pRflNKLiN Institute Lidrart 
 
 Class493- ^ BookC Accession 2L S^ I 
 
 f 
 
 — C5i/v7v,iv, niiu iiiivt; uu- 
 
 fciined the sanction of the Committee. The second class shall include 
 those books intended for circulation. 
 
 AUTici.E VI. — The Secretary shall have authority to loan to members 
 and to holdei-s of second class stock, any work belonging to the second 
 CLASS, subject to the following regulations. 
 
 Section 1. — No individual shall be permitted to have more than* two 
 books out at one time, without a written permission, signed by at least 
 two members of the Library Committee, nor shall a book be kept out 
 more than two weeks; but if no one has applied for it, the former bor- 
 rower may renew the loan. Should any person have applied for it, the 
 latter shall have the preference. 
 
 Section 2. — A fine of ten cents per week shall be exacted for the 
 detention of a book bej'ond the limited time; and if a book be not re- 
 turned within tliree months it shall be deemed lost, and the borrower 
 shall, in addition to his fines, forfeit its value. 
 
 Section 5.— Should any book be returned injured, the borrower shall 
 pay for the injury, or replace the book, as the Library Committee may 
 direct ; and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be lost, the 
 borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. 
 
 Article VII. — Any person removing from the hall, without permis- 
 sion from the proper authorities, any book, newspaper or other property 
 in charge of the Library Committee, shall be reported to the Committee, 
 who may inflict any fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars. 
 
 Article VIII. — No member or holder of second class stock, whose 
 annual contribution for the current year shall be unpaid or who is in 
 arrears for fines, shall be entitled to the privileges of the fibrary or 
 Reading Koom. ^ 
 
 Article IX. — If any member or holder of second'" vlass stock, shall 
 refuse or neglect to comply with the foregoing rules, it shall be the duty 
 of the Secretary to report him to the Committee on the Library. 
 
 Article X. — Any member or holder of second class stock, detected 
 in mutilating the newspai)ers, jjamphlets or books belonging to the Insti- 
 tute shall be deprived of liis right of membership, and the name of the 
 offender shall be made public. 
 
PLASTERER'S MANl>Ata 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL TOOLS AND 
 MATERIALS USED IN PLASTERING ; 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE APPEARANCE AND ACTION OF 
 
 EVERY VARIETY OF LIME AND CEMENT ; 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING ALL KINDS OF MORTAR ; 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR DOING ALL KINDS OF PLAIN 
 AND ORNAMENTAL PLASTERING ; 
 CISTERN BUILDING ; FORM OF CONTRACT ; 
 USEFUL TABLES ; 
 MANY IMPORTANT RECIPES, ETC., 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.* 
 
 BY 
 
 K. CAMERON. 
 
 f NEW YORK : 
 BICKNELL & COMSTOCK, Publishers. 
 
 1879- 
 
6 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 2— MATERIALS USED: 
 
 LiMK AND Hydraulic Cement ig 
 
 Calcined Plaster 22 
 
 Sand 22 
 
 Hair 24 
 
 Marble Dust 24 
 
 Saw Dust 24 
 
 Brick Dust 24 
 
 Whiting 24 
 
 Zinc White 25 
 
 Glue 25 
 
 Salt 25 
 
 Coloring Materials 25 
 
 Brick 25 
 
 3. — MAKING MORTAR : 
 
 For First Coat on Lath 29 
 
 " Second " " 30 
 
 " Third " " 30 
 
 " First Coat on Brick, Stone, etc 30 
 
 " Second " " " 30 
 
 " Third " " " 30 
 
 4. — PLASTERING : 
 
 First Coat on Laths 32 
 
 Second " . " 34 
 
 Third " " 36 
 
 On Brick or Stone, etc 38 
 
 On Exterior Walls 38 
 
 Hydraulic Cementing 38 
 
 Floors, etc 38 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 7 
 
 5.— CISTERNS : 
 
 What Material to use 3q 
 
 How TO Build 39 
 
 Plastering 40 
 
 Filters 40 
 
 Repairing 41 
 
 To STOP THE leaking OF WATER THROUGH 
 
 newly plastered walls 4i 
 
 Table of Dimensions and Capacities 42 
 
 6 —ORNAMENTAL PLASTERING : 
 
 Mouldings ; Interior Cornice ; Centers ; 
 Panels ; Niches ; Casting ; Cast Cen- 
 ters ; Cast Rosettes ; Cast Brackets, 
 etc 43-45 
 
 7.— MISCELLANEOUS : 
 
 Lathing 4^ 
 
 Chimneys 46 
 
 White-washing 47 
 
 White-wash 47 
 
 Other Washes 48 
 
 Kalsomine 48 
 
 Cheap Paints 48 
 
 Granite Finish 49 
 
 Stucco Plastering 49 
 
 Blackboards. 49 
 
 Tucking 49 
 
 Hydraulic Mortar 50 
 
 Beaton 5" 
 
 Concrete 50 
 
 Grout or Gravel Houses 50 
 
CONTENTS. 
 -MISCELLANEOUS.— C<7«i'm«^</. 
 
 Gravel Walks j^, 
 
 Waterproof Mastic Cement 50 
 
 Marble Finish 
 
 Measurement of Plastering 51 
 
 Comparison of measures 51 
 
 Table OF WEIGHTS OF material 51 
 
 Bill of material for 100 yards of plas- 
 tering 52 
 
 Miscellaneous table ; average weight of 
 
 mortar, etc 52 
 
 How TO FIND the area OF a circle 52 
 
 How TO FIND the AREA OF AN ELLIPSE 52 
 
 Form of plasterer's contract 53 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 After an extended period of practical experience 
 in the plastering business, during which time we 
 have not seen a book of any description devoted ex- 
 clusively to plastering, we have concluded that it 
 would be a benefit to plasterers in general to write 
 such a work and place it before the public. While 
 learning the trade, and during the first four or five 
 years of our experience in plastering, almost daily 
 occurrences called for just such a book of reference 
 as this one is. Every beginner will experience the 
 sarne difficulty, and for that reason cannot well afford 
 to do without this book. The experienced plasterer 
 and the contractor will also find the work an invalu- 
 able book of reference, as it contains many things 
 which cannot be retained in the memory, but which 
 are of everyday use ; such, for example, as the table 
 of dimensions and capacities of cisterns ; compari- 
 son of measures ; tables of weights of material ; 
 proportions of all kinds of mortars ; form of plas- 
 terer's contract ; recipes for blackboards, white- 
 washes, colored washes, kalsomine, granite finish, 
 and a great number of other items of interest and 
 value too numerous to mention. In order to place 
 this work within the reach of all, we have only put in 
 that which is practical, leaving out all theory and 
 
lO 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 science, except where it is necessary to establish 
 what might otherwise seem doubtful to the inexpe- 
 rienced. We would say to the beginner that he can- 
 not learn the trade from a book alone, for it requires 
 example and practice, as well as precept, to accom- 
 plish that end. Therefore he should engage himself 
 as an apprentice to some master workman, such as 
 are to be found in the cities and large towns, and 
 learn the trade thoroughly and then improve upon it. 
 But he should by all means avoid trying to learn 
 from some one who has not half learned the business 
 himself, for then he would in the end be a poorer 
 workman than the one of whom he was trying to 
 learn. He should study well the principles upon 
 which every part of the business depends, and then, 
 with his practical knowledge, he will be sure to 
 succeed. « 
 
 The Author. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 TOOLS USED. 
 
 The Plasterer's Trowel — Is the tool which is 
 most used by plasterers, and should be selected with 
 care. It should be made of the best steel, light, 
 springy and about four inches wide by twelve inches 
 long, with a nicely rounded handle. " Diston's im- 
 proved " is about the style in general favor. 
 
 The Hawk — Should be made of hard pine, 
 and from thirteen to fourteen inches square, one- 
 fourth of an inch thick at the edges and three- 
 fourths of an inch thick at the middle, with a cleat 
 nicely dovetailed into the back, to prevent warping. 
 The handle should be from five to five and one half 
 inches in length, and from one and one-fourth to one 
 and one-half inches in diameter. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL 
 
 The Darby — Is also made of hard pine, four 
 feet and four inches long by four inches wide, with 
 one handle, similar to the hawk handle, fastened on 
 about one-fourth of the length from one end, and 
 the other handle is a narrow strip fastened with one 
 edge flat on the darby and running lengthwise of it. 
 The length of this strip is generally about eight 
 inches, but some plasterers prefer to have it extend 
 nearly the whole length, for the purpose of stiffening 
 it, but the length may be varied to suit the workman 
 using it, or the nature of the work to be done. 
 
 The Float — Is composed of a good wooden 
 handle, similar to a trowel handle (but all wood, and 
 attached at both ends) fastened on the back of a 
 piece of hard pine board, four inches wide by ten or 
 twelve inches long, and about three-fourths of an 
 inch thick. As the face of a float soon wears off 
 and becomes thin, it is best to fasten the handle to 
 a cleat and dovetail the cleat into the back of the 
 face-piece, and keep several of those face-pieces on 
 hand, and when one wears out throw it away and 
 take another, thereby avoiding the inconvenience of 
 
THE PLASTERER S MANUAL. 
 
 13 
 
 nails in the face of the float, which have to be fre- 
 quently driven in, to prevent their scratching and 
 marring the wall while floating it down. 
 
 uuuuuuu 
 
 The Scratcher— Is made of short slats nailed 
 to cross-pieces and sharpened ^t one end. The slats 
 should be about one inch apart, and the width of the 
 scratcher about one foot, and the middle slat sh©uld 
 be long enough, so that the opposite end from the 
 point can be used for a handle. 
 
 The Straight-edge— Is pine, six feet and up- 
 ward in length, with a face-piece two and one-half 
 inches wide, nailed upon a back-piece five inches 
 wide in the middle, and tapering to one inch at each 
 end, and is generally made of three-fourths inch 
 lumber. 
 
 The Long Rod— Is a plained board, generally 
 six inches wide and one inch thick, with a length 
 nearly equal to the height of the rooms in which it 
 is to be used. These rods are often made with a 
 spirit plumb, inserted like the plumb in a spirit 
 level. 
 
14 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 The Angle Block— Is used by many plasterers, 
 and consists simply of a block from ten to fourteen 
 inches in length and three inches in thickness, with 
 its angles right angles, and with a handle on the op- 
 posite angle from the one which is to touch the angle 
 of the wall. The handle and the block are generally 
 made in one piece. 
 
 The Pointer — Is a small, pointed trowel, the 
 same shape as a brick trowel, with a blade of good 
 springy steel, and only about four inches long. It is 
 used by plasterers principally to clean tools and to 
 work where a larger tool could not be used. 
 
 The Plasterer's Brush — Is a kalsomine brush, 
 seven or eight inches wide, made of good bristles, 
 bound with zinc or other metal, and the wood be- 
 tween the two halves of the bristles should be shaved 
 to an edge, so that water will not collect in it and 
 run out as soon as the brush is inverted. The 
 handle is short and permanently fixed in the head of 
 the brush. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 15 
 
 The Paddle — Is a small, flat wooden tool used 
 by some workmen to fill the angles when finishing. 
 It is four or five inches long and from two to two 
 and one-half inches wide, with one end shaved to an 
 edge and the other used as a handle. 
 
 Moulds — Are of a variety of kinds. Moulds 
 for full relief ornaments are generally made in sec- 
 tions and put together, leaving an orifice in which to 
 pour the plaster. Moulds for basso relievos are 
 made in one piece. They are made of plaster and 
 glue or beeswax. Moulds for linear mouldings are" 
 made of a metal plate cut to fit the moulding, and 
 fastened to a wooden backing, for the purpose of 
 stiffening the mould. Centre moulds of this kind 
 are attached to an arm and swing on a pivot. Cor- 
 nice moulds of the same description are made with 
 shoes, to slide upon strips and screeds, and the blade 
 or cutting-plate is now set into the bed pieces at an 
 angle of forty-five degrees, so that it will run into the 
 angle and make the mitre. 
 
 Mitring Tools— Are used to make mitres by 
 hand where they cannot be easily made with the 
 mould, and also to finish out breaks or balks in the 
 moulding, where the mould is taken off, &c They 
 consist of a number of steel and wooden tools, of a 
 variety of shapes and sizes, among which is the 
 
i6 
 
 THE PLASTERER S MANUAL. 
 
 mitring rod, a flat tool, one-eighth of an inch thick, 
 three inches wide and about one foot long, with one 
 edge sharp and one end beveled to an angle of about 
 thirty degrees, with the acute angle at the sharp 
 edge. 
 
 Trammels — Are used to attach moulds to, for 
 the purpose of running mouldings in the forms of 
 ellipses, arches and various other curves, and are 
 made according to the particular use they are re- 
 quired for. 
 
 The Mortar Hod — Is made by nailing together 
 the edges of two boards about one foot wide by two 
 and one-half feet long at right angles, forming a 
 trough-shaped box ; an end-piece is then nailed on 
 one end, and the boards are beveled or rounded to- 
 ward the angle at the other end ; then a handle is 
 attached, a little forward of the middle, and a flat 
 block or pad is placed just behind the handle, to rest 
 on the shoulder of the carrier. 
 
 Scaffolds — For plasterers' use are generally made 
 with trussels of height and length to correspond with 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 17 
 
 the rooms to be plastered, and covered with planks of 
 a length to correspond with size of rooms. But for 
 very high apartments, such as churches, &c., it is 
 customary to make temporary scaffolds by placing 
 scantlings on end, for standards, and nailing cross- 
 pieces to them, upon which the planks rest. The 
 standards should be well braced, to prevent their 
 falling over. 
 
 Mortar Boards — Are generally made about 
 three and one-half feet square, of boards one inch 
 thick, with close joints. The boards are nailed on 
 two solid cleats, and the cleats should be placed far 
 enough apart to admit the head of a barrel between 
 them, as the board is often placed upon a barrel 
 when used. Boards used for finishing are frequently 
 made larger than the ordinary mortar board. 
 
 The Slack Box— Should be a solid box made 
 of one-inch boards, and should be at least eight feet 
 long, three feet wide and one foot deep ; but a larger 
 one is often more serviceable. At one end of the 
 box there should be a slide gate with slats nailed on, 
 to prevent the lumps and sediment from passing 
 through when the gate is raised, to run off the lime. 
 
 Mortar Beds — Are generally made of boards, 
 and of size and shape to suit circumstances, but not 
 usually more than one or two feet deep. The sides 
 and ends should be strongly fastened together, as 
 they have to sustain a heavy pressure. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 The Sand Screen — Is a long, narrow screen, 
 usually about two feet wide by six feet long. It is 
 leaned up at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and 
 the sand thrown against it sifts through as it slides 
 down. 
 
 The Putty Sieve. — The "putty" for finish- 
 coat is usually strained through an ordinary flour or 
 meal sieve, which answers every purpose. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 MATERIALS USED. 
 
 Lime and Hydraulic Cement.— Lime, such as 
 we use for ordinary building purposes, is obtained 
 by calcining or burning calcarious minerals— that is, 
 common limestone or carbonate of 1 me, which is de- 
 ]jrived of the carbonic acid and water contained in 
 it by heat and becomes lime. Limestone which is 
 pure, or nearly so, supports a white heat without in- 
 conv^enience. The compound limestone, on the other 
 hand, alloyed in the proportions to form hydraulic 
 lime, or eminently hydraulic lime, fuses easily, and 
 its calcination demands certain precautions. The 
 heat ought never to be pushed beyond the common 
 red heat — the intensity being made up for by its 
 longer duration The compound limestone, when 
 too much burnt, is heavy, compact, dark colored, 
 covered with a kind of enamel, especially about the 
 angular parts. It slacks with great difficulty, and 
 yields a lime carbonized and without energy. Some- 
 times it will not slack at all, but becomes reduced 
 after some days to a harsh powder, altogether inert. 
 Both the pure and compound limestones, when in- 
 sufficiently burnt, either refuse to slack, or slack only 
 partially, leaving a solid kernel — a kind of subcar- 
 bonate, with excess of base. 
 
20 
 
 THE plasterer's MANUAL 
 
 The characteristics of the various kinds and quali- 
 ties of lime are as follows : 
 
 I St. The rich limes are the purest metallic oxides 
 of calcium we possess, and the purer the carbonate 
 of lime from which they are obtained the more dis- 
 tinctly marked are the appearances from which they 
 derive their name. These are that they augment in 
 volume to twice their original bulk, or even more, 
 when slacked in the usual manner ; and that they 
 will not set (harden) under water if not mixed with 
 any other mineral material, even though left inj^ 
 mersed for years. 
 
 2d. The poor lit/ies are those which do not aug- 
 ment in bulk at all, or only to a trifling degree, when 
 slacked. They do not set under water any more 
 than the rich limes. 
 
 3d. The moderately hydraulic limes set under 
 water in from fifteen to twenty days, but do not be- 
 come very hard. The change of bulk they undergo 
 in slacking is the same as that of the poor limes, but 
 never equal to that of the richer varieties. 
 
 4th. The hydraulic limes set in from six to eight 
 days' immersion, and continue to harden for some 
 months. 
 
 5th. The eminently hydraulic limes set within three 
 or four days, and become quite hard in a month. 
 
 Classification of Rocks with Reference to Chemical 
 Exatnination. 
 I St. Pure calcarious rocks, or those containing 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 2 1 
 
 from one to six per cent of silex, alumina (common 
 clay), magnesia, iron, &c., either separately or in 
 combination, give rich limes upon being calcined. 
 
 ;^d. The limestones containing soluble silica in the 
 state of sand, magnesia, the oxides of iron and of 
 manganese, in various respective quantities, but 
 limited to between fifteen and thirty per cent, of the 
 whole mass, yield poor limes. 
 
 3d. The limestones containing silica in combina- 
 tion with alumina, magnesia and traces of the oxides 
 of iron and manganese, in various respective propor- 
 tions, but within the limits of from eight to ten per 
 cent of the whole mass, yield moderately hydraulic 
 limes. 
 
 4th. When the above ingredients are present in 
 the proportions of from fifteen to eighteen per cent., 
 but the silica in its soluble form always predominat- 
 ing, the limestones yield a hydraulic lime. 
 
 5 th. When the limestones contain more than 
 twenty, and up to thirty per cent, of the above in- 
 gredients, but with the soluble silica in the propor- 
 tion of at least one half of them, the limestones 
 yield eminently hydraulic limes. 
 
 The experiments upon which the above conclusions 
 are based appear to show that limes owe their hy- 
 draulicity, or power of setting under water, to the 
 presence of a certain quantity of clay, and sometimes, 
 but rarely, to the presence of a certain quantity of 
 pure, soluble silica ; and upon that principle a large 
 proportion of our hydraulic cement, or water lime, is 
 
22 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 manufactured by mixing common fresh burnt lime 
 with burnt clay and grinding them together, gener- 
 ally, in the proportions of twenty parts of clay to 
 thirty parts of very rich lime, but the proportions 
 vary with the qualities of limestones and clays found 
 in different localities. 
 
 Practically speaking, the best quicklime for ordin- 
 ary plastering, and especially finishing, is white, or 
 nearly so, when slacked — slacks readily, but not too 
 " fiery." Such lime generally makes the hardest wall, 
 works cooler, is not so apt to crack, and bears trow- 
 eling without peeling when finishing. 
 
 Calcined Plaster. — Gypsum plaster, ground fine, 
 calcined and sifted finely is the plaster used for hard 
 finish, stucco work, &c. White, or bluish-white is 
 the best color for general use. It is commonly known 
 as "plaster of paris." 
 
 Sand. — Sands are derived originally from the de- 
 composition of the older rocks, either by the action 
 of running waters or by the spontaneous decompo- 
 sition of the rocks themselves. They are technically 
 distinguished from dust by the fact that they sink at 
 once to the bottom of water without leaving any 
 sensible quantity in suspension. The decomposition 
 of the rocks often gives rise to an agglutinating sub- 
 stance which accompanies the sand and binds it to- 
 gether ; but when acted upon by the waters, it soon 
 parts with such heterogeneous particles, and it arrives 
 
THE plasterer's M/LNUAL. 23/ 
 
 in a comparatively pure state in the beds of tl^^V 
 principal rivers. This purity is lost as the rivqr's 
 approach their embrouchures ; for, in the first plac|^ . 
 the diminished velocity of the current allows tfe0 /^*/' 
 heavier particles to subside before arriving ther^T^ 
 The water, then, only carries down the light, earthyV^C"' 
 particles and the decaying vegetable matters which 
 may fall into it, thus giving rise to the formation of 
 clay deposits. The constituent part of sand repre- 
 sents faithfully the rocks from whence they are de- 
 rived. Thus the granite rocks produce a sand the 
 principal ingredients of which are quartz, feldspar 
 and mica ; the volcanic rocks are represented by 
 sands in which lava, obsidian, &c., appear ; the flat, 
 soft grained sand arises from the disintegration of 
 the schistose rocks ; the calcarious rocks, as might 
 naturally be expected from their soft nature, are 
 those which are least represented in the series, unless 
 in the case of the silicious sands arising from the 
 comminution of the flints so plentiful in some of the 
 secondary formations. 
 
 The partial and secondary revolutions of the 
 globe have given rise to immense formations of sand 
 in places where rivers have long since ceased to flow. 
 The sand extracted therefrom is known under the 
 name of "pit sand," to distinguish it from that 
 borne down by the rivers, called " river sand," and 
 from the " virgin sand," which remains in the places 
 where formed, without in any way suffering the action 
 of water. Pit sand is generally of a sharper and 
 
 » 
 
24 THE ELASTERER's MANUAL. 
 
 more angular grain than river sand, but in all other 
 respects its composition is identical, excepting that 
 it is occasionally stained by ochres. Practically 
 speaking, clean, sharp, coarse sand is best and makes 
 the hardest plastering, as a general rule, and it is 
 safe to rely on river sand, the coarser the better, 
 within reasonable limits. Lake sand is the same as 
 river sand, and pit sand also makes good work, when 
 the sand is clean and coarse. 
 
 Hair. — Cattle hair, from the tanneries, is that 
 which is in general use for plastering mortar. It 
 should be of medium length, and not too lumpy, or 
 clotted with the lime used to separate the hair from 
 the hide. 
 
 Marble Dust. — This is sometimes used in hard 
 finishing, and should be about as coarse as sand. 
 
 Sawdust. — Sawdust is used in mortar for outside 
 walls, to guard against the action of water and frost. 
 It is the best material known to prevent the plaster- 
 ing scaling off, and should be free from chips and 
 shavings. 
 
 Brickdust. — This, when used, is generally used 
 as a coloring material in finishing, and should be 
 sifted through a fine sieve'. 
 
 Whiting. — Whiting is used by plasterers for 
 whitewashing and kalsoraining. The best quality, 
 "French kalsomine," is preferable for such work. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 25 
 
 Zinc White — Is also used in kalsomining, when 
 an extra clear white and a fine finish is desired. 
 
 Glue — Is also used in kalsomine and washes. White 
 glue is always preferable, especially when there is 
 no coloring used. 
 
 Salt — Is used in various washes and in some 
 mortars. Coarse rock salt is generally preferable, 
 and when used in washes is first dissolved in water. 
 
 Coloring Material. — As plasterers are often 
 called upon to use coloring in various ways, we give 
 below those which are most commonly used : Lamp 
 black, drop black, ivory black, powdered charcoal, 
 red analine, Venetian red, Indian red, vermilion, 
 ultramarine blue, indigo blue, blue vitriol, Spanish 
 brown, umber (raw and burnt), chrome yellow, clay 
 pulverized. 
 
 Brick. — Although bricklaying does not properly 
 belong to the plasterer's trade, nevertheless plaster- 
 ers occasionally find it necessary to do some of that 
 kind of work when a bricklayer is not at hand ; 
 therefore, w^e mention brick among plasterers' ma- 
 terials. In selecting brick for outside work, the 
 bricks should be, ist. Smoothly moulded ; 2d, 
 burned hard ; 3d, well proportioned ; and, 4th, of 
 uniform color. For inside work, cisterns, &c., the 
 principal point is that the bricks be hard — well 
 burnt. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MAKING MORTAR. 
 
 Making Mortar— Includes the slacking of the 
 lime, and the mixture of the other ingredients with 
 it. As we have already seen, both the former pro- 
 cess and the proportions and nature of the latter 
 differ according to the nature of the lime to be 
 dealt with. It is, however, a universal rule, in con- 
 tradiction to the slovenly practice of some builders, 
 that lime of whatever nature (excepting hydraulic 
 limes in most cases) should be reduced to a paste 
 before being mixed with the other ingredients. If 
 the sand and other ingredients were mixed with the 
 lime before, thus reducing it to a paste, it would be 
 almost impossible to reduce it to a perfect hydrate, 
 and it would be apt to blister, and slack out, after 
 being applied to the wall. The degree of consist- 
 ency of this paste should vary with the nature of 
 the extraneous materials, and the purpose for which 
 it is to be used. In order to secure a proper state 
 of the hydrate, it is of great importance that neither 
 too much nor too little water be used in slacking 
 the lime. When too little water is used, the lime 
 "burns," as the plasterers express it — that is, the 
 lime becomes partially dry, and small particles of it 
 fail to slack for want of water, and then when more 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 27 
 
 water is added, and the mass chilled, those particles 
 do not slack until after the lime is run off, and then 
 they afterwards slack in the mortar bed, or some- 
 times even after the mortar has been applied to the 
 wall. To say the least, these dry particles will 
 make the mortar lumpy, and cause "blisters" on 
 the wall. On the other hand, if too much water is 
 used, the lime is chilled, or " drowned," as the 
 plasterers say, and thereby loses two-fifths of its 
 strength, according to some of Vicat's experiments ; 
 and too much water also retards the process of 
 slacking. Therefore just enough water should be 
 put on at first to start the process of slacking and 
 to keep the lime moist, and as the slacking proceeds 
 more water should be poured on, and the lime kept 
 wet. It should also be stirred during the slacking, 
 after it has begun to warm up, so that when com- 
 pletely slacked it will be in the form of a thin paste. 
 It should then be run off from the slack-box into 
 the mortar-bed, letting it pass through the slats in 
 the end of the slack-box, or through a screen, to 
 strain it and keep back any lumps or flinty sediment 
 that might be in the lime. 
 
 For putty coat the paste should be made thinner, 
 like cream or milk, and should be run through a 
 sieve, about as fine as an ordinary flour or meal 
 sieve. 
 
 It is also important that no more mortar should 
 be mixed up at one time than is immediately needed, 
 or at most no more than is needed for a few days or 
 
28 
 
 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 a week or so ; for although the hydrates, which had 
 begun to soHdify, give off the water they had ren- 
 dered latent as it were, yet a portion of their force 
 must evidently be lost by their so doing upon their 
 being re-worked, in proportion to the degree of 
 advancement of the process of setting. And fur- 
 thermore, although the pure lime gains strengtli by 
 standing in the state of a thin paste, or putty, with- 
 out sand or other material being mixed with it, pro- 
 vided it be kept moist all the time, yet, according to 
 careful scientific experiments, it is proven that the 
 increase of strength is hardly perceptible under 
 three or four weeks, and that it increases in strength 
 for five or six months, and that the greatest increase 
 of strength is during the fourth month, and that 
 the gain is then only about one-fifth the original 
 strength of the lime ; and it is plain to any prac- 
 tical man that mortar mixed so long with the sand 
 in it would be considerably set, thereby losing by 
 the reworking and wetting more than it would gain 
 by standing so long ; and if it were hair-mortar for 
 plastering, there would be a still further loss, inas- 
 much as the hair would be rotted or eaten up by 
 exposure to the action of the moist lime for so long 
 a time ; and the hair cannot well be mixed evenly 
 through the mortar, except while it is in the form of 
 a thin paste, as it is when first run off ; and as 
 Vicat's experiments show, the mortar could not be 
 wet up the second time, and made thin enough to 
 receive the hair properly, after standing so long 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 29 
 
 without losing two-fifths of its strength. Therefore 
 the old notion that plastering mortar should stand 
 for from ten days to three weeks is an erroneous 
 one, and should be discarded, and the mortar 
 should be allowed to lay only long enough for all 
 the particles to become thoroughly slacked. 
 
 The proportions of sand to be used vary, as 
 might be expected, according to the nature and 
 quality of the lirties, and also of the sand itself ; but 
 within certain limits, if the limes do not gain by the 
 mixture, their effect is not sensibly diminished, to 
 say the least. Thus we find that for the rich limes 
 the resistance is rather increased if the sand be in 
 the proportions varying from fifty to two hundred 
 per cent, of the lime after it is slacked and meas- 
 ured in bulk, in the form of a firm paste, or from 
 one hundred and fifty to four hundred and fifty per 
 cent, of the stone lime itself. Beyond this point the 
 resistance decreases. The resistance of hydraulic 
 limes increases if the sand be mixed in the propor- 
 tions of from fifty to one hundred and eighty per 
 cent., and from thence it decreases. It is claimed for 
 a few varieties, that they will stand considerable more 
 sand, but the average hydraulic lime will not. As 
 no specific rule for proportions of ingredients of 
 mortar can be given to suit all kinds and qualities 
 of lime and sand, we will simply give the principles 
 by which we must be guided. 
 
 For the first coat on lath, it is necessary to have 
 just a large enough proportion of lime to make the 
 
30 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 plastering adhere firmly to tlie laths, and enough 
 hair to make the clinches strong — two ])ounds to the 
 bushel for instance. 
 
 For first coat on stone, brick or grout, and for 
 second coat on lath, the mortar will bear more sand ; 
 and hair is not generalUy considered essential. 
 When too little sand is used, the plastering is liable 
 to crack in setting and drying, and it is also liable 
 to crumble easily after it is dry ; and on the other 
 hand, when too much sand is used, the plastering 
 is liable to fall off, and also to crumble. The cor- 
 rect, but varying medium between the two extremes 
 can only be attained by practice and good judgment. 
 
 For the last coat — that is, the putty coat or hard- 
 finish, very little sand is used, and sometimes none ; 
 but when sand, stucco, marble dust, etc., is used, it 
 is generally mixed just before using. The stucco is 
 never mixed with the putty until it is to be applied 
 to the wall or ceiling, as it would otherwise set and 
 render the whole mass useless. 
 
 Care should be taken not to use too much water^ 
 either in the mixing of mortar at first, or in the sub- 
 sequeiit tempering of it; for, as has been shown, 
 too much water deprives the Hme of about two- 
 fifths of its strength, and also retards the crystal- 
 ization of the setting process. 
 
 It will be noticed that mortar does not occupy as 
 much space as its ingredients, taken separately ; its 
 greater weight alone proves that fact. Let a equal 
 the bulk of the lime in paste, b equal the sand, and 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 31 
 
 c equal the bulk of the water. Then {^a-\-b^rC^ 
 X 0.75 = the bulk of the mortar they will produce. 
 According to the best experiments, the strength or 
 resistance of good mortar, when set hard, is four- 
 teen pounds avoirdupois per square inch to a force 
 acting in a direction to tear asunder by an effort 
 of longitudinal traction ; of forty-two pounds per 
 square inch to a crushing force, and of five and a 
 quarter pounds per square inch to a force tending 
 to make the particles slide upon one another. Old 
 work, which has been hardened by time, and become 
 more perfectly carbonized, will stand a better test. 
 
 Hydraulic lime should not be mixed with Avater 
 until just before it is to be used. Hydraulic or 
 Water'lime is generally called cement, and is usually 
 mixed with the sand dry before the mortar is made 
 wet. The proportions of sand and lime given are 
 for coarse sand ; the richer the lime, and the finer 
 the sand, the more sand is required, but fine sand 
 does not make as hard mortar. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 Plastering — On laths is done with one, two or 
 three coats, as follows : First, one or two coats of 
 "brown," or coarse mortar is put on, and that is 
 generally finished with a hard-finish or a putty coat. 
 For one coat of coarse mortar hair mortar is used ; 
 it is applied to the walls with a trowel and then 
 darbied, and after it has set sufficiently, is darbied 
 and floated down, and generally troweled smoothly. 
 This coat should be laid on heavier than the first 
 coat when two coats of brown mortar are put on. 
 If a putty coat or a hard finish is to be put on over 
 one coat of coarse mortar, the first coat should not 
 be troweled after floating. The brown mortar coat 
 is also left without troweling when it is to be fres- 
 coed ; though fresco painters differ on that point, 
 and some of them prefer a putty coat or hard finish 
 with plenty of sand in it, and finished with the float 
 to fresco on. 
 
 If the first coat is floated when it is too green, the 
 float is liable to leave marks on the wall, and the plas- 
 tering also is more liable to crack ; but on the other 
 hand, if the plastering gets too dry to float easily, 
 water may be sprinkled on the plastering with a 
 brush while floating. This is called water floating. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 33 
 
 This process of water floating also tends to harden 
 the plastering. When water is not used in floating 
 hair mortar, hairs will gather along the edges of the 
 float, which should be shaken off every few moments, 
 for if they were left on they would be liable to be 
 rolled under the float, and the pressure would cause 
 them to stick to the wall in tufts and rolls, so that 
 the work could not be smoothly troweled ; and if a 
 finish coat was to be put on, the hair would show 
 through the finish. Sometimes a leveling coat of mor- 
 tar, either with or without hair, is run on over the first 
 coat, while it is " green," before darbying, and before 
 moving the scaffold. Then the whole is dealt with 
 as in the case of one single coat, and in fact it is 
 called one coat, and in reality is but one, as the first 
 coat, being perfectly green, unites with the leveling 
 coat. 
 
 Two coats of coarse mortar are put on as follows, 
 and when finished with a hard finish or a putty 
 coat are called "three coat work : " The first coat is 
 a coat of hair mortar; it is put on the ceiling first, 
 then on the sides as low as the scaffold, and then on 
 the bottoms, as in the case of one coat work, but 
 not quite so heavily ; and it should be well scratched 
 with a scratcher, and not darbied nor floated ; but 
 care should be taken to put it on evenly. This coat 
 is called the "scratch coat," and it should stand 
 until perfectly dry before the second coat is put on, 
 and in no case should the second coat be put on 
 until the scratch coat is perfectly dry, for then the 
 
34 THE plasterer's manual. 
 
 second coat will adhere to the first as it would to 
 brick or stone ; but if the second coat be put on 
 when the scratch coat is only partially dry, the two 
 ■coats will not stick together, but will soon separate, 
 and the greater part of the second coat will fall off. 
 And as the second coat will never set so well nor be so 
 hard when put on that way, the remainder of it will 
 be very apt to soon crumble off. And furthermore, 
 when the scratch coat is only partially dried and 
 partially set, it is neither tough nor hard, and will 
 not stand the floating, etc., without being injured, 
 and often becomes loosened from the laths, and the 
 clinches become broken, and as a natural conse- 
 ■quence of the attraction of gravitation, it all falls off, 
 carrying with it, of course, the third coat, if there be 
 any, thus making a "total wreck" of the whole 
 affair. And still men will blindly put on plastering 
 in that way, and wonder why it falls off, generally 
 laying the blame to the materials used. Whereas, 
 three coat work, when properly done, is the very 
 best kind of plastering. 
 
 When the scratch coat is dry, then the second 
 coat, which is often called " browning," should be 
 put on as follows : First, if very accurate work is 
 required, spots are put on the walls, with brown 
 mortar, to the required thickness of the plastering. 
 The spots are put on at the base, close to the angles, 
 and also at the top next to the ceiling and close to the 
 angles, and if the rooms are high, spots are put on at 
 about half the height and in lines with the others ; 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 35, 
 
 and if the rooms are large, several perpendicular 
 rows of spots are put on at convenient distances. 
 These perpendicular rows of spots should be 
 plumbed with the " long rod " with a spirit plumb 
 inserted in it, and the surface of all the spots on the 
 same wall should lie in the same plane. These spots 
 should also be floated, and if no finish is to be put 
 on they should be troweled. Any time after the 
 spots are set hard, screeds of mortar are put on in 
 horizontal lines with the spots ; the screeds should be 
 darbied and floated; then the rest of the wall is filled 
 up even with the screeds and spots, straightened 
 with the straight edge, and darbied and floated, etc.,^ 
 as the screeds were ; and if no finish coat is to be 
 put on the whole surface is to be troweled smoothly 
 as the work goes on, leaving no " cat faces " (hol- 
 lows or uneven places) ; but if the wall is to be fin- 
 ished or frescoed, it should be left under the float. 
 Only as large a piece of wall should be covered at a 
 time as can be darbied, floated, etc., before it has 
 time to set. In ordinary work the spots may be dis- 
 pensed with, as the screeds will make the wall 
 accurate enough if they are put on straight. A 
 screed should also be put on around the margin of 
 the ceiHng, close to the angles, in order to get them 
 perfectly straight. The first screed should be put 
 on at the base, and the next at the length of the 
 straight edge above it, or at convenient height to 
 correspond with the height of the workman, or the 
 middle row of spots, if such there are. After 
 
36 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 browning the lower half of the walls, the scaffold 
 should be put up and the screeds and browning 
 should be put on the ceiling, and then the upper 
 half of the walls. We would recommend water 
 floating this kind of wall, for it makes a harder sur- 
 face, though it may take a little more time. Cement 
 may be mixed with the brown mortar for second 
 coat if very hard walls are desired, but it should not 
 be mixed until ready for use. Stucco (Plaster of 
 Paris) is sometimes used in scratch coat for ceilings 
 to make the mortar set rapidly and hard. When it 
 is used the mortar should be "gauged" with the 
 plaster after it is placed on the mortar-board, and 
 the scratcher should be used before the plastering 
 sets. 
 
 The finish coat should not be put on until the 
 brown mortar is dry and hard, because it would 
 be liable to crack if it were put on sooner. 
 
 When the finish is to be simply a putty coat, the 
 putty should have more sand in it than when it is to 
 be a hard finish. Hard finish should be "gauged " 
 (that is, should have the plaster mixed with the 
 putty) after the putty is put on the mortar-board. 
 In gauging the putty, it is customary to make a 
 hollow with the trowel in the pile of putty on the 
 mortar board, and the hollow should be large 
 enough to contain the water and plaster — say from 
 twelve to sixteen inches in diameter for common- 
 sized boards — and the hollow should be made clear 
 to the board, leaving no putty on the bottom. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 37 
 
 but leaving it in the form of a ring around the 
 outside of the board. Then the water should be 
 poured in, and the plaster sprinkled in the water, 
 and the whole mass mixed rapidly with trowel and 
 hawk, and applied to the wall or ceiling as quickly 
 as possible, before the plaster has time to set. The 
 finish is generally skimmed on in two very thin coats, 
 one right after the other ; but some plasterers prefer 
 to skim three times ; and the finish is then only 
 about as thick as an ordinary small sized pane of 
 window glass. It is then immediately troweled 
 several times over with a trowel and wet brush, to 
 prevent "chip cracking," and to give it a smooth 
 surface. If too little water is used in troweling the 
 steel trowel will stain the finish, and if too much 
 water is used it will " drown " or " kill " the plaster, 
 causing it to peel. 
 
 After troweling, the whole surface should be 
 brushed with a wet brush once or twice, and if a 
 ''buffed " (polished) surface is required, it should be 
 brushed with a comparatively dry brush until a 
 glossy surface is obtained. The brush will, of 
 course, be damp after the first brushing, but should 
 not be dipped in the water during the polishing pro- 
 cess. Care should be taken to finish all joinings so 
 that they will not show. 
 
 Angles may be finished with the wooden paddle ; 
 as the steel trowel is liable to stain the finish, and 
 also to cut into the angles. Ceilings should be fin- 
 ished first, then the upper part of the walls, and then 
 
38 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 lower part. Sometimes the walls arc finished, top 
 and bottom, at once — one man doing the upper 
 part while another does the lower part ; or in very 
 high rooms, several men work together, one above 
 the other, on scaffolds about six feet apart. This is 
 to avoid dry joinings in the finish. Common putty 
 coat is troweled and brushed the same as hard finish. 
 
 In plastering on stone, brick, or grout, a scratch 
 coat is seldom put on. Only one coat of coarse 
 mortar is used, and that generally without hair; and 
 the work is rendered about the same as second coat 
 on laths. Where a scratch coat is used, it is like the 
 scratch coat on laths, except that it has a larger pro- 
 portion of sand and less hair. The finish is the 
 same as on lathed walls. 
 
 Plastering on external walls is generally improved 
 by using hydraulic cement in the mortar ; and if the 
 wall is exposed to the alternate action of water and 
 frost, sawdust, mixed with the mortar, will prevent 
 the scaling off of the plastering so commonly noticed 
 on such walls. Plaster of Paris will not withstand 
 the action of the weather, and, therefore, is not 
 reliable for external works. 
 
 Plastering with hydraulic cement is generally 
 similar to browning. The work must be done rapidly, 
 and only as much mortar should be mixed at a time 
 as can be used before it begins to set much. Cement 
 floors are made by running a screed around the 
 margin and leveling the whole of the floor by the 
 screed. Gravel, brick, stone, or even hard clay will 
 make a good base to cement on for a floor. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CISTERNS. 
 
 We give ihis short article on cisterns because 
 plasterers are so often called upon to build and re- 
 pair, as well as to plaster them. Therefore a few hints 
 will not be amiss — to the inexperienced, at least. 
 
 Cisterns are made in various ways and various 
 forms. 
 
 For a very cheap cistern, a hole is dug in the 
 ground and plastered, without walling up, provided 
 that the soil is hard enough to hold the cement ; 
 when made quite small, they sometimes last a long 
 time made in that way. 
 
 But when something more substantial and durable 
 is required, the walls are usually made of stone or 
 brick. As stone is heavier than brick, and does not 
 generally " break joints " as well, it is more apt to 
 settle and crack, and being rougher, requires more 
 cement to plaster than the same surface of a brick 
 wall. As a rule, hard burnt brick is considered the 
 best material for cistern building. Common cistern 
 walls are generally laid in quicklime mortar, but hy- 
 draulic cement is decidedly better, and is almost in- 
 variably used for works of much importance. 
 
40 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 Cisterns are plastered with mortar made of one 
 part of cement to from one to three parts of sand, 
 according to quaUty of said materials, but generally 
 two of sand to one of cement. Two coats are gener- 
 ally applied, and sometimes three, waiting for each 
 coat to set before applying the next. Then the last 
 coat is brushed with a wet brush, Avhich assists in 
 hardening the cement. 
 
 Filters^ — In cisterns are made in a variety of dif- 
 ferent ways, sometimes fixed at the top, where the 
 water is let in, and sometimes a partition wall is 
 built, dividing the cisterns in two compartments, and 
 the water is let into one side and taken out at the 
 other, holes being left at the bottom for the water to 
 pass through the partition. The gravel, sand and 
 charcoal, which is the substance through which the 
 water is filtered, is filled in to a height above the 
 holes in the partition on the side in which the water 
 is admitted. Another, and a cheaper and perhaps 
 more effectual filter is made as follows : An arched 
 mound of brickwork about a foot high is built on the 
 bottom of the cistern in the lowest part ; the pump 
 pipe is cemented into the top of this hollow mound, 
 and holes are left around the bottom, for the water to 
 pass through, and a circular brick wall is built around 
 the mound to a height a little above the tops of the 
 opening left in the bottom. About two courses of 
 brick in height is sufificient for this circular wall, 
 which is placed at a distance of about four inches 
 
■|HE plasterer's MANUAL. 41 
 
 from the mound. Then this space is filled with the 
 filtering material, the first and last layer of which 
 should be clean gravel. 
 
 The arch of the filter should be cemented before 
 the filtering material is put in. In filling the filter, 
 the second layer of charcoal should be powdered 
 finely. In repairing cisterns, when the cement has 
 cracked, the cement should be cut away an inch or 
 two wide all along the crack, in order to give a suffi- 
 cient body of the new cement to hold ; otherwise it 
 would crack again in the same place. 
 
 When veins of water force their way through from 
 the outside of newly plastered cisterns, the leak can 
 be stopped and the cement set by pressing a hot 
 brick against the fresh cement. The brick must be 
 quite hot. 
 
 As the most common form of a cistern is that of a 
 cylinder, we give below a table of dimensions and 
 capacities of cisterns of that form. When the 
 cistern is a cylinder on end, with an arch at the top, 
 add one-third of the depth of the arch to the depth 
 below the arch for the total depth. If the diameter 
 varies all the way, take the average diameter by the 
 depth for the contents. For a greater depth than is 
 given in the following table, multiply the contents of 
 one foot in depth by the depth of the cistern. 
 
 The numbers at the top indicate the feet in dia- 
 meter, and the numbers in the margin at the left in- 
 dicate the feet in depth ; the other numbers the bar- 
 rels contained.- 
 
42 THE PLASTERERS MANUAL. 
 
 Table of Dimensions and Capacities of Cisterns. 
 
 Feet in 4 feet 
 Depth. Diam. 
 
 g.99 
 13-32 
 16.65 
 19.98 
 23 31 
 
 2D. 64 
 
 29.97 
 
 33 -.3° 
 36.63 
 39-96 
 
 S feet 
 Diam. 
 
 4.70 
 9.40 
 14.10 
 18.80 
 23.50 
 
 28. 2° 
 32.90 
 37.60 
 42. 30 
 47.70 
 
 51-70 
 56.40 
 
 6 feet 
 Diam. 
 
 7 feet 
 Diam. 
 
 9.18 
 18.36 
 
 27-54 
 36.72 
 
 45-9° 
 55.08 
 64.26 
 
 73-44 
 82.62 
 91.80 
 100.98 
 110. 16 
 
 8 feet 
 Diam. 
 
 9 feet 
 Diam. 
 
 15.20 
 30.40 
 45.60 
 60.80 
 76.00 
 91 .20 
 106.40 
 I 2 I . 60 
 136.80 
 I 52 . 00 
 167.20 
 182 .40 
 
 10 feet 
 Diam . 
 
 18.74 
 37-4S 
 56.22 
 74.96 
 
 93-70 
 1 12 . 40 
 131. 18 
 
 149-92 
 168.96 
 187.40 
 206. 14 
 224.88 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL PLASTERING 
 
 Mouldings — Are made as follows : For cornice 
 mouldings, two plaster screeds are run with the 
 trowel, and straightened with the straight edge, and 
 troweled smoothly, one on the ceiling and the other 
 on the sides, at the proper distance from the angles, 
 for the shoes of the mould to slide upon them ; then 
 thin straight wooden screeds are nailed to the walls 
 for a guide, upon which the lower shoes of the 
 mould slide. These wooden screeds should be 
 carefully adjusted, so that the mould may run in a 
 straight line. Where very heavy members of the 
 moulding occur rows of nails may be driven to help 
 support the cornice, being careful to drive them in 
 far enough to be out of the way. The laths are 
 generally left bare in the angles, so that the mould- 
 ing will clinch through between the laths. If the 
 angles have previously been plastered, cut the plas- 
 tering away to the width of the moulding. 
 
 Everything being ready, enough putty is gauged, 
 with about equal parts of plaster, to run a strip of 
 moulding of convenient length, and the angle is 
 immediately filled to about the thickness of the 
 required moulding ; and then the mould is run over 
 the piece thus prepared as quickly as possible, cut- 
 
44 'I'HE plasterer's manual. 
 
 ting away all the gauged stuff except the moulding; 
 and this process is repeated several times until the 
 moulding is filled out. The last time the moulding 
 should be wet with a wet brush before running 
 the mould over it, in order to fill all small cavities ; 
 then finish with the brush to give a gloss, and then 
 go on to the next piece of the cornice, and proceed 
 as before. If a mitre mould is not used, the mitres 
 must be filled out by hand with the mitring rod and 
 other small tools made for that purpose. But the 
 mitre mould works much easier, and saves a great 
 deal of time. It has been heretofore described in 
 the chapter on "Tools used." 
 
 Circular and elliptic centre mouldings are run 
 from a centre, with the mould attached to the arm 
 of a trammel, and only one screed is required for 
 the mould to slide upon. Arch mouldings, etc., are 
 also put on in the same way. For a circular mould- 
 ing, the arm of the mould turns upon a pin or pro- 
 jecting gaspipe. For an elliptic moulding, a trammel 
 of the following description is generally used : two 
 pieces of wood are halved together, at right angles 
 to each other ; grooves are cut the whole length of 
 each piece on the same side, so that the grooves 
 intercept each other at the center. The length of 
 these two cross-pieces should be equal, and a little 
 less than the short diameter of the required ellipse. 
 The arm of the mould is similar to that used for a 
 circle, except that it has several holes bored in it, 
 besides the one at the opposite end from where the 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 45 
 
 mould is attached. One pin is then put in the end 
 hole, and the other in one of the other holes, close 
 to or farther from the end pin, according as the 
 ellipse is to be broad or narrow. These pins should 
 just fit in the grooves in which they are to slide, one 
 in each groove. The distance of the end pin from 
 the mould will equal half of the long diameter, and 
 the distance of the other pin from the mould will 
 equal half of the short diameter. 
 
 Niche mouldings and panel mouldings are run by 
 screeds or trammels, as the occasion may require. 
 
 Cast centers, rosettes, brackets, and other such 
 ornaments are made in moulds which are put to- 
 gether in sections, with an orifice in which to pour 
 the plaster, which is made thin enough with water 
 to pour readily, no lime being used. Basso relievos, 
 etc., are run in open moulds, made all in one piece. 
 These moulds should always be oiled before using. 
 Most of these moulds are made of plaster, hardened 
 with glue or shellac, but moulds for basso relievos are 
 often made of beeswax. Plaster ornaments are 
 fastened up in their places with fresh gauged plaster, 
 and sometimes a few screws to help hold up the 
 heavier ones. When screws are used they should be 
 countersunk, and the heads should be covered with 
 plaster so that they will not be seen. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Lathing. — In common lathing the spaces between 
 the laths should be one-quarter of an inch. If they 
 be made less than that, the clinches will not be 
 strong enough, and if more, they will sag down on 
 the ceiling, and drop oif with their own weight on 
 the sides ; and in no case should the spaces exceed 
 two-fifths of an inch, except when the furring is very 
 thin, like strips of lath nailed on inside sheeting or 
 ceiling. Most lathers break joints every sixth lath, 
 and some every tenth ; but it is still better to break 
 joints every second lath. When ordinary laths are 
 used, of from one-quarter to two-fifths of an inch 
 in thickness, the studding, joists, etc., should never 
 be over sixteen inches apart — twelve inches would 
 be better. Lathing is estimated by the square yard, 
 and is measured the same as plastering, without 
 deducting openings for doors, widows, etc, except 
 when the opening exceeds sixty-three square feet. 
 
 Chimneys. — The object of a chimney flue is a 
 safe and efficient means of carrying off smoke, hot 
 air, etc; therefore, security is the main point inside 
 of the building. In order to attain that end, the 
 flue must be plastered smoothly inside, and must be 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 47 
 
 as straight as practicable, thereby securing a good , 
 draft, thus preventing soot from collecting and fr^, - 
 quently burning out. And the flue should also 
 built strongly, filling the joints carefully with gdbd 
 mortar to guard against cracking. Outside sym- 
 metrical form and clean work is an essential feature.-. 
 Five courses of brick will lay up one foot in height, 
 mortar joints included. 
 
 Whitewashing. — In order to do good white- 
 washing it is necessary to have a good brush, and 
 good wash. These two being supplied, and a suit- 
 able scaffold being ready, dip the brush into the 
 wash about half the length of the bristles, and then 
 brush as much of the wall or ceiling as that amount 
 of wash will cover, wetting it thoroughly ; then finish 
 by passing the brush once over the strip just put on, 
 and immediately dip and repeat the process upon 
 an adjoining portion of the wall or ceiling. 
 
 Avoid dry joinings, and be careful not to spatter. 
 One coat is not generally sufficient to whiten an old 
 wall. 
 
 Whitewashes. — ist, wash for fences — one-half 
 bushel lime, slacked to putty ; two pounds zinc 
 white, dissolved in water; one pound common salt 
 dissolved in water. If color is wanted, color to suit, 
 and set the color with one table-spoonful of pow- 
 dered alum. 
 
 2d. Wash for wood, brick, stone, or plastering^ — 
 slack about one peck of lime in hot water, keeping 
 
48 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 it covered during the slacking process; strain and 
 add one-half peck of salt dissolved in water, one 
 and a half pounds ground rice, put in boiling water 
 and boiled to a thin paste, one-quarter pound pow- 
 dered whiting, and one-half pound clear glue dis- 
 solved in warm water. Mix well together ; let stand 
 for several days, and apply hot. Color to suit. 
 Coloring should be put in before the glue and paste. 
 
 3d. Another — fifteen pounds of whiting, one-half 
 pound fresh slacked lime dissolved in skim-milk. 
 Color to suit. This wash becomes as hard as paint. 
 
 Kalsomine. — To fifteen pounds best whiting or 
 French kalsomine, disolved in cold water, add one 
 pound fine white glue dissolved in water. Apply 
 cold. For very fine white work zinc white is pre- 
 ferred to whiting, but as the expense is so much 
 greater it is seldom used. One-half ounce of ultra- 
 marine blue added to the above gives a clearer white. 
 Color to suit, but be sure to put in all coloring before 
 putting in the glue. 
 
 Cheap Paint. — Hydraulic cement and skim- 
 milk. Color to suit. Is not white. 
 
 Another — eleven pounds dry slacked lime sifted 
 fine, one gallon water, one gallon linseed oil (raw or 
 boiled), one-half pound potash dissolved in water by 
 heating over the fire. First mix the lime and water, 
 then add the oil and potash water. If the oil does 
 not unite with the water, add a little more potash 
 water, but only enough to cut the oil. Color to suit. 
 
The plasterer's manual. 
 
 49 
 
 Granite Finish. — Brown ground-work — spatter 
 first with white, then half as much with black, and 
 then as much with red as with white. Used on out- 
 side work, and requires to be penciled to represent 
 blocks of stone. 
 
 Stucco plastering — three or four bushels of quick- 
 lime to one bushel of hydraulic cement, with sand, 
 six or seven to one. 
 
 Blackboards. — If on laths, plaster with three 
 coats, as follows : Scratch-coat of good hair mortar, 
 gauged with stucco (plaster of paris). When dry, 
 brown with a coat of mortar described as " stucco- 
 plastering," but using a larger proportion of cement. 
 When that is dry, finish with a good coat of hard- 
 finish, colored black with drop black, or lampblack 
 dissolved in alcohol ; and when the finish is dry 
 apply two coats of liquid slating, made as follows ; 
 one pound white shellac, one-half pound powdered 
 pumice-stone, one-quarter pound lampblack cut in 
 one gallon pure alcohol. If the blackboard is to be 
 put on a stone or brick wall, the scratch-coat may 
 be omitted. Warranted to give satisfaction. 
 
 Tucking. — The tools used for tucking are along 
 and short straight-edge, with spirit-level and plumb 
 inserted ; the tucker's hawk eight inches square, 
 with the handle at one corner, and a brad in the 
 opposite corner, with which to hold the straight- 
 edge and the tucking tool. The mortar is generally 
 
50 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 made with quick-lime and white sand, or marble 
 dust and a little cement, with proportions varying 
 accdrding to circumstances. 
 
 Hydraulic Mortar. — One part blue Lias lime to 
 two and a half parts burnt clay, ground together. 
 
 Beton. — One part hydraulic mortar to one and a 
 half parts of angular stones. 
 
 Concrete. — One part lime, two parts sand and 
 four parts gravel. 
 
 Grout or Gravel Houses. — To eight barrows 
 of slacked lime add fifteen barrows of sand. Mix 
 to a creamy consistency, and then add sixty barrows 
 of coarse gravel, and mix well together. Throw 
 in as many stones as desired, not to exceed ten 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 Gravel Walks. — Fifteen bushels of gravel, from 
 three to five bushels of sand, and from one to one 
 and a half bushels of lime. Coarse gravel requires 
 more sand. 
 
 Waterproof Mastic Cement.— One part red 
 lead, four parts ground lime, five parts sharp sand 
 mixed with boiled oil ; or one part red lead, five 
 pans whiting, ten parts sharp sand mixed with 
 boiled oil. 
 
 Marble Finish. — Hard-finish with dissolved 
 lampblack, spattered on it in streak? with a pencil- 
 
THE PLASTERER S MANUAL. ^ — ^ 
 
 brush just before troweling. The troweling will b^d^ M\ 
 the streaks of black, making them resemble^^e ^ 
 seams or grain of marble. 
 
 Measurement of Plastering. — Plasterin]^is ^ ^ 
 generally measured by the square yard ; and ac^^ ^ 
 ding to custom no deduction is generally made f<5r ^ 
 doors, windows or other openings which do 
 exceed sixty-three square feet. In most places it is 
 customary in measuring closets to add half of the 
 contents to the contents, and if the shelves and 
 strips are in before plastering, it is customary to 
 double the contents. Small gables and other trian- 
 gular pieces are generally counted square. These 
 extra allowances are made to make up for the extra 
 labor of plastering such pieces of work. 
 
 Comparison of Measures. — One bushel equals 
 2150.42 cubic inches ; one gallon, 231 cubic inches; 
 six and five-tenths barrels, one cubic yard ; one load 
 of earth, 21.7 bushels. 
 
 Table of Weights of Materials.~The fol- 
 lowing shows the weight (avoirdupois) per cubic 
 foot of various kinds of material : Average mortar, 
 106 pounds; water, 62^ pounds; loose earth, 95 
 pounds; common soil (compact), 124 pounds; clay 
 (compact), about 135 pounds ; clay with stones, 160 
 pounds ; brick, 125 pounds ; lime, 64 pounds ; sand 
 (loose), 96 pounds. 
 
 And the following shows the bulk of one ton of 
 
52 THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 different substances in cubic feet : Sand, 28 cubic 
 feet; earth (compact), 18 cubic feet; earth (loose), 
 32 cubic feet. 
 
 Bill of Material for One Hundred Yards of 
 Plastering — Three Coats. — Eight bushels lime, 
 one bushel hair,' one load sand, one-quarter barrel 
 plaster. This of course varies some with the quali- 
 ties of material. About two bushels of lime are 
 required for the finishing, the other six for the 
 coarse mortar. 
 
 Miscellaneous Table. — The average weight of 
 one bushel of mortar is 131x111 pounds. The average 
 weight of one bushel of sand is 120 pounds. The 
 standard weight of one bushel of lime is 80 pounds. 
 The standard weight of one bushel of hair is 8 pound?. 
 
 How to Find the Area of a Circle. — Multiply 
 the square of the diameter by the decimal .7854, or 
 multiply the circumference by the radius, and divide 
 the product by 2. 
 
 How to Find the Area of an Ellipse.— Mul- 
 tiply the long diameter by fhe short diameter, and 
 by the decimal .7854. The product will be the area. 
 Or multiply one-half of the long diameter by one- 
 half of the short diameter, and that product by 
 3.1416. 
 
THE plasterer's MANUAL. 
 
 53 
 
 FORM OF PLASTERER'S CONTRACT. 
 
 Contract for Plastering, made this day of 
 
 , one thousand eight hundred and . . . . , by and 
 
 between of , in the County of , 
 
 and State of , and of in the County 
 
 of . . . ., and State of. . . Plasterer : 
 
 Witness, that the said covenants and agrees 
 
 to and with said to plaster, in a good, substan- 
 tial and workmanlike manner, the following described 
 
 building: (Here describe the building.) 
 
 Said plastering to be done with. .. .coats, and fin- 
 ished in the following manner : ; and 
 
 completed on or before the.... day of.... next. 
 
 In consideration whereof said covenants and 
 
 agrees to pay said the sum of ... .dollars, as 
 
 follows : And for the performance of all the 
 
 agreements above mentioned, the said. .. .and. .. . 
 do hereby bind themselves, their heirs, executors and 
 administrators, each to the other, in the penal sum 
 of. . , .dollars, firmly by these presents. 
 
 In witness whereof, we, th.e said. . . .and. . . .have 
 hereto set our hands the day and year first above 
 written. 
 
 (Signatures.) (Seals.) 
 Executed and deUvered in presence of ) j . . . . 
 
 The above form may be varied to suit every case. 
 
J. B. & J. M. CORNELL, 
 
 PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL 
 
 IRON WORKS. 
 
 Counting House and Warerooms, 
 
 139 to 143 CENTRE ST., N. Y. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 IRON BUILDINGS, 
 
 Iron Pronts for Stores witli revolving Shutters, Iron Koofs, 
 Pire-Proof Ceilings, Ploors and Partitions, 
 
 Patent Lath, for Covering Flues, Ceilings, 
 and Partitions, Balconies, Gates, Trusses 
 and Window Guards, etc., etc. 
 
 Sheet Iron 
 CORRUGATED 
 
 DOTETAILED 
 
 (FOR PLASTERING ON) 
 
 For Ceilings, Partitions, 
 and for covering Steam 
 Pipe, Hot-Air Flues, and 
 places exposed to extreme heat. 
 
 J. B. & J. M. CORNELL, 
 
 HI Centre Street, New York. 
 
JTJST FTJBLISHKD. 
 
 Foundations & Foundation Walls, 
 
 Pile Driving. Building Stones and Bricks, 
 
 Illuatmtions of Foundations, I'ier and Wall Construction, 
 Mortars, Ziinies, Cements , Concretes , Stuccos, etc. 
 
 Practical explanations of the various methods of building foundation walls 
 for all kinds of buildings. 
 
 Table of weight of materials, etc. The kind of materials used, the loads 
 sustained and the sizes of wall piers, etc. Use of piles in foundations, with 
 terms, etc. 
 
 Plastering, mortars, limes and cements. Extract from New York Building 
 Laws, with notes. 
 
 By GEO. T. POWELL, 
 
 ARCHITECT AND CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW YORK. 
 
 To which is added a treatise on foundations, with practical illustrations 
 of the method of isolated piers as followed in Chicago. 
 
 By FREDERICK BAUMAN, Architect. 
 One vol., 8vo, cloth, Price $f.5o. 
 
 Our List of New and Standard Books sent free by Mail or Express on 
 
 , . , , , Receipt of Price. 
 
 Ames Alphabets |i „ 
 
 Atwocd's Modern American Homesteads 2 50 
 
 Bicknell's Village Builder and Supplement ........ to 00 
 
 Bicknell's Supplement to Village Builder 4 00 
 
 Bicknell's Detail Cottage and Constructive Architecture 10 00 
 
 Bicknell s Cottage and Villa Architecture 6 00 
 
 Bicknell's Street, Store and Bank Fronts 4 00 
 
 Bicknell's Public Buildings ...[........ 3 50 
 
 Bicknell's School flouse and Church Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 00 
 
 Bicknell's Stables, Out Buildings, Fences, etc '2 50 
 
 Bicknell's Specimen Book of 100 Architectural Designs i 00 
 
 Builder's Contracts 10 
 
 Croff 's Progressive American Architecture ..... 6 00 
 
 Cumming's Architectural Details g 00 
 
 Gould's Carpenter's and Builder's Assistant '. [ 3 00 
 
 Gould's American Stair Builder's Guide 3 00 
 
 Guillaume's Interior Architecture ,00 
 
 Hallett's Builder's Specifications . . i 75 
 
 Mitchell's Stepping Stone to Architecture to 
 
 Palliser's American Cottage Homes ] ^00 
 
 Palliser's Model Homes i 00 
 
 Reed's House Plans for Everybody i 50 
 
 VVither's Church Architecture 15 00 
 
 Woollett's Villas and Cottages, or Homes for All 3 00 
 
 Woollett's Old Homes inade New i 50 
 
 Wooden and Brick Buildings, 4to, 2 vols., each 9 00 
 
 Illustrated Catalogue mailed on receipt of Three 3c. Stamps 
 BICKNELL & COMSTOOK, Publishers, 27 Warren St., N.Y.