I J) H RICA TION \ND UlL JJJETERICHS FRICTION AND LUBRICATION. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON FRICTION, LUBRICATION, FATS AND OILS, INCLUDING THE MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICATING OILS, LEATHER OILS, PAINT OILS, SOLID LUBRICANTS AND GREASES ; MODES OF TESTING OILS, AND THE APPLICATION OF LUBRICANTS. BY EMIL F, DIETERICHS, MEMBER OP THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA, MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATIONARY ENGINEERS, AND INVENTOR OF THE DIETERICHS'S "VALVE-OLEUM " LUBRICATING OILS. PHILADELPHIA : HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 810 Walnut Street. 1906. Copyright, by EMIL F. DIETEKICHS, -1906. PREFACE. From observation during a period of nearly fifty years as a practical Chemist and Manufac- turer of Chemical Products and all kinds of Oils, and my close connection with Engineers and Manufacturers, and experience with the endless varieties of Engines and Machinery in use, I have long felt the need of some work that would collec- tively treat in a condensed and comprehensive form the subjects of Friction, Lubrication, the origin and characteristics of Fats and Oils, their Uses, their Adulterations and their Practical Testing, all of such vital importance in the mechanical world. In the effort to produce a book to fill these wants and make it useful as well as easily under- stood by Mechanics and Manufacturers not very familiar with these subjects, I have throughout avoided as much as possible all scientific technol- ogy, as well as technical terms and theories familiar only to the experienced chemist, and have endeavored to write in such language and manner as can be readily comprehended by any- body with an ordinary school education. (V) vi PREFACE. I would here take occasion to acknowledge the endorsement given to my former writings and to my lectures on these subjects, and to the generous patronage extended to my valve-oleum " lubri- cating oils. My theories on lubrication, which led to the production of the " valve-oleum " oils, at first met with much derision. But notwithstanding the fact that I have made many efforts to arouse, by my publications and lectures, more attention to, and to elicit information upon, the subject, thus far no sound argument has been advanced to refute these theories or to uphold those other ones, older and long persistently held. Should I have been successful in producing such a treatise as will meet the demands of the time, and with this faith, I hereby dedicate this volume to manufacturers, and mechanics, and to my brother engineers of the National Association of Stationery Engineers of America, I shall feel myself amply repaid for my labor. As is the practice of the publishers, the book has been supplied with a full table of contents and a thorough, index, rendering reference to any subject in it prompt and accurate. E. F. DiETERICHS. Cleveland, Ohio, September 15, 1906. CONTENTS. I. FRICTION. PAGE Definition of friction; Various kinds of friction; Explana- tion of the laws of friction 1 Moving force required when wood on iron, iron on iron, or iron on brass press on each other; Co-efficient of friction and rule for finding it; Friction of quiescence; Friction of motion 2 Rolling friction; Traction of a cart on a macadamized road; Traction on a railway 3 Value and usefulness of friction ; Frictional heat . . 4 II. LUBRICATION. Necessity of lubricating; What is lubricating? ... 6 Laws of lubrication as taught by nature; Lubrication of the joints of the bones in the body by the joint water . . 6 Absorption of frictional heat by metal; Effect of overheat- ing the bearings ........ 7 Creation of frictional heat as shown by Count Rumford's experiments .8 Accumulation and disposal of frictional heat; Capacity of inert matter for absorbing and carrying away frictional heat 9 Necessity of renewing the lubricant; Lubricating a chem- ical process 10 (vii) viii CONTENTS. PAGE The chemical process which takes place when oil is used for lubricating .11 Why oil and fatty matters are used for lubricating machinery 12 III. OILS AND FATS. Definition of oils; Classes of oils . . ... .13 Fixed oils; Volatile or essential oils; Drying oils; Non- drying or fatty oils; Vegetable oils ..... 14 Animal oils; Drying oils; Volatile or essential oils . . 15 Mineral oils and petroleum oils, and the manner of obtain- ing them 16 IV. OILS AND FATS OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OEIGTN, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, AND HOW THEY ARE OBTAINED. Lard and lard oil; Preparation and properties of lard; Separation of olein from lard ...... 18 Lard oil and its properties; Commercial grades of lard oil; Tallow and tallow oil; Mode of obtaining tallow . . 19 Tallow oil and its properties 20 Neatsfoot oil and horse tallow oil; Neatsfoot oil and its prop- erties; Bone fat, bone grease, or marrow tallow . . 21 Horse tallow and its properties; Elain or red oil and its properties ......... 22 Spermaceti and fish oils; Spermaceti 23 Spermaceti, its constitution and properties . . . .24 Sperm oil and its properties; Seal oil .... 25 Whale and train oils; Commercial fish oils . . .26 Wool fat; Degras 27 Factitious degras; Constitution of degras . . . .28 Castor oil and its properties 29 Olive oil and its properties 30 Sunflower oil; Sesame or gingelly oil , , , . .31 CONTENTS. ix PAGB Cottonseed oil; Eapeseed or colza oil 32 Hempseed oil; Palm oil and cocoanut oil . . . .33 Copra; Palm oil or palm butter and its properties . . 34 Almond oil; Poppyseed oil 35 Corn oil and mode of obtaining it 36 Peanut oil and its properties ...... 37 Mustardseed oil; Nigerseed oil; Linseed oil . . . 38 Linolein; Driers 39 Rosin, rosin oil and turpentine; Mode of obtaining rosin and its properties; Distillation of rosin oil . . . .40 Eosin or pine oil and its properties; Glycerin . . .41 Properties of glycerin 42 V. CLARIFYING, REFINING, AND BLEACHING OILS AND FATS. Various processes of bleaching vegetable oils; Clarifying oils 43 Refining oils by treatment with sulphuric acid; Refining oils and fats with caustic soda 44 Freeing oils from free fatty acids; Bleaching oils with chlorine 45 Process for deodorizing oil 46 Bleaching and deodorizing degras . . . . . 47 Cleaning and bleaching tallow and other fat ; Cleaning and bleaching and deodorizing train oil; Bleaching grease . 48 VI. MINERAL OILS. Mode of obtaining mineral oils; Distillation of mineral oils. 50 Green oil; Paraffine oil; Treatment of shale oil . . .51 Grades of illuminating oils; Tar oils 52 Distillation of wood and products obtained thereby; Products obtained by the distillation of tar from the gas works; Difference between benzol and benzine . . . .53 Conversion of nitro-benzol into anilin oil ; Uses of coal tar . 54 X CONTENTS. PAGE VII. PETROLEUM OILS. Deposits of petroleum ....... Petroleum oils of Pennsylvania; Ohio crude oils and mode of desulphurizing them Use of aluminium chloride for desulphurizing Ohio petroleum Distillation of petroleum Classification of the proceeds of distillation. Neutral distillates and their division ..... Purifying and bleaching the neutral oils; Extraction of par- affine wax from the crude paraffine oils .... Uses of paraffine wax; Golden machine oil; Steam refined cylinder oil; Production of a good cylinder oil from crude oil Black lubricating oil or West Virginia oil; Filtered cylinder stock; Vaseline, cosmoline, petrolatum; Petroleum oils for lubricating 63 Petroleum oils for various lubricating purposes; Signal oil for lanterns 64 Deblooming petroleum oils; Deodorizing petrol oil . . 65 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 VIII. MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICATING OILS. Lubricants for heavy pressure and low-speed machinery 67 Compounding of petroleum oils to give them a viscous con- sistency; Compounding cylinder oil 68 Various fats and oils used in the compounding of cylinder and other oils; Mode of compounding petroleum with fatty oils 69 Use of rosin oils in the compounding of lubricating oils . 70 Thickened oils .71 CONTENTS. xi PAGE IX. "valve-oleum" oils. Materials which form the foundation of ' ' Valve-Oleum ' ' oils 73 Preparation of oleate of alumina 74 Preparation of a heavy and stringy mineral castor . . 77 Preparation of Valve-Oleum " engine and cylinder oils . 78 Preparation of white " Valve-Oleum " castor oil, " Valve- Oleum " castoroleum and "Valve-Oleum" linoleum , 79 Mode of detecting oleate of alumina in mineral oil . . 80 X. LEATHER OILS. Necessity of lubricating leather belts, harness, boot and shoe leather 81 " Valve-Oleum" leather preserving and water-proofing oil; Oil for tanners' use 82 Cheap harness oil; Black harness oil; Belt oil; Belt grease 83 Factitious paint oil; Cheap paint oil . . . . .84 XI. ADULTERATIONS OF FATTY OILS. Materials used in the adulteration of lard oil, olive oil, sperm oil, and linseed oil 85 Adulteration of castor oil 86 XII. TESTING OILS. Alkali tests for detecting the presence of a hydrocarbon oil in fatty oils 87 To ascertain the amount of mineral oil in fatty oils; Color test 88 xii CONTENTS. PAGE Test for cottonseed oil in lard oil; Preliminary test for neu- tral oil in lard oil 89 To detect small quantities of fatty oils in a sample of min- eral oil; To detect soap dissolved in mineral oil; To de- tect acidity or alkali in mineral oil 90 Simple and practical methods for testing oils and oil mixtures 91 Detection of the admixture of petroleum oil in large propor- tion to fatty oils 92 Mode of ascertaining with what proportion of petroleum a fatty oil has been adulterated 93 Mode of telling the presence of petroleum in fatty oils, even in very small proportions; Means employed to prevent de- tection of adulteration of fatty oils by the hydrometer test. 94 Testing the comparative efficiency of oils for lubricating; To ascertain the gumming propensities of an oil; Viscosity, and modes of ascertaining it 95 Fire test 96 Simple way of testing lubricating oils . . ... 97 Practical tests of lubricating oils 98 Necessity of cleaning cylinders and bearings before testing or using a new oil 99 Advantage of the stringy character of " Valve Oleum " oils. 100 XIII. SOLID LUBRICANTS. GREASES. Constitution of solid lubricants and their application; Con- stitution of grease 101 Character of machinery for which lubricating grease is used ; Wear and abrasion of the metal with grease lubricants . 102 Manufacture of greases 103 Preparation of lime paste for rosin grease; Manufacture of rosin grease in the cold way 104 Formulas after which nearly all grease lubricants are manu- factured; Preparation of a " cup grease" . . . 105 CONTENTS. xiii PAGE Dark axle grease; Linseed oil grease 106 Various receipts 107 XIV. SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. Cause of injuries to a cylinder 109 Lubrication not effected by inert matters; Decomposition of all fatty oils and fats by the absorption of steam and fric- tional heat; Injurious action from the use of tallow in cylinders. 110 Formation of marble-like balls by the motion of the piston; Consequences of the softening and dissolving of hardened deposits Ill Injury to cylinders caused by poor packing; Other causes of cutting and scarring of the metal . . . . .112 Necessity of keeping clean and carefully examining the parts of machinery where oil is used for lubricating. , 113 XV. LUBRICATORS AND CUPS. Trouble caused to engineers by lubricators; Pumps for ap- plying cylinder oils 114 Automatic pumps; The "Moses pump;" Feeding cylinder oil through the sight-feed cup 115 Consequences of cleaning the cup by blowing live steam through it; Cleaning sight-feed cups .... 116 Kegulating the flow of oil in the cups . . . .117 Cups feeding with a wick; Oils to be used in cups exposed to varying temperatures 118 Cups for feeding grease 119 Only reliable lubricating with grease 120 xiv CONTENTS. XVI. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Definition of specific gravity; Standard for solid and liquid bodies; Mode of ascertaining the specific gravity of liquids by means of the specific gravity bottle .... 121 Use of the Baum^ hydrometer; Table of Baum^ degrees, the specific gravity they represent, and the corresponding weight of the liquids per gallon 122 Index 127 I. FRICTION. The force which is felt to resist the motion when one body rubs against another while in motion is called friction. Of all mechanical power used, a large amount is spent or lost to overcome the obstructive force of friction, and means are looked for to reduce this as much as possible. Friction is either sliding or rolling. The laws regarding friction are explained as follows : When placing a block of wood or iron on a smooth surface of wood or metal, it requires a force of some two-fifths of the weight of the block to make it move along the surface, thereby indi- cating the friction between the surfaces, as has been established by carefully conducted experi- ments. It has been established that two such blocks placed on the plate side by side, so as to form one of double size, require double the force to 1 2 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. move them, and when the blocks are placed on top of each other, there is no difference in the amount of force necessary to move them. The friction between any two surfaces increases in proportion to the force with which they are pressed together, regardless of the extent of the surface in contact. A difference, however, exists when wood on iron, iron on iron or, iron on brass press on each other. For oakwood on iron, the moving force required is about two-fifths, or ex- actly thirty-eight per cent; for iron on iron forty- four per cent, and for cast-iron upon brass about twenty-two per cent, in a dry state and without lubrication. The proportion expressed between the pressure of two surfaces and their friction is called their co-efficient, and is found by dividing the power by the weight moved. The friction of quiescence, or the resistance to the commence- ment of motion, is greater than the resistance to its continuance, and more so if the surfaces have for a considerable time rested in contact with each other. The friction of motion is entirely inde- pendent of the velocity of the motion. The re- sistance of friction to a shaft turning in its bear- ings, or of an axle in its box, has evidently a FRICTION. 3 greater leverage the thicker the journal or the axle is, and axles of wheels are accordingly made as small as is consistent with their required strength. The resistance that takes place be- tween the circumference of the wheel on the road is called ''rolling friction." In front of the wheel there is always an eminence or obstacle which it is at every instant surmounting and crushing ; so also on iron rails, but to a much lesser extent than on other roads. On the princi- ple of the lever, it shows that a larger wheel has the advantage over a smaller one, and it has been fully established that on a horizontal road the traction varies directly as to the load, and in- versely as to the radius of the wheel. On a per- fectly good and level macadamized road, the traction of a cart is found to be one-thirtieth of the load, so that a horse to draw^ a ton must pull with a force equal to seventy-five pounds. On a railway the traction is reduced to one two-hun- dred-and-eightieth of the load, or to eight pounds per ton. Friction is akin to and as important as is gravitation in every motion in the universe. While friction on railways is diminished, further dimunition would stop motion entirely, as 4 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. the driving wheels of the locomotive would slide around on the rails without advancing. Friction is most valuable when machinery with great momentum has to be checked or sud- denly arrested in its motion, as by a brake against the wheels on railways. It is useful in communi- cating motion by means of belts, ropes or chains ; it is the force that holds the knot in the rope, and it is the power that stops the momentum of cars in rapid motion. Friction is the constant oppo- nent of motion, which creates heat, which is known as Friction al Heat." r 11. LUBRICATION. To overcome friction and put its resisting power to as low a point as possible, we use Lubri- cants that can absorb the frictional heat and, becoming vaporized by it, will carry the heat into space. Lubricating is a necessity, and is the most important factor in the mechanical world. With- out lubrication all the power we can obtain from Steam, Electricity, Gas. Water, Air and Horse Power, Spring and Wind Power could be of no use to us, and travel on railroads and steamboats, the running of factories, the riding in automo- biles, in carriages and wagons, the use of sewing machines, the riding on bicycles, the keeping record of time by our watches ; in short, the using of anything that is dependent on mechan- ical motion would be utterly impossible. We have then to investigate, What is Lubri- cating?" (5) G FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Nature teaches us the laws of lubrication by its wonderful workings in the human body and in the bodies of all animals. All the joints of the bones in the body would be useless and stiff were it not for their being constantly lubricated by the so-called " Joint Water," an unctuous fluid which surrounds all the joints of the skele- ton part of the body. This ''Joint Water" is constantly produced and supplied by nature, and is constantly consumed by the frictional heat created by our exertions and movements, and is likewise constantly disposed of and frees the body from the otherwise accumulating frictional heat by transferring it, with the perspiration and ex- halations from the body, into space. When the recuperating powers of the body fail to operate properly, from one cause or another, the inflam- matory condition of the joints gives evidence of the absence of proper lubrication, and the final failing and drying up of this lubricating ''Joint Water " under diminished generating power in advanced age cause the joints to move with diffi- culty and pain, and in the end make them lose their usefulness altogether. So it is with machinery. LUBRICATION. 7 Whenever the surface of one part of machinery in motion is bearing on the surface of another, friction is created and friction creates heat. This heat is evolved and increases with the velocity and continued motion, and if not taken up and carried away by lubrication, will finally increase and accumulate to such an extent that the machinery will have to be stopped to allow the metal to cool off. Metal is able to absorb a large amount of fric- tional heat, but it is unable to free itself of it as fast as it is generated by continued and rapid motion, and the heat finally accumulates to such an extent as to overheat the bearings, and if further continued will so increase and expand the metal as to cause the parts to weld them- selves tightly together. This has frequently been the case with the old style flour-mill spindles, which, after becoming overheated, were found to be so tightly welded in their steps, that they had to be chiseled out. To avoid this we have to keep the revolving parts well lubricated in their bearings, and we have to continue doing this as long as the machinery is kept in motion and in exact proportion to the frictional heat 8 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. evolved and the amount of work we expect to have done. That frictional heat is created by motion and that it vaporizes the lubricant, is shown by the following convincing experiments made many years ago by the celebrated scientist. Count Eumford : He had a metal vessel constructed, with hollow bottom, had a perpendicular shaft fitted to it, and had it rapidly moved by mechanical power. He then filled the vessel with water, and in the course of four hours ascertained that the water, by the absorption of the frictional heat gen- erated, had attained a temperature of 140° F., and in eight hours had reached the boiling- point. After this he found the water to evap- orate and gradually diminish in bulk as long as he kept the shaft in rapid motion. If we now substitute oil for the water, we will find the oil also gradually attain the temperature of its evaporating point, commonly known as flash or fire test," and will find it also to vapor- ize and gradually reduce its bulk until the shaft be stopped moving. This shows conclusively that frictional heat LUBRICATION. 9 accumulates, and that it is disposed of by evapor- ating into space ; this evaporation, though con- tinuous, is invisible. Lubricating, therefore, cannot be simply an interposition of some sub- stance, as a sort of cushion, between the metallic surfaces of machinery in motion. Soft metallic compounds, such as plumbago and some of the finer grades of inert matter, asbestos, mica, sul- phur, lime and soapstone, have been recom- mended and have been tried for that purpose, but it has been found that while all such sub- stances serve well, in small quantities, to fill the interstices which exist in all metallic surfaces of bearings however highly polished, and thereby presenting a smoother bedding for the revolving shaft, they can only absorb as small a portion of the heat created by the friction as the metal itself of which the machinery is constructed. The capacity of plumbago and other inert matter for absorbing and carrying away the fric- tional heat is very low, as they cannot vaporize, while the capacity of oil and fatty matter is very great, and we are, therefore, compelled to use oil and fatty matter for lubricating. If lubricating would be simply a mechanical 10 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. action and a cushion of soft metal or other inert matter, or of oil or fat, would be sufficient to pre- vent the gradual increase and accumulation of frictional heat, then a very limited amount of oil, fat or other inert matter, once applied, should be sufficient. We find, however, that we are obliged to renew the lubricant with regularity and in exact proportion to the frictional heat created by the motion, and in exact proportion to the amount of work we expect to do, and we have to do this as long as the machinery is kept in motion. We have then to ask : What has become of the large quantities of oil which we were compelled to constantly apply to the bearings of the ma- chinery ? As coal and water are constantly consumed to keep the supply of steam up to move the ma- chinery, so is oil constantly consumed to draw the frictional heat away from the bearings. We can see how the coal and water are consumed, but we are unable to see how the oil is con- sumed. We can, however, find silent proof that it is so, and that lubricating is a strictly chemical process and not a mechanical one. We know that metal cannot absorb oil, and LUBRICATION. 11 we allow most liberally for all possible wasting and for transformation of much of it into gummy accumulations around the bearings and in cylin- ders, we must admit that a very limited number of gallons from every barrel of oil used could thus be accounted for, and it remains to be seen what has become of the balance. We well know at what temperature water is evaporated and converted into steam, and after serving its purpose to move the machinery is lost into space. Precisely the same chemical process, the transformation from a fluid into a gaseous state, takes place when oil is used for lubricating. When the oil becomes heated by the frictional heat until its evaporating temperature is reached, it becomes, like steam, a gas, and is lost into space with the heat it has absorbed. This transformation takes place on every bear- ing, although on so small a scale as to be almost entirely imperceptible to our senses. Where the revolving shaft rests heaviest in the hollow of the bearing, there is the line to be drawn where this invisible transformation of the oil from the liquid into the gaseous state takes place. This line is exceedingly small — perhaps no more than 12 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. the thickness of the finest sheet of paper — but on this small line the frictional heat starts to be generated, and being taken up by a few atoms of the oil at a time, is carried with their vapors into space. When from neglect or insufficient lubrication bearings become overheated, and under the rapidly increasing temperature the few particles of oil vaporize too fast and become decomposed under the increased heat, the arising vapors, with a penetrating burning smell, prove to us the slow and mysterious process by which the oil disappears. Lubricating is, therefore, a chemical process, and requires the interposing of such substances between the moving parts of machinery as are qualified to absorb the frictional heat, and vaporized by it, carry it into space. Such quali- fications are best possessed by oil and fatty mat- ter, and we, therefore, use them for lubricating our machinery. A continuous stream of water or the applica- tion of ice will likewise absorb and vaporize with the frictional heat, but not possessing sufficient adhesive body, cannot prevent the gradual abrasion of the metal. III. OILS AND FATS. The next question arises : What are oils and what is fatty matter? What are their character- istics, and from what sources of nature do they come, and how are they obtained ? » Oils are liquid and semi-solid substances, de- rived from the animal and the vegetable king- doms. They are unctuous to the touch, are insoluble in water, and possess the power of supporting combustion with flame. They are obtained from the roots, seeds, fruits and flowers of plants and trees, and from the fat of animals, by extraction, by pressure, by rendering, by boil- ing with water, or by distillation. They are also obtained from the mineral kingdom, from shale, and out of receptacles in the bowels of the earth. Oils are divided into two classes : They are either oxyhydro-carbons, that is, compounds of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, and are known as (13) 14 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. " fixed oils," or they are hydro-carbons, composed of hydrogen and carbon only, and are known as volatile or essential oils. The ''fixed oils" do not sensibly evaporate at ordinary temperature. They stain paper permanently and render it translucent. They do not distil or evaporate at the temperature of boiling water, and they have only a faint odor, like that of the substance from which they have been extracted. The volatile or essential oils evaporate freely. They have a caustic, acrid taste and an aromatic odor, and when distilled with water the}^ pass over at 212° F. All of the "fixed oils" have an attraction more or less powerful for oxygen. Exposed to the atmosphere, some of them become hard and resinous, and they are called " drying oils ;" others thicken only slightly and become sour and rancid, and they are known as non-drying or "fatty oils." The fatty oils in general use for lubricating and in the manufacture of Lubricating Oils are : Vegetable Oils: Olive Oil, Rapeseed Oil or Colza Oil, Cocoanut Oil, Palm Oil and Almond Oil, and many others seldom used for lubricating. OILS AND FATS. 15 Animal Oils : Lard Oil, Tallow Oil, Neatsfoot Oil, Wool Fat, Sperm Oil and the many varieties of Fish Oils. For lubricating purposes these oils, vegetable as well as animal, are largely compounded with mineral oils of all grades and colors and in end- less proportions. Drying Oils, more or less, are: Lindseed Oil, Nut Oil, Poppy Oil, Hempseed Oil, Castor Oil, Cottonseed Oil and Rosin Oil. Some of them are used in the manufacture of greases for lubri- cating purposes, but all of them are unfit for lubricating machinery on accout of their resinous nature. The volatile or essential oils are : The Oils of Amber, Bergamot, Cloves, Lemon, Rose, Orange Flower and many others, all derived from the vegetable kingdom. They are usually more lim- pid and less unctuous than the fatty oils, with which they mix in all proportions. They are more or less soluble in alcohol and ether, and are sparingly soluble in water, to which, however, they impart their peculiar flavor. Nearly all the volatile oils resist saponification, and do not com- bine with the alkaline bases to form soapy com- 16 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. pounds. They are not used for lubricating pur- poses. The Mineral Oils and the Petroleum Oils are Hydro-carbons, and belong to the class of volatile and essential oils. They have little affinity for oxygen or moisture. They will not saponify, and they do not ferment or become rancid. The Mineral Oils are derived from bituminous coal and shale by distillation, and have been entirly superseded by the Petroleum Oils since the utili- zation of the latter. The Mineral Oils obtained by distillation of coal tar, which is the product of the dry de- structive distillation of coal at gas works, are chiefly used for dissolving rubber, in the manu- facture of the beautiful aniline colors, and in making printing inks, varnishes and paints. The Petroleum Oils have been placed by nature within easy reach of mankind, and have been of great use for lighting, heating and lubricating purposes. In their natural state they are found in all forms of consistency, from a solid to a thin oily liquid, and from the darkest to the lighest shades of color. This peculiar product of nature is composed of endless series of Hydro-carbon OILS AND FATS. 17 compounds, from a light, incondensible gas, to a solid body. They are similar in characteristics to the Mineral Oils obtained from coal tar and shale, but differ materially in their chemical composition. 2 IV. OILS AND FATS OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE ORIGIN, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND HOW THEY ARE OBTAINED. Lard and Lard Oil. Lard is the prepared fat of the hog. The fat freed frora membranous matter is cut up into small pieces and boiled with water. It is then carefully separated from the water and melted over a slow fire. Lard is a soft, white, unctuous fat, with a faint odor, is free from rancidity and has a bland taste and a neutral reaction. Its specific gravity is about 0.938, or about 20° to 21° by Baume's hydrometer. Lard is entirely soluble in ether, in benzine, and in disulphide of carbon. It melts at or near 95° F., and when melted it readily unites with oils, wax or resins. Like most animal fats, it consists of stearin, palmitin and olein. Olein, the liquid principle of lard, can be readily separated from the stearin (18) ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 19 and palmitin by subjecting it, at a cold tempera- ture, to strong pressure, when the liquid olein is pressed out, leaving the solid stearin, which is principally used in the manufacture of stearin candles. Exposed long to the air, lard and lard oil will absorb oxygen and become rancid. Lard oil as obtained from lard is a colorless or pale yellowish oily liquid ; it becomes opaque at or below the temperature of 32° F. It has a slightly fatty odor and a bland taste. Its spe- cific gravity is from 0.900 to 0.920, or from 22^ to 24° by Baume's hydrometer. It contains varying proportions of stearin, and is much adulterated with cottonseed oil and refined petroleum neutral oils. Lard oil is sold in the market as " Extra Winter Strained " lard oil when obtained by pressure at a cold tempera- ture ; as " No. 1 " when pressed at a warmer temperature, and as No. 2 " when obtained from impurer lard, and by the rendering pro- cess. The better qualities are often used to adulterate olive oil. Tallow and Tallow Oil. Tallow is obtained from the fat of sheep and 20 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. oxen. It is prepared by cutting the fat into pieces, melting it at moderate heat and straining through coarse cloth. It is sometimes previously purified by boiling with a little water. Mutton fat is of a firmer consistency, and fuses at a higher temperature than fat from other animals. Tallow is very w^hite, sometimes brittle ; it is inodorous, has a bland taste, and is insoluble in w^ater. It consists of about seventy per cent of stearin and palmitin and thirty per cent of olein. It grad- ually dissolves in two parts of benzine, from which it slowly separates in a crystalline form on standing. It melts between 113° and 122° F. and congeals between 98° and 104° F. Its specific gravity lies between 0.937 and 0.952 or 18° to 20° by Baume's hydrometer. Tallow oil, i. e., the percentage of liquid olein in tallow, is obtained by melting the tallow and keeping it in a warm room at a temperature of about 80° to 90° F. for some hours ; the stearin which the tallow contains crystallizes in a granu- lar form, and in this state it is placed in canvas or hair-cloth bags and subjected to hydraulic pressure. The olein is thus separated from the stearin. It still contains stearin in various pro- ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 21 portions, and the oil is of more or less fluidity, and for that reason its specific gravity varies from 0.911 to 0.915, or from 23° to 24° by Baume's hydrometer. Tallow oil is of an almost white color when cold, or, at the most, of a faint yellow tint. It has a slight odor of animal fat. Varying with its quality, it has a flash point of from 475° to 500° F. Neatsfoot Oil and Horse Tallow Oil. Neatsfoot oil is obtained from the feet of cows, sheep and horses. The hoofs are trimmed and boiled in w-ater, when the oil collects on the sur- face and is skimmed ofi^, and is further purified by repeated boiling with water. Neatsfoot oil appears either as a turbid or a limpid liquid of a yellows-brownish color, has a pleasant odor and a sweet taste, and has little tendency to become rancid ; it becomes solid in cold weather from deposition of stearin, has a specific gravity of about 0.912 or 23° Baume at 60° F., and solidi- fies at about 32° to 33° F. Bone fat, bone grease or marrow tallow comes from the shank bones of cows, bullocks and horses. They are either boiled in water, and the 22 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. rising oil skimmed off, or they are subjected to steam heat of from 50 to 60 pounds pressure in digesters for from half an hour to an hour. At the end of the operation the fat is drawn off. Horse tallow, or fat obtained from the render- ing of dead horses, is much like the tallow ob- tained from cows and sheep, and under pressure furnishes an oil which is known in the market as horse tallow oil, and is often sold under the name of ^' Neatsfoot Oil." It has at 60° F. a specific gravity of 0.915 to 0.980, or 22° Baume. Elain or Red Oil. The oil known as elain or red oil gets its name from the dark reddish color it derives from its contact with the hot iron press plates and the high temperature to which it is subjected in its production by the saponification process with lime or sulphuric acid, or by high steam pressure or by distillation, whereby the fat is'decomposed into oleic acid, stearic acid and glycerin. The fatty acids are allowed to solidify, and are pressed between hot iron plates, whereby the Red Oil (liquid olein or elain) is separated from the solid stearin. The latter is used in the manufacture ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 23 of the well-known " Adamantine Candles," and the red oil in the manufacture of soaps and in the compounding of lubricating oils and lubri- cating for carding wool. By the saponification of solid fats by the lime, sulphuric acid or steam process, the fatty acids are set free from their combination with glycerin, and are allowed to solidify, and are pressed. According to the tem- perature, more or less stearin and palmitic acid go into the product, and can be separated by dis- tillation. The oil is often semi-solid, resembling tallow grease ; the distilled varieties are light brown to deep red ; specific gravity at 60° F. is from .899 to .909, or 24° to 25° Baume. SPERMACETI AND FISH OILS. Spermaceti. The cavities in the upper part of the head of the sperm whale contain an oily liquid, which, after the de^th of the animal, concretes into a white, spongy mass, consisting of spermaceti mixed with oil. This mass is removed and allowed to separate by draining or pressure in the cold. Common whale oils and the oils from other cetaceous animals contain also small quan- 24 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. titles of spermaceti, which on standing they slowly deposit. Spermaceti is a concrete, fatty substance, a white, pearly, semi-transparent mass of neutral reaction and crystalline foliaceous texture, friable and somewhat unctuous to the touch, slightly inodorous and insipid ; it is insoluble in water, but soluble in the fixed oils ; its specific gravity is 0.945, or 18° Baume, and it melts at about 122° F. and congeals near 113° F. It is soluble in ether, chloroform, disulphide of carbon, and in boiling alcohol, from which latter, however, it separates in crystalline scales on standing. It is seldom found pure in commerce, but is adul- terated with fixed oils. Continelain acid is the main constituent of spermaceti, and is different from oleic acid. Spermaceti also contains small quantities of stearic acid, myristic and lauro- stearic acids. Pure spermaceti does not produce fatty spots on paper. When old it becomes darker colored and rancid. Different from stearin, spermaceti is not affected by boiling in diluted solution of carbonate of soda. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 25 Sperm Oil xs the limpid liquid separated from the sperma- ceti, the spongy mass in the head of the dead sperm whale. It is a pale, yellowish-colored liquid, with a smell of fishy nature, and will, when exposed to the cold, deposit but little solid matter. It is not liable to become rancid, has no corrosive action on metal, and no tendency to dry and become gummy. It retains its viscosity under influence of heat better than any other oil. Sperm oil is a compound of fatty acids with alcohol radicals, the acids belonging to the oleic acid series. Sulphuric acid gives rise to an in- crease of heat of some 120° F., and produces a yellowish-brown mass, which distinguishes sperm oil from other lish oils. It differs from other fish oils also by its chemical constitution and its low specific gravity, 0.884 at 60° F., 28° to 29° by Baume. It is the lightest of all natural oils. Seal Oil Is obtained from the" blubber of the hooded seal, the barbed seal and the harp seal of the polar regions. The oil is extracted from the blubber the same as from that of the whale, and its prop- 26 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. erties are similar to the whale oil. Its color varies from a light straw to a brown. It is a strongly odorous oil, of a specific gravity of 0.924 to 0.929, or 21° Baume. Whale and Train Oils. These include cod liver oil, tanners cod oil from different fish, menhaden oil, porpoise oil, shark oil and w^hale oil. The whale and train oils are obtained from the blubber of various species of whale, the polar whale, the humpback whale, the com- mon whale. The blubber varies in thickness from 8 to 20 inches around the body of the whale, and after being cut into pieces, is boiled with water for about an hour, to liberate the oil from it. The specific gravity of the oil is from 0.920 to 0.931, at about 60° F., or 20° to 22° Baume. A large amount of oil of similar character as the foregoing fish oils is obtained from endless varieties of the smaller salt and fresh water fishes, which is used in the manufacture of soaps and lubricating oils, and known in the market as " Fish Oils." They are all oxyhydrocarbons and belong to the class of " fixed oils." ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 27 Wool Fat. Wool fat is obtained by the washings of the wool of sheep. It is the fatty substance pro- duced by the absorption of large amounts of alkali with the feeding of the sheep, thereby pro- ducing a secretive matter in the body of the sheep, which is discharged through the skin by transpiration and is deposited as in the wool suint, a quasi-saponified compound of stearic, oleic, and some palmitic acids. Weak alkaline solutions are used to extract this suint from the wool, from which in turn it is obtained by pje- cipitating the alkali with sulphuric acid. The wool fat when first obtained is a cream- like mass, which requires purification and free- ing from moisture. As this is usually accom- plished over an open fire, it imparts to the product a dark color. A considerable amount of wool fat is also obtained from the soapsuds used in the washing process of woolen goods, by precipitating the alkali with sulphuric acid to liberate the fat. Degras. Degras is the fatty matter obtained in the pro- 28 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. cess of chamoising skins in the manufacture of chamois leather. The fermentation produced during the manipulation of the skins with fat or fish oils, train oils, causes the fat or oil to be split into fatty acids and glycerin. About fifty per cent of the fat or oil employed in the process is recovered in the form of a greasy, fatty mass by wringing and pressing it from the skins. This constitutes the best quality of degras. A large amount of fatty mass is still retained in the skins, which is obtained by treating them in a warm solution of potassa, whereby the fatty matter is partially saponified, and is separated from the resulting white bath by treatment with sulphuric acid. An inferior, factitious degras is made from the elain obtained in the manufacture of stearin for candles mixed with train oils and other fatty matter, by agitation with strong decoctions of tan- bark and partial saponification with alkalies and subsequent separation by means of sulphuric acid. Degras contains 80 per cent of fatty acids, 10 per cent of glutinous and extract-like substances, 2 per cent of lime, 0.5 per cent of potassa, be- sides water. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 29 Castor Oil. Castor-oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor-oil plant, Ricinus Communis^ which contain from 50 to 60 per cent oil when separated from the capsules iri which they are enclosed. The seeds are roasted over a slow fire and boiled with water, from which the oil is skimmed off ; later the seeds are subjected to cold or hot pressure, a better quality and of lighter color being obtained by cold pressure than when pressed warm or extracted with sol- vents. Castor-oil is the most viscid of all the fixed oils. By long exposure to the air it be- comes rancid and thick, and is ultimately trans- formed into a yellow mass. It has a mild, finally acrid taste, and a nauseous odor, and it is of a somewhat semi-drying character. Exposed to cold a solid, white crystalline fat (margaritine) separates from the liquid portion, and when cooled to 0° F. it congeals to a yellow, transparent mass, which does not liquefy again until the tem- perature rises to about 18° F. It consists of resin-stearic, oleic and palmitic acids. Its specific gravity is 0.961, or 15° Baume. It is soluble in alcohol and in four volumes of rectified spirit. 30 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. It mixes with fatty oils, but will not mix with mineral oils. Olive Oil. Olive oil is obtained from the fleshy part and the kernels of the fruit of the olive tree of south- ern Europe, Palestine and California. They furnish from thirty to fifty per cent, of oil. The olives are subjected to a gentle pressure, whereby the best qualities of olive oil are obtained. The resulting cake is treated with hot water, from which an inferior oil is skimmed off. Most of the olive oil of commerce is obtained by allowing the olives to ferment in heaps, and then subjecting them to heavy pressure. The re- maining cake or mark is boiled with water, and more oil is obtained of a darker yellowish or brownish-green color. Olive oil is also obtained by extraction from the crushed and dried pulp with hydrocarbon solvents. Olive oil is of a pale, greenish-yellow color, with scarcely any smell or taste, except a sweetish, nutty flavor. Its specific gravity is from 0.915 to 0.920 at 60° F., or 23° Baume. Olive oil mixes with disulphideof carbon, benzol and chloroform in all proportions. When cooled down it deposits ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 31 stearin and solidifies at 25° F. Its boiling-point is about 600^ F. Sunflower Oil. Sunflower oil is obtained from the seeds of the sunflower, especially from the Black Sea regions. The seeds are roasted and crushed, and the pulp separated from the wood-like shells. They con- tain from twenty-eight to thirty per cent of oil. The oil obtained by cold pressure is. of a clear yellow color, nearly odorless, and of a pleasant, mild taste. Its specific gravity at 60° F. is about 0.9260, or 21^ Baurae. It thickens in the cold and solidifies at 60° F. to a white, yellowish mass. It is a very slightly drying oil, and is mostly composed of oleic, stearic and palmitic acids. Sesame or Gingelly Oil. Obtained from the seeds of Sesamum Indicum of India and from the seeds of the plant culti- vated in southern Europe and the Orient. The seeds furnish from 40 to 50 per cent of oil of a bright yellowish color and agreeably sweet taste. It is much used as a substitute and adul- terant of olive oil, and is very similar to it in its 32 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. characteristics. Its specific gravity at 60° F. is 0.9235, or 22° Baumd. Cottonseed Oil. Cottonseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the cotton plant. The seeds contain from fifteen to twenty per cent, of oil, a thickish liquid of a straw- yellow color, with nut-like taste and smell. It is of a semi-drying character, consists of palmitin and olein, and is from twenty-eight to thirty times less fluid than water. Like all the oils obtained from seeds, the latter are first slightly roasted and separated from their outside shells by mechanical power, and the oil is secured by pressure or by extraction with solvents. The specific gravity of cottonseed oil is 0.9306 at 60° F., or 20° Baume. It separates palmitin and stearin at about 55° F., and solidifies at about 40° F. Rapeseed or Colza Oil. Rape or colza oil is produced from rapeseed, turnips, and other species of brassia. It is ob- tained from the seeds by cold and hot pressure, and they yield from thirty to forty-five per cent, of oil. The first pressings are known under the ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 33 name of colza oil ; the second pressings are usually sold as rapeseed oil. Colza oil has a pale yellow color. Rapeseed oil a greenish-brown color. They are limpid oils, with a peculiar and characteristic odor, and an unpleasant and harsh taste. Exposed to the air, the oil becomes more viscid. Its specific gravity at 60° F. ranges from 0.913 to 0.915, or 23° Baume. It is a semi-drying and gumming oil. Hempseed Oil. Hempseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the Cannabis Indica plant. The seeds when crushed have a peculiar odor, and yield by pressure or extraction from thirty to thirty-five per cent of an oil of a greenish-yellow color. The oil re- mains fluid to 10° F., and thickens w^hen cooled down to 5° F., to a brownish-yellow mass. Its specific gravity is 0.9276, or 21° Baume, at 60° F., and about 0.9240 at 70° F. The oil consists of lineolic acid, oleic acid and palmitin and stearic acids. It is somewhat less drying than linseed oil. Palm Oil and Cocoanut Oil. Palm oil is obtained from the fruit of the oil 3 34 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. palm and the cocoanut palm of tropical Africa, and is known as palm fat, palm butter or palm oil. The oily pulp of the fruit of the oil palm, after being bruised and boiled in water, yields an oil which, when fresh, has a pleasant odor of violets, and assumes in the cold the consistency of butter of an orange-yellow to a dirty, reddish color. From the dried kernels of the cocoanut (copra) a fixed oil is extracted, which is the cocoanut oil of commerce. The kernels are ground, and the resulting paste is boiled with water. The paste is then submitted to high pressure, whereby a large quantity of milky juice is obtained. This is boiled, and when the oil separates from the water it is skimmed off. Palm oil or palm butter consists chiefly of stearin and palmitin^ both of which have a com- paratively high fusing point of about 115° to 120° F., and are preponderate in the solid fat, while olein, which is fluid at 32° F., is the chief constituent of the oil. The specific gravity is 0.968, or 15° Baum^. Cocoanut oil is of a bright white color. Its specific gravity is .952, or 17° Baume. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 35 Almond Oil. Almond oil is obtained from the kernels of bitter and sweet almonds, the seeds of the almond plant. The sweet almonds contain more fatty oil than the bitter almonds. The almonds con- tain from forty-five to fifty-five per cent of oil. For pressing the bitter and sweet almonds are mixed. The oil obtained is a thick liquid, little affected by cold, possesses a purely oleaginous taste and solidifies at 5° F. to a buttery mass. Almond oil is more limpid than olive oil and is thicker than poppyseed oil. It consists almost of pure olein. Its specific gravity is about 0.917 or 23° Baume. Poppyseed Oil. Poppyseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the poppyflower by cold and by warm pressure. It is imported from India and the plant is largely cultivated in France and Southern Europe. The seeds yield about forty-seven to fifty-five per cent of oil of a pale-yellow to a gold-yellow color. It is a clear, limpid oil, with an agreeable taste and a peculiar, slight odor, somewhat like olive oil. Its specific gravity at about 60° F. is 0.9250 or 21° Baume. It remains liquid until cooled down 36 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. to 0° F. when it forms a thick, whitish mass. Once solidified by cold, it remains solid to about 30° F., when it begins rapidly to become liquid again. Poppyseed oil is almost as quick drying as linseed oil, and is composed of linolein, oleic, stearic and palmitic acids. Corn Oil. Corn oil is obtained from the kernels of the corn (maize) plant, and is almost entirely found in the shells of the kernels. To separate the shells from the farinaceous part of the kernels, and to make the latter better avail- able for the mashing process, the kernels are first subjected to the malting process. They are then crushed and the shells separated from the fari- naceous part by a sifting or centrifugal operation, whereby the parts of lighter specific gravity are easily separated from the heavier ones, and thereby nearly eighty per cent of cornmeal, almost entirely free from oily matter, is obtained. Otherwise the oily matter would greatly interfere with the fermentation of the mash, and impart an unpleasant flavor to the alcohol manufactured therefrom. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, 37 The hulls thus separated are subjected to heavy pressure, and about fifteen per cent of pure corn oil obtained. Corn oil is of a light to a gold-yellow color, and has a peculiar, agreeable odor. It is a thickish liquid of 0.9215, or 22° Baurn^ at 60° F. It is composed of oleic, stearic and palmitic acids, with a small percentage of a volatile oil, and solidifies at about 50° to 60° F. to a quite solid, white mass. It is used as a wool oil, for the manu- facture of soaps, and in the manufacture of lubri- cating oils. Peanut Oil. Peanut oil is obtained from the kernels of the peanut. They yield by pressure from thirty to forty per cent of an oil of a light yellowish, almost white, color, and of an agreeable, particu- larly nutty, taste and odor. When obtained by extraction the seeds furnish from forty to fifty per cent of oil. The specific gravity is 0.915, or 23° Baum^, at 60° F. The older and last pressed oils have at 60° F. a specific gravity of 0.9202, or 22° Baume. The oil is more limpid than olive oil, which it resembles much. It is a slightly drying oil. It contains palmitin, olein, stearin 38 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. and archidic acids the latter being peculiar to this oil. Mustardseed Oil. Mustardseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the mustard plant. The seeds yield by pressure or extraction about thirty per cent of oil of dark yellow-brownish color, of a mild taste, and when obtained by pressure, with a very slight odor of mustard. Its specific gravity at 60° F, is 0.917, or 23° Baum^. It solidifies at about 18° F., and is composed of stearic, palmitic and a peculiar oleic acid called mustardseed acid. Nigerseed Oil Is obtained from the seeds of guizotia. It has a pale yellow color, little odor and a sweet taste. Is more limpid than rapeseed oil and of a semi- drying character. Its specific gravity is 0.924, or 22° Baum6. Linseed Oil. Linseed oil is a drying fixed oil obtained from flaxseed, which yield about thirty-four per cent of oil. The seeds are roasted before being pressed or extracted, and furnish a light colored oil of best quality under cold pressure. When pressed ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 39 warm or obtained by extraction with solvents it is more highly colored and more acid, has a brownish-yellow color, a disagreeable odor, a nau- seous taste, and a neutral reaction. Its specific gravity is 0.932 to 0.936, or 20° Baume. It boils at 600° F., does not congeal at 0° F., and dries and solidifies on exposure to the air and acquires a strong odor and taste. The drying property of linseed oil resides in a constituent called '^linolein," to distinguish it from the olein of the non-drying oils. Spread out in thin layers and exposed to the air it be- comes thicker and resinous, and increases as much as twelve per cent of its weight, owing to the formation of linoxyn by atmospheric oxida- tion. Boiled with litharge, red lead, lead acetate, manganese dioxid or borate and other chemicals, so-called dryers, it absorbs oxygen still more rap- idly, and increases to some fourteen per cent in weight. Its acrimony is due to the presence of a small proportion of an acrid oleoresin. It is much adulterated with other oils when used in the manufacture of printer's ink. 40 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Rosin, Rosin Oil and Turpentine. Rosin is obtained by distillation of the crude turpentine obtained from several species of pine and fir trees, especially the pine trees of the States of North and South Carolina and Georgia. The crude turpentine resin is distilled with water, and yields about one-fourth of spirits of turpentine, the remainder being the common rosin of commerce. Rosin is a semi-transparent solid and brittle product of smooth and shining fracture of a yellowish-brown, sometimes almost black, color. It has a somewhat acrid and bitter taste, and is insoluble in, and rather heavier than, water. Rosin melts at about 275° F., and is com- pletely liquid at 306° F. It is soluble in the fixed and in the volatile oils. Rosin distilled by itself yields rosin oil. The first distillate below 674° F. is the lighter, at a specific gravity of about .987, or 12° Baume, at 60° F., and that over 675° F. being the sec- ond and heavier oil at a specific gravity of about .981 to .985, or 12° Baum^, 60° F. Rosin oil readily resinifies by absorption of oxygen, and is much used as an adulterant of linseed oil and in ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 41 the manufacture of printer's inks. Rosin oil consists of sylvic and pinic acids. When dis- tilled with superheated steam, rosin yields ben- zol and toluol. Oil of turpentine is also obtained by distilla- tion of the cones of the pine trees. Its specific gravity is about 0.903 at 60° F., or 25° Baumd. Pine tar is obtained by charring the wood of pine and other coniferous trees. Deodorized rosin oil is that freed from the spirits " by fractional distillation. Rosin or pine oil (kidney oil) is a somewhat thickish fluid of a brownish-yellow color, aro- matic, turpentine-like odor and taste. Its spe- cific gravity is about 0.985 at 60° F., or 12° Baume. At that temperature it is about ten times thicker than water, becomes whitish turbid at about 16° below Zero F., and solidifies at about 20° below Zero F. It is a slow-drying, gummy oil. Glycerin. Glycerin, also called the sweet spirit of the fatty oils and fats, is a trihydric alcohol, and is not found readily formed in the fatty matter. All fats and fatty oils are considered glycerides, 42 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. that is, compositions of fatty acids with a weak base called glyceryle. By the process of hot saponification the stronger alkaline bases unite with the fatty acids to form soapy compounds, thereby separating and setting the weaker base, glycerin," free, and from ten to twelve per cent of it is thus obtained. Glycerin is also obtained from fatty matter by the action of superheated steam. Under cold treatment of fatty matter with alka- line bases, the latter unite with the fatty acids and form oleites, stearates and palmitates of soda or potassa, but no glycerin. Glycerin is a water-white, viscid liquid. It has no odor, but a very sweet taste. It boils at 550° F., is not volatile at ordinary temperature, but will vaporize at 212° F. When mixed and boiled with water it readily absorbs water from the air, and will mix with water in all propor- tions. It is miscible with alcohol in all propor- tions, but is insoluble in petroleum and benzine. A mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid forms with it " nitro-glycerin," a most powerful explosive. V. CLARIFYING, REFINING AND BLEACHING OILS AND FATS. The clarifymg and bleaching process must necessarily vary, as the oils may be more or less colored or mixed with impurities than others. The animal oils and fats require bleaching or clarifying only when obtained from impure material or offal. The vegetable oils, however, are generally more or less colored and permeated with vegetable and albuminous matter. In many cases it will suffice to blow hot dry air of a temperature of from 120° to 130° F. through the oil to remove the undesirable color and im- purities. Others may be bleached by exposure to the sunlight in bright, shallow vessels, or by agitating the oil mixed with animal charcoal, at a temperature of about 120° F., and then filter- ing it. In many cases, however, one or the other of the following processes may be required : Oils are clarified by the admixture of from (43) . 44 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. five to ten per cent of fuller's earth, stirring well at a temperature of 140° to 150° F. The mixture is then allowed to rest and settle. The fuller's earth carries down with it all impurities- in suspension, and the sediment can be treated with benzine to recover any oil remaining mixed with the fuller's earth. Oils are also refined by treatment with sul- phuric acid, which destroys all extraneous vege- table matter. The oil is heated to about 110° to 115° F., and from one to two per cent of sul- phuric acid, usually previously diluted with an equal proportion of water, is added, with constant agitation for about half an hour. It is then allowed to rest and settle for about twenty-four hours. From twelve to fifteen gallons of water, heated to about 150° F., to every twenty gallons of oil, is then stirred with the oil and the oil allowed to rest and settle for a few days, when it is drawn off and washed with water to remove all traces of acid. Oils and fats, especially cottonseed oil, are also refined wdtli caustic soda, which, like acid, de- stroys all extraneous vegetable, mucilaginous and resinous matter, and all acidity in the oil. CLARIFYING, REFINING AND BLEACHING. 45 A caustic lye of from fifteen to twenty degrees Baume is used for cottonseed oil, from eight to twelve degrees for most other fatty oils, and a lye from five to six degrees strength is generally found sufficient for cocoanut and like oils, and often a lye of from one-half to one per cent strength only will be sufficient for the purpose. Oils containing much of free fatty acids can be effectively treated with weak solutions of caustic or carbonate of soda, or with milk of lime or magnesia, and the oil filtered from the lime and magnesia soap thereby formed. Strong solution of chloride of zinc, from one to two per cent of the oil, is also used. It de- stroys and precipitates all albuminous and vege- table matter suspended, without injury to the oil, but it is more expensive than sulphuric acid. It is advisable to avoid treating oils to be bleached with too large proportions of chemicals at once, as repeating the operation with smaller proportions will generally secure better results. Oils can be bleached and thereby also deodor- ized with chlorine, a powerful bleaching agent. The oil is heated to a temperature of about 140° to 150° F., and a solution of chloride of 46 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. lime, ''bleaching powder," in the proportion of about one pound to a thousand pounds of oil, is mixed with the oil. Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid is then added in about twice the quantity of the bleaching powder used, and the oil is thor- oughly agitated. It is then allowed to settle and the oil or fat is drawn off. Chloride of potassa or peroxide of manganese, with hydro- chloric acid, can also be used in the same man- ner as the chloride of lime. Oil can also be deodorized by shaking 1,000 parts of it with 120 parts of water, holding in solution 3 parts of permanganate of potassa, keep- ing it warm for some hours, and then filter. For bleaching lard oil, palm oil, and similar oils and fats, the bichromate of potassa process is much used. The oil or fat is heated to a temperature of about 130^ to 140° F., and a concentrated solution of bichromate of potassa in the propor- tion of about 10 to 12 pounds of the bichromate to a thousand pounds of the oil or fat is added and thoroughly stirred into the oil. Hydrochloric acid in the proportion of from two to three per cent of the oil is then added, and the whole well stirred for from ten to fifteen minutes. The oil. CLARIFYING, REFINING AND BLEACHING. 47 which at once assumes- a reddish-green color, soon changes to a pale-green one. Boiling water is then added, and the agitation continued for a few minutes more, or live steam is blown through the oil and then allowed to settle. The oil is then drawn off and washed with water to remove all traces of acid. Degras is bleached and deodorized in the fol- lowing manner. The degras is melted by heat- ing with live steam and thoroughly agitated by paddling or blowing with air. A solution of bichromate of potassa in water — one pound or more of bichromate of potassa for a hundred pounds of degras — is added, and after agitating for a few minutes a solution of two pounds of sul- phuric acid, previously diluted with six pounds of water, is poured in. Next three pounds of black oxide of manganese are added and agitated for half or three quarters of an hour. The blower is then turned off and the acid and water allowed to separate, and are drawn off from underneath the fat. The grease is now sprayed with hot water, which is again allowed to settle, and is drawn off. This is repeated until all sour taste is removed. When cold, stir thoroughly and allow still adhering water to run off. 48 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Tallow and other fat can be cleaned and bleached by boiling some fifty pounds of the fat with about five to ten pounds of alum dissolved in about ten gallons of water for about an hour, constantly stirring and skimming. Draw off the clear fat and add one pound of sulphuric acid diluted with three pounds of water. Boil and add some eight ounces of bichromate of potassa ; continue boiling, and if necessary add a little more acid ; then allow to settle, draw ofi* and wash with boiling water ; finall}^ spray with a little cold water to accelerate the clearing of the fat. To clean and bleach and deodorize train oil, boil with salt water, consisting of about one- fourth its weight of chlornatrium (salt), and stir briskly for about half an hour ; then allow to settle, draw off the oil and mix with a decoction of nutgalls. After briskly stirring for about fif- teen minutes or so, add about four ounces aqua fortis (nitric acid) to every hundred pounds of the oil ; stir for a little while longer and allow to settle ; draw off the clear oil and wash with water. Grease is bleached by melting and agitating with about three per cent 'of sulphuric acid and CLARIFYING, REFINING AND BLEACHING. 49 two per cent of a saturated aqueous solution of bisulphite of soda. The mixture is then run into a narrow cylindrical vessel and violently agitated with dry steam for half an hour, and is then run off and allowed to cool slowly, and while still fluid the fat is drawn off without disturbing the sediment. It is again agitated with steam and about 20 per cent water and left standing to separate and harden. 4 VI. MINERAL OILS. These oils are obtained by distillation from Scotch shale, a black, somewhat flaky mass of homogeneous structure, with an irregular, glossy surface. It is usually soft enough to be cut, and when ignited burns with a flame. The better qualities yield from thirty to thirty-three per cent of oil ; the poorer grades are stony and slate-like and produce little oil. When submitted to distillation in large vertical stills, an uncondensable gas and water containing a large proportion of ammonia first come over ; then a crude oil of a thickish dark reddish- brown, with a peculiar odor and of a specific gravity of from 0.865 to 0.890, or 32° to 27° Baume, is obtained. This is again subjected to distillation, and naphtha and light colored oil, which gradually becomes darker, is obtained. Solid paraffine begins to show itself, followed by (50) MINERAL OILS. 51 a thick, brown oil, and finally coke is left in the still. The oil is treated with sulphuric acid and with a solution of caustic soda. When again distilled the oil yields a light spirit known as green naphtha, a light oil known as " second run oil," and a dark-color«d, heavy oil, known as green oil," and coke is left as residuum in the still. The naphtha is treated with sulphuric acid and solution of caustic soda, and is separated into several grades of illuminating oil. The "green oil" is subjected to a freezing temperature, and paraffin e wax is obtained from it by pressure. The solid paraffine wax obtained is about twelve to fifteen per cent. The remain- ing oil is known as paraffine oil," and was formerly used in the manufacture of lubricating oils. The specific gravity of the light oils from shale is about 0.730 to 0.760 ; that of the heavier oils is about .810 to .820. The oil from the paraffine pressings has a specific gravity of about 0.872 or about 30^ Baume. Shale m\ is tiV^ated with a small proportion of sulphuric acid and caustic soda, about one per 52 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. cent, and redistilled, yielding the following grades of illuminating oils : No. 1, best, with a specific gravity of 0.800 and 100° F. flash point. No. 2, first quality, with a specific gravity of 0.810 and 103° F., flash point. No. 3, second quality, with a specific gravity of 0.815 and 120° F., flash point. No. 4, lighthouse oil, with a specific gravity of 0.820 and 160° F., flash point. No. 5, marine sperm oil, with a specific gravity of 0.830 and 230° F., flash point. A fuel oil is left of about 0.840 specific gravity. Steam is used in the still and controls the dis- tillation ; it lowers the temperature of the dis- tillate and facilitates the passing of the vapors from the still. The mineral oils have been entirely super- seded by the petroleum oils since the discovery and utilization of the latter. Tar Oils. Tar oils are obtained from tar, being the result of the destructive distillation of wood and bitu- minous coal. MINERAL OILS. 53 Wood is distilled in iron retorts and in milers, to obtain thereby the resulting charcoal. The lighter products of the distillation are wood alco- hol, naphtha and pyrolignic acid, the latter being used in the manufacture of acetic acid and other acetate products. The tar obtained b}^ the de- structive distillation of wood is re-distilled and wood-tar oil is obtained, from which picric acid is made by treatment of the oit with nitric acidv The oil is also used in the manufacture of leather oils, medicinal soaps and ointments. Creosote, another product obtained by the distillation of wood-tar, is in its chemical composition very dif- ferent from the carbolic acid, often misnamed creosote, obtained by the distillation of tar from the destructive distillation of bituminous coal at the gas-works. By the distillation of tar from the gas-works we obtain benzol and coal-tar oil. This benzol is a product of far different chemical composition than the benzine obtained from petroleum, al- though often confounded with it. Benzol, when treated with nitric acid, is converted into nitro- benzol (or myrbane oil), which has a strong odor, like oil of bitter almonds. This oil is much used 54 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. in perfumery and for scenting soaps and greases, for lubricating, ajid for deblooming petroleum oils. When acted npon wi^ nascent hydrogen this nitro-benzol or myrbane oil is converted into anilin oil, from which the many beautiful anilin colors are made by the use of powerful oxidizing agents. Coal-tar oil, too, contains large amounts of anilin oil, which is separated from it by agita- tion with strong mineral acids, which combine with the anilin oils. Coal-tar is also used in the manufacture of coal-tar paints for painting roofs, smokestacks and iron structures. The product left in the still is the well known asphaltum, extensively used in roofing and for paving purposes. \ yii. PETROLEUM OILS. Wherever and however nature carries on its mysterious process of producing the various grades of petroleum found all over the globe, the lighter and the heavier grades, the brighter and the darker colored ones, all are found in shallow places, above ground or near the suface, or deep down in the bowels of the earth, those found low- est being generally of lighter consistency than those found on or nearer to the surface. They are all hydrocarbon, compounds of like character- istics, differing only in their specific gravity, in their color, odor or in cleanliness. The deposits found above ground or near the surface, which are almost solid or are liquids of heavy specific grav- ity, appear to be the result of evaporation of their lighter constituents or of a gigantic filtering pro- cess, by which the liquid constituents have per- colated to a lower stratum, leaving the heaviest (55) 56 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. ones retained where they are found in an upper stratum or on the surface, as Ozokerite wax. The petroleum oils of Pennsylvania, in Ve- nango, Clarion and Butler counties, in War- ren and McKean counties, vary in color from light amber-yellow to dark black, and vary in specific gravity from 30° to 55° Baume ; from thick lubricating oils to nearly pure benzine. Franklin county oils are celebrated for their fine bright, dark ruby color, their fine lubricating quality and excellent cold test, which makes them valuable as lubricants on refrigerator machinery. The Ohio crude oils, containing sulphur and having an unpleasant sulphurous odor, are desul- phurized during the process of distillation by plac- ing a desulphurizing chamber between the retort and the cooler. This chamber is separately heated and is filled with iron oxide^ copper sulphate, por- ous lime coke, or other desulphurizing agents, and hot air can be driven through the oil. When a temp'erature of 130° F. is attained in the desul- phurizing chamber, the still is fired and the heat- ing of the chamber is increased to prevent the passing vapors of the oil from condensing in the chamber before passing through the cooler. In- PETROLEUM OILS. 57 troducing nascent hydrogen into the still or the desulphurizing chamber, and its vapors mingling with those of the distilling oil, improves the color and odor of the distillate and changes the pro- duct into one of lighter gravity and purer odor. Aluminium chloride also is used to desulphurize Ohio petroleum. One hundred parts of the oil are heated and while agitated, 0.8 part of alumin- ium chloride is gradually added, whereby a little muriatic acid and much sulphureted hydrogen are evolved. When no more gas is eliminated, the oil is allowed to cool and is drawn off from over the aluminium residuum and washed with water and soda lye, and is distilled with the addition of a little lime. In order to enhance the value of the various forms of petroleum and to make them adapted and available for their manifold uses in the market, they are either purified, condensed or distilled. Some require only straining or settling and exposure to the atmosphere, for a period of time, to vaporize all traces of inflammable, light hydrocarbon compounds and to settle all gritty matter and impurities, to make them serviceable for lubricating purposes. Others are condensed 58 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. and the lighter vapors driven off and settling of gritty impurities is effected by application of steam heat. The greater bulk, however, is subjected to distillation, in order to separate the different grades of hydrocarbon compounds from each other and thus obtain various useful products. Distillation of Petroleum. When crude petroleum is subjected to distilla- tion and the uncondensable gases and moisture have gone over, a series of light hydrocarbon compounds known as '^benzine" are first ob- tained, about 15 per cent. Then a number of grades of burning oil, known as " distillates," come over and are collected separately. They are treated and bleached and freed from adhering scorched impurities with sulphuric acid and solutions of caustic soda. From 50 to 60 per cent of these oils is obtained and the remaining residuum oil forms the basis for the petroleum lubricating oils. The lighter products of the distillation, the crude benzine, are subjected to redistillation with steam heat and are separated to their respective degrees of specific gravity and characteristics re- PETROLEUM OILS. 59 quired to the manifold demands for their use. They are purified, deodorized and bleached by treatment with chemicals and are sold as naptha, gaso34ne, benzine, and under many fancy names. The " distillates," which are next obtained, are likewise purified and bleached by treatment with sulphuric acid and solution of caustic soda and by exposure in bright and shallow tanks to the bleaching influence of sunlight. Numerous grades of distillates are produced by being care- fully separated from each other during distilla- tion. The proceeds of distillation at specific gravities are the benzine series, from the highest gravity (the first distillate obtained) down to about 56° to 58°, standard white or export oil of 110° F. flash or 70° Abel test, from 56° to 54° and then from 42° to 39°. Water white oil, 120° flash or 150° fire test, the legal test of Ohio and now the gener- ally accepted test of most states, from 54° to 46°, or until the distillate begins to show color. Prime white oil, 150° fire test, from 46° to 42°, and headlight oil, 175° fire test, from 46° to 39°. In case 110° standard white and 175° head- light oils are not desired, there will be but two 60 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. separations between 56° and 39°, viz., 150° water-white oil and 150° prime white oil, the necessary fire test being obtained by driving off the lighter vapors by redistillation in a steam still, or by steaming and spraying in an agitator or open tank, but preferably in a steam still, in which case what is known as a Straight Run " (distillate from 58° to 46°) water-white oil, the requirement of almost any State law as to flash or fire test, can be made. These gravity separa- tions are not absolute, but flexible within a few degrees, dependent upon the nature of the crude oil used and the grade of oil desired. The continued distillations from 39° down to 29° constitute the neutral distillates, and are divided by separation into what is known as 300° F. or mineral seal oil and 34° to 36° neutrals, or by redistillation into a small percentage of prime white or headlight, 300° or mineral seal, 34° to 36° neutral, and a residual oil known as " Spin- dle Oil," of 30° to 32° Baume, possessing con- siderable viscosity. If the distillation from the crude still is carried from 29° to 20° and the product afterwards re- distilled, the residual of the second distillation PETROLEUM OILS. 61 will be the commercial red oils of high viscosity and gravity of from 30° to 23°. The residual oil in the crude still at 24° to 19° is usually pumped hot into a tar-still and the distillation continued down to coke, producing the paraffine distillates hereafter to be described. The carbonaceous residuum or coke left in the still is used in the manufacture of carbons for electric lighting. The neutral oils are purified and bleached by treatment with sulphuric acid and solution of caustic soda. They are deodorized by air-blast and their fluorescence skillfully removed with chemicals. They are largely used for adulterat- ing the more costly animal and vegetable " fatty oils." The crude paraffine oils hold crystalline paraf- fine wax in suspension, produced by the disin- tegration of hydrocarbon compounds during the process of distillation. It is extracted from the oil by freezing and pressure, and is purified by treatment with sulpuric acid and caustic soda while being kept in a liquid state by heat. It is bleached with benzine and then cast into solid blocks. 62 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Paraffine wax is largely used in waterproofing fabrics, for insulating and in the manufacture of candles and matches, and numerous other manu- factures. The paraffine oil left after separation from the wax is treated with acid and solution of caustic soda and is filtered through animal char- coal. It is used for lubricating and is known as ''Golden Machine Oil." The paraffine oils of varied degrees of specific gravity form the basis for many engine lubricating oils and are compounded with fatty oils in endless proportions. In order to make the residuum oil left in the still, after distilling off the burning oils, directly useful for the purpose of lubricating engine cylin- ders, the oil is put into tall vessels, surrounded by steam, and the impurities, produced by the scorching influence on the oil against the heated bottom and sides of the still during the process of distillation, are allowed to settle. This kind of residual is sold under the name of " Steam Re- fined Cylinder Oil." Crude oil of proper character will also produce a good cylinder oil by introducing steam during distillation in the bottom of the still, sufficient to prevent scorching or carbonizing by running PETROLEUM OILS. 63 down to 23° to 27° in the still. The lower the gravity the higher the fire test. If run slowly and carefully and strained while hot, a second steaming and settling will not be necessary to produce a good steam refined cylinder oil. Crude oil not suited for cylinder oil produces a black lubricating oil or ''West Virginia oil," as it is sometimes erroneously called. Residuum oil is also filtered, while hot, through animal charcoal, to give it a brighter color and deprive it of all charred impurities held in sus- pension. As such it is known in the market as ^'filtered cylinder stock." Repeated filtration produces the products well known under the names of " vaseline," " cosmoline," " petrolatum " and many other fancy names. They are all com- pounds of paraffine wax in an amorphous state, to which the original crystalline wax of the resi- duum oil has been converted by chemical action during the repeated filtering through animal char- coal. Petroleum Oils for Lubricating. Petroleum oils for lubricating should have a flash point above 300° F. On general principles, the most fluid oil that will stay in place should 64 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. be used ; the oil that possesses the greatest ad- hesion and the least cohesion is the best. These conditions are possessed first by the petroleum oils and second by sperm oil, neatsfoot oil, and lard oil. For light pressure and high speed machinery, mineral oils of a specific gravity of 30° Baume and 350° F. flash point, mixed with sperm oil, olive oil or rape oil, should be used. For ordin- ary machinery, oil of a specific gravity of 25° to 29° Baume, with a flash point of 350° to 400° F., mixed with lard oil, whale oil, neatsfoot, tallow, or with vegetable oils, should be used. For use on spindles in cotton mills, oils of 350° F. are quite safe, and the flash for cylinder oil should not be below 500° F. For gas engines and gasoHne engines, a pure hydrocarbon oil, of high vaporizing point, about 260° F., a flash point of 430° F. and a fire test of 550° F., should be considered best. A compound of lard oil and petroleum burning oil, used in lanterns as signal oil, should not con- tain less than 40 per cent of prime lard oil and have a flashing point not below 200° F., and a burning point or fire test not above 300° F. PETROLEUM OILS. 65 Deb looming Petroleum Oils. For adulterating animal or vegetable fatty oils with petroleum, neutral oils are debloomed, which means freeing them from their fluorescent appear- ance, by refining them with chromic acid, or more readily as follows : The oil is heated to about 140° to 160° F., and nitro-naphthaline, binitro-benzol or binitro-toluol, known as myrbane oil, is added and well stirred into the oil in proportions of about three ounces to from twenty to twenty-five gallons of oil with a slight bloom, and from fifteen to twenty ounces for oil with heavier bloom. There is thereby no material influence exerted on the oil and no ten- dency of the bloom to reappear remains. For test, boil one part of the oil with three parts of a ten per cent solution of potassium hydrate in alcohol for one or two minutes. If either of the nitro-compounds is present, a blood or vio>et-red coloration will be produced. A pure oil is changed by this test to a yellow color only. Deodorizing Petrol Oil. Kerosene oil and benzine can be deodorized from their bad odor as follows : 5 66 FRICTION, I.UBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. The kerosene oil is mixed with chloride of zinc and then poured into a vessel which contains burnt lime, and after stirring well, is left standing for some time, to settle, when the pure kerosene is drawn off. The benzine is mixed and well stirred with a mixture composed of alkali manganese oxide, some water and sulphuric acid. After some twenty-four hours' standing the benzine is drawn off again, treated with permanganate and soda in water. Benzine and kerosene oil can also be deodor- ized and bleached, and their specific gravities im- proved, by a treatment with nascent or fixed hydrogen gas. One per cent of amyl acetate will also deodorize petroleum oils, VIII. MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICATING OILS. The manufacture or compounding of lubri- cants is manifold. For cylinder oils, mineral or petroleum oils of a specific gravity of about 27° Baum^ and a fire test of about 650° F., either alone or with additions of from one to ten or fifteen per cent of animal or vegetable oils, are used. The fatty oils that such lubricants are generally compounded with are lard oil, neatsfoot oil, tallow oil, linseed oil, cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil, or degras. For heavy pressure and low-speed ma^chinery, lard, tallow and other compounded greases, either by themselves or mixed with graphite (plumbago), mica and soapstone (talc), are used. On account of their great propensity for ab- sorbing oxygen, the fatty oils are now seldom used alone for lubricating, but are more or less compounded with petroleum oils. The viscosity (67) 68 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. or lubricating power of spindle oils and red oils depends on the amount of amorphous paraffine wax they hold in suspension, which, however, loses much of its consistency under the influence of frictional heat. To give petroleum oils a viscous consistency they are often compounded with proportions of oleate of lead (lead plaster) dissolved in the oil while heated to from 140° to 160° F. One to two per cent of unvulcanized caoutchouc or rub- ber are also often dissolved in the oil, heated and stirred together until thoroughly diffused. Soap in various proportions and thoroughly dried is also compounded in. petroleum lubricating oils by heating and stirring until fully dissolved and diffused and the oil has become perfectly bright and clear. Four ounces of soap to a gallon of oil will cause it to gelatinize at 60° F., and one pound of soap to the gallon will convert it into grease. For cylinder oil, steam refined residuum stock or medium filtered cylinder stock is heated to about 130° to 140° F. and stirred or blown until free from moisture and scum, and from one to five gallons, or even more, of tallow oil, lard oil^ MANUFACTUKE OF LUBRICATING OILS. 69 neatsfoot oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, or fish oil added to each barrel of stock. To give common filtered stock a better cold test for winter use, paraffine oil or red oil, of 28^ to 30° Baum^ is added in the proportion of about five gallons, more or less, to a barrel of stock. Degras (woolfat) is also used in the compound- ing of this kind of cylinder oils, in the proportion of from one to three gallons to a barrel of filtered stock. The degras should be previously heated and all arising scum removed before mixing with the cylinder stock. Castorbean oil, well heated together with yellow lard grease, and combined with well heated cylin- der stock, is compounded for cylinder lubricating oils. For engine and machinery oil, paraffine, spindle or red oils of a gravity from 28° to 33° Baume, are compounded and well stirred together with a few gallons of filtered stock tso improve the viscosity of the lighter petroleum oils. The compounding of petroleum with fatty oils, for engine and machinery lubricating purposes, should always be conducted at a temperature of about 140° to 160° F. and with a thorough mix- 70 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. ing, else the oils, being only a mechanical, and and not a chemical, mixture, when resting will separrate from each other, on account of their dif- ferences in specific gravity. This explains the fact that such compounded oil, when imperfectly mixed, when kept in tanks and gradually drawn off by the faucet placed near the bottom, appear at first to be of a satisfactory consistency, but drawing towards the end are complained of as being too thin and deficient in body, the oil in the course of time having separated and the lighter oil having gradually risen to the top. Crude rosin oils are refined by distillation and the resulting products are treated and bleached witii chemicals and skillfully deodorized so that not the slightest odor would betray their origin, unless partially decomposed under application of heat. As the rosin oils are of a very low gravity, they are used in the compounding of lubricating oils to give the petroleum oils a body and to pass the lighter oils off for lubricating oils of lower gravity and greater viscosity. Lard oils and other fatty oils are often adulterated with petro- leum oils, and to reduce the lighter gravity of the latter, have been compounded with such deodor- MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICATING OILS. 71 ized rosin oils, to equalize the specific gravity of such compounded oils to that of genuine lard oil. Lubricating oils have also been made by avari- cious and ignorant compounders by mixing heavy rosin oils with lighter petroleum oils or even simply dissolving common rosin in them, in the proportion of from two to four pounds to a gallon. The viscosity or body of such compounded oils appears deceptively superior to some of the best lubricating oils, but like all rosin oils and rosin and rosin oil mixtures, which form resinous de- posits under the influence of frictional heat or on exposure to the air, they are entirely unfit for lubricating purposes, they gumming up the machinery and retarding the motion by their sticking propensities. Thickened Oils. Rapeseed oil, cottonseed oil and other fatty oils can be thickened and their viscosity increased by heating them to from 160° to 170^ F. and forc- ing or blowing air heated to a like temperature through the oil for several hours. The propen- sity of the fatty oils for absorbing oxygen allows of turning them by this process into heavy, vis- 72 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. cous oils, which are largely used to impart greater viscosity to lighter petroleum oils used for lubri- cating purposes. Blown rapeseed oil has a specific gravity of 0.967 at 60^ F., or 15° Baume. Blown cottonseed oil has a specific gravity of 0.974 at 60° F., or 14° Baum^. IX. VALVE-OLEUM " OILS. The fatty oils and fats are composed of either oleic, margaric or palmitic and stearic acids, which, when treated with caustic soda, form com- pounds soluble in water. Precipitated with min- eral salts, such as sulphate of alumina, magnesia, lime, or acetate of lead, etc., they form insoluble compounds, which are only soluble in other fatty oils or petroleum oils. In this state the oils pos- sess uncommon lubricating power, without- the injurious effect the otherwise free fatty acids would exert on the metal of which the machinery requiring lubrication is made. They form the foundation of the manufacture of the " Valve- Oleum " Oils Valve-Oleum " is their trade- mark), patented by the author, and they com- bine the excellent lubricating qualities of fatty oils with the great cleanliness and diffusing qual- ities of mineral oils. To manufacture the valve- (73) 74 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. oleum oils, lard oil, cottonseed oil, neatsfoot oil or lard-grease, or even fish oils, can be used to make the " Valve-Oleum " Gelatine, the mineral, castor and the so-called honeydrop engine oils. Neatsfoot oil is used to make the finest grades of "Valve-Oleum" cylinder oil, and for a heavier and coarser grade cake-tallow can be used. Extra strained white lard oil or extra prime lard-grease is used to make the so-called "Valve-Oleum" white castor oil and the oil known as " Commer- cial Castor Oil," a cheaper substitute for the more costly castor bean oil. The oleate, marga- rate or palmitate, or stearate of alumina, is the combination preferably used in the manufacture of the " Valve-Oleum " Oils, although oleate of lime and oleate of lead can be used in like man- ner, the latter especially in the manufacture of paints, paint oils and factitious linseed oils. Oleate of alumina is made in the following manner : A solution of caustic soda is first prepared by dissolving caustic soda (some 160 pounds for a batch of 1,200 pounds of oil or fat) in about 90 gallons of water, thus making about 110 gallons of a caustic soda lye of from 22° to 23° Baume. VALVE-OLEUM " OILS. 75 If the lye is freshly made, it will be heated by the chemical action which takes place between the dry soda and the water. In that case, if fat or tallow is to be used, it is only melted with heat so that the combined temperature of the fat with that of the hot lye will not exceed 250° F. If the lye has been previously prepared and has become cold, the temperature of the oil or fat should be increased to about 200° F. While constantly stirring, the lye is slowly run into the oil or fat and the stirring continued until the mixture has become a soapy, mushy com- pound and has assumed a perfectly neutral and soapy taste to the tongue. This will be accom- plished in from one to two hours, depending much on the quality of the fat or oil, being fresh or old. The resulting product is- the oleate of soda, which is next dissolved with boiling water. Previously from 550 to 600 pounds of alum (sul- phate of alumina) are dissolved in about 6 barrels of boiling water, and when all is dissolved and the solution is perfectly clear, it is, while constantly stirring, gradually run into the solution of oleate of soda, enough of it until the oleate of alumina thus formed floats as a pasty compound on a. 76 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. clear, watery solution of sulphate of soda, the sul- phuric acid of the sulphate of alumina having united with the soda of the oleate of soda, while the oleic acid of the oleate of soda has united with the alumina and formed "oleate of alumina." The whole mass is now started boiling and if any lathery foam still appears on the surface, some more alum solution is added, until all the foam has disappeared and the liquor remains perfectlj^ clear. Next one barrel of 25° paraffine oil is added, and the whole briskly boiled and stirred for about one hour. Then the steam is turned off and stirring is stopped and the pasty mass allowed to subside over the clear, watery liquid. This is then drawn off and replaced with fresh boiling water, and the boiling and stirring are resumed and several times repeated, until all taste of alum or sulphate of soda has been re- moved. The last wash-water is then drawn off, and heating and slow stirring continued for a short time, and then discontinued, to allow of some more water, freely separating, to be drawn off from underneath the pasty mass. Heating and stirring are now again resumed, keeping the heat at a high and uniform temperature, until the " VALVE-OLEUM " OILS. 77 pasty mass becomes turned from its white to a brownish color and has become perfectly clear and transparent and is pulling heavily, like molasses candy. When a small sample of the mass, thrown onto a glass plate, shows perfectly clear and transpar- ent and free from all moisture, paraffine oil, which has been previously heated to about 140^ to 160° F. and kept at that temperature until all hygroscopic moisture and adhering light hydro- carbon vapors hav6 been expelled, is then added by slowly running it into the batch while con- stantly stirring and keeping the temperature at from 150° to 160° F. for from two to three hours or more. To make the " Valve-Oleum Gelatine " not too heavy and so as to allow it to be drawn off into barrels, but still warm enough to prevent it from chilling, from 3| to 4 barrels of the paraffine oil to every barrel of fat or oil used in the making of the aluminate, are required. To make a heavy and stringy mineral castor for use on heavy bearings and machinery, some 40 to 45 barrels of paraffine oil to a 1,200-pound (oi* 3 barrels) batch of fat or fatty oil, are required, and more if a lighter grade is desired. 78 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Valve-Oleum " engine, so-called Honey- drop " oil, is made in precisely the same manner, but in order to cut the stringy nature of the heavy castor oil to a honey-drop one, better adapted for oiling engines and lighter machinery, from 30 to 40 gallons of degras to a 1,200-pound batch are added together with the barrel of par- affine oil when boiling the compound, after the precipitation with alum and before the repeated washings. For Valve-Oleum " cylinder oil, a barrel of cylinder stock and from 40 to 50 gallons of degras are used at the boiling with the compound, if the cylinder stock to be used is of a reasonable cold test, otherwise a barrel of 25° paraffine oil is used. The batch is then finished up with from 40 to 45 barrels of filtered cylinder stock, which has also to be previously heated until all hygro- scopic moisture and arising scum have been re- moved, as otherwise the combination will not remain uniform. Imitations of the ^' Valve- Oleum " oils, for the sole purpose of giving to light distillates or poor paraffine oils some lubri- cating qualities, such as the so-called " Eldorado " oil and others, will easily thin out, separate and " VALVE-OLEUM " OILS. 79 lose their consistency, as they are only crudely mixed with distillates or light paraffine oils not previously freed from their adhering hygroscopic moisture and light hydrocabon vapors in suspen- sion. White ^' Valve-Oleum " castor oil is made pre- cisely like the Valve-Oleum " engine oils, but extra white winter strained lard oil or prime white lard grease is used in the making of the oleate alumina compound, and 300° white mine- ral oil is used in place of the paraffine oil. Valve-Oleum " castoroleum, also known as " Commercial Castor Oil," a cheap substitute for castorbean oil, is made by using white tallow or prime white lard grease for making the alumina compound, adding some 300° F. white mineral oil, to be boiled with the alumina bath, and, after washing and roasting the alumina compound down to a perfectly clear and transparent pro- duct, it is mixed with white summer cottonseed oil, previously blown at a low temj)erature, to a consistency of about 15° to 18° Baume. "Valve-Oleum" Linoleum is made by using linseed oil, fish oil, rapeseed oil or corn oil for making the alumina compound^ boiling with an 80 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. addition of neutral oil and mixing with linseed oil previously blown at a moderate heat to a con- sistency of about 18° Baum^. In place of alum, acetate of lead can be used to precipitate the lino- leate of soda with, thereby forming a linoleate of lead. To detect one part of oleate of alumina in ten parts of mineral oil, heat the sample with diluted hydrochloric acid over a water-bath and stir it well. The hydrochloric acid absorbs the alumina and the fatty acids remain in the mineral oil. The mineral oil is drawn off and treated with soda lye, which unites with the fatty acids and separates from the mineral oil. X. LEATHER OILS. Leather belts, harness, boot and shoe leather require as much attention in regard to lubrica- tion as does machinery. Hides when deprived of their natural lubricating moisture, become dry and easily break. When converted into leather for belts, harness, boots and shoes, it would soon become useless for wear were it not for the inter- position of the fatty lubricants known as " leather stuffings," which relieve the frictional action of fiber against fiber of which leather is composed. The more volatile these fatty lubricants are the oftener they require renewal, lest the frictional heat and the abrasion of the fibers against each other, heat, burn and destroy the leather. Just as we have recourse to processes by which we harden and strengthen metal to make it more durable, so we try to protect leather and make it more durable, by the different finishing processes 6 (81) 82 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. to which it is subjected, but unless the frictional action of fiber against fiber is relieved by constant lubrication, the frictional heat will destroy the fiber. For this purpose leather oils for lubri- cating, water-proofing, softening and preserving leather are generally compounded after one or the other of the following formulae : " Valve- Oleum " Leather Preserving and Water- Proofing Oil. Two barrels of Valve-Oleum " gelatine made from neatsfoot oil, as described on page 74 et seq., are compounded and well mixed with two barrels of coon oil, neatsfoot oil or fish oil (tanners' oil). Thereto are added five pounds of Para-gum, cut into fine shreds and dissolved by heat in five gal- lons of coon oil or neatsfoot oil. It can be colored with a sufficient amount of black West Virginia or Mecca oil, or Vv^ith fine lampblack ground in fatty oil. The fatty oils used should previously be heated until all their hygroscopic moisture is driven out, and the arising scum skimmed off*, before mixing with the gelatine. An oil for tanners' use is made also with ''Valve-Oleum" gelatine and fish oil (train oil) LEATHER OILS. 83 with additions of paraffine oil of low specific gravity. A cheap harness oil is made with one barrel of " Valve-Oleum " gelatine and eight to ten barrels of heavy black petroleum oil and colored with gilsey (Egyptian asphalt), gum or lampblack ground in neatsfoot or fish oil. A black harness oil is also made with fifty barrels of dip oil, fifteen barrels of spindle or red oil, five barrels of degras and two barrels of lamp- black ground in neatsfoot oil or fish oil. A good belt oil can be made by dissolving by heat 150 pounds of rosin in one barrel of castor- bean oil and scenting it with citronella or myr- bane oil. Paraffine oil, in which four to five pounds of rosin to the gallon have been dissolved, can be substituted for part of the castor-bean oil. For belt oil Para-gum also is dissolved in neats- foot oil and compounded with Valve-Oleum heavy castor oil. A Belt Grease " is made by dissolving in fifteen parts of fish oil and five parts of tallow, with heating and stirring, five parts of India rubber (Para-gum), cut into fine shreds, and add- ing four parts of rosin and four parts of beeswax ; stir well until congealed to proper consistency. 84 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Factitious Paint Oil. A cheap substitute for linseed oil is made by dissolving rosin oil in neutral oil and mixing it with linseed oil — 2J gallons of linseed oil, 2J gal- lons of neutral oil, with from 2J to 3 pounds of rosin, the whole being improved by boiling with oxidizing agents or acetate of lead until all the acetic acid of the latter has been expelled and the oil has become bright and clear. A cheap paint oil is also produced by com- pounding blown linseed oil with neutral oil and a sufficient amount of dryer made from rosin spirits. XI. ADULTERATIONS OF FATTY OILS. When the market price of lard oil is high and that of cottonseed oil is low, lard oil is often adulterated with the latter. It is also adulterated with petroleum oils, especially prepared for that purpose, and with addition of refined and de- odorized rosin oil, to equalize the specific gravity of the mixture to that of pure lard oil. No. 1 lard oil is adulterated with white neutral oil and No. 2 lard oil is adulterated with yellow neutral oil. Olive oil is also much adulterated with cotton- seed oil, sunflower oil and others, when their market prices, being lower than that of olive oil, warrant such adulteration. Sperm oil is much adulterated with cheaper fish oils, well refined, deodorized and bleached. Linseed oil is adulterated with corn oil, cotton- seed oil, rapeseed oil, hempseed oil and rosin oil. (85) 86 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. Sperm oil should not contain less than four per cent of cetin unless adulterated. Shake one part by weight of sulphuric acid of 1.84 specific grav- ity, with four parts of the oil ; allow to stand for about twenty minutes, shaking twice ; add three ounces of distilled water, shake well and allow to stand sixteen to twenty hours; dilute then with three or four times its volume of distilled water and mix thoroughly. On standing the cetin floats on top and can readily be skimmed off ; then wash, dry and weigh. It is soluble in chloroform. Castor oil is adulterated with blown oils, such as linseed, rape or cottonseed and rosin oils. If only ten per cent of them be present, they cause a turbidity with absolute alcohol, with which castor oil is miscible in every proportion. XII. TESTING OILS. Alkali tests are made to ascertain first if an oil is a pure fatty oil, or a hydrocarbon oil, or a mixture of both. A solution of caustic soda or potash of a specific gravity of 1.340 is prepared and two volumes of this solution are shaken up with four volumes of the oil to be tested. After standing, the oil separates out, leaving an aqueous layer clean or slightly clouded. If hydrocarbon oils are in large proportion in the sample, they will form a layer on the top and the aqueous layer will be emulsified. If the fatty oil is in largest proportion, the smaller proportion of hydrocarbon oil will be more difficult to detect. To ascertain this, dissolve a piece of caustic pot- ash, the size of a pea, in 5 c.c. of alcohol. Then add a few drops of the oil to be tested and boil for two to three minutes and add from 3 to 4 c.c. of distilled water. If the solution remains clear, (87) 88 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. only fatty oil is present. Mineral oil will cause the solution to be turbid and even as small a quantity as 2 per cent present will show itself this way. The amount of mineral oil in fatty oils is also ascertained by mixing 25 grammes of the oil with 10 to 15 c.c. of the caustic solution and 25 c.c. of water and 5 c.c. of alcohol. This is boiled, con- stantly stirring, for about one hour. By that time the fatty oil is saponified. Put the whole in a separating funnel and add more warm water and 25 c.c. petroleum ether ; shake for a few minutes and allow to stand. The upper stratum is com- posed of the petroleum ether and the mineral oil and the lower stratum of the aqueous layer of ^oap formed by the fatty matter. This is run off, clean water is added, stirred together and again allowed to stand and the aqueous liquor run off. This is repeated until the latter runs off perfectly clear. Now put the ethereal layer into a weighed vessel, evaporate the ether and weigh the remaining oil ; the weight multiplied by four gives the percentage of mineral oil in the sample. A color test can be made by placing some 20 drops of the oil in a porcelain cup and adding TESTING OILS. 89 two drops of strong sulphuric acid. As the acid drops through the oil, streaks of color are shown, and a tint of characteristic color gradually spreads through the oil. Then stir the whole and again note the coloring. Vegetable oils give various colors, shades of yellow-brown or green ; fish oils turn to violet or purple, animal oils to a reddish- brown, and hydrocarbon oils turn slightly to a blackish-brown. The test should first be made with samples of known pure quality and com- pared with the action of the sample under test. Agitating 4 c.c. of the oil to be tested with 10 c.c. colorless nitric acid will show, after settling, when olive oil has been adulterated with cotton- seed oil, by a brownish color, while pure olive oil will not become darkened. For a test of cottonseed oil in lard oil put J ounce of nitro-sulphuric acid and ^ ounce of the oil to be tested in a glass vessel and stir well. Pure lard oil becomes hard in two to three hours, but when adulterated with cottonseed oil the sample may thicken but will not become hard. For a preliminary test for neutral oil in lard oil, shake the suspected sample violently in a bottle. If it contains neutral oil it will form 90 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. beads or bubbles that will pass away when the oil is pure, but if adulterated with much neutral oil it will have a tendency to foam. To detect small quantities of fatty oils, of J to 2 per cent, in a sample of mineral oil, some of the oil is heated for about fifteen minutes, with bits of sodium or sodium hydrate, to about 230° to 250° F. Fatty acid present will solidify to a jelly of more or less consistency, according to the amount of fatty oil therein. To detect soap dissolved in mineral oil, five to ten per cent of the oil is dissolved in about fifteen parts of gasoline or ether, and solution of phosphoric acid added. The formation of a floc- culent precipitate indicates the presence of soap. To detect acidity or alkali in mineral oil, shake a sample of the oil with an equal quantity of warm water, pour off the oil when settled, and test the water with litmus paper. Acidity will turn blue litmus paper red, and if alkaline, will turn red litmus paper blue, and yellow turmeric paper brown. We will not follow any further into the inex- haustible field of chemical and technological testing of oils, but would call attention to some" TESTING OILS. 91 simple and practical methods for testing oils and oil mixtures, as to their purity and efficiency as lubricants, that can be carried out by the most inexperienced investigator. First are to be secured samples of known purity of the different kinds of animal and vegetable oils used in the manufacture of lubricants, and then proceed with the testing of the oils to be investi- gated as follows : All fatty oils of animal or vegetable origin possess an odor and taste peculiar to themselves, which becomes more distinctly noticeable when the temperature of the oil is increased. If, there- fore a few drops of the oil, to be investigated as to its characteristics or origin, are placed in the palm of one hand and vigorously rubbed by the other until a burning sensation is experienced, we can ascertain the individuality of the oil by the smell from the flavor known to be peculiar to it and corresponding with that of one of the samples of known origin and purity. We can thereby tell if it is lard oil, cottonseed oil, tallow oil, fish oil, palm oil or rosin oil, etc., and by this method we can in many cases also ascertain which of these oils may be intermixed with another. 92 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. When the oils are fresh and pure and carefully purified and bleached, their peculiar odor is not so readily noticed as when they are older ; but by slightly heating between the hands we are enabled to recognize their characteristic odor. Tasting oils will also enable us to ascertain their individuality, when we make comparison of their taste with that of the samples of oils, the purity and character of which is known to us. The intermixing of fatty oils for purposes of adulteration, when the one oil can be bought in the market at lower price than the other, is not very detrimental in their use for manufacturing purposes, but when fatty oils have been adul- terated with petroleum oils, the difference in value and the thereby lowered quality of the oil, de- mands investigation. Lard oil, cottonseed oil, neatsfoot oil and other fatty oils, are more or less adulterated with high fire test petroleum oils, and with such of them as has been especially prepared and deodorized for that purpose. Such adulterations can be detected by the following simple tests : When petroleum oil has been admixed in large proportion, the simple pouring of some of the oil TESTING OILS. 93 on a dark ground, or, into a smoked glass plate, in a place where the sunlight can fall on it. will give sufficient proof of the preseuce of petroleum oil, by its bluish, fluorescent shining. Its pres- ence can also be ascertained by the use of the hydrometer. As the specific gravity of petroleum is so much higher than that of fatty oils, the hy- drometer cannot fail to indicate by the so much increased specific gravity of the mixture above the well known lower gravity of pure fatty oils, that petroleum is present and how much of it. Its presence in fatty oil compounds can further be ascertained by slowly heating a sample of the suspected oil in a porcelain dish over a spirit lamp, with a thermometer suspended in it, and by applying from time to time a lighted match to it and note the temperature at which the oil will ignite. Petroleum used for compounding with fatty oils will vaporize and ignite at from 110° to 300° F. while fatty oils require for igni- tion twice as much heat. To ascertain with what proportion of petroleum a fatty oil has been adulterated, samples are pre- pared and mixed in various definite proportions. Mark on each sample the proportion of petroleum 94 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. added to the oil, the specific gravity ascertained by the hydrometer, and the temperature at which it became ignited. By submitting a sample of the oil to be investigated to the same test, we can easily ascertain the proportion of petroleum it contains, by comparing the result of the test with those marked on the prepared samples. We can tell of the presence of petroleum in fatty oils, even in very small proportions, by placing a small quantity of the suspected oil on our tongue and subjecting it to the motion of mastication, the same as if we were tasting some other fatty nutriment, such as butter or lard. The alkaline saliva in the mouth will act upon and unite with the fatty oil of the sample but not with the petro- leum oil it contains, and after the fatty oil has become absorbed by the system, the presence of petroleum will manifest itself by its remaining nauseating taste. To prevent detection of adulteration of fatty oils by the hydrometer test, fatty oils are often mixed with petroleum and refined rosin oil, to equalize by the low specific gravity of the latter the lighter specific gravity of the petroleum. Their presence, however, is easily detected by TESTING OILS. 95 taste and likewise by smell, when heated by fric- tion between the hands, as before explained. The comparative efficiency of oils for lubricat- ing can be tested in many ways without the use of costly testing machines. To ascertain the gumming propensities of an oil we need only to spread some of it in a very thin layer over a glass plate, protect it against dust, and expose it to the sunlight or other slow, dry heat. In a short time the gumming propensity of the oil will be indicated by the tough and sticky appearance of what of the sample remains on the glass. Viscosity. Viscosity is the degree of fluidity of an oil. The greater viscosity or body one oil possesses over another can be ascertained by allowing a given amount of the oils to be tested to drop out of the narrowed end of a glass tube, or count the drops falling from them in one or more minutes and compare the difference. By varying the test at a colder or warmer temperature, the uni- form consistency of the oils can likewise be ascer- tained and compared. By pouring a drop of oil to be examined on a 96 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. well-cleaned glass plate placed on an incline, alongside of another placed likewise, and noting the time it takes for each oil to reach a mark made on the bottom of the inclined plane, we can observe to some extent the greater viscosity or body and clinging power one oil possesses over the other. By increasing the temperature by means of an alcohol lamp or otherwise we can likewise judge of the uniform consistency one oil maintains over another, or compare it with like tests made with oils of known efficiency. Fire Test. The test often made wdth cylinder oil, by pour- ing some of it into a cylinder chest, cannot be considered conclusive, as the temperature on the outside of a cylinder chest is dry and scorching, while the temperature inside the cylinder, where the oil is expected to perform its work, is moist. That an oil would show less tendency to evaporate in the dry and scorching heat on top of the cylin- der chest, would only indicate its higher fire test, but high fire test is no criterion as to its quali- ties, as the temperature inside of the cylinder can never be a dry and scorching one. The fire test TESTING OILS. 97 of an oil should always be in proper proportion to its heat-absorbing quality, or it will suffer de- composition and produce gummy deposits by its inability to vaporize fast enough under the fric- tional heat and carry its vapors diffused with the exhaust steam into space. Simple Way of Testing Lubricating Oils. A very handy and simple way of testing oils is to place them side by side on white blotting paper and place this for a short time on a cylinder chest or a steam heater. The oil which penetrates the blotting paper quickest and spreads widest over it, is always the poorest and thinnest oil, as it shows by its lightness and the quick disappear- ance of its outer ring, that it is compounded from material of very light specific gravity. If by giving it some time, or by longer exposure to heat, the whole of the oil on the blotting paper disappears, the sample must be composed entirely of petroleum, and when an inner ring, with a well discernible line, is formed and remains longer, a proportion of parafBne holding stock must have been compounded with lighter petroleum, and when a center ring, with decided outline and 7 98 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. darker color, is formed, but no permanent trans- lucency is imparted to the paper, the compound must be made of a light hydrocarbon oil, with an addition of still residuum stock, however well re- fined or bleached. If the oil to be examined has been compounded from petroleum, with an addi- tion of lard oil or tallow oil or other fatty mat- ter, the blotting paper will retain its translucency in the center long after the petroleum, which at first spread rapidly over and through the paper, has disappeared. Petroleum penetrates blotting paper faster than fatty oils and spreads wider over it at first, but dries ofi" rapidly and its trans- lucency disappears, while that of fatty oils re- mains, as one of the principal characteristics of fatty oils is their faculty to render paper perma- nently translucent. Practical Tests of Lubricating Oils. Tests made by the practical use of the oil are by far the best, but we must not allow our- selves to be deceived and be led to attribute too rashly any unsatisfactory results at first obtained, to the oil we are testing. If the oil previously used was an impure one and of a gumming qua- TESTING OILS. 99 lity, however satisfactory it may have appeared to work, it will have left its gummy deposits in crevices and joints and in the interstices in the metal, which is commonly regarded as a bearing which the oil has made for itself, and when the new oil to be tested is applied in too small a quan- tity, we fail to observe that such a small amount of purer oil has at first to contend with and dis- lodge the deposits, which may be the result of long standing and the accumulations of large quantities of the oil formerly used. It is this fact that misleads and often causes the better oil to be condemned, until a larger and longer application proves the correctness of this statement. These same facts will appear when we apply for a test a poorer and impure oil, after having used an oil of purer and better quality. The poorer oil finding all the bearings or the cylinder clean and no gummy deposits to contend with will, for a time, appear to work equally as well as the good oil that was in use before. Cylinders and bearings, as well as the feeding cups, should be carefully cleaned before testing or using a new oil, if we wish to be able to judge correctly as to its quality. Objection is sometimes made by engineers to 100 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. the stringy character of the " Valve-Oleum " oils, but this stringy nature, while perhaps somewhat inconvenient under careless handling, constitutes the very life of the oils, secures their uniform consistency in cold as well as in warm weather, and enables them to cling tenaciously to the metal, absorb the frictional heat as fast as it is generated by the motion, and permits their body to be of light enough character to vaporize rapidly into space with the heat they have absorbed. Unscrupulous parties, making imitations of the " Valve-Oleum " oils, use their stringy charac- teristics solely for the purpose of artificially thick- ening light and otherwise unsalable petroleum oils, but such mixtures do not stay together ; they separate and are not neutral and contain free fatty acids, and are but little more efficient for lubricating than the cheap petroleum distillates. By the blotter test, the ''Valve-Oleum" oils show their fatty characteristics by leaving per- manent, translucent center spots on the paper ; they show their uniform consistency by being slowly absorbed by the paper and spreading over it without separating, and they show their clean- liness by leaving no deposit of impurities on the paper. XIII. SOLID LUBRICANTS. GREASES. Solid lubricants consist principally of filtered stock or vaseline, and they are fed to the bearings through cups especially devised for that purpose, and furnished with screw pressure, or provided with copper rods, which latter, touching the shaft, cause feeding of the vaseline or other greases by communicating the frictional heat to them, whereby they are liquified, and caused to flow onto the shaft and into the bearing. Greases for lubricating consist principally of tallow or lard, of either or both, together with palm oil, rapeseed oil, degras, rosin oil and petroleum oils brought to a proper consistency by semi-saponification with weak lye, limewater, or lime-soap, or lime-paste. Fatty matter of all kinds and quality, residuum and tar from refineries, in short all that can be worked into this , kind of lubricant, and can be (101) 102 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. given a greasy appearance and consistency, is worked into what is known and sold in the market under the name of " Lubricating Grease." The character of the machinery for which this kind of lubricant is used is of the coarser, heavier kind ; hence less attention is generally given to ascertain the indirect advantage that would re- sult from the use of grease of best quality, cost being generally the only point considered. Here also, as with the lubricating oils, it is the fatty acid alone which is the lubricating, that is, the heat-absorbing and eradiating principle, held to the moving surfaces by medium of the stearin, palmitin, rosin or, paraffin, the latter being ulti- mately left as concentrated and charred gummy deposits. With grease lubricants the wear and abrasion of the metal is always greater than with oil lubrication, as the consistency of the grease re- quires greater accumulation of frictional heat to melt and convert it into a liquid state before it is enabled to reach the place where it is expected to do its work. Carefully conducted experiments have demon- strated the fact that it takes some twenty-five per SOLID LUBRICANTS. GREASES. 103 cent less power to move machinery lubricated with oil than when lubricated with grease, and at a some thirty to thirty-five per cent lower temperature. The additions of lime, graphite (plumbago), lead, asbestos, mica, sulphur, soapstone (talc) and all other inert matter, to grease, used on machinery moving under great pressure and heat, act only as a medium, filling the interstices in the metal, and serve only as a sort of cushion for the real lubricant, the fatty matter contained in the grease. These inert substances cannot vaporize with the frictional heat and must, there- fore, remain as gummy accumulations and me- tallic abrasions on the bearings. Manufacture of Greases. Most greases for lubricating are made in the following manner: Common red rosin oil, say five hundred pounds, is heated for about one hour with about two pounds of calcium hydrate. It is then allowed to cool and is skimmed, and from ten to fifteen pounds of rosin oil-lime soap slowdy stirred in until the mixture assumes a buttery consistency. Lime soap is made by 104 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. slowly heating and mixing 100 pounds of crude rosin oil with some 80 pounds of hydrate of lime, and boiling into a molasses-like consistency. For rosin grease, lime paste is made hy slak- ing say 10 pounds of quicklime with about 40 pounds of water, passed through a sieve to sep- arate all coarse particles, and for the fine lime paste to be allowed to settle. The water is then poured off and from 6 to 8 gallons of crude rosin oil are stirred into the lime paste and allowed to stand for a few hours. All accumulated water is then drawn off and from 8 to 10 gallons of mineral or heavy petroleum oil are added. The whole is then heated to about 230° to 240° F., stirred and well mixed and allowed to cool and set to proper consistency. A rosin grease, without heating, in the cold way, is made by mixing and stirring well to- gether 20 gallons of crude paraffine or other mineral oil, in which some 80 pounds of rosin have previously been dissolved by heat, with a lime-paste made by slaking one-half to three- quarters of a bushel of lime, sifting it from all coarse particles and separating most of the water from it. It is stirred until a smooth, uniform SOLID LUBRICANTS. GREASES. 105 consistency is obtained. From 3 to 5 gallons of crude rosin oil are then slowly added and stirred to a proper buttery consistency. The product of this process is the well known " Valve-Oleum Zola Axle Grease." Additions of fats or fatty oils improve its quality. The following are some formulas after which nearly all grease lubricants are manufactured : Half a pound of caustic soda is dissolved in one gallon of water ; from three to five pounds of tallow and one-half to one gallon rosin oil are added, and the whole is heated to about 210° F. and well mixed, and then stirred, as it cools, to its proper consistency. Forty gallons petroleum oil, fifty pounds of yellow grease or tallow and sixty pounds of rosin are heated together at a temperature of about 240° F. From two to two-and-a-half gallons of soda lye are then gradually added, and all is mixed and stirred well. When cold it will have set in about twelve hours and will be ready for use. For a ''cup grease," seventy -five pounds of tallow, thirty to fifty pounds of rosin, some thirty to forty gallons of paraffine oil, and about ten to 106 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. fifteen pounds of oleate of soda or common soap are melted together and stirred until a uniform and smooth buttery consistency is obtained. Also : One part of tallow or yellow grease, four parts of cylinder stock or paraffine oil of a low gravity, and one-quarter part of caustic lye of from fifteen to twenty degrees Baume, are heated and stirred until cold and of proper con- sistency. Dark axle grease : Thirty -five gallons West Virginia black oil, in which some fifty pounds of rosin have been dissolved by heat, and lime-paste from half a bushel of lime, are well stirred and brought to a proper consistency by the slow addi- tion of from four to six gallons of crude rosin oil. Linseed oil grease : One hundred pounds of tallow, one hundred pounds of rosin and ten to twelve gallons of linseed oil, with from six to eight gallons of caustic soda-lye of about five degrees Baume, are boiled together and allowed to cool and set to proper consistency. One gallon petroleum oil, one-half pound tal- low, one-half pound palm butter, one-half pound plumbago and one-quarter of a pound of soda are heated and kept for about an hour at a temper- SOLID LUBRICANTS. GREASES. 107 ature of about 180° F., then allowed to cool down, and are stirred until well setting . to con- sistency. Or: Water, one gallon, one-half pound soda, three to five pounds of tallow, from six to ten pounds of palm oil and sufficient rosin to give the desired consistency, are heated to about 250° F., well stirred until cooled down to about 70° F., and allowed to set. ^ Or: Ten pounds of common soap well dried and cut in small pieces, from fifteen to twenty pounds of filtered cylinder stock and about fif- teen pounds of heavy petroleum oil, are heated to about 230° to 240° F., and well stirred until all the soap is dissolved, and the whole is then al- lowed to cool to proper consistency. Or : Palm oil, tallow, or tallow oil and soda, dissolved in as little water as possible, are heated and stirred into a uniform buttery mass. Or : One gallon crude rosin oil, two to three pounds of quicklime slaked with about one gal- lon of water are mixed and allowed to settle and the adhering water drawn off. Heavy petroleum oil and from three to five pounds of graphite (plumbago) are then added, and all well mixed and stirred to a uniform and buttery consistency. 108 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. One per cent of castor oil soap will solidify paraffine oils in vacuum to a solid grease. An endless number of like formulas could be mentioned, but thc}^ are all based on a semi- saponification of fatty matter or oils used in the manufacture of " Grease " for lubricating. XIV. SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. When a cylinder becomes partly worn, or ridges and scars are cut on its bright surfaces, or a partial wearing of the piston rod takes place, it is absurd to lay such results to the oil. The cause of such injuries is a purely mechanical one ; some parts are loose or out of line or otherwise defective in construction and no amount of oil or fat of whatever quality is capable of preventing gradual increase of the injury and final necessity for extensive repairs. No kind of oil or fat can cut ridges or scars in metal. It requires metal or inert substances, such as silica, lime, emery or mica to do it. They do it suddenly and violently when dry and by themselves, and they do it slowly and silently when intermixed and saturated with oil or fat. The idea that mixing plumbago, silex, sulphur or plumbago (graphite), etc., with oils or fats, to (109) 110 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. give them increased lubricating power, is errone- ous. These inert matters have nothing whatever to do with the lubricating, which is alone done by the fatty, oily part of the compound, leaving the inert matter behind, to accumulate with every new application, which by and by will fairly choke the cylinder and the valve-chest. All fatty oils and fats, without exception and of however excellent quality, either alone or com- pounded with mineral oil, when applied as lubri- cants, are decomposed by the steam and by the frictional heat they absorb, and their lighter con- stituents vaporize and leave the heavier ones to form gummy deposits with the fine metallic par- ticles, the result of abrasion, and with the im- purities in the water used. Such deposits cause dragging of the machinery and waste of power, accumulate gradually in crevices and fill the smallest interstices in the surface of the metal ) they settle all around the joints and are found in abundance behind the rings and piston. The injurious action from the use of tallow in cylinders is well known. The action of the stearin on the metal increases the abrasion, and • SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. Ill injury is wrought slowly but entirely uniformly and by no means in cutting ridges and scars in the iron. When tallow or very impure fatty oils have been used, or they have been further compounded with inert matter, such as plumbago, etc., the accumulations are still more abundant and de- tached parts are frequently found worked into marble-like balls by the continuous churning motion of the piston ; they dry a'gainst the heated metal and gradually assume the hardness of stone or iron. Lubricating oils which are not so constituted as to decompose readily and form gummy de- posits, are capable of softening and gradually dissolving such hardened deposits. Some parti- cles partly dissolved become detached and get between the piston and the cylinder and com- mence cutting and scraping into the smooth sides of the latter. A groaning noise gives audible warning and, if the impediment is not removed or relieved by speedy softening and dissolving with more copious application of better oil, the injury inflicted may become very serious and may necessitate the stopping of all machinery and require expensive repairing. 112 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. There are also numerous instances on record where small particles of metal broke off from worn out springs with too sharp and not prop- erly rounded edges, or from careless keying of the valves, and finding their way between the sides of the cylinder and piston, cut heavy ridges in the iron. Another source of injury in cylinders, other- wise perfectly clean, arises often from the use of poor packing, overdone with sulphur or over- heated in vulcanizing, which has become brittle from exposure and age, or being burnt from long contact with the heated metal. The ragged edges of such packing will become detached, contaminate the oil, and cause injury. If a babbit or other metallic lining has been placed in a bearing in a bungling manner, or small particles of the metal have broken loose from a raggedly bored hole through which the oil is to be applied, and such particles find their way between the moving parts, cutting and scar- ring of the metal cannot be prevented with the best of lubricants. If an employee forgets and fails to apply oil in proper time, and the parts run dry, get heated SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 113 and cutting takes place, the trouble is generally attributed to the lubricant, but all this proves that it is impossible for an oil to cut metal," but that impurities in oils, accidentally or inten- tionally combined with inert matter, will do it. The parts of machinery where oil is used for lubricating should be kept clean and carefully examined, to see if they are in proper condition ; that no foreign matter has by chance got between the moving parts or is liable to do so ; that keys on wristpins and bolts on bearings, hangers, etc., have not gradually been loosened by the constant jarring of the machinery ; that flooring has not settled under heavy weight and thereby the shafting, attached to it, been put out of line or otherwise interfered with. All these points are generally only thought of after some accident has happened or warning is given by a groaning or squeaking noise, and when some parts are found heated and cut, and the blame is unjustly laid to the oil, until investi- gation reveals the real cause. 8 XV. LUBRICATORS AND CUPS. The many contrivances commonly called Lubricators," by which lubricants are applied to machinery, are often much trouble to engi- neers, as the adaptation of these contrivances is, with many, as much a consideration of price only as it is in the purchasing of lubricants, but with lubricators as well as wdth lubricants the best are always the cheapest. It is a great oversight to make the lubricant subject to the manner of ap- plying it, as it is the lubricant that is to do the work and not the mechanical contrivance through which it is forced to do it. There are number- less such contrivances, many very ingenious ones and others of faulty construction, rather interfer- ing with, than assisting, the lubricant to do its w^ork properly. Cylinder oils are applied by the hand-pump, by the automatic pump, or through the well known sight-feed lubricators. (114) LUBRICATORS AND CUPS. 115 The hand-pump admits the oil too irregularly, too much at one time, not enough at another, either from neglect or oversight. The automatic pump, such as the first and well known Moses Pump," and the later improved styles are the best means for applying oils to cyl- inders with proper regularity. With the auto- matic pump the oil is not brought in contact with water or steam before entering the cylinder. It supplies the oil with the starting of the engine and ceases to do so when the engine is stopped, and all the attention that is required is to keep the pump supplied with oil. Any kind of oil, if clean and free from grit, can be fed through these pumps, and the amount to be fed is easily regu- lated by the shorter or longer stroke that is given at its connection with the engine. The proper feeding of cylinder oil through the modern sight-feed cup, now generally used, de- pends entirely on the understanding by the engi- neer as how to use it properly. All the many sight-feed cups are devised on the principle of displacing the oil from the cup, drop by drop, by the water condensed from the steam before the latter reaches the cup. It requires a little time 116 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND PATS. and patience when starting or refilling these cups, to wait until sufficient steam has been condensed and enough water been accumulated to oper- ate the cup properly and. get the oil to feed with proper regularity; otherwise the steam will rile the oil. Introducing some water in the cup before filling with the oil, and slowly turning the steam on and regulating the feeding, will prevent overheating and allow of regulating at once the proper condensing of the steam and the regular displacement of the oil. The use of impure oils should be carefully avoided and the cleaning of the cup not attempted by blowing live steam through it, as thereby the fatty deposits from the oil, in connection with impurities in the water used for the steam, are baked to the sides and openings of the tubes in successive layers by the latent heat held there by the metal, in precisely the same manner as the scale in boilers is produced from the slimy, earthy deposits of the water, by baking and incrusting them on the iron by the latent heat under the prevalent and injudicious practice of blowing off boilers." Sight- feed cups should be taken off from time to time and carefully cleaned with benzine or coal oil and a swapper. LUBRICATORS AND CUPS. 117 It is, however, not a question alone of merely getting the oil into the cylinder, but the oil must possess sufficient power to cling to the metallic surfaces of the cylinder and the valves, in order to resist its being blown out with the exhaust before its work has been done. An oil that does its work satisfactorily when applied direct with a pump, but will not do so through any of the many patent sight-feeding devices, proves conclusively that the lubricator or the wrong handling of it should be blamed, not the oil. There is an endless number of cups of all kinds of construction to apply lubricants to the bearings of shafting and all kinds of machinery. For feeding oils, those will command the most atten- tion that will allow the operator to see at a glance if the feeding is regular and uninterrupted. They all require more or less adjusting to prop- erly regulate the amount to be fed and allow the oils to pass through the aperture, according to their limpidity or viscosity. In some of them the flow of oil is regulated by controlling the width of the aperture with opening and closing devices ; in others a wick is 118 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. placed over the aperture, to secure regular and slow feeding on capillary principle, and still in others a rod, with flattened side, is placed to pre- vent a too rapid flow of the oil. If they are properly handled and attended to and proper judgment is used in adjusting them, in accord- ance with the characteristics of the oil used, most of them will answer their purpose satisfactorily. In those cups which feed with a wick, it is important that the number of strands in the wick should be in proper proportion to the lim- pidity or viscosity of the oil used, and in those cups separated with metallic stem, with a flat- tened side, the latter should be filed still flatter or the stem removed entirely when a change is made from a limpid and easy-flowing oil to one which has a heavy body of uniform consistency. In all cups exposed to varying temperatures, only such oils should be used as will not congeal and thereby become unable to flow and feed through the aperture. Frequently when chang- ing from one oil to another, and especially when the oil first used was of a gummy character, and the new oil does not possess this objectionable quality, the oil may at first feed well enough LUBRICATOKS AND CUPS. 119 through the aperture, without the necessity of changing its adjustment, but on account of its gradual loosening the almost imperceptible coat- ing or gummy film on the sides of the cup, the latter is apt to obstruct the opening and the oil will be unable to force its passage through, and the bearing, running warm, the oil will unjustly be condemned as being a poor lubricant. Cups especially designed for feeding grease are also of varied construction and character. These cups should also have apertures proportionate to the melting quality of the grease used. There are cups where it is intended to force the grease down by pressure or by springs, which consequently require much attention and adjust- ing and cannot be considered automatic feeders. Those cups provided with metallic stems, rest- ing on the shaft, to work on the principle that the frictional heat conveyed through these stems will melt the grease and make it limpid enough to flow down on them, also fail to secure perfect lubrication, as they can only begin and continue to lubricate after sufficient heat has accumulated by which to keep the grease melting. As running machinery under increased heat 120 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. means expansion of the metal, abrasion of the parts and waste of power, the deficiency of grease lubrication is apparent. The only reliable lubri- cating with grease is through long-slotted aper- tures in the box, which allow the grease to lay directly on the parts in motion. XVI. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Weight is the measure of gravity. The specific gravity of any body is the proportion which the weight of a certain amount of that body bears to the same amount of another body which is taken as standard. The standard adopted for solid and liquid bodies is water, at the temperature of 60° F. The specific gravity of liquids is most accur- ately ascertained by means of the specific gravity bottle, which is so constructed as to hold exactly 1000 grains of distilled water. The water being emptied out and the bottle filled with the liquid to be tested, is weighed on a correct scale. The result gives the weight of a volume of the fluid equal in bulk to 1000 grains of water, and this weight, divided by 1000, represents the specific gravity of the liquid. The specific gravity of oils and fats, which are (121.) 122 FBICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. all lighter than water, except some of the tar oils, is handily ascertained by means of the Baume Hydrometer, constructed for the weighing of liquids lighter than water. The oil is put in the hydrometer jar — a tall glass vessel — and the hydrometer placed in it so that it will float up- right. The specific gravity of the oil is exactly indicated by the degree on the scale of the hj^drometer to which the latter sinks. The measure is always taken at 60° F., and for every ten degrees above that temperature, one degree is subtracted from the reading, and for every ten degrees below 60° F., one degree is added to the reading on the hydrometer scale. Fats and oils, solid at ordinary temperature, should be heated until liquid enough to allow the hydrometer to float easily in them, to indicate their specific gravity. Table of Baume degrees^ the specific gravity they represent and the corresponding weight of the liquids per gallon : Degree Baume. Specific Gravity. Pounds in One Gallon. 10 1.000 8.33 11 .9929 8.27 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 12 .9859 8.21 13 .9790 8.16 14 .^722 8.10 15 (castor oil) .9655 8.04 16 .9589 7.99 17 .9523 7.93 18 .9459 7.88 19 .9395 7.83 20 .9333 7.78 21 .9271 7.72 22 .9210 7.67 23 .9150 7.62 24 .9090 7.57 25 .9032 7.53 26 .8974 7.48 27 .8917 7.43 28 .8860 7.38 29 .8805 7.34 30 .8750 7.29 31 .8695 7.24 32 .8641 7.20 KftJ .8588 7 15 34 .8536 7.11 35 .8484 7.07 36 .8433 7.03 124 FRICTION, LUBRICATION, OILS AND FATS. 37 .8383 6.98 38 .8333 6.94 39 .8284 6.90 40 .8235 6.86 41 .8187 6.82 42 .8139 6.78 43 .8092 6.74 44 .8045 6.70 45 .8000 6.66 46 .7954 6.63 47 .7909 6.59 48 .7865 6.55 49 .7821 6.52 50 .7777 6.48 51 .7734 6.44 52 .7692 6.41 53 .7650 6.37 54 .7608 6.34 55 .7567 6.30 56 .7526 6.27 57 .7486 6.24 58 .7446 6.20 59 .7407 6.17 60 .7368 6.14 61 .7329 6.11 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 62 .7290 6.07 63 .7253 6.04 64 .7216 6.01 65 .7179 5.98 66 .7142 5.95 67 .7106 5.92 68 .7070 5.89 69 .7035 5.86 70 .7000 5.83 75 .6829 5.69 80 .6666 5.55 85 .6511 5.42 90 .6363 5.30 95 .6222 5.18 INDEX. ACIDITY, detection of, in mineral oil, 90 Adamantine candles, 23 Adulterations of fatty oils, 85, 86 Alkali, detection of, in mineral oil, 90 tests, 87, 88 Almond oil, occurrence and properties of, 35 Alumina, oleate of, detection of, in mineral oil, 80 oleate of, preparation of, _ 74-77 Aluminium chloride, use of, for desulphurizing petroleum, 67 Anilin oil, 54 Axle grease, dark, preparation of, 106 BAUM£ degrees, the specific gravity they represent and the corresponding weight of the liquids per gallon, table of, 122-125 hydrometer, use of, 122 Bearings, overheating of, 7 Belt grease, 83 oil, 83 Benzine, 58, 59 deodorizing of, 65, 66 series, 69 Benzol, 53 Black lubricating oil, 63 Blotter test, 97, 98 Blown cottonseed oil, 72 rapeseed oil, 72 Bone fat, 21, 22 grease, 21, 22 CART, traction of a, 3 Castor oil, adulteration of, 86 commercial, pre- paration of, 79 occurrence and properties of, 29, 30 Castoroleum, preparation of, 79 Cetin, test for content of, in sperm oil, 86 Clarifying, refining and bleach- ing oils and fats, 43-49 Coal-tar oil, 53 uses of, 64 Cocoanut oil and palm oil, 33, 34 occurrence and properties of, 34 Coefficient of friction, 2 Color test, 88, 89 Colza oil, occurrence and prop- erties of, 32, 33 Copra, 34 Corn oil, occurrence and prop- erties of, 36, 37 Cosmoline, 63 Cottonseed oil, blown, 72 occurrence and properties of, 32 refining of, 44, 45 test for, in lard oil, 89, 90 thickening of, 71 , 72 Cup grease, manufacture of, 105, 106 Cups and lubricators, 114-120 feeding with a wick, 118 (127) 128 INDEX. Cups for feeding grease, 119 regulation of the flow of oil in, 117, 118 Cylinder, causes of the wearing of the, 109, 110 oil, compounding of, 68, 69 preparation of 78, 79 production of, 62, 63 steam refined, 62 oils, pumps for the applica- tion of, 114, 115 . stock, filtered, 63 Cylinders, injurious action from the use of tallow in, 110, 111 sources of injury in, 112, 113 DARK axle grease, prepara- tion of, 106 Deblooming petroleum oils, 65 Degras, bleaching and deodor- izing of, 47 factitious, 28 production and properties of, 27, 28 Deodorizing petrol oil, 65, 66 Desulphurizing petroleum, 56, 57 Distillates, neutral, 60 purification and bleaching of, 59 Distillation of petroleum, 58-63 of wood, 53 Drying oils, 14, 15 ELAIN or red oil, production and properties of, 22, 23 Engine oil, compounding of, 69-71 preparation of, 78 Essential oils, 15, 16 EAT, cleaning and bleaching of, 48 Fats and oils, 13-17 Fats and oils, clarifying, refin ing and bleaching of, 43-49 oils of animal and veg- etable origin, their characteristics, and how they are ob- tained, 18-42 Fatty oil, detection of mineral oil in, 88, 89 detection of petroleum oil in, 92-94 oils, 14 adulterations of, 85, 86 compounding petroleum with, 69, 70 decomposition of, 110 detection of small quanti- ties of, in mineral oil, 90 precipitation of, with mineral salts, 73 sweet spirit of the, 41 , 42 testing of, by odor and taste, 91, 92 thickening of, 71, 72 Filtered cylinder stock, 63 Fire test, 96, 97 Fish oils and spermaceti, 23-26 Fixed oils, 14 Friction, 1-4 coefficient of, 2 definition of, 1 laws of, 1-3 of motion, 2 of quiescence, 2 rolling, 1, 3 sliding, 1 Frictional heat, 4 absorption of, by metal, 7 creation of, 8 GINGELLY oil, occurrence and properties of, 31, 32 Glycerin, occurrence and prop- erties of, 41, 42 INDEX. 129 Gravity bottle, use of, 121 Grease, bleaching of, 48, 49 cups for feeding, 119 lubricants, formulas for the manufacture of, 105-108 reliable lubricating with, 120 Greases, 101-108 manufacture of, 103-108 Green oil, 51 HARNESS oil, black, 83 cheap, 83 Headlight oil, 59 Heat, frictional, 3 absorption of, by metal , 7 creation of, 8 Hempseed oil, occurrence and properties of, 33 Horse tallow and neatsfoot oil, 21, 22 production and prop- erties of, 22 Hydrocarbons, 14 TOINT-WATER, 6 KEROSENE oil, deodorizing of, 65, 66 Kidney oil, 41 LARD and lard oil, 18, 19 occurrence and proper- ties of, 18, 19 oil, adulteration of, 85 grades of, 19 preparation and prop- erties of, 19 test for cottonseed oil in, 89, 90 Laws of friction, 1-3 Leather oils, 81-84 preserving and waterproof- ing oil, 82, 83 stuffings, 81 Lime paste for rosin grease, preparation of, 104 Linolein, 39 Linoleum, preparation of, 79,80 Linseed oil, adulteration of, 85 grease, preparation of, 106, 107 occurrence and prop- erties of, 38, 39 Lubricants, solid, 101-108 Lubricating, necessity of, 5 oil, black, 63 oils, manufacture of, 67-72 practical tests for, 98-100 simple way of testing, 97, 98 _ petroleum oils for, 63, 64 test of the comparative efficiency of oils, for, 95 Lubrication, 5-12 laws of, taught by nature, 6 Lubricators and cups, 114-120 trouble caused by, 114 MACHINERY oil, com- pounding of, 69-71 Marrow tallow, 21, 22 Metal, absorption of frictional* heat by, 7 Metallic compounds, soft, lub- ricating with, 9 Mineral castor, heavy and stringy, preparation of, 77 oil, detection of acidity and alkali in, 90 detection of, in fatty oils, 88, 89 detection of oleate of alumina in, 80 detection of small quanti- ties of fatty oils in, 90 detection of soap in, 90 oils, 16, 50-54 seal oil, 60 Moses pump, 115 Motion, friction of, 2 130 INDEX. Mustard seed oil, occurrence and properties of, 38 Mutton fat, 20 Myrbane oil, 53, 54 NEATSFOOT oil and horse tallow oil, 21, 22 oil, preparation and prop- erties of, 21 Neutral distillates, 60 oils, purification and bleaching of, 61 Nigerseed oil, occurrence and properties of, .38 Nitrobenzol, 53, 54 Non-drying oils, 14 OHIO crude oils, 56, 57 Oil, almond, 35 anilin, 54 castor, 29, 30 chemical process in the transformation of, 11 coal tar, 53 cocoanut, 34 colza, 32, 33 consumption of, 10 corn. St), 37 cottonseed, 32 gingelly, 31, 32 green, 51 hempseed, 33 kidney, 41 lard, 19 linseed, 38, 39 mustard seed, 38 myrbane, 53, 54 neatsfoot, 21 nigerseed, 38 olive, 30, 31 palm, 33, 34 paraffin e, 51 peanut, 37, 38 pine, 41 poppy seed, 35, 36 rapeseed, 32, 33 red, 22, 23 Oil. rosin, 40, 41 seal, 25, 26 sesame, 31, 32 signal, 64 sperm, 25 sunflower, 31 tallow, 20, 21 train, 26 turpentine, 41 whale, 26 wood tar, 53 Oils and fats, 13-17 clarifying, refining and bleaching of, 43-49 of animal and vege- table origin, their character i s t ic s, and how they are obtained, 18-42 and oil mixtures, practical methods for testing, 91- 95 bleaching and deodorizing of, 45-47 clarifying of, 43, 44 classes of, 13, 14 definition of, 13 drying, 14, 15 fatty, 14 fixed, 14 lubricating, manufacture of, 67-72 mineral, 16, 50-54 neutral, 61 non-drying, 14 petroleum, 16, 17, 55-66 refining of, 44 tar, 52-54 test of the comparative effi- ciency of, for lubricat- ing, 95 testing of, 87-100 thickened, 71, 72 valve-oleum, 73-80 vegetable, 14 volatile or essential, 15, 16 INDi>X. 131 Oleate of alumina, detection of, in mineral oil, 80 of alumina, preparation of, 74-77 Olein, separation of, from lard, 18, 19 Olive oil, adulteration of, 85 occurrence and proper- ties of, 30, 31 Oxy hydro-carbons, 13, 14 PAINT oil, factitious, 84 Palm butter, 34 oil and cocoanut oil, 33, 34 occurrence and proper ties of, 33, 34 Paraffine oil, 51 wax, extraction of. 61 Peanut oil, occurrence and properties of, 37, 38 Pennsylvania, petroleum oils of, 56 Petrolatum, 63 Petroleum, compounding of, with fatty oils, 69, 70 desulphurizing of, 56, 57 distillation of, 58-63 occurrence of, 55, 56 oil, detection of, in fatty oil, 92-94 oils, 16, 17, 55-66 deblooming of, 65 for lubricating, 63, 64 imparting a viscous con- sistency to, 68 Pine oil, 41 tar, 41 Plumbago, absorption of fric- tional heat by, 9 Poppyseed oil, occurrence and properties of, 35, 36 Practical suggestions, 109-113 Pumps for the application of cylinder oils, 114, 115 QUIESCENCE, friction of, 2 RAILWAY, traction on a, 3 Rapeseed oil, blown, 72 occ u r r e n c e and proper- ties of, 32, 33 thickening of, 71, 72 Red oil or elain, production and properties of, 22, 23 Residuum oil, filtering of, 63 Rolling friction, 1, 3 Rosin grease, preparation of, 104, 105 occurrence and properties of, 40 oil and turpentine, 40, 41 occurrence and proper- ties of, 40, 41 Rumford, Count, experiments by, 7 SCOTCH shale, distillation of, 50, 51 Seal oil, occurrence and proper- ties of, 25, 26 Sesame oil, occurrence and properties of, 31 , 32 Shale oil, grades of, 52 Sight-feed cups, 115, 116 Signal oil, 64 Sliding friction, 1 Soap, detection of, in mineral oil, 90 Solid lubricants, 101-108 Specific gravity, 121-125 Spermaceti and fish oils, 23-26 occurrence and properties of, 23, 24 Sperm oil, adulteration of, 85 occurrence and prop- erties of, 25 test for content of cetin ^ in, 86 Spindle oil, 60 Standard white or export oil, 59 Steam refined cylinder oil, 62 132 INDEX. Straight run, 60 Sunflower oil, occurrence and properties of, 31 Sweet spirit of the fatty oils, 41, 42 TABLE of Baum^ degrees, the specific gravity they represent, and the corre- sponding weight of the liquids per gallon, 122-125 Tallow and tallow oil, 19-21 cleaning and bleaching of, 48 injurious action from the use of , in cylinders, 110, 111 oil, production and prop- erties of, 20, 21 properties of, 20 Tar oils, 52-54 Test, alkali, 87, 88 Testing lubricating oils, simple way of, 97, 98 oils, 87-100 and oil mixtures, prac- tical methods for, 91- 95 Tests, practical, for lubricating oils, 98-100 Thickened oils, 71, 72 Traction of a cart, 3 on a railway, 3 Train and whale oils, 26 Train oil, bleaching and deodor- izing of, 48 Turpentine, oil of, 41 yALVE-OLEUM castor- V oleum, preparation of, 79 Oleum, castor oil, pre- paration of, 79 cylinder oil, prepara- tion of, 78, 79 engine oil, prepara- tion of, 78 leather preserving and waterproofing oil, _ 82, 83 linoleum, preparation of, 79, 80 oils, 73-80 foundation of, 73 Vaseline, 63 Vegetable oils, 14 bleaching of, 43 Viscosity, test for, 95, 96 Volatile oils, 15, 16 WATEK white oil, 59 West Virginia oil, 63 Whale and train oils, 26 Wood, distillation of, 53 tar oil, 53 Wool fat, production and prop- erties of, 27 INDUSTRIAL LITERATURE Civilization without Diversified Industries is an Impossibility and all History Bears Witness to this Great Truth. 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One vol. folio. .. .$4.00 ASKINSON.— Perfumes and their Preparation: A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing Com- plete Directions for Making Handkerchief Perfumes, Smellmg- Salts, Sachets, Fumigating Pastils; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, the Mouth, the Hair; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other Toilet Articles. By G. W. Askinson. Translated from the German by Isidor Furst. Revised by Charles Rice. 32 illustrations. 8vo $3-00 BAIRD.— The American Cotton Spinner, and Manager's and Carder's Guide: A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimen- sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- tions, etc.; with notices of recent Improvements; together with Rules and Examples for making changes in the size and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of the late Robert H. Baird. 256 pp., i2mo $1.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 3 BEANS. — A Treatise on Railway Curves and Location of Railroads : By E. W. Beans, C. E. Illustrated. i2mo. 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Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200 engravings. 8vo I3.00 BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion: Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stuffs and Chemicals used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses; Mor- dants and How Made; with the best American, English, French and German processes for Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, Furs, Leather, etc., etc., by Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water- Proofing of Materials, Tests and Purification of Water. Manufacture of Aniline and other New Dye Wares, Harmoniz- ing Colors, etc., etc.; embracing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 170 Dyed Samples of Raw Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, Practical Dyer, Author of "The Dyers' Hand-Book. " 8vo $4.00 BLINN. — A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-plate Workers: Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns 4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE used by Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geometry; Mensuration of Surface and Solids; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead-pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lacquers, Ce- ments, Compositions, etc., etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. i2mo.. $2.50 BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix con- cerning American Marbles. i2mo., cloth $1.50 BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils: Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chemical Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining them, and Practical Rules for Testing them; as well as the Manufacture of Artificial Butter and Lubricants, etc., with lists of American Patents relating to the Extraction, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing and Bleaching of Fats and Oils. By William T. Brannt, Editor of the "Techno- Chemical Receipt Book." Second Edition, Revised and in great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 302 Engravings. In Two Volumes. 1304 pp. 8vo $10.00 BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on Distillation and Rec- tification of Alcohol: Comprising Raw Materials; Production of Malt, Preparation of Mashes and of Yeast; Fermentation; Distillation and Rectification and Purification of Alcohol; Preparation of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, Fruit Essences, Vinegar, etc.; Examination of Materials for the Preparation of Malt as well as of the Malt itself; Examination of Mashes before and after Fermentation; Alcoholometry, with Numer- ous Comprehensive Tables; and an Appendix on the Manu- facture of Compressed Yeast and the Examination of Alcohol and Alcoholic Liquors for Fusel Oil and other Impurities. By William T. Brannt, Editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Second Edition. Entirely Rewritten. Il- lustrated by 105 engravings. 460 pages. 8vo. (Dec, 1903) $10.00 BRANNT.— India Rubber, Gutta-Percha and Balata: Occurrence, Geographical Distribution, and Cultivation, Ob- taining and Preparing the Raw Materials, Modes of Working HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 5 and Utilizing them, including Washing, Maceration, Mixing, Vulcanizing, Rubber and Gutta-Percha Compounds, Utiliza- tion of Waste, etc. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. A new edition in preparation. BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines: Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evap- oration; Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 79 En- gravings, 479 pp. 8vo (Scarce) BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys: A Practical Guide: For the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amalgams, and Solders, used by Metal Workers: together with their Chem- ical and Physical Properties and their Application in the Arts and the Industries; with an Appendix on the Coloring of Alloys and the Recovery of Waste Metals. By William T. Brannt. 45 Engravings. Third, Revised, and Enlarged Edition. 570 pages. 8vo Net, $5.00 BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts and Processes: Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipulations for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and Beautifying of Articles Manufactured there- from, as well as their Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.50 BRANNT.— Petroleum : Its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical Constitution, Technology, Examination and Uses; Together with the Occurrence and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and Dr. Alexander Veith by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 8vo $12.50 BRANNT.— The Practical Dry Cleaner, Scourer and Garment Dyer: Comprising Dry, Chemical, or French Cleaning; Purifica- tion of Benzine; Removal of Stains, or Spotting; Wet Clean- ing; Finishing Cleaned Fabrics; Cleaning and Dyeing Furs, Skin Rugs and Mats; Cleaning and Dyeing Feathers; Clean- ing and Renovating Felt, Straw and Panama Hats; Bleach- ing and Dyeing Straw and Straw Hats; Cleaning and Dyeing Gloves; Garment Dyeing; Stripping, Analysis of Textile Fabrics. Edited by William T. Brannt, Editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Fourth Edition, Revised 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE and Enlarged. Illustrated by Forty-One Engravings. 12 mo- 371 PP ^^2.50 CONTENTS: I. Dry Chemical or French Cleaning. II. Removal of Stains, or Spotting. III. Wet Washing. IV. Finishing Cleaned Fabrics. V. Cleaning and Dyeing Furs, Skin Rugs and Mats. VI. Cleaning and Dyeing Feathers. VII. Cleaning and Renovating Felt, Straw and Panama Hats; Bleaching and Dyeing Straw and Straw Hats. VIII. Cleaning and Dyeing Gloves. IX. Garment Dyeing. X. Stripping Colors from Gar- ments and Fabrics. XI. Analysis of Textile Fabrics. Index. BRANNT.— The Soap Maker's Hand-Book of Materials, Processes and Receipts for every description of Soap includ- ing Fats, Fat Oils and Fatty Acids; Examination of Fats and Oils; Alkalies; Testing Soda and Potash; Machines and Utensils; Hard Soaps; Soft Soaps; Textile Soaps; Washing Powders and Allied Products; Toilet Soaps, Medicated Soaps, and Soap Specialties; Essential Oils and other Perfum- ing Materials; Testing Soaps. Edited chiefly from the Ger- man of Dr. C. Deite, A. Engelhardt, F. Wiltner, and numerous other Experts. With Additions by William T. Brannt, Editor of ^'The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Illustrated by Fifty-four Engravings. Second edition. Re- vised and in great part Re- Written. 535 pp. 8vo $6.00 BRANNT.— Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Seal- ing Waxes: Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the Art of Varnishing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Putties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone Horn, and Leather. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages. i2mo $3.00 BRANNT- WAHL.— The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book: Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most important, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, and their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Edited chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mierzinski, Jacobsen, Koller and HeinzerHng, with additions by Wm. T. Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings. i2mo. 495 pages $2.00 BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Move- ments : Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and other Gearing, Presses, Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery; and including many movements never before published, and several of which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown $1.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 7 BULLOCK.— The Rudiments of Architecture and Build- ing: For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- ists, Engineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of "The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo $2.50 BYRNE.— Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engineer: Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass En- graving, Varnishing and Lacquering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood engravings. 8vo $4.00 BYRNE.— Pocket- Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ;^ the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earthwork, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocketbook form $i-50 BYRNE.— The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metals; the Process Dependent on the Duc- tility of the Metals; Soldering; etc. By John Percy. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- gineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo $3. 50 CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beau- tifully Engraved Plates. Oblong, 8vo $1.50 CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: A complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James Callingham. To which are added Numerous Alpha- bets and the Art of Letter Painting Made Easy. By James C. Badenoch. 258 pages. i2mo $1.50 CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey: By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth 75 CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey: Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's "Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean i vol. i2mo ^2.00 8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $10.00 Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50 Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8 vo $10.00 The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo $2.00 The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Phys- ical, Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo $2.50 GOOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery: Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles, with a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold CooLEY. i2mo $1.00 COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Assistant in Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work and Tank Work, etc. Revised by D. K. Clark. 102 ills. Fifth edition 8 COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Ready Reckoner: With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating. Re- vised by D. K. Clark, C. E. 37 illustrations. Fifth edi- tion $1.60 CRISTIANL— A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cristiani, Chemist. Author of "Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illustrated by 176 Engravings. 581 pages, 8vo $15.00 CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner: Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Differ- ent Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hith- erto been practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo 75 DAVIDSON.— A Practical Manual of House Painting, Graining, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: Containing full information on the processes of House Paint- ing in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, and numerous wood en- gravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo $2.00 DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining: By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 76 Engravings. i2mo $5.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 9 DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: By|D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engrav- ings of Geological Formations, Mining Operations and Ma- chinery, drawn from the practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. i2mo. 524 pages $5.00 DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, Tiles and Terra-Cotta: Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, Fire Brick and Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass 5Pots, Retorts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and Unglazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intrarsia or Inlaid Surfaces. Com- prising every product of Clay employed in Architecture, En- gineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed Descrip- tion of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern Ma- chinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Drying, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edition. Revised and in great part rewritten. Il- lustrated by 261 engravings. 662 pages (Scarce.) DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper: Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrica- tion, Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Pap^r, Includ- ing the Different Raw Materials and the Methods for De- termining their Values, the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelligent and a profitable prose- cution of the art, with special reference to the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Paper, complete Lists of iPaper-Making Materials, List of Ameiican Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 156 Engravings. 608 pages. 8vo.. .$6.00 DAWIDOWSKY-BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, etc.: Based upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Tech- nical Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, including a description of the most Recent Ameri- can Processes, by William T. Brannt. 2d revised edition, 350 pages. (1905) Price $3-00, 10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE DEITE.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Perfumery : Comprising directions for making all kinds of Perfumes, Sachet Powders, Fumigating Materials, Dentifrices, Cos- metics, etc., with a full account of the Volatile Oils, Balsams,^ Resins, and other Natural and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr. C. Deite, assisted by L. Borchert, F. EiCHBAUM, E. KuGLER, H. ToEFFNER, and Other experts. From the German, by Wm. T. Brannt. 28 Engravings. 358 pages. 8vo $3.00 DE KONINCK-DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical Analysis and Assaying: As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and ta Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. DeKoninck, Dr. Sc., and E. Dietz, Engineer. Ed- ited with Notes, by Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., efc. American Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo $1.00 DIETERICHS.— A Treatise on Friction, Lubrication, Oils and Fats: The Manufacture of Lubricating Oils, Paint Oils, and of Grease, and the Testing of Oils. By E. F. Dieterichs, Member of the Franklin Institute; Member National Associa- tion of Stationary Engineers; Inventor of Dietrichs' Valve- Oleum Lubricating Oils. i2mo. (1906.) A practical book by a practical man $1.25 DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: Containing the necessary information to make any person of common capacity, a finished land surveyor, without the aid of a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 Engrav- ings. 214 pp. i2mo $1.50- DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Dis- tillation of Alcoholic Liquors: Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes,^ Sorghum, Asphodel, Fruits, etc.; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aromatic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars. Syrups, Aromatic Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc.,. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE ii etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Du- PLAis. By M. McKennie, M. D. Illustrated. 743 pp. 8vo $15-00 EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam- Engine: For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Prac- tical Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Me- chanical Engineer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with much additional matter. i2mo. 414 pages $i-50 EDWARDS.— American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and Practical: With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice. By Emory Edwards. 85 Illustrations. i2mo. $1.50 EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines: Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards. Illustrated. i2mo $i-5o EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and Screw Propellers: Their Design and Construction. 146 pp. 4to $2.00 EDWARDS. — 900 Examination Questions and Answers: For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to obtain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book form, gilt edge I1.50 EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most approved American practice in the design and con- struction of Steam Engines and Boilers. For the use of Engineers, machinists, boiler-makers, and engineering stu- dents. By Emory Edwards. Fully illustrated. 419 pages. i2mo $1.50 EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide: In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, Portable, and Steam Fire-Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By Emory Edwards. Illus- strated by 119 engravings. 420 pages. i2mo $2.00 ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political Economy: By Dr. William Elder. 8 vo $1.50 12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE ELDER.— Questions of the Day: Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. $3.00 ERNI AND BROWN.— Mineralogy Simplified: Easy Methods of Identifying Minerals, including Ores, by Means of the Blow-pipe, by Flame Reactions, by Humid Chemical Analysis, and by Physical Tests. By Henri Erni, a. M., M. D. Fourth Edition, revised, re-arranged and with the addition of entirely new matter, including Tables for the Determination of Minerals by Chemicals and Pyrog- nostic Characters, and by Physical Characters. By Amos P. Brown, E. M., Ph. D. 464 pp. Illustrated by 123 En- gravings, pocket-book form, full flexible morocco, gilt edges. $2.50 FAIRBAIRN. — The Principles of Mechanism and Machi- nery of Transmission: Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pul- leys, Strength and Proportion of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume. i2mo $2.00 FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America: A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By Howard Fleming. Illustrated. 8vo.. .$1.00 FLEMMING.— Practical Tanning: A Handbook of Modern Processes, Receipts, and Sugges- tions for the Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of Every Description. By Lewis A. Flemming, American Tanner. 630 pp. 8vo. 1910 $6.00 FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and other Monuments: Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth, With an In- troduction by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4to. Cloth. .$3.00 GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book: A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Paint- ing. 38 Illustrations. i2mo. 183 pp |i.oo GARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia: Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Paint- ing, including Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 158 illustrations. i2mo. 427 pp. $2.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 13 GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook: Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Color- ing, Collecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, En- amels; and other Useful Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo I1.25 GEE. — The Jeweler's Assistant in the Art of Working in Gold: A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen. i2mo. $3.00 GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook: Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipulation; Prevention of Waste; Instructions for Improving and Finishing the Surface of the Work; together with other Useful Information and Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo $1.25 GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Ob- long $1.00 GRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears: Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo $1.00 GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men: Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechan- ics, and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates $3.00 GRISWOLD.— Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the Field: Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles and all Necessary Tables for Engineers; also the Art of Levelling from Prelim- inary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. i2mo. Pocketbook form $1.50 GRUNER.— Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines of France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S: 8vo. $2.50 14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and Mechanic: Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Measure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land Measure, Interest Tables with Directions for finding the Interest on any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 32mo., boards. 186 pages 25 HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton and Linen: Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By E. C. Haserick. Illustrated hy 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarns or Fabrics. 8vo $4-50 HATS AND FELTING: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. $1.00 HAUPT. — A Manual of Engineering Specifications and Contracts : By Lewis M. Haupt, C. E. Illustrated with numerous maps. 328 pp. 8vo $2.00 HAUPT.— Street Railway Motors: With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various Systems now in Use. i2mo $1.50 HAUPT.— The Topographer, His Instruments and Meth- ods: By Lewis M. Haupt, A. M., C. E. Illustrated with numer- ous plates, maps and engravings. 247 pp. 8vo $2.00 HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geometrical Drawing: For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the In- dian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill; Indian Public Works and Telegraph Department; Royal Marine Light In- fantry; the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marl- borough College. Illustrated by 300 examples. Small quarto $1.00 KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and Financial Questions: By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages. 8vo. $2.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 15 KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book: Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kelmo, Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mo $1.25 KICK.— Flour Manufacture: A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. P. Powles, Assoc. Memb, Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo $7.50 KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the Alkali Trade: Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas Kingzett, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustra- tions. 8vo $2.00 KIRK. — A Practical Treatise on Foundry Irons: Comprising Pig Iron, and Fracture Grading of Pig and Scrap Irons; Scrap Irons; Mixing Irons; Elements and Metalloids; Grading Iron by Analysis; Chemical Standards for Iron Castings; Testing Cast Iron; Semi-Steel; Malleable Iron; Etc., Etc. By Edward Kirk, Practical Moulder and Melter, Consulting Expert in Melting. Illustrated. 294 pages. 8vo. 191 1 .$3.00 KIRK.— The Cupola Furnace: A Practical Treatise on the Construction and Management of Foundry Cupolas. By Edward Kirk, Practical Moulder and Melter, Consulting Expert in Melting. Illustrated by 106 Engravings. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. 482 pages. 8vo. 1910 $3.50 KOENIG.— Chemistry Simplified: A Course of Lectures on the Non-Metals, Based upon the Natural Evolution of Chemistry. Designed Primarily for Engineers. By George Augustus Koenig, Ph. D., A. M., E. M., Professor of Chemistry, Michigan College of Mines, Houghton. Illustrated by 103 Original Drawings. 449 pp. i2mo. (1906) $2.25 LANGBEIN. — A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposi- tion of Metals: Comprising Electro-Plating and Galvanoplastic Operations, The Deposition of Metals by the Contact and Immersion 16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE Processes, the Coloring of Metals, the Methods of Grinding and Polishing, as well as the Description of the Voltaic Cells,- Dynamo-Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materi- als and Processes Used in Every Department of the Art. Translated from the latest German Edition of Dr. George Langbein, Proprietor of a Manufactory for Chemical Pro- ducts, Machines, Apparatus and Utensils for Electro-Platers, and of an Electro-Plating Establishment in Leipzig. With Additions by William T. Brannt, Editor of "The Techno- Chemical Receipt Book." Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated by 163 Engravings. 8vo. 725 pages. 1913 $5.00- LARKIN.— The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improve- ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition, revised, with extensive additions. 414 pages. i2mo $2.50- LEHNER.— The Manufacture of Ink: Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation of Writing, Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Powders, etc. Translated from the German of SiGMUND Lehner, with additions by William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo |2.oo- LERCUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns: Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calcula- tions applied to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English and French Methods of Combing, Draw- ing, and Spinning Worsteds, and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of Charles Leroux,. Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. 8vo.. . .$3.00- LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the additions of New Receipts. i2mo |i.oo LE VAN.— The Steam Engine and the Indicator: Their Origin and Progressive Development; including the Most Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 17 with the Indicator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Applica- tion. By William Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indicator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo. $2.00 LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide: Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Re- vised. 283 pp. i2mo $1.50 Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms: Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., com- prising upwards of Six Thousand Definitions, Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author of "Pattern Making." 417 pp. i2mo I3.75 LUKIN.— The Lathe and Its Uses: Or Instruction in the Art of Turning Wood and Metal. In- cluding a Description of the Most Modern Appliances for the Ornamentation of Plane and Curved Surfaces, an Entirely Novel Form of Lathe for Eccentric and Rose-Engine Turn- ing; A Lathe and Planing Machine Combined; and Other Valuable Matter Relating to the Art. Illustrated by 462 engravings. Seventh Edition. 315 pages. 8vo $4.25 MAUCHLINE.— The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book: Of Practical and Theoretical Information on the Opening, Ventilating ,and Working of Collieries. Questions and An- swers on Practical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and Others iu Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By Robert Mauchline. 3d Edition. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged by F. Ernest Brackett. 134 Engravings. 8vo. 378 pages. (1905.) $3.75 MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers: By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full-bound in Pocketbook form $1.00 MOORE. — The Universal Assistant and the Complete Mechanic: Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, etc., in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo $2.50 i8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing: By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edicion. _ Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Ex- position, Paris, 1867. Illustrated. 8vo. 422 pages. .$2.00 NICHOLLS.— The Theoretical and Practical Boiler- Maker and Engineer's Reference Book: Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor, Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths, Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam- using Public, and for the Use of Science Schools and classes By Samuel Nicholls. Illustrated by sixteen plates. i2mo. $2.50 NYSTROM.— On Technological Education and the Con- struction of Ships and Screw Propellers: For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second Edition, Re- vised, with additional matter. Illustrated by seven En- gravings. 1 2 mo $1.00 O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Pro- cesses in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analytical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- gineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo. 491 pages $2.00 ORTON.— Underground Treasures: How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready De- termination of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James Orton, A. M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, N. Y.; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with An Appendix on Ore Deposits and Testing Minerals. (1901-) Illustrated. $1.50 OSBORN.— A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Mining: Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Position; Local Occurrence and Associations of the Useful Minerals, their Methods of Chemical Analysis and Assay; together with Various Systems of Excavating and Timbering, Brick and HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 19 Masonry Work, during Driving, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D., Author of "The Prospector's Field-Book and Guide." 171 Engravings. Second Edition, Revised. 8vo $4.50 OSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide: In the Search For and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D. Illustrated by 66 Engravings. Eighth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 401 pages. i2mo. (1910.) $i-50 OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide: A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry- sand, Loam, and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow Ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, Wax, etc.; the Con- struction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. i2mo $2.00 PAINTEjR, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION: Comprising the Manufacture and Test of Pigments, the Arts of Painting, Graining, Marbling, Staining, Sign-writing, Varnishing, Glass-staining, and Gilding on Glass; together with Coach Painting and Varnishing, and the Principles of the Harmony and Contrast of Colors. Twenty-seventh Edition. Revised, Enlarged, and in great part Rewritten. By William T. Brannt, Editor of "Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing Waxes." Illustrated. 395 pp. i2mo $1.50 PERCY.— The Manufacturing of Russian Sheet-Iron: By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. Paper 25 POSSELT.— Cotton Manufacturing: Part I. Dealing with the Fibre, Ginning, Mixing, Picking, Scutching and Carding. By E. A. Posselt. 104 Illustra- tions, 190 pp $3.00 Part 11. Combing, Drawing, Roller Covering and Fly Frame, I3.00 POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Ex- plained : With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. Posselt. With 230 Illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 4to $3.00 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery Relating to Weaving: Giving the Most Modern Points on the Construction of fall Kinds of Looms, Warpers, Beamers, Slashers, Winders, Spoolers, Reeds, Temples, Shuttles, Bobbins, Heddles, Heddle Frames, Pickers, Jacquards, Card Stampers, Etc., Etc. By E. A. PossELT. 4to. Part I, 600 ills.; Part II, 600 ills. Each part $3.00 POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery, Part HI: Processes Required for Converting Wool, Cotton, Silk, from Fibre to Finished Fabric, Covering both Woven and Knit Goods; Construction of the most Modern Improvements in Preparatory Machinery, Carding, Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Machinery, Winding, Warping, Slashing Machinery, Looms, Machinery for Knit Goods, Dye Stuffs, Chemicals, Soaps, Latest Improved Accessories Relating to Construc- tion and Equipment of Modern Textile Manufacturing Plants By E. A. PossELT. Completely Illustrated. 4to $7.50 POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design: The Most Complete Treatise on the Construction and Appli- cation of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics and the Analysis of Cloth. By E. A. Posselt. 1,500 Illustrations. 4to. .$5.00 POSSELT.— Textile Calculations: A Guide to Calculations Relating to the Manufacture of all Kinds of Yarns and Fabrics, the Analysis of Cloth, Speed, Power and Belt Calculations. By E. A. Posselt. Illus- trated. 4to $2.00 REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Comprising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth $5-00 RICH.— Artistic Horse-Shoeing: A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different Diseases of the Foot, and the Correction of Faulty Action in Trotters. By George E. Rich. 362 Illustrations. 217 pages. i2mo $2.00 RICHARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled Workmen to the columns of "The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the Simplest Job of Work to some of the most Complex Forgings. Compiled and Edited by M. T. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 21 Richardson. Vol. I. 210 Illustrations. 224 pages. i2mo $1.00 Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo $1.00 Vol. III. 390 Illustrations. 307 pages. l2mo $1.00 Vol. IV. 226 Illustrations. 276 pages. i2mo $1.00 RICHARDSON.— Practical Carriage Building: Comprising Numerous Short Practical Articles upon Carriage and Wagon Woodwork; Plans for Factories; Shop and Bench Tools; Convenient Appliances for Repair Work; Methods of Working; Peculiarities of Bent Timber; Construction of Carriage Parts; Repairing Wheels; Forms of Tenons and Mor- tises; Together with a Variety of Useful Hints and Sugges- tions to Woodworkers. Compiled by M. T. Richardson. Vol. I. 228 Illustrations. 222 pages $1.00 Vol. II. 283 Illustrations. 280 pages $1.00 RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches which have appeared from time to time in the col- umns of "The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Com- piled and edited by M. T. Richardson. 174 Illustrations, 1 1. 00 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting: Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors, the Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formulae and the Newest Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its use; Dryers; the Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussant. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malpeyre. Trans- lated from the French by A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by Eighty Engravings. 659 pp. 8vo $5.00 ROPER. — Catechism for Steam Engineers and Elec- tricians : Including the Construction and Management of Steam En- gines, Steam Boilers and Electric Plants. By Stephen Roper. Twenty-first edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged by E. R. Keller and C. W. Pike. 365 pages. Illustrations. i8mo., tucks, gilt $2.00 ROPER.— Engineer's Handy Book: Containing Facts, Formulae, Tables and Questions on Power, its Generation, Transmission and Measurement; Heat, Fuel, and Steam; The Steam Boiler and Accessories; Steam Engines and their Parts; Steam Engine Indicator; Gas and Gasoline Engines; Materials; their Properties and Strength; Together with a Discussion of the Fundamental Experiments in Elec- tricity, and an Explanation of Dynamos, Motors, Batteries, etc., and Rules for Calculating Sizes of Wires. By Stephen 22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE Roper. 15th edition. Revised and Enlarged by E. R. Keller, M. E., and C. W. Pike, B. S. With numerous Illustrations. Pocket-book form. Leather $3.50 ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines: Including the Modeling, Construction, Running, and Man- agement of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers. With Illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth Edition. i2mo., tucks, glit edge $3-50 ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive: Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construction, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen Roper. Eleventh Edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.50 ROPER.— Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines: With Illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth Edition, i2mo., tucks, gilt edge $3.50 ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen : By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo., Morocco $2.00 ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Stationary and Marine Engineers abd Electricians: With a Chapter of What to Do in Case of Accidents. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth Edition, Rewritten and Greatly Enlarged by Edwin R. Keller, M. E., and Clayton W. Pike, B. A. 306 pp. Morocco, pocketbook form, gilt edges • . . .$2.00 ROPER.— The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. $2.00 ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler: By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Ninth Edition, with Illus- trations. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.00 ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book: Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is based. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 160 Illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck $2.50 ROSE.— The Complete Practical Machinist: Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and DriUing, Taps and Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, Tool Grinding, Marking out work, Machine Tools, etc. By Joshua Rose. 395 Engravings. Nineteenth Edition, greatly Enlarged with New and Valuable Matter. i2mo., 504 pages $2.50 ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 23 Drawing Instruments, Elementary Instruction in practical Mechanical Drawing, together with ^ Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 330 En- gravings. 8vo. 313 pages $3-50 ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of the operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrating the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples carefully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 Engravings $1.00 ROSE.— Steam Boilers: A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and In- spectors; and embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 73 Engravings. 250 pages. 8vo $2.00 ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. i2mo $2.00 SCHRIBER.— The Coniplete Carriage and Wagon Painter: A Concise Compendiun of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornament- ing, Striping, Varnishing, and Coloring, with numerous Re- cipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illustrations. 177 pp. i2mo. $1.00 SHAW.— Civil Architecture: Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Build- ing, containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh Edi- tion. 4to $5.00 SHERRATT.— The Elements of Hand-Railing: Simplified and Explained in Concise Problems that are Easily Understood. The whole illustrated with Thirty-eight Ac- curate and Original Plates, Founded on Geometrical Principles, and showing how to Make Rail Without Centre Joints, Mak- ing Better Rail of the Same Material, with Half the Labor, 24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE and Showing How to Lay Out Stairs of all Kinds. By R. J. Sherratt. Folio $2 . 50 SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Location, for Young Engineers: By W. F. Shunr, C. E. i2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 SLOANE.— Home Experiments in Science: By T. O'CoNOR Sloane, E. M., A. M., Ph. D. Illustrated by 91 Engravings. 12 mo $1.00 SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture: Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm- houses, with Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gar- dening, Furniture, etc., etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 Engravings. By Samuel Sloan, Architect. 8vo $2.00 SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods; containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo $1.00 SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy: By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full Index. i2mo $1.25 SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure-Grounds: Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc., etc. i2mo $2.00 SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical Analysis: A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo $2.00 STOKES.— The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Com- panion : Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl- Work; the Art of Dye- ing and Staining Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacquering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues, Cements, and Compositions; with numerous Receipts, useful to workmen generally. By J, Stokes. Illustrated, A New Edition, with an Appendix upon French Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, etc., etc. i2mo $1.25 STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS: Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 25 of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto $3-00 SULZ. — A Treatise on Beverages: Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full Instructions for Laboratory^ Work with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated Drinks, Mineral Waters, Flavoring Extracts, Syrups, etc. By Charles Herman Sulz, Tech- nical Chemist and Practical Bottler. Illustrated by 428 Engravings. 818 pp. 8vo $7-50 SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science: By David Syme. i2mo $2.00 TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC. By Measurement. Cloth 63 TEMPLETON.— The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-Engine: With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, Engineer. i2mo $1.00 THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : A Concise Hand-book on Tool-Steel in General. Its Treat- ment in the Operations of Forging, Annealing, Hardening, Tempering, etc., and the x^ppliances Therefor. By Otto Thallner, Manager in Chief of the Tool-Steel Works, Bis- marckhutte, Germany. From the German by William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 69 Engravings. 194 pages. 8vo. 1902 $2.00 THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elaborated from personal experience by Julius E. Thausing, Professor at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, near Vienna. Translated from the Ger- man by William T. Brannt. Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. Schwarz and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo. 815 pages $10.00 TOMPKINS.— Cotton and Cotton Oil: Cotton: Planting, Cultivating, Harvesting and Preparation for Market. Cotton Seed Oil Mills: Organization, Construc- tion and Operation. Cattle Feeding: Production of Beef and Dairy Products, Cotton Seed Meal and Hulls as Stock 26 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE Feed. Fertilizers: Manufacture, Manipulation and Uses. By D. A. Tompkins. 8vo. 494 pp. Illustrated $7.50 TOMPKINS.— Cotton Mill, Commercial Features: A Text-Book for the Use of Textile Schools and Investors. With Tables showing Cost of Machinery and Equipments for Mills making Cotton Yarns and Plain Cotton Cloths. By D. A. Tompkins. 8vo. 240 pp. Illustrated $5.00 TOMPKINS.— Cotton Mill Processes and Calculations: An Elementary Text-Book for the Use of Textile Schools and for Home Study. By D. A. Tompkins. 312 pp. 8vo. Illustrated $5.00 turner;s (the companion:) Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccen- tric Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and In- struments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter,. Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. i2mo $1.00 VAN CLE VE.— The English and American Mechanic: Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufacturer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo $2.00 VAN DER BURG.— School of Painting for the Imitation of Woods and Marbles: A Complete, Practical Treatise on the Art and Craft of Grain- ing and Marbling with the Tools and Appliances. 36 Plates. Folio, 12x20 inches $6. 00 VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures: Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With Illustrations. l2mo I1.25 VOGDES.— The Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Com- panion and Price- Book: Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Deci- mals, Duodecimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of United States Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strength, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quanti- ties of Materials in given Sizes and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also. Rules for Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, Revised, and Corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full- bound, pocketbook form, gilt edges $2.00 Cloth $1.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 27 WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examina- tion of Soils: Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical Analysis and Physical Investigation. 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Illus- trated. 8vo $2.00 WILSON.— The Practical Tool-Maker and Designer: A Treatise upon the Designing of Tools and Fixtures for Machine Tools and Metal Working Machinery, Comprising Modern Examples of Machines with Fundamental Designs for Tools for the Actual Production of the work; Together with Special Reference to a Set of Tools for Machining the Various Parts of a Bicycle. Illustrated by 189 Engravings (1898) $2.50 CONTENTS: Introductory, Chapter I. Modern Tool Room and Equipment. 11. Files, Their Use and Abuse. IIL Steel and Tempering. IV. Making Jigs. V. Milling Machine Fixtures. VI. Tools and Fixtures for Screw Machines. VII. Broaching. VIII. Punches and Dies for Cut- ting and Drop Press. IX. Tools for Hollow-Ware. X. Embossing: Metal, Coin and Stamped Sheet-Metal Ornaments. XI. Drop Forging. XII- Solid Drawn Shells or Ferrules; Cupping or Cutting, and Drawing; Break- ing Down Shells. XIII. Annealing, Pickling, and Cleaning. XIV. Tools for Draw Bench. XV. 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THE SOAP MAKER'S HAND BOOK OF MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND RECEIPTS FOR EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SOAP INCLUDING FATS, FAT OILS, AND FATTY ACIDS ; EXAMINATION OF FATS AND OILS ; ALKALIES ; TESTING SODA AND POTASH ; MACHINES AND UTENSILS J HARD SOAPS ; SOFT SOAPS ; TEXTILE SOAPS ; WASHING POWDERS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS ; TOILET SOAPS, MEDICATED SOAPS, AND SOAP SPECIALTIES ; ESSENTIAL OILS AND OTHER PERFUMING MATERIALS ; TESTING SOAPS. EDITED CHIEFLY FROM THE GERMAN OF DR. C. DEITE, A. ENGELHARDT, F. WILTNER, AND NUMEROUS OTHER EXPERTS. WITH ADDITIONS BY WILLIAM T. BRANNT, EDITOR OF "THE TECHNO CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK." ILLUSTRATED BY FIFTY-FOUR ENGRAVINGS. SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND IN GREAT PART RE-WRITTEN. KIRKS CUPOLA FURNACE. An Eminently f Practical^ JJp-to-Date Book^ by an Expert, Third Thoroughly Mevised and Partly Me-wiHtten Edition. In one volume, Svo., 482 pages, illustrated by one hundred and side engravitigs. Price $S»50, Free of Postage to any Address in the World, or by Express C. O, D., freight paid to any Address in the United States or Canada, PUBLISHED AUGUST, 1910. THE CUPOLA FURNACE A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOUNDRY CUPOLAS: COMPRISING IMPROVEMENTS IN CUPOLAS AND METHODS OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGE- MENT; TUYERES; MODERN CUPOLAS; CUPOLA FUELS; FLUXING OF IRON; GETTING UP CUPOLA STOCK; RUNNING A CONTINUOUS STREAM; SCIENTIFICALLY DESIGNED cupolas; SPARK-CATCIIING DEVICES; BLAST-PIPES AND BLAST; BLOWERS; FOUNDRY TRAM RAIL, ETC., ETC. BY EDWARD KIRK, PRACTICAL MOULDER AND MELTER, CONSULTING EXPERT IN MELTING. Author of " The Founding of Metals^'' and of Numerous Papers on Cupola Practice, ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND SIX ENGRAVINGS. THIRD THOROUGHLY REVISED AND PARTLY RE-WRiTTEN EDITION. KIRK'S FOUNDRY IRONS. A Practical, Up-'to-Date Book, by the well known Eocpert, In, one volume, 8vo, 294 jMiges, illustrated. Price $3.00 net, Free of Postage to any Address in the World, or hy Express <7. O. JO,, freight paid to any Address in the United States or Canada, PUBLISHED JUNE, 1911. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON FOUNDRY IRONS: COMPRISING PIG IRON, AND FRACTURE GRADING OF PIG AND SCRAP IRONS ; SCRAP IRONS ; MIXING IRONS ; ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS ; GRADING IRON BY ANALYSIS ; CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS ; TESTING CAST IRON ; SEMI- STEEL ; MALLEABLE IRON; ETC., ETC. BY EDWARD KIRK, PRACTICAL MOULDER AND MELTER; CONSULTING EXPERT IN MELTING- AUTHOR OF "the cupola furnace," and of numerous PAPERS ON CUPOLA PRACTICE. ILLUSTRATED BRANNTS DRY CLEANER. The only book including Hat Cleaning and Meno- vating in any language, in one volmne, 12mo, 371 pages, illustrated. Price $2.50 7iet, Free of postage to any address in the world, or by express freight paid to any address in the Unifed States or Canada. PUBLISHED OCTCEER, 1911. THE PRACTICAL DRY CLEANER, SCOURER, AND GARMENT DYER: COMPRISING DRY, CHEMICAL, OR FRENCH CLEANING; PURIFICATION OF BENZINE; REMOVAL OF STAINS, OR SPOTTING; WET CLEANING; FINISHING CLEANED FABRICS; CLEANING AND DVEING FURS, SKIN RUGS AND MATS; CLEANING AND DYKING FEATHERS; CLEANING AND RENOVATING FELT, STRAW AND PANAMA HATS; BLEACHING AND DVEING STRAW AND STRAW HATS; CLEANING AND DVEING GLOVES; GARMENT DYEING; STRIPPING; ANALYSIS OF TEXTILE FABRICS. EDITED BY WILLIAM T. BRANNT, EDITOR OF "the TECHNO-CHEMICAL KECEFPT BOOK." FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED, ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO, INDUSTRL^L PLBLISHEES, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 810 WALNUT .^ TREET. ion. 8H- 63-5/08