 moulding, &c. used in the same manner as the rounding tool. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tap, a tapering pin of the form of a conic frustum, approaching 
 very nearly to a cylinder, with a spiral groove cut on its sur- 
 face, for making the interior or female spirals of a screw nut, 
 §9. 
 
 Tap- Wrench, an instrument used to turn the tap in making 
 screws. 
 
 Tongs, an instrument with long handles, used for holding pieces 
 
 of hot iron in the operation of forging. Some are straight 
 
 nosed, others crooked nosed. 
 Tripoli, a species of argillaceous earth, reduced to a very fine 
 
 powder, and used in polishing the finest works, is also used in 
 
 polishing marbles, minerals, &;c. 
 TuE Iron, the plate on the back of the forge, which receives the 
 
 small end of the taper pipe, which comes from the bellows for 
 
 convey ing the stream of air to the fire. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ur-HAND Sledge, § 4. 
 Up-settino, § 13. 
 
 V. 
 
 V^iCE, an instrument for holding any thing fast, § 5. 
 
 W. 
 
 Washer, the instrument for damping the fire. 
 
SMITHING. 
 
 285 
 
 Washek, a piece of flat iron with a hole placed between the nut 
 of a screw and the wood, to prevent the wood being gulled. 
 
 Welding, is that intimate union produced between the surfaces of 
 two pieces of malleable metal when heated almost to fusion and 
 hammered. This union is so strong, that when two bars of 
 metal are properly welded, the parts thus joined are relatively 
 as strong as any other part. Only two of the old metals wore 
 capable of a firm union by welding, namely, platina and iron, 
 the same property belongs to the newly discovered metals, po- 
 tassium and sodium. 
 
 Welding Heat, the same as sparkling heat, § 13. 
 
 White-flame Heat, the intensity necessary in forming a piece 
 of iron into another shape, § 13. 
 
 Wrench, a forked instrument used in screwing up of nuts. 
 
TUENING. 
 
 § 1. TuKNiNG in general is the art of reducing any material to 
 a certain required form, by revolving the material according to 
 a given law, in a machine called a lathe, and cutting away the su- 
 perfluous substance with a gouge or chisel, which is held steady 
 upon a rest, until the surface be sufficiently reduced : sometimes 
 pressing the cutting edge gently forwards, and sometimes sidewise, 
 according to the design, until it has obtained the figure and dimen- 
 sions required. 
 
 The art of turning is of very remote date. The invention is 
 ascribed by Diodorus Siculus to Talus, a grandson of Daedalus ; 
 but Pliny says it was invented by Theodore of Samos, and men- 
 tions one Thericles as being famed for his dexterity in this art. By 
 means of the lathe, the ancients formed vases, which they enriched 
 with figures and ornaments in basso relievo. 
 
 The Greek and Latin authors make frequent mention of the 
 lathe ; and it was a proverb among them to say a thing was formed 
 by it when the parts were delicate, and their proportions correct. 
 
 Turning is performed either by the body being continually re- 
 volved, or by the rotation being made backwards and forwards ; 
 but the latter mode is attended with a loss of time. 
 
 The materials employed in turning, are wood, ivory, brass, iron, 
 stone, &c. 
 
 Turning is also of different kinds, as circular turning, elliptic 
 turning, and swash turning ; these may be said to be the simple 
 movements of the machine, according to geometrical principles, 
 but by means of moulds, an indefinite number of things may be 
 formed in this way ; but in all of them, suppose for a single revo- 
 
TURNING. 
 
 287 
 
 lution of the machine, the cutting edge of the instrument is held 
 immoveable to the* same point of space, and the machine is so 
 regulated, as to bring the different parts of the intended surface 
 to the cutting edge in its revolution. In practice, instead of the 
 cutting edge of the instrument being exactly at the same place 
 when a considerable surface is to be wrought, it is made to tra- 
 verse the surface, that is, to have a slow lateral movement in the 
 direction of the intended form, and by this means to shave ofl 
 spiral turnings. 
 
 § 2. Circular Turning 
 
 Is the art of forming bodies of wood, ivory, metal, stone, &c. 
 by revolving the body upon a given straight line, as an axis in a 
 machine, while the cutting edge of a tool is held at such distance, 
 as to cut or shave off the prominent parts in thin slices, as the 
 body revolves, until it acquires the intended form. 
 
 From the definition here given, it is evident, that all points ol 
 the solid in the act of turning, will describe the circumference of 
 circles in planes, perpendicular to the axis, which will pass through 
 their centres. 
 
 Every section passing through the axis of the turned body, 
 will have the two parts on each side of the axis equal and similar 
 figures: and any straight line perpendicular to the axis, and ter- 
 minated by the sides of the section, would be bisected by the said 
 axis. 
 
 For the sake of perspicuity, we shall call any section through 
 the axis, the axal section, that is, a section of the body in which 
 the axis would be entirely in its plane ; the design of the turning 
 depends entirely upon this section, which, if it be a circle, the 
 body when turned will be a sphere, and if an ellipse, it will be a 
 spheroid, &c. This is the most useful of all kinds of turning, 
 and essential in the construction of many kinds of engines and 
 
288 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 machinery, where every other method would fail, as not being 
 sufficient to give the desired accuracy. Its use in fancy work is 
 beyond descrip.tion, and the labour thereby rendered easy. The 
 practice will be obtained better from actual practice of the busi- 
 ness, than from any description. 
 
 The following are the descriptions of the most useful wood 
 lathes, which have the same principles in common with those for 
 turning metals. 
 
 § 3. Lathes in general. 
 
 Lathes are of several kinds, as the jyole lathe, foot lathe, and 
 the wheel lathe, which is used in very large work, and is revolved 
 by manual strength. It consists of a great wheel with a winch 
 handle at the end of its axle, by which the force is communicated. 
 There are other lathes used for very largo work, driven either by 
 steam engines, water wheels, or by horse power. All these ought 
 to be so contrived, that the works may be stopped, even though 
 the power be still exerted. 
 
 § 4. The Pole Lathe, 
 
 The pole lathe consists of the following parts, several of which 
 are common to every other description ; the legs or stiles for sup 
 porting it, the shears horizontally fixed with a parallel cavity be 
 tween them for conducting the puppets ; the puppets sit vertically, 
 and are made to slide between the cheeks of the shears, the one 
 being made to receive the screw, and the other to receive the 
 conical point, which is fixed horizontally in one puppet for sup- 
 porting one end of the piece to be turned in its axis, the screw 
 with another point supporting the other end of the piece to be 
 lurned, by means of the screw, the body may be fastened or slack- 
 
TURNING. 
 
 2811 
 
 ened at pleasure ; the rest for the tool fixed horizontally to ihe 
 puppets, and parallel to the cheeks, the tenons made on the lower 
 end of the puppets, in order to form a shoulder for re-acting 
 against the wedges below, the wedges for fastening the puppets so 
 as to regulate them to any distance ; the treadle and cross treadle 
 for the foot, in order to give a reciprocal rotation to the body to 
 be turned, by means of a string coiled round it, and an elastic 
 pole which re-acts against the string and the pressure of the foot ; 
 the pole for pulling up the treadle and acting reciprocally against 
 he pressure of the foot, the string for turning round the body by 
 the pressure of the foot downwards, and the re-action of the pole 
 upwards. 
 
 The legs or stiles may be about two feet ten inches high, and 
 are tenoned into the cheeks at their upper ends, and fixed by pins 
 or screws, the latter is preferable. In turning large work, it will 
 be necessary to brace the legs and cheeks to the floor or ceiling, 
 as may be found convenient, otherwise the work will be liable to 
 tremble. The puppets are pieces of a square section, and ought 
 to be sufficiently strong to answer every description of work. 
 
 The pole lathe is used in turning heavy or long work, the string 
 is coiled round the material, which performs the office of a man- 
 drel : but for general use this kind of lathe is not so convenient 
 as that which is called the foot lathe ; and besides this, there is a 
 loss of time in making the alternate revolutions. The pole lathe 
 is now but little used. It is sometimes, as well as other lathes, 
 tightened with a screw and washer. 
 
 This lathe has two puppets with a pin or centre in each, the 
 right centre is moveable by a screw, but the left puppet with the 
 centre is generally stationary, and the work is supported upon the 
 centres. The rest is moveable between the shears, and fastened 
 by means of a screw bolt. In beginning to operate with this 
 machine, there must be a small part turned, in order to act as a 
 pulley. 
 
 No. 19 " 
 
290 
 
 TURxNLNG. 
 
 § 6. Foot Lathe, 
 
 The foot lathe consists of machinery and a frame for sustaining 
 it. The parts of the machinery are the treadle, the crank hook, 
 the great wheel or fly, the band, and the mandrel , the parts of 
 the frame are the feet, the legs, the back board or b-^nch, the pil- 
 lars, the puppet bar or bed, the puppets, and the rest. 
 
 The treadle or foot board is put into alternate motion by the 
 pressure of the foot downwards, and the momentum of the fly- 
 wheel upwards ; the board or frame of the treadle is screwed to 
 an axle, on which it turns. 
 
 The connecting rod or crank hook is hooked into a staple in the 
 middle of the treadle board, and may be lengthened or shortened 
 at pleasure by screwed hooks ; it may either be constructed of 
 iron or brass, but is most frequently of iron, and even sometimes 
 of leather. 
 
 The fool wheel or fly is put into motion by means of the treadle 
 and a crank on the arber of the wheel ; the motion is communi- 
 cated from the treadle by the crank hook or connecting rod, and 
 fastened to the crank of the wheel by a collar, embracing and 
 turning round at the upper end. The foot pushes down the treadle, 
 and gives the wheel a rotative motion, and when the crank has 
 been drawn to the lowest point, the momentum which the wheel 
 has thus acquired draws up the treadle, and thus by the alternate 
 pressure of the foot, and the momentum of the wheel, the motion 
 is continued. The wheel was formerly constructed of wood, but 
 now generally of cast iron ; the general surface of the exterior 
 side of the rim, is sometimes conical, and cut with three or four 
 angular grooves, which are best when recessed with an angle, so 
 as not to have a flat bottom : this form is advantageous, on account 
 of the band having more power to turn the wheel. Some wheels 
 have two or more rims, in order to give diflerent degrees of velo- 
 city or to increase the power. The axle of the wheel is made of 
 ^rodght iron, except the centres, and bent in the middle, to form 
 
TURNING. 
 
 291 
 
 the crank : the centres at the ends are made of hard steel, welded 
 to the iron part of the axle. The band connects the fly and man- 
 drel, and is mostly made of cat-gut of such thickness as the na- 
 ture of the work may require. It is either spliced at the joining, ' 
 or the two ends fastened together by hooks and eyes ; the band 
 n»ay be either tightened by grooves in the great wheel, or in the 
 pulley of the mandrel, or by sliding pieces in the legs. 
 
 The mandrel consists of an axle and pulley. The axle is con- 
 structed of wrought iron, except the part which turns in the collar, 
 and which ought to be of hardened steel, welded round the iron 
 part. The whole of the axle of the mandrel ought to be turned 
 true in a lathe. It receives a supply of oil from a small hole drilled 
 down from the top of the puppet, and through the steel collar. 
 
 The manner of holding the work, is very different and various, 
 almost in every instance. In general it is held in pieces of wood 
 called chucks, which are screwed or cemented upon the nose of 
 the mandrel. The socket for the mandrel to work in has been 
 generally made in the back screw, but some experienced work- 
 men prefer it to be in the mandrel. The mandrel is sustained at 
 one end by the back centre, and at the other end by the steel col- 
 lar in the middle of the puppet head : the right hand extremity, 
 called the nose, projects over the puppet, and terminates in a 
 screw, which is sometimes convex, sometimes concave, and some- 
 times both : but if there is only one, the convex or male screw is 
 generally preferred. The pulley has generally three or sometimes 
 four grooves of different sizes to receive the band, and by this 
 means it may be turned with different degrees of velocity, and 
 made to accommodate the length of the band. The edge of the 
 pulley is bevelled in the same degree as the edge of the fly-whee' 
 and with the same number of grooves, but the lesser diameter of 
 the pulley is upon the same side as the greater diameter of the 
 fly-wheel, and consequently, the greater diameter of the pulley 
 upon the same size as the lesser diameter of the fly-v/heel. 
 
 The parts of the frame are as follows : the two feet are screv/- 
 ed to the floor, and mortised to receive the legs, which are fixed 
 
292 
 
 TURNING, 
 
 thereon. Sometimes there is only one leg" to each foot, but in the 
 best constructed lathes there are two ; the top of the legs are 
 tenoned, which are received by the mortises in the bearers at the 
 top, and fixed therein. 
 
 The back board is fixed to the bearers, and supports two pillars 
 whi'^.h are fixed to it, one being at each end in a vertical plane 
 wi<h each leg or pair of legs. The puppet bar, or bed, or bearer, 
 IS fastened at each end into each pillar, with mortise and tenon ; 
 the common foot lathes have no back board, and the bed consists 
 of two parallel parts, called by some shears, the vertical sides of 
 which form a cavity between them. The poppets are so constructed 
 as to be moveable upon, and fastened to the bar at pleasure, by 
 means of a screw below the bed ; they are generally three in 
 number, the two extreme ones of which have pins with centres, 
 and the middle one has a collar for receiving the ends of the man 
 drel. In turning of light work, not very long, the right hand and 
 middle puppets are used, and the work is sustained by a chuck 
 fastened to the end or nose of the mandrel. In tJie common lathes, 
 the puppets are made of wood, and tenoned below, to fit the hol- 
 low between the shears or bed, and the tenons are made suffi-. 
 cientl}' long to come below, so as to receive wedges through a 
 mortise cut therein, and by this means to fix them. In the best 
 constructed lathes, the puppets are made of cast iron, and move- 
 able also upon a cast iron bearer, and fixed to the required distance 
 by a vertical screw underneath, which comes in contact with a 
 horizontal plate or washer below the said bar. The puppet which 
 receives the end of the mandrel for holding th'^ work has a cylin- 
 dric hole with a conic shoulder, through its upper end, and with 
 the axis is directed to the centres in the other puppet. The fore 
 puppet has a cylindric hole through its top, to receive a polished 
 pointed rod, which is moved by a screw working in a collar. The 
 puppets are made so as to take off* the bar at pleasure ; they are 
 made forked below, and saddled upon the two upper sides of the 
 bar. The sides or prongs are made very stout, and mortised to 
 receive a sh(»rt iron bar, which encloses the lower part. Through 
 
TURiNING. 
 
 293 
 
 receive a short iron bar, which encloses the lower psirt. Through 
 the middle of this bar, a screw passes underneath, and comes in 
 contact with a thin washer or plate on the under side of the bed, 
 to prevent bruising it. In order to move the puppets freely, and 
 to support them firmly, the bed ought to be made very straight, ^nd 
 of sufficient strength to preserve its figure. 
 
 The rest is made so as to be moveable round the work, and 
 fixed in any position, and may be conducted and fastened to any 
 part of the bed. 
 
 The framing and the machmery are thus connected : the treadle 
 is fixed into the feet, or in brackets fixed in the back angles form- 
 ed by the legs and the feet : the fly is sustained at each end by a 
 transverse piece moveable up and down in a frame, and made sta- 
 tionary in any part it is moved to, and thus it may either accom- 
 modate the length of the band or the crank hook. The mandrel 
 is sustained at one end by the back centre, which is fastened into 
 the head of the left puppet, and the other into the steel collar as 
 before mentioned. 
 
 The machinery is thus put in motion : Suppose the crank to be 
 risised about half a revolution from the bottom, then with consider- 
 able force pressing the treadle downwards, the fly-wheel will be 
 put in motion, but if the force communicated is not sufiicient to 
 carry it round, it must be pressed down in the act of descending, 
 as often as may be cufficient io put it in rotation, in the required 
 direction of motion ; at every time the treadle begins to descend, 
 press with the foot. The momentum which the fly has thus ac 
 quired, will be sufficient to carry it round, even though retarded in 
 a certain degree by an obstacle, until it receive an additional im- 
 pulse by the foot acting upon the treadle ; then by this momentum, 
 and the continued impulses, the motion is continued, even though 
 the force of the tool is continually acting upon the body in the act 
 of working, and therefore continually destroying a part of the force 
 exerted upon the machine ; but the part thus destroyed is always 
 renewed by an equivalent. The motion being continued, the band 
 
294 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 communicates the rotation to the mandrel, and the mandrel to il) " 
 body, which is fastened to the end of the spindle in the maiim i 
 before described. 
 
 § 6. A Chuck, 
 
 Is a piece of wood or metal made to fasten on the end of the 
 mandrel, and to sustain the material while it is being turned. 
 Chucks are variously constructed, according to the design of the 
 thing required to be turned. They are sometimes made of wood, 
 and sometimes of metal, particularly of brass. Wooden chucks 
 have a cylindric hole, in which the end of the work to be turned 
 is inserted, and are hooped, in order to prevent splitting when the 
 work is driven into the cavity : this kind of chuck is that which is 
 most frequently used. The work is also sometimes cemented to 
 the chuck, and sometimes screwed to it, as the figure of the thing 
 to be turned may require. The end of the chuck which is screwed 
 upon the nose of the mandrel, is sometimes a concave and some- 
 times a convex cylinder, the superfices being concentric, or haviug 
 the same axis. In turning small work, such as snuff-boxes, the 
 material is fastened upon a hollow chuck. It is probable, thai 
 the name chuck has originated from the work being driven, jam- 
 med, or chocked into it. 
 
 § 7. Of Took. 
 
 The principal tools employed in turning, are gouges, chisels, 
 right-side tools, left-side tools, round tools, point tools, drills, inside 
 tools, screw tools, flat tools, square tools, triangular tools, turning 
 gravers, parting tools, calipers, &;c. 
 
TURNING. 
 
 295 
 
 § 8. The Gouge (Pl. XL. Fig. 1.) 
 
 Is used for roughing wood into its intended form ; also in finish, 
 iiig hollows : the cutting edge is rounded. In turning, the gouge 
 must be held with an inclination, and the handle considerably de- 
 pressed, so that the side or basil of the gouge comes very nearly in 
 a tangent to the circumference of the work, or in the tangent of a 
 less circle, and consequently the cutting edge of the gouge will be 
 above the axis. In the use of this tool, the rest is generally upon 
 a level with the axis. Gouges are of various sizes, according to 
 the work. 
 
 § 9. The Chisel (Pl. XL. Fig. 2.) 
 
 Is used after the work is roughed into form by the gouge to finish 
 cylindric, conic, or convex bodies. In the use of this tool, the 
 bank or horizontal part of the rest, is raised considerably above 
 the centre of the work, so as to be nearly upon a level with the 
 surface, and the cutting edge must stand obliquely to the axis of 
 the cylinder, so as to prevent either angle from running into the 
 work ; the chisel ought to traverse the work gradually, but not too 
 fast, as otherwise it will leave a roughness on the surface. This 
 tool is used principally for soft wood. The basil must be made 
 from both sides. Chisels are of various sizes, from a quarter of 
 an inch to two incnes and a half: these are convenient in running 
 mouldings and cleanmg the bottoms of grooves. 
 
 § 10. RighuSide Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 3.) 
 
 Are used for turning of cavities of hollow cylinders, or thosa 
 hollows which have only one internal angle in turning both the 
 
TURNING. 
 
 bottom and the side : for this purpose, the tool is made to cut boih 
 by its end and side-edge, so that these two cutting edges form an 
 angle with each other rather acute. This tool must be held on a 
 level with the axis of the work. Side tools are made of differ* 
 widths, to suit various cavities. The basil is only made from 
 side of the tool. The flat side is upwards, and consequently, the 
 basil downwards 
 
 § 11. Left. Side Tools 
 
 Are not used in internal work, as the right-side tools, but up 
 he left side of convex surfaces, such as spheres, torus mouldings, 
 ovolos, &;c. The acute angle is upon the contrary side of this 
 tool to the other. Left-side tools arc likewise made to various 
 widths. 
 
 § 12. Round Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 4.) 
 
 Are used for turning concave mouldings, and are of various? 
 widths, to adapt themselves thereto. 
 
 § 13. Point Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 5.) 
 
 Are used for various purposes, as turning of mouldings, and the 
 shoulders of screws, for which they are particularly useful ; they 
 are sometimes employed in turning the flat ends of work. 
 
 § 14. Drills (Pl. XL. Fig. 6.) 
 
 Are used for making holes ; the work is fixed upon a chuck, but 
 previous to this, the commencement of the hole is made with a 
 
TURNING. 
 
 297 
 
 point tool ; the point of the drill is presented to this small cavity 
 and held in the line of the axis; then by pressing forward while 
 the lathe is turning, the hole will be bored to any required depth ; 
 the drill should be drawn out once or several times, or the core 
 will clog it, and prevent it from operating. 
 
 § 15. Inside Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 7, 8, 9.) 
 
 Are employed for turning out hollows and cups of all dcscrip. 
 tions, and have various forms, according to the curvature or angles 
 of the work. 
 
 § 16. Screw Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 10, 11.), 
 
 Are employed in cutting of screws of various sizes of threads. 
 The work must first be turned truly cylindrical, then by applying 
 the tool to the end, and pressing gradually with a uniform motion 
 in the length of the axis, t-he screw will be produced 
 
 § 17 Flat Tools (Pl. XL. Pig. 14.^ 
 Are used for turning cylindric or conic suifaces. 
 
 § 18. Square Tools. 
 
 Are intended for brass turning only. In these, the cutting edges 
 
 always terminate with right angles. 
 2 o 
 
298 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 § 19. Triangular Tools 
 
 Are used for turning iron and steel. They are of a triangular 
 section, with three cutting edges, and are employed in turning 
 planes or flat ends, also in the concave surface of the hollow bo- 
 dies, as in cylindric and conic cavities. 
 
 § 20. Turning Gravers (Pl. XL. Fig. 13.) 
 
 Are used for turning steel and iron, in roughing out the work, 
 though some works may be entirely finished by them. They are 
 nearly the same shape as the tool used by engravers upon copper. 
 
 § 21. Parting Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 14.) 
 
 Are used for maki ng deep incisions, for cutting off a part of 
 work, grooving, &c. 
 
 All these tools are bevelled or basilled from one side, except the 
 chisel for soft wood, which is basilled from each side, and are all 
 held upon a level with the axis, except the chisel. 
 
 §22. Callipers 
 Are used for taking the diameters of rotund bodies. 
 
TURNiiNG. 2im 
 
 § 23. Description of the Plates, with the Methods of Turning EL 
 liptic Boards, Swash, and other Kinds of Work. 
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 
 The Pole Lathe. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents the pole lathe, as seen from the back. 
 
 A end of the ibot-board or treadle. 
 
 A B the string to be coiled round the wood to be turned. 
 
 D E one of the legs, the other being hid in the view. 
 
 E F the shears or bed of the lathe formed of two pieces, with 
 a parallel space between. 
 
 G H, I K, the puppets, made moveable in the parallel space 
 and fixed below with wedges to any required distance, G II con. 
 taining the fore centre, and I K that of the back centre. These 
 centres are tightened by means of screws. 
 
 L M the rest. 
 
 Fig. 2, large boring collar, with seven holes, from half an nich 
 to three inches and a half diimcter. 
 
 Fig. 3, a boring collar for small work. The holes A 15 C may 
 be contracted at pleasure, by means of a sliding piece inserted in 
 a slip or groove parallel to the faces. The sliding piece is moved 
 by means of a thumb screw at D. The figure of the perforation 
 is an equilateral triangle, the lower part of the slider forming the 
 base of the said triangle ; then as a circle may be inscribed in an 
 equilateral triangle, the collar will fit all sizes of cylindrical bodies, 
 from the greatest size the perforation will contain, to the least, and 
 touch the body to be turned always in three points, which are ail 
 fhat are necessary to steady the work in its revolution. This ma- 
 chine is generally constructed of iron. 
 
300 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 PLATE XXXVL 
 
 The Foot Lathe in its general Construction, 
 
 A B the treadle or foot-board. 
 a the manner ot" fixing the treadle to the floor. 
 C the crank hook, hooked into a staple, and the end of the 
 piece A. 
 
 D the crank for turning the fly with the upper part of the crank 
 hook formed into a collar for embracing the crank. 
 
 E the fly-wheel with several angular grooves cut in its circum- 
 ference, in order to hold the band and keep it from sliding. 
 
 F the pillar for supporting the end of the mandrel. 
 
 G the puppet supporting the end of the mandrel, which holds 
 the chuck. 
 
 H the right-hand puppet, containing the fore centre, which \f 
 tightened by means of a screw. 
 
 I, K the legs, the fly being supported by that of I, the other end 
 is supported by an upright between the legs. 
 
 L the mandrel, showing the end of the spindle projecting ove/ 
 the puppet G, in order to receive the chuck. 
 
 M the rest, tightened below by means of a screw, and made so 
 as to be fixed in any position to the chuck. 
 
 N a foot-board. 
 
 O several of the most useful tools employed in turning. 
 
 § 24. Elliptic Turning, 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 
 If there be a plane with any indefinite outline, and two inflexi- 
 ble right lines at right angles to each other, and if the plane be 
 fixed to an axis at right angles therewith, and if the two inflexible 
 lines be made to coincide with the f>l^ne, and be so moveable od 
 
"its. Barnard. Sc. 
 
301 
 
 its surfdce, that one of them, which we shall call the primary line, 
 may always pass through two fixed points in the plane, and through 
 the point where the plane is intersected by the axis, and if the 
 other transverse line be made to pass or slide along a given point, 
 which is not attached to the plane, but would remain stationary 
 even though the plane were in motion ; and if a secondary plane 
 be fixed to the inflexible lines, parallel to the primary plane, then 
 if the axis be carried round while the point in the transverse line 
 is at rest, the primary plane will also be carried round, and every 
 Doint in it will describe the circumference of a circle : the secon. 
 dary plane will hkewise be carried round, and will perform its re- 
 volutions in the same time as the primary plan? and the axis, but 
 being immoveably fixed to the rectangular lines, they will cause 
 it to have both a progressive and retrogressive motion in the direc- 
 tion of the primary line in each revolution ; and lastly, if another 
 point at rest be held to the surface of the secondary plane while 
 in motion, it will either describe an ellipse, a circle, or a straight 
 line. Hence the describing point will always be at the same dis- 
 tance from the centre or point, where the axis intersects the pri- 
 mary plone. 
 
 The eccentricity of the ellipse, or the difference of the axis, will 
 be double the distance between the stationary point in the trans- 
 verse line and the axis. 
 
 Iniitead of the stationary point, a circle may be placed with its 
 centre in this point, and its plane perpendicular to the axis, and 
 instead of the inflexible line moving to and fro along two fixed 
 points in the plane, the diametrically opposite parts of the circum- 
 ference may always touch a pair of parallel lines on the revolving 
 plane. 
 
302 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 PLATE XXXVII. 
 
 llhislrafions. This Plale cxhiblls the various Positions of the Chuck 
 for turning of Elliptical Work at every Eighth of a Rei^olution, 
 according to the foregoing Dffnition. 
 
 Let A r» mid E F, No. 1, 2, 3, i, 5, 0, 7, 8, be the two inflexi- 
 ble lines, intersecting eacii other in I, at riglit angles, and let C, D 
 be liic two fixed points. Let A i5 be clenoininated the primary 
 line, and E F the secondary line, and let the lines A B and E F 
 at right angles, taken as a wnole, bo called a transverse ; also let 
 C represent a primary point, and let the describing point be taken 
 at G, in the line drawn through C D produced : now in all posi- 
 tions of ti\e chuck, the primary line A B is always upon the point 
 C, and E F upon D ; having premised this in general, suppose, 
 before the niacliine begins to start, that E F, No. 1, the secondary 
 line coincides with E G, and the point G with o, o being in the 
 plane of ihe figure to be described ; then because A B always 
 passes through C, the points I and C will be coincident, A B being 
 then at riglit angles to E F. Let us now suppose the motion to 
 commence, and let it perform an eighth part of a revolution, as at 
 No. 2, the describing point G still remaining in the sam.o position 
 with respect to C and D, viz. in the right line to C D G, then the 
 point 0 will now be at a distance from the point G, and a part G o 
 of the curve will be described by the fixed point G, also the point 
 1 will be above the line C D G : now Fet the motion proceed, and 
 describe another eighth as at No. 3 ; then the point o being al- 
 ways in the line E F pro luced, E F will be at a riglit angle with 
 the fixed line C D G, and A B coincident with C D G, and the point 
 which was last at G, will now be at L In like manner, when ano- 
 ther eighth has been performed, as at No. 4, the point o has per- 
 formed three-eighths of a revolution, tho point 1 is in a line drawn 
 trom the point C, perpendicular to the fixed line C D G, and the 
 point 2, which was at G, in No. 3, is situated between 1 ard G. 
 
TURNING. 
 
 la this manner, by continuing the motion, the whole curve will be 
 generated. No. 5 shows the curve, when half a revolution has 
 been described, No. 6, five-eighths; No. 7, six-eighths, or three 
 quarters ; and No. 8, seven-eighths. 
 
 Here it may be proper to observe, that the angles performed by 
 -he revolution of the machine, are very different from the corres- 
 ponding angles, formed by lines drawn from the centre of the el- 
 lipse, to the describing point, and to the extremity of the curve ul 
 its commencement. 
 
 From what has beon said, it is eisy to conceive that the opera- 
 tion of elliptic turning is nothing more than that of the ellipse- 
 graph or common trammel, with this difference, that in the opera, 
 tion of turning, the ellipse is described by moving the plane, and 
 keeping the point steady, but in forming the curve by the ellipse- 
 graph, the plane of description is kept steady while the point is in 
 motion. The transverse A B E F is the same as the grooves in 
 the trammel cross, and the line C D G the trammel rod : here the 
 cross and plane of description move round together, but fixed to 
 each other, and the trammel rod C D G is held still or immoveably 
 confined : in the trammel, the board and cross are fixed together, 
 and held while the trammel rod C D G moves with the points C 
 and D in the grooves. 
 
 To set this machine therefore, it is only to make C D equal to 
 the difference of the axis. 
 
304 TURNING. 
 
 PLATE XXXVm. 
 
 Shows the relation between the foregoing diagrams and the 
 chuck. Let K L M N be the face of a board representing the 
 plane, which is fixed to the axis of the machine. And let O P 
 Q R be another board made to slide in the board K L M N, each 
 two points O and K, L and P, M and Q, N and R, coinciding at 
 this moment : K L M N will therefore represent a wide groove 
 in the board ; as this groove may be of any width, we may con- 
 ceive the breadth to be very small or nothing, and may therefore 
 be represented by a groove or by the line A B parallel to K N 
 and L M, and in the middle of the distance between them. In. 
 stead of supposing the point D always moving to and fro in the line 
 E F, we may suppose a circle, or the end of a large cylindric 
 pin moving in a very wide groove T U V W across the slider 
 O P Q R. Now therefore, all the differences between these dia- 
 grams and those in the former plate, are only wide grooves in 
 place of hnes passing longitudinally through the middle : for the 
 line A B is always conceived to move reciprocally from the one 
 side to the other of the board K L M N : now it is the same thing 
 whether one straight line slide longitudinally upon another fixed 
 line, or whether a bar of any breadth move in a groove of the 
 same breadth, or whether a straight line in reciprocal motion 
 always pass through two fixed points. 
 
 No. 1 shows the chuck, as in the first diagram of the last plate : 
 No. 2 as No. 2, No. 3 as No. 3, and No. 4 as No. 4 of the said 
 plate. Any farther explanation is conceived as unnecessary. It 
 now remains to explain how the chuck is connected with the ma- 
 thine, and how the parts are connected with each other. 
 
 The end of the spindle of the mandrel passes through a stout 
 upright, and projects over it with a convex or male screw, to 
 which is fixed the board K L M N with the faces at right angle3 
 to the axis : a circular ring or end of a very large pin is attached 
 to the said side of the upright, so that the ring or pin may be 
 
TURNING. 
 
 .305 
 
 fixed at any required distance from the axis of the spindle, and 
 that its axis and the axis of the mandrel may always be in the 
 same horizontal line or plane. 
 
 The wide groove K L M N is made on the inside of the board 
 next to the face of the upright, and equal in brendth to the diame- 
 ter of the cylindric pin, and the slider may eilher move in a 
 groove upon one side or the other, or move in mortise J, but in 
 whatever mode the reciprocal motion of the slider is performed, 
 the groove in the slider must always be made from the inside, so 
 that the board which is fixed to the axis must be cut away for that 
 purpose, in order that it may fit upon the ring or pin, and since 
 the work to be turned is fixed upon the outside of the slider, the 
 slider must be flush both outside and inside, or the slider may 
 project on the outside. 
 
 It has been mentioned, that it is of no consequence what the 
 boundary line of the board is, neither does it signify what the com- 
 bination of the parts are that form the chuck, so that the same 
 principle of motion is performed. The parts exhibited in this 
 plate, show the most simple form of the principle, and therefore 
 the diagrams are better calculated to aflbrd instruction. In some 
 chucks, the principle is almost concealed by a complication of 
 parts, which, though not necessary in forming the motion, are 
 essential in the practice : for this reason, by continual working, if 
 the parts were only of the most simple forms, when the grooves 
 and pins wear, the truth of the motion would be destroyed without 
 any remedy to rectify it. In the best constructed chucks, the 
 board which is screwed upon the end of the mandrel is a frame, 
 which is variously constructed by different people, but the parts of 
 it which form the sides of the grooves, may be brought nearer 
 together by means of screws, and thus the sliders and the cylin. 
 dric ring or pin may move exactly in the grooves. 
 
 The drawing of the chuck, and the manner in which it is con 
 
 nected with the machine, is exhibited in Plate V. to the explana. 
 
 (ion of which we must refer our reader for further information ; 
 
 the geometrical principle, and the manner in which it is combined 
 Nos. 19 & 20. 2 p 
 
306 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 with, and their relation to the parts in practice, being all that is 
 intended to be explained in this place ; and indeed this is almost 
 the whole that can be done. The practice can never be obtained 
 from any written description, but only from the actual exercise of 
 the art itself, so that any farther attempt, besides the uses of the 
 tools, which we have already given, would be needless ; one thing 
 only is to be observed, that in turning several ellipses, the cir- 
 cumferences will be nearly parallel, as the difference in their 
 several axes is the same. 
 
 PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a view of the end of the machine; the principal parts 
 shown in this view ar9 
 
 A the pulley of the mandrel. 
 
 B and C sides of the frame supporting the pulley. 
 
 D frame for the rest to slide in. 
 
 E and F legs supporting the frame D. 
 
 G and H continuation of B and C below the frame of the rest 
 
 I nut and screw under the frame of the rest. 
 
 K the elliptic chuck'with two grooves, through which the knobb 
 of the slider pass, and are connected on the outside by a strong 
 bar of iron, which is screwed ypon their ends. This also show* 
 the screw for fastening the board to which the work is fixed 
 This frame is strongly braced to the roof, in order to keep i* 
 steady. 
 
 P the rest. 
 
 Q the piece by which the rest is fastened. 
 
 Fig. 2 a view of the inside of the chuck, containing the parta 
 N and O : this side of the chuck being placed against the side C 
 of the frame, Fig. 1. 
 
 N the board containing the slider O, showing the end of the 
 
/ i ' S.3a>-narA. Setilp. 
 
TURNING. 
 
 307 
 
 screw which is fixed in the mandrel ; the board N revolves round 
 a centre, while the slider O not only moves round, but has a 
 longitudinal motion to and fro m the part N. 
 
 Fi'v. 3 a view of the outside of the mandrel frame, showing the 
 parts L and M 
 
 L a part of the side C of the mandrel frame, showing the ring 
 M which is fastened to it and which causes the reciprocal motion 
 of the shder O in Fig 2 
 
 PLATE XL. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 Fig. 1 the gouge for roughing and traversing the work. 
 Fig. 2 the chisel used in smoothing cylindric, conic, and convex 
 surfaces after the gouge. 
 Fig. 3 right-side tool. 
 Fig. 4 round tool. 
 Fig. 5 point. 
 Fig. 6 drill. 
 
 Fig. 7 inside tool for angular work, all the sides being made to 
 cut occasionally as well as the upper side of the hooked part. 
 Fig. 8 inside tool for concave curved work. 
 Fig. 9 inside .ool for turning a solid sphere within a hollow one. 
 Fig. 10 screw tool for the convex or male part. 
 Fig. 1 1 screw tool for trie concave or female part. 
 Fig. 12 flat tool. 
 Fig. 13 turning graver. 
 Fig. 14 parting tool. 
 
 For the particular properties and uses of these tools, see articles 
 where they are particularly described. 
 
308 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 § 26. To turn a Hollow Sphere, 
 
 First turn the convex surface, on which draw two great circles 
 at right angles to each other ; then the hne joining the intersection 
 of these circles, is an axis of the sphere, which will divide each 
 circle into two equal parts or into half circles : divide each semi- 
 circle into two equal parts, and each circle will be divided into 
 quadrants. Upon each of the intersections or poles, with a centre 
 bit, bore a cylindric hole, with its axis tending to the centre of 
 the sphere, to such a depth as to leave the solid space between 
 the two bores equal to the diameter of the cylindrical bores, or 
 something less, with the same centre bit upon the division of eacli 
 semicircle ; bore holes tending to the centre as at first, and of the 
 same depth : there will be now six holes, then if the axis of any 
 two be fixed in a straight line with that of the mandrel, with the 
 convex surface of the sphere in a hollow chuck, then the interior 
 surface may be turned out to a certain extent, and formed by 
 means of the instrument shown in Plate XL. Fig. 8 : take the 
 sphere out of the chuck, and place the hollow part thus turned in 
 the chuck, fixing it fast therein with the axis in the same straight 
 line with that of the mandrel, then turn the opposite hole in like 
 manner. Proceed in like manner with each two remaining pairs 
 of opposite holes: in turning, the hollows must be so large as to 
 penetrate each other, and leave only so much of the solid to con- 
 nect the sphere with the core, as is sufficient to support the latter . 
 then each of the eight connecting parts must be sawn through 
 close to the core, and as the core is less than either of the holes, 
 it may be taken out, and the connecting pieces may be sawn off 
 with a bent saw close to the concave surface, and thus you will 
 have the hollow sphere required. 
 
TURiNlNG. 
 
 309 
 
 § 27. To turn one Sphere within another. 
 
 Find the centres of the cyluidrical holes as before, then bore 
 each of the holes to an equal depth, so that its axis may tend to 
 the centre of the sphere, and that the thickness between each pair 
 of opposite holes may be equal to, or something more than the 
 diameter of the required interior sphere ; then fixing the axis of 
 each hole in the axis of the mandrel, with the tool represented in 
 Plate XL. Fig. 8. turn a part of the interior surface of the outer 
 sphere, and a part of the convex surface of the interior sphere, 
 and thus leave eight connecting parts, which are each to be cut 
 with a bent saw, close to the convex surface of the interior sphere, 
 and to the concave surface of the exterior sphere. 
 
 If the cylindrical holes are perforated or bored quite through, 
 a series of spheres may be turned within each other by the same 
 means, but the diameter of the least must be greater than that at 
 the bore ; it would be best to begin the operation with the most 
 interior sphere, and after this the next, and thus in succession till 
 the one next the exterior one be loosened. In performing the 
 cylindrical excavations, the diameter of each hole may be con- 
 tinually less, and in proportion to the diameter of each of the in- 
 ternal spheres. 
 
 In the same manner may a cp.be be turned within a sphere, 
 instead of turning the surface of the interior solid spherical, it is 
 only turning it flat by means of an inside tool, which has its cutting 
 edge straight, and at a right angle with it. 
 
 § 28. Conclusion. 
 
 Many kinds of turning may be performed by making the axis of 
 the work to be turned to slide progressively, or with a reciprocal 
 motion through two collars, as given points according to a certain 
 law, while the body continues to revolve uniformly. If the axis 
 
310 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 proceed with a uniform motion, and a tool be pressed to the sur- 
 face, the tool will cut a spiral line on the said surface. 
 
 If a single crank be fixed to the end of the mandrel, and the 
 end of the crank made to touch an inclined plane while the body 
 is in motion, the point of a sharp tool being pressed upon the sur- 
 face, and kept stationary by means of the rest, a line will be cut 
 or described on the surface of the wood, and this line will be the 
 circumference or perimeter of an ellipse, which will have the pro- 
 portion of its axes in the ratio of radius to the sine of the plane's 
 inclination. If the surface of the body to be turned be straight, 
 and the cutting edge of the tool be always held equi-distant from 
 the axis, the body itself will be turned into a cylinder, and all its 
 sections perpendicular to the axis will consequently be circles. 
 
 If the surface of the body be turned into mouldings, the work 
 is denominated swash worJc, which was much in request in former 
 times, for bodies standing upon the rake, or upon an inclined plane, 
 as in the balusters of scaircases, but is now entirely laid aside. 
 
 An indefinite variety of subjects or figures may be obtained by 
 turning, by different regulations of the mandrel, by making the 
 crank slide upon various surfaces, or by other methods of regu- 
 lating the axis in a direction of its length. 
 
INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections, according to 
 the Number, 
 
 A. 
 
 Axis, an imaginary line passing longitudinally through the middle 
 of the body to be turned, from one point to the other of the 
 two cones, by which the work is suspended, or between the back 
 centre and the centre of the collar of the puppet, which sup- 
 ports the end of the mandrel at the chuck. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back Boakd, that part of the lathe which is sustained by the four 
 legs, and which sustains the pillars that support the puppet bar. 
 The back board is only used in the best constructed lathes. In 
 the common lathes, the shears or bed are in place of the back 
 board, § 5. 
 
 Back Centre. See Centres, and § 5 
 
 Band, § 5. See also Cat-gut. 
 
 Bearer, that part of the lathe which supports the puppets. ^ r>. 
 Bed of the Lathe, the same as bearer, which see. 
 
3.2 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 Boring Collar is the machine having a plate with conical holes 
 of different diameters; the plate is moveable upon a centre, 
 which is equidistant from the centres or axes of the conic holes; 
 the axes are placed in the circumference of a circle. The use 
 of the boring collar is to support the end of a long body that is 
 to be turned hollow, and which would otherwise be too long to 
 be supported by a chuck. See Plate XXXV. Fig. 2. 
 
 C. 
 
 Callipers, compasses with each of the legs bent into the form of 
 a curve, so that when shut, the points are united, and the curves 
 being equal and opposite, enclose a space. The use of the cal- 
 lipers is to try the work in the act of turning, in order to a^cer- 
 tain the diameter or diameters of the various parts. As the 
 points stand nearer together at the greatest required diameter 
 than the parts of the legs above, the callipers are well-adapted 
 to the use intended, 
 
 Cat-Gut, the string which connects the fly and the mandrel, § 5. 
 
 Centres, are the two cones with their axis horizontally posited for 
 sustaining the body while it is turned, § 5. 
 
 Cheeks, the shears or bed of the lathe as made with two pieces 
 for conducting the puppets. 
 
 Chisel, a flat tool, skewed i«n a small degree at the end, and be. 
 veiled from each side, so as to make the cutting edge in the 
 middle of its thickness, § 9. 
 
 Chuck, a piece of wood or metal fixed on the end of the mandrel 
 for keeping fast the body to be turned, § 6. 
 
 Circular Turning, § 2. 
 
 Collar, a ring inserted in the puppet for holding the end of the 
 mandrel next the chuck, in order to make the spindle run freely 
 and exactly, § 5. 
 
 Collar Plate. See Boring Collar, 
 
 Connecting Rod. See Crank Hook. 
 
 Conical Points, the cones fixed in the pillars for supporting the 
 
\ 
 
 TURNING. 313 
 
 body to be turned ; that on the right hand is called the fore cen- 
 tre, and that on the left hand, the back centre, § 5. 
 
 Crank Hook, sometimes called also the connecting rod, as it con 
 nects the treadle and the fly, § 5. 
 
 Crank, the part of the axle of the fly, which is bent into three 
 knees or right angles, and three projecting parts ; one of the 
 parts is parallel to the axis, and has the upper part of the crank 
 hook collared round it, § 5. 
 
 D. 
 
 Drill, § 14. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elliptic Turning, § 25. 
 
 F. 
 
 Feet, the horizontal pieces on the floor which support the legs cf 
 
 the lathe, § 5, 
 Flat Tools, § 17. 
 Fly Wheel, § 5. 
 Foot Lathe, § 5. 
 
 Foot Wheel, or Fly, the wheel or reservoir for preserving and 
 continuing the motion when the force applied by the foot is not 
 acting, ^ 5. 
 
 Fore Centre, that on the right hand. See Centres, § 5. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gouge, the tool for roughing out the work, § 8. 
 
 Inside Tools, § 15. 
 
 2q 
 
 I. 
 
314 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lathe, the machine for holding and giving motion to the body to 
 
 be turned, when the requisite force is appHed. 
 Lathes in general use, § 3. 
 Left-Side Tools, § 11. 
 
 Legs, the uprights mortised into the feet for sustaining the upper 
 part of the lathe, § 4, 5- 
 
 M. 
 
 Mandrel, that part of the lathe which revolves the body when 
 turned in a chuck : the pole lathe has no mandrel, § 5, 
 
 Mandrel Frame, the two puppets which hold the mandrel ; a 
 hardened steel collar being fastened in the fore puppet, and a 
 screw with a conical point in the back puppet. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nose, that part of the spindle of the mandrel which projects over 
 the puppet to receive the chuck, § 5. 
 
 O. 
 
 Otal Chuck, § 25. 
 
 P. 
 
 Parting Tools, § 21. 
 
 Pikes, now called conical points, which see. 
 
 Pillars, the uprights fixed at the ends of the backboard, for sup 
 
 porting the bed of the lathe or puppet bar, § 5. 
 Pitched, is the placing of the work truly upon the centres. 
 Point Tool, § 13. 
 
 Pole, an elastic rod fixed to the ceiling of the turner's shop foi 
 re- acting by means of the string upon the treadle agamst the 
 
TURNING. 
 
 315 
 
 pressure of the foot ; the foot draws the string downwards, and 
 the pole exerts its force in drawing it upwards, and consequently 
 should have no more elasticity than what is sufficient for this 
 purpose, as the overplus would only tire the workman, § 4. 
 
 Pole Lathk, § 4. 
 
 Pulley, § 5. 
 
 Puppet Bar. See Bearer, 
 
 Puppets, the upright parts for supporting the mandrel, the one on 
 the right being called the fore puppet, and that on the left the 
 back puppet ; the screw is fixed on the one, and the mandrel 
 collar on the other puppet, § 5. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rest, the part of the lathe which sustains the tool while turning, 
 
 §4, 5. 
 Right-side Tools, § 10. 
 
 Roughing out, is the reducing of the substance by means of the 
 
 gouge, to prepare the surface of the body for smoothmg. 
 Round Tools, § 12. 
 
 S. 
 
 Screw, the conical points or centres as made with a screw, in or- 
 der to tighten the work ; the screw or screws ought to be kept 
 so tight, that there should be no play, otherwise the work may 
 be in danger of flying out, § 5. 
 
 Screw Tools, § 16. 
 
 Sheers. See Cheeks or Bed of the Lathe, 
 Slider, § 25. 
 Square Tools, § 18. 
 
 String, that which connects the treadle and the pole in the pole 
 lathe, and in the foot lathe it passes round the fly-wheel and the 
 pulley of the mandrel in order to turn the latter. 
 
 Swash Work, § 29. 
 
316 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tools, § 7. 
 
 Traversing, is moving the gouge to and fro in roughing out the 
 work. 
 
 Treadle, the part ot the lathe by which the foot communicates its 
 
 force, and gives motion to all the other moveable parts, § 5. 
 Triangular Tools, § 19. 
 Turning in General, § 1, 
 Turning Gravers, § 20. 
 
 W 
 
 Wabble is the shaking of the work in the act of turning, because 
 
 it is not fixed truly upon the centres. 
 There are several other terms which are common to smithing and 
 
 turning. See the Index and Explanation of the Terms to those 
 
 articles. 
 
THE 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE, 
 
 ITS USES, &c. 
 
 Description of the Nature of Steam, of the Princi/ple of the Steam- 
 Engine, of its various Modes of Construction, and of its several 
 Parts, sTioioing Jiow they act upon each other. 
 
 So much has been said by a host of able writers in admiration 
 
 of the power and utility of Steam, that it would be little better 
 
 than a waste of words to expatiate upon what is already self-evident 
 
 without the aid of eloquence. But it is necessary to those who 
 
 desire fully to appreciate and understand the nature of this elastic 
 
 fluid, to make themselves acquainted with the laws by which its 
 
 operations are governed; the laws appertaining to its generation 
 
 and condensation; its increase and decrease of elasticity, resulting 
 
 from and depending upon an increase or decrease of temperature. 
 
 Without this indispensable knowledge, it will be impossible to 
 
 comprehend the value of the many ingenious and important 
 
 changes, not only in form, but in principle, which the power of 
 
 steam has undergone, since its first rude introduction as an agent 
 
 of mechanical force. The present object, therefore, is to simplify 
 
 and illustrate this part of the subject as much as possible. 
 
 317 
 
818 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 The two component elements of steam are water and heat, or 
 caloric. Steam has been defined to he the invisible vapour of water 
 which is given off by it at all known temperatures under certain 
 degrees of pressure; a definition which, though correct, is not in 
 accordance with the popular idea of steam. It has also been 
 defined as the offspring arising from the union of the two elements, 
 fire and water; and some conceptiqn may be easily formed of its 
 stupendous properties, when it is stated that its expansive force is 
 found by experience to be much greater than that of gunpowder. 
 Vajpour is nearly synonymous with steam, the latter term, how- 
 ever, being usually limited to express the vapour from water, and 
 the former being more general in its application. Aqueous vapour, 
 in its perfect state, is transparent and colourless, consequently 
 invisible ; and it is only when partially mingled with the air, or 
 having touched substances cooler than itself, that it becomes vesi- 
 cular, and consequently visible. The moist, white vapour, there- 
 fore, composed of an infinite number of vesicles, or small globules, 
 is not, as generally supposed, perfect steam, but steam which has 
 been deprived of a portion of caloric. 
 
 Water. 
 
 The expansive quality of water, when subjected to the action 
 of fire, has been variously estimated. It is said that one cubic 
 inch of water will expand into about a cubic foot of steam, occupy- 
 ing a space 1800 times greater than it does in its original state of 
 water. But Mr. Davies Gilbert made the estimate considerably 
 less, and after repeated experiments, was satisfied that it increased 
 its original bulk when converted into steam only 1330 times ; 
 
THE STExVM-ENGINE. 
 
 319 
 
 whereas, by Dalton's experiments, it was computed to occupy 1711 
 times the bulk it did in its original state. 
 
 "Water itself is a compound substance, consisting of two gases, 
 oxygen and hydrogen, so called from two Greek words, the former 
 signifying to generate acids, the latter to generate water. It owes 
 its fluidity to the latent heat, or caloric, which it contains, and the 
 absence of which is the cause of its being reduced to the state 
 of ice. 
 
 The weight of water is of importance. One pint will weigh one 
 pound; a cubic foot of water, will, therefore, weigh 1000 ounces, 
 or 6 J lbs. avoirdupois, being about 48 lbs. for a cylindrical foot. 
 It is 816 times heavier than atmospheric air. 
 
 It has been ascertained that the time required to convert a given 
 quantity of water into steam, is six times greater than that required 
 to raise it from the freezing to the boiling point. Fluid, exposed 
 in an open vessel to the action of fire, cannot, however great the 
 heat applied, be made to indicate a higher temperature than that 
 at the boiling point. Steam will be evolved in greater or less 
 quantities, according to the degree of heat applied, but the tem- 
 perature will continue the same as that of the water; a phenomenon 
 first investigated by Dr. Black. 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Heat is a quality, or principle, the nature of which is not known, 
 but which is inherent in all substances. Chemically, it is called 
 caloricj in order to distinguish heat itself as a matter, from its 
 eflfects : by this term it is known as the cause of heat, that is, as 
 distinct from the glow, or warmth, imparted by one body hotter 
 than others, adjoining to it, until an equilibrium is established, and 
 to this equilibrium it has a constant tendency. The properties of 
 
320 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 heat^ if fully investigated, thougli constituting a tiglily interesting 
 subject, would occupy too great a space for the present work. 
 But it must be stated, that the degree of heat contained in specific 
 bodies has been calculated by various tables : that in water, is 
 generally computed at 60 degrees of Fahrenheit as unity. 
 
 The ca'pacily for heat and the specific heat of bodies have been 
 sometimes confounded; for this reason, that as one body absorbs 
 more heat than another, in order to raise its temperature a certain 
 number of degrees, it is said to have a greater capacity for heat. 
 
 The distinctive terms may, however, be better defined thus : that 
 capacity for heat should be limited to the relation between the 
 whole quantity of heat in bodies of the same temperature; and 
 specific heat to express the quantity necessary to produce a certain 
 change of temperature. The increase, or abstraction, of heat pro- 
 duces a change frequently in the state of bodies, as, for example, 
 subtract heat from water and it becomes ice; infuse heat into ice 
 and it becomes fluid; and, by raising the temperature, water 
 becomes steam or vapour. Steam has a greater capacity for heat 
 than water, and water greater than ice. 
 
 The heat or caloric existing in all bodies consists of two por- 
 tions, materially differing from each other. The one is denominated 
 sensible heat, or that which is in a free or disengaged state, and 
 which is perceptible to the sense ; the other, latent heat, or that 
 which is fixed in any body, and not evident to our sensations, or 
 to the thermometer. Other terms have been given to this descrip- 
 tion of caloric, by Professor Pictet, who calls it caloric of fluidity, 
 and caloric of vaporization. Caloric in its latent state is inactive, 
 or dormant; released from this it affects the sense of feeling, and 
 the thermometer, as though it had never been latent. 
 
 The doctrine of latent heat was first discovered or illustrated by 
 the celebrated Dr. Black; and it has been erroneously asserted 
 that Watt was indebted to this discovery for the improvements 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 321 
 
 which he made in the steam-engine; but this assertion has been 
 abundantly proved to be without foundation, by a long letter 
 addressed by Watt himself, towards the close of his life, to Sir 
 David Brewster, who was then engaged in editing a new edition of 
 the works of Dr. Robison, by wh/m the error was originally pro- 
 pagated. Mr. Watt says, ^'I have always felt and acknowledged 
 my obligations to him (Dr. Black) for the information I had 
 received from his conversation, and particularly for the knowledge 
 of the doctrine of latent heat," but he continues, "I never did, nor 
 could, consider my improvements as originating in those communi- 
 cations." 
 
 Numerous experiments have been made by eminent men for the 
 purpose of ascertaining the different degrees of latent heat existing 
 in aqueous vapour, or steam; and the following results will show 
 the difficulty of arriving at the desired point. 
 
 Latent Heat of Aqueous Vapour. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Black 800° 
 
 Ure 888° 
 
 Southern 945° 
 
 Watt 950° 
 
 Clement 990° 
 
 Lavoisier 1000° 
 
 Thompson 1016° 
 
 Rumford 102 1^^ 
 
 Dr. lire's experiments were undertaken in 1817, and published 
 in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1818. The following 
 table furnished by him, but the numbers of which were afterwards 
 corrected as under, by Mr. Tredgold, gives the mean result for 
 water, and some other fluids. 
 
 Nos. 21 & 22. 2 R 
 
\ 
 
 322 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Liquid. 
 
 Sppcific 
 gravity. 
 
 Temperatu 
 tl 
 
 Beginning. 
 
 re of the water in 
 le bapin. 
 
 End. Difference. 
 
 Boiling 
 point. 
 
 Heat of con- 
 version into 
 vapour. 
 
 
 1-000 
 
 42-5° 
 
 49° 
 
 6-5 
 
 212° 
 
 942° 
 
 
 0-825 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 175 
 
 425-50 
 
 Sulphuric Ether 
 
 0-7 
 
 42 • 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 112 
 
 302-60 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 
 
 0-888 
 
 42 
 
 43-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 316 
 
 1460 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 0-75 
 
 42-5 
 
 44 
 
 1-5 
 
 306 
 
 150-0 
 
 Nitric Acid .... 
 
 1-494 
 
 42 
 
 45-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 165 
 
 517-0 
 
 
 0-978 
 
 42 
 
 47-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 140 
 
 840-0 
 
 
 1-007 
 
 42-5 
 
 48-5 
 
 6 
 
 
 870-0 
 
 Mastic Power of Steam, Atmospheric Pressure, &c. 
 
 When the thermometer of Fahrenheit indicates a temperature 
 of 212°, the force of steam exactly equals the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere ; but the annexed table, given by Woolfe, exhibits the results 
 produced by higher degrees of temperature; although it has been 
 since discovered, by experiments, that the figures contained in the 
 last column are erroneous; an observation, however, that does not 
 apply to the preceding columns, which are the material ones for 
 practical guidance. 
 
 a 3 
 
 P- a. 
 
 ■"•Is 
 
 " 5^ 
 
 
 '227i^ 
 
 i 
 
 ' 5^ 
 
 6 
 
 d 
 '3 
 
 230^ 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 * 9 
 
 a 
 
 232f 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 235i- 
 
 P ci 
 
 •A 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 01 
 
 237^ 
 
 %l 
 
 9 
 
 . 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 
 [uare inch, require 
 ! equal to 
 
 239^ 
 250i 
 259^ 
 267 
 
 irenheit thermom 
 es of heat, steam ( 
 
 10 . 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 
 pounds per sq 
 a temperature 
 
 273 
 278 
 282 
 
 F*< to 
 
 XJ ^ 
 tu > 
 
 ft 
 
 80 
 85 
 
 -a 01 
 
 Ii 
 
 o w 
 
 15 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 323 
 
 The importance attached by scientific men to this subject, inas- 
 much as it was extremely desirable to obtain the most accurate 
 knowledge, based on satisfactory principles, of the elastic power of 
 steam at higher temperatures, influenced the French government 
 to solicit the members of the Institute, at Paris, to engage in a new 
 series of experiments relating to the object in view. The inquiry 
 was undertaken by MM. Arago, De Prouy, Du Long, and Girard, 
 who in 1830 made their Keport to the Institute, by which eminent 
 body it was presented to the Minister of the Interior. It vv^as, of 
 course, a document abounding in materials of great value; but we 
 can only advert to it in general terms in this work; and those who 
 desire, for practical purposes, to become better acquainted with its 
 contents, must refer to the Keport itself, which may be easily pro- 
 cured in this country. 
 
 The elastic power of steam, when not in contact with its water 
 of generation, but is detached from it, has an increase of tempera- 
 ture which does not increase its density, but merely its elastic form, 
 the density remaining the same. 
 
 Velocity of Steam. 
 
 It is difficult to arrive at any fixed rule of computation in deter- 
 mining the degree of velocity with which steam will rush into a 
 vacuum, or a fluid more rarified than itself: as so much would 
 depend upon circumstances, as to the hindrances it might have to 
 encounter through pipes, or other apertures, in making its escape. 
 For this reason (the little practical good that could be attained by 
 such investigations) they have not been encouraged; experience 
 has been found the best guide. In general terms, it has been 
 reckoned that the passages in low pressure-engines should be in 
 diameter as \ to the diameter of the piston, and consequently the 
 
324 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 area about ^V; or say. about an inch per horse for the area of the 
 passages. 
 
 Condensation of Steam. 
 
 Without the means of condensing this subtle vapour with ease 
 and rapidity, the steam-engine, in comparison with what it is now, 
 would be impracticable and powerless for any valuable purposes. 
 Its inefficiency for so long a period is mainly ascribable to the want 
 of this knowledge. It did not enter into the minds of the Marquis 
 of Worcester, Moreland, or indeed any of the early machinists, who 
 turned their attention to improvements on the first rude models. 
 
 The process of the condensation of steam is fortunately simple, 
 and will be readily comprehended. When steam comes into con- 
 tact with a body colder than itself, they have a natural tendency 
 to affinity with each other ; that is, they both become of an equal 
 temperature, the one imparting cold and the other heat to its neigh- 
 bour; or, in other words, the heat finds its equilibrium. Thus, the 
 colder a body is, or its temperature being the same, the greater its 
 surface, the more rapidly the temperature of the hot body will be 
 reduced, and, in the case of steam, the more rapid its condensation. 
 Two things should, therefore, be observed in a steam-engine, — 1st. 
 That in the process of condensation, the surface of the body through 
 which the condensation is to proceed, should be made as great, and 
 its temperature as low, as possible. 2d. The condensing body 
 should be a good conductor of heat, for by the possession of this 
 quality the process of condensation is the more rapidly effected. 
 Water is the best conductor of heat yet discovered, and is conse- 
 quently used for the purpose of condensation in steam-engines. 
 Who first discovered the effect of water here mentioned is involved 
 in doubt, Savery having claimed that distinction, and Desaguliers 
 having conferred the honour on Newcomen. 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 325 
 
 Water, however, thougli universally used as the best known 
 medium for the purpose of condensation of steam, is attended by 
 some inconveniences well understood by practical men. As all the 
 water once used for injection must be removed from the condenser, 
 this cannot be done without the water bringing with it a portion 
 of atmospheric air, which must also be removed, an operation 
 requiring the assistance of an air-pump, of considerable force, which 
 is a reduction of so much useful effect. Among the innumerable 
 experiments constantly being pursued by clever and ingenious 
 mechanics, many have endeavoured to remedy these defects, with 
 little, if any success; that is, to produce condensation, without 
 using the injecting water. Patents have been taken out for the 
 same purpose, but seem to have shortly been abandoned by the 
 patentees; and if any new and successful method had been dis- 
 covered, it would doubtless soon come into general adoption. It 
 cannot, notwithstanding, be concealed, that many excellent inven- 
 tions fail for want of due notice and encouragement, or the want 
 of means on the part of the owners. 
 
 Mechanical Portions of tlie Steam-Eij^inej with their Relative Bear- ' 
 ings to each other. 
 
 Three things should be required in a steam-engine; first, that it 
 should occupy the smallest possible space ; secondly, that it should 
 produce the greatest power for its size ; and thirdly, that it should 
 consume the least quantity of fuel. 
 
 Steam-engines are described under three general names, as 
 denoting so many different principles or modes of construction and 
 working: viz. — 
 
 1st, The High Pressure Steam-Engine. 
 
 2d, The Mean, or Low Pressure ditto. 
 
326 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 3d, The Expanding ditto. 
 
 To wMcli sliould be added^ the high pressure condensing engine, 
 working expansively, a combination of these, long in use in Corn- 
 wall, and lately introduced by Mr. Wicksteed at the East London 
 "Water-works, where it is working with great success. 
 
 Having already given in our former pages a brief historical 
 account of all the different fire or steam-engines, recorded to have 
 been invented, from the earliest period of which there is any men- 
 tion made of a machine worked by steam ; and subsequently having 
 explained the nature and power of steam itself, the next object is 
 to describe the mechanical parts of the engine, by means of which 
 such almost magical effects have been produced; and we know not 
 that we can do this better than by proceeding, step by step, with 
 a description, in chronological order, of the various improvements 
 made in it, from its first simple invention to the present day. 
 
 The contrivance, or apparatus of Hero, invented about 2000 
 years ago, indicated the first idea of which we have any knowledge 
 of the application of steam for the purpose of producing motion. 
 The following wood-cut, with the subjoined description, will convey 
 a sufficient notion of this crude conception. 
 
 cy| A, represents a caldron in which the steam is 
 
 — -/--^ -Q generated by means of a fire kindled underneath, 
 but concealed; B, the hollow support by which 
 the elastic vapour passes to the only apertures 
 through which it can escape, marked CC. The 
 ball, or globe, marked D, is connected with the 
 liollovf tube, or pipe, by a steam joint, but still 
 such as to admit of freedom of action; and the / 
 opposite side of the globe with the solid arm, marked E, so as to 
 allow of the free rotation of the ball. As the steam rushes out from 
 the apertures above described, and encounters the atmosphere, the 
 reaction produces a rapid rotation. 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 327 
 
 Brancas^s invention was even yet more simple. It consisted of 
 a vessel representing the head of a negro, filled with water. It 
 was supplied with a small tube proceeding from the mouth, and 
 intended to give motion to a wheel placed opposite to it, the elastic 
 vapour issuing from which set the wheel in a continual whirl. But 
 the invention will be better understood by the following cut. 
 
 A, represents the vessel contain- 
 ing the water; B, the furnace; C, 
 the tube through the aperture of 
 which the steam issues; and E, the 
 wheel which the action of the elastic 
 vapour, coming in contact with it, 
 sets in motion. 
 
 The Marquis of Worcester's improvement on the steam-engine 
 is the next entitled to notice; but, from the meagre particulars he 
 has left of his invention, there is little to be added to the account 
 given by himself. 
 
 It has been a question whether the Marquis of Worcester had 
 discovered the property of steam to condense, or not. Different 
 opinions have been held upon this subject, and it does not appear 
 to be as yet finally settled, as the writings of the noble author 
 throw little or no light upon it. Some persons have thought that 
 he made the discovery about the middle of the seventeenth century ; 
 but others have maintained, with more probability, that he was 
 acquainted only with the expanding power of steam, and not with 
 its property of rapid condensation, upon which so much of the value 
 of the steam-engine depends. Nothing, it has been observed, can 
 be more obscure and unintelligible than the account which this 
 mysterious writer has left of his invention; although there can be 
 no doubt that he obtained some extraordinary results by the opera- 
 tion of the power of steam. 
 
 Mr. Tredgold, in his Treatise on the Steam-Engine^ denies that 
 
3£8 THE STEAM-ENGINE. , 
 
 the Marquis of Worcester had any knowledge of the contracxing 
 power of steam, and gives the plan of an engine such as that which 
 he supposed to be indicated by the noble author's description; but 
 as this idea is merely conjectural, it is unnecessary in a work 
 intended for popular use to enter farther upon the inquiry. One 
 thing is certain, that the Marquis of Worcester succeeded in reviv- 
 ing attention to the capabilities of steam; he prevented the matter 
 from sinking into oblivion; he stirred up the minds of men of 
 learning and genius to its farther consideration ; and ultimately led 
 the way to the most gigantic results. 
 
 NewcomeTt's Engine. 
 
 Newcomen's engine may be considered as the foundation of all 
 the improvements since made in the steam-engine, and which 
 smoothed the path for his successors. 
 
 The principle and parts of this engine are simple, and may be 
 readily understood by the following description, and reference to 
 the engraving. 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 329 
 
 A, represents tlie furnace; B, a section of the boiler; of tlie 
 cylinder in wliich the piston D moveS; air-tight, up and down 
 between the points D and d; E, the steam-cock to regulate the 
 supply of steam from the boiler to the cylinder. The beam F, 
 moves on the centre or axis H. At the end a chaia is secured 
 to the upper extremity of the arch-head, which passes round it to 
 the lower extremity, where it is fastened to the piston rod I, com- 
 pleting the connection between the cylinder and the beam; the other 
 end of the beam, G, is in like manner connected to the pump-rod 
 J, working in the pump-barrel, K. 0 represents a small pump 
 working with a packed piston, which supplies water to be injected 
 into the cylinder at the cock, P. Q, weights on the pump-rod, to 
 drive it down into the pump, and to give a preponderance to that 
 end of the beam. L, represents the gauge-cocks, to determine the 
 level of the water in the boiler ; M, the escape-pipe through which 
 the injected water and condensed steam pass off from the cylinder. 
 N, is the safety-valve, opening outwards, to regulate the pressure 
 of the steam in the boiler; it is adjusted by moving the weight 
 along the lever, to or from its axis, on the principle of the common 
 steelyard weighing-machine. K,, a jet of water which may be let 
 on to the top of the piston, to keep it air-tiglit. 
 
 To set the engine to work, the fire having been lighted, and the 
 boiler filled to the proper level, it will be necessary to close the 
 steam-cock, E, until the steam in the boiler has attained sufficient 
 power to raise the safety-valve, then turn on the steam-cock, when 
 the steam will rush into the cylinder, but will be immediately con- 
 densed by the cold surfaces opposed to it, and which will continue 
 to be the case until the cylinder has acquired the same temperature 
 as the steam. The air, the cylinder contained before the steam 
 was let in, and the injection water, together with that produced by 
 the condensation of the steam, will be driven out through the pipe 
 M. The cylinder now being full of steam, turn off the steam- 
 2 s 
 
330 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 cock, and turn on the injection-cock^ the cold water spouting into 
 the cylinder will immediately condense the steam, and produce a 
 vacuum, when the piston will be driven to the bottom of the cylin- 
 der, by the pressure of the atmosphere, and consequently the first 
 stroke of the pump eifected. The steam-cock being again turned 
 on, the steam, together with the excess of weight on the pump-rod, 
 will raise the piston to the top of the cylinder, and by continuing 
 the process just described, the engine will be kept in action. 
 
 Professor Brande, however, in his lectures at the London Insti- 
 tution, introduced so simple and ingenious an instrument for the 
 purpose of illustrating the operations of an atmospheric steam- 
 engine, that a representation of it will materially assist the reader 
 in comprehending the foregoing description of Newcomen's engine. 
 
 The glass tube and ball is shown with its piston 
 A; the rod being hollowed, and closed by a screw 
 B. If steam be generated by the spirit lamp C, 
 the air will speedily be expelled; and after this is 
 ^ effected, the screw B may be closed, and a working 
 \ stroke is obtained by artificial condensation. 
 
 If the reader has perused the above description 
 attentively, he will be prepared to investigate the still more exten- 
 sive, important, .and efficient improvements made in the steam- 
 engine by the superior mechanical genius of Watt, and which, with 
 a few additions, will bring us down to the present day. 
 
 Hitherto our observations have applied to atmospheric steam- 
 engines only; but Watt introduced an entirely new principle. It 
 has been seen that in Newcomen^s engine, it was the weight of the 
 atmosphere acting upon the piston that pressed it downwards. 
 Watt proposed to make the steam itself depress the piston, instead 
 of by atmospheric pressure, an object in which he completely suc- 
 ceeded. 
 
 By this method, the substitution of steam for atmospheric pres- 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 331 
 
 sure, he obtained a most important advantage, as he considerably 
 augmented, or rather doubled, the power of the engine; because, 
 in an atmospheric steam-engine, the force acting upon the piston 
 must depend solel}^ upon the weight of the atmosphere above it ; 
 but if the elasticity of the steam be increased to twice the amount 
 of the atmospheric pressure, an engine, upon the latter principle, 
 will raise a column of water of twice the weight that one upon the 
 former principle could. 
 
 Watt's second great improvement was that of employing a sepa- 
 rate vessel for condensing the steam, by which he produced several 
 considerable advantages, more particularly a saving of nearly half 
 the fuel; because, by surrounding the cylinder with a case, it is 
 always preserved at the temperature of boiling water, or at nearly 
 the same as that of the steam ; so that it loses nothing in the pro- 
 cess of condensation. 
 
 The character of the steam-engine was thus completely changed ; 
 its power vastly augmented, and its force more easily regulated. 
 For more than fifty years, Newcomen's or the atmospheric engine 
 maintained an undisputed supremacy, and even long afterwards it 
 was preferred by many persons to the more modern one; but the 
 superiority of Watt's engine rapidly superseded the use of all others. 
 Although, however, it is to the practical genius of that eminent 
 man that the world is indebted for the principal improvements in 
 the steam-engine, it is probable that those advantages would have 
 been lost to mankind but for the penetration, public spirit, and 
 noble munificence of his partner, Mr. Boulton. 
 
 Baron Dupin, in reference to this topic, says, ^'Watt's engine 
 was, when invented by him, but an ingenious speculation, when 
 Boulton, with as much courage as foresight, dedicated his whole 
 fortune to its success.^' ^^Men," continues Dupin, ^^who devote 
 themselves to the improvement of industry will feel in all their force 
 the services that Boulton has rendered to the arts and mechanica] 
 
332 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 sciences^ hy freeing the genius of Watt from a crowd of extraneous 
 difficulties which would have consumed those days that were far 
 better dedicated to the improvement of the useful arts/' 
 
 The above, however, were not the only improvements made in 
 the steam-engine by Watt, as he also introduced the governor, 
 parallel motion, &c., by which it was placed more completely under 
 control, and thus rendered the more perfect. But as we shall give 
 a minute description of the steam-engine now in general use, accom- 
 panied by a cut, it is unnecessary to give any further account of 
 his inventions in this place. 
 
 The double acting steam-engine is that of which we purpose 
 giving a full and detailed notice, because if the principle and parts 
 of that be thoroughly comprehended, there will be little difficulty 
 in understanding others. The frontispiece represents an engine 
 upon the most approved modern construction, and the following 
 letter-press description will explain all its various parts and bearings. 
 
 The Boiler. 
 
 The Boiler is undoubtedly the most fundamental part of the 
 steam-engine, not only on account of the nature of the functions it 
 has to discharge, but also by reason of the various apparatus attached 
 to it, by means of which its temperature is regulated, and thereby 
 the liability to accidents diminished. The most fatal accidents 
 may, and often do, result from imperfections in the boiler itself, or 
 from the neglect, or mismanagement, of the persons whose duty it 
 is to attend to it. If more steam be generated, at a given rate of 
 speed, than is requisite for that speed, the boiler being overcharged 
 will burst; unless some provision be made to guard against such a 
 consequence. To obviate, as ftir as possible, any danger from this 
 cause, several ingenious appendages are attached to the boiler, the 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 333 
 
 first of wliicli is the safetij-valve, which allows the escape of any 
 superfluity of the vapour. But another precaution is necessary to 
 prevent the unnecessary consumption of fuel and waste of power; 
 and this suggested the idea of the self-acting damper j which is so 
 adjusted to the engine, that when the action of the steam becomes 
 too great, the damper descends and checks the heat of the furnace ; 
 and, when too small, the damper, by rising, increases the draught 
 and intensity of action. To some engines are also attached internal 
 safety-valves for additional security against any sudden and unusual 
 condensation of steam in the boiler. Next to the damper is the 
 self-acting feed-pqoe, the use of which is also to regulate the heat 
 in the boiler, to prevent the metal being burnt and destroyed by 
 the immoderate action of the fire, and also to avoid laying a foun- 
 dation for many serious disasters. Gauge-coclcs form another attach- 
 ment to the boiler : they have " pipes descending into them to such 
 depths, that one of them opens just above the proper surface-level 
 of the water, and the other just below it, so that when the water 
 is in proper quantity and the first of these cocks is turned, it will 
 yield steam, and the other being turned, it will yield water; but 
 if the water is too high in the boiler, both pipes will be immersed 
 in, and give out water, and if too low, they will both give steam; 
 the engineer, therefore, by this means, has it always in his power 
 to ascertain the state of his boiler, and whether or not the self-act- 
 ing damper is properly performing its duty.'' 
 
 It may be proper to observe here that more recent improvements 
 have taken place in steam-engine boilers; among which may be 
 mentioned the introduction of cylindrical boilers and serpentine 
 tubes — by which four great objects were obtained, — increased safety, 
 considerable space, a great saving of fuel, and an accession of power. 
 II. M. steamer EcJio was fitted up in this manner in 1831, and the 
 machinery was found to answer excellently. 
 
 The dimensions of boilers is a question that can be interesting 
 
334 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 to few but practical readers, and moreover it could not be adequately 
 considered within our prescribed limits; for which reasons it is 
 better altogether to omit the subject. 
 
 Safety - Valves. 
 
 The object of the safety-valve is, by permitting, as occasion may 
 require, the escape of the steam, to promote the safety of the engine 
 and the security of human life. It is made in a variety of forms, 
 according to the opinions, or experience, of the makers. It will be 
 sufficient here to notice only one kind, namely, that which is called 
 the steel-yard safety-valve. The construction is as follows : — a sup- 
 port projects from the side of a short tube, to which a lever is 
 attached, carrying a weight at its other end, and to the lever is 
 fixed the valve, which opens when the pressure of the steam from 
 within exceeds that to which the weight is adjusted, or rather to 
 the part of the lever to which the weight is appended. But as the 
 valve will sometimes stick, the most frightful consequences may, in 
 that case, be apprehended; and, in fact, extensive loss of life has 
 been incurred from this circumstance; insomuch, that a parlia- 
 mentary inquiry was some years since instituted into the subject. 
 Various expedients have been tried to prevent the sticking of the 
 valve ; and it is always best to have a box or cover over it to pre- 
 vent its derangement by the ignorance and meddling of strangers. 
 The valves are to the steam-engine what the lungs are to the 
 human body. 
 
 Pistons. 
 
 The power of the steam-engine, in a great measure, depends 
 upon the working qualities of the piston, which is that part of the 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 335 
 
 macliinery wliicli is attached to the rod called the piston-rod, and 
 which ascends and descends in the cylinder by the action of the 
 steam. As it is necessary that the cylinder should be kept steam- 
 tight, it is the province of the piston to perform that operation; at 
 the same time, it is important that as little friction should be pro- 
 duced between the piston and the side of the cylinder as possible. 
 In Newcomen's, and other engines, this was effected by means of 
 water being kept floating on the upper surface of the pistons; and 
 this was one of Watt's first difficulties. He at length determined, 
 after many experiments with different kinds of packings, and dif- 
 ferent unguents for diminishing the friction, that hemp, or tow, 
 lubricated with tallow, best answered the purpose. Notwithstand- 
 ing, however, the utmost pains taken with this mode of packing, 
 the drawback upon the power of the engine, from friction, is con- 
 siderable, being generally estimated at 288 pounds per foot on the 
 contact surface of the piston. Much ingenuity has, therefore, been 
 exercised in order to obviate so serious a deficiency. 
 
 Hemp-packed Pistons. 
 
 The hemp, or common packed piston, was for many years uni- 
 versally employed as a matter of necessity, or as the best that had 
 been devised; it is even still, in some instances preferred; and 
 occasionally it becomes quite necessary to have recourse to it, upon 
 temporary emergencies, particularly in steam-vessels at sea, even 
 where metallic pistons are used, in case of the datter getting out of 
 repair, or from being damaged. But the packing of the piston 
 always causes an inconvenient delay of several hours. The follow- 
 ing is the mode in which it is done. The bottom of the piston is 
 first fitted as accurately as possible to the cylinder, leaving it, how- 
 ever, freedom enough to rise and fall through the whole length ; 
 
836 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 the part of the cylinder immediately above this is from one to two 
 inches, according to the size of the engine, less all round than the 
 cylinder, to leave a circular or annular space, into which unspun 
 long hemp, or soft prepared rope, is wound as evenly and compactly 
 as possible, to form the packing. A plate or cover is then put ovei 
 the top, having a projecting ring to fit over the lower part, to com- 
 plete the upper side of the space for packing, being compressed 
 upon it by means of several screws. Both the upper and lower 
 part of the space round the piston to contain the packing is a little 
 curved, that the pressure produced by the screws on the packing 
 may force it against the inside surface of the cylinder, into as close 
 contact as possible. The operation of re-packing, however, if it 
 were attended with no other disadvantage, is a sufficient objection 
 to it as an uniform or general practice. 
 
 Metallic Expanding Piston. 
 
 The first projector of a metallic piston was the Rev. Mr. Cart- 
 wright, about fifty or sixty years since; but he was unable to bring 
 it into successful use, and the old mode of packing continued to 
 prevail. Various attempts were made to improve Cartwright's 
 piston, but most of them were failures, or at least not entitled to 
 much encouragement, until Mr. John Barton, about 1815, took 
 out a patent for a metallic expanding piston, which has since been 
 introduced into the government service, and very extensively 
 adopted in other public and private establishments. Mr. Barton 
 has made several improvements in his piston since it was first pro- 
 jected, by which its utility has been greatly increased. Without 
 encumbering our pages by describing it in its original form, we 
 shall confine ourselves to a description of it in its present more 
 perfect state* 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 337 
 
 Plflji.,<5ss=ssg3^ Barton's metallic piston is represented by the 
 
 annexed plan and section. It is composed of a 
 solid cylindrical cast-iron body A, having a 
 conical hole B, to receive the enlarged end of 
 the piston rod; to which it is secured by a bolt. 
 A space or groove is formed round the body of 
 the piston, to receive metallic segments marked 
 E, which are spread asunder by four triangular 
 wedges Gr, of the same metal as the segments, acted on by eight 
 spiral springs of tempered steel. These springs are inserted in 
 cylindrical cavities at both ends, in order to render them secure 
 from bending, and yet allow them to play freely. With the same 
 view, each spring has a piece of steel within it, a little shorter than 
 the spring. In pistons made for high-pressure steam, there are 
 three grooves formed round the exterior part of the segments; the 
 middle designed to hold oil or grease to lubricate the rubbing sur- 
 faces. The upper and lower grooves are for hoops of tempered 
 steel, having a forked loose joint in each; these hoops are nicely 
 fitted to the grooves, and when the piston is in its place their jointed 
 ends meet. 
 
 Barton^ s Lubricators. 
 
 This is a very simple but exceedingly useful invention. By the 
 old mode of oiling the bearings of steam-engines, much oil was 
 unnecessarily consumed and spilt about, causing a filthy appear- 
 ance. To rectify this, Mr. Barton invented his patent Lubricator. 
 It consists of a vessel either cylindrical, urn-shaped, quadrangular, 
 or in any other form required. A tube passes through the body 
 of the vessel, elongated three or four inches, or less, according to 
 
 the size, below the bottom, and by which it is fixed to the bearing. 
 Nos. 23 & 24. 2 T 
 
338 
 
 THE STEAM-ENaiNE. 
 
 Through this tube two or three threads of worsted are passed, one 
 end overhanging the top of the tube in the vessel, and the other 
 hanging out from the bottom of the tube. The vessel being filled 
 with oil, the oil is absorbed by the worsted, and by capillary attrac- 
 tion conveyed to the bearing to which the lubricator is attached. 
 The supply is regulated by means of a screw and valve at the top; 
 the screw being made tight, the valve presses upon the top of the 
 tube in the vessel and stops the supply; but by relaxing the pres- 
 sure of the screw, the oil continues to flow in any proportion that 
 may be desired. Thus the Lubricators render a constant and well- 
 regulated supply of oil to all those parts of the engine where it is 
 required, save the engine-men much personal risk, and a great deal 
 of labour, which is especially the case when the engine is working, 
 at great speed. 
 
 Cylinder and Condenser Gauge' 
 
 In order to ascertain the state of the engine at any time, two 
 barometer gauges are employed, one showing the elasticity of the 
 steam in the boiler, and the other, the rarefaction of the vapour in 
 the condenser. The nature of these instruments is too well known 
 to need any further description of their uses. 
 
 Parallel Motion. 
 
 This is a beautiful contrivance, for which we are indebted to the 
 celebrated Watt. The object is to connect the end of the beam to 
 the piston rod in such a manner, that whilst the end of the beam 
 rises and falls in the arc of a circle, the piston shall move up and 
 down in an exact straight line. It is evident, if the end of the 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 339 
 
 piston rod was to be fixed to the end of the beam by a pivot, that 
 it. must follow the annular course traversed by the beam head, 
 which would rock it to and fro till it either broke the rod or 
 destroyed the packing in the box of the cylinder lid through which 
 it passes. 
 
 With the more varied application of steam, it became also neces- 
 sary that the communication should be so arranged that the piston 
 should cither push up the beam, pull it down, or both alternately, 
 as in the double-acting engine. 
 
 The apparatus he adopted for effecting these purposes is repre- 
 sented on the arm A of the beam in the frontispiece. The beam 
 moving on its axis C, every part of the arm moves in the arc of a 
 circle of which C is the centre. Let B be the point which divides 
 the arm A C into equal parts, A B, and B C ; and let D E be a 
 straight rod equal in length to C B, and playing on the fixed centre 
 D. The end E of this rod is connected by a link E B with the 
 point B. If the beam be supposed to move up and down on its 
 axis C, the point B will move in a circular arc, of which C is the 
 centre, and at the same time the point E will move in an equal arc, 
 of which D will be the centre ; accordingly the middle point F will 
 move up and down in a straight line. 
 
 Then if a link A Gr, equal to B E, be connected at A to the end 
 of the beam by a pivot at B, and its other end attached to the rod 
 Gr E, and the piston rod T, by the same pivot Gr, the point Gr with 
 the piston rod will move up and down in a straight line, as was 
 shown of the point F, to which it is similar, although it travels over 
 twice the space. Thus, we have two points moving in straight lines 
 F Gr; to F is attached the air pump rod, and to Gr the piston rod. 
 
 The Governor 
 
 Is a throttle valve placed in the tube which conveys the steam 
 from the boiler to the cylinder, an ingenious contrivance of Watt 
 
340 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGIINE. 
 
 to regulate the supply of steam. For a time it was left to the 
 engine-man to adjust, but fie afterwards arranged a plan by wliich 
 the engine was made to regulate it, and with more certainty and 
 accuracy than could be attained by the old system. He effected 
 this by communicating the motion of the fly-wheel by the strap K 
 to a vertical shaft, to which two balls were suspended by rods, 
 marked H in the frontispiece; as the shaft turned round, carrying 
 the balls with it, they by the centrifugal force spread out from 
 their centre, more and more, as the speed increased. Connected 
 with the balls was a lever, which gradually closed the valve h as 
 the balls rose, shutting off part of the steam, and consequently 
 diminishing the power. If, on the contrary, the speed of the fly 
 wheel was diminished, the balls fell toward the axis, and the oppo- 
 site effect ensuing, the supply of steam was increased and the speed 
 restored. 
 
 The Double-acting Engine. 
 
 "When Watt had, by his great ingenuity and perseverance, im- 
 proved upon the atmospheric engine of Newcomen, and rendered it 
 suitable for all purposes of raising water, he conceived the idea of 
 applying the force of steam to manufactures generally. To accom- 
 plish this, it became necessary that the beam should be driven by 
 the steam in its ascent, as well as in its descent, and he first pro- 
 posed to effect it by employing two cylinders, one placed undei 
 each end of the beam, to work alternately, so that one piston would 
 be descending by the full power of the steam exactly when the 
 power was suspended in the other, consequently a universal force 
 would be exerted on the beam. 
 
 He, however, soon laid this aside for another arrangement still 
 more simple, with which he produced the same result with one 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 341 
 
 cylinder, by alternately admitting the steam above and below the 
 piston, the steam at the same time being drawn off by the con- 
 denser from the other side. Thus the steam forces up the piston, 
 and forces it down alternately, and is therefore called the Double- 
 acting Steam-engine, an illustration of which will be seen in the 
 frontispiece of this work. 
 
 Having given some account of the principal portions of the 
 steam-engine separately, we will now endeavour, by describing them 
 collectively, to give the reader an idea of the relation and influence 
 they bear to one another. The steam from the boiler passes to the 
 cylinder through the pipe S, and the quantity admitted in a given 
 time is regulated by the valve 7j, called the throttle valve, which 
 is acted upon, or is under the direct influence of the governor. 
 
 Attached to one side of the cylinder are two square, hollow ves- 
 sels or boxes marked U Y, having communication with the cylinder 
 by a hole from the middle part of each, called the port holes; these 
 boxes are supplied with four valves, the upper one in each being 
 the induction valve, for the admission of steam, and the lower one 
 in each the exhaustion valve, by which the steam passes off from 
 the cylinder to the condenser. These valves move in pairs, that is, 
 the upper induction and the lower exhaustion move together, and 
 the upper exhaustion and the lower induction also at the same time. 
 All these valves are worked with one lever marked "W. Under the 
 cylinder is placed the condensing apparatus, consisting of two cylin- 
 ders 0 and N, immersed in a cistern of cold water, the former of 
 which, the condenser 0, has a pipe called the injection-pipe enter- 
 ing into it, with a head like the rose of a watering-pot, while the 
 other end is open to the cistern, thus establishing a communication 
 between the interior of the condenser and the cold water in which 
 it is immersed. This pipe is supplied with a cock to regulate the 
 passage of the water through it. The other cylinder, N, is called 
 the air-pump, and is furnished with a close-packed piston, having 
 
342 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 a valve in it opening upwards, and operating like the bucket of an 
 ordinary pump. This air-pump piston has an upright rod, with 
 its lower end secured to the piston, and the upper end connected to 
 the beam at the point F. The bottom of these vessels, 0 and N, 
 are connected by a passage having a valve in it opening towards 
 the latter. 
 
 The principal cylinder, marked Q in the frontispiece, is con- 
 structed similarly to that employed for the single-acting engine, 
 and therefore does not require any further description. 
 
 We will now suppose the piston to be at the top of the cylinder, 
 and the whole area of the cylinder below the piston to be filled with 
 steam. To set the engine going we must turn on the injection- 
 cock, which will throw a jet of cold water into the condenser; then 
 by raising the lever W, the lower exhaustion valve will be opened, 
 and the steam that occupied the cylinder will pass off to the con- 
 denser, and be immediately reduced to water, causing a vacuum 
 below the piston; at the same time the upper induction valve will 
 be opened, and the steam being admitted on the upper surface of 
 the piston, will force it down into the vacuum, thereby producing 
 an effectual downward stroke of the beam. To produce an upward 
 stroke, we have only to depress the lever W, when the valves that 
 were open will be closed and the other pair opened. The steam 
 escaping from above the piston to the condenser, a vacuum is again 
 formed into which the piston is driven by the force of the steam as 
 it is admitted beneath it by the lower induction valve. 
 
 When the steam is reduced to water in the condenser, a certain 
 quantity of air becomes disengaged. This air, and the water pro- 
 duced by condensation, together with the water that was thrown 
 in by the injection pipe, must be removed, to perform which is the 
 office of the air-pump, and is effected by every upward stroke of 
 that end of the beam to which the pump rod is attached. 
 
 y 
 
 It should be observed in the Double-acting Engine, condensa 
 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 843 
 
 tion is constantly going on^ therefore the injection-pipe must always 
 be flowing, but requires to be regulated according to the quantity 
 of steam supplied to the cylinder in a given time; so that only the 
 exact quantity of cold water necessary to reduce the steam to water 
 at the temperature of 212 degrees may be admitted. 
 
 Of the hot water removed by the air-pump, a quantity is carried 
 back to the boiler by the pipe L, sufficient to keep it properly sup- 
 plied. 
 
 Trusting the foregoing treatise has been sufficiently clear and 
 comprehensive to give the reader a general idea of the admirable 
 contrivances by which the elastic force of steam is rendered such an 
 active and powerful agent, we will proceed to show how the force 
 is communicated to machinery when a rotary motion is required. 
 
 At the opposite end of the beam to that at which the piston-rod 
 is exerting its power, is attached a rod marked X, by the pivot Z. 
 The lower end of this rod works a crank or shaft on a longitudinal 
 beam that is capable of revolving. Now it is obvious that this rod 
 can only exert power in the direction of its length, consequently 
 can only push and pull the crank ; but as it is necessary that the 
 crank should go round its centre, an agent must be employed to 
 assist the rod when its force is least effective. This agent is the 
 fly-wheel. The fly-wheel is a heavy disc or hoop, balanced on its 
 centre, and so connected with the machinery, that it turns rapidly 
 with it, so as to receive its motion from the impelling power. The 
 momentum which it acquires during the descent of the connecting 
 rod, it will retain, by virtue of its inertia during the time that the 
 power of the rod is least effective, and will carry it past the per- 
 pendicular position, and bring it again within the influence of the 
 rod. Thus the horizontal shaft will continue to revolve, impelled 
 by a powerful and uniform force, and which may, by the ingenuity 
 of the mechanic, be varied and adjusted to any of the numerous 
 uses to which the mighty, irresistible power of steam is applied. 
 
344 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 The High-pressure Engine. 
 
 The principle of engines so called depends on the power of steam 
 to expand itself very considerably beyond its original bulk, by the 
 addition of a given portion of caloric, thus acquiring a considerable 
 elastic force, which, in this case, is employed to give motion to a 
 piston. One of the greatest advantages attendant on employing 
 the repellant force of steam, as in this form of the engine, consists 
 in an evident saving of the water usually employed in condensation ; 
 and this, in locomotives for propelling carriages, is an object of con- 
 siderable importance. The invention is ascribed to Papin; but it 
 afterwards received great improvements from the genius of Watt. 
 But the first persons who employed the high-pressure engine to 
 advantage, were Messrs. Trevithick and Vivian, as they found it 
 admirably adapted for the purpose of propelling carriages. In this 
 case the steam, after having performed its office, was thrown off 
 into the air; and the condenser, together with the necessary supply 
 of cold water which must have accompanied it, was by this means 
 dispensed with. For the purpose of motion, the high-pressure 
 engine certainly possesses considerable advantages, not the least of 
 which are cheapness and portability. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definitions . - - 12 
 
 Definitions of solids. • - • - . 14 
 
 Plate I. — Definitions - ... • 16 
 
 Plate II.— Solids • - • - - 17 
 
 Plate III. — Problems ..... 18 
 Prob. 1. From a given point in a given straight line to 
 
 erect a perpendicular .... ibid 
 Prob. 2. To let fall a perpendicular from a given point to 
 
 a given straight line .... ibid, 
 Prob. 3. When the point is at or near the end of the line, 
 
 method first - ibid 
 Prob. 4. To draw a perpendicular from a point at the end 
 
 of the line ..... 19 
 
 Brob. 5. To bisect a given straight line - - . ibid, 
 
 Prob. 6. To bisect a given angle . . - ibid 
 
 Prob. 7. To make an angle equal to a given angle . ibid 
 
346 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Prob. 8. Through a given point to draw a line parallel to 
 
 a given right line - - 20 
 
 Prob. 9. To draw a line parallel to another at a given 
 distance ... - > . 
 
 Prob. 10. Three straight lines, of which any two are 
 greater than the third being given, to describe a 
 triangle, the sides of which will be respectively 
 equal to the then given lines - - - 20 
 
 Plate IV. — Problems ... - • ib. 
 
 Prob. 11. The side of an equilateral triangle being given, 
 
 to describe the triangle - - - ib. 
 
 Prob. 12. To describe a square, the sides of which shall 
 
 be equal to a given right line ... tJ. 
 
 Prob. 13. To describe a hexagon, the sides of which shall 
 
 be equal to a given line - - - • tb, 
 
 Prob. 14. To describe any regular polygon, the sides of 
 
 which shall be equal to a given line - . ib. 
 
 Prob. 15. To inscribe a polygon in a given circle . 22 
 
 Prob. 16. A square being given to form an octagon, of 
 which four of the sides at right angles to each 
 other, shall be common to the middle parts of the 
 sides of the square - - - 
 
 Prob. 17. In a given circle to inscribe a hexagon or an 
 
 equilateral - - - - .23 
 
 Prob. 18. In a given circle to inscribe a square, or an 
 
 octagon - - ib* 
 
 Prob. 19. In a given circle to inscribe a pentagon - ib. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 347 
 
 Practical problems performed on the ground, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate V. — Practical problems - - - 24 
 
 Prob. 1. To erect a perpendicular from a given point to 
 
 a right line, of a tape or string - - - ih, 
 
 Prob, 2. To erect a perpendicular at or near the end of 
 
 a right line, by means of a tape - - ih, 
 
 Prob. 3. Another method - - - - 25 
 
 The same figure - . . . • ih, 
 
 Prob. 4. To describe the segment of a circle to any length, 
 
 and perpendicular height - . • ih 
 
 Prob. 5. To describe a semi-elliptic arch to any length 
 and height with compasses 
 
 Plate VI. — Practical problems - - . - 
 
 Prob. 6. Any three straight lines being given to find a 
 
 fourth, proportional - - - . ih, 
 
 Prob. 7. To divide a line in the same proportion as ano- 
 ther is divided - • • . . 28 
 
 Prob. 8. Any distance being given in feet and inches of a 
 part of a drawing, to divide a given length of 
 a similar part of another drawing into feet and 
 inches, so as to form a proportional scale - ih. 
 
 Prob. 9. A drawing being given without a scale to pro- 
 portion, another having the dimension or extent of 
 some part of ihe intended drawing . 29 
 
 Prob. 10. To draw a diagonal scale - - 30 
 
348 
 
 CONTEiNTS. 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 1. 
 
 Definition - 
 
 31 
 
 2. 
 
 Tools ..... 
 
 to. 
 
 3. 
 
 Ol saws . . . . - 
 
 io. 
 
 4. 
 
 ine axe - - - - . 
 
 
 O. 
 
 The adze ... . 
 
 66 
 
 c 
 O. 
 
 1 he socket chisel . . 
 
 lb 
 
 •y 
 / . 
 
 The firmer chisel - - 
 
 «54 
 
 Q 
 
 o« 
 
 The ripping chisel .... 
 
 Jit, 
 to. 
 
 
 Ihe gimlet .... 
 
 ib. 
 
 lU. 
 
 ihe auger ..... 
 
 35 
 
 11. 
 
 Ihe gauge .... 
 
 36 
 
 12. 
 
 The level .... 
 
 ib. 
 
 13. 
 
 To adjust the level ... 
 
 37 
 
 14. 
 
 The plumb rule .... 
 
 38 
 
 15. 
 
 Ihe hammer .... 
 
 39 
 
 16. 
 
 The mallet - . - » - 
 
 40 
 
 17. 
 
 The beetle or mawl ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 18. 
 
 The crow - . . - 
 
 ib. 
 
 19. 
 
 The ten-foot rod - 
 
 ib. 
 
 20. 
 
 The hook pin - - - - 
 
 41 
 
 21. 
 
 The carpenter's square ... 
 
 42 
 
 22. 
 
 Operations - ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 23. 
 
 To join two pieces which are to form four 
 
 
 angles, and the surfaces of one piece or both 
 parallel and perpendicular to those of the other 43 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 349 
 
 PAGF 
 
 Section 24. To join one piece of timber to another, to 
 form two right angles with each other, and the 
 surfaces of the one to be parallel and perpen- 
 dicular to those of the other, and to be quite 
 immoveable, when the standing piece is pulled . 
 in a direction of its length, while the cross piece 
 is held still - - - . .44 
 
 26. Another method - - - - i&. 
 
 26. To notch one piece of timber to another, or 
 join the two, so as to form one right angle, in 
 order that they may be equally strong, in re- 
 spect to each other .... 45 
 
 27. To fix one piece of timber to another, form- 
 ing two oblique angles, so that the standing 
 
 piece cannot be drawn out of the transverse . ib. 
 
 28. To cut a rebated notch in the end of a 
 scantling or piece of wood ... 45 
 
 29. To cut a grooved notch, or socket in a piece 
 
 of timber . - . . - ib. 
 
 30. To cut a tenon - - . • ib, 
 
 31. To frame one piece of timber at right angles 
 to, and at any distance from, either end of 
 another, both pieces being of the same quality 46 
 
 32. To join two timbers by mortise and tenon, at 
 a right angle, so that the one shall not pass the 
 breadth of the other - • • - 48 
 
 Nos. 21 & 22 
 
I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 33. Of foundations and timbers in joisting and 
 
 walling ----- 49 
 
 34. Stud work and plaster buildings ► - 51 
 
 35. Description of a table of scantling . - 62 
 
 36. The table of bearing posts - - 53 
 
 37. Observations on the table . - ib. 
 
 38. Table of girders .... 55 
 
 39. Table of bridging joists - . • ih. 
 
 40. Table of binding joists ... 56 
 
 41. Table of beams . ib. 
 
 42. Table of principal rafters - . - 57 
 
 43. Table of purlines ... ib, 
 
 44. Observations - ... 58 
 
 45. Table of small rafters - - a ih. 
 Abstract of the building act, so far as regards tho car. 
 
 penter - - - - - 
 
 Plate VII.— Tools - .... 60 
 
 VIII. — Dove-tailing, notching, &c. - .61 
 
 IX. — Flooring ... - . 62 
 
 X. — Girder joists, scarfing, &c. - - 64 
 
 XI. — Framing for a wooden house . . 65 
 Law regulating buildings in the city of New-York - 67 
 Lien Law • . - . . .76 
 Index and explanation of terms used in carpentry - 78 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 351 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 1. Definition . . . . o7 
 
 2. The bench .... 88 
 
 3. Joiner's tools .... 89 
 
 4. Definitions . - • . 90 
 
 5. Tiie jack plane - - -91 
 
 6. To grind and sharpen the iron . .93 
 
 7. To fix and unfix the iron . . 94 
 
 8. To use the jack plane - - ib. 
 
 9. The trying plane .... 95 
 
 10. The use of the trying plane - - ib. 
 
 11. The long plane - - - . ib. 
 
 12. The jointer ... - 96 
 
 13. The smoothing piano - • . ib^ 
 
 14. Bench planes .... ib, 
 
 15. The compass plane ... ib. 
 
 16. The forkstaff plane - . 97 
 
 17. The straight blocl' . to, 
 
 18. The rebate plane • - » ib 
 
 19. Sinking rebating planes ... 98 
 
 20. Of the moving fillister - - .99 
 
 21. Of the sash fillister in general - . 102 
 
 22. The fillister which throws the shavings on 
 
 the bench - - - . . 104 
 
 23. Of the sash fillister for throwing the shavings 
 ofi* the bench 
 
353 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 24. Rebating planes without a fence - - 105 
 
 25. Skew-mouthed rebating plane - • ib. 
 
 26. Square-mouthed rebating planes - - 106 
 
 27. Side rebating planes ... ib. 
 
 28. The plough .... 107 
 
 29. Dado grooving plane - • - 108 
 
 30. Moulding planes - - - m ib, 
 
 31. The bead plane - . - - 109 
 
 32. Asnipesbill - - . .110 
 
 33. Hollows and rounds . - . Ill 
 
 34. Stock and bits . - - « 112 
 
 35. The centre bit - - - .113 
 
 36. Countersinks • • . ib, 
 
 37. Rimers - - - . .114 
 
 38. The taper shell bit ... ib- 
 
 39. The brad-awl .... ib. 
 
 40. Chisels in general - - 115 
 
 41. The firmer chisel - . - 116 
 
 42. The mortise chisel ... ib, 
 
 43. The gouge - - - ib, 
 
 44. The drawing knife - . 117 
 
 45. Of saws in general . . ib 
 
 46. The ripping saw . . • • ib, 
 
 47. The half ripper . - , il8 
 
 48. The hand saw .... ib, 
 
 49. The pannel saw - . • ib, 
 
 50. The tenon saw - ... it. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 353 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 51. The sash saw - . - 
 
 119 
 
 52. The dovetail saw ... 
 
 ih. 
 
 53. Tho compass saw 
 
 ih. 
 
 54. The key-hole or turning saw 
 
 ih. 
 
 55. The hatchet 
 
 120 
 
 56. The square ... 
 
 ih. 
 
 57. To prove a square 
 
 121 
 
 58. The bevel 
 
 ih. 
 
 59. The gauge . 
 
 ih. 
 
 60. Tho mortise gauge 
 
 ih. 
 
 61. The side hook 
 
 ib. 
 
 62. Th3 mitre box - 
 
 123 
 
 63. The shooting block 
 
 ib. 
 
 64. The straight edge 
 
 ih. 
 
 65. Winding sticks - . - 
 
 ih. 
 
 60. The mitre square 
 
 124 
 
 Plate XIL--Tools .... 
 
 125 
 
 XIII.— Tools .... 
 
 126 
 
 XIV.— Mouldings 
 
 127 
 
 XV.— -Ditto .... 
 
 129 
 
 XVI. — Mouldings of doors 
 
 130 
 
 XVII.— Ditto - 
 
 131 
 
 XVIII.— Ditto .... 
 
 132 
 
 XIX. — Mouldings for sashes *ind cornic3S 
 
 133 
 
 XX. — To describe the scrool of a hand-rail 
 
 155 
 
 XXI. — Dog-legged stairs 
 
 158 
 
 XXII. —Geometrical stairs 
 
 165 
 
a54 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 71. Definitions . - .133 
 
 72. To make a straight edge . - - 134 
 
 73. To face a piece of stuff - • .135 
 
 74. To shoot the edge of a board - - 136 
 
 75. To join two boards together - 137 
 
 76. To join any number of boards, edge to edge, 
 
 with glue, so as to form one board - . ih. 
 
 77. To square and try-up a piece of stuff - 138 
 
 78. To try-up a piece of stuff all round - ib, 
 
 79. To rebate a piece of stuff . .139 
 
 80. To rebate across the grain nn - - 141 
 
 81. To frame two pieces of stuff together - ib, 
 
 82. Boarding floors .... 144 
 
 83. Hanging of shutters to be cut - - 146 
 
 84. Hanging of doors - - - m ih. 
 
 85. To scribe one piece of board or 3tuff to 
 another - - - - - 147 
 
 86. Doors - - ' - - . i&. 
 
 87. Stairs 148 
 
 88. Dog-legged stairs - - - .149 
 
 89. Bracket stairs - - . .153 
 
 90. Geometrical stairs - • - 154 
 Index and explanation of terms used in joinery • - 166 
 
CONTENTS. 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 i>^CdlUIl X« X^cllIllllUIl - » ■ " 
 
 174 
 
 2* List of walling tools 
 
 175 
 
 3. List of tools used in tiling 
 
 ib. 
 
 4. The brick trowel . - - 
 
 ib. 
 
 5. Thp hammpr ... 
 
 v» X iiw lidlllillUl ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 a Thp nliimVi nil** ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 7. The level 
 
 17G 
 
 
 ib. 
 
 9. The rod .... 
 
 ih 
 
 10. The lointino" riilfi . _ _ 
 
 ih 
 
 • w. 
 
 XX* xncjuiiiicr • • • 
 
 ih 
 
 T^no /*r>mn;*GQAa _ _ • 
 X^a X 11c CUIIjpdosc&i • " ■ 
 
 ih. 
 
 13 Thp raker . 
 
 177 
 
 14 Thp hod ... - 
 
 ih. 
 
 15» The line pins • - • 
 
 ^1 
 
 » zo 
 
 16. The rammer ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 17. The iron crow and pick axe 
 
 178 
 
 18. The grinding stone 
 
 ib. 
 
 19. The banker 
 
 ih. 
 
 20. The camber slip 
 
 ib 
 
 21. The rubbing stone - 
 
 179 
 
 22. The bedding stone - 
 
 ib. 
 
 23. The square 
 
 ih. 
 
356 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 24. The bevel ----- 179 
 
 25. The mould - - - . - • ' ih, 
 
 26. The scribe - - - - . iso 
 
 27. The tin saw - iJ), 
 
 28. The brick axe ... . ib. 
 
 29. The templet - ^-j. 
 
 30. The chopping block - - - 181 
 
 31. The float stone - . - . ih, 
 
 32. Of cements . ih. 
 
 33. Description of bricks ... 187 
 
 34. Of foundations .... 190 
 
 35. Of walls ..... 193 
 
 36. Vaulting and groining ... 190 
 Plate XXIIL— Tools 199 
 
 XXIV. — English bond - ih, 
 
 XXV. — Flemish bond - . - . ;:00 
 
 XXVI. — Arch work .... 201 
 
 XXVII. — Piers and cornices - 203 
 
 XXVIII. — Groins - - 204 
 
 XXIX. — Niches . . - .205 
 
 XXX. — Steening wells - - 206 
 Abstract of the building act, so far as relates to the brick • 
 
 layer ..... ih. 
 
 Index and explanation of terms used in bricklayiDg 213 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 357 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 1. Definition . . - - - 219 
 
 2. Mason's tools .... ih. 
 
 3. Of marbles and stones - - - 220 
 
 4. Stone walls - - . - 222 
 
 5. Stairs .... . 226 
 
 6. Geometrical stairs - - - 227 
 
 7. An account of the origin of the arch, and au- 
 thors who may be consulted ... 228 
 
 Plate XXXI. — Problems respecting arches, and methods 
 
 of determining elliptic arches - - - 230 
 
 Prob. 1. To render the compass method useful, not only 
 in describing the curve, but in finding the joints 
 perpendicular thereto, so as to form an arch 
 which shall not have any sensible variation in 
 practice from the true elliptic curve, nor in the 
 perpendicularity of the joints - - - ib. 
 
 2, To find the joints of an elliptic arch at right 
 angles to the curve .... 232 
 
 3. To describe the parabolic arch, and thence to nn 
 draw the joints at right angles to tho curve - ib. 
 
 Plate XXXII.— Strength of arches . - - ib. 
 
 Index and explanation of terms used in masonry - 235 
 
358 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 1. Definition .... 242 
 
 Slater's tools - - - - • ib 
 
 Explanation of terms used in slating ... 243 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 Section 1. Definitions ..... 246 
 
 2. Plasterer's tools . . {b, 
 
 3. Materials • - • . • i5. 
 Explanation of terms used in plastering . . 247 
 
 PAINTING IN OIL.. 
 
 Definitions and tools ..... 255 
 
 The process for painting on new wood work - - ib. 
 
 The process for painting on old work - - . 257 
 
 A list of useful colours for house painting . - 258 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 359 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definition 
 
 
 
 Section 1. 
 
 Description of the forge 
 
 
 o 
 
 A, 
 
 ine anvil . « • • 
 
 261 
 
 o 
 o. 
 
 Ine tongs - - - » 
 
 ih 
 
 » lO, 
 
 4. 
 
 Hammers - " • 
 
 
 «/• 
 
 iiie VIC© - • • • 
 
 262 
 
 r» 
 O. 
 
 1 he hand vice - • " 
 
 • 1(3. 
 
 7, 
 
 Ine plyers - - • • 
 
 ih 
 
 Q 
 O. 
 
 Drills . . • • 
 
 
 u. 
 
 Screw plates . • - 
 
 264 
 
 lU. 
 
 oncars . • • • 
 
 ih 
 
 11. 
 
 Saws . . • . 
 
 ih 
 
 12. 
 
 Of forging - . . • 
 
 to. 
 
 13. 
 
 Of heats - • . , - 
 
 ih. 
 
 14. 
 
 To punch a hole • 
 
 267 
 
 15. 
 
 Filing and polishing 
 
 ih. 
 
 16. 
 
 To cut thick iron plate to any figure 
 
 268 
 
 17. 
 
 Riveting - 
 
 269 
 
 18. 
 
 To rivet a pin to a plate or piece of iron 
 
 ih. 
 
 19. 
 
 To make small screw-bolts and nuts 
 
 ih. 
 
 20. 
 
 Of iron, steel, cast steel, &c. 
 
 271 
 
 Plate XXXIII. — Perspective view of a smith's work- 
 shop, showing a double forge with its apparatus 
 and some tools in general use . . 275 
 
360 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Plate XXXIV. — Yiew of another part of a smith's work- 
 shop, showing the work benches with the vices, 
 the drill in the act of boring, and a turning 
 machine, as wrought by a winch and wheel, as 
 also by the foot ^ - - - - 27(5 
 
 Index and explanation of terms used in smithing . 277 
 
 TURNING- 
 
 Section 1. Definition and history ... 286 
 
 2. Circular turning .... 287 
 
 3. Lathes in general • . • • 288 
 
 4. The pole lathe . . • . ih, 
 6. The foot lathe .... 290 
 
 6. A chuck . - - - . 294 
 
 7. Of tools . . - . ■ . ib. 
 
 8. The gouge - - - . . 295 
 
 9. The chisel - . . ih. 
 
 10. Right-side tools .... ib. 
 
 11. Loft-side tools - - . .298 
 
 12. Round tools . - . . ib. 
 
 13. Point tools - - - - . ii. 
 
 14. Drills ib. 
 
 ir>. Inside tools .... 297 
 
 16. Screw tools . . . • ib. 
 
 17. Flat tools - . • . \ ib. 
 
CONTENTS. 361 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 18. Square tools ... - 297 
 
 19. Triangular tools .... 298 
 
 20. Turning gravers • - - . ib 
 
 21. Parting tools - . - » ib 
 
 22. Callipers ..... t6 
 
 23. Description of plates, with various methods 
 of.turning .... - 299 
 
 Plate XXXV.— The pole lathe - . - 299 
 
 Plate XXXVI.— The foot lathe . . - 300 
 
 Section 24. Elliptic turning .... ib, 
 Plate XXXVII. — Exhibits t'ne various positions of the 
 
 chuck for turning elliptical work, &c. • • 302 
 Plate XXXVIII. — Shows the relations between the fore- 
 going diagram and the ch«ck ... 904 
 Plate XXXIX. — Viev/ of a turning machine - . '306 
 Plate XL.— Of tools ..... 307 
 Section 26. To turn a hollow sphere - • . 308 
 
 27. To turn one sphere within another - . 309 
 
 28. Conclusion - • . . t6. 
 Index and explanation of terms used in turning - . 31 
 
 t 
 
862 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Description of the Nature of Steam, of the principle of the 
 Steam-engine, of its various Modes of Construc- 
 tion, and of its several Parts, showing how they 
 
 act upon each other - - - - 317 
 
 Water 818 
 
 Heat 819 
 Elastic power of Steam, Atmospheric Pressure, &c. 322 
 Velocity of Steam .... 323 
 Condensation of Steam - - - - 324 
 Mechanical Portions of the Steam-engine, with their rela- 
 tive bearings to each other - - - 325 
 Newcomen*s Engine - 328 
 
 The Boiler 332 
 
 Safety-Yalves - - - - - 334 
 
 Pistons - 334 
 
 Hemp-Packed Pistons - - - - 335 
 
 Metallic Expanding Piston - - - 336 
 
 Barton's Lubricators - - - - 337 
 
 Cylinder and Condenser Guages - - - 338 
 
 Parallel Motion 338 
 
 The aovernor ----- 339 
 
 The Double-acting Engine - - - 340 
 
 The High-pressure Engine _ _ - 344 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR THE BINDER. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Showing the Pages opposite which the Plates are to be placed. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Plate \ ^ To face Page 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 ^ 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 JOINERY, 
 
 12 j 
 
 13 I 
 
 14 I 
 
 15 f 
 
 ia| 
 
 17 I 
 
 18 I 
 
 19 1 
 
 20 I 
 
 21 1 
 
 22 1 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 24 
 27 
 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 64 
 65 
 
 125 
 126 
 127 
 129 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 133 
 165 
 158 
 165 
 
 Plate 
 
 To face Page 
 
 23 I 
 
 24 j 
 
 25 I 
 
 26 I 
 
 27 I 
 
 28 I 
 
 29 1 
 39 1 
 
 MASONRY 
 
 31 I . 
 
 32 I . 
 
 SMITHING. 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 
 199 
 199 
 200 
 201 
 203 
 204 
 205 
 206 
 
 230 
 232 
 
 275 
 276 
 
 299 
 300 
 302 
 304 
 306 
 307 
 
/ 
 
 i