■"«^ >^^^^' ' '■'*i> V L st'L t -«= A«^ :-;;>^.^S'j'.r I' INTRODUCTION Study of North American Archaeology. BY PROF. CYRUS THOMAS, Author of "Report on Mound Explorations" (Twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology); "Catalogue of Prehistoric Works East of the Rocky Mountains"; "A Study of the Manuscript Troano"; "Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United States"; "Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices"; "Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican Manuscripts"; "Problem of the Ohio Mounds"; "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times"; etc. CINCINNATI: THK ROBKIiT CLARKE COMPANY 1903. CuPYRIGJIT. lS9i-, By Tuk Robert Clarke Company. MAJOR JOHN WESLEY POWELL, To uhijse fficAent work as Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology stxidents of ethnolo'jy are so largely indebted fur thf rtrent additions made to the data relating to Xorth America; and to whose aid and encouragement is mainly due whatever success the vriter tnay have achieved 1)1 )iis special line, Cbis work is rcapcctfully dedicated liv THE Author. PREFACE. Tlie little volume herewith presented to the public is a brief resume of the progress which has been made, up to the present time, in the investigation and study of North American archaeology. The in- creased activity among students devoting attention to the subject, the numerous explorations made, the rapid accumulation of data and the flood of light thrown on the questions relating to prehistoric North America since the publication of the last general work relating thereto, call for a new summary. Whether the work now offered meets this demand must be left for the readers to decide. That some parts of the broad field have been left unnoticed is admitted, the attention being confined chiefly to tlie more important characteristic features, as those best calculated to form an Introduction to the subject ; and as best calculated to interest the reader and younger students. With such an object in view, pages broken or interrupted by foot-notes are not only out of })lace, but often serve to break tlie thread the reader is following, or prove an interrui)tion to liis line of thought ; reference notes have therefore been entirely omitted. The opinion held by Maj. .J. W. Powell that the vi Preface. Indians found inhabiting the Atlantic division of North America and their ancestors were the builders of the mounds in that region, which the explorations of the Bureau of American Ethnology under his charge have done much to confirm, has been adopted. And, in general, the conclusions reached by the Bureau of American Ethnology in reference to questions re- lating to language and archaeology, so far as these ex- tend, have been accepted and used as a basis for further steps in the investigation. But the author alone must be held responsible for any views advanced herein which have not been generally accepted, or in regard to which there are different opinions. I take pleasure in acknowledging here tlie favors I have received from Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and Prof. W. J. McGee, Ethnologist in Charge, in the use of books,, pamphlets and other literary aids needed in my work,, and the privilege of obtaining numerous electrotypes, of the illustrations herein used, favors, however, which have always been willingly extended to all co- workers. I also wisli to acknowledge the favors re- ceived from Prof. W. H. Holmes, in the privilege of copying illustrations of and profuse borrowing from liis late work on the cities of Mexico, published by tlio Field Columliian Museum ; also to Mr. F. W. Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for information communicated and papers furnished relating to the Preface. vii Pueblo region. In addition to the illustrations ob- tained from the Bureau publications, others have been copied from figures in the U.S. Geological Sur- vey, National Museum, etc. Acknowledgment to the various authors from whose works information has been drawn will be found in the text, the authors' names from whose works and papers illustrations have been obtained either directly or indirectly, are added after the numbers in the list of illustrations, the original being referred to where it is possible. The numbers in the list of illustrations not followed by the author's name are either original figures, modifications of other figures, or theoretical restora- tions by the present writer. CONTENTS. Preliminary Observations — i-aoe The object, scope and plan of the work 1 Materials for Study and Classification 8 Methods of Study 22 Abctic Division — Monuments and local antiquities 35 Implements, ornaments, etc 40 Culture home of the Eskimo 43 Atlantic Division 48 Monuments and local antiquities 50 Mounds 51 Burial mounds * (il Vessels, implements and ornaments 70 Pottery 87 Long-necked bottles 94 The gulf province 97 Pipes 98 Articles of shell. . . 103 Textile fabrics 108 Copper articles 109 Articles of stone 113 Inclosures and pyramidal mounds 117 Prehistoric movements of population 121 Hut-rinjrs and house-sites 132 Antiquity and authors of the mounds I.iS Duration of the mound-building age 147 IndoBurts and other mural works l."ij X Contents. PAGE. Pacific Division 16D North Pacific section — Athapascan region 170 North Pacific coast 176 California section 187 Prehistoric movements of population 200 Intermontane or pueblo section. 203 Cave-dwellings 205 CliflT-dwellings 208 Ruins on the plateaus and in the valleys 215 Gila valley and Chihuahua 221 Builders of the cliff-houses 229 Mexican section — civilization 233 Monuments of southern Mexico 252 Monuments of southern Mexico— continued 264 Monuments of Central America 276 Chichen-Itza, Tikal and Copan 296 Migrations of the Mexican and Central American tribes 312 ^Migrations of certain Mayan tribes 328 Origin and development of Central American civilization. . . .339 Priests, hieroglyphs and calendar .356 CONCLCSION 368 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 1. Bone spear head, Eskimo. (Dall.) .S7 2. Stone lamp, Eskimo. (Dall.) 37 3. Labret, Eskimo. (Dall.) 38 4. Remains of an ancient Eskimo house. (Boas.) 39 5. Ulu, or woman's knife, Eskimo. (Mason.) 41 6. Soapstone pot, Eskimo. (Murdoch.) 42 7. Hafted jade adze, Eskimo. (Murdoch.) 42 8. Skin scraper, Eskimo. (Murdoch.) 43 9. Flint flaker, Eskimo. (Murdoch.) 43 10. Plat of mound group, Wisconsin. (Thomas.). 52 11. Terraced mound, Arkansas. (Thomas.) 54 12. Elephant mound, "Wisconsin. (Thomas.) 56 13. Group of chain mounds, Wisconsin. (Thomas.) 57 14. Section of Mississippi mound. (Thomas.) 63 15. Section of mound in eastern Tennessee. (Thomas.) 66 16. Earthern pot, eastern Tennessee. (Thomas.) 67 17. Shell ear ornament or hair pin. North Carolina. (Thomas, i. 67 18. Engraved shell, North Carolina. (Thomas.) 6S 19. Soapstone pipe, east Tennessee. (Thomas. ) 6S 20. Beehive vaults. North Carolina. (Thomas.) 69 21. Soapstone pipe. North Carolina. ^Thomas.) 70 22. Stone-grave cemetery, Illinois. (Thomas.) 72 23. Triangular pit. North Carolina. (Thomas.) 80 24. Position of skeletons in an east Tenno8.see inound. (Thomas.) sr-, 25. Copper hawk's-bell, east Tennessee. (Thomas.) 8»i 26. Clay vessel, Canada. ( Boyle. ) 88 I xi ! xii List of Illustrations. PAGE. 27. Outline figures of bowls. (Holmes.) 8^ 28. Ornamental bowl, Tennessee. (Thruston. ) 89 29. Animal-shaped bowl, Arkansas. (Holmes.) 90 30. Bird-shai)9(l bowl, Arkansas. (Holmes.) 90 31. Pot-shaped vessel, Arkansas. (Holmes.) 91 32. Pot-shaped vessel, west Tennessee. (Holmes.) 91 33. Wide-mouthed bottles. (Holmes.) 92 34. (a) Oppossum vase, Arkansas. (Holmes.) 92 (b) Sunfish vase, Arkansas. (Holmes.) 93 35. Bowl representing the human head, Arkansas. (Holmes.). 93 36. Winged and crested rattlesnake design, Ark. (Holmes.). 94 37. Outline figures of long-necked bottles. (Holmes.) 94 38. Eccentric shapes in long-necked bottles. (Holmes.) 94 39. Owl-shaped bottle, east Tennessee. (Thomas.) 95 40. Burial urn, Georgia. (Jones.) 97 41. Vessel with four legs, Georgia. (Jones.) 97 42. (a and b) Stemless pipes. (Boyle.) 99 43. Image pipe, Georgia. (Thomas.) 99 44. Image pipe, Arkansas. (Thomas.) 100 45. (a, b and c) Short-necked pipes. (Thomas.) 100 4G. " Monitor " pipe 101 47. Engraved shell, Arkansas. (Thomas.) 104 48. Shell gorget, Tennessee. (Jones.) lOft 49. Shell gorget, Georgia. (Thomas.) 106 50. Figured copper plate, Georgia. (Thomas.) Ill 51. Figured copper plate, Illinois. (Thomas.) 112 52. Figured copper plate, Illinois. (Thomas.) 112 53. Stone image, Tennessee. (Thomas.) 114 54. Stone image, Tennessee. (Thomas.) 114 55. Banner stones 115 56. Arrow heads. (Mercer.) 116 57. Mound with graded way, Georgia. (Thomas.) . . 118 58. Double terraced mound, Arkansas. (Thomas.) 119 59. l^elsertown mound, Mississippi. (Thomas. j 120 60. Nowark works, ( )hio. (Thomas.) 122 List of Illustrations. xiii PAGE. 61. " Hill Fort," Ohio. (Thomas.) 126 62. Linn works, Illinois. (Thomas.) 128 63. "Angel mounds," Indiana. (Thomas.) 130 64. House site, Arkansas. (Thomas.) 134 65. Supposed method of lathing houses. (Thomas.) 135 66. Surface effigy, South Dakota. (Thomas. ) 149 67. Den^ stone war club, British America. (^lorice.) 173 68. Stone war club, Colorado. ( Wickersham. ) 173 69. North-west coast pictograph. (Niblack.) 178 70. Ceremonial dress of Chilkat chief, north-west coast. (Niblack.) 178 71. Totem posts of north-west coast. (Niblack.) 179 72. Relics from southern California 188 73. Manner of walling up the front of a cave-dwelling. (Holmes.) 207 74. Cliff-dwelling on the Rio Mancos. (Holmes.) 210 75. Ruins at Aztec Springs. (Holmes.) 216 76. Village group, Arizona. (Mindeleff.) 218 77. Ground plan of the Pueblo Bonito. (Jackson.) 219 78. Ground plan of Casas Grandes. (Bandolier.) 224 79. Ground plan of a building at Casas Grandes. (Bartlett.). . 228 80. Mayan day symbols 242 81 . Mexican day symbols 242 82. Part of the inscription of the Tablet of the Cross, Palen- que. (Photograph.) 24(> 83. Pyramid at Los J^dificios 253 84. Sculptured column, Tula 1 257 85. Ruins of Teotihuacan. ( Holmes.) 25S 86. Ground plan of Teotihuacan building. ( Holmes.) 261 87. Ruins of the temple of Xochicalco. (Nadaillac: " L'Am. Prehist.") 2(w 88. Ruins at Mitla. (Holmes.) 2t;<» 89. Room with columns, .Mitla. (Holmes, i 271 1(0. Fretwork in the grand palace, Mitla. (Holmes.) 21'2 m. Painted designs, Mitla. (Holmes.) 273 xiv List of Illustrations. PAGE. 92. Plan of the ruins at Palenque. (Holmes.) 278 93. Ground plan of the palace, Palenque. (Holmes.) 279 94. Cross-section of palace, Palenque. (Holmes.) 280 95. Part of Palenque palace restored 281 96. Ground plans of Temples at Palenque. (Holmes.) 282 97. Sculptured lintel, Lorillard City. (Photograph.) 286 98. Plan of ruins at Uxraal. (Holmes.) 289 99. Ornamentation on the governor's palace, TJxmal. (Holmes.) 290 ICO. Section of the Casa del Gobernador. (Holmes.) 292 101. Ornamentation on the nun's palace, Uxmal. (Holmes.).. 293 102. Ground plan of nunnery, Chichen-Itza. (Holmes.) 298 103. Elephant trunk figure, Yucatan 299 104. Vertical section of the Caracol, or tower, Chichen-Itza. (Holmes.) 299 105. Ground plan of the tower, Chichen-Itza. (Holmes.) 300 106. Atlantean figure, Chichen-Itza. (Holmes.) 301 107. Ground plan of ruins, Copan. (Maudslay.) .... 308 108. Vertical section, main group, Copan, (Maudslay.) 309 PUBLIC LIBRARY INTRODUCTION Study of North American Archaeology CHAPTER L PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Archaeology in its widest sense and by derivation includes the investigation of the origin, language, be- liefs, customs, arts — every thing, in a word, tliat can be learned of the ancient life of a people. It is in this sense that it is used in tlie title of this work, and not in the more limited scope to which its modern use has a tendency to restrict it, notwithstanding the ef- forts of lexicographers to retain its original meaning. The work is intended really as an introduction to tlie study of prehistoric Nortli America, of the people as well as the monuments. To gather and describe an- tiquities, altliough thoroughly and intelligently done, is by no means all of archaeology. True, tliese are to archaeology what the unfashionod and unadjusted materials of which the house is to be ])uilt are to the house, but they are not the house. The monuments are the tombs of past ages ; tlie work of archaeology in its broad sense is to revivify the dead, to put life into the past, and, so far as possible, to bring before 1 2 Study of North American Archaeology . the mind the ancient people with their activities, characteristics and customs. In other words, the chief object in view in the study of archaeology is the man of bygone ages. It is with this idea in view that this Introduction to the Study of North American Archaeology has been written, but only as an intro- duction^ for the field is too broad to be covered in one small volume. The problems which confront the student of Ameri- can archaeology are exceedingly difficult, and some of them seemingly beyond the possibility of solution be- cause of the sheer break between the historic and prehistoric eras. Omitting the discovery of Greenland and possibly the north-east coast of the continent by the Northmen in the tenth or eleventh century, which left no impress, the history of the western world be- gins with the discovery of the West Indies by Colum- bus in 1492 ; all that lie back of that date belong to the prehistoric era, a gloom, so to speak, unlight- ened by a single deciphered page of history. In the Old World there are few regions in regard to whose past there are no recorded hints which can bo used as stepping stones in the backward march ; in other words, history and prehistory are dovetailed, so to speak, one with another, but not so in the New World. These difficulties have possibly caused more than one student to feel as Palgrave, who, in apparent de- spair over the unsatisfactory results of the efforts, up to his day, to lift the veil which shuts out the j^ast, ex- claims : "We must give it up, that speechless past; whether fact or chronology, doctrine or mythology ; whether in Europe, Asia, Africa or America; at Preliminary Observations. 3 Tliebes or Palenque, on Lyciaii shore or Salisbury Plains; lost is lost, gone is gone forever." But a different spirit animates the students of the present day, the very difficulties in the way are themselves so many incentives to attacks. What seemed beyond human reach to the London antiquary and historian sixty years ago, is deemed by scholars of the closing years of the nineteenth century to be, in a large de- gree, attainable. The veil, which Palgrave looked upon as fixed and immovable, has been lifted at nu- merous points and rays of light let in upon the past. Some of the problems which were, fifty years ago, yea, but twenty-five, deemed impossible of solution, have been satisfactorily solved, and have now become foundation stones in the archaeological structure. It is true, as Sir John Lubbock remarks : "Li at- tempting to reconstruct the story of the past, students have too often allowed imagination to usurp the place of research, and have written in the spirit of the nov- elist rather than in that of the philosopher." The liundreds of dust-coverod works on tlio subject of pre- Columbian America, and the origin of its people, wliich now lie, well nigh forgotten, on the shelves of libraries, bear testimony to the trutli of this remark, as do also the numerous discarded tlieories relating thereto. Nevertheless theories will continue to be ad- vanced, indeed must be if progress is made in the study of the past, especially wliere so many links of the chain are still wanting as in American archae- ology. The investigating s|)irit of the age will not brook delay ; wherever there is an unbroken field some scientific i)low is sure to enter, though but poorly equipped for the woi-k. However, of late v(>ars more 4 Study of North American Archaeology. strict methods of approaching the many problems in- volved have been introduced, and now, instead of at- tempting by imagination or theorizing to reach con- clusions at once, slow and patient investigation is the process pursued. The spade has to a large extent re- placed the pen, and instead of building theories chiefly by imagination, there is a careful sifting of all the evidence which appears to have any bearing on the subject. The fragments of data are fitted to- gether and tentative theories deduced simply as a plan of further progress, often however to be cast aside or modified, as new material, which will not readily drop into place, is discovered. As no intelligent student will continue his investi- gations of the ancient monuments for any consider- able length of time without forming theories in regard to the uses, age and authors of the works examined, it is all important to his progress to know which of the questions that arise have been completely or par- tially answered, and to ascertain which of the numer- ous theories advanced in regard to the various ques- tions have been definitely eliminated by universal consent from the class possessing elements of possi- bility. This knowledge will clear from his pathway much of the rubbish which would otherwise encumber it. Another important point is to know the lines along wliich the opposing views are being pushed by their respective advocates. Although it is undoubtedly the part of wisdom to hold in restraint the disposition to theorize, this knowledge directs the careful student's attention to numerous points which might otherwise be overlooked in his investigations. It is for this reason that the author of this little work has ventured Preliminary Observations. 5 to briefly outline the theories relating to some of the more important problems which must confront the student of American archaeology. The chief object, however, will be to present the data, and to arrange them so as to afford the student some means of bring- ing into harmony and utilizing his facts and materials. But as it is manifestly impossible to present in a single small volume a full account of the archaeologic remains of the continent, and discuss all the questions which arise in connection therewith, only those con- sidered the best representatives of the leading types and those which best illustrate the art, customs and culture status of the former inliabitants will be re- ferred to. The writer, as those who peruse this work will ob- serve, has not entered into a discussion of the question of the so-called paleolithic age, or glacial man in America, for the reason that he does not believe the evidence on which the theory is based, as yet sufficient to justify its acceptance. The results of the more re- cent investigations in America, or at least North America, all tend in the otlior direction. One by one the strongholds of the advocates are being overturned, and the evidence on which the theory is based dis- counted. The author feels constrained to the belief that peopled America though old in years bears no- where sucli marks of antiquity as are to bo found in some parts of the Eastern Continent. To accept tlio antiquity wliicli has been assigned l)y the advocates of this theory to the early inliabitants would, as the writer thinks, require in order to be consistent an en- tire recasting of all the more stable theories which have been propounded. "Paleolithic" as a descriptive 6 Study of North American Archaeology. term is of minor importance, but as a theory which would cany back the presence of man in America to that immensely distant era which has been assigned is a very different thing. Mr. Keary remarks in the opening paragraph of the second chapter of his "Dawn of History" that "Between the earlier and later stone age, between man of the drift period and man of the neolithic era occurs a vast blank which we can not fill in. We bid adieu to the primitive inhabitants of our earth while they are still the contemporaries of the mam- moth and woolly rhinoceros, or of the cave lion and the cave bear, and while the very surface of the earth wears a different aspect from what it now wears. With a changed condition of things, with a race of animals which differed not essentially from those known to us, and with a settled conformation of lands and seas not again to be departed from, comes before us the second race of man — man of the polished stone age." It is true that it is claimed by some European authors that this hiatus is not so real as it at first appears to be, and that it has been partially bridged over by some recent finds. But the effort to bridge the chasm shows too clearly to bo misunder- stood that it is tliere, and so long as it remains un- closed is a weak point, if not fatal flaw, in the theory. We accept as correct the idea advanced by Mr. A. H. Keane in his "Ethnology," that appeal to tradi- tional movements and other traditional data will liave no bearing upon the question of the origin of the people of America unless paleolithic man in America is abandoned. So believing, though we do not pro- pose to discuss this question of the original peopling Preliminary Observations. 7 of the continent, we put aside glacial or paleolithic man of America as yet wanting in the credentials which entitle him to a place in scientific circles. The history of tlie western continent is supposed to begin with its discovery by Columbus at the close of the fifteenth century, all that antedate that event being considered prehistoric. While this is true in the broad and general sense in which it is used, yet, strictly speaking, the history of the different sections begins ^yiib. the first knowledge of them obtained by Europeans. Hence the border line between the his- toric and prehistoric eras varies in date according to the section referred to. The Ohio valley, for example, was terra incognita to the civilized world for a century after Cortez entered the capital of Anahuac. That which lies back of this border line belongs to the pre- historic era, and the student who would penetrate the mystery of that past must examine and carefully study the monuments ; listen to the traditions which have floated down tlie ages ; gather the folk-lore tales ; and compare tlie customs, arts, and beliefs of the tribes as first soon and learned . He must study the native form and lineaments, and trace by linguistic evidence the relationship of trii)es and groups ; for in America there is no scafi'olding of history to assist liim as in the Old World. The transition from the j)rohistoric to the historic was, from the V(>ry nature of the case, sudden, there being no true proto-historic period. Study of North American Archaeology. CHAPTER II. MATERIALS FOR STUDY CLASSIFICATION. When Columbus sailed among the Antilles, Cortez landed on the coast of Mexico, when Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence and De Soto traversed the Gulf States, each and all found the regions they visited inhabited by people of a race different from any known to the eastern continent. The discoveries which followed brought to light the fact that the lake region and the Mississippi valley were inhabited by people of the same race. Whence they came, and how long they had inhabited these regions — in other words what was their history — could not be ascer- tained, as they possessed no historical records save a few symbolic rolls and inscriptions which are as yet sealed books to scientists. The dim and shadowy traditions which they related to the European dis- coverers wera so confused and, in most cases, so fabulous as to throw but little light on these ques- tions. And what was found to be true of the regions mentioned was found to be true in a general sense of the entire continent. Tlie most important variation discovered was the evidence of more advanced culture in certain areas, as Mexico, Central America, and Peru. The people, however, though split into numer- ous stocks and tribes, and differing in minor respects, belonged apparently to the same race, its members being popularly known as "Indians" or "American Indians." Materials for Study — Classification. 9 In these facts we have one fundamental point with which no correct conclusion in regard to the pre- historic times of the continent can be at variance. The natives were here and must be recognized by every theory, must be a factor in every general con- clusion. The chief fundamental factor in the study of ar- chaeology is found in the monuments. "The teach- ings of material relics," truly remarks one author, "so far as they go, are irrefutable. Real in them- selves, they impart an air of reality to the study of tlie past." These are indisputable products of human activity, and have imprinted upon them, as it were, the ideas and conceptions of a bygone age. They are records in which we may read not only the culture- status of that past age, but also much in regard to the customs and beliefs of the people. For these reasons attention is directed to them as the chief foundation stones on which our archaeological struc- ture must be built. Although the monuments furnish the chief and most reliable data to the archaeologist, and throw more light on the customs, arts and beliefs of the people, and reveal more in regard to tlie life of tlie individual and family than any other aids, they are not the only helps he finds in his endeavor to pene- trate the unwritten past. Language, wliich is also reliable, enables him to determine the affinity of tribes and peoples. By this means he can often say with positive certainty that widely separated tribes or groups have, in the past, sundered relations with the great body of tlieir kindred and souglit distant homes. He has ascertained by this m«\'ins tliat the 10 Study of North American Archaeology. Apaches and Nayajos of New Mexico, Arizona, and Northern Mexico are offshoots from the great Athapas- can family of Northern British America, and that the Arapahos and BLackfeet Indians of the western plains arc members of the Algonquian stock which spread over North America from the Atlantic coast to the Kocky Mountains. Thus he is enabled to trace with more or less accuracy the lines of prehistoric migra- tion, and outline the general trend in ancient move- ments of population. Traditions, although less reliable than the monu- ments and language, furnish some data to the archae- ologist which frequently serve to explain otherwise uncertain evidence, and lead to satisfactory conclu- sions. Folk-lore, mythology and customs sometimes indicate former contact or relationship not otherwise revealed, and explain many otherwise puzzling monu- ments and relics. Craniology is strongly appealed to by European ethnologists as an important factor in this study, but the results so far obtained, except in cases of artificial pressure, are too unsatisfactory to justify its use except in broad generalizations, and then only as cumulative evidence. This, the writer is well aware, is in conflict with the views of a num- ber of leading ethnologists ; nevertheless he feels jus- tified in making this statement deliberately to the younger students of American archaeology. The wide differences in many respects between the monumental remains of the Old "World and those of the New, and also between the data relating thereto, call for a widely different method of study. Even the classification and nomenclature of the former are not adapted to the latter. The arrangement into four Materials for Study — Classification. 11 classes or ages — the Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and Iron — is conceded to be inapplicable to America. Evidence of the two stone ages may possibly be found, though still denied by a number of our leading archaeologists, and a copper age may be substituted for the bronze, but the similarity ^vill extend no further. The use of iron as a metal was unknown in America previous to the discovery by Columbus. Copper was used to a limited extent, but it is ex- tremely doubtful whether the method of manufactur- ing bronze had been discovered at any point on tlie continent. Stone was the chief reliance until tlie in- troduction of European implements. Tlie archae- ologic remains of the former, taken as a whole, are so widely different from those of America, that tlie nomenclature of the one, except as applied to some of the ruder objects, is totally inapplicable to those of the other. It has therefore been found necessary, in studying the archaeology of America, to proceed upon an independent line and to adopt an original basis and a new nomenclature. Although this limits the range of any classificatory system wliicli may be attempted, it falls far short of do- ing away with the difficulties the American archaeolo- gist is compelled to encounter. Not only is he con- fronted ])y tlie fact, as apparent in tlie Old World as in the New, tliat arcliaeology, even wliere it lias been longest studied, has not reached that stage wliere it may be termed a true science, the general principles of which by modification may apply to any sec- tion or country, but also by a multiplicity of objects so variant in form and character, and usually in such a fragmentary condition as, without a knowledge of 12 Study of North American Archaeology. their uses, to baffle his attempts at a systematic classi- fication. Nadaillac, alluding to the various forms of American antiquities, remarks that "these facts will show how very difficult, not to say impossible, is any classification," a statement which any one who at- tempts a systematic arrangement will be disposed to accept as true. When dealing with a limited area where the types are somewhat similar, classification to some extent is possible and advantageous, but the attempt to apply it to the entire continent will prove abortive. However, as some grouping is necessary in order to facilitate reference and comparison, in the absence of a scientific arrangement we must have re- course to an arbitrary scheme. As the author has as yet seen no better arrangement of primary groups than that suggested in his "Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of American Ethnology," published in the 12th Annual Report of the Bureau, it is adopted here. By this the objects are divided, in a broad and com- prehensive sense, into three classes. 1. Monuments (in the limited sense), or local antiqui- ties. This division or class includes all those antiqui- ties that are fixed or stationary, which necessarily pertain to a particular locality or place. 3. Relics and Remains, or movable antiquities. Those not fixed and which have no necessary connection with a particular locality. 3. Paleographic Objects. Inscriptions, picture writ- ings, etc., whether on fixed or transportable objects. Tins is, of course, an arbitrary arrangement, the thii'd group being unnecessary except as a matter of convenience ; however it appears to be a practical Materials for Study — Classification. 13 working system by whicli the lines of distinction are somewhat rigidly drawn. Moreover it is adapted to the two methods of investigation and study, viz., in the field and in the museum, and is in line with Dr. Moriz Hoernes' suggestion that, in studying archaeological objects, attention should be given to the "Typographic and Museographic order." The first class does not appear to be susceptible of arrangement into satisfactory primary divisions. The only plan which as yet seems possible is to arrange them by types, chiefly according to form, where the object and use are not apparent, or known. The objects of the second class may be grouped into two divisions : 1. Remains, including human and animal remains ; 2. Relics, including all other mova- ble antiquities. The further division of the second group is largely typological, reference being made to use so far as this is evident. Partly because of the difficulties in the way of a satisfactory and useful classification, and partly be- cause the chief object of archaeologic investigations is to learn what is possible in regard to the life, char- acter, activities and racial affinity of the former in- habitants of given sections, it has been found most advantageous to study the monuments according to the culture areas, so far as these can be determined approximately from the data which have been ob- tained. As it is practically impossible to make any satisfac- tory classification of the antiquities of the whole con- tinent, further than into the primary classes msti- gations of late years. Therefore tlie natives ;is will 24 Study of North American Archaeology. as the monuments must be studied, and the language, physical traits, customs, traditions, mythology and folk-lore of the natives are important factors which the student must bring to his aid. Another fact which should be borne in mind by the student is the danger of basing conclusions on ab- normal objects, or on one or two unusual types. Take for example the supposed elephant mound of Wiscon- sin which has played such an important role in most of the works relating to the mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, but is now generally conceded to be the effigy of a bear, the snout, the elephantine feature, resulting from drifting sand. Stones bearing inscriptions in Hebrew or other Old World characters have at last been banished from the list of prehistoric relics. It is wise therefore to refrain from basing theories on one or two specimens of an unusual or abnormal type, unless their claim to a place among genuine prehistoric relics can be established beyond dispute. It is unfortunate that many of the important arti- cles found in the best museums of our country are without a history that will justify their acceptance, without doubt, as genuine antiquities. It is safe therefore to base important conclusions only on monu- ments in reference to which there is no doubt, and on articles whose history, as regards the finding, is fully known, except where the type is well established from genuine antiquities. One of the best recent works on ancient America is marred to some extent by want of this precaution. Mounds and ancient works are de- scribed and figured which do not and never did exist ; Metliods of Study. 25 and articles are represented whicli are modern pro- ductions. The method of study to be pursued depends very largely upon the extent to which it is to be carried and the lines to be followed. For the general reader and the individual who desires to obtain only a gen- eral knowledge of the subject, and for the student who studies the subject merely as a collateral branch, the writer trusts that this work will suffice. But for him who wishes to enter more into details, it can only be what it purports to be, an introduction to the study. For the latter class, a general knowledge of what has been accomplished is necessary in order to avoid wast- ing time and energy in going over beaten paths. The student devoting attention to local archaeology, that is, to the monuments and remains of a particular district, will, of course, acquaint himself first with the investigations which have been previously made in that district. However, this does not end with merely ascertaining what monuments have been discovered and located, which of tliem have been explored and what relics and remains have been obtained, but in- cludes a careful study of the types and their relation to the types of the immediately surrounding regions, as archaeology, as a science, if it can be so called, is based largely on analogy. In this way he determines what are the prevailing types of the district and wliat are peculiar to it if there be any ; but this investiga- tion in reference to a limited district or to particular classes of anti(juities must descend to mon^ minute details than will be necessary in making a general survey of the anticjuities of a more extended area. It may, perhaps, be truly said tliat we are just en- 26 Study of North American Archaeology. tering upon this stage of archaeologic progress, and yet upon the result of such investigations must de- pend the answers to some of the important problems relating to the prehistoric times of the various sections of our continent. Among the most abundant and generally distributed classes of prehistoric artefacts are arrow- and spear-points ; and though the varieties seemingly baffle attempts at classification, it will probably be possible to determine all the types of a limited district and thus obtain one means of com- parison with the archaeology of surrounding areas. Celts will afford another means of comparison, and so on through the entire list both of monuments and relics. However, in order to study the monuments properly and their bearing on the questions relating to the pre- historic times of the given locality, mapping is an im- portant step. A local worker should have a map of his district with the localities of the antiquities marked thereon with symbols indicating the types. Maps and diagrams of the groups of works are of course necessary to intelligent study. In other words, the geographical relations of ancient works in a district as well as the relations of the individual works to each other in the groups are important. Although the mounds in the groups of the mound area of tlie United States appear to be usually placed witliout re- spect to order or plan, yet in tlie soutliern states they are so arranged in many of the groups as to leave a central, open space or plaza, while in Wisconsin the arrangement in lines is an archaeological character- istic of the region. Tlie geographical distribution of types forms the chief aid in outlining culture areas. Methods of Study. 27 It is important in studying the types of the monu- ments and of the artefacts to determine the essential features of each type. It is often true, especially in the case of imitative objects, that the type is con- ventionalized to such an extent as to lose apparontly every feature of the object of which it was intended to be a representative ; yet the careful student, by tracing the variations and eliminations, will usually be able to determine the essential features and reach a correct conclusion. "Without this study unessential characteristics may be given an undue prominence. There appears to have been a strong desire on the part of the aboriginal artists to introduce the eye and other face features into the Central American hiero- glyphics, yet in many of these they are non-essentials, being simply ornamental ; and the same thing is true in regard to many other antiquities. Nevertheless, these unessential features as to the type are important in comparisons, as they assist in ascertaining affinities and derivation where the type is widely distributed. The olla or globular bowl has been and is yet a com- mon type of pottery vessel among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, yet the Indians can, in most cases, readily decide from what Pueblo a par- ticular vessel came ])y the ornamentation or other features unessential to the type. The student investigating the archaeology of a given district should, as above indicated, make himself ac- quainted, so far as the data will permit, with the liis- tory, customs, beliefs, traditions, etc., of the trilx's which have inhabited that district. Of course it does not necessarily follow because it is known tliat tlie ancestors of tlie people found inhabiting a certain ex- 28 Study of North American Archaeology. tensive section, as Central America, Mexico, the Pueblo region or the mound area, were the authors of a large portion of the monuments of that section, that the ancestors of the people found in more restricted localities were the authors of the monuments of those particular localities. There are unquestionably some monuments in southern Arizona and northern Mex- ico which can not be attributed to the ancestors of the tribes inhabiting or known to have- inhabited the par- ticular localities where these ruins are found. The same thing is true also of certain ancient works in the mound section of the United States. Although the works as a whole are attributable to the ancestors of the Indians of the section, some tribes who were mound builders may have become extinct through wars or epidemics, others may have been forced to shift position, and still other tribes may never have adopted the custom of building mounds, yet the propo- sition in its general application remains true. One object, therefore, of the local worker should be to de- termine, if possible, what tribes or people were the authors of the works of the district he is studying, whether those known to have inhabited the district, or others removed in prehistoric times. The first step in this investigation is to learn the customs, arts, etc., of the people who formerly inhabited that dis- trict, as he may thus be enabled to determine the probability that they were the authors, or to eliminate them from the investigation. The a priori presump- tion is that the local natives were the builders. Every elimination of a factor from the discussion of a prob- lem is one step toward the true solution. In the study of types the method must, of necessity, Methods of Study. 29 be very largely geographical with reference to vari- eties, if the object in view be to ascertain the distri- bution of the different varieties. If the object be simply to trace the development of the type, the geo- graphical distribution is of less importance. Mr. A. E. Douglass, of New York, who has a large private collection, suggests in regard to museum collections a double arrangement for these purposes : First, an arrangement of specimens according to geographical distribution ; and second by varieties. As the study of types necessitates the examination of specimens, this plan, where practical, would undoubtedly be ad- vantageous. One difficulty in these lines, which has not yet been overcome, is the want of a uniform and acceptable nomenclature ; but nomenclature seems impossible without classification, which has not been accomplished except in regard to limited districts. This is a desideratum to which the attention of cura- tors of museums is now being directed, and it is to be hoped, notwithstanding the difficulties in the way, that they will find some means of classifying collec- tions sufficiently to form a basis for names of types. In studying the monuments it will be found, as yet, advantageous to limit attempts at grouping or classi- ficatory arrangements to districts or sections. Com- parison can then be made with the works of other sections or districts, group with group, or class witli class. By this type generalization or aggregation the contrasts or similarities are not only more appanMit than by single comparisons, but are of mucli more im- portance. By such comparison of the works of the mound-builders with tliose of the Pueblo n^gion or Central America, the contrast is, so to speak, iiitcnsi- 30 Study of North American Archaeology. fied. Within the section or district some grouping, even though it be arbitrary, is absolutely necessary to progress, and without it discussion is impossible and general description of little value. In other words, the student can make but little progress in archaeology until he advances to what may be termed the generic stage. Mr. Holmes has adopted a most excellent method, both in his studies of the monuments and of the minor vestiges of art. He learns by a comparison of specimens or of individual monuments the essen- tial characteristics of the different types under inves- tigation ; then by means of outline figures or sketches brings the types pertaining to the same general class in their simplest form into comparison. See, for ex- ample, his comparison of types of pottery vessels of a certain class shown in our Fig. 37, and his comparison of temple plans in our Fig. 96. Although the idea is not new, his application of it to the antiquities of North America wliich he has examined is clear, and serves to illustrate a plan which may well be fol- lowed. Study may be in the field, in the museum or in the books. In the first case there are numerous practical questions wliich can be answered only by experience ; the student must therefore learn by practice or by ref- erence to the experienced field worker. The Bureau of American Ethnology receives many letters inquiring as to the best metliod of exploring (opening) and in- vestigating mounds, etc. Although the general direc- tion, to note every thing so carefully as the exploration proceeds that a complete restoration in every particu- lar could be made from these notes, would perhaps Methods of Study. 31 answer the inquiry, the following suggestions are added for the benefit of the young beginner : If the mound to be explored be one of a group, the first step is to make a full and complete description of the group, with diagram as heretofore suggested, noting carefully the topography of the area covered by the group, and of the immediately surrounding country. Tlie plan should show the correct positions of the mounds, and their form and size (diameter and height) should be noted. In addition to the measure- ment of the mound to be explored, a horizontal sec- tion showing an outline of the base as seen from the summit, and a vertical section showing the contour of the longest diameter, should be drawn on paper, and of sufficient size to note spaces thereon, of a foot measured on the ground. The north and south points should be indicated on the horizontal section. These plans are for the purpose of inserting marks indicat- ing the positions, horizontally and vertically, of the articles found as the exploration proceeds. These, with the notes naming the articles by corresponding numbers and giving the measurement as to depth and side, will be sufficient to locate the article in the mound, should its exact position ever become a ques- tion of any importance. Such a question occasionally becomes important when tlie article is found to indi- cate contact with Europeans, or is abnormal. In order to note the stratification it is best to dig a trench from side to side through tlie highest point, or center, and wliere tlie mound is of C(Misi(l('ra])le size it will be well to run another at riHit an<;l(>s to tliis. These should commence and end at the extreme outer margins of the mound and be carried down to the 32 Study of North American Archaeology. natural soil or subsoil as the case may be. When a skeleton or relic is found it should not be removed until it is well exposed and its character and position noted down. If a vault, tomb, wall or any thing of large size is encountered, the trench should be carried around this until it is fully exposed before being dis- turbed. When the trenches are completed, the re- maining portions of the mound can be removed, the same care being taken. Where the mound is of large size, sinking shafts and tunneling may have to be re- sorted to. Care must be taken to mark all articles found, with numbers corresponding with those in tlie notes and on the sections. Of course the character and thickness of the strata and every other particular deemed worthy of remembrance should be noted down. Photography will of course be advantageous where clear and distinct pictures can be obtained, but will not supply the place of sketches. As it would re- quire too much space to notice all the variations from these suggestions and add additional ones necessary to meet the numerous peculiarities the explorer may en- counter, we can only repeat what is stated above : Note every particular with such care that it will be possible from the description to completely restore the mound in every particular. As the author is familiar by personal investigation with the antiquities of the mound region alone, his susijestions in regard to those of other sections must be drawn from the works of other explorers. Profit- able suggestions in reference to the method of study- ing the ruins of Central America and Mexico may be drawn from Mr. Holmes' account of the celebrated Palenque group given in his "Archaeological Studies Methods of Study. 33 among the Ancient Cities of Mexico." Ho starts out by giving a sketch map of the locality. Then follow- in order a "Panoramic View" of the group; the "Orientation and Assemblage," which results in show- ing that the placement of the buildings would seem to be due to the natural features of the ground rather than to a regard for the points of the compass ; "Ma- terials and Masonry" ; "Construction" ; "Substruc- tures," or pyramidal basements; "Superstructures," or buildings ; under the latter he outlines the ground plans of the types, following with the profiles of con- struction or elevation accompanied by outlines of ver- tical sections, illustrating the mode of construction. This is followed with descriptions of the roofing, of the types of doorways, of pillars, stairways and other essential features of the buildings, the ornamentation being considered last. In his description of Monte Alban and Mitla, in addition to the description of the ruins and mode of construction, he goes back to the quarry in order to study the method of preparing the material from the initial stroke until the blocks of stone are ready for removal to the building site, and to learn what man- ner of tools wore employed and how used. This might be followed up from the work of others, as that of explorers of the Bureau of American Eth- nology and of the IIom(>nway Expedition among the ruins of New Mexico and Arizona, but what has boon mentioned will suffice to indicate the method those field workers have followed. It is something of an art to grasp readily the chief idea or plan of a group of ruins. When this is caught, tlie lines and ])aris 3 34 Study of North American Archaeology. are usually easily traced, though hidden from view until uncovered. The study in the museum, that is of articles in col- lections, has been alluded to incidentally. The study of the literature, where not in aid of the study of the monuments and remains, is chiefly for the purpose of investigating certain problems. In this case the scope of inquiry is widened and the data furnished by the monuments and remains constitute but one of the factors ; language, physical traits, customs, traditions, mythology and folk-lore must all be brought into the investigation. This involves also an examination of the early histories, the accounts of navigators and ex- plorers and of more recent discussions on the same topics. The student must bear in mind the fact that archaeology is based on particulars, on innumerable fragments, and that conclusions and theories to be correct, must, so to speak, be the figures formed when the fragments are rightly placed. This brief and far from complete outline of the method of study will, with the present work, furnish some aid to the student Avho wishes to devote attention to North American archaeology, but the critical investigator is expected to open up new lines and bring to bear new argu- ments on the questions which arise. Arctic Division. 35 CHAPTER IV. ARCTIC DIVISION. As the archaeological data of this division are few, and their direct connection with the Eskimo and allied tribes is not questioned, the division is purely an ethnological one. However as the people at their entrance into the domain of history were in the stone age, the implements, utensils and other artefacts in use among them afford a means of comparison which can not wisely be overlooked even in this brief sur- vey. Moreover this area furnishes the best field on the continent for the study of the culture of a primi- tive people as indicated by their arts. Stone and bone implements found in the graves, mounds and refuse heaps of other sections are often serious puzzles to the archaeologist, because their use was discon- tinued before the historical era and is not easily de- termined. But in the Eskimo area few have been dis- covered of which the use is unknown, almost every form having been continued in use until visited by European navigators. The knowledge tluis obtained furnishes a key by which many an archaeological riddle may be solved. Monuments or Local AntiqiLtties. — These consist al- most wholly of shell or refuse heaps, the I'emains of old iglus or Eskimo houses whicli were constructed in part of ston(% and an occasional pile of stones heaped over a grave to protect it from wild beasts. 36 Study of North American Archaeology. No true mounds, inclosures or fortifications of a per- manent character, have been discovered in the entire area. This statement will also probably apply to a considerable extent of country lying south of the northern Eskimo belt, as we are informed by Rev. A. G. Morice, who has resided for many years among the north-western Athapascans (or Dene) , that "throughout the whole extent of their territory, no mounds, inclosures, fortifications of a permanent character, or any earthen-works suggesting human agency are to be found." Numerous shell-heaps have been discovered in the Aleutian Islands. Such of these as have been exca- vated are found to consist of two or three distinct strata, indicating, it is supposed, successive periods of occupancy. Prof. W. H. Dall describes the typical form as consisting of the following layers : First, or lowest stratum, composed almost exclusively of the broken tests or spines of Echinus, a few shells of dif- ferent species of edible mollusks being intermixed ; the next layer above, composed chiefly af fish bones and shells, with an occasional bird bone ; above this was a layer characterized by numerous mammalian bones, of marine species, intermixed with bones of sea birds ; this was covered by modern deposits and vegetable mold. The following articles found in this refuse heap fur- nish some indications. Prof. Dall thinks, of the ad- vance in culture during the time it was being formed, though this has been questioned. In the lower stratum a small hammer stone was discovered which had an indentation on each side for the finger and thumb, and bruises on the ends, indicative of use, probablj' Arctic Division. 37 for breaking Echinus tests. In the second were rude net-sinkers, stone knives, and spear-heads both of stone and bone, the latter distinctly barbed (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Bone Spear-bead, Eskimo. These appeared in still greater abundance and varied forms in the mammalian stratum, from which were also obtained stone, bone, and horn skin-dressers, bone awls, stone adzes and lamps ; also carved articles, such as masks, and a single face-form carved on bone. One of the lamps is shown in Fig. 2. Bone and stone Fig. 2. Stone lamp, Eskimo. labrets were found in tlio upper layer of one of these shell-heaps and also in a cave deposit of corresponding age. One of the labrets is sliown in Fig. 3, Prof. Dall, to whom we are indebted for tlie foregoing de- scription of Aleutian shell heaps, discovered also in the same region the marks and remains of anciont villages. Tlie method of building among llio aiu-icnt 38 Study of North American Archaeology . Fig. 3. Labret, Eskimo. inhabitants, who are presumed to have been Aleuts, was to excavate slightly, build a wall of flat stones or of the bones of the larger whales, and bank this on the outside with turf and stones. The roof appears to have been form- ed usually of whales' ribs, cov- ered with wisps of grass tied together and laid on the rafters, then turfed over. The remains of ancient stone houses are found scat- tered over the greater part of Arctic America, espe- cially the eastern portion, even in sections no longer inhabited by Eskimo, as the Parry Archipelago and the northern part of East Greenland, These are ap- propriated by the Eskimo of the present day for tem- porary dwellings when they stop in the region where they are found, A figure of the remaining founda- tion of one of these ancient structures is given in Fig, 4, from Kumlien, The purpose of the long kayak-like building figured in connection with the stone house is not known, Dr, Boas says he found a similar one twenty feet long, scarcely one foot high, consisting of two rows of stones, at Pangnirtung, Cum- berland Sound, but nobody could explain its use. The remains of a number of these ancient stone houses, or iglus, have been found in the American Archipelago and about Cumberland Sound. Those in good condition have a long stone entrance, sometimes Arctic Division. 39 from fifteen to twenty feet long. This is made by cutting an excavation into tlie slope of a hill. Its walls are covered with large slabs of stone, about two .^ Fig. 4. Remcins of an ancient Eskimo house. and a half feet high and three feet wide, tlie space between the stone and the sides of the excavation being afterward filled with tlie earth. The floor of tlie passage slopes upward toward the hut. The last four feet of the entrance are covered witli a very large slab, and are a little higher than the otlier parts of tlie roof o'f the passageway. Tlie slab is at the same lioight as the benches of the dwelling room, whicli is also dug out, the walls being formed of stones or whale ribs. Tlie.se houses are supposed to have been covered in the same way as those already described. Dr. Boas states that he has found at Ukiadhving, among other remains, some very remarkabk^ "store- houses." "These structures," he says, "consist of heavy granite pillars, on the top of whicli flat slabs of stone are jnled to a height of nine or ten feet, in 40 Study of North American Archaeology. winter, blubber and meat are put away upon these pillars, which are sufficiently high to keep them from the dogs; skin boats were also placed on them." This was doubtless the object in view in building these rude structures, but why the covering should be so thick and heavy is not apparent if this were the only object. Implements, Ornaments, etc. As all the monuments and minor vestiges of art of this division are attributable, as already stated, to the Eskimo, the earliest forms that are known differing but slightly from those of modern times, it is only necessary here to notice a few of the more important types for the purpose of comparison. As agriculture is impracticable in the rigorous cli- mate of the Eskimo region, and the means of sub- sistence limited to animal food, the variety of imple- ments is not large. They consist chiefly of such as are used in killing and capturing the food animals — of which the larger portion are marine mammals ; the implements and vessels used in preparing and cooking food, and in preparing the skins for the va- rious uses to which they are applied. The simplicity in the Eskimo manner of life, the necessary uni- formity in their method of procuring subsistence, and the manner of clothing themselves, have convention- alized to a great extent their implements and arts. As the struggle for existence has l)ecn a difficult one with them, and the clothes and dwellings necessary to protect them against tlie cold are ill adapted to the use of ornaments, the variety of sucli articles is quite limited. Arciic Division. 41 The articles of stone and bone, which are the only ones requiring notice here, consist chiefly of arrow, spear and harpoon heads, skin scrapers, tdus or women's knives, adzes, lamps, cooking pots or kettles, flake rs and labrets. The chipped flint heads of arrows and spears are usually well made, finely finished and symmetrically formed, differing in size and slightly in form accord- ing to the particular purpose for which they were in- tended. - Some of the older specimens are somewhat ruder, but would undoubtedly be classed as neolithic. One of the most useful and necessary implements belonging to an Eskimo household was the Uht or Woman's knife, which, with them, performed all that is done in enlightened communities with the various cutting implements of the butcher-shop and the household kitchen. The simplest form was a flake of flint with a cutting edge, but with the Eskimo they were usually made in a particular form, and, ^,•itll the handle, resembled the ordinary kitchen chop- ping-knife, which, in fact, has to a large ex- tent replaced the stone '*?^fr * implement. The blade [ was of horns tone, K chert, or flint material ^- and slate, especially the latter. (Fig. 5.) pj^, 5 Uln, or woman's knifr. Kskimo. Another indispensable household artich^ was the lamp, which furnished both heat and 'light. These were usually of soapstone, though a few of other stone have been discovon-d. The f 42 Study of North American Archaeology. form of this vessel was not so strictly conventionalized as that of the kettle or cooking pot, though generally dish-shaped and shallow. (Fig. 2.) A semicircular form was also common, the length varying from six inches to nearly three feet. Before the introduction of European vessels the cooking was usually done in soapstone pots or kettles Fig. 0. Soapstone pot, Eskimo. by placing them over the lamps or putting heated stones in the water. They were comparatively small, varying in capacity from a pint to a gallon, rectangu- lar in outline with the sides perpendicular or slightly flaring. (Fig. 6.) Fig. 7. Ilafted jade averal writers. among whom are two or three who have made a 44 Study of North American Archaeology . special study of them, have reached the conclusion that they were originally an inland people of North America, and that their migrations were toward the north and west. This conclusion is based to a con- siderable extent upon the evidence, now generally ac- cepted, that the Asiatic Eskimo (the Yu.it) , dwelling around East Cape and to the south of it, migrated in late prehistoric times from America, and that the Aleuts inhabiting the islands moved in the same di- rection. As any opinion wliich may be advanced on this question is at best but conjecture, the subject does not come properly within the scope of the present work. There is, however, a closely cognate problem which offers greater probability of final solution, and which is of importance in the study of the prehistoric times of our continent. As well stated by Dr. Rink, who has made this arctic people well nigh a life study, "In regard to the cradle of the Eskimo race, we have before all to discern between their original home and the country in which they developed their present culture, which is characterized by their capability of procuring means of subsistence in arctic regions, where no other nation can live." He then points out some "necessary conditions for guessing the site" of this culture-home. Alluding to the vast shore line wliicli was, so far as known, occupied by the Eskimo as its only inhabitants before their modern contact witli the European race, ho divides them into Eastern and Western, separated by Cape Bathurst. He assumes as a basis, wliicli is admitted to be correct by those who differ from liini, first, that only one such culture-liomc^ can hav(^ existed, Arctic Division. 45 and second, that even this one must have been of relatively small extent. The extraordinary uniformity of the utensils, instruments and weapons common to all the widely-spread tribes or groups, and the com- paratively slight variation in language, is suggestive of a common origin. He then shows from the vocabu- laries of the different sections the identity of the names given by the Eastern and Western groups to the animals used as food, boats, vessels, implements, etc., giving a list which excludes the possibility of accidental likeness. To this is added the similarity in form and use of the vessels and implements re- ferred to. The direction of the migration is assumed from tlie following facts : The gradual completion of the kayak with its im- plements, and the art of using them. The gradual change of several customs in proceeding from tlio south and west to the nortli and east, namely, the use of labrets or lip ornaments ceasing at the Mac- Kenzie River, the use of masks at festivals ceasing in Baffin's Land, and the women's hair dressing gradu- ally changing ])etween Point Barrow and BafHn's Bay, and the change in the houses in certain i)ar- ticulars. These indicate that tlie movement was from the ex- treme west, or Alaska, toward the east, and this Dr. Rink believes is the true solution of tlie problem. On the other hand, Mr. Murdocli and Dr. Boas, who have personally studied the race on oi)posite sides of the continent, believe the culture-home was in the interior about the soutli end of Hudson's Hay. whence they separated into three ])riiu'ii)al divisions. 46 Study of North American Archaeology. one going north-east, another north, and the other north-west. This opinion is based chiefly on the primitive art of the central region, the form of the sinew bow, and the westward movement above re- ferred to. It would seem difficult, however, to ac- count upon this theory for the adoption of the kayak and its accompaniments, and the application of the same terms throughout the extended region where they are found, often in widely separated groups, between which intercourse is exceedingly rare. The settlement of this question, which appears possible with the accumulation of data, is important to the study of ethnology. If the latter theory be correct, it will have a material bearing on the theories in re- gard to the course of migration of the Indian popula- tion south and west of this assumed inland culture- home, for it is not probable that any people who have acquired their habits in an interior area, and com- paratively moderate climate, would leave it, except under strong pressure, to take up their abode in such inhospitable regions as they now occupy. All the implements and works of the Eskimo appear to be adapted to their peculiar conditions and tlieir only means of subsistence and preservation of life. They are very largely those of a littoral and arctic people, developed through the necessity of procui'ing, to a large extent, subsistence from the sea and defend- ing themselves from the cold without material derived from the forest. Many of the articles, it is true, are adapted to savage life in any section, wliethcr in the interior or on the coast, whctlier in an arctic or temperate climate, but on the otlier hand many others are suited only to the conditions under which tliey Arctic Division. 47 live. Hence it must be assumed, unless valid reasons for a different conclusion are sliown, that those pe- culiarly adapted to the situation were developed in the area where they are found, or one similar in its conditions. Mr. Murdoch's suggestion that tlio use of lab rets is a habit which has worked its way along tlie western coast of America from the south is worthy of con- sideration, tliougli it docs not appear to strengthen his theory, but tends rather to support the opposite conclusion. Nevertheless it is not without support, and opens up a new line for thought and investiga- tion, and furnishes an additional pointer to a par- ticular region of the western coast which possibly may have played an important part in the peopling of the continent. 48 Study of North American Archaeology. CHAPTER y. ATLANTIC DIVISION. This division includes geographically, as heretofore indicated, all that part of North America east of the Rocky Mountains north of the Rio Grande and Gulf of Mexico, except that portion embraced in the Arctic division and except also the area occupied by the northern Athapascan or Dene tribes. At the time Europeans began to plant colonies in this region it was occupied by Indians belonging cliiefiy to some four or five linguistic stocks. The northern portion from Labrador to the Rocky Mount- ains, the central area east of the Mississippi from the lakes south to Tennessee, and a strip along tlie At- lantic coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Pamlico Sound, was occupied by the great Algonquian stock. Gathered about lakes Erie and Ontario, bothnortli and south, stretching down both sides of the St. Lawrence to Quebec, and extending over New York and most of Eastern Pennsylvania, was the Iroquoian family, be- longing to wliich were outlying groups along the south-eastern border of Virginia, and a1)out the head- waters of the Tennessee and Savannah rivers. The Muskhogean family occupied most of the area embraced in the southern states east of the Mississippi. Ex- tending westward from the Mississippi liver — from its headwaters to tlie Arkansas — across tlie broad plains of the west, and occupying most of the drainage area Atlantic Division. 49 of the Missouri and Arkansas rivers, was the Siouan stock, the Bedouin of North America. Belonging to this group were some scattered fragments, one along the piedmont region of Virginia and the Carolinas, and one of small size on the southern coast of Missis- sippi and another in Arkansas. Besides these there were the Caddoan stock, chiefly in western Louisiana and eastern Texas ; the Timuquanan occupying the Florida peninsula, and some, few in numbers, covering small areas chiefly about the mouth of the Mississippi. The archaeological conditions we encounter in this area are so widely distinct from those of the Arctic division as to require but little thought or study to mark the diff'erences. It is true we find here flint arrow- and lance-heads in abundance, some of them bearing a close resemblance to and scarcely distin- guishable from those of the Eskimo. Chipped stones of a certain form, which are supposed to be skin- scrapers or skinning implements, are also found in great numbers, and though many of them may be compared with the flint points of the Eskimo scrapers, yet the manner in which they were hafted, or whether hafted at all, is in most instances only a surmise. It is noticeable that of the fifty-six American scrapers figured in Prof. O. T. Mason's "Aboriginal Skin Dressing" (Rept. Nat. Museum, 1888-9), all except five are Eskimo, and the five are adze shaped and have iron or steel points. The elbow-shaped handle may be a survival from the stone age, nevertheless it is possible that the advent of iron may have worked some change in form. Local monuments, as we hav^e seen, except, refuse heaps, foundations of old iglus 50 Study of North American Archaeology. and some ancient graves, are unknown to the arctic section. On the contrary, in the area we are now en- tering upon,' the Mississippi valley, from the head- waters in Minnesota to the Red River of Louisiana, and from the sources of the Ohio to the border of the western plains, is dotted over with earthen mounds, . clustered into groups or scattered singly ; here and there hills and bluffs are crowned with defensive works, indicating tribal warfare ; throughout southern Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee the rude stone sep- ulchers of the ancient inhabitants are found in great numbers ; and other evidences of prehistoric occupancy abound. Thus it will be seen that the difference archaeologically between the two divisions is a wide one. Monuments, or local antiquities. The antiquities of this class found in this division consist chiefly of earthworks, stoneworks, graves, cave deposits and mines and quarries, and might be classed under these heads but for the fact that some belong partly to one class and partly to another ; then there are certain other local antiquities which can not pos- sibly be classed under either of these headings. If it were possible to decide positively as to the use of each type, this would afford one means of classification, but unfortunately here our knowledge is sadly at fault. However, as some arrangement for the con- venience of reference is necessary, they will be grouped here by leading types under the following heads : Mounds, Refuse Heaps, Inclosures, Hut-rings, Excavations, Graves and Cemeteries, Garden Beds, Hearths or Camp Sites, and Ancient Trails. Besides Atlantic Division. 61 these there are Mines and Quarries, Cave Deposits and Petrogljphs. That the particular sense in which some of these terms are used in this work may be clearly understood, the following explanation is given : Mounds. The tumuli or true mounds, to which the term v/ill be limited in this work, are the most common and most numerous of the fixed antiquities, being found in the valley of the Red River of the North from its source to its mouth, and here and there an isolated one in Canada ; throughout the Mississippi valley and the region south of the great lakes to the gulf they constitute the larger portion of the numerous groups, it being exceedingly rare to find a group in which they do not occur. Although the forms arc various, they may be classed as conical tumuli, elongate or wall mounds, pyramidal mounds, and effigy mounds. The conical tumuli arc artificial liillocks cast up with some special object in view, and not more accu- mulations of debris. The form is usually that of a low, broad, round-topped cone, but as at present found is, in consequence of wear and tear by tlie plow and the elements, often that of an irregular heap, distinguished Trom the refuse heap only by in- ternal evidence. They vary in size from a scarcely perceptible swell in the ground to elevations of eiglity or ninety feet, and from six or eiglit to three hundred feet in diameter. Tlie outline is generally approxi- mately circular where they retain tlieir original sliape, tliough many are oblong or oval and some pcar- sliaped. Most of the Burial Mounds are of tliis tyii(\ Tlie works to whicli the name "Elon