THE LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE. PROSPECTUS. Some degree of triitli has been admitted in the charge not nnfrequently brought against the English, that they are assiduous rather than solid readers. They give themselves too much to the lighter forms of literature. Technical Science is almost ex- clusively restricted to its professed votaries, and, but for some of the Quarterlies and Monthlies, very little solid matter -vvould come within the reach of the general public. But the circulation enjoyed by many of these very periodicals, and the increase of the scientific journals, may be taken for sufficient proof that a taste for more serious subjects of study is now growing. Indeed there is good reason to believe that if strictly scientific subjects are not more universally cultivated, it is mainly because they are not rendered more accessible to the people. Such themes are treated either too elaborately, or in too forbidding a s^le, or ; else brought out in too costly a form to be easily available to all classes. The splendid conquests of Modern Science in every branch of Imman knowledge are moreover, as a rule, scattered over a mnltiplicity of monograplis, essays, memoirs, and special works of all sorts. Except in the Encyclopaedias, their varied results arc nowhere to he found, so to say, under one cover, and even in these unwieldy compilations they are necessarily handled more summarily than is always desirable. With the view' of remedying tliis manifold and increasing inconvenience, we are glad to be able to take advantage of a comprehensive project recently set on foot in Erance, emphatically the land of Popular Science. The well-known publishers, MIVL Eeinwald & Co., have made satisfactory arrangements with some of the leading savants of that country to supply an exhaustive series of ivorks on each and all of the sciences of the day, treated in a style at once lucid, popular, and strictly methodic. The names of MM. P. Broca, Secretary of the Socicte d’ Anthropologic ; Ch. Martins, Montpellier University; C. Yogt, University of Geneva; G. de Mortillet, Museum of Saint Ger- main; A. Guillemin, author of ‘‘Ciel” and ‘‘Phenomenes de la Physique ;” A. Hovelacque, editor of the Eevue de Linguis- tique;” Dr. Dally, Dr. Letourneau, and many others, whose co-. operation has already been secured, are a guarantee that their respective subjects will receive thorough treatment, and will in all cases be written up to the very latest discoveries, and kept in every respect fully abreast of the tunes. We have, on our part, been fortunate in malving such further arrangements with some of the best writers and recognised authorities here, as will enable us to present the series in thoroughly English dress to the reading j^ublic of this country. In so doing we feel convinced that ^Ye are taking the best means of supplying a want that has long been deeply felt. The volumes in actual course of execution, or contemplated. 3 -svill embrace sucli subjects as : Anthropology, Eiology, Science of Language, Comparative Mythology, Astronomy, Prehistoric Archaeology, Ethnography, Geology, Hygiene, Political Economy, Physical and Commercial Geography, Philosophy, Architecture, Chemistry, Education, General Anatomy, Zoology, Botany, Meteorology, History, Einance, Mechanics, Statistics, &c. &c. All the volumes, while complete and so far independent in themselves, will be of uniform appearance, slightly varying, according to the nature of the subject, in bulk and in price. The present volume, on the Science of Language,, with which the English series is introduced, and which will be immediately followed by others on Biology and Anthropology, may be accepted as a fah sample of the style and execution of these works. When finished they will form a complete collection of STANDARD WORKS OF REFERENCE OR all the physical and mental sciences, thus fully justifying the general title chosen for the series — “Library of Contemporary Science.” CHAPMAH. AND HALL. 193, Piccadilly, W., May mh, 1877. LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE. ANTHEOPOLOGY BY DE. PAUL TOPINARD, PEEPAEATOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE ECOLE DES HAUTES ETUDES, CURATOR OF THE MUSEUM OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, ETC. BY PROFESSOR PAUL BROCA. TRANSLATED BY ROBERT T, H. BARTLEY, M.D. oSEith Wcrrrbmts. CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 1878. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL FALACK PRESS. AUTHOR’S PREFACE. Axthropology_, of all brandies of natural science, was the last to be developed ; nevertheless it is one which now lays claim to hold the first place in the attention of the scientific world. For fifteen years this science, whose title even was not settled, had but few adherents. Since 1749, the date at which it was inaugurated by Bufion, there have been, in every generation, a certain number of learned men who have directed their attention to it, and among these have figured many distinguished anatomists and naturalists. But these men, devoted to studies whose utility was not as yet appreciated, formed, as it were, a staff without an army, and if they had a few select readers we may safely say they had not the public at large. A new era manifested itself in 1859, in consequence of the foundation of the Societe d^ Anthropologic de Paris. The Ethnological Societies of Paris, and of London and New York, which had preceded it, had not been able to extend their influence beyond a very limited area ; some valuable works had been published, but the majority of the members VI PEEFACE. remained indifferent. When, in 1848, the Societe Ethno- logiqne de Paris ceased to hold its meetings, no notice was taken of it; and when, eleven years later, some of its members resolved to found a society for the special study of Man, and of the races of mankind, it was with difficulty, after six months of parleying, that nineteen of the pro- moters could be brought together, of whom many were only members in name. This new society, founded with so much difficulty, obtained, however, rapid and unexpected success. Enlarg- ing all at once the programme of ethnology, by grouping around the study of the human races the medical sciences, comparative anatomy, and zoology, prehistoric archaeology, palaeontology, linguistics, and history, and designating under the title Anthropology the science whose domain was thus largely extended, the new society opened its portals to all those who cultivated these numerous branches of human knowledge. Ethnology had remained, up to this period, a speciality prosecuted but by few; anthropology, on the contrary, addressed itself to learned men of every class. It attracted to it physicians, naturalists, archaeologists, linguistics, happy to be able, each in his sphere, to lend his aid ; and soon these valuable auxiliaries manifested their desire to become pro- ficient by an assiduous devotion to its study. To the rapid accession of learned men to its ranks, and of others who became interested in it, are we to attribute the rapid diffusion of anthropological knowledge. This movement, which had its origin in France, rapidly extended to other countries. On all sides anthropological societies sprang up, which were founded on the same basis PREFACE. Vll and worked on the same general plan. Anthropological conferences were organised, and in the greater number of general meetings for the advancement of science, anthro- pology has now its section the same as other sciences. These conferences have been remarkable from the number of members who have taken an active part in them, and from the still larger number of their adherents. The latter are no longer to be computed by hundreds but by thousands. For example, the only society of anthropology in Paris has now on its roll upwards of four hundred native members, while the members comprising the two English societies is nearly double that number. There is now a large and distinguished body of persons who fully estimate the importance of the science, who approve its objects, and who naturally interest themselves in them. This is the happy outgrowth of the extension of the general scheme of anthropology. Other results, still more fortunate, have been brought about. » ^Vorks have become multiplied in proportion to the number of workers. Many questions of altogether a novel character have arisen ; many others have changed their aspects ; all have been elucidated by constant and patient research. Innumerable facts have been observed, discussed, verified ; and in the brief period of sixteen years greater progress and more important discoveries have been made in anthropology than at any period since its foundation. But the rapidity with which the development of anthro- pology is proceeding is a source of considerable difficulty to those who are desirous of studying this science. No one can pretend to become conversant with all the subjects of general knowledge which it lays under contribution; to viii PKEFACE. master them with the depth and precision which imply a thorough acquaintance with them, he must abandon the idea o£ becoming a 'perfect anthropologist. Division of labour is more necessary here than anywhere else. In this vast domain each one pitches his tent in the spot where his special tastes, his peculiar bias, and his particular know- ledge invite him. But in order that these researches, so multiform, may not run the risk of becoming discursive, and may be directed to one and the same end, it is necessary that all labourers in the work should early become ac- quainted with the general principles of anthropology, with its tenets, and with the whole of the facts which it has established. This want has been sensibly felt for some years. From all sides a demand has sprung up for an elementary treatise on anthropology — a systematic resume where questions might be studied which are the subject of discussion in our societies or treated of in original papers ; a work, in short, which should be at the same time a guide for students and a manual of reference for others. Such a work has not appeared up to the present time. The remarkable Lemons sur THomme,^^ by CarlYogt, embraced only the subject in a general way : they were published, moreover, twelve years since, and do not give the latest information on the science. The excellent little treatise of Omalius d^Halloy, Sur les Eaces Humaines,^^ is purely ethnological ; it embraces only one special part of anthro- pology, and does not supply the want to which we refer. An important gap had to be filled up. The founders of the Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines have felt it incumbent upon them to step in, and have confided to Dr. Topinard the difficult task of elucidating, in a single PREFACE. IX volume, a science of vast dimensions in process of rapid de- velopment, and one whicli hitlierto lias not received sufficient attention. More than one had shrunk from attempting it. An individual devoting himself to original research, and engaged in duties to which he is anxious to give his undivided attention, is generally little disposed to employ his time in writing a work of a popular character. But M. Topinard is one who is thoroughly equal to the task. An appeal was made to his ardent love for anthropology, which appeal has not been made in vain. He has been most unwearied in his efforts, and has brought his work to a successful issue. He has rendered signal service to antkropology, for which, on behalf of the friends of ihe- science, I cordially thank him. PAUL BEOCA. a i -. -.vJf .'3*' ^ f''\‘^*ioj:£<*t{itff, . 'i* ».1^l•^^J][i^ ' f ^ ^ v» 5 i'^ /Hi > ^rlftfif a 7^5)ri^ _ - ■ •' •?A<>r-’i®;, ‘r — / ;^ * , jt ' > *. # . ./)H; T.y-y T.., ik-.. v'->4^'':V'-‘'-r- ‘ TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. A\ iiiLST endeavouring faithfully to execute the task of clothing in English garb Dr. Topinard^s work on Anthro- pology, the translator wishes it to be understood that he does not necessarily endorse all the views of its talented author. Himself a pupil of the illustrious Prichard, he early became accpiainted with that great maAs arguments in favour of IMonogenism, so forcibly advanced in his work Researches into the Physical History of Mankind.^^ Sub- sequent thoughtful study has only tended to confirm him in the truth of those arguments, and in an enthe belief in the authenticity of the Mosaic Records, which no sophistry on the part of the advocates of Polygenism has been able to shake. One or two matters of detail contained in the original have been omitted, with a view to render the work more acceptable to the general reader, from whom, as well as from the professional reader, indulgence is craved for many conscious defects in the translation. ROBERT T. H. BARTLEY. November 20 , 1877 . .. . ' ■ .ftV‘ .V•..^ V . . ii; < » • : 'j- .; T‘>. ', ^ 'i 'Urj'-h } f;>^l'^^h ■ ,.■ ■'- .’.ii^JIm %•■ fy» 4 i ^i^/iv^^.'T'jfv '•» ^ ..y ■• -:*':• 1 .. - ^ . r-ftfVK^V rx' ‘-iT-' •- ^ 3‘ ‘’it’ ,*v ^ ^ ■>•*?? ■ t-'* •' •• '(If ■-'*'?• . ' .; -v; ,.?' ,>frtf ‘^ii* 'I ^ V . ! f .4 nmy ( .n: ■ . > •;■>:./” ;y,? _ --....i-- i ■ -'■ ? '*'•1 .•.^ '' V 4 •'\Q ^ ^ \ rV^ ^ It ., Ur .»> .. ' ■- «ii!PW4.fcV V, ^ '-^ s .-.^ r ■„>> CONTENTS. Preface ... TAGS vii INTRODUCTION. Definition of Anthropology — General Outline of the Subject — Its Relations to Medicine and Ethnology — Its Applications — History — Plan of the Work — Zoological Classification ... 1 PART I. OF M.VN CONSniERED IN HIS ENSEMBLE, AND IN Ills RELATIONS WITH ANIMALS. CHAPTER I. Physical Characters. Skeleton and Skull in General — Zoological Facial Angle — Cranial Capacity — Situation and Direction of the Occipital Foramen — Occipital and Biorbital Angles 29 XIV' CONTENTS. CHAPTEE II. PAGE Yertebral Column — Sacrum — Pelvis — Thorax — Sternum — Parallel between the Superior and Inferior Extremities — The Hand and Foot — Proportions of the Skeleton ... 61 CHAPTER III. Muscles — Organs of Sense — Viscera — Larynx — Genital Organs — Nervous System — Brain : its Structure, Convolutions, Weight — Rudimentary Organs and Reversive Anomalies... 91 CHAPTER IV. Physiological Characters — Development of the Body — Em- bryogeny, Sutures and Epiphyses, Teetli — Determination of the Age and Sex of the Skeleton — General and Special Functions — Psychical Manifestations, Faculty of Ex- pression ... ... ... ... ... ... 128 CHAPTER V. Pathological Characters — Diseases — Facts of Teratology — Microcephalus — Hydrocephalus — Premature Spiostoses — Artificial Deformations of the Skull — Conclusion as to Man’s Place in the Class of Mammalia ... 158 PART II. OF THE RACES OF MANKIND. CHAPTER I. Species — Variety — Race — Classification of Races — Physical Characters — Anatomical Description — Craniology — De- scriptive Characters — Processes of Blumenbach, of Owen, of Prichard — Craniometrical Characters — Principles and Methods of employing Craniometry ... ... ... ... 193 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER II. PAGE Measurement of tho Cranial Cavity — Straight and Curved Measurements — Cephalic, Vertical, Frontal, Nasal, Orbital Indices — Facial Triangle 226 CHAPTER ni. Projections — Horizontal Alveolo-condylean Plane — Auricular Radii — Prognathism — Cranioraetrical Angles of Jacquart, De Quatrefages, Broca, Welckcr 263 CHAPTER IV. Skeleton : its Descriptive and Osteometrical Characters — Its Proportions — The Viscera — The Brain: its AVeight ... 297 CHAPTER V. Pliysical Characters in the living Subject — Anthropometrical Characters — Proportions in Art — Stature — Measurement of tho Heiid and Body 314 CIL\PTER VI. Descriptive Characters — Colour of the Skin, Eyes, and Hair — Pilous System — Physiognomy — Form of tho Face, Nose, Mouth, and Ears — External Genital Organs — Tablier and Steatopyga 340 CHAPTER VII. Physiological Characters — Age — Menstruation — Crossing — Inheritance — Consanguineous Union 363 CHAPTER VIII. Influence of Milieux — Acclimation — AVeight of the Body — Muscular Strength — Pulse — Respiration — Intellectual Functions — Pathological Characters — Causes of the Ex- tinction of Races... ... ... 385 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAGE Ethnic, Linguistic, Historical, Archa 0 ological Characters : their Value — Prehistoric Races — Our Ancestors of the Rough and Polished Stone Period 417 CHAPTER X. Anthropological Types — Blonde and Brown European Types — Hindoo, Tschinghanian, Iranian, Celtic, Berber, Semitic, Arabian Types 442 CHAPTER XI. Finnish and Lapp Types — Mongolian, Esquimau, Samoyed, and Malay Types — Polynesian Type — American and Pata- gonian Types — Red African Type ... ... 465 CHAPTER XII. Xegro, KaflSr, Hottentot Types — Papuan, Negrito, Tasmanian Types — Austixilian Type — Conclusion of the Subject of Human Races 487 PAET III. ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. CHAPTER I. Monogenism of M. de Quatrefages — Polygenism of Agassiz — Transformism of Lamarck — Selection of Mr. Darwin — Their Application to Man, his Genealogy, his Place - in Nature 515 xVXTIIROPOLOGY. •r KKKATA. IiitixKluctioii, fwige t), last line, for “ himself ” read “ itself.” Page 25, note, for ” M^dicale ” read “ Mddicales.” Page 11, Fig. 1, inseit “ Its vertex at” after “ Angle of Jacquart.” Page 152, note, last line but one, read “ induces them litth' to conceive,” &c. Page 173, line 21, for “ at ” read “ of.” Page 179, line 11, for “one of their tribes having this custom have passed over the Volskes-Tectosages of the Caucasus,” read “ one of their tribes, the Volskes-Tectosages, have passed over tlie Caucasus.” Page 363, for “ Physical ” read “ Physiological.” i*age 392, 3 lines fi‘om bottom, omit “ climate and.” wo give it at tJic present aay. in looo, , — — Mirseiiin, the title of Professor of Anthropology, or of the Xatiiral Ilistor)^ of Man ; and :M. IGhvards, in 1839, dehned it as the knowledge of ]Man in his physical and moral relations. Here and there, however, we find it more or less misinterpreted. Physicians have published, under this title, encyclopa3dias embracing at the time anatomy, physiology, pathology, and hygiene. A B same 2 INTRODUCTION. chapter in Professor Karl Sclimiclt’s “ Lettres Anthropologic pies,”" written in 1852, is entitled The Anthropology of the Xew Testa- ment, or Jesus Christ.” Tliree years ago an author in the Keviie des deux Mondes ” employed it as a synonym for the “ Keproduction of the human figure on Grecian vases.” Put such difierences of signification are no longer allowable. The word has a meaning, stamped upon it hy the wliole of Euro})e, Avhicli cannot he ignored ; it designates a science as Avell recognised and as definite as chemistry, astronomy, or social economy. Definition. Anthropology is tlie branch of natural history A\’hich treats of Man and of the races of j\Ian. It may be summed up in the folloAving definitions : “ Anthropology is a science Avhich has for its ol>ject the study of the human race, considered as a Avhole, in its separate individu- ality, and in its relations A\dth the rest of nature.” — Broca. “ Anthroi)ology is a science pure and concrete, having for its aim the thorough knoAvledge of the human group, considered : (1) In each of the four typical divisions — as to Aairiety, race, species — compared Avith each other, and in relation to their respective ex- ternal conditions. (2) In its ensemhie, and in its relations Avith tlie rest of the animal AAmrld.” — Berfillon. “ Anthropology is the natural history of Man, considered mono- graphically, as a zoologist studying an animal Avould understand it.” — De Qaatrefages. Such is an outline of the subject for our consideration. It com- prehends all the points of vieAv from AAdiich the enlightened naturalist AA'Ould look, Avho desired to gKe a complete history of any animal, and of its settled A'arieties. He examines (1) Its external form, and its internal organs after death. (2) The functions of these organs during life. He notes hoAv the heart beats, the lungs respire, the brain thinks. He ascertains AAdiether the animal is a biped or a quadruped ; hoAv its functions of reproduction are per- INTRODUCTION. 3 formed, what are the iiitlueuces hy wliich it is governed, what tlie character of its food, what its liahits, its instincts, its i)assions. (3) Its particular nif)de of associating with those of its own species, siicli as the wandering life of the dingo of Australia, and the bison of Americii, or the sedentary life of the beaver and the ant. (4) Its method of conveying its meaning to a distance l)y more or less articulate sounds, as by the rapid friction of the wing-covers, or ])}' the simple vibrations of the larynx. (5) Its migrations, whether voluntiry or forced, periodical or spontaneous, owing to the i)iu-suit of an enemy, or in conse<|uence of a Hood, or from change of climate. (G) Its numerous records. .iVi’clunology indeed gives us an insight into the liabits of animals in bygone times, their migrations, the perioil at which they became domesticated by Man, and those species which have become extinct. The natiimlist, in this way, is enabled to give some sort of ilescription of each group, and of each of its divisions, and to dis- tinguish tliem from tliose to which they are the most closely allied, 'idien, by synthesis, he establishes tlieir respective position in the chussilication of animated beings, and the family, genus, species, or variety to which they belong. Having made himself acquainted with tho relations which his object of study beai*s to the rest of the animal kingdom, he proceeds to enter upon the higher path of philosophical inquiry. Profiramme. The course which tlie anthropologist takes is equally clearly de- fined. His aims are the same, his method of proceeding is identical. His subject is a twofold one : (1) ^lan considered in his ensemhle, 80 far as the group to which he belongs difters from, or is analogous to, contiguous groups in the class of mammalia with which he is in nearest relation. (2) The varieties of mankind, commonly called race^, a word which has but little present significance as compared with that which will be accorded to it at a later period. All the traits ' and characters with which the naturalist is occupied equally engage his attention, and even with greater intensity. 4 INTRODUCTION. Certain characters of liis emlnyo state, of but trifling interest in the animal, possess in him a very high degree of importance. These characters may be classified under four principal heads, viz. (1) Physical, whether studied on the dead body or on the living. (2) Physiological, which have a particular name assigned to them, according as they have reference to the brain, or to the intellectual faculties and phenomena. (3) Charactei-s resulting from the social condition. (4) Those having reference to history, archaeology, language, etc. d'he mode of pursuing the investigation is precisely the same for ]\Ian as for animals. If our iiKpiiries respecting the latter re([uire the most rigid SQrutiny, wliat shall we say when the subject of them is ourselves? Intuitive reasoning, a jjviori reasoning, and otlier methods of a similar nature, should be altogether excluded. AVliether Ave are determining Man’s position on our planet, and the part which he plays at the head of organised beings ; Avhether he is the sole representative of a king- dom — the human kingdom — or is only the first of the order of Primates, the same processes of scientilic investigation must be put in operation. ]\I. de (,)uatrefages, one of the strongest defended of human prerogatives, expressly tells us this : Man is an animal ; he comes into existence, reproduces his OAvn species, and dies. Memento te liominem esse! Avas an exclamation to the coiicpieror of old. Method of Investigation. ]\Ian in his entirety — that is to say, in his physical and moral relations, to exuote AV. EdAvards — is the subject of anthropology. . E’o zoologist Avould dream of dmding the study of an animal into tAvo portions, and of entrusting them to learned men of diflerent orders, some limiting themselA'es to the anatomical and xdiysio- logical characters of certain organs, others directing their attention only to the brain and iierA^ous system. aSTeither should the study of Man, under the pretext that one portion possesses supreme importance over another, be divided betAveen men of science and philosophers. Each Avould look at Alan or animal from his INTRODUCTION. 5 own particular point of view ; hut the anthropologist and the naturalist should take a comprehensive view of the whole. To understand the working of a machine, one must study its system of wheels, and make ourselves acipiainted with the mechanism and structure of similar machines. The organisation, whether animal or human, simple or complex, is governed hy the same general la^vs, is constituted of the same elements, and i>erforms similar functions. Men’s inoile of life, of thought, and of association, is as important to know as their motle of walking or l)reathing. The cerebral mani- feshitions, in their infinite variety, are as much characteristic of i-aces jis the volume and «piality of the hrain distinguish man from the hnite : they are two oriel’s of facts Avhich are inseparable. If the stnicture of the organ indicates its function, so the function and its various manifestations indicate the organ. The body and the mind are as indis.soluble as matter and its activity, or, as it useathology, of hygiene, or of therapeutics! They still diverge. The one seeks in the brain tlie method by which thought is elabomted, and liow it is transformed into action ; the other sees in it only dilh*r*nt manifesUitions, varying according to race. Diseases are not alike in all latitudes. When it is a (piestion of climate, it is 8|x‘cially in the province of medicine ; when of race, it is for anthropology to sU‘p in. So with resi)ect to the action of remedies, each regarls the (luestion from its own particular point of view. Ljistly, hygiene has a bearing upon anthropology, owing to the part which it l)lays, or its inlluence on external circumstances, acclima- tion, or cro-ssing. An ac(piaintance with the medical science.s, without being indis- jieii.sable to every anthropologist, gives him a marked advantage, llecipncally, a knowledge of anthropology invests the physician with a certain pre-eminence, ft augments his interest in anatomical and physiological studies, and is the climax of academic study. We art^ surpri.s<.‘d, therefore, that in.struction in it does not form ])art of the regular course in our in’incij)al faculties. Looking at it in connection with the healing art, it is indi.spensahle that the medical men in our navy and mercantile marine, called ipion, as they are, to practi.se among races the most diverse, .should know how to (bstinguish them, as well as to recognise the varieties of local circum.stances under which di.seases pre.sent themselves. Ethnoijraplvj. Tlie word “ethnography” was employed at the commencement of the present century as synonymous with a. description of nations. 8 INTKODUCTIOX. It was made use of in 182G in tlie ‘‘Atlas Geograpliique ” of M. Balbi, and was ratified under the influence of what was sul> sequently termed linguistics. Wiseman, in 183G, defined it as “the classification of races hy the comparative study of languages ]\I. Broca, as simply the description of each nation in particular. The word “ethnology” had its origin in the title of the Society of Ethnology of Paris, in 1839. It embraces, as set forth in the statutes pf that society, “ the physical organisation, the intellectual and moral character, the language, and historical traditions which serve to distinguish races.” It i* used in the same sense in Englaml by Prichard, Lubbock, Logan, Brace, etc. In 18GG, 3L Broca ex- tended its incaning as follows : “ The ])articular description and designation of these races, the study of their resemblances and dis- similarities as regards physical constitution, as well as intellectual and social condition. The inquiry into their actual allinities, their distribution in the present and in the past, their history, their more- or less probable, more or less doubtful relationship, and their re- spective position in the human series. Such is the j^urpose of that division of anthropology Avhich Ave designate by the name of ethnology; the sources AAdience it gathers its inquiries are numerous, it borroAA'S from ethnography, or a description of peoples. . . . ” * Etluiolo(jij. M. Littre confines the term “ ethnology ” to its etymological mean- ing. “ Ethnology,” he says, “ treats of the origin and distribution of peoples, and ethnography of their description. According to ]M. Erederic Muller, anthropology has reference to the study of races, ethnology to that of peoples. Latham had already described ethnology as the speculative, and ethnography as the descriptive part of the science of peoples. Eor omselves, Ave regard anthropology and ethnology as tAvo different aspects of the study of Man ; tAvo distinct sciences, each * Lecture by James Hunt at tbe Anthropological Society of Loudon, January 3, 1865 ; Article, “ Anthropologie,” in the “ Dictionnairc Encycl. des Sciences Medicates,” by M. Paul Broca, vol. v. Paris, 1866. . INTRODUCTION. 9 liaving its own adherents, enjoying an independent existence, but always liaving a unity of design. The former occupies itself Avith ^lan and the races of mankind, which it succeeds in minutely unfolding. Ihe latter only concerns itself Avith sucli peoples and tribes as geogmj)hy ami history liand oA’er to us, and is divided into tAvo parts — ethnograpliy, Avhich is the description of each peoj»le, of its mannei-s, customs, religion, language, physical charac- teristics, and origin in history ; and ethnology, properly so called, Avhich looks at these in their emcmhle, and as applying to all or to many peojiles. It is the province of ethnology, tlien, to be engaged Avith con- stituent elements, Avitli tlie origin and descent of peoples, and even to make a chussilication of them based upon their language. It makes use of tlie term “ races ” somcAvliat carelessly. Ikit it is not Avithin its proA'ince to determine the characteristics or to make a correct cla.ssification of tlie races of mankind. It does not possess the qiialitications for sucli a task, Avhich retpiires the combination of all the actiA-e i)OAA’ei's of anthroiiology, ami especially anatomical appliances and zoological experience, to AA'hich it is a stranger. The expression “races,” as used by the ethnologist, is a permissive one. To the anthropologist, it is one of deep meaning, lie looks upon it as synonymous Avith the natural divisions of the human group, hoAA'ever remote the perioil at AA’hich they AA'ere constituted, (.’ynology being the natural history of the dog, the inquiry into the primitive mces AA'hich have produced its innumerable cross breeds aa'ouM belong to cynology ; so the iiupiiry into the A^arious human races constitutes anthropology, and not ethnology. Ethnology then, as its etymology signilies, is the general science of nations.* Nationality. The study of anthropology recpiircs a calm and Augorous judg- ment, free from prejudice, Avith but one aspiration — that of truth. There is no more delicate suliject to handle. e have all been * “.:\jithropolofpe, Ethnologie, ct Ethnographie,” in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., by Paul Topiuard. 1876. 10 INTRODUCTION. broiiglit up with preconceived notions, which have saturated onr brain substance, at a period when it was becoming fully developed, and was the better fitted to retain impressions.* l^^ow anthropo- logical facts at times clash Avith certain matters of faith, Avhich religious teachers have ever considered necessary for the best interests of mankind. On the other hand, our pride is ruffled ; it is not willing to descend from the pedestal on Avhich it has reposed, intends to have nothing in common Avith the animals, and clamours Avhen we tell it that there is no great gulf betAveen them and our- selves. "Wdiat we do, Avhat Ave think, is ever the high, the noble, the good, the true. Our physical type, as Europeans, is the nearest approach to perfection. Those Avho have the round head, or aaTio imagine that they have it, affirm that it is the most intellectual. With the Chinese, the flat face, the oblique eyes, and the hairy upper lip, are the very perfection of beauty. The negro looks upon black as the most beautifid of colours. In the in- tellectual Avorld, our moral condition, our civilisation alone merit the title of beautiful. Our customs alone are dictated by reason, those of other nations are barbarous. The political passion misleads us in the same Avay. Nationality, according to the Germans, is determined by language, a doctrine purely ethnographic and radically false ; as M. Abel Hovelacque has so forcibly put it, this is only “ a social cause.” Brought into being by a fortuity of cir- cumstances, rather than by the geograxdiical disposition of places, it is afterAvards maintained by a community of interests, of suffer- ing, and of glory. Blood poured out in a common cause cements it ; hearts tlmobbing in unison Avith it from one end of a territory to the other are its characteristics.! Aj)])lications. It is asked if anthropology has any application to real life, and * We shall have frequently to revert to this point, more particularly in our description of races. t “ Langues, Races, Nationalites,” by A. Hovelacque, editor of the Revue de Linguistique.” Paris, 1872. INTRODUCTION. 11 ■^vllat is its pretended aim'? But had Aristotle, Linna?us, Buffon no object in view when describing the animal kingdom'? Xevdon, when pondering over the problem of gravitation, and Cuvier, when investigating the characters of fossil species ? Did Pasteur, when refuting the theory of spontaneous generation, contemplate the advantages which patient industiy would deduce from it? ~No, true science, that which leads to the most brilliant results, is essentially disinterested. To know how to enlarge tAe field of human thought, and to satisfy a legitimate curiosity, such are its actuating principles. Anthropology, more than any other science, is capable of exer- cising an influence on our social organisations. Is not its object to lay open to our view ^Nfaii as he really is, to unfold to us the secret of his acts, his passions, and his wants in the past, and possibly in the future ? The first English society having any relation to anthropology was founded with a view to help forward the abolition of slavery, and did in fact powerfully contribute to this result. The first of any note in France had for its object to give currency to an idea which ]\r. Edwards had gathered from the writings of Sir AValter Scott and of the two Thierrys — namely, that races and their temperaments play an important part in the existence of nations. History, elucidated by anthropology, thus assumes a new aspect ; causes and effects are more readily explained, and the anthropo- logical replaces the theological in our conceptions of past ages.* Civilised peoples are everywhere taking the place of savage races, or substituting for them races less warlike in character. To this end governments have to choose between two courses of action, either to destroy or to bring them together. The former, spite of certain recent examples, is not admissible ; the latter is only realisable by understanding the distinctive character of the vanquished nation, its capabilities, and the nature of its race. Our method of action * W. F. Edwards, “ Des Caracteres Physiologiqnes des Races Humaines considerees dans lenr Rapports avec THistoire.” Letter to M. AmMee Thierry, in 1829, in “ Mem. Soc. Ethnol.,” vol. i. 12 INTEODUCTION. cannot be too deeply penetrated with this truth, if -sve would give its right position to the native race of Algeria, which is the Barbary, and ought not to l^e considered as the Arab race. Antlu'o- pology teaches us how to recognise them. Man inures himself to almost every climate, but only by dint of perseverance. One race dies out in a country, while another thrives in it. By following certain principles, the difficulties are more or Ifess surmounted. The science of acclimation, therefore, is one department of anthropology. It has been said that races may be compared to countries in which diseases are variously developed, and which require different hygienic treatment. It is as necessary to be able to distinguish races as in medicine to diagnose the arthritic, the herpetic, or the nervous temperament. In the sad expedition to i\Iexico the knowledge of one of the characteristics of the negro race led to a most happy result. Vera Cruz, where at first there was considerable mortality among the French troops from yellow fever, was afterwards garrisoned by black soldiers from U2'>per Eg}q)t, who possessed an immunity from that disease. We are not now living in the time of Albert Diirer and of Bubens, when artists were satisfied with delineating the forms and features of those around them to represent those of foreign nations. Our annual exhibitions testify the progress which has been made in this direction. In the galleries of the Mnsenni we sometimes meet with painters studying the varieties of the human head, and at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, the professor of anatomy knows that he must teach the different forms of the beautifid, as seen in every country and under every climate, and, therefore, must be an anthro- pologist. Whether we accept the modern doctrine or not, it is undeniable that Man, by a certain method of high breeding and well-managed crossing, is capable of being changed in successh^e generations,, in his physical as well as in his moral character. According to the modes ‘adopted, he will go on either degenerating or improAdng. Anthropology comes in here with the highest, and at the same time most practical aim, and its utility in this alone INTRODUCTION. 13 slioiild secure for it the encouragement and patronage of our learned societies. Anthropology, he it observed, is far from being a science of luxury. At this very moment it is leading to most important results, and is throwing new light upon all the sciences l)earing upon ^fan. Xaturalists, physicians, men of letters, artists, jdiilo- sophers, lawyers, tliplomatists, travellers, archeologists, and linguists, are all carrying the material wherewith to build the edifice. To those who appl}" themselves closely to its study it is a somewhat arduous task, but to the great majority it is a recreation. Jlisfort/. This may be recited very briefly. Tlie study of nature, and of Man in particular, may be traced back to the period of the earliest ettbrts of the human mind ; but anthropology as a special science, separate from natural history, is but of yesterda}'. Unknown up to the close of the last century, it has only started intodife towards the latter lialf of the nineteenth century. Its rudiments are found scattered up and down in the writings of physicians and hiatu- mlists. Tlie former by observing Man under all climates, tlic latter by placing liini as the type of the perfectly organised being, accomplished for anthropology what M. Jourdain did for prose. Such were Hippocrates, who describes in his book, “On Water, Air, and Ulace,” the character of “tlie Scythians and other no- madic tribes,” as well as the cranial malformations of the Macro- ceifiiali on the other side of I’afiis-^Ieotidiis ; Aristotle, who com- pares apes witli ^lan, and speaks of human hyluids and of Ethiopians ; Pliny, whose frecpiently fantastic recitals have been justly criticised by Isidore Geolfroy Saint-IIilaire ; Galen, who, wliile dissecting monkeys, prepared tlie way for human anatomy founded by ^Mundinus and Yesalius (1544). As to philosophers, they have had nothing to say with respect to ]Man’s history. Yo doubt some, like Lucretius, have shown their acuteness of appre- hension of its facts; but those who long afterwards proclaimed 14 INTEODUCTION. the true method of ohservation have the neatest claim on our O gratitude. ^^’atural History took its rise with Aristotle, and made no further progress. Belon, in 1655, was the first to compare the skeleton of Man with that of another animal — namely, a bird. Up to the eighteenth century, the- chef -cV oeuvre of creation, to use a classical expression, was only studied by physicians. Linnaeus, in 1755, restored him to his place in his classification, and by applying to him his binary nomenclature, under the title of homo sapiens, obliged naturalists to accept him as belonging to them. About the same period Buffon devoted two volumes to the ‘‘Yarietes Humaines” (1749). The way was open. Almost simultaneously Daubenton, in 1764, published his memoir on “La Situation du trou Occipital dans rHonime et les Animaux;’’ Blumenbach, in 1775, his inaugural thesis on “ Les Variations du Genre Humain ; ” Soemmering, in 1785, his “ Memoire sur les Negres;” Camper, in 1791, his pos- thumous dissertation, “ Sur les Differences (pie prcisente le Visage dans les Kaces Humaines;” VBiite, in 1799, his work on “The regular gradation of Man and Animals.” Many notable travels were undertaken about this period. On land we may mention those of Byron, Bruce, Lavaillant, Pallas, Barrow j on the sea, those of Bougainville, Cook, La P(irouse, Ptiron. The Museum of Paris shone out in all its full lustre; natural history made gigantic strides ; observations were going on cpiietly. By degrees, two rival schools sprang up : the one called the dassique, represented by Cuvier, which confined itself -^o facts ; the other called the philosophical, or des idees, which Lamarck and Etienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire represented. Lamentable prejmbces unfortunately came to be mingled with their vuanglings. Linnaeus anel Blumenbach had spoken of manlvind vdthout attaching any definite importance to it. Lamarck maintained that species vary and are • transformed. So far orthodoxy was not affected, but the danger appeared serious ; the younger men were carried away with the eloquence of Etienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire. A watch- Avord seemed to be sent forth : “ The Avorld Avas created in six INTRODUCTION. 15 days ; Adam and Eve are tlie progenitors of all living races ; tlie univei’Siil deluge utterly destroyed everything but the privileged paii-s saved with Xoah.” Science must bend before these articles of faith. The first assault was concludetl to the detrinient of Lamarck, who Avas too modest in presence of the imposing authority of Cuvier. The second was unfavourable to Etienne Geoffrey Saint- llilaire : the transformation theory appeared to be A'anquished. The third had all sorts of revolutions of fortune, and Avas prolonged up to about the year 1859, after the discovery of Loucher de Perthes : the ground Avas apparently shaken. The classical or orthodox school, then knoAvn by the name of monogenist, pleaded in favour of the unity of the human species, and of the A'ariability of races under the influence of external circumstances and of cross- ings. The opposite, or polygenist school, maintained, on the contrary, the plurality of races, and the non-influence of external circumstances. In France, the former took shelter under the great name of Cuvier; ATrey, Lory de h>aint-A"incent, ami A. Desmoulins AA^ere the partisans of the latter. Lut about the year 1813, a vigorous champion came forAvard in favour of the nionogenists, in the person of Prichard. Ilis most important argimients occupy five volumes, and are full of instruction, Avhile they constitute, at the present moment, a veritable vadc-rnaciun for the anthropologist.* The Avork of Ihlchard Avas exclusive. Another, after the model of A^irey’s “L’Histoire Xaturelle de rilomme,” in 1801, but more comprehensive in its character, appeared in London in 1817. It Avas entitled, “ Lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons on the Xatural History of Alan,'’ l)y LaAATcnce, and rather advocated the plurality of the human species, although pretending to uphold the monogenistic doctrine. These tAvo Avorks, to AAdiich AA^e may add that of AI. Desmoulins on “Les Paces llumaines,” in 1826, prove that the researches on Alan had lost nothing on an appeal to * The first edition of “ Rcseai’ches into the Physical History of Alan,” by Prichard, appeared in 1813, and was in one A’olume ; the second, n tAA-^o volumes, appeared in 1826 ; and the third and last, in fiA'C A^olumes, from 1836 to 1837. 16 INTRODUCTION. principles. Linguistics and ethnography, originally almost synony- mous terms, and human comparative anatomy, were in course of development. From Klaproth and Ahel de iLcmusat to licnan, Chavee, and Frederic IMilller, the numher of persons won over to anthropology hy the study of the comparative structure of languages was immense.* Tlie first ethnographical society of which there is any record was instituted in Paris in 1800, under the title of the “ Societe des Ohservateurs de rilomme,” and died of inanition during the war. The second was instituted in London in 1838, and was of an exclusively i)hilanthropic character. Tlie fact of the polygenists having declared that the black races are inferior to the white, was used as an argument in favour of slavery. The society should have set its face against this doctrine, and it sufiered the penalty for not doing so. Tlie following year, lU. Edwards founded tlie Societe Ethnologique de Paris, which has furnished some excellent works, at the fore-front of which is to he mentioned a pamphlet hy its founder, “ Sur les Caracteres Pli 3 "siologiques des Paces Ilumaines considerees dans leur Papports avec ITIistoire.” Some admirahle works soon appeared, hoth in France and elsewhere, having similar ethnographical views, among which ^ve may mention, “ L’Honmie Americain,” hy Alcide d’Orhigny.f In comparative anatomy, the skull, to which the lahours of the first anthropologists had been directed, continued to attract their attention. The “ Decades ” of Plumenhach were folloAved hy others. In 1830, Sandifort published the first volume of his “ Tahuhn Cranioruin Diversarum Gentium.” In 1839 appeared the best work of its kind, the “ Crania Americana,” hy Morton ; and in 1844, his “Crania ^Egyptiaca.” In 1845, the “Atlas de Cranioscopie,” hy Cams; in 1856, the first volume of “Crania* Britannica,” hy Davis and Thurnam ; in 1857, the “Crania Selecta,” hy Yon Baer, Ac. Many others might he mentioned. * “ La Linguistiqne,” by M. Abel Hovelacque. 2ud edition, Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines. Paris, 1876. f “ L’Homme Americain de I’Amerique Meridionale,” by Alcide d’Orbigny. Two vols. Paris, 1839. INTRODUCTION. 17 At neiJel])erg, Tieileinann, known by his incomplete cubic measurements of the skull ; in Sweden, Ketzius, by his division of skulls into long and short; in Holland, Van der Hoeven; in Germany, AVagner, Huschke, Lucie, etc. The inlluence of sucli authorities as these somewhat encouraged anatomists in France to enter upon so unpoi)ular a path of study; and, besitles Daubenton, wo may mention Durcau do la Malle, Dubreiiil, Foville, ^laslieurat-- Lagemanl, Pucheran, Lelut, Parchappe, SeiTos, Jacths of the ocean, or in some hitherto unexplored corner of tlie globe. It has been repeatedly said : “ Xature does not make sudden jumps.” There is a successiveness observable throughout, especially in minutia?. ^I. Ch. ^lartins and ^1. Durand (de Gros) have furnished us with examples of tliis.f Tlie method by which the fin is transformed into the bent limb, having one direction, as in tlie tortoise, or an opposite one, as in Man ; how it becomes divided into a longitu- dinal shaft, which is enlarged or reduced in size, according as it goes to form the leg of the dog, the wild boar, the horse, or the gorilla, is tndy marvellous. Agassiz used to demonstrate to his audience at Xew York how ' * “Vic et Docti-ino do E. Geoffrey Saiut-lTilaire.” Paris, 1817. t “ Creation et Transformisme,” by J. P. Durand (de Gros), in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.” 2nd series, vol. v., 1870 ; “ Hommes et Singes,” by L. Agassiz, in the “ Revue Scientifique,” 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 818, 1874. 0 2 20 INTRODUCTION. “ by twisting this, and elongating tliat,” one iniglit form a fish;, a reptile, a maminifer, or an ape, Hence tire difficulties wliicli naturalists experience in exactly circumscribing tlie limits of tlie divisions upon which their classi- fications rest, and of giving to each the proper name which be- longs to it. That which family in one becomes order in another ; that which is genus becomes species, and vice versa. All depends upon the point of view from which they are regarded, and the particular opinion formed as to their characteristic features. In order to account for the disputes which are going on about Man, and the place Avhich he occupies relatively to other beings, it is necessary that this should be thoroughly understood. In some, classifications depend upon clearly defined natural groups, which are recognised, though they cannot be strictly demonstrated. In others they are based upon certain groups shading off into contiguous groups. “Methods of classification,” writes Daubenton, “have one principal defect Avhich it is inij^ossible to avoid, namely, that art takes a larger share in their arrangement than nature.” “Classi- fications,” says Lamarck, “ are artificial methods ; nature has not really formed either classes, orders, families, genera, or mivarying species — but individuals only.” Greoffroy Saint-Hilahe, on his return from Egypt, alluded to them in these terms ; “A useful method, doubtless, but necessarily imperfect in its resources, and incomplete in its aim; true science ought to have higher asphations.” The illustrious opponent of Cuvier, who was about to publish a cata- logue of the IMuseum, which was a veritable classification, gave it up, although the proof-sheets were in the press. Nevertheless, classifications are valuable, and, indeed, indisjDen- sable. They assist study, bring together animated beings, generally in a natural way, and mark the measure of progress accomplished. In natural history we understand classification to mean the grouping together of beings according to their degree of probable relationship, based on the number and importance of their common characters. Thus, tlmoughout the whole of the animal Idngdom, one observes * Homines et Singes,” br L. Agassiz, in the “ Revue Scientifique,”" 2nd series, vol. hi. p. 818, 1874. INTRODUCTION. 21 one principal special feature whereby to establish a primary division of four branches. From the presence or absence of a skeleton, whether internal or external, we distinguish Zoophytes, ^lollusca, the Articulata, and the Yertehrata. AVe may remark, before going farther, that zoophytes approximate in their inferior forms to cryptogams of the vegetable kingdom, Imt that noAv a new kingdom has been placed between them, formed of organisms still more elementary, under the name of rh/ne de protistes (Hinckel). From many character’s, derived i)rincipally from the external covering, Yertehrata have been divided into four classes, viz. : Eeptiles, Fishes, Birds, and ^[animalia. Mammalia, again, are divided — according to the existence or non-existence of an external abdominal pouch, in which the young pass through the second phase of tlieir development — into two sub-classes — the Didelphs and the ^lonodelphs. 8o far, the cliief cliaracteristics present modilications so funda- mental in the arrangement of the principal apparatus of the organism that, by virtue of tlie law of i^uhordiimtion of characters, it is easy to coniine oneself to a single one. The presence of an internal skeleton is proof of a si)ecial arrangement of the nervous system no less characteristic. Indeed we have no other choice than to divide Yertehrata in this way, and it is no less necessary as regards those next in the series. The more we descend in the sub- divisions of the former, the more the difficulty increases. AYe then have to consider many features in combination, and are not com- pelled to adopt any fixed plan. At each step the same uncertainty presents itself. AVhat is the general characteristic of the group % And is it really the proper one 1 Have we not created it ourselves, according to the distinctive feature we may fix upon ? .Vll scientific classification is provisional and arbitrary, as long as a science is in course of development. Its province is chiefly to introduce some order into the medley of individuals it has under its immediate notice, to set up beacons, the correctness of whose guidance time will either establish or annul. Two groups being given, it is easy by laying hold of individuals the most dissimilar to distinguish two opposite types. But a certain number of indi- 22 INTEODUCTION. vidiials will always more or less deviate from them, and will he blended with contiguous types altogether dissimilar. There are few secondary divisions in natural history which can be regarded as settled, and which might not be changed to-morrow. Thus, to the four classes of Yertebrata, many have added a fifth under the name of Batracliians, making them a distinct class from reptiles. So the Didelphs, one of the most correctly defined of the sub-classes, from being based on their liahitat, have been displaced and abolished, most of them being classed with the Edentata or the Rodents, the remainder becoming a distmct order under the name of Pedimana. Species is the convenient zoological unit. ^Ye will define it in due course. On the one side we have varieties ; on the other, genera, families, &c. A genus is the assemblage of many species presenting certain points of connection ; a family, the assemblage of many genera, and so on. Between the genus and the species we sometimes have sub-genera ; between the genus and the family, the particular tribe we are in search of ; between the family and the order, the sub-order, &c. The number of genera in a family, or of species in a genus, is indeterminate. Mammalia. ISTow, in the class of Mammalia, the Didelphs include the Mar- supials (kangaroo, opossum) and the Monotr ernes (echidna, orni- thorhynchus). The Monodelphs include (1) The Cetacea and AmpliiUa. (2) The Pacliydermata and Ruminantia. (3) The Edentata, the Rodentia, the Carnivora, the Cheiroptera, the Quad- rumana, and the Bimana — the Orders according to Cuvier. We cannot enlarge further on this subject. In a special work on Zoology, published in the Bibliotheque des Sciences Contem- poraines, will be found what the general opinion is as to these divisions. We have to do with the last tw^o, and we shall discuss them according to their relative importance. Linneeus associated Man, the monkey, and the bat, in one and the same order, under the name of Primates. This purely zoolo- INTRODUCTION. 23 gical arrangement, which placed Man at the head of the series of animated beings, greatly disturbed Elumenbach, LacepMe, Dau- benton, and Cuvier ; and in a spirit of reaction, as it would seem, Cuvier proceeded to isolate ]\Ian in a distinct order, and placed the monkey in another order, the bat in a third, &c. Two principal classifications are before us, in which the distance which separates ]\Ian from his nearest zoological connections is estimated differently. In one, Man forms a distinct order, in the same category as the ape or one of the Carnaria ; in the other, he forms merely one family in the order of Primates, the various divisions of the monkey tribe coming afterwards. Thus : Primates. First system of classification. — First Order : Man. Second Order: Apes, dliird Order : Pats. Fourth Order : Dogs, Bears, Ac. Second system of classification. — First Order : Primates. First Family: ^Ean. ^econd Family : The higher Apes, or Anthropoids (the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the orang, and the gibbon). Third Family : The INIonkeys of the Old Continent, or Pithecians (semnopithecus, guenon, niagot, cynocephalus [baboon]). Fourth Family : The ^Monkeys of tlie Xew Continent, or Cebians (howl- ing monkey, atele [spider monkey], sajou, ouistiti [marmoset]). Fifth Family : The Lemurs, i\Iacauco, Gala3opithecus.* * We draw attention to the various names in this list, to which we shall frequently have to refer. In current language we sometimes speak of the Anthropoids as the great apes or monkeys, and the Pithecians and. Cebians as the common or true monkeys. Frequently the epithet “ Simian” will occur in like manner, as synonymous with monkey -like, particularly those of the first three families. Lesson united the Pithecians and the Cebians, under the name of Simiades ; so that he had in the first order, or Primates, five families : the Hommideae, the Anthropomorphae, the Simiadae, the Lemuriens, and the False Lemuriens. Huxley divides his families into seven — namely : the Anthropini (man), the Catarrhini, the Platyrrhini, the Arctopithecini, or Marmosets, the Lemurs, the Cheiromyini, and the Galaeopitheci, or flying monkeys. Two of these appellations originated with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the Catarrhini, or monkeys of the Old Continent ; and the Platyrrhini, or 24 INTRODUCTION. Second Order : The Cheiroptera, or Bats. Third Order : The Carnaria. First Famihj : The Plantigrades. S>econd Family : The Digitigrades, 0 ni * ■: • .« * *^^^ i ;':l44oii. » -IXJ'- » '■ •»' ' . I •« PART I. or MAN CONSIDEKEB IN HIS ENSEMBLE, AND IN HIS EELATIONS WITH ANIMALS. CHAPTER L PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. SKELETON AND SKULL IN GENERAL ZOOLOGICAL FACIAL ANGLE CRANIAL CAPACITY SITUATION AND DIRECTION OF THE OCCIPITAL FORAMEN OCCIPITAL AND DIORHITAL ANGLES. The clmnicters of tlie liuman group arc of two ordors : some organic, to be studied on the skeleton and on the dead body ; otliers pliysiological, on the living. Among the former, those to be drawn from tlie skeleton occupy tlie first rank ; the skeleton, in fact, determines tlie general form of the body, serves for the attacliment of muscles, and marks out the boundaries of the visceral cavities. ( )4eol ofjical Coimderat i ons. Tlie skeleton of ^^ramnialia — the class of Vertebrata which will alone engage our attention — is composed (1) Of a central axis, con- stituted by the bodies of the vertebra? ; (2) Of a series of osseous arcs directed backwards, to form, by their aggregation, a large- canal, in wliich are contained the brain, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord; (3) (_)f a series of arcs directed forwards, bounding certain cavities whicli are occiijiied, aliove by the organs of vision, smell, and taste — then by the central organs of circidation and the lungs — lower down by the digestive apparatus — and lower still by the organs of reproduction; (4) Of the appendages to various segments called extremities, the anterior serving, in a general way, for prehension, the posterior for locomotion. Frontal Phalanges. Omoplate. Thorax and Ribs Humerus. Radius Ulna. Osiliacus of Pel- vis. Carpus. ^letacarpus. Phalanges. Fibula. Femur Patella Tibia. Metatarsus Calcaneum. Superior Maxillary Inferior Maxillary Clavicle Occipital. Cervical Ver- tebra;. 1st Dorsal Ver- tebrae. Tarsus Fig. 1. Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 31 Tlie skeleton is composed in ]Man of one hundred and eighty- eight hones, exclusive of the patella, a small hone developed in the thick part of the tendons of the principal extensor muscle of the thigh ; that is to say, t^venty-six for the vertebral column, eight for the cranium, fom’teen for the face, thirty-two for each of the superior extremities, and thirty for each of the inferior, Am. The twenty-six bones of the vertebral column are divided thus : seven cervical vertebne ; twelve dorsal ; five, and sometimes six lumbar ; five or six sacral bones, which, being anchylosed, form the » sacrum ; and four or five caudal, which, more or less welded to- gether, form the coccyx. To speak correctly, the cranium is formed of three modified vertebra?, and is the true commencement of the vertebral column. Every vertebra, whether cervical, dorsal, or lumbar, consists (1) In the centre, of a foramen, through which the cord passes; (2) Anteriorly, of a body, which is articulated to those of the ver- tebra? above and below by a fibro-cartilaginous disc, called the intervertebral ; (3) Posteriorly, of a spinous process, bifurcated in the cervdeal region, simple in the rest of the column, the bases of which are called lamina?; (4) Of two transverse processes, attached to tlie body by two pedicles ; and (5) Of four articular processes, wliicli serve to attach the vertebra to those above and ]>elow. The ei'fiit bones of tlie cranium consist of four middle and symmetrical — tlie occipital, the sphenoid, the ethmoid, and the frontal ; and two lateral pairs — the parietal and the temporal. The middle portions of the occipital, the sphenoid, and the ethmoid rejiresent the body of each of three vertebra?. The large fiat portion of the occipital, temporal, and frontal is caUed the squamous portion, or rraille (shell). These bones come under the ilenoniination of flat bones. They have an internal surface, which looks towards the cranial cavity, called by ]M. Proca endoerdne, and an external surface. The body of the occipital (O, Eig. 2) is formed by the basilar process, which is united to the body of the sphenoid by an im- portant articidation, the basilar suture. Its surface is transversely divided by a semicircular ridge, for the attachment of the muscles 32 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap, i. of the neck, the middle portion of which is occupied by the inion, or external occipital protuberance ; the portion above, or sur- occipital, is separated during a part of intra-uterine existence, and exceptionally in the adult, and is designated the interparietal, or sub-occipital bone. The portion below has a second curved line, also for the attachment of muscles. Fig, 2. — F, Frontal bone : P, Parietal ; O, Occipital : T, Temporal ; S, Greater wings of the sphenoid : the body of the bone is undernftUh ; M, Superior maxilla ; J, Malar or jugal bone; N, Bones of the nose, or nasal bones; A, Median portion of the lu-ch, or superior alveolar border, called point aMolaire ; E, Nasal spine, or point $oiLg-naml ; G, Root of the nose, the lx)ttom of which is occupied by the naso-frontal suture, or pohit 7iasal ; V, Position of the centre of the coronal, or fronto-p;irietal suture of the cranium, or bregma ; L, Point where the pi\rieto-occipital suture is united to that of the opposite side, and to the siigittal, or biparietal suture (not seen in the plate), or lambda ; I, External occipihxl protuberance, or inion ; B, Mastoid processes ; Ex- y ternal orifice of the auditory canal, also called (rou, or point auriculaire ; Z, Zygomatic arch, formed, in front, by the malar bone, behind, by a process called the zygomatic, arising from the temporal bone ; D, Point where the four sutures unite — the coronal, the fronto-sphenoid, the temporo-sphenoid, and the temporo-frontal, or pterion ; C, Curved line or temporal ridge ; R, Point where this line crosses the coronal suture, or stephanion. AU the portion situated below the temporal ridge, marked by the letters S D T, constitutes the temporal fossa. At the union of the basilar process and the squamous portion is the occipital foramen, or foramen magnum of foreign authors, the middle, anterior, and posterior portions of which bear the names of basion and opisthion, the lateral portions being occupied by the occipital condyles, by which it is articulated Avith the first ceiudcal A^ertebra, or atlas. Tavo irregularities in the bone sometimes exist. V N A Chap, i.] rilVSICAL CUARACTERS. 33 namely, in front of tlie basitai, an eminence which ha.s heen calleil the thiitl condyle of the occipital ; and on the external part of the onlinary comlyles, an eminence called the jugular i)rocess. The parietal hones (P) i)i*esent nothing to particularise hut a pro- jection in the centre, which marks the centre of ossitication, and takes the name of parietal eminence. The frontal hone (F) is diviiled externally into two portions — the superior and the inferior. The su})erior, or .squamous, has at the sides two curved lines, termed tcmpoml ridges, which give insertion to the temporal muscle ; and, nearer the median line, two projections, termed the frontal eminences. The inferior, or sul>cerehroint, answering to the point of separation of the two cerebral and sul>-cei*ebral portions, is called i\iQ puint snii-orhitairCf or ophryon. The surface of the teni]»oral (T) is divisible externally into three ]>ortions : a mastoid i)ortion, forming the mastoid processes (?>), to which powerful mu.scles are attached ; a .S([uamous portion ; and a zygomatic portion. The zygomatic is siiu}>ly a horizontal process, which ari.ses by a root, or longitudinal cre.st, surmounting the audi- tory or auricular opening. A fourth pfu-tion is e.specially seen on the inferior and intracr.inial surface, called the hard or petrous ])oi-tion, in which is enclosed the auditory apparatus. The sphenoid (S), so callcfl on account of its being Avedged in between the bones at the ba.se of the skull, consists of a body, which at birth is formed of tAvo jiortions, called anterior sphenoid and posterior .sphenoid ; of tA\'o descending Avings, or pterygoid proces.ses, Avhich form the boundaries of the posterior nares ; of two large ascending Avings, of Avhich the highest external portion is seen at S, Fig. 2 ; and of tAvo lesser horizontal Avings; AA'hich form part of the cranial cavity, Avhere they separate the middle and anterior cerel>r.»l fossa?. VicAved from above, that is to Say from D 34 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap. i. the side of the cranial cavity, the body of the sphenoid presents an excavation, the sella turcica (L, Fig. 6), a transverse fissure, the optic fissure, and between the two a slight ridge, to which the Germans have given the name of ephippium. The ethmoid has special relation to the nasal fossa?, and onl}^ has interest to the anthropologist from the side of the cranial cavity, Avhere it impinges upon the median line between two portions Fig. 3. — O, Supra-orbital, or supra-nasal point, in the centre of the minimum frontal width MM ; N, Nasal point in the centre of the naso-frontal suture : E, NasaJ spine, or sub-nasal point ; A, Middle point of the superior alveolar arch, or superior alveolar point ; S, Point of junction of the temporal ridge and the coronal suture, or stephanion ; B, Position of the frontal eminences; D, Maxillarj’ bones ; J, Malar bones ; G, Anterior nares ; Z, Zygomatic arches ; F, Miistoid processes. of the frontal, by giving attachment to the crista galli and the cribriform lamella, thi'ough which the filaments of the olfactory nerve pass from the cranial caAuty into the nasal fosste. The principal bones of the face are the nasal bones (X, Tig. 3), wliich unite with the frontal to form the naso-frontal suture at the root of the nose ; the superior maxillaiy bones (D), a prolonga- tion of which, called the ascending process, is articulated with the frontal at the sides ; the palate bones, wliich enter into the forma- tion of the roof of the palate behind ; the malar, or jugal bones (J), ClIAP. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 35 'wliicli project baclvAvards, aiul at tlie side, at the junction of the tem})oral, to form a sort of bridge called the zygomatic arch ; and the inferior maxillary T)one. The superior maxillary bones are the principal bones of the face. At the sides they are articulated witli the malar bones ; above, they form the inferior Avail of the orlhts ; internally they are united to the bones proper of the nose, and form the boundary of the anterior nares ; below, they form, by their union, the superior alveolar arch. .Vt the point where the posterior border of the ascending process joins the frontal and the os unguis, is the particular spot for the application of the craniometer, or ody, of a A^ertical and posterior ramus, Avhich forms an angle Avith it, and of a border or ah^eolar arch. As a matter of detail, Ave may mention the coronoid process and the articular condyle, Avhich terminate, the one in front of, the other behind, the superior border of the posterior ramus ; then the mental eminence, and behind it, internally, the tubercles geni. The thorax comprises, besides twelve dorsal vertebne, Avhich close it in behind, the sternum in front (Fig. 1) and tAveh'e ribs on each side. ScA^en, called the true ribs, are directly connected AAuth the sternum by cartilages; and five false are only united to it indirectly, the last tAvo bearing the name of ffoating. The abdomen has no bone, in the projier sense, belonging to it, but at certain points of its parietes are seen thick ffbrous bands, Avhich are thi‘. A'estiges of ribs to be found in some mammalia, and especially in reptiles. The pehuc caAnty, or pehus (FTg. 10), is composed of bones Avhich ecpially ajipertain to other parts, namely, to the A'^ertebral column and the inferior extremities. Ivach extremity is composed (1) Of a base, Avhich is the shoulder in the one and the haunch in the other. The bones A\diich com- pose it form, by uniting Avith those of the opposite side, an osseous n 2 36 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEPS. [Chap. r. cincture at each extremity of the trunk. At the superior extremity these are the clavicle and sca}mla ; and at the inferior, the iliac, or coxal hone, formed of three primordial hones — the pnhis, the ischium, and the ilium. (2) Of a first segment, the arm, formed hy the humerus ; and the thigh, hy the femur. (3) Of a second segment, the . forearm, formed hy the radius and ulna ; and the leg, hy the tihia and fihula. (4) Of a third segment, the hand, made up of eight T)ones for the carpus, five for the metacarpus, and three for each finger, except the lirst, which has only two ; and the foot,, inade uj) of seven hones for the tarsus, five for the metatarsus, and three for each toe, except the first, which has only two. Of the l)ones of the tarsus, the calcaneum, or hone of the heel, :nerits particular notice. The femur, which we select as an example of a long hone, con- sists of (1) a shaft, or diaphysis, formed on its outer surface of a layer of compact tissue, and on its inner of a inedullary canal ; and (2) of extremities, or epiphyses. At the upper extremity are the greater and lesser trochanter — processes for the insertion of muscles ; the neck, which is very long, and takes an ohlicpie out- ward direction ; and the articular head. The lower extremity consists of an internal and external condyle, and an articular surface. The humerus consists, in like manner, of a shaft, two tuberosities at the upper extremity, a very short neck, and a head ; inferiorly, of two processes — an external and an internal condyle. The hones, whether long, short, or flat, are covered hy in- equalities, tubercles, eminences, or processes, all having the same object — namely, to furnish points of attachment for muscles and ligaments. It is to these several points we apply our instruments, as well as to certain edges and prominences, when making osteo- metric measurements. ^Ve ought to mention also the styloid process, at the outer side of the lower extremity of the radius ; and the internal malleolus, on the inner side of the lower extremity of the tihia, &c. The flat hones of the cranium are united together hy sutures, the long hones of the extremities hy articulations. The most interesting of these latter, as far as we are concerned, is (1) The scapulo-hunieral, in Avhich the head of the humerus is received into the glenoid cavity of the scapula, a sort of ligamentous Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 37 l»ag, in wliidi tlie two surfaces are kept in contact, and at the same time are permitted to glide easily the one U})on the other. (2) The coxo-femoral articulation, in which the head of the femur is received into the cotyloid cavity of the ilium. (3) The hinge-like articulations of the elbow and the ankle-joints, which only permit the movements of flexion and extension. (4) The superior articu- lation of the radius, so marvellously adapted for free rotation in every direction, <^'c. Hones, when first formed, consist of cartilage, the osseous matter being deposited at certain points, which afterwards coalesce. Later en, when the entire bone has become fully formed, and old age begins, those vutli .sutures l>econie soldered together edge to edge. TTius we liave two orders of phenomena — the fu.sion of osseous points in one and the .same bone, and the fusion of distinct and contiguous bones, which we must be careful Uot to confound, and upon which Ave .shall liaA'c more to .say presently. Van‘ation.9 of ihc Slrclcfnn. The number of bones slightly varies in the mammalian series. All have seven cervical vertebrie, except tlie ai, or sloth, Avhich has nine, and the lamantin, or sea-cow, eight. Among long-necked (■quadrupeds, as the giraffe, they only increase in height. The number of dor.sal vertebne, and of pairs of ribs Avhich they support, is less constant — from eleven in the bat, tliey attain to nineteen or twenty in the elephant. The number of the lumbar ATrtebrai deviates but little, and varies generally from four to seven. The lamantin, hoAvever, has but one, Avhile the dolqihin has eighteen. These inconstancies do not, hoAvever, apq)ear to have the iiiiportaiice Avhich Ave might imagine. Genera far reinoA^ed from one another ha\^e the same number of ribs or dorsal A'ertelu’ie : as the orang, the hare, the camel, the cat, and the kangaroo, AAdiich have tAvelA’’e ; Avhile contiguous species ha\'e a difierent number, as the ox of ihirope, AA'hich has thii'teen ; the aurochs, or A\dld ox, fourteen ; and the bison, fifteen — all three of the genus bos. Often the difference is jiierely tliat a lumbar A^rtebra becomes dorsal, or vice versa. "When, in the human .subject, there is a thirteentli'rib on one side 38 PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. [Chap. i. only, or thirteen on both, a linnbar vertebra is the point of articu- lation. The number of caudal or coccygean vertebrse varies in the monkey tribe — not including the antlrropoid apes — from one to four in the magot to tv:enty-nine to thirty-one in the baboon and some of the ateles ; and among the rest of mammalia, from tv'o in the Egyptian tapir to sixty in the Cape rorqual. The bones of the head are constructed in animals after the same model as in j\Ian ; certain parts of them are more or less developed ; the cells or sinuses interposed between their lamina3 are more or less large ; some sutures, by closing slowly, leave certain portions of the bone isolated ; while others, owing to their becoming con- solidated early, diminish the number of bones. Hence the cause of the differences met with between them. ]Man, at his full develop- ment, has the smallest number of bones, and the rodents, at births the greatest number. Among the latter, the squamous portion of the occipital bone is divided into two, while the parietal and frontal are cemented together into one. The anterior and posterior sphenoids, united in ]\Ian, are distinct in the greater number of mammalia. The squamous and petrous 23ortions of the temporal, on the contrary, remam distinct in the latter^ and 23erhaps, with one exception, are united in IMan and the monkey tribe.* Moreover, we frequently observe in ]\Ian, as an anomaly, the reproduction of normal arrangements in other animals, as if by a sort of reversion towards certain states which its ovui organisa- tion might have gone through pre’S'iously. Thus the fusion of the parietals into one — as among the rodents — the division of the' frontal into two separate bones — common among mammalia — the persistence of an inteiq^arietal bone, Ac. The early fusion of the two bones proper of the nose, especially in the inferior races, and the tardy consolidation, on the contrary, of the intermaxillary with the maxillary, are other examples of the same kind. Bones of the Nose. The bones of the nose proper remain separated on the median line up to an advanced age in the white ; their imion is frequently * “ Traite d’AnaTomie Comparee,” &c., bj J. F. Meckel. Translated into- French by Tb. Scbnster. Ten vols. 8vo. Paris, 1858. Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAKACTEKS. 39 completed at twenty or twenty-live years in Hottentots. Of twenty- seven skeletons of adult men, taken at random by ]\I. Hroca, the fusion existed in live, all in negroes. In the chimpanzee they appear united at two yeai-s of age ; in the gorilla and the pithecians even sooner. Hut in the cebians their fusion is slow, so that these resemble i\Ian in this respect more than the anthropoids. Camper has forgotten the tardy union of the intermaxillary with the maxillary bones, and having made their constant absence to be distinctly characteristic of iMan, we must speak of them more at length. The intermaxillary bones, to the numljcr of two, appear to be united in the form of a wedge, enclosed between the two superior maxillary, supporting the incisor teeth, and having above two processes which partly close in the anterior opening of the nasal fossa?. Though easily seen up to the third month, their independent existence is brief, they commence to consolidate at that period at their external side, and become united with the maxillary about the third year. Nevertheless their palatine sutures do not entirely disappear till toAvards twelve or fourteen years of age, according to ]\r. Sappey, and Avere still visible in one hundred and four out of tAvo hundred French skulls examined by i\[. Hamy. All the phases of their solidification Avould be retarded in the negro races. IntermajcUlary Bones. In the majority of mammalia the intermaxillary bones continue on the contrary, Tieyond adult age, and remain distinct. The elephant, the dolphin, and the slieej) are an exception, and resemble ^lan in this respect ; so do the anthropoids — their intermaxillary suture should disappear about the end of the first dentition, accord- ing to ]M. Vogt. In descending the scale in monkeys, the inter- maxillary generally partakes of the characters Avhich it has in the generality of (piadrupeds. In the extremities the general type of INfan and mammalia varies but little, and is unimportant. Some bones, for example, Avhich, oAving to the habits of the species, are superfluous, become atrophied, or anchylosed together. Thus the clavicles are reduced to mere 40 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. vestiges in some carnivora, and disappear altogether in rnininants and amphibions inainnialia. Soinetinies one of tire bones of tbe forearm or tbe leg becomes reduced in size, or ancbylosed to tbe adjoining one. Tbe same pbenomenon is observed even more fre- quently at tbeir extremities.’ Tbe metatarsal or metacarpal bones are four in number bi tbe slotb, two in tbe stag, and one, called tbe cannon bone, in tbe borse. There is some relation betvreen this number and that of tbe digits or toes. Thus tbe pig has only four digits, tbe rhinoceros three, tbe greater number of ruminants two, and tbe borse but one, called tbe hoof. In the borse tbe atrophy of other digits is manifest, tbe vestiges of them remaining at the sides in tbe form of needle-like roughnesses. An analogous absence, as if from want of use, occurs in tbe bones of tbe pelvis of amphibious mammalia, whose binder extremities have become of little importance, or are wanting. Tbe pelvis is only represented by certain osseous styles which are amalgamated with the soft parts, or is altogether wanting. This is to be noticed in tbe dugong, tbe porpoise, tbe whale, Ac. Relations of the Cranium to the Face. The cranium is formed of two portions in aU mammalia — tbe cranium proper, tbe receptacle of tbe brain ; and tbe face, tbe receptacle of tbe principal organs of sense and of tbe masticatory apparatus. Tbeir development is in an inverse ratio, and tbeir respective situation in relation to that development. In Man tbe cranium is lai'ge and placed above the face ; in quadrupeds it be- comes less, and recedes more and more backwards ; bi monkeys the size and situation of tbe cranium and face are intermedial. These two characters thus assume a considerable importance, and are the ]point de depart of other subordinate characters, which, in tbem turn, assist in distinguishing men and animals. It is natural, therefore, that anthropologists should early have bethought them of some decided metbods of estimating tbeir value. Various metbods have been proposed ; tbe one most in vogue is that of the facial angles. This was one of tbe first attempts of craniometrj'-. This branch of anthropology, so cultivated at tbe present time, has been hitherto Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 41 studied especially Avitli reference to tlie comparison of races, and 'will consecpiently be treated at length in the second part of this work, which is specially set apart for that purpose. We will not now anticipate the subject further than by mentioning a few of the more striking characters which distinguish Man in general from animals. Facial Angles. The facial angles are four in number. The most ancient is the angle of Camper. It is formed by two lines, one called the hori- F L, / 11 1 Fio. 4.— H H', Horizontal of Camper; F F', Facial line of Camper; F A H', True angle of Camper ; F B K, Angle of Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, its vertex , at the edge of the incisors ; I C M, Angle of Jules Cloquet, its vertex at the alveolar T* border; O D H', Angle of JacquarU the sub-nasal point; 0 D, Facial line of Jacquart. The most useful angle is th^it of Cloquet, with its vertex at C, but whose facial line, C I, impinges, not at the most projecting point of the forehead, but imme- diately above the superciliary arches. zontal, II H', Fig. 4, which its author marked as a principal guide, over the auditory opening, and the inferior border of the nares; the other, called the facial, F F', tangent to the two most pro- minent points of the face — the glabella, or central point of the forehead, above; the surface anterior to the incisor teeth, lielow. 42 PHYSICAL CHABACTEES. [Chap. i. Tlie original intention of Pierre Camper* was to give to artist& a niethocl of comparing tire lieacls of living persons Avith. the skulls of different races and of different ages ; hut in another Avork he extended its use to animals. Camjjer^s Angle. Its apex Avas situated at the intersection of these tAvo lines, at a point, A, Pig. 4, jDlaced sometimes in front of the superior maxillary, as in negroes ; sometimes behind, as in many animals — the dog, for example ; or at the nasal S23ine, as in the Avhite races. The angle AAdiich the facial or characteristic line of the face makes,” says Camper, “Avaries from 70 to 80 degrees in the human species. All aboA^e is resoh^ed by the rules of art, all beloAv bears resemblance to that of apes. If I make the facial line lean foi’Avard, I haa^e an antique head ; if backAvard, the head of a negro. If I still more incline it, I have the head of an ape j and if more still, that of a dog, and then that of an idiot.” The second angle Avas suggested by Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier in 1795, and afteiuvards abandoned, no doubt oAAung to the difficulty of taking it Avith accuracy on certain animals. The facial line of Camper Avas maintained, but the horizontal line became oblique, Iv B, passing across from the auditory opening to the border of the incisors, B, Avhere the apex of the triangle is situated. The third angle is a mean betAveen the tAvo preceding ones. The facial line rests tangent superiorly at the most prominent part of the face, but stops short beloAV, on a level Avith the superior alveolar border, I G. The horizontal line descends obliquely, like that of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, but terminates at the same aHeolar border, G, Avhich becomes the apex of the triangle. Jules Cloquet adopted it in 1821. The fourth angle, Avhich moreover has enjoyed A^ery considerable repute, Avas the result of a misconception. M. Jacquart, in adopt- ing it in 1856, thought to folio av in the footsteps of Camper, or “ Dissertation sur les Differences reelles que presentent les Traits dn Yisage cliez les Hommes de diff^ents Pays et de differents Ages,” by Pierre Camper. Posthumous work published by his son. Paris, 1791 (written in 1786). Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. 43' rather in tlie principles wliicli had guided Morton in the construc- tion of his goniometer.* (Jne of these two lines is the facial line of Camper, terminating at the nasal spine, 0 D, the other the hori- zontal line, hut stopping short also at this point, D H'. Its apex therefore is alwa^'s formed at the nasal spine, I). Our own measurements, made on more than eleven hundred human skidls, and on about a hundred skulls of animals, enable us to form a judgment as to the value of those four facia] angles, t Jacqiiarfs Angle. The angle of Jaccpiart, at its apex at the nasal spine, varies under five influences. (1) The degree of prominence of the nasal spine, very strongly marked, as j\f. J>roca has observed, in the white races, often not observable in negroes; (2) The degree of prominence of the glabella, which, about one hundred and ninety- nine times out of two hundred, is the superior point of the facial line ; (3) Tlie difference of height of the auditory foramen rela- tively to the base of the skull; (4) The more or less marked elongation of tlie face, that is to say, the degree of })rognathism ; (5) The amount of development forward of the anterior portion of tlie brahi, as shown by calculations made among the hydrocephali, in whom the brain-case is very much enlarged, and among the microcephali, in A\diom it is A^ery much diminished in size. ITnder all these various influences, it is A'ery difficult to determine Aidiich has the greatest predominance, and consecpiently Avhich represents the angle of dacquart. The angle of Camper diminishes or increases for the same reasons, except that it has no reference to the prominence of the nasal spine. It takes account, lioAA^eA^er, of the elongation of the face m its sub-nasal portion, Avhich has by far the most influence * “Mensuratiou tie I’Angle Facial et Goniometres,” by H. Jacquart, in “ Mem. Soc. tie Biologic,” 1855 ; “ De la Yaleur de I’Os Epactal ” (measure- ments of sixteen facial angles), by the same author, in “Journal Anat. et Physiol.,” 1866 ; “ Crania Americana,” by S. G. Morton, Philadelphia, 1839.- f “!^tudes sur Pierre Camper et sur I’Angle Facial dit de Camper,” bjf Paul Topinard, in “ Eevuc d’Anthropologie,” vol. ii., 1874. 44 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. on prognathism in Man, and which the angle of Jacfjuart altogether leaves out of consideration. Amjles of Geoffroy and Cncler. * The angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier also sets aside the nasal spine, and takes in, in the same way, the suh-nasal region of the face ; hut at the same time exhibiting it in a more complete manner. Hence we shall accord to it the preferejice. "Why, indeed, should we preserve the ju’etended horizontal line of Camper '? It does not exist in ]\Ian, and still less in animals, fly intersecting witli the facial line it more frecpiently has hut one virtual apex, whicli gives an unfavourable impression. The auriciilo-dental line of Saint- Hilaire and Cuvier is, on tlie contrary, rational ] it passes along at the same extremity of the face, and does not lose one of the two portions which one desires to measure — the development of tlie face. Apart from these objections, which appertain to all the facial angles, the angle of Geotfroy 8aint-Hilaire and Cuvier has one specially belonging to it, namely, the impossibility of accepting the line of the teeth as the extremity of the face. In a great many nnimals, in fact, the front teeth are either curved downwards, im- moderately elongated into offensive weapons, or are altogether wanting ; frequentl}', also, tliey fall out during life, or are lost after death. Cloguefs Angle. Tlie angle of Jules Cloquet has all the advantages of the pre- ceding, without this latter objection ; we consider, therefore, that it should have the preference. The principal objection which attaches to all the facial angles is the adoption of, not the most logical point for the superior extremity of the facial line, but the most prominent, which is always found to be, with the angle of Jacquart, and' almost always 'with the others, the glabella, or the centre of the superciliaiq' ridges. The differences of prominence of these parts causes the facial angle in Man to ATuy several degrees ; that is to say, there is |is much difference as there is between the natural faculties of races the most opposite. In animals it is even more so ; and Cuvier Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 45 made up his mind, under all cireumstances, to ahido hy the ])rinciple of Cami)er. AVhat lie very properly sought Avas the anterior limit of the hrain at the lower part of the forehead — the jjoiiit i, Fig. G), and upon which needles, or movable radii, are directed towards the points desired. The face is thus found intercepted hy two lines, the one separating it from the cranial cavity, and Avhich meets at the supra-orhital point ; the other going to the inferior horder of the jaw ; the cranium being included between the same line of separation and the long axis of the occipihd foi-amen. These two angles have given us the following results, Avhicli satisfactorily -exhibit the relative development of the cranium and of the face : 2 European infants Cerebral angle. ... 15S° ... Facial angle. 22° 6 „ adults ... loi)° ... ... 47° 3 adult negroes ... 152" ... ... 46° 1 chimpanzee ... 116° ... ... 56° 1 gorilla ... 108° ... ... 54° 4 orangs ... 108° ... ... 47° Otter ... 105° ... ... 24° Viscacha ... 100° ... ... 41° Dog ... 07° ... ... 32° Rat ... ... 95° ... 27° Fox ... ... 82° ... 29° Hippopotamus ... 76° ... . . . 45° The process of Cuvier does not seem to have been applied 1 : I 4 : 1-25 3 : 1 2 : 1 1 : ]. 1 : 2 1 : 3 1 : 4 1 : 15 or 20 48 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. t. very approximately ; that of M. Segond gives only one of the elements of comparison. It would he better to measure directly the base of the triangles, of which M. Segond only notices the angles, and to calculate their area ; or to obtain, on one side, the volume of the face by a sort of triangulation ; and on the other, of the cranium by tlie ordinary cubic measimement of its cavity. !M. Assezat has commenced that part of the study which relates to tho face in his “ Eecherches STir les Proportions de la Pace,” communi- cated, in 1874, to the Prench Association for the Advancement of Science ; it rests with him to extend it to animals. The (piestion as regards the cranium is not yet settled. Capacity nf Cranial Cavity. The capacity of the cranial cavity is arrived at, as we shall see presently, by tilling this cavity with grains of ditferent sorts, and preferably with small shot, in accordance with certain directions. The figures giving the height, volume, or weight of the human body, as compared with the volume of the brain in the mammalian series, would form a very instructive table, if observers had taken more care to give us either one of these three elements. Our object, however, being to give more particularly the comparison of ]Man with, the antlu’opoid apes, the followhig data will suffice : Man, European male, in round numbers . . . Cubic centirutitres.. ... 1500 16 goi'illas, males ... 531 3 „ females ... ... ... ... 472 1 gorilla, 2nd dentition ... ... 440 1 „ 1st ... 413 3 orangs, males ... 439 1 orang, female ... 418 1 ,, 2nd dentition ... 404 1 ,, 1st ,, ... 425 7 chimpanzees, males ... 421 3 ,, females ... 404 1 chimpanzee, 1st dentition ... ... 328 2 lions ... ... ... ... ... 321 1 bear ... ... 265 1 vild boar ... ... 207 1 ram ... ... 150 1 Newfoundland dog ... 105 Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 19 Tims we perceive that the capacity of the cranial cavity, and conseerly speaking, tpiadrupedal. The more the foramen is carried backwards, the more the etpiilibrium is disturl)ed, and the more the weight of the anterior part mcreases to the detriment of the posterior. It will be sufficient to measure one of the two terms ; for ex- ample, the inclination of the i)lane of the occipital foramen ; that is to say, the angle which it makes with a given line being taken as a term of comparison, to find the other, namely, the amount of dis- idacenient of the foramen. This is what was done by Daubenton, in 1764, by choosing the line O 1) (see Fig. G), pa.ssing from the posterior border of the occipital foramen to the inferior border of the orbit. The angle 1 ) O A, looking forwards, thus determined was 0 to 3 degrees in ^lan, 34 tlegrees in an orang-outang, 47 degrees in a macauco, about 80 degrees in the dog, and 00 de- grees in the horse. IJut Daubenton has never mentioned how he measured this angle; he appeared to be satisfied with a very doubtfid approximation, to judge by his drawings. This measure- ment, the first attempt at craniometry, necessarily engaged the attention of INI. Eroca. Ly means of his occipital goniometer, he 64 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. at once demonstrated that the prolonged plane of the occipital foramen was elevated occasionally, in the white man, above the line adopted by Daubenton, which gave an inverted or negative angle, which the latter had not foreseen. ]\I. Broca was thus led to sub- stitute for the line of Daubenton another passing from the same point, the opisthion, to tlie root of the nose, and at a later period Fig. 6.— The anterior half represents the skull intact, in order to show the inferior border of the orbit ; the posterior half represents the skull open for the purpose of showing the occipital foramen and its two median points, anterior and posterior, O, Opisthion, or posterior border of the occipihal foramen, hidden by the centre of the dial of the goniometer ; B, Basion ; D, Inferior border of the orbit, or anterior terminating point of the line of Daubenton ; N, Nasal point preferred by M. Broca ; D' D O D', Line of Daubenton ; A B O A', Plane ()f occipital foramen prolonged both ways ; A O D, Oc- cipital angle of Daubenton ; A O C, Occipital angle of Broca : A B E, Basilar angle of Broca ; K, Bixsilar groove ; L, Sella turcica ; I, External occipital protuberance, or inion ; J> Internal occipital protuberance. to measure a second angle by transferring the apex of the first to the basion. Now we have three angles relating to the occipital plane. A first, D 0 A, or occipital of Daubenton, has its apex at the opisthion, and its sides formed by the occipital plane and by the opisthio-suborbital line ; a second, N 0 A, or occipital of Broca, has this same apex, and for its sides the same plane and the opisthio-nasal line ; and a third, A B E, or basilar of Broca, has its apex at the Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 55 basion, and its sides formed by tlie occipital plane and the basio- nasal line. The following table exhibits the results : — Occipital angle I of Uaubenton. Occipital angle of Broca. B:\silar angle of | Broca. 25 human series from... 1° 5 to + 9" 3 1 10°3to20°l 14° 3 to 26° 3 4 chimpanzees 26° 2 35° 5 45° 5 8 orangs 31°2 45° 2 55° 2 5 gorillas ! 32° 5 44° 6 1 53° 2 1 9 gibbons ' 31°5 j •40° 6 51° 5 12 pithecians 1 19°6to23°8 ' 33° 3 to 35° 3 45° 6 to 49° 0* Tims the direction of the occipital foramen changes somewhat abruptly in passing from Man to the anthropoid apes, and forms a line of demarcation between them which corresi)onds with their dillerence of posture. Between anthropoid apes and some others of the monkey tribe and the strictly mammalian quadrupeds, as the horse or the elephant, the deviation is still greater. The plane of the foramen is raised backwards to 00 degrees. Horizontal if If of ]^ision. Ilorizontality of vision in the living subject, and of the axis of the orbit in the skeleton, depends moi’e exclusively still on the ui)right posture. M. Broca, to whose labours we shall have so frequently to refer, is now prosecuting this subject. A I vcolo-c(nnhjlcan Plane. (Jf all the lines, or planes, used in craniometry, the most convenient, and, at the same tiim?, the most i»hysiological, is the alveolo-condy- lean plane, determined by three readily accessible points, viz. the alveolar, or middle point of the superior alveolar arch, and the most sloping points of the inferior surface of the occipital condyles. It is represented in Fig. 5 by the line B (^), and in Fig. 7 by the line C C. It is in relation to this alveolo-condylean plane, which is also called the natural plane of the base of the skull, that M. Broca measures the degiee of inclination or of straight direction of vision, or, rather, of the plane passing through the two orbital axes. * We refer to the memoir of M. Broca, “ Sur les Angles Occipitaux,” “ Revue cV Anthropologic,” vol. ii. p. 193, for the second decimals. More- over, we purpose in this volume confining ourselves generally to the first. 56 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEKS. [Chm*. I. Tlie dihedral angle -wliicli they form hy being prolonged is called positive, or ordinary, when the j)lane of vision is raised, and the meeting of the t %"0 takes place backward ; and negative, when Fig. 7. — A, Horizontal axis of the orbit ]iassing through the centre of the optic foramen behind and through the centre of the base of the orbit in front ; C C, Alveolo- condylean plane, or plane of Broca (see A P G, Fig. 5). The other references are the same as in that figure. it is depressed, and the meeting is in front. In the following table the former has no sign before it ; the latter is accompanied by the sign - . The second column refers to another character which will come afterwards. In ITg. 7, the ah'eolo-coiidylean plane. parallel, as Ave see, to the plane of A'ision, A. Orbito-alveolo- Biorbital coudylean angle. angle. 43 men... - 08 47= 47 5 gorillas 19^31 39° 04 1 orang 28^53 45° 90 4 pithecians ... 15° 44 52° 24 5 cebians 7°22 41° 59 1 maki 23° 58 73° 72 3 dogs 24° 94 70° 51 3 rabbits 31° 15 143° 43 2 horses 36° 09 109° 19 1 wild boar ... 47° 61 98° 94 Chap, i.] rHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 57 Thus we find tliat the vision of jMim is sonsildy horizontal in relation to the alveolo-condylean jdaiie, since it is not deiiressed even one de^ee in a mean of forty-three skulls, while it is raised in all tlie mammalia, including the antliropoid apes, from a mean of 7 degrees in cebians to 3G in the horse, and 47 in the wild boar. litorhital AmjJe. Tlie divergence of vision furnishes anotlier ditiereiitial cliaracter to which M. l>roca has given his attention, in his memoir “ Sur le Plan Horizontal de la Tete,” to which we refer the reader for the figures. Tlie second column above gives some of them, under the head of biorbital angle. It is the angle, open in front, which the two visual axes form between them, or, in other words, their degree of divergence. It varies from 40. degrees to 50 degrees in ^lan, and from 33 degrees to G2 degives in the monkey tribe ; is raised to 73 degrees in the lemur, increases enormously in ([uad- rupeds, and attains 143 degi'ees in the rabliit. This is how ]\Ian is commingled with the generality of monkeys as far as the lemurs, ami is separated from the mass of ([uadrupeds. The anthropoid apes, however, share his lot ; like him they have their orbital axes a little divergent. Temporal Forsa. Of all the mammalia, Man has the least development of the muscles of the jaw, and the smallest extent of surface for insertion of these muscles. AVhat a difference between his small temporal fossa, bounded above by a curved line, which is at times clearly marked, and the deep fossa of the anthropoid apes ! Xot oidy does the whole of the lateral surface of the skidl in these latter give insertion to the fibres of the temi)oral — the masticatory muscle exeellcncc — but also on the median line in the male there is besides a large elevated crest, which allows of these fibres being increased to any extent. The elevation, too, of the temporal line, the extent of its cirn'e, and its nearness to the median line, are, in the human group, marks of inferiority. In certain prehistoric skulls from Florida, and modern ones from Xew Caledonia, the two lines. 58 PHYSICAL CHARACTEPtS. [Chap. i. ‘distant normally from 8 to 10 centimetres, do not deviate but about 3 to 4 centimetres, thus sliOAving a marked resemblance to the female .anthropoids. The condyles of the inferior maxillary, and the glenoid cavities in which they are received, are directed transversely in the carnivorous mammalia, from before backwards in rodentia, and are liat in the herbivora. In IMan they have an intermediate direction, thus bearing testimony to his omnivorous fimctions. Teeth. The teeth, divided into incisors for cutting, canines for tearing, and molars for grinding and triturating, show still more clearly this aptitude of IMan. Of his immediate zoological neighbours, the orang and the chimpanzee resemble him the most in this respect, particularly in their molars ; the gorilla, on tlie contrary, differs from him, and in the arrangement of his teeth somewhat resembles the carnivora. The canines are larger in the anthropoid apes, and have a length and size which entitle them to be regarded as otlensive weapons, particularly in the gorilla, jletween tlie canines and the upper lateral incisors may be noticed, among adult anthropoid apes, as in the greater number of the monkeys next in order, a gap, called diastema. 'This is, in great ])art, for the reception of the inferior canine, while the su})erior canine presses l)etween the inferior canine and the first preniolar, and so weai-s itself ft place mechani- cally. Another characteristic of the teeth of anthropoid apes is the projection of the anterior incisors, which is more exaggerated than in the lowest races of the human group. jNIan, at least the white, has A'ertical teeth ; the canines, as well .as the molars and incisors, are close together and smaller. His small permanent molars have two tubercles, and the larger four ; in this respect there is no difference between him and the anthropoids. There are twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth, exactly as in the four anthropoid apes, the pithecians, and the greater number of the lemurs. In the cebians, a small molar is added on each side, which raises their total number to thirty-six. Some Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 59 monkeys have a difterent dental formula ; tlie maciiiico, for example, lias tliirty-eiglit. The progress of the erujition of the teetli in monkeys, and their periods of succession, are hut imperfectly known. It is certain tliat the eruption is more rapid (cccfcris jHirihu/i) in tlie anthropoid apes than in Man.* 1'lie superior alveolar areh in ^lan is generally in the form of ail liyperhola witli relatively short hranches ; that of the threo A n Fig. 8.— a, Jaw of the European ; B, Jaw of the Chimpanzee. principal antliropoid apes takes tlie form of a U with long and exactly parallel hranches ; that of the sajou and the macaiiuc is elliptical. — {firoca). (Jther characters have been given as peculiar to Man ; for example : * See “ L’Homme et les Sinpes Anthropomorphes,” by M. Magitot, in Bull. Soc. eVAnthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 113. Paris. 60 PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. [Chap. i. The presence of a chin — that is to say, of a small triangular surface, more or less projecting above the inferior border of the jaw. But this character has lost its value since its absence has been noticed in a certain number of human specimens, among them the 2)rehistoric jaw of the JSTaulette, and some contemporaneous ones represented by MM. (^uatrefages and Hamy. The existence of the tubercles geni, on the posterior surface of the inferior maxillary bone, Avhich are replaced by a de})ression in monkeys. But exceptions of an oi)posite kind are met Avith con- tinually, such as tubercles in the anthropoid apes, the depression on the jaAV of the Naulette, cl'c. Tlie presence of a nasal spine. But some monkeys liaA-e one, Avhilst in many negroes it is so slight as to be almost invisible. Different Cranial Characters. The articulation of the greater AA'ing of the sphenoid directl}' Avith the parietal. — [Owen). But in a great many specimens of different races, especially the inferior ones, a bridge formed by the union of the temporal and frontal is interposed betAveen the tAvo preceding bones. ]\L Broca describes the first of these arrange- ments as usual in j\Ian, under the name of jjteriun en H (see D, Big. 2), and the second as usual in monkeys, under the names of pterion retourne, AAdien the temporal and sphenoid are largely united, and of pterion en K A^dlen they only touch each other. The size of the mastoid processes. This is a result of the deA^elopnient of the sterno-niastoid muscles AAdiich are attached to them, and have relation to the biped posture. There is no neAv cranial or facial character, lioAveA’^er strongly marked, A\diich can be draAvn as a line of demarcation betAveen IMaii and animals, but numerous cases Avill arise to efface or to AA'eaken it. In the head, the transition to the antlu'opoid apes Avould be inappreciable, but for the liA^e folloAving characters of ]\Ian : (1) The increase of volume of his cranial cavity ; (.2) The rela- tively inverse diminution of the face ; (3) The increase of the facial angle Avhich arises from it ; (4) The situation of the occipital foramen beloAv, and at the centre of the base of the skidl, and the Chap, il] VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 61 horizontality of the two orhitiil axes, hotli dependent on the bipod posture. But the iirst is of such i)re-eininent iinpoilance that we Avould siun up by saying : The head of Man is only distinguishalde from tlie head of animals by a single important character — the capacity of the brain-case. CIIAPTEK II. VERTEBRAL COLUMN SACRUM PELVIS TIIORAX STERNUM PARALLEL BETWEEN THE SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR EXTREMITIES — THE HAND AND FOOT PROPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON. « Vertehml Cohuau. The cervical region, which is in continuation. with the head, docs not materially differ in the mammalian series, except in the height of the vertebiTc as before stated, ^f. Broca has, however, described certain variations in it. The spinous processes, bifurcated in ^lan, are simple in tlie anthropoid apes and in monkeys ; but in some human skeletons of an inferior race they have been found simple ; and in the chimpanzee two of them are bifurcated, which establishes a transitional link between them. In the second place, the antliro- poiil apes and Man have the superior surface of each vertelna bounded by two projections, which are wanting in the inferior monkeys, whilst they have no little ai)pendix with transverse processes, as in the lemurs and carnivora, d'lieir types, in con- secpience, have been disarranged by being sepai’ated from that of the next zoological groups. Conditions of the EquiVihriuni of the Triinli. The differences which the dorso-lumbar region presents are very •characteristic. Xonnally composed in ]Man of twelve dorsal vertebne and of five lumbar, it has sometimes thirteen dorsal and •only four lumbar, as in the gorilla and chimpanzee. There is not, G2 EQUILIBEIUM OF THE TEUXK. [Chap. ii. therefore, any very serious difference in this resi>ect between tliese two and ourselves, d'lie orang, on tlie contrary, loses one lumbar vertebra, and the gibbon gains one dorsal, which brings u}) the total number of dorso-lumbars to sixteen in the one and eighteen in the other. In the i)ithecians generally, and in most of the cebians, there are nineteen, there being more lumbar in the former and more dorsal in the latter. In lemurs there is an increase in both regions, but especially in the lumbar, d'he slender loris has altogetlier twenty-three or twenty-four domo-lumbar vertebrie. The dorso-lumbar region j)resents other differences much more important, wliich have relation to the three kimls of posture or attitude of mammalia — the vertical, the oblicpie, and the horizontal. The human head is in natural ecpiilibrium on the spine — well and good ; but the weight of the viscera contained in the thoracic and abdominal cavities tends to throw the whole trunk forward. To counteract this, two anatomical arrangements come in. Elastic ligaments, called yellow, are interposed betw(ien the vertebral laminae, and, by virtue of their structure, keep the Ijody erect without fatigue. A number of ligaments and muscles, almost always more or less fixed at a right angle — that is to say, under the most favourable incidences, at the extremity of the si)inous and transverse processes throughout the entire length of the column — conduce to the same end. In the second i)lace, the vertebral column presents three alternative curvatiues, which tend to jireseiwe the line of gravity of the head and trunk in the axis of sustentation passing through the pelvis. By the firat of these curvatiu-cs, the cervical, whose convexity looks forwards, the weight of the head is brought backwards ; the second, or doraal, being directed the reverse way, brings the centre of gravity forwards ; while the third, or lumbar, with an anterior convexity, serves the purpose of keeping the whole column erect. In quadrupeds, on the contrary, there are only two curvatures, the one cervical, as in l\Ian, the other dorso-lumbar, with the con- vexity looking backwards, like the dorsal region in Man — or rather looking upwards.^ It follows that, if by any contrivance one It is well to remark that in the vertical posture of Man, the posterior part of the column, and of the whole trunk, looks baclrsvards, and the Chap, ii.] CURVATURES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 63- coini)i.*llL*il tlu3 iiulividiial to stand uin-ij^lit, the line of j^mvity would bo foi-eibly bi-onglit forwards, and the weight of the viscera woiihl come to lean against the anterior wall of the thorax, or the inferior wall of the abdomen. Curratnrrs of the Vcrtehml Cithimn. Monkey.s, in this ivspect, aiv dividetl into two groups : the pithecians, the cebians, and the lemurs, which have the dorso- lumbar curvatiirt* only, conformably with their tpuulriipedal attitude ; and the anthropoids, which apjiear under various aspects, more approaching, however, the hiinum arrangement. Many gibbons- have three very marked curvatures. In the chimpanzee, the lumbar curvature, distinctive of the human group, is only over the last two vertebne, and in the omng, over the bust. The gorilla, with his straight lumbar column, is farthest removetl from Man, without, however, presenting tlie alwolute org*anisalion of the ipiadruped. The division of the trunk and of the vertebral column in mammalia in general inU> two series — the one anterior, the other posterior — and the ab.sence of all distinction of this kind in Man, is more characteristic. L(*t us exi>lain this, according to the views of M. ilroca. A miuscle is a tleshy mass, elongated, and more or less attached at its two extremities, which aj)])roach each other when the muscle contracts under the intluence of tlie will. Tlie more movable extremity is displaced, driwing along with it the lever to which it is attiched, whilst the other, rendered immovable by other muscle.s, remains stationary. In any movement, then, we must consider the action of a whole .system of muscles, and not of one only. In Man, the muscles which indirectly contribute to locomotion, anterior part for^vards ; whilst in tho horizontal posture of quadrupeds, the former looks upwards and the latter downwards. lu the same way the upper extremities of Man become anterior in quadrupeds, and the lower posterior. Tho anthro|x)id apes passing continually from one posture to the other, both orders of arrangement can be applied to them. “L’Onlre des Primates; ParallMo Anatomiquo do I’Homme ct des Singes,” by M. Broca, “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd scries, vol. iv. p. 228, 186^.- 64 ANTEVERSION AND RETROVERSION. [Chap. ii. "by fixing the pelvis and the successive portions of the verteljral column which furnish the ixfint d’appui, are attached to the spinous and transverse processes of the vertehne, and tend through- out their whole length to draw or bend them downwards in a direct ratio to the limited mobility of the whole column. The dorsal processes yield consideral)ly, are bent down and imbricated ; those of the lumbar yield less. Tn (piadrupeds the traction of the process is exerted, on the contrary, in the direction of the, anterior extremity in the lumbar vertehrie, and of the posterior in the dorsal. These processes are inclined, then, in a contrary dhection — the lumhar upwards and the dorsal downwards. Tlie spot where the change of direction takes place establishes the division between the anterior and the posterior series. It is situated in the carnaria, between tlie last dorsal vertebra hut one — which is attaclied to the thorax by a costal cartilage — and the last, Avhich only supports one of the floating ribs. The spinous process of the one is inclined upwards, that of the other downwards, and it is there that the two series liecome independent. Anteversion and Retroversion. Thus, by the appearance alone of a vertebral colunm, we recognise the habitual attitude of the individual. In Man, the processes are all oblique below, or in retroversion ; he has hut one series. In quadrupeds, the dorsal processes are descending, except the last, and the lumhars ascending, or in anteversion ; thej^ have two series. All the monkeys proper are in the latter category, generally in a very marked way in lemurs, less in cehians, less still in the higher species — the pithecians. “ The scene suddenly changes as regards the anthropoid apes. All the characters indicating the func- tional separation of the series in front, and of that behind, have completely disappeared. The dorsal spinous processes, by their length, their great obliquity, and their imbrication, approximate to the human type much more than to that of the pithecians and other apes ; those of the false dorsal are obliquely inclined towards the Chap, ii.] STYLOID PROCESSES OF THE VERTEBRA.. G5 pelvis, as in ^laii ; and those of the lunihar have not tlie least tendency to antevei*sion ; far from it, for often they are rather inclined towards the pelvis.” — (Broca). In the semnopithecns (Fig. 9), belonging to the family of pithecians, are represented the single dorso-lumha’r curvature, with its convexity looking upwards ; the retroversion of the si)inous processes of the doi*sal vertehne (exce]>t the last two), the ante- A'ersion of the lumhars, and the scarcely visible processes of the Fig. y. — Skeleton of Semnopithecns Entellns, one of the Pithecians. last two dorsal, answering to the separation of the trunk into two serie.s — the one anterior, the other posterior. Sfj/Ioifl Pruccyscfi of Vertahro’. The consolidation of each series into one compact whole is the last distinctive character of rpiadrupeds. The ribs and the sternum are the intermediary of tliis consolidation in the anterior series, which is a reason for the last dorsal Avith an independent F 66 SACSUM. [Chap. ii. rib being excluded from it. A special system of processes, called styloid, detached from the lumbar vertebne, and Avhich does not exist in Man, nor in the anthropoid apes, has the same design in the posterior series. Sacrum and Cornj.c. Tiie mode of termination of the vertebral column — below in bipeds, behind in cpiadrupeds — has been the ol)ject of carefid study liy M. Broca. According to him, the vertebrcC which are articidated Avith tlie coccyx form the true sacrum, Avhile all the remainder appertain to the tail, Avhich is divided into tAvo segments ; the one basic, formed, of true caudal A'crtebra?, in Avhich the spinal canal remains ; the other terminal, formed of false caudal A'ertebr?e — that is to say, A\dth their bodies reduced in size. All the inferior monkeys, Avith but fcAv excei)tions, have a sacrum of three A^ertebne, all articulating at the sides Avith the ilium — that is to say, true sacral A^ertebim. Tlie tail, Avliich forms the termi- nation, is composed of ftA^e true and tAveh^e false caudal A'ertebra.' in the macaque ; of seven true and tAventy-tAvo or more false in the ateles paniscus ; of fiA^e to seA^en ’true, and tAventy-four to tAvent}^-six false, in the cynoce})hali generally ; of five true and four false in the lori, etc. In the so-called tailless monkeys, tlie sacrum is formed, as in those above mentioned, of three anchylosed ATrtebreV ; but the remainder is either reduced in size in each of its tAA'o kinds of vertebrre^as in the cynocephalus niger, AAdiich is reduced to three true and three false caudals ; or more or less atrophied from the extremity to the base, as in the magot, AAdiich has no trace of false caudals, and has from one to four true. In Man the type is altogether different. His sacrum is composed of tAvo parts, the one consisting of tlu’ee vertebim, as in the monkeys mentioned above, AAdiich articulate AAuth the ilium and constitute the sacrum necessalre ; the other of tAA^o or tlu'ee A^ertebra?, free at their external borders and having a spinal groove, and AAdiich represent a sacrum supplementaire, anchylosed AAdth the former. The coccyx consists of four or five vertebne — all false. Man, then, has a tail Chap, ii.] PELVIS. G7 foriiietl of six or eight i»ieces, tlie first being at the l)asic segment ami tlie last at tlie terminal segment, as in mammalia generally. The justice of this interj)retation is confirmed by studying the extremity of the vertebral column in the fcetus. To what type do the anthropoid apes approximated “In all, the true caudal vertebrie are anchyloseil with the sacrum, as in* 3Ian, and the coccyx is composed of false vertebrie only, similar to those of the coccyx of ]\Ian — that is to say, more develo})ed in width than in height, and flattened from before backwards.” — (Brvrn). The supi)lementary sacrum of !Man is formed, four times out of six, of three vertebrie, instead of two ; and that of the anthropoid ape varies from two to four. Ought M'e to look upon this as a difierenced Other morphological variations in the coccyx, of less importance, equally present themselves in both. In a word, Man and the higher apes resemble each other in the conformation of the tail, at the same time that they differ in this respect from monkeys juMiier. The Peh'ix. The pelvis exhibits considerable differences between ^lan and quadrupeds, which arise from their different attitude. It is formed of two halves which originally consisted of three distinct bones — the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis, at the juncti(jn of which, externally, is the cotyloid cavity (c. Fig. 10). It is divided l)y a circular crest, called the superior brim, into two j)ortions, termed the greater and lesser pelvis. The feetus lie.s, and is matur(*d, in the former, and passes into the latter a short time previous to birth. In ^lan, the iliac bones are expanded, laterally, into two great wings, thin in the centre, and concave — admirably constructed to support the mass of the viscera, and in the female the weight ot the feetus. Their external surface, or external iliac fossa, is, in consequence, convex, to give insertion to the muscles of the buttock In epiadrupeds, on the contrary, the iliac bones are closer together, are elongated on each side of the lumbar portion of the column, and F 2 PELVIS. G8 [Chap. ii. ‘convex on their internal surface, the external becoming inversely concave. The iliac hones in Man therefore have somewhat the form of valves, which are composed of flat hones. They rapidly become long and tapering, on the contrary, in quadrupeds, as in the equidiej the hare, and the kangaroo, and are converted, as it were, into long hones. Between these two arrangements are seen all kinds of intermediary ones. "Hie measurements which we have made upon two liumlred and Fig. 10. — The pelvis in Man : a, Portion of the base of the sacrum, which is articuLated with the last lumbar vertebra b. Iliac crest, or superior border of the ilium ; c. Cotyloid cavity, in which is received the head of the femur : <./, Symphysis pubis, or articulation of the two bones of the pubis ; e, Point where the ischium, which is to the outside, is united to the pubis, which is to the inside. seven different pelves, serve to throw light upon this subject, and may he thus summed up ; * * The maximum length, taken from the point of the ischium to the farthest point of the iliac crest, exceeds the maximum breadth taken from one iliac crest to the other in 23 per cent, of the ruminants examined, thirty-two of the carnivora, thirt}'- * St |gg Proportions Generales chez THomnie et les Mammiferes/’ by Paul Topinarcl, in “ Ball. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. x., 1875. c d c Chap, ii.] THORAX. 69 three of tlie rodentia, tliirty-seven of the marsupialia, and tliirt}'- eij;lit of the. edentata. It is tlie revei*se in .Man — the breadtli is as 28-77 per cent, to the length. The anthropoids vary, hut they come nearer to !Man than to ([iiadinpeds. The gibbons, like the other monkeys, have still the length greater than the breadth. In chimpanzees, the two are nearly e([nal. The gorillas and orangs are very nearly allied to Man. The breadtli exceeds tlie length in 24 })er cent, in tlie former, and in 10 -oO in the latter. For certain j»hysiological reasons iiecnliar to their group, the elephant.s and the mastodons have the pelvis of similar conformation to that of Man. Conserpiently the .sacrum of (puulrupeds is straight, elongated, a little hollow on its internal surface, and is in contrast with that of ^lan, which is wi«le at the base, thick, conical, and curved at the jioint. The sacrum of anthropoid apes holds a middle po.sition, and freipiently resembles that of some of the inferior races of Man, as the Hottentot, di.ssected by .lellVies 'Wyman, or the liosjeswoman, by (hivier. At the same time that the human pelvis becomes wider and diminishes in height, its antero-post<*rior diameter becomes shortened, relatively to that of the anthropoid ape and other mammalia. 4'he jiromontory — that is to say, the projecting angle in front which the curve of the loins makes with the curve of the sacrum, is, on the other hand, stronger, in accordance with the re([uirements of the biped attitude. AVe may add that the tuberosities of the ischium are .shorter, less widely sejiarated, and le.ss marked than in the anthropoid, and that the symi)hysis jiubis is shorter. That which we remark in the pelvis may also be found at the other extremity of the trunk. The Thonu'. The thorax, in Man, is more developed transversely; that of (piadrupeds, on the contraiy, is more so from before backwards, or froni the sternum to the .s})ine. The arms m the former have to move in all directions, and especially outwardly, and to this end 70 STERNUM. [Chap. ii. are kept wide apart ky the arches, which are the clavicles. In the quadrupeds proper, they only serve for locomotion, fall .in a parallel way downwards, and remain apart. Thus the clavicle disappears, and the thorax becomes flattened sideways. Monkeys, in this respect, hold an inferior position to (piadrupeds, a superior one to ]\Ian. The lemurians, the cebians, and the pithecians have the thorax compressed laterall}", the anthropoid apes rather from before backwards. The volume of the chest could not furnish any special character. Its development is enormous in the three great anthropoid apes. TVIiilst the circumference was about ninety-four centimetres in a thousand and eighty Enghshmen measured by Mr. Hutchinson, Fig. 11. — Anterior portion of the sternum in Man : at. Sternum, showing the three divisions— the upper or handle, the middle or body, and the lower or xiphoid appendix ; R, Ribs ; R', Costal cjirtilages. it attained one hundi*ed and fifty-seven in an immense gorilla measured by Du Chaillu. The sternum in the same way, while broad and flat in l\Ian, is narroAV and developed antero-posteriorly, or rather from below up- wards, in quadrupeds. In this respect the anthropoid apes come nearer to ]\[an. The sternum is composed, speaking philosopliically, of seven portions, corresponding to the seven ribs which are directly articu- lated with it, aixl of *a xiphoid appendix. These are distinctly seen in the foetus, but at birth are reduced to two — exclusive of the The Sternum. Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 71 appeiulix — namely, tlie liamlle and tlie body, the latter being formed by the anchylosis of the six lower portions. The handle, or upper separated portion, exists in all the mammalia with clavicles ; the appendix also. The body is entire in ^lan ; in the greater number of the monkeys i)roper it is composed of six distinct ])arts ; in one of the anthropoids, the gibbon, it is entire, as in ^laii, and in the other three it is diviiled into three or four. Thus we see that in this respect the anthroi)oid apes, and notably the magot, are between ^lan and the pithecians. The extremities, four in number in the majority of mammalia, are reduced to two, the anterior, in the whale and the porpoise. Theii’ terminal segment bears the name of foot or hand, a denomina- tion ui)on which lilunienbach and Cuvier based their division of the order of Primates of Linmeus into Bimana, comprehending Man, and (^hiadnimana, embracing the monkey tribe, a name which Tyson had giv»*n them in 1G‘J9. The I laud and Foot. AVhat then as to the hand and foot, and especially the hand] (hivier says that which constitutes the hand is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other tingei-s for the j)uri)ose of taking hold of the smallest objects. Agassiz terms the hand, “ a limb having a cei-tain number of lingei-s bending one way, another linger being opposed to them.” lie defines a foot as, “ a limb terminated by digits all on the same level, and all having the same direction.” The hand is recognised, according to Huxley, by the disposition of the bones of the carpus and of the metacari)us ; the foot by the presence of short flexor muscles, a short extensor of the digital appendices, and a long peroneal. All these definitions look only to one side of the question. ^I. do La Palisse’s maxim is that it is their use which distinguishes the foot from the hand. The Foot. Broca, with gi’eater l)readth of view, says : “ A foot is an e.xtremity which serves chiefiy for standing or walking ; a hand is 72 ' THE FOOT. [Chap. ii. an extremity whicli serves principally for prehension and touch.” We might add that the fin is an extremity which serves principally for natation, &c. The hand is perfect when it answers the end for which it was exclusively intended. The foot is perfect Avhen it is only constructed for walking. Both are imperfect when they encroach on the functions which do not specially belong to them. An anterior extremity may lose all its functions of prehension, and it would be only a foot. Various ^physiological variations, and of different degrees, are noticed in the mammalian series. But if the sole of the foot bears directly on the ground, or if the palm of the hand grasps objects, the whole extremity is, in reality, applied to its general function, all its parts are made conformable to the purposes for which it was designed. It is not, then, the foot or the hand only, but the extremity as a whole, wdiich Ave must examine to discover its function of prehension or locomotion. This has been already done by M. Broca. The anatomical conditions, Avhich secure to the inferior extremity its function of locomotion, ^Anay be reduced,” says M. Broca, “to three : (1) The root of the extremity — that is to say, the head of the femur,* should be received into a deep hemispherical cavity, looking doAvmvards and outwards, Avhich alloAvs the limb to moA^e freely from before backAvards, and from behind foiw^ards, to execute the tAvo movements of progression, Avhilst the other moA^e- ments, and, in particular, adduction, are very limited ; (2) The tAvo bones of the leg should be immoAmble the one on the other, and more or less united together as a single bone, in order to bear the Aveight of the body, and so’^that the foot may not turn ; (3) The articula- tions immediately aboA^e the part touching the ground should only alloAv tAvo movements — those of flexion and extension — and should be bent at a more or less right angle, in order to present to the ground a flat surface, formed at the expense of the posterior surface of the extremity, noAV become inferior.” Man, Avho exclusively rests on his tAvo feet, realises all these conditions in the highest degree. His . femur, retained in the * We refer the reader to page 30 and following for the anatomical expres- sions employed here, and elsewhere, with respect to the skeleton. Chap, ii.j THE FOOT. ■ 7a cotyloid cavity by a virtual vacuum, is moved as a balance in two directions. The articulations of his knee and instep are hinge-like. His tibia and fibula are immovable, and fall perpendicularly on the Fig. 12. — A., Skeleton of the hand, the forearm as in supination (the radius outside, on the side of the thumb, the ulna inside), and a part of the humerus of the gorilla. B, Skeleton of the foot, leg (fibula outside, tibia inside), and part of thj femur of the gorilla. crown of an elastic arch, which rests on the ground by the cal- caneuni behind and the metatarsus in front. In the majority of mammalia, these arrangements are identical. 74 THE HAND. [Chap. ii. ‘Or analogous. Wlietlier the constituent colmnns of the foot amount to four, three, or two ; whether the individual hears on his phalanges, his metatarsus, or the entire sole of the foot, they are always adapted for walking and for support. The cheiroptera, which make use of their foot as a hook, and perhaps kangaroos, which are able to grasp in a slight degree, are the only animals having free movement of the two hones of the leg one upon the other. We shall sj^eak of the monkey tribe presently. The Hand. The indispensable qualities for the regular performance of acts of prehension and touch, of which the upper extremity of Man offers the best example, are also three in number. (1) The articulation of the humerus with the scapida, or scapulo- humeral, should be movable in two directions, in order to allow the arm and hand play in every direction. Circumduction and adduction, if limited in the femur, are not neglected here. The presence of the clavicle, by widening the shoulders, favours the latter ; the glenoid cavity is small, ovoid, and looks outwards ; the axis of the humeral head lies perpendicularly. These last two features are sufficient of themselves, in doubtful cases, to enable ‘one to recognise the character of the upper extremities. We are now .about to show this. The arm is a thigh turned round, says Professor Ch. Martins.* The articular line of the knee and that of the elbow are both transverse, but while the flexion of the knee takes place backwards, that of the elbow is forwards ; the patella and olecranon, which • are analogues, occupy inverse positions. In reptil^fe the two extremities are, on the contrary, symmetrical ; and, as M. Durand (de Gros) says, isonierous, flexion being exerted in the same direc- tion. How is this difference in mammalia to be explained 1 In a very simple way. The part of the arm which is above the middle third has undergone, in the former, a twisting from behind for- * “Nouvelle Comparaison des Membres Pelviens et Thoraciques,” by "€h. Martins, in “ Mem. Acad, de Montpellier,” 1857. Chap, ii.] THE HAND. 75 Avartls, and from witliin outwards, as if the bone had been turnedround. Proofs of this are visible upon the liunierus in the shape of a .groove of torsion. This is Avhy the thumb, which is inwards in the foot, has become outwards in the hand. Put this twisting, or rotation, lias not the same extent in bipeds and quadrupeds, or rather in the liumeri of the limbs, whether designed for prehension or for locomotion. Fig. 13.— Skeleton of the forearm : A, In supination ; B, In pronation ; II, Humerus ; It, Radius ; U, Ulna. In the former case it is about 180 degrees, in the latter about 90 degrees. INIoreover, in bipeds, as in quadrupeds, the forearm is bent upon the arm in a similar way relatively to the body. It is because the glenoid cavity of the scapula describes, in the latter, ^ complementary arc of a circle, equally from behind forwards and from without inwards, that so much of it is spared for the humerus ; consequently it looks forwards relatively to the axis of the body in these, and downwards in quadrupeds. The 90 •degrees for the humerus and the 90 for the glenoid cavity, thus 76 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. ir. give the 180 degrees which make of the arm a “ thigh turned round.” The degree of rotation varies sometimes in both, and the part which the humerus takes in it is measured by the angle which the vertical jDlane of its head makes with the vertical and transverse plane of its inferior extremity. Thus an angle of torsion of the humerus of 180 degrees, and a glenoid cavity looking outwards, are the characters which the scapulo-humeral articulation exhibits in the extremities destined principally for prehension. A similar angle of 90 degrees, and a glenoid cavity looking downwards,* are, on the contrary, the characteristic of the function of locomotion. If the cavity, in this case, had looked outwards, the head of the humerus, instead of resting upon it, Avould be driven back against the articular capsule, Avhich by the least shock Avould be ruptured. (2) The radius should turn freely over the ulna, so that the hand, placed in pronation at its extremity, can be put in supination and lay hold of objects readily. Fig. 13 shoAvs* the difference between these two positions of the arm. This rotation in Man is about 180 degrees. (3) The hand should be situated upon the prolonged axis of the forearm, the carpus being articulated Avith the radius in such a Avay as to haA^e every kind of niOA^ement, and especially the most com- plete flexion and extension. Everything AAdiich adds to the mobility of the phalanges, and facilitates especially the opposition of the thumb to the other fingers, is favourable to this end. Thus mobility of the member in all its parts is that A\diich characterises the hand, solidity that AAdiich marks the foot. The details of configuration is only a question of relative perfection in either case. Hand and Foot. The anterior extremities of Man exhibit all the attributes aboA^Q mentioned, Avhich go to make up a perfect organ of prehension. Those of the carnAora and pachydermata differ from them entirely, * Downwards, because we are thinking of quadrupeds ; but if we suppose- the trunk vertical, it is forwards. Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 77 and are adapted in all their parts for locomotion. We find all terrestrial inammalia inclining towards one or other of these two types. In the kangaroo, the nioveinent of pronation and supina- tion, the axis of his hand being in continuation A\dth that of the forearm, the conformation of his five digits, everything, except that the glenoid cavit}^ looks forward,'^ goes to show that his anterior extremity is formed for prehension. In the dog, the anterior extremity, on the contrary, is hotter adapted for progression, and, therefore, the two hones of his forearm move one upon the other. It is scarcely necessary to enumerate the many rodentia, carnivora, and edentata which employ their front paws as hands to seize tlieir prey, to carry it to the mouth, to burrow in the ground, to caress their young, to carry them, c^'c. In the common monkeys the anterior extremities hang loosely at the sides of the body ; their angle of humeral torsion is that of (piadrupeds. In the lemurs, the ouistiti, the atele, and the sapajou it is as high as 95 or 100 degrees; in the niagot, 105 degrees; in the senmopithecus, 110 degrees. The amount of rota- tion of the radius is variable ; in some cehians and pithecians it does not exceed 90 degrees ; in the mone it attains to 100 degrees. 'When the common monkeys use the hand as a foot, it is held at an angle more or less ap])roaching a right angle, and leans on the ground by the whole palmar surface, with the digits extended ; it has then all the character of a foot. I hit if they use it for seizing objects, or the limb is left to itself, as in the dead body, the axis of the hand is continued in a . straight line with that of the forearm. It is, then, to all intents and purposes, a hand. 'With regard to their posterior extremity, it possesses all the characters which render it adapted for locomotion ; its terminal extremity is set at a right angle, and rests on the ground by the whole plantar surface. The digits are nevertheless longer, and the thumh more loosely attached and more spreading, than in Man ; the thumh is not opposed to the other digits, as we have said, hut l)y its span it plays the part of one leg of a cramp-iron or pincers, * We say forwards because the kangaroo holds himself most frequently in the standing position. 78 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. ii. the four other digits forming the other leg. It is hy this means that monkeys hang on to the houghs of trees as well hy their feet as hy their hands. In a word, the common monkeys have feet behind and hands in front, hut they employ them suhordinately, the former for climhing and the latter for walking. Properly speaking they neither belong to quadrupeds nor to the quadru- mana. In anthropoid apes all the characters proper to the organ of prehension are developed in the same degree as in Man : there is the same inde^^endence of the limb — greater in the gibbon perhaps ; the humeral angle of torsion is about 150 degrees, whilst that of the negro is 154 degrees, and that of the white man 168 degrees, according to M. Gegenhaur; the movement of pronation and of supination of the radius is from 140 to 180 degrees, whilst that of Man is 180 degrees ; the axis of the hand is in continuation of that of the forearm ; the power of extension, that is to say, the move- ment which would, Avhen required, make it serve for a foot, is less than in Man ; the configuration of the hones of the hand is identical with that of Man, except that the orang and some gibbons have an additional hone in the carpus, called the intermedium, and that the thunih has greater span in the gorilla, and is some- what atrophied in the orang, and perhaps in tlie chimpanzee. As to the inferior extremity, the resemblance to that of Man is still more close, except that the orang has the great toe much smaller, and much more behind. In fine, the gorilla most nearly approaches to Man in the shape of his hand and foot, Avhile the chimpanzee . conies next. The anthropoid ape seizes the smallest objects with the thunih and fingers of his hand, which he opposes perfectly. In the foot the opposition is nil — it is not greater than that of Chinese oarsmen, Nubian horsemen, or painters without arms, who lay hold hy bending the toes all together, or hy making the second toe act as a thumb. His thunih and digits can only clasp the two sides of a hough, like the two legs of a cramp-iron, in the act of climbing. His ordinary method of progression is in an oblique direction, the legs close together, the arms extended and somewhat separated Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 79 " Avlien making a step ; the forearms in pronation, and the hands closed, resting altogether upon the inner border and the dorsal surface of the phalanges. The orangs 'which we have had an opportunity of seeing, walked with the toes turned under, and with the external border of the foot resting on the ground. It seems, nevertheless, that other anthropoids sometimes rest on the entire Hat surface of the sole of the foot, and that they keep the toes extended. With regard to the erect position, the anthropoid ape assumes it frequently, but only by accident. Thus we have seen gibbons run along in the u})right position, the arms elevated above the head, and thrown backwards, evidently in order to place their centre of gravity in a more favourable position. The gorilla generally runs aAvay from ]\lan, but if he suddenly finds himself in his presence, or has to cover the retreat of the female, he faces his enemy with the greatest bravery, holds up his head, strikes his chest, and conies forward in an upright position with the head erect. The chimpanzee frequently straightens himself in the same manner. The orang is so ai)athetic that he almost always walks along crawling. In a word, the anthro2)oid ape is a l>ii)ed, but he i)ossesses an arrangement of the feet which allows him to walk iq)on the branches of trees. lie is bimanous, but he has the assistance of his hands in walking, as we ourselves should have if, with longer arms, we wished to imitate him. His attitude in jirogression is more nearly the vertical than the horizontal, and is sometimes that of i\Ian and sometimes that of ([uadriqieds^ To return to terrestrial mammalia. Their ^^osterior extremities are always adajited for jirogression, the anterior sometimes for ^^re- hension, sometimes for 2'>rogression, frequently for both. The four extremities should, in the main, be sinq)ly for sujiport. The more or less perfect adaptation of tlie anterior to the act of touch and prehension is a characteristic of gradual development, and if one must establish a graduated scale in reference to this matter, the series would succeed each other as follows : the i^achydermata and ruminantia, carnivora in general, kangaroos, ordinary monkeys,, anthropoid a^ies, ^lan. 80 STATURE. [Chap. ii. Stature. Having coiisiderecl tlie skeleton in detail, it remains for us to examine it in its eusemhle. Heiglit and size in comparative anatomy have a secondary value, the largest animals go side hy side with the smallest in contiguous genera. Among the gihhons, for example, the siamang reaches IdG metre; the entelloid, 80 centimetres. The other anthropoids come nearer to i\Ian than that. The chimpanzee is about 1'30 metre; the two or three species of orang from ITO metre to I'GO metre ; the gorilla from 1’40 metre to 1’73 metre, and more. How the height of an adult man (France) is about 1-G5 metre, and this varies in every part of the globe from 1’30 metre to about 2 metres. Among pithecians, the cynocephali are generally the tallest; the nasicus measures ITO metre, the miothecus, 30 centimetres; the cebians vary from 90 centimetres in the brachyuri to 20 centimetres in the oiiistiti ; the lemurs are small. So much for the approximate measurements. How can we compare animals, some of which go on all-fours, and others in a semi-inclined attitude, with IMan, who is perfectly erect 1 Their general forms have more interest. IMan varies so far as to merit the epithets tall and thin, or short and stout ; he is lean or fat, his neck is long or short, his abdomen drawn in or prominent. In the anthropoid apes the differences are also great. The gibbon is slender, long in the body, and made for agility, in this respect approaching to the semnopitheci ; he only wants a tail to make him resemble them in his movements. The orang, on the contrary, is dull, apathetic, and squat ; he Avalks Avith measured steps. The gorilla is remarkable for his athletic figure; he is said to Avrestle even Avith the leopard, and to liaA^e the best of it. Both the orang and the gorilla haA^e monstrously prominent bellies, Avhich belongs to their herbiA^orous or graniA'orous mode of feeding. The chim- panzee, though less muscular in his limbs, and not so stout, has, ■like the gorilla, considerable strength. Among the Gaboon species Ave Avould mention the koolokamba, Avhich, to judge by his skeleton, ought to haA'e slender limbs. Chap, ii.] PROPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON. 81 Pro2W)iions of the Skdetou. The proportions of the skeleton have also much interest. Their study having hitherto afforded more results in the comparison between man and animals than in that of races between them- selves, we shall speak of them here in a general way. Odeomctry. Osteometry, one of the most promising branches of anthro- pology, and one having an intimate connection with craniometry, is a study which has especial reference to the measurement of the facial angle and the direction of the occipital foramen, matters already considered. Osteometry itself is only a part of what should be called zoometry, which has to do with animals, in con- tradistinction to anthropometry, which has ^lan for its object of study. Are we to seek for the i)roportion of the body on the skeleton or on the living subject? This is the (piestion which governs all osteometry. On the living subject one has the advantage of being able t<> refer each particular measurement to a unit of comj)arison, as stature, if we are dealing only with ^lan, or length of trunk or of the vertebral column, if we extend our examination to animals. But in spite of the greatest skill on the part of the i)reparator who mounts the skeleton, there is always somewhat of arbitrariness in the mode of articulating the bones, and of replacing the inter- vertebral substance with discs of leather. The bones are not found at all in the same condition when dry and when in the fresh state ; in the former case the cartilages are dried up, and so reduced in size that it is impossible to form any proper comparison between one skeleton and another. If we take a single articular extremity, the retraction of its investing cartilage is slight, but if we take the twelve surfaces of the entire hand, which are found between the tip of the fingers and the wrist, it amounts to something con- siderable. On the living subject, it is true, the measuring points are sometimes difficult to recognise, or are altogether inaccessible. G 82 PROPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON. [Chap. ii. To take the length of a femur, for example, as it is exhibited in the upright position, we place the two condyles flat on the table, the hone takes its natural direction, and the length required is the projection comprised between the plane of the table and the plane which is parallel to it, passing tlirough the highest point of its liead. On the living subject we liave no means of obtainmg any- thing of the kind ; the head of the femur is out of Auew in the cotyloid cavity. Under tliese circumstances we are obliged to be satisfied with a different length, and Ave have recourse to other points of measurement — below, to the external side of the inter- articular space ; above, to the point of tlie great trochanter, which is covered by a thick cushion of cellulo-adipose tissue, and the mass of fibrous tissue and tendons Avhich liave insertion in this tuber- osity, and Avhose consistence can scarcely be distmguished by the finger from the resistance of the osseous tissues. The same difficulties, although less in amount, are met Avith in the Avrist, the elboAV, and the shoulder. In a Avord, on the living subject Ave are enabled to make com- parisons of differences arising from stature, but from bad measur- ing points ; on the skeleton, to take perfect measui’ements, but to have no certain term of comparison. Another adAvantage of the measurements in the living subject is that they can be taken, by those interested in the study, in foreign countries, and upon a large number of individuals. Anatomists employ both methods. Some, taking care that the skeleton is properly mounted, give the particular length of each bone relativelj’’ to its height, or to the A^ertebral column. Others compare the bones directly together, Avithoiit taking into account the height. For oiu' OAvn jiart Ave think the arbitrary mode in Avhich the skeleton is mounted is exaggerated. The disposition of the articular processes of the A^ertebrre obliges the preparator to gUe, almost unconsciously, the proper thickness to the inteiwertebral discs ; his sources of error arise entirely from the drying up of the cartilages on the articular surface of these processes, amount- ing to fifty in the entire column. The skeleton of a gorilla, one of the tallest ever seen, mounted in America, AA^as U650 ■Chap, ii.] PROPORTIONS OF THE TRUNK. 83 mi'*tres in height; tlic animal measured, immediati'ly after death, 1*727 m^jtivs. P'onr gorillas were dissected in the Lahoratory of Anthropology, and their skeletons, which were aft(*rwards mounted hy ^r. Trambnt, were less hy three centimetres. These remarks have no reference either to the head or to the ])el\’is, whose internal proportions alone we generally study, hut simply to the trunk, the extremities, and their segments. Let us now proceed to results, referring the reader to Chapter IV. of Part II. for a descrii)tion of the usual methods of })roceeding in staking measurements. l^roportions of the Iruul:. 'The tii-st element of comparison which it is necessary to know, IS the relative proportion of tlie trunk to the height of the hody. Tlie length of the trunk can only be measured on the living subject, but the measuring points differ. Tlie Americans, in their measure- ments made on a million individuals during t]ie War of Secession, chose as boundaries the sjiinous, or prominent jirocess of the seventh cervical vertebrae, and the perimeum; In their four series of measurements, which were taken with the greatest care, in from 207 to 1,0G4 individuals, the mean length was from 362 to 394- thousandths of tlie stature, (^uetelet takes from the clavicles alxive, and from the perimeum below ; his mean is about 354-thousandths of the stature. In !M. Seriziat’s statistics, we have taken the interval between the biacromial line, or width of the shoulders, and the biischiatic line, or width of the swit; the mean vais 362-thou- .sandths. 4'he length of the trunk in Man woidd then be more than one-third, and less than two-fifths of the stature. In the anthropoid apes there are less indications. In a gorilla killed by Du ( diaillu, the distance from the seventh cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum was about 440-thousandths of the stature. In ]\1. r>ro(a\’s laboratory, we have compared the length from the seventh cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum in eleven skeletons of men, and one of the gorilla. Its relation to the stature was 366 in the latter, and varied from 292 to 340-thousandths in G 2 84 GRANDE ENVERGURE. [Chap., ii. the former. The trunk of Man thus estimated would he shorter, hut only relatively, because his lower extremities increase his height. We are precluded, from want of space, from giving here the j:)roportions of the thorax, and especially its circumference in Man and the animal. Grande Envery laeasure- ments made on the living subject, and on the skeleton, he proved that the forearm of the negro is longer than that of the white races. His researches, which had long passed out of notice, were revived by Lawrence in 1817. Mr. Humphry again took up the question in 1858, embraced the lower extremities in his measure- ments, and extended the comparison between ISIaii and the anthro- poid apes. Lastly, in 1862 and in 1867, ]\L Lroca casually touched upon the subject in the two memoirs before referred to."' Tliere are more or less marked shades of difference in the relative dimensions of the bones of the extremities, and before impdring into them it is well to bear in mind the general fact. The radius is always smaller than the humerus, and the tibia smaller than the femur in the human skeleton. It is the same in the gorilla and the chimpanzee. The same may lie noticed in the tibia of the orang, while the mdius is perceptildy equal to the humerus, which proves that the proportions are not the same in all the anthropoids, and differ as in the human races. The following table gives the relative proportion of the radius to the humerus, 100 being taken as the length of the latter. The first column has been calculated with the measures of Mr. Humphry * References to books occupy so much space that we can only give the more important ones. The researches of White are to be found in his memoir, p. 14 ; in Lawrence’s work, p. 14 ; that of Humphry, p. 85 ; and that of M. Broca, p. 86. 88 RELATION OF THE TIBIA TO THE FEMUR. [Chap. ii. upon tlie 50 men and tlie 8 anthropoid apes prevmiisly alluded to, and the second with those of M. Broca upon 30 men of all races, and Avith our oAvn upon 18 anthropoid apes : Humpliry, Broca and. Topin&rd. Man ... 75*1 ... 76-1 Gorilla ... 77-1 ... 79-8 Chimpanzee ... 90T ... 90-3 Orang ... 1000 ... ... ... S5'7 Setting aside some differences of detail pertaining to individual A^arieties, arising from the mode of proceeding, the general results agree in both columns. The difference hetAveen jMan and the ape is not great, looking at the proportion betAveen the upper and loAver extremity, but it is not the less certain. In ({ur at least the more important points, w’hich seem peculiar to the anthropoid, are found from time to time in ]\Ian, and especially in the negro race. M. Chudzinski, 94 ORGANS OF SENSE. [Chap. hi. preparator to the laboratory of the Ecole des halites l5tudes, has .already published two excellent memoirs upon this subject.* Organs of Sense. In these is included the cutaneous envelope which surroimds the body, protects it against external agencies, and is the seat of the function of touch. One of the characters which distinguisli the class of mam- malia from that of birds, fishes, and reptiles, is the presence of hair upon the body. T)e Blainville })roposed to substitute for his designation that of piliferes. Some, however, have the skin naked, ns certain cetacein. The characteristic of man j)roposeil by Lin- naius, therefore, is anything but a correct one : homo nudus et inermis. Man really has hair not oidy on the liead, on the face, under the armpits, and on the pubis, but over the whole of the body, and in certain races quite a thick crop on the chest, behind the shoulders, and on the limbs, resembling down, and masking the colour of the skin. The history of Esau is a most probable one. Compared with the majority of mammalia, and in particular of monkeys, Man is the least hairy ; the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet are alone without hair, which is to be accoimted for by its having worn away. The smooth and indurated surfaces on tlie buttocks, called callosites fessieres in the pithecians, are wanting in the antlu'opoid apes, with the exception of certain gibbons, as well as in the cebians and lemurs. The nails, claws, and hoofs of mammalia are a secretion from the skin, like hair and horns. The presence of flat nails, not bent round, on the fingers and toes, has been given as a characteristic of ]\Ian. AVe must, therefore, associate the anthropoids with him. The orang alone forms a partial exception, having no nail on the great toe. Elat nails are found in the pithecians ; they are bent * “Contribution a I’Anatomie clu Negro et Nouvellcs Observations sur le Systeme Musculaire da Negre,” by T. Cliudzinski, in the “ Revue d’Authro- pologie,” vols. ii. and iii. Chap, hi.] PALMAR WRINKLES. .95 round into claws in the cynocepliali ; tlie flat nail and the transition to the claw are seen siniiiltaneously in others. The ouistitis, some other cebians, and the arctopithecians have claws, except on the great toe. In lemurs it is the reverse : the claw is found on the great toe, and nails on the other toes. The ari’angement of the wrinkles and of the corpuscles of Paccini in the palm of the hand has reference to the function of touch. In ^lan, there are two principal VTinkles in the hand, one pro- duced by the flexion of the last three fingers, the other by the flexion of the thumb, and passing round the eminence, ihrnar ; a third, which is variable, and between the two, is joined at its external extremity with the latter, and is free, and nearly pai-allel with the former at its internal extremity. According to ]\I. Alix, the fold of the thumb is wanting in the monkey tribe, and the other two are united to form one. The fact is evident in the three inferior groups, but doubtful as regards the first. If some anthropoids exhibit in consequence of this an inferior simian arrangement, !Man is exceptionally in the same position. The corpuscles of Paccini, or tactile corpuscles, are little bodies situated in the direction of the nervous filaments of the jialmar surface of the hand and fingers, and of the plantar surface of the foot. !M. Kepveu has shown that their appearance under the microscope is alike in ^lan and the chimpanzee, whilst it is somewhat diflerent in the common monkey, the baboon, and the sajou. The organ of vision is similar in Man, the anthropoid apes, the pithecians, and the cebians. But in many lemurs, the fundus of the eye assumes a glittt^ing apjiearance, which in the eat and the o.x has received the name of tapetum. A little muscular fasciculus also exists, analogous to the musculus choanoides found in the majority of quadrupeds. The nose, anatomically the same in ]\Ian and the monkey tribe, presents merely morphological changes. Sometimes projecting in the former, in a less degree however than in the nasicus, one of the pithecians, it is at other times more or less flat, as in the generality of monkeys. The nostrils are usually directed downwards, as in the anthropoid apes and pithecians, and sometimes sideways, as in 96 YISCEEA. [Chap. in. cebians ; two arrangements which have suggested to Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire his division of monkeys into catarrhini and platyrrhini. Tho septum is comparatively thin in the catarrhini, and thick at the anterior triangular border in the platyrrhini. The cartilage of the ear, Avhose form and length are so variable in different mammals, in monkeys is usually strong, having no fold behind ; it is sometimes square above, and rounded off, and is without a lobule. These arrangements are occasionally found in Man. On the other hand, the ears of the gorilla and the chimpanzee are often as well folded as those of Man. The pithecians have two pouches, named ahajous, which open in the mouth — the anthropoids, like ]\Ian, having nothing of the kind. Viscera. The length of the alimentary canal is about six times the length of the body, or about eleven metres, according to M. Sappey. In carnivora it Agarics from two to eight times, and in solipeds and ruminants frOm ten to tAventy-eight times ; in monkeys it is from live to eight times, in the gibbon about eight. The stomach of all the monkey tribe is simple as in Man. The semnopithecians and the colobians are exceptions ; their stomach if not multiple, is at least multilocidar, resembling the herbiA'ora in this respect. The commencement of the large intestine, or cpccum, lies in the right iliac fossa, as in Man, and is covered in front by the peritoneum. In pithecians, the caecum is, on the contrary,. eiiA^eloped by the peritoneum, Avhich forms one of the folds of the mesentery behind, and is designed for the pm’pose of facilitating the mobility of that part of the intestine. In the anthropoid the- peritoneum surrounds the caecum, as in Man. An appendix, the vermicular, is annexed to the human caecum. It exists also in antliropoid apes, but is Avanting in the monkeys- beloAv them, Avith the exception of some lemurs. The lAer of Man has, properly speaking, only tAVO lobes j in anthropoid apes it is similar. In the other monkeys, on the contrary, it is A'ery much subdivided, as in the lion and the rabbit. Chap, hi.] . PEIUTOXEUM AND PEIUCAHDIUM. 97 ]\I. lirocii ill liis memoir, Sur los Priiimtes,” has drawn attention to the variations of the peritoneum, the serous membrane wliicdi is rerteeted round the organs in the abdominal cavity, and has for its object to isolate them, and to allow them to glide smoothly upon one another. His ojiinion is, that the arrangement of the peritoneum does not perceptibly differ in ]Man and the anthro])oid apes, whilst in pas.sing to the pithecians it immediately exhibits marked dillerences. The distinction of mammalia into bijicds and ([uadrupeds may to a certain extent be recognised liy the arrangement of their internal organs. The marked peculiarity of the. peritoneum in its relation to the ciecuui may be siiecially mentioned. In the chest .we see differences of the same description. The pericardium, or membrane surrounding the heart, is to this organ what the jieritoneum is to the intestines. In ]\Ian it is altogether separated frcmi the sternum and is attached to the diaidiragm, a transvei*se muscular seiitum which separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity. In cpiadrupeds it is lirnily fixed to the sternum and to the articulations of the ribs, and is not attached to the (liai)hragm.- In the former, indeed, the heart lies on the diaphragm, in the latter on the sternum, in accordance with the attitiuh* of the animal. In monkeys the arrangement is inter- mediate ; in lemurs tlie ])ericardiuni does not adhere* to tlie diaphragm excejit to a very limited extent ; in cebians and pitlie- cians the surface attachment increases in size. In the anthro})oid apes the pericardium is as in ]\Ian. Similar changes occur in the direction 6f the h<^art, in the length of the vena cava inferior, and in the curve of the aorta near its origin. In (piadrui)eds a result of the non-attachment of the heart to the diaphragm, is the interposition between the two of a lobule of the right lung. Tliis ' lobule, known by the name of im})ar, exists throughout the whoh*. mammalian series, from the marsupialia to the carnivora, and is wanting in JMah. In the lemurians and the cebians it is also developed. In the })ithecians it becomes less ; in tlie gilibons it is almost nU ] in the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla there is not the slightest trace of it. II 98 THE LARYNX. . [Chap. iir. From the viscera hoav })ass to tlie vessels, wliere we shall always find a coiifirinatioii of the same favd — namely, that the organisation of anthropoids is a counterpart of that of ]\Ian, and differs widely from that of the other simian groups. shall say a few words respecting the larynx and the (jrgans of reproduction before entering upon a study (h the very highest importance — that of the hrain. The Lai'ifru'. The larynx, or organ of voice, is at the iip])er extremity of the windpipe, whore the glottis is situated, through which the air is respired. It is composed, like the tracluea, of cartilages, though much larger. The two principal ones are the cricoid helow and* the thyroid above. It is closed at certain moments l)y another cartilage, which acts like a valve, and is called the epiglottis. In all essential points this little apparatus is identical throughout the entire mammalian series, and notably in that of monkeys. Il2)on four points of its extent — that is to say, below the cricoid, between it and the thyroid, between the thyroid and the epiglottis, and between the vocal chords — are seen occasionally dilatations or ampulhe, Avhich have considerable importance in anthroi)oid apes; some median and single — giving rise to three primary anatomical varieties — others lateral and double, forming a fourth. The first, or tracheal variety of dilatation, is observed in the horse, the ass, and in the coaita, one of the monkeys of the cebian group ; the second in two other kinds of cebians ; the third in a lemur, a cebian, two pithecians, and a gibbon. The fourth variety exists in a rudimentary state in i\Ian under the name of arnh-e-cavite^ or ventricle of the larynx,* and attains with age, in the three higher anthropoids, an enormous development, especi- ally in the male, and is known in them under the name of air s^rc. In a young chimpanzee dissected by M. Ihoca, it formed M. Sappey described it under tbe name of • ortion vcrticale of the Ten.' rides of the larynx. It is situated, he says, at tlie upper border of the thyroid cartilage, close to the hyoid bone, aud in rarer instances reaches to the base of the tongue, and extends under its mucous membrane. i.’HAl*. III.] LARYNGEAL SACS. 09 two little lati*ral in’ojwtions about the size of a i>ea, which over- Ja])pe»l above the siii)erior border of the thyroid. In the a^u*d <^orilla and oran^^ the projections become lar^U'r, and run under the sterno-Jiiastoiil muscles, under the, tra])ezius, luivelop the. I'lG. 14.“ Vertical and antcro- posterior section of tlic face and neck: Bodies of the ccn’loal vertebne ; m. Basilar proccs.s, or boeij' of the occipiUd Ijone : i>, Floor of the anterior cerebnd fossa ; n, />, 7 , SuiMjrior middle and inferior shells of tlie inisjd foH.Hfti ; /, Arch of the palate : /, Velnm of the palate ; F, Gcnio-glo.ssal imiscles t>f the tongne, attaebed in front to the tnbercles geni, situated at tlic i»osterior .surface of the lower jaw ; Ij, (Esophag\is ; c, Trachiea ; a, Tliyroid cartilage ; e, Epiglottis ; i. Os hyoides, serving as a i»oint of attachment for iini)ortant nmsclcs of the tongue and larynx. The transverse slit which is .seen in the latter, and whose bordei*s form the vocal chords, is tlie ventricle of the larynx, into which the (ii-i'it'i-t-cc >•!((■ of Morgagni opens. elavich;, and reach down to the arni])its. Tluw are, in fact, veritable^ hernia*. In a moi’idioloj^ical ])oint of view, these sin- ^Milar or^^ans estahli.sh an important dilference h(*tween ^faii and th(3 anthropoids in fpiestion ; hut, in an anatomie,al jioint of view, the es, so that this, which appears to establish a character between ]\Ian and the anthroi)oid, shows, on the contrary, their relationship, and the distance of the latteir from others of the monkey tribe. ()i‘(l-. 'Chap, hi.] CKR EBRO- SPINAL AXIS. 101 ju'oacli to tliom ? Tlio giEEon, Avliieli usually holds the transi- tional position between them and the jiithecians, has, like them, a donlile placenta. In the ehim])anzee, on the contrary, it is single, as in Man {Otre.n). The orang and the gorilla have not l)een examined on this ]>oint. . After the descent of the testis into the scrotum in Man, the peritoneid communication is olditerated ; in other mammalia it is persistent. Xothing is yet known as to this in anthrojioids. The t5ame may he sai, Eig. IG) as the line of separation of this surface into the anterior or frontal, and the posterior or parieto-occipital lobe. It is constant, ami, in the fcetus, the most clearly defined after the fissure of Sylvius. Its situation and diri*ction are nearly the same in all healthy brains. It commences some millimetres aboA'e the fissure of Sylvius, and passes A^ertically, or rather a little obliquely, baclvAvards, reaching to Avithin a fcAV millimetres of the superior border of the hemisphere. Its obli(piity and its situation are indicated by the tAvo folloAving relations : The total length of the l)rain being reckoned as 100, the portion in front is to that behind as 43‘0 to 57*0 at the inferior extremity of the sulcus, and as 5G’3 to 43‘7 at its superior. It folloAvs from this that the middle por- tion should be equidistant from the tAvo extremities of the hemisphere. AI. Hamy calculates that the inclination of the sulcus in the adult is about 70 degrees. Gratiolet thought that the fissure of Eolando corresponds exactly, on the skull, Avith the coronal suture. AI. Eroca Avas the first to notice that, in the European, it is ahvays from 40 to 5 G millimetres CONVOLUTIONS. 105 Chap, hi.] it*at it.'< upiun* part, 47 in the miihlle, and 15 at tlie lower part.* A .second fis.snre marks anotlier division of tlie external surface of the hemispheres — namely, the external })eri)endicnlar ti.ssnre (K K, Fig. IG). It separate's the iio.sterior lohe into two, the jiarietal and the occipital loin*, and on the skull answers to the lamhdoidal suture, being di.stant from it about two millimetres, fn order to discover it, the student should look for it from its pro- longation on the Hoor of the hemisphere, to a few centimetres from the posterior extremity, where it takes the name of internal iier- jiendicular lissure. It is so called hccause it exactly sejiarates, from helow upwards, the most remote part of the hemisphere, to form of it an occipital lohe. AVe have then (1) .Vn anterior or frontal lohe, hounded hehind hy the ‘tissure of Kolamlo ; (2) A middle or jiarietal lolx*, included lietween the latter and the external ])erpendicular lissun* ; (3) .V po.sterior or occipital lohe, situated hehind the perjH'iidicular lissure ; and (4) An infeihn* or t(*mporo-sj)henoidal lohe, .subjacent to the long branch of the ti.ssnre of Sylvius. Such are the imjiortant divisions on the external surface of the hemisi»heres.' Wi* .shall now tlescrihe tho.se of the int(*rnal surface, as well as its convolu- ) tions. ConroJ/tfion.'t. 'i’he acts of transmi.ssion in the brain, which have reference to altogether voluntary movement.s, to certiiin reflex movements, to .sen.sations, or to certain pha.ses of intellectual operations, have for their .seat the fibres of which the central Avliite ma.ss of the hemi- spheres is formed. The initiative acts of thought pass, on the contraiT, through the gray substance which constitutes the cortical portion of these hemispheres. (,’on.s('(pieiitly, the greater the amount of gray substance, and of surface ui)on which it can be ileyeloped in a continuous layer, the more iiower the truly intel- lectual phenomena ac(piire. fl'o this end, the surface is folded and * “ Sur la DtTormation Toulonsaine du Crane,” by Paul Broca, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Antlirop.,” 2nd scrie.s, vol. vi., 1S71. 106 COXYOLUTIOXS. [Chap, hi. contorted, so as to increase its extent. 8ucli is tlie ofiice of tlie convolutions, elongated and tortuous swellings, separated Ly sulci more or less deep. It was long tliouglit that their arrangement was inextricable and the result of mere chance. This is an error : the complexity is only apparent. They consist of fundamental parts, or convolutions, pro])erly so called, whose type is constant throughout the human series ; and of secondary parts or folds, Avhich exhibit Aairiations betAveen one individual and another, similar to those which the features of the countenance present. The brain of the fcetus at the beginning is smooth. The fissures app;>ar first, theii tlie sulci. At the seA^enth month the coiiAmlu- tions are simple l)ut formed ; at birth it is the same Avith the folds. At a later ])eriod tlie Avhole is completed. The coiiAujlntions liecome enlarged and more complex as age advances, in proportion to the activity Avhicli the organ exhibits. A coiiAailution Avould be rectilinear in a subject of tolerable intelligence, as in the patient of liicetre, Aidioso brain Ave liaA^e noAV before us. In another subject of superior intelligence it AAvuild be tortuous, double, and altered in form, by the pressure of neighbouring redundant coiiAmlutions. The sulci Avould be hidden, and the anastomosis lietAveen one coiiA^olu- tion and another, in a rudimentary state in the former, Avhile in the latter it Avould be considerable, and Avould cause a change in the configuration of the primary convolution. This, Avhich is called., the richness of the convolutions — that is to say, their deA^elopment in number and tortuosity, causes not only an absolute increase in the ipiantity of these conA'olutions, but also a reduction in size of each of them taken singly. Large and simple convolutions are thus a sign of idiotcy, or of Aveak intellect, in any race. Small coiiAmlu- tions Avith numerous foldings are a sign of large intellectual capacity. HoAvever, by carefully studying the brains of monkeys, of the foetus, of infants, and of idiots Avitli simple conA'olutions, all this is explained. Desmoulins first dreAv attention to this subject."^ The imaginative fancies of phrenologists, and some recent results in reference to the localisation of the faculties, have given it a “ Anatomic cln Systeme Xervenx,” by A. Desmoulins, a'oI. ii., 1825. Chap, hi.] COXVOLUTIOXS. 107 Hew direction. >ioAv, thanks to the labours of (Iratiolet, ( )wen^ Turner, Jli.schoff, llroca, and Ecker, it has been made clear. .Vll that we must do is to turn it to account in studying the science of comparative intell'.'ctual phenomena.* Fig. 1G.— Dia;,'Tam of tlic e\tcnial surface of the bmin : A, Fissure of Sylvius : J3, Fissnrs- of Rolando; C, Parallel sulcus; 1), Intcriiarietal sulcus; E, External perijcndicular fissure. 1, First antero-posterior frontal convolution, double ; 2, Second frontal convolution ; 3, Third frontal convolution ; 4, 5, 6, Convolutions of the orbital region of the frontal lobe; 7, Ascending fronbrl, or ascending anterior convolution ; 8, Ascending parietal, or ascending posterior convolution ; 9, Superior parietal convolution ; 10, Inferior ])arietal convolution, or cui-ved fold ; 11, 12, First and second teniporo-sphenoidal con- volutions ; R, Third teniporo-sphenoidal convolution in continuation with the third tcmporo-sphenoidal of the internal surface; 14, The three stoni/x of the occipital lobe ; a and b, First and second plis j>o usage, uniting ihe two parietal convolutions with the occipital lobe ; c and d, Third and fourth plis de 'passage, uniting the last two teniporo-sphenoidal convolutions with the occipital lobe ; e, Gyrus, belonging to the third transverse frontal convolution. The external or convex surface of tlie brain (Figs. 16 and 18), looked at in profile, is that from which we shall commence our description of the convolutions. AVe shall consider first the fissure * “ Sur la Structure de.s Circouvolutions.” See “ Eechorches sur la Structure cle la Couche Corticale des Circouvolutions,” by M. Baillarger, in “ Mem. Acad, de IVIedccinc,” 1840, vol. viii., and the article “ Cerveau,” in the “ Dictionnaire Encycl. des Sciences Medicales.” 108 FRONTAL AND PARIETAL LOBES. [Chap. iir. ■of Sylvius — that is to say, its base, and the parts below and above. 1'lie base only deserves mention as regards tlie point of the Y. By sei)arating the two lips at this point we discover a well-niarlced tubercle, (tailed insula of Keil, and also central lol)ule, because it is situated in the exact line of the cerebral peduncles ; it is occupied by iive or six shallow folds, which radiate from its inferior angle. The region below, or temporo-sphenoidal lob(‘, forms a large mass, obliquely directcul from below upwards, and from behind forwards, and is traversed in the same Avay by a sulcus, Avhich is parallel to the fissure* of Sylvius, and Avhich on that accfUint is called the parallel sulcus (C). From its ])osterior extremity a small cul-de-sac ]>asses to the centre of the })arietal lobe, and sometimes a prolonga- tion towards the occipital lobe. .V second sulcus is observed beloAv, but of much less importance. The intermediate enlargements are termed the first, second, and third temporo-sphenoidal convolutions (11, 12, 13), the third or inferior appertaining also to the inferior ■surface of the brain. The region al)ove includes both the frontal and the parietal lobes, seq)arated by the hssure of Ivolando, Avhose two lips form two of the most distinct coinu)lutions of the Avhoh* system of the external surface. HaAung the same direction as the sulcus Avhich se])arates them, one belongs to the frontal lol)e and takes the name of anterior ascending convolution (7), the other to the parietal lobe, and is calh*d the posterior ascending convolution (8). The frontal lobe, so important in i\tan, since it is in it that his highest faculties reside, consists of three regions : one, Avhich Ave shall find on the external surface; a second, AA'hich is seen on the inferior ; and a third, the most important of all. The second rests upon the roof of the orbit, and coiii])rises three or four small convolutions of but little interest : one l)ound up l)etA\Ten the sulcus of the olfactory nerve and the internal border of the heniispherc', and AAdiich forms the termination of the first frontal ooiiAudution ; the other tAvo being in continuation, in the same AAaiy, Avith the tAvo frontads on the external surface. The frontal region proper of the anterior lobe comprises four couAmlutions ; an anterior or frontal ascending, alr(*ady mentioned, Chap, hi.] FRONTAL LOBE. 109» anil throe lonjjjitiiilinal and iiai-allel, superjiosed in tliree storeys. The tii*st, or superior frontal convolution, arises hy one, and some- times hy two roots from tlie siiiierior e.xtreniity of tlie aseendin*^,. heconie.s donlili*, skirts tlie superior horder of the liemisplieri*, and is lost in till* orbital region. The second, or middle frontal con- volution, arises also hehind, hy one root, and lufurcates occasionally to <^ive an anastomosis to two adjoining frontal convolutions. The posterior jiart of the sulcus, which separates it from the third, cor- responds, according to ^1. llroca, to the curved temjioral line of the parietal. The third, or inferior frontal convolution, commences in the mo.st slojiing iiortion of the ascending frontal, forms a large gyms round the small luanch of the ti.ssure of Sylvius, and loses itself in front. ^r. JU-oca’s way of looking at it is somi'what dillerent. Hr merely brings in the ascending frontal convolution to assist in the description. According to him there are only three frontal convo- lutions, all antero-posterior and jiarallel, including, at the hack, the portion of the, ascending convolution where each takes its origin, which must not he forgotten when discussing the localisation of tho faculty of language. We know indeed that there is aphasia— that is to .say, loss of sjieech ; or aphemia — that is to .say, loss of .speech Avith preseiwation of the intellect, Avhenever an acute lesion occuif^ at the ]>o.sterior part of the third frontal convolution of Hroca Avhen this lesion is on the left side. The faculty of language has its seat on both side.s, hut it is put in exercise from this side in the gri*ater number of case.s. Its .surface has a vertical extent of about four centimetres, and an antero-jiosterior of from two to three and a half, Tts form is that of a ipiadrilateral, bounded in front by the small branch of the lissure of Sylvius, and bijhind by tin* ba.se of the fi.ssure of Ivolando. Its centre corre.sponds, on the external part of the skull, with a point situated about one centimetre and a lialf behind the coronal suture, and three, centimetres above the yiterion."^ * “ Snr le Siej^e de la Faculto du Lanj^age ArticuliS” by J*. Broca, ii» “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” Paris, 1801 ; and “ Bur la Topographic Ccrcbralc, ou sur les Rapports Auatomiques du Crane et du Cervoau,” by the same, in “ Revue d’Anthrop.,” vol. v., 1876. no PAEIETAL AND OCCIPITAL LOBES. [Chap. iii. "J'lie next, or parietal lobe, included between the l)order of tlie lieinispbere above, tbe fissure of Sylvius, and tlie teiiiporo-sphenoidal lol)e below, and tlie perpendicular fissure behind, is formed by three convolutions. The first, or posterior, ascending, has been described. The second, or superior parietal convolution (9), coniniences by one or two roots towards the middle and superior portion of the posterior ascending, describes a number of vertical flexures which reach to The superior liorder of the liemisphere, and form a small lobule, Arliich is very easily recognised. The third is below, and is sepa- rated from it by a transverse sulcus, called the interparietal sulcus (D) ; it arises at the inferior part of the posterior ascending, in the angle which it makes with the fissure of Sylvius, turns round the end of this and ends in a group of vertical flexures, which anastomose, sometimes with the first, sometimes with the second temporo-sphenoidal convolution, and sometimes with both. This is the inferior parietal convolution, or curved fold of Gratiolet (10), so called, because the fold embraces in a simple or complex gyms, not only the termination of the fissure of Sylvius, but also that of the parallel sulcus. Another arrangement is found. The termination of this parallel sulcus is bifurcated, and its posterior branch reaches the external perpendicular fissure, which it leaps over to become one of the transverse sulci of the occipital lobe. In this case, the gyrus which the curved fold forms is persistent ; but it goes to form Avhat we shall presently call the second transition convolution, without anastomosing with the second temporo-sphenoidal convolution. M. Gratiolet has described on the side , of the inferior parietal convolution, a superior marginal fold, and an inferior marginal fold, which are merely the folds bordering the extremity of the fissure of Sylvius. The former, indeed, is the part of the inferior parietal convolution, which extends from its junction with the posterior ascending convolution, to the end of the fissure, and the latter is the continuation of the first temporo- sphenoidal convolution. The increased size of the flexures is of little importance, inasmuch as they constantly vary. Tlie occipital lobe, the smallest of all, is formed of three storeys, which are bounded by two antero-posterior sulci. The external Chap, hi.] INTERNAL SURFACE OF HEMISPHERES. Ill perpendicnlar fissure separates it from tlie parietal lobe, and from the temporo-splienoidal lobe ; a fissure somewhat difficult to trace out in j\Ian, because it is partly filled up, or hidden hy four folds of communication with the adjoining lobes, whose study affords considerable interest under the name of do passage, or transition convolutions {a, h, c, and d). The first, or superior, of Gratiolet, comes from the superior parietal convolution; the second, or in- ferior, from the inferior parietal ; the third, lower down, from the second temporo-splienoidal convolution ; and the fourth, concealed at the inferior border of the brain by the third temporo-splienoidal convolution. We shall say but little as to the internal surface of the hemi- sphere, which is in apposition with the falx cerebri on the median line (Fig. 17). AVhen we harden and dry a brain by M. Broca’s process (nitric acid),* the organ shrinks more in the transverse direction, and that vdiich formed the concave part of tire interior surface behind, appears, Avhen looking at it sideways, to form part of the internal surface. We shall study in this way the two surfaces united. In the centre is seen the corpus callosum, an elongated vault which covers in the ventricles, and is terminated in front by a swelling called genon. (knee), the most slanting point of which is the hec (beak), and behind by another swelling called the hourrelet {cushion). Towards its exterior extremity is then seen a slit rendered gaping by the preparation, which is the internal perpen- dicular fissure already described. On this surface is a triangular lobule, forming a portion of the occipital lobe, looking from this .side, and which bounds the sulcus of the hippocampi below. All the portion situated beneath, and to the left of this sulcus in the figure, is the internal surface (at the lower part) of the teniporo- sphenoidal lobe. A primary and well-defined transverse sulcus, •and a smaller faint one which is parallel to it, divide this region into three convolutions (6, 7, and 8) ; the superior bending round (£ procede pour la Momification des Ccrveaux/’ by M. Paul Broca, in Bull. See. d’Authrop.,” vol. i., 1865. 112 INTEEXAL SUEFACE OF HEMISPHEEES. [Chap. hi. in a gyrus at its anterior extremity, to form the outline of the circumpeduncular fissure, and the inferior forming one witli the third temjioro-sphenoidal on the external surface. FiCr. 17. — Diagram of the internal surface of the brain, a, Genoa of the coi-pus callosum ; b, Bourrelet of tlie corpus callosum ; c, The crura cerebri cut across ; A. Fronto-pariehU fissure ; B, Internal periiendicular fissure ; S, Fissure of SjTvius : H, Sulcus of the hippocampi ; 1, 2, and 3, Internal frontal convolutions ; 1, Portion in continuation with the first frontal of the external surface ; 3, Its oval lobule ; 4, Quadrilateral, or internal parietal lobule ; .5, Triangular, or internal occipital lobule ; 6 and 7, First and second internal temporo-sphenoidal convolutions : S, Third internal temporo- sphenoidal convolution in continual ion with the third on the external surface ; 9, Convolution of the corpus callosum, or hem. In front of tlie triangular lobule is a well-marked quadrangular lobule (Foville), Avhich is simply the internal side of the superior parietal lobe, lengthened out below as far as the corpus callosum, and bounded behind by the perpendicular fissure, and in front b}' a small oval lobule (Pozzi) — which we may leave for the present — which is situated in front of the quadrangular lobule, close to the superior border of the hemisphere. This lobule is formed by the junction, looking from the internal surface, of the two anterior and posterior ascending convolutions of its external surface. The remainmg portion of the internal surface is divided into two parts, the one superior and anterior, which forms part of the frontal Chap, hi.] CONVOLUTIONS. 113 lobe; the other inferior, and resting on tlie corpus eallosuin, to wliicli we must consider it as attached. A fissure, however, divides them, which is called fedonnee, or calloso-niarginal, in its anterior four-fifths, and fronto-parietal towards its termination. It com- mences below the beak of the corpus callosum, turns round its knee, * passes liorizontally behind, and, separating tlie oval from the tpiad- rilateral lobide, reaches obliquely the superior border of the hemi- sphere. A single convolution, called tlie convolution of the corpus callosum, is concentric to it, and continues to follow this organ, to form the base of the quadrilateral lobule, and to anastomose with the first internal temporo-sphenoidal convolution. Another convolution, called the internal frontal, is eccentric to it, and has the form of an italic S. Its anterior gp'us is separated from the knee of the corpus callosum by the convolution and the fissure just mentioned, and its posterior gyrus forms the oval lobule. In the greater part of its length it is divided by an interrupted sulcus into two storeys, of which the first is in direct continuation vdth the first frontal convolution on the external surface. The number and distribution of the jiriniary convolutions may be summed uji as follows ; Frontal region E.xterxal Scrface. Orbital region . 3 convolutions in form of a star. 1 ascending convolution. 3 antero-posterior convolutions. 1 ascending convolution. , 2 convolntious J ^ V ( 1 inferior. Occipital lobe 3 antero-posterior convolutions. Temporo-sphe- noidal lobe . 3 parallel convolutions. Frontal lobe Parietal lobe I.VTERNAL Surface. Frontal lobe ... ... ... 1 convolution. Parietal lobe ... ... ... 1 quadrilateral lobule. ... , 1 1 1 O triangular lobule. Temporo-occipito- sphenoidal lobe 1 , . . (3 parallel convolutions. Lobe of the corpus callosum ... 1 convolution. One point in reference to the convolutions upon which M. Broca lays stress, is their want of symmetry on both sides in the best I 114 VARIATIONS OF CONVOLUTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. iir. selected individuals. Simple convolutions, developed uninter- ruptedly, and alike in both hemispheres, are characteristic of inferiority in Alan, as well as throughout the mammalian series. Bichat then was Avrong Avhen, influenced by a statement of Tiedemann, he attributed intellectual aberrations to the asymmetry of the brain; his own autopsy proved the contrary.* The difference between the encephalon of mammalia and that of Alan is in the relative volume of the principal parts, in certain internal structural arrangements, in the absence or in the number of the convolutions, and in the Aveight of the organ. On vieAving the Avhole encephalic system on its superior surface, Ave notice that the hemispheres in the marsupialia and monotremata exhibit in front certain sAvellings called olfactory bidbs, Avhich, in the majority of mammalia, have the importance of lobes, and behind the greater portion of the tubercula quadrigemina, or optic lohes, and the‘ cerebellum. In other animals, as the ant-eater, the rat, the hare, and the bat, the optic lobes cease to be Ausible, but the olfactory lobes and the cerebellum are more exposed to view. In others, and as far as monkeys exclusively, the former are concealed, Avhile a more or less considerable portion of the cerebellum is visible. In leniurians, the cerebellum slightly projects beyond the hemispheres ; in pithecians and cebians it is more generally on a level with them. In the antlu’opoid apes and in Alan, not only is it out of sight, but the hemispheres in their turn more or less j^ass beyond it. On the subject of the convolutions, see “ Traite de TAnatoniie Physiolo- gique et Pathologique du Systeme Nerveux Cerebro- Spinal,” by Foville, 1st part, Paris, 1844; “ Memoire sur les Plis du Cerveau,” by M. BischofE, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. iv., 1869 ; “ Memoire sur les Plis Cerebraux de I’Homme et des Primates,” by Gratiolet, Paris, 1855, a memoir already mentioned in “ Les Primates,” by M. Broca, 1869; “ The Convolution of the Human Cerebrum topographically considered,” by Turner, Pai'is, 1866; “ Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Fiirchen und Windungen der Grosshirn-Hemispharen in Fotus der Menschen,” by Ecker, in “ Archiv fiir Anthrop.,” 1868 ; “ Etudes sur les Circonvolutions chez THomme et les Singes,” by J. Gromier, Paris, 1874; Article “Circonvolutions,” in “Diet. Encycl. des Sciences Medicales,” by S. Pozzi, 1st series, vol. xvii., 1875. Chap, hi.] DIVISIONS OF OWEN. 115 The brain is modified also as to form. In ]\Ian it is more or less elongated as a wliole, and ovoid at its anterior extremity ; its frontal region is contracted occasionally, as thougli squeezed together, globular, and acciuires its maximum of fulness. The last traces of this contraction are seen in front, at the point of the internal anterior and inferior angle of each hemisphere. It is more or less strongly marked in pithecians, less so in the anthropoid ajK‘s, and commonly not at all in ]\Ian. In these two relations, the anthroi)oids more nearly approach to ^lan than to the other monkeys. As regards internal structure, the first difference is the absence of the corpus callosum in the marsupialia and the monotremata, as well as in the clas.ses of vertebrata below, whilst it exists in all the other mammalia. The aqueduct of Sylvius, a sinqile canal perforating the eoriiora-quadrigemina in ^laii and the majority of the mammalia, is a cavity, or rather a supplementary ventricle in the kangaroo. The anterior and middle cornua of the lateral ventricles exist in all the mammalia ; the posterior or occipital cornu is peculiar to ]\[an, to the monkey, the seal, and the j)orpois(‘. Professor Owen thought that the absence in anthropoids of this cornu, of the hippocampus minor belonging to it, and of the occipital lobe in which it is hollowed, constituted a distinct cha- racteristic seiiarating the ape from jNIan. On more careful examina- tion, however, he altered his opinion, ^lan and the anthropoid ape in this respect are alike. A characteristic of !Man has also been sought for in the pre- sence of the mammillary tubercles, little round bodies situated at the base of the brain, and whose use is unknoAvn. Vain hope ! The chimpanzee, the orang, the gibbon, and the mone possess them. The conA'olutions are wanting in fishes, reptiles, and birds. They are absent in a considerable number of mammalia, are tolerably developed in others, and very much so in many, as the porpoise and the elephant. Mr. Owen has proposed to make them the basis of a fourfold classification; (1) Lyencephala, haAung the brain smooth and the optic lobes exposed ; (2) Lissencephala, having the I 2 116 CONVOLUTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. hi. brain sinootli, but witli the optic lobes concealed ; (3) Gyren- cephala, with but few convolutions; and (4) Arcliencepbala, in wliicb Man alone is placed. But the other features of the organisa- tion do not move in parallelism with these characteristics, and the fourth class is only hypothetical.* Erasistratus of old wote that the convolutions are more numerous in Man, because he is supreme as the possessor of a mind and reasoning power. A. Desmoulins, in 1825, maintained that the number and perfection of the intellectual faculties in species as in individuals, are in proportion to the extent of surface of the hemi- spheres, and that this is in direct ratio to the number and depth of the convolutions. M. Dareste started another proposition : that the convolutions were developed in a direct ratio to the stature, and that the smaller species most frequently have the brain smooth. Gratiolet took upon himself to refute him. Man, and then the orang, the chimpanzee, the seal, the bear, the dog, the elephant, have the most complex convolutions ; wdiilst in the insectivora, the rodents, and the marsupials, generally less intelligent, they are scarcely visible. ISTeither the stature nor the A'olume of the body has anything to do with the question ; the smallest dog has more convolutions than the most gigantic kangaroo, the seal more than the ox. There are exceptions, but these are easily explained. The increased amount of the gray cortical substance of the hemispheres is what we must look for as evidence of a larger amount of activity. We must look for (1) The increase of the cerebral mass, and consequently, cceteris parihus, of its surface ; (2) The increase of the number of folds and windings, which allow of a much greater proportion of the gray substance being deposited in a given space ; (3) The increase of the latter in thickness, and its improvement in quality. Unless we take account of all these elements we must not be sui’prised if there are exceptions, but the general fact remains — the amoimt of intelligence in mammalia is in proportion to the development of the convolutions. The consideration of the monkey tribe will now engage our * “The Anatomy of Vertebrates,” vol. hi., “Mammals,” by R. Owen. London, 1868. Chap, hi.] SIMIAX YAKIATIONS. 117 attention, ironi tlie ouistiti, the lowest of tlie cehians, which has tlie brain smooth and only a trace of the fissure of Sylvius, to Man, eveiy variety is to be met Avith. In the sagouins, some convolu- tions are visible. Their number increases rapidly in the highest cebians and the pithecians. In anthropoids, suddenly and almost Avithout transition, they liaA'e a similar appearance to those of ]\Ian. All the principal convolutions are there, the type is the same, the difference is only in parts of a subordinate character, and in the de- gree of convolutions, A\diich varies abo in i\Ian and is peculiar to him. Fig. 18. — Brain of pitbecian — tbeg\icnou or cercopitbecus— seen on its external surface. F, Frontal lobe ; T, Temporo-spbenoidal lobe ; O, Occipital lobe ; S, Fissure of Sylvius ; R, Fissure of Rolando ; V, External perpendicular fi.ss\ire A A, Ascending frontal convolution; oi, o2, aS, First, second, and third antero-postcrior frontal convolutions ; B, B, Ascending parietal convolution, giving origin behind to the superior parietal and the inferior parietal or curved fold, the latter turning round the fissure of Sylvius and the parallel sulcus, as in Fig. 16 ; ci and c2. First and second external temporo-spbenoidal convolutions, separated bj^ the parallel sulcus. “ BetAveeii the smooth brain of ouistitis and the marvellously complicated brain of chimpanzees and orangs there is a gap,’’ says ;M. Broca, “Avhile there are but faint shadoAvs of difference betAveen the latter and that of ^lan ; ” and further : “ The enormous and complex mass of convolutions in INIan is composed of the same fundamental folds, united by the same connections, and separated by the same sulci. These primary coiwolutions, these essential parts, common and only common to all human brains, are 118 SIMIAN YAEIATIONS. [Chap. hi. found without exception in the brains of the orang and the chim- panzee.” That of the gorilla is but little known.* A few words as to the changes which are exhibited as far as the inferior orders of cebians. The orbital region of the frontal lobe, which is flat in Man, is depressed in pithecians ; the sulcus of the olfactory nerve is want- ing; the angle which terminates the third frontal convolution behind is rectilinear, Avhich has interest with regard to the faculty of language. The first frontal convolution is simple, as in the Hottentot Yenus of Cuvier, and the idiot studied by Gratiolet, while it is double in the orang and the chimpanzee, as in Man. The inferior parietal convolution should rather be called the curved fold, as it commences more in front and more distinctly curves round the terminations of the fissure of Sylvius and the parallel sulcus. The superior parietal convolution is very much reduced, particularly in the cynocephali. In the chimpanzee it forms a lobule as important as in Man. The external part of the perpen- dicular fissure is more open and more visible by the absence or the greater depth of the de passage of this region. It follows that the occipital lobe throws up above it at its upper part an oper- culum, whose amount of projection is less characteristic of inferiority. The central lobule, very smooth in Man, slightly so in the orang and chimpanzee, is smooth in the majority of pithe- cians and cebians, and is wanting in lemurs, as also in the other mammalia. The occipital lobe deserves especial notice. Its volume is generally in an inverse ratio to the number of the sulci and convo- lutions. Almost entirely smooth in cynocephali, its uniform sur- face contrasts so strongly with the rest of the cerebral surface in the macacque and the guenon, that Gratiolet compared it to a cap covering the posterior extremity of the brain. The contrast is less in some semnopitheci ; some gashes are seen, which are well marked in the gibbon, and become in the chimpanzees and the orang very nearly as complex as in Man. Memoir already quoted, “ Sur les Primates.” Chap, hi.] PLIS DE PASSAGE. 119 Owen discovered a cerebral characteristic of Man in the structure of his occipital lobe ; Gratiolet, in his second pit cle passage, from the parietal to the occipital lobe. It is not a question of two inferior pits de passage, they always exist. Thinner in gibbons and pithecians, they are thick in Man and the great anthropoid apes, and entirely fiU up the inferior (or external) portion of the external perpendicular fissure. It is otherwise as regards the two superior^:)?/,'? de passage. They are superficial, deep, or altogether wanting, according to four types. (1) In Man and the ateles — the highest in the order of cebians — they are both superficial, hence the difficulty that students have in discovering the external perpendicular fissure which they traverse. (2) The first is super- fi-cial and the second deep in the orang, the gibbon, and the senmo- pitheci. (3) The first is wanting and the second is deep in the chimpanzee, the macaque, and the cynocephalus (the goriUa has not been studied in this respect). (4) Both are deep in the guenons. The three anthropoid apes which have been studied differ, then, from Man, in that the second fold is deep. There is some doubt as to th^ first fold being absent in the chimpanzee ; it was j)resent in the subjects studied by Eolleston, Marshall, and Turner. hTotably, in two, the first fold was f>resent on one side and not on the other ; while, by way of comjiensation, the second was deep on one side but superficial on the other : according to M. Broca it should always exist on one side or the other. Moreover, in Man, even in individuals of sound mind, one of the superior de passage may be deep on one side or wanting, and the other at the same time be feebly developed. Does not all this prove that these are only changes or gradations of development from the healthy man to the anthropoids, the cebians, and the pithecians % Eelative to anthro- poids we can only come to one conclusion, namely, that they are not more separated from Man by the character of their pMs de pas- sage than from the monkeys next in order, and that in this, as well as in everything relating to the convolutions, they are found to take their place with Man at the head of the series. If the differences hitherto established in the morphology and anatomy of the brain of Man, as compared with that of animals, are 120 WEIGHT OF THE BEAIN. [Chap. hi.. not siicli as we should have desired, what we are about to say with respect to ‘its weight and mass, and what we have already said on the subject of the cranial capacity, will he sufficient to satisfy the warmest advocates of human supremacy. The weight of the encephalon varies in the adult man of sound mind from 1,830 grammes, which was the weight of Cuvier’s, brain, to 872, which is that of a Bosjeswoman studied in England by Mr. Marshall ; but these are exceptional cases. According to Huschke, its mean weight, at the age of 30 or 40 years, in the ■ white race, and when the organ has attained its full growth, is • about 1,410 in men, and 1,272 in women. The weight varies, moreover, according to height, sex, age, intelligence, and occupa- tion. Let us rapidly run over the principal results obtained on these points, in order that we may not have again to recur to- them."^ The encephalon is heavier in tall persons than in short. In five men having a mean stature of L74 metre, the brain was 96 grammes heavier than in five other short men, whose mean stature was L63 metre. The difference of weight was 6 per cent., and corresponded exactly with the difference of stature. The same resrdt has\)een obtained in reference to women. The brain is lighter in the woman than in the man : the former weighing 100, cceteris ]parihus, the latter would weigh 112, accord- ing to Huschke. This difference is only attributable to the fact that usually she is less in height. Parchappe has sho’wn that the height of the woman is to that of the man as 92*7 to 100; whilst the weight of her brain would be as 90*9 to 100. The brain, then, is lighter in the woman, and we may add, that it is so at all ages. The tables constructed by Broca, with materials furnished by * “ Sur le Poids du Cerveau,” by Lelut, in “ Journal des Conn. Medico- Chirurg.,” vol. v., Paris, 1837 ; “ Recherclies sur I’Encephale,” by Parchappe, Paris, 1836; “ Ueber die Typischen Verschiedenheiten der Windungen der Hemispharen und iiber die Lehre vom Hirngewicht,” by End. Wagner, Gottingen, 1860; “Discussion sur le Cerveau,” by Broca, Gratiolet, Dareste, &c., in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vol. ii., 1861. Chap, hi.] WEIGHT OF THE BE AIN. 121 Wagner, of tlie weight of 347 healthy brains, prove that this organ goes on increasing np to 40 years of age, that it remains stationary np to 50 , and decreases afteinvards. After the age of 60 years men had lost from 5 to 7 per cent, of maximnm weight, and Avomen from 4 to 7 . Gratiolet has shoAvn that the cranium of the infant is more elongated at birth, that it enlarges subsequently in the temporal regions, and that it goes on developing in front : it ought to be the same Avith the brain. The brain increases, cceteris paribus, in proportion to the Ams- cular activity of Avhich it is the seat. This is the reason that the brain of certain criminals and lunatics is so large. But of all the kinds of actiAuty, that Avhich has reference to the special design of the organ has the most influence. Such is physiological activity,, of Avhich intelligence is the result. The Aveights taken by Lelut, Parchappe, and Wagner, clearly shoAV this. The labouring men studied by Parchappe had the head longer than his “ distinguished men.” So Avith the internes of the hospital of Bicetre measured by ]\r. Broca, relatively to the officers of the institution. The cranial capacity of Parisians from the tAvelfth to the nineteenth century, has increased to such an extent that Ave may be alloAved to attribute it to the progress of civilisation. The cranial capacity is greater, caiteris paribus, in the Avhite race, less generally in the negro races, less still in the loAvest among them. The brains of idiots, and of tho insane in lunatic asylums, are smaller and lighter than those of the employes and ordinary sick, or of persons suffering from acute mania. The enormous Aveight of Cuvier’s brain is in itself an argument. ISTo less remarkable, though less largely developed, Avere the brains of Abercrombie, of Bruce, of Dupuytren, and other eminent persons, as recorded by Wagner. The reason that the brain of the woman is lighter than that of the man is that she has less cerebral activity to exercise in her sphere of duty. In former times it Avas relatAely larger in the department of Lozere, because there the woman and the man mutually shared the burden of their daily labour. The truth is, that the Aveight of the brain increases with the use which Ave make of that organ, Avith the exercise of certain professions ; in a Avord, Avith the degree of intelligence. The absolute mean Aveight 122 EELATIVE WEIGHT OF THE BRAIX. [Chap. hi. of the brain at its maxiniiim of growtli, in men, is, in round numbers, about 1,400 grammes, in women about 1,250. With some few exceptions it is the heaviest of the mammalian series. We will give the figures farther on. They would, however, he of little value as regards the majority of mammalia if we did not take account of the stature or weight of the body. M. Sappey estimates the Aveight of the brain of the elephant to be from 1,500 to 1,600 grammes, and that of the dolx)hin about 1,800; and then it Avould be in proportion to the weight of the body as 1 to 1,500 in the former, and 1 to 100 in the latter; Avhile in Man it is as 1 to 36, ac- cording to Cuvier, and 1 to 52 according to Colin. This may be so, but we do not think these figures are to be thoroughlj' relied on ; for the brain of a young Asiatic elephant in M. Ilroca’s laboratory weighed double, that is to say, 3,080 grammes ; the greater reason Avhy Ave should take into our calculation the stature of the animal. In the list published by Cuvier, the Aveight of the brain being 1, that of the body is from 48 to 105 in the ordinary monkeys; from 97 to 365 in the carnivora; from 520 to 800 in marsupials ; from 750 to 800 in tAvo oxen. In a gibbon, according to M. Leuret,"^ it Avas 48, and in another, in M. Eroca’s laboratory, 1 8 '7. Most fortunately, AA^e are able to make a direct comparison betAveen iVlaii and the tliree higher anthropoids. If, on the average, they are a little less in stature, they are, on the other hand, stouter, so that the body, taken as a AAdiole, agrees as nearly as possible. The anthropoid is generally a little more bulky, Avhich, cceteris parihus, Avould necessitate his having rather a larger brain. It is true that Ave haA^e not had an opportunity of Aveighing the brains of the great apes in a fresh state, but A\^e may estimate the weight sufficiently accurately by the cranial capacity, t Mr. Huxley thinks that the Aveight of the brain of the gorilla may reach 567 grammes, and M. Broca found that the Aveight of the one the cubic measure- * See “ Anatomy of the Nervous System,” by Leuret, vol. i., 1839, and the table at page 124. f Mr. Owen, however, weighed the fresh brain of a gorilla : it was 15 ounces = 42o‘19 grammes. Chap. iii.J PROPORTION OF THE BRAIN. 123 iiient of wliQse craiiiiiiii lie made with ^1. Alix, was 540 grammes. AVe ourselves should estimate that the mean, without reference to sex, would he below 475 in the gorilla, and much lower still in the orang and chimpanzee. Froportiuiu^ of d if event Favt^ of the Kncephahni. Af. Uaillarger has attempted to estimate the absolute extent of surface of the convolutions which is covered by the gray substance. He found it to be 1,700 square centimetres in Afan, and 24 in the rabbit. AI. Hermann AVagner calculated the amount of superficies in each lobe relatively to the total superficies of the brain. Tt is to be feared that tlie result of these eflbrts has not been of much im- portance, thougli they should be encouraged. The following are the mean j)roportions obtained by AI. AVagner : Alan. Orant,'. Frontal lobe 13*6 3G-8 Parietal lobe 16*9 25*1 Temporal lobe 21-8 19*6 Occipital lobe 17-7 18*5 Totfxl surface 1000 100-0 AVe have more to expect from the relation of the cerebellum to the hemispheres. The weight of the former in the man is about 179 grammes, and in the woman 147 grammes, according to Par- chappe, and 176 in Alan, according to Lelut. This Aveight being exi)ressed by 1, that of the hemispheres would be 15*5 in the man, and 13 '9 grammes in the Avoman, according to Parchappe, and 15-5 also in the man, according to Lelut. It is the same AAuth animals : in the saimiri it is 14 ; mone, 8 magot, papion, and coita, 7 ; ouistiti, 6 ‘3; macauco, 4 ‘5; gibbon, 4*4 grammes, among apes: and the hedgehog, 12; hare, 14*3; ox, 9; horse, 7; sheep, 5; mouse, 2, among the mammalia {Leiiret). It folloAvs from this that the human cerebellum is lighter in proportion to the Aveight of the brain, and if Ave i)ut aside three of the 44 examples of Leuret, that Alan Avould be found to liaA'e the advantage in this respect, as 124 PROPORTION OF THE CEREBELLUM. [Chap. hi. well as with, regard to the entire weight of the encephalon. At- tempts have been made to compare the weight of the encephalon with that of the spinal cord - Id 0, hut the comparison has not heen carried out in Man. The following figures, borrowed from M. Colin, have been drawn up in reference to this question, and to those preceding as to domestic animals : AVeight of the encephalon. Weight of the body. Encephalon = 1. AA'cight of the two hemisphere.s. Cerebellum = 1. Weight of the encephalon. Spinal cord = 1. 15 stallions ... 633 633 6-9 2-3 15 mares ... 598 583 7-4 2-3 17 dogs 83 212 8-5 4-7 5 cats 28 106 61 3-4 3 oxen ... 509 648 8-2 2 -I. 4 asses ... 368 332 7*2 2-9 3 hogs ... 123 659 75 2*3 One of M. Colin’s conclusions deserves to be considered side by side with that arrived at by M. Dareste. He says the smaller species of animals have the brain more developed than the larger. The mouse, for example, has, in proportion to his body, more brain than Man, and thirteen times more than the horse, and eleven times more than the elephant. M. Dareste infers that the smaller species generally have the brain smooth. The two propositions mutually agree. The convolutions have less tendency to be developed in the smaller species, supposing the fact proved : because their brain is larger, this was superfluous. Thus the same result is arrived at by different methods of proceeding. Lastly, Soemmering has conceived the idea of comparing the brain with the nerves which proceed from it. The relative volume of the former would be considerably greater in Man; the apes would come next. “ The largest horse’s bram that I have Aveighed,” says he, “ Avas one pound and seA^en ounces, and the smallest man’s, tAvo pounds fi.A"e ounces and a quarter, iiotAAdthstanding that the nerves at the base Avere ten times larger in the former, although the difference in Aveight betAveen the tAvo brains Avas at least fomteen ounces and a quarter.” Chap, hi,] MEASUREMENT OF THE BRAIN. 125 Measurement of the Brain. 'J’his lias not yet been practised to any extent except on animals. Scemniering and Ebel have compared the Avidth of the medulla oblongata, at its union with the protuberantia annularis, Avith the maximum Avidth of the brain. Leuret has taken the relative dimensions and situation of the corpus callosum and the cerebellum. Cuvier has given the Avidth, the height, and the maximum length of the brain in 38 mammals. Leuret applied himself to the Avidth in relation to the length, taking his measurements, not on the brain, but on the interior of the cranial caAuty. AVe can speak highly of this method, Avhen Ave employ the special instruments iiiA'eiited by AI. Broca, Avhich idloAv of all the details being measured Avithout injuring the skull by making a section. In a first group, including the kangaroo, the guinea-pig, and the beaver, the tAvo diameters are ecpial ; in a second, consisting of the majority of the rodents, the elephant, the porpoise, and the AN'hale, the trans- verse diameter is greater than the antero-post(*rior ; in a third, embracing the monkey tribe, the carnivora, the solipeds, and the ruminants, the antero-posterior diameter is the longer, as in Man. The relation of these tAvo diameters, the transverse and the antero-posterior, is Avorthy, in our opinion, to have a jilace assigned to it in Zoological Antliropology, under the name of cerebral index. A feAV calculations from Leuret’s tables are subjoined. Papio (mandril) ... 75-8 Macacque ... 80-3 Mandril 83-2 Macauco (maki) ... 86-3 Horse 84-5 White bear 84-5 Guinea-pig 1000 Phascolomys (wombat) ... ... 102-5 Porcupine... ... 128-1 Whale ... 146-7 3 dogs 75-0 to 99-9 3 kangaroos ... 86-2 „ 100-0 2 seals 97-5 „ 112-5 3 bats ... 122-2 „ 125-0 2 elephants ... 136-9 „ 146-7 126 EUDIMENTARY ORGANS. [Chap. iir. Three forms of brain, then, would find place in the niainmalian •series, as there are three sorts of human crania — viz. the long, the intermediate, and the broad. But here the lines of demarcation between each form would he changed. Those which we should call dolichocephali (long heads) would he helow 90, the mesati- cephali (middle heads), from 90 to 110, and the Inachycephali (short heads), above 110. Radimantarij Organs and ReverslvG Anomalies. In the necessarily rapid examination which we have just made of the characters hy which Man differs from or ap 2 )roaches to animals, Ave haA''e only taken into consideration those Avhich are constant and exist in all individuals. But there are others Avhich unexpectedly make their appearance in all the races of Man, and more frequently in those reputed inferior, concerning Avhich Ave ought to say a feAV Avords. AYe refer to A\diat are called the rudimen- tary organs, and anomalies. In the hypothesis of a transformation hy a certain process from forms relath^ely inferior into those of a higher and more perfect character, they take the name of reA^ersions, Avhich is meant to convey the idea of a relationship in the past hetAveen organisms noAv divergent, and hearing upon the question of the affinity of Man Avith the other mammalia. As examples of rudimentary organs in animals Ave may mention the germs of teeth in the foetus of the Avhale, and those of the upper incisors in ruminants, although these organs are iieA^er developed, and appear to he useless ; the teats of all male quadrupeds ; the eyes of sightless animals, or those species AA^hich pass their liA^es in dark caA’erns, or inhabit the fathomless depths of the ocean ; the tAVo needle-like ossicles on the sides of the single metacarpal or metatarsal hone of the horse, AA^hich represent the other meta- carpals or metatarsals aa^McIi have disappeared ; &c. Examples are numerous in Man. The semilunar fold at the internal angle of the eye, so marked in some persons, aa'ouM repre- sent the remains of the third eyelid of marsupials, the AA\alrus, Ac. CnAP. III.] EEVEESIYE ANOMALIES. 127 The vermicuhir ap})endix of tlie large intestine, wliicli seem.s useless, and is occasionally the cause of death, is the representative of an organ "which is enornious in herhivorous animals, and in the koala attains a length three times that of the body. The muscles of the ear, ecpially useless, although sufficientl}’" developed in some indi- viduals to enable them to move the cartilage, are merely vestiges of a very well-marked apparatus in animals. ^J'he sub-vomerian bone of Kambaud, in like manner, is the remains of the organ of Jacobson, and is very much developed in the horse, as also in some apes, &c. Anomalies are still more frequent in i\Ian. AVe may mention the bifid, and even the doulde uterus ; the former repeating the horned uterus of the rodent, or the elongated and angular uterus seen in some ordinary monkeys and lemurs ; the latter the double uterus with two orifices of marsupials. We may mention the per- sistence in the adult of the suture which divides the malar bones into two, as in some apes and other mammalia; that of the median frontal suture, as in the majority of the lower mammalia ; the aj)- pearance, once in a hundred times, according to iNfr. Turner, of the super-condylean humeral foramen peculiar to various animals, through which the [)rincipal nerve and artery of the limb pass ; the altogether simian conformation of the cartilage of the ear ; etc. In the muscles especially reversions are common. Traces of the cutaneous muscle are seen in the armpits and on the scapuke, as well as on the head and face ; the sternal muscle of mammalia "was seen in 18 out of 600 men ; the ischio-pubic muscle, constant in the majority of male animals, was noticed in 19 out of 40 men, and in 2 out of 30 women ; the elevator clavicukc of most apes in 1 out of 60. M. Chadzinski, in tlie “ Ilevue d’Anthropologie,” has given many examples of simian arrangements in Man. Mr. J. Wood found in one individual as many as seven examples of muscles })eculiar to certain apes. AVliatevcr interpretation may be given to these facts, they estab- lish a link between the type of organisation of IMan and that of animals. A third order of facts has been brought together, namely,, those which we term teratological, and of which we shall speak by- and-by. 128 DEVELOPMENT OP THE BODY. [Chap. iv. CHAPTER lY. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY EMBRYOGENY, SUTURES AND EPIPHYSES, TEETH DETERMINA- TION OF THE AGE AND SEX OF THE SKELETON GENERAL AND SPECIAL FUNCTIONS PSYCHICAL MANIFESTATIONS, FACULTY OF EXPRESSION. Hitherto we have been engaged with anatomical characters, that is to say, with those relating to the organs as seen after death. We shall now consider the iihysiological, or those exhibited in the living subject, the result of the grovdli and development of those organs. Their history commences from the period Avhen the first lineaments of organisation ^vere planned, continues through the various phases of existence, and exhibits to us Yfaii moving and thinking, up to the period when motion and thought cease. Development — Age. Our first entrance into life is unostentatious, and in no way differs from that of animals. Enclosed in an ovum of the same character as that of all the oviparous or viviparous mammalia, nothing then distinguishes the future monarch from the humblest pariah — the lord of creation from the ape or the kangaroo. The researches of AYolf in 1759, of Oken in 1806, of Biier in 1819, of Coste, &c., have put this beyond contradiction. The ovum at first is a simple cell, a microscopic pomt, vdiicli is composed of an albuminous substance, or vitellus, and of a nucleus, or germinal vesicle, enclosing vutliin it a nucleolus, or germinal spot. Under this form it is thrown off from the ovaries, traverses the oviduct, passes into the uterus, and, if it becomes fecundated, is there developed. The cell then becomes divided into two, into four, and gradually into an infinite number of cells, which increase at the periphery and assume the form of a holloM' sphere. At one Chap, iv.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY. 129 point tliero iiftern’ards appears an opacity, whicli becomes elongated and divided into tlu’ee leaflets. This is the rudiment of the future being, 'whether man or dog. The external leaflet will become the skin and* cerebro-spinal axis, tlie internal the digestive mucous membrane, the middle the parenchyma from which the various organs are formed. The niidtiplication of cells continuing, a primitive line is drawn, which has at one of its extremities an en- largement, upon which before long are seen live ampulhe. The line is the spinal cord, the enlargement is the brain, the anterior ampulla will be the hemispheres, the second the optic thalamus, the third the tubercula quadrigemina, the fourth the cerebellum, and the fifth the medulla oblongata. According to the variable development of these rudiments, residts, by degrees, the special genus or species. At the fourth week the difference between the ISIan and the dog is inappreciable. The divergence only commences in earnest at the eighth week. In the human fcctus the anterior ampulla becomes larger, in the foetus of the dog the caudal extremity elongates. At birth the infant weighs from 3 to 4 kilogrammes, and is 50 centimetres in length; his pulse is 140 in the minute; a fine down covers his body ; his pupils are generally open as soon as respiration becomes fully established ; the thymus gland, an organ exclusively foetal, atrophies. He takes the breast up to the second or third year, or rather until the sixteen or twenty milk teeth have appeared. During the period of infancy the pulse ranges from 100 to 110, the respiration becomes propor- tionately slower, its movements being in relation to the heart’s pulsations as 1 to 3. At about 14 years, in our climates, puberty takes place in the boy ; his features become altered, the voice changes, the beard developes, and most important modifications take place in the genital organs. At the same time, in the girl, the breasts increase in size, the menses make their appearance. At 20 years adult age is attained ; growth still goes on ; the brain continues to be developed in proportion to its exercise, and attains its maximum of activity at or before 35 years. Soon decadence commences ; the faculty of reproduction in the man becomes dimhiished. In woman K 130 GEOWTH OF THE BRAIN. [Chap. iv. th.e liair turns white and falls off ; the teeth become loosened from their sockets ; the crystalline lens is flattened, causing the eye to become presbyopic ; the senses become dull ; the lung is emphy- sematous, the heart hypertrophied ; the arteries become' ossified ; fat is infiltrated through the tissues, and death takes place naturally, without any struggle, from the moment that one of the three prin- cipal organs of organic life — the heart, the lung, or the digestive tube — loses the power to perform its function.* Except in some trifling particulars, this is the same as regards all mammalia. The organisation of Man, of the anthropoid ape, or of the carnivora, obeys the same physiological laws, and passes through three similar periods : one of growth, one of fidl development — during which the process of reproduction goes on — and one of decay. These periods are of longer or shorter duration — that is the only difference. Of all these phenomena, those which are exhibited on the skeleton have the greatest amount of interest for the anthro- pologist. It is by a thorough acquaintance with them that we determine with accuracy the age of bones, ‘a problem not less im- portant for the anthropologist in his laboratory than for the archaeologist who is desirous of ascertaining the date of his fossils. A few words, however, as to the head. Its proportions relatively to the body during the earliest periods of embryonic existence, or even at birth, are not what they are at a later period. At the second month of intra-uterine life the head forms one-half, at birth one-quarter, and at adult age one-eighth part of the entire body. The same may be said as regards the contents of the brain- case. Grou'th of the Brain. Throughout the whole of the mammahan series this organ is * M. Broca divides the periods of human life as follows : First infancy from birth to the end of the sixth year, when the first large permanent molar is cut ; second infancy, from 7 to 14 years, on the eruption of the second molars ; youth, from 14 to 25 years, when the basilar suture is ossified, or the wisdom tooth is cut ; adult age, from 25 to 40, when the cerebral sutures begin to ossify ; ripe age, from 4 ‘ to 60 ; old age, beyond 60 years. In craniometry, we designate, in a general way, under the name of adult, crania in which the basilar sutnre is closed. Chap, iv.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CRANIAL SUTURES. 131 smaller relatively to the rest of the body at Ihrth than at the period of its complete development. In the newly-born niarsiii)ial, Mr. Owen says it is less large in proportion than in the upper classes of mammalia. The following figures of ^I. AVelcker exhibit the cranial capacity in !Man at difierent ages, and consequently the progressive volume of his brain : New-born infant... Men. Centinifetre.'!. ... 400 ... Women. Centimt;tres. ... 360 At 2 months 540 ... ... 510 At 1 year ... 900 ... 850 At 3 years ... 1080 ... ... 1010 At 10 years ... 1360 ... ... 1250 From 20 to 60 years ... 1450 ... ... 1300 In anthropoids the development is less rapid : we are ignorant as to their cranial capacity at birth, but during the first dentition, in eight orangs, it was found to be 322 cubic centimetres, while in 15 adults of the .same .species it was 413. 8uppo.sing, then, that their first dentition takes place at the mean age of two years, the cranial capacity would increase 31 per cent, in ^lan from this period to adult age, and 22 per cent, only in the orang. To obviate the numeroiis disorders to which so considerable a development of the brain would give rise, owing to the resistance of the walls of the cranium, tlie sutures which unite the bones preserve their softness a much longer time in Man, and do not begin to o.ssify until a late period, when there is no longer any probability of the increase of the contents, and when cerebral activity is becoming less. This leads us to .speak of the action of the suture.s, and of the chief means of ascertaining the age of a cranium. Ossification of the Cconlal i^ntnres. The bones pass through three phases, corresponding to the three periods of life. In tlie first, the bone is soft, then cartilaginous ; in the second, it is osseous, and continues so in every part ; in tlie K 2 132 OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTURES. [Chap. iv. third, or senile period, it becomes more dense, although lighter and inore fragile, the diploe in the flat hones is more spongy, the medullary canal in the long bones is of greater diameter, and the cells at their extremities are larger. Between the first and second period there is one of transition, during which points or centres of ossification appear in the middle of the cartilage, which gradually become larger and larger, and at last occupy the entire bone. These points are of two descriptions — the principal ones for the body, or diaphysis ; the secondary for the extremities, or epiphyses, and the prominences or processes. In the skull, the points of ossification first appear in the centres which correspond with the bodies of the three cranial vertebrse — the basilar process of the occipital, the posterior sphenoid and the anterior sphenoid, then in the lateral bones and in those of the vault. It is well to know the period at which the secondary portions become united, so as to be enabled to judge, in certain circumstances, if the development has proceeded regularly. Thus : At the third month of foetal life the two superior points of the occipital shell become united to the two inferior. AVhat we call the interparietal sutme is closed. At the eighth or ninth month of foetal life the body of the anterior sphenoid is united to the body of the posterior sphenoid. About two months after birth, the false suture which separates the basilar portion of the occipital from the two condylean portions is closed. About the fifth or sixth months the body of the posterior sphenoid is united to the greater wings. About a year, the three portions of the temporal — the petrous, the mastoid, and the squamous — become anchylosed. The two halves of the frontal also. The sutme which they form when they are persistent in the adult, is called the me dio-f rental, or metopic. TYe have noticed this abnormal persistence in 58 out of 611 Parisian skidls which we have examined = 1 in 9 ’65. About the third or fourth year, the styloid process becomes united to the temporal, unless it continues separated from it during the remainder of life. Chap, iv.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTURES. 133 ^Vboiit tlie iiftli or sixth year, the suture Avhich separates tlie external occipital portion of the occipital shell is closed. The true sutures are the coronal, the sagittal, the lanibdoidal, the temporal, and the spheno-parietal, spaces being formed at their junction, which are designated by tlie name of fontanelles. The exact period at which the process of ossification is eompleted at their edges is doubtful. The sagittal and coronal sutures close very soon after birth, and before those of the base. The bregmatic fontanelle, except in cases of disease, is always closed before two- iind-a-half years of age according to INf. Bouvier, and sooner according to M. Broca. The suture wliich unites the occipital to the sphenoid is sometimes wanting in animals, sometimes it remains persistent through the whole of life : in ]Man it }>a&ses immediately from tlie cartilaginous to the osseous state at from 18 to 22 years of age. All these data serve to determine the age, but it is at their third phase, when other parts of the body fail to give us any information, that the examination of the sutures becomes valuable. ^Vt this moment the serratures become obliterated, the bones which are in contact become anchylosed, the suture is synostosed. This synostosis, one of the first signs of age in the skeleton, maj' in some cases be i)roduced more ([uickly by disease. 'J'here is, then, no adult or stationary condition of the suture, and the younger the individual the more serious the disorders which result from it as regards the development of the cranium and the brain. AVe shall consider this siilject further when speaking as to pathological characters. The spot where synostosis first appears during the progress of age varies. The most frecpient is at a point on the sagittal, at the union of its posterior fifth Avith its anterior three- fifths, Avhere the suture is clearly marked, ohf'Umi. At other times it is at the extremities of the coronal, near the temporal ridge, or loAver down, at the junction of the four sutures, in the form of the letter H. The second or third spot is on the lanibdoidal suture, the synostosis appearing at first in the middle of one of its branches, or as an extension of the sagittal ossification. The fourth 134 OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTURES. [Chap. iv. point is the coronal suture, close to the bregma. The fifth is on the squamous suture of the temporal.'^ In a word, if the suture is entire, the indiAudual is about 35 years of age or less. If the posterior sagittal point is commencing to close he is about 40 years. The ossification of the coronal suture close to the bregma would show that he was 50 or more. If the temporal suture is closed he would be 66 or more. A& regards intermediate and subsequent ages we examine as to the extent to which complete closure has taken place at each spot, and also as to other matters, of which we are about to speak. The definite period of ossification of the sutures moreover varies very considerably. It sometimes takes place partially and very early in life ; at others it is retarded. The more the brain is exercised the more it is postponed, according to M. Broca. In idiots it takes place early. It varies according to race. In the white races tlie ossification generally proceeds from behind for- wards. In the negro races it is the reverse, according to Gratiolet, that is to say from before backwards. This latter statement is somewhat hasty ; and Avithout going so far as to deny it, Ave shoidd say it cannot be looked upon as universally the case. If the brain-case at the period of birth is A^ery large, the face, on the other hand, is small, and makes increase, especially in the maxillary region, as is sIioaaui by the enlargement of the facial angle and of the angle of prothagnism, from infancy to adult age. The development for the most i^art takes place m the aAeolar arches, at the part corresponding AAuth the molars of the second dentition ; they become elongated from behind foi’Avards, and increase in height and thickness. A phenomenon the reverse of this takes place AAdien the teeth fall out naturally in the progress of age ; the edges of the ah^eoli come nearer together and become absorbed, and the ah^eolar border loses its height and thickness. Tavo anatomical results are the consequence : (1) The mental foramen, situated in the adult at an * See “ Reclierclies sur I’Etat Senile dn Crane,” by E. Sauvage. Paris, 1870. Chap, iy.] EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH. 135 equal distance from, or a little nearer to, the two borders of the hone, appeai-s in the old man gradually to come nearer to the siqxu-ior, a circumstance of which Broca has taken particular notice in his interesting memoir, published in 1848, on tlie hones of Celestines. (2) Tlie angle whicli the horizontal makes with the })osterior branch of the lower jaw becomes widened, and has a tendency to return to tliat which it was in infancy. This angle at birth is from 170 to IGO degrees; it descends to 150 and 130 during the hrst dentition ; then to 115 degrees during the second dentition ; approaches a riglit angle during the adult period, and returns to 130 and 140 degrees in old age {Humplmj). Thence a series of characteristics whicli, even in solitary maxilla?, enables us to ascertain approximately the age? of the individual. Besides those furnished by the cranial sutures, there are others drawn from the eburniheation, or the unequal atrophy of the malformed cranium, as well as those from the teeth ; all appearances on the head, so probably indicative of the same fact as regards age, as to be looked upon as certainties. The maxillary apparatus is not the onl}’’ portion of the face which assumes various alterations of phase during life. The brain cavities do the same in a less degi’ee. Thus the frontal sinuses connected with the olfactory apparatus are rudimentary in the infant, very largely developed in the adult, and become atrophied in old age. ^iU the sinuses of the face, moreover, including the mastoid cells, obey the same law — they do not arrive at their full development until after puberty. Kvolution of the I'eeth. Of all the methods in use for the purpose of determining the age of a cranium, particularly before the adult period, those derived from the examination of the teeth are the most satisfactory. Their evolution is divided into two periods, the more important to define, in that we have no other data from which to form an idea as to the relative age of the monkeys imported into Europe. The duration of the first period in j\Ian is about 24 months, Avhen the A^Eole of the milk or temporary teeth are cut ; that of the second is six 13G ERUPTION OF THE TEETH. [Chap. iv. years, wlien the permanent teeth appear. The wisdom teeth we do not take into consideration, as often they are not cut at all. The following table shows the mean j)eriod of the eruption of each tooth. It thus appears that from three to five years Man has the minimum number of 20 teeth ; from seven to twelve, 24 ; from fourteen to sixteen, 28 ; and later on, the maximum number, 32, not reckoning anomalies in the shape of supernumerary teeth. Eruption of the Teeth in Man. Tempokap.y OR Deciduous Teeth = 20. Cruveilhier. Magitot. Incisors, middle lower 4th to 10th month ... 6 months. „ „ upper ... A little after ... 10 „ ,, lateral lower 8th to 16th month 16 „ ,, „ upper A little after ... 20 „ Molars, first small, lower... 15th to 24th month ... 24 „ „ „ „ upper... — — 26 „ Canine 20th to 30th month . . . 30 to 32 „ Molars, second small, lower 28th to 40th month . . . 28 „ „ „ „ upper — — 30 „ Permanent Teeth = 32. Cruveilhier. Magitot. Molars, first large ... 7 years ... 5 to 6 years. Incisors, middle, lower 6 to 8 „ 7 ,, „ „ upper ... 7 „ 9 „ — ,, lateral ... 8 „ 10 „ 81 „ Molars, first small... 9 „ 11 „ 9 ,, 11 » ,, second small 11 „ 13 „ 11 „ Canine 10 „ 11 „ 11 „ 12 „ Molars, second large 12 „ 14 „ ... ' ... 12 13 5> „ third large, or dentes sapientuc 18 „ 30 „ 18 3, 25 „ With the skull before us it is generally easy to determine the age before 18 vears. Sometimes, in the interval between the two periods of eruption, search must be made at the bottom of the alveolus, or we must judge from the projection of the anterior sur- face of the alveolar border, as to the time when the tooth is about to make its appearance. In old age, when the teeth naturally fall Chap, iv.] CHAEACTERS OF THE TEETH. 137 out, we sliould look to see how far the alveolus is closed or tilled up. The molai-s fall out first. AVe may guess the probable age on the inferior maxilla by tlie number of empty alveoli, l)y tlio amount of absorption of the alveolar arclies, and by the senile indications already mentioned. There is another method of ascertaining the age, namely, by examining tlie amount of wear and tear of the teeth. The deciduous as well as the permanent teeth wear out, but the latter more so, on account of their much greater length of use. The molars and canines are generally the most worn, but in the inferior or prehistoric races the incisors are frequently worn down one-lialf or four-tifths of their height. ]\I. llroca lays down four degrees of wear : in the first, the enamel is alone worn ; in the second, the tubercles of the crown have disappeared and the ivory is exposed ; in the third, some portion of the height of the tooth is reduced ; in the fourth, the wear has extended to the neck. The last is seen in old age, but it is more often the result of particular habits, as that of chewing the betel-nut, among the ^Malays, or working with the teeth on skins, among the Esquimaux. The tubercles of the lirst molar are soon worn down, occasionally by the commencement of adult age ; those of the second molar are more persistent. In a word, the determination of the age of a cranium is reduced to a balancing of probabilities : the condition of the sutures deciding the question in one way, the v’earing away of the teeth or the character of the jaw in another : we should take the mean. At two or five years one can scarcely be deceived ; taking the jicriod from 22 to 38 years it is more dithciilt to decide. Didinctive Characters of the Teeth. AVe cannot conclude this chapter without stating the principles by the guidance of which the arclueologist or the anthropologist may discover the alveolus to which any isolated tooth belongs. The teeth of the. second dentition interest us most in this respect. The four kinds may be recognised as follows : the incisors are sharp at the edges, the canines have a single and conical point, the small 138 DISTINCTIYE CHAEACTEES OF THE TEETH. [Chap. iv. and large molars a flat and tnflercidated crown. The difficulty is to know to whicli jaw and to which, side of the jaw they belong. In a general way, the teeth of the upper jaw are larger than those of the lower, A\dth the exception of the large molars, where it is often the reverse. The incisors may be recognised in the same way ; the middle incisors of the upper jaw, and the lateral of the lower, are the largest. The upper canines are not oidy larger but longer. The second character has a certain value. The curve which the superior dental arch describes is wider than the inferior, and its posterior branches are turned outwards, while those of tlie inferior arch are turned inwards. It follows from this that the two arches do not exactly agree, the upper incisors passing a little in front of the lower, and the crown of the upper molars overlapj^ing, on the outside, the crown of the lower. The wearing away, then, of any one or more molars begins on the inner side on the upper jaw, and on the outer on the lower. Hence, also, the plane of this wearing down is considerably oblique inwardly as regards the upper teeth, and oblique outwardly as regards the lower. Tor the same reason the sharp border of the lower incisors is worn slopingly on the anterior surface, which causes them to be easily recognised. The third character has reference to all the teeth, but especi- ally to the incisors and canines, and then to the small molars. Of the two lateral surfaces of the tooth, the mternal — when we are speaking of the front teeth — or anterior, when speaking of the side teeth — is relatively plane and vertical ; the other, external or posterior, is swollen and convex, and slightly mammillated close to the crown. — [ColUjiion). The fourth character has sole reference to the molars, and is derived from the tubercles on their crowns — two on the small and four on the large molars. The largest tubercle on the small molars is on the outside ; the groove which separates them is somewhat deep in the upper, and is occasionally interrupted by the vestige of a third tubercle in the lower. The four tubercles of the larse molars are separated by a cross-shaped sulcus, and sometimes a fifth tubercle is noticed. The wisdom tooth has usually oidy tlnee Chap, iv.] DISTINCTIVE CHAEACTERS OF THE TEETH. 13D tubercles — two external and one internal ; or its crown presents tlie form of the letter S, the posterior branch of which commences on the inside, and the anterior branch terminates on the outside by doubling upon itself. In reality, its tubercles exhibit the same arrangement as the adjoining great molar, but are less dehnite, and, as it were, rudimentary. The fangs furnisli the last characters of which we shall speak. The small molars have usually but one, except the second upper, which has frecpiently two. The large lower molars have two fangs, an anterior and a i)osterior, which are curved slightly the one towards the other, and converge at the point. The upper have three fangs, one internal and two external, whicli diverge, because the inferior border of tlie maxillary sinus passes between tliem (Broca). In the large lower molars, the fang Avhich is behind is by far the larger ; in the upper, the intermediate one is the largest. The wisdom tooth has the same number of fangs as the adjoining molars, but they are generally consolidated into one or two. Lastly, the fangs of all the teeth, but esj)ecially those of the incisors, the canines, and the small molars, have their points curved outwards or backwards in the direction crossing tlie arch. — (CoUfjnon). AVe may add that the crown of the first large molar bears some- times a resemlilance to that of a small molar, and the fii*st small molar to a canine. Tlie first large molar is the strongest, the third has the lowest crown. The milk teeth may be recognised by the following marks : they are bluish- white in colour, and not of the yellowish-blue tint of tliose of the second dentition. The incisors and canines are smaller, and have shorter fangs. The two milk molars are larger than the two small permanent molars ; they are multicuspidate, and not bicuspidate, having three tubercles on the outside and two on the inside. They have more the appearance of large molars than of the small molars which succeed them. If we take, then, the head alone, it is easy to determine the age ; if the rest of the skeleton, with the exception of one or two bones, we arrive at the same result. The indications are still derived from the evolution of certain parts. 140 OSSIFICATION OF THE LONG BONES. [Chap. iv. Ossification of the Long Bones. At the end of the fourth week of intra-nterine life, the points of ossification of the clavicle make their appearance ; then those of the lower jaw ; from the thirty-fifth to the fortieth day those of the femur, the Immerus, the tibia, the superior maxilla, the vertebrae, and the ribs ; about the fiftieth day those of the cranium ; and then — of which there is some doubt — of the scapula, &c. Ossification continues to go on ; the points of the extremities, or epiphyses of the long bones, become united to one another, and then to the body or diaphysis. Of course the length of the bone furnishes some evidence of the age, but the follovdng data are preferable. The periods indicated represent the mean of the variations observed and recorded by authors : About 5 years, the scaphoid, the latest formed of the bones of the tarsus, is ossified. „ 12 „ the pisiform, the latest formed of the bones of the carpus, is ossified. „ 14 „ the three portions of the iliac bone are united. „ 14 ,, the inferior extremity of the radius is united to the body of the bone. „ 15 ,, the superior extremity of the ulna is united to the body of the bone. „ 15 „ the lesser trochanter of the femur is united to the greater. ,, 15 „ the coracoid process is united to the scapula. „ 16 ,, the calcEuieum is ossified throughout. ,, 17 ,, the greater trochanter is united to the head of the femur. „ 17 „ all the points of the infex’ior extremity of the humerus are united. „ 17 „ the epiphyses of the phalanges of the fingers are united to the body of the bone. ,, 18 ,, the superior extremity of the femur is united in its entirety to the shaft. „ 18 „ the inferior extremity of the humerus is united to the body of the bone. „ 18 „ the inferior extremity of the tibia is united to the body. „ 18 „ the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. „ 19 ,, the epiphyses of the metatarsal bones are united to the body. 141 Chap, iv.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOPE-AEM. About 19'yeai-s, the superior extremity of the humerus is united to the body. ,, 20 ,, the epiphyses of the metacarpal bones are united to the body. „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the femur is united to the body. „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the radius is united to the body. „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. „ 20 ,, the inferior extremity of the ulna is united to the body. „ 20 „ the body of the sphenoid is united to the body of the occipital. ,, 20 „ the patella is completely ossified. „ 20 „ the sacral vertebra) are anchylosed together. „ 45 „ the xiphoid cartilage is anchylosed to the sternum. „ 50 „ the coccyx is anchylosed to the sacrum. It is said tliat during foetal life tlie body is developed more rapitlly than the head. The extremities, ]\I. 8appey says, are formed from their free extremity to their root ; the greater part of the hand and foot ai)pears in the form of huds attached to the trunk ; then the fore-arm and the leg, the arm and the thigh, successively make their appearance ; the divisions into fingers and toes appear the last. When first fully formed the various segments have not the proportions ■which they have at a later period. The femurs, small at first in proportion to tlie hody, afterwards heconie relatively large. The same with the humerus. ]M. Ilamy, taking the measurements of 8ue, Gunz, Liharzic, and others, has shown that about the fourteenth day of intra-uterine life, the fore-arm of the European is longer than the humerus ; while from about two months and a h^df it gradually becomes smaller. At this period the length of the fore-arm, in proportion to that of the humerus, is as 88 to 100; at birth this relation is 77; and from 5 to IT years reaches 72, Avhich it henceforth preserves. In the adult Xegro this relation is higher ; from which ]\I. Hamy concludes that the proportions of the fore-arm, relatively to the arm, are at first of the Xegro character in the European, and assume their true character at a later period. Other modifications, some connected Avith evolution, others Avith the biped attitude, are exhibited in the inferior extremities. The pelvis at birth is relatively narroAV, and, as a consequence, 142 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMUR. [Chap. iv. the great trochanters appear more projecting. The angle which the neck of the femur makes with the body of the hone is very wide, and the two femurs falTalmost perpendicularly. At adult age the pelvis enlarges; the trochanter femoris is less projecting; the angle of the neck is less open — from 125 to 130 degrees in the man, and approaching a right angle in the woman {Humphry ) ; the shaft of the hone is very oblique, owing to the inferior extremity making an angle with the perpendicular, looking from above, of about 15 degrees. In old age the angle of the neck is still diminished, and in the man reaches about 110 degrees; the pelvis appears larger, and the great trochanters are less prominent ; lastly, the curve, with its concavity looking backwards, is increased. We may add, incidentally, that the angle of the neck is smaller, and the obliquity of the femur more pronounced in short men ; it is the same in woman, according to Humphry. These two anatomical conditions of the femiu- — the obliquity estimated by the angle which its extremity makes with the vertical, and the angle of its neck with the diaphysis — have been the subject of special study by om colleague, Dr. Kuhff. His researches have been carried out upon twenty-four femurs, and the following are the mean results obtained in reference to these two points : Angle of Angle of Number, obliquity. neck. Cavern of La Lozere 8 ... 9°-7 ... 125° Dolmens of La Lozere 5 ... 11 122 Grottoes of La Marne ... 19 ... 11 ... 129 Gallo-Romans 6 ... 12 ... 122 Carlovingians 4 ... 12 ... 119 His maximum and minimum degrees of obliquity are 14 and 8 respectively, and of the angle of the neck, 140 and 117 degrees. The results agree very closely with those of Mr. Humphry. One of the causes of the diminution of the statme at an advanced age is the sinking of the neck. Another, still more important, is the subsidence of the intervertebral discs, which takes place for the most part anteriorly, whereby the whole of the trunk is bent foiuvards. Osseous vegetations are thrown out between the body Chap, iv.] DIFFERENCES IN THE SKELETON. 113 of one vertebra and that of anotlier, ’wliicli tend to strengtlien the column and to limit the incurvation. If the first task of the anthropologist, when called upon to give his opinion upon human remains, is to determine their age, his second is to ascertain the sex. Both studies concern INfan in his ensemble, and not INIan in his ethnic varieties. It is of the latter therefore that we shall speak in this place. Sexual Differences in the Sl'eleton. There is no appreciable difference in the skeleton in infancy, and up to puberty ; its features are rather of a feminine character. At puberty, the line of demarcation commences, but the characters are not thoroughly defined until 20 years of age and upwards. At about 45, or upwards, the distinctions of sex become less marked, and at advanced age are but trifling, thougb tbe general character of the skeleton is rather masculine. Tlie principles which govern the sexual differences in adult age may be summed up in a few words. All the parts of the female skeleton are lighter and more frail ; the general contour is more soft and graceful ; the (uninences, processes, or tubercules, are smaller and less marked. If there is one well-established physio- logical fact, it is this ; that the asperities Avhich serve for the insertion of muscles are developed in proportion to the activity of those muscles. Less marked in the studious man than in the labourer, these asperities are still less so in the woman, especially in women residing in towns. This law is so exact that we cau tell by the degree of prominence of the crests and processes, what muscles the individual was most in the habit of using, and hence judge as to his profession or calling. As a sequence of these prominences, the depressions, grooves, and marks are more distinct in the man. So the temporal ridge, which serves superiorly for the insertion of the temporal muscle, and the transverse ridges, which divide the internal surface of the scapula, and serve for the insertion of the subscapularis muscle, are more marked in the male ; the 144 SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF THE SKELETON. [Chap. iy. groove of torsion of tlie liumeriis is more visible, and tlie two 8-like curvatures of the clavicle are stronger. In the Avonian, on the contrary, the external protuberance of the occipital, and the two subjacent curved lines which serve for the insertion of the muscles of the nucha — the anterior tubercle of the tibia to which the triceps femoris is attached — the tuberosity of the radius which gives insertion to the lhce 2 :)s of the humerus, are less prominent — the curved alveolar borders are more regular — the borders of the malar bone are less thick — the canine fossa is less deep. In a word, it is tolerably easy to determine the sex by the appearance of a bone ; in the case of a long bone, we are rarely in doubt ; in a short bone, as the calcaneum, it is still possible to do so. Ihit we must not be surprised if we are occasionally at fault ; by making a comparison between one bone and another, the difficulty v.dll be cleared up. Suppose we took the clean-shaved head of any individual, the beard being removed, or the hand, or foot, the rest of the body being concealed, anyone, particularly after a little practice, would be able to tell whether the part belonged to a man or a woman, though it might be sometimes difficult to do so. Eotli, whether spontaneously or by reason of the Avork in Avliich they had been engaged, or OAving to exposure to the air, Avould haA^’e all the appearances of the opposite sex. On the skeleton, a Avoman Avho had Avorked hard all her life Avould have the bony prominences and the processes for the articulations of muscles more developed, probably, than a man wha had not AVorked at all. Let us consider tAvo organs only. The Avoman has the crests of the ilia larger and Avider, in other Avords, the lips more prominent ; ^ the subpubic foramen is of a triangidar shape, Avhile in the man it is irregidarly OA’al ; the symphysis pubis is shorter, the subjacent arch is broad-pointed, Avhile in the man it forms a very acute angle, and the cotyloid cavities are more expanded. In a Avord, all the transA'erse diameters of her pehus are increased, Avhile in the man the A^ertical are the more so. In 113 male pelves, the maximum AAudtli to the length, or maximum height, Avas as 125'0 to 1000, and in the Avoman, as 135 to 1000. The mean relati\'e Avidth to the height of the individual in each sex, is as IGO to 1000 in the Chap, iv.] SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF THE SKULL. . ] • man, ami as 174 in tlie 'woman ; that is to say, fourteeii-tliousanclths more in the latter. The head of tlie 'woman is smaller and lighter, its contours more delicate, the surfaces smoother, the ridges and processes not so marked. The superciliary arclies are hut little prominent; the e.Kternal half of the superior orbital border is tliiii and sharp (Broca). The forehead is vertical below, projecting above. The occipital condyles are small, as also the mastoid and styloid pro- cesses. The zygomatic arches are slender. The cranium in its ensemble is less high and longer. The subiiasal portion of the face is more prognathous in the white races, less so in the black. The inferior maxilla is smaller, its postiulor angles having no projecting roughnesses. The frontal sinuses are less develoi)ed, Ac. Uf all these characters the most important ami the only ones easy to measure are the smallness of the head, the less capacity of the cranial cavity, and the relative lightness of the bruin. Then the obliteration of the glabella, the throwing outwards of the superior orbital border, the smallness of the inion, the slight pro- jection of the occipital curved lines, and, lastly, the more abrupt angle, more nearly approaching a right angle, of the forehead at the level of the frontal protuberances. Five times out of six we may decide the cpiestion with certainty ; ]\I. i\Iantegazza says nine times out of ten.* It may be asked, AVhat skulls should be preferi'ed upon which to study the races of Man ? AVith A'an der Hceven, we reply, those of men. Xo one would be so bold as to say that ethnic characters are best exhibited in the cranium of the infant ; but the skeleton of the woman is intermediate between that of the infant and the adult man. Having considered the skeleton, we must take a brief glance at other fpiestions in relation to age and function in JMaii and animals.t * P. Mantegazza, “ Dei Caraterri Sessnali del Cranio Umano,” in “ Archio per I’Anthrop.,” vol. ii,, 1872; A. Dureau, “ Des Caract^res Sexuels du Crane Hnmain,” in “ Revue d’Anthrop.,” vol. ii., 1873. f See Colin, “ Traite de Physiologie Comparee des Animaux.” Two vols. Paris, 1871. . ... < L 146 PHENOMENA OF PvEPRODUCTION. [Chap. iv. The Temjperature of the Body, Some degrees above zero (centigrade) in most animals termed cold blooded, as reptiles and fishes, is some degrees higher in birds and mammalia, which are both warm blooded. Moreover, it varies but little in the latter. The temperature of Man (in the axilla) is 37 '8 centigrade ; that of the hare and squirrel is the same ; that of the horse is 38 ; of the ox, 38*5 ; of the bat and the whale, 38 ‘8; of the tiger and panther, 39 ; of the ordinary monkeys, 39 *7 (Nogues)’, of the wolf, 40 ’5. The Pulse Varies considerably. It is from 70 to 80 in the minute in the adult man ; from 25 to 28 in the elephant ; from 36 to 40 in the horse; from 45 to 50 in the ox; from 70 to 80 in the pig, the sheep, and the goat ; from 90 to 100 in the dog ; from 120 to 140 in the cat ; 175 in the dormouse ; 200 in the mouse. Phenomena of Reproduction. These exhibit still more marked differences. Tlu’ee points here demand our attention, viz. the duration of gestation, the number of young, and menstruation. Generally speaking, in the mammalian series, the circumstances which are favourable to reproduction are in direct ratio to the shortness of life. The smaller species carry their yoimg a shorter period than the larger, and have a greater number of young at a birth. In the following list we see the place occupied by Man. He has two at a birth more frequently than the monkey tribe, and exceptionally he has three or four. Period of Gestation. Number of Weeks. young. Mouse . . . 3 ... ... 10 to 15 Hare ... 4 ... ... 3 or 4 Ferret 6 ... • . • 6 to 8 Dog ... 9 ... • •• ... 5 or 6 Lion 14 ... ... 4 „ 5 Chap, iv.] DURATION OF LIFE. 117 Roebuck... Period of Gestation. Weeks. ... 24 Number of young. 2 Macauco... ... 15 ... 1 Macacus Rhoesus ... 26 ... 1 Macacus Maimon ... 34 ... 1 Stag ... 36 1 Seal ... 39 ... 1 Woman ... ... 39 1 Cow ... 41 1 Mare ... 43 1 Camel ... 45 1 Giraffe ... ... 61 ... 1 Elephant ... 100 1 ^Menstruation is not contined to women, nor to the pithecian monkeys. The phenomenon is identical witli that called “ rut ” in animals. Daratlon of Life. The mean duration of life in jMan is at the present time, in Trance, about 40 years, and the ordinary duration from 70 to 80. Some individuals, exceptionally, live beyond 100 years. Beraud says, one in 3100 in England. Prichard mentions that in the year 1799, Eastron had collected together 1712 cases of centenarians : of this number, 277 had attained from 110 to 120 years; 117 from 120 to 150; and eight from 150 to 180. He also gives a great number of other equally well-authenticated and not less extra- ordinar}" cases. With some exceptions, jMan is the most highly favoured of the mammalia as regards longevity ; tlie reproductive faculty continues longer, and he enjoys a long old age. But is not this due to the care Avhich he takes of himself 1 Tlie average duration of life in Europe is increasing, while in coimtries where the people go about naked it is decreasing. Among animals, longevity is generally less in the smaller species. Tlie pig lives to the age of 9 years, the dog from 15 to 18, the * “ Sur le Pretendue Degenerescence de la Population Fran^aise,” by M. Broca, in “ Bull. Acad. M^d.” 1867. L 2 148 GENEEAL FUNCTIONS. [Chap. iv. bear from 20 to 25,"^ the horse and the ox to 20, the camel to 4o, the elephant from 150 to 200 years. As regards the three higher antln’opoids, the average duration of life is from 40 to 50 years. General Fundiom and Psychical Manifestations. Man inhalhts every region of the globe, and inures himself to all climates and to all conditions of life. AVhether at the pole or the equator, on the highest mountains or in the deepest valleys, in arid deserts or uidiealthy swamj^s, nothing seems to daunt him. The Esquimaux are to be met with up to 80 degrees north. There are those who live and thrive in the Andes and the Himalayas, at an altitude of 4000 or 5000 metres and upwards ; and Ave find in- habitants even in those A'ast regions in Avhich Livingstone travelled up to his middle in Avater. Erom 47 degrees cent. ( = 116*6 Eahr.) in the shade, as observed in Senegal, to 56 beloAv zero ( = 100 degi*ees Eahrenheit beloAv freezing-point) at the poles, are the extremes of tenq3erature AAdiich he is able to support. Some animals readily adapt themselves to the most opposite conditions of climate, as the dog ; others are unable to bear such changes, as the reindeer, the bear, the lion, the AAdiale. This is hoAv the disappearance of certain geological species, as the megatherium, the mastodon, and the mammoth, is to be accounted for. The anthropoid apes Ih’e in communities in certain cAcumscribed regions ; the gorilla and the chimpanzee on the Avest coast of Africa, at about 15 degrees north and south of the equator ; the orang in Borneo and Sumatra ; the gibbons in India, bordering on China and Malacca. M. ScliAA'ein- furth has discoA^ered a iieAv species of chimpanzee on the banks of the Tapper White 'Nile. Other species liaA^e been described, belonging to the tertiary epochs, in different parts of the globe, especially in Erance. TYe may remark that the anthropoids are only to be met Avitli in hot countries. This poAver Avhich ]\lan possesses, of more or less readily accustoming himself to any climate, is to be accounted for from the fact (1) That he is oimiAorous ; * A bear cubbed in one of the pits in Berne, is said to haA'e reached the age of 47 years. J Chap, iv.] GENERAL FUNCTIONS. 119 and (2) that he knows how to clothe liiinself and to mannfactnrc weapons and implements. The Escpiimaux subsists on oil and the hesh of seals; the Todas of the Xilgherries on milk and i)ulse. Some tribes live on fish and shell-fish, and take sea Avatcr as beverage. Othei-s mix clay with their food, while civilised nations obtain their supplies from all sources. Man cooks his food, but he does not despise the raw mollusk, or undressed fish, or the raw flesh of the mammalia. Unlike any other animal, he i*ears cattle and devotes himself to agriculture. He makes use of various animals, as the dog, the cat, the camel, and the reindeer, to sub- serve his own purposes ; and even his fellow-creatures, be they black or white, are equally under his dominion. In this respect some animals imitate him — as the red ants in their treatment of the black ants. The majority of animals possess natural means of protection and defence. The gorilla has a fur peculiar to himself, powerful canine teeth, and a muscular system of extraordinary strength. Other mammalia possess agility and swiftness in running, which enables them to escape from enemies. Man has nothing of the kind. “ Xaked and without weapons,” such is Linmneus’s definition of him. All his various methods of operation he owes to his industiy. From the remotest period he has made use of fire, and has manu- factured flint implements. The anthropoid ape has never known how to make use of a staff, to put up a fence, to make a fire, nor to construct a habitation which can be dignified by a higher title than that of a nest.* The negroes of the islands in the Indian Ocean, Avho live in trees, or sleep under bundles of sticks laid against a rock, do so from indolence or indifference, rather than from incapacity. The lowest sjivages known have some notion of drawing ; they know at least how to make a cross or a round in imitation of objects which they see around them ; and, for our part, Ave attach but little credence to the statement made by ( )ld- field, that the alwrigines of AUestern Australia are imable to * Livingstone saw one of these enormous nests constructed by the soko, one of the chimpanzees. M. du Chaillu saw a sort of circular roofing in trees, constructed by another chimpanzee, the troglodytes calvus. 150 FAMILY EELATIONS. [Cnitp. IT. distinguish the figure of a tree from that of a ship. In the same region other travellers have ohserved, on the contrary, that they possess a certain amount of intellectual capacity. It would have heen well if Oldfield had given some case in verification of his statement. Among all races of mankind there exists the desire to please, or the love of dress. In civilised countries it is more developed in the woman, among barbarous tribes it is more so in the man. Some tattoo themselves, or suspend various ornaments to their ears, or to the septum of the nose, while others dye their hair, or sharpen their front teeth into points. * Something analogous has been observed in domestic monkeys. Many tribes cannot count above two, and are less favoured in this respect than the magpie, which can count up to three, some say up to tAvelve. Ent all have some notion of number. A Bosjesman, however, although in- telligent in other res^^ects, was incapable of adding one and one together. Man is not to be distinguished from animals as regards his familj^ relations. He is monogamons or polygamous, and the woman is similarly polyandrons. The gorilla and the chimpanzee are mono- gamons, very jealous of the fidelity of their partners, and very devoted in their attentions to them. Alan, likewise, attaches him- self without hesitation to those of his own kindred. He lavishes, his care and love on his offspring beyond the period of lactation, and lip to that when they are able to look after themselves. If this period should be prolonged beyond puberty it is owing to the customs of society. The ceremonies which among all savage tribes mark the progress from infancy to manhood also mark the period at which Man acquires his independence. Maternal affection, with all its evidences of blind devotion, is, with rarest exceptions, universal. The father exercises authority over the life of his children ; he practises infanticide openly at his wiU and pleasme, in the same way as the son, at a later period, disencumbers him- self from his parents who have become a burden to him. The Todas destroy in the cradle all their female children beyond a certain number, as being useless, in the same way as they kill Chap, it.] SOCIABILITY. 151 all their male hiiffaloes hut one, because they tl,o not give milk. In a state of nature INIan considers utility first, and refers every- thing to his wants, his family, and so on. It must he confessed that in the social condition there is much of this sort of thing under a less rough exterior. Selfishness is well known to he the moving princijile almost universally, and is only limited in its action hy a fear of the law, or Ijy education. Man lives in society because he is compelled to do so, like many other animals. Being endowed with the facidty of language, and with exalted intellectual powers, he wants to exercise them, having in view also the more ready satisfying of his material wants, and the realisation of a larger amount of comfort. Emulation, which results from this, is the most powerfid cause of progress in the physical, moral, and intellectual world. The larger the community, the greater the amount of rivahy ; and the more fierce the contest, the more rapid the progress. A great number of animals also seek the society of their fellow- creatures, and Avork in company, as the heaver, the Imflalo, the Australian dog, the horse, the swaUoAv, the bee, the ant. The soko, an anthropoid ape, lives in a troop of ten individuals on the hanks of the river Lualaha. IMany species of monkeys, like ^[an, select a chief, Avho directs their operations and to whom they submit. The hoAvlers, or mycetes, belonging to the cebian family, hold meetings in Avhich one of them speaks for hours at a time in the midst of general silence, succeeded by great excitement, Avhich ceases as soon as the speaker gives the Avord of command. Other monkeys combine, together to plan an incursion ; divided into detachments, some plunder and tear up roots, others make a chain for the purpose of carrying them from hand to hand ; others are placed as sentinels to keep Avatch. In unexpected danger, the sentinel gives the alarm and all decamp. It has been remarked that if it happens that the troop is surprised, OAving to the fault of the sentinel, there is a grand hubbub in the neighbouring forest during the night, and on the morroAv the body of one of ’ the plunderers is found, to all appearance having been put to death by his companions. 152 EELIGIOUSNESS. LChap. IV. It has been said that one of the characteristics of man is religious- ness, that is to say, “ the faculty of belief in something above human understanding.” Would it not be better to define it as an internal impulse, which prompts us to individualise the unknown and to make liim the object of adoration 1 * lie it as it may, many, even among the most civilised, have neither this belief nor this impulse, and are satisfied to live without troubling themselves as to that which they do not comprehend ; they have neither fear, nor reverence, nor gratitude — the three causes of religious conceptions. There are nations and tribes with- out religion and without any mode of worship, and who believe only in wizards or fetich. It is true they make every form of superstition to subserve their religiousness. But some African or ]\Ielanesian tribes have not even supelstitions.f Xeither good luck nor misfortune affects them in any Avay. If, It is impossible to take religion in its strict sense as the faculty of believing in a god ; if so, half of the population of the globe -would be destitute of it. Taking Buddhism alone, there are three or four hundred million votaries of this “ religion without God, founded on charity amount- ing to madness.” — Laboulaye. f Nothing requires such calm and impartial judgment as the inquiry into the moral and religious condition of savage tribes. Burchell, through his interpreter, addi’essed two or three questions to Bosjesmans, and im- mediately came to the conclusion that “they were brutes, because they did not answer the simple question : What is the difference between a good and a bad action ? ” Cases of this kind are very common. Other travellers, less impulsive, perse veringly inquired into their beliefs and superstitious, and came to the conclusion that they had no conception of anything outside themselves, and were persuaded that they die in the same condition. Which are we to believe ? Such a thing is rare as a rule. All missionaries, to -whatever church they belong, are impressed with the conviction that savages believe in a god, in the existence of a soul, and in the deluge ; while independent travellers arrive at altogether different conclusions. The fact is, the savage endeavours to 23lease those from whom he is likely to gain something. He understands the wishes of the missionaries and satisfies them. It is absolutely undeniable that the absence of all abstract ideas is a very common characteristic of savage tribes ; terror causes them to see evil spirits everywhere, and to create for themselves fetich, but the oj^posite feeling, the recognition of that which does them good, induces them to con- ceive of beneficent spirits. A Chap, iv.] MOEALITY. 153 after long abstinence, they get a windfall, they eat aiul think of nothing further. In this respect ^lan is inferior to the dog, wliich maintains a devoted attachment to the hand that brings him his daily food, to tlie master, who is to him as a God. Assuredly this animal has a belief in something above him. Say if those birds which warble their songs at the rising of the sun are not moved by an internal impulse to praise nature for the infinite pleasure which she bestows upon them 1 This is but little removed from adoration. ]\[an alone has an idea of duty — a momlc. Is this certain ? iVnd of what kind of morality are we to speak first — of that of the peasant or of the noble — of the morality of the laws or of natural morality 1 A very remarkable English work* mentions that morality is essentially variable, progressive, and perfectil)le ; that it is a reflex of wants, of usages, and of circumstances ; what is good here, is bad elsewhere — as to take care of one’s infirm parent, or to bury him alive. Its radius, he says, has gone on eidfirging for ages, from the inferior to tlie superior races ; at iii*st consisting only of the family, it has since extended to the whole tribe ; that which was evil in one was good in other tribes. Thence it lias spread far and wide and has liecome international, “^loralityor ethics,” says ^Ir. Tylor, “signifies the act of conforming to the manners (mores, ^6rj) of the society to which ^ve belong. 'I'here are not two races in the world which have exactly the same code of morality, but each lias its own, which is sanctioned by public opinion.” At the present moment throughout Europe do not the rules of morality change in the event of war'? Tylor’s most approved criterion, “ Do not to anotlier that which you would not have done to yourself,” applies to animals as well as to man. The dog knows that in order not to be bitten he must not bite, and acts accordingly : he has also his morality. Man possesses consciousness of that which philosophers call le moi, that is to say of himself, of his personality. It would be Primitive Culture,” by E. B. Tylor. Second edition. London, 1S73. Translated into Frencb; Reiswald and Co.’s edition. Paris, 1876. 154. MENTAL FACULTIES. [Chap, iv. strange if animals had it not also. Man lias the sense of the noble, of the just, though he has many ways of ex})ressing it. He grasps the relations of cause to effect ; the animal does the same. He possesses spontaneity, Avill, the power of balancing probabilities : but is it not so with animals 1 Madness even is not peculiar to- man.* M. Houzeau has worked out this subject in a masterly manner in his two volumes on “ The iMental Faculties of Animals.” But Prichard, the most orthodox of anthropologists, had previously devoted a long chapter to the consideration of their psychical en- dowments {facultes 2 )fiijclnqup.s). There is also a work in the Hibliothe(pie des Sciences Contemj)oraines,” which treats of all these questions.t But to the anthroi)ologist, or the unprejudiced naturalist, the inference is obvious. Between i\Ian and most animals there is no absolute radical ditference in intellectual arrangement. All the faculties of Man are to be found, without exception, in animals, but in a rudimentary state ; some are very highly develojied, others more so even than in ourselves. It is not the exclusive possession of special faculties which gives us our supremacy, our judgment, our intelligence, our correctness of observation ; but the measure of these, and, better still, our holding them in perfect equilibrium. In ' a madman we continually notice a faculty of rising to a higher state than that which the sane man possesses. Keep this Avell in view, and the madman would a^Dpear to you to be a genius ; but at the same time other faculties are debased, there is a loss of balance, and consequently a less amount of reason. The intellectual characteristic of ]\Ian in general, and especially of the man of wisdom, is the exact equilibrium of all his faculties, and not the increase or exaltation of any. Another physiological character connected with the function of the brain, which antlmopologists look upon as peculiar to man, is * See “ Traite de la Folie des Animanx et de ses Eapports avec celle de r Homme,” by Pierquin. Tv^o vols. Paris, 1839. f See also “LAnatomie Comparee du Systeme Nerveux,” by Leuret and Gratiolet, vol. i., chap. “ Facultes des Mammiferes.” Paris, 1839. Chap, iv.] FACULTY OF EXPRESSION. 155 the faculty of language, or that of uttering articulate sounds. Ac- cording to the doctrine of the derivation of ]\Ian from less perfect animal forms, !Man 'would have' taken his origin from the moment that he 'Wiis i>ut in i)ossession of this faculty. Faculty of Lauynwje. ^lany, if iu>t all, animals communicate to one another their thoughts ivlating to their usual life ; they have intonations and modulations of voice, each of 'which has a distinct and definite meaning. They variously express fear, joy, suirering, and hunger. They make themselves understood by tho.se of their own species, of their own family, of their own young ; they warn them of the a])proach, of the nature, ami of the amount of danger. But, as a general mle, they do not articulate. Some of them join together a few consonants to vowels, but they re})eat them without change. In this respect the notes of birds would lietter deserve the name of liuiguage. Let us exi)lain. There e.xists in Man and animals, and common to them both, a general faculty calletl that of exi»ression (Ckuiiisiu), or the faculty of connecting an idea with a sign. Its various manifestations are the faculties of mimicry and of speech ; pro- bably also music and drawing. The mimic faculty evidently exists in animals, d'he dog which stands at game, and runs back to see if his ma.ster is in i)Ui*suit, or which scratches at the door to be let in, is a proof of this. It is not surprising that the animal does not l)osse.ss the faculty of delineation, seeing that it has not the perfect hand of !Man, nor has it been instructed. AVe can simply allude to the hum of imsects produced by the friction of their elytra, and pass on to the vocal faculty. There is not the slightest doubt that animals express their ideas in this way. M. Coudereau has taken great pains to analyse the language of the hen, and the numerous intonations corresponding to each order of ideas, which are pro- voked by the small number of feelings and wants in connection with its humble existence. But in this, and probably in that which is uttered l)y the howling monkey, are there not articulate 156 FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. [Chap. iv. sounds, or syllables more or less jumbled together, which deserve the title of language ^ AYe must remember that the primitive languages spoken by Man were monosyllabic. All philologists tell us so, and that very few elementary syllables were sufficient at first to constitute an articulate language. The question then resolves itself into this : How many articulate sounds or simple syllables would be required to constitute a language, and where is the line to be drawn between the relatively j)erfect language of some species of animals, and the primitive language of the lowest type of our own progenitors 1 Of course we are not referring to the parrot, wliich attaches no meaning to its utterances, but to monkeys, which make use of different syllables, eacli liaving a distinct meaning. AYe will now analyse the mechanism of human speech. The air expired from the lungs enters into vibration in tlie larynx, where the voice is formed, and passes througli the mouth, where articulation takes place. The muscles of the larynx modify the foriiier, the muscles of the vault of tlie palate, of the tongue, of the cheeks and lips, have to do with the latter. But these also contract for other purposes, and are sup})lied by different nerves. The stimulation of these nerves at their origin would only produce irregular contractions having no dehnite object. There are then besides special centres, having distinct functions, in which the appropriate movements are co-ordinated, and tf) which the mental impressions are conveyed. Thanks to the experience with which nature favours us in the living body, the centre, in relation not only with articulation in general, but with each particular system, is well known. AA^lien the quadrilateral^ indicated by AI. Broca, at the posterior extremity of his third frontal convolution, especi- ally on the left side, is affected by an acute lesion, the faculty of articulating is disturbed or altogether suppressed, f * See page 109 on the Seat of the Faculty of Language. d In microcephales, who have never ibeen able to learn to speak, the third frontal convolution has been found atrophied. It has been asked why the faculty of language should appear to be localised, or rather is the more Chap, iv,] FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. 157 The plieiioiiieiioii reduced to its most simple expression is termed aphemia. The individual preserves his intellect, expresses his ideas by gestures or by writing, moves his tongue and lips, ami has power of voice, but is unable to articulate ; his general faculty of expression remains, but he has lost the power of speech. At other times the lesion is more extensive ; he has still ideas, but is incapable of committing them to writing or otherwise. Sometimes tlie lesion is still more considerable, and the intellect itself is affected. AV e see then the series of operations which language reipiires, and to wliich so many more 'or less distinct organs lend tlieir aid : (1) Thought and will; (2) The general faculty of expression; (3) The particular faculty of articulating ; (4) The transmission by nerves ; (5) The execution by muscles. The.se functions are thoroughly in accord, and largely developed in Alan, but is it not so in the animal ? 4'he animal has ideas, he possesses the faculty of expression and of articulating sounds, but all this is in a rudi- mentary state. In Alan, on the contrary, all have assumed gigantic proportions ; his ideas have become multiplieil in the course of ages ; his faculty of articulating has become perfected l)y use ; his nerves and mu.scles have learnt to obey him absolutely. And in the same way as an instrument gives out more hannonious sounds according as the fingers which play upon it ac(iuire greater expert- ness, and the musical j)ower which directs them gK*ater force, so human language is the result of progressive develoi)ment in the often exercised from the left side. Two explanations have been given ; that of M. Broca is the one generally admitted. We are not right-handed, he says, by accident, but because the left hemisphere, which presides over the movements of the right side by the decussation of the nerves near their origin, has from the first a gi’eater amount of activity. This excess of activity extends to all the functions of which this hemisphere is the seat, and notably of that of articulation. There are exceptions, nevertheless; that is to say, there are persons who originally, or after a lesion in the left hemisphere, speak with their right ; in the same way as there are some people originally left-handed, and others who have become left-handed in conse- quence of having lost their right hand. 158 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. v. course of ages from efforts at first weak and unpretending. But is it the multiplication of ideas which originally gave birth to language, or language which has given development to ideas'? This is the question.* CIIAPTEK Y. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS DISEASES FACTS OF TERATOLOGY .MICROCEPHALUS HYDROCEPHALUS PREMATURE SYNOSTOSES ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS OF THE SKULL CONCLUSION AS TO man’s place in the class OF MAMMALIA. Pathological conditions are merely deviations from the i)hysio- logical state. They affect living organs, and have reference also to man’s life generally. The chapter on pathological characters, although important, is only a sequel of our general division on physiological characters. The points on this horizon A^dlich inte- rest the anthropologist, only looking at the comparison of Man with the other mammalia, are of three orders: (1) The numher of diseases common to Man and animals, and the few peculiar to the one or the other ; (2) The disturbances in the regidar de- velopment of the body, when they can throw any light on the problem of the origins of organisation ; (3) Particular alterations in the skeleton being capable of being confounded with the normal condition. The laws of pathology are the same throughout the whole mammalian series as those of physiology, upon which they depend ; their effects, too, are generally identical. Animals, like Man, are subject to accidents, to faidts of development, to diseases of an acute and transient nature, and to those which are chronic and of long duration. They have the troubles of jmuth as well as those See “ La Liuguistique,” by M. Abel Hovelacque, 2nd edition, Paris, 187G, •“ Bibliotheqiie des Sciences Contemporaines.” Chap. v.J PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 159 of old age. In both are observed iiiHauiinatory and rheumatic aftections, eruptive fevei-s, typhus, the neuroses ; the only difference is in the country in 'svhich these diseases manifest themselves, and in the symptoms resulting from this. There is as great a difference between the diseiises which attack Europeans and those seen in Xegroes, as between the- diseases of Man and those of animals.* Thus the mux mu' jnmhes (grease) in thehoi*se is the same disease as the cow-pox of the cow and the small-pox of Man. Experiments by inoculation have clearly proved this. The scab of sheep is doubtless something of the same kind ; the pig, too, is subject to a form of small-pox. The congestion of the spleen of the sheep species becomes the charhon in horned cattle, and the malignant pustule in !Man. It is unnecessary to say that affections of the skin are not the same on the thick skin of the horse and on the delicate skin of the European, lietween the latter and that of the Xegro there are also differences in this respect. So the nervous system being less impressionable in animals, the reaction is less strong, and the fever less apparent. Like oui-selves, the animal is dyspeptic, asthmatic, tuberculous, scrofulous, or cancerous. Like ourselves, the constituent elements of his blood — the globule, the albumen, and the fibrin — increase or diminish, lu-oducing anajinia, dropsy, or scurvy. Food other than the milk provided for their use, produces in their young dian-hfea, as in ^lan. They have the same swelling of the glands during the eruption of the teeth. A young orang died under our own observation owing to disorders of dentition, which arose while we were treating it as we should have done a huniaiL being. The acarus which produces the itch may differ in kind, but its effects are identical. Parasites in general, such as entozoa, vary, as in !Man, according to climate, but in the same way as those which infest vegetables. Hydrophobia is met with in the dog, the cat, the wolf, the fox, the cow, and the horse, as in ^lan {Trousseau). Syphilis exists among apes. A macacus sinicus which was the subject of a communication to the Anthropo- * “ Dictionnaire de Medecine Veterinaire,” by Bouley and Reynal. Two vols. 1859. 160 ANOMALIES OF DEVELOPMENT. [Chap. v. logical Society of London, in 1865, presented tlie three series of phenomena — the ulceration of the sexual organs, the falling off of the hair, and the affection of the hones. The diseases of the brain themselves are not pecidiar to Man. Animals exhibit many forms of delirium ; hut they are more frequent in Man, owing to the im- portance of the organ which is their seat, as well as to the activity and delicacy of its manifestations. In a word, the pathological types are the same throughout the whole mammalian series, and are only modified according to species. The diseases peculiar to one or many species are rare, as glanders, Nvhich appears peculiar to Man and solipeds. ^Moreover, animal pathology has advanced hut little, and has scarcely reached beyond that of our domestic species. Anomalies of development are, according to our idea, of four kinds. Some exhibit themselves physiologically during life : for example, giants and those afflicted with polysarcia ; others are con- genital, l)ut can be modified or removed after birth ; a third kind are congenital and irremediable, except occasionally by surgical means, and are called monstrosities, or teratological phenomena ; a fourth are the organic anomalies described at page 126, under the name of Eeversions. Among giants we may mention a Tinlander, who was 2 '83 metres ill height, and a Kalmuck, whose skeleton is in the Museum Orfila, 2 "5 3 metres. Then we have dwarfs, but these are for the most part affected with rickets. The height of the celebrated Bebe of King Stanislas of Poland was 89 centimetres; another, 25 years of age and 56 centimetres in height, was presented to- Henrietta of Prance in a j)ie. The ordinary weight of the man is 63 kilogrammes, accord- ing to Quetelet, and that of the woman, 54. "We have seen dwarfs who only weighed from 4 to 8 kilogrammes. In polysarcia, or obesity, the weight is often more than 150 kilo- grammes. Two Englishmen, brothers, weighed, the one 233 kilogrammes, the other 240 [Sappey). Another Englishman, in 1724, measured 1 miff re 72 centimetres round the body, and was 1 metre 86 centimetres in height, BarroAV mentions a half-caste Chap, v.] ALBINISM. 161 from the Cape of Good Hope, A\dio lived twelve years in his bed, and was burnt alive in it ; the house having taken lire, neither the door nor the window was found large enough to enable him to get out. Albinos are individuals in whom the pigmentary matter is so far deficient that the skin and hair are colourless, the iris is trans- parent, and the choroid coat destitute of the dark pigment for the absorjition of redundant rays of light. In consecpience of this, they are unable to bear bright sunlighl, and see better at night than during the day. Their eyeballs are affected with a perpetual oscillating movement, their skin and hair are colourless, or of a dull white, the eyes reddish, the transparency of the tissues show- ing the blood circulating tlirough the capillaries. They are often indolent, and without muscular vigour. There are partial albinos, in wlioni all the above symptoms are observed, but in a less degree. They may easily pass umioticed among the white mccs, but are very observable among the black ; their hair is flaxen or red, their skin coffee-coloured or speckled, their eyes are light blue or reddish. Both are met with among all races and under all climates. In some of the native courts on the west coast of Africa, especially in Congo, they are an object of veneration, and go by tlie name of “ dondos.” Dr. Schweinfurth has seen a great number of them with tlie king of the Monbouttous on the banks of tlie Bahr-(d-G hazel. From their presence among the blackest populations, Prichard framed an important argument in favour of the influence of external circumstances, and of the derivation of the human race from one 'primitive pair. He delighted to reiterate it, and more- over he was the first to establish the fact that their hair was as Avoolly and their features were as negro as those of their fellow- countrymen of the same tribe. TVe say again, albinism is only a monstrosity, a pathological condition which has been cured, and we must take care how we place implicit reliance on the confused accounts given of it by travellers. A cutaneous affection called pitfjriasis versicolor is seen in whites, as a partial loss of colour of some portions of the skin, while the accumulation of pigment upon MONSTROSITIES. 162 [Chap. v. other portions causes them to appear of a deeper colour. The eyes are not at all affected in these cases. Our ’opinion is that what has heen called in negroes piehald, and described as an example of partial albinism, is the same thing. The scaly affection called ichthyosis, often of -a marked hereditary character, to Avhich Mr. Darwin frequently alludes, and the subjects of which deserve the title of porcupine men, has no interest for the anthropologist. Two individuals, liussians by birth, ’were recently exhibited in Paris, called dog-men, whose bodies were covered with a quantity of long coarse hair ; they were also said to have exhibited a defective development of the teeth. Similar cases in Eurmah and India have been described, which were hereditary through three generations. Monstrosities, of wliich there are many varieties,* are produced during embryonic or foetal life, either in consequence of hereditary predisposition, of some accident to the mother, or from some disease of the foetus. They arise either from arrest, excess, or perversion of development. Some are incompatible with life, others do not interfere with it. We are not about to give an explanation respecting the two theories — either the one as to the pre-existence of germs, as maintained by Winslow, but now abandoned, and which means that the embryo represents from the very first the future being in his entirety ; or the other, that of Serres and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, called epigenesis, which we have described at page 128, and which admits progressive development. Among these monstrosities, we may mention polydactylism, or the existence of from four to seven fingers, which has been noticed as haAung occurred through many generations ; inversion of the viscera, in which the heart is found only on the right side, or where aU the viscera are inverted ; the absence of one or more limbs ; herma- phroditism ; hypospadias ; imperforate anus ; hare-lip ; spina bifida ; microcephalus, etc. One of the most curious of the teratological groups is diplogenesis, in which the whole body is more or less double, as if there had been a fusion of two germs, or a duplication of a single one. The Siamese twins, and the two Zambo girls * Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, “ Traite de Teratologie,” Paris, 1832. Chap, v.] ilEXT-lL ALIENATION. 1C3 e.xliibitecl in 1874 in Paris were of this kind. Perhaps "sve onglit to speak of tliein as examples of supplementary limhs, as that of a girl of 14 or 15 years of age, exhibited the same year before the ^Vntliropological Society by Dr. Pall. Monstrosities are not peculiar to Man ; they are frequent also among animals. AVe shall oidy speak of those which are specially interesting to us as taking place in the head, as microcephalus and hydrocephalus. Under the name of mental alienation we include all the various functional ’disorders of the brain. These may be reduced to three : (1) Alania properly so called, which breaks out in individuals hitherto sane, has two forms — the one of excitement, the other of depression — and is general or partial ; (2) Dementia, which is a general and progressive feebleness of all the faculties, and is of two kinds — accidental, or senile ; (3) Idiotcy, in which the faculties have never attained their full development. In the three forms, the volume of the brain is increased or diminished according to the amount of disease, and according to the greater or less amount of blood which it contains. Tn ordinary mania tlierc* is rather an increase, and in dementia, sooner or later, a decrease. The lesion affects the entire organ, its central portions, its convolu- tions, and sometimes solely the gray substance covering them, and the functional disorder becomes permanent. It is impossible to T)e deceived, and true human superiority consists in knowing how to look the truth in the face. The most beautiful of our intellectual manifestations — those of which we are so justly proud — are the product of a material organ, in the same way as bile is the product of the liver, and the circulation is the product of the con- tractions of the heart. A sound and healthy brain produces sound judgment and understanding ; a diseased, bloodless, and impaired brain produces the reverse. That which distinguishes Alan from the brute is the quality and quantity of the organ — the quahty and quantity of the product. If mania and dementia only concern medicine, idiotcy has an interest for antliropology ; it exhibits the brain sometimes less developed, more simple, more or less stunted in growth, and approaching more to that of animals. It 2 1G4 IDIOTCY. [Chap. v. There are many direct causes of idiotcy. Sometimes the volume of the brain is normal, but its convolutions are very large, generally less flexuous, or decidedly imperfect at some particular point. Sometimes it is hypertrophied, and its convolutions, though simple, are, as it were, piled upon one another, and tend to produce im- pressions on the internal surface of the cranium. Sometimes it is altogether atrophied, or only so on one side, in its frontal, parietal, or occipital lobes, in its central portions, or in a group of convolu- tions wliich we have seen replaced by cellular tissue, or trans- formed into a serous cyst. In a case shown to us by Dr. Mierze- jewski, the parietal and occipital lobes were so shrunken, that the cerebellum was completely uncovered, ■ as in the kangaroo. These apparently contradictory lesions explain why the weight of the brain of lunatics generally has not uniformly exliibited the dimi- nution which >ve might have expected, as compared with the brains of men of sound mind. It is the same with the cubic measurements of the cranial capacity. The cranium, at the termi- nation of infancy, may remain small, but at adult age and later it is unable to follow the retraction of its contents, and to become less in size. After inspecting 520 crania of insane persons, collected by Esquirol, which form part of the museum of the Anthropological Institute of Paris, and setting aside the probable cases of hydro- cephalus, we may safely say that their mean cranial capacity is below the mean in men of sound mind. If one could obtain those of idiots — that is to say, those who have been insane from birth — there cannot be a doubt that we should find it the same in them. Cretins, which are to be found under various names in almost all mountainous parts of the globe, may be placed in the same category as idiots. The immediate cause of cretinism is by no means certain. But how singular that this widespread malady should take place under the influence of external circumstances acting upon the brain of the infant even during intra-uterine life ! The head is generally large, the figure that of an aged person, and the nose deeply sunk at the root, which has given rise to a theory of which we shall speak presently."^ See “ Treatise on Mental Diseases,” by Greiseuger. Translated into French by M. Baillarger. ^ Paris, 1864. Chap, v.] MICEOCEPHALUS. 1G5 Microcephalus. All in -wliom the brain has not attained a certain degree of development, or the cranial cavity a given capacity at adult age, are termed microcephales, -whether such he really idiots or have only a general diminution of intellect similar to that of young infants. ]\r. Broca divides them into demi-microcephales and microcephales proper. He says all the non-deformed crania of adult Europeans whose capacity is below 1150 cubic centimetres, and the horizontal cir- cumference less than 480 millimetres, if a man, and 475 if a -woman, are demi-microcephales. The length and width are less positive ; moreover, we may consider crania to be demi-microcephales whose length is 163 millimetres and under, in the man, or 160 and under, in the woman, and whose width is 133 in the man and 127 in the Avoman.* But the diminution continues still further, Avhich lu'ings ns to the consideration of the true microcephales. IMicrocephalus is owing to a general or partial arrest or perversion of development in one part of the brain, Avhich manifests itself at various periods of intra-uterine life. It is merely an anatomical A'ariety of idiotcy. The organ, in the absence of complication, con- tinues .to groAv, but irregularly and sIoaaTj'. Its Aveight, at puberty, readies from 400 to 500 grammes, according to IM. Delasiauve ; it has been knoAAui to be 360 and even 240 gramn^es {Marshall). The cerebellum, Gratiolet states, is larger in proportion to the brain proper, and the convolutions are those of a foetus of five months. Atrophy is most frequently seen on the anterior lobes, and some- times on the posterior. The cranium has a capacity of from 300 to 600 cubic centimetres, a circumference of from 320 to 370 milli- metres, and a length of from 100 to 118. Taa-o microcephales, of the ages of 10 and 15 years, mentioned by Yogt, had a mean of 333 cubic centimetres, and scA^en adults, a mean of 433. The mean, in six cases of all ages, from M. Broca’s museum and laboratory, measured by M. Montane, Avas 440, and that of three of them See Chapters II. and III. for the measurements of normal crania. MICROCEPHALUS. 1G6 [Chap. v. of from 20 to 30 years of age, measured by j\L Broca liini- self, 414.* The body remains dwarfed or continues to be developed; it reaches puberty, and presents all the characteristics of that period without the power of procreation ; such was the case in the niicro- cephales exhibited twice in Paris under the name of Aztecs, on account of their supposed origin. The man, who was 32 years of age, was P35 metre in height, the woman, who was 29, P32 metre. Qdieir intellectual capacity was scarcely that of a child of three jmars of age ; their language consisted of about fifteen words, which they uttered in jerks. (Pig. 19.) As a result of the defective development of the brain, there is Fig. 19. — A, Maximo ; B, Bartola ; two microcepbales from Central America, tlie hair growing like a mop (en vadrouiLle), as the Ca/usos, a variety of mixed breed between the Indian and the Negro. smallness of the cranium, especially in the frontal region, as seen in the above figures of two Aztecs. The facial region, which grows regularly, at least more so than the cranium, appears large. The eyeballs, in consequence of the atrophy of the forehead, project above, and are slightly hidden under the lower lid ; the nose, at least in these two cases, is very projecting. They are very prog- nathous, their lower jaw is smaller than the upper, so that the alveolar arch recedes about 25 millimetres. t * “ Instructions Craniologiques de la Societd d’AntEropologie,” drawn up by M. Broca, p. 147 — a pamphlet of 200 pages, with plates, Paris, 1876; “ Sur les Microcephales,” by Carl Vogt, Geneva, 1867 ; “ Etude Anatomique du Crane chez les Microcephales,” by L. Montane, Paris, 1874. t Seethe discussion on the microcephales onthe occasion of our introducing these two Aztecs to the Anthropological Society in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, voh ix. 1874, vol. x. 1875. A. B. ClIAP. V.] RICKETS OF THE LONG BONES. 107 The third series of pathological characters has reference to niorhid deformities, or those folloAving upon morbid conditions. They affect especially the skeleton, hones deformed by disease being mistaken for sound bones. These morbid conditions either affect all the bones or oidy those of the cranium ; the former include rickets, intlammations of the bones, syphilis, old sores, and fractures. AVe refer the reader to works on pathology for the majority of these, and shall contine ourselves principally to rickets, and to some diseases i^ecidiar to the cranium. Rickets. tickets is a disorder of nutrition, in which the process of ossifi- cation is arrested at the period when the osseous tissue is about to become thoroughly organised (Broca). It is less a disease than a state of suffering, symptomatic of an impoverished condition of the system. It exhibits itself from the third month of intra-uterine life, up to 18 or 25 years of age, when the skeleton has done growing (L. Tripier), but it is more fretpient about two years of age. The softened bones become deformed and incurved, in con- selace by a kind of porous or condensed callus, ossification proceeds with undue energy, especially in the seiTatures, and a condition of things is brought about in one or several of the sutures which ought only to exist naturally at or beyond 40 years of age — premature synostosis. A loss of balance between the resistance of the parietes of the cranium and the increasing development of its contents is the prin- cipal cause of its pathological deformities. It is sufficient that one of these causes shoidd be at work for the bones and even for the brain to become diseased. The parietes become softened, or at a later period prematurely consolidated, whereas the brain remains sound and goes on increasing naturally ; deformity is making its 170 HYDEOCEPHALUS. [Chap. v. iippearance. If the parietes are passing ttiroiigli their regular phases of development while hydrocej^halus or hypertrophy of the brain is going on, the same result may he produced. The causes of the phenomena are simple while their results are complex. Hydrocepli al us. Hydrocephalus is dropsy, or an increased secretion of fluid, in the ■cranial cavity, whether this fluid has its source in the ventricles or between the membranes. It is acute or chronic, the chronic form being either very serious in amount, moderate, or slight. If the acute form exists to any considerable extent it is speedily fatal. A certain Cardinal, how- ever, lived to be twent 3 ^-three (1) years of age ; his head resembled a large ball, and from the base of the forehead to the occiput measured 87 centimetres in circumference. In its moderate and chronic form it is interesting to the antlmopologist in two ways : cither the hydrocephalus conies on shortly after birth, Avhen the sutures offer no obstacle to the distention of the head, and the skull on recovery is easil}^ distinguished b^; its generally spherical shape ; or it makes its appearance at a later period, when the membranous spaces between the sutures are more or less ossifled or serrated, and then the arched projections are more limited in extent, nnd only appear at certain points. AVe may also mention, but with some reserve, a condition of partial hydrocephalus, in which, owing to adhesions between the membranes, the fluid accumidates at particular spots in the form of cysts, or the bones give way, or become altered, as in the preceding case, at some special point. The principal causes of hydrocephalus are the bad constitution of the parents, or hereditary predisposition. Tranck mentions the fact of seven infants following, and Goelis of six, being attacked with this disease. Its symptoms are easily recognised : the sutures are ivide and very slow in closing ; the bones become thimied, ossification is arrested, and a species of local rickets, confined to the cranium, comes on as a complication. General hydrocephalus, which comes on after birth, and is sub- Chap, v.] CEREBRAL HYPERTROPHY. 171 sef|ueiitly amenable to treatment, is recognised at once by the globular form of the cranium. That of the second or third kind is more difticidt to diagnose, owing to the existence in both of the following characters : The frontal protuberances are projecting, or rather the whole forehead is so ; the temporal shells present at their centre a rounded arching, or the superior border is detached from the parietal. The supra-occipital region forms an ovoid pro- jection, which communicates M’ith the parietal surfaces by an abrupt inclined plane, in the thick portion of which we see a number of ossa Wormiana. The retro-mastoid sutures are complicated ; the sagittal and coronal, as w'ell as the union of the greater wings of the sphenoid with the parietal, are thickened, or raised, or interrupted by ossa AVormiana. Frecpiently a transverse channel, from one surface of the greater wing of the si)henoid to the other, and which is not readily found, passes across the bregma, and seems to divide the cranium into two parts, each of which is increased in size ; the orbital vault is pressed downwards. llroca mentions as important signs — when they exist — a primary circumscribed arch- ing at the anterior border of the temporal shell, encroaching upon the adjacent portion of the pterion, and another arching at a point which he calls the dacrion, that is to say at the internal surface of the orbit at the union of the frontal, the ascending process of the maxillary and the os unguis. llupcrtroph y. Hypertrophy as well (js atrophy of the brain are disorders of development of the substance of that organ, which generally produce their effects upon the parietes of the brain-case. It assumes the form of an acute or chronic disease, or of a sub-physiological condition, and is frequently induced l)y excessive work which parents exact from their children before they are fully developed. That which conies on during life or at its close does not concern us here ; that which appears during intra-uterine life, or soon after birth, has a most important influence on the evolution of the cranium. IM. Eaillarger has seen a case of hypertrophy in which 172 PEEMATUEE SYNOSTOSES. [Chip. v. the body weighing 23 kilogrammes, the brain weighed 1160 grammes ; and another in which at foim years of age this organ weighed 1305 grammes. Hypertrophy is general, or partial; it affects the whole encephalon, the brain, a single hemisphere, a single lobe, the corpus callosum, or a group of convolutions. The causes which produce it are such as produce hydrocephalus or rickets, and the effects of the three diseases are similar. The inflammation which more particularly causes hypertrophy or hydro- cephalus sometimes passes to the parietes of the cranium tlirough the membranes, producing porous or condensed callus, and an arrest in the ossification of the sutimes or their premature oblitera- tion, although the natural effect of each of these maladies is distention of the cranium. Premature Synostoses. Deformities of the most varied description result from all the above-mentioned causes, and from the unequal method in which they exercise their influence upon the sutures. The arrest of the ossification of the sutures is, however, less serious than tlieii* pre- mature obliteration. The temporary sutures of intra-uterine life, as the interparietal and metopic, persist for an indefinite period with- out resulting in any appreciable deformity ; and moreover this per- sistence is regarded by some persons as the probable indication of some disorder in the new-born infant. Stalil has seen the breg- matic fontanelle open in a man of 50 years of age, but he does not say Avhether he presented any other peculiarity. The result of an arrest of the ordinary ossification at the edges of the sutures is that there is an increase of the volume of the cranium, which is not sensibly deformed. The effects of premature s^mostoses are more serious, but they vary according to the period at which they are produced. Of a grave character when the sjmostosis takes place in early infancy, their gravity diminishes subsequently, and gradually disappears when the brain has arrived at or near its full term of development. Chap, v.] PREMATUKE SYNOSTOSES. 173 M. Virchow* has attempted to formulate a general law : “At the end of the synostosis of a sutirre,” he says, “ the development of the cranium stops short in a direction perpendicular to that of the closed suture ” — that is to say, the sagittal suture being closed, the cranium remains narrower and developes in length. His second proposition is that “ of all the parts of the cranium, the base, and notably the basilar vertebra?, attain the largest amount of development.” Two other statements of the same author ought to be recorded. Cretinism, according to him, is due to the synostosis of the tri- basilar bone — that is to say, of the spheno-basilar suture and the suture of the body of the anterior sphenoid and the posterior sphenoid. This is why cretins have the occipital shortened, and the base of the nose siuik in. Xeither the one nor the other is 2 ?roved to demonstration. Cruveilhier has refuted l)y anticipation the explanation given as to microcephalus ; the facts collected by M. Vogt do not establish it, and the siiecimens in the laboratory of ^I. Jlroca contradict it. Let us give some examples of our own. 8hoidd the spheno-frontal suture be synostosed, the forehead not having the power to become further enlarged, will remain contracted while the rest of the cranium continues to increase. Should the sagittal and coronal sutures be ossified, the lambdoidal and inferior lateral remaining free, the vaidt the cranium will become lifted up e/i masse (acrocephalus), and the increased development ^vill be at tlie expense of the occij)ital portion. We are acquainted with two examples of this kind. In another cranium we witness the contrary : the sagittal and the lambdoidal are synostosed, and it is the frontal which is driven forwards, the vaidt of the cranium being at the same time raised. Another cranium exhibits better still what is taking place : all the lateral, posterior, and anterior sutures are welded together, with the exception of the anterior two-thirds of the sagittal, and the internal two-thirds of the coronal on the left side. What is the result * Virchow,- “ Gosammelte Abhancllungen,” Frankfort, 1856 ; and “ Untcr- suchiingen iiber die Entwickelnng der Schocdelgrundes,” Berlin, 1857. 174 SCAPHOCSPHALUS. [Chap. y. The anterior and internal half of the left parietal is lifted up above the level of the neighbouring surfaces. It is unnecessary to pro- ceed farther. What we always notice is an internal pressure at one point, exerting its influence at the part in the immediate vicinity where it meets with the least resistance, and producing at the first point an arrest of development, and at others one or more compensatory archings {voussures de compensation). What fre- quently surprises us is to notice a similar synostosis in two different skulls, and one only to be deformed. This depends on the age at Fig. 21. — ScapHoceplialic cranium of a Negress from Senegal. which the lesion is produced. Dr. Thulie has presented to the Societe d’Anthropolpgie a cranium which possesses considerable interest in this respect. An accidental bony callus was present on one of the parietals, and had synostosed the sagittal and coronal suture on one side only, notwithstanding which the cranium was perfectly uniform ; this, as well as other indications, showed that the welding had taken place at 15 or 20 years of age. We must also remember that we are only looking at the external surface of the cranium, and that in certain unaccountable deformities there may exist on the internal surface incomplete Chap, v,] SCAPHOCEPHALUS. 175 synostose 'which escape observation. AVe will conclude by giving* a classical example of synostosis. Scaphocephalus signifies a deformity peculiar to the cranium^, and is characterised by its contraction transversely, its antero- posterior elongation, and its increase in height. The skull turned upside down has the form of a boat, from which its name is derived ; the forehead is straight, bulging, and narrow ; the occipital is’ globular and conical, and projects backwards from the lambdoidal suture. An horizontal crest readies from one to the other on the anterior half, the sides shelving like the roof of a house, which the obliteration of the parietal protuberances renders still more prominent. In two specimens presented to the Societe d’ Anthropologic, the length was to the width as 56 : 100 in one, and as 60:100 in the other. These are the faintest cephalic indices hitherto observed on the human cranium. Four opinions are put forward in explanation of this pheno- menon :* (1) According to M. Virchow, it is due to synostosis, during infancy, of the sagittal suture, the other sutures remaining open. (2) According to MINI. Minchin and Yon Bad', it proceeds from there being but one point of ossification for both j^arietals — an hypothesis which has but few supporters. (3) According to IM. Morselli, there are two distinct parietals, but their two points of ossification are so near together that their fusion quickly takes place. (4) M. Calori thinks that it is the result of an original elongation and narrowness of the cranium. The four may be reduced to two, namely, the fusion of the two parietals and peculiar formation from the first. Mr. Barnard Davis is opposed to the former from the fact that in his collection, out of 27 crania with the sagittal suture closed, there are only four scaphocejDhali. In the laboratory of M. Broca there are many examj^les of pre- mature obliteration of the sagittal suture, without scaphocephalus. In a Tartar skull belonging to Mr. Huxley, vdiich is one of the largest known, the sagittal suture is closed, and the others are open. But there is an easy reply to objections : the synostosis of * See “ Eevue d’Anthropologie,” vol. iii., p. 709 ; “ Bull. See. d’Anthrop.,’'^ meeting of May 7, 1874 ; and “ Instructions Craniologiques.” 176 PATHOLOGICAL DEFORMITIES. [Chap. v. tlie sagittal only produces an arrest of development of tlie vault in a transverse direction and compensatory increase in length, that is to say scaphocephaliis, before the age of from 8 to 12 years (Broca). At two years of age its effects are almost inevitable. A case is mentioned in which the deformity existed even at birth. ATo case of scaphocephaliis has been published up to the present time in which obliteration of tlie sagittal had not taken place. Pathological Deformities. A^arious terms, chiefly of foreign origin, have been employed to designate the principal cranial forms produced by the causes just mentioned. Similar names are given to certain physiological forms which are met with as characteristic of certain races. Here, from the physiological to the morbid condition, as with respect to so many disorders and other affections of the brain, the transition is scarcely perceptible. In how many skulls, looked upon as sound, is there not present this globular supra-iniac projection of the occipital, which is sometimes a characteristic of race, and at others an evidence of h 3 vlrocephalus or of premature synostosis? One of the Esquimaux skulls in the museum, regular otherwise, at least in appearance, deserves the epithet of scaphocephaliis. The term has been similarly applied to the normal skulls of Australians, Polynesians, and African negroes. The following are some of the terms just referred to, with their signification : Acroceplialic, oxycephalic, hypsocephalic, pyrgocepbalic, elevated skull. Platycepbalic, tapiuocepbabc, with the vault of the skull flattened, elliptical. Eurycepbalic, large skull. Stenocephalic, narrow skull. Trocbocepbalic, very round skull, Trigonocepbabc, skull triangular at tbe top anteriorly, supposed to be owing to tbe niedio-frontal synostosis. Megalocepbalic, skull of very large capacity. Kepbalon, large skull, great {Virchoiv). Septocopbalic, microcepbabc, small skull. Macroccpbalic, elongated skull. Chap, v.] POSTHUMOUS DEFORMITIES. 177 Plagiocephalic, an obliquely- oval deformity (VircJioiv), large skull ■with forehead flattened (Linrucus, Bu$]c). Cylindrocephalic, elongated cylindrical skull. Klinocephalic, skull >vith vault in form of a saddle. Cymbocephalic, kumbecephalic, an exaggeration of the preceding, or skull en hesace. Scaphocephalic, sphenocephalic, boat-shaped skull. Pachy cephalic, skull with thick hypertrophied parietes. Many of these arc frequently associated together. Van der Ho3ven, for example, says that the skulls from the Caroline Archipelago, certain of the Hebrides, and New Caledonia, are hypsistenoceplialic ; Barlow, that a certain deformed skull found in Silesia is oxyklino- cephalic. As we proceed we shall find other names, equally derived from the Gyeek, which are more generally in use. There are not only pathological deformities ; there are others with which the anthropologist ought to be acquainted, which he frequently meets with in certain skulls in the course of his cranio- metrical studies, and which he is obliged to put ashle. Posthumous, Platyhasic, and Plagiocephalic Deformities. The first, or posthumous, is easily recognised. It is produced in more or less moist argillaceous soils by the pressiu’e of the earth which has been exerted upon the softened skull at intervals for ages. The skull is said to have the consistence of soft wax, beinff variously shaped according to the natiu’e of the soil in which it is enveloped.* One wall might be more or less depressed or sheered round, while the opposite wall might be exactly the reverse. Or the pressure might be local. Sometimes an entire bone might be irregidarly furrowed. Its principal characteristic is the absence of regidarity and symmetry. The second has been called plastic by ^Ir. B. Davis, a term more conformable with the preceding, and platybasic by M. Broca. It makes its appearance unexpectedly at all periods of life, but princi- * “Fouilles d’un Cimetiere Bourguignon du Cinqui^me Siecle,” by Paul Topiuard, in “ Bull. Soc. d’fimulation de TAin,” Burgundy, 1874. N 178 ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. [Chap. v. pally during infancy and old age, owing to a defective consistence of the hones at the circumference of the occipital foramen. The weight of the head is the immediate cause of it ; the articular condyles, the circumference of the occipital foramen, and the adjoining portion of the basilar apophysis become bent, and penetrate into the cranial cavity about one centimetre or less. M. Broca considers that it is shown to exist in white races when the negative angle of Daubenton is more than eight degrees. The third takes place during infancy, but accidentally, either owing to the infant being constantly carried on the same arm, or by the pressure which the weight of the head exerts upon the entire occipital or upon one side of it when the infant is lying on its back. In the one case a median flattening, in the other a lateral depression of the whole of the nucha, is produced ; the skull continuing to develope, a compensatory arching {voussure de conv- ])ensation) is formed on the opposite side, and the maximum antero-posterior length of the skull becomes oblique or diagonal. This is termed the obliquely oval or plagiocephalic deformity. Other results also follow. Thus the synostosis of one-half of the sagittal and lambdoidal suture, certain clironic forms of torticollis, rickets, partial hydrocephalus, &c. Artificicd Deformations. These are also due to pressure exerted during life. Sometimes they are produced involuntarily by badly - constructed head- dresses, sometimes voluntarily in order to conform to accustomed usage or to submit to certain rites. Man is an intelligent animal, but also a very whimsical one. The structure of his brain incites him to the noblest deeds as well as to the most ridiculous practices, such as cutting off the little finger, scorching the soles of the feet, extracting the front teeth, or deforming the head, because others have done so before him. Artificial deformations of this kind are simply customs, and con- sequently might have been treated of in our second part when con- sidering ethnic characters; but it is difficult to separate them Chap, v.] ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. 179 from deformities produced by other causes, and \ve ought to he acquainted with tliem before commencing to practise craniometry on normal skulls. They are met with in both hemispheres. Hippocrates and Herodotus were the fii*st to describe them among the Macrocephales, a people to the east of the Palus-^Ioeotis, to which custom they owe their name. Aristotle, Strabo, and Pliny also make mention of them. 'Within the last few years there have been discovered in the Caucasus, in the Crimea, in Hungary, in Silesia, in Belgium, and in various parts of France, ancient and contemporaneous deformed skulls, agreeing in type with those Avhich have been mentioned. AVe conclude, therefore, in comparing tliese data with those with which history furnishes us, that tlie Aryan nations with one of their tiibi , Itliliiigi tkin mirtrn^ li r r p assed over^ me 'Volskes-'fectosages i^the Caucasus under the name of Cinmierii, through Europe into France, where the processes of disfigurement have become modified in the way we have mentioned. Other skulls, however, have been met with in Europe, as the Helveto- Burgundian skull of 'V'oiteur in the Jura, in the form of a sugar- loaf ; and perhaps that of Bel-Air, near Lausanne, in Switzerland, the nature of whose deformity is different, which leads us to believe that all the European peoples disfiguring their heads have not had the same origin. Deformations of tlie skull have been discovered in Polynesia, especially in Tahiti, in IMalacca, and in different parts of Asia as far as Syria. But the classic country in which these deformations are foimd is America. From a period prior to the Christian era, we see a nation, the Naliuas, leaving Florida, according to Brasseur de Bourbourg, to settle in ^lexico, and cpiitting it in the year 174 to disperse, some to the north, along the Mississippi, others to the soutli, across the Isthmus of Panama, and there disseminating the custom of flattening tlie head from behind forwards. Other deformations of a different type are met with in the same country, which it seems reasonable to refer to another primitive people. From these devia- tions from one and the same custom, we may infer that its origin dates back to a very remote period. They practised it during- N 2 180 ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. [Chap. v. infancy on both sexes, and sometimes on the male only, by very different methods. Sometimes the infant was fastened on a plank, or a sort of cradle with leather straps ; or they applied pieces of clay, pressing them down with small boards on the forehead, the vertex, and the occiput, according to the particular object they had in view. Sometimes the head was kneaded with the hands or the knees, or, the infant being laid on the back, the elbow was pressed on the forehead. Circular bands were sometimes employed to support the sides of the head. Sometimes they had recourse to some other method, which they carried out in another way. Each people, each tribe, each family had its various methods by which they might be recognised. In Vancouver’s Island and the neighbour- ing islands, three very different types have been noticed side by side. . The infant sometimes dies during the process, and when it sur- vives, it does so to the detriment of the intellectual faculties. The intellect, however, does not seem generally to be so much affected as we might have supposed. Even the cranial capacity is not diminished, because the brain, if it does not accommodate itself when pressure is forcibly exerted on it, is capable of resisting slow, partial, and progressive pressure. It has been asked whether in the course of time these deformations become hereditary. The ques- tion has generally been answered in the negative, notwithstandmg which we Avould not assert that certain brachycephales did not originate in this way. M. Gosse has described sixteen species of artificial deformation^ ten of which were in American skulls, which he afterwards reduces to five. M. Lunier admits seven species."^ We shall reduce the most interesting and the most common of them to two, the one dresse, the other couclie, comprising each of the species and the varieties. Moreover, there are but few of these which can be taken apart from the rest ; all of them seem to have * Gosse, “ Essai sur les Deformations Artificielles du Crane,” Paris, 1855 ; and “Presentation d’un Crane Deforme de Nahua,” in “Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vol. ii., 1871 ; Lunier, Article “ Deformations Artificielles du Crane,” in “Nouv. Diet, de Med. et Chirurg. Pratiques,” 1869. Chap, v.] AETIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. ' 181 gradations of form of tlie most opposite character, and it would be difficult to determine what name to give to them. It is, however, from their being so characteristic, and of forms with which we have become so familiar, that they enable us to recognise the people to which the skull belongs. * In the first kind, more or less forcible pressure and counter- pressure, varying also in height and in extent, have been exerted nt the two extremities of the skull, thus shortening the antero- posterior and lengthening the vertical and frequently the transverse •diameter. In the second kind, the length is, on the contrary, increased. AVhether the deformations be symmetrical or asymmetrical is imma- terial; sometimes we should expect the latter, but most frequently this would be involuntary and the result of a badly-conducted operation. When in the first kind, the dresse, the most continuous pressure Avas exerted on a gveat extent of the occipital, Avliile at the forehead there was only slight counter-pressure, the result Avas simple occipital deformation, or a vertical occiput. This is observed on the coasts of Peru, among some Puelchas, in one of the tribes of the Vancouver Archipelago, in Malacca, and even in Prance. If the sides of the skull Avere at the same time compressed or supported, Ave should get the quadrangular deformation met AAuth in South America, and among the PaAA^s mentioned by Morton. The pressure on the occipital being increased, and that of the forehead being continued, Ave should arrive at the raised cuneiform deformation (d/formation cuneiforme relevee) of Gosse, Avhich is characteristic of the ISTahuas, their descendants the PTatchez, certain of the Chinooks, and, in another part of the Avorld, the Tahitians. The most celebrated variety is the deformation trilohee, in the form of a trefoil, of the Island of Sacrificios, in the Gulf of Mexico, Avhich is produced by a supplementary band beginning at the occiput, passing up over the median line, and bifurcating in the middle of the sagittal suture to reach the temporal fossse. Things remaining thus, if the frontal pressure is made higher the middle lobe disappears, and Ave have the cordiform deformity and not the bilobed, because it Avould become amalgamated Avith another of which Ave shall speak presently. AETIFICIAL DEFOKMATIOXS. 182 [Chap. y. Ill the laboratory of M. Broca there are sixteen heantiM specimens of this from Ancona, Peru, &c. In the second kind, or couche, the frontal pressure was greater, it being exerted over the whole surface of the bone, while the occipital counter-pressure was exerted lower, was very shght, or none at all (the 2^oint cVcqjpui then passed through the vertebral column) : the skiiU therefore became elongated behind without obstruction. In the generality of cases, however, a supplementary pressure was made on the vertex. Hence we find on the upper surface of these skulls, from before backwards ; (1) a frontal depression or flattenuig ; (2) a bregmatic projection; (3) a post-bregmatic depression; (4) a swel- ling formed by the whole mass of the receding skull. The flattening of the forehead — which is sometimes immoderately receding, as in Pig. 19, representing the Aztecs — took the name, among certain peoples, of deformation of courage {cl ('.formation du courage). In the kind termed dresse, the forehead was more frequently widened and more elevated ; in this, it is usually narrower, longer, and lower. One of the consequences of this is that the roof of the orbits is depressed, and that the eyeballs are raised by being made to project. There are three species of this deformation or distortion ; (1) The cuneiform deformation {deformation cuneiforme couclice) of Gosse, wdiich is very marked in the Caribs of the Antilles, the northern Guaranis, and some hTorth American tribes near Yancouver’s Island. The majority of Cliinooks and other flat-heads {tetes p)lcttes) from the Columbia river, described by IMorton, are in the same category. (2) The elongated symmetrical deformation {deformation si/metrique cdlongee) of Morton, in use among the ancient Aymaras. (3) The macrocephalic deformation {deformation macrocepjlicde) of Europe, 'which in Prance has given origin to the amiular {annidaire) variety of PovHle,* and the bilobed (bilohee) of Lunier — observed in the departments of the Lower Seine and the two Se\ues — and to the simple frontal or Toulousian {Toidousaine) variety, so named from the country in 'which it has been specially noticed. (Pig. 22.) In the annular, the band extends from a point behind the bregma, * See also “ La Deformation allongee et cylindriqne ” of Foville, of Tvhicli tlie annular is a variety, in “ Anat. Syst. Nerveux ” of Foville. Paris, 1844. Chap, v.] DEFORMATION OF THE AYMARAS. 183 vertically below the chin, by crossing a circular furrow which divides the head into two portions ; these being less decided in the annular than in the bilobed variety. In the Toulousian, the line starts from the occiput, reaches the forehead obliquely, and there exerts its principal pressure.* The macrocephalic imites the two systems, so that the frontal depression of the Toidousian and the post-bregmatic depression of the annular exist there, the two being separated by a bregmatic projection. We must say it is often difficult to distinguish certain macro- cephalic skulls of the Crimea from certain elongated crania from Fig. 22.— Artificial deformation of the skull, called Toulousaine. the country of the ancient Aymaras. Among the deformations not included with the two preceding kinds, and which Gosse describes, we may mention the nasal deformation nasale) or flatten- ing of the bones of the nose, practised by the Botocudos of America, and the naso-parietal {deformation naso-parietale) or Mongolian, peculiar to the ancient Huns and to certain Kirghis. We have said that the types of ethnic deformations of the skull present gradations, whereby they are at times insensibly trans- formed into other types,* although their general character remains. ^ “ Snr la Deformation Toulousaine clu Crane,” by M. Broca, in “Bull. Soc. d’Antbrop.,” 1871. 184 DEFOEMATION OF THE AYIVIAEAS. [Chap. v. The skulls which are met with in Upper Peru and Bolivia, and are generally attributed to the Aymaras, are proofs of this. Their varieties may be reduced to three. In the first, almost the entire skull is thrown backwards, and has the appearance of being recum- bent {couclie) horizontally. The most strilving example of this which has been under our notice, and which belonged to M. Broca’s laboratory, projects 89 millimetres backwards behind the opisthion, while in 20 Europeans’, taken at random, the same projection is 68 millimetres ; but the skuU in this species is not always so couclie^ and we have noticed in others that the sub-occipital region is better supported. In the second species, the most common and most classic among the Aymaras, the sub-occipital coimter-pressure is a little higher, and is more perceptible, and the more compact lateral bands, which are readily recognised by their impression, prevent the skuU from spreading at the sides. Thus the extremity of the skull which corresponds to the obelion, or to the interval which separates it from the lambda, is conical, and constricted at the base by a chcular furrow which starts from the occiput and bifurcates on each side, one portion tending towards the region of the frontal protuberances and the other to the vertex. The varieties of this species differ in the degree of obliquity, above and behind, of the great posterior axis of the skull and of the cone in question. In the most oblique form the recumbent deformation (cUcoucliee) has become raised. Li the example which we have seen lately, the projection behind’ the opisthion is not more than 58 millimetres, that is to say, it is as much diminished as in the preceding case it was increased. In order to account for the difference in these two cases, we must com- pare together the following measurements, viz. : then post-opisthiac projection, their maximum vertical projection, and their maximum antero-posterior diameter. The first, which shows the elongation, and the second, the straight character of the skull, are expressed in hundredths of the antero-posterior diameter. In the first example, the index of the projection backwards is 44 ’6 and that of the height 77 ‘6; and in the second, the one is 34*3 and the other 92 ‘9. This proves that the deformation gains in horizontal projection in the former case what it loses in vertical in the latter. In the CUAP. V.] DEFORMATION OF THE NAHUAS. 1S5 thii’d species, which varies as to inclination, all the hands which compressed the sides have disappeared, or at least are scarcely per- ceptible. The lateral furrows are wanting, traces of the frontal pressiu’e alone remain ; the skull is swollen above and behind the auditory foramina, and the whole deformation has the appearance of an egg with its larger extremity posteriorly. This most resembles the macroceidialic deformity of the Caucasian skulls. Xotwith- stauding these varieties, we discover in the three species that a similar method of proceeding has been employed, and for a similar object, which is characteristic of the Aymara race, and which distinguishes it at once from the race of Ancona and also from that of Peru, in which the head is plainly raised up by a flattening from behind forwards. From this fact alone we should conclude that the peoples of Ancona belonged to the conquering race, which in Florida bore the name of Xahuas, and of which the Toltecs of ^Mexico, the Natchez of the Mississippi, and the Totonacks of Sacrihcios are other representatives. Conclusion. Our first part bemg completed thus far, in Avhich we have con- sidered ^lan zoologically in his (msemble, and having taken sj^ecial notice of his varieties, it remains for us to give an answer to the question propounded at the close of our preliminary remarks : AVhat place does Man occupy in the class of mammalia 1 Is he to be classified in an order or in a family ? We cannot too frequently reiterate that Man, o'vnng to his intellectual powers, occupies the first place in creation, and is its culminating point as a marvel of organisation ; he therefore exercises upon the planet of which he is an inhabitant a rightful dominion over aU living beings. Put we must also remember that there does not seem any radical difference between him and’ those most nearly related to him — the anthropoid apes. Anatomically, they possess the same organs, constructed and arranged in the same way, there being only secondary shades of difference between them. The feet, the hands, the vertebral column, the thorax, the pelvis, the organs of sense — all have the 186 CONCLUSION. [Chap. v. same configuration. The l3rain also in its structure and its convolutions is identical. Physiologically, the various functions are exercised in a similar manner ; even their diseases are alike. All the important differences between them reside in the volume of the brain, which is three times more developed in Man, and in his faculties, the due adjustment and co-ordination of which give him tlie judgment, the reason, and the understanding, Avhich are the noblest if not the brightest gems in his croAvti. An Emeritus professor relates that one day finding himself alone on Mont Plane, at the halting-place of the Grands Mulets, he cast his eye over the depth of the abyss which separated him from Chamounix, and which the Glacier des Possons rendered impassable. Some intelli- gent guides, however, had discovered a number of invisible paths, which connected these two points, and so assured their communica- tion. Such, said he, is the nature of the abyss Avhich separates Man from animals. The comparison is ingenious, but scarcely correct. The characters which Man and animals possess in common are manifest to all, and no one would have had any doubt on the subject if their serenity had not been disturbed by biblical legends or by philosophical specu- lations. The modes of transition, the anomalies which produce in one that which is normal, in others a strict identity in the majority of the organs, only slightly differing as to form, all indicate that unity of arrangement of which Geoffroy Saint-Hilahe speaks. AVhat sliould we say if, instead of their being reduced to the hmnan and simian forms which time had bequeathed to us, we had to arrange those which were intermediate, and which had escaped us '? Whatever his past may have been, Man now appears before us as forming a circumscribed zoological group, to which it is proper to give a name in our classification. What is it to be ? In the preceding pages, we have been led to recognise the exist- ence of particular types in each zoological division or subdivision. Eirst, we found a general type proper to all mammalia, that is to say, an ensemble of character common to men and animals, which, whilst distinguishing them collectively, unites them with birds and reptiles, as if all had been formed in one and the same mould, and CUAP. V.] COXCLUSIOX. 187 tlivcrsity luul supcrvenoil subsequently. Then, laying aside that Avliicli is foreign to our piu*pose, a general type comnion to all the monkey tribe, and to which ^lan assimilates infinitely more than to that of the camivori or ruminants. Lastly, in this simian group wo found a succession of ilissimilar types : first, that of lemurs, but slightly homogeneous, ill-defined, and showing a preference on the one side to certain cheiroptera and insectivora, and on the other to some species of cebians,-or monkeys of the new continent ; a second type, better defined and brought to greater perfection ; then a third type, that of pithecians, or monkeys of the old continent, divorcing itself from the second, and in which the particular traces of resemblance to ^fan are more apparent. Up to this point, the three simian types follow each other in a regular gradation of succession. Lut after the third there is a bound ; the pithecians have less resemblance to the anthropoid apes than to the cebians. The general type of the anthropoids is indeed altogether different and very marked, but it bears the closest resemblance to that of !Man. The conclusions we formed at each steji were, that many a characteristic so similar in monkeys of the three inferior groups, and in quadrupeds, is different in the anthro- poid ; and the physiognomy assumes a resemblance to that which it presents in jNfan. In a word, the type of character changes as we pass from the i)ithecians to the anthropoids ; their degree or their quantity alone varying as we pass from the anthropoids to ]Man. The real differences between these last may be reduced to two, which are not of equal value : (1) i^Ian always stands erect. The anthropoid ape sometimes holds himself erect and sometimes goes on all -foul’s ; and in the latter case he makes use of his anterior extremities as hands — as we should do in that attitude — and not as feet. The variations in their respective skeletons, muscles, viscera, as well as their direction of vision, depend on it. (2) The brain of ^lan is three times as large ; hence the development of his intellectual faculties, of liis faculty of language, and of his facial angle. Apart from these two points, and from everything which they involve, we can only tliscover resemblances between IMan and the 188 CONCLUSION. [Chap. v. anthropoids, and the following question naturally arises : Among the four classes of anthropoids, is there one more than another which approaches to Man 1 The gibbon may he set aside. In respect to his cerebral con- Tolutions and the vertebral column, taken as a whole he is really superior ; but as regards the proportions of his extremities, the narrowness of his pelvis, the arrangement of his muscles, the callosities on his buttocks, and his habits of livmg, he establishes the transition to the pithecians. The orang occupies an equally unfavourable position, by reason of certain anatomical characteristics which are proper to him, by the proportions of his skeleton, and by his defective feet and hands; but he recovers it owing to his cerebral convolutions. Iris facial angle, the number of his ribs, his teeth, and perhaps also his intelligence. The chimpanzee is remarkable for the richness of his cerebral convolutions, the proportions of his skeleton, the disposition of his femurs, and the general physiognomy of his skull. Lastly, the gorilla has the volume of his brain in his favour ; the direction of his vision, his height, the general proportion of his limbs, the arrangement of his muscles, his hand, his foot, and his pelvis ; but he has thirteen pairs of ribs, a defective vertebral column, laryngeal sacs, a diastema, and very large canines. Tor our part we rather decide in favour of the chimpanzee, and particularly of certain of his species ; but it is necessary that these should be better known. The elements upon which the leading arrangement of the .zoological divisions should be based are: (1) a general type, common to aU the mammaha; (2) a general sub-type, common to aU monkeys proper, to the anthropoid, and to Man; (3) a particular type, common to these last two ; (4) the human type. The most striking fact in relation to this was brought forward at a remarkable discussion which took place in 1869, at a meeting of the Societe d’Anthro- pologie. The question of doctrine having been carefuUy avoided, the conclusion was arrived at that the anthroijoid apes more nearly approach Man anatomically than the monkeys next in order to them. Chap, v.] CONCLUSION. 189 Consequently the separation to he made at the extreme of the series, between the inferior monkeys and Man, camiot be logically placed between the anthropoid and the so-called common monkeys. This leads us to Mr. Huxley’s classification: (1) Man and the anthropoid apes ; (2) the monkeys of the old and new continents ; (3) lemurs. But Ave must necessarily draAv a strong line of demarcation between j\Ian and the anthropoids. Although the type common ta both differs only in degree, that Ayhich concerns the brain has so- considerable a range that division becomes ineAutable. But, to bo- logical, we must in the same Avay separate the monkeys of the old continent from those of the neAv, Avhich have an equal claim to differ by reason of other characteristics ; and this leads us definitely to adopt the classification of M. Broca: (1) Man j (2) the anthropoid apes; (3) pithecians; (4) cebians; (5) lemurs. l^OAV these five groups have nearly the same zoological value, and are separated from each other by equal intervals. United, they present an ensemhle of common features, Avhich sej:»arates them en masse from the carnivora as much as these are separated from the marsupialia or the cetacea. We must then give to each of them equivalent leading titles, and to the Avhole collectively a title similar to that of carnivora, of marsiq^ialia, or cetacea. They thus form five families in one and the same order — that of Primates. Consequently^ ^lan fomis one PAjMILY ; the first in the OBDEP of Primates, the first in the CLASS of ^lammalia. It remains for us to inquhe Avhether the divisions of this family are to be arranged as genera, as species, or as A^arieties. We shall decide this* question after having examined the elements of the problem in our second part. i PART II. OF THE JJ.VCES OF .AIAXKIXD. CHAPTEK I. SPECIES VARIETY RACE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ANATOMICAL DESCIUPTION CRANIOLOGY DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS — PROCESSES OF RLUMENBACH^ OF OWEN, OF PRICHARD — CRANIOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF EMPLOYING CRANIOMETRY. The divisions and subdivisions of the liiiman family are designated in current language by tlie name of races ; and as siicli tlieir study ■woidd not present greater difiiculties than that of all other analo- gous divisions of natural history, but for the intrusion of (questions of doctiine. Have these races the value of species, of varieties, or even of genera ? This is the (piestion. Pefore giving a reply -we miLst pass in review: (1) the accepted detinitions of all these terms ; (2) the classilication of races ; (3) the particular characteristics upon which they rest ; (4) the principal physical types which we may take for gi’anted exist among mankind in general. Of Species. The main point of the dispute lies in the sense attached to this Avord, and to its exact limitation ; which necessitates our bringing in a certain number of definitions, and these have the advantage of drawing the questions closer together. In determining the first series of definitions we shall be met at the very threshold with inherent difficulties. In the second is sketched out a iirinciple pregnant with consequences — species arc variable, Avithout any o 194 SPECIES. [Chap. i. precise limits, and become transformed in the course of time. In the last the contrary principle is maintained, namely, that species are immutable, and changes in them never pass beyond certain boundaries. “Under the denomination of species,” Eobinet vrites in 1768, “ naturalists embrace the aggregate of individuals which possess an amount of a 2 :>preciable difference.” “ Species,” says Agassiz, “ is the last division of classification at which naturalists pause ; and this division is based upon the least important characteristics, such as form, colour, and propor- tions.” “ Species,” according to Lamarck, “ is the aggregate of indi- viduals like each other, whose offspring is perpetuated in the same condition, as long as circumstances of situation are not changed to such a degree as to alter their habits, their disposition, and their forms.” “Species,” says Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire subsequently, “is an aggregation or succession of individuals characterised by a uniformity of distinctive featmes, whose transmission is natural, regular, and unlimited in the present state of things ” “ Species,” says Cuvier, “ is the aggregate of all organised beings, descended from one original parentage, or from those which resemble them as far as they resemble each other.” In the following definition of Prichard, in which especial refer- ence is made to the position assigned to Man, we perceive the dominance of orthodox ideas, and, at the same time, some amoimt of vagueness attributable to the influence of Lamarck. “ Species,” he remarks, “ is an aggregate of individuals resembling each other, whose slight differences are explained by the influence of physical agencies, and who are descended from a primitive pair.” This is the ancient monogenestic creed. M. de Quatrefages considers that the elements of the definition may be reduced to two, viz. ; “ the resemblance of individuals to each other, and their uninterrupted descent from a primitive group.” It is not until subsequently that he admits, as a practical criterion of species, the result of inbreeding. “ Individuals of the Chap, i.] SPECIES. 195 same species,” lie remarks, “ are alone capable of producing prolific offspring.” This idea is precisely that of the old botanists Eay and I)e Candolle. What are we to think of these divergences ? That species might really be nothing more than one of those “ products of art ” of which Lamarck speaks, and not a definite and absolute zoological association. Its most zealous partisans declare that it has but one criterion by which it may be recognised — the fecundity of individuals infer sc, and their sterility with those of contiguous species. But this criterion has undergone many assaults of late years. ^lany species, admitted incontestably to be .diverse from one another, have produced prolific offspring, unquestionably very prolific. Naturalists generally denied it at first, and held to the denial with pertinacious grasp, declaring that they were deceived, and that the pretended species -were simply varieties. Be it so. The hare and the rabbit, the dog and the wolf, the camel and the dromedary are of the same species. But the distance between the goat and the sheep is greater ; they are genera, and l)y descending only one step they woidd only become species. Now their cross- breeds succeed well in Chili. The "wild goat and the domestic goat are also different genera ; nevertheless, in the Pyrenees they produce mixed breeds, which have been described by Count de Bouille. It appears that even the union of a heifer iind a stag produced a hybrid, which was exliibited at an agricultural meeting in the department of Aisne. But it is not sufficient that there should be a cross-breed and progeny ; the criterion of species is that this progeny itself and its descendants should be fertile, and that the mongrels left to them- selves shoidd never revert either to the paternal or maternal type. However, this is only one step in the mode of manifestation of an organic property, which v'e shall describe later on under the name of homogenesis, and which is the faculty that two germs of opposite sexes possess in different individuals of becoming reciprocally prolific, however great their zoological distance may be. Simple fecundity is the first step. The union of the hare and the rabbit furnishes an examjde of the most advanced step. The different species produce offspring of an intermediate character, termed q 0 •VARIETY. 196 [Chap, i. leporides, wliich. after twenty generations are still fixed, after repeated experiments both in France and Germany. The perpetuity of the type of species is secured, under these circumstances, by the faculty of individuals to intercross more successfully and to produce offspring, which in their turn continue to propagate those resembling themselves, i^^o one disputes tills. It is equally the rule that crossings outside the species are sterile, but in both cases there are exceptions which do not confirm the rule, and which increase in number the more closely we look at the matter ; exceptions which, reasoning by analogy, could not be fore- seen, and which are only learnt from experience. This more or less potent affinity between genera and species, and the more or less favoured varieties of mongrels resulting in consequence, prove at least that the barriers of species are not inviolable, and that the pre- tended criterion has nothing positive about it. Later on, when we are considering the degree of homogenesis of races in human cross-breeds, we must beware of gathering from them an argument either for or against their quality of species or variety. Of Variety. Under this name, devoid of all qualification, we usually under- stand an assemblage of individuals presenting common character- istics, and thereby distinguished from contiguous groups having other common characteristics, or those of a more general type. It is transient and accidental, or permanent. Teratological variety, and variety the result of the influence of external conditions, belong to the former. Apropos of the permanent variety, all kinds of difference of doctrine are observable. In the transformation schools of the present day no distmction is made between them and species. In the opposite school of olden time, that of Prichard for example, the two so far approach each other that tlieh character- istics are altogether hereditary ; but whilst the permanent variety is merely an accidental one which is fixed and determined, species had always existed, or at least had descended from a single pair. Chap, i.] EACE. 197 Of Race. Tlie word lias many acceptations, according to tlie particular doctrine embraced or the absence of doctrine. In the one case it corresponds to the permanent and secondary variety of Prichard, in the other it expresses so well-marked a zoological limit, that one is compelled to ask whether it is not confounded with species. In current language indeed it has a vague meaning, leaving all the (piestions suh jiulice. “Paces are hereditary varieties,” remarks Adrien de Jussieu; and ^r. de Quatrefages says : “When the accidental characteristics which distinguish a vegetable or an animal variety are transmitted by generation and become hereditary, then we have a race.” “ Zoologists and botanists are unanimous on this point,” he goes on to say; and further : “ The race is the ensemble of individuals like each other, belonging to one and the same species, having received and transmitted by generation the characteristics of a primitive variety.” Does ^I. de Quatrefages mean to say that it is quite primitive ; for, the disputed criterion of fecundity being set aside, how are we to distinguish primitive variety from species'! The accidental origin is pointed out precisely in this other definition. “ Pace,” says Isidore Geofiroy Saint-IIilaire, “ is a succession of individuals springing from one another, and rendered distinct by undeviating characteristics.”* ]\I. G. Pouchet gives the word another acceptation, which is that of the ancient polygenists : “ The word ‘ race ’ designates the different natural groups of mankind.” According to him they are so many species. There is a radical difference between this and admitting that certain races represent species, but that otliers are only per- manent varieties, t * “ Eevne des Cours Scientif., 1867-68 “ Lemons ” of M. de Quatrefages, “Histoire Nat. Gen. des Eegions Organiques,” by Isidore GeofEroy Saint- Hilaire, 3 vols., Paris, 1859. t “ De la Pluralite des Races Hnmaincs,” by Georges Pouchet. Second edition. Paris, 1864. 198 CLASSIFICATION OF KACES. [Chap. i. Another way in which the word ‘‘ race ” is understood, or rather employed, is that set forth in the following definition of Prichard : ‘‘ Under the name of races we include all assemblages of individuals presenting more or less common characteristics, transmissible by succession, the origin of these characteristics being an unsettled question. ” The term may thus be used indifferently and taken in its widest sense. It applies as well to more or less thoroughly- defined human varieties, or sub-varieties, as to species. Under its shadow every variety of opinion may recline ; negroes in general may be looked upon as a race in the same way as Kaffirs or natives of the Gold Coast. We shall speak as a matter of convenience of pure, cross, mixed, primary, and secondary races. There will be anthropological and historical races, as well as those determined according to language. Some are lost in obscurity, and will only be ’found by a diligent examination of every possible species of evidence; others will be seen under our very eyes, as the living races of Australia and America. At the moment when we ought to decide as to the number and value of races, we shall come to an orderly arrangement inspired by the teachings of our master, M. Broca, who says, “ The varieties of mankind have received the name of races, which gives the idea of a more or less direct relationship between individuals of the same variety, but does not decide either affirmatively or negatively the question of the relationship between individuals of different varieties.” * Paces thus included, that is to say, the more or less generally accepted divisions and subdivisions of the human family, are weU- nigh infinite ; we are compelled therefore to group them. Those of the most striking character we place first ; then those which are less and less determined ; and, lastly, those wliich we make a guess at, or which are to be discovered by the help of geography, histoiy, and linguistics. Classification of Races. The first attempt at classification was made in the year 1772, by P. Bernier, a French traveller, who made out that there were * Article “ Anthropologie,” in “ Diet. Encycl. des Sciences Medicales,” vol. v. Chap, i.] CLASSIFICATION OF KACES. 199 four races : the white in Europe, the yellow in Asia, the black in Africa, and Laplanders in the north. The second was that of Limnuus. His genus Man includes three species : homo sapiens, homo ferns, and homo monstruosus. His moage man is dumb, covered with hair, and wallvs on all-fours. Among his monstrous men he includes the microcephales and the plagiocephales. His homo sapiens includes four varieties : the European, with flaxen hair, blue eyes, and light skin ; the Asiatic, with blackish hair, bro\m eyes, and yellowish skin ; the African, with black woolly hair, black skin, flat nose, and thick lips ; and the American, with tawny skin, long black hair, and beardless chin. Buffon did not classify — he described. He recognised more particularly a northern race, a Malay race, and made a distinc- tion between Hottentots and other African negroes. The first classification which possessed a certain amount of prestige was that of Blumenbach. The Gottingen professor described five human varieties ; the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the American, and the Malay. He was the originator of the title of Caucasian, which is now in use, and which he employed because the Caucasus is near Blount Ararat, upon which the ark rested after the flood. But a period soon arrived when a reaction took place among a certain number of naturalists. Three pairs alone having survived the universal deluge, as a matter of course all the races of mankind now living upon the earth descended from them. Cuvier admits three races — the white, or Caucasian, the Mongo- lian, and the negro. Desormais divides the first into tln’ee — the Indo-Pelasgian, the Armenian (Semitic), .and the Scytho-Tartarian ; and includes in the second the Kalmucks, the IMantchus, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Coreans, and the inhabitants of Micro- nesia (the Marianne and Caroline Isles). He does not speak of the divisions of the negro race ; but, not knowing where to find a place in his classification for the Malays, Papuans, Lapps, Esqui- maux, and Americans, he rejects them altogether from his category. “ The red colour of the Indians of America,” however, he does ‘‘not consider sufficient ground for placing them in a distinct race.” 200 CLASSIFICATION OF FACES. [Chap. i. The authority of Blmnenhach, however, counterbalanced that of Cuvier, and classic authors, with some dissentients, divided them between the five races of the one and the three races of the other. Lacepede, Prichard, Jacquinot, and Plourens were in favoim of three, the last-named recognising about thirty-three different types. The first opposition came from Yirey, in 1801, who gave out that the human family was composed of two species, the white and the black, each being divided into six races, and these in their turn into families. Bory de Saint-Yincent and A. Desmoulins were of the same opinion. The former, taking up the propositions of La Peyrere, declared that Adam was “the father of the Jews only, and that the differences between the human races are sufficiently gi'eat to merit the designation of species.” He admitted fifteen, many of vdiich in their turn included many races, namely, the Japhetic or European, the Arabian, the Hindoo, the Scythian (Turks), the Sinican (Chinese), the Hyperborean, the ISTeptunian (iMalays, Polynesians, and Papons), the Australian, the Columbian and American, the Ethiopian, the Kaffir, the Melanesian, and the Hottentot. Among the secondary races a few deserve to be mentioned : the Arabian species, comprising the Adamic Jews and Arabians, and the Atlantic race (Berbers). A. Desmoulins at the same time as, or rather before, Bory de Saint-Yincent, raised the number of human species to sixteen. He mentions two which had escaped Bory, namely, the Kurilian and the Papuan. The Caucasian species is taken in a different acceptation to that of Blumenbach and Cuvier; it merely desig- nates a particular group of the Caucasus, including the Mingrelians, the Georgians, and the Armenians. His division of the Mongo- lian species into the Indo-Sinican, the Mongol, and the Hyper- borean race is equally worthy of attention. It is to be regretted that A. Desmoulins shordd have brought into his Scythian or European species the Einnish race. But in his arrangement are found unforeseen affinities which science has not confirmed, but which perhaps will deserve to be one day taken again into con- sideration. It would be impossible to enumerate all the methods Chap, i.] CLASSIFICATION OF SAINT-HILAIEE AND HUXLEY. 201 of classification -wliicli have been proposed, from the four races of Leibnitz, the four varieties of Kant, the five groups (divided into twenty-six families) of ISIorton, or the nine centres of Agassiz, to the more recent classifications of ]\I. Fr. Midler and ]\I. Hceckel. Three only will engage our attention before we close this subject : the method of Isidore Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, which Avas the first to make classification depend exclusively on the methodical arrange- ment of a certain number of physical characteristics ; that of Mr. Huxley, Avhich has a certain amount of originality; and that of ]\I. de Quatrefages, Avdiich examines into the Avhole of nature in accordance Avith the principles of the natural method. The classifications of Isidore Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire are tAvo in number. In the first he distributes his eleA^en principal races according to the character of the hair,^ the flatness or projecting form of the nose, the colour of the skin, the shape of the eyes, and the size of the loAver extremities. In the second he admits the folloAving human tyjx's : the first, or Caucasian, Avith the face oval and the jaAvs A'ertical (orthognathous) ; the second, or ^longolian, Avith the face broad in consequence of the prominence of the cheek- bones (eurygnathous) ; the third, or Ethiopian, Avith projecting jaAvs (prognathous) ; and the fourth, or Hottentot type, Avith Avide cheek-bones and projecting jaAvs (eurygnathous and prognathous). This division has not been settled finally, but the bases of it are excellent. The classification of IMr. Huxley includes tAvo primary divisions : The idotrichi, Avith Avoolly hair, and the leiostrichi, Avith smooth hair. (1) Ulotrichi. Colour A'arying from yelloAv-broAvn to the jettest black; the hair and eyes dark, and Avith only a feAv excep- tions they are dolichocephales (elongated head). Example : the negroes of Africa and the Papous. (2) Leiostrichi. These are divisible into four groups ; the australoid group, Avith dark skin, hair, and eyes ; the hair long and straight, prognathous skull, Avith Avell-developed superciliary ridges. Example : the blacks found in Australia and in the Deccan, and perhaps the ancient Egyptians. The mongoloid group : yelloAvish-broAvn or reddish- broAvn skin, dark eyes, long, black, and straight hair, mesati- 202 CLASSIFICATION OF DE QUATREFAGES. [Chap. r. cej)lialic skull. Example : the IMongols, Chinese, Polynesians, Esquimaux, and Americans. The xanthochroic group : pale skin, blue eyes, and abundant fair hair, skidl inesaticephalic. Example : the Slavonians, Teutons, Scandinavians, and the fair Celtic-speak- ing people. The melanochroid group ; pale-complexioned, dark eyes, hair long and black. Example : Iberians and black Celts and the Berbers. There are many objections to this classification. The form of the head, for example, is not always exact. If the Chinese and the Polynesians of the third group are inesaticephalic, the Esquimaux are the most dolichocephalic to he found on the globe, and the Mongols among the most hrachycephalic. The best classification, apart from the inonogenistic principle upon which it is hased,^is that of M. de Quatrefages. The eminent professor at the Museum of Paris regards the whole of the human races, ‘‘pure or regarded as such,’'* as a single stem with three trurdvS — the white, the yellow, and the black — which are divided into branches, and these again into houghs, upon which the families divided into groups are grafted. The branches of the Avliite trunk are the Aryan, the Semitic, and the Allophyle (Esthonians, Caucasians, Ainos) ; those of the yellow trunk are the klongolian or meridional, and the Ougrian or boreal ; and those of the black trunk, the Xegrito, the Melanesian, the African, and the Saab (Hottentots). As examples of the houghs we may mention the three of the Aryan branch — the Celt, the German, and the Slav; the two of the Semitic branch — the Semitic and the Libyan; the two of the Mongolian branch — the Sinican (Chinese, Ac.); and the Tmanian (Turks). As examples of families: the The monogenistic theory does not recognise the existence of reaUy pure races. All being derived from a single individual, and being gradually produced by the influence of external conditions, the epithet is not abso- lutely applicable to them at any period of their existence. In the ancient pplygenistic doctrine a definite number of races have existed from the first, with characteristics such as we now find them to possess, and consequently have remained pure. In the transformation theory also races are never stationary, or at least are not so as far as our finite wsion can make out ; their purity therefore is always relative, as in the monogenistic theory. €hap. I.] CLASSIFICATION OF DE QUATREFAGES. 203 Clialdean, the Arabic, and the Amhara of the Semitic bough ; the first furnishing the Hebrew group, tlie second the Hymyarite and Arabian groups, and the third the Abyssinian group. ISI. de Quatrefages admits besides, “ the great races belonging more or less ” to one of the tliree trunks. So among those of the yellow trunk, races “ a elements juxtaposes ” (the Japanese), and the races k elements fondus” (the IMalayo-Polynesians).* In fact, the majority of classifications go on progressing. AVe see them com- mencing timidly, then multiplying their divisions, and then descending to details. Questions as to geographical boundaries are the first to attract attention, then physical characteristics, language, and subsequently records of every kind, both ethnic, historical, and archajological. The defect of many is their exclusive character, as the classification of M. Fr. IMiiller, which is essentially linguistic. 31. de Quatrefages, on the contrary, draws from all sources, and well weighs every question. Perhaps, however, he does not lay sufficient stress on physical characteristics, which ought in his eyes as a naturalist to take precedence of every other. Ethnology, which classes peoples, naturally leaves tliem out of consideration ; anthropology, which has to do with the distribution of races — like botany, which makes divisions and subdivisions of the vegetable kingdom — takes them as its princii)al basis.t Pefore resuming this question, let us consider first the physical characteristics of races, and then the physiological, Avhich flow from them. 3Ve shall also speak of ethnic, archa3ological, and linguistic characteristics, but only to a limited extent, inasmuch as * We must not allow the name of JL cle Quatrefages to pass without expressing our sense of the liberality with which he has for many years placed at our disposal the magnificent anthropological collections of the Museum. Without endorsing all his views, we must admire the clear and forcible mode in which he expresses them in his lectures and published works. His examination of the doctrine of Darwin has particularly struck us, and demands very serious and thoughtful attention. t See “ Systema Naturae,” by Ch. Linnaeus, Leyden, 1735 ; “ Dissertatio Inauguralis de Generis Humani Yarietate Nativa,” by J. F. Blumenbach, Goettingen, 1775, in 4to ; “ Le Regne Animal,” by Baron Cuvier, 5 vols., vol. i., Paris, 1829 ; “ Species des Mammiferes Bimanes et Quadrumanes,” by R. P. Lesson, Paris, 1840, in 8vo. f PHYSICAL CHAEACTERISTICS. 204 [Chap. i. there are volumes published in the “ Bihliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines,” specially devoted to these subjects.^ The Physical Charaderistics. The physical characteristics which separate races are of two orders : anatomical, which are to he studied in the laboratory ; and external, to he observed on the living subject. The two are far from possessing the same value in the present phase of anthropological science. In the laboratory, everything is done carefully and methodically, as far as can he done, with the compass and the balance. Observations are conducted with calm- ness, and every available source of information is brought into requisition. In a foreign land, that is to say on the living subject, it is quite otherwise. The traveller has generally other objects which occupy his attention. He sets out with certain erroneous opinions, allows himself to he influenced by the events of the day and his own preconceived notions ; or he ignores what he ought to observe, and passes by facts which possibly might clear up questions long in dispute. Thus the observations which reach us from afar, sometimes from a source looked upon as a most favourable one, have never the same degree of exactness about them which facts * “ Histoire Naturelle de I’Homme,” by J. J. Yirey, 2 vols., Paris, 1801 ; “ Dictionnaire Classique d’Histoire Haturelle,” arts. “ Bimanes,” “ Homme,’^ “ Orang’,” by Bory de Saint-Vincent, toI. wii., 1825, and vol. xii., 1827 > “ Histoire Naturelle des Paces Humaines,” by A. Desmoulins, 8vo, Paris, 1826 ; “ Manuel de Pbysiologie,” by J. Muller, translated into French, 2 vols., Paris, 1845 ; “ Cours de Pbysiologie,” by P. Berard, vol. i., Paris, 1848, &c. &c. ; “ The Races of Men and tbeir Distribution,” by Charles Pickering, 1 vol., 4to, Boston, 1848 and 1854 ; “ Types of Mankind,” by Nott and Gliddon, p. 618, Philadelphia, 1 vol., 1854; table of the first classification of Isidore Geoifroy Saint-Hilaire^ in “ Etudes sur I’Histoire Naturelle,” by Camille Delvaille, Paris; “Sur la Classification Anthro- pologique,” by Isidore Geoffroy Saint -Hilaire, in “ Memoires de la Societe d’Anthropologie,” vol. i., 1860; “Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,” by T. H. Huxley, translated into French, Paris, 1875 ; “ Diet. Encycl. des Sciences Med.,” article “ Races Humaines,” by De Quatrefages, 1873 ; “ Allgemeine Ethnographic,” by E. Mliller, Vienna, 1873, &c. Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTERISTICS. 205 of 11 much more impretendiug cliaracte^^possess wlieii collated in the silence of the study. The information published by our learned societies is intended to supply this 'want of inexpertness -which ^ye lind in ordinary travellers, and to make them understand the desiderata of science, and ho-w to conduct their observations. Ihit the observation of minor characteristics presents the greatest difficulty. A scholar like Dr. Deddoe -will draw up very instructive tables as to the colour of the hair ; an ordinary observer will appropriate the tables drawn up by the Socic'te d’Antliropologie ; another, like (^)iuTelet, and every physician familiar with anatomy, Avill carefully notice the proportions of the body, but we cannot ex2)ect this from the generality of travellers. They fancy they have done great things if tliey take note of a certain date when they met with a native having the elongated face, the curly hair, the Hat nose, or the dork complexion. But such observations are generally insufficient. The expeditions such as those of tlie Nomrra in Oceania, or of Betermann in the Xorth, in which certain men were selected to make special observations, are rare. In Trance we may mention the P(h-ons, the Pickerings, the D’Orbignys, the Humboldts, tlie Pritschs ; but how few these are ! It is doul)tful if tlie travels of Livingstone have helped forward in any way the science of antliro- pology. In natural history wliat we want most particidarly is to have specimens of plants and animals, whicli those specially learned in each department may arrange at their leisure. In ethnology we want to note tlie manners and customs, and to ascertain the distribution of each tribe as well as its history. Such men as Pallas, Barrow, and Eyre are not wanting; but all the work of anthropology has to be done at a distance, with such assistance as is to be obtained from bones, hair, and photographic drawings. Hence the relatively low ebb at which we fold tl^e physical study of the living subject, as compared with the flourish- ing results obtained in the laboratory. But among these there are those Avhich in the very nature of things have obtained special pre-eminence. The thing of primary importance in a laboratory is to have specimens, and the commonest among them are those which 206 CEANIOLOGY. [Chap. i. give the least trouble and can best be preserved, as the bones, and especially skulls. For some time, however, the laboratory of M. Broca has been enriched with brains, preserved in alcohol, which have been sent from all parts of the world. Bones, on the other hand, have the inestimable advantage of presenting to us all that remains of ancient peoples of which there are no longer any living representatives j some extending back to- one and two thousand years, others to ten and twenty thousand, when the various types had become less changed. When making a comparison of races, therefore, it should not be matter of surprise that such importance is attached to the study of the bones, and particidaiiy of the skull — that noblest part of the human animal. ^ Craniology. Craniology thus forms the first chapter of the anthropology of the human races. Some of the difTerences which skulls exhibit are slight, others are considerable ; some are more readily appreciable by their general appearance, others by measurement. The particidar type of each skull, or the general type of the group to which it belongs, is to be ascertained by carefully studying their ensemhle. Some of these differences moreover are sufficiently striking of themselves to characterise the race, and to enable us to recognise at once the source from whence the specimen was derived. For example, the excessive length and height of the Esquimaux skull, or the keel- shaped vertex associated with great depth of the root of the nose in the Tasmanian skull. There are exceptions, however; craniology, in its present phase, is a science of analysis and of patience, and not yet a science of synthesis. There are two general methods, each of which claims pre-eminence, which however are equally useful and mutually perfect. In one, cranioscopy, the eye, or simple-means which one has always at hand, are sufficient. In the other, craniometry, we have recourse to proceedings requiring accuracy. We shall term the characteristics ascertained by the former descriptive, and those by the latter craniometrical. Chap, i.] DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS. 207 Descriptive Characteristics. A skull being submitted to examination, the first thing is to determine the age and the sex, and to notice 'whether it presents any deformity, whether postliumous, platybasic, artificial, or pathological. AVe shoidd especially direct our attention, with a view to after examination, to the small skulls which M. Broca has called demi-microcephales, and to those manifestly affected with old hydrocephalus. AVe should afterwards notice if the skull presents any anatomical anomalies, such as a supplementary suture dividing one of the parietal or malar bones ; the persistence of the inter- maxillary, the metopic, or the interparietal sutures ; the welding together of the bones of the nose ; the exceptionally large ossa AVormiana — an epactal, for example ; the enlargement of the two vascidar foramina, occasionally absent, called parietal foramina, and situated about two centimetres outside and on each side of the sagittal sutiu’e, at the junction of its anterior four-fifths with its posterior one-fifth ; an enlargement of about two centimetres in diameter, to which AI. Broca has drawn attention a third con- dyle ; a jugidar apophysis, iniac region or receptaculum cerebelli is very variable. Its bulging out frequently passes beyond the plane of tlie occipital foramen, and then prevents the condyles from touching the table when tlie skull is laid on its base. (8) Various other characteristics, such as the singular de})ression, mentioned by M. Broca, in the middle of the parieto-occipital p 2 212 DESCEIPTIVE CHAEACTEKISTICS. [Chap. i. suture in the skulls of Orrouy, at the Polished Stone epoch; the size of the mastoid processes, Arhich, alloAvance being made for differences of sex, are large in certain races and small in others ; a peculiar supra-mastoidean projection situated at the junction of the posterior prolongation of the temporal line and at the posterior root of the zygomatic ])rocess, and particularly developed in Esthonian skulls. In the face, characteristics to be discovered by simple inspection are not Avanting. In the first line is to be noticed Avhatever has reference to the malar bones, the methods for A\diose measurement are by no means satisfactory ; the absence of marks in places Avhere Ave have most need of them is A^ery much to be regretted. These bones are small and lank in - European races, massive and i)roject- ing outAvards in the ^longol races. In the Escpiimaux, their external, anterior, and inferior angle is so throAvn outAvards and foi-Avards that by this feature alone Ave are able to recognise the skulls of that race. Then come the prominence of the extreniit}^ of the bones proper of the nose and their projection at a A'ery acute angle, tAVO characteristics belonging to human races ; their flattening, or the contrary, in the negro races of Africa and especially the yelloAv races ; the depth of the IioUoav at the root of the nose, slight in Arabians, less still in the negroes of Africa and in all the yelloAV species ; Avell marked in Europeans generally, but especially so in Australians, Xcav Caledonians, and Tasmanians. AVe have already mentioned in the Tasmanian race a see-saAV motion of the superior maxilla, by A'irtue of Avhich its uppm’ part plunges beneath the cranium, Avhile its loAver projects forAvards. AVe have also described the differences, fiA’e in number, Avliich the inferior border of the nares presents on the skeleton. Thus in Eimopeans it has the form of a heart, such as Ave see on playing-cards, the nasal spine of A^dlich represents the median point and presents onh' a sharp lip. In the negroes of Africa the border is blunt, spread out, and becomes horizontal by the i^rogressh^e obliteration of the nasal spine. In the Chinese and some other yelloAV races it is replaced by tAVO digital depressions, Avliich in iNIelanesians are transformed into tAVO channels. It has been observed in rare Chap, i.] DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS. 213 instances, especially in Xe\v Caledonians, that the 'whole line of demarcation between the nasal fossie and the anterior surface of the alveolar arch has disappeared. In this latter respect certain negroes resemble the anthropoid apes. In the general contiguration there are other characteristics of a similar kind. ^[. Priiner-l>ey has laid much stress on the various harmonious relations or other- "wise of the cranium to the face. A cranium elongated from before backwards, and at the same time elevated, is already in harmony by itself ; but if the face, on the other hand, is elongated from abov'e downwards, and narrows, the harmony is complete. 8uch are the Escpumaux and Kymri skulls. The Lapp and Auvergnian skulls, on the contrary, are short from before backwards and from above downwards, and wide both in the cranium and face. Among skulls of an opposite character Ave hnd the celebrated Cro-Magnon skull of the Stone period, which is elongated from before back- Avards, Avhile the face is contracted from above dowinvards. Tlie same Avith the Tasmanian skull. Tliere are other characteristics Avhich run parallel Avith these ; for example, the arch of the palate is somewhat elongated in long skulls, and Avidened in Avide skulls ; the occipital foramen in the same Avay. All craniologists, or, rather, cranioscopists, have spoken of grace- fully-formed skulls, Avdth smooth contours and regular outlines, and of those Avith “ Itcurtrs ” feature.s, of somlnv, stern aspect, and of brutish appearance. LetAATcn the tA\m are to be seen soft, undetined forms, destitute of «haracter. Those of Europeans, XeAV Caledonians, and Chinese are of these descriptions. Ihit Ave ought not to set too high a value upon such appearances. These forms, Avhether pleasing or brute-like, are to be met Avith in all races, in the European as Avell as in the negro. In Avhat resi)cct, for example, is the prominent and naiTOAV-shai)ed nose of the Euroi)ean handsomer than the small but broader nose of the Chinese ? Let different ])ersons coni])are the skull of the man and the Avoman, those of Cro-]\Iagnon and of the Cavern de ITIomme ]\[ort, o])inions Avill be divided respecting them ; it is simply a matter of custom, of education, or of i)rejudice. The best example of erroneous AueAvs resulting from the abuse of craiiioscopy is to be seen in a memoir of last year. 214 BLUMENBACH’S NOKMA VERTICALIS. [Chap. i. M. Alantegazza and two friends placed two liimdred skulls in a series, according to the ideas which they had formed of the heantif id. They took as their model the Jupiter Olympus, in Avhich the pro- portions are conventional, and which has a facial angle such as is only met with among hydrocephali. They brought together, con- fusedly, the skulls of both sexes and of all ages, and found tliat the measurements as given with the craniometer did not accord with their {esthetic notions. That M. Mantegazza was discouraged by the unsatisfactory result’ obtained by certain measurements, notcxbly Camper’s facial angle, we can easily believe, but this is no reason why the scientific method should be abandoned. Before we can obtain one satisfactory measurement we must be prepared to sacrifice several of them. The illustrious anthropologist regrets that craniometry does not exhibit the relative superiority of races in the way in which he conceived it. But does craniometry reject this superiority ] Xo, it is content that each one should stand on its OAvn merits. Let us relegate sentiment to artists, it is an essential p{xrt of their n{xture, and let us tcxke care that our observcxtions are made with rigid strictness, without which there would be an end to science ; we shall move less quickly, but surely. The method of studying the aspect of skulls from different points of view origiii{xted almost simultaneously with craniometry, but was the one generally in use until lately. It is convenient, inasmuch as one forms a judgment at once, in the same wixy as one woidd form one of a picture — ^ certain hues, certain colour, by such a master. Blumenbach was the originator of this method, which was termed the vertical view (nonua verticalis). He placed a series of skulls with the malar bones in the same horizontal line as they woidd h{xve taken had the lower jaws been attached, and then viewed them in succession, fixing the eye above the vertex of each. In this way he estimated the breadth or narrowness of the contour of the vaidt, its length, its general form, and the projection of the frontal bone. He noticed whether the zygomatic arches and the jaws were Ausible, and to what degree. In white races these parts lire generally out of view, in the black they more or less project. He also gives the skulls of a Georgian, a Tungusian, and a negro of Guinea as specimens 215 Chap, i.] OWEN’S METHOD. of the three varieties of form. The norma verticalis has continued to he tlie method usually employed "wlien we wish to make a rapid estimate of the general form of the skull, as well as the cephalic index, without the assistance of an instrument. But instead of the skull being placed on its base, after Blunienbach’s fashion, it should be held at a distance, so that the eye can take into view tlie extremities of its Jintero-posterior and its maximum transverse diameters. The view ought to be made perpendicularly to tlie horizontal plane passing througli the glabella and a point situated Fio. 2i.— Norma verticalis of Blumeiibacb, taken witli the stereograph. Brachyeephalic skuU of Auvergnian. Cephalic index, 85'4S. at about two centimetres above the inion. Figs. 24 and 25 show the two principal forms of the skull which we may distinguish in this way. Contemporaneously with Blumenbach, Camper adopted the method of studying the skull in profile ; and later on, Owen, being desirous of comparing the anthropoid apes with Man, supplemented it Avith the vieAV from beloAV. This last thus took into account the position of the occipital foramen relatively to the anterior and posterior extremities of the skull, the segment described by the zygomatic arches, the form of the arch of the palate, &c. 216 PRICHARD’S METHOD. [Chap. i. Prichard combined these three methods, and added that of the face, hut made no reference to the view from behind. He recog- nised three principal forms of the skull : the oval, the pyramidal, and the prognathous, a division since adopted by M. Primer-Bey. The first, or oval, corresponds to our European type. The fore- head is well developed, the maxillary hones and the zygomatic arches being so formed as to give the face an oval shape. Tlie forehead and malar hones are nearly on a plane with these, the alveolar borders and the incisor teeth are vertical. Fig. 25.— Norma vertical is of Blumenbuch, taken with, the stereogi*aph. Dolichocephalic skull of Spanish Basque (province of Guipuscoa). Cephalic index, 74U9. The second, or pyramidal, he says, is to he noticed in the Mongols, and more so in the Esquimaux. Its most striking character is the outward projection of the zygomatic arches. ‘‘ The cheek- bones project from under the middle of the orbit, and turn back- wards in a large arch or segment of a circle, the lateral projection of the zygomas being so considerable, that if a line drawn from one to the other be taken as a base, this will form with the top of the forehead a nearly triangular figure. The upper part of the face is remarkably plane and flat, the nose being flat, and the nasal bones, Chap, i.] PRICHARD’S METHOD. 217 as -well as the spaces between tlie eyebrows, nearly on the same plane with the cheek-bones. Lastly, at the point of the pyramid is the fronto-sagittal crest,” The third, or prognathous, corresponds to the negro type. The skull is compressed laterally, the temporal muscles are inserted A'ery high up, producing the effects of lateral elongation and ffattening. The cheek-bones project rather forwards than outwards (prog- nathism).* This is one of the most valuable portions of Prichard’s work. However striking certain characteristics furnished by the eye and the forms thus recognised may be a priori, both are insulhcient to lay the foundation of an e.xact science, and craniology thus limited would be of little avail. The traits of character so judged of are entirely individual in the majority of cases, and their estimate depends upon the mental disposition of the observer, as v'ell as upon the accurate recollection of his latest visual impressions. These can only be committed to writing in a very imperfect way. According to the way in which the light falls upon the skull so do appearances vary, and M. Broca is daily exhibiting to his pupils the fallacies to which any one of the characteristics, looked upon by craniology as of the highest importance, may be exposed. Accord- ing as the skull is looked at at a height or on the ground, so the estimates vary ; so many millimetres of greater or less inclination will give the appearance of prognathism or not. In Blumenbach’s method the skull rarely remains in the same position ; the variable size of the mastoid processes, the presence or absence of the teeth ; the swelling or depression liehind the occipital foramen cause it to fall forwards or backwards, sometimes in one Avay, sometimes in another. It is not less important to have some fixed inethod of holding the skull, and Prichard himself, by relying too much upon his draughtsman, has unwittingly shown Avhat errors may be com- mitted in this way. Craniology as a science would scarcely exist but for the really scientific methods of examination which it possesses, and the characteristics which it is capable of expressing * “ Researches into the Physical History of Mankind,” by J. C. Prichard. Five vols. 1836 - 17 . 218 CRANIOMETRY. [Chap. i. with precision. The process is a long and laborious one, hut the results arrived at are certain ; they may need interpretation, hut they never deceive. This part of craniology is termed craniometry, and is merely one branch of anthropometry. Anthropometry is the study of the human body by mathematical modes of procedure ; osteometry is its application to the skeleton in general ; craniometry to the skull in particular ; pelvimetry to tlie pelvis. Craniometry. Tlie first attempts at measurement upon the liuman subject, excluding those artists who up to the last century had not settled any definite distinction between races, Avere made by Dauhenton, Camper, Scemmering, and AVliite. Craniometry, howeA’-er, did not soar aloft until tlie time of iMorton. Since this period it has been practised in all parts of the civilised world. It has its adepts in Patagonia in the person of J)r. ]\[oreno, and in the Caucasus in that of Professor SmirnoAv. The Avorks, on the skull, of Thurnam, B. llavis, fhisk, and Carter Blake in England are AA^ell knoAvn, as also in Italy those of Mantegazza, Calori, Xicolucci ; m Eastern Europe, AVagner, Van der HccA^en, A"on Biier, Luca3, Ecker, YirchoAv, AVelcker ; in France, Gratiolet, Broca, De Quatrefages, Bertillon, Hamy. Collections of skulls liaA^c been made in all directions. Among the most celebrated AA^e may mention the col- lection of Morton at Philadelphia, Avhich in 1857 consisted of 1,045 specimens ; of Barnard Davis at Shelton, Staffordshire, AA’hich at the present time amounts to about 1,700 ; and those of Paris, AA'hich altogether nuinher upAA'ards of 7,000. Craniometrical Characteristics. One is necessarily' compelled AAdien practismg craniometry, in order to make oneself thoroughly acquainted Avith a race, to study a number of its representath'es and to take their aA'erage, in order that there may he no preponderance of any special characteristic. You arrive in a toAvn and see an indiAddual of fair complexion ; do you jump to the conclusion at once that all the inhabitants are fair '? ■ Chap, i.] CRAXIOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 219 Xo. You pass from one (|uarter of the toAvii to another, make a cerh\in number of observations, ami from them draw your inferences. 8o witli craniometry ; a single skull may by chance exhibit the type of the mce, but it may also be an exception and lead to error. The cliaracteristics of the type sought can only be correctly expressed in tlieir cnsemJ>hi upon ditlerent skulls. The tirst thing, then, which is requisite for craniometrical study is a sutficient numl)er of specimens. The type being once recognised, one, two, or more skulls will be fouiiM necessary in order to furnish further informa- tion, and we must wait. The archieologist, therefore, should collect together the most likely specimens he can find, and not take any he may lay hold of and bring them to the laboratory with the (piestion : Are these the skulls of Franks, llurgundians, Saracens, or Ixomans 1 Moreover, few of the series collected in one and the same place are examples of an unmixed ty[>e. ^lost fre(piently they are only a medley of ditlerent races more or less nearly allied to one aimther, with ([uite opposite characteristics, some corivsponding to one of the ancient types, othei-s to another ; they include cjises of atavism, and even stray examples obtained from various sources. Twenty skulls of the same sex are sufficient in geiieml to remove all fpiestions of difficulty, but this numb(‘r is necessjiry ; and here arises a serious (piestion : What is the extent of individiual varia- tions admissible in a race reputed pure, as in the Andamans for example! It Ls only jiossible to answer this ([uestion as regards each particular case. First, it depends on the extent of the maximum and minimum deviations observ'ed throughout the whole human series. The less considerable these deviations and the better undei-stood, the greater the value of the characteristic. There are characteristics which, rccteris pnrihm^ vary enormously when expressed in one way and very slightly when in another. This is so with prognathism, which is estimated sometimes by the relation of the horizontal projection to the height of the region, sometimes by the angle at the culminating point of the upper jaw. ]\I. Jlroca has recognised variations in the cephalic index in one and the same race to the numlx3r of 10 per cent.; it is only when they reach 220 METHOD OF INDICES. [Chap. i. 15 to 18 per cent, tliat we can say with certainty that they are due to mixture of race. Tlie figures expressing each individual measurement being arranged in a progressive series, the most divergent are placed at the two extremities, while tliose Avhich are most frerpiently alike are grouped in the middle. Sometimes, however, there are two maxima of concentration, separated Ijy an interval in which the numbers are clearly distributed. Ilertillon attributes this to a commingling of two races of opposite characters, *and has deduced some valuable conclusions therefrom.' The measurements taken in centimetres and millimetres are added, and divided by the number of subjects measured. The (piotient is the mean ; it expresses the characteristic directly, such as the breadth of the forehead for exaiii})le, or is only valuable when compared with some other measurement. A skull is broad in certain cases, not from the number of centimetres which it measures, hut in proportion to its volume, that is to say, its length. We therefore convert its breadth into centimetres of its length. It is thus an index or relation, a far superior method to that of directly estimating the absolute measurements. The mode of calculating this index is h}^ no means uniiiiportant. There are three ways of proceeding : (1) AVe calculate each index se])arately and take the mean (nioyenne des indices ) ; (2) AVe add each of the series of factors, Ave take their means, and from these we calculate the index {indice des moyennes ) — this mode is preferable, and avoids the losses arising from decimals omitted ; (3) AVe again add the factors, and Avith their sum obtain the index directly. This has the advantage of economy in Avorking, and is that Avhich Ave usually adopt. The means liaA'e reference to the straight measurements, to the curves, the angles, and even to the marks Avhich At. Ilroca expresses by certain figures, as the projection of the inion from 0 to The first condition of a good measurement is to he determined hy certain fixed anatomical marks, so that two ohsen^ers at a distance from each other may Jiot deAuate from them in the slightest degree under any circumstances. In this point of A'iew Chap, i.] CHOICE OF METHODS OF MEASUREMENT. 221 the maximum and minimum measurements are excellent. Those wliich pass from some delinite point of the base aiul lead to any optional part, as the vertex, Jiot determined h5" projection, are had, such as tliose which meet at the i>arietal or frontil eminences. AVe can never succeed twice following in i)lacing their culminating point at the same spot, conse([uently they only furnish approxi- mative dimensions. It would be better to give up any i)reconceived notion than to deviate from certain dehneil marks, or at any rate as little as possible ; and observers who publisli measurements with- out giving a i»recise description of their method of working, run tlie risk of having little attention paid to them. Every measurement should be made with a definite object. Cr.iniometrical characteristics under this aspect are of two kinds : rational, that is to say, related to some physiological oi)inion ; or eiii})iricid, having no apparent design. If we take two skulls resembling each other but of diirereiit capacity, we shall find the largest to be, cccfcrin ixirihujij the one with the more developed frontal bone, the moi*e roundetl vault, the jMjsterior part more ample, the occipihil foramen more elevated, the distance of this foramen from the bivgma more considerable. Grati(jlet has divitled the human races into frontal, i>arietal, and occipital, according as the skull is more or less develoi)cd at the expeiLsc of this or that part, lienee we have one of the first series of chamcteristics subordinate to one and the s;\me idea, viz. the variable development of the characteristic organ in the human family. (Jther characteristics are looked upon, whether rightly or wrongly, as dominant. They have an aftinity- in negroes to those which they exhibit in apes, and establish the transition between these and Europeans. Thus both on the skeleton, in the muscles and in the viscera, there are certain amingenients having respect to a sideling attitude, as that of anthropoids. The mind is then led consider these more or less considerable variations as proof of a gradual ai)proach of the organism to perfection, and that all the human races sprung from one and the same inferior type. The Eosjesmans, in several respects, are at the bottom of the scale ; 222 EMPIRICAL MODES OF MEASUREMENT. [Chap. i. the IMelanesians, the negroes of Guinea, the Caffres, tlie yellow races, Ac., -would he next to them. Hut this, although true as to certain characteristics, does not hold good as regards others. Some have only a negative character, such as the -width between the cheek-bones, the flatness of the face, the elliptical or hyperbolical form of the alveolar arches, the projection of the superciliary ridges, the sinking in at the root of the nose, the keel-like form of the top of the head, Ac. Many characteristics which we usually, though wrongly, place in the series are of this kind, of which the skeleton furnishes numerous examples. Their frequency does not surprise us, and we may add that it is in this more than in the variations of the brain-case that we discover the best marks of difference between races. The nasal index of ^f. Hroca, among others, is a proof in point. An erroneous idea has prevailed that INfaii being distinguished from animals more particularly as regards the brain, we ought to find in the skull the fundamental characteristics whereby we may separate races. It is rather the reverse. E-sddently ^lan is essentially characterised by the brain and its osseous em^elope. Ihit in natural history, when a characteristic intervenes to separate one group from another, the more natural, palpable, and important it is, the less does it vary in the divisions and varieties. In botany, it is not even in the characteristic of a family, a tribe, or a genus that we must seek for shades of difference with a view to establish secondary divisions, it is in other parts of the plant. (,)ne of the labiataj is recognised at once by its inflorescence, as ^lan is by his cranium. In both it is apart from their essential characteristic feature that differences are found which lay the foundation of permanent varieties. Empirical characteristics derived from craniometry are opposed * 1 the monogenestic creed, inasmuch as they witness in favour of le original plurality of the principal groups. Sometimes, when having to make choice of craniometrical measure- ments, Ave are guided by the development and groAvth of the skeleton. The brain and its envelope increase according to one laAv, the cavities of the senses and the maxillary apparatus according to Chap, i.] RATIONAL MODES OF MEASUREMENT. 223 another ; whence a possible antagonism, an intliience capable of giving origin to peculiarities in races which, by being often repeated, may be considered as characteristic. lint tlironghout the entire range of craniometry we must not lose sight of the subordination of characteristics. Thus the develop- ment of the anterior portion of the brain cavity causes the occipital fommen to be driven backwards. The increase of the maxillary bone in front, whence prognathism is caused, gives rise to a similar result. Cceferis 2^arihus, an elongated and at the same time contracted skull is proportionably increased in height. A round skull, on the contrary, appears to be decreased vertically. It is well also to consider the correlation of characteristics. An example on the living subject will explain what we mean. Blue eyes are usually accompanied by light hair. So in the skull, the flattening of the entire face, including the cheek-bones, usually, causes the oblitera- tion of the glabella and the superciliary arches, and the crushing in of the root of the nose ; this forms ]>art of the harmonious characteristics of which we spoke just now. In reality, it is from this agreement of character that the idea of type has taken its origin. Bxwnard de Palissy maintained that the human skull is the most irregularly-formed figure in nature, and gave exi)ression to a senti- ment in which all must agree who are commencing craniometrical researches. “ I have a desire,” he says, “ to measure the hea cerebral, whicli belongs to the face, should be excluded from it, and we should substitute for tlie naso-basilar line, the ophryo-basilar line ; but custom has decided otherwise. The transverse circumference consists of two portions — one, the supra-auricular, going from a point situated al)ove the auditory foramen, on the line passing from the longitudinal root of the zygomatic process to the analogous point on the opposite side, passing through the bregma ; the other, but little used, connecting the same two points by passing beneath the skull. It is customary, with a view to ulterior operations, to mark with a pencil on the sides of the skull the outline of this curve, which divides it into two parts, viz. the anterior and the posterior. The horizontal circumference commences at the supra-orl)ital point, crosses the temporal ridge at the spot where the minimum frontal diameter is taken, reaches the maximum occipital point, and retmiis to its point of departure on the opposite side. The maximum antero- posterior diameter represents its great axis. It natiu’ally divides itself into two parts, tlie one anterior the other posterior to the before-mentioned transverse curve. comparing each of these parts to the whole, = 100, we at once have an idea of the relative development of the anterior and posterior craniiun, and determine whether the subject is to be included among the frontal or occipital races of Gratiolet. The following are some examples of the hori- zontal circumference : Men. Ativergnians ... ... ... 43 524*6 Contemporaiy Parisians ... 77 525*6 Lapps... ... ... ... 6 512 '2 Women. 39 502*8 41 498*0 3 504*0 Chap, ii.] HORIZONTAL CIRCUMFERENCE. 217 Men. Women. Chinese 21 511-6 ... 7 195*8 Negroes of Africa ... ... 51 512-0 ... 21 189-1 New Caledonians ... ... 23 510-0 ... 21 191*4 Hottentots and Bosjesmans... 10 500*7 ... 5 4836 Some craniologi.sts nasal point where the preceding i)alatine line meets, has been studied by !M^r. AVelcker and Virchow, imdcr the name of naso-basal angle (K X E, Fig. 28.) The following are some results : G Turks 61-3 8 French G5'l 9 Kalmucks ... ... ... ... ... ... 658 16 Chinese ... ... ... ... ... ... 65*9 30 Germans ... ... ... ... ... ... 662 11 Esquimaux ... ... ... ... ... ... 667 2 Hottentots ... ... ... ... ... ... 67’5 20 Negroes of Africa ... ... ... ... ... 7l‘l 5 Australians ... ... ... ... ... ... 720 This angle also professes to give the measiu’ement of prognathism, but it leaves out the sub-nasal portion of the maxilla, the most important in this respect, and only concerns itself with its superior or nasal portion. These figures are, in other respects, more eloquent than words. The Gennans are certainly less prognathous than the Chinese, as one glance at a Chinese skidl would show in a moment. 256 NASAL INDEX. [Chap. ii. The measurements which the median facial triangle gives of Germans do not tend to anything of a decisive character, which appears to us owing to the unfortunate selection of one of its points, the suh-nasal. The true facial triangle ought to have its apex at the alveolar point, as M. Yogt desires it to have. In the next chapter we shall speak of another way in which M. Assezat has understood the facial triangle, and of the residts which he has obtained. The straight or curved measurements belonging to particidar regions of the face are more numerous than those of the cranium. There is hut one organ in the latter, while there are many very distinct organs belonging to the face. Each bone, each cavity varies in its configuration, and furnishes certain elements by which to distinguish races. The measurements which have been most studied are those which give the nasal and the orbital indices. The Nasal Index. The nasal index is the relation of the maximum breadth of the anterior orifice of the nose (G, Fig. 29) to its maximum length, taken from the nasal spine, E, to the naso-frontal suture, X. This character, in a certain point of view, is included in the category of those establishing a transition from Man to the ape, but more still among those the rationale of which has not as yet been explained. YTiile the negroes of Oceania are for the most part inferior to the negroes of Africa, as regards tliis index they are their superiors. It substantiates what we stated, that the most rational characters in craniometry, as the facial angle, do not always lead us to form a real distinction between races ; while one which d priori would be looked upon as indifferent, may be of the utmost importance. It shows that qualities derived from the conformation of the organ characteristic of the zoological human groups, ‘are sometimes surpassed by those deduced from pecuharities in the conformation of secondary parts. M. Broca has, in fact, discovered that the nasal index is one of the best for the purpose of distinguishmg the various races of mankind, although he does Chap, ii.] ORBITAL INDEX. 257 not arrange them in a ivgular scale conformably to the exalted idea that we oui-selves form of those races. The following extracts from his tables .show tliis : IG Hottentots 8 Tasmanians 83 Negroes of Africa 28 „ Nubia... 14 Australians G6 New Caledonians... 29 Javanese ... 11 Lapps 41 Peruvians ... 26 Polynesians 11 Mongols 27 Chinese 122 Parisians (modern) 53 Basques (French)... 33 ,, (Spanish) 17 Guanchcs ... 14 Esquimaux 56-38 56-92 54- 78 55- 17 53-39 53-66 51-47 50-29 50-23 49-25 48-68 48-53 16-81 46-80 41- 71 4t-25 42- 33 The individual figures in llroca’s tables vary from 0.00 in a llosjesman, to 35*71 in a Hussian. This interval is divided into three groups, the platyrrhinians, with the nasal .skeleton wide, from 53 to 58; the mesorrhinians, with the nasal skeleton moderate, from 48 to 52 ; and the leptorrhinians, with the nasal skeleton elongated, from 42 to 47. Tlie black races are all in the first group ; the ^longols and ^Vmericans, with tlie exception of the Esquimaux, in the second ; and the white races in the third. The orbital index is the relation of the vertical diameter of the base of the orbit to its horizontal diameter ; the latter going from the dacryon to the opposite point of the great axis of this base, the former starting from the spot where the malo-maxillary suture meets the inferior orbital edge, and cutting perpendicularly the hori- zontal diameter. Tlie two diameters are perceptibly equal at birth ; the vertical then becomes gradually shorter ; but the true relation is not established until after puberty, the woman always retaining, however, a less short vertical diameter, and in this, as in many other particidars, resembling the infant. Individual orbital indices H 25S ORBITAL INDEX. [Chap. ii. vary from 60 ’9 in a Tasmanian, or from 61*3 in the old man of Cro-Magnon belonging to the Ancient Stone period, to 100 in a l^ew Caledonian, as recorded hy M. Broca, 104 in a negress of the Sahara, and 107 in a Chinese. In these latter cases the ordinary condition is reversed ; the two diameters are equal, the orbit appears circular, especially when the angles are rounded olf, or, if anything, the vertical is rather greater than the horizontal. Everyone knows the opposite conformation in the Cro-Magnon skull, the orbits being rectangular, with the angles almost right-angles, and the vertical diameter short. The averages of the series of course vary within narrower limits: from 90‘0 to 77‘0 in white races, from 95’4 to 88-2 in the yellow races, and from 85 -4 to 79 '3 in the black races. M. Broca has created three general terms for all the craniometrical characters, hearing reference to this index, whose variations have not as yet received other specific designations ; namely, mcgaseme when the index is large ; mesoseme when it is moderate ; and microseme when it is small ; the limits of the corresponding groups varying according to each particular character.* In the present case the megasemes of the orbital index are 89 and above, the mesosemes from 89 to 83, and the microsknes 83 and under. Among the indications wliich the study of the orbital index gives, we may mention the following : It does not arrange the races in a graduated series, according to the opinions which may he formed of each ; and the form of the base of the orbit might be regarded as empirical, if, within certain limits, it did not apply to the general structural plan of the cranium and of the face. ^U1 the prehistoric races of France are microsemes, the height of the orbit increases when we come to the Gauls, but it is not until after the Merovingians that it assumes the present mesoseme type. The Guanches approach our prehistoric popula- tions by this character. The megaskne, on the other hand, connects all the yellow races, or those derived from the yellow races, except the Esquimaux, who by this as well as by the nasal index, and by so many other points, are separated from them * Memoir of M. Broca, “ Sur I’Indice Orbitaire,” in tke “Revue d’ Anth.ro- pologie,” voh iv., 1875. Chap, ii.] MEASUREMENTS OF THE ORBITS. 259 completely, in spite of certain evident features of resemblance. Negroes are removed from the yellow races in this respect, especially the negroes of Oceania, which here favour the Australians, as if to repudiate all alliance with them. The following are some examples : 27 Cbincso ... • ... 93-8 30 Peruvians (not distorted)... ... 93-1 40 Polynesians... 920 43 Javanese 91-1 26 North-American Indians ... ... 90-7 17 Indo-Chinese 90-2 87 Auvergnians 86-5 10 Kymris (?) of Puisoux 86-2 122 Contemporary Parisians ... ... 81-4 11 Croats 84-3 50 Basques (Spanish) 83-9 84 Negroes of Africa ... 85-4 24 „ Kordofan 850 16 Hottentots 836 14 Caverno de I’Hommo Mort (Polished Stone period) ... 81-9 5 Crenelle (Ancient Stone period) 81-2 55 Merovingians of Chelles ... 81*2 62 New Caledonians ... 80-6 12 Dolmens of the North of Franco... 80-5 27 Australians... 80-4 8 Tasmanians 79-3 11 Guanches ... 770 Some other useful measurements are applied to the region of the orbits, such as (n) The relative superficies of the base of the orbits, which is obtained, as if it were a true rectangle, by multiplying the length by the breadth before mentioned ; (h) The capacity of the orbital cavity, studied by M. Mantegazza ; (c) The depth of tlie orbits, given by a line extending from the optic foramen to the inferior and external angle of the base of the orbits. In its imme- diate vicinity are also taken (a) The external biorbital diameter, from the external lip of the fronto-malar suture on one side to that on the opposite (it is this which ]\I Virchow takes for the 260 MEASUREMENTS OF THE SUPERIOR MAXILLA. [Chap. ii. inferior frontal) ; (5) Tire orbital interval, or from one dacryon to tlie other ; it is broad in the most marked yellow races, rather so in the negro races, and narrow in Europeans; (c) The length and breadth of the bones proper of the nose, the narrowness of which is of such great importance in Esquimaux ; (d) The angle made by the two great axes of the orbits taken together. Under all circumstances it is very obtuse, and open below, but sometimes, as in the Chinese races, the two lines are raised so as to become horizontal. Uever, as far as we know, does this go, in these races, so far as to produce an angle open above, as we should be led to suppose by the position of the palpebral apertures in the living subject. With regard to the malar bones, ^1. Broca is satisfied with two principal measurements ; the bijugal and the bimalar diameter, each going from one point of the same name to the other. The Superior Maxilla. The superior maxilla plays a considerable part in the architec- ture of the face. The part which it takes in the irregular enlarge- ment of the face in Tasmanians, or in its mcrease in height in Esquimaux, demands consideration. In order to this we measure the height of the bone : (1) The maximum, from the point of its ascending process ; (2) The mean, from the inferior border of the orbit; (3) The minimum, from the nasal spine to the alveolar border in each case. Then we take the breadth : (1) The maximum, at the inferior part of the maxillo-malar suture ; (2) The maximum, at the level and outside of the alveolar arch. We may ascertain the form of this arch by its inner side, and con- sequently that of the palate. It is presented to us luider four aspects: (1) Hyperbolic, when the branches of the arch go or diverge in a backward direction; (2) Parabohc, when they still diverge, but somewhat less so, and in such a manner as, that if prolonged they would eventually return upon themselves and meet ; (3) In the form of the letter U when they are exactly parallel ; and (4) Elliptical, wdien they converge, whatever the degree of such convergence may be. The first two- and noblest forms are Cn.\p. II.] MEASUKEMENTS OF THE SUPERIOR MAXILLA. 261 common in the Avliite races ; the third and fourth are rare, and are especially seen in black races ; the form of the letter U is that of antliropoid apes ; the elliptical is seen in the sagoii and the macaque. The following is an example of the measurements which M. Broca makes use of to determine them ; they have reference to his celebrated series of troglodytes of La Lozere : 7 men. 8 women. Internal curve, width at f Behind ... ... 31*2 ... 32*7 the internal lip of the I At the first molar 33*4 ... 31*2 alveolar arch ... ( „ incisor ... 20*2 ... 20*3 Vault of the palate, total length ... ... 47*0 ... 43*7 Whence it follows that in this exam^^le the breadth at the posterior extremity of the arch is greater than at the level of the first molar, that this extremity goes on diverging, and consequently that the alveolar arch is hyperbolical. In fact it is rather the form of the vault of the palate which is thus measured, and it is to be noticed that the line of the teeth themselves does not always convey to the eye exactly the same impression. j\I. Broca again takes account of the relation of the maximum breadth of the vault of the palate to its maximum length, in making comparison of races. This is the palatine index. The dimensions common to the cranium and to the face will be found in the following chapters. Here we shall merely mention, among the right lines, the line of Virchow, going from the root of the nose to the lambda ; a second, going from the root of the nose to the maximum occipital point; and a third, extolled by Morton, adopted by the Germans, and improperly called the alveolar line by j\r. Vogt, which extends from the alveolar point to the ma:dmuni occipital point. Compared together, these two diameters have been employed for the purpose of recognising prognathism, orthog- nathism, and opisthognathism. The alveolar line would be longer in the first case, equal in the second, and shorter in the third. This is a bad method. 262 .MEASUEEMENTS OF THE INFEEIOE MAXILLA. [Chap. ii. The Inferior Maxilla. The inferior maxilla is not generally studied as much as it deserves. The form of its alveolar arch is to he examined. Then the following principal measurements are to he taken : namely, the distance across from one angle to the other ; the distance obliquely from the same angle to the point of the chin; the height of the hone at the symphysis, and its height at the level of the coronoid process. Two angles are specially to he noticed : the angle of the jaw, properly ^o called, which varies according to age (p. 135) and race, and the angle which the symphysian line or profile makes with the plane of the inferior border of the body of the hone ; this latter hears the name of tlie symphysian angle. The direction of the front teeth, whether vertical or oblique — this latter constituting inferior dental prognathism — and the projection or absence of the chin are to he noticed. This projection passes beyond the j^er- pendicular from three to five millimetres in European races. It is replaced in anthropoids by a recession backwards, amounting to one centimetre. In negro races the cliin is still in front of the perpendicular, but from time to time there have been noticed, as upon some prehistoric jaws, examples which exhibit all the inter- mediate gradations between Man and the anthropoid ape. In the example where this recession of the chin was the most marked, namely, on the ancient jaw of La Xaidette, it reached three millimetres. It is here that the symphysian angle is measiu’ed, and which must be regarded as prognathism of the body of the lower jaw.* Before concluding this chapter, we shall reproduce a table pub- lished by M. Broca in the “ Instructions Craniologiques ” of the Societe d’Aiithropologie, which was prepared at the same time as the first edition of this volume, and of which we had previously made a resume, with the exception of Chapter I., On the Eecolte et Conservation des Cranes et Ossements, and Chapter Till., On the * See “Les Caracteres Auatomiques de rHonime Preliistorique,” bv M. Broca, in “ Mem. d’Antbrop.,” vol. ii. p. 146. Chap, hi.] METHOD OF PROJECTIONS. 263 Mise en (Eiivre des Series. This table alone was omitted. It gives for each index, other than the cephalic and the nasal (1) The minimum mean and the maximum mean, that is to say the extreme means jireseiited by the series in all the races measured by ]\r. Broca ; (2) The extent of each of the three groups — the micro- semes, the mesos^mes, and the ni(!*gasenies (see p. 258), into which they are divided. The basilar index will be described in the next chapter. According to our custom, we shall omit a decimal. Nomenclature of indices other than the cephalic and nasal : Indices. Cleans. Microsbmes. Min. Max. M4sosl*mes. Mcgasfcmes. Vertical... 69 . .. 78 to 71-9 ... 72 to 74-9 .. . 75 and beyond. Transvorso-vertical 86 . ..104 „ 91-9 ... 92 „ 97-8 .. . 98 Frontal ... 62 . .. 73 ,, 65 9 ... 66 „ 68-9 .. . 69 >> Stephanie 79 . .. 92 „ 82-9 ... 83 „ 86-9 .. 87 Basilar ... 46 . .. 54 „ 48-9 ... 19 „ 50-9 .. . 51 33 33 Of the occipital foramen 77 . .. 90 „ 81*9 ... 82 „ 85-9 .. 86 33 33 Facial ... 61 . .. 73 „ 65-9 ... 66 „ 68-9 .. . 69 33 33 Orbital ... 77 .. 95 „ 82-9 ... 83 „ 88-9 ., ,. 89 33 33 Palatine ... 63 . .. 84 „ 70-9 ... 71 „ 76-9 ., .. 77 33 33 CILVPTEH III. PROJECTIOXS — HORIZONTAL ALVEOLO-CONDYLEAN RLANE AURICULAR RADII — PROGNATHISM CRANIOMETRICAL ANGLES OF JACQUART, DE QUATREFAGES, I3ROCA, WELCKER. Method of Frojertions. The method of projections is daily assuming greater importance. Under the name of projections, in geometry, is understood the representation on a plane of a figure situated without the plane, by means of the trace which is described by the intersections of all the straight lines which can be drawn from every point of the 264 METHOD OF PEOJECTIONS. [Chap. iij. figure upon tlie plane of projection. The projection is orthogonal, or geometrical, when all these lines are parallel, and central when they converge towards one and the same point. The images which are delineated on the retina are central projections ; it is the same with photographs — in both, the objects are described according to the laws of perspective. Orthogonal projections are the only ones which give exact measurements applicable to craniometry. There are two Avays of taking them ; directly, on the skull, by various- modes of proceeding ; and indirectly, on draAAungs. The latter is the more ancient, and apparently the more simple. It Avas in this Avay that Camper proceeded for his facial angle. "When Elumen- hach fixed his eye at a certain distance above the A^ertex, according to the norma verticalis, the AueAv AAdiich he obtained of the A'ault of the skull AA\as a projection in the horizontal plane, hut it Avas a central projection, consequently giAung rise to an illusion. The figure of the skull may he projected on a screen in three different planes : the AueAV from ahoA^e and from heloAv, in the horizontal plane; the vieAv from before and from behind, in the transverse A^ertical ; and the profile AdeAAq in the antero-posterior vertical. '\ITien on a draAving, or directly on the skull, we measure the projection Avhich the alveolar arch makes AAuth relation to the supra-orhital point, the tAvo points are supposed do he in the same plane, AAdiich in this case is the horizontal. But, according as the head is more or less leaning foiw^ards, the projection increases or diminishes. Hence the fundamental principle of the method of projections. The head ought ahi^ays to he placed in one definite position, agreed upon by all anthropologists anxious that their results may he arranged and compared ; the slightest violation of the rule occasions the most serious errors. It is therefore absolutely necessary that all slioidd he agveed as to this ne varietur position relatHely to the tlwee planes upon Avhich the skull may he placed. As to the antero-posterior median plane, provided that the skidl does not incline either to the right or to the left, the orientation is easy. We have only to take care that the tAVO sides are symmetrical, and that the tAvo zygomatic arches, for example, are mathematicall y Chap, hi.] HORIZONTAL PLANES. 2G5 at the same height. As to the transverse plane, providoil the Avhole front of the face looks exactly forwards, it is equally easy. Lut with the horizontal plane, in order that neither the front nor the hack of the skull may he raised or depressed at the caprice of the observer, a ride must be made use of at the measuring points, a horizontal plane, or at least a horizontal line. Such indeed have been the matters which have occupied the attention of antlu'opo- logists from Camper to the present time. The task was undertaken Fig. 30. — A, Plane of the axis of the orbits ; C C, Alveolo-condylean plane ; B B, Auricnlo- bregroatic line, determining the plane of Busk, which is perpendicular to it ; G L, Glabello-lambdoidean plane of Hamy ; D I), Plane of mastication ; E E, Plane of Camper ; K K, Plane of Biier ; G 31, Ordinary 3Iaximum antero-posterior diameter ; F3I, Antero-posterior diameter of Welcker. by a congress assembled in Germany, but with little success. The theory is that the skull rests, if it can be made to do so, absolutely in its natural attitude, as in the living subject. Some observers therefore have taken up a fixed vertico-transverse plane, the hori- zontal being necessarily perpendicular to it. Thus Charles Bell sought to represent the natural axis of the skull by a spindle which passed through the occipital foramen, was applied to the roof of the cavity beneath the vertex, and kept the skull in equilibrium by I 266 HOEIZONTAL PLANES. [Chap. hi. a point. It is in this way that Mr. Busk takes the plane passing across the bregma and the auditory openings. Others have fixed their attention directly on the horizontal plane, being moved by physiological, artistic, or empirical considerations, or simply as a matter of convenience. In short, fifteen different planes have been suggested, namely : 1. The planes of Bell and Busk above alluded to. 2. The plane of mastication, determined principally by the surface of the molars. 3. The plane of Camper, from the centre of the auditory opening to the inferior nasal spine. 4. The ])alatine plane of Barclay, or the plane of the arch of the palate. 5. The plane of Blumenbach, or plane of the table upon which the skull, without the lower jaw, takes its equilibrium. * 6. The plane of Biier, determined by the superior border of the zygomatic arch (adopted at the Gottingen Congress in 1861). 7. The plane of Meckel, given by a line drawn from the centre of the auditory canal to the inferior border of the orbit. 8. The plane of Daubenton, passing across the opisthion and the infei’ior border of the orbits. 9. The glahello-lamhdoidean plane, proposed by M. Hamy. 10. The glahello-occipita l plane, in which the antero-posterior diameter of the skull is situated. 11. The plane of Eolle, determined by a line drawn from the centre of the auditory opening to the alveolar point. 12. The naso-iniac plane, from the root of the nose to the inion. 13. The plane of Aeby, passing across the root of the nose and the basion. I 11. The naso-opisthiac jalane, from the root of the nose to the opisthion. 15. The alveolo-condylean plane of M. Broca. The last alone starts from a physiological conception. The head is in its natural position when its two visual axes in the htdng subject, or its two orbital axes in the skeleton, are dnected towards the horizon, a dnection which is the result of Plan’s perfectly upright attitude. Tor this reason this plane deserves our favour- able consideration, but still more so because it has the three-fold advantage (1) Of being accessible, so that without anj’' special contrivance a skull can rest or be readily suspended on the plane ; (2) Of being in the middle in the difirerent races, and sensibly parallel to the plane of vision ; (3) Of exliibiting the minimum Chap, hi.] ALVEOLO-COXDYLEAN PLANE. 267 amount of oscillation -wliicli can be obtained. The alveolo-condyleaii plane is determined by three points : namely, the inferior surface of the two condyles of the occipital, and the median point of the alveolar arch, and does not bear comparison with any other for convenience. With respect to the two other advantages, they may be judged of by the following comparative table. The first column indicates the degree of elevation or depression of the jdane relatively to the plane of vision, the second the maximum divergence in individual cases. The planes are arranged in the order of their importance, according as they more or less realise these two indications : Planes. Mean. Deviation. Alveolo-condylean ... ... + 0-88 ... 12-65 • Hamy ... ... -r 0-97 ... 23-65 Busk ... ... - 1-81 ... 19-61 Mastication ... ... 3 '8i> ... 20-21 Camper ... + 4-68 ... 19-68 Barclay ... -f 5’18 ... 23-09 Blumenbach ... ... + G09 ... 22-55 Bticr ... — 6ol ... 17-32 Meckel ... - 7-96 ... 17-49 Glabello-occipital ... -12-96 ... 20-81 Daubenton ... -15-11 ... 16-59 Eolle ... ... +15-81 ... 18-52 Naso-iniac ... -15-88 ... 24-84 Naso-opisthiac ... -25-76 ... 17-89 Aeby ... -31-26 ... 16-38 i\r. Broca is of opinion that, next to the alveolo-condylean plane, and in default of measuring points, as in sktills without the face or occipital foramen, the best are those of Haniy and flush. The following table shows the maximum, the minimum, and the mean which the alveolo-condylean plane has presented when taken by itself, in three series subjected to examination Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 12 Auvergnians... ... + 3 29 ... — 3’44 ... — 0'90 • 12 Mongols + 8-63 ... 000 ... -f- 3-65 12 Negroes + 3-4 1 ... - 4 02 ... - 0 10 * “ Sur le Plan Horizontal de la Tete,” by M. Paul Broca, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. viii., 1873. 26 ^ CEANIOMETEICAL DRAWINGS. [Chap, hi. Before entrusting a skull to a dranglitsman to delineate its contours geometrically with, tlie aid of special instruinents, or to set off its projections in a direct manner, the first thing is to place it in such a Avay that all the parts are symmetrical, and that it rests on the horizontal plane passing across the inferior surface of the occipital condyles and the inferior border of the alveolar arch. The drawings of Blumenbach and many others are almost valueless, Fig. 31. — Stereograph of M. Broca. The skull is placed on the craniophore in the position shown in the drawing. The same support, if turned, serves for the views in front and behind. A special support is substituted when we wish to have drawings according to the no'i'iaa verticalis of the superior or inferior surface of the skull. OAving to the Avant of this precaution. Those of Prichard are fre- quently in contradiction to his text, for the same reason. Among the instruments by the help of Avhich draAvings by pro- jection are obtained, some are only capable of gAing the principal points, the operator completing the figure as well as he can. Such are the apparatus of Camper and Leach. Others require scarcely Chap, hi.] PROJECTIONS OF THE CRANIU:J. 2G9 any skill on the part of the operator, as the diopter of Lnea;, the dessinatenr horizontal, the diagraph of Gavart, the craniograj^h and stereograph of Broca. The last three are to he preferred. The diagTaph requires some ainoimt of precision. In using the other tw(> it is only necessary to have a light hand. The craniograph is very exact, hut it only gives the outlines of the profile, and the situation of the auditory meatus. The stereograph represented hy Tig. 31 gives, on the contrary, all the visible details, as 'well as some inaccessihle to the eye, and is applied to each of the five surfaces of the skidl which it is useful to reproduce. On the outlines which it deKneatcs we measure the straight lines, curves, and angles to a millimetre, more readily than on the skull itself ; the curves alone require a special instrument — the roulette milUmetrique. It is liowever recommended to take the projections, as much as possible, in a direct manner. The first which M. Broca was con- cerned with, were made upon the part situated behind the basion, or posterior cranium, and upon tliat in front of it. At that time he only made use of Blumenbach’s plane. The head being placed on a small board graduated from before backwards and from behind forwards, commencing from a pin whicli passes through the occipital foramen, and is arrested at its anterior border, he placed a square on a level with the nucha on the one hand and the alveolar border on the other, and read off the two distances indicated. He then took the same two projections on the profiles, obtained with the craniograph, but taking care to let fall a perpendicular from the supra-orbital point upon the alveo-condylean plane or line pre- viously traced, which gives the projection separately from the whole of the face in front of this point, and consequently allows of its being cut off from the projection of the entire head, or of that portion in front of the basion. He thus had three projections : one posterior for the posterior cranium, a middle one for the anterior cranium, and an anterior one for the face.* Each portion being then compared to the total projection of‘ * “ Sur les Projections de la Tete,” by Paul Broca, in “ Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop. ,” vol. iii., 1862. AUEICULxiE EADII. 270 [Chap. hi. the head = 1000, he obtained the following proportions (see Kg. 32): Europeans. Negroes. Difference in + or — in Negroes. Projections of the face ... ... 64-8 ... 137'5 + 72'7 „ „ anterior cranium 409’9 ... 361’0 — 48'9 „ „ posterior „ 525'2 ... 501‘3 — 23-8 M. Broca concludes from this : (1) That the face of the negro occupies the greater portion of the total length of the head — which no one disputes ; (2) That his anterior cranium is less developed than his posterior, relatively to that of the white ; (3) That liis occipital foramen is situated more backwards in relation to the total projection of the head, but more forwards in relation to the cranium only. The negro, in other words, has, cceteris 2 ^cirihit 8 , the cerebral cranium less developed than the white, but its posterior portion is more developed than the anterior. It comes, therefore, within the occipital races of Gratiolet, and the European in his frontal races. M. Broca has established, besides, a basilar index (p. 263) which is the relation of the projection of the part anterior to the basion to the projection of the entire skull. The auricular radii are only projections in the antero-posterior vertical plane of the skull ; their imaginary centre is situated in the. middle of the line passing from one auditory meatus to the other. M. Broca sets them off upon his drawings, made either with the craniograph or the stereograph (see Eig. 32). In the following table each radius bears the name of the cranio- metrical point at which it meets on the median line.'^' 355 Parisians. Negroes. Alveolar radius 99-0 ... 113-7 Nasal „ 89-3 ... 95-7 Supra- orbital „ 98-3 ... 103-0 Bregmatic ,, 111-6 ... 109-8 Lambdoidal ,, 104-6 ... 101-2 Iniac ,, 76-9 ... 75-0 Opistbiac 42-3 ... 42-6 * See an article, “ Sur les Cranes Basques,” in “ Bull. Soc. d’Authrop.,’^ 1st series, vol. iv. p. 61, 1863. Chap, hi.] AURICULAR RADII. 271 These radii may also he taken in a direct manner with the instru- ment of ]\Ir. Barnard Davis, a sort of frame which turns round the skull, having for its centre two steel pins, which are inserted in the auditory meati. The authors of “ Crania Britannica ” made use of it more particularly to take the three maximum radii — the frontal, the parietal, and the occipital, whatever the point in each hone on Fig. 32. — Profile taken with M. Broca’s craniograph. O, Auricular point, or centre of the- auditory meatus ; O A, Auriculo-alveolar radius ; O B, Auriculo-supra-orbital radius ; o c, Auriculo-bregmatic radius ; O D, Auriculo-lambdoidean radius ; O E, Auriculo- iniac radius ; o F, Auriculo-opisthiac radius ; A S, Alveolo-condylean line, or pLane, giving the total projection of the skuU ; B g, Perpendicular falling from the supra- orbital iK)int, and detaching the facial portion (A ^) ; V r, Peri^endicular passing through the baslon (I) and separating the cranial projection proper (« q) into two parts, one (rq) projection of the anterior cranium, the other (s r) the projection of the posterior ; B A, Ophryo-alveolar length of the face ; B^, Height of the face. which that maximum might he. By slightly modifying it we are ahle to take the three additional radii of Mr. Busk : namely, the nasal, at the nasal ]:)oint ; the alveolar or maxillary ; and the bregmatic or vertical ; and consecpiently all those of M. Broca, as well as the three of M. Ecker, meeting at the glahella, at the vertex, and at the maximum occipital point. M. Ecker has an instrument of his OAvn for taking projections, which possesses all the advantages of that of 272 AURICULAR RADII. [Chap. hi. Mr. Davis, and allows tlie skull to be more accurately lixed in posi- tion according to the plane which may be preferred. In Germany a preference is given to Baer s or Meckebs plane. M. Ecker thus measures the projection of the anterior craniimi with relation to the auricular axis, and not, as we do, with relation to the basion. The following are some of the residts obtained by Mr. Davis with regard to his three maximum auricular radii — the frontal, the parietal, and the occipital. AYe must not confound them with those of AI. Broca, which go to particular points. All the subjects are males : 21 English 9 Fins 17 Chinese 7 Esquimaux of Greenland 50 Negroes 18 Australians ... 9 New Hebrideans 61 Kanakas (Sandwich Isles) Frontal Parietal Occipital radiu.s. radiu.s. radius. 119 , ... 124 ... 106 119 , ... 122 ... 101 116 . .. 124 ... 106 127 . .. 128 ... 107 118 , ... 123 ... 107 108 . ,.. 116 ... 101 116 . .. 119 ... 104 124 , ... 127 ... 104 Tire applications of the method of projections are infinite, such as ; (a) The height of the auditory meatus above the alveolo-condylean jdane, or, deducting the height of the condyles, the height above the basion ; (b) The projection of the superior border of the orbit vdth relation to its inferior border — in front in many of the Alelanesians, behind as a general rule ; (c) The vertical or more or less oblique direction of the forehead ; (d) The total height of the head as ob- served on the living subject, or only that portion above the mouth ; (e) The height of the cheek-bones and their projection, whether for- wards or outwards ; (/) The different kinds of prognathism ; {(/) The height of the inion, &c., not including the ordinary horizontal pro- jections of the head, the face and the anterior and posterior cranium. Under all circumstances the process is the same, namely, that of the double square; the methods alone vary, and are done impromptu. Two squares, graduated in centimetres and milli- metres, are essential ; the larger consists of two pieces, one of which is graduated ; the other, being hea\"5q rests in equilibrium on the table ; the smaller is the common one. Chap, hi.] THE CEANIOPHORE. ’273 Suppose ^yo Avaiit to take the height of a point with relation to the alveolo-conJylean plane. The skull being placed on this plane in its natural position, the larger scpiare is put upright on the plane close to the point re([uired. On its vertical portion, graduated so that zero corresponds to the alveolo-condylean plane, we slide at a right angle the second s(piare, until the sloping side of its point touches the point in (piestion. We have then only to read off the height recpiired. But without moving, the same operation gives Fig. 33. — Topinard’s Craniopbore. A, Pedestal ; 13, Shelf ; C, Sliding piece and stec bb\de; D, Small square. The other is the large square. The apparatus is in position for measuring the height of the supra-orbital point, and its horizontal projection behind the alveolar point. the horizontal projection of the same point witli relation to any other spot that Ave desire at the periphery of the skull. The vertical portion being placed upright, for example, in contact Avith the alveolar border, the distance indicated on the smaller square from the supra-orbital point to this vertical portion, Avill be the horizontal projection of that point AAnth relation to the alveolar point. Such is the object of the craniophore, of our OAvn invention, and Avhich is noAv in common use. It consists of two pieces — a pedestal T 274 THE GENERAL INDEX OF THE HEAD. [Chap. hi. and a shelf — the two, when adjusted, being exactly 10 centimetres in height ; the shelf sliding in a groove, so as to allow of its being lengthened and adapted for different-sized skulls, and at its extremity there is a steel blade, which is inserted between the incisor teeth at the alveolar point. The large square has its zero 23laced at the height of 10 centimetres, or rather it is graduated from the base for other purposes, but we reckon the zero at this height instead of ten. In this way, as seen in Fig. 33, the skull is isolated and placed in position, and the square may be readily applied at any part. We made use of this instrument first for the vertical* projection of the entire head, or its maximum height, includ/sd between two liorizontal and parallel planes, tangent, the one to the inferior border of the lower jaw with its teeth, and in place, the other to the top of the head. This projection is that which gives the im- pression to the traveller when, on looking a person in the face, he pronounces his head long or short. (The first column of the follow- ing table gives some examples of it.) But this impression is modified by the variable width of the face, of which he must take account. The advantage of it is the obtaining by projection the relation of the maximum height of the face to its maximum or bizygomatic breadth. We propose to call it V indice genercde de la tele osseuse : the second column expresses it. Total projection of the head. , Its width = 7 Esquimaux 198-8 ... ... 148-7 9 Chinese 196-2 ... ... 148-1 5 Arabs ... 196-2 ... ... 153-6 5 Kaffirs ... 195-8 ... ... 144-1 40 Malays ... 194-2 ... ... 142-9 10 Negroes (various) 190-7 ... ... 149-5 13 Bretons (Low)... 190-0 ... ... 146-7 8 Australians ... 187-5 ... ... 148-0 6 Alsatians ‘ 186-0 ... ... 134-6 10 Hottentots 182-3 . ... 144-8 3 Tasmanians 182-0 ... ... 138-8 3 Lapps ... 177-0 ... 124-6 Presentation of a new craniophore, an instrument for taking all the cranial projections,” by Paul Topinard, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. vii. p. 862, 1872. Chap, hi.] PKOJECTIOX OF THE FOREHEAD. 275 'riiis sliows — (1) That Esquimaux, and tlio yellow races generall}', have un([uestionahly the longest head ; Lapps, Tasmanians, and ilottentots the shortest. (2) That this length is greatest relatively to its bizygomatic breadth in Arabs, and least again in Lapps. All the variations in the second column are readily understood. The Esquimaux have descended in the scale because their face grows wide, as in all the yellow races, disproportionately to the elongation of the head. The Arabs have ascended in the scale for the opposite reason, narrovuiess of the face being characteristic of the white races. In our opinion this absolute lieight of the head, the jaw included, whether relatively to its breadth or not, is a craniometrical character of the highest importance, and the more Fig. 34.— Example of the straight forehead, \sdth high and projecting protuberances. useful in that it is one of the indications which travellers are most inclined to note. It is not however included in the scale in the series of races, and is only characteristic by itself. Thus travellers, when contrasting the Kaffir with the Hottentot race, speak of the former as having a long and the latter a short head. 8o Australians are distinguished from Tasmanians, the former being classed among long heads, the latter among short heads. Another purpose for which the craniophore is used, is to deter- mine the degree of inclination of the forehead, or rather the situation of the frontal protuberances which form its culminating point. When we put aside the breadth of the forehead measured by the two transverse diameters, the minimum and the Stephanie, and seek to take account of its vertical development on the median T 2 276 PEOJECTION OF THE FOEEHEAD. [Chap. hi. line, we are sometimes struck witli the difference wliich it presents in different races, which seem a priori at variance with prevailing notions. What is termed a fine forehead — that is to say, straight or. projecting — seems to he met -with frequently among the negro races of Africa. M. Broca’s series of Xuhians, so negroid when we look at the skull, is specially remarkable for the projection of the frontal protuberances. In this region there are many craniometrical elements to he taken into consideration ; hut the principal one,, after the breadth, is the position of the tubers in relation to the glabella, which is its most sloping and its most anterior point. Above it, the plane becomes vertical or oblique as far as the tubers, or bends round to reach the bregma, forming a more or less obtuse angle. A\dien it approaches a right angle, we have the straight forehead ; and when the angle is very obtuse, Ave have the receding forehead. It is this height of the tubers above the glaheUa, and their position more or less behind it, ayMcIi Ave liaA^e taken AAnth the double square. Its results are gwen in the folloAving table. The first column indicates the height of the tubers; the second, their horizontal distance behind the glabella ; the third, the relation of these tAvo factors, the height being = 100; the fourth, the same converted by trigonometrical calculation into an angle, the point of Avhich is at , the glabella, and AAdiich expresses the degree of obliquity of the forehead as far as the tubers relath^ely to the horizontal : 42 Auvergnians . . . Vertical projection. MiU. ... 56-4 .. Horizontal projection. Mill. . 14*2 ... Kelation. MiU. . , 25-2 ... Angle. 75-07° 20 Nubians ... 29-3 .. 7-7 ... . 26*3 ... 75-27 42 Negroes of Africa ... 30-7 .. 8*5 27-9 ... 74-41 28 Mongols and Ckinese 30’6 . 13-8 ... , 42-8 ... 66-83 "Wlience it foUoAvs that the Arwergnians ha^-e the highest and most posterior frontal tubers, and the Huhians the lowest and most anterior. This chcumstance accounts for the conformation of the forehead of the latter, AAdiich Ave should scarcely have expected. From the combination of these two elements, as regards the relation of the horizontal to the A^ertical projection, the residt is that the frontal tubers are in a measure more conformable to the cerebral Chap, hi.] PROGNATHISM. 277 organ wliich they protect in the European than in tlie negro, and especially the Asiatic. The Asiatic, it is - true, gains in breadth what he loses in projection and in height, and is in consequence above the negro. Craniometry thus confirms the prevailing opinion that a well-developed forehead specially belongs to the white races and is a mark of beauty. ^Moreover, the angular measurement exhibits this conformation still more strongly, showing the deficient forehead of the Mongols and Chinese. The contrast would be still more striking if the Auvergnians, our term of comparison, did not possess an enormous glabella, owing to which the inferior extremity of the frontal line is brought forward, and the angular aperture is diminished to their Fio. 35.— Example of the receding forehead, with the bosses low and almost obliterated. prejudice ; while in the yellow races, the glabella being almost obliterated, it is increased to their advantage. The measurement of prognathism is another purpose to which the craniophore is applied. P rofjnathism. Prognathism has always since the time of Prichard been under- stood to mean the elongation and prominence, or obliquity, of the jaws, common in the black races of Africa and Oceania, accidental in some Europeans. It is in ju’ofile that we at once recognise it, whether in the living subject or on the skull. An imaginary perpendicular is let fall from the root or anterior spine 278 MEASUREMENT OF PROGNATHISM. [Chap. hi. of the nose, and according as the portion in front is iiiore or less considerable, so ^ye say the subject is, or is not, prognathons. iSTothing is more simple, and yet we meet with the term among authors in various acceptations. Some speak of the prognathism of the face, others of that of the jaws ; others go so far as to exclude all that portion of the face below the nares, taking in only that part of the maxilla between the root of the nose and the inferior nasal sihne. Two expressions intended to be in opposition to that of prognathism have tended to complicate the cpiestion. Oblicpie teeth, they say, are prognathous ; teeth in an upriglit position, orthognathous. So far so good ; but the word has been transferred to the face, in Avhich tlie profile line is never straight. The word ‘‘ opisthognathons,” which has been ap})lied to those cases in which the line is inclined backwards, is still more objectionable. The various methods or inocesses which have been employed for measuring prognathism will enable ns to form an idea of the dif- ference of opinion which has prevailed on the subject. AVe shall only mention the principal ones. 1. The facial angle of Camper. It measures, indeed, the degi-ee of elon- gation of the face, but not very accurately. The angles of Cloquet, Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, and Cuvier are preferable in this respect. The angle of Jacquart does not express it at all. 2. The naso-basal angle of Welcker (see page 255). 3. The same angle modified by M. A^ogt, by its anterior side being pro- longed as far as the alveolar point. 4. The palatine and vomcrian angles of A^ogt. 5. The relation of two lines proceeding fi’om the basion, the one to the nasal the other to the sub-nasal point. This is M. VirchoAv’s latest method (see page 255). 6. The relation of tAvo lines extending from the maximum occipital point, one to the glabella the other to the aNeolar point. This is the old German method. 7. The relation of the facial radii of Mr. Busk, proceeding from the auditory meatus, or even of the am'icular radii of M. Broca. 8. The method employed by M. Broca for taking the projection of the face, and which is also applied to each of its parts (see page 271). 9. The method of Luca?. In his drawing he lets fall a perpendicular from the naso-frontal suture on the horizontal line, slightly modified, of the Germans (passing straight through the imaginary axis of the zygomatic arch), and on this perpendicidar, ordinates proceeding from the sub-nasal point, alveolar point, Ac. The last two alone go directly to the mark ; they Chap, hi.] KINDS OF PROGNATHISM. 279 vest on tho same principle — the necessity, in order to get at prognathism, of placing the head in its natui*al })osition, as it is in the living subject ; they only differ as regards the horizontal plane. The table, page 267, will show which is to bo preferred. 10. The last is our own method. It differs from that of M. Broca only from the fact that it is applied directly to the skull, and takes account of the variations of the height of tho face. It was by M. Broca’s advice that wo made use of it as regards this latter. The same horizontal projection will be weak in a high skull, and very considerable in a low one. The following luv the various kinds of prognathism which may l)e admitted : Sui)ci-ior facial ... Inferior facial ... / In its entirety. ) Superior maxillary. 1 Alveolo-snb-nasal. ^ Superior dental, i Infei-ior dental. ( ,, maxillary. The teeth, heing independent organs, should he excluded. AVhether upright or ohli([ue in Loth jaw.s, or only in the upper, which is the rule, their aiTangemeiit is generally conformahle to that of their sockets. I'lierr special prognathism, if it really exists, has yet to form a subject for investigation, iff the prognathism of the body of the lower jaw' we have already sjioken. It remains for us to refer to the tlu’ee other kinds. Each corresponds to the inclination, on the alveolo-condylean jdane, of a line extending from the alveolar point to one of tho special points of the face, the sub-na.sal, the nasal, or the sub-orbital. These lines represent the diagonal of a quadrilateral figure, tho eipial sides of which are the height or vertical projection of the region, and its antero-posterior length or horizontal projection. The relation of the latter to the former expresses this diagonal, or the projection of the region. It is thus that, in 1872, we spoke of the index of such or such prognathism ; but, acting upon ^I. Broca’s advice, Ave have since thought that it ought to be converted by the trigonometrical method into an angle at the alveolar point, Avhich has the advantage of exhibiting in a direct manner the angle of inclination of 'the profile lines on the hori- zontal plane. I.,et us take an example of sub-nasal prognathism. The skull is that of a Xaimupiair in the Museum, and is the most 280 THE ELEMENTS OF PEOGNATHISM. [Chap. hi. prognathous known. The height of the nasal spine or suh-nasal point above the horizontal plane is 20 millimetres ; the horizonta projection from the same point to the perpendicular line in contact with the alveolar border is 16 millimetres. The relation then of the latter to the former, or index, is 80, and the angle at the alveolar point according to the calculation, 51*35°. Prognathism. Pacial. Maxillary. Extreme individual variations 89-5° to 63*9° ... 87-1° to 62*5° ( White races.. . 83-0 „ 77-0 ... 81*5 „ 75*2 Average variations < Yellow „ 79-8 „ 74*3 ... 770 „ 74*3 ( Black „ ... 79-7 „ 74-3 ... 77-2 „ 69*0 14 Guanebes 80*48° 79*80° 350 Parisians 79*00 78*13 76 Auvergnians 78*21 77-00 9 Esquimaux ... 76*71 75-31 58 Negroes of West Africa 76*15 73-32 58 New Caledonians 75*48 72*15 7 Bosjesmans and Namaquans 74*11 69*00 The first table has reference to prognathism of the face (upper) in its entirety, and to prognathism of the maxilla, also in its entirety. The extreme variations observed in about 1500 skulls, the limit of the averages in about 60 of all races, and some examj)les of these averages, have been recorded. AYe refer the reader to our treatise for a separate description of prognathism of the nasal region, of which M. Yhcliow has made measurements, though it possesses but little interest.* The results have not answered om expectations respecting these two kinds of prognathism. Anthropologists have been wrong, up to the present time, in giving so much importance to the projection of the whole maxilla, or of the whole face. Craniometry proves that the imaginative method was an erroneous one. The variations are frequently determined by anatomical considerations foreign to the character sought for. There is no fixedness of result in one and the same series, and most flagrant contradictions are met with be- tween averages in contiguous races. There is, however, a certain * “ Des Diverses Especes de Prognathisme,” by Paul Topinard, in “ Eevue d’Anthrop.,” vols. i. and ii., 1872 and 1873. Chap, hi.] TRUE PROGNATHISM. 281 conformity with usually-received notions in the general distribution of their angles, which arises from the part which the iiarticular prognathism of the sub-nasal region bears in the general prognathism of the face or of the maxilla. Prognathism of the face is to be altogether discarded as an important character. That of the maxilla, as a whole, occasionally gives us some information. True Frofjmithism. AVe must consider alveolo-sub-nasal prognathism in an entirely different way, affecting as it does both the portion of the maxilla subjacent to the nasal spine which corresponds to the palatine arch, and that next to it in which the alveoli are situated. It is to it that the term prognathism should be ^trictly confined. It is to this sul>nasal region that we must look when endeavouring to find out the source whence a skull has been derived. It furnishes of itself the differential character of the various races of manlvind. Subjoined are examples of this. TRUE OR SUB-NASAL PROGNATIIISlf. lividual variations, maximum and minimum 89° to 51-3° ( White races ... 82 „ 76-5 Drage variations i Yellow „ 76 ,, 68 5 ^ Black ,, 69 ,, 59 5 14 Guanches 81-31° 15 Corsicans 81-28 22 Gauls 80-87 14 Caveme de I’Homme Mort 79-77 350 Parisians 78-13 10 Toulousians ... 78-50 76 Auvergnians 77-18 42 Merovingians 76-54 7 Fins and Esthonians . 75-53 . 6 Tasmanians ... 76-28 10 Tahitians 7500 14 Chinese 72-00 10 Esquimaux ... 71-46 45 Malays 69-49 56 New Caledonians ... 69-87 11 Australians ... 68-24 52 Negroes of West Africa ... 66-91 7 Namaquans and Bosjesmans 59-58 282 TKUE PEOGNATHISM. [Chap. hi. We gather from this — {a) That the angle of prognathism never reaches a right angle ; the suh-nasal line is ahvays more or less inclined on the natural plane of the base of the skull, consequently neither orthognathism nor opisthognathism has any existence. (/;) All races, all individuals are prognathous, the difference be- tween them being only in degree, (r) The races of Europe are slightly so, the yellow races and Polynesians much more so, the negro races more still, (d) The least prognathous of Europe are the inhaliitants of the Polished Stone period — the Gauls, Corsicans, and Guanches; the most prognathous, the Einno-Esthonians. (e) At the Merovingian period prognathism increased among the higher classes, and diminished subsequently. (/) Among the yellow races, prognathism appears to be less in the Mongols of the West ; it increases in the Chinese and Esquimaux, and attains its maximum in Malays, (y) The Polynesians of purest blood, and (we hardly venture to say) the Tasmanians which we have measured come nearer to the white races in this respect than the yellow races of the East, or the negro races of Africa. (Ji) The negroes of the east coast of Africa are less prognathous than those of the west ; the negroes of Oceania less than the negroes of Africa : the purest Hottentots reach the highest maximum of the whole human race. Setting aside the Einno-Esthonians and some ^Mongols of the East, the difference between the Avhite and yellow races is very great ; there is an insensible transition, on the contrary, from the latter to negroes. Taking the word in its ordinary sense, we may say that the white races are never prognathous, and that the yellow and black races are so in various degrees. In all the races, how- ever, there are exceptions. There are negroes as little prognathous as whites, as shown in a Bambarra skull, and whites excessively prognathous, as seen in the skull of Lemaire the assassin ; ljut in our opinion these are cases of atavism or of hybridity, and some- times cases of disease. In line, alveolo-sub-nasal prognathism is one of the best craniological characteristics. Before concluding our remarks on projections, w^e would say a word resjDecting the re- searches of M. Assczat on the general proportions of the face. He has studied — {«) The relation of its height, or rather of a perpendicular Chap, hi.] CRANIOMETEICAL ANGLES. 283 let fall from the nasal si^ine, or root of the nose, on the alveolo- coiulylean plane — its maxinmm or bizygomatic breadth, (h) The area of the median and anterior triangle included between the nasal point, the alveolar point, and tlie point where the basion is projected on the alveolo-condylean plane. The facial height Avhich we adopt varies, in the first place, as to its absolute measurements, from 77 millimetres in Esquimaux to 61 in Tasmanians, wliich justifies the inq^ression which tlie skull of each of thesej'gives. The same height, conqiared to its maximum breadth satisfactorily shows that Bas([ues liaA'c the longest face, and Lapps the shortest. Lut in every question of this kind there are two factors, and it is well to observe tliat in Basques the diminution of the transverse diameter ]>lays the 2 )rincipal part. (See p. 253.) The study of tlie area of the triangle is e(|ually instructive : there is no need of explanation, the figures speak for themselves. In Esquimaux the surface is 28 per cent, larger than in Lapps, which is an additional characteristic to those which already separate these two races fomierly included under one and the same name. In Auvergnians it is 15 per cent, larger than in IMerovingians, and 11 per cent, more than in Basipies; which tends to distinguish our ancient Celtic race fvom the other indigenous races of France. Cranio metrical A mjles. Cranionietrical angles are obtained in the same way as pro- jections, in two ways ; either directly with the assistance of par- ticular instruments, or on geometrical drawings Tiy means of the lirotractor. There is a third, which is indirect — the trigonometrical method, of which INI. Broca has given formulae for certain cases : as the biorbital angle, the parietal angle of 1\I. de Quatrefages, the angle of prognathism of which we have just spoken, the angle which is formed by the prolongation of the two sides of the superior cranial trapezium of M. '\\"elcker, Avhich unite the parietal to the frontal eminences.* The angle of Daubenton, having its point at the opis- * “ Sur le Plan Horizontal tie la TMe, et sur la MtThocle Trigonometrique,” by Paul Broca. Paris, 1873. 284 ANGLE OF DAUBENTON. [Chap. hi. thion, and for its sides the plane of the prolonged occipital foramen, and the line going from the opisthion to the level of the inferior orbital border, is the most ancient known. It has been described at page 53, as well as the two other occipital angles, the one to the opisthion and the other to the hasion, which M. Broca has added to it. All three are taken almost at one operation, with the occipital goniometer, with the arc in the position as re}>resented in Pig- 6. The centre of the dial being fixed at the opisthion by a little pin, the index-needle is applied first on the anterior measuring point de re]iere) of the line of Daiibenton, and then on that of the line which ]\I. Broca prefers — viz. the nasal point. Two angles are thus indicated which can be read off. The centre being then carried forward upon the hasion, and the needle placed at tlie nasal point, we get the third or basilar angle. In the generality of cases, the angle of Daubenton is positive ( + ) ; that is to say the prolongation of the occipital foramen ends at the face above the line which unites the inferior border of the two orbits. More rarely it is negative ( - ), which Daubenton had not noticed ; that is to say the prolongation of the foramen ends above the inferior border of the orbits. The second occipital angle of Broca is always positive ; once only has the basilar angle been found negative. The variations observed in the races of Mankind with regard to the angle of Daubenton are from - 16 degrees in an Auvergnian to -1-19 in a Hottentot ; but M. Broca has found that in the majority of cases above — 12 degrees, the skull was affected with the plastic deformation described b}^ l\Ir. B. Davis, and he thinks that this + 19 is a mistake of from one to two degrees, so that the physiolo- gical deviation between the extremes of this angle should be about 29 degrees. The - 3 which Daubenton attributed to Man in general is far from being settled. These variations are due to the influence of race, and average from -1*50° in Auvergnians to + 9-34° in Xubians. In M. Broca’s table all the races of Europe are grouped at the top from -D52° to +2*05°, while the last three races at the Chap, hi.] BASILAR ANGLE OF BROCA. 285 Lottom from +7 '88° to +9 '34° are negroes. AVlience the con- clusion that the lowering of the plane of the occipital foramen, which increases the angle of Dauhenton, constitutes a mark of inferiority ; and this conclusion is contirmed by the angle of + 11'37° obtained in four microcephali, and these still stronger than any we have described in the mammalian series. (See page 55.) Some races, as that of the Tasmanians, are far removed from this reckoning ; but in other respects have we not alreadj^ seen this singular race separated from the negro group in which, from their woolly hair and black skin, they had been included ? In reference to the angle of Daubenton, the conclusion we have come to is this : that the character which it expresses, in spite of its value, is out of the series. Like the form of the head, the orbital index, or the facial angle, it has no regular gradation, and is rather favourable to the monogenistic theory. The dimensions of the occipital and basilar angles of Lroca similarly vary. The averages of the occi- pital are from +10*33° in Auvergnians to -20'12° in ATibians; and of the basiliar from +14'3G° in Slavs of Austria to - 26*32° in Nubians also ; the minimum and maximum individual dimen- sions of the basilar being from - 2 in an Auvergnian to + 37 in a AVest African. In order not to be tediously prolix, we shall con- fine ourselves to some examples of the angle of Daubenton and of the basilar angle of Ih’oca. 60 Basques (Spauish) Angle of Daubenton. ... - 1-52° .., Basilar angle. . 15-29^ 88 Auvei’gnians ... - 1*50 . 14-72 62 Bretons (Low) ... - 0-80 .. . 16-02 124 Parisians of the 19th centuiy ... - 0*17 ... . 17-39 114 „ „ 12th „ ... + 1*46 .. . 17-59 6 Tasmanians ... + 2-58 ... , 16-43 11 Mongols ... + 2-72 .. . 20-09 29 Chinese ... + 5-86 . 24-51 14 Esquimaux ... + 8-63 .. . 24-42 13 Hottentots ... + 6*54 ... , 21-57 9 Australians ... + 6-87 ... , 21-42 51 New Caledonians ... ... + 7*88 ... , 23-58 44 Negroes (Western) ' ... + 8-47 ... , 25-97 22 Nubians ... + 9'34 . 26-32 28G FACIAL ANGLE OF JACQUART. [Chap. hi. The facial angle had its origin subsequently to that of Danbenton. We have seen (page 41 and Tig. 4) that there are four varieties of it : (1) The original angle of Camper, the vertex of which varies, is often vertical, and always on the prolonged horizontal line of Camper; (2) The angle of Jacquart, the vertex of which is at the nasal spine ; (3) The angle of Cloquet, the vertex of which is at the alveolar border ; and (4) The angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, the vertex of which is at the centre of the incisors. We have shown that all have for their posterior point the auditory meatus, or rather a virtual point in the middle of the biauricular line, and for the superior the culminant point of the forehead, wliich is almost always the glabella, or tlie })lace of convergence of the two superciliary arches. We may remark that this latter point is a bad one, and that the bulgings of the glabella and of the arches occasioned by tlie development of the frontal sinuses are to be avoided. For the comparison of ]\Ian with animals we prefer the angle of Cloquet, moditied according to circumstances. For the comparison of the human races we are of the same opinion, but measurements of them to any extent have not yet been made. The following table, extracted from Xo. 11 in our treatise upon the facial angles, has reference to the angle of Jacquart taken in two ways only ; the ordinary one at the glabella ; the other higher up, generally at the supra-orbital point, in order to a^'oid the glabella or superciliary projection. ]\I. Broca calls the latter angle the ophryo-spinal. FACIAL AXGLK OF JACQUART. Men. GlabcUa. Sup. -orb. point. Difference. 3 Aiivergnians ... 81-25° ... 75-11° .. . 6-14° 28 Bretons (Low) 78-43 ... 76-81 .., . 1-62 36 Gallo-Bretons 77-12 ... 74-42 . 2-70 29 Basques (French) ... 78-24 ... 75-41 ... . 2-83 42 „ (Spanish) ... 77-36 ... 75-18 ... , 2-18 13 Esquimaux ... 76-32 ... 74-43 ... . 1-89 28 Chinese 75-94 ... 72-37 ... , 3-47 35 Malays 75-64 ... 74-12 ... , 1-52 136 Negroes of Africa ... 75-03 74-81 ... 0-22 69 New Caledonians ... 74-73 ... 72-39 ... 2-34 Chap, hi.] FACIAL ANGLES. 287 ' FACIAL ANGLE OF JACQUART. Women. Glabella. Sup.-orl». point. Difference. 38 Auvergnians... . 7800^ ... 76-02° ... 1-98° 25 Bretons (Low) , 71-5G ... 75-52 ... 1-01 23 Gallo-Bretous , 76-08 75*51 0*57 19 Basques (French) ... 76‘35 ... 71-91 ... 1-41 17 ,, (Spanish) ... 77-89 ... 76-81 ... 1-05 •1 Chinese 73-66 ... 72-36 ... 1-30 5 Malays 71-31 ... 73-96 ... 0-38 52 Negresses of Africa 75*73 ... 75-08 ... 0-65 23 New Caledonians 75-29 ... 71-21 ... 1-08 The individual limits of the first angle vary in those series from S7‘2° to 66-2°, which leaves a certain margin for tlie distrihution of races ; hut their averages are not more than from 79 ’5 in the Auvergnians of both sexes to 74 ’4 in a special series of negroes of (.’ape de Verd. Looking only at tlie two great divisions, the general averages fall to 77’G in the 587 individuals of the white mce, 75*6 in the 140 of the yellow, 75-2 in the 118 of the. negro race of (Jceania, and 75-0 in the 90 of tlie negro races of Africa — the dif- ference in this case not being more than two degi’ees. If we take the second angle — that is to say making allowance for the pro- jection of the glabella or the superciliary ridges — the interval is not more favouralde. In the avei-ages of the series it was nine degi-ees in .men and 4’3° in women; at tlie iiresent time it is 2*7° in the former and 2 '4° in the latter. Wlience we come to the conclusion that the true angle of Jacrpiart, as well as his modified angle, may be useful for the differentiation of individuals, but they are not so for that of races. The facial angles, moreover, do not measure tlie relation of the development of the cranium and face, as was once thought, but the obliquity of the line of profile of the face ; we must then prolong this line as far as the alveolar border, and not conclude it at the nasal spine. We must consequently await the results which the angle of Cloquet gives according to race. I’lie angle of Jacquart is taken directly with the goniometer of that name, that of Camper with the goniometer of Morton, and that of Jules Cloquet with the median goniometer of ]\I. Lroca; all on plans by orthogonal iirojection. •288 PAEIETAL ANGLE. [Chap. hi. The parietal angle, which will now engage our attention,"^ was devised by M. de Qnatrefages with a view to controvert two state- ments of Bliimenbach and Prichard, and is taken with the instrii- nient represented at Pig. 36. When we carry two lines (S Z, Pig. 29) across the extremities of the transverse maximum, or bizygomatic diameter of the face, and the extremities of the maxi- mum transverse frontal diameter, which in that case is commonly looked upon as identical with the transverse Stephanie, these lines generally meet either at a variable i^oint at a distance above the head, are parallel, or meet at a point beloAv. In the first case the angle is positive : this is the pyramidal angle of Prichard ; in tlie second there is none ; in the thhd the angle is negative. AVhen the angle is positive, the zygomatic arches are called phenozygons — - that is to say, visible by the norma verticalis method of Plmnen- bach ; Avhen negative, the arches are cryptozygons, or concealed. The following table shows the maximum and minimnm, and the means in some of the human series. 26 Auvergnians Averages. ... + 2-5° ... Variations. - 5° to + 8" 10 Eonmanians ... + 8-0 ... — O'o ,, + 18 10 Guanebes ... + 10-4 ... + 5 „ -r 17 10 Lapps ... ... + 55 - 3 ,, 4- 15 13 Esquimaux ... + 157 + 4 „ + 23-5 12 Chinese ... ... 4- 11-2 ... + 4 „ -r 19 10 Mongols + 10-1 ... + 5 „ 4- 17 6 Usbecks... ... + 8-0 ... — 6 „ 4- 18 4 Tehuelchas ... + 11-6 ... + 6 3 » 4- 16 10 Negroes of Africa ... + 7-0 ... + 2 „ + 13 13 New Caledonians ... -f- 20-3 ... 16 „ 4- 30 Prom these data it follows — (a) That the individual limits of the parietal angle vary from — 5 to +30, and the means in races the most divergent from +2*5 to +20*3; (6) That the angles from 35 to 39 degrees, represented in the figiu’es which accompany Prichard’s description, and which led him to give the title of pyramidal to the Mongolian skull, are never seen; (c) That the * “ De I’Angle Parietal,” by M. de Quatrefages ; “ Comptes Keudus de rAcademie des Sciences,” meeting of April 25, 1858. PARIETAL GONIOMETER. 289 Chap, hi.] most oval skull, to use liis own expression, that in which the zygomatic arches are the most visible by the niethoil of lUumen- bach, is met with among the negroes of Oceania, and not among :Mongols ; (d) That inversely, the most negative angle — viz. that in which the zygomatic arches are the least projecting — is noticed among Auvergnians, Lapps, and African negroes. Fio. 36.— Parietal goniometer touch the coronal suture, meet below the skull— the of Ikl. de Quatrcfages. The branches A and B ought to They show, notwithstanding, that if prolonged they wouia angle would be negative. This angle is the resultant of two frequently contradictory con- ditions ; viz. the widening of the cheek-bones, and the degi’ce of swelling of the temples at the fronto-parietal suture. In default of an instrument, tlie relation of the two diameters, the bizygo- matic and the bistcphanic, might be substituted for it. Thus the 290 PARIETAL ANGLE. [Chap. hi. Auvergnians have scarcely any parietal angle, and occasionally a negative one, because tbeir bracliyceplialic character is associated with a feeble widening of the cheek-bones and zygomatic arches. The blew Caledonians, on the contrary, have a very acute angle, because in them a considerable dolichocephalism is accompanied by a wide separation of the cheek-bones. If the true IMongols and Ushecks have a less angle than the Esquimaux, the breadth of the cheek-bones being the same, it is because the former are hrachy- cephalic and the latter dolichocephalic. Another thing we deduce from this table is, that the angle in the adult is always, with l:>ut few exceptions, positive. In the child, on the contrary, it is con- stantly negative ; the younger it is, the more so. The following figures shoAV this : 2 children of 15 to 16 years of age ... ... — 7 ’ 0 ° 3 „ „ 6 „ 8 „ „ - 15-8 2 „ „ 3 „ 4 „ „ - 150 4 „ ,, 16 „ 18 months old ... ... — 21'7 1 child „ 4 „ - 24-0 From other examples, and even from one of those which have swelled the second of these averages, we are led to thinly that the parietal angle would afford a means of recognising anterior hydro- cephalus. The usual mean at a certain age being given, any considerable deviation from it would he its index. It has surprised us to see pathological cases in which, while the zygomatic arches still preserved their normal breadth, the anterior cranium was prominent or depressed. It will he noticed in the subjoined table that the variations are similar to those which age and the form of the head ought to produce according to the foregoing opinions. We have also given some measurements taken upon anthropoid apes ; here again the principle with regard to age is confirmed in the case of the young orang. 4 kydrocepkali, adults ... ... ... ... — 31‘9° 2 microcepLali, „ ... ... ... ... + 33'0 2 „ „ (brachycephaKc) ... ... + 21’0 1 microcephalus, 7 years of age ... ... ... — 2‘0 2 scaphocepkali ... ... ... -f 13-0 Chap, hi.] AURICULAR ANGLES. 291 1 young orang 1 adult orang •I „ gorillas 1 „ chimpanzee + 17-0 + 90-5 + 77-0 + G30 In a Avord, the parietal angle of ]\I. de Quatrefages aftbrds an excel- lent character for craniometrical study, hut it has no part in the series, and contradicts the views put fortli by Ijlunienbach and PricliarcL The auricular angles, of Avhich Ave liaA-'o abeady spoken (page 271), having their A^ertex on the biauricular A^ertex, and crossed by the radii going from this axis to particular points of the head, as taken Avith the craniograph, have given rise to the folloAvung arrangement of ]\I. Uroca : 335 60 34 rarisians. Basques. Negroes. Facial angle : arc passing from the supra- orbital to the alveolar point Frontal angle : arc passing from the supra-orbital point to the bregma Parietal angle Total occipital angle Frontal angle in hundredths of the total cranial angle : the arc from the supra- orbital point to the opisthion ... 51-5° 56-4 60-9 71-2 29-9 49-6° ... 46-2° 54-2 ... 541 64-4 730 60- 28-3 ... 27-9 Tliis comparison shoAvs the share of deAxlopment Avhicli each portion of the head takes. AVe see that tlie frontal region is larger in the Parisians than in the Basques, and less in the negroes. It appears a j^riori that tlie face of Parisians is larger, but it must be remembered that the face in the negro is developed in length, AAdiich, instead of increasing, diminishes the angle.* The angle of prognathism has been already described. Tliere are besides : (a) The metafacial angle of Selves, AA’'hich the pterygoid processes form Avith the base of the skuU. It seems to us to vary Avith the prognathism, but not very much, (h) The corono-facial angle of Gratiolet, formed by the meeting of the plane passing across the coronal suture of both sides and the facial line of Camper, (c) The naso-basal angle, described at page 255. (d) The ^ “Sur les Cranes Bascpies de Zaraus,” in “Mem. d’Anthrop.,” by Pau Broca, vol. ii. p. 28. 292 SPHENOIDAL ANGLE. [Chap. iir. sphenoidal angle of W elcker. (e) The angle of Barclay. (/) The cranio-facial angle of Huxley, which differs somewhat from the cranio-facial angle of Ecker, &c. It has been a matter of dispute as to the naso-basilar line, as well as to the chord (X B, Eig. 37), measuring the extent of inflection which the bodies of the cranial vertebrae describe, from the basion where they commence to the naso-frontal suture looked upon as their termination. This inflection is divided, in reality, into two parts ; viz. a line, B S, Fig. 37. — Median section of the skull. NB, Naso-basilar line; NS and SB, The two sides of the sphenoidal angle ; S, Ephippium, vertex of the angle where the point of the sphenoidal crochet, w^hich is seen in position, ought to touch. proceeding from the basion to the transverse ridge, wliich, in the interior of the skull, separates the sella turcica from the optic groove, and a line, S X, passing from tliis point to the naso-frontal suture the obtuse angle which they make looking from below and in front is the sphenoidal angle or ephippium. If from this pomt a circle is described, all which is above and behind belongs to the Chap, hi.] SPHENOIDAL ANGLE. 293 cranium, all lielow and in front to the face — hence its interest. ed are the measurements i)ublished by 'SL AVelcker : 30 Germans (men) ... 13P 30 „ (women) ... ... 138 10 cliilclren from 10 to 15 years of ago ... 137 6 new-born infants ... Ill 6 negroes ... 114 1 chimpanzee ... ... 119 1 orang (old) ... ... 174 1 „ (adult) ... 172 1 „ (young) 155 1 maimon ... 170 1 sagonin (adult) ... 174 1 ,, (new-boi-n)... ... 110 1 „ (old) ... 180 Looking only at the adults in this table, it appears that the angle is less in the Avhite, more open in the negro, more still in the orang, and that it increases still more in a pithecian ; 'which means that a small face, and reciprocally a large cmniuni, are the characteristic of superiority in the scale of Primates. Put 'when 'we take the various ages into consideration mattei's present themselves in a dillerent light. The sphenoidal angle is relatively a little larger in infancy than in adult age, and notably smaller in monkeys, 'which is in accordance 'with A\"elcker’s statement that in ^lan the cerebral cavity at birth is less, relatively to its maximum volume, than at full age,* but that this cavity gi’O'ws much more rapidly (see page 131). It has been asked Avhat relation there is bet'ween the sphenoidal angle, that is to say the straight and curved portion of the body of the cranial vertebra?, and prognathism. jM. A^ircho'w asserts that it diminishes 'when the latter increases. ]M. Welcker says the reverse. jM. Luca? considers that they have no relation to each other. The same comparison has been made 'with the naso-basal angle, but improperly so, this only measuring a very small part of prognathism, and that the least important part, 'which 'we have called the nasal or supra-maxillary. * “Memoire sur les Microccphales,” by Carl Vogt. Geneva, 1867. 294 ANGLE OF THE CONDYLES. [Chap. hi. The sphenoidal angle is very objectionable, inasmuch as it can only be measured on a section, and necessitates the skull being divided.- M. Broca has, to a certain extent, met the objection by his proceeding with the sphenoidal crochet, shown at Fig. 37, and one which he has recently successfully carried out.'^ Under the rather inapt title of the angle of the condyles, M. Ecker understands the obtuse angle, open above and behind, that the plane of the occipital foramen forms with the plane of the basilar groove, or clivus.t It varies from 100 to 125 degrees in negroes, and from 117 to 140 in whites; the mean being 113-5 in tlie former, and 128-2 in the latter. The difference, therefore, is so remarkable that this measure- ment ought to be maintained. It arises, according to the author, from the fact that tlie plane of the occipital foramen is lowered at its anterior border, as ]\I. Broca has sliown by the help of liis occipital angles. But the strange part of it is — and it is not the ■first time that we have met with things of this kind — that this angle in anthropoids more nearly approaches that of the white than that of the black. It was 120 degrees in a young orang, 122 in a gorilla, and 128 in an old orang. Its diminution in negroes is not due, therefore, to the lowering of the occipital foramen, inasmuch as the latter is lower still in anthropoids. The variations of the angle of Ecker are dependent then on the inclination of the basilar groove. Sjjecial Sijstems. Under the title of special systems several topics might be con- sidered which have not been noticed in the foregoing- chapters. We shall oidy mention two of them — endonietry and endoscopy. If we attach importance to the external configuration of the skull, how much more should we do so to its interior or endocrane % ]\I. Broca, having laid dovm certain rules for the measurement of the capacity of the cerebral cavity, proceeded without delay to * See “Dict.Encycl.des Sciences IMedicales,” article “Angles Cephaliques,” by M. Bertillon, 1866. f “Ueber die Verschiedene Krummung des Schiidelrohres und liber die Stellnng des Scbadels auf der Wirbelsaule beim Neger und beim Europascr,” by M. A. Ecker, in “ Arcb. fiir Antbrop.,” vol. iv. ClIAl». III.] WELCKER’S CRANIAL NET. 295 study its form and configuration in detail. For this purpose lie invented a series of instruments for measuring its diameter, for tracing its "outlines, for making tbawings, and lastly, for looking directly into it. Its results have not yet been thorougldy arrived at. As an example of Avhat Ave may look for, avc shall give the measurements of the trajiezium and the surface included between the two optic foramina, and the two internal auditory foramina : Cauc.a-si.-xn Mongolian Ethiopian type. type. type. Alilliuifetres. Alillimetrcs. Millimetres. Bioptic distance . 23-88 .. 23-75 ., ,. 23-28 Biacoustic distance 51-55 ., .. 52-00 .. ,. 46-00 Acute angle formed by the pro- longation of the two other sides... |71-1° .. ,. 70-90 .. ,. 73-10 Surface of the trapezium ... . 1737 .. .. 1356 .. . 1338 Among the details, of which an impression has been taken across the occipital foramen, we may note the ethmoidal fossa, the form and depth of Avhich correspond to the projection of the beak of the encephalon, Avhich is more developed in the inferior races, less so in the higher. The cranial net of ]M. AVelcker, a system of triangulation of the external surface of the cranial ovoid, exclusive of the face, has not given results Avorthy of being recorded. It consists of — {a) A superior cranial (piadrilateral, included betAveen the parietal and frontal pro- tuberances ; ij)) A frontal quadrilateral, smaller, included between the frontal protuberances and the line uniting the external orbital processes of the frontal ; (c) An inferior quadrilateral, the anterior side of A\diich is formed liy that line, and the posterior by the line going from the point of one mastoid process to the other ; {d) A triangle having this latter line for a base, and the inion for its apex. A triangle Avith its apex still at the inion, but its base on the line of the tAvo parietal protuberances, terminates the circle of the figures in pairs. Tavo (quadrilateral and tAvo lateral triangles conq^lete the entire system. It is useless to proceed farther. The system of Iliering is apqilied to the method of projections. 296 SYSTEMS OF ANTELME AND KOPEENICKI. [Chap. hi. The author seems to have had a strong feeling against the doctrine of Oken on the vertebral constitution of the cranium, and in favour of that of Gegenhauer, maintaining that the cranium is formed in a manner independently of the vertebral column. There are no anatomical points, he says, upon which one can rely ; that it is useless to search for the relations of the different portions of the cranium ; and that it can only he measured as a whole, with the aid of maximum, and reciprocally perpendicidar, lines. ]\I. Ihering has conseciuently invented an apparatus for taking these maxima of height, breadth, and length, the skidl being in its natural attitude. Eut here M. Iheriim sets the rule he has laid dovm at O defiance, and has recourse to anatomical points. In order to place the skull in proper position, he adopts, as a fundamental line, the line of Meckel, going from the centre of the auditory meatus to the inferior border of the orbit. Xoav this line, by which everyone is guided, is raised eight degrees in relation to the axis of the orbital cavities, or to that of vision, in order to give the skull the most appropriate attitude. In the norma verticaJis, to which it gives rise, the most prognathous skulls l)ecome orthog- nathous. Moreover, ^I. Ihering has partly given up his system : in the table of measurements which he propounded at the Dresden Congress in 1874 he becomes quite eclectic. The system of Antelme allows, with the aid of a special cephalometer, which is unfortunately very costly, of our determining with great exactness the recijjrocal position of all the external points of the skull, and the distance from these points to the centre of the biauricular axis. Designed for use on the living subject, M. EartiUon has modified it so as to adapt it to the skull. Dor his description of it we refer the reader to the first volume of the “ Memoii’es de la Societe d’Aiitlu'opologie,” and for examples of its application to the memoir of M. Eartillon on Xew Cale- donians, in the “Eevue d’Anthropologie,” vol. i. p. 284, 1872. The system of M. Kopernicki also requires a particidar cranio- graph, which must have been suggested b}^ the physionotype of Huschke, and reminds one of the circular band used by hatters. Its object is, among others, to take measurements of the skidl Chap, iv.] OSTEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS. 297 Avhicli liave been omitted by otlier nietliods of procedure. For a description of it wc refer the reader to the “ liulletins de la Societe d’ Anthropologic,” 2nd series, a'oI. ii., 1867 ; and for its appli- cation, to the memoir on Ihdgarian skulls by ]\I. J. Kopernieki, in the “ lievue d’ Anthropologic,” vol. iv. p. 68, 1875. To sum up : the craniometer substitutes mathematical data for the uncertain data founded on judgment and opinion. It studies the skeleton of the head in its emtemhie, the cranium and the face separately, and then each of its parts, by methods Avhich take the head in its natural attitude, accept certain central 2)oints of more or less physiological importance, or liaA'e to do directly Avith absolute measurements apart from all ju’econceiA'ed theory. One of its systems is specially fertile in good results, namel}’, the com- parison of methods under tlie form of indices ; but it requires a large number of skulls in AA’hich individual marks of A’ariation are effiiced. Characteristics hitheilo left to chance iiiA'estigation also come Avithin its province. It shoAvs that the eye may be deceived, and analyses as far as possible those varialde impressions AAdiich Ave term the beautiful. Although at lii-st, and even noAv, encumbered Avith materials many of Avhich ought to be eliminated, it has enabled us to recognise human types Avhich Avithout it Avould liaA^e remained undetermined ; and it bids fair one day to furnish a solid basis for the classihcation of races into genera and species. CHAPTER lY. SKELETON : ITS DESCRIPTIA'E AND OSTEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS ITS PROPORTIONS THE VISCERA — THE BRAIN : ITS AVEIGHT. The other parts of tlie skeleton have been less studied than the sladl : in the first place because their importance Avas not under- stood; and in the second, because travellers and archajologists neglected to take account of thein. The characters Avhich they furnish are of tAvo orders, some having reference to the configuration 298 PEEFOr.ATION OF THE HUMERUS. [Chap. iv. of the bones themselves, and others to their respective proportions. ^ Among the former may be placed the perforation of the humerus, certain forms of the femur, the tibia, the fibula, and the ulna ; the torsion of the humerus and the femur ; the curvature of the latter ; the angle which its body makes with the diaphysis ; the projection of the calcaneum ; the breadth of the olecranon, Ac. We shall only refer to some of these. The perforation of the olecranon cavity of the humerus, first noticed in some skeletons of Hottentots and Guanches, is also met with in the negro and European.' Its degree of fre> ... 0 0 Lastly, it is well to remark — (k) That the perforation does not always show itself on Ixitli sides at once, which lessens its value ; (b) That it is exhibited in various degrees; and (c) According to ^I. Ih’oca, that it is more particularly to be seen in Avomen. The character Avhich the tibia sometimes presents, and which bears the name of platycnemia, or sabre-like, is much more remarkable. This bone is described in all Avorks on anatomy as haAung a prismatic or triangular diaphysis. Its anterior border, immediately under the skin, is termed the crest of the tibia ; its internal gives insertion to an aponeurosis, Avhich is applied to the fibida, and separates the muscles of the anterior region of the leg from those of the posterior. Its iiosterior surface is traversed above by an oblique rough line, Avhich serves for the insertion of the popliteus muscle ; and beloAv by a longitudinal line, giving insertion to other adjoining muscles. In platycnemia, the tibia has only tAvo surfaces in its three upper fifths, an external and an internal. The anterior border is thin, the internal and external borders occupy the centre of the tAvo surfaces, and the iieAv posterior border corresponds to the above lines of insertion of muscles. Figure 38 sIioaa^s a section of the tAvo sorts of tibia. Platycnemia is noticed here and there in many of our graves, but Avith variable frequency. The first time 300 Fj^MUR 1 COLOGNE. [Chap. iv. it was observed was in tlie tibias of the family buried at Cro- Magnon, at the Ancient Stone period. It has frequently been de- scribed as existing in England, both at the Pre-gallic and the Polished Stone periods. In 200 Parisian tibias, which we have collected from the St. Marcel and St. Germain-des-Pres cemeteries, dating from the fourth to the tenth century, 5 -25 per cent, were platycnemic, and 14 per cent, were bent. This latter pecu- liarity is not uncommon in old graves, as well as the channelled fibula, that is to say, the fibula with enormously large longitudinal grooves for the insertion of muscles, the ulna incurvated forwards in its upper fourth, and the fhnur a colonne. This last is worthy a separate description. Fig. 88. — No. 1, Ordinary triangular tibia, the diaphysis divided on a level with the nutritive foramen. No. 2, Platycnemic tibia divided at the same spot. The muscles of the posterior part of the thigh are principally attached to the two longitudinal lines which form the posterior border of the femur, and together bear the name of linea asjyera iligne apre). These two lines are wanting in the anthropoid ape, the border being round. In Man thev are either blended together so as to be scarcely visible, or they project, and are separated by a rough interval. In the femur a colonne they form a still greater projection ; they are wider apart, and the adjoining surfaces of the bone being sunk in, make this projection appear still greater. Hence their pilaster-like ap^iearance extending along the middle three-fifths of the bone. The femurs of Cro-Magnon are the most striking examples of this, those of the Guanches, in the laboratory of M. Broca, are very similar. Of 200 Parisian femurs obtained Chap, iv.] OSTEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS. 301 from the cemeteries loefore referred to, in G'O })er cent, the column Avas A'ery marked, and in 36 per cent, it Avas so slightly. It seems, tlierefore, that these peculiarities of the tibia, femur, and fibula be- longed to one and the same race in 'Western Europe. The 30 subjects from the caA^e at Sordes, in the Basque territory, belonging to the Polished Stone period, all exhibit them (Ham//). It is very remarkable, lioAV'eA'er, that they are rarely met Avith liaAdng per- foration of the olecranon caAuty. Tlie tAvo races AAdiich liaA'e be- (pieathed to us the tAvo A’^arieties are therefore distinct. We liaA'e observed platycnemia, the incurA'ated ulna, and the pillar-like femur in other races, notably in skeletons from Oceania. The complete obliteration of the Unea ai^pera of the femur, one of the highest simian characteristics, is rare. It is obsen'ed in tlie skeleton of the Hottentot Venus, noAv in Paris. (Jfiteomd rlral Ch ar< icters. .Vt page 81 Ave have shoAvn the difficulties met Avith in at once iletermining the proportions of the body on the skeleton and on the living subject, and tlie tAVO methods Avhich arc in faAmur Avith anatomists — one in Avhich the length of the bones is compared Avith the stature of the imlividual, the other in Avhich the bones are com- pared Avith each other. We have also given the general results arrived at on a comparison of Man and the anthropoids. It iioav remains for us to speak of the appreciable difterences betAveen races : first, of those Avhich aax notice directly on the skeleton; and then of those Avhicli are to be studied on the living subject. The selection of osteometrical measurements and methods of proceeding varies according to the object Ave luxA^e in vieAA'. When Ave AAush to calculate the proportions of the body, Ave are obliged to measiu’c the bones in their normal position, the individual being supposed to be standing erect, and only to include that portion Avhich contributes to the total length of the limb. At other times aa^c are satisfied Avith their absolute length. For some, as the clavicle, the fibula, and even the ulna, this is generally sufficient. Tlie bone is laid upon a graduated slab — the osteometrical slab of i\I. Broca 302 OSTEOMETFtICAL CHAKACTERS. [Chap. it. being preferred — and witli a square we take the two most deviating projections wliich it gives on this slab. Such is tbe usual mode of proceeding. With the radius we do the same, having no choice in the matter. The forearm really extends no farther than the convex articular surface of the carpus, and consequently the articular cavity corresponding to the inferior extremity of the radius ; but no spot on the circumference of this cavity furnishes any fixed measur- ing point, so that we are obliged to include the styloid process in the length of the bone, consoling ourselves that the measurement becomes easier to compare with that taken on the living subject. In the humerus the natural obliquity of the bone is so slight that we may leave it out of consideration, and we have no hesitation as to the measuring points, except as regards its inferior extremity. White measured the humerus from the border of the acromion to the point of the olecranon. M. Hamy, when engaged on the subject of the development of the bone, and looking for its maxi- mum, took the internal border of the trochlea. M. Broca, wishing to join the humerus to the radius, makes the former terminate at their point of contact, at the condyle. In the tibia the superior limit is, without doubt, the flat articular surface ; while the inferior, if we require the true length of the leg, is the cavity articulating with the astragalus, and in practice one of the borders of this cavity; we therefore do not include the internal malleolus, which is lil^e a supplementary bone. It certainly is not rational, when the propor- tions of the limbs are in question, to include the internal malleolus with the leg, at the same time that we discard the styloid process from the forearm ; but in this latter case necessity makes the law. The femur is the long bone, in which our methods of proceeding necessarily vary according to the object we have in view. If we Avant its length in proportion to the height of the body, Ave must take account of its obliquity. For this purpose the bone is placed on its posterior surface, so that the two condyles are square with the vertical plane. The regular position of the bone on the living subject is thus obtained ; and it only remains to determine, Avith the square, its superior maximum, Avhether at the top of its head or at the point of the great trochanter — the former being the better for Chap, iv.] PEOPOKTIONS OF THE SKELETON. 303 getting at the general proportions. If, on the contrary, the absolute length is required, inclusively or exclusively of the great trochanter, we begin, as with the clavicle, by laying the bone on the outer side. Proportions of the Skeleton. White, as far back as the year 1794, remarked in the living subject, and demonstrated both on this and on the skeleton, that the forearm of the negro, compared with the arm, is longer than that of the European ; but not going into the matter further, nothing was done up to the time of LaAvrence in 1817. Humpliry, in 1838, was more explicit. He stated that the thigh and the arm of the iiegTO are shorter than those of the white, while his superior extremity is longer ; that there is but little differ- ence between his arm and forearm ; that his leg is of the same length, but longer as compared with the thigh ; and that his hand is an eighth, and his foot a twelfth, shorter. The following are his measurements relatively to the stature, this being = 100 : Humerus -r radius 25 Europeans. ... 33-69 25 Negroes. 34-68 Difference as regards the negro. + 0-99 Femur + tibia ... ... 49-66 50-63 + 0-97 Eadius ... ... 14-15 15-16 + 1-01 Humerus ... ... 19-54 19-52 - 0-02 Tibia ... 22-15 23-23 + 1-08 Femur ... 27-51 27-40 - 0-11 But the objection is (see page 82) that the correct stature can- ^ not be ascertained on the inounted skeleton. Let us then take M. Broca’s figures. In the following talkie the absolute lengths are compared together and added. We dra^v attention particularly to the first three relations : Diff. as Europeans. Negroes. reg. negro. Humerus + radius : femur -h tibia = 100.. . 69-73 ... 68-27 ... - 1-46 Eadius : humerus = 100 ... . 73-93 ... 79-40 ... + 5-47 Eadius : femur + tibia = 100 . 29-54 ... 30-38 ... + 0-64 Humerus : femur + tibia = 100 ... . 40-11 ... 38-20 ... - 1-91 Clavicle: humerus = 100 ... . 44-63 ... 46-74 ... + 2-11 We gather from this — («) That the clavicle in the negro is longer 304 PEOPORTIOXS OP THE SKELETON. [Chap. iv. in proportion to tlie linnierus. (h) That his anterior extremity, from the shoulder to the 'wrist, is a little shorter, which is an anomaly, when we remember that it is longer in the anthropoid ; however, it may probably be explained, (c) That his radius is perceptibly longer in proportion to the humerus, thus approximating it to that of the ape ; White, Humphry, and Broca are all agreed in this respect, (d) That his tibia is longer as compared with the femur, which, if our statement at page 88 is confirmed, would make it less simian than the European, (e) Lastly, that his humerus is shorter, and this no doubt explains the above anon;ah'. The upper extremity of the negro is shorter than that of the European, not because his radius has been lengthened, l3ut because his humerus has been shortened. A superior character has originated from the union of two inferior ones. The anomaly in IM. Broca’s table is perhaps accidental — Mr. Humphry’s figures giving the rela- tion to the height of the body, lead us to think so — it loses all its importance when, considering the diversity of races, Ave see the un- important position Avliich the proportions of the skeleton exhibit in the series. The following are some relations calculated according to M. Broca’s mode after measurements made by Barnard DaAus,* Humphry, Broca, and ourselves : Hum. -frad.: fem.-[-tib. Rad.: lium. Tib.: fern. 1 Esquimau ... ... 71-3(100) 71-0 (100) 75-8 (100) 1 A'ino... ... 68-4 75-2 76-8 1 Andaman . . . ... 70-3 79-2 81-8 2 Javanese ... 68-9 82-0 83 0 4 Tasmanians ... 68-2 83-5 84-3 7 Australians... ... 68-4 75*5 84-3 8 New Caledonians ... 695 77-5 83-8 5 Bosjesmans... ... 68-4 75‘5 83-5 This table, Avhich is someAvhat similar to the foregoing, shows in The first column that wq must not expect to find the position of a race in the scale in the proportion of the upper to the lower extreniit}^ It is true the Esquimau and the Andaman liaA'e the * “ On the Osteology and Peculiarities of the Tasmanians,” by J. Barnard Davis. Harlem, 1874. Chap, iv.] THE PELVIS. 305 longest upper extremity, and tlie four Tasmanians the shortest in tlic^list, the Europeans coming between them. By far the longest radius is seen in the Javanese and Tasmanians, and the shortest in the Esquunau, while the Europeans are intermediate in length. The tibia appeal's to he decidedly the longest in the inferior races, and shortest in the Es(][uimau and the Aino. As regards the tibia, therefore, the balance is in favour of l\Ir. Humphry’s views, and contrary to the foregoing calculations. It is clear thus far, without one’s being able to account for it on any definite ])rinciple, that the proportions of l^lan neither approxi- mate to, nor are far removed from, those of the anthropoid in all parts of the skeleton at once, but sometimes in one and sometimes in another. Xothing is more opposed to the monogenistic theory of hierarchical gradation of races, and more conformable to that of parallel formations. A type is superior in one point, inferior in anotlier. It is the same with the family of the anthropoids, there is the same divergence of proportions between their genera and species as between tlie human races.* The proportions of the trunk, witli the exception of the pelvis, can hardly be studied except on the living subject. The Pel a' ft. The pelvis, fornieil by the two ilinc bones and the sacrum, is divided into two parts — the great pelvis, or wide upper portion, and the small pelvis, or pelvic cavity, through which the foetus passes at birth. Canq)er and Soemmering observed that the pelvis of the negro in its eumnhle is narrower than that of the white. Cuvier, in his brilliant memoir on the Hottentot Yenus, insisted on the evidences of inferiority which he found in it. Weber maintained * See “Memoires,” by M. Broca, already referred to, page 86; “A Treatise on the Human Skeleton,” by Humphry, Cambridge, 1858 ; “ Eecherches sur les Proportions du Bras efc do I’Avant-bras,” by E. Hamy, in “ Eevue d’ Anthropologie,” vol. i,, 1873 ; “ Observations on the Skeleton of a Hottentot,” by Jeff. Wyman, in “Anthropol. Eeview,” London, vol. iii., 1865, &c. X 306 PEOPOETIONS OF THE PELVIS. [Chap. iv. that the inlet, that is to say the upper opening of the cavity, exhibits four forms, which are met with in aU races, hut i^ost frequently the oval form in the European, the square in the Mon- golian, the round in the American, and the wedge-like in the negro. In 1826 Yrolik came to the conclusion that the pelvis of the male negro — from its strength and thickness — from the want of trans- parency of its iliac fossae — from the higher projection of its superior extremity, and from the spinous processes of the iliac hones being less projecting and less separated from the cotyloid cavities, approxi- mates to that of animals, while the pelvis of the negress maintains a certain slenderness. In 1864 Joulin asserted that the transverse diameter of the inlet is always greater antero-posteriorly in the female, and that as to configuration, there are only two human groups — the European and the Mongolian negro. In the negress, he says, the ihac bones are more vertical, the transparency of the fossae, the capacity and depth of the cavity less, the pubic arch, as well as its angle, greater. But M. Joulin had only studied the female pelvis, and M. Pruner-Bey, the year subsequently, set to work to prove that ethnic differences ought rather to he looked for in the male pelvis.* The most general of all the characters of the pelvis is the relation of its breadth to its length, which has been already described, page 67. In the subjoined table, where the sexes are given separately, the length being equal to 100, the breadth would be : * On the pelvis, see “ Considerations sur la Diversite des Bassins des differentes Eaces Humaines,” by Yrolik, Amsterdam, 1826 ; “ La Doctrine des Formes Primitives dn Crane et dn Bassin Humains,” by Weber, 1830 ; “Des Eaces de I’Oceanie Fran^aise “Du Bassin Neo-Caledonien,” by A. Boimgarel, in “ Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vol. i., 1860 ; “ Anatomie et Physiologie dn Bassin des Mammiferes,” by Joulin, in “ Arch, de Medic.,” 6th series, vol. iii., 1864; “Etudes sur le Bassin considere dans les differentes Eaces Humaines,” by Pruner-Bey, in “Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 1864; “Du Sacrum suivant le Sexe et Suivanb les Eaces,” by Bacarisse, thesis, Paris, 1873 ; “ Des Proportions Generales dn Bassin chez I’Homme et dans la Serie des Mammiferes,” by Paul Top’n rd, in “ Comptes Eendus de 1’ Association pour TAvancement des Sciences,” vol. hi., 1874, Lille ; “ Le Bassin dans les Sexes et dans les Eaces,” by E. Yerneau, thesis, Paris, 1875. Chap, iv.] MUSCLES AND VISCERA. 307 White races... Men. 25 .. . 126-2 Women. ... 4 ... 139-1 Yellow races 2 . 125-7 2 138-3 African negi'oes 17 .. . 121-3 ... 8 ... 133-8 New Caledonians ... It .. ,. 128-9 ... 5 ... 129-9 Bo.sjesmans ... — .. — 2 135-6 Other less important osteometrical characters are furnished h}* tlie skeleton, which want of space prevents us from entering upon, and which, moreover, are still under investigation. For example {a) The degree of curvature of the femur, that is to stiy the height of the diaphysis when the hone is placed on a horizontal plane ; {h) The angle of inclination of tlie diaphysis upon the plane passing across the inferior surface of the condyles, that is to say, its normal obliquity in the standing position ; (c) The angle of the neck with the diaphysis ; (d) The angle of torsion of the liumerus ; {c) The antero-posterior and transvei*se diameters of the tibia, from which an index is formed for estimating platycnemia; (/) The breadth and thickness of the olecranon, which give another important index ; (7) The length of tlie calcaneum beliind tlie articular border of the tibia ; itc. Mmch^, Viscera, Vessels, and Nerves. Their study, equally with tliat of the bones, forms part of the comparative anatomy of iSIan ; but we can only give a brief sketch of the subject. ddie anatomy in ordinary use with physicians has been acquired in our dissecting-rooms, on white subjects, of wliich there is always a plentiful supply. Some few negroes and IMoiigolians have also been submitted to dissection, but without much attention being paid to the subject. It is only now that this branch of antliropology is begiiming to spring into life. AFe begin to find that there are as many reasons why we should search into the differences which exist in internal organs as into the features of the countenance. Some splendid works on the anatomy of foreign races have already appeared ; anatomical variations, supposed anomalies, are no longer passed by as matters of no interest ; and X 2 308 MUSCLES AND YISCEKA. [Chap. iv. the laboratory of AI. P>roca is so arranged as to furnish the amplest materials for study, and bids fair one day to supply the dehciency which has been so long experienced. One fact has been already ascertained — namel}", that the muscular system is the seat of differences : some as to the nature of the characters which we liave termed unimportant ; others produced by arrangements which are found normally in various classes of the mammalia. The variations exhibited by the cutaneous muscle, the muscles of the face or of the ears, the adductors of the arm, the rectus abdominis muscle, the muscles of the hand and foot, the glutiei, and the triceps of the calf of the leg are in this category. Some are even repeated so frequently in certain individuals of the same race as to lead us to ask if they are not the normal condition in that race, and one of its characteristic features. The skeleton of itself recog- nises the existence of peculiarities of the muscular system, and exhibits them in default of postmortem examination. Thus the development of the temporal fossa, in extent and depth, shows the degree of development of the temporal muscle which was inserted there ; the fhnur a colonnc and the channelled fibula of our ancestors of the Eyzies testify as to the strength and size of their posterior femoral muscles, and of the external muscles of the leg. All the internal parts of the body are subject to variety in different races : the peritoneum, the ileo-ca?cal appendix, the liver, the larynx ; and if the small number of cases observed did not lead us to fear pronouncing as an individual variation one of an etlniic character, we might mention many examples of them. Xo doubt special peculiarities in the internal generative organs will be dis- covered. Mr. Bakewell at one time thought he had discovered differences in the blood globules : they were attributable to accli- mation. Nevertheless we hope he will continue to prosecute his inquhies in this direction.* * See “ On the Yarious Forms of the Glottis,” bv Gibb, in “ Anthrop. Eeview,” vol. ii., 1864 ; and “ On the Larynx of the Negro,” by the same author, in “Anthrop. Eeview,” rol. iii., 1865; “Dissection of a Bosjesman Woman,” by Flower and Murrie, in “ Journ. of Anat. and Physiol.,” London, 1867; “(Observations d’Anatomie Anthropologique sur le Corps d’nn Negre,” by Koperni 9 ki, in “ Eevue d’Anthi'op.,” vol. i., 1872 ; M. Chud - Chap, iv.] NERVOUS SYSTEM. 309 Tlie nervous system lias been the subject of closer study. Scemmering, and after him Jac([uart, demonstrated that the nerves of the negi’o, particularly those of the base of the brain, are larger than those of the European. It has been -ascer- tained that his cerebral substance is not so white. With regard to the external structure of the brain and its convolutions, no funda- mental difference between them has been as yet discovered ; which was to be exp(*cted, inasmuch as there is none between ^lan and the anthropoid. Xevertheless there are gradations as regards the richness of the secondary convolutions. The convolutions are larger and less complex in the inferior races. The superior frontal was not unfolded in the Hottentot Venus; the de passage horn the parietal to the occipital lobe are exceptionally less superficial on one side, so that the perpendicular fissure is more visible, and the occiiiital lobe better marked ; there is in fact more or less want of symmetry between the two sides. Ihit these are individual variations, and not characters of i*ace. The weight of the brain, one would suppose, ought to exhibit differences’ of a more important character. Xothing of the kind. Individual variations Avholly prevail, and necessitate, more than in any other character, our canying on our investigations upon an extended basis. Xow, if weighing the brain immediately after death had been practised on a sufficiently large scale either in Europe or America, it could hardly have been so in countries inhabited by the inferior races. The process of weighing requires the most minute care, and should, properly, be conducted when the brain is in a fresh state, and not after having been kept in spirit. Thus science has but few materials to work with. These variations deiiend on age, sex, stature, the disease which was the cause of death, the individuars amount of intelligence, Ac. We have referred to this at page 1 20 ; we shall confine ourselves therefore to making an approximate zinski’s “ Memoires,” already quoted ; “ De la Valeur des Anomalies Musculaires au Point de Vue d’Anthropologie Zoologique,” by Samuel Pozzi, in “ Comptes llendus de I’Assoc. pour I’Avanc. des Sciences,” vol. iii., 1874; &c. WEIGHT OF THE BKAIN. 310 [Chap. iv. estimate of the probable percentage in the form of a table similar to that of Parchappe. A'ariation.s in the total weight. As to sex ... 10 per cent. 5 ? age • 4 height ... 4 „ mental disease ... ... 4 to 5 „ 55 idiotcy ... 18^ „ 55 last illness 10(?)„ 55 intelligence 20 „ This shows that we ought to take brains in precisely identical conditions, that is to say healthy ones of the same age and the same sex, and to take care, following Huschke’s example, not to confound the cases of individuals who have died under ordinary circumstances Avith those Avho have died suddenly in sound healthy such as suicides. The difference betAveen them may be as much as 130 grammes, or as great as betAveen the means of a superior and an inferior race. Tut an entire securit}' is afforded to the comparison of the brain in different races by the individual A^ariations, Avhich are so capricious, and are dependent on so many external circum- stances of original or acquired intelligence, or more still on cerebral activity, AvhateA^er its physiological manifestations may l)e. The density of the cerebral substance increases probably, as aa’cII as the total Amlunie and richness of the convolutions, by intellectual activity. The brain of an Australian, su])erior relatiA'ely to his felloAvs around him, Avill be heavier and have more convolutions than that of a Parisian of mere mediocre intelligence. The deviation of 20 per cent, in the weight of the brain in the white race is the difference betAveen the aA^rage Aveight of this race and that of the brains of CuAuer and Dupuytren. Supposing that these tAvo cases are anomalies, and reducing the deAuation one half, it Avould still be 130 grammes. Here, therefore, more than in any other anthropological character, Ave must make our calculations upon large masses, in Avhich indiAudualities are lost. Bearing these The average weight of the brain of idiots as taken by Mr. Crochley S. Clapham is 1188 graninies in the male, and 1057 in the female. Chap, iv.] WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 311 tilings ill mind, wc shall reproduce the following table of weights of the bram in various races :* Mon. 105 English and Scotch (Peacock) ... 28 French (Parchappe) to Geraians (Huschke) IS „ (Wagner) 50 Austrians (Wiesbach) ... 1 Annamite (Broca) 7 African Negroes (various authors) S „ „ (Broca) 1 Negro of Pondicherry (Broca) ... 1 Hottentot (Wyman)f ... 1 Cape Negro (Broca) Grammes. ... 1127 ... 1331 ... 1382 ... 1392 ... 1312 ... 1233 ... 1238 ... 1289 ... 1330 ... 1417 ... 971 Women. 31 English and Scotch (Peacock) ... 18 French (Parchappe) 22 Gcrnians (Huschke) 13 •„ (Wagner) 19 Austrians (Wiesbach) ... 2 African Negresses (Peacock) ... 2 „ „ (Broca) 2 Bushwonien (Marshall, Flower, and Murrie) 1 Australian (Owen) 1200 1210 1211 1209 1100 1232 1007 971 907 * See the “ Memoire ” of Parchappe, already quoted ; “ Schocdel, Him, und Secle des Menschen und dcr Thierc,” by Huschke, Jena, 1851 ; “ On the Weight of the Brain, and the Circumstances affecting it,” by J. Thurnam, in “ Journal of Med. Sciences,” vol. xii. ; “ Contributions towards deter- mining the Weight of the Brain in different Races of Men,” by J. Barnard Davis, London, 1808 ; “ On the Weight of the Brain of the Negro,” by Peacock, in “Mem. Anthrop. Soc., London, vol. i., 1803 01; “Memoires,” by Wagner, Broca, Gratiolet, already quoted, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” Paris, 1802. f This exceptional weight in a negro is surpassed by one of M. Broca’s negroes, which is as much as 1500 grammes. May it not be asked whether the free negro living among Eui'opeans has not a heavier brain than if he had remained in his own country, far removed from groat intellectual excite- ment ? With regard to Wyman’s Hottentot, his stature was 169 centimetres, which is sufficient to show that he was not a Hottentot but a Kaffir, or at least a half-caste. 312 WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. [Chap. iv. We liave omitted from this list a series of Aveiglits taken during the American war, by Sandifort 1 1 Hunt, wliich included 405 brains of whites, blacks, and half-castes. ]\Ir. E. Davis finds fault witli their author for not having indicated his method of operating. Tliese weights, notwithstanding, are of considerable value for their reciprocal relations. In the first place, the mean weight of 278 European brains was 1430 grammes; the extremes being 963 and 1842 respectively. Tliis latter was evidently a case of disease, or belonged to some obscure Cuvier. In the second place, the mean weight of 141 negroes Avas 1331, and tlie maximum and minimum 1507 and 1013 respectively. The author divides the lialf-castes into Avhite and black, according to tlie degree of mixture of breed. It is the method of determining this degree to A\’hich exception may be taken.* Grammes. 24 Whites ... ... ... ... ... ... 1424 25 Three parts white... ... ... ... ... 1390 47 Half white, or mulattoes... ... ... ... 1334 51 One qiiai’ter white ... ... ... ... 1319 95 An eighth white ... ... ... ... ... 1308 22 A sixteenth white... ... ... ... ... 1280 141 Pure negroes ... ... ... ... ... 1331 Does not this seem to sIioav that the Avhite blood Avhere it pre- dominates in a mixed breed exercises a preponderating influence in favour of cerebral development, Avhile the inverse predominance of negro blood kaA^es the brain in a condition of inferiority approaching even that of the pure negro ] This Avould lead us to believe that the mixed breeds assimilate the bad more readily than the good. In default of being able to obtain direct Aveights of the brain in sufiicicnt numbers in the A^arious races, Ave must address ourselves to the cranial capacitj^ E. Davis, Wiesbach, and Welcker haA^e endeavoured in this AA\ay to ascertain the probable Aveight, and liaA'e published long tables on the subject. Mr. Davis makes use, as Ave all knoAV, of sand in making his calculations. From the total “ The Negro as a Soldier,” by Sandifort B. Hunt, Anthropological ReAriew,” vol. vii., 1869. Chap, iv.] WEIGHT OF THE BRAIX. 313 Aveiglit of sand lie subtracts 15 per cent, for the membranes, the blood of the venous sinuses, and the serous Huid witliin tlie cavity of the cmnium. Others consider that 13 per cent, is nearer the mark. As a matter of fact the waste varies extraordinarily between one cranium and another.* The specific weight of the dried sand being taken at 1425, and that of the cerebral substance at 1040 (which also varies), the calculation is very simple. The following are some results, selected by Mr. 11. Ihivis, from a list of 133 examples: >Icn. (.Jrammes. Women. Grammes. English ... 21 ... 1125 ., 13 1222 Chinese ... 25 ... 1357 . 8 1298 Esquimaux .. ... 5 1396 . 5 1217 Negroes of Dahomey 9 ... 1322 . 3 1219 Australians .. ... 17 ... 1197 . .. 7 1169 Al. AV'iesbach has contirmed the value of this method. He obtained the cubic measurement of 115 crania with sand, tleducted from it the’ probable weight of the brain. and then weiglied this organ. The following wa.s the result, in grammes, in males below 90 years of age : Age. Weight calciiliited. Direct weight. Difference. 5 Crania ... 10 to 19 .. . 127006 ... 1223-85 ... 16-21 75 „ . 20 „ 29 .. . 1355-11 ... 1311-13 ... 13-68 9 „ .., , 30 „ 59 .. . 1371-95 ... 1330- 12 ... 11-83 11 ,, ... 60 „ 90 .. . 13 19- 11 ... 1241-21 ... 108-23 This approximation ought to sufiice, for why should we go on with so complicated a proceeding when, after all, we can only substitute one figure for another, the relation remaining the same in the different series'? AVe cannot ex})ect to compare this new result with the weight obtained directly. One of the most certain elements of divergence between one race and another is precisely the density of the cerebral substance, which is here sup])Osed to be uniform. The operation of Air. 1 )avis really gives only the relative * In eight negroes M. Broca found a difference of from 8 to 20 per cent, between the weight of the brain and the cranial capacity. 311. PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS IN LIVING SUBJECT. [Chap, v. volume, tlierefore vre may as well confine ourselves to tlie cranial capacity itself. Provided that all the conditions for weighing the hrain properly are fully complied Avith, that the influence of the disease of Avhich the individual died is taken into consideration, as Avell as the hypostatic accunndation of l)lood in depending parts at the time of death ; that some form of Avicker receiver is made use of in AA'hich to place the hrain, for a given time, so as to alloAV it to drain, 'THROPOMETRICAL CHARACTERS. 315 Such are tlie proportions of tlie body, Avhieh we may think our- selves fortunate — seeing tlie few opportunities we have of noticing them on the skeleton, ami still less on the dead body — to be able to verify upon the living subject, and, even to do this, we have to appeal to the kindness of travellers. Anthropomciricdl Chamders. rrnpurtiou^ of the Bodtj. The sculptoi*s of antiipiity were the tii*st to make these their study. Ceitain canons, that is to say, conventional rules, based no doubt on observation, but more still on individual feeling, were adopted by them. Throe of these were recognised among the Egj'ptians, and one among the Greeks — the famous statue of Polycletus. ]>ut they deviated from them according to the concep- tion which the)" desired to infuse into their work. If they wished to represent a god, as Jupiter, for example, they developed the subject less by a rigorous atlhertmce to nature than by selecting from those around them a form of forehead which suited them the best, or by cunningly bringing the ear lower, by which the facial angle was enlai-ged ; if they aimed afnoblenass and grace, the neck was bare, the limbs were made round and slim ; if at the sublime, the head, the limbs, and especially the joints, were made larger {Qadelet). Wide shouldei’s denoted strength; narrow shoulders youth, or effeminate character ; the trunk all of one size, or drawn in at the waist, had also its signification. The pelvis was contracted when it was designed to awaken modest sentiments, or widened when intended to excite feelings of an opposite character. Ivigorous exactness was so little sought after by the Greeks that they Avere not afraid to commit the most egi’egious errors in anatomy (Gerdu), and even to make the limbs unequal. In the Laocoon the left leg is longer than the right, and in one of his sons it is the reverse. The Pythian Apollo and the Venus de Medicis have each one leg longer than the other (Audran). The various schools Avhich have succeeded the Penaissance period have been inspired Avith the same ideas. In Italy, height of figure Avas expressive of dignity. In Spain, the figure Avas reduced in 31G PROPOETIONS OF THE BODY IN ART. [Chap. v. size with a view to denote delicacy of form. In Holland, it was made large to illustrate realism. In France, of late, the head only has been exaggerated, with a view to its exciting greater attention. The artistic and the antlnopological conception therefore are contradictory the one to the otlier : tlie one idealises the beautiful, the otlier searches after the true. Art, then, ought to rest upon anthropology, in that its whims are tolerated, though under the express condition that they do not go beyond the individual varia- tions wliicli anthropometry reveals to it. If there is no art without feeling, neither is there any without design and without truth. It liad not occurred to the ancients that there were differences in the proportions of tlie various races of mankind, notwithstanding whicli, as M. Edwards has remarked, the Greeks set before them two types, the divine and the heroic. Almost involuntarily, the Egyptians took as their model two indigenous types, not including those of negroes and Jews, Avhich figured more particularly among their prisoners of war. Eut the sentiment which prevails through- out anti(|uity, and which is perpetuated throughout the Eenaissance period up to the present time, is, that unity of the human type corresponds to unity of species. It was this which led (^uetelet to affirm that ten individuals of the same age and of the same sex were ample to exhibit the jiroportioiis of the body, and that all deviations from them were only individual variations. The opposite doctrine of the plurality of types did not begin to be delineated until the time of Albert Dlirer. Camper aided in developing it. It is now generally admitted, and we look for the negro ideal, or the Mongol ideal, as well as for the white ideal. It is upon this conception that the science of the proportions of bodies, as ascertained by anthropometry and b}’’ the method of averages, rests. And in the first place let us give the terms of the modern canon, as taught in the schools of art, where the white is the standard for the anatomy of the figiu’e, as it is in the dissecting- rooms for ordinary anatomy.* “ Les Proportions du Corps Hnmain mesui'ees sur les plus Belles Figures de I’Antiquite,” folio, by Gerard Audran, 1863 ; ‘‘ Auatomie des Formes Exterieures du Corps Humaiu,” 8vo., by P. N. Gerdy, Paris, 1869 ; “ Types Chap, v.] STATURE. 317 “ The liuiiiaii body is o([iial to oiglit lengths of tlie lieail, divided thus : from tlie vertex to the eliin, one ; from tlio chin to tlie nipples, one ; from these to the umbilicus, one ; from the umbilicus to the genital oigians, one ; from these to the middle of the thigh, one ; from this point to the spine of the tibia, one; from this spine to the middle of the leg, one; from this to the ground, om? {Gcrihj). “ The head is divided into four c(pial parts : from tlie vertex to tlie line of the liair; from this point to the root of the nose; from the root to the liase of the nose ; from this base to the chin {Gerdy). ‘‘The space between the eyes, and the breadth at the base of the nose, are each erpial to one length of the eye. The mouthy and ear are each eipial to two lengths of the eye. “ The length of the hand and that of the face (from the line of the hair to the chin) are ef[ual, and form the ninth part of the stature. The length of the foot and the circumference of the clenched list are erpial, and form the sixth part of the stature. “ But these are only approximations, and like all canons are only for the purpose of refreshing tlie memory. Let us see what the real dimeiLsions are. ^Vs in the skeleton, there are two methods of ascertaining the ju'oportions of the body : one consists in com- paring the principal parts together, as the superior extremities to the inferior, the forearm to the arm ; the other to reduce the dimensions obtained into thousandths of the stature. The latter is the better, and the readiness with which it can be had recourse to is precisely that which gives the advantage of the measurements on living subjects over those of the skeleton. The fii’st thing, therefore, is to ascertain the stature.” Stature. This is arrived at with difficulty on the skeleton, as wc have shown at page 81. On the dead body when laid out straight it Ethniques representes par la Sculpture ct Proportions du Corps,” by Cordier, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.” ; article “ Anatomie des Beaux Arts,” by Dechambre, in “ Encycl. Sc. Med., I860 ; “ Antliropometrie,” by Quctelct,. Brussels, 1871 ; &c. 318 STATURE. [Chap. v. loses a1)out 13 millimetres. The best way is to take it on the living snljject, which allows of our pursuing our investigations upon large numbers, in whom the individual variations are lost. The heiglit or stature varies, like all the dimensions of the various parts of the human body, according to age, sex, individual peculiarity, external circumstances, state of previous health, and race. At birth man’s height is about dO centimetres, according to Quetelet ; at 5 years of age, about 1 metre; at 15, 1*50 metre; at 19 years of age he Avants 15 millimetres to complete his full heiglit, Avhich is reached generally at or about 30 years of age, though this A^aries. From 50 to 60 years of age the height ahvays decreases, according to Quetelet, and at 90 years of age is less by 7 centimetres. From our OAvn personal obsei’A'ation Ave hnd that this is so almost universally, and conseciuently, in order to get at the true stature, we ought to confine ourselA'es to individuals beyond 30 years. The Avoman is shorter than the man, on the aA^erage about 1 2 centimetres ; that is to say she is 7 per cent, less in height. Consef|uently, Avhen Ave Avish to compare the measurements of both directly, Ave must add to that of the Avoman, or deduct from that of the man, 7 per cent, lint this difference A^aries according to race. It is greater, ccderis ]iarihis, in tall races, and less in races of Ioav stature. In the former it reaches an average of 14 centimetres, or 8 per cent. ; and in the latter, 7 centimetres, or 5 per cent. Therefore, according as Ave haA'^e to do Avith tall, medium, or short races, we add, Avhen making the comparison of the Avoman’s Avith the man’s height, 8, 7, or 5 per cent, to her measurement. lietAveen individuals of the same age, sex, and race, the height A'aries indefinitely. In fifty-five series in Avhich Are made the comparison, the difference betAveen the maximum and the minimum Avas from 9 to 39 centimetres. The difficulty is to distinguish those Avhich are normal from those Avhich ought to be looked upon as dAvarfs or giants, the transition is so imperceptible. In more than 1,000,000 ^hnerican soldiers, five were above 2-032 metres, and four beloAV 1-244 metre ; Imt the aA^erages are not affected in consequence of this, because the abnormal cases liaA^e in all probability been eipially distributed at Chap, v.] ITS VARL\T10NS. 319 the two extremities of the series. The only condition is that the series should he sutficiently numerous. External cii'cumstances have a certain intluence on the stature of the individual. Yillerme brought forward evidence to show that the stature was much higher previously to the year 1813 in the arroudissements of Parts, in consequence of the prosperous condition of the population. Gould also showed that the stiiture of American sailors is less than that of soldiers of the same race, who were better fed. Drs. Bertrand, Peruy, Mouilh*, and Leques point to poor countries where the stature is low, Avhile close beside them, where the country is rich, it is high. D’Orbignj' came to the conclusion, after examining a large number of 8outhernei*s of the United States, that the stature decreased with the latitude. Quetelet found that in Belgium the townspeople are taller than the countryfolk ; and Dr. Beddoo proves the contrary to be the case in England : two facts which may lie explaine»l differently by dilierent people. ]^[. Durand (de Gros) states that in chalk districts the iidiabitants are taller than in the districts of the primary rocks. But all these matters require further consideration. Sufficient accoimt ls not taken of the races which have been intermingled with the popu- lation in to^vns, in a way sometimes the most unexpected, and under a great variety of inHuences. One of the causes which Dr. Beddoe brings forward, with a view to explain his statement above referred to, is tin? varied influences which are at work among the population of towns. AVe should also consider Avhether the acquired diminution or increase in stature is not purely individual, as well as under what conditions and after how many generations the change would become hereditary and permanent. To the influence of external circumstances, mode of physical existence, and food, may be added that of health. It is absolutely invariable, provided that the morbid agencies are at work before the period when the epiphyses of the long bones are entirely welded to the diaphysis. This period is indicated in the table at page 140, but growth ought still to continue slowly and within certain limits, subsequently to tliis. The tardy term of thirty years, which we have indicated as one of growth, proves it. AVe should moreover 320 STATUEE IN YAEIOUS EACES. [Chap. V. ascertain if, wlien tlie ossification and growth of the skeleton have heen suspended, the work does not commence with renewed activity, and thus make up for lost time. The last influence which we shall notice is of more interest to us, namely, that of race. "We shall confine ourselves to the male sex, on which our measiu’ements are most usually* made, and which furnishes us with examples in abundance. The extreme limit of stature among races, or rather among peoples, varies on the average from 1 *40 metre to about 1 *80, which makes- the general average 1'60. But tall races are the more numerous, and the two or three whose stature is below the above limit are isolated, and are fast dying out. We may look upon 1 ‘65 as the average stature, taking the entire population of the globe. We in Trance are thus exhibited in a favourable light, inasmuch as this is precisely our own mean stature. This being established, races or peoples may be divided into four groups. (1) Very tall, averaging B70 metre and upwards; (2) Those above the middle height, from 1*70 to 1*65 inclusive; (3) Those beloAV the middle height, from 1*65 to 1*60; (4) Those of low stature, below 1*60. The following averages of stature are extracted from our “ Etude ” before referred to. They are sometimes those obtained from the traveller himself, sometimes from other sources, varying from 2 to 15. The number of individuals in each series varies from 14 to 30,000. 14 is certainly very few ; but in one such as the Yeddahs, we may consider ourselves fortunate to be able to give even thi& number. MEN (averages). Yeiy tall — 1*70 and above Tebuelches of Patagonia (6 series) 1*781 Polynesians (15 series) 1*762 Iroquois Indians (Gould) 1*735 Negroes of Guinea (4 series) 1*724 Amaxosa Kaffirs (Fritsch) ... 1*718 Australians (Topinard) 1*718 Scandinavians (3 series) 1*713 Scotch (2 series) 1*710 English (3 series) 1*708 Western Esquimaux (Beechey) 1*703 Chap, v.] STATUE P] IN VARIOUS RACES. 321 MEN (AVERAGE.s). Above tlie middle height — from 1‘70 to 1’65 inclusive. Irish (2 sei-ies) ... 1-697 Dombcrs and Vadagas of India (Shortt) ... ... 1-694 Danes (Beddoe) ... 1-685 Belgians (Quetelet) ... ... 1-684 Charruas (D’Orbigny) ... 1-680 Arabs (3 series) ... 1-679 Saghalians (La Pth-onse) ... 1-678 Germmis (3 series) ... ... 1-677 New Caledonians (Bonrgarel) ... 1-670 Peschernis of Ticrra del Fuego (4 series) ... ... 1-664 Kirghis (Prichard) ... ... 1-663 Russians (4 sei’ies) ... ... 1-660 Roumanians (2 series) ... 1-657 Berbers (3 series) ... 1-655 Esquimaux, central (5 series) ... 1-654 Tribes of the east coast of India (3 scries) ... 1-652 Aborigines of the Caucasus (Shortt) ... 1-650 French... ... 1-650 Below the middle height — from 1*65 to I'GO inclusive. Negroes of Algeria (Gillebert d’Hercourt) Dravidians and Hindoos (2 series) ... Jews (Schultz) Magyars (Bei'ustcin)... Nicobai’ians {Novarni) Chinese {Novarra) Bi-itish India beyond the Ganges (4 series) Ai’aucanians and Botocudos (D’Orbigny) ... Sicilians (Lombroso) Fins Indo-Chinese (5 series) Peruvians (4 series) ... Low stature — below 1*60 exclusive. Malays (11 series) Australians of Port Jackson (Lesson) Tribes of Orissa — Indians (3 series) Kiunimbas of the Nilgherries (Shortt) Lapps (2 series) Papuans (Mayer) Veddahs (Bailey) Negritos (4 series) ... Bosjesmans (5 series) 1-645 1-642 1-6^7 1-631 1-631 1-630 1-622 1-620 1-618 1-617 1-615 1-600 1-596 1-575 1-569 1-539 1-536 1-536 1-535 1-478 1-404 Y 322 STATURE OF VARIOUS RACES. [Chap. v. The extremes are tliiis seen to be Patagonians and Bosjesmans. Two series, however, are not in the table, which might show this not to be so. The first, that of Humboldt, who assigns to the Caribs of the Orinoco a height of 1*84 metre; and the second, that of La Perouse, which gives the height of the Orotchys of the river Amour as 1*38 metre. But these extremes have not been confirmed by others, while those of the Patagonians and Bosjes- mans have been so by a host of travellers. In Africa two great negro races are distinguished by their height : one, the Kaffirs scattered at the south-east, and along the Avest coast of Congo to Senegal, and ... in America, to which they have been Avafted by commerce ; the other represented by the Bos- jesmans to the north of the Orange PiA’^er, the Obongos of Du Chaillu, and the Akkas of M. ScliAveinflirth — the fii-st very tall, the last very short. Among those of middle height may be placed Hottentots, Avhich are nearer to the Bosjesmans, and perha])S another negro race in the Sahara zone. Oceania furnishes also some good examples of stature : on the east, the Polynesians are very tall ; on the Avest, the ]\Ialays are short, and the Kegritos shorter still; in the centre, the KeAv Caledonians are much aboA^e the middle height. The Australians are divided into tAvo races : the one short, Avhich has disappeared ; the other tall, AAdiich is fast dying out. In Asia the general character is that of Ioav statime, or beloAV the middle height. It decreases in the north in Siberia, and in the south as aa’b approach the Malaccas ; increases in the centre, in the Japan Islands, in China, and as Ave adAmice toAvards the Himalayas and Turkistan. In India, particularly, many Amrieties of stature are to be met Avith : (a) Tall tribes, some AA^andering, others settled in the plains at the foot of the Kilgherry HiUs and about the north- w^est angle ; (h) Tribes above and about the average, on the east coast ; [j) The Dravidians, beloAv the aA^erage ; (d) Savage tribes, decidedly small ; and lastly (e) In the Kilgherries and Ceylon, tribes still smaller, as though the three races had become intermingled : the first, of Avhose nature Ave are ignorant, and AA^hich is represented by Chap, v.] STATURE IN FRANCE. 323 the Diimhas ; the secoiul of Mongoliiin origin ; the third hlack, and ])rohal)ly aboriginal. In .\inerica, at the extreme nortli, we notice the Ksqnimanx, whose stature, we are told, is short in the e;ist of ( Jreenland, increases a^ we go west, and is tall in the neighhourhood of Behring’s Straits. The inhabitants of both ^^orth and South America are generally tall, which is not <|uite in accordance Avith the usually receh'ed opinion as to the Asiatic origin of Europeans. Two ordem of peoples may be n^cognised among them, however : the one — and this constituting the majority — being very tall, from Tatagonia to the Uiver Mackemie ; the oth(*r being below the average height and thinly scattered, notably in Vancouver’s Island, and among the Crees in the north, and Peru in the south. In Europe the tallest men are the Xorwegians, and the smallest the Laj^ps and — if we may include mummies in our measurements — certain of the ancient Guanches of the (Canaries. In Erance two varieties of stature are to be seen : the one very tall, in the north ; the other below the middle height, in the south. The stature lias only lieen studied in a cbrect manner either in individuals of all ages, or in those who have attained their maximum of groAvth. The most numerous statistics in France have reference to individuals under cerbiin special circumstances, that is to say to conscripts from 20 to 21 years of age, from which Ave must subtract all those beloAv I ’50 metre, and the infirm. Hence Ave liaA'c tAvo kinds of averages Avhich these statistics give, namely, the proportion of those annually rejectetl, that is to say those of Ioav stature, and the average height of those remaining. ]\I. Broca has published them for the Avhole of Emnce, for each of its Departments, and for each of the Arrondissements of Brittany. He has given Avith his residts — Avhich are of the gri^atest interest — A'ariously-coloured maps. Boudin, on the other hand, has prepared a map — Avhich is less exact, but A’^ery interesting ncA’^ertheless — of the jiroportionate distribution of the statures of 1*732 metre and npAvards in the various Departments. The researches of these tAvo observers have been corroborated, and shoAv that everyAvherc the numbers of high Y 2 324 STATUEE IX FRAXCE. [Chap. y. and low statures are in an inverse ratio, giving at tlie same time the distribution of the two races to which tliese extremes correspond. In fine, the probable average stature, calculated with the greatest care, has varied in France annually, from the year 1836 to 1864, from 1-642 metre to 1*649 metre ; the general average throughout the _ twenty-eiglit years being 1 -646. This is somewliat under the mark, ' however, because the individuals to whom it refei-s had not reached their maximum. On the other hand, the proportion of conscripts rejected on account of being too short has varied, in the same years, from 101 to 162 per 1000 of those examined throughout the whole of France ; and in the Departments, in the entire period, from 24 per 1000 in tlie Douhs to 147 i>er 1000 in the Haute- Yienne. The ju'oportion of tall statures leads to the same result : the tallest in France amount to 156 per 1000 conscripts in the Douhs, and the shortest 31 -6 in the Haute- Vienne, hfow the Douhs, where there are so many tall statures and so few short, is tlie country of the ancient Burgundians ; and the Haute-Vienne, Avhere it is just the reverse, that of the ancient Cvclts. At the bottom of the maps in (piestion two distinct zones are dra^vn, which are separated by an obliciue or curved line, going from the Department of the Ain to the bay of St. Malo. On the north and cast are the short statimes, on the south and west the tall : the former inhabited by the ancient Kyinris, Burgvmdians, and hlormans ; the latter by the ancient Celts. Here and there, however, in the south and Avest, are portions of territory Avhero the statures are tall. This is so in the neighbourhood of Toidouse, Avhere the Yolkian Tectosages of the race of the Kyimis located themselves ; and along the banks of the Bhone and the shores of the IMediterranean, where there Avas a constant interchange betAveen the Gauls on the north and the cisalpine Gauls. The map of Brittany shoAVS the tall statures predominating in the north, along the coast Avhere the Bretons, the ancient Belgian Kymris, landed from the island of Albion about the fifth century of our era ; and the low statures in the south and in the centre, A^dlere the Celts were previously repulsed. Similar statistics of stature liaA'e been published in other Chap, v.] MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD. 325 countries, as Itah*, Spain, liavaria, wliicli have led us to the con- clusion that the stiiture increases generally in Europe from the north to the south, the two extreme points- being represented by Norway and the islands of the jMediterranean, not taking into account the Lapps and the Fins, which form a distinct group. ^Ai)roi)os of stature, a particular method has been employed which many prefer to that of avemges generally in use in craniometiy, namely, the method of seriation, in which the individual figures are arranged in a scale, in groups from the minimum to the maximum, and the number of times noted that they are repeated in each gi’oup. Generally there is a regular increase from the extremities of the series towards the centre, where the character is found ex- pressed, not in the form of an average, but of a “ median.” Some- times there are two centres or two medians. ^1. flertillon explains them by the mingling, without the complete fusion, of two races of opposite characters. Tlius in the Doubs, where the position of the statures in the series gives rise to two medians, one to LG 35 and the other to 1*732, the former would answer to the ancient Celtic Sequanians, the latter to the ancient llurgundians. This method, which indicates particularly the extent of individual variations, is very much adoi)ted in England, and has been main- tained on the Continent by (^)uetelet and Bertillon.* Having now considered the stature, we may pass on to the mciisurement of the several parts of the body. 3die methods employed are similar to those in use for the skeleton, modified according to the accessibility of tlie measuring points {points de reijire). AVe shall confine ourselves to the most important — to those which travellers are i*ecommonded to adopt — and shall commence with the head. Measure niant of the Head. Here, as upon the skull, the measurements to be employed are of three orders, namely — {a) By straight lines, which we take * “ De la Methode en Aiithropolgic,” in “Bull. Soc. d’Antlirop.,” vol. iv., 1863 ; and article “ Moyenne,” in “ Encyclopedie des Sciences Medicales,” by M. Bertillon. 326 MEASUEEMENT OF THE HEAD. [Chap. v. with the callipers and the sliding compass, and by ciu'ves, which require the measuring-tape ; (b) By projections, Avhich are taken with the double square ; (c) By angles : cubic measurements of course are not made use of. The following is a list of those measurements which are absolutely necessary to be taken, and the figures are those which we have recently obtained from an examination of a Chinese of 23 years of age : Maximum autero -posterior diameter, as on the skeleton, from the glabella to the maximum posterior point ... ... 196 mill. Maximum transverse diameter, as on the skeleton, above the ears ... ... ... ... ... 156 ,r Length of the face from the inter-superciliarj' point to the superior alveolar point, between the middle incisor teeth, at their neck ... * 91 „ Bizygomatic, or maximum transverse facial diameter ... ... ... ... ... ... 150 ,, Height of the vertex above the gi'onnd (.stature) 1*620 cent.- ,, „ auditory meatus ... ... ... 1*457 ,, ,, „ chin ... ... ... ... 1*373 ,, Distance from the auditory meatus to the pos- terior plane ... ... ... ... ... 97 mill. Distance from the inter-superciliary point to ditto 192 ,, ,, „ of the superior alveolar point to do. 227 „ Frontal minimum, as on the skeleton ...' ... 108 ,, The first two iiieasm.’ements give tlie cephalic index on the living subject, which we must take care not to confound Anth that of the cranium. M. Broca found * in nuieteen subjects Avhich he measui’ed, a difference in the former Aaxrying from - 0*65 to- 4-5*09, or an average of 1*68, Avhich he attributes to the thickness and resistance of the soft parts, by which each diameter is increased^ the transverse especially. He tliinks that this difference ought to be greater on the IHmg subject, and comes to the conclusion that, as a general rule, Ave should subtract tAvo units from the index of the living subject to get that of the cranium. The index in fortv- “ Comparaison des Indices Cepbaliques snr le Yivant et snr le Sqnelettc,” by M. Broca, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. iii., 1868. Chap, y.] MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD. 327 seven Hasqiies from the neighbourliood of St. Jean do Luz, measured hy M. Argellies, being 83 -1, it would be 81*1 on the cranium. Tlie 1 authors following are examples of the cephalic index from various s : 20 Negritos of Lu(jon (Micklucho-Maclay) 88-5 (?) 300 Auvei-gnians (Durand (de Gros) ) 84-6 423 Bretons of the interior (Guibert) 84-9 443 „ „ coast „ 830 8 Fins (Beddoe) 83-7 10 Ruthenians, or Little Russians (Kopcrui(;ki) ... 81-6 28 Danes (Beddoe) ... 80*5 10 English „ 78-1 38 Swedes „ 78-8 180 Berbers (\'arious authors) 76-7 47 Arabs ,, 76-3 7 Di-a\'idians (Roubaud) 75-8 6 Black Mundas of India (Roubaud) 75-6 Tlie next two measurements in the list give the facial angle of M. r>roca, that Ls to say, the relation of the simple length of the face to its bizygomatic breadth ; tlie ditlereiiccs as regards this index on the livmg subject have not yet been determined. A third index is the relation of the vertical projection of the head, expressed by the difference between the heiglit of the vertex and the height of the chin to the same bizygomatic breadth. This is tlie general index of the head. (See p. 274.) It corresponds with that Avhich travellers express by the terms “ long head,” or broad head,” “ long face,” or “ broad face.” If we take the length of the face as = 100, it is because it has been so taken in the ordinary facial index. 'The last six measurements are by projections in rela- tion, not to the alveolo-condylean, or true horizontal plane of the skull, whose measmlng points are out of reach, but to the plane of (’amper, that is to say to the line passing over the auditory meatus and the base of the nares, which is the only convenient one, the one most easy to determine on the living subject. With the table at page 267, which gives the inclination of this plane in relation to the alveolo-condylean, it Avill always be possible to convert the projections, and even the angles relating to them, into equivalent measurements on the skull. 328 METHOD OF PROCEEDING. [Chap. v. The general method of proceeding is shown in Fig. 39. The individual is in an upright position against a wall, upon which a measuring-tape or a graduated rule is applied, whose zero is on the ground. The head looks straight forward, so that tin; horizontal line of Camper, passing across the auditory meatus {iiid the base of the nares, is exactly perpendicular to the wall. A large sliding-square is moved up or down until the various measuring Fig. 39.— Position for taking projections of the head on the living subject. The line passing across the auditory meatus and the base of the nares, or Camper’s line, represented by the upper border of the square, is exactly horizontal ; that is to say perpendicular to the posterior plane. A D, Projection of the entire head : B D'= H D, The projection of the entire cranium ; CD, Projection of the posterior cranium; CH, Projection of the anterior cranium; AH, Projection of the nasal and supra-nasal portions of the face. points, such as the top of the head, auditory meatus, A'c., are reached ; a second, smaller one, at right angles, is applied upon it at the measuring points Avhich are otherwise inaccessible, as the supra- orbital, the alveolar, the mental points, &c. The heights above the ground are read off on the wall ; and on the sliding-square, which is graduated, the horizontal distances in front of the posterior plane, these distances being directly visible, or indicated by the heel of the Chai'. V.] PROJECTIONS OF THE HEAD. 329 smaller square. In Fig. 39’ the small st[uare, 'which is held in the hand, lias been left out so as not to interfere, 'with the drawing. JShould tlie posterior part of the head not touch the wall, something must he intervened, the thickness of which must be deducted from each horizontal measurement. It is absolutely necessary that during the various measurements the individual should be motion- less, and tliat the auriculo-sub-nasal line determined by the large sliiling-square should be perfectly horizontal. All the principal elements of the proportions of the head are then obtained ; namely, the vertical jirojection of the entire head; the liorizontal projection of the skull (r> ])', Fig. 39); the particular projections of the jiosterior cranium (C D) ; of the anterior (11 C) ; and of the nasal and supra-nasal portion of the face. In the same way we get the elements of tlie facial angle of Cami)er : that is to say the line K C, the line .V II, the periiendicular 11 H to their intersection II, and consequently the position of tlie point II. AVe have then only to dr.iw the triangle on ])aj»er and measure the angle I> A C Avitli the protractor. It is needless to say tliat by this method of the double square in, combination with tlie attitude indicated, we may take a number of otlier projections, according to the object we have in view. (Fig. 40.) Other measurements in connection with the face are not without interest. Thus there are three for the nose, of which we shall speak when giving the descrijitive characters of this organ. There are also several for the mouth, the eyes, and the ears. Subjoined are some obtained by ()uetelet on Belgians of tlie male sex, from 25 to 30 yeai*s of age, which may be usefully compared with those given at page 317. The stature is taken as = 100. From the vertex to tlie line of the hair ... ... 2'5 „ line of the hair to the root of the nose ... 4 3 „ root of the nose to its base ... ... 3’0 ,, base of the nose to the chin ... ... 3*9 Total from the vertex to the chin (head) .^. ... 13'7 Length of the eye ... ... ... ... ... 1‘8 Breadth between the eyes ... ... ... ... 2*1 ,, of the no.se at the base ... ... ... 2T Length of the mouth ... ... ... ... ... 3’2 ,, „ ear 3'7 330 PEOPOKTIONS OF THE FACE. [Chap, v. These arc manifestly at variance with those laid down hy Art, and we have been obliged to give them approximately only. But they refer exclusively to Belgians, and it would he necessary that the same proportions should he established with reference to all races as well as to their individual variations. Then artists should know the physiological limits beyond which they ought not to go. Fig. 40. — Median facial goniometer of M. Broca, in position for taking the facial angle of Jacquart, whose apex is at the sub-nasal point. The two auricular pins, O, being in place, the point A being on the superior alveolar point, and the branch K B being placed in its proper position, the instrument also gives the angle of Cloquet. To speak only of the head : Gerdy asserts that its measiu'ement is commonly limited to ITl and 1'33 per cent, of the stature : hut he made his measurements in Paris, where there is a mixture of long and short heads ; while Quetelet made them upon individuals of the Ivymri race, that is to say on the long heads, proving the numerous types of proportions. Chap, v.] MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY. .331 Meaaurciiicut of the Body. ^leasuremeiits of tlie head and body so nearly corres\)ond that, subject to certain corrections, avc may generally make a direct com- parison between them. It is not so Avitli those of the body alone, Avhich often differ altogether from those of the skeleton. Owing to the necessity there is to ai)peal to the kindness of travellers, and these sometimes not the most experienced, the Instructious generally prescribe, not the most logical measuring points, but those which are most easily found. Thus in the Avrist, in defaidt of the articular line, the exact posi- tion of Avhich requires soim^ surgical knowledge, Ave reipiire the point of the styloid process. At the inferior extremity of the humerus, in default still of the line of separation betAveen it and the radius, Ave take the epicondylc. At the knee, in default of the same line of se])aration betAveen the tibia and femur, most people are satisfied Avith the centre of the patella. In order, therefoiv, that anthropometry on tlic living subject may T)o as practically useful as i)ossible, it is necessary to have rides for converting the simple measurements recommended, into strictly anatomical ones. For example, by adding seA^en millimetres to the length of the hand, Ave should liaA^e its true length on the skeleton ; by subtracting tAvelve millimetres from the length of the leg, stretched out in obedience to the Instructions, aa’c get the length of the tibia AAuthout the malleolus ; that is to say such as Ave make it in our calculations for determining the proportions of the skeleton. Again, one of the principal objections to the measure- ment of the thigh, or of the entire loAver limb, is our inability to take its. true upper extremity, that is to say the head of the femur, AA'ldch lies out of reach in its cavity. In default of this avo have occasionally taken the anterior superior spine of the ilium, the gi’eat trochantei’, the ])ubis, and the perimeum ; but it Avould not T)e difficult to correct these measurements. A series of iiiA^estiga- tions — AA'hich Ave do not put foi’Avard as being strictly accurate — have led us to think that in the adult European of the male sex and of 332 METHOD OF PROCEEDING. [Chap. v. middle height, these various points and the head of the femiu- may he arranged in the following order ; From the spine of the ilium to the head of the femur, G centimetres; from this to the great trochanter, 2-3; from the great trochanter to the pubis, 2'0; from the pubis to the perimeum, 4 ‘7. The following are the rides for converting each of the measurements of the thigh, or of the entire limb, into anatomical measurements of the femur : ^Millimetres. Commencing from the spine of the ilium, subtract ... 60 „ ,, great trochanter, add... ... 23 ,, ,, pubis, add ... ... ... 13 ,, „ pcriua?um, add... ... ... 90 These dimensions answer for statures of 1‘650 millimetre. When the individual or the race is taller or shorter, by a simple rule-of- three sum we get the proportionate amount which should be added or subtracted. Independently of the measuring points, which it is recommended to look for, and to mark with coloured chalk before commencing our operations, the calculation of the anthropometrical measurements is simple enough. The individual is placed Avith his back against a Avail, in the same Avay as for the measurement of the head, in the attitude of a soldier standing at attention, the feet together, the arms hanging doAvn, Avith the hands extended on the thigh. By the double square Ave then take the height of each point above the ground. The least asymmetry of the body, the slightest sejiaration of the limbs or unevenness of the hips Avould gii^e rise to consideralde mistakes. The ditference betiveen the length of the arm in the aboA^e attitude, and of the same in complete abduction, may be as much as tAvo or three centimetres, Avhich arises from the head of the humerus sinking deep into the armpit, and shortening the limb that much. In the loAver extremity, Avhen the superior point is taken from the pehds, the difference is still greater. The em- ployment of a tape for directly measuring the exact distance from one point to another, by folloAimig the contoiu' of the limb, is inexact ; the line is not only oblique, but also convex, ovdiig to the projection of the muscles : tAvo causes Aidiich contribute to elongate it. The folloAving are the most important measurements recommended in the Chai*. V.] PKIXCIPAL MEASUREMENTS. 333 ‘‘ Listructioiis cle la Socicto irAntliropologie,” and the coiTcsponding dimensions obtained l)vM. ( Hllebert ddlereom-t on eighteen Arabs ami ten negroes of Algeria. To obtain the length of a part, one measure, must be subtracted from another. The height of the epicoiidyle being 1057 millimetres in the negro, and that of the styloid i)rocess of the radius 795, the forearm will be 2G2 millimetres ; which rela- tively to the total height will be e.xpressed by 180*2, and v.'ould then be compared with the same value in the Arab. Height alx)vc the ground. 18 Ar.ihs. 10 Negroesv From the vertex (stature) 1-6G6 1-615 acromion (scapula)... l-37t ... 1-352 epicondyle (external tuberosity of the humerus at its inferior border) 1067 ... 1-057 styloid process of the radius 0-801 ... 0-795 yy inferior extremity of the middle finger ... 0-619 ... 0-601 yy great trochanter (superior border) 0-877 ... 0-875 yy articular interspace of the knee (outside) 0-161 ... 0-158- yy internal malleolus (point) ... 0-780 ... 0-710 Breadth. Grande envergure 1-757 ... 1-704 From one acromion to the other (point) 0-372 ... 0-372 yy the crest of one ilium to the other (maximum) 0-281 ... 0-255 Length of foot ... 0-250 , ... 0-253 AVe may add two other measurements, on account of their sim- plicity and readiness of application. The tii-st is the length of the trunk, one of the most important in anthropometry to determine. We take the distance from the prominent spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum or coccyx ; or that of the clavicle, or the sternal fourcliette, to the pubis or perinseum : but these present some difhculties. By following the Instructions de la Societe d’Anthropologie,’’ this measurement is indirectly obtained in many ways. The method we recommend is direct, and is easy of application among savages, who are not frightened by it. The second measurement was devised by the Americans during the War of Secession, and was suggested by a weU-known comparison (see page 85) which i\Ir. Huxley makes between Man and the anthropoids. These measurements are : The- 331 GRANDE ENVERGURE. [Chai*. V. lieiglit of the fourchette of the stemiiiii iihove the gi’oiind, tlie individual being seated on the ground vitli the trunk upright, and breathing quietly : The distance of the extremity of the middle finger in the ordinary vertical attitude from the upper border of the patella, the muscles of the thigh being flaccid. Xow let us proceed to the application : Tlie relative lieight of the liead, of the length of tlie neck, and tlie height of the trunk, to tlie stature, are the tliree primary elements of the proportions of the body Avliich Ave have to determine. KSetting aside tlie essential proportions of the head and the peh'is, Ave shall presently liaA^e to speak of the dimensions of the Aairious parts of the trunk. Then come the proiiortions of the extremities. There are tAvo methods by AAdiich Ave may at once ascertain the relatiA’'e length of the upper extremities : namely, the grande encergare (see page 84), and the distance from the middle Anger to the j^atella. The grande envergure is taken AAutli tAvo squares, the back of the individual resting against a Avail. The folloAving are some of its averages relatiA'ely to stature = 100 : 10,876 American soldiers (Gould) ... lOt-3 306 English (Gonld) 104-4 81 Scotch ,, 104-9 827 Irish ,, 104-6 562 Germans ,, 105-2 2020 Negroes „ 108-1 863 Mulattoes ,, 108-1 517 Iroquois Indians (Gould) 108-9 30 Belgians (Quetelet) 104-5 20 Berbers (A'arious authors) ... 104-2 27 Arabs ,, 101-3 It folloAvs then that the envergure is manifestly greater than the stature, except in individual cases, AA^here it is frequentl}" less, and also that it is notably greater in negroes, mulattoes, and Iroquois Indians, than in AAdiites ; this arising from the length of their upper extremities. The distance from the middle finger to the patella is given in the four folio Aving series of Mr. Gould, the stature = 100 : Chap, v.] PROP(JRTIOXS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 335 10,876 American soldiers 710 517 Iroquois Indians 5-36 2020 Negroes ... ... . ... 4-37 863 Mnlattoes 613 The more tlie distance diminishes in these cases, tlie gi’eater is the length of tlie upper extremities. The arm then is shortest in Avliites, longest in negroes, and intermediate in length in mnlattoes. This verifies Mr. lliiiniihry’s statement that the upper extremities of the skeleton of the negro are longer than those of the European. Xow this result is clear from the above statistics, and does not vary in any of the seventeen series of whites and the eight of negroes of which they are comiiosed. Frerpiently, in the latter, the extremity of the middle finger touched the patella ; once it was twelve mille- metres below its upper border, as in the gorilla. With respect to the jiroportions of the extremities, there are three relations which have specially engaged the attention of authors : (1) That of the superior to the inferior extremity apai*t from the hand and foot ; (2) That of the for(*arm to the arm ; and (3) That of the leg to the thigh. AVe shall select some examples from the Navarra measurements, which were made by very experienced physicians, and on races very dissimilar to one another. There is only one fault to be fouml with them — namely, that they Avere taken Avith the measuring-tape : Forearm and arm Forearm Leg to to leg and thigh. to arm. thigh. 30 Germans 69-9 83-5 99-4 20 Slavs 69-7 86-8 99-8 10 Roumanians . 68*4 88-3 99-4 26 Chinese 75*6 84-5 lOl-l 34 Nicobarians . 76-2 83-8 111-1 9 Javanese 735 86-4 1070 2 New Zealanders 78 0 82-9 96 5 1 Australian . 78-3 90-3 109-6 This shoAvs : (a) That in the fu’st relation there are very decided differences, the three series of Avhites having the upper extremity relatively short, the three other series, especially the Xcav Zealanders nnd the Australian, relatiATly long; (h) That the proportion betAveeii 336 PROPOKTIONS OP THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. v. the forearm and the arm, contrary to Avhat we should have expected, does not show any very sensible difference, except in the Australian, where the forearm is the longer, as in the African negro ; (c) That the relation of the leg to the thigh is found to possess great im- portance, the leg l)eing short in the three series of whites and in the New Zealanders, and long in the otliers, except the .Vustralian. AVe see the contrast between the New Zealanders and the Australian; the latter being simian in all the three relations, if we accept Dr. Humphry’s opinion as to the tiljia, the former only being so as regards his upper extremity, and ap})roacliing tlie European as to his forearm and leg. The proportions of tlie foot and hand will now engage oiu’ attention. In the following averages, the stature being =100, the square has been employed by M. Gillebert d’Hercourt and others, and the tape by Al. AViesbach, of the Kovarra, by Qiu'telet and Jlourgarel. We need not, however, tak(*. any account of the slight differences in consequence. 10 Kourouglis of Algeria (Gillebert d’Hercourt) 0 0 Foot. 14-2 10 Negroes of Algeria ,, 10-8 ... 15-3 27 Arabs of Algeria (various authors) IIT ... 131 86 Berbers (various) Ill ... 15-4 50 Belgians (Quetelet) 11*5 ... 15-4 30 Germans (Norarra) 12-2 ... 15T 20 Slavs „ 12-7 ... 15-3 10 Roumanians ,, 11-5 ... 14-8 26 Chinese „ 12-8 ... 150 53 Nicobarians ,, 131 ... 16-2 23 Todas, a superior tribe of the Nilghcrries (Shortt) ... IPS ... 1ST 50 Aborigines, inferior tribes of the Nil- gherries (Shortt) 10-8 ... 15-3 12 New Caledonians ... 12-8 ... 15-6 10,876 White soldiers (Gould) 12-8 ... 14-9 2020 Negroes „ 128 ... 160 863 Mulattoes • 12*8 ... 15-7 517 Iroquois Indians „ 12-8 ... 14-8 AVhat conclusion are we to draw from this \ In the fimt place, that the hand and the foot of man, although shorter than those of the Chap, t.] PROPORTIONS OF THE HAND AND FOOT. 337 anthropoid ape, do not vary among races according to their order of superiority, as Ave should have supposed. A long hand or foot is not a characteristic of inferiority. One Avould say that the Germans and Slavs of M. AVieshach have a hand larger and more simian in character than the negroes of Algeria, and more nearly resembling that of the negroes of Oceania. Of the two distinct tribes inhabiting the Nilgherries, in Southern India, the inferior has the smaller hand. As regards the foot, it is true the negroes of America arc between the Avhites and the anthropoids in the same Avay as mulattoes are betAveen them and AA’hites. AVe are unable to form any definite opinion on this point AAuth respect to the Bosjes- man, the Negrito, and the Australian, from lack of documentary evidence. It seems that the Australian has the usual-sized hand, Avhile the foot is extraordinarily long. In default of a general character, this measurement gives us a special differential character betAvcen certain races. The Nicobarians have both upper and loAver extremities very poAA'erfully developed. The Arabs and Berbers have the same average hand, but the foot of the former is small, Avhile that of the latter is large. The hand of the Kourouglis is remarkably small, and the foot of the Todas monstrously large. It is curious to compare the tAvo general averages of the same proportions of the stature as recognised in the Arts, Avhich are expressed beloAV in hundredths. That of Albert Diirer, it appears, Avas the nearest in residts to our oAvn. Hand. Foot. Our general average ... 11-7 ... 15-4 Greeks ... 10-9 ... 14-9 Vitruvius ... ... 100 ... 16-7 Albert Diirer ... Ill ... 15-2 Shadow ... 10-6 ... 15-2 Cams ... 10-5 ... 15-8 Gerdy ... Ill ... 16-6 "VVe are met at the commencement of our study of the propor- tions of the body Avith the fact that they differ considerably in each race, Avithout the superiority of rank Avhich such race takes en- abling us to guess the meaning of such differences. Each race, ^I. Wiesbach says,- has its share of characteristics of inferiority, and z 338 MEASUREMENTS OF BREADTH. [Chap. v. the resemhlance to the ape is not confined to any race in particular. It is true that the learned anthropologist of the Novarra refers to the proportions of the orang, and the question is -whether some races approximate in these to certain anthropoids and others to others. It is certain that there are human types -svdiich differ in the proportions of the skeleton, hut these are not yet settled. Besides the measurements of length, there are those of breadth, and those of volume as estimated by the circumference. Thus (a) The relation of the breadth of the foot and hand to their length (this breadth being taken, in both cases, by projection with the square commencing from the head of the fifth metatarsal or metacarpal bone, and crossing the great axis of the organ at a right angle; (h) The relation of the maximum breadth of the hips, at a level with the great trochanter, to the maximum breadth of the pelvis over the crests of the ilia ; (c) The corresponding relation, at the other extremity of the trunk, of the maximum breadth of the shoulders at the external surface of the deltoid muscle to the biacromial breadth ; (cZ ) The relation of these various diameters with the breadth of the thorax from one armpit to the other (taken with two squares). The biacromial breadth, the measuring points of which are more anatomical, has been measmed with the tape, by passing it in front of and behind the neck, and with the double square. Subjoined are some averages obtained by the only exact method of proceeding. stature = 100. 18 Arabs (Gillebert d’Hercourt) ... ... ... 21*1 13 Kabyles „ ... ... ... 22*7 18 Negroes of Algeria (Gillebert d’Hercourt) ... 22*6 27 Anuamites (Mondieres) ... ... ... ... 21’0 14 „ women (Mondieres)... ... ... 20'4 In order to show the differences between them, we give the same measmement by the tape. stature = 100. 25 Belgians (Quetelet) ... ... ... ... 23*4 25 ,, women (Quetelet) ... ... ... 22*0 26 Chinese {Novarra) ... ... ... ... ... 25‘2 9 Javanese „ ... ... ... ... ... 24*0 8 „ women (Novarra) 23*8 Chap, v.] CIRCUMFERENCES. 339 It will be observed that in the Jielgians, the Javanese, ami the Annaniites, the biacroinial diameter is smaller in the woman. d'he circumferences are generally l)ad measurements, because they vary according to the development of the muscles, the fat, and the subjacent organs. Moreover, the relation of the maximum circum- ference of certain articulations with those of the maximum enlarge- ments of the parts situated above and below, sliows whether the articulations arc large or small. The relations of tlie minimum circumferences at the bottom of the leg, and the maximnm above, gives the development of the calf, which is a clniracteristic of superiority in the white race relatively to the negro races, whose spindle leg resembles that of apes. The relation of the circum- ference of the hips or the chest with the circumference at the waist marks all the intermediate gi’adation between the wasp hgure {t.aiUe. de fjnvpe) of the woman, and the trunk all of a size {troac iouf d'luic venue) of the man in general and of the .Vndaman race in particular {Dc Quatrefu(iex). The circumference of the eln'st has received a consideralJe amount of attention, hut more, in reference to tlie (tapacity of the pulmonary cavity according to race. It has an int(*rest not only for art and for anthro])ology, but also for medicine, as a diagnostic of disease. We shall again refer to this later on, when speaking of })hysiological cliaracters.* * Soo, for the me.asurements on living subjects, ‘‘Des Races cle TOct^nie Fran(jaise,” by A. Rourgarel, in “ Mem. Soc. cVAnthrop.,” vol. ii., 18G1 ; “ Reise dor Oesterreichischen Frcgatte Navarra um die Erde in den Jahren 1857 -59,” “ Anthropologischer Theil,” by Drs. Scherzer, Schwartz, and Wiesbach, Wien, 1867 ; “ Investigation on American Soldiers,” by B. Gould, New York, 1869 ; “ L’ Anthropometric,” by Quetelet, Brussels, 1870 ; “ Etudes sur Soixante-seize Indigenes de I’Algerie,” by Gillebert d’Hercourt, in “ Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vol. iii. ; “ Rapport sur la Mensuration de Cent Indigenes de Biskra by Dr. Seriziat,” by Dr. Topinard, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. v., 1870 ; “ Sur les Kabyles du Djurjura,” by Duhousset, in “Mem. Soc. Ethn.,” 1872; “Note sur I’Anthropologie de la Race Aunamite,” by A. T. Mondiere.s, in “ Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd scries, vol. i., 1875 ; &C. Z 340 DESCRIPTIYE CHAEACTEKS. [Chap. vi. CHAPTEE VI. DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS COLOUR OF THE SKIN, EYES, AND HAIR CHARACTERS OF THE HAIR PHYSIOGNOMY FORM OF THE FACE, NOSE, MOUTH, AND EARS — EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS TABLIER AND STEATOPYGA. Descriptive Gliaracters. The white races personally studied by anthropologists constituting only a fraction of the hunian family, the description of outward characters comes to us principally from travellers : they furnish the details which we embody. But accompanying their descriptions, traced as they may be 'with a masterly hand, we too frequently find simple detached phrases which must be explained, respecting which opinions, varying according to the . mood of the individual, have been substituted for plain facts. A traveller arrives in the midst of a savage tribe, and depicts it in colours of the most hideous kind j as he proceeds with his account, having become familiarised with it, he looks at it in quite another light : the two descriptions are at variance 'with one another. One could hardly imagine the contrary impressions given by the nude, hunchbacked, shambling savage, like the Australians of Port Eoyal, which Peron and Dumont d’Urville met with, and the same bold and menacing creature, 'with head erect and cambered loins, armed 'with his shield and lance. You look at the former as a most disgusting object, with liis thin and lean and disproportionate limbs, and his forbidding countenance ; at the latter as the very impersonification of the ancient gladiator, whose figure recalls the most beautiful antique marbles. This kind of contradiction, as found in the traveller’s diary, is not confined to individuals of the same race : the Bosjesmans, the Esquimaux, the people of Tierra del Fuego come in for their share. As regards the female it is worse still. According to the mental impression created at the time, one will be represented as having hideous simian features, another, of the Chap, vl] DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS. 341 same age and of the same tribe, as having a pleasing countenance. The Bosjesman woman produces this kind of impression upon the European. Hence the anthropologist’s earnest desire to be fur- nished with definite facts, and not with exaggerated descriptions. In matters of detail it is the same, and one is deceived even as regards prognathism, the form of the nose, the colour of the skin, and the character of the hair. There is no doubt that the appel- lation “aquiline” has been given to fiat noses, which when looked at in profile exhibited a slight convexity. It is thus that in Australia all imaginable types, even the Caucasian, have been described. After a most attentive perusal of accounts given of the hair, in which even its physical characters have not been neglected, we are often obliged to pause to inquire whether the hair, which has been spoken of a dozen times, is straight or woolly. Humboldt mentions that to those who had newly arrived in South America, all the Indians seemed to be alike, but that after a certain time their diversity of feature appeared as remarkable as among Europeans. In estimating colour, the most egregious errors are committed. In the midst of blacks the mulatto would appear white. It is not that the traveller is deceived in this matter ; but he gradually alters his opinion, and his estimate from being relative becomes absolute. The Erench peoi)le look upon the English as fair, but they consider themselves dark ; this is because the Erench compare the English with themselves, and we compare ourselves with inhabitants of the north. Dr. Beddoe has especially drawn attention to this kind of error. Dr. Livingstone, referring to the negroes of the coast, continually speaks of those to the west of Lake Tanganyka, and especially Cazemba, as having fair skin, but slight prognathism, and a Caucasian nose ; in short, Avith as fine heads as are to Ije found among Europeans. For these numerous sources of error, Ave do not say for the practised anthro- pologist, but for the ordinary traveller, there is but one remedy, namely, not to trust to his OAvn impressions, but to confine himself to making use of tables for the colour of the skin as Avell as for the hair, and as far as possible for measurements. The index of breadtii of the nose gives us more information on the subject than all the roundabout descriptions. AVe return therefore to the anthropo- 342 LUMBO-SACRAL ENSELLURE. [Chap. vi. logical instructions, circulated by A'arioiis societies and printed in many languages.* Lumho- Sacral Eiiscllurc. Among tlie descriptive cliaracters, some arc oidy supjdenientary to the observations of the preceding chapter on the proportions of the body, {a) The development of the muscles, or of the fat, vdien it is peculiar to the race and not to the individual ; {h) The develop- ment of the region of the buttocks, of which we shall speak pre- sently ; (c) The development of the abdomen, Avhich may sometimes be a character of race, but is most frequently caused by living habitually on vegetable food, and by irregular diet : thus, savages go many days without food, or nearly so, and then for twenty-four or forty-eight hours gorge themselves to repletion ; {d) Lastly, the degree of inflection of the two spinal curvatiues, the one the lumbo- sacral, to which Duchenne de Boulogne gives the name ensellare ; the other dorsal, each being compensatory to the other. The former, having the concavity posteriorly, is enlarged in certain races, and diminished in others. ‘‘ I have seen,” says Duchenne de Boulogne, Spanish ladies whose lumbar incurvation was such, and the move- ment of the lumbar muscles so extensi^'e, that they were able to throw themselves backwards so as almost to touch the groimd.” He has met with the same thing among the women of Lima, and of Portel, near Boulogne. Colour of Skin, Hair, and Eyes. The colour of the skin, hair, and eyes is the result of a general phenomenon in the organism, namely, the production and distribu- See “Instructions Generates adresses aux Voyageurs,” in “Mem. Soc. Eth. de Paris,” vol. i., 1841 ; “ Instructions Generates de ta Soc. d’Antkrop. de Paris,” drawn up by M. Paut Broca, Paris, 1865, 2nd edition in the press ; “ Notes and Queries on Antbrop.,” pubtished by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, London, 1874; “ Anteitung zu Wissen- schafttichen Beobachlungen auf Reisen,” Berlin, 1875, the anthropotogicat portion by R. Virchow ; “Instructions Generates aux Voyageurs” of the Geographicat Society of Paris, 1875, anthropotogicat portion by M. de Quatrefages. Chap, vi.] COLOUR OF THE SKIX. 343 tion of the colouring matter. The skin of the Scandinavian is wliite, almost without colour, or rather rosy and florid, owing to the transparency of the epidermis allowing the red colouring matter of the blood to be seen circulating through the capillaries. After hamiorrhage or in anamia, the amount of globules, whicli ^ normally rather over twelve per cent., may descend to two per cent., the smallest known ; the blood has then lost five-sixths of its colouring matter ; the surface of the body becomes pallid and has a waxy tint. The skin of the negro of Guinea, and especially of YolofV, the darkest of all, is, on the contrary, jet black, which is caused by the ])resence in the minute cellules on the deep surface of the epidermis of black granules, known 1)V the name of pigment. The black layer thus formed by tliese cellules, Avhich used to be called the rete mucosum of iNIalpighi, remains adherent sometimes to the dermis and sometimes to the epidermis on removing the latter, after previously submitting the skin to maceration. This pigment is found in all races, whether black, yellow, or wliite, but in very different quantity ; hence their various tones of colour, from the lightest to the darkest. Whites, who readily become brown on exposure to light, are undoubtedly provideil with it. It is always more abundant in the scrotum and round the nipple. It is very visible on the mucous membranes of negi’oes, which are frequently suiTOunded by masses of it, notably on the vault of the palate, the gums, and the conjunctiva, which we have also met with in young orangs. The same pigment is found in all races on the internal surface of the choroid, sometimes in the lungs, and, among negroes, in the brain. The colouring matter of the hair resembles it very much. The disease described at page IGl, under the name of “albinism,” is owing to its diminished quantity in the skin, as well as in the choroid and in the hair. It may be seen in all races, but it is necessarily more obserA'able in those in which the pigment is more abundant. Besides the red colouring matter of the blood, and the black colouring matter of the skin and the choroid, we must mention a third, biliverdin, which is secreted in the liver, and to which the yellow colour of ’the tissues in jaundice is due. This also gives the 344 COLOUR OF THE SKIN. [Chap. vi. yellowish, colour of the Qelliilo-adipose tissue, of the muscles, and of the blood, which is so often met with when making autopsies of negroes. Is not this colouring matter a transformation, an altered condition of the colouring matter of the blood, or of the pigment 'I Chemists must answer the question. We may remark that the shades of colour in the mixed breeds, between the negro and the white, partake more of the yellow than the red tint. The last vestiges of a mixture of breed returning towards the white, are the yellow colour of the sclerotic, and the lunule of the nails : the latter sign is well known among American Creoles. There are then three fundamental elements of colour in the human organism : namely, the red, the yellow, and the black, which, mixed in variable quantity with the white of the tissues, give rise to those numerous shades seen in the human family, which it would be impossible to enumerate. We may, however, reduce them to four fundamental types, which the first antliropologists expressed in these terms : namely, the white in Europe, the yellow in Asia, the red in America, and the black in Africa. The white and black there can be no doubt about; they correspond to two of the primordial divisions of the human race. The two others are less definite, the red especially. Erom theh mixture and the influence of external conditions issue all the shades of colour which we now see. In the white there is every variety of shade. The rosy com- plexion of Scandinavians differs from the florid complexion of the English and Danes. The dark colour of our Erench races to the south of the Loire is not that of Spaniards, nor of the bronzed Kabyles. There are at least two groups in the series : namely, those whose skin easily becomes dark, sometimes enormously so, from the contact of air and light, and is uniform; and those whose skin when exposed to the sun becomes brick-red, or covered with freckles. Among the former especially, tliis colour becomes less in Avinter, and disappears on a return to temperate or cold countries, readily making its appearance again in hot countries. In the latter a sort of burn is produced, the skin becoming chapped and excoriated. In either case, children are born Avhite. The French in Algeria, and the English in India, fimiish us Avith abundant examples of Chap, vi.] COLOUR OF THE SKIN. 345 this. The yellow tint of eastern Asiatics varies even more. Some- times it approaches that of the white, so as to be indistinguishable from it ; at others, it is olive green, passing through all the inter- mediate shades from pale yellow to brown or gingerbread colour. Among the Chinese, those of the north more particidaiiy, it becomes dark in vunter, as in the first group above alluded to, and pale in summer (Lamprey). The term “red” has been applied to the American Indians less on account of this being their ordinary colour than of their dyeing the hair and painting the skin red. All shades of colour are seen among them, from the light tint of the Antisians of the Central Andes to the dark olive of the Peruvians (D' Orhifjny)^ and the negro black of the ancient Californians (La Perouse). They are frequently, however, said to be copper or cinnamon coloured. This copper colour is common in Polynesia, where very light yellow or brown tints are as frequently met with. In Africa, red and yellow are very common, particularly in the south, the centre, and towards the Upper Nile. The Foulbas are of a rhubarl>yellow colour, those of pure blood approaching to red. The Pisharis are very frequently of a mahogany red. AVe know that the ancient Egyptians were painted red on their tombs. The classification of olden times in which the red colour was said to be pecidiar to the American Indians is therefore incorrect. If negroes are, as regards colour, so widely separated from whites, they insensibly blend with the yellow or the red in many parts of Africa. The most decided blacks are those of the Coast of Guinea, but from the Yoloff to the Mandingo and the Ashanti there is every variety of shade. In South Africa, the Hottentots, and especially the Bosjesmans, are not black, but of a yellow-gray, like old leather. On the Gaboon, the Obongos seen by Du Chaillu were also of a dirty-yellow colour. AYe speak of the red Kaffirs. Among the Makololos of the Zambesi, and the Fans of Burton, many were the colour of cafe au lait. The expressions “light brown,” “ light colour,” are frequently applied to the negroes of Lualaba in Livingstone’s “ Last Journal,” but are they not so relatively to the surrounding peoples 1 The black colour of the skin is met with in 346 COLOUR OF THE EYES. [Chap. vi. other countries besides Africa, as among the Australians, and the straight-haired blacks of India — one of whom, of an intense black slightly mixed with red, was dissected in ]\I. Broca’s laboratory — also among the black Arabs of the Yemen, or Hymiarites, &c. In the same way that whites become dark by being removed into hot countries, blacks become lighter in cold and temperate countries, as well as when suffering from illness. Dark colour in the negro is a sign of health. The colour of the skin is usually, we might say constantly, associated, if the races are pure, with a certain colour of the eyes and hair. Thus, those with white skins of a rosy hue, which cannot bear the sun, have usually light eyes and hair. Those with Avhite skins, which readily tan with the sun, and those with yellow, red, or black skins have on the contrary dark hair. Light hair and eyes arc much more rare, although tliey are met with to some extent everywhere throughout the globe, excej:*! in Australia and in Central Africa. It is not always easy to determine the colour of the eye, or rather of the iris. The iris is formed of two circles, which are occasionally of different colours, the external being darker than the internal, and of an intermediate zone of a lighter hue. Eadiated stria) and spots are sometimes seen, which add to our difficulties. It is desirable, therefore, to stand at about the distance of a centimetre in order to ascertain its general appearance, without going into minutiae. We ought always to look with suspicion on an abnormally dilated pupil, as well as carefully to note the shadow projected by the eyebrows and eyelashes. The “ Instructions de la Societe d’ Anthro- pologic ” recognise four shades of colour — brown, green, blue, and gray ; each having five tones — the very dark, the dark, the inter- mediate, the light, and the very light. The expression brown ” does not mean pure brown, it is rather a reddish, a yellowish, or a greenish brown, corresponding with the chestnut or auburn coloiw, the hazel {noisette)^ and the sandy ((roux), made use of by the English. The gray, too, is not pure ; it is strictly speaking a violet more or less mixed with black and white [Broca). Dark and light blue eyes usually belong to those wliich we COLOUli OF THE HAIE. 347 Chap, vi.] term fair people, and are more characteristic of a particular group of race than any other shade ; tliey are commonly associated 'with line, silky, and yellowisli or flaxen hair; when associated with black hair, they are a sign of mixed breed. Gray, greenish, and neutral-tinted eyes is one of the cliaracteristics of the Celtic race. They are very common in Itussia in conjunction with a skin naturally marked with frecldes, and appear to have been derived from an ancient race now extinct or merged into other races. It is nevertheless a question whether green eyes are not in certain cases a transformation of the blue by crossing. (See Chapters X. and XL, “ Tlie Fair and Fin Types.”) Tlie colour of the hair may be classified as follows : The flaxen (approaching that of Albinos), the flaxen (properly so called), the golden yellow, the sandy, the chestnut, the brown, and the various shades of black up to that of jet. Dr. Beddoe does not look upon sandy hair as ethnic, he considers it accidental. Have we not, on the contrary, ground for considering it as a vestige of an extinct race with green eyes, Avhich might have advanced as far as England and the confines of the Bhine 1 There is often an alteration in the colour of the hair on tlie surface of the body, especially in the folds about the. joints, where it becomes reddish, owing to the acid which is there secreted. The inquiry is often made by travellers how it is that there are individuals with light or reddish hair in the midst of people with black hair. It is due occasionally to a complete or incomplete albinism, and more frcHiuently stdl to the use of dyes. All the tones and shades of colour have been arranged by ^I. Broca in the “ Instructions de la Societe d’Anthropologie,” under the form of a chromatic table, which has been reproduced by many of the foreign societies, and is now universally received. We thus get fixed data, upon which discussion is scarcely possible, instead of individual notions. Dr. Beddoe, in England, has given a consider- able amount of attention to the colour of the eyes and hair in a large number of Europeans. Xot being able in our limited sj^ace to rejnoduce his tables, even in part, or of giving a resume of them, we shall only take into consideration one point, namely, the pro- 348 FAIR AND DARK HAIR. [Chap. vi. portion of those commonly called fair, chestnut, and hro'\’\m. Con- sidering that light eyes and light hair, for example, are both well understood terms in pure races, and that we have nothing to do with mixed races, we have added (a) Those with black and fair hair and light eyes ; (b) Those with chestnut-colomed hair and nyes of an intermediate tint ; and (c) Those with dark brown and black hair and dark eyes. The sum is divided by two, and the quotient expressed in hundredths of the' number of individuals examined. The following are our results in this most remarkable series : Sandy and Fair. Intermediate or Chestnut. Brown. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 28 Danes ... 78-5 ... 17-9 ... 35 400 Wallachians ... 520 ... 22-2 ... 25-2 1125 Scotch Highlanders ... 45-4 ... 23-9 ... 30-9 90 Irish ... 45-3 ... 21-2 ... 31-9 654 Normans ... 331 ... 29-2 ... 37-6 1250 Viennese ... 32-8 ... 25*8 ... 41-4 368 Bretons ... 20-0 227 57-3 518 Ligurians ... 17-0 ... 160 ... 67-0 163 Northern Jews... ... 14*4 ... 13-3 ... 73*6 233 Southern Jews ... ... 13-5 13-7 ... 731 130 Maltese... 8-8 ... 11*8 ... 79-3 From this it appears — (a) That not one of these series is abso- lutely pure, and that, among the Jews more particularly, there are individuals with fair and chestnut hair • no one moreover would assert that this people marry exclusively with those of their own religion, and do not intermix with those of other creeds. (^) That the greatest number of fair j>eople are met with among the Danes, then the Wallachians, and the largest number of brown-hahed individuals among the Maltese, the Jews, and the Ligmians. (c) That the Southern Jews and the I^orthern Jews are almost entirely brown-haired, which is a certain argument in favour of the influence of external circumstances. (d) That the Bretons are essentially brown-haired. Moreover, the comparison is perhaps not altogether an impartial one as to the fair-haired, inasmuch as the chestnut-coloured are somewhat taken into account. The beard. Chap, vi.] LIGHT AND DARK EYES. 349 of which nothing is said here, is often light when the hair is hro^^^l, while the converse is rare. The following table, calculated in the same way as the American statistics of the War of Secession, also merits our consideration on account of the prodigious number of cases to which it has reference. The first five series relate to fair, and the last to hro'wn races. Sandy and Fair. Intermediate and Chestnut. Brown. English ... 48-9 ... 26-9 ... 23-4 Scotch ... 50-2 ... 257 ... 230 Irish ... ... 50-5 ... 201 23-3 Germans ... 48-6 22-6 23-8 Scandinavians ... 68-4 ... 19-5 ... 11-8 Spanish and Portuguese ... 237 ... 177 ... 57-8 A map of the colour of the hair and eyes, similar to that which ]\r. Broca has an-anged for the stature, would he very desirable for any country.* ]M. Bernard, an anny surgeon, has commenced one, hut it has reference only to a few hundred soldiers. In his two most striking series, and at the same time those of the most ojiposite races — one being made up from the Kyinric Departments (Nord, Jura, Bas-IUiin, ^Moselle, Haut-Rhin, and Meurthe), the other from the Celtic Departments (Correze, Haute-Loire, Aveyron, Indre, Cautal, Ardeche, Dordogne) — the percentage is made up as follows : Hair. Eyes. Fair. Chestnut. Blue. Brown. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Kymric Departments ... 55*0 ... 44'9 ... 56 0 ... 41-8 Celtic Departments ... 21*8 ... '78‘0 ... 50 0 ... 50 0 Unfortunately these distinctions of colour are not sufficient. Thus, in the first series, we have blue eyes, and in the second gray- hlue ; the altogether hlack-haired are not noticed at all except as regards Basques. It is common for the hair, and in a less degree for the eyes, to become darker during the second period of childhood or later. The light hair becomes chestnut and chestnut dark brown. In a word. The Germans are preparing a map of this kind for their country. 350 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM. [Chap. vi. colour is an excellent characteristic of race, hut it should not he taken as a basis of classification. The division of the white races, these being subdivided into the fair and the dark, is the only established one. Yellow, red, and black have too many inter- mediate colours, and are not sufficiently characteristic. Taken in connection with others, this character becomes very valuable. The Bosjesman is distinctly separated from all the other negroes by a ]3eculiar yellow tint, and the Australian from all the other straight- haired races by the black. Tlie Pilous System. The Ainos, the Australians, the Tasmanians, and the Todas of the Xilgherries are, as regards the body generally, the most hairy. In the first in particular, the front of the chest, the back of the shoulders, and the limbs are covered with a thick fur, the skin not being visible. M. Eosory has met with a half-breed between the Ainos and the Japanese whose hair on the chest was 17 centimetres in length. We might mention, as examples of a very hairy race, the ancient Assyrians, and an extinct race, well-marked vestiges of which are found here and there among the brown races of southern Europe. Scarcely a trace of hair is to be found on the body among the negroes of Africa and the Mongolian races, in which we must include the American races. The ancient Eg}^ptians are represented as beardless. The hair, both of the head and body, varies more- over as to quantity. In the Chinese, the hair on the head is straight, long, and moderately abundant, while their eyebrows and moustaches are reduced to a narrow pencil of stiff hair, and their beards and whiskers frequently to a few scattered hairs. Certain races are distinguished for the regularity with which the hair of the beard is implanted, while in others, as the Australians and Todas, it is scattered and tangled so as to deserve the epithet of bushy. The exact limit to which the beard and whiskers grow is a striking feature in some Orientals. The period Avhen the hair falls off is taken notice of in the American statistics, to which we have already referred*. Erom this it appears, contrary to what we 'Chap, vi.] CHARACTER OF THE HAIR. 351 should have anticipated, that baldness takes place earlier in the white than in the negro and the mulatto. The conformation of the hair, whether straight or spiral, is also of interest. Eory de St. Vincent was one of the first to insist upon the two great differences which it presents among races, which he has divided into lelotvicld, or straight-haired, and nlotriclii, or woolly- haired. His division therefore corresponded to the two species of mankind of Virey : the white and the black. He has also made divisions of the straight-haned. To the naked eye, the hair is straight when the individual hairs are straight throughout their entire length, ■wamj when they describe curves, curly when at a certain distance from their extremity they form large curls whicli are generally incomplete, frizzled when the smallest of these curls occupy the whole length of the hair, and woolly when these little curls are twisted in among those adjoining them, thus forming tufts resembling wool. We may remark here that the resemblance is only apparent, for the structure of human woolly hair is altogether different from that of sheep’s wool. Crisp or woolly liair is fine or coarse, and presents itself in various aspects. It is long, and falls down in twisted curls which resemble thick fringes, as in certain Tasmanians; or long and bristly, thus forming a round mass, which is as much as 30 centi- metres in circumference, and which we term “mop-headed” {en tete de vadrouille), as in Papuans and Kaffirs ; or very short, sometimes looking like a fleece, sometimes being distributed in little masses like peppercorns {en grains de gyoivre), as in Hottentots. The way in which the individual hairs are implanted tends to produce some of these differences. The hairs are generally inserted obliquely. In Hottentots, Papuans, and some other negroes, they are inserted perpendicularly {Pruner-Bey). Generally, too, they ai?e equally dis- tributed on the surface of the head, but sometimes irregularly or in straight lines or curves. In Hottentots and Papuans they grow in little tufts, separated by bald patches, which, when the hair is cut short, gives to the head the appearance of a brush with pencils of bristles. Another character of woolly hair but little studied is 352 STRUCTUEE OF THE HAIR. [Chap. vr. the width of the roll, which is more or less contracted, giving the appearance of a spiral tower. In a collection of Hottentots’ hair belonging to the Societe d’Anthropologie, the roU is not wider than two millimetres. It is very narrow, and is sometimes less than two millimetres. Straight, wavy, and frizzled hair is sometimes soft and sdky, as in Scandinavians ; sometimes glossy, as in the Malays ; some- times harsh and stiff, like horse-hair, as in Americans, and also, thongh in a less degree, in the Mongolian races. Frizzled hair is sometimes like the head of a mop, as in the Cafnsos, a mixed breed between Americans and negroes. These differences take place in all parts of the body, and probably woolly hair is even more persistent in the negro cross- breeds on the nnexposed parts, and especially on the pnbis. All depends on the microscopic structure of the hair. M. Hathusius maintained that the hah was cylindrical in all races, and that its spiral character depended on the form of the secretory follicle at its root. M. Weber, and especially M. Pruner- Bey, affirm that this form varies, and that its spiral appearance arises from its flatness. The hair consists of the root, including the bulb, and the stem. In the centre of this is a sort of canal, transparent in Europeans with light hair; more or less opaque, though still visible, in Europeans with black hair, Mongols, and Americans ; and invisible in negroes, Papuans, and Malays. M. Pruner-Bey does not look upon these appearances as constant, or characteristic in any race. The size of the stem is of more importance ; it is the cause of the harshness and rigidity of the hair, or its fineness and flexibility. The largest transverse sections are to be met with in Tliibetans, Polynesians, Santals of India, and Americans ; and the smallest in Pins. The sliape of the section is decidedly characteristic : it is cylindrical, ovoid, elliptical, or reniform, and is estimated according to its width or length. The thinnest and flattest hair is that of Bosjesmans, Papuans, and negroes ; the most cylindrical being that of Polynesians, Malays, Siamese, Japanese, and Americans. Europeans are between the two. Half-breeds present characters Chap, vi.] THE PHYSIOGNOMY. 353 intermediate between the two races from which they are derived, or take the hair peculiar to either the one or the other race.* The microscopic examination of the hair, easy enough Avhen one is satisfied with ascertaining the size, colour, or condition of the medullary canal, is very difficult when we have to do with its form. The smallest deviation of the instrument, the slightest folding of the hair, converts a transverse section into an oblicpie and elongated one. Then, again, the hair must be taken when it is fully developed, that is to say, at about the period of the second dentition ; and after examining a great many specimens from the same head, we must select the average. Trom what has just been said, and particidarly from the observa- tions of M. Pruner-Bey, it is evident that the hair presents definite anatomical characters, and that these alone might be taken as a basis of classification for the races of mankind. Thi’ee groups miglit thus be portrayed : (1) Plat or woolly liair, characteristic of negroes ; (2) Large and coarse cylindrical hair, belonging to Mongols, Chinese, INLdays, and Americans ; (3) Hair intermediate in shape and size, pecidiar to European races. Tlie first gi’oup might be divided into two, according as the hairs are inserted in tufts, as in Papuans and Bosjesmans, or in a continuous layer, as in other negroes. The thh’d might be classified according as the hair is brown, as in our southern races, or light, as in the northern. Lastly : by comparing the character of the straight hair with the pure black colour of the skin in certain races, we might have a further group, comprising the Australians, Hymiarites, &c. Thus we should have six fundamental divisions bearing upon one and the same organ. Tlic Features. The features include the general form of the face, its details, and everything contributing to its expression. The expression of * Sur la Chevelure comme Caracteristique des Races Humaines d’apres des Recherches Microscopiques ; ” and “Deuxieme Serie d’ Observations sur la Chevelure,” by M. Pruner-Bey, in “ Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vols. ii. and hi. 2a 354 SHAPE OF THE FACE. [Chap. vr. tlie face arises from various causes, of wMcli some are fixed and anatomical, others changing and physiological. There is nothing respecting which there is such diversity of opinion. The con- formation of the forehead, the amount of projection of the eyeballs, the contrast between the hair and the eyes, the shape of the eyelids, the nostrils, the lips, the chin, are the elements upon which it is based. The injection of the capillaries of the skin, which is always more or less visible except in negroes, and the action of the subjacent muscles excited by the inner feelings, are still more essentially connected with it. One of the best and most brilliant lectures of the lamented Gratiolet was devoted to this subject. With regard to general form, we have first to distinguish the two kinds of countenance as seen in profile ; one evidently oblique or prognathous, in which the two jaws project in the form of a muzzle, and the lips are large' and upturned. This is the negro type. The other, sensibly vertical or orthognathous, in which the lips are fine, straight, and small. This is the European type. There are also two kinds of countenance as looked at in front, the one developed and projecting in front of the median line, the sides receding and becoming narrower. This is also the European type. The other, in which the middle portion is fiat, while the sides become wide and project out. This is the Mongolian type. The term “ eurygnathous,” applied to this by Isidore Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, is in allusion to the prominence of the cheek-bones. There are two other types, the one elongated, the other con- tracted vertically. Among negroes, the pure Melanesian element, which has contributed to form the E’ew Caledonian race now in existence, is in the former category ; the Tasmanians, now extinct, are in the latter. The Esquimaux and Patagonians have the long- face, the Negritos the short face. M. Edwards was the first who established this distinction as regards the people of Erance. The men of Picardy, Champagne, and Burgundy have the long sharp face, with the cheek-bones scarcely "visible, like the Gauls described by Homan historians ; while those inhabiting the central districts have it more or less round. In short, there are regular coun- Chap. VI.] OBLIQUE DIRECTION OF THE EYES. 355 tenances, of a fine oval, like that of the Arab, as well as those with irregular outlines, or angular, like that of the Australian, Ac. A straight and contracted forehead is a feature of inferiority, a broad ample one, a mark of superiority. There can be no doubt about this. The vertical high forehead, with the frontal bosses very marked, is met with in some men of genius, as Sir "Walter Scott, and the same, only naiTower, is commonly observed in the negro. All the lYubians of M. Broca have it. Nothing was more incorrect than the forehead of 90 and 100 degrees which the Greek scidptors gave to their divinities ; it was by lowering the level of the ear that they obtained this appearance. A high and bulging forehead is an anomaly, reminding one of hydrocephalus in infancy. Microcephales and idiots have the receding forehead, with the frontal bosses scarcely visible, and very low. The happy medium is the best. A large full forehead, very slightly receding, de- scribing an ample curve at the level of the moderately high frontal bosses, and from that point passing backwards, are the characters of the well-formed European. Our ancestor of Cro-Magnon was in this respect the very opposite of his predecessor of the Neanderthal. • The development of the superciliary arches in Man, and of the eyebrows which rest upon them, is the principal cause of the eharacter which we designate by the name of ‘Gleep orbits” or sunken eyes ; ” the depression of the root of the nose, the smallness of the eyeball, and the narrowness of the palpebral aperture, contribute to it. This aperture is shaped like an almond, with its external extremity tapering, in Semitic women, who enlarge its outline by means of sulphuret of antimony. It is wide in negroes, whose eyes are even with their head {Lawrence), and very small in Chinese and the majority of the yellow races, owing to the shortness of the upper eyelid, which is as if pinched outwards. The oblique direction of the eye, and the raising of its external angle, in the IMongols are partly due to these two causes, and are partly natural. However, these features are far from being constant in these races, although they are those by which we recognise them the best. King, in speaking of the eye of the Esquimau, which, with that of the Chinese, may be 2 A 2 con- 356 CHAEACTERS OF THE HOSE. [Chap. vi. sidered as the type of the race, says : “ Its internal part is lowered, while its external has an upward dhection. The internal angle is covered by a fold of loose integument. This fold is slightly stretched over the angles of the eyelids, and covers the carimcula ladirynmlis, which is visible in the European, and forms as it were a third eyelid, in the form of a crescent.” That which tends to exaggerate the impression of obliquity given by the Chinese or Esquimau eye is a particidar [movement of the eyebrows, the two internal thh’ds of which are lower, and the external third higher than ours [Broca). The oblique eye, so called by travellers, is met vdth also among the American Indians, and, according to Barrow and others, among Hottentots. The reverse of tliis too narrow or too short lid is the drooping lid, as though puffed or too loose, and covering a portion of the eyeball. Something of this kind has been noticed in certain Australians. So much has been said respecting the malar-bones when describing the skeleton, that we need not further refer to the projection of the cheek-bones, so characteristic of all the native races of Eastern Asia. This pro- minence is sometimes so remarkable in the Esquimaux, that when associated with a sunken condition of tlie entire nose, it enabled- King to place a rule on both cheek-bones at the same time vdthout its touching that organ. The morphological variations of the nose have not received that attention which they deserve. Developed in an antero-posterior direction in Europeans and Korth Americans, it is wide and flat in the majority of Mongols — in our opinion, in all true Afongols — and in negroes. Projection and width are generally in an inverse ratio, and form the starting-point of a series of differences with respect to the bridge and the base, which are principally expressed by two indices, one of which corresponds very nearly to the nasal index as taken on the skeleton. The following table embraces the essential points bearing upon these differences :t * “ On tEe Physical Characters of the Esquimaux,” by King, in “Journal of the Ethnol. Soc.,” vol. i. London, 1848. t “ De la Morphologie duHez,” by P. Topinard, in “Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. 'vdii., 1873, Chap, vi.] TRANSVERSE NASAL INDEX. 3o ( Base. Maximum height ) Transverse index. „ breadth ... ) ) „ projection 1 Antero-posterior index. / distinct (pinched, trilobed varieties). Lobule < non-distinct. ( extending beyond the nares. \ near together. ( divergent. Nostrils Shape. Their plane looking ... Direction of their axis ' Its angle of inclination. rectilinear. ! elliptical, round, special. / downwards. \ forwards. j backwards. \ outwards. i antero-posterior. oblique, transverse. Bridge . . . Direction Shape bent or dinted. convex (aquiline variety). concave {retroussd variety). like a roof. rounded off. broad and flat. Tlie height is taken with the sliding compass, vertically from the root to the hase of the nose, as on the skeleton ; the breadth from the mdest portions of the alo3, and the projection or antero- 25osterior diameter, from the point of the nose to the sub-nasal point, with a small graduated ride, which is held horizontally on the line of Camper, and at the same time pressed against the skin. The tmnsverse measurement is common to the two indices. It varied from 29 to 42 millimetres in 78 Europeans Avhich Ave examined, and from 40 to 52 in 18 busts of negroes and Mongols. Its relation Avith the height = 100 , or transA^erse nasal index, averaged 68 ’14 in the finst, 89 on a Cochin-China bust, 100 on a Papuan and an Australian, and AA^as as high as 110 , 112 , and 115 on some African negroes. The extreme deviation Avas 75 * 00 , so that a considerable margin is left for the apportionment of the averages 358 AJNTEKO-POSTEEIOE NASAL INDEX. [Chap. vi. and of the individual cases. The transverse nasal index is there- fore a valuable character in the living subject, as the corresponding index of M. Broca is on the skeleton. On looking from below upwards at the nose of the European, on the one hand, and that of the negro and Mongolian on the other, we are struck with the difference in the shape of the little isosceles triangle formed by the septum in the middle and the nostrils at the sides, and which has hitherto escaped the attention of Antliro- pologists. The difference consists in the relation of the length antero-posteriorly of the sub-sej^tum, or rather of the entire pro- jection of the nose at the above maximum breadth, otherwise called the antero-posterior nasal index. In our 78 Europeans, it varied from 55 to 89, the mean being 66*6. In the negroes and Mongohans it was probably as low as 30. Having measured but a few living subjects, and jwincipally busts, upon which no pres- sure of the lip could be made, we cannot speak with certainty. We recommend this measurement to travellers as being easy to take. Among other characters may be mentioned — (1) The depth of the hollow at the root, which is not indicated in the table. It is considerable in Melanesians, who are thus distinguished from the negroes of Africa. It is also tolerably marked in the majority of our European races, though generally less so in the female. It is less marked in the Mongohan races, as also in the Arab, and in what is commonly called the ancient Greek type, represented by the Yenus de Milo. (2) The arching of the nose. Excep- tionally, as if broken or bent, as in Bourbons, more general and more projecting m Americans {Catlin ) ; it is altogether charac- teristic of the aquiline nose peculiar to the Arabs, Jews, ancient Assyrians, Guebres, or ancient Persian fire-worshippers, &c. Two types of this feature ought to be distinguished : the one, thick — in which the nose is large, and rounded off at the back, big and puffy at the point ; the other, thui — in which the lateral planes are well defined, the bridge sharp, and the median lobule distinct from the alte, and prolonged below the plane of the nostrils like an eagle’s or parrot’s beak, whence its name, aquiline. (3) The two kinds of flattening of the nose, which may be distinguished by Chap, vi.] SYMMETEICAL CHARACTERS. 359 the terms epate and ecrasc ', the former having reference to the organ in its ensemble, and being equally applicable to the skeleton ; the latter to the peculiar depression of its lower half, owing to a want of consistence of its cartilages. The Chinese have the nez epcite, the ^lalays the ecrasc, negroes both epate and ecrase. It is true that both these characters are very commonly found together. (4) The form of the nostrils viewed from below. These are elliptical from before, backwards in the white, more or less diverging backwards, so as to become almost transverse, in the most inferior races, their variations depending principally on the breadth of the sub-septum behind. (5) Tlie elevation upwards and out- wards of the plane of the entire base, or of the aim separately, so that the internal surface or side of the nostrils becomes more or less exposed to view. The Bosjesmans, and the lowest-type negroes approximate in this respect to the simian types. Among the accessory features of the nose may be placed the variable develop- ment of its muscular apparatus. In Europeans, the nostrils are only seen to dilate exceptionally, when the breathing is oppressed. In a large number of individuals, and especially in the inferior races, the movements of dilatation and contraction are very marked, thus giving to the countenance a ferocious expression. We have previously spoken of the harmonious or symmetrical characters of the cranium and face ; nowhere are they so striking as in the nasal apparatus of the living subject and of the skeleton. The width of the interval between the eyes, or rather the space included between the external angles of the ascending processes of the superior maxillary bones, is usually accompanied by flatness of the same interval, and the obliteration of the glabella. The width of the base of the nose and the anterior orifice of the nasal fossm in the skeleton corresponds not only with the two or three preceding characters but also ‘with the flatness of the entire nose, both bone and cartilages. So with the nostrils, from being placed antero-posteriorly, they become transverse. Any one of these characters being given, we can at once determine the others. The opposite conditions of contraction with counterbalancing pro- jection of these different points are in the same category. According 360 THE MOUTH, CHIN, AND EAKS. [Chap. vi. to the rules of art, the space between the eyes = the base of the nose ; this is exactly so in the two opposite types of which we are speaking. But there are constant exceptions in a race, as there are in the harmony between the cranium and face, which thus become valuable differential characters for certain sub-races. An analogous harmony exists in the mouth and ear. Both characters must be preserved, the harmonious as weU as the incongruous. Delicacy of shape of the lips, and smallness of the mouth are European features, except in some individuals of the lymphatic temperament, in whom the upper lip is decidedly the larger. Sometimes immoderately tliick lips are the ordinary accompaniment of prognathism, especially of alveolo-dental prognathism, and arises from the development of the orbicular muscle of the lij)s, and stiU more from hypertrophy of their ceUulo-adipose tissue. It is said that Man alone has a chin. On the skeleton it is indicated almost without exception by a small more or less projecting triangular surface, such as that on the prehistoric IN’aulette jaw. On the living subject it is represented by a rounded-off and well-defined projection, which is very remarkable on the busts of i^ero and iN’apoleon. It is sometimes obliterated, which often arises from the lower jaw being much smaller than the upper, and sln’inking in. Barrow says that the Bosjesmans, although prognathous in the lower jaw, have a projecting and pointed chin. The ears have not been sufficiently studied, though furnishing characters of considerable value. They are large or smaU. In the Kabyles they project out; in others they are close to the side of the head. The lobule is wanting in certain Chaouias or Kabyles of the province of Constantine, in the religious fanatics of the Pyrenees, and here and there in individuals of every race. In Europeans the ears are oval and well defined ; in negroes they are round or ap- proaching to square. The ear without a folded margin behind or above, an angle at the union of the superior with the posterior border, as well as flatness, are important featimes, and somewhat of a simian character. The varieties of configuration of this organ, and of its folds and hollows, are very commonly hereditary. It is modified by certain ethnic usages, such as the elongation Chap, vi.] ODOUR OF THE SKIN. 361 of the lobule by heavy earrings imtil it almost touches the shoulders. Ihit little has been determined as to the value of certain dis- similarities noticed in the teeth. A more or less tliick enamel, a yellowish or bluish colour, variety in the number of the roots, as well as certain particulars coimected with the crown, have attracted attention. In the negro races they are better set and more regular than in the white races, in which they are small and close together. Caries is nrore common in England, Ireland, and CTerniany than in Canada, according to some American statistics, gathered from an examination of a thousand soldiers. Certain ethnic customs leave their traces upon them, which we sometimes utilise in craniology for the purpose of ascertaining the source from which skulls are derived. In Africa, as well as in Oceania, a considerable number of the savage tribes extract or sharpen their front teeth at the period of puberty. ^lalays have the front of the teeth coiToded in a transversely concave line, owing to their chewing the betel-nut. On the anterior surface of the teeth of the Yucatan thei'e is some- times a point of enamel of a blue turrpioise or greenish colour. Their wear and tear, which in our races inclines inwards in the upper jaw, in many foreign races inclines outwards. There are some other physiological features to be noticed. Thus the skin of the negro is shining and velvety, and cooler than that of the European, according to Prichard. Others have maintained the contrary. The odour of the cutaneous envelope, sui (jeneris in each race, would furnish important elifferential characters, if one could em- ploy some definite re-agent as a substitute for the uncertain sense of smell. The missionary Hue declared that he could recognise the Negro, the Tartar, the Thibetan, the Hindoo, the Chinese, and the Arab, by their effluvium, and added that although disguised the dogs of the Chinese barked at him. The Peruvian, says Humboldt, has tliree distinct words by which to designate the odour of the European, the Indian, and the Negro, resj)ectively. Euegger states that mosquitos are attracted to certain races by their peculiar odour. The characteristic effluvium from the hold 362 EXTEEXAL GENITAL OEGAXS. [Chap. yi. of a slave-sliip can never be got rid of, and it is owing to this that the blood-hounds of Xew Orleans were enabled to track the run- away slave. The external genital organs present very marked differences in different races. In the male these are but shght. In the female, the differences are very considerable. In the first place, it is certain that the hemispherical, conical, and pm’iform mammEe which are now characteristic of the races which surround us, were formerly peculiar to distinct races. So with the perforation of the olecianon, or the platycnemic tibia. It is no less certain that their exaggerated length, from the period when the female has fulfilled her maternal functions, is an essential characteristic of other races, "^"e commonly meet with accounts by travellers of negrosses throwing their breasts over their shoulders to suckle their infants hanging at them backs. A Bosjesman woman, exa- mined by Blower and Murrie, could bring the two breasts together behind, above the region of the buttocks. Under the name of steatopyga ” is understood the development in the female of enormous fatty masses, shakiug like jelly at the least touch, which are superposed upon the glutEei muscles. This character is met with here and there in Africa, among the Somahs, Kaffirs, and Hottentots, and is constant iu various degrees in Bosjesmans. There is no evidence of it either on the skeleton or on the glutaei. It is more than an hypertrophy of the adipose tissue, it is almost a supplementary organ, as special as the larjmgeal sacs of the gordla and the chimpanzee ; nay, more so, for these are only a progressive increase as age advances, and more particularly in the male, of a cavity at the back part of the larynx common to aU the higher mammaha, while nothing in the European has any resemblance in the shghtest degree to steatopyga. This strange organ, the particular use of which is not known, was present, as well as the tabher, in a Bosjesman vngin of 12 years of age.* The fat increases in size like the breasts. * Eeview of a memoir of Flower and Murrie, on “A Dissection of a Bosjesman Woman,” in “ Antliropological Eeview,” vol. v., 1867. Chap, vii.] 363 PltraiCiJi: XHAEACTERS. Everything tends to support the "belief that a peculiar race, possessing these two characters, and of which the Bosjesinans are the closest representatives, formerly lived as a scattered people from the coast of Aden to the Cape of Good Hope. If we compare the yelloAvish colour of this people 'with other original characters which separate them from the negroes of the adjoining countries, this hypothesis becomes almost a matter of certainty. Hitherto we have met 'svith many opposite characters in the human groups, but few so remarkable as these. We have seen the marked difference between woolly and straight hair, between the prognathous and the orthognathous, the jet black of the Yoloff and the pale com- plexion of the Scandinavian, between the ultra-dolichocephalic Esquimau or Hew Caledonian, and the ultra-brachy cephalic Mon- golian. But the line of separation between the European and the Bosjesman as regards these two characters is, in a morphological point of view, still 'v\dder, as much so as between each of the antlu?opoid apes, or between the dog and the wolf, the goat and the sheep. CHAPTER YII. ?^^VrioL0 0.TC4L CHARACTERS — AGE MENSTRUATION CROSSES SUCCESSION CONSANGUINEOUS UNION. If the physical differences noticeable either on the dead body or on the living subject, are of the first importance as distinguishing races, the differences resulting from the function of organs have also their value. It is of importance to know whether the Australian lives, breathes, propagates his species, thinks and speaks like the European; whether the Hottentot is subjected to the influence of external conditions, inter-crosses, satisfies his wants, and is of sociable habits lil?:e the Chinese. All the subjects we have passed in review when comparing Man 'with animals, again present 364 DURATION OF LIFE. [Chap. vii. tliemselves to oiir notice when comparing men between themselves. This part of the science whose more general questions have scarcely yet been explored, would merit the title of biology as opposed to that which has been discussed in the preceding pages under the name of anatomy. Duration of Life. The duration of life is less at the poles among the Esquimaux and Laj)ps, and at the equator among the jS’egroes; but that may depend on climate and external chcumstances. In Greenland, there are more women than men, because the men die from accident, and rarely reach 50 years of age. The women, however, attain to the age of 70, 80, and even beyond. Prichard has collected together cases of centenarians from every race. Xine English emigrants in America from 110 to 151 years; 10 or 15 negroes from 107 to 160 ; one Kaffir 109; many Hottentots of 100 {Barroio ) ; two Indians of 117 and 143 respectively ; 35 Egyptians above 100 (Larrey). Eecently Sir Duncan Gibb mentioned the case of a Ein of 115 years. The mean dmation of life in France, which was 29 at the close of the eighteenth centiny — and 39 from 1817 to 1831, increased to 40 from 1840 to 1859, thanks to the progress of sanitary science and civilisation. There are some reasons, however, for believing that apart from the influence of climate, and the power which Man has of dealing with the causes of disease, the mean normal longevity is not the same in all races. So, decrepitude shows itself sooner in some races than in others. The Australians and Bosjesmans are old men at a period when the European is in the full enjoyment of his faculties, both physical and intellectual. The Japanese the same, according to Dr. Krishaber, physician to the Japanese embassy. Unquestionably the woman fades away much sooner in the negro races even from the first pregnancy. In the negro, the development of the body is generally in advance of the white. His wisdom teeth are cut Chap, vii.] ]^IEXSTKUATION. 365 sooner; and in estimating the age of his sknll, ^yo must reckon it as at least five years in advance of the ■white. There are many points coimected with this subject still unsettled. The successive dates of the eruption of tlie milk and permanent teeth, the period of gro-s^dh of the body generally, and of the brain in particidar, the period at which the epiphyses of the long bones become anchylosed to the diaphyses, the period of the commence- ment and cessation of menstruation, the period when the hair falls off and changes colour — all this would furnish more certain data for the solution of the problem than the average duration of life, which is too much dependent on external circumstances. Whites lose their teeth much sooner than negroes, but this is owing to their bad quality and to their being too close together, which predisposes them to caries. D’Orbigny says that the Charruas never lose their teeth. They wear out however more quickly in savage races, from their masticating corrosive substances, as the betel-nut by the ISIalays or very hai*d matters by the Patagonians. The liair becomes white more slowly in the yellow races, and l)aldness is rarely seen among them. (See page 350.) Menstruation. INIenstruation, and the periods at which it becomes established and disappears, have not yet afforded anything conclusive with respect to races. The influence of the duration of life upon the period of the cessation of the catamenia is a well-established fact, thanks to a work of Mr. P. CoAme. In the Shetland Islands the period of the appearance of the menses is the same as in Scotland, but that of their disappearance is from 50 to 51 years of age, while in Scotland they cease at the age of 45 to 46. iS^’oAv, in the Shetland Islands, longevity is considerably greater. There are' 33 per cent, of old people from 70 to 80, and 20 per cent, from 80 to 90; Avhile in Scotland there are only 18 per cent, of the former, and 7 of the latter. The influence of external circumstances also exerts its action. After comparing all the published statistics, Joidin 366 MENSTRUATION— FECUNDITY. [Chap. vii. came to the conclusion that in temperate countries the phenomenon makes its appearance at the age of 15, and in hot coimtries at 12J. In 6000 German girls, M. Meyer found that the first menstruation took place at 15-51 among the rich, and 16*50 among the poor ; at 15*98 in the toAvns, and 15*20 in the country. Food, warmth, good air, and good sanitary arrangements, bring all the vital functions into full play. According to M. Guerault, the catamenia are less abundant, or are altogether suspended among the Esquimaux during the winter, when food is less abundant, while they are copious in summer. In hot countries, among Europeans, they readily pass into true menorrhagia. In making statistics with respect to menstruation, the difficulty is to divest the subject of that wliich has specially to do with the race. Two opposing influences are at work, and may apparentlj^ falsify the results. The following are the most important published statistics as to the average period of the first appearance of the catamenia in various races : Christiania (Faye) 2691 ... 16 years 0 months. Copenhagen (Rawn) 3840 ... 16 0 North Germany (Lagneau) 4324 ... 16 9 Russia (Lieven) ... 1000 ... 16 6 France (Lagnean) 3661 ... 15 1 33 England „ 3759 ... 14 11 33 Madeira (Robertson) 242 ... 14 10 33 Jamaica, Negresses (Robertson)... 80 ... 14 10 33 Southern Asia (Lagneau) 1140 ... 12 >9 10 33 The races which it would interest us to know the most about are not in the list, as the Esquimaux and Lapps, Austrahans and Bosjesmans. The records respecting the former are very contra- dictory, and relate to hut few examples ; and as regards the latter, we have none.* The duration of pregnancy, fecundity, the number of twin- births, Ac., are so many questions of comparative antluopology. See Tilt, “Monthly Journal of Medical Science,” 1850, vol. Ixi.; Lagueau, “ Gaz. Hebd. de Med.,” 1867, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 613, &c. Chap, vil] CROSSING. 367 wliicli come next to that of menstruation. With regard to the first point, we have little information beyond the French statistics. Tlie facility with wliich child-bearing takes place among savage peoples, in spite of the Avant of the smallest care, depends alto- gether upon the anatomical and physiological arrangement of the parts, and on the degree of resistance to pain. There are un- doubtedly very decided differences in these respects betAveen one European race and another. An accurate estimate of fecundity is an exceedingly difficult one to determine. In France, three or four children is the usual number born in a family. In other countries of Europe this number is exceeded. In Iceland, accord- ing to Closer, it is as high as fiA^e. The hypoborean races are less fertile, the Slavs more so. Xegresses readily conceive, and make excellent nurses. In Western Australia, 44 AA^omen beyond the middle age had 188 children, or 4 -3 each — three had seven each, and one only Avas barren {G. Grey). But statements of this kind are frequently erroneous. With regard to multiple births, the infonnation Ave possess scarcely extends beyond the French statistics. According to a table of Moser, the largest number of tAAun-births Avas ill Dublin and in Eussia. In Australia the number is about the same as in France : “I am acquainted A\uth four cases ” of tAvin-births, Avrites Sir G. Grey. Crossinrj. This is one of the most vexed questions in Antliropology. Under this title is understood in IS^atural History the union of tAvo indiAdduals Avhatever may be their supposed or actual zoological difference. Their progeny have the general name of hybrids, and in Man that of mongrels. The former of these terms is usually applied to the fixed or variable products of species betAveen them- selves, and the latter the products of varieties or races. BetAveen animals of classes differing Avidely Ave occasionally Avitness the most singular connections, as between tlie dog and the soAV, but the generative impulse goes for nothing. It is stated 368 CROSSING. [Chap. yii. that individuals of different Orders have given birth to offspring, as between the bull and the mare, whose progeny, or jumarts, inhabited the Atlas mountains and the mountains of Piedmont. It is a better authenticated fact that the phenomenon takes place between different Genera. M. de Bouille in 1873 described the offspring of the cross between the ibex of the Pyrenees and the domestic goat. The Pehuelhas in the Chilian Alps crossed this latter with the sheep, and obtained a very vigorous breed called cUahiiis (buck- sheep), whose descendants, fertile through an indefinite number of generations, are of considerable commercial value on account of their skins and fleeces, known by the name of “pellons.” Between species the crosses are common and fertile, the mongrels them- selves being either sterile, as mules — the offspring of the ass and the horse — or fertile, as the progeny of the hare and the rabbit, the dog and the wolf, the jackal and the fox, the camel and the dromedary, the alpaca and the llama or vecuna, the horse and the zebra or wild mule, the bison and the European ox, &c. There is therefore no reason to suppose that we have been deceived as to the reality of certain species, and that such were only varieties. Two or three well-established facts out of many will suffice. It is now certain that the limit of species is not an absolute obstacle to fertility, and consequently that its circum- scription has nothing decided about it, which puts us entirely at our ease when discussing the question of human cross-breeds. Whether races anthropologically distant from each other have or have not indefinitely fertile offspring, is of little importance, the simple question is whether they represent species or varieties. (See page 193, et seq.) Much mystery remains to be cleared up, however, relative to the phenomena of hybridism in general. AWiy, for example, a male of one species produces fertile hybrids with the female of another species, while, inversely, a female of one with a male of another is sterile (unilateral hybridism). Why a female savage in captivity does not produce more fertile offspring with the male of her own species, while captivity increases the fertility of other species; why among dogs, or human beings, the germs being appa- Chap, vii,] CROSSING. 369 rently sound, tliere are some fertile unions and others not so. We have only the simple facts before us from which to form a judgment. ^I. Broca has defined the various degrees of sexual affinity, which he calls homogenesis,* thus : Heterogenesis. Homogenesis r Abortive Agenesic Dysgenesic . . Paragencsic. ^ Eugenesic without offspring, with offspring. In heterogenesis there may be intercourse without impregnation. Abortive homogenesis is merely a matter of speculation ; impreg- nation takes place, but the hetus does not arrive at its full term. In agenesic honiogenesis, or agenesis, tliere are offsiiring, but these are absolutely sterile infer se, or with individuals of one or the other mother-race. In dysgenesic homogenesis, or dysgenesis, these Jiiixed breeds are still sterile inter se, but they are fertile with indi- viduals of one or other mother-race — their offspring, called hybrids of the second blood, being nevertheless sterile, so that it cannot again form a new race. In paragenesic homogenesis, or paragenesis, or collateral hybridism, the direct hybrids, or those of the first blood, are still sterile be- tween themselves, or as far as the second or third generation ; but those of the second blood are indefinitely fertile, so that a race may take its origin by collaterals. In eugenesic homogenesis, or eugenesis, or direct hybridism, the two orders of hybrids are now indefinitely fertile, so that the new race makes its way directly and without hindrance. Ileterogenesis is never other than individual in Man, nor con- sequently is agenesis. There was a disposition for some years to believe in absolute dysgenesis between certain races. This must * Memoire, “ Sur PHybridite,” by M. Broca, “ Journal de Physiologic,” vol. i., 1838. 2 B 370 CROSSING. [Chap, vil now be given np. The Avliole dispute concentres upon the two latter kinds : Are there unions which could not give origin to a new race except by collaterals, that is to say, by a reversion towards the one or the other mother-race There are numerous species of human mongrels. There are (1) Those of the first blood, including their direct offspring, and all those which are derived from them by alliances with them ; (2) Those of the second blood (first degree of reversion), including all the offspring of the cross of the first blood with one of the two mother-races ; (3) Mongrels of the third blood (second degToe of reversion), resulting from the cross of the second blood with one of the mother-races, and so on. At the fifth or sixth reversion all trace of hybridism has generally disappeared, the features of the mother-race have reverted to the original type. That there is but one species of mongrel of the first blood, but two species of the second, of the third, of the foiuTh, each resembling more one of the two original races, is certain ; and also that there are complex and nameless cross-breeds residting from the cross of mongrels of different orders. If we express by W, or white, and B, or black, the two races, and by a fraction the amount of each according to its degree, we shall have the following series of reversion towards W : Mongrels of first blood ,, second blood „ third blood ,, fourth blood „ fifth blood = + Bi. = Wf -r bI = W|. -f Bi. = + BPg^. = WfP 4- B^V. Homogenesis is absolute or eugenesic, and stiU more paragenesic, between contiguous races. The peoples of Europe are a proof of this. All, in various degrees, are the residtant of a series of cross- ings, one of the most striking products of which is the co-existence, in one and the same individual, of light or dark blue eyes with jet-black hair and beard. A friend of our own who traces back among his ancestors ^ elements on the one side reaching to the Chap, vii.] CROSSING. 371 AVesteni Pyrenees and on the other to LoiTaine, is an example of tliis. M. Proca foimd, when investigating the subject of stature, that nineteen-twentieths of the whole population of France presented, various degrees, the characters of mixed races. The Bretons are one-fourth KjTuris and tln’eo-fourths Celts, without including another element which is seen among them, and which dates back to a later period than the Celts. Up to the time of the French Eevolution victors and vanquished lived apart; the former were the aristocracy, the latter the people. But since they have been brought more into immediate contact the population has largely increased, proving how valuable that union has been. The table which we have constructed with materials furnished by l)r. Beddoe, shows that everywhere throughout Europe, and even among the Jews, two elements must be taken into account, the fair and the dark, which are promiscuously intermingled. The prosperity of the New American race is another example of eugenesis. Immigration into the United States, which has taken .so considerable a Right during the last thirty years, has already been enormous. Every variety of cross has been going on between English, Irish, Germans, Italians, French, ut these are rarities. Among the inscrutable influences which cause the child to put on such and such characters, there is a conflict of all the elements which figure in his genealogy. He resembles his mother diu’ing a portion of his existence, at a later period he becomes lilcc his father, and some- times like some distant relative. We have seen that in a hybrid we take into account the ({uantity of blood belonging to one or the other side. So with respect to inheritance, there is a struggle between the characters; some are added, others are neutralised, while others have no reciprocal influence. The most remote an- cestors have their share in it as well as the nearest relatives. i\I. de Quatrefages knew a great-grandson of the bailiff of Suffren who was a striking likeness of his ancestor after four generations, and 380 INHERITANCE. [Chap. vii. who, nevertheless, hore no resemblance either to his father or his mother. It is thus that we account for the horse unexpectedly presenting the characteristic stripes of the zebra, which might have formed part of his zoological genealogy. This phenomenon is termed atavism, and is common in Man. An individual presents the features of a past generation which has been absolutely forgotten. The appearance of such characters is therefore a matter of chance ; or rather, there are in the germ certain latent influences which it is impossible to fathom. Certain characters retain their hold more firmly than others, such as the shape of the nose or of the ear. Everyone recognises the Bourbon nose. M. L. Eousselet met with it at the Bhopal court in Central India, in a direct descendant of Erancis I. Waitz says one of the most frequently quoted examples is that of the thick lip of the house of Hapsburg since its alliance with the ancient house of Jagellon. Intellectual qualities are transmitted, as well as physical characters. In the family of Bach there were thhty-two musicians. It is the same as regards morbid affections. In all these there is a trans- mission of anatomical forms, either original or acquired by no matter what process, and by education among others. In the law of inheritance, as in all the other laws of the universe, there is nothing of an occult kind. Here like begets like. The foUo-wing are the principal forms of inlieritance : {a) Continuous inheritance, when the son resembles the father and mother, and these resemble their parents ; (b) Interrupted inheritance, when, without resembling either father or mother, he is like his grandfather: this is very remarkable as regards the transmission of disease, and is frequently alternating ; (c) Collateral inheritance, when the child resembles an uncle or a great-uncle ; [d) Atavic inheritance, when the resemblance goes back still farther. We need not sa^^ that the accounts of re- semblance to a stranger who might have struck the . attention of the mother during pregnancy are fables. So we must only accept with reservation those cases where the child might have had the features of its mother’s first husband. The characters which mongrels exhibit are onl}^ applications of the * law of inheritance, the consequences of Avhich are reduced to a Chap, vii.] INHEKITANCE. 381 calculus of probability. Sometimes the mongrel of the first blood is exactly intermediate between the two parents as regards the colour of the skin and the character of the hair, as M. Pruner-Bey has shown, or as regards the proportions of the skeleton, as j\I. Broca has stated. One of the varieties of Zambos, or mixed breeds of negroes and Americans, is the Cafuso, in whom the hair is very curly, and coarse enough to form a huge bristly wig. Sometimes this mongrel embodies in himself a portion of the characters of one or other parent; for example, as in the mulatto mentioned by ^I. de Quatrefages, the intelligence of the father and the features of the mother. In this group are the piebald mongi’els, whose skin is black in some places and white in others, or white on the whole of the lateral or upper half of the body and black on the other. Sometimes the child possesses altogether the character of one or other parent : for example, the child of a European father and a Chinese mother. Dr. Scherzer says, is altogether a European or altogether a Chinese. A Berber with blue eyes and with the lobule of the ear absent, married to a dark Arab woman with a well-formed ear, had two children, one like himself, the other like his wife. An English officer, fair, with blue eyes and florid complexion, had several children by an Indian negress. Some were the image of the father, others exactly like the mother. Lucas mentions the case of a negress who had three children at a birth ; one was white, one black, and one fawn-coloured ; that is to say of the colour of a rpiarter-blooded hybrid between a negro and a mulatto {De Quatre- fages). Examples of interrupted, collateral, and atavic inheritance are numerous among mixed breeds, and it is then in fact that they are the most striking. A decided negro having had a white among his ancestors has unexpectedly a child with a white skin by a negress. Instances of this have been repeated regularly every second genera- tion : this is alternate inheritance. The peculiarities of one or the other race are more particularly apt to be retained. The coarse hair of the American, or the woolly hair of the negro, for example. The most persistent character of the reversion from the negro to the white is the yellow colour of the 382 INHERITANCE. [Chap. vii. nails, and the want of firmness of the cartilages of the nose. The child of a negro father and a white mother mil be more like the father than the child of a white father and a negro mother will he like his father (Waitz, Fitzroy). Pallas relates that the mongrel produced by the alliance of the Eussian with the Mongolian will be more like the latter than the former. Others maintain the reverse. ♦ It is asked whether crossing produces an improvement or de- terioration of races in an intellectual point of view, and whether they ought to be encouraged. But the external conditions in which the new race is found have been too much overlooked, as when considering their degree of vitality we lose sight of theh acclimation. Half-casts are often excluded from the society into which they are thrown. So they readily adopt its vices, and use them against it by way of retaliation. The majority of the examjDles which we have are rather favourable to them. The Griquas, if they are not equal to the Dutch, are superior to the aborigines. The mongrels of Java are better, according to Dr. Yvan, than the Malays. It is impossible to doubt but that the Polynesians have gained by cross- ing with whites. The Australian mongrels of Bass’s Straits were very clever, according to Stokes. The highest encomiums were passed upon the holindary-Hders, who were Australian half-breeds. If, in America, the Zambos occupied the prisons of Lima and Mexico, the Cafusos are described in most glowing terms by Spix and Martins. Mulattoes in the United States are exempt from yellow fever the same as negroes. Their mongrel reversions towards the white have, in various degrees, a similar immunity. M. de Gobineau attributes to crossing the disasters of empires and the degradation of races. Hott maintains that if it were general it would lead to the extinction of the human race. Knox and Perier did not believe that civilisation could make progress except with pure races. M. Dally thinks that in an equal struggle, the superiority would remain with the pine races. Bodichon, on the other hand, declares that the era of imiversal peace and fraternity will be realised by crossing; and Thevenot, Deschamps, Serres, Waitz, and De Quatrefages hold a similar opinion. Chap, vii.] CONSANGUINEOUS UNIONS. 383 Dare we say, after these authorities, that the problem is neverthe- less a simple one? Two pure races Avill haA^e a better progeny; two impure races a worse. Tavo races, the one pure, the other impure, Avill liaA'e an impure progeny relatively to the superior race, and pure relatively to the inferior. The laAv of inheritance is exerted Avith rigid exactness, but a multitude of other conditions are mingled Avith it, Avhich avc cannot separate from it — such as the action of external circumstances, acclimation, morals, education, and social hiAvs. The number of mongrels on the face of the globe has been estimated at 1 2 millions, of Avhom no feAver than 1 1 millions arc in South America, 3000 in Oceania, &c. But has a computation been specially made of those of Europe 1 Gerdy states that there are no pure races in Europe. Does crossing increase fecundity ? This is the really imi)ortant question. We reply : Certainly not betAveen races anthropologically A^ery remote from each other, but probably so betAveen contiguous races. M. de Quatrefages, hoAA'ever, thinks that even in the former case fecundity is increased. jSI. Broca remarks that in France the population has increased since the BeA'olution, oAA'ing to the intermingling of the classes AAdiich were originally constituted of victors and vanquished. Comangidneous U nions. Our conclusion on the subject of crossing aa'us that the more nearly allied the races, the greater Avere the chances of fecundation betAveen tAA'o individuals. Carrying this out to its logical sequence, the result Avoidd be that in the same tribe or in the same family the most nearly related ought to be the most fertile. But it seems that in this case we must distinguish between the number and the quality of the progeny. Breeders Avho select their subjects AAdth a definite object to breed in and in, that is to say between near relations, rapidly obtain excellent results. They knoAV, hoAvever, that fertility then diminishes, and that it Avill cease altogether if they do not have recourse from time to time to crossing, in order 384 CONSANGUINEOUS UNIONS. [Chap. vii. to strengthen the race. Extreme fecundity and superiority of race would therefore he two contradictory terms, which may he a consolation to those who maintain, though improperly, that the fecundity of the Erench is diminishing. But is it with Man as Avith animals 1 The question of consanguineous unions has been discussed at the Societe Anthropologique, by Boudin, Dally, and De Banse. It is said that blindness, pigmentary retinitis, albinism, epilepsy, idiotcy, mental aberration, sterility, scrofula, abortion, hare-lip, and deaf-muteness are more frequent after unions among kindred. It is necessary to produce facts in support of this statement. Dr. Voisin Avent to pursue his studies in the borough of Batz, in the peninsula of Croisic, among an isolated popidation Avho only married among themseh^es. As the residt of 4G marriages betAv^een first cousins or second cousins, he found 174 children not one of Avhom exhibited either of the above ailments. The conclusion Avas obvious, viz. that consanguineous unions, even if closely allied, Avere not attended Avith hurtful consequences. Other facts have been observed by M. Eerrier at PauilLac (Gironde) ; by M. Gubler at Gaust, in the Pyrenees ; by M. Dally in the island of Brehat (Cotes-du-Hord) ; by Dr. Duchenne, of Boulogne, at Portel. All are agreed upon the matter. Beyond the seas, one example alone Avill suffice. The Todas of the E'ilgherries are endogamous. They aU marry among themselves, and are all related to one another in some Avay. Their Avives are polyandrous, and have sometimes four or five brothers for husbands ; and notAAdthstanding all this, the race has for ages been one of the finest in India. Out of 196 individuals, Mr. Marshall found only tAvo siifi'ering from any infirmity. In conclusion, it seems clear that unions betAveen cousins and second cousins are folloAved by excellent results AAdien both are healthy, and that, on the contrary, morbid predispositions being added, their effects are proportiorrately felt b}" the offspring. As to alliarrces betAveerr direct kiirdred arrd blood-relations, the ques- tioir is yet sub judice. We rrray remark that the laAvs of civilised corrntries have orrly forbidderr theirr on moral arrd social grorrrrds. Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 385 CHAPTEK VIII. INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX ACCLIMATION WEIGHT OF THE BODY MUSCULAR FORCE PULSE RESPIRATION INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS — PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. Influence of MiUeu:i:. In antagonism with inheritance, wliich preserves tlie characters, and the crosses, whicli hind them together, tliere is, as we have said, the variability which multiplies them, and tends to make them diverge. Varieties arc produced under two influences. (1) During intra- uterine life, spontaneously and as it Avere by accident ; (2) In the course of existence, by external circumstances, or miJieiu:. Tlie doctrine of Darwin rests entirely on the former, that of Lamarck and Geoffrey 8aint-Hilaire on the latter. At present Ave shall only examine facts respecting these latter, Avithout reference to theories. Lbider the name of milieux, de Quatrefages includes “the ensemble of conditions or influences of every kmd, Avhether physical, moral, or intellectual, Avdiich may act upon organised beings in a Avord, all the external causes capable of producing, either directly or indirectly, a change in living organs. We shall confine ourselves to the most manifest characters, relative to Avhich there has been the gi’eatest difference of opinion. The colour of the skin, it is said, is variable, and results from atmospheric causes. Paces are regularly distributed from the equator to the poles — the darkest in hot countries, the ligh'^ist in cold. Let us see if this is so at the present time, for those of the orthodox school make no allusion here to the past, it is already knoAvn to them ; this is the Adamic version. The peoples nearest to the north pole are the Esquimaux, the Samoiedes, and the Lapps, Avith taAvny complexions, black hair and 2 c 386 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap. viir. eyes, and have dwelt in these icy latitudes from the most remote periods. Let us remember that there is a general harmony be- tween the colour of the skin and that of the hair and iris, which colour depends on the increase or diminution of pigmentary matter in the organism. At a lower latitude, in a country with a relatively elevated temperature, are the Scandinavians, in Europe, a race with a lighter skin, hair, and eyes than perhaps any in the world, and the Fins, with fair complexion, chestnut or red hair, and gray or greenish eyes. In Asia there are whole populations with black hair and eyes, but with yellow complexions, and in America, Indians with complexions of a reddish hue. The doctrine is at fault from the very beginning. At the south pole the first habitable regions that we meet with are at about 34 degrees south latitude, and are peopled by the Peschernis, Avith olive or tawny complexion, next to Avhich are the Patagonians, whose complexion is darker, and the Charruas, Avhose complexion is analogous to that of mulattoes, if not darker. In the other hemisphere there are the Tasmanians, Avith a complexion as black as soot, Avith a slightly yelloAAUsh tinge in it, and the yelloAv- taAvny Hottentots, close to the Kaffirs, A\dio are entirely black. Kothing is as yet favourable to the doctrine of AAdiich Prichard Avas the interpreter. If Ave go to the equator Ave meet with facts equally contradictory. In America the ancient Indians of Cali- fornia AA^ere as black at 42 degrees north latitude as the negroes of Guinea, AAdiile farther south there Avere tribes of an olive or reddish complexion, relatKely light. So in Africa, the darkest negroes are at 12 or 15 degrees north latitude, while their colour becomes lighter the nearer they approach the equator. “ The Yoloffs,” says Golberry, “ are a proof that the black colour does not depend entirely on solar heat, nor on the fact that they are more exposed to a Awtical sun, but arises from other causes, ffir the farther Ave go from the influence of its rays the more the black colour is diminished in intensity.” In the tropics, among the TaAAnireks of the Sahara, the Afghans of India, and on the banks of the Orinoco and the Amazon, in the midst of a dark population, Ave meet Avith AA’hole tribes Avith fair complexion, light hair, and Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 387 blue eyes. Eiit it is said these irregularities are due to local cir- cumstances, such as altitude. Prichard says fair complexions are to be seen more in mountainous districts, and dark in the plains. Thus the Swiss, in the lofty mountains of Lombardy, have brown or red hair, while the ^nianese, in the plain, have black hair. The Lerbers, of fair complexion, are seen principally in the .lures mountains, and the dark in the plain. The negroes of the talkie- lands are less dark than those of the low plains near the shores of the Gulf of Guinea, ttc. In the higher regions of Enarea and KafFas, in Abyssinia, we find the natives are of a lighter com- plexion than in Europe, tic. All these are examples upon which we can rely, but we might mention some of an altogether opposite character, ^l. de (^hiatrefages states that the Abyssinians become black on leaving the plains for the heights, which he attributes to the more direct action of the sun’s rays. The Antisian race of the low plains of Peru is white in comparison with the Aymaras and the Quinchas of the high table-lands (7/OWy/f//?//). Humboldt says: The Indians of the torrid zone, who inhabit the most elevated plains of the Cordillera of the Andes, and those who are engaged in fishing at the 45th degi*ee of south latitude, in the islands of the Chonos Archipelago, have the same copper colour as those who, under a scorching climate, cultivate the banana in the deepest and narrowest valleys of the e(piinoctial region.” lie adds that the tribes of the Kio Xegro have a more sunburnt complexion than those of the Pepper Orinoco, notwithstanding that the banks of the former are colder than those of the latter. The smooth or crisp character of the hair would be ecpially due to climate, according to the doctrine of the influence of external circum- stances {iniliaujc). Heat and dryness cause the hair to roll into sjkirals, but it Avill not produce flattening to the same extent. Is it not the reverse as regards animals % The woolly fleece of the sheep of temperate countries would be transformed into a fleece with straight hair towards the erpiator. IMoreover, there are negroes with veiy woolly hair even in Tasmania, at a latitude of 45 degrees soutli, and we know that in the southern hemisphere the temperature is much colder than in similar latitudes in the north. On the 2 c 2 388 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap. viii. contrary, in the tropics, there are blacks with smooth straight hair, as the Australians, the blacks of the Deccan, the Himyarites of the Yemen, &c. How is it, according to the above hypothesis, that the heat has exerted its influence on the skin and not on the haiiY The stature has also been attributed to the influence of external circumstances, especially to food, to differences of tempera- ture, and to altitude. We have referred to tliis at page 319. We only remark that if the Peruvians are small on the most elevated table-lands of the globe, the Malays, called Oramjs lautts, on the coast of the peninsida of hlalacca, and the Andamans, at sea- level, are still more so ; which subverts the opinion of D’Orhigny, that the tall Kaffirs and the diminutive Bosjesmans live side by side in the same forests of southern Africa ; that the Todas at the top of the Kilgherries are tall, and live only on pulse and milk-food, while the Iridas and the Krumhas on either side of them are comparatively short, and live on the flesh of the hufifalo ; that the Scandinavians in their cold countries, the negroes at the equator, the Kedskins in the Eocky Mountains, the Tehuelches in the sands of Patagonia, and the Polynesians in the low islands of the Pacific, are all very tall under the most opposite conditions. “ I have observed,” says M. Broca, “ that the stature of the Prench, generally speaking, does not depend upon altitude or latitude, is not a question of poverty or riches, of character of soil or of food, nor is it the result of any other external condition; hut I have been led to believe it to arise solely from a general influence, that of ethnic inlieritance.” We have no proof, indeed, that in the present state of things, and in the very short time during which our observations have extended, there has ever been produced an important and heredi- tary change of a physical character under the influence of external circumstances. Wherever we meet either with Arabs or Jews, their type is the same, as we learn from Egyptian monuments. At Leyden, the Jew is said to he simply a little lighter, at Algiers of a yellowish tint, in India to he dark. There is no doubt as to the last. At Cochin, on the coast of Malabar, there are — (1) Black Jews ; these are native converts ; (2) White Jews, who Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 389 came there at the period of the destruction of Jerusalem, and Avhose history can he traced hack at least six centuries. 2s ow these have remained white, or rather hroAvn, from the climate, and as compared with ourselves, hut white as compared with the sur- roundimr nations. Their children are horn white, and their wives when not exposed to the sun remain white. Notwithstanding all we have said, external circumstances have an undeniahle influence certainly. Vegetables become white when excluded from the light, and not only on the surface hut throughout their entire substance, ami it even affects their flavour, and extends to other properties of the sap. The animals of the polar regions become white on the approach of winter. Tlie small and puny oxen of the Sologne when transported to the valleys of the Loire, in one or two generations assume an entii-ely altered appearance as regards their size and quality. Peasants and sailors become tawny on exposime to the open air and in hot countries, on the uncovered parts of the body. But in the last-mentioned case the influence is confined to the individual, it is not hereditary ; it is also different in difierent races. We have said that dark and fair Europeans do not tan etpially when exposed to the air ; the former readily become black, the latter become sunburnt, and of a brick-red hue, or assume a yellowish tint, which iSIonrad considers as the first evidence on the coixst of Guinea of having become acclimatised. This yellowish colour passes into that of copper, and becomes darker in each succeeding generation. The Chinese also become black on exposure to the sun during the summer, and light in winter. There is a vast distinction between this and the individual’s transmission of an acquired character to his posterity. The individual becomes black as he becomes fat. If excluded from exposure to the sun, and his food is scanty, he becomes pale and thin. In the Sandwich Islands an opposite phenomenon takes place {Choris). The children when first born are black, the people of distinction dark brown, and the labouring people of a lighter tint, or orange colom*. But this is a different matter ; one ought perhaps to look upon the two classes as two distinct races. 390 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap-.. 7ni, aS'evertheless we admit that modifications of physical characters- might he produced, if not under our very eyes, at least in the course of time, and might he added to from age to age. AYe must admit that these things might he explained physiologically according, to this hypothesis. Statm’e, for example, is the result of two influences. (1) Of the race, or rather of the predominance of action of such race- whether a paternal or maternal ; and (2) Of a concurrence of hygienic circumstances. According as the nutrition of the skeleton goes on properly or not, its ossification is or is not regular — the epiphyses are united to the diaphj^ses soon or late — so will the individual he either tall or short. Let the accident lie repeated, let the phenomenon go on in the •same way during many generations, it will heconie a habit (iu medicine we recognise pathological as well as physiological habits,, and their tenacity and hereditary character are truly remarkable), and soon a regularly transmissible character. AYe cannot there- fore he surprised to see the persistence with which travellers, those in Australia for example, assert that individuals of low stature in that country, are badly fed, poorly clad, and miserable, while tall statures are characteristic of the natives of the interior, who are strong and healthy, having every resource within their reach. Individual varieties unquestionably depend partly on external chcumstances, and partly on the state of the health. M. Broca himself allows this as regards certain differences between the sexes. Some statistics of Quetelet relative to healthy and diseased children prove it. The increase of the pigmentary matter might also be easily explained in this way. The cutaneous system, excited by contact with the air, heat, and light performs its fimctions more readily, its glandular apparatus secretes more, and the black matter is de- posited in greater abundance in the cellules heneath the epidermis. Lroni this cause, and probably by reflex action upon the supra-renal capsides or the liver, the li 5 q 3 ersecretion would be diffused through the entire organism, and the colourmg matter derived from the blood, from the bihary matter, or from elsewhere, would increase. Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 391 Peculiarities proper to each race would be that one Avould become decidedly black, another yellowish or olive, a third reddish. An objection of tliis sort might arise : AVliy the parts exposed to the air are not the only ones black 1 The opposite phenomenon, a want of excitation, would, on the contrary, produce pallor, that is to say a sort of amumia, as in minei’s. The white Antisians of Peru, says P’Orbigny, live at the foot of perpendicular rocks, under enormous trees, the branches of which form a vast arbour impenetrable to the rays of the sun, where the atmosphere is humid, and the vegetation luxuriant. Their five tribes live there enveloped in darkness, and are of lighter complexion than the ^loxos of the adjoining open plains, and the Aymaras on the elevated plateaux. As regards the increase of the volume of the skull and all the craniometrical characters which result from it, the explanation would be no less easy. The more the brain works the more does it continue to increase bc'yond its ordinary term of growth, and the sutures are closed later. The small size at the present day of the skull of women relatively to that of men, as compared with that which it was at the prehistoric period represented by the two beautiful series from the cavern of LTIomme Mort and the Paye caves in the department of La ^larne, would arise from an opj)osite cause. The variations of the forms and proportions of the .skeleton might be all explained in the same way, by virtue of the physiological law, that' the function makes the organ. The more Avork a limb, or an organ, or a muscle does, the more it increases in A^olume ; changes at the same time taking place in the parts Avith Avhich it is con- nected. The femur a colonm, the platycnemic tibia, the large chest of individuals compelled to take deep inspirations, the corpulence of persons Avho confine themselves ])rincipally to a vegetable diet, and Avhose meals are irregular, and sometimes very large in (quantity, are accounted for in this AA^ay. Xo explanation can be given as to the A'arieties of the hair in its fundamental types. For example, the straight and round, the Avoolly and flat hair, as seen under the microscope. In this lies the most serious objection to the theory of the derivation of characters from one another. In the present state of science Ave have no 392 ACCLIMATION. [Chap. viii. explanation to give on tlie subject. Inclividnals experience tbe influence of external conditions under onr own personal observation, but they do not visibly transmit the changes so made — there is no authentic instance of it. The distribution of characters according to altitudes and latitudes has exclusively to do with the fortuitous migration of peoples. In the present state of science, and as far as our limited investigations extend, the law of permanence of types remains intact. Moreover, physiology enables us to understand the mechanism by virtue of Avhich new characters might take their origin. Under what exceptional conditions, at present unknown to us, may not hereditary influence, that great conservative force, depart from its extreme strictness '? This is the question. It is quite clear that the variations of climate and conditions of life are A^ery slight now in comparison with what the}^ necessarily were formerly. The fact is that Man has not always known how to guard against the preponderating influence of external agencies, nor has he always been able to leave the country under every change of circumstances, bio new race, having characters other than those of the mixed races produced from crossing, has been created within our knowledge; and moreover, everything compels us to believe that there was a greater tendency to change at a remote period in the past than there is at present, and this belief has found a support in the law of hereditary influence. It is one of two things : either races have been created originally in infinite number, and have since become diminished by natural extinction or by crossing, or they have been multiplied under the influence of i^^|,^.l®^iexternal circumstances.* Acclimation. There is but a step from the influence of climate and external conditions to acclimation. Man, unlike the antlu’opoids, is found in all climates, and conforms himself to every condition of life ; but * See the articles “ Altitude,” by Leroy de Mwicourt ; Mesologie,” by Bertillon; “Climat,” by Fonssagrives ; “Atmosphere,” by Gavarret, &c., in “ Encycl. des Sciences Medicales.” Chap, viil] ACCLIMATION. 393 lie owes it to his intelligence, and pays the penalty. Let ns examine the cpiestion more closely. The words acclimation and acclimatisation are not synonymous. U'lie former is understood of the spontaneous and natural accommo- dation to new climatic conditions, the latter of the intervention of Man in this accommodation. The one is the fact, the other the hnoudedge of the conditions and phenomena of accommodation ; the one is a physiological property of Man, and concerns anthro- pology, the other is in the domain of hygiene, of medicine, and of the schools. M. Bertillon has treated of them, from every point of vieAv, with his usual critical acumen, and it will suffice for us to analyse his article, “ Acclimatement,” in the “ Encyclopcdie des Sciences Medicales.” M. Bertillon commences with a comparison of the statistics of hu'ths and deaths. He finds differences between one race and another, either in their general faculty of acclimation or in their capability of living in some latitudes in preference to others. He discovers differences even between European races. Thus the English become habituated to the climate of tlie United States, the island of St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope, Imt they fail to do so in the Antilles and in India. In the same way the Germanic race thrives in the United States, but dies out in the tropics, and even in Algeria. The Dutch likewise. Under the name of Boers they continue to live under the most favourable conditions in the colony of the Cape, the climate of which is very similar to that of our own country, while they perish under the scorching climate of the Malay peninsula. The Erench do well in Canada, in ISTova Scotia, in the United States, in Mauritius and the Friendly Islands, but as they approach the tropics their faculty of adaptation decreases. In the Antilles they succeed in making a first branch, but they do not increase, and require to receive fresh blood by crossing with foreigners up to the third or fourth generation. In Algeria the Erench belonging to the northern departments do not thrive, while those of the south make progress. In Madagascar, and especially in Senegal, no European race can hold out long. In Xew Caledonia the mortality among Erench emigrants is less than in France. The Spaniards, in whose blood there is much of the 394 ACCLIMATION. [Chap, viii. Eerber, adapt themselves wonderfiilly to the climate of the southern part of the United States, of Mexico, the Antilles, and South America. These, with the Maltese and Jews, are the most favoured of Algerian colonists. The Portuguese share with them the same privileges. The Tschinghani, Gipsies, or Bohemians, are, of all peo^des, those whom we meet with most universally. In the waste lands of Brazil, on the summit of the Himalayas, in jMoscow, Madrid, London, Stamhoul, at 30 to 35 degrees centigrade above zero, in the torrid zones of India and Africa, they are to be found everywhere. The Israelites also possess a remarkable aptitude for becoming acclimatised ; but they do not advance so much towards the north, they proceed step by step, cautiously feeling their way, and follow the course of civilisation. The Arabs readily become acclimatised, but they remain in hot isothermal zones, and venture but little into the temperate zones. M. Bertillon does not speak of the Chinese, but everyone knows that they are much esteemed as labourers in Malacca, Australia, California, and the Antilles. Since the abolition of slavery in America, they are gradually taking the place of the negro, OAving to their soon becoming accustomed to the climate; but we have not seen them emigrate into cold countries. Australia, although having the most ojiposite climates, is very suitable to Eiiropeans of every nationality, while the Malay Archi- pelago, more especially the northern part, is very fatal to them ; Cochin-China the same. In Java and Sumatra the Dutch do not become acclimatised, and this no doubt is the cause of the sterility of certain of their mixed breeds with the aborigines for a definite number of generations. India is also fatal to Europeans, but the low plains situated on the sea-shore, and the banks of the great rivers, must be distinguished from the elevated plateaux of Central India. The English have established sanitaria in the mountains, where they go to recruit them health. Egypt is no less remarkable for its insalubrity. Its present popidation is the same as it was in former days. It has never been maintained without being incessantly renewed by immigration. It is very Chap, viii.] ACCLIMATION. 395 fatal even to the negi-o. Tlie ^ranielukes have had sway there for 560 yeai-s, and not one has been able to keep up a persistent race. Tlie rate of mortality among the negroes of Africa, even in their own country, is considerable. I'he birth rate however is very high; but for this they would become extinct. This mortality seems to be conseipient on their indolence, and on their using no exertion for their well-being. AVe must not therefore be astonished at their success in America, Avhere, particular!}'' in tlie Antilles, and in the United States previously to the war, they were taken care of like valuable merchandise. In 1808, the period when the importation to that country ceased, they were 400,000, in 1860 their number increased to 4,000,000. Since tlie war they have been compelled to look after themselves, and liave returned to their natural indolence ; thus their number is diminishing. So mucli for emigration into hot countries. In cold regions, Europeans do not readily become acclimatised, and negroes especially die rapidly. The fair population of Iceland is visilily decreasing, which is to lie attributed to the island becoming progressively colder. The Es(piimaux, Avho on their first arrival in Greenland found a climate which was more sup- portable than now, decreased for the same reason. At St. Peters- burg the deaths exceed the births, and if the Slavs are masters of the northern part of the continent, they owe it to their crossing Avith the Eins, and perhaps, more to the Avest, Avith the Samoiedes. Thus it appears that extremes of climate are not suitable to any race, and that if j\Ian transports himself from one part of the gloTie to another, and settles doAvn thei'e, it is frequently at his peril, notAvithstanding the resources Avith Avhich his intelligence furnishes him. The fair races are especially adapted to temperate and cool regions, and the south is looked upon as almost forbidden ground. The broAAui races, on the contrary, haA^e a remarkalde poAver of becoming acclimatised. In the north they are represented by the Laplanders. They stretch aAA"ay as far as the equator, the most characteristic of them especially. But Avhen considering the question of removing from one climate to another, Ave must distinguish betAveen slight and important changes, betAveen those 396 ACCLIMATION. [CiTAP. VIII. whicli are sudden and those which are progressive. M. Bertillon divides the accidental circumstances due to sudden acclimation in a new isothermal region, and are produced upon the individual and his progeny, into four groups or phases. (1) Sudden diseases; (2) Chronic consecutive anaemias, which place the individual in an unfavourable condition to resist accidental diseases, or make him quickly look old; (3) Diseases of early infancy in offspring horn in the country ; (4) Physical and intellectual degeneration, and the infertility of the second and third generations. (See page 372.) Very different are the circumstances connected with acclimation on a small scale. A family incapable of being suddenly transported from Paris to Senegal is well able to bear removal to Pan. In succeeding generations it will be able to go to Cadiz, many genera- tions afterwards to Morocco, and so on. It is thus that the slow immigrations from Central Asia have been accomplished — not the invasions of the barbarous tribes which rushed down upon Europe at the commencement of our era. Some of these migrations bearing off to the north-west would have reached comparatively cold countries, and others going south Avould find India, where at the present time some fair people are to be met with in a eountiy where the English could not settle. The Esquimaux, before becoming acclimatised in their country of eternal snow, lived in Asia, at about the 40th degree of north latitude. All j^arts of a country are not equally unfavourable for acclimation. Without speaking of a swamp here or a desert there, which increases the mortality among new-comers, there is the altitude to be taken into consideration. A family will not be able to become acclimatised at the level of the sea, and will thrive by ascending the course of a river or the sides of a mountain. High table-lands are in much request in all hot countries. The contradictory opinions of Jourdanet and Coindet relative to the residence of Europeans in elevated parts of Mexico, leave the question undecided. But in a Erench territory the experiment has been made. Whilst Bertillon and Picoux come to the conclusion that the Germanic race, in a general way, does not become acclimatised in Algeria, we find in the entire province of Constantine, and on the whole line of the Chap, viu.] ACCLIMATION. 397 Atlas, from the Aures inoimtains to Morocco, a large niiiiiber of fair people, who have existed there for four or five thousand years. A circumstance favourable to permanent acclimation is the crossing, however little, with the native race, or with other races which have settled in the country at the same period Avith it, but Avith a greater poAver of acclimation. A small quantity of negro blood lessens the tendency to contract yelloAv fcA^er. So at the Cape of Good Hope, in the United States, in Australia, and also in Algeria, the emigrant races must not be designated by their particular name, but must be looked upon as iieAv mixed races, having their OAvn special characters. Under these conditions the influence of climate and external circumstances appears even more marked, the same as in chemistry certain re-agents act more readily Avheii bodies are brought into contact in the nascent state. After the greatest mortality, a feAv of the survi\"ors are sufficient to serve as a starting-point for a neAv popidation. In a Avord, Man’s restricted faculty of acclimation may favour, Avithin certain limits, the diffusion and mixture of races on the face of the globe, and even the formation of neAv races ; but it is also an obstacle to their diffusion and transformation. It tends to allot them a place at the period AAdiich is the most suitable to them. This is A\diy Ave see the negro races generally predominating in some zones, the broAvn or yellow in others, and the fair races in others. Having the minimum mortality in these zones, the race is kej^t u]). The fair races, for example, far from being so on accoimt of climate, as Prichard AA^ould haA'e it, Avould only conform themselves to it in the same AA^ay as the prehistoric animals Avhich Avent nortliAvards or southAA^ards in the course of ages, according to the changes of temperature and A'egetation. If Ave did not knoAv that the climatic conditions of all parts of the globe have radically changed over and over again, we shoidd deduce from this that the negro races took their rise on the continents of the inter-tropical zone, Avhile the fair races originated in the cold or temperate regions of the north. It is thus that th» faculty of accommodation to climate or acclima- tion, Avhich varies according to race, fimnishes an argument for the polygenistic doctrine. The tAvo questions of crossing and of 398 WEIGHT OF THE BODY. [Chap. viii. inheritance are connected with the functions, so mysterious, of reproduction ; those of external conditions and acclimation, to the more general function of nutrition. The two characters Avhich exhibit the amount of vital energy in individuals, as well as in races, are the weight of the body and muscular strength. The Weight of the Body, Studied in its relation to age, profession, and stature, by Quetelet, Hutchinson, and Gould, does not possess the interest which has been extended to it. Its causes are various, such as hygiene, food, character of occupation, temperament, and race. The probable connection between these last two makes it the more difficult to consider the question of race by itself. The cases of exceptional obesity, due to high feeding or to indolence, are observed in all races from the Englishman to the Hottentot, and ought to be at once set aside, as weU as those cases of extreme emaciation, conse- quent on habitually insufficient food, or continued exposure to the sun. The Arab, shrivelled up in the desert, becomes fat in the towns, especially his half-breeds. The Mongols, the Chinese, and the Polynesians readily becc^me obese. The following averages of weight are only interesting as a matter of curiosity : Kilogrammes. 507 Iroquois Indians (Gould) ... ... 73-8 680 Mulattoes (Gould)... ... 65-8 12,740 Bavarians (Bernstein) 65’5 400 Frenchmen (Bernard) ... 64-9 1775 Negroes (Gould) ... ... 64*9 617 Englishmen (W. S. Thomson) ... 68-8 9157 American soldiers of all nationalities (Gould) ... ... 64-4 150 New Zealanders (W. S. Thomson) ... 63-9 272 Magyars (Bernstein) ... 60-7 356 Roumanians (Bernstein) ... ... 58*4 50 Hindoos, high caste (Shortt) ... 53-2 60 Natives of the Caucasus (Shortt) ... ... 50*0 50 Hindoos, low caste (Shortt) ... 48-7 50 Natives, low caste, of the Nilgherries (Shortt) ... 44-6 39 „ low class, of the Madras coast (Shortt) ... 42-7 -Chap, viii.] MUSCULAR STRENGTH. 399 Muscular Strength. ]\Iiisciilar strengtli is a more important subject, although we must consider it in its connection with the individiiars state of health, food, age, and sex, as well as with tlie power acquired by the continued use of the muscles. The dynamometer, by the aid of which the experiments which we are about to mention were carried on, was invented by Eegnier, at the close of the last century, at the suggestion of Buffon. Chaussier was the first to make use of it, then the travellers Peron, Preycinet, Quoy, and Gaimard, and lastly, Forbes, Quetelet, and the anthropologists of the Norarra and of the war of American secession, who modified it. It gives, at will, the force of pressure of the hands, and the force of vertical traction from below upwards, the two hands acting together in both cases ; that is to say the 'manual strength and the strength of the hade or loins, of authors. The following are some averages at five different periods to show the influence of age in two very opposite races. They are borrowed from Mr. Gould : Number of whites. Strength of the back. Kil. Number of negroes, Strength of . the back. Kil. 17 years ... 171 ... 114 . 44 ... 131 20 „ ... 512 ... 150 ., .. 142 ... 110 2o „ 296 ... 166 ., 124 ... 155 30 „ ... 171 ... 160 .. ,. 39 153 35 ,, 371 ... 166 ., .. 81 ... 165 50 „ and upwards... 31 ... 146 ., .. 11 ... 132 According to Mr. Gould, the maximum of muscular strength in both cases is at 31 years, and according to (Quetelet at 25. It is evident that we must take the former. The following table, which it would have been easy to enlarge, has reference to races. It is derived from various sources, and where not specially men- tioned from Peron, Quoy, Gaimard, and the Novarra : 400 MUSCULAR STRENGTH. [Chap. yiii. 122 French Manual strength. Back strength. Kil. Kil. 61*0 ... 160 23 Hawa'i Islanders 60-1 171 84 Micronesians ... 56-8 150 26 Timorians 52'4 118 12 Tasmanians (Peron) ... 50-6 118 30 Australians 48-0 100 57 Chinese 46-8 111 315 French seamen (Eansonnet) 46*8 142 6381 White soldiers (Gould) 46-8 155 1141 „ seamen „ 46-8 130 1600 Negroes „ 46-8 146 704 Mulattoes „ 46-8 158 503 Iroquois Indians ,, 46*8 190 Peron and Preycinet at first came to tlie conclusion that savage races Avere inferior in point of strength to the European races. Put D Fig. 41. — Mathieu’s Dynamometer. the aborigines upon whom their experiments Avere made Avere not in their oaaui natn^e forests, and AA^ere no doubt frightened dining the experiment. The aboAm aA^erages clearly shov' that the Austra- lians are very defecthm in manual strength, but that the Chinese are still more so. Those Avith the greatest amount of strength in the back, on the other hand, are the Iroquois Indians, and after them the natiA'es of the SandAAUch Archipelago. Xegroes are undoubtedly stronger in the back than Avhites, but mulattoes are stronger than either. The muscular inferiority of the vdiite seamen of Eansonnet and Gould clearly proA^es that the physio- Chap, viii,] CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 401 logical condition surpasses in all cases the anthropological condition. In his statistics j\Ir. Gould has separated the delicate from those in perfect health, the difference between them being considerable. Thus, in white soldiers of delicate constitution the strength of the back was 127 kilogrammes, and in those in health 155 kilo- grammes. Another and more portable dynamometer is recommended in the “ Instructions de la Societe d’Antliropologie,” that of Mathieu, figured in the preceding page. It measures the force of pressure with one hand, and the force of vertical traction, as with the instrument of Kegnier. In twenty-four Frenchmen, from 20 to 60 years of age, the mean manual strength was 51*6 kilogrammes with the right arm. But it would be better to ascertain correctly the force of horizontal traction, as, according to ]\I. Broca, it is this which gives more reliable results as between one race and another.* To the functions of nutrition indirectly belong those of the circulation, respiration, and digestion. All have reference to organic life, and cannot materially differ between one race and another. The Circulation of the Blood. The circulation of the blood may be summed up in one single phenomenon — the beating of the heart, as indicated by the pulse at the radial artery. But more than any other phenomenon it is subject to transient or permanent influences foreign to Anthropo- logical notions. The pulse varies with age, sex, indhddual peculiarity, stature, and .also witli the size of the body, before and during digestion, in the morning and at night, after exercise of any kind, and under the influence of emotion, even that caused by the examination of the individual. AVe cannot therefore deduce much * “ Description et Usage du Dynamometre,” by Regnier, in Journal do I’Ecole Polytechniqne,” vol. ii., Prairial year 6; “ Voyage autour du Monde de VUranie et de La Physicierme, de 1817 a 1820,” two vols., by L. de Freycinet ; J. Forbes, in “ Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh,” Jan. 16, 1837 ; Quetelet and Gould, op. cit. 2 D EESPIRATION. 402 [Chap. viii. from its study, and give the following averages for what they are worth : 8284 White soldiers (Gould) 1503 Negroes „ 708 Mulattoes „ 503 Iroquois Indians „ 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) 30 Belgians of 30 years of age (Quetelet) 230 Mexicans (Coindet) 24 Chinese (Novarra) 34 Nikobarians ,, Pulse. 74-8 74*0 76-9 76- 3 80-0 71-0 80-2 77- 0 77-0 The Respiration. The respiration presents considerable diversities in different individuals ; some of these are of a radical character, others are consecutive to the action of milieux. The movements of the chest concerned in inspiration are three in number — namely, an upper costal, a lower costal, and an abdominal or diaphragmatic. We have yet to know whether either of them may or may not he peculiar to certain races. The rhythm of the respiration may also vary, although it usually bears a definite relation to the pulse, there being one inspiration to four beats of the heart. Quetelet found that in the Belgians in the above list, the inspirations were 18 in the minute, and Hutchinson that in the English there were 20. According to Coindet the respiration increases the higher one ascends. Supposing, in 250 Europeans, the number of inspirations were 19 '3, in the same number of Mexicans, at an altitude of 2277 metres, the liumber would be 20*3 — the correctness of which state- ment M. Jourdanet questions. The difference, however, is scarcely appreciable, and the number of individuals too few to enable us to form a definite opinion on the matter. The capacity of the thoracic cavity is a subject which has received a considerable amount of attention. It is ascertained with the spirometer. The individual makes a full expiration and then a full inspiration, three times in Chap. VIII.] CIRCUMFEEENCE OF THE CHEST. 403 succession, when the mean is taken. Of all the physiological causes which tend to make it vary, like every other animal func- tion, the most important is the stature. In 1080 Englishmen Mr. Hutchinson found, with a stature of 1-52 metre, a capacity of 2*842 cubic metres, and with an addition of one inch in height, namely, 2*54 centimetres, an increase of 131 cubic centimetres, so that Avith a stature of 1*82 metre, the capacity is 4*260. ^I. Schreevogt finds it less in the German race — namely, 52 cubic centimetres for every centimetre of height. The following table, having reference to healthy adult men, shows that there are material differences between races : Cubic metres. 8895 White soldiers (Gould) ... ... ... 3*054 1631 Negroes „ ... ... ... 2*700 671 Mulattoes „ 2*629 504 Indians „ ... ... ... 3*022 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) .... ... 3*602 From this it appears that the chest capacity is less in negroes than in whites, and especially in the English. Xow the stature of the former averages 1*70 metre, and that of the latter about 1*71 in the corresponding statistics, so that negroes maintain their inferiority. With regard to mulattoes, it is Avith tliem as with their brain — (see page 312) — they seem to appropriate the ivorst character pertaining to the two races of which they are the issue. Their chest capacity is even less than in pure negroes. The Circumference of the Chest. The circumference of the chest is connected with the study of the respiratory functions, as Avell as Avith that of the proportions of the body ; it has even to do Avith that of the reproductive functions in the female ; hence it presents differences according to race. We shall only speak, hoAvever, of the measurement in the adult man. The Avorks Avhich have been AAuitten on the subject are numerous, 2 D 2 404 CIECUMFEEENCE OF THE CHEST. [Chap. viii. and have an equal interest for anthropology, medicine, military enlistment, and the Arts. When measuring a man’s chest the tape is passed round under the armpits, or, what is better, over the nipples. The individual should stand upright, should be calm, his respiration being carried on quietly, the mouth open, the arms above the head, and the hands joined, unless we want to take the mean circumference during inspiration and expiration. As the capacity of the chest increases with the stature it is necessary to take account of this. In the following table the first column shows the absolute circumference, and the second the same circumference relatively to the stature = 100 : Absolute circumference. Relative to stature. 5738 Scotchmen (Quetelet) ... ... 100-0 56-7 508 Indians (Gould) ... ... 96-5 55'5 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) ... 93-9 540 462 Germans (Gould) ... 91-2 53-8 4930 Eussians (Seeland) ... 88-7 53-4 400 Frenchmen (Bernard) ... ... 87-9 53-0 1792 Negroes (Gould) ... ... 89-0 52-3 719 Mulattoes „ ... 88-7 52-1 151 New Zealanders (A. S. Thompson) ... 89-8 51-4 25 Todas of the Nilgherries ( Short t) ... 81*8 50-9 50 Inferior tribes of the Nilgherries (Shortt) 76*6 48-8 All the European races in this list have the circumference of the thorax decidedly greater than the inferior races. What Mr. Goidd calls the play of the chest, that is to say, the difference between the two circumferences taken during inspiration and expiration, is also much greater in them. The first column below shows this' difference in centimetres of length, and the second the volume in cubic centimetres of the thoracic capacity to which it corresponds, according to Mr. Gould’s calculation. Centimetres. Cubic centimetres. 9271 American soldiers ... ... ... 6’9 ... 44 5 1792 Negroes 4-1 ... 26‘4 719 Mulattoes ... ... ... ... 4’0 ... 25*7 508 Iroquois Indians ... ... ... 4*6 ... 30'0 Chap, viii.] VISION. 405 Digestion. The digestion also varies, if not according to race, at least so far as to produce certain effects which may become permanent. It is influenced by certain habits. Thus, according to the regidarity or irregularity of the meals, a redundance or insufficiency of food, a herbivorous or a carnivorous regimen, the stomach will become distended and deformed, as is the characteristic of many inferior tribes, or be retracted. The lumbo-sacral curvature also will l)e more or less hollowed. The teeth will become worn, horizontally, almost down to the gums, as in the Patagonians, or obliquely, as in our prehistoric races. In truth, in anthropology we must study all the functions of the body exactly as we study the corresponding organs ; and these functions may exhibit differential characters between races which we least expected, or throw some light on the problem now under consideration with reference to the influence of external conditions and habit. Next to respiration and digestion, therefore, come the functions of the larynx, of the senses, &c. The Voice. The voice varies in its quality and tone in different races, and may even be characteristic of certain human groups, according to the statement of travellers. The tenor or bass voice is frequently associated with a certain physical type. This subject belongs more particularly to linguists, whose attention is specially directed to differences of pronunciation. ]Much has yet to be done in this direction. Vision. Vision may be studied with respect to its extent. According to ^Ir. Gould, the white, the negro, and the Indian see at the 406 CEREBKAL FUNCTIONS. [Chap, viii. greatest distance at from 17 to 28 years of age, after which the distance progressively diminishes. The following interesting sta- tistical table has been drawn np by this author. The first column gives the distance of clear vision. of type corresponding to ISTo. 11 of Jaeger. The three following columns indicate the proportion per cent, of short-sighted persons, of those of intermediate vision, and of the long-sighted, the first seeing the type at less than 50 centimetres, the second at from 50 centimetres to T50 niHre, the third above 1*50 metre. Proportion per cent, of Mean distance. Short-sighted. Intermediate. Long-sighted. White soldiers 1-59 2-7 80-9 15-4 „ sailors 0-92 9-3 87-7 4-0 Negroes . 1-15 20 84B 13-2 Mulattoes .. 1*18 2-4 81-0 16-6 Indians ,. 1-31 0-9 88-5 10-6 It is singular that as regards the greater number of physiological characters, for example weight, muscidar force, vision, chest capacity, and even stature, sailors are inferior to soldiers in Mr. Gould’s statistics, these being confirmed in many particulars by other observers. Cerebral Functions. The cerebral functions are to be examined in the same way as all the others. Intellectual phenomena are the expression of the activity of the brain, while their external manifestations are its product. Both the one and the other are consequently included in the category of physiological characters which we are now studying. They present the greatest anomalies, because this is precisely the general characteristic of the human family, but they also exhibit marked differences, which doubtless were more considerable at first when races were in a condition of isolation. There are two cha- racters common to the whole human race : the facidty of imitation Chap, viii.] CEREBRAL FUNCTIONS. 407 and the faculty of improvement. The ape repeats that which he sees done, and goes no farther. Man profits by what he sees, and is more or less capable of being educated. Hence the difficulty, when analysing intellectual traits, to distinguish that which apper- tains to the race and to the individual from that which is the result of education and of training. Xot only a victorious tribe, hut a single individual starting up as if Tjy chance, may so transform the customs and modify the characters of a people as, after a brief period, to render them unrecognisable. The ancient Peruvians owe most of the intellectual traits which distinguish them from neigh- bouring races to ^lanco-Capac, tlie first of the Incas. AVlio knows whether the 'Australians might not have become elevated in the social scale, if they had met with a man who knew how to deal with them 1 This proneness of ]\Ian to appropriate to himself that which he can make subservient to his wants and desires, and to transform himself intellectually, is not equally developed in all. In some it is acquired rapidly, in others slowly. AVe know that the Andamans and Australians, brought up according to our ideas of civilisation, cast off their clothing on the first opportunity, and resume their savage mode of life ; notwithstanding this, these same savages quickly learn to read and write, and are very observant. Hence we must disting^iish hetAveen the rough-and-ready education of an individual, and the lengthened and progressive education of a race. In spite of this tendency to intellectual uniformity in the human family, certain differences persist, each corresponding to certain peculiar anatomical conditions of the brain, Avhich they denote as surely as though demonstrated by the most delicate microscopic examination. ^Vmong those properties inherent in the structure of the hraiu, the faculty of language occupies a prominent place. Linguists have come to the clearest conclusions on this point. A certain number of languages irreducible from one another ha\"e had an independent origin. At that remote period the corresponding primitive races lived distinct in a state of nature. Has chance then presided at the early development of a ferv articular sounds, Avhicli have become the point of departure of so many root-AVords 'I 408 SOCIAL CONDITION OF VAEIOUS RACES. [Chap. viii. or lias the hrain become previously modified in order to render this development possible'? What interests us here is that there are languages profoundly different from one another, which require organs of a special construction to pronounce them, and special powers of intellect to comprehend them. In the same way we must view the various methods of appreciating the musical gamut in the several quarters of the globe. That which is harmony to the auditory fibres of the brain in some races, is not so in others. Education here has nothing to do with it ; the thing has been so from the first, and is, therefore, an anatomical fact. The varieties of arithmetical systems are in the same category. The races termed Aryan are acquainted with all of them, and have * considerable aptitude for mathematics. Other races, styled inferior, cannot count above two, or three, or five ; any numbers above these are altogether incomprehensible to them, and in spite of all our efforts we can seldom give them any higher notion of number : this was the case with a Damara mentioned by Lubbock. As regards draw- ing, there are differences in the same way. There is a race, the existence of which can be undoubtedly traced back to the earliest period, only capable of making circles and straight lines, and certain of its representatives cannot even distinguish the difference between a drawing of a head and a tree or a ship. The Chinese, after a social existence probably equal to that of the ancient Egyptians, and, although advanced in many other respects, have not the slightest idea of perspective. Other races, on the contrary, and these the most ancient and the most savage, as our ancestors of the Eeindeer Period, have exhibited almost from the first, a thoroughly artistic taste. The marvellous difference in the systems of writing testifies also to the primitive isolation of races and to their various degrees of aptness and impulse. The perfection which some seem to have attained ahnost from the first, whilst others have remained in statu quo, is well worthy our consideration. Paces are still more distinguished from one another by their mode of life and social condition. From the earliest dawn of tradition, and even previously, when all our information is derivable only from prehistoric archaeology, we see tribes setthng €hap. VIII.] CHARACTER OF THE FRENCH. 409 os of the skin of the negro, discussion has arisen A\dth regard to the colour of cicatrices after wounds. The question has now been settled. After deep wounds the cicatrices are whitish, and when superficial they are blacker than the adjoining skin. The causes of the extinction, of races may be considered here, Whether rapid, slow, or scarcely perceptible, this progressive ex- tinction in the presence of new races, relatively superior, and differing in morals and civilisation, is an acknowledged fact. That it slioidd be so in tribes as truly savage as the Obongos of Du Chaillu, and the Australians of Port King George, described by Scott Kind, is not surprising ; but that the phenomena should be repeated among the Polynesians, who are far from being an inferior race, in the Korth American Indians, and in the Arabs of Algeria, is very remarkalde. The same influences, however, are at work in each case; some morbid, others physiological, all capable of being summed up in one word. Among morbid causes are included diseases new to the country, and more or less contagious, Avhich Europeans bring with them in the same way as they did the dog- * A volume might be written respecting the comparative pathological characters of the two races, the negro and the white, as seen in the United States. Official documents might be furnished for the statistical part of the work. Thus, as regards the relative frequency of mania and idiotcy, tables like the following are full of intci’cst : Proportion per 1000. Mania. Idiotcy. 19,555,000 Whites 0-76 0-73 434,000 Freed negroes 0-71 0-81 3,204,000 Negro slaves ... 010 0-37 It proves that social influence predominates over the influence of race : a brain having nothing to think about is less exposed to insanity than one having to battle with the necessities of the social condition. This is quite natural : an organ which has much work to do is more likely to become deranged than one which does not work at all. 414 CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION OF RACES. [Chap. viii. grass to La Plata, and as the Americans recently gave Prance the phylloxera. Por example, the small-pox, imported into St. Domingo in 1518, into Iceland in 1707, into Greenland in 1732, into the Cape of Good Hope in 1748 {Boudin), and which, when it first made its appearance in Australia, in 1788, almost annihilated the curious tribe of Port Jackson, now called Sydney; the measles, which has just destroyed half the population of the Piji Islands ; scarlatina, syphilis, the severity of which, however, has been exaggerated ; alcoholivsm, in all its forms, which is propagated by imitation, and easily assumes an epidemic character. Among physiological causes are a sudden change of habits, the impossibility for the native, under these circumstances, to supply his necessities as heretofore, and nostalgia combined with anaemia, which are the results of this change. Before the arrival of Europeans, the Australians were in possession of immense territories, where game was, as it were, preserved, and where food was always at hand. The kangaroo occupied the same place as the reindeer did formerly among our own ancient populations of the Perigord, or as the horse among those of Solutre. They had, moreover, vast natural pastures and cultivated grounds, the harvest from which they gathered regularly every year. They were agriculturists and sheep farmers, without having the cares and anxieties of those occupations. All at once they were driven from their himting-fields and pasturages, the kangaroos were put to flight before the musket, and before a generation had passed they were compelled altogether to change their habits and mode of life {Report of the Adelaide, South Australia, Commission). Their life was an easy one when they had a vast extent of country at their command ; but when it became circumscribed in extent, and they had to contend with aU the obstacles of civilisation, it became insupportable. With insufficient food, they in their naked state were unable to withstand the cold, in additiqn to which, dejection and sadness at finding themselves under subjugation in a country of which they had been the sole proprietors, opened the door for the ingress of every kind of disease, as well as for every sort of vice. Under these circumstances they were generally carried off by phthisis. Chap, viii.] CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTIO>7 OP RACES. 415 Now, ill Australia, as in so many other places, the population was sparse in proportion to the extent of the country. The scarcity of women, the regular practice of infanticide, and the frequency of accidents wliich are inseparable from savage life, together with circumstances we have ah’eady mentioned, helped to keep it down. Moreover, there are two influences at work in producing disease : an external, morbid or accidental, and* an internal, caused by a want of power of resistance in the system. It is tliis latter which plays the principal part among savages. There is therefore nothing mysterious in this extinction of race. An old Namaqua woman, to all appearance a centenarian, when asked liy Barrow if she remembered the period prior to that when the Dutch took posses- sion of the country, replied : “I have good reason to remember it, for at that time we did not know what it was to liave an empty belly, now we can hardly get a moutliful.” Under a less cruel form the cause of the progressive diminution of a race is always the same. That portion of the race ivhich secures the better part of the resources of the country has the advantage over the other which does not follow the movement. The Arabs are long lived in Arabia, because they are in undisputed possession of the country ; they decrease in Algeria, because they meet with opposition, and therefore cannot enjoy their pastoral life uninterruptedly. They instinctively retrograde in the Desert of Sahara, like the Americans in the Eocky Mountains. The Berbers, on the contrary, with whom our civilised mode of life thoroughly agrees, tlirive well there. In fine, it is the law of adaptation to external conditions, whatever they may be, whether physical or moral, and the mechanism of progress. The regular and progressive increase of the populations, such as we see now going on in Europe, is not noticed in the savage ^^tate, as among the negroes of Africa, nor in the barbarous state, as it was in Europe before our present era. In both these cases, the number of premature deaths by murder and accident, as well as by preventable disease, has considerably increased, and the balance us between births and deaths remains in reality stationary, barring 416 CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION OF EACES. [Chap. viii. certain oscillations annually, either upwards or downwards. In Africa at the present time, where the influence of the European has not yet been felt, there are negi’O tribes which are becoming extinct without any apparent reason, without any change in their external condition, and almost without having become reduced in number by Avar. It is not sm’prising therefore, another unfaAmur- able condition being added, such as the necessity of suddenly changing their habits of eating, sleeping, Avalking, method of clothing, &c., that the equilibrium should be destroyed, and that death should get the upper hand. At the present rate of increase of European population and of emigration, the earth Avill soon be overcroAvded, to their advantage. There are, hoAvever, causes Avhich tend to the rapid destruction of races. The Tasmanians have been exterminated to the last man, and their half-breeds alone remain. The English die out in India, and the Dutch in Malacca, because they are unable to acclimate in those countries. The Esquimaux in the northern part of America are becoming extinct because their country is gradually becoming colder, and existence in it is becoming impossible. Captain Hall says the Esquimaux die more from phthisis than from all other diseases put together. Among the most celebrated races Avhich have become recently extinct from natural causes, Ave may mention the Charruas, the Caribs (1), the blacks of California, and among the first to disappear, the natives of Easter Island, the Kamskatdales, the Esquimaux, and the Makololos, &c. Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHAKACTEES. 117 CHAPTER IX. ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, HISTORICAL, ARCILEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS : THEIR VALUE — PREHISTORIC RACES OUR ANCESTORS OF THE ROUGH AND POLISHED STONE PERIOD. The two series of anatomical and pliysiological characters which we liave been describing are really the only ones belonging to the province of Xatural History, the only ones upon which one can directly rely in order to determine the number as well as the nature of the principal divisions of the human family. Those of which it remains for us to speak, to which we shall continue to give the name of characters, are of an entirely different order. Tliey are indications derived from various sources, and may be compared with those which one would seek from a breeder in order to establish the genealogy 6f a breed of dogs or cattle. Rut as regards ^lan, the sources are more varied and of a nobler character. His customs, his language, his migrations, the relics of his remote industry — all these are to be considered before we can solve the problem of the relationship of each of his races. In a certain point of view, the characters included under tlie terms “ ethnic ” and “ linguistic ” should have found a place in the previous chapter, under the title of simple intellectual manifesta- tions of the physical organisation of the individual regarded as a type of the race. But if mode of living, laAvs, and language are inherent in the race, they depend much more on such an union as the chance of events establishes. Race and people are, in fact, two terms having no relation to each other ; the former is an anthropological group, the latter a social group. Hitherto we have only considered races ; now we shall speak of peoples, and shall begin with ethnic characters excellence. Ethnic Characters. By ethnic characters are understood all those things which result from the association of men with each other, whatever their cause, 2 E 418 ETHNIC CHAEACTERS. [Chap. ix. sucli as want of society, interest, caprice, or warlike passion. JSTational unity, as we see it realised in the highest degree in France, and the federation of autonomous provinces, as in the United States, are the highest forms of this enlightened association. The small tribes of Todas, in which all the members are united by ties of kindred, and where association is synonymous with family, are an example of the lowest degree of an opposite character. In each case a greater or less share of liberty is left to the in- dividual, and authority is confided to a chief or to an assembly of delegates. The democratic organisation of the Kabyls of Algeria, the authoritative institutions of the nomad Arab, the system of the Australians, who settle their disputes in assemblies periodically called together, termed corrohories, are other examples of this. Very rarely is there any trace of organisation of any kind, as among the Australians of Port King George, described by Scott Kind, and the Obongos of Du Chaillu. The object of association is defence against the common enemy, and mutual support in the battle of life. Its result is the establishment of customs, regu- lations, and subsequently of laws, written, or transmitted verbally from generation to generation. The idea of an equal participation in the expenses and pleasures of life comes at a later period, tardily followed by a notion of morality, as the term is understood by Europeans, namely, the protection of the weak and the infirm, and the equal right of all to the “banquet of life.” It, how- ever, continues everywhere among pariahs, the oppressed, the down-trodden, and perhaps among civilised nations — but with them more as a matter of habit. The principal object of democracy, the highest conception of morality, is to dispel these inequalities. As a sequel to laws and customs, and with a view to public utility, there become developed — we know not how — a number of customs, either of a rational or a ridiculous character, corresponding to some innate weakness of the human machine. Such are the rites associated with the great epochs of life, with birth, puberty, marriage, parturition, and death ; the custom of tattooing, of mutilating the teeth, the nose, the ears, the feet, the body. Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHARACTERS. 419 the head, itc. ; the ceremonies pertaining to religion, to memorials, whetlier of glory or calamity, ttc. It is to the social state again that all our impiiries are dhected respecting implements, arms, methods of navigation, the character of dwellings, and the kind of food selected hy different peoples. It is here also, as well as in reference to intellectual capability, that we place the description of the pursuits of fishing, hunting, agi’iculture, trade, and commerce ; and lastly the literary, artistic, and musical pro- ductions characterising each nation. If races are naturally predis- posed to a particular mode of life, peoples do not often adopt it unless to follow the example of, and owing to their contact with, other peoples. Such arc the materials which ethnogi’aphy has to employ. Ethnogrcqylnj, then, is the description of each p(*ople, as now existing, or in the successive phases of its development, of its laws and customs, its language, its origin, and its relationships. Ethnn- lofjy treats of the same subject, hut from a higher point of view, hy attaching itself to ordinary traits of character, and seeking to determine the laws which preside over the relations and changes of peoples, and the development of their customs and institutions, lloth the one and the other powerfully contribute to the progivss of Antlu-opology, but should, strictly speaking, he separated from it. (See page 7, et seq.). Among these ethnological, or, for greater l)revity, ethnic cha- racters, some have hut little importance when taken together, while others possess an individual value, and are useful as affording us a knowledge of past, and consecpiently of present, ties of kindred, and a power of determining the anthropological elements which enter into the composition of each people. Cannihnliumy for example, has existed almost universally among races living in a savage state, sometimes as a means of suhsistence, as among the Monhouttons and some other African tribes — among whom shambles for human flesh are openly kept ; sometimes with the idea of appropriating to themselves the qualities of the deceased. It is practised after a battle as a religious ceremony, or spontaneously in time of peace. Cannibalism therefore, by 2 E 2 420 ETHNIC CHARACTERS. [Chap. ix. itself, does not furnish us with any means of discovering the pacific arrangements which have taken place at a certain moment between two peoples ; hut from the circumstances which have occurred, and from subsequent proceedings, it may go some way towards it. So the custom of erecting roiigli done monuments as records of important events, or for the purpose of receiving the remains of those to whom honour has been paid when living. Stones set upright, or placed one upon another, or forming chambers, have been met with in almost every country. They are still constructed in India. The present race of Kahyls of the Djurjura sometimes set up stones in a circle on the spot on which they hold their great federative assemblies. The marble slabs which we place in our cemeteries are a relic of this natural disposition in Man to appropriate that material which appears to him to he the most durable for the purpose of making of it a commemorative memo- rial. According to the peculiar form of these constructions, so are they classed under different groups. It is quite clear that the dolmens and cromlechs of Denmark, Trance, England, Portugal, and Algeria have been the conception of one and the same period of civilisation, while those of the Deccan, the Assam, and the provinces to the south of the Brahmapootra have been that of another. In all countries of the world ^lan made use of flint weapons for purposes of warfare, before he became acquainted with metals. In Patagonia, in the Sahara, in Oceania, as well as in Europe, they are found in great numbers, either on the surface or embedded in the earth. Frequently even theh shapes are alike in countries which, as far as we know, have not been in com- munication with each other from the remotest periods. Moreover, from the particular way in which these flints are worked we are able to form a judgment as to the relations which have existed between tribes far removed from one another. Even the sub- stance of the flint itself furnishes useful sources of information. The use of the how and arrow, the lance, the shield, as observed in various parts of the globe, is simply a question of ordinary Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHARACTERS. 421 interest. So "with tlie boomerang, wliich has been met with almost identical in shape both in Australia, in the Deccan, in Egypt, and in America. It is in use throughout the entire extent of the hrst- mentioned country ; but it is not found either in N^ew Guinea or in Polynesia; while the bow and arrow, so common in these latter countries, have disappeared in xVustralia, proving that the natives have not been in contiguity sufficiently long for the industry of either one to have become influenced by that of the other. In the Deccan, the bow and arrow are in use at the present moment, whence we come to the conclusion tliat the Australians must have brought it from that country, at least, that tlie reverse is not the case. Various considerations make us lean to the former hypothesis. It must be thoroughly understood that these circumstances in no way establish a relationship between two races. They simply indicate that two peoples, having the same custom or the same industry, have probably been previously in contact. Consequently they may be derived the one from the other, have descended from one and the same stock, or have crossed. The Todas of the Xilglierries live an altogether exceptional life : they have a special worship ; they subsist on milk and pulse ; and transform their dairies into temples. It is the duty of the priest to perform the operation of milking the buffaloes, and to look after the apportionment of the milk ; and the little bell hung round tlie neck of the principal cow is a sacred symbol. As far as we know no similar kind of worship has been found anywhere ; but it is evident that it might be discovered among some other solitary people of India or of distant parts of Asia. It would then become probable that they had lived together, and possible that they might be of one and the same race. The artificial deformation of the head shows also how much may be gathered from ethnic customs. From the Caucasus to France we come on the track of peoples who practised it after one particular fashion. On the other hand, in America, previous to our era, we see a people who also practised deformation of the head of so special a character, that we are able to trace all the spots at which it sojourned in its journeyings through both I^orth and South 422 ETHNIC CHAEACTEKS. [Chap. ix. America. We frequently discover a deformation produced in another way alongside of, and even among, this same people. What relation is there between the two races, both having one and the same custom, hut that custom modified in two altogether different ways '? By supposing them to he the issue of one and the same stock at a very remote period, would there he any relation between this stock and the European part of the Caucasus 1 Tire question cannot he solved ; hut further researches may clear up the matter. Already in Asia we see other deformations showing them- selves, as if to establish another link between Europe and the Americas. The practice of scal’pimj is one very extensively carried on in J^’orth America, where each tribe of Indians has its special method. Duncan also found it employed in Africa in 1845. The ancient Scythians (Burton), the ancient Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and even the Erench in 879, according to the Ahhe Domenech, had recourse to it. The institution of caste, regularly established in India, and found in Australia in a rudimentary state, as well as in some parts of the Malay peninsula ; the custom of tatooing with the needle in some countries, and by scarifying in others, as well as the different marks adopted by each tribe; the taboo, so national among the Polynesians that it makes one suspicious whence this custom originated ; the universal practice of chewing the hetel-nut in the Malay archipelago — are so many ethnic characters for om consideration. There are a number of most singular practices con- nected mth the period of puberty, or adopted in infancy, and which are designated by the general term ethnic mutilations. But of all customs, the most varied have reference to the method of disposing of the dead. Besides the dolmens, there are the tumuli of ancient Siberia, of hlorth America, and of the Gauls of the Bronze Age ; the canoe of the Patagonians ; the practice of embalming of the Peruvians, the Guanchas, and the Egyptians. ^ Sometimes the corpse is burnt, or simply smoked, or eaten by the relatives. Sometimes it is allowed to putrefy on the branch of a tree, or left to vultures on a lofty wicker structure or Chap, ix.] LINGUISTIC CHAEACTERS. 423 on an exposed tower, as among the Parsees, t^c. Sometimes we see tlie hones prepared, and hung round the necks of relatives, as among the Andamans ; or the head only, with the face pre- served with its usual expression (chcmclias), as among the Jivaros Indians. But it is not our purpose to describe the general subject of ethnic characters. This sketch, therefore, must suffice, inasmuch as a treatise on ethnology about to be published in the “ Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines ” Avill, no doubt, treat of them in detail. Linr/uistic characters are one of the most valuable sources of information connected with Anthropology. Linguistics is the comparative study of the elements of each language, as philology is the comparative study of the literary productions of a language. The two fundamental points upon which the former bears are the vocabulary and the grammar — their present state, their derivation, their origin. Every language has passed through three conditions, has had three phases, before its arrival at completeness. Some languages have passed through these rapidly ; ' others, after continuing for a lengthened period, have stopped at the first or second stage of their development. Hence we have three types of language — monosyllabic, polysyllabic or agglutinative, and inflective languages. The first are represented by the Chinese and its dialects ; the second by the idioms of the American, Basque, Berber, Mongolian, Einnish, &c. ; the third by the Semitic and Aryan languages. Our European languages belong, with about two exceptions, to this last class. By an analysis of vocabularies and especially of root-words, by a comparison of grammatical forms and constructions, one of the first results of linguistics has been to divide the eight hundred known languages, whether dead or living, into families ; these again being subdivided into genera and species according to their degree of resemblance and affinity. Some of these families include but one known genus, as the Basque ; in others there are a great number of genera, as in the Uralo-Altaic or Turanian, which is divided into the 424 LINGUISTIC CHAEACTERS. [Chap. ix. Samoyed, the Fin, the Turk, the Mongol, and the Tiingus languages, and each of these into different dialects. Some are so perfectly distinct in their mechanism and in their constituent elements — as the Indo-European or Aryan, and the Syro-Arahic or Semitic, in spite of all the attempts of specialists to find in them points of contact — that they give one the idea that at the time of their formation the races which spoke them lived absolutely separated, without having any communication with other races. M. lienan states the fact, and goes no farther. M. Chavee is more definite. He says; ‘‘We might put Semitic children and Indo-European children apart, who had been taught by deaf-mutes, and we should find that the former would naturally speak a Semitic language, the latter an Aryan language.” Whence the conclusion that the type of language is independent of the will of Man, and the inevitable product of his cerebral organisation. The argument is considerably in favour of the polygenistic doctrine. At the moment when Man acquired the dignity of Man by the acquisition of language, he was dispersed in groups or distinct races on the surface of the globe. Xow the number of these irreducible languages is enormous, without speaking of^ those which have become altogether extinct. The question as to the precursor of these races remains untouched, and does not belong to linguistics. Another result of the distribution of languages by families, is its application to the classification of races. We must not lay too much stress on this. Languages, like systems of mythology, methods of numeration, and all ethnic customs, often continue in the centre whence they have taken their origin, and have greater chances of being per- petuated in such centre, though they frequently change it. They are transmitted from one race to another, or from one people to another, in Avhole or in part, especially when the language of the invader is a more perfect one, and corresponds better with his new habits. Words having relation with ideas recently acquired are the first to pass away, the old ones become modified, then changes in the grammar take place. Some groups of the vanquished people resist more. Protected Chap, ix.] LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. 425 by their customs, their spirit of independence, or by tlieir settling down in obscure places, they retain their idiom for a long period ; but foreign influence continuing, whether friendly, hostile, or enlightened, their language in time yields and becomes absorbed. There is in fact a struggle. The Franks of Xeustria, less civilised than the Gallo-Konians, were not able to force their language ii})on them ; on the contrary, they lost their own. The soldiers of Kollo, less than a hundred years after the cession of Xormandy, spoke nothing but French. Their descendants were unable to commu- nicate the French language to England at the time of the invasion of William the Conqueror. The Saxons, on the contrary, live or six centuries previously, not only had taken possession of England, but had forced their language on its semi-barbarous inhabitants, upon whom the Konians had only made a passing impression. In these cases, number was everything. With us, on the contrary, as regards the influence of the Komans, it was their civilisation which decided the point. The Celtic language has been progres- sively latinised throughout. We do not now find traces of it except among the peasants living out of the usual path of civil- isation. The Celtic language itself was not autochthonous in Caul, it had been brought from the East by a different race, d'hat which had preceded it was the Euskarian language, vestiges of which are found in the geographical names dispersed through Spain in ancient Aquitania, and as far as into Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, according to Humboldt; tliis is the present Ilasque language. M. Broca is disposed to think that its area extended at a remote period over the whole of AVestern Europe up to the point towards the east where it meets Avith the Fin languages. The languages noAV used by the peoples scattered over the globe are not therefore necessarily those which they spoke originally. The community of language between two peoples, or even betAveen tAVo races, determined by their physical traits, does not shoAV that there AA^as any kindred or connection betAveen them, but simply that they had particijiated in the same lot. The Yakuts of the banks of the Lena in features pass for Mongols, and speak a Turk language. The Yoguls and the Hungarians both speak a Fin 426 ETHNIC CHAEACTERS. [Chap. ix. language ; the former, as to physique, are Mongols, and the latter Europeans, among the upper classes. The Belgians speak Latin, and have remained Kymris. Linguists include under the name of Kaffirs all the peoples speaking the Bantou languages, as the Amazulus of Kaffraria, the Makololos of the Zambesi, the Mpon- gwes of the Gaboon ; their types however are different. Evidently a conquering people, speaking the Bantou, has become scattered through the whole of these various negro tribes, and has bequeathed to them their language. It is for Anthropology to separate them. In short, the characters derived from linguistics furnish only “indications, and not positive information,” to quote M. Broca. They are not permanent, and simply teach us one of the phases which the history of races has passed through. They are valuable in the same way as ethnic and archaeological charactei-s, hut are not to he placed in the same category as anatomical and physio- logical characters, which are perpetuated in spite of crossing and the influence of external conditions. In a word, they frequently concern peoples and not races. Certain of their elements more or less resist absorption however. The vocahidary is the first altered, grammatical forms and all that which might he called the genius of the language remain to the last. Eor further detail we would refer to the classification of races according to linguistics, published' by Ered. Muller in his “ Ethnographie Generale,” and especially to the volume “ Linguistique ” (2nd edition) of the “ Bihliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines,” the author of which, M. Hovelacque, holds similar views to those we have enunciated.* Historical and Arcliceologiccd Characters, ^'c. If ethnic and linguistic characters are useful in enabling us to retrace the past histories of races which have become imited to * See also “La Linguistique et I’Anthropologie,” by Paul Broca, in “Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” toI. i., 1st series, 1862; “L’Origine et la Repar- tition de la Langue Basque,” by tbe same author, in “ Revue d’Anthrop., vol. iv., 1874. Chap, ix.] HISTORY. 427 form present races, those of Avhicli we are about to speak are still more so. In what way have tliese races been brought into close contact with one another or succeeded at one particular point ? What struggles have they had to sustain, what examples to follow, how have they become commingled, and what remains of the most ancient of them? Such are, in effect, the problems which are incessantly presented to the anthropologist when called upon to settle the ])hysical and even the biological characters of races. Direct sources of information are happily sufficiently numerous. Besides those we have abeady examined, Ave have Avritten history, tradition, and all coimected thereAAuth — heroic poems, books of devotion, songs, tkc., inscriptions on rocks, as in India and Algeria, or buried, as at Xineveh; and lastly, prehistoric archa 30 - logy, Avhich furnishes more than mere information on the subject, namely, the relics belonging to populations Avhich have disappeared. Jlidory. History, as coimected Avith our present suliject, concerns peoples in nearest connection Avith oui’selves ; it teaches us their migrations, their passions, their intellectual manifestations, their customs, looks back some three or four thousand yearn, and thereby enables us to trace the obstacles to Avhich they Avere subjected at their origin. The information indeed Avhich Ave derive from the Greek and Boman historians scarcely extends beyond the sixteenth century before our era. If at that period, Avhich to some Avoidd seem far distant, Ave Avere adequately enlightened, and Ave kneAV exactly the races Avhich inhabited the globe, and hoAv they Avere distributed — suppose aa'c could look forAA^ard for a moment to a corresponding period in the future, crossing Avill have diminished the number of pure types ; the native race of America Avill have entirely disappeared — there aaTU be no Esquimaux, or Ainos, or Australians, or Bosjesmans; and anthropologists Avill only have Avhereby to recognise them, exhumed skeletons here and there, in the same Avay as we noAv have those Avhich come to us from Egypt. 428 HISTORY. [Chap. ix. Imagine their situation if it were joossihle that there were no printed records, no monunients of any kind, and we ourselves had no existence. They will judge of the present period as we do that of three or four thousand years ago. The question of inferior ]'aces will no longer he in debate, the intermediate races between Man and his nearest allies will have disappeared ; there will he no linking threads, no beings occuj)ying a transition state ; jMan will stand out alone and resplendent to the view of dehghted philo- sophers. Well, changes such as we are supposing must have been taking place in the three or foin thousand years of ancient authors. History which would carry us hack to that period would he of the greatest assistance to us. Africa of itself alone would give us pro- bably the key of the problem of Man, the connecting link which has disappeared between the Bosjesman and some other zoological being. Whether assisted or not by archoBology, history narrates that, under the twelfth dynasty, about 2300 b.c., the Egyptians consisted of four races : (1) The Rot, or Egyptians, painted red, and similar in feature to the peasants now living on the banks of the Nile; (2) The Namu, painted yellow, with the aquiline nose, corresponding to the populations of Asia to the east of Egypt ; (3) The Naslm, or prognathous negroes, with woolly hair ; (4) The Tamahou, whites, with blues eyes. It tells us that seventeen centuries before our era, Thothmes III., of the eighteenth dynasty, carried his victorious arms over a multitude of peoples, among whom are recognised existing types of negroes of Central Africa, and that in the year 1500 b.c., a swarm of barbarians, blonde with blue eyes, came down upon the western frontier of Egypt from the north, while in Europe, at the same moment, an invasion had leaped over the Pyrenees, and banished the Ligurians and Sicanians into Italy, and the Iberians beyond the Ebro into Africa. In another part of the world, in Asia, history shows us, on the frontiers of Persia, two rival nations, one to the south-west, in Iran, the other to the north-east, in Turan (a Persian word signifying “the country of enemies”). Earther off, from b.c. 1500 to a.d. 250, many nomad peoples, one of which, the Hiung-Hu, encamps to the north of the Celestial Empire, and obliges the Climese to build Chap, ix.] HISTOEY. 429 tho celebrated (rreat In India, a yellow people passing round the foot of the Himalayas, and coming in contact with a black people. Lastly, in France, a secular struggle between a brown gi’oup, wliich resists, and a succession of invasions of blondes from the extreme end of Europe — a struggle of which the previous passage into the Iberian peninsula was but an episode, We also learn from history that more recently 38,000 Franks invaded the Oanls, substituting their own for the Eoman sway, which five centuries previously had conquered the Kymris and the Celts leagued together under the name of Gauls ; that the Hungarians came from the l)anks of the Obi to establish them- selves, after various revolutions, in the country where Ave uoav find them ; that the Parsees fled from their country during tlie 'seventh century, diAuding into tAvo groups, the one going to the Caucasus, Avhere it is almost extinct, the other to Bombay, Avhere it noAv prospers, numbering some 49,000 souls. History speaks also of the IMalays making their appearance in the island of ►Sumatra in 1160; of Manco-Capac, founding during the elcA’^enth century the dynasty of the Incas of Peru ; of the IS'ahuas, avIio emigrated from Florida before the Christian era, leaAung Mexico in A.D. 174, some folloAving the Mississippi toAvards the north, others going to the Isthmus of Panama toAvards the south. But it is necessary that Ave should inquire as to the results of the wars and migrations of peoples, the number of the invaders and their characters, Avhether they consisted exclusively of Avarriors, or Avhether Avomen Avere associated Avitli them. In one place, Avhere a countless horde like the Huns, under Attila, in Western Europe, or the Gauls, under Genseric, in the Atlas mountains, passes like a hurricane, Avithout leaAving a trace ; a continuous current, like that of the Kymris in Gaul, the Saracens (xirabs and Berbers) in Spain, or the Portuguese in South America, modifies the physical type, ElseAvhere a handful of individuals makes a good deal of noise, gives its language, as Avell as its religion and its civilisation, to the vanquished, and has no other influence on their type. The Phoenicians haA^e long been in relation Avith the coast of Barbary, as Avell as Avith the sea-coast generally, and, Avith the exception of 430 HISTOEY. [Chap. ix. two or three colonies, have not left a particle of their blood among their dependents. The name by wliich the peoples are called is no proof of their real origin. The English derh’-e theirs from a Germanic tribe, the Angles, who inhabited the country to the north of the Elbe ; the Erench, from another Germanic tribe, the Eranks ; the Eussians, from Eossi, a Scandinavian whose family governed for many ages at IMoscow ; the Bidgarians, from a Einnish tribe, who made their concpiest about the seventh century. Each historical datum requires, like linguistic and ethnographic characters, to be carefully weighed ; and conquest, however pro- longed, does not imply a fusion between the victors and the vanquished. The question is of direct interest to us, especially with reference to the Aryans. Linguists, finding that all the European languages, ' with the exception of the Basque and the Einnish, are derived from the Sanskrit — that before the dispersion of these languages in Central Asia, they possessed words for the metals and for the various implements of husbandry — mythologists also recognising a reciprocal relation between the various religious myths of the peoples of the West and those of the East, came to the conclusion, the former especially, that the large mass of the peojdes of Europe were Aryan, and had come from Central Asia. A reaction has now set in against this belief. A comparison of the remains of ancient races found embedded in the earth in our own country with those of the populations which have succeeded them, shows a continuity of type more or less persistent, which the infusion of foreign blood from time to time alone interrupted, with here and there a mongrel, or disappearing altogether. But there has been no positive proof that the Aiyans of the East carried with them into the West any thing beyond their civilising influence, their language, and their knowledge of the metals. It may be questioned whether this influence has not taken place in consequence either of a succession of direct emigrations, by a sort of infiltration, or by commerce. In France, on the other hand, we are not Aryans by blood, but by a superposition of various races, the majority of which are Kymric in the north, Celtic in the Chap, ix.] TRADITION. 431 centre, and no doubt bearing the nearest analogy to the aborigines, at least to the ancient people whose relics have been discovered in the caves of the Pyrenees and the Perigord, in the south. Tradition. Tradition frequently steps in where history is at fault. History at first was simply tradition committed to writing. Such were the sources whence the first historians, Herodotus, Closes, &c., drew their supplies. The 20,000 verses of the Pin poem, “The Kalavela,” were for long ages preserved orally, before they were , brought together and written down by E. Lonnrot in 1850. Again, the various pieces which enter into this compilation are slightly anterior to tlie introduction of Christianity into the northern countries (ninth to the tAvelfth century). The “ Iliad ” was founded on some tradition respecting the connec- tion of the Greek ancestry with Asia ]\Iinor, toAvards the close of the Bronze Period. The “ Pamayana,” and still more the “ Mahabharata,” rehearse the exploits of the first conquerors, Avhen India AV'as peopled by a native race represented AAuth heads like an ape. Tlie migrations of the Polynesians, from the island of Boroto or Bouro to the A'arious islands of tlie Pacific, are only knoAvn to us by the national songs and the local traditions gleaned from each island and put together. Traditions ought on no account to be despised. When the Ainos represent themselves as coming from the West in company Avith a dog, and the Tehuelches of Patagonia also affirm that they sprang from the West, in spite of the enormous distance Avhich separates them from any other land in that direction, this ought to make us reflect seriously on the subject. The most astonishing migrations moreover are quite possible. Lyell main- tained that Man, hoAvever saA^age, transported to any part of the globe, Avould at last bring it entirely under his j^ubjection. By land there can be no doubt of this; rivers, mountains, forests, sAvamps, deserts, he leaps over them all, either in masses or in groups, Avhether for his OAvn pleasure or by accident. M. de 432 TEADITION. [Chap. ix. Quatrefages, in his lectures, tells of the exodus of a horde of Kalmucks, who, to the number of 400,000, including women and children, and in spite of the most incredible obstacles, made a re- markable migration from the banks of the Volga to the eastern confines of China. Voyages by sea, under favourable circumstances of one kind and another, are no less possible. Islands frequently bring into connection the most distant points, like those stepping- stones which we thrcAv into the stream to enable us to cross to the opposite bank. It is thus that by Kamschatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaskas, or directly from one side of Behring’s Strait to the other, the Esquimaux have easily been able to reach America. In this way, from Asia to the centre of Oceania there are two natural roads, the one by the island of Formosa, the Philippines, and the Moluccas, leading to the Fiji Islands, by passing along the chain of the Solomon Islands ; the other by the peninsula of Malacca, the Sunda archipelago and Timor to Australia, and on to Tasmania. Independently of the various islands scattered about, the Avind and currents lend their aid. The •most contrary Avinds, bloAving almost constantly from one particular, quarter, change at certain periods of the year; and close to the strongest current running in one particular direction there is alAA^ays a counter- current. The Gulf Stream of Mexico, and the Equatorial CiUTent of the Pacific, are no exceptions to this. They pursue their course in one direction for a great distance, but by counter-currents they absolutely return again, as Ave notice in some of our rivers. So, hoAvever inaccessible or lost in mid-ocean a solitary island may appear to be, chance as Avell as man’s will, hoAvever inexperienced he may be, may ahvays bring Ausitors to it. This is hoAV vessels coming from the Marianne Islands made the Carolines, Avhich AA^ere situated at a distance of 600 kilometres. Tradition, even more than history, furnishes a multitude of similar examples. Chap, ix.] ARCHEOLOGY. 433 ArcluBolocj]) ]\Iakes its appearance when history and tradition are both at fault ; not the archaeology whose aim is to discover the traces of knovTi events, like the Eetreat of the Ten Thousand in Asia Minor, the sojoiu’n of the Eoinans in Great Britain, or the passage of the Eed Sea by the Israelites ; but that which belongs to populations of wliich no history has come down to us, whether written or oral, and Avhich inquires into their customs, their industry, then? com- merce, and even their objects of thought. This we prehistoric archceolofjy. This science makes us acquainted with the dolmens, their contents, and the sepulchral object for which they were designed. It shows them to us in every direction from the north and Avest of Europe as far as Algeria. It examines the caves Avhich are used as a substitute for them, in places Avhere they are found naturally, and in coimtries Avhere, OAving to the chalky nature of the stone, they AA^ere easily excavated. The tumuli Avhich are seen from east to Avest across the middle of Europe from the Caucasus to the plains of Champagne ; those of Siberia, for example, examined by Meimier and Eichthal, and afterAA^ards by M. Desor; those of the northern part of America; the constructions called Pelasgic, in the Mediterranean, Kaffraria, and Arabia ; the monoliths of Easter Island, representing human figures ; the refuse-heaps of Italy ; the kjokken-moddings, or kitchen-leavings, close to the sea-shore, in Europe, in Patagonia, as well as in the Andaman Islands ; the pile-villages of SAvitzerland, &c. To archaeology in general Ave refer all that specially has reference to the Metal Age, and to prehistoric archaeology that Avhich concerns the tAvo Stone epochs, the neolithic and the paleolithic. We Avere just now contemplating Avith wonder the changes Avhich Avill probably take place in three or four thousand years to come in the races noAv existing, and Ave Avere picturing to ourself those Avhich have possibly been produced during the last three or four thousand years. This lapse of time is, however, but a trifle as compared AAuth the ages aaEIcIi have preceded it. One of the first 434 PEEHISTOEIC AECH^OLOGY. [Chap. ix. dates of history fixed by Mr. Henry Martin_, is about tbe year 1500 B.o. Tbe Egyptian annals make mention, at tbis period, of tbe advent of a blonde people from tbe north, whose appearance is coincident with the passage of tbe Celts into Spain. It, however, was doubtless merely one of the last efforts of tbe same people to- spread towards the south. The dolmens of Algeria and Morocco testify that at a previous period invasion after invasion of tbe same populations bad taken place. Some of these dolmens contain iron, and even historic medals; others, and these the larger number, contain only polished-flint implements. It is therefore presumable that the conclusion of the Polished Stone epoch in Algeria occurred about the period of the last invasion of the blonde people described by the Egyptians. This might he fixed in Africa about the year 2000 B.o. But Africa was nearer some of the commercial sources from which iron came, and it is very likely that the exact termination of the Polished Stone epoch in Western Europe ought to he put farther hack still. Whenever it may have terminated, tliere is no doubt that the duration of the Polished Stone, or Neolithic ejpoch, was a very lengthened one. It was of sufiicient duration to cover Em’ope, from Scandinavia to Gibraltar, with megalithic monuments, with grottoes used for purposes of burial, as well as for dwelling-places. Great events, such as wars and invasions, took place during the period. Hew races sprang up which had time to cross with the aboriginal races, and to form almost as many mixed races as exist at the present day. The duration of this period, however, is as nothing to that of the Rough Stone, or Pcdeolithic period, which preceded it. At the commencement of this latter, the cavern-bear, the mammoth, the rliinoceros with partitioned nostril, inhabited the whole of Erance. A considerable diminution of temperature had favoured theh emigration from the north, no doubt, and driven them towards the south, or had been the means of destroying some of the species which had preceded them. At one time, the glaciers had become greatly extended in our country, a relative elevation of temperature followed, and assisted in the development of the Eauna and Flora. A second cooling and a second extension of glaciers then supervened. Man hunted the gTeat animals above Chap, ix.] PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. 435 referred to ; this was the Mammoth Age. But they began to dimmish in number, with the exception of one of them, the rein- deer, which, on the contrary, multiplied ad infinitum. This was the Beindeer Age. Civilisation and the taste for art became developed, particularly in the Perigord and the Pyrenees. Man was passing a sedentary life and had nothing, consequently, of the Mongol race about him, all these things betokening his physical character. Then the earth became progressively warmer, the rein- deer reached the north, the ibex and the marmot were to he seen on the mountains. During this considerable phase, and especially at its commence- ment, our valleys were formed. The bed of the Seine, of which some remains are still visible at Montreuil, was fifty-five metres in height, and consisted of those deposits which are termed the ancient sea- levels. Later on, the bed became about twenty-five metres lower, the lowest alluvial deposits of Crenelle were formed, and then slowly became filled up, forming the banks as we now see them. How can we possibly determine the interval which must have elapsed between these various deposits ! At the Mammoth period, distinguished more particularly by the fossil bones of animals and the rough flints left in the alluvia of rivers, Man constructed only coarse stone implements, and especially those of the shapes called St. Acheul, so abundant in the valley of the Somme. At the following period, intermediate between the Mammoth and the Peindeer, he preferred those forms termed Du, Moustier. Later on, that is to say at the Peindeer epoch proper, in the valley of La Vezcre, Ave find him taking regular steps in the path of progress. Instead of the heavy massive implements, flakes of flint were used for javelin points, or fixed in handles after the fashion of our graving tools. Man. soon utilised the bones and horns of the reindeer for the purpose of constructing implements of every description, even needles and fish-hooks. In other parts of Prance, as at Excideuil, at Solutre in the Pyrenees, the method of Avorking the fliut continued to improve, and implements in the shape of laurel leaves, Avith finely sharpened borders, became common. It was then that the art of 2 F 2 436 PEEHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. [Chap. ix. polishing the flint must have commenced, one possibly imported by some conquering nation, hut probably also by the application to the stone of the process which had already been practised upon hone. This double epoch of the Mammoth and Eeindeer was therefore a considerable one, and yet from the Mammoth period to the present time the interval is almost nothing as compared with the period during which Man previously existed. The temperature in Europe, contrary to that of the succeeding period, was hotter than it is now. Man, whose flint implements have been found in the Pliocene formation of St. Prest, hunted the Elejohas meridionalis, the Rhinoceros etruscus, the R. Merckii, and the R. leptorlmiiis . Fig. 42 .— Neanderthal skull in profile (Mammoth epoch]|j At the close of the Miocene epoch, when we have the shell heaps of Pouance, Man was in conflict with the mastodon and the halitherium, and he possessed a knowledge of fire. We are less acquainted with his ancestors who worked the flints found by the Abbe Bourgeois at Thenay, in the lower Miocene, below the La Beauce chalk. But his existence at that epoch — one but little distant from the period at which are deposited the Meudon millstone or the Fontainebleau sandstone — is a clearly revealed scientific fact. We possess his implements : they indicate a tolerable amoimt of intelligence : but his remains are wanting. Up to the present moment archseologists, or rather geologists, have never foimd the smallest fragment of a human bone. All these questions will be considered in detail in the volume of the “ Bibliotheque des Chap, ix.] PKEHISTORIC RACES. 437 Sciences Contemporaines,” now in the press, entitled “ Arclieo- logie Prehistorique,” by M. Gabrielle de jNIortillet. Prehistoric Races. Human palceontology commences with the Post-pliocene or Mam- moth epoch. Examples of it are few in number, and are not readily capable of classification. De Quatrefages and Hamy, however, have not flinched from this difficult task.* P>y joining together fragments of male skulls from Canstadt, Eguisheim, Brux, Denise, and the Neanderthal, and female skulls from Straengenoes, L’Olmo, and Clichy, they succeeded in discovering in them certain common characters ; that is to say, dolichocephaly, a remarkable sinking of the vaidt of the skull, or platycephaly, a great recession of the frontal bone, and a very marked development of the superciliary arches. Of all the specimens the most remarkable are the calvarium of the Neanderthal and the jaw of La Naulette. Anyone accustomed to handle the skulls of the anthropoid apes will be immediately struck with the great resemblance between them. The Neanderthal especially reminds one of the calvarium of the female gorilla, which is similarly staved in as it were, or of ♦ the skull of a hylobate. The superciliary arches are altogether simian, although the skull is clearly human. Its capacity, estimated at 1200 cubic centimetres, dissipates all doubt on the subject. The jaw of the Naulette is not less remarkable by the obliteration of the tubercles geni, and of the projection of the chin; there is complete prognathism of the body of the bone, analogous cases of which are seen in races now existing, although not to the same extent. We are unable to come to any decided conclusion upon the matter however. The characters of the Neanderthal are found, though in a less degree, in the majority of the other specimens collected by Mj\I. de Quatrefages and Hamy, to which the generic name of Canstadt Race has been given. It is not impossible, however, that * “ Crania Etlmica. Les Cranes des Races Humaines, decrits par MM. de Quatrefages et E. T. Hamy.” Paris, 1873-75. 438 PREHISTORIC RACES. [Chap. ix. this type was an exceptional one, and that these were cases of atavism, and represented less a race belonging to the Mammoth Age than one of the Pliocene or Miocene epoch. Tliis is, no doubt, the case as regards the famous Xamaqua skulls in the Museum, whose prognathism is most remarkable, although they came from the midst of a Hottentot race. They might he the representatives of a previous African race which had become extinct. Prom the meteorological and geological changes which took place at the close of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, we can easily understand how it was that the majority of the inhahitants of Thenay and Pouance succumbed, and that only a small number, namely, those who were able to escape from the destroying causes, survived. Xow the inferior races disappear, while the superior increase in number. This fact, however we may explain it, is one against which it is impos- sible to contend. At that prodigiously remote period there were necessarily inferior as well as superior races. The same law was doubtless in existence then as now. It is possible, therefore, wliile admitting that the Neanderthal was an exception, that it represents one of those inferior races which has disappeared. It would he at the Mammoth period, in relation to anterior races, as a tribe or an individual, whether Indian or Negro, will he in tlmee thousand years in relation to ourselves. Admitting that the Neanderthal belonged to a race of the period, or to an anterior race, is it the skull of a man in the sense in which we use the term % In other words. Had he or his ancestors to answer for it? We know that the man of the upper Miocene period was acquainted with the use of fire. In point of fact. Was the Neanderthal race more nearly allied to the Anthropoids, whether known or unknown, or to ourselves ? We simply ask the question. The palaeontological remains of the succeeding epoch, or Peindeer Age, in Western Europe, have been studied by the authors of the “ Crania Ethnica,” by whom they have been termed the Cro-Magnon Race, taking as its type tlie subjects exhumed from the cave of that name in the Perigord, by Cliristy and Lartet. As compared with the Canstadt race, they seem but of yesterday. After an exami- nation, in 1872, of several parts of the Cro-Magnon cave previously Chap, ix.] PREHISTOKIC RACES. 439 untouched, we were of the same opinion. Their essential characters are as follows, according to I)e Quatrefages and Hamy : They are dolichocephalic, like the skulls of the Canstadt race. They have a high forehead, broad, and well developed above the superciliary ridges, of average size, the vault being rather high, with a fine cmwe continuing regularly from the forehead to the ohelion, where it bends down to form an obli(pie flat, which is continued on into the Fig. 43.— Skull of the Old Man of Cro-Magnon, Eyzies (Reindeer epoch). supra-occipital region. • The frontal bosses, which are as though flattened in the preceding race, are in this high and projecting. The face is broad and short in relation to the maximum length of the skull, the orbits are deep, in the form of a parallelogram, having a minimum index of sixty-one, the smallest on record. There is considerable prognathism at the sub-nasal portion in the old man of Cro-Magnon, namely, G2*8° according to one measurement, as much as in the most jirognathous negro. In looking at this last trait of the corresponding prognathism presented by the other specimens of 440 PKEHISTORIC KACES. [Chap. ix. the same group collected by De Quatrefages and Hamy, we are nevertheless inclined to think that this old man was an exception. One of the Grenelle skulls, on the contrary, exhibits one of the weakest prognathisms we have examined, namely, S6’7°. The projection of the mental eminence of the lower jaw is considerable, and is in strong contrast with the absolute obliteration of the same part in the [N'aulette jaw. The Cro-Magnon race, if we may judge of it by the bones in our possession, was of tall stature, robust, the skeleton presenting the characters we have described above, namely, the plat^cnemic tibia, the anteriorly-channelled fibula, the thick linea as 2 )em of the femur, and the cmve of the upper fourth of the forearm. After the Cro- Magnon race, the authors of the ‘‘Crania Ethnica” describe in Western Europe certain less frequent types of the Paleolithic epoch, namely, the brachy cephalic type, represented by the skull discovered at La Truchke, near Lyon, close to the Elephas primigenws, and by two or three other skulls found at Grenelle, near Paris, in the alluvia of the middle levels above the dolichocephales of the previous races ; the Mesaticephalic and the Sub-brachycephalic type described under the name of Farfooz Race, and foimd in the strata posterior to those of Cro-Magnon. It remains for us to make a rhsume of the results to which the various communications of M. Broca have led with regard to the region wliich at those epochs has greater interest for us, namely, our own country of Erance. When the admirable discoveries of linguists had established the kindred and relationship of the Indo-Einopean languages, we were led to believe that Europe had been peopled, as we said just now, by immigrants from that region of Asia in which we might discover remains nearest akin to the common linguistic stock. Various considerations, moreover, led us to suj)pose that these immigrants carried with them the use of metals, religion, &c. But two languages, which two small groups of peoples spoke, escaped the general law — namely, the Eins and the Basques. Petzius, ascertaining that the former were brachycephalic, thought that the latter were so likewise; and noticing that the Swedes around him were dolichocephalic, formulated his celebrated pro- Chap, ix.] PREHISTORIC RACES. 411 position, that the autochthonous race of Europe was hrachy- cephalic, anil that which came after dolichocephalic. Gmdiially, however, ^I. Broca was enabled to prove from abundance of facts that the l>iisques are dolichocephalic, and that the proposition of Ketzius ought to be reversed, the most ancient inhabitants of Eiu’ope being dolichocephalic, and those coming afterwards brachy- cephalic. Thus the most ancient race of France represented by the three Cro-Magnon skidls, the two of Laugerie, the three of the middle and lower levels of Crenelle, had a dolichocephalic index of from 73 to 75. 8o the race from the cavern of rHomme j\Iort, which has all the appearance of that of Cro-Magnon, has an average index of 73*22°. The precise period when the brachycepliales penetrated into 'Western Europe has not been determined. Certain little tribes with roimd skulls have possibly made their appearance here and there since the Paleolitliic epoch, but they have only done so in large numbers at a later period. At the close of the Bough Stone epocli, at Solutre for example, ]M. Broca proves the existence of two races united together, the one dolichocephalic, having tlie appearance of the race of ITIomme jSIoi*t, the other sub-brachy cephalic, approaching nearer to the Eurfooz race. Li England the facts arc determined in a precise manner. There exist in that country two sorts of dolmens, the long, called long harrows^ containing only polished-stone implements, and skulls for the most part thoroughly dolichocephalic ; the others round, and of a different construction, the round heuTows, containing metal, and a great number of brachycephalic together with dolichocephalic skulls of the preceding race, as well as mesaticephalic, the issue no doubt of crossing between the two. The date of their first appearance in England is therefore fixed. They came in at the close of the Polished Stone period, at the same time as the metals. But did they arrive directly, or by passing through France 1 The track left by the brachycepliales on the Swiss frontier, at the extreme point of Brittany, would incline us to the latter view. It must be admitted — (1) That the most ancient iidiabitants of Prance were dolichocephalic ; 442 ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap. x. (2) That a small number of bracbycepbales afterwards crept in among them, but without changing their ethnic basis ; (3) That the immigration of these latter towards the close of the Paleolithic epoch was remarkable from the fact of its limiting itself to certain points of territory, as the hlaconnais ; (4) That an invasion must then have been made from the north, bringing with it the custom of burying in dolmens or grottoes, but which being dolichocephales, or numerically very inferior, bequeathed to the population its dolichocephalic character, though somewhat lessened (indices in the dolmens in the neighbourhood of Paris 75 ‘01 ; in the grottoes of La Marne, where it is less pure, 77 ’78) ; (5) That, lastly, the invasion of the brachycephales already commenced in the east, and probabfy passing by two currents, the one below, the other above the Alpine range, assmned greater proportions at the close of the Polished Stone period, traversed through the centre of Prance, and there crossed with the ancient aboriginal race, giving origin to the new historic race, A\diich we shall describe farther on, under the name of Celtic type. All these questions have to do with Anthro- pology pure and simple, and especially with craniometry ; but the inquiry as to their elements, the determination of the age and circumstances of strata, the discovery of relics of industry, and other memorials of that remote past, are in the domain of prehistoric archaeology and geology ; for what, after all, is geology, but the archaeology of the earth and its inhabitants ? CHAPTEE X. ANTHKOPOLOGICAL TYPES BLONDE AND BROWN EUROPEAN TYPES HINDOO, TSCHINGHANIAN, IRANIAN, CELTIC, BERBER, SEMITIC, ARABIAN TYPES. The four orders of characters which we have been describing are not, as we have said, of equal value. If the races now in Chap, x.] ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. US existence were pure and lioinogeneous, such as nature made them, it woidd suffice to sum up their differences and their resemblances, to take accoimt of their individual varieties and pathological devia- tions, and to proceed to give them their most natural position. But the ground is altogether different — unity is wanting. Baces have been divided, dispersed, intermixed, crossed in varifhis proportions and in all directions, for thousands of ages. The greater part of them have relinquished their language for that of their conquerors, or for a third or even for a foui*th; the principal masses have disappeared, and we find ourselves no longer in the presence of races, hut of peoples, the origins of which we have to trace or to make a direct classification of. In other words, there are two orders of classi- fication, which we must not confound, namely, the classification of the masses of human beings, such as the flux and reflux of time have left us; and the classification of races such as we are able to arrive at after a most minute process of analysis. The former is ethnological, the latter, anthropological. Their point of departure is the same, the point at which they meet, different. The most important classifications of the human races have, as their basis, physical characters, such as the nature of the hair and the colour of the skin, and then immediately diverge in every direction. They agree however in details, when they concern some tribe isolated, owing to exceptional circumstances, like the Esquimaux in Greenland or the Tasmanians in Van Diemen’s Land. But beyond that the ethnographical point of view is alone apparent, and the use of the word race is most unfortunate. AVe speak of Anglo- Germanic and Latin *races, of German, English, Slav races, as if these epithets had anything more than a political signification, a fortuitous aggregation of anthropological elements from various sources. In Erance, where the nation is so homogeneous and unity so complete, there are the Erench people but not the Erench race. We find iir the north the descendants of the Belgie, the AValloons, and other Kymris; in the east, those of Germans and Burgundians; in the west, Xormans; in the centre, Celts, Avho at the same epoch at which their name took its origin consisted of foreigners of various origins and ^ of the aborigines; in the south. ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap, x. 444 ! ancient Aquitanians and Basques; without mentioning a host of settlers like the Saracens, which are found here and there, Tectosages which have left at Toulouse the custom of cranial deformations, and the traders who passed through the Phocsean town of Marseilles. In Asia, where the peoples have been tossed about from east to^west and from west to east, in so prodigious a way that the most characteristic race is found perhaps on the other side of the Pacific, in the polar zone; in Africa, where a similar movement has taken place at difi'erent times; in America, Avhere great convulsions in historic epochs have taken place — we no longer meet with primitive races, hut with the residtants of repeated crossing, of close contact, of mixtiu’e of every kind. Classifications with elements such as these are little more than ethnograpliic. Gerdy rightly affirmed that tliere are no longer any pure races. Our illustrious master, M. Broca, however, allows that there are some, and M. de Quatrefages a short time since published a long list of those “ regarded as pure.” Doubtless, if we are satisfied with a small number of individuals or of skulls, we may discover in them, or unite them into, an identity of type. “ Whoever has seen one Toda,” says Mr. Marshall, “has seen the whole race.” Be it so, we will record his statement. Of all races, we are told, there is not a more homogeneous one than that of the Esquimaux, thanks to their isolation, which has been maintained in consequence of geographical and atmo- spheric circumstances. There are about a dozen skidls in the Museum, all from Greenland, forming the most homogeneous series in the collection. But in the Denmark collection, from which some specimens were brought to the Geographical Congress at Paris, this unity of type is not perfect, and we discover in them indications of hybridity. In Mr. Davis’s collection, from the shores of Baffin’s Bay, the differences are still more marked. Travellers speak of similar and equally important differences as existing at the present time. Yariations in stature are very common. At IMorton’s Strait the statoe is 1’82 metre; at Barrow Point, 1*54. In one tribe the average stature of the men Chap, x.] ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. 445 is 1*714 metre, in another 1*584. Greenlanders are looked upon as one of the smallest of the hiunan races. At Hotham Harbour, an Esquimau “was exactly like a negro,” at Spafarrat Inlet, “ like a Jew ” (Seeman). “ The oval face, associated with the Eoman nose,” is by no means rare {King). The complexion is sometimes very fair, sometimes very dark. In the series of Malay skuUs, one of the most homogeneous in the jMuseum, there are at least two types. We think Ave have shown that there is no unity among the Australians. In Patagonia, the skulls of the ancient Paraderos are of two very opposite types, one being dolichocephalic, the other brachycephalic. Among the Japanese there are three distinct types noticeable in the living subject {Rosny)f and a fourth which Ave may gather from an exami- nation of skulls. Among the Ainos, in the same country, there are certainly tAvo. Along the coast of Guinea the tribes A*ary, even at short distances from one another; and traA’^ellers describe altogether different characters in one and the same tribe, according to the particular individuals upon AAdiom they happen to liaA^e fixed their attention. Among Hottentots it is cA'en Avorse. AYe are not aAA*are but of one example of perfect identity of type in a human group, namely, that *of the Andamans. AVe have had an opportunity of seeing tAventy-tAA’^o photoglyphs of this race, and in all, the heads appear as if cast in the same mould. Colonel Man, hoAA*ever, affirms that there are tAvo different races in the Andaman archipelago. AA^e may remark that Mr. OAA'en, on measuring ninety-six skulls of negroes of the Gaboon, AA’-as astonished at their remarkable resemblance to each other, AAdiich Avas even greater than AA^e notice among Europeans. In a Avord, the greater number of classifications of any extent are only anthro- 2^ological as regards their basis. As soon as AA^e enter u2)on secondary divisions they become ethnogra^ihic, and have not so much to do AAuth races as with 2)eo2)les. The true classification of the divisions and subdivisions of the human family has yet to be made, and cannot be entered upon until AA^e knoAV the real component elements of peoples noAV in existence. Given a certain 446 ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap. x. group, the following questions will arise for our consideration : (1) What, in a physical and physiological point of view, is its- average, that is to say, the type ? (2) Are the variations from this average so slight as to enable us to look upon the type a& pure '? (3) Are the variations so divergent, and are the average secondary groups sufficiently definite to enable us to recognise in them one or many types 1 (4) Has there been a close fusion of those types ] in other words, has the race crossed, or have the types remained distinct, or is the race only a mixed one 1 By this- means we at last separate the characters of one, two, or more types successively. Ethnography gives us valuable aid as regards the majority of these questions ; linguistics equally so ; and more than all, the study of tlie characters of ancient human remains found embedded in the earth. It is thus that M. Broca has succeeded in eliminating the Celtic element, which has contributed to form the Breton group, and thus that he hopes eventually to trace the original elements of which the Celtic group itself is composed. A sufficient number of the most characteristic of the first, second, and third order being thus determined, it will be necessary ta search for their kindred, and to classify them. We should only then have seriously to inquire whether they belong to genera, species, or varieties. The task • is a long and laborious one^ Science is in a transition state on this matter. Some general t}"pes have been already acquii'ed, although we cannot always afiu'in which human group expresses them the best. Others have only been accepted provisionally, while of others we have a preconceived idea, and are nevertheless unable to determine them even with the specimens before us. In the resume that we are about to give we must therefore only look upon them as one series of land- marks, indicating one of the stages at which anthropology has- arrived. By human type must be understood the average of characters which a human race supposed to be pme presents. In homogeneous races, if such there are, it is discovered by the simple insj)ection of individuals. In the generality of cases it must be segregated. It is then a physical ideal, to which the greater number of the Chap, x.] EUROPEAN TYPE. 447 individuals of the group more or less approach, hut which is better marked in some than in others, frequently in one series it is associated with some other type. Sometimes at its extreme boundaries it is amalgamated with the type of another group. Of course community of type implies a relationship of some sort. There are general types, then types and sub-types of these, and in each of the latter, other divisions. When once fixed by science, they will even form bases of classification. Let us take an example : the Berber people is formed — (1) Of a brown autochthonous groundwork, that is to say of the most ancient of which we can find any ti*ace ; (2) Of blondes from the north, Arabs from the east, and negroes from the south. The Berber type is the ensemhle of the characters which must have be- longed exclusively to the autochthonous stock : its sub-types are the Tawarek, the Kabyl, Ac. It is itself the offspring of some other more general type of Avhich we are still ignorant. We shall now have to describe types which are altogether relative, such as the Celtic. This is one of the constituent elements of the ethnographic French race, and is itself composed of many origmal types, which we ought to be thorougldy ac- quainted with. The first types for our consideration coiTespond to what anthropologists caU, according to their several notions, species, races, trunks, or branches. These arc the European, the Mongolian, the negro of Africa, the Hottentot. We shall separate the American from the second, and add a red ty[3e in Africa. We shall give a separate paragraph to the Fin, the Lapp, the Australoid, and the two negro types of Oceania ; and then notice some others of less importance, without concerning ourselves about those of a subordinate character. The European Type. The European type is very defined, although its title is hardly an exact one. Even by leaving out of consideration all the emigrations posterior to the sixteenth century, we meet with it in 448 EUROPEAN TYPE. [Chap. x. all four quarters of the globe. In Europe, with the exception perhaps of the Lapps and the Ein races, it is general. In Asia it is largely represented by the Semites, the Persians, the Affghans, the Hindoos, and doubtless also by the Ainos, the Miaotse, the Todas. In Africa it is represented by the Berbers ; and in America the existence of natives which are considered to belong to it has been frequently noticed. Its characters may be thus summed up ; The complexion is always fair among the children. The pilous system is moderately developed. The beard, the moustache, and the whiskers are abundant. The hair is straight, wavy, or undu- lated, long and flexible. The top of the head is round. The norma verticalisl of the skull is oval, with a regular outline, the zymotic arches being unnoticeable. The anterior cranium is very developed relatively to the posterior. The capacity of the cranial cavity reaches the highest amount recorded, namely, 1523 cubic centimetres, in the Celtic type. The cranial sutures are very complicated. The greater wings of the sphenoid are articulated with the parietal to a considerable extent. The curve described by the temporal line is not a large one. The forehead is broad below, well developed, the summit being neither receding nor projecting. The frontal bosses on each side are moderately dis- tinct. The superciliary arches var^q never exhibiting, in the male sex, the large size which we notice in the Melanesian races, nor the obliteration peculiar to the majority of Mongolian or negro skulls. The face, looked at in front, describes rather a long oval, the malar bones, or the maxillary apparatus, not being particularly marked, as in the Mongolian type or the Hegro tjqDes. The median projecting portions present, when developed in their highest degree, what is familiarly termed the face like the blade of a knife. The nose is highly characteristic in the European type, and projects in front at the expense of its transverse diameter. Its two lateral surfaces are united at an acute angle. Its point is firm, and the two nostrils, situated on the same horizontal plane, are elliptical, directed from before backwards, and almost parallel. The skeleton of the nose is leptorrhinian or mesorrhinian, never Chap, x.] BLONDE TYPE. 449 platyrrliinian. Its anterior aperture has tlie shape of an ace of hearts reversed, its point being very long, its base being formed by the nasal spine, frequently very long, and by a simple sharp border. The ensemble of the two jaws and the teeth, in profile, is almost a right line. It is to the European type that we apply the term “ orthognathism,” to express the minimum of prognathism observed in Man. This minimum varies from 82° to 75-5°. The mouth is small, the lips bright red, well formed, never thick, except in inchviduals of a certain temperament. The teeth are straight, close together, bluish white or yellowish white, and subject to caries. The chin is projecting. The shape of the ear is that of a long oval, with folds above and behind, the lobule being well formed. Lastly, the plane of the prolonged occipital foramen meets the face above the middle of the nose, and frequently at its root. Beauty of form does not specially belong to the European, and many savages would surpass him in this respect. j\Iost com- moidy, however, he is well - proportioned, tall, or of medium height; his neck is large and finely formed, his chest broad,' shoulders Avide, the bend of the back weU marked, the muscles of * the buttocks strong, the calf large, and reaching below the middle of the leg, the foot well arched, and he seldom exhibits those deformities of the abdomen and limbs noticed l)y the early navi- gators in the inferior races. The European becomes decrepit less* quickly than the negro, the breasts in the woman retain their' firmness and proper form for a longer period, and the articulations of the joints are rather smaU. Eor a description of the proportions of the body, see pages 315, 331, et seq. The two most natural divisions of the European type are the’ blonde and the bro^vn. The Blonde Type. The blonde type, in its highest expression, is marked by three special characteristics : namely, blue eyes, fair hair, and light rosy or florid complexion, which becomes of a uniform red-brick colour or freckled under exposure to the sun. q G 450 BLONDE TYPE. [Chap. x. The eyes assume various shades of green, gray, yellowish, light hrown, &c., according as they are associated with one of the two other characters. The reddish colour of the eyes of the albino must he considered as quite distinct. Yellow-golden hair, or reddish and chestnut, are in the same category. These last, however, have less value, inasmuch as on the one hand they frequently correspond with a first degree of crossing of the blonde with the hrown type, and on the other are characteristic of other types than the blonde and hrown. Dr. Beddoe does not give any particular significance to red hair. We think, however, that in the generahty of cases it is a form of light hair, and sometimes is characteristic of a distinct type, of which we shall speak ]Dresently. With regard to the shades of colour of the skin, they have less value, inasmuch as they are more easily affected by crossing and external circumstances. Blue eyes are after all the most certain element upon which to fix, on looking at a single individual, or in the absence of a sufficient description of other characters, the actual or j)ast existence of the blonde type in the blood. This type, whether complete or incomplete, has spread over four out of the five portions of the globe. The peoples belonging to it possess in a high degree the faculty of emigration and colonisation, without being indebted for it to a very highly-developed faculty of acclimation. The natural centre whence it has shed its lustre seems to be the north of Europe. The purest example of the blonde type is in Iceland, in the Scandinavian peninsula, Lapland excepted, and Denmark. Then Holland, Horth Germany, Saxony, Belgium, and the British Isles. In Erance it is less pronounced, and stops at about the position of an oblique line passing from Granville, on the coast of the British Channel, to Lyon. Here and there, however, it is found more to the south, particularly in the Basque territory, and in the south of Spain. The populations belonging to it are tall, stout, and square-built, or slim ; the face is long, the nose large and straight, the point extending slightly beyond the nostrils. They are of lymphatic temperament, the passions not very strong, and individuality very marked. The shape of the head is difficult to determine, owing to the numerous Chap, x.] BLONDE TYPE. 451 crosses here and there which have caused a change in it. The Danes are hrachy cephalic, the N'orinans mesaticephalic, the ^^’or- wegians, Swedes, Belgians, and English dolichocephalic. With regard to the Germans in the extended sense, they present every form imaginable. Eor our part we are convinced that the primi- tive blonde type was dolichocephalic. In another race, that of the Irish in Dublin, Dr. Beddoe found in 1300 individuals 54 per cent, with fair hair, of whom 5 per cent, were red, 13 flaxen, and 36 chestnut — or rather more than half blondes, according to the hair. Dr. Wilde, on the other hand, found in 1200 other Irish, 24 per cent, with blue eyes, 9 brown, and 66 decidedly dark. The Dutch are therefore much purer as blondes than the Irish. Again, in the Basque provinces. Dr. Argellies found light eyes in 22 out of 47 indi- viduals, of whom 14 had blue and 25 brown eyes, while there was not a single example among them of flaxen hair, only 2 of red, some few of dark chestnut, and the rest black. It follows from tills that the present Basque race is formed of two elements — the brown and the blonde ; that it is decidedly brown if we are to judge by the hair, at least in the localities observed, and that the blonde type is to be traced in the colour of the eyes and not in that of the haii’. The Irish statistics indicate, on the contrary, that of the two elements, the more persistent is that of the hair. We refer the reader to page 346 for other important details, and to the tables at pages 348 and 349 for the relative proportion of flaxen, chestnut, and brown in different races, the two elements, the hair and the eyes, being associated together. The blonde type, with its three fundamental characters, is met with in other parts of the world, but seeing the difiiculty of being guided by descriptions derived from the hair and skin, we shall only consider the question as regards blue eyes. In Asia, we at once notice the blonde type on the banks of the river Amour [Klaproth, J. Barroiv, Castren). “Wq saw Mantshii Tartars,” says Barrow, ‘Gvho accompanied Macartney's embassy to Pekin, men as well as women, who were extremely fair and of florid complexion; some of the men had light blue 2 G 2 452 BLONDE TYPE. [Chap. x. eyes, a straight or aquiline nose, brown hair, and a large and bushy heard.” Among the Mian Tsz of the south-east of China there are tribes which pass for the aborigines of the Celestial Empire. We find it in India, notably among the Kattees, who have sometimes “light hair and blue eyes” (Prichard and L. Rousselet), and even in Ceylon, among the Cingalese (Davy). The Bussahirs of Eham- poor, not far from the sources of the Ganges, are frequently of very fair complexion though tanned by the sim, with blue eyes, hair and beard curly and of light colour, or even red (Fra^ser). (2) The Patans or Affghan soldiers are commonly brown, and of the Iranian race, but a large number have “ red hair and blue eyes, and a fair and florid com^ilexion” (Fraser). But the most celebrated example is that of Siah Posh of Ivafiiristan, at the junction of the Himalaya and the Ilindoo-Koosh. The majority are tall, have Caucasian features, fair complexion, blue ejms, and chestnut hair. According to their traditions they came from Affghanistan ; they speak a language derived from the Sanskrit, and have burial rites which remind one of those of the Parsees. We may add, according to Mr. G. Hayward, that light chestnut hair is more common than black among the inhabitants of Darnistan, that the eyes are gra}^, chestnut, and occasionally blue, and that the women remind one very much of the English. Some of the Ivirghis of Turkestan, and the Tadzhiks of Persia have “blue or gray eyes,” and among the Ossetians, the Abassians, and the Swanethians of the southern side of the Caucasus, there are individuals with “flaxen 'hair, fam complexion, and blue eyes,” whom we must not confound with the recent German immigrants. These examples show that the blonde type has to a certain extent prevailed in Asia, but they are not such as to induce us to suppose that it was cradled in this part of the world. It has been satisfactorily shovui that the blonde t}q 3 e exists in the north of Africa. In Tunis, in Algeria, in Morocco, in the Canary Islands, and in the Sahara, it exists everywhere. It is derived from a Tamahou people, who, about the year 1500 before our era, made their appearance on the frontiers of Eg}q>t, coming from the north. The blondes which we meet with in the Basque Chap, x.] BROWN EUROPEAN TYPES. 453 territory, and near the Strait of Gibraltar in Spain, are probably descendants of theirs. Dr. Schweinfurth remarked, in Central Africa, in the ^lon- bouttous’ country, the frequency of light or reddish hair. The greater number arc complete albinos, as he has token care to tell us. Others are oidy so in a slight degree. Others may hold to the pmctice, so common in Africa, of dyeing or colouring the hair. In the present state of science, it must be allowed that in really Xegi’o centres blondes are never met with unassociated with albinism. The facts mentioned with respect to America should be looked at differently. They arise no doubt from blondes imported from Europe, to whatever remote period this importation may be referred, and whatever the course tliey may happen to have followed. A tradition of this kind exists among the Boronos of the eastern chain of the Chilian Andes, among whom wo find blue eyes, associated sometimes with black, sometimes with light or red hair, and with the ordinary features of the American races. Another remarkable example is that of the ^landans, mentioned by Catlin, who have “ hair as light as the mixed breeds, with chestnut, gray, or blue eyes.” The Athapascans have also been described as having among them individuals with gray eyes {Mackenzie). Light hair is also seen among the Lee-Pangwes {Pike ), . and people with very fair complexion among the Antisians {D'Orhignij) and the Koliiches {Dixon). The Brown European Types. The hrown European types are characterised by dark eyes, absolutely black hair, and fair skin, which readily becomes a warm bronze tint by exposure to the sun. AVere we to leave out the blonde races, which have manifestly crossed, it would be difficult to separate some sub-types from the general blonde type of which we have just spoken. The Scandinavian and the Dane would perhaps be the only ones. The brown types, on the contrary, are very numerous. It is usual to divide the fair races into two 454 BROWN EUROPEAN TYPES. [Chap. x. brandies, the Hindoo and the European. This is a linguistic division only; the first term however must be retained in order that we may find in it an anthropological type. After this, we must accept the Tschinghanian type, on account of the probable hypo- theses to which it has given rise. If we suppose an Aryan migration from the east to the west, we must equally admit an Iranian type for those remaining behind, which we still find on the spot. Having disposed of the blonde types seen in Europe, we have yet to speak of the most remarkable brown types, namely, the Circassian, the Pelasgian or Albanian, the Ligurian, the Basque, &c. &c. Then, as we pass round the Mediterranean, the Berber and the Semitic, which are most certainly allied to the European types. In this enumeration no Slav or German type appears. The reason is because there is no such. In Eussia in Europe, for example, the populations are Einnish, or a mixed race of Fins from the north, more or less ^longolian here and there, and having some ill-defined brown element in the south. Among the peasants, who, as everywhere, more properly represent the primitive element, we find countenances which remind us of those of the pure Ainos and the Todas. ^Vhere then are we to get the Slav tjqDe ^ This name appeared in history with the Wendes, the Antes, previously called by the Greeks Serbs, and the Sclavens {Jornandes). In 552 the Sclavens are before Constantinople. Erom the sixth to the seventh century the Wendes advance as far as the banks of the Elbe. But whence has originated the Slav language, which alone justifies its pretension to a corresponding type? We know not. Xow the peoples which speak it, or its derivatives, are divided into two groups : the western, including the Poles or Laechs, the Bohemians or Tchechs, of which the Slovaks form a part, and the Wendes of Lusatia ; and the south-eastern, divided into Great Eussians or Muscovites, Little Eussians, Euthenians or Eussniaks, White Eussians, Bulgarians, and Serbs — these last including Croatians, Dalmatians, Bosnians, and Slovenians, Ac. The only character which is comiAon to them aU, besides language, is brachycej)haly. Eoumanians and Hungarians are also brachycephalic, as well as a large number of Germans, Italians, and French. Chap, x.] BROWN EUROPEAN TYPES. 455 ]Mr. Edwards describes, in the following terms, a type wliicli lie lias noticed as predoniinating among Poles, Silesians, Moravians, Pohemians, Himgarians, and Pussians : “ The outline of the head looked at in front appears square, because the height somewhat exceeds the breadth, and the top is sensibly flat, and the direction of the jaw horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the distance from its base to the chin. It is almost straight, that is to say without any decided curve, but if this is at all appreciable it is slightly concave, so that the end has a tendency to turn up. The lower part is somewhat wide, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, someivhat smiken, are exactly on the same line, and if they have any peculiarity, it is that they seem smaller than they slioidd be relatively to the size of the head. The eyebrows are scant, very near together, especially at the inner angle ; they are frequently directed obliquely outwards. An additional character to the jweceding, and which is very general, is to be noticed, namely, the small size of the beard, except on the upper lip.” He looks upon it as a Slav peculiarity, but is it not rather that of some anterior prehistoric race belonging to this region of Europe 1 In Germany it is still more difficult to get at a German type. The course of all the invasions into this country has been from east to west, including tliose which terminated in the north or centre of Erance. hTeither its prehistoric constitution nor these continual surgings of invasion have in the slightest degree succeeded in constituting it a homogeneous type. In the south and centre it is brachycephalic, in the north dolichocephalic. The primitive Germans were dolichocephalic, while the Bavarians and the Badois, on the other hand, were brachycephalic. The colour of the eyes and hair gives evidence in the same way of the mixture of manifold races, judging from the statistics of Virchow, Mayr, Sasse, &c. The Germans moreover resign their pretensions to being a distinct type ; they have discovered that after ail they are no exception to the other populations in Europe, and that if they are a federation of peoples, they are not an anthropological race. In Erance there is no longer the French type only : there are many types, of which one is sufficiently characteristic, as to 456 HINDOO AND TSCHINGHANIAN TYPES. [Chap. x. physique as well as historically, for us to give it a x^lace under the name of Celtic type among the brown Europeans that we are now examining, without being satisfied however that this position is its true one. The Hindoo Type. The Hindoo type is hut faintly represented in India by the Eajpoots, and especially by the most venerated Brahmans of Mattra, Benares, and Tannesar, in Hindostan. The popidation of the Indian peninsula is composed of three strata : namely, the Black, the Mongolian, and the Aryan. The remnants of the first are at the present time shut up in the mountains of Central India, under the name of Bhills, Mahairs, Ghonds, and Khonds ; and in the south under that of Yenadis, Maravers, Kurumbas, Yeddahs, Ac. Its primitive characters, apart from its black colour and low stature, are difficult to discover, but it is to be noticed that travellers do not speak of woolly hair in India. The second has spread over the plateaux of Central Asia by two lines of way, one to the north- east, the other to the north-west. The remnants of the first invasion are seen in the Dravidian or Tamul tribes, and those of the second in the Jahts. The third, more recent and more important as to quality than as to number, was the A.ryan. “ The Brahmans of the banks of the Ganges,” says M. Eousselet, “ have the high well-developed forehead, oval face, the eyes per- fectly horizontal, the nose projecting, basque, and shghtly thick at the extremity, but having delicately-shaped nostrils. They are fair, but more or less bronzed by the sun. Their black pilous system seems abundant.* The Tschinyhaniaii Type. Does this type belong to the preceding ? The terms Bohemians, Gitanos, Gipsies, Zingaris, Tschinghani are applied indiscriminately" to one and the same nomadic population scattered over Eiuope and * “ Tableau des Kaces de I’lnde Centrale et de ITnde Septentriouale,” by M. L. Rousselet, iu “Eevue d’Antbrop.,” vols. ii. and iv., 1873 and 1875. Chap, x.] IRANIAN TYPE. 457 Asia, and having a language presenting the greatest analogy to the languages of Hindostan. Some say this peo^de must have left their native land at a very remote period ; F. von Miklosich says at an epoch when the modern dialects were akeady formed, about the year 1100. It probably descended from one of the numerous wandering tribes that we see in India. Its tyjoe is imdoubtedly Caucasian. The complexion of the Tschinghanians is more or less tawny, the hair jet black, the eyes a rich black, the face long, narrow across the cheek-bones, the forehead narrow and receding, the nose moderately projectuig, its bridge sharp, never flat, the space between the eyes rather narrow, slight prognathism, the mouth small, and the teeth white and not subject to caries {Blumen- hach). They are on the conflnes of mesaticephales and sub-doli- chocephales, and are leptorrhinians. Their cerebral capacity is feeble. !M. Koperni^ki compared the Tschinghanian and Hindoo skidls, and found but slight difference between them, though many points of resemblance. M. Abel Ilovelacque recognises two types, the one refined, with tlio face more elongated and more oval, the features more compact, the nose more aquiline. The other coarse, with the featiu’es more closely set, the countenance more penetrating, eyes more spai’kling. He considers that both may have been existing from their point of departure in Hindostan.* The Iranian Type. The Iranian type is represented by the Tadjicks of Persia, the Parsees, the Armenians, the Kurds, the Georgians, the Ossetians, and the bro'wn Affghans. Its highest expression is met with in the first of these. The Tadjicks are of medium height, with a long oval face and regular features. The forehead is broad and high, the eyes large and shaded Avith black eyebroAvs, the nose prominent and straight, or bent round, the mouth large, and the lips thin, the complexion fair and rosy, the pilous system over the Avhole body abundant, the hair straight and black, the beard and moustache also black, long, thick, and AveU placed. Authors, Avith the exception * See “ Revue d’Anthropologie,” vol. ii. p. 161, and vol. iii. p. 234. CELTIC TYPE. 458 [Chap. x. of Chardin and Tavenier, agree in considering it a beautiful type. They appear to he dolichocephalic."^ The Celtic Type. The Celtic type is thorougldy recognised by the universal testi- mony of ancient authors. The name Celts has been taken m four different acceptations, thus causing much confusion. Linguists understand by it the ancient peoples speaking the Celtic language, Fia. 44.— Celtic type : Skull of an Auvergnian, from the M^moire of M. Broca on the Celtic race. such as we now find it in Ireland, in Cornwall, in 'Wales, in the Isle of Man, in Scotland, and in Brittany, hut which Avas ver}^ Avidely diffused at one time, and AA^’as the first detached from the mother- stock of Asia. Archasologists, on their side, call by this name the dolmen builders during the Polished Stone epoch, and the importers of bronze into Europe. Both linguists and arch^eologists think that the Celts form the first migration of the invaders from the East. A certain number of ancient historians again confound imder this name all the peoples of Western and Central Europe, including those of the British isles among them, the GaUi, the Gaels, the Gauls, * “Etlinograpliie de la Perse,” by M. de KhanikofE. In 4to. Paris, 1866. Chap, x.] CELTIC TYPE. 459 the Galatians, the Kyniris, the Ilelga% the Cimhri, the Cimmerians, the Caledonians, the Firbolgs, the llretons, vrites Chiong-nou. 2 n 2 468 FINNISH TYPE. [Chap. xi. Ou-sioun. Another people, the Ting-ling, with green eyes and red hair, is mentioned at the same epoch, as existing beyond the- Altai mountains, in the countries of the Yenissei. A third inha- bited — from 648 to 874 — the north of the Chinese Emphe, near the Obi or the Irtish, namely, the Kiekars, the issue of the Kiang- kuans, or Kakas of Klaproth. They were tall, and also had red hair, fair complexion, and green eyes; “black hair was looked upon as a prodigy.” Lastly, contemporaneously with Matuanlin, that is to say about the twelfth centmy, barbarous tribes presentmg these characters occupied the same regions. He considered them to be the descendants of the Kiang-kuans. The existence, formerly, in the centre and in the north of Asia of a race with green eyes and red hair is therefore established. But whence did it come 1 That all the popidations of the region at the present time have black hah* and eyes, and that the Samoyedes, to whom one would imagine they might belong, are in this category, and are of short stature, vuth a smoky-yellow complexion, is a fact well worthy of our attention. Desmoidins professed to have found it in the Baskirs, many of whom have red hair ; in the Kirghis ; in the Yakoutas ; in a word, in the whole Tinkish race. But red hair and green eyes are altogether exceptional in these different gToups, which *are dis- tinguished, on the contrary, by their black hair and eyes.* Another solution to the question presents itself. The fimda- niental traits indicated, vuth the exception of the stature, are those of the great majority of the Fins. Green eyes are less common, it is true, among these than blue eyes, but we may consider that a change has taken place in them by crossing. Our own opinion is that the peoples of ancient Asia, with green eyes and red hair, ought to be looked upon as the progenitors of the Ostiaks, Tchuvatches, &c.t AYe have just spoken of the Turks; it is necessary to say a few * See “Histoire Naturelle des Paces Hmnaines,” "by A. Desmoulins. Paris, 1826. t A translation of the annals of the Hiong-nu was published last year in the “ Journal of the Anthi’op. Institute,” with annotations from Doolittle’s Chap, xi.] TUEKS. •169 Avonls furthor respecting tlieni. They liave been also designated by tlie name of Turanians, under tlie supposition that Tunin, wliose struggles with Iran are mentioned by the Zend-^V vesta, Avas oceuiiied by populations having this origin. Linguists make them enter into their Tatar branch of the Uralo- Altaic family, whose other bmnches are the Samoyedan, the Finnish, the ^longolian, and the Tungusian. In the same branch tliey range the Yakuts, the Kirghis, divided into Eouroutes and Kaisaks, the "Jhircomans, the Uzbeks, the Xogays, the Osmanlis, or Turks propei*, Ac. The descent of the TmLs has been fully established by Klap- roth. The name is derived from the Thu-kin, avIio inhabited the Altai about the sixth century, not far from the famous tribe of the Ouigoui*s, both being descendants of the Hiong-nu, at the time of their dispei-sion in 263 of our era. In 1034, one of their bands, the Ghazneoides, broke through into 'Western Turkestan. At the close of the eleventh century they Avere before Constanti- nople. An important group under the name of AVhite Huns had made the compiest of India, and are the ancestors of the j)resent Jahts.*. The Yakuts, noAv betAveen the Yenessei and tlie Obi, Avere then more to the soutli, and Avere separated from the princiiial mass at the time of the dismemberment of the empire of Gengis- Khan. The Kirghis and the Uzbeks are looked upon as the more or less changed remnants of the Ouigours, Avhose language the Bouroutes stiU speak. The actual existence of a particular gi’ciij) designated by the name of Turks, and in subjection to that portion of the ^Mongolian race to Avhich has been given that of Turanians, is therefore certain. But are tliere any remains of them, and Avhat is their type 1 The TchuA^atches of Avhoni Ave thought, speak a Tatar language, but as regards physique they an; Fins. The Yakuts are absolutely Tungooses ; the Turcomans, the Uzbeks, and Vocabulary and Handbook.” The tall people to the west of the Hiong-nou bear the name of Woo-sun, and have the same complexion as the Ting, ling. We find there, also, the Keen-kwan, whose ancestors, in the year 200 B.C., were the Hakkas. * The White Huns, or Ephthalites of M. Vivien, of St. Martin, must not be confounded Avith the Huns of Attila, who are true Mongolians. 470 LAPP TYPE. [Chap., xr. the Kirghis are also Mongolians in various degrees. The Osmanlis have so crossed with the Circassians and the Greeks that they have become Europeans. The Tatars of Kashan and opate), the lips thick. The palpebral openings remind us sometimes of those of the Yellow races. The odour exhaled from the skin in all the negro tribes is stronger in the Kaffir. They are very tall, slim, and well made. Seven Kaffir skulls measured by ]\I. Eertillon shoAved an average capacity, enormous for negroes, of 1453 cubic centimetres. “ Their vertical diameter is considerable,” adds this author. In eight similar skulls examined by INI. Broca, the mean cephalic index was 72*5, being slightly less than in the Guinean negroes. The platyrrhiny of the two types is sensibly the same (54-99 in Kaffirs). The prognathism, according to our own tables, is a little less in Kaffirs, 68-21. It woidd be very desirable to ascertain the type of the ^lakololos of the Zambesi, Avhose language approximates them to the Kaffirs, but Avho appear to differ from them in physique. Perhaps they may be the remnants of some ancient type. Un- fortunately they are rapidly decreasing.* TIlc Hottentot Tyi^e. The Hottentot type, noAv confined to the extremity of Southern Africa, formerly extended quite as far as the 10th degree of south * See article, “ Cafros,” by Ch. Letourueau, iu “ Encycl. des Sc. Medic.,” 2nd series, vol. ii. ; “ Die Eingeborenen Sud Africa’s Ethnographish und Anatomisch Beschrieben,” by G. Fritscb, Breslau, 1873. 492 HOTTENTOT TYPE. [Chap, xir, latitude. As evidence of this, the geographical names in Kaffraria are still Hottentot. The type includes the Hottentots of the Colony, the Korannas, the Hainaquas, the Griquas (see page 382), and the Bosjesmans. We shall specially have in view the first three. The Hottentots, or Koi-Koin, have a yellow-brown or gray skin. This character is almost an invariable one. Their long woolly hair, which is inserted obliquely in very small tufts, approximates them to the Papuans. Their thick, broad, and prominent cheek-bones, and their small and oblique palpebral apertures, on the other hand remind one of the Chinese races {Barrow ) ; their eyes are dark chestnut or black, and very Avide apart. Their cranial capacity is 1290 {Broca), that is to say 82 cubic centimetres less than in the Western negroes ; they are more dolichocephalic than these. Their narrow forehead is com- pensated for by its height, and it is frequently bulging at the height of the frontal bosses. The nose is frightfully broad and flat, the nostrils are thick, very divergent, and exposed. Their prognathism is generally enormous, though it varies. The mouth is large, Avith thick projecting and turned-up lips. The chin is pointed, although supported by a receding jaAV. The ears are large, and Avithout lobule. The Hottentots have but little beard, and the body is destitute of hair. Their stature is beloAV the average, at least in the three tribes in question, the Korannas being not quite so small, AAdiich may arise from a cross Avith the Kafhrs. Their joints are thick j some of them have broad and heavy feet, but in the majority the feet and hands are someAA^hat small. Some are of Aveak frame, others squat and very muscular. Steatopyga, Avhich is someAvhat common among the women, in- creases Avith puberty. It is met Avith, here and there, throughout the Avhole Hottentot group, and, as Ave have said, as far as the regions occupied by the Somalis, AA^here the Hottentot race is no longer to be seen. In a case mentioned by BarroAAq the tremulous mass passed 14 centimetres beyond the line of the back (see page 362). This character, as Avell as the tablier, is only constant and of any extent in the Bosjesman tribe. The Hottentot type is, in other respects, without miity; one Chap, xii.] HOTTENTOT TYPE. 493 would call it an agglomeration of ancient races driven down into tins extremity of the globe. Thus, fifteen of their skulls in the Museum have a sub-nasal prognathism of 73 ' 5 , and yet we find among them three marked as Colonial Hottentots, in which it is only 80 , and this one of the most favoured of the Yellow races. There are two examples of Eosjesmans, where it is 63*4, and two of Hamaquas, as low as 58 ’2 and 51 '3 resi^ectively. Such dif- ferences are certain evidences of crossing. So with platyrrhinia — M. Eroca found the nasal index varying from 46 to 72 . Travellers agree in considering the greater number of the Eosjesmans, and some of the Yamaquas, as forming a distinct type. Three characters in the former seem to favour this view : (1) Tlie large steatopyga, Avhich is the exception among the Hottentots and the rule with a very large number among the Eosjesmans ; (2) The tablier, in the same way; (3) The stature, which is much smaller than that of Hottentots. Livingstone imagined that he had seen a Eosjesman L83 metre in height, but he was no doubt deceived by a stray Kaflii’. It is certain that the Eosjesmans are the smallest race in the world, and that it is a stretch to put then’ mean stature at more than 1 '40 m^tre. Many traits in their skeletons have also attracted attention, such as the welding of the two bones proj:)er of the nose into one — the obliteration of the linca asjpera of the femur, as in apes. In other respects their characters and those of Hottentots are alike. For example : the hair growing in tufts of closely-twisted spirals, some millimetres in diameter, the skin of a yellowish colour, or like dirty varnished oak, &c. Their facial angle varies from 64 to 70 , according to Fritsch; it is 64 in one of the Hamaquas in the Museum, this being the lowest known in Man. The Eosjesman woman, known by the name of the Hottentot Venus, who died in Paris, and whose full-length portrait in the Museum is an excellent example of this race, was considered tall by her own people. Cuvier has given a good description of her : “ She had a way of pouting her lips,” he says, exactly like that we have observed in the ourang-outang.” To anyone who has seen these anthropoids the simile is very expressive. Her movements had something abrupt and fantastical about 494 HOTTENTOT TYPE. [Chap, xiu them, reminding one of those of the ape. Her lips were monstrously large. Her ear was like that of many apes, being small, the tragus weak, and the external border almost obliterated behind. These,” he says, after having described the bones of the skeleton, “ are animal characters.” Again : “ I have never seen a human head more like an ape than that of this woman.” AVhat we said before relative to the Hottentot type throughout the whole of Southern and Eastern Africa is still more true with respect to the special Bosjesman type. The Obongos, near the banks of the Gaboon, have the same old yellow, jaune vleux complexion, the same growth of the hair in tufts as the Hottentots, and a character which is ])ar excellence that of the Bosjesmans — smallness of stature. From the coast of Aden, among the Somalis, to the mouth of the Ogobai on the west, we find races of the Bosjesman type — the lowest of the human race. The fact escaped Cuvier that this type is the most animal known, and diminishes the distance which separates the European from the anthropoid ape. What should we say if the type were a pure one h In concluding our remarks concerning the ^N’egro types of Africa* it should be noticed that the several divisions we have admitted among them are altogether insufficient. We have been studying the Hegro as compared with the White, but without taking any great account of the distinctions between them, which are as palpable as between White or Yellow races. Thus, among the black tribes of the West Coast that we have associated together under the name of Guineans, there are evidently two very distinct types — one ugly, diminutive, with large and squat limbs, and with a round or short face j the other comparatively handsome, tall, with slender and well-proportioned limbs, and with a long face. Thus we shall have to give up the Hottentot t}^pe, and after perhaps separating the Hamaquan type, keep to that of the Bosjesman. So among the Kaffirs, or rather those sprung from them, extending from the * See “ Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa,” by J. Barrow, 2 vols., London, 1801 ; “ Memoire sur la Femme Hottentote,” by Baron Cuvier, in “ Hist. Nat. des Manmiiferes,” by G. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 2 vols. in 4to, Paris, 1824 j &c. Chap, xii.] PAPUAN AND NEW CALEDONIAN TYPES. 495 Zambesi to Balir-el-Gliazal to the Avest of the great lakes, there are very many types, 'which are at the same time very characteristic ones. The collection of busts of M. de Froberville is sufficient of itself to prove that the description of the Negro races of Africa must be altogether i-emodelled.* The Papuan Type. The Papuan type is distributed tlu’oughout the 'whole geo- graphical area called Melanesia, except in Australia. It a2>pears to be most pure in the Solomon Isles and the New Hebrides. In the Fiji Islands, and even in New Caledonia, it is mingled with the Polynesian type. Its character are the following : Ordinary stature, but* relatively taller than the Negrito and Malay types ; the skin is black or of a chocolate colour ; the hair is black, harsh, friz/ded, growing in distinct tufts, which are short and thick in early life, and at a later period assume a bushy character, or like the head of a mo}) {tete de vadrouifle), measuring thirty centimetres on each side. The beard, as well as the haii* on the body, grows in the same way in tufts, but these are farther apart. They have a very dolichocephalic skull, with the lateral walls vertical, and freciuently exhibiting a median crest commencing behind the bregma, or going beyond as far as the middle of the forehead. The eyes are sunk, the sclerotics dull ; the nose is thick and wide at the base, but projecting and turned up, it is said, at least in New Guinea, with the median lobule extending beyond the nostrils (Wallace). The sub-nasal prognathism is considerable, the lips thick and projecting, the jaw receding, and the face, on the whole, rather long.t The New Caledonians. The New Caledonians are generally associated with the Papuan type. Li reality, they are a mixed race formed of three elements : * See “ Die Nigritien,” by K. Hartmann. Berlin, 1876. f See “Indian Archipelago — Papuans,” by J. W. Earl. London, 1859. 496 NEW CALEDONIAN TYPE. [Chap. xii. a Polynesian ; one whose name, Melanesian, it would he as well to allow to remain, Avliich leaves ns in no doubt as to its relationship ; and an intermediate or cross race. Out of a large number of skulls it is easy to select them ; the half-breeds are in greatest number, the Melanesians tolerably numerous, and the Polynesians rare. M. Bourgarel arrives at the same result on the living subject, and describes two varieties — the black and the yellow. The former is characterised, he says, by the very dark colour of the skin, the short hair, floccident rather than woolly {Forster), short stature, slender limbs, flat foot, very considerable dolicho- cephaly, marked prognathism, enormous superciliary arches, vertical direction of the two lateral planes of the skull, Ac. The latter has the same characters, though attenuated ; among others, taller stature, limbs better proportioned, olive-yellow complexion, longer and less woolly hair, sometimes frizzled, sides of the head round, Ac. . However this may be, the present mixed or crossed race presents the following • characters on examination of skulls which have been brought to Europe, and which, for the most part, are those of the original inhabitants of the Island of Pines : The cranial capacity in the adult man is 1460, and m the woman 1428, and is greater than that of the Austrahan and the negro, but much less than that of the White and Yellow races, especially in the man. The cephalic index of 71 '78 is as small as that of Australians, Esquimaux, and the Yeddahs of Ceylon. The forehead of 9 3 '5 is much narrower than in the negroes of Africa, but less than in Australians. The nasal index clearly places it apart from all the Black races ; it is 5 3 ’06, that is to say very nearly mesorrhmian. The orbital index of 80 ’6 approximates it to the Australians and the prehistoric races, and separates it from the Yellow races. The prognathism is 69*8, and a little less than in the Australians and negroes of Africa, though in all it is consider- able. Simply by the arrangement of the inferior border of* the nasal aperture one may always distinguish a I7ew Caledonian from an African negro. In the former it is absolutely obliterated, and replaced by two channels of an altogether' simian character, which pass down on each side in the dhection of the alveolar border. In Chap, xii.] NEW CALEDONIAN TYPE. 497 the latter it is blunt hut tolerably distinct, or replaced by a sort of platfonn. The facial angle is the smallest in our tables (see Fio. 48.— A New Caledonian half-breed : Yellow variety of M. Bourgarel, from M. dc la Richerie’s collection. page 286). Daubenton’s angle is that of the Black races, the parietal angle the smallest known. The superciliary arches are more prominent according as the individual is more Melanesian — a 2 K 498 NEGEITO TYPE. [Chap. xii. remarkable difference from tire negro of Africa, in whom they are small and flat. But what strikes one at a cursory glance in the principal type of the Island of Pines, is the coarseness of the features, and the contrast between the hollows and prominences of the face, which gives it a ferocious appearance. The integuments would however modify these characters, as in the Tasmanian, to judge by the very beautiful photographs forwarded by M. Simon, Trench consul at Sydney, and unless they represent another altogether contemporaneous type, the face would be, on the contrary, full, round, moderately long, the features, as it were, pasty, and without animation. The hair forms a thick and continuous fleece ; the nose is large, broad, and flat, the lips large and pouting, ttc. Pigure 48 represents a half-breed, no doubt one of the Yellow variety. Prom her tall stature, her slender limbs, and her comparatively light complexion, she is Polynesian. Prom her deeply-sunken eyes and overhanging eyebrows, her long forearm, her slender and high calf of the leg, her projecting heel and flat foot, she is Melanesian ; from her frizzled rather than woolly hair, she is a cross-breed.* It must be admitted, in short, that the present Hew Caledonian race is principally Melanesian, as the hair, as well as the features generally, testify, but that the Polynesian influence has made itseK apparent, especially in the statiue and the nasal index. It is to this we have alluded whenever we have been comparing the negroes of Oceania with those of Africa. The Negrito Type. The Negrito type has been carefully defined by M. de Quatrefages. Its present representatives are the Mincopies of the Andaman ■" “ Des Races de I’Oceanie Eraucaise et en pafticulier de cedes de la Nonvelle Caledonie,” by A. Bourgarel, in “ Mem. Soc. dAntbrop. ; ” first Memoir, vol. i. ; second, vol. ii. ; “ Etnde des Cranes Neo-Caledoniens du Mnsee de Caen,” by Bertillon, in “Revue d’Anthrop.,” vol. i., 1873; “ Presentation de Pbotograpliies de Neo-Caledoniens et d’Australiens,” by Topinard, “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. ” 2nd series, vol. xii., 1876. Chap, xii.] NEGRITO TYPE. 499 Islands, the Semangs of the interior of the peninsula of Malacca, the Aigtas of the Philippines. Their fundamental characters are loAv stature, Avoolly. hair, black skin, and sub-brachycephaly. This last character is the most prominent. The cephalic index of five of their skulls is 82*54. The stature of hve individuals collected by ]\I. Ilaniy from various authors, is, on the average, 1*47 metre. The hair of the Andaman is black, woolly, and grows in spirally- twisted tufts, like that of Papuans, Tasmanians, and Hottentots. They have but little beard, and the skin, tli^ reverse of the Tas- manian, is glossy and jet black. The following characters also belong to them : The forehead is full and projecting, wide as compared with that of negroes, but less so than that of Tasmanians. The face is round or quadrilateral, and rather short, the cheek-bones broad and somewhat flat. The eyes are large and round, that is to say not very well formed, and horizontal, with thick eyelashes. The nose is broad at the base, but slightly crushed in, and the nostrils are roimd. The sub-nasal prognathism of 70*2 in the two specimens in the ]\Iuseum is about the average of Yellow races. The lips are moderately large, and appear but little turned up for negroes ; the face is round at the bottom, and not receding. The Andamans are short and squat, though the Luzon girl, according to the drawing of Choris, is slim and well-proportioned. They have square shoMders, well-developed chest, the trimk the same all the way doAvn, without the slightest figure, the- feet and hands moderately large, the fingers long, the heels not projecting, the toes spread out when standing on the ground. There is but little difference in the figure between the two sexes. In fact, were it not for the hair and the comjdexion, the negritos would, on the whole, be moderately negroid. They at one time occupied Malacca, and probably Yew Guinea, and the southern extremity of Asia. Put it has not been shown that the black popidations of India mentioned in the IMahabarrata were negritos. Up to that time no positive statement has been made as to the j)resence of woolly hair in that peninsula with regard to absolutely inferior simian types. The descriptions of them given by Piddington, Pousse! ei and Blond are very meagre. The only argument in favour 500 TASMANIAN TYPE. [Chap. xii. of the negrito nature of the autochthonous stock of India is the existence, here and there, especially in Ceylon and the adjoining part of India, of black tribes of very low stature,"^ The Tasmojiian Type. The Tasmanian type, now extinct, is separated in a most remark- able manner from all the neighbouring types, negroes or others. While the fifty-four Hew Caledonians in the Museum have a cephalic index of 71 '7, and th(5 twenty-seven Australians of 71*4, thai of the forty-one Polynesians is 76*3, and that of ten Tasmanians, 76 T. Then the norma verticalis of Blumenhach leads to a similar result ; the vault of the cranium of Tasmanians is characteristic — it is of the keel-shaped type {en carme), at least in the skulls in the Museum ; in other words, it has a median sagittal projection, hounded by two lateral depressions, beyond which are two enlarge- ments, like the sides of a ship. The Polynesians exhibit this also, especially those in the east, although less marked, wliile it never exists either in Australians or Hew Caledonians, who are the most Melanesian. Again, wliile the angle of alveolo-nasal prog- nathism is 69-8 in Hew Caledonians, 68-2 in Australians, 73*8 in two Andamanese, and 75 '0 in Polynesians, it is 76 ‘2 in six Tas- manians ; in other ivords, they are scarcely more prognathous than Europeans. With regard to the direction of the plane of the occipital foramen, a character of the first importance, we have the same result; they must be grouped with Corsicans and Berbers, the very opposite of the Oceanic races, notwithstanding this, from then complexion, their hair, their jilatyrrhinia, then retroussee lips, and then little cranial capacity, they are negroes. Then other craniometrical characters are these : Greater development of the posterior cranium, which places them among the occipital races of Gratiolet ; swelling out of the temporo-zygomatic regions ; forehead * See “Etude sur les Mincopies et la Eace Negrito en general,” by A. de Quatrefages, in “ Eevue d’Antbrop.,” vol. i., 1872 ; “ On the Andaman and Andamanese,” by G. E. Dobson, in “ Joiumal of tbe Anthropol. Insti- tute,” April, 1875, &c. j “Les Noirs de ITnde,” in “Eevue d’Anthrop.,” vol. iv. p. 567. Chap, xii.] AUSTRALIAN TYPE. 501 broad at its lower part (9 1 millimetres), superciliary arches and glabella very projecting ; orbits deep, small, microsemic ; root of the nose considerably crushed in ; face broad and contracted, at the expense especially of the superior maxillary, though also of the inferior ; some flattening of the face otherwise ; the malar bones of the usual dimensions. AVitli regard to the characters in the living subject, they are : A chocolate-black complexion, a little less dark l)erhaps than that of the Australian, and less than that of the negro of Guinea ; woolly hair, growing not in one continuous fleece, but in spiral tufts, which fall dovm in long ringlets; the beard and the hair on the rest of the body very abundant, as in Australians, the hair being flat in sections under the inicroscope ; small eyes, sunken, with dull sclerotics ; nose broad and flat {cpaie), not projecting, thick, and puffy at the base ; mouth large, lips thick, the upper especially, and turned up; chin small and re- ceding; ears oval, with a thick lobule. Their stature exhibits nothing particular to remark upon, and is below the average. From this it Avill bo seen that the Tasmanian t}"pe is absolutely mii (jeneris, and exhibits anomalies which cannot be otherwise accounted for. We have stated elsewhere that their skulls in the Museum appeared to be the product of a cross between the ]\Ielanesian and the Poly- nesian, but that they had a special physiognomy of their own. . Ey their manners and customs, the Tasmanians have some points of resemblance to the Andamanese.* The Australian Tijpe. The Australian type, geographically allied to the preceding, is TiO less paradoxical, but in another sense. It is characterised by the combination of smooth hair with negroid features. On com- paring some Tasmanian and Australian skulls, we at first came to the conclusion that the former race were physically superior. On * See “ Etude sur les Tasmaniens,” by Dr. Paul Topinard, in “Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” vol. iii., meeting of the 18th Nov., 1869; “Examen des Mesures Craniometriques des Cranes Tasmaniens ” of Mr. Barnard Davis, in “ Revue d’Anthrop.,” vol. ii., by the same author ; “ On the Osteology of the Tasmanians,” by !Mr. Barnard Davis, Haarlem, 1874. 502 AUSTEALIAN TYPE. [Chap. xii. making some further measurements, which have been since published' by M. Broca and ourselves, Ave thought the same ; hut judging by their characters on the living subject, it is just the reverse — the Australians are superior. But is the Australian type a pure one % Commissioned by the Societe d’Anthropologie to deliver certain ‘‘Instructions” to tra\"ellers in Australia, Ave Avere all at once struck A\uth the difference& between the Australians of the coast, of the Ioav plains, and some isolated sjAots in the bush, on the north- Avest more especially, and the Australians en masse of the interior, of the high lands,, and especially those of the north-eastern region. AVe therefore called the attention of travellers to this point, and, in particidar, as to the existence of Avoolly hair here and there, as mentioned by Humbron, Pickering, and Stokes. AVe thought that before the present race of Australians there must have existed on their continent a race much inferior still, of Avhom the individuals AAuth Avoolly hair and the ugly deformed tribes AAwe the descendants. Prom other considerations relatmg to the ethnic customs described by Mr. Staniland AA^ake, Ave Avere confirmed in this opinion. It is clear that the Australians might very Avell be the result of the cross betAveeii one race AAutli smooth hair from some other place and a really negro and autochthonous race. The opinions expressed by Air. Huxley are in harmony Avith this hypothesis* He says the Australians are identical Avith the ancient inhabitants of the Deccan. The features of the present blacks of India, and the characters Avhich the Dravidian and Australian languages have in common, tend to assimilate them. The existence of the boomerang in the tAAm countries, and some remnants of caste in Australia, help to support the opinion. But the state of extreme misery of the inferior Australian tribes may equally explam some of the physical differences Avhich they present. AA'ooUy hair appears to be noAV but seldom seen. A feAv examples of it haA^e been noticed in the York peninsula and the north-AA^est pomt, AAdiich might be accounted for by the immigration of Papuans from HeAV Guinea, and in the south by the passage OA^er to the other side of Behring’s Straits of some Tasmanians to the continent. Chap, xii.] AUSTEALIAX TYPE. 503 On tlie other hand, on studying the Australian skull, we notice tolerably-marked differences of type, and it is certain that the Polynesians landed at some period or other in the north-west, and the Malays in the north-east. Lastly, if the Australians are thorough Hindoos as regards their hair, they are Melanesians, or if you will, XeAv Hebrideans, iN'ew Caledonian negroes, in every other respect. The question may therefore he left. "\Ve are still in ignorance as to whether the present Australian race took its origin on the spot, with the characters that we admit as belonging to it, or whether, on the contrary, it was altogether constituted in Asia, or whether it is a cross race, and in that case, of what elements it is composed. However it may he, the present race of Australians have the pilous system very developed over the whole body, the hair and the heard long, tufted, black, and straight. Their complexion is a dark-chocolate black, with sometimes a tinge of red in it. They are slight, well made, and if there are travellers who have only seen caricatures of them, there are sailors who describe them as perfect models for the sculptor. The Australians have one of the smallest cranial capacities known among mankind {L347) j they are among the most dolichocephalic (71 A), the most prog- Fig. 49.— Australian type : One of its forms. 504 AUSTEALIAN TYPE. [Chap. xii. iiathous (68 ’2), and are platyrrliinian (5 3 ‘4) ; tlieir angde of DauLenton (direction of tlie plane of the occipital foramen) of 6 '8° approximates them to the negro, and separates them, on the con- trary, from the Tasmanians (2 -6) and the White races. They have frequently the “rafter-like’’ shape of the vault of the cranium, a narrow forehead, sometimes straight, sometimes receding (two forms opposed to each other), the superciliary arches very project- ing, the superior border of the orbit jutting out above the inferior, the eyes black and sunken, the nose very hollowed out at the root, thick and broad at the base, but less crushed in than the negroes and Hottentots of Africa, and perhaps than the Yellow races.* But the most important character of all, that wliich warrants our V setting them apart as a distinct type, is their smooth hair, con- trasted with all the most perfect negro characters; The microscope confirms this distinction. On a transverse section it holds a middle place, in M. Pruner-Bey’s figures, between the more or less round shape peculiar to the Yellow and American types, and the some- what elliptical form that we meet with in the Semitic races. It is therefore far from being of the long, elliptical, and flat form peculiar to the negro of Africa, the negrito, and the Papuan. Their stature would be sufficient of itself to prove that the present race is composed of two ancient races, whose stature might have been — the one about 1*600 metre, the other above 1*700. The maximum and minimum observed in the male have been 2*130 and 1*447 respectively. Those which we might consider in India as of the same race are — (a) The Bhils, “black, with small horizontal eyes, and with hair in long straight skeins ; ” (b) The Ghoimds, “ black, with flat nose, thick lips, and tufted, black, shining hair, falling down in straight skeins ; ” (c) The Khounds, more or less black also ; (d) The Mahairs, “ very black, superciliary arches • See “ Journal of Discoveries in Central Australia in 1840-41, with an account of Aborigines,” by Eyre, London, 2 vols., 1843 ; “ Discoveries in Australia,” by Stokes, London, 2 vols., 1848 ; “ Exped. in North-West and West Australia,” by G. Grey, London, 2 vols., 1840; ‘‘ Yoyage au Port du Eoi Georges,” by Scott-Nind, in “ Journal Eoyal Geograph. Soc.,” vol. i., 1831 1 “ On the Aborigines of W'est Australia,” by A. Oldfield, in “ Trans. Ethnol. Soc. London,” vol. iii., 1865 ; “ JBtudes sur les Eaces Indigenes de TAustralie,” by P. Topinard, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 1872; &c. Chap, xii.] AUSTRALIAN TYPE. 505 projecting, small eyes, and flat nose ; ” (e) Tlie Varalis, Ac. {L. Rousselet ) ; (/) The Monndas, described by Eoubaiid, who have the forehead low and receding, the nose thick and Hat, the iris dark brown, the face wide and fiat, the cheek-bones prominent, the incisor teeth vertical, a cephalic index of 75*6, and a stature of 1'61 metre; (y) The Yenadis and Maravers of the coast of Coro- mandel ; and {h) The Veddahs of Ceylon, whose dolichocephaly of 71*7 is ecpial to that of the Australians, and whose stature is U53. Last year a black of this group, a native of Pondicherry, was dis- sected in the Laboratory of Anthropology ; his black complexion, slightly tinged with chocolate, and his smooth, long, and shining hair, were very remarkable. His skeleton, as well as his bust, are now in the collection of M. Broca. Among the Todas of the Hilgherries, and, strangely enough, farther on towards the north, among certain of the Ainos, two of the fundamental Australian traits are met with ; namely, the very projecting superciliary arch and the abundant hair over the whole body — characters the more remark- able from the fact that the reverse is the rule through the whole of Eastern and Southern Asia. In the same Hilgherry hills, situated at the junction of the western and eastern Ghauts, towards the southern extremity of the Deccan, in the desired conditions for concealing the remnants of ancient races, tivo of the above-men- tioned tribes especially afford matter for reflection, namely, the Korumbas and the Irulas. The former have a black complexion, the hair long and wavy, black, and in tufts, the conjunctiva often injected, the iris dark brown (Ho. 1 in M. Broca’s table of colours), the root of the nose hollowed out to the depth of 5 millimetres, the bridge of the nose depressed, the ala3 wide, the nostrils gaping, the jaw and the teeth prognathous. Is not this an accurate portrait of the Australian'? We may add that they are of low stature, like the Australian of the coast. It is true the beard is scanty, but exceptionally it is very abundant.'^ See John Shorfct, “ Memoirs on the Savage Tribes of Southern India,” particularly those of the Coast and of the Nilgherries,” in “ Transactions Ethn. Soc. London,” vols. i. ii. v. and vii, ; Ross King, “ Sur les Tribus des Nilghiris,” in “Revue d’Anthrop.,” vol. ii. ; W. F. Marshall, “A Phreno- logist among the Todas,” 1 vol., London, 1873. 506 CONCLUSION. [Cha-P. XII. Lastly, in the west, about Madagascar, and the point of Aden, in Africa, there are black tribes with smooth hair, or, at all events, large numbers of individuals who have it, mingled particidarly among the Somalis and the Gallas, in the region where M. Broca has an idea that some dark and not negro race, now extinct, once existed. The Himyarites, in common with the Australian type, are black, with straight hair ; but the face is long, the nose aquiline and well shaped, and the lips thin and small : these are black Arabs. With regard to the Charruas and the ancient Californians of America, Mr. Huxley himself would not wish to make Australoids of them.* (See pages 481, 482). Conclusion. Our task is completed. We have passed in review the differential characters of the Human Eaces, we have pointed out their most dis- tinctive types; we must now return to the question wliich was proposed at the close of our remarks on zoological anthropology. Is the human family composed of genera, of species, or of varieties 1 In other words, what interval separates its most natural divisions '? We must state, at the onset, that a classification of these divisions and subdivisions would be premature. Classification supposes a science completed, and anatomical anthropology is almost in its infancy. A certain number of groups of races which merit the title of branches, and some particular races, are thorouglily defined, but this is all. Happily it is not necessary, for the solution of our problem, that we slioidd know their value and their dependence the one upon the other. Some being weU determined under conditions in which they noAV present themselves to us are amply sufficient, and we have our choice in this respect. The sole difficulty arises from the confusion created by intermediate types, some due to crossing, others natural, and in a state of transition, such as we meet -with in every degree in the animal series. Such are the Malays, the Chinese, the Hravidians, the Hottentots of the Cape, the Himyarites, * “Les Penples de I’Arabie Meridiouale,” by Maltan, iu “ Zeitscbr. fiir EthnoL,” 1873. Chap, xii.] COXCLUSIOX. 507 the Ahyssinians. Let us take, then, simple general types, as the Wiite, the Yellow, and the lUack with woolly hair j or particular ones, such as those of the Scandinavian, the Semite, the Esquimau, the IMongol, the Kaffir, the Bosjesman, the Kegrito. What is the distance separating them ? Let us leave the less palpable physio- logical traits, forget that we have to do Avith Man, and proceed Avith physical characters as a naturalist Avould Avith a mammifer. We take up a treatise on Xatural History. The genus Ursus comes before us ; it belongs to the family of Plantigrades, order Carnivora, and is composed of fifteen or sixteen species. Put, as in j\Ian, many of these divisions are doubtful, or in a state of transition ; let us ]Aut them aside in the same Avay, and attach ourselves to the Avell-recognised types. Cuvier, the great authority in such matters, describes six principal species. The most common are the broAvn bear of Europe, or Un^us arctos, the black bear of Korth America, or Ursu^ Americamis, and the Avhitc Polar bear, or Ursiis maritimus. We exclude ’the prehistoric Cavern bear, or Ursus spelmis, from our consideration altogether. The first, says Cuvier, has the forehead convex, the hair broAvn, and more or less Avoolly in the young animal, becoming smooth Avith age. Its colour varies, as Avell as the relative length of its limbs. The second lias the forehead flat, the hair black and smooth, the muzzle faAAm-coloured. The third has the head long and Hat, and the hair Avhite and smooth. Ac- cording to other naturalists, the bear of Europe has the trunk shorter than that of America, the soles of the fore and hind feet shorter; and the Polar Tiear, the hind-quarters higher, the muzzle tapering, and the claAvs less inciirvated and shorter. If Ave are not very much mistaken, these characters neither belong to another order, nor are they more defined than those Avhich Ave employ to distinguish the human types ; not only those the most Avidely separated from each other, but those Avhich approximate sufficiently to induce us at once to consider them as secondary types. The long head of the Avhite bear is our dolichocephaly. The convex, flat, or concave forehead {Ursus spcUeus) corresponds Avith the oblique forehead of the Keanderthal, the straight one of Cro- Magnon and Engis, or the high and bidging forehead of the 508 COXCLUSIOX. [Chap. xii. ]STubian, three distinct races. Ihack, brown, or white hair ! Is it not thus that we separate our blonde, brown, or red types 1 The pointed muzzle is the analogue of onr prognathism, or oiir small and narrow jaws as compared Avith the large and square ones. Differences of stature, and in the proportion of the body, are met Avith in the human races as AA^ell as in the bear species. In a Avord, there is less interval, as regards characters, betAveen the Avhite and the brown bear than betAveen the European and the negro. Let ns take another example : The genus Bos, in Avhich the commonest species are the ordinary ox, or Ikjs tauviis ; the aiiroclis, or Bos ursas ; the bison, or Bos Americaims ; the buffalo, or Bos huhalns, ^c. The specific character of the first, says Cuvier, is a flat forehead, longer than it is broad, and round horns placed at the tAVO extremities of the projecting line Avhich separates the forehead from the occiput. The second has the bidging forehead, broader than it is high, the horns inserted beloAv the occipital crest, the limbs tall, a pair of supplementary ribs, a sort of crisp Avool Avhich covers the head and neck of the male, and forms a short beard under the tlnoat. The third resembles the aurochs, but its limbs, and especially its tail, are shorter. The fourth has the forehead bulging, longer than it is broad, the horns directed side- Avays, and shoAving in front a projecting longitudinal crest, &c. These are characters of the same order as our oaaui : The shape of the skull, the abundance of hair on such or such region, its smooth or Avoolly natme, the mode of groAvth of the liorns — organs similar to the hair — the proportions of the skeleton. The most important difference is in there being in the aurochs and the bison a pair of supplementary ribs. But steatopyga in the BushAvoman is an eqniA'alent thing. A supplementary rib is not more astonishing, in an anatomical point of aucav, than that exaggerated mass of fat on the buttocks, and Avhich corresponds, not absolutely, but to a certain extent, AAuth the callosities of apes. BetAveen the Avarious species of anthropoid apes, betAveen those of the genus chimpanzee for example, the differences are less pronounced than between the principal human races. BetAveen the orang and the gorilla there is less distance than between the Australian and the Lap- Chap, xil] CONCLUSION. 509 lander. We cannot say more. The distinctive characters of the jackal and the dog, the wolf and the fox, the horse and the mule, the zebra and the quagga, the camel and the dromedary, are scarcely more divergent, and are fre(Uiently less, than those of our types. The blonde Swede, with fair rosy complexion, light blue eyes, slender figure, orthognathous face, and large cranial capacity, is at a prodigious distance from the negro, with the sooty black com- plexion, the yellow sclerotic, the short and woolly hair, the prominent muzzle, and the projecting turned-up lips — from the Papuan, with similarly woolly hair, but long, growing in tufts, sometimes dislievelled, and forming a globular mass, much larger compara- tively than the mane of the bison — or the Posjesman, with the yellow complexion, with lips of the orang, as Cuvier says, with nymphai reaching almost to the knee, and with deformed buttocks. On a single geograi)hical point, a little island, what a difierence there is between the Aino, with the projecting nose and long tufted hair over a great part of the body, and the Japanese, with the fiat nose and smooth skin ! It is from skulls that we obtain the most startling evidence. Compare the skull of a jN'ew Caledonian of the Islantl of Pines, who has been exempt from crossing, one of the Xamacjuas of Delalande in the iSIuseum, a certain ]\Iongol skull brought by Ur. ^Martin from the desert of Gobi, a certain supposed Uzbek skidl presented by ]\I. de Khanikoff to the Socicte d’Anthropologie, any Escpiimau skull you please, and particularly one of those brought from Uenmark to the Geo- graphical Congress — compare any of these with the skulls of IS’ubians, of Guanches, of Arabs, or those from the Caverne de ITIomme Mort. The differences arc frecpiently most surprising, and greater than those recognised generally by naturalists between simple varieties ; they arc even more in number than those which they admit between species. If it is so in mixed types, crossed by chance in every direction, and influenced by the external circumstances which have been bequeathed to us after fifty or a hundred thousand years perhaps, what shall we say of the pure types, when races lived in an isolated state, like the anthropoids of tlie Gaboon and of Borneo, and only 510 CONCLUSION. [Chap. xii. crossed in-and-in '? Tlie forehead of the ^Neanderthal, and the jaw of La INanlette speak more eloquently than the flattening looked upon by Cuvier as a mark of separation between the bear of Europe and the bear of America. The platycnemic tibia, the femur a coloiine, and the perforated humerus, were the appanage of pre- historic races Avhich have disappeared, swallowed up, as it were, in Western Europe. The sagittal crest, which made its appearance sporadically among the primitive races of the south-west of Asia, as well as steatopyga among the Somalis, is the vestige of an arrangement which has been characteristic in some ancient race absorbed about the same period. The most animal-like example of the skulls of the Island of Pines, so different from that which we now find among the negroes of jNew Caledonia, and that of certain Tasmanians, are a record of themselves. But enough for the present. Without the labour of analysis and reconstruction, it shows us directly that the anatomical and physiological contrasts between human types are greater than those admitted by naturalists between varieties, and as great as between species. The interval appears even to be greater in some cases, and to extend to that of genera. Thus, the four characters which distinguish the goat from the sheep are no other than those which separate certain great branches of the human family. We would not deduce from this that certain human groups are genera — this is for future consideration ; but Ave come to the con- clusion that at any rate they are species. The three following are in this category: (1) Brachy cephalic, AAuth Ioav statine, yellowish skin, broad and flat face, oblique eyes, AAuth contracted eyelids, hair scanty, coarse, and (on section) round; (2) Dolichocephahc, AAuth tall stature, fair complexion, narroAV face, projecting on the median line, hair abundant, light-coloured, soft, and of somewhat elliptical form under the microscope ; (3) j\Iore dolichocephalic, Avith black complexion, hair flat, and rolled into sphals, very prognathous, the radius long, the buttocks prominent, the breasts (in the female) elongated, &c. One objection alone arises, namely, that all men are eugenesic, and certainly paragenesic ; in a Avord, that they may give origin in Chap, xii.] COXCLUSION. 511 time to a fixed intermediate race, whilst in order to ans'sver the classical definition of species, they ought to Ije agenesic. (See page 195.) But in face of the fact that certain species of animals are also eugenesic and iindouhtedly paragenesic, the objection falls to the ground. We confess that before coming to the conclusion that there is eugenesis between certain genera we must wait,* but between certain species it is beyond a doubt ; they give birth to offspring inde- finitely fertile, without the reversion towards one of the two primitive races having yet been established. It is of little consequence, therefore, that the l^egro and AVhite species are more or less homo- genesic ; they are no less species ; for the sole reason that their differential characters have tlie value of those upon which we establish a basis in natural history for the creation of species. With regard to the question of monogenism or polygenism, in the signi- fication given to it at the present day, it is absolutely foreign to the subject in debate. To sum up : The HUjSIAN TAMIL Y, the first of the OPtUEE of Primates, is composed of SPECIES, or funda- mental human races, vdiose number and primordial characters form the subject of this the Second Portion of Anthropology. * We have spoken, at page 195, of a case of hybridity between genera, which might have occurred in the Department of Aisne. We had reason to speak with reserve. From positive information we have since received, we hnd that the thing did not take place. ;f^.T' ^'.mm .A wV i,. ■s.!^^’’*^*’"* ^ ■> f»-.*/lr‘if;alS .lit »■* ‘Mf ■ > ’■’t ’*'''^4 -vit jjfewi* 'to>*i.«;i. kU)T-. V t-i;IJt »itA. . • ^il- / ' '; ,, ^*'. -V ,.,i nWt#iiri^:-^»|^r!,-.-;, .. f(C«T.-..- ..) .'f viV «;||^’'<.IV-.' ’',3 f'i- , ’I*‘0#» 'xlt-liwt^ . ■' .4. , ....j-,-f I j . -^ 'f • ■ -.Wj ) ’- W‘/«T 4l|t^ 'M** *4 ;'dTJ|»IM . .»^ie . .^,v,;ijfj tiii^j. '■' / ''*i^lp>ii^J.''^l« f-M I|5j , ,J,ffv ■ T-B^ ■’ “ •'^ 1 '' f , :»*JUk^ '■■'<'»! ^Vi ' :.v. ■■ !i 7(' ..•■ *)li;li cjA;,ifvr '■ ■':,^i'«si«'^v&»«i.» <♦«■ ii, 5, t. r :^f r^ivf.i»f!4-9if ;^. :. r ^ .Vi'-'i ift>» m,r V- .5’':,^ ‘ <1 • " ^ - <• "■ • 31 'mif iL V. ■’ '-*^- 1. - ^ , . lu 'V, Jfc — . - . *».^' V •■...*!l''|W .‘*>1^ v--’-' *-i . W ' <'-t ^Txfi.::- -' O. -V* ^ ■' , ''ir-.a Ife'M /■■•x' '/■ ' ’ is:--' .. t~* ‘ ' - --L-zk^- I* ^ .^,:t:A-.J::;^.^- .J’ . _ ' -^M M -\ ■■*" THIRD PART. OX THE OEIGIX OF MAX. CII.VPTER I. MONOGENISM OF M. DE QUATREFAGES POLYGENISM OF AGASSIZ TRAXSFORMISM OF L^AMARCK SELECTION OF MR. DARWIN THEIR APPLICATION TO MAN : HIS GENEALOGY, HIS PLACE IN NATURE. AVith regard to tlie position of Alan in tlie Alammalian series, and the dignity of his races, we come to the general conclusion that they are distinct from tlie otlier problems which the knowledge of that Alan implies. It matters but little whether at a particular moment, sooner or later, the physical types had been (jenera, species^ or varieties, and whether it is still so. What philosophers are curious to know is how they took their origin, whether suddenly and spontaneously at all points, or progressively and natmaUy from things which had pre-existed. At first naturalists and anthropologists took but little interest in all these questions. They worked without listening to dogmas taught outside their own sphere, their methods of investigation were carried on in temperate regions. According as the science of facts progressed, it became impossible for them any longer to be un- interested in the lofty views which gave to hfeAvton and Humboldt so great a reputation, and which is not forbidden in any other branch of human knowledge.* Two currents therefore are established regarding the Origin of Alan leading to two different doctrines — the one orthodox, mono- (jenistic, affirming that all the human races are derived from one and the same stock, and have been produced by the influence of 2 L 2 516 ORIGIN OF MAN. [Chap.. I. climate and external circumstances in the brief space of time that has elapsed since the creation of the world, according to the biblical version; the other revolutionary, loolygenistic, maintaining that this lapse of time is insufficient, that the types are permanent under present conditions and as we now see them, and, consequently, that they must originally have been multiple. But the horizon has now changed; it is no longer a question of 5877 years, but of an incalculable number of ages, and what was false in the former case may be true in the latter. ^ It is with the telescope that we must now search for the origin of man. Let us then look at the doctrines before us. "VYe shall be brief, this work professing merely to be a resume of facts and of the methods of study relating to Anthro- pology. This Third Part does not strictly come within our plan, and is only supplementary. We shall say nothing respecting the dissertations of meta- physicians on the essence of Man, the pre-established harmony between the body and mind, or the intelligent intervention of nature ; nor as regards the philosophers of a higher order. The folloAving quotation will form the exception : In the necessary course of things,” said Epicurus and Lucretius, all possible com- binations take j)lace, sooner or later, in the midst of complex conditions, which sometimes are more or less favourable to them, and sometimes contradict them, so that the results are as variable as can be according to the conditions of times and jDlaces, and the combination of those conditions.”* We would willingly pass over in silence the explanations which we find at the foimdation of all religious systems, if one of them — our own — had not been disputed by eminent anthropologists. In that concerning the book of Genesis, such as we find from the compilation of Esdras after the Babylonian captivity, two opinions present themselves to our notice. Some, beheving themselves to be thoroughlj^ orthodox, affirm that it is merely a question relating to the Semitic peoples, and particularly to the Jews ; they revive the arguments upon which, in 1655, Isaac de la Peyrere * “ Sur le Transformisme,” by Paul Broca, in “ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 2nd series, vol. iv., 1870. Chap, i.] MOXOGENIS^I. 517 founded his doctrine of tlie Pre- Adamites,* and bid us to remember, for example, that God “ set a mark upon Cain, lest any hnding him should kill him,” and go on to remark that, in chapter vi., the sons of God ” are represented as races of Adam, and the “ sons of men ” as non- Adamic races. Others, radical in their ortho- doxy, declare, on the contrary, that all races originally descended from a single pair — Adam and Eve — and consecutively from the three pairs saved from the I3eluge ; that all the animal species are derived in the same way from pairs saved at the same time ; that the inhuence of climate and external circumstances soon manifested itself, and that subsequently came the diversity of languages. Put LinnaBUS had some doubts on the subject ; he was dissatished vdth regard to the exceptional character of the country which had supplied the wants of zoological species as opposed to one another as the polar bear and the tropical hippopotamus. Prichard replied that it had to do with the supernatural, and hence, that a little more or a little less made no difference. This must be repeated to those who inquire whether Adam was white, black (Prichard), or red (EiLselius de Salles), or who make him a dolichocephale, while the Pre-Adamites should have been brachyceiBhales (Staniland Wake). AVe pass on to the scientific doctrines. In the first place, we have that of AI. de Quatrefages, who, without allowing himself to be disturbed by influences foreign to science, strongly defends the doctrine of the unity of the human species, while thoroughly acknowledging its very great antiquity. He considers that zoo- logical species are unchangeable in their physical type, and circum- scribed by their character of homogenesis within their own area, and of heterogenesis outside it.t Human races are only varieties arising from the influence of climate and external circumstances (milieux), and of crossing, and may be reduced to a small number^ * “ Praeadamitas,” by Isaac de la Peyrere : Ed. Elzevier, Amsterdam, 1655. t “ De I’Unite de I’Espece Humaine,” 1 voL, Paris, 1869 ; “ Kapport sur les Progres de I’Anthropologie,” Paris, 1869 ; “ Le 9 ons Professees au Museum,” in “ Kevue des Cours Scieutiliques,” 1864-65, 1867-68, &c., by M. de Quatrefages. 518 POLYGENISM. [Chap. i. all of which come from one and the same stock. Man was created in the beginning, in conditions to us unknown, by the intervention of an extraneous force, or by a supreme will. M. de Quatrefages^ therefore, recognises but one human species, and in deference to man's elevated rank, and his character for religiousness, he con- cedes to him a place apart in the zoological series, under the name, proposed by Isidore G. Saint-Hilaire, of regne liumain. The various arguments in favour of this doctrine have been examined in the course of this work. We merely remark that religiousness is not really peculiar to ]\Ian ; and that among men, whether individuals or races, many do not possess it; that the influence of external circumstances is but little, and does not — as far as we can see, and in the present state of things, as Geotfroy Saint-Hilaire said — succeed in producing a new physical character indefinitely transmissible ; that fecundity exclusively taking place between individuals of the same species is not the criterion of the species ; and, lastly, that the interval which physically separates the principal human types is equal to, if not sometimes greater than, that which separates and determines zoological species. The origin of species, Agassiz maintained, is lost in the obscurity of the first estab- lishment of the present state of things. Species are not strictly fixed within certain limits, nor determined by the faculty of indivi- duals of being fertile only inter se. Human races differ as much as certain families, certain genera, or certain species. They were pro- duced, in some independent way, on eight different points of the globe, or centres, which are as distinct in their fauna as in their flora. Agassiz admitted, nevertheless, the intervention, at every phase of the history of the world, of a superior will, operating by virtue of a preconceived plan.* The third of these propositions, coming from a naturalist of such world-wide renoAvn, has considerable weight ; and agrees with our own conclusions as anthropologists. As to his centres of creation, which he calls realms {des royaumes'), their particular localisation is only justified, as regards some of them, by the flora and fauna * “ Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the World,” by Professor Agassiz, in “ Types of Mankind,” by Nott and Gliddon. Philadelphia, 1854. Chap, i.] transformis:m. 519 generally, but not by Man ; the Australian realm for example. To bis ^Vrctic realm, apparently so proper, it may be objected that it is noAv entirely peopled by men and animals which have been im- ported there, and that their conditions of existence were precisely identical at one time in the centre of France. The doctrine of j\r. de Quatrefages is classical monogenisin, which must be dis- tinguished from the new monogenism of which we shall speak presently : that of Agassiz is a special polyrjenism. Both are allied to each other, in that they search into the secret of the formation of iNlan outside the known natural laws which regidate the universe. It is otherwise with the doctrine we are now about to speak of, namely — Transfonnisin. This is of French origin. The entire honour of its introduc- tion is due to A. Lamarck, although I)e Maillet and Kobinet had jireviously sketched out some of its traits. A species, Lamarck wrote in 1809,* varies infinitely, and, covsitlered as regards time, does not exist. Species pass from one to the other by an infinity of transitions, both in the animal and vegetable kingdom. They originate either by transformation or divergence. By going back for ages, we thus come to a small number of prunordial germs, or monads, the offspring of spontaneous generation. Man is no ex- ception to this; he is the result of the slow transformation of certain apes. The ladder to which we before compared the organic king- doms oidy exists, he says, as regards the principal masses. Species, on the contrary, are, as it were, the isolated extremities of the branches and boughs wliich form each of these masses. This striking hypothesis was the offspring of Lamarck’s brain, at a time when the laiowledge of natural history, palaeontology, and embryology was very imperfect, and upon which so vivid a light has since been shed. iN’othing has been added to its principle : the ways and methods of transformation have been discussed, facts of observation have been supplied, genealogical tables of animated * “ Philosophie Zoologique,” by J. B. A. Lamarck, Professeur de Zoologie au Museum, Paris ; 1st edition 1809, 2nd edition 1873, in two volumes. 520 .TRANSFOEMISM. [Chap. i. beings liave been proposed ; but tbe foundation has remained intact both in France, in Germany, and in England. Lamarck, m that he was in advance of his time, and stood forward firmly in advocacy of his theory, showed himself to be a man of genius. The ways and methods of Lamarck may be summed up in a single sentence — the adaptation of organs to conditions of existence.' Change in external circumstances, he says, obliges the animal placed in the presence of animals of greater strength, or in new conditions of life, to contract different habits, which produce an increased activity in certain organs, a diminution, or a want of exercise, in others. By virtue of the physiological law inherent in every organism, that the organ, or a certain part of the organ, diminishes or increases in proportion to the work that it performs, these organs become modified when submitted to new conditions. The internal power of the organism, dependent on the general function of nutrition which is called forth, is immense. The wants induced by external changes brought it into play. The doctrine in its entirety was too far in advance of the age to have the success which was its due. Cuvier, the advocate of the orthodox opinions of the time, had but little difficulty in stifling it in the cradle — Cuvier, who ridicided the idea of the foundation of the Xormal school, as well as the honorary title of elhve granted by the Convention to Lacepkle. Notwithstanding this, however, the doctrine had its adepts. Li France — Poiret, Bory de Saint-Yincent, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ; abroad — Trevhanus, Oken, Goethe. From the year 1818 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire became its champion, and laid particular stress on the immediate effects on the body of external chcumstances. Cuvier a second time resumed the discussion, and, in opposition to him, propounded his own doctrine on the periodical revolutions of the earth, of the renewal each time of the Flora and Fauna, and of the incessant and mhacidous intervention of a creative vdll. The contention between these two powerful geniuses had to do with the movement which ended in the Eevolution of 1830. Authorit 3 "at last had the advantage, and in France tmnsformism was vanquished. But the number of its proselytes increased from far and wide. The last Chap, i.] DARWINISM. 521 work of Goetlie was favourable to it. IJotanists, especially, accepted the new doctrine — AV. Herbert, P. Alathews, Lecoq, Hooker, Pafi- nesque, Xaudin. Then the geologists — Omaliiis dTIallo}', Keys- serling, and other savants. L. Euch, S chaff haiiser, Herbert Spencer, and Lyell had already cleared the way, by sapping at the foundation the theory of the periodical catastrophes of Cuvier, when Charles Darwin made his appearance, in 1859. This great naturalist was not vividly impressed by the views of Lamarck. His own ideas j^assed through his mind during his voyage round the world in the Beagle.^ On his return to London, six years afterwards, he studied the results which were obtained by breeders on animals, and he devoted himself to make experiments, especially on pigeons. The subject of artificial selec- tion most occupied him, when one day he stumbled on the work “ On Population,” by Malthus. This was a streak of light ; the Avord Avhich Avas to make the fortune of his theory Avas found — “ the struggle for existence.” By a singular coincidence, another English savant, Eichard AVallace, A\dio had taken up his abode in ^lalaisia, foiuvarded to him at that moment a memoir, supported by facts, in AAdiich the same ideas Avere set forth. But Mr. AWallace, Avith his task hardly entered upon, recoiled before the consequences of his labours AAdien he perceived that they, of necessity, applied to Man. Charles DarAAun, on the contrary, persevered, and it is Avith justice that his countrymen ga\"e to his theory the name of DarAvinism, a theory AAdiich should be thus defined : “ Natural selection, by the struggle for existence, applied to the transformism of Lamarck.” AVe knoAV that breeders and horticulturists obtain, almost at Avill, the neAV forms Avhich they desire, by first selecting from one and the same species, then from the offspring of a first cross, then from those of the next crosses, and so on, individuals possessing in the highest degree the A'-ariety requned. A iieAv species is thus de- veloped, and by dint of perseverance, fixed. The divergences from * “ Voyage d’un Natiiraliste autour tlu Monde, a bord dii Navire le Beagle, de 1831 a 1836,” by Charles Darwin. Traduction de E. Barbier- Reinwald. 522 TEAJsSFOEMISM. [Chap. i. the primitive type whicli are obtained are very strange. They have to do Avith colour, form of the head, the proportions of the skeleton, the configuration of the muscles, and even with the habits (inceurs) of the animal. Sir John Sebright undertook to produce in three years a certain feather in a bird, and in six years a certain form of beak or head. In this consists “ artificial selection,” as it is effected by the intelligent hand of j\Ian on animals in a state of domestica- tion. But is not the same result sometimes produced naturally in wild animals'? ]\Ir. Darwin affirms it, by substituting for the hand of Man the chance circumstance derived from vital competition {concurrence). Competition is a general laAv of the universe^ — it is exerted between physical forces, between beings of the two kingdoms, betAveen men, betAveen peoples. Under the name of “ struggle for existence ” it is even useful ; Avithout that, there Avould soon be a retardation of everything upon the face of the earth. It has been calculated that a single pair of elephants — the sloAvest of all animals to breed — ^Avould produce, barring all restraints, fifteen millions of 3 ^oung in five hundred years. Derham, quoted by Boudin, speaks of a Avoman, aaTio died at 93 years of age, as liaAung 1298 children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. ]\Ialthus has proved that lAopulation increases in a geometrical ratio, Avhile the resources of that population only augment in an arithmetical ratio. The laAv of the stronger predominates everyAvhere — the large devour the small ; those the best protected by their organisation, the best pro- vided Avith means of attack or of resistance to external agencies, surAUAm the longest ; the more numerous they are, and the longer they liA^e, the more they multiply and establish a stock in preference to those AAdio are less favoured. Spontaneous Avariability is another element of the DarATinian theory. Tavo indmduals of the same species, or of the same family, do not resemble each other in every respect ; they differ by characters of no A^alue, or by characters Avhich gh^e them an ad- vantage in the struggle OA^er those AAffiose Avants, or conditions of climate, food, and external circumstances of CA'ery sort are the same. The animal Avitli a protective-coloured skin, that is one Chap, i.] SELECTION. 523 like tlie ground upon wliicli lie is moving, vull better escape his enemies. In one of Darwin’s works there is a very curious ex- ample of this kind in hutterllies. The animal with the thick fur will he under more favourable circumstances at the poles, the one with the sleek skin at the equator. Every advantage acquired from biiih, and therefore more easily transmissible in consequence, places the individual in a better condition for resistance to causes of destruction and to sterility. It follows, then, that certain individuals are, as it were, selected, chosen by a natural process which replaces the agency of ]\Ian in artiticial selection ; and that these individuals are precisely those Avho are separated the most from others by some new character. The thing being repeated for many generations, the divergences become marked, the tendency to inheritance increases, and new types are formed, farther and farther removed from the point of departure. It follows, also, that wherever an cnsemhJe of conditions exhibits itself, Avhich allows a divergence to be developed without being stifled by rival divergences, it will take its place in the series of beings, and possibly form one for the occupation of a zoological species. One difference between artificial and natural selection is in the time they require for a transformation to become confirmed. In the former nothing is left to chance ; matters progi’ess rapidly, but tho types are not thoroughly fixed, and readily revert to the primitive type. In the latter we must reckon by ages, chance also inter- vening, for the destruction of that which has commenced oidy te be completed. The results once obtained are more stable. Be- tween the methods set forth by Lamarck and those of Darwin there are important differences. As regards the former, the point of departure of transformation is in the external circumstance which modifies the way of living and creates new habits, new wants, which induce a change in the nutrition and structure of organs. Eor the latter, the point of departure is in the superiority that procures for tho individual some advantage in the daily struggle. Lamarck considers that variation is effected gradually in the course of existence. Darwin, that it appears spontaneously at birth, or rather during embryonic life. To the process of selection 524 TKANSFORMISM. [Chap. i. by vital competition, Mr. Darwin adds selection Ijy sexual com- petition, which depends on the will, on the choice and vitality of the individuals, and especially affects the males.* The Germans, who have vigorously espoused the cause of transformism, particularly Hteckel, recognise two orders of methods. They give to those of the French school, including changes of life and habits, of food and climate, training, the excess or want of use of organs, the name of phenomena of direct adaptation ; and to those of the English school, that is to say, to congenital characters, the name of phenomena of indirect adaptation. En- deavours have been made to see whether there may not be other processes of formation of species. According to the doctrine of Darwin, the new character pre-exists in the germ, and depends on the intluence of the parents even before concejition. According to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the action of climate and external circum- stances is not confined to its exercise uiion the individual in the course of existence, it may equally make itself felt in the germ in progress of development, and produce varieties, sometimes monstrosities. Such would be the origin of the race of gnato oxen of La Plata. In the above processes it is only a question as to slow transformations. AVe might also have sudden transforma- tions. “ An accident which it is not necessary to mention,” writes E. Geoffroy Saint-IIilaire, “trifling at its origin, but of incalculable importance in its effects, has been sufficient to change the inferior type of oviparous vertebrata into an ornithological type. The process of M. Kdlliker would be ecpially an accident, taking for his point de dipart the various degrees of geneagenesis and the succession of forms in the development of the embryo. He thinks that beings may produce other beings separated from their parents by characters of species, genus, and even of class. He bases his theory on that which takes place sometimes in inferior forms, and supposes, as regards the superior, that a normal egg may * “ La Descendance de THomme et la Selection Sexuelle,” by Ch. Darwin ; translated into French, 2nd edition, Paris, 1873. See also “ L’Origine des Especes et de la Yariation des Animaux et des Plantes sous 1’ Action de la Domestication,” by the same. CUAP. I.] GRADATION OF FORMS. 525 go past the period of its ordinary development, and give origin to a higher organisation. These theories and processes concern the two organic kingdoms. The limits of this work do not allow of our entering into the subject further, and we must confine ourselves to Man. Do they apply to ^lan, as well as to animals ] Evidently they do, or they are false : laws are uniform. As Ave said in the early part of this work, the Primates form the first natural group of the order of ISIammalia, thanks to a certain number of characters common to them and to tlie succeeding orders. ^loreover, tliis group presents numerous points of contact Avith the latter, and, in the series of families of Avhich it is composed, an ascending gi*adation of types is observed, becoming more and more perfect. Thus, at the bottom of the scale Ave have the Lemurs, some of Avhich are allied to the Insectivora, others to tlie Cheiroptera, and even to the Marsupialia ; above them the CebiaiLS, many of Avhosc genera are lemui*s in a state of transition ; then the Pithecians, some species of Avhich seem derived from Cebians. AfterAvards, the anthropoid apes make their appearance, separated by a sensible interval, if one of them, the Gibbon, did not diminish it, oAving to his numerous features of resemblance to the Pitliecians. At the summit is ^lan, many of Avhose types approximate in many of their features to the Anthropoids. Their elifferences, indeed, may be thus summed up: (1) There are motlifications of form connected Avith the decidedly A-'ertical attitude of !Man and the oblifpie attitude of tlie Antliropoid ; (2) The more perfect adaptation of the foot and hand to their respective functions of locomotion and preliension in INIan ; (3) The A'olume of tlie brain, Avhich is three times as large, or more, in Man, thus causing a corresponding activity of the organ, and a proportionate development of all its functions; namely, language, observation, judgment, Ac. The continuity, on the one hand, of the inferior order of Mammalia Avith the superior order of Primates, and in this latter of its inferior family of Lemurs Avith its superior family of ^lan passing through the Anthropoids more nearly akin to Man than to the Pithecians ; and, on the other hand, the continuity of certain human races Avith others rising higher and higher in 526 TEANSFORMISM. [Chap. i. the scale are clearly the result of this. Moreover, hetAveen one type and another, sufficiently recognised for naturalists to make them the representatives of special groups, whether of order, family, genus, or species, some variation of the organ, or some hastard species, almost always comes in to establish the transi- tion. Natura non facit saltum. It might he said that a creative force had been at work, step by step, leaving its track behind it, and that groups are due to the periods of repose during which that force was in operation on a certain spot, with a view the better to increase the number of forms. "When Lamarck supposed that Man was the issue of the chimpanzee, his mind was atten- tively engaged in observing both the family of Primates in jDarticular and the animal kingdom in general. The rudimentary organs in Man, or vestiges of })erfectly useless organs — like the ilio-cajcal appendix — which are well developed in other species among the Mammalia, and the unusual appearance of organs, like the supplementary mammoB, or conformations peculiar to other animal species, furnish so many arguments in favour of transfor- mation. On no other hypothesis are they to be explained. They may be phenomena of atavism, of remote reminiscences, of facts of reversion. (See i3age 127.) Embryology woidd also be favourable to the doctrine. (See page 129.) “The series of diverse forms which every individual of a species passes through,” says Haeckel, “ from the early davui of his existence, is simply a short and rapid recapitulation of the series of specific multiple forms through which his progenitors have passed, the ancestors of the existmg species, during the enormous duration of the geological periods.”* A . series of teratological cases, entering into the arrests, and even into the perversions of development, of the embryo, are thus explained. Hare-lip, polydactilia, microcephaly, are, as it were, hesitations of the principles of evolution, attempts on its part to stop at points where it had rested in anterior forms, or to progress in other pre- viously-followed directions. Human palaeontology does not reach * “Histoire de la Creation des Etres Organises d’apres les Lois Naturelles,” by E. Hseckel. French translation. Paris, 1874. Chap, i.] ADAPTATION OF ORGANS. 527 back siifiicieiitly far for us to found any arguments upon it : it sliould pass beyond the last or quaternary period. The most ancient human fossil of this period, however, is favourable to the idea of a derivation of man from the antlu’opoid. Direct proofs as to transformism are not wanting. In so far as Man is concerned, the matter is clear ; but rational proofs, as Geotfroy Saint-IIilaire said, are abundant. Tiansformism imposes itself as a necessity : everything is as if things had thus taken place ; or man was created out of nothing, by enchantment ; or he proceeds from that which existed previously. But what are we to think as to the mode 1 Those of direct adaptation of organs to life are so rational, they are so conformable to the general laws of physiology, that it Avould be unwise to reject them positively. Of course we have never seen a White changed into a Black, nor smooth hair into AvooUy ; but in time, by passing through inter- mediate races produced by crossing, there is no proof that the phenomena might not have taken place. AVe are too exacting. Prichard was anxious to prove that AVhites might make their appearance spontaneously among Xegi’oes. All his arguments were VTong, in that he entirely left out of sight the way in which races have become removed from place to place. But we are not at all sure that his aspirations, if better supported, might not now triumph. The brain increases in volume, and its convolutions in- crease in richness, in proportion to the degree of activity of which they are the seat, bringing in their train a series of subordinate craniological characters. Nutrition and external circumstances may in the same way cause the stature and colour of individuals to vary as well as the proportions of the body. La fonction fait V organs of Lamarck is a demonstrative fact. AVhen a muscle is paralysed, it becomes atrophied, the osseous eminences in which it is inserted disappear, the skeleton becomes deformed. In ])ersons who have lost a limb by amputation, the nerves, having become useless, progressively become atrophied from their extremity to their central point in the brain {Lugs). The digestive tube is dilated, and the belly becomes large in those who are large eaters of vegetable food. All the difficulty is in the transmission of 528 TEAXSFORMISM. [Chap. r. the acquired individual character ; clearly, facts are at faidt here. There is no proof, however, that the tribe of Akkas is not indebted for its diniinutiveness to the fact of inheritance fixing accidental characters. If the albinos are as common among the Monbouttous as Dr. Schweinfiirth states, the question is, Avhether circumstances being favourable, a new species may not some day start up. Sup- posing in that country, through some catastrophe, the temperature and radiation should be suddenly lowered, many woidd die, but the survivors would have a better chance of thriving. In poly- dactilia, kipposing crossing outside the family did not counteract inlieritance, transmission, now limited to five generations, according to the facts hitherto mentioned, would certainly go beyond. Let us pass on to the methods of indii*ect adaptation of Mr. Darwin. Vital competition is a thing wliich must not be con- founded with selection. It exists, no matter how we apply it, between individuals, as between societies and races. AVe have before us the fact of races inferior in the struggle becoming extinct. The Charruas, the Caribs, the ancient Californians, the Tasmanians, no longer exist ;,the Australians, the Xegritos, the Esquimaux, are fast following them. The Polynesian, the American Indians, will soon be in their wake, if they have no chance of surviving except by crossing. The superior races, on the contrary, tlirive and in- crease. It is easy to foretell tjm nioment when the races which now decrease the interval between the AVhite man and the Anthropoid shall have entirely disappeared. There is nothing mysterious in this extinction ; its mechanism is altogether natural (seepage 413). The result will be the survivance of those most adapted to benefit the superior races. But at one time, in Australia, in Alalaisia, in America, and in Europe it was not so. These very races which now are succumbing, were superior relatively to others which no longer exist. The Australians of the present, Avhom we look upon as savages, liaA^e a civilisation con- formable to their external condition, a certain social organisation — in relation to the Xegritos of the interior of the Philippines, for example. AA"e think we have proved that they have ejected a negro race inferior to themselves, as we now eject them. The Chap, i.] APPLICATION TO MAN. 529 wandering aborigines of AVestern Australia, described by Scott I^ind, are tlie remnants of this race. In our own country, the races of the Perigord, which have disappeared before, or become absorbed into, the luachy cephalic races from the East and the blondes from the North, have played the same part before the races anterior to the Neanderthal as these probably did to the Miocene races of Thenay and Saint-Prest. In these successive extinctions, which exliibit to us series of generations, strata of more and more perfect races succeeding and replacing each other, do we not recog- nise the selection by vital competition of ^Ir. Darwin 1 Put where is the character which gives the advantage in the struggle ? Among animals, and during the first ages of the human race, the power which enabled them the better to defend themselves against other living beings, and against changes of climate and external con- ditions, was necessarily of a physical kind, sucli as quick-sighted- ness, more acute snieU, more vigorous muscles, a constitution better adapting itself to cold or heat, to marsh miasm, or to certain kinds of diet. If ISIaii acclimates tolerably well now, it must not be for- gotten that he owes the power, in a gi’eat measure, to the processes which he makes use of. Formerly he must have succumbed, or his constitution must have been modified. AVe speak here especially of sudden acclimation. Put from the period when societies Avere formed, and moral force took its legitimate supremacy over brute force, the advantage remained with the most skilful, the most industrious — in a Avord, AAuth the most intelligent. Selection, from lienceforth, AA’’as made to the adA^antage of a single organ. The largest brains — those Avith the richest convolutions, and Avith the most delicate structure, Avith the most appropriate histological elements — Avere the most favoured. Hence a state of progress Avhich is undeniable. The process of ]\Ir. DarAvin has, therefore, had its effect in the past, as it has noAV in the present. With appropriate institutions Ave might direct it, and accelerate its abeady so remarkable results. The external circumstances of Lamarck must, in fact, have an action of Avhose mechanism Ave knoAV nothing. The selection of Mr. DarAvin has one of Avhich Ave are certain. With the latter AA^e 2 M 530 THE PRECUKSOE, OF MAN. [Chap. i. reckon by strata of races, witb tbe former we must do the same. The characters which we now see permanent in a given race are not the more so when we compare a succession of races. Absolute immobility nowhere exists, and fixity of species is only relative. May there not be other processes contributing to gradual transformation ] Certainly not. There are three orders of characters which transformisin explains, says M. Broca, some of evolution, others of improvement, a thii'd sei'ial. But there is a fourth, the unimportant, the key to which he does not give. Such are the presence of the os intermedium of the carpus, the absence of a nail on the great toe, and the absence of a round ligament in the hip-joint, j)eculiar to the orang-outang among Anthropoids. MTiy, how, and when, did these characters take their origin % Another objection is that, in going back in the past, we do not find human races differing much from the races of the present ; that we do not find, for example, men Avith half the cranial capacity of those of the present. But do Ave discover the Pliocene Man and the Miocene Man by the flint implements of Saint-Prest and Thenay % The former made use of fire, the latter did not : is not this a reason for suspecting that the fact of the Amlume of his brain being less Avas the cause ? If he was unacquainted AA’ith fire he ought not to have the sense to bury his dead. The Anthropoids are in this condition, and Ave have none of their remains. Probably also, human bones do not last for so immeasurably prolonged a period. HoAvever, on smweying the road travelled OA^er, and the discoveries made dui’ing the last fifteen years, we must not despair. Is it not by chance, when making a road or a railway cutting, or after a land-slip, or an earthquake, that discoA^eries of this kind are made % Here a man of intellect, and one interested in the subject, should be at hand. How, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and even the greater part of Europe, are still as it Avere virgin soils. Perhaps, also, the stratum in which is noAv lying the precurseur, not possessing language, announced by G. de Mortniet and HoA^elacque is at present submerged \ perhaps he has only existed on a very limited point of the globe. Some day or other he may present himself before us under the form of a CuAF. I.] THE PRECURSOR OF MAN. • 531 skeleton stranded upon some bank of time, as at Grenelle ; cruslied under a rock, as at Langerie-Haute ; or embedded in lava, as at Denise. The derivation of ^lan from some previously-existing form being admitted, the question is what this form may have been. Lamarck believed it to have been a chimpanzee. AVe have seen that each of the three great Antliropoids approaches more or less to Man in certain characters, but not one possesses them all. So in the inferior races ; no one race, not even the Bosjesman, is specially marked out as descending from an anthropoid — they are only made to approach more or less by such or such a character. The precursor of !Man, then, is only analogous to the Anthropoids. The human type is an improvement upon the general type of their family, but not of one of their known species in particular. ]M. Hicckel does not express an opinion on this point. He asks whether the dolichocephales of Europe and Africa are not derived from the chimpanzee and the gorilla of the coasts of Guinea, both of which are dolichocephales ; and whether the brachycephales of Asia do not descend, on the contrary, from the brachycephalic orangs of Borneo and Sumatra. ^lany reasons lead to the belief, indeed, that all the dolichocephales are originally from Europe and Africa, and the brachycephales from Eastern Asia, not to speak of the old continent of Asia. j\I. Vogt thinks otherwise. He thinks that ^lan is only cousin-german to the anthropoid, and that the ancestor common to them both is farther off still. Here jM. Ha3ckel speaks positively. He says that this very remote ancestor is an ape of the old continent, a Pithecian, which was itself derived from a Lemur, and this in its turn from a Marsupial. He even gives it the name of Lhnurien — a term borrowed from IVIr. Sclater ; and, as the focus of this series of transformations, a continent now sub- merged, of wliich Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Sunda islands are the remains. But what becomes, in all this, of the old dispute between mono- genists and polygenists '? It no longer has any interest, and, to be ijrief, may be summed up as follows : As to the question of the most elementary human types to which we might go back, types 2 M 2 *^ 532 GENEALOGY OF MAN. [Chap. i. utterly irreducible, whatever their value of genera or species, in the sense usually applied to those words, are they the issue of many Anthropoid ancestors, Pithecoids or others ; or are they derived from a single stock, represented by a single individual of their genera now known, or not The anthropological data given in this work appear to us more favourable to the former opinion, if we accept the transformation theory. The most characteristic races, whether living or extinct, do not form one single ascending series, such as may be compared to a ladder or a tree, but, reduced to their simplest expression, to a series of frequently parallel lines. We shall conclude by giving a rhiime of the possible genealogy of Man, according to Haeckel. Equally relying on comparative anatomy, palaeontology, and embryology, the learned professor of zoology at the University of Jena thus gives his views on the subject of evolution : At the commencement of what geologists call the Laurentian period of the earth, and of the fortuitous union of certain elements of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, under conditions which jDrobably took place only at that epoch, the first albuminoid clots Avere formed. From them, and by spontaneous generation, the fimt cellules or cleavage-masses took their origin. These cellules AA”ere then subdivided and multiplied, and arranged themseh^es in the form of organs, and after a series of transformations, fixed by M. Hieckel at nine in number, gaA^e origin to certain A^ertebrata of the genus Amphioxus lanceolatiis. The dhdsion into sexes Avas marked out, the spinal marroAv and chorda dorsalis became Ausible. At the tenth stage, the brain and the skull made their appearance, as in the lamprey; at the eleventh, the limbs and jaAvs AA^ere developed, as in the dogfish : the earth Avas then only at the Silurian period. At the sixteenth, the adaptation to terrestrial life ceased. At the seventeenth, which corresponds to the Jurassic phase of the history of the globe, the genealogy of Man is raised to the kangaroo among the Marsupials. At the eighteenth, he becomes a Lemurian : the Tertiarj'- epoch commences. At the nineteenth, he becomes Catarrhinian, that is to say an ape with a tail, a Pithecian. At the twentieth, he becomes an Anthropoid, Chap, i.] GENEALOGY OF MAN. 533 continuing so tliroughoiit the ■whole of the Pliocene period. At the twenty-first, he is the man-ape, he does not yet possess language, nor, in consequence, the corresponding brain. Lastly, at the twenty-second, Man comes forth, as we now see him, at least in his inferior forms. Hero the enumeration stops. !M. Hieckel forgets the twenty-third stage, that in which the Lamarcks and INewtons make their appearance. Although having attained so lofty an eminence, ^lan must have had a very low origin, in no way differing from that of the first and most simple organic cor- puscles. What he is now in the womb, he would have been permanently on making his appearance in the animal series. This theory is painful and revolting to those who delight to surround the cradle of humanity with a brilliant aureole ; and if we were to boast of our genealogy and not of our actions, we might indeed consider ourselves hiiniLliated. Lut what is this new restraint to our amcnir-propre in comparison with that which astronomy has already imposed 1 When the earth was fixed in the centre of the system, and it was thought that the universe was created for the earth, and the earth for ^lan, our pride ought to have been satisfied. This doctrine, called by the Germans “ geocentric,” as applied to the earth, and “ anthropocentric,” as applied to j\Ian, was perfectly co-ordinate ; but it fell to the ground the moment it was demonstmted that the earth is only the humble satellite of a sun which itself is but one of the luminous points in space. It was then, and not now, that Man was truly recalled to humility. It was no longer for him that the sun rose each morning, that the celestial vault was nightly bespangled with innumerable resplendent orbs. Out of all this jMacrocosm there was but one lowly planet left to Man. Like that peasant who dreamt that he was ruler of the world, and woke up to find himself in a simple cottage, it "svas not Avithout regret that he saAv himself thus degraded. Long the remembrance of his vanished dream troubled his thoughts; but he Avas obliged to be resigned, to become accustomed to the reality ; and noAV he consoles himself, as he is no longer this monarch of creation, Avith the thought that he is really sovereign of the earth. This undoubted royalty he has a right to be proud of. But in Avhat Avay is it 534 CONCLUSION. [Chap. i. threatened or diminished by the transformation theory ? Would it be less real if he had brought it under subjugation by himself or inherited it from his first ancestors ? Far from depreciating Man and his origin, the doctrine of Lamarck dignifies and ennobles them, by substituting for the theory of the supernatural the theory of the mutability and natural evolution of organic forms. Eut, after all, what matter to science the regret or complacency of some people ^ Its aims and designs are beyond their compre- hension. Man is not at liberty to put or not to put a curb upon the functional activity of his brain; his spirit of inquiry is the most noble, the most irresistible of his attributes; and as M. Gabriel de Mortillet said at the meeting of the Association for the Advance- ment of Science, his characteristic is here, and not in rehgiousness. For want of knowledge the imagination muses upon the unknown, and forms it to our own ideal. But to true observers the reality is sufficient; they contempMe the magnificent spectacle which is opening out before them ; they even worship nature in its beauty, its grandeur, its harmony, and its thousand varieties of form and movement. The animal has the simple notion of cause and effect, and sees that the boundary of his faculties and senses is limited. Man alone investigates and wills ; his horizon is indefinite, like his intellectual faculties when they are exercised without trammel. Let us not, therefore, seek to contract the circle of knowledge. Is it not knowledge which has conducted us step by step, age after age, to the degree of prosperity we now enjoy 1 Is it not this which engenders civilisation, which adds to our weU-being, brings to us the purest satisfaction, instructs us in philosophy, and secures our supremacy over everything on our planet ^ Each one has his task to perform in this immense sphere. To some is given subjects of study relating to the progress of life ; to others its realities. Let the former have for their object the development in society of ideas of justice, honour, and morality, without which it cannot exist. The means are within their power. Our part is to ascertain facts, to deduce from them laws, and to look at them cahnly, without allowing ourselves to be carried away by our feelings. Whatever may be his origin, whatever his future destiny, Man, Chap, i.] CONCLUSION. 535 to the anthropologist, is hut a Manmiifer, whose organisation, wants, and diseases are in tlie highest degree complex ; whose brain, with its adinirahle functions, have reached the highest development. As such, he is subject to the same laws as the rest of the animal creation ; as such, he is a participator in their destinies. THE END. INDEX, “Abajous’* ... PAOB ... 96 Angle, Basilar, of Broca 54, PACK 285 Ahassians ... 452 of condyles, Ecker ... 294 Ahyssinians ... . 387, 507 yj Corono-facial, of Gra- Acclimation ... ... 392 tiolet 291 Accras ... ... 487 yy Cranio-facial,of Ecker Acrocephaly ... ... 176 and Huxley 292 Adamawa negroes ... 487 99 Endo-cranial, of Broca 294 Adaptation of organs to mi- Facial, of Camper 42, 286 lieux... ... 527 99 ,, of Cloquet 41 , 44 Afghans ... 241, 386, 448 Agenesis ... ... ... 369 Age of skeleton ... ... 128 Agglutinative languages . . 423 Aigtas ... ... ... ... 499 Amos 242, 304, 350, 431, 476, 504 Akkas ... ... ... ... 322 Albinos 161 Aleutians ... ... 242, 473 Alienation, Mental ... ... 163 Allophyle Kaces 202 Alsatians ... ... 241, 474 Altai, Kalmuck of the ... 254 Alveolar arch .. . ... 35,59 ,, point ... 35, 234 Alveolo-condylean plane 55, 267 ,, -sub-nasal prognathism 281 Amokosah ... ... ... 490 Ama-Xosas ... ... ... 320 Ama-Zidus ... ... 426, 490 Americans 211, 231, 334, 398, 404, 479 Ancient Britons ... 231, 241 Andamans 242, 423, 445, 499 Angles, Craniometrical, in general ... ... ... 283 291 ,, ,, of Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire 42 ,, ,> of Jacquart ... 43, 286, 330 ,, Frontal ... ... 275 ,, of inclination of cra- niometrical planes 267 ,, of lower jaw 135, 262 ,, Metafacial, of Serres 291 ,, Naso-basal, of Welcker 255 ,, of neck of femur ... 142 ,, Occipital, of Broca 53, 285 ,, ,, of Dauben- ton 53, 284 ,, Orbital ... ... 57 ,, Parietal, of De Quatre- fages ... ... 288 ,, of prognathism 280, 282 ,, of Segond 47 ,, Sphenoidal, of Welcker 292 , , of supination of radius 75,77 ,, Symphysian . . . ... 262 ,, of torsion of humerus 75 Annamites ... ... 311, 338 Annular deformation of skull 182 ,, protuberance ... 102 Anomalies ... ... 126, 160 INDEX. 537 PAGE Antelme’s cephalometer ... 296 Antes ... ... ... ... 454 Anteversion of processes of vertebrae ... ... ... 64 Antisians ... ... 345, 391 Anthropoid apes 24, 45, 48, 50, 56, 6-1, 78, 85, 90, 117, 187, 290, 293 Anthropological societies, Foundation of ... ... 17 Anthropologists ... ... 1 Anthropology, Definition of... 2 ,, Division of ... 18 , 25 ,, Applications of 10 ,, Biological 364 ,, History of ... 13 ,, Zoological 25 ,, Relations of, with art 12. 315 „ ,, ethnography 7, 419 „ „ ethnology 8, 25, ,417 ,, „ history 13, 427 ,, ,, linguistics 423 Anthropometry 81 Aphasia 109 Aphemia 109* 157 Appendix, Vermicular 96 ,, Xyphoid Aqueduct of Sylvius . . . 70 115 Aquitanians ... 44i’ 459 Arabs ... 274, 394, 463, 486 Araucanians ... 321 Arch, Alveolar 35 ., 59 ,, ,, Forms of 260 Arches, Superciliary... 33^ 210 Archencephales 116 Archaeology, Prehistoric 434 Armenians 457 Art, Relations of Anthro- pology with 12, 316 Aryans... ... 424, 430 Ashantis 487 Aspect of skulls 214 Assiniboins 480 Assyrians ... 358, 462 “ Asterion ” * ... 238 Atavism 380 Athabascans ... 453 Auricular angle ... 277, 299 „ foramen 33 „ point ... ... 234, 238 „ radii ... 270 Australians 375, 414, 501 PAGE Australoids ... ... 201, 447 Austrians ... ... 242, 311 j Auvergnians 211, 230, 249, 285, 288, 327, 460 I Axis, Cerebro- spinal ... ... 101 Aymaras ... 183, 387, 481 Aztecs, Microcephales, called 166 Bakalais Bamharras Bantou languages Bardbras Basion ... ... 487 ... 488 426, 490 ... 485 32,234,238 230, 244, 249 257, 259, 286, 327, 414 490 ... 477 241, 398 490 487 459 Bassoutos BattaJcs Bulgarians Beak of the encephalon 115, 295 Bechuanas Begharmi negroes Belgce ... Belgians ...319, 329, 334, 336 Bei-hers 321, 334, 415, 417, 461 Bhils 456, 504 Birmese ... ... 241, 254 Blondes 347, 449 Blood, Circulation of... ... 401 Blumenbach’s norma verticalis 214, 261, 418 Body, Development of ... 128 ,, Weight of ... ... 398 Boers ... ... ... ... 393 Bohemians ... ... ... 394 Boomerang ... ... ... 421 Bornh negroes ... ... 487 Boronos ... ... ... 453 Bosjesmans 247, 281, 304, 345, 493 Bosnians ... ... ... 454 Bosses, Frontal 33, 210, 275 „ Occipital ... ... 211 „ Parietal ... ... 210 Botocudos ... ... 183, 321 Boulus ... ... ... ... 487 Boundary riders ... ... 382 Brachycephali ... ... 238 Brachystocephali ... ... 238 Brahmans ... ... ... 456' Brain ... ... ... 102, 309 „ Measurement of ... 125 ,, Weight of ... 120, 309 Breasts, The ... ... 100, 362 538 INDEX. Bregma PAGE 1 ... 234 ‘‘Chanchas” ... PAGE 423 Bretons 230, 241, 327, 348, 459 Chaouias 360 Breyzad language ... 459 Characters in general . , . 18, 446 Britons, Ancient 231, 241 507, 529 Broca’s occipital crochet ... 209 . Anthropometrical . . . 315 „ goniometer . . . ... 330 Archseological 433 ,, stereograph ... ... 268 Craniometrical 40, 218 Bronze Age ... 422 5 ) Descriptive, 208-213, 297, Brown Races ... ... 453 314, 340 Bugis ... 254, 477 ?) Ethnic 417 Bulgarians 242, 430 yy Historical 426 Burgundians, Ancient 324, 443 Intellectual ... 148, 407 Bussahirs, or Bishari 345, 452 Linguistic 423 yy Osteometrical 301 Csecum ... 96 yy Pathological ... 158, 412 Cafusos ... 166, 352, 381 yy Physical 30, 204, 314 Calabar negroes ... 487 yy „ on the living Calcaneum 36, 307 subject 314 Caledonians, New ... 495 yy Physiological 127, 363 Calf of the leg ... 93 yy Rational and empirical 222 Calif ornioms ... 345, 481 yy Unimportant... 308, 530 Callipers ... 232 Characteristic, General, of Callosities of buttocks in Human Family “ Charbon ” in horned cattle . . . 406 apes ... Camper’s facial angle ... 94 159 42, 286 Charruas ... 321, 386, 481 Cannibalism ... ... 419 Chestnut hair ... 348 Cannon bone ... ... 40 Chiasma optic... 102 Canstadt, Race of ... 437 Chin, The 60, 360 ,, skulls ... 439 Chinese 230, 240, 249, 257, 286, Capacity of skull ... ... 48 ,, Mode of proceeding for measuring ... 228 „ in Mammalia... ... 48 ,, in Anthropoids ... 50 ,, in Man at different 321, 335, 361, 402, 472 Chinoolcs ... ... ... 181 Choanoid muscle ... ... 95 Cicatrices in negroes ... 413 Cimbri . , . Cimmerians ... 459 179, 459 ages 131 Cingalese 452 „ in the Human Races 229 Circumference of the skull ... 245 „ of the orbits . . . 222 ,, ,, of the chest ... Carpus... 403 microcephales 165 36 ,, of the chest ... 403 Carthaginians 468 Classification of the Human Caste ... 422 Races 198, 443 Catarrhinians ... *23 , 96 ,, „ Mammalia... 22 Cebians 23, 46, 56, 64, 187, 525 ,, ,, Primates ... 23 Celts 459 ,, ,, Vertebrata 21 Centenariaus ... 147 ,, „ Zoological... 18 Cephalic index 236 Clavicle ... ... 36, 303 Cephalo-orbital index 231 Clichy, Female skulls of 437 „ -spinal „ 251 Coccyx... ... ... 31 , 66 Cerebral functions 148* 406 Colour of the eyes 346 Cerebellum 102, 114 Colour of the hair 347 Cerebro-spinal axis ... 101 7 , » skin 342 INDEX. 539 PAGE €olour, Influence of climate on 387 Column, Vertebral ... 31, 63 Conclusion with regard to the Human Family ,, Human Races ,, Man Convolutions, Cerebral 104, ,, Transition ... 102, , , Variations of, in Mam- malia Cord, Umbilical Corpora striata. Corpus callosum ... 101, Corpuscles of Paccini Corsicans ... 230, 24-4, 281 Cotyloid cavity ... 37, 67 Coxal bone Coxo-femoral articulation Cranial net of Welcker Uraniograph of Broca ,, of Koperni9ki Craniology Craniometrical drawings ,, measurements , , points Craniometry ... Craniophore of Topinard Cranioscopy ... Cranium 31, 40, 165, 176 Crees ... Crest, Temporal Cretinism Cribriform plate of ethmoid... Cricoid cartilage Croats 241, 259, Crochet, Occipital, of Broca Cro-Magnon, Race of... Cromlechs Crossing ... ... 367-377 Cryptozygous zygomatic arch 288, 4S9 Cubic measurement of skull 227 „ „ of orbits 232 Cuneiform deformation of skull 182 Curved lines of skull 210, 235, 246 Curvatures of vertebral co- lunm... ... ... ... 63 Cylindrocephaly ... ... 177 Cymbocephaly ... ... 177 81 206, 185 506 529 113 118 114 101 102 112 95 36 37, 72 ... 295 ... 271 ... 296 ... 206 ... 268 ... 232 ... 234 218 273 206 223 323 57 164 34 98 454 209 438 420 33 D aery on 35, 238 PAGE 487 454 ... 490 ... 485 321, 327, 348 487 Dahomey s Dalmatians Damaras Danahils Danes ... Dar-fur negroes Darwinism Deformations of skull. Artifi- cial ... ... ... 178, Deformities of skull. Patho- logical „ ,, Posthumous „ „ rickety bones 167 Denise, Prehistoric skulls of... 450 Denmark Museum Dentition in the Anthropoid 521 421 176 177 444 131 ,, in Man ... ... 136 Determination of the age of a skull 136 ,, „ sex in the skeleton 143 Development of the body ... 128 „ extremities ... ... 141 „ skeleton ... ... 140 Diagraph of Gavart ... ... 269 Diameters ... ... ... 235 „ Antero-posterior maxi- mum... ... ... 236 „ Transverse maximum 240 „ Frontal ... ... 249 „ Maximum occipital ... 250 ,, Vertical ... ... 243 Diaphysis ... ... ... 36 Diastema ... ... ... 58 Digestion ... ... ... 405 Diopter of Lucae ... ... 269 Diplogenesis ... ... ... 162 Diseases ... ... 158, 413 Distance from medius to pa- tella 334 Divergence of vision... ... 57 Dolichocephali ... ... 240 Dolmens ... 299, 420, 433 Dombers, or Dumhas ... 321, 323 Dondos... ... ... ... 161 Dravidians ...321, 327, 456, 506 Duration of life ... ... 147 Dutch ... 231, 240, 254, 393, 416 Dwarfs... ... ... ... 160 Dyaks of Borneo ... ... 477 Dynamometer, Regnier’s ... 399 Dysgenesis 369 540 INDEX. Ear, The PAGE ... 96 Egiiisheim, Prehistoric skulls 450 Egyptians 240, 485 Elliptical alveolar arch ... 260 Embryology ... ... 128 Encephalon ... 102 „ Weight of, in Mam- malia ... 122 „ In Man 119, 310 „ Proportions of diffe- rent parts of ... 123 Endocrane 31, 294 Endometry ... 295 English 272, 311, 313 , 320, 327, 334, 349, 393, 398, 402 “ Ensellure,” Lumbo- sacral, of Duchenne ... ... 342 “Envergure, Grande” 84, 334 Epactal bone ... ... 208 Epigenesis 131, 162 Epiglottis ... 98 Epiphyses ... 36 Ephippium ... 34 Epochs, Stone ... 433 Equilibrium of head in verti- cal position ... 52, 62 Esquimaux ...230) 240, 252, 313, 396, 444, 473 Esthonians 241, 465 Ethmoid bone ... ... 34 Ethnography ... 7, 419 Ethnology 8, 410, 417 Ethnic mutilations ... 418, 422 Eugenesis ... 369 E ury cephaly ... 176, 238 Eurygnathous ... ... 201 Euskarian language ... ... 425 Extinction of Races, Causes of 413 Extremities, The ... 35, 71, 85 Eyes, Colour of the ... ... 346 „ Oblique direction of the ... 355 Face 212, 235 ,, Bones of 35 ,, Measurements of ... 251 Faculty of language ... 155 Family relations 150 Fans ... * ... 488 Fantis ... 487 Fecundity 366 Fellatahs 485 Feloupas ... ... 487 PAGE Femur ... ... ... ... 36 ,, Obliquity of ... ... 142 „ “a Colonne” ... 300, 391 Fever, yellow. Immunity of blacks against ^... ... 12 Fibula ... ... ... ... 36 ,, channelled ... ... 300 Finlanders ... • ... ... 465 Fins ... ... 321, 327, 465 Firholgs ... ... ... 459 Fissures, Cerebral ... ... 102 Fissure, Calloso-m^rginal ... 113 ,, Perpendicular ... 105 ,, of Rolando ... ... 104* ,, of Sylvius ... ... 104 Flint implements ... ... 420 ,, “St. Acheul” ... 435 ,, “DuMoustier” ... 435 Folds, Cerebral ... ... 102 ,, Curved ... ... 110 ,, Marginal, of Gratiolet 110 ,, Palmar ... ... 95 Fontanelles ... ... ... 133 Foot ... ... ... 36, 71, 80 Foramen, Auricular ... ... 33 ,, Occipital ... 32, 51 Foramina, Parietal ... ... 207 Forearm ... ... 36, 75, 87 ,, Proportions of 86, 335 Forehead ... 219, 275, 354 Fossae, Iliac ... ... ... 67 Foulahs ... ... ... 486 Foulbas 373, 486 French 327, 349, 393, 398, 409, 454 Frontal bone ... ... 34, 248 „ lobe 108 Functions, Cerebral ... ... 148 Fwigi ... ... ... ... 487 Furfooz Race ... ... ... 440 Gaboon, Negroes of the 445 Gaels ... Gallas ... Gallo-Bretons ... Gauging the skull Gauls ... Gavart’s diagraph Genealogy of Man “ Geni tubercles ” Georgians Germans 252, 254, 373, 458, 249, 287, 458 506 459 228 230, 240, 458 260 532 35 457 311, 393, 293 412, 443, 451, 454 INDEX. 541 Germs, Pre-existence of Germinal vesicle Gestation Ghazneoides Giants ... Gipsies . . . Qitanos.., Glabella 33, 209, Glenoid cavity of scapula ... ,, ,, of superior maxilla Glottis ... Goniometer, Facial, of Broca ,, ,, of Jacquart , , Parietal, of Do Quati-e- fages Gonion... Gho^iyxds ... ... 456, Gradation in the animal series ... ... 19, Griquas ... 375, 382, •• ••• ••• Greenlanders ... 240, 245, Grottoes of La Marne Growth of the body ... „ ,, the brain ... Guanches 230, 240, 257, 282, G'uxiranis Guebres Gyrencephaly... PAGE 162 128 146 269 160 3^4 456 238 36 58 98 330 43 289 235 504 525 492 337 415 442 128 130 461 182 358 116 Hair, Influence of milieux on 387 ,, Colour of ... ... 347 , , Fair and dark . . . 348 ,, Character of the ... 351 Hand, The 36, 74, 89 Harmony of the cranium ... 213 ,, of the face ... ... 354 Howssa negroes ... ... 487 Height of the face ... ... 253 ,, forehead ... 273, 275 „ head 273 Hemispheres, Cerebral ... 103 Himyarites ... .. 203, 506 Hindoos ... ... ... 398 Hiung-Nu ... ... ... 467 Hippocampus minor ... ... 102 History, Relation of Anthro- pology with... ... 11, 427 L’Homme-Mort, Cavern of ... 411 Homogenesis ... ... 195, 369 Horizontality of vision ... 55 ‘‘Hottentot Venus” 301, 309, 493 PAGE Hottentots 490, 506 Human type ... ... ... 448 Humerus ... 36, 140, 298 Humerus, Perforation of ole- ci'anon of ... ... 298 ,, Torsion of ... 74, 298 Hungarians ... 254, 425, 467 Hxins ... ... ... ... 469 Hybrids 367 Hydrocephalus ... ... 170 Hyperbolic alveolar arch 59, 260 Hyperborean Race ... ... 200 Hypertrophy of skull... ... 171 Hypsocephaly ... ... ... 176 Ihos 487 Ichthyosis ... ... ... 162 Idiotcy... ... ... ... 163 Iliac bones ... ... 36, 37 “ I mpar ” lobule ... ... 97 Implements, Flint ... ... 420 „ „ “St. Acheul” 435 ,, ,, “DuMoustier” 435 Incas ... ... ... ... 407 Indices in general ... 220, 236 Index, Basilar ... 263, 270 , , Cephalic, on the skeleton 236 ,, „ on the living subject... ... 240 ,, Cephalo-orbital ... 231 ,, ,, -spinal ... 251 ,, Cerebral 125 ,, Facial . ... ... 252 ,, Frontal ... ... 250 ,, of the head ... ... 274 ,, Nasal, on the skeleton 257 ,, j, on the living subject 256, 357 „ Orbital ... 257, 263 ,, Palatine ... 261, 263 ,, Stephanie ... ... 263 ,, Transverso-vertical... 263 ',, Vertical (see Rela- tions) ... 242, 263 Indo-European Race... ... 424- Inferior maxilla. Measurement of 262 “Inion” ... .32, 208, 234 Innuit ... ... ... ... 473 Instructions, Anthropome- trical ... 333, 342 ,, craniological... ... 262 542 INDEX. Insula of Eeil . . . PAGE 108 Intermaxillary bones . . . 39 Intermedium . . . 78 Interparietal bones 32 Irish 231, 241 321, , 334, 348, 451 Iroquois Indians 320, 334, 336 398, &c. Irulas ... 388, 504 Ismaelites ... 463 Italians... 232, 242, 251,’ 454 Jacquart’s goniometer 43 Jahts ... ;.. 456,’ 469 Japanese 199, 203, 445 Javanese 241, 250, 254, 257, 259, 304, 338, 477 Jectanides 463 Jews ... 254, 321, ais. 378’,’ 388, 394, 463 Jivaros Indians 423 Jugal bones . . . ... 34 Jugal point ... 235 Kahyls ... 418, 420, 461 Kaffirs . . . 240, 254, 274, 320 345, 351 KalniucTcs 254, 432, 473 Kamtchadales ... 476 KanaTcas ...231 , 241, 272 ', 478 Kattees... ... ... ... 452 Keel-shaped skulls ... Kephalon Khasovo Khazars Khounds ... ... 456, Kiang-Kuan ... Kirghis ...321, 330, 452, Kjokken-moddings ... Klinoceplialy Xoi-Koin, or Hottentots 490, Koluches ... ... 453, Koperni 9 ki, Oraniograph of... Korannas ... ... 490, Krouman Kumbecephaly Kurds ... Kurumlas ... 321, 456, Kymris... ... ... 259, 211 176 475 467 504 468 468 433 177 492 473 296 492 487 177 457 504 459 Laechs ... ... ... 454 “Lambda” ... ... ... 238 Language, Faculty of 109, 155, 424 Lapps 241, 245, 249, 321, 395, Laryngeal sacs Larynx... Lee-Pangwes ... Leiotrichi ... ... 201, “Lemurien” ... Lemurs ... 23, 46, 77, 80, 189, Leporides Leptorrhinians Life, Duration of ... 147, Ligament, Posterior cervical Ligurians ... ... 348, Line Facial ,, of Daubenton ,, Basio-alveolar ,, Minimum frontal ,, Naso-basilar... ,, Primitive Linguistic characters Lippladins Lissencephales Liver ... Livonians Lobes, Cerebral ... 102, ,, Optic... „ Frontal ,, Occipital ... 110, „ Parietal Lobule, Central ,, Impar „ Oval ,, Quadrangular ,, Triangular ... Locomotion, Function of Lolos ... Long-barrows ... Lozere, Dolmens of La 298, Lucse’s diopter Lumbo-sacral articulation ... Lyencephales ... PAGE 470 99 98 453 351 531 525 196 257 364 52 428 41 53 253 248 254 129 423 373 115 96 465 110 114 108 118 110 108 97 112 112 111 72 476 441 459 269 342 115 Macassars Macrocephaly Macuas Magyars... 242, 321, 398, 465, 467 Mahairs Malcalolos MaTcos . . . Malar bones „ point Malays ... 477 ... 176 ... 490 487, 504 345, 426, 491 487 ... 34 235 274, 281, 429, 445, 472, 476, 506 INDEX. 543 Malayo-Papuans Malay o-Polynesians Malleolus Maltese... Mamelukes Mamillary tubercles ... Mammalia, Convolutions brain in Mammoth Age Man, Origin of Mandans Mandingoes Mantchus Maoris ... Maravers Maxillary bones 203, 36, 34«, 372, of 199, 451, ... 231, ... 456, 35, 58, PAGE 375 478 302 394 395 115 114 435 515 453 487 475 241 504 260 40, Measurements of the cranium 222, 233, 235, Ac. ...251, 326, 330, &c. face body ... brain ... femur head ... nose ... pelvis ... skeleton 68 , 81, 331 125 142 328 357 305 303 Method of averages and in- dices ... ... 230 „ Craniometrical, of the Germans 228, 24-4, 248, 252, 293, 294, 295 ,, of Mantegazza 232, 251 Method of projections ... 263 Method by the double square 273 „ of seriation ... ... 325 ,, of classification of Kaces by their language . . . 424 Metopic point ... „ suture Mexicans ... 231, 402, Miaots4, or Miaou-tse Microcephaly ... “ Microsiime ”... Migrations “ Milieux,” Influence of Mincopies Minuongs Miocene strata Monhouttons ... Mongoloid group Mongo l-Kalkas Monogenism . . . 201 , 234 132 480 ... 448 ... 165 ... 258 ... 431 ... 385 ... 498 ... 371 ... 436 419, 453 216, 471 ... 471 202, 517 Mecistocephales ... 238 Monosyllabic languages ... 423 Medicine, Relation of Anthro- Monstrosities 162 pology to 6 1 Monuments, Megalithic 420, 433 Medulla oblongata ... 101 Moors . . . ... ... 371, 4(53 Megalocephaly ... 176 1 Mop-heads ... 351 “Megastime” ... ... 258 i Morality ... ... 153, 411 Melanesians ... 358, , 376, 496 Morduins 465 Melanochroid group ... ... 202 Moundas . . . 504 Menstruation ... 146, 365 Moxos . . . 391 Mental point ... ... 238 M’Pong-wes ... 426, 487 Merovingians . . . 230, 2K), 281, Mulattoes CO (-* to 334, 336, 398, . 400-406 298 Mesaticephaly... ... 238 Mundas 327 Mesorrhinians... ... 257 Muscles ...63, 91, 307 “Mesos^me” ... ... 258 Muscular strength 399 Metacarpus ... 36 Mutilations, Ethnic ... 418, 422 Metatarsus ... 36 Mythologies M’Zahites 411 Method of zoological classifi- 461 cation ... 18 „ comparison of skulls, Nahuas... ...181, 185, 429, 481 &c., Blumenbach’s 214 Namaquas ... 281, 492 „ Camper’s ... 42 Nares, The ... 358, 359 „ Cuvier’s ... 46 Nasal point 238 „ Daubenton’s ... ... 56 „ spine 35 „ Owen’s ... 215 Nashu ... 428 „ Prichard’s ... 216 Natchez... ... ... 181, 185 544 JOsBEX. PAGE ISTationality ... ... ... 9 ISTaulette, La, Jaw of... 60, 437 Neanderthal, Cranium of ... 437 Negroes ...230, 240, 244, 249, 250-255, 267-276, 280-293, 311-313, 334-338, 366, 398-406, 413, 428, 445 Negritos ...321, 327, 487, 408 Neolithic Epoch ... ... 434 Neptunian Race ... ... 200 Neiv Caledonians New Zealanders Nose, The Nicoharians Nogays ... “ Norma Yerticalis ' Normans Norivegians Nouairs Nouias ... 230, 247, 257, 495 231, 398, 95, 256, ... 321, 404 358 336 469 214, 264, 288 348, 425, 443 323 487 374 Nubians ...230, 240, 249, 487 Nya/m-Nyams ... ... ... 485 “Obelion” 133, 234 Obesity ... ... ... 160 Obliquity of the femur . . . 142 Obongos ...322, 345, 413, 494 Occipital bone... ... ... 31 „ lobe ... no ,, maximum point ... 238 „ Third condyle of ... 33 ,, crochet ... ... 209 Odour of the skin ... ... 361 “ Ogive,” Configuration of the skuU, “en” ... 211 Olfactory bulb ... 102 Olmo, Female skulls of ... 437 “Ophryon” ... “Opisthion” ... ... 33 32, 238 Opisthognathous ... 278 Optic chiasma... ... 102 „ lobes ... 114 ,, thalami... ... 102 Ora/ngs- lautts ... ... 388 Orbits, The ... 232, 259, 355 Organs of reproduction ... 100 , , Rudimentary . . . ... 125 Origin of Man ... ... 515 Orotchys ... 322 Orrouy, Prehistoric skulls of 212 Orthocephaly ... ... 238 Orthognathous 201 PAGE , 278 Osages ... . 372 Osmanlis , 469 Ossetians 452 , 457 Ossification of the sutures ... . 131 „ long bones . . . . 140 Osteological considerations . . , . 29 Osteometrical characters , 301 Osteometry , 81 OstiaTcs... 465 Ouigours, or Ugrians... 467 Ou-Sioun 468 Ova-heveros 490 Oxycephaly ... 176 Pachycephaly ... 177 Pahuins 486 Palate bones ... 34 Paleolithic Epoch 434 Palmar folds ... 95 Papuans . . . 321, 351,’ 495 Parabolic alveolar arch 260 Paraderos,” Prehistoric 445* 482 Paragenesis ... 369 Parietal bones... 33 „ lobe 109 Parisians 240, 244—250, , 291, , 298 Par sees ... ... 423, 429, 457 Patagonians ... 482 Patans ... 452 Patella ... 31 Pathological characters 158* 412 Paws ... 181 Peduncles, Cerebral ... 101 Pehuelhas 368 Pelvis ... ... 35 68] 305 Peoples 9, 11, 419, 427, 443, 455 Peppercorn tufts of hair 351 Perforation of humerus 298 Pericardium ... 97 Peritoneum 97 Permanence of types 378 Permians 465 Peruvians 183, 231, 257,’ 321, 345, 480 Peschernis 321 Peuls ... 486 Pluznicians 463 Phenozygous zygomatic arch 288, 489 Philology ... 423 Physiognomy ... ... 353 INDEX. 545 PAGE Piebald negro... ... 162, 381 Pigment ... ... ... 343 Pile villages of Switzerland 433 Pine Islanders... ... 496, 498 Pithecians 23, 55, 62, 96, 187, 525 Placenta ... ... ‘ ... 100 Plagiocephaly ... ... 177 Planes, Horizontal, in general 265 „ Alveolo-condylean 55, 267 Platybasic deformity of the skull ... 177 Platycephaly ... ... 176 Platycnemia ... 299, 391 Platyrrhinian ... ... 257 Pliocene of St. Prest... ... 436 “ Plis-de-passage ” ... 102, 118 Points, Craniometrical 32, 34, 51, 54, 234 Point, Jugal ... 238 „ Sub-nasal ... 238 Poles ... 242, 454 Polydactylia ... 162, 379 Polygenism . . . 202, 424, 516 Polynesians ... 500 Polysarcia ... 160 Polysyllabic languages ... 423 Pons Varolii ... ... 101 Preadamites ... ... 517 Precursor of Man, The ... 530 Prehension, Fiinction of ... 72 Prehistoric Races ... 437 Primates ... 23, 97, 189, 525 “Probola” ... 211 Process with the double square ' 272, 328 Processes, External orbital 33 „ Mastoid ... 33, 60 Pterygoid ... 33, 291 „ Styloid of radius ... 36 „ of vertebrae ... 31, 65 Prognathism ... 201, 217, 277 Projections in general ... 263 ,, of the body ... ... 333 „ of the cranium ... 269 „ of the forehead ... 275 ,, of the head ... 274, 329 Pronation, The forearm in ... 75 Proportion of the cranium and face ... ... 46 „ of the brain ... ... 123 ,, of the body ... ... 315 „ of the face ... ... 317 PAGE Proportion of the pelvis . . . 305 ,, of the skeleton ... 81 ,, in the arts ... 316 Protuberantia annularis ... 102 Prussians ... ... ... 241 ^‘Pterion” ... 60, 208, 238 Puelches ... ... ... 181 Pulse, The, iu Mammalia . . . 146 , , The, in the Human Paces 401 Pyramidal skull ... ... 216 Pyrgocephaly ... ... 176 Quadrigemina tubercula ... 102 Races 9, 198, 443, 511 ,, Prehistoric ... ... 437 Radius ... ... ... 36, 86, 302 Rajpoots ... ... ... 446 Relations in general . . . 220, 263 ,, of the trunk to the stature ... ... 83 „ of the grande envergure to the stature ... 84 „ of the clavicle to the humerus ... ... 303 „ of the radius to the humerus ... 87, 303 ,, of the tibia to the femur ... 88, 303 ,, of the foot and hand 89, 335 Relation of the humerus to the femur ... ... 89 „ of the superior to the inferior extremities 85, 303 (see Indices) Radii, Auricular, of Broca ... 270 „ of Davis and Busk ... 271 Red hair ... 349,450, 480 Red Races 345 Reil, Insula of... ... ... 107 Reindeer Age, The 435 Religiousness ... ... 152, 409 Reproduction, Organs of 100, 362 Respiration, Rhythm of the... 402 Rete mucosum of Malpighi . . . 343 Retroversion of the vertebral processes 64 Reversions ... ... 126, 526 Ribs ... ... ... ... 35 Rickets ... ... ... 167 Rolando, Fissure of 10,7 2 If 546 INDEX. PAGE Eoof-sliaped skulls ... ... 211 Bot 428 Boumanicms 242, 288, 321, 398, 467 Eound-barrows ... ... 441 ,, Eoyaumes” of Agassiz ... 518 Eudimentary organs ... ... 125 Bussicms ...321, 382, 430, 466 BussniaTcs, or Butlienians 327, 454 Saab Eace ... ... ... -202 Sacrum ... ... 30, 66 Sacs, Laryngeal ... ... 99 Samoans ... ... ... 373 Samoyedes ... ... 395, 475 Sand, Cubic measurement by 227, 231 Saracens "... ... 429, 464 Savoyards ... ... ... 241 Scalping, Custom of ... ... 422 Scandinavians... ... 320, 386 Scapbocepbaly ... ... 177 Scapula ... ... ... 36 Scapulo-bumeral articulation 36 Sclavens ... ... ... 454 Scotch ... 254,311,320,334, 348, 366, 404 Saghalians Schangallahs ... Selection Sella Turcica . . . Semangs Semites... Sense, Organs of Septocepbaly ... Serbs ... Sereres ... Sexual differences cranium „ skeleton Shillucics 202, 448, in tbe Shot, Cubic measurement witb 227 Shuluhs Siah-posh Sicilians Simian variations in 321 487 523 34 498 462 94 176 454 487 145 143 487 461 452 321 cerebral convolutions Sinican Bebce ... Skeleton, Tbe . . . Slavs ... Slovaks... Slovenians ... 117 ... 202 30, 37 202, 242 242, 454 242, 454 PAGE Sociabibty ... ... ... 151 Societies, Antbropological, Foundation of ... ... 17 Soiony ... ... ... ... 475 Somalis ... 362, 373, 506 Spanish ... 349, 394, 409 Sphenoid bone ... ... 33 Stature in Anthropoids ... 80 „ in tbe Human Eaces 320 „ Influence of external conditions on 388, 390 Steatopyga ... ... 362, 492 Stenocepbaly 176 “Stepbanion” ... ... 238 Stereograph of Broca . . . 268 Sternum ... ... 35, 70 Stomach, Tbe ... ... ... 96 Stone Epochs 433 Stone implements, “St. Acbeul” 435 „ “DuMoustier” ... 435 Straengenoes female skulls . . . 437 Strength, Muscular ... ... 399 Struggle for existence ... 521 Suahilis ... ... ... 490 Sugar-loaf skulls ... ... 211 Sulci 102 Sulcus, Interparietal... ... 110 ,, Parallel ... ... 108 Supination, Tbe forearm in ... 76 Susus... ... ... ... 486 Sutures, Cranial 132, 172, 20& Sioanethians ... ... ... 452 Swedes... ... ... 231, 241 Sylvius, Fissure of ... ... 104 Synostosis ... ... 133, 172 Sypbibs in apes 159 Syrians ... ... 241, 462 System of Antelme ... ... 296 „ Ibering ... ... 295 ,, Koperni9ki ... ... 296 ,, Nervous ... ... 101 “ Tablier” of Hottentots 362, 493 Taboo... ... ... ... 422 Tadjicks, or Tadzhiks . . . 452, 457 Tail, Tbe 67 Tamahou ... ... 428, 452 Tapinocepbaly ... ... 176 Tarsus ... ... ... ... 36 Tasmanians ...249, 274, 443, 500 Tdtoji's 470 Tatooing 422. INDEX. 547 PAGB PAGE Taivdreks ...386, 446, 461, 485 Twin births ... 360 Tehees ... 242 Types in general ... 39 Teller emisses ... ... 465 American ... 479 Tehuvatehes ... ... 465 Anthropological ... 442 Teeth in Anthropoids. . . ... 58 Arabian ... 463 ,, Man ... ... 58 ?? Australian ... 501 ,, Distinctive characters Berber ... 461 of the... ... 137 Blonde ... 449 Tehuelehes ... 242, 320, 431, 482 5? Celtic ... 458 Temperature of the body ... 146 Esquimau ... 473 Temporal bone ... 33 Type, European ... 447 ,, fossae... ... 57 f, brown ... 453 Teratology ... 160 Finnish ... 465 “ Thenar Eminence ”... ... 95 - Hindoo... ... 456 Thibetans 472, 475 Hottentot ... 491 Thigh, Proportions of ... 331 )> Iranian ... 457 Thorax... 35, 69 Kaffir ... 490 Thu-Kin ... 469 Lapp ... ... 470 Thymus gland Thyroid cartilage ... 129 Malay ... ... 476 ... 98 Mongolian ... 471 Tihhoos... ... 487 Negro ... ... 487 Tibia ... ... 36, 88, 168, 303 Negrito ... 498 Timorians ... 400 3> New Caledonian ... 495 Ting-Ling ... 468 33 Papuan ... 495 Todas 336, 384, 404, 418, 421, 504 33 Patagonian ... 482 Toltees ... ... 185 Polynesian ... 478 Tongas ... ... 373 33 Keel African ... ... 484 Topinard’s craniophore ... 273 33 Samoyed ... 475 “ Tornas Atras ” ... 372 33 Semitic ... 462 TorodSs... ... 486 33 Tasmanian ... 500 Torsion of the humerus ... 75 33 Tschinganian ... ... 456 Totonacks ... 185 Toueolors 373, 486 TJgrians, or Ouigours... ... 467 Toulousian skull. Deformation Ulna 36, 301 of ... 182 Ulotrichi 201, 351 Tradition ... 431 Umbilical cord ... 101 Transformism ... ... 519 Unions, Consanguineous ... 383 Triangle, Facial, of the Germans Upsilon, Alveolar arch, like the 253 letter ... 260 „ „ of Assezat ... 282 Uralo-Altaic family ... ... 423 Trigonocephaly ... 176 Uterus... ... 100 Trochanter ... 36 Uzbeks, or Uzbecks 288, 469 Trochocephaly ... 176 Tsehinghomians ... 242, 254, 394, “ Vadrouille,” Hair of head. 409, 456 “ en ” ... 351 Tube, Digestive Tubercles “ geni ” ... 96 Varalis ... ... 504 35, 437 Yariability of type ... 385, 522 ,, Mamillary ... 115 Y ariety 196, 509 ,, Quadrigemina ... 102 Yault of cranium ... 211 Tumuli... 422, 433 Veddahs ... 242 . 321, 505 Turanians ... 469 Yentricles of brain ... ... 102 Turks ..., ... 241 , 255, 469 33 of larynx ... 98 548 INDEX. PAGE “ Yeniis Hottentot,” T1 i6 .... 301, 309, 493 Yenus de Milo ... ... 358 Yertebrae 31 Yertex ... ... ... ... 242 Yiscera ... 96 Yision, Divergence of ... 57 „ Horizontality of ... 55 Vital competition ... ... 522 Voguls ... ... ... ... 425 VolsTces-Tectosages 179, 324, 444 Voice, Organ of 98 oUaTis... ... ... ... 465 “ Youssures de compensation ” 174 Walloons 443, 461 Weight of the body ... 129, 398 ,, ,, brain ... 120, 309 Welcker’s cranial net ... 295 naso-basal angle ... 255 Wendes PAGE 454 Wormiana ossa lii, 207 Wrinkles, Palmar 95 Xanthocroid group . . . ... 202 Yakuts ... 425, 468 Yellow fever. Exemption of negroes from 397, 412 Yenadis 456, 504 Yoloffs ... 386, 487 Zamhos... 382 “Zend-Avesta” 469 Zealanders, New 251, 398, 404 Zingaris 456 Zoological anthropology 25 Zoometry 81 Zygomatic arch ... 35 CHARGES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. > > ( . * • II. » I I \ t ■» ‘ i i X \