TREATISES 
 
 PRINTING 
 
 AND 
 
 TYPE.- FOUNDING 
 
 BY 
 
 T. C. HANSARD. 
 
 TROM THE 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION OF THE 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 
 ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE 
 BOOKSELLERS TO HER MAJESTY. 
 
 MDCCCX5LI. 
 
Printed by Thomas Ailan & Co. 
 265 High Street, Edinburgh. 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 
 
 In presenting to the public in a separate form the 
 Treatises on Printing and Type-Founding, with other 
 branches of art connected with these processes, contributed 
 to the Encyclopedia Britannica by Mr T. C. Han- 
 sard, the Publishers have judged it expedient to include 
 the kindred subject of Lithographic Printing, contri- 
 buted to the same work by Mr William Nichol ; and they 
 trust that the information contained in this Volume, on 
 the various branches of art so essential to the promotion 
 of literature, will prove at once useful to the author and 
 the printer, and interesting to the general reader. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PRINTING.— Introduction. 
 
 Letter-Press Printing. — Origin and History of the Art — Pictures 
 on Wooden Blocks invented towards the end of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury — Books printed from Blocks — Printing from Types — The 
 invention claimed* by many cities, especially by Harlem, Stras- 
 bourg, and Mentz — Roster’s claim not allowed — John Gutenberg 
 the inventor — John Fust — Peter SchoefFer — Character of the 
 Type of the early Mentz Printers — Gutenberg’s Balbus de Janua 
 - — The Mentz Psalter — Mentelin, Printer at Strasbourg — Albert 
 Pfister at Bamberg in 1461 — Schweynhejm and Pannartz at 
 Borne in 1465 — H. and N. Beehtermunze at Elfield in 1467 — 
 Ulric Zell at Cologne, 1467 — Ginther Zainer at Augsburg, 1468 
 — John de Spira at Venice, 1469 — And the first Printers in the 
 various cities of Europe. .... 3 
 
 The First Presses. — Colour of the Ink used by the early Printers 
 — Introduction of Printing into England — Caxton and Wynkyn de 
 Worde — Books printed by Caxton — John Lettou and William 
 Machlinia — Richard Pynson — Richard Grafton — Bibles printed 
 by Grafton — Printing first practised at Oxford by Theoderic 
 Rood and Thomas Hunte, from 1480 to 1485— Printing first in- 
 troduced into Scotland— Baskerville. . . 57 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Practical Printing. — First operation — Arrangement of the Cases 
 — The Composing Stick — Imposition of a Sheet — Mode of calcu- 
 lating payment of Compositors’ work — Preparing Proof-sheets — 
 Errors in printed Bibles — Machinery of the Printing Press — 
 Printers’ Ink — Ingredients in its Manufacture— Price of Press- 
 work — Distribution of the Ink by Balls or by Rollers — Drying 
 the Sheets — Hot and Cold Pressing — Wood Cuts, working of — 
 Composition Balls and Rollers. ... 82 
 
 Stereotyping. — First inventor William Ged — Plaster of which 
 the Mould is formed — The Melting Pot — Improvements of Mr 
 Allan — Composition of Stereotype Metal — Comparison of cost of 
 Printing by Moveable Types and Stereotype. . 122 
 
 Poly'typage. — Experiments of Dr Franklin and M. Rochon— Of 
 Hoffman — M. Gegembre’s Process for preparing Plates for printing 
 Assignats — Plans of M. Heran — Professor Wilson of Glasgow — 
 
 Messrs Heath, Perkins, and Brunei. . . 137 
 
 Printing in Colours. — Materials from which the Colours are pre- 
 pared — Method of preparing them — Printing in Gold. 144 
 
 Bank Notes. — Process of printing them. . . 152 
 
 Printing Presses. — Stanhope’s — Cogger’s — The Albion. 153 
 
 Printing Machines. — First attempts at, by Nicholson-— Cowper’s 
 Machines — Napier’s Machines. . . . 155 
 
 Reader’s Marks of Correction. . . . 164 
 
 Scales of Prices of Composition. — London Prices — Edinburgh 
 Prices — Dublin Prices. . . . . 166 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 Acts of Parliament affecting Printers. . . 181 
 
 Copperplate Printing. . . . . 190 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. — History of Lithography — Its inventor Alois 
 Senefelder. . . . . . . 194 
 
 Of the Stones, and the manner in which they are prepared to re- 
 ceive the Drawing — Composition of Lithographic Ink — Ink for 
 Transfers — Lithographic Chalk — Mode of Drawing — Printing 
 Press and Roller — Printing Ink — Preparation of the Stone for 
 Printing — Printing — Difficulties to be overcome — Printing with 
 different coloured Inks — Transfers — Imitation of Wood Cuts — 
 Etchings on Stone. . . . . . 199 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. — Invention of — Separation of the Art of 
 Type-Founding from that of Printing — Founts used in English 
 Printing-offices — Apparatus used in the casting of Types — The 
 Matrix — The Mould — Script Type. . . 222 
 
 SPECIMEN OF TYPES. .... 234 
 
 PLATES — Fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum — Fac-simile of the 
 Mentz Psalter, and Colophons — Printing Apparatus and Ma- 
 
 chine. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 with funding from 
 Getty Research Institute 
 
 https://archive.org/details/treatisesonprintOOhans 
 
TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Printing is the art of taking one or more impressions 
 from the same surface, whereby characters and signs, cast, 
 engraven, drawn, or otherwise represented thereon, are caused 
 to present their reverse images upon paper, vellum, parch- 
 ment, linen, and other substances, in pigments of various 
 hues, or by means of chemical combinations, of which the 
 components are contained on or within the surface from 
 which the impression is taken, or in the fabric of the thing 
 impressed, or in both. 
 
 The most important branch of printing is what is called 
 letter -'press printing, or the method of taking impressions 
 from letters and other characters cast in relief upon separate 
 pieces of metal, and therefore capable of indefinite combi- 
 nation. The impressions are taken either by superficial or 
 surface pressure, as in the common printing press, or by 
 lineal or cylindrical pressure, as in the printing machine 
 
 A 
 
9 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 and roller-press. The pigments or inks, of whatever colour, 
 are always upon the surface of the types ; and the substances 
 which may be impressed are various. Wood-cuts and other 
 engravings in relief are also printed in this manner. 
 
 Copperplate printing is the reverse of the above, the 
 characters being engraven in intaglio, and the pigments or 
 inks contained within the lines of the engravings, and not 
 upon the surface of the plate. The impressions are always 
 taken by lineal or cylindrical pressure ; the substances to be 
 impressed, however, are more limited. All engravings in 
 intaglio, on whatever material, are printed by this method. 
 
 Lithographic printing is from the surface of certain porous 
 stones, upon which characters are drawn with peculiar pen- 
 cils. The surface of the stone being wetted, the chemical 
 colouring compound adheres to the drawing, and refuses 
 the stone. The impression is taken by a scraper, that rubs 
 violently upon the back of the substances impressed, which 
 are fewer still in number. Drawings upon zinc and other 
 materials are printed by this process. (See Lithogra- 
 phy.) 
 
 Cotton and calico printing is from surfaces engraven 
 either in relief or in intaglio. The chemical compounds are 
 either on or within the characters, as pigments or chemical 
 colours, or in the fabric to be printed, but mostly in both ; 
 the combination of chemical substances producing colour 
 when the fabric and the engraving are brought into con- 
 tact. The impression is either superficial or lineal, but 
 mostly lineal. (See Dyeing.) 
 
HISTORY 
 
 3 
 
 LETTER-PRESS PRINTING. 
 
 The origin and history of an art which has exercised such 
 an influence on civilization, and contributed in so essential 
 a manner to the cultivation of the human intellect, have 
 naturally become a matter of inquiry amongst the learned, 
 and have almost as naturally been the source of earnest 
 controversy ; for there are few effects of human invention 
 or industry that have been originated and brought to perfec- 
 tion at a particular epoch, without any previous train of 
 thought or circumstance, so that the precise day or year 
 could be noted in which the perfect Minerva started forth 
 in full maturity. On the contrary, it is difficult to say at 
 what period of time the germ of the art of printing did not 
 exist. So obvious is the reproduction of similar appearances 
 from an impression of the same surface, that the most early 
 of mankind must have noted it; and even the impression 
 of a foot or a hand must have suggested a simple and intel- 
 ligible mode of conveying an idea, before the invention of 
 any kind of writing. Accordingly, these and similar signs 
 are found to compose the chief characters of the earliest 
 writing, which is the symbolic. 
 
 Observing this general law of the gradual perfectibility 
 of human arts, w r e must look back to the most remote ages 
 for the first steps of that of printing. We shall accordingly 
 
4 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 find certain evidence, that, more than two thousand years 
 before our era, a method of multiplying impressions, rude 
 and imperfect in the extreme, was certainly practised ; but 
 although the general fact is universally allowed, it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to give satisfactory examples. Turning, 
 however, to Egypt, we shall find such traces as sufficiently 
 prove the truth of the general statement. 
 
 The ingenuity of mankind had for a long period confined 
 itself principally to the more easy and beautiful art of co- 
 louring surfaces with pigments, in the imitation of surround- 
 ing objects ; and had their desires been limited to the pro- 
 duction of a single essay, they would have made no devia- 
 tion from an art so beautiful, and so susceptible of taste 
 and variety. But when the wants and conveniences of an 
 advanced state of society required effects of a more lasting 
 character, less costly, and of more general application, a 
 method of producing the same, or nearly the same effect, 
 with considerable rapidity, very soon presented itself ; and 
 the sacred inscriptions at first painted or engraved upon the 
 figures of the deities, and possibly upon articles of domestic 
 use, were impressed upon plastic models with equal ease and 
 certainty. 
 
 Babylon presents us with some remarkable specimens of 
 the progress of this art, which may be received as the ear- 
 liest instances of imprinting , the epoch of which can be in 
 any degree approximated. These are found on the bricks 
 many of which have been discovered on the site of the de- 
 parted city. That the Assyrians should have thought it 
 worth while to print inscriptions upon materials destined to 
 be built into their dwellings (and every kiln-burned brick 
 amongst these vast ruins is stamped with an inscription), ar- 
 gues that the process was not only not an uncommon one, 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 O 
 
 but also that there probably existed at the same time a 
 more advanced and more elegant usage of imprinting in 
 their domestic and ornamental arts. Specimens of these 
 bricks may be seen in the library of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, in the British Museum, in the library of the East India 
 Company, and in several private collections. Those at Cam- 
 bridge are parallelopipeds of thirteen inches in length by 
 three in thickness, and are made of clay mixed with reeds, 
 and burned in the kiln. On one of the large surfaces is an 
 indentation, produced by the forcible impression of a stamp, 
 from the face of which a large portion has been cut away, 
 leaving a series of figures in relief. The depression pro- 
 duced by this stamp is six inches and one eighth by three 
 and five eighths in extent, and about three eighths of an inch 
 in depth. It is exceedingly rude in execution, bearing a 
 strong resemblance to the impressions of the names of the 
 makers to be found upon the backs of inferior earthen-ware ; 
 and is produced by exactly the same means, the process 
 of baking entirely destroying whatever sharpness the soft 
 mass may have had. The inscription is clearly stamped in 
 after the clay has been turned out of the mould, and is 
 not produced by any part of it ; for in all known speci- 
 mens it is placed in different positions, and never stands 
 parallel to the edges of the brick, being in fact put on more 
 or less awry, according to the care and manual skill of the 
 workman. The surface of the brick around the depression 
 is forced up considerably, which is exactly the effect of 
 pressing the hand or any substance into a plastic material ; 
 and ^the edges both of the parent depression and of the 
 figures present the effect of the stamp having been drawn 
 up whilst the clay was still damp and adherent to it. The 
 inscription consists of six vertical columns, containing thirty- 
 
6 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 eight figures ; the columns are divided by bold straight lines. 
 The characters are those usually called the Persepolitan or 
 arrow-headed, but better described by the French as nail- 
 headed. They are found very widely spread over Asia, but 
 most plentifully at Persepolis. No one has hitherto made 
 any considerable progress in deciphering them, nor have 
 the learned been able to determine whether they are alpha- 
 betic, syllabic, hieroglyphic, or signs representing one or 
 more words, as in the Chinese. 
 
 Curious as are these specimens of Assyrian art, Babylon 
 presents us with others still more choice. These are a kind 
 of cylinder, shaped like a barrel, but rather longer in pro- 
 portion to the width. The one described is seven inches 
 in height, and three inches in diameter at the ends ; it is 
 made of fine clay, and baked. The inscriptions are in the 
 same character as those found upon the bricks, arranged in 
 vertical lines, commencing, or ending, according to the way 
 of reading, near the middle of the cylinder, where it is of 
 the greatest diameter, and running down to the foot. There 
 are consequently two inscriptions, one on either half ; and 
 there is an interval running round the cylinder between the 
 two, without any impression. Counting upon a drawing, 
 there are thirty-two vertical lines in either inscription, and 
 consequently they are less than a quarter of an inch in width. 
 There are thirty figures in one of the columns ; and each 
 figure would therefore occupy a space of less than one eighth 
 of an inch. The figures are perfectly sharp and distinct, and 
 the whole cylinder is a beautiful specimen of art. The one 
 to which we allude is in the library of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge ; but many very excellent specimens have lately 
 been deposited in the British Museum, an actual inspection 
 of which, and of other cognate relics, will enable the curious 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 7 
 
 to form a much better idea of their excellence than any de- 
 scription, however diffuse. They are of all sizes, from a foot 
 in height to the size of a signet, to which purpose probably 
 they were sometimes applied, since some specimens are per- 
 forated as if intended for the insertion of a wire or cord ; 
 indeed there are specimens of somewhat similar cylinders 
 with the wire inserted for thumb-rings. Perhaps those a 
 little larger were hung round the neck as charms and amu- 
 lets. 
 
 That a similar art was known to the inhabitants of the 
 old world generally, may safely be assumed. It is therefore 
 not a little remarkable that people so original and ingeni- 
 ous as the Greeks, and so imitative as the Romans, should 
 have left almost no vestige of their having practised any 
 such mean as this to multiply their beautiful creations of 
 fancy, or to embellish the tasteful appliances of domestic 
 life ; especially when we consider the easy adaptation of the 
 art to pottery, and the beauty, taste, and ingenuity which 
 they exhibited in that manufacture. For, excepting a few 
 paltry designs en creux on some of the coarser specimens, 
 and a few marks upon the Roman military vessels, evi- 
 dently stamped, there is no appearance of either people 
 having had any idea of this kind ; the sister art of taking 
 impressions in seals not being fairly to be classed under this 
 head. There are, however, in the British Museum some 
 instruments presenting a singular instance of how very 
 nearly one may approach to an important discovery, and 
 yet pass on unheeding. These stamps are of brass, and 
 amongst others the signet of C. Caecilius Hermia. The 
 face of this is two inches by four fifths of an inch, and the 
 inscription, 
 
8 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 CICAEC1LI 
 HERMIAE. SN. 
 
 with a border, is in relief, the surrounding parts being cut 
 away to a considerable depth. It should be especially no- 
 ticed, that the surface of the field is very rough ; and there 
 is a ring at the back by which it could be handled or sus- 
 pended . 1 These circumstances render the use of it very 
 clear. It would be very much easier to incise the required 
 inscription, and to let the field stand (indeed the art of en- 
 graving en creux was well known and used), than to cut away 
 the field and leave the letters in relief ; and it w r ould pro- 
 duce a much more beautiful effect if it were used to impress 
 any soft substance ; whereas, cut as it is, the impression sunk 
 into the wax or clay would not only be ugly, but illegible, 
 and the rough surface of the field would present the most 
 ungainly appearance upon the prominent parts of the wax, 
 being the parts most presented to the eye. Its use there- 
 fore is evident. The relieved inscription, and no other part, 
 being covered with ink or pigment, was impressed upon an 
 even surface (papyrus, linen, parchment), and consequently 
 left a perfect but reversed imprint of itself. This is the pre- 
 cise effect of printing with types. Now, from the circum- 
 stance of Csecilius being a person of no known eminence, 
 it is a fair conclusion that such an instrument was not un- 
 common amongst those who either were not able to write, 
 
 1 The Antiquarian Society of Newcastle possesses a similar stamp 
 with a Greek inscription. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 9 
 
 or were engaged in public employments requiring a great 
 number of signatures, or who were accustomed to commit 
 the signing of documents to subordinates on their behalf 
 From the Greek agnomen, Caecilius probably lived under 
 the emperors, when literature had become one of the pur- 
 suits of the great, and when the difficulties and expense of 
 procuring books by the slow process of copying were bit- 
 terly felt. It is singular, therefore, that they should have 
 overlooked so obvious an improvement upon their own sig- 
 nets as the engraving whole sentences and compositions 
 upon blocks, and thence transferring them to paper, even if 
 they had gone no farther than this. 1 
 
 1 The Chinese printing is not unlike this, and must by no means 
 be supposed to have much similarity to the modern art. They 
 assert that it was used by them several centuries before it was 
 known in Europe ; in fact, fifty years before the Christian era. 
 They certainly may have used their method centuries before our 
 art, for it differs in nothing but extent from that of the old Roman. 
 The following is a description of their method at the present day, 
 and it is probably the same in every respect as that in practice two 
 thousand years ago in an empire where nothing is changed. As 
 their written language consists of from eighty to one hundred thou- 
 sand characters, it would be utterly impracticable to use moveable 
 types, and the use of block-printing would be the most easy and 
 rapid. The sentences, therefore, desired to be multiplied, being 
 drawn upon their thin paper, this is made to adhere with the face 
 downward to a block of soft wood, so that the characters appear 
 through reversed. The plain wood is then cut away with most won- 
 derful rapidity, and the drawing left in relief. Both sides of the 
 block are similarly operated upon. The engraved wood is then 
 properly arranged upon a frame, and the artist, with a large brush, 
 covers the whole surface, the field as well as the relief, with a very 
 thin ink ; he then lays very lightly over it a sheet of paper, and 
 
10 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 F rom this time a vast period elapses before any circumstance 
 can safely be instanced as showing that the practice of trans- 
 ferring characters was known to any, even comparatively 
 civilized people. From the rough and imperfect attempts 
 above indicated, the first and most obvious advance was en- 
 graving pictures upon wooden blocks. The first practice of 
 this is involved in obscurity, but most writers on the fine 
 arts agree that the art was invented towards the end of the 
 thirteenth century, by a brother and sister of the illustrious 
 family of Cunio, lords of Irnola, in Italy. By some the whole 
 narrative is considered as apocryphal, but it is nevertheless 
 generally admitted. The engravings were discovered by a 
 Frenchman of the name of Papillon, in the possession of a 
 Swiss gentleman, M. de Grceder, who deciphered for him 
 the manuscript annotations found upon the leaves of the 
 book in which they were bound. These purported that the 
 book had been given to Jan. Jacq. Turine, a native of 
 Berne, by the Count of Cunio, with whose family he, Turine, 
 appears to have been intimately acquainted. Then follows 
 
 passes a large soft brush over it, so slightly, yet so surely, that the 
 paper is pressed upon the raised figures, and upon no other part. 
 The rapidity with which this is performed is extraordinary ; for 
 Du Halde asserts that one man can print ten thousand sheets in 
 one day, a number which would appear incredible, did not very 
 good testimony exist at the present time that one man can print 
 seven hundred sheets per hour. The method of putting the thin 
 sheets together when printed, is as different from ours as their 
 printing and mode of reading. The sheets are printed on one 
 side only ; but instead of the blanks being pasted together to form 
 one leaf, the sheet is so folded that no single edge of paper is pre- 
 sented to the reader, but only the double folded edge ; the loose 
 edges being all at the back of the book. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 11 
 
 a romantic history of the twins, and the cause of their in- 
 vention. The book is entitled “ The Heroic Actions, repre- 
 sented in figures, of the great and magnanimous Macedo- 
 nian king, the bold and valiant Alexander ; dedicated, pre- 
 sented, and humbly offered to the most Holy Father Pope 
 Honorius IV., the glory and support of the church, and to 
 our illustrious and generous father and mother, by us Ales- 
 sandro Alberico Cunio, cavaliere, and Isabella Cunio, twin 
 brother and sister ; first reduced, imagined, and attempted 
 to be executed in relief, with a small knife, on blocks of 
 wood, made even and polished by this learned and dear sis- 
 ter ; continued and finished by us together, at Ravenna, 
 from the eight pictures of our invention, painted six times 
 larger than here represented ; engraved, explained by verses, 
 and thus marked upon the paper, to perpetuate the number 
 of them, and to enable us to present them to our relations 
 and friends, in testimony of gratitude, friendship, and affec- 
 tion. All this was done and finished by us when only six- 
 teen years of age.” This title is here given at full length, be- 
 cause, if genuine, it presents us at once with the origin, exe- 
 cution, and design of these first attempts at block-printing. 
 The book consists of nine engravings including the title ; 
 the figures are tolerably well designed, and the draperies 
 graceful, with here and there attempts at cross-hatching; 
 under the principal personages are their names ; above, are 
 inscriptions indicating the subject, and below, four lines of 
 poetical Latin explanatory of it ; and in some part of each 
 print is an inscription indicating the share the twins re- 
 spectively had in the execution. The colour of the pig- 
 ment is gray. 
 
 The first subject is Alexander on Bucephalus. Upon a 
 stone, Isabel. Cunio pinx . et scalp. 
 
12 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The second subject, the Passage of the Granicus. Alex . 
 Alb. Cunio Equ. pinx. Isabel. Cunio scalp. 
 
 The third subject, Alexander cutting the Gordian Knot. 
 Alex. Albe. Cunio Equ. pinx. et scalp. 
 
 The fourth subject, Alexander in the tent of Darius. 
 Isabel. Cunio pinx. et scalp. 
 
 The fifth, Alexander giving Campaspe to Apelles. Alex. 
 Alb. Cunio Eques pinx. et scalp. 
 
 The sixth, the Battle of Arbela. Alex. Alb. Equ. et Isa- 
 bel. Cunio pictor. et scalp. 
 
 The seventh, Porus brought to Alexander. Isabel. Cu- 
 nio pinx. et scalp. 
 
 The eighth, the triumph of Alexander upon his entry 
 into Babylon. Alex. Alb. Equ. et Isabel. Cunio pictor. et 
 scalp } 
 
 From the dedication of this book to Pope Honorius IV., 
 it is deduced that these engravings must have been exe- 
 cuted between 1284 and 1285, inasmuch as this pope only 
 enjoyed the pontificate two years; and it is suggested that 
 a copy of it might be found in the library of the Vatican. 
 The narrative appears to be confirmed by many incidental 
 circumstances, which bear every evidence of not being the 
 invention either of Papillon or his informer. The name of 
 Alberico seems to have been a favourite with the family of 
 Cunio, and a count of that name actually figures in history 
 in the very year of the presumed invention ; a relative of 
 the twins, of course, not the male artist himself. 
 
 1 It is not unlikely that the twins may have been directed in 
 the choice of their subject by the identity of the name of the 
 great conqueror with that of the brother ; at least such coinci- 
 dences are not without parallel in the history of literature. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 13 
 
 The interval between the time of the twin Cunio and 
 the next mention of any similar usage is very perplexing ; 
 but upon examination it will appear that that long period 
 was not altogether a blank in the art. The next earliest 
 evidence is a document of the government of Venice, dis- 
 covered amongst the archives of the Company of Printers in 
 that city. It bears the date of 1441, and as it throws some 
 degree of light upon the controversy relative to the inven- 
 tion of printing, it is here given from Ottley’s History of 
 Engraving. 
 
 “ m cccc xli. October the 11th. Whereas theart and mys- 
 tery of making cards and printed figures, which is used at 
 Venice, has fallen into total decay ; and this in conse- 
 quence of the great quantity of playing-cards, and coloured 
 figures printed, which are made out of Venice; to which 
 evil it is necessary to apply some remedy ; in order that 
 the said artists, who are a great many in family, may find 
 encouragement rather than foreigners. Let it be ordered 
 and established, according to that which the said masters 
 have supplicated, that from this time in future, no work of 
 the said art that is printed or painted on cloth or on paper, 
 that is to say, altar-pieces (or images), and playing-cards, 
 and whatever other work of the said art is done with a 
 brush or printed, shall be allowed to be brought or import- 
 ed into this city, under pain of forfeiting the works so im- 
 ported, and xxx livres and xii soldi, of which fine one third 
 shall go to the state, one third to the Signori Giustizieri 
 Vecchi, to whom the affair is committed, and one third to 
 the accuser. With this condition, however, that the artists 
 who make the said works in this city may not expose the 
 said w r orks to sale in any other place but their own shops, 
 under the pain aforesaid, except on the day of Wednesday 
 
14 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 at St Paolo, and on Saturday at St Marco, under the pain 
 aforesaid.” 
 
 From this it seems manifest that the art of printing from 
 wood-blocks was not lost, but, on the contrary, had been so 
 long practised as to become an extensive and profitable busi- 
 ness in Venice, and to spread over the Continent to such a 
 degree as in turn to destroy the trade of the Venetian art- 
 ists. The establishment of an important manufacture, and 
 its decay, necessarily infer a long period. From the con- 
 stant conjunction of the two arts of painting and print- 
 ing in this document, we may infer (what the existence of 
 prints and cards of later date prove) the method in which 
 these figures and cards were manufactured, namely, that 
 the outline was first printed, and that the colours and shad- 
 ing were filled in by the printer and illuminator. The his- 
 tory of playing-cards now becomes of some importance to 
 the narrative. When cards first came into use is uncer- 
 tain ; but mention is made of them in the year 1254, when 
 they were interdicted by St Louis on his return from the 
 Crusade : they were also forbidden by the council of Co- 
 logne in 1281. In 1299 they are expressly mentioned un- 
 der the name carte ; and in “ Das Gulden Spiegel,” print- 
 ed by Gunther Zainer in the year 1472, it is said that cards 
 first came into Germany in 1300. An old French poet, 
 who wrote “ En l’an mil iij cent xxviij,” has the line, 
 “ Jouent aux dex, aux cartes, aux tables.” There is no 
 evidence earlier than the Venetian decree to connect the 
 art of printing from wood-blocks with the art of making 
 cards ; but as it is evident from that document that such 
 connection did exist, it is a fair presumption that it origi- 
 nated not very long after the introduction of the game ; and 
 as the sum paid by Charles VI. for “ trois jeux de cartes” 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 15 
 
 Was so small as fifty-six Parisian sols, it has been conjec- 
 tured that they must have been illuminated prints. The 
 Venetian decree against the importation of painted and print- 
 ed figures from abroad now brings us to the country from 
 which the chief export was made. It appears, therefore, that 
 in the Low Countries the manufacture was carried on to a 
 great extent ; and we shall also find that in Holland and Ger- 
 many, and probably over most of Europe, religion had called 
 this art to her aid ; that whilst the noble and wealthy recre- 
 ated the mind and delighted the eye with the exquisite pro- 
 ductions of the scribe and illuminator, the more humble 
 were equally gratified with rude and simple illustrations of 
 interesting portions of Scripture, or pictures of favourite 
 saints. It is probable that the poorer classes hung up these 
 drawings in their dwellings, where they excited as true and 
 heartfelt devotion as the masterpieces of Raffaelle or Cor- 
 reggio in the oratories of the great. It cannot be ascertain- 
 ed how early this practice commenced, nor whether it pre- 
 ceded and suggested the printing of saints and sacred sub- 
 jects, or was itself a consequence. Certain it is, that at the 
 end of the fourteenth and the commencement of the fif- 
 teenth century the practice was very common. The im- 
 pressions were taken by means of a burnisher, the gloss 
 caused by the friction being distinctly visible on the backs 
 both of cards and prints preserved to this time. As facility 
 in practice increased, a distich or quotation illustrative of 
 the print became a natural improvement ; and to this was 
 frequently added a coat of arms, the name of the saint, or 
 the title of the subject, all in the held, or over the head of 
 the figure ; and, lastly, sometimes a date. The earliest 
 print of which the date can be accurately ascertained, is a 
 wood-cut of St Christopher carrying the infant Jesus across 
 
16 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the sea. It is of folio size, and coloured in the manner of 
 our playing-cards. At the bottom is the inscription, 
 
 C rtstofort factem Hie guactmque tuerig 39tHefimo cccc 0 
 3ffta nemp nte rnorte mala non morteri#. xx° terno. 
 
 It was found in the monastery of Buxheim, near Meinin- 
 gen, and is now in the possession of Earl Spencer. 
 
 The next advance was obvious. Instead of a single block, 
 a series of blocks were employed, with additional literary 
 illustrations ; and thus were the first printed books formed. 
 The most important of these is the Historice Veteris et Novi 
 Testamenti seu Biblia Pauperum , truly the Poor Man’s Bible. 
 It consists of forty leaves printed upon one side of the paper 
 only, by friction, from as many blocks ; the colour is brown ; 
 the pages are placed opposite to each other, and the blank 
 backs being pasted together, form one strong leaf. The cuts 
 are about ten inches in height and seven and a half in width. 
 Each print contains three sacred subjects in compartments, 
 and four half-length figures of prophets in smaller divisions, 
 two above and two beneath the principal subjects. Latin in- 
 scriptions are on either side of the upper figures, rhythmical 
 verses on either side of the lower, and additional inscriptions 
 are on labels at the bottom of the whole. The central sub- 
 jects are from the New Testament, the others from the Old, 
 and in some manner allusive to the former. There are many 
 copies of this work, evidently from different blocks, and of 
 different dates. Indeed it appears to have been a most po- 
 pular book, and was printed repeatedly long after the intro- 
 duction of legitimate printing ; there are several editions in 
 which the inscriptions are actually printed with moveable 
 types. The exact date of these curious works is not ascer- 
 tained, but Dr Horne possessed a copy contained in one 
 volume with the Ars Moriendi and the Apocalypse , all works 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 17 
 
 of the same style, the binding of which bore the date of 
 142( ). The original composition and design of this work 
 is attributed, and not without some show of reason, to Ans- 
 garius, who was bishop of Hamburg and Bremen in the 
 ninth century. (See Plate CCCCXIII.) 
 
 A similar book is the Canticles , a small folio volume of 
 thirty-two subjects, two being printed on each leaf, and on 
 only one side of the paper, and the leaves also pasted back 
 to back. It differs from the Biblia Pauperum in that the 
 inscriptions are engraven on scrolls fantastically dispersed 
 amongst the figures. This is generally allowed to be of some- 
 what later date than the preceding, and to hold an interme- 
 diate space between it and the Speculum Humance Salva- 
 tionis, to which a larger space must be devoted, on account 
 of its importance in the controversy relative to the inven- 
 tion of printing. 
 
 This is not, strictly speaking, a block-book ; for whilst the 
 form of the design and the portion of Scripture represented 
 are engraven on wood, the inscription is in some cases en- 
 graven on wood also, but in others printed in moveable type . 
 The Latin edition, perhaps the first, consists of sixty-three 
 leaves, divided into five unequal gatherings. The subjects 
 are chiefly from the Old and New Testament ; but some- 
 times such stories have been selected from ancient history as 
 might seem in some way appropriate to the events record- 
 ed in sacred writ. Each subject has a short Latin inscrip- 
 tion underneath it, and the text occupies the remainder of 
 the page. Its size is folio ; the impressions are taken with 
 a burnisher, on one side of the paper ; the colour of the ink 
 is brown, and the backs are pasted together, as in the books 
 previously described. The work is certainly of nearly the 
 same date, though a little later, than the Biblia Pauperum ; 
 
18 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 and it may even have been in part executed by the same art- 
 ist, for in the earlier portions there is so much general re- 
 semblance, both in design and execution, as to make it pro- 
 bable that the same graver was employed in both. The lat- 
 ter part, however, is the work of another artist ; the lines 
 are not so bold, and there is an attempt at fineness of execu- 
 tion, of shading, and of distance, which the earlier master 
 did not attempt. The design, though in better drawing, is 
 not so spirited ; the drapery is more correct, though not so 
 graceful ; and in fact the engraver was a better workman, but 
 not so great an artist. It must be understood, that there are 
 numerous editions of this work, many differing in essential 
 particulars, but some so nearly similar as to require a mi- 
 croscopic eye to detect the variations ; of four of these, two 
 are in Latin, two in Dutch, and between these four lies the 
 contest for antiquity. Mr Ottley (whose beautiful work on 
 Engraving contains a well-drawn-up account of his inquiry, 
 illustrated by most convincing examples) has, from a mi- 
 nute and laborious examination, decided that the two Latin 
 and two Dutch are printed from the self-same blocks, and 
 by comparing them, and finding evidences of fractures in 
 the one which do not exist in the other, he has very satis- 
 factorily awarded the palm of antiquity. First, although the 
 Latin inscriptions in the earlier part of the first Latin edi- 
 tion (so called by commentators) are engraven on blocks 
 of wood, these blocks are not of the same piece as the 
 figures, the work having been divided between two artists, 
 the one more skilled in engraving figures, and the other in 
 engraving letters. Secondly, parts of the engraving broken 
 in the first Dutch are perfect in the first Latin ; parts im- 
 perfect in the first Latin are unbroken in the second Dutch, 
 whilst the second Latin is the most perfect of all ; from 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 19 
 
 which the conclusion is drawn that the second Latin is the 
 most ancient, then the second Dutch, next the first Latin, 
 and lastly the first Dutch. The printing of this work is 
 claimed for Laurence Koster. 
 
 We have now come fairly to the practice of printing in 
 the real sense of the word ; and we have also arrived at the 
 long-pending, long-controverted question, of who invented 
 it, and where? The honour is disputed by as many cities as 
 contended for the birth of Homer. Only three of these can 
 show the slightest argument for their pretensions ; Harlem, 
 Strasbourg, and Mentz. Harlem claims it for her citizen 
 Laurence Koster, or Laurent Janszoon Koster (or Gustos). 
 The claim rests principally upon the narrative in the Ba- 
 tavia of Hadrianus Junius, a native of West Friesland, who 
 dwelt at Harlem. The work was written in 1575, but not 
 published until 1588. The following is a close translation 
 of the narrative : — 
 
 “ There lived, a hundred and twenty-eight years ago, 
 at Harlem, in houses sufficiently splendid (as a workshop, 
 which remains to this day entire, can serve as proof), over- 
 looking the forum from the neighbourhood of the royal 
 palace, Laurentius Joannes, by surname 1 Bdituus , or Cus- 
 tos 1 (which at that time lucrative and honourable office an 
 illustrious family of that name, or a family illustrious by 
 
 1 In tlie original, Koster is simply said to have been surnamed /Edi- 
 tuus, seu Custos , but no mention is made of the Cathedral. The state- 
 ment, therefore, that he was custos of the cathedral, is a gratuitous 
 insertion of after narrators. The word custos has been Dutchified 
 into Coster or Koster ; but there is no apparent reason why we 
 may not suppose that Custos was a barbarous Latin word for keeper, 
 or constable, or any other translation the word will bear. 
 
20 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 that name , held by hereditary right), the person who now 
 seeks back by just avouchments and oaths the relapsing 
 ( recidivam gloriam) glory of the invention of printing, 
 nefariously possessed and seized upon by others (the 
 man), with the greatest right to be presented with greater 
 laurel of all honours (summo jure omnium triumphorum 
 laurea majore donandus). He by chance, walking in a 
 suburban grove (as was the fashion of citizens in easy 
 means to do after dinner in those days), began first to 
 fashion beech-bark into letters, which being impressed 
 upon paper, reversed in the manner of a seal, produced 
 one verse, then another, as his fancy pleased, to be for 
 copies to the children of his son-in-law ; which when he 
 had happily accomplished, he began (for he was of great 
 and acute genius) to agitate higher things in his mind, 
 and first of all devised with his son-in-law, Thomas Peter, 
 who left four children, all of whom attained the consular 
 dignity (a thing which I mention that all may understand 
 the art arose in an honourable and talented, not a servile 
 family), a more glutinous and tenacious species of writing 
 ink, which he had commonly used to draw letters ; thence 
 ( experiretur ) he expressed entire figured pictures with cha- 
 racters added ; in which sort I have myself seen Adversaria 
 printed by him, the traces of the wmrks ipperarum) being only 
 on opposite pages, not printed on both sides (haud opistogra - 
 phis). That book was in the vernacular tongue by an anony- 
 mous author, bearing for title Speculum Nostrce Salutis : 
 in which it is to be observed among the first beginnings of 
 the art (for never any is found and perfected at once), that 
 the reverse pages being smeared with glue, were stuck toge- 
 ther, lest they, being blank, should present a deformity. 
 Afterwards he changed beech-blocks for lead ; afterwards 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 21 
 
 he made them of tin, because it was a material more solid 
 and less flexible, and more durable : from the relics which 
 remained of which types, very ancient wine-flasks being 
 made, they are to this day to be seen in those houses of 
 Laurentius which I have mentioned looking upon the fo- 
 rum, inhabited afterwards by his grandson Gerard Thomas, 
 whom I name for honour’s sake, a noble citizen, who de- 
 parted this life a few years ago. The studies of men favour- 
 ing, as it happened, the new art, since a new merchandise, 
 never before seen, brought buyers from every side with most 
 eager quest, at once the love of the art increased, the esta- 
 blishment (ministerium) increased, workmen in the art be- 
 ing added to the family, the first touch of evil ; among 
 whom was a certain Joannes, either (as the suspicion is) that 
 Faustus of ominous name, faithless and unlucky ( infaustus ) 
 to his master, or some other of the same name, I do not 
 greatly care which, because I am unwilling to disquiet the 
 shades of the silenced, touched with the plague of con- 
 science while they lived. He being sworn by oath to the 
 processes of printing, after he had (as he thought) learned 
 thoroughly the art of putting the characters together, the 
 knowledge of fusile types, and whatever else may relate to 
 the matter, taking an opportunity, than which he could not 
 have found one more fit, on the very eve which is sacred 
 to the birth of Christ, on which all in common are accus- 
 tomed to labour at the sacred ceremonies, stole the whole 
 materials , 1 tied up a package of the instruments of his mas- 
 ter used in that art ( instrumentorum herilium ei artificio 
 comparatorum supellicticem convasat) ; thence with a ser - 
 
 1 Or whatever else choragium may mean ; literally it signifies the 
 properties of a theatre. 
 
22 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 vant hurried from the house, went in the beginning to Am* 
 sterdam, thence to Cologne, until he arrived at Mayence, 
 as to the altar of an asylum, where he might live safe be- 
 yond the reach of arrows (as the saying is), and having 
 opened an office, enjoyed the rich fruit of his robberies. 
 Indeed, from it, in the space of the (or a) turning year, in 
 the year 144*2 from the birth of Christ, with the same types 
 which Laurentius had used at Harlem, it is certain that 
 he produced to light the Doctrinale of Alexander Gallus, 
 which grammar was then in most famous use, with the 
 Tractates of Peter Hispanus, his first productions. Those 
 are, for the most part, things which I have formerly heard 
 from aged men worthy of belief, who have received them 
 as things delivered from hand to hand, as a torch in 
 a race, and have found others relating and attesting the 
 same things. I remember that Nicholaus Galius, the in- 
 structor of my youth, a man with iron memory, and vene- 
 rable for his long years, related to me, that when a boy he 
 had heard, not once only, a certain Cornelius, a bookbin- 
 der, and rendered serious by age, nor less than eighty years 
 old (who had lived as an under workman in that office), re- 
 lating with much mental anger, and with fervour, the course 
 of the proceeding, the manner of the invention (as he had 
 received it from his master), the improvement and increase of 
 the art, and other things of the kind ; and that the tears would 
 burst from him against his will at the shame of the affair, 
 as often as he talked of the robbery. Which things do not 
 differ from the words of Quirinus Talesius Con., who con- 
 fessed to me that he had formerly the same from the mouth 
 of the same bookbinder.” 
 
 Beyond this narrative of Hadrian Junius there is little, 
 or rather no, testimony to the truth of Roster’s claim, all 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 23 
 
 subsequent argument being either drawn from or referred 
 to this statement. Many very learned bibliographers have 
 given full credence to Hadrian, whilst others not less acute 
 absolutely deny Koster any pretence whatever, Santander 
 calling in question his very existence ; and there is a third 
 party who, being unable to decide between the opposing ar- 
 guments, and willing to take refuge in a middle course, al- 
 low’ to Koster the credit of having invented printing from 
 blocks, but assign to his rivals that of printing from move- 
 able types. 
 
 The whole argument may, however, be reduced into a 
 reasonable compass. The probability of Hadrian’s narrative 
 will naturally be the subject of inquiry. First , the round- 
 about way in which this hearsay evidence reached Hadrian, 
 is in itself a very suspicious circumstance. Little belief can 
 be accorded to an uncertain bookbinder, even had any cir- 
 cumstances been adduced besides the name Cornelius, by 
 which this bookbinder could be identified. Secondly , Ta- 
 lesius was many years secretary to Erasmus, who, although 
 a Dutchman, and resident in Holland, repeatedly and un- 
 hesitatingly ascribes the invention to John Gutenberg of 
 Strasbourg at Mentz. 1 It is not at all probable, that had 
 Erasmus ever heard of this story, or given the slightest cre- 
 dence to it if he had, he would have omitted some mention of 
 
 1 Anno C.hristi 1440. Magnum quoddam ac pene divinum bene- 
 ficium collatum est universo terrarum orbi, a Johanne Gutenberg 
 Argentinensi, novo scribendi genere reperto. Is cum primus artem 
 impressoriam, quem Latini vocant cxcusuriam, in urbe Argentinensi 
 invenit ; inde Moguntiam veniens eandem feliciter complevit. C Epit . 
 Rerum Germ. Script 1502, cap. 95.) 
 
24 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 a circumstance so gratifying to his national vanity ; or that 
 he should have remained in ignofance of a story well known 
 to his secretary, and commonly bruited about, and therefore 
 known to some of the learned men amongst whom Erasmus 
 lived. Thirdly , the story of the engraving on beech-bark 
 accidentally, when it is quite certain that the art of taking 
 impressions from wood-blocks for saints and cards was at 
 the time known and extensively practised in Holland and 
 Germany, and also in Italy, is absurd. Fourthly , every 
 author who has written upon the matter has given up all 
 claim on Koster’s behalf for the invention of cast type, the 
 evidence in favour of others being too strong to be got 
 over. Fifthly , the tale of the conversion of these types 
 
 into drinking-cups, when Hadrian afterwards states that 
 Fust carried them off with him, is incredible ; for Koster’s 
 death is variously stated as having occurred in 1440 or 
 1442, and Hadrian says that Fust published his Doctrinale 
 in 1442, within a year of his unlicensed departure ; and there- 
 fore Koster could not have had time to construct the types 
 afterwards converted into cups. Sixthly , the story of 
 John Fust having stolen all his printing materials on the 
 eve of Christmas, and decamped, first to Amsterdam, then 
 to Cologne, and lastly to Mentz, and his publishing there 
 within the same year, is self-contradictory ; for type is not a 
 very portable commodity ; nor would he easily have escaped 
 pursuit at Amsterdam, a town under the same government. 
 Again, John Fust was originally no printer, but a wealthy 
 goldsmith of Mentz, and certainly never worked as any 
 body’s journeyman. Indeed this is such a palpable mis- 
 statement, that commentators upon Hadrian have boldly 
 supposed that the thief was John Gutenberg, not he of 
 Mentz, but a brother, also named John. Unfortunately Gu- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 25 
 
 tenberg’s brother was not named John, but Friele, and in 
 no future document is there any mention of him or his fa- 
 ther having practised the art even when known to John ; 
 nor is it at all likely that members of a noble family, and 
 wealthy men, should have worked in the service of any 
 man. If it should be asserted that it was the John Guten- 
 berg, his time is so well accounted for that it is impossible, 
 since he was then resident at Strasbourg, and never was at 
 Amsterdam or Cologne. Thus, then, the narrative of Ha- 
 drian Junius appears, upon examination, to be utterly in- 
 credible, being at once at variance w ith itself and with all 
 probability. 
 
 There are, moreover, other arguments not precisely rest- 
 ing upon this narrative ; for although these circumstances 
 are not to be believed, the main facts may , nevertheless, be 
 correct. Koster may have printed the Speculum and other 
 block-books attributed to him. Ottley says that they were 
 certainly printed in Holland, for that the types are not those 
 used in Germany, but closely resembled such as were after- 
 wards cut or cast in Holland ; and that they are of greater 
 antiquity than any books printed by those who afterwards 
 used the art in the Low Countries. He also attempts to show, 
 by the water-marks in the paper, that the w orks in question 
 were produced in these parts. Water-marks, however, and 
 some bearing a general resemblance to these, were common 
 in the papers used by printers of Cologne, Louvain, and else- 
 where ; and the argument is worth little or nothing, for no 
 evidence can be given of the positive dates of these works, 
 and much less of the printer. The Speculum was printed 
 again and again after the invention of letter-press printing ; 
 nor is there the slightest evidence, supposing these asser- 
 tions to be correct, to connect them with the name of Koster. 
 
 £ 
 
26 
 
 RINTING. 
 
 It is a conclusive argument against him, that those other 
 works ascribed to him and his descendants are executed 
 with the self-same types used at Utrecht in 1473 by Kete- 
 laer and De Leempt. Van Mander, who lived at Harlem 
 in 1580, in his History of the Lives of Dutch Painters and 
 Engravers, treats the claim of Harlem with contempt ; for, 
 speaking of printing, he describes it as an art “ of which Har- 
 lem, with much presumption, arrogates to herself the honour 
 of the invention nor does he make the slightest mention of 
 his famous fellow-citizen. 
 
 There is not the least evidence that his three grandsons 
 (not four , as Hadrian says) ever carried on his business ; for 
 where are their works ? and in their time printers had be- 
 come so proud of their art, as not only to put their names to 
 every work, but even to add a long history of their under- 
 taking and progress. Where are the books ascribed to them ? 
 what mention is made of them by their contemporaries ? 
 In a subsequent part of this article it will be seen that Cax- 
 ton, the first English printer, is said to have been sent to 
 Harlem to learn the art, and if possible to carry off one of 
 the workmen. These things being also matter of controver- 
 sy, cannot fairly be used in argument ; nevertheless it is of 
 some value that Caxton, who, supposing it to be true, would 
 be an excellent witness in favour of Harlem, upon all occa- 
 sions refers the invention to Gutenberg, and makes no 
 mention whatever of Harlem or Koster. 
 
 Santander labours to disprove the very existence of any 
 such person. But there is no necessity to go so far as San- 
 tander ; we may allow Koster’s identity ; we may even allow 
 that he practised the art of taking impressions from wood- 
 blocks ; but this is very different from acknowledging any 
 claim to the invention of the art of printing. The most stre- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 27 
 
 nuous champion of Koster is Meerman, an eminent French 
 bibliographer of the last century, who, in his Origines Ty- 
 pographic published at the Hague in 1765, strongly main- 
 tains this narrative of Hadrian ; which is not a little singular, 
 seeing that the Newcastle Typographical Society published 
 a letter from him to Wagenaar, of eight years prior date, in 
 which he expresses a precisely contrary opinion. He calls 
 Seitz’s (Hadrian’s) story a mere supposition, and the chro- 
 nology a romantic invention ; gives to the Speculum the date 
 of 1470 as the earliest possible ; attributes the honour to 
 Gutenberg, and incidentally mentions his intention of pub- 
 lishing a pamphlet on the subject. Notwithstanding this, 
 in his work, without any new fact whatever, he accredits 
 Hadrian’s story, finds consistency in the dates, believes the 
 Speculum , and denies John Gutenberg ; completely revers- 
 ing his previous opinion, though, by changing the predi- 
 cates, his narrative may still stand. The Divisiechronyh , in 
 1517, places printing amongst foreign discoveries. 
 
 All evidence, and the general consent of the learned, in 
 failure of Koster, unhesitatingly ascribe this invention to 
 
 John Gutenberg, surnamed Genzfleisch, Gensfleisch, 
 or Gensefleisch, von Solgenloch, or Sorgenloch. He was a 
 native of Mentz, and of a noble family, possessed of consi- 
 derable property in various places in the neighbourhood. 
 Fortunately the life of Gutenberg does not rest merely up- 
 on hearsay evidence, or the doubtful guesses of bibliogra- 
 phers from dateless wood-cuts; legal documents supply 
 most important information. It appears that, for some rea- 
 sons unknown, he resided for many years at Strasbourg, and 
 had even acquired rights of citizenship. The first document 
 presents him in no amiable light. It is a lawsuit instituted 
 to compel him to perform his marriage-contract with Anne 
 
28 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 von Isernen Thiir; and it would appear that he was compel- 
 led to make good his promise, the name of Anne Gutenberg 
 being found in the same register of the nobility liable to the 
 wine-duty in the city of Strasbourg, in which Gutenberg’s 
 name also appears. The next document is so curious that 
 an ample abstract of it cannot but be interesting. 
 
 It appears that he had contracted an engagement with 
 Andrew Dritzehen, John Riffe, and Andrew Heilmann, to 
 instruct them in the secrets of certain arts, and had entered 
 into partnership with them for their better advantage. An- 
 drew Dritzehen and Andrew Heilmann having called upon 
 him one day, perceived that he was engaged in a wonder- 
 ful and unknown art, the secret of which he was desirous 
 of keeping to himself ; that, moved by their importunities, he 
 consented to enter into partnership with them for the term 
 of five years, on two conditions, first, that they should pay 
 him the sum of 250 florins, 100 immediately, and the re- 
 mainder at a certain fixed period ; second, that if any one 
 of the partners should die during the term of the copart- 
 nership, the survivors should pay to his heirs the sum of 100 
 florins, in consideration of which the effects should become 
 the property of the surviving partners. Andrew Dritzehen 
 died before the expiration of the period agreed on, being 
 still indebted to Gutenberg in the sum of eighty-five flo- 
 rins. George and Nicholas, brothers of the deceased, de- 
 manded to be admitted to the partnership, and on refusal 
 brought an action against Gutenberg as principal partner. 
 The magistrates gave judgment on the 12th of December 
 .1439, relieving Gutenberg from the demand upon payment 
 of the sum of fifteen florins, being the difference of the sum 
 of 1 00 florins stipulated to be paid to the heirs of a deceasing 
 partner, and the sum of eighty-five florins due to Gutenberg 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 29 
 
 by Andrew on the original contract. The following evidence 
 was produced on the trial : — 
 
 “ Anna, the wife of John Schultheiss, an engraver on wood, 
 deposed, that on one occasion Nicholas Beildeck came to 
 her house to Nicholas Dreizehen, her relation, and said to 
 him, ‘ My Nicholas Dreizehen, Andrew Dreizehen, of hap- 
 py memory, has placed four pages ( st'ucke ) in a press, which 
 Gutenberg has desired that you will take away and sepa- 
 rate, that no man may know what they are, for he is un- 
 willing that any one should see them.’ 
 
 “ Also John Schultheiss says, that Laurence Beildeck some- 
 time came to his house to Nicholas Dreizehen, when An- 
 drew Dreizehen his brother was dead, and that the said 
 Laurence Beildeck thus spoke to said Nicholas Dreizehen : 
 ‘ Andrew Dreizehen, of happy memory, has placed four 
 pages on a press, which John Gutenberg desires you to take 
 therefrom, and place them on the press and break them from 
 one another, so that no man may see what they are.’ 
 
 “ Also Conrad Sahspach deposed, that sometime Andrew 
 Heilman came to him upon the Street of Merchants and 
 said, 6 My Conrad, as Andrew Dreizehen is dead, and you 
 made that press, and know all about the matter, go hence 
 and take the pieces from that press and lay them separate 
 from one another, so that no man may know what it is.’ 
 
 “ Laurence Beildeck says that he was sent by John Gu - 
 tenberg to Nicholas Dreizehen, after the death of Andrew 
 his brother, to say to him that he should show to no one 
 the press that he had, and that he should see to it. He 
 added, that Gutenberg had moreover commanded him that 
 he should go suddenly to the presses, and open that press 
 which was furnished with two screzvs or spindles ( cochleis ), 
 that the pages should fall into pieces, and place those pieces 
 
30 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 within or upon the press, so that no one should see the mat- 
 ter, or understand what it was. 
 
 “ The same witness also said that he knew well that Gu- 
 tenberg, a little before the feast of the Nativity, had sent 
 his servant to both Andrews to take away all forms, which 
 were broken up in his sight, that none of them might be 
 found perfect. Moreover, after the death of Andrew, this 
 witness was not ignorant that many were desirous of seeing 
 the presses, and that Gutenberg had commanded that some 
 one should be sent who might hinder any one from seeing 
 the presses, and that his servant was sent to break them up. 
 
 “ Also John Dunne, goldsmith, said, that three years or 
 thereabouts previous he had received from Gutenberg’about 
 300 florins for materials relating to printing.” 
 
 From this curious document maybe learnt, that separate 
 types were used ; for if they were blocks arranged so as to 
 print four pages, how could they be so pulled to pieces that 
 no one should know what they were, or how could the ab- 
 straction of two screws cause them to fall to pieces ? It ap- 
 pears that some sort of presses ■were used, and the transfers 
 no longer taken by a burnisher or roller ; and, lastly, that 
 the art was still a great secret at the time when Koster was 
 at the point of death. Hence it is manifest, that the inge- 
 nuity of Gutenberg had made a vast advance from the rude 
 methods of the time, and had in fact invented a new and 
 hitherto unknown art. 
 
 These documents would be decisive in favour of Stras- 
 bourg as the place in which printing was invented, had it 
 appeared that any effects were produced by this establish- 
 ment. This, however, does not seem to have been the case, 
 as Gutenberg and his successors make no mention of the 
 fact, but, on the contrary, claim for themselves the produc- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 31 
 
 tion of the first book at Mentz. Indeed the partnership ap- 
 pears to have expired without any attempt at entering into 
 fresh engagements ; for, about the year 1450, Gutenberg 
 returned to his native city with all his materials, without 
 any opposition from his partner. In this place he entered 
 into partnership with John Fust, a wealthy goldsmith and 
 citizen, who engaged, upon being taught the secrets of the 
 art, and being admitted into a participation of the profits, 
 to advance the necessary funds ; and he did accordingly ad- 
 vance the considerable sum of 2020 florins, a fact that com- 
 pletely overthrows the fable of his having been one of Kos- 
 ter’s workmen, and of his having stolen his types. The 
 new partnership immediately commenced operations, and 
 hired a house called Zum Jungen, and took into their em- 
 ploy Peter Schceffer and others. Their subsequent opera- 
 tions we again find curiously chronicled in the records of 
 another lawsuit, 1 in which Gutenberg was soon engaged with 
 his new ally; for Fust, dissatisfied with their proceedings, 
 sought to recover from Gutenberg money advanced, with 
 interest, including 800 florins of the sum advanced in vir- 
 tue of the deed of partnership. Gutenberg in defence al- 
 leged, that the 800 florins had not been paid at once, as 
 stipulated ; and that they had been expended in preparation 
 for the work (apparently meaning thereby, that this sum of 
 money should have been paid down for his own use, in con- 
 sideration of his communicating the secrets of his art, and 
 that instead of so applying it to his private purposes, he had 
 expended it for the joint benefit) ; whilst, as to the other 
 
 1 Wolfii Monumenta Typographica. Fournier, Origine de V Impri- 
 nter ic. 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 3,2 
 
 sums, he offered to give an account of their appropriation, 
 but denied that he was liable for the interest. The judges 
 awarded that Gutenberg should pay the interest, as well as 
 the part which, his accounts showed he had applied to his 
 individual use. This decision took place on the 6th of No- 
 vember 1455. Upon this Fust obtained from the public no- 
 tary the following document : 
 
 “To the Glory of God, Amen. Be it known unto all 
 those who shall see or hear read this instrument, that in the 
 year of Our Lord 1455, third indiction, on Thursday the 
 sixth day of November, the first year of the Pontificate of 
 our very Holy Father the Pope, Calixtus III., appeared here 
 at Mayence, in the great parlour of the Bare-footed Friars, 
 between eleven o’clock and mid-day, before me, the Notary, 
 and the undersigned witnesses, the honourable and dis- 
 crete person, James Fust, citizen of Mayence, who, in the 
 name of his brother, John Fust, also present, has said and 
 declared clearly, that on this same day, and at the present 
 hour, and in this same parlour of the Bare-footed Friars, 
 John Gutenberg should see and hear taken by John Fust 
 an oath, conformable to the sentence pronounced between 
 them. And this sentence read in the presence of the ho- 
 nourable Henry Gunter, Cure of St Christopher of Mayence, 
 of Henry Keffer, and De Bechtoff de Hanaw, servant and 
 valet of the said Gutenberg ; John Fust, placing his hand 
 upon the Holy Evangelists, has sworn between the hands 
 of me, the Notary Public, conformable to the sentence pro- 
 nounced, and to a letter which he has sent to me, and has 
 taken the following oath, word for word : I, John Fust, have 
 borrowed 1550 florins, which I have transmitted to John 
 Gutenberg, which have been employed for our common 
 labour, and of which I have payed the rent and annual in- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 33 
 
 terest, of which I still owe a part. Reckoning, therefore, 
 for each hundred florins borrowed, as above is recited, six 
 florins per annum, I demand of him the repayment and the 
 interest, conformably to the sentence pronounced ; which I 
 will prove in equity to be legal, in consequence of my claim 
 upon the said John Gutenberg. In presence of the honour- 
 able Henry Gunter, of Henry Keffer, and of Bechtoff de 
 Hanaw aforesaid, John Fust has demanded of me an au- 
 thentic instrument, to serve him as much and as often as 
 he hath need, in the faith of which I have signed this in- 
 strument, and have set thereto my seal.” 
 
 From this it would appear (indeed the mortgage of his 
 printing materials to Fust, mentioned in this document, 
 proves) that Gutenberg had expended the whole of his con- 
 siderable private fortune in his experiments, and had fallen 
 into the power of his more wealthy associate ; for in conse- 
 quence of this judgment, and owing probably to his being 
 unable to repay the sums demanded, the whole of his ma- 
 terials, constructed with so much perseverance, fell into 
 Fust’s hands; for the initial letters used by Gutenberg and 
 his partners, in works known and supposed to have been 
 executed between 1450 and 1455, are likewise used by Fust 
 and Schceffer in the Psalter of 1457 and 1459. After such 
 a mortifying result of so many years’ labour, it would have 
 been no matter for wonder had Gutenberg abandoned the 
 unprofitable pursuit. On the contrary, he appears to have 
 immediately started anew with fresh vigour, and this time 
 with success. Another legal document gives curious infor- 
 mation. 
 
 “ We, Henne (John) Genszfleisch de Sulgeloch, named 
 Gudinburg, and Friele Genszfleisch, brothers, do affirm and 
 publicly declare by these presents, and make known to all, 
 
 b 2 
 
34 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 that, with the advice and consent of our dear cousins, John, 
 andFriele, and Pedirmann Genszfleisch, brothers, of Mentz, 
 we have renounced and do renounce, by these presents, for 
 us and for our heirs, simply, totally, and at once, without 
 fraud or deceit, all the property which has passed by means 
 of our sister Hebele, to the convent of St Claire of Mentz, 
 in which she has become a nun, whether the said property 
 has come to it on the part of our father Henne Genszfleisch, 
 who gave it himself, or in whatsoever manner the property 
 may have come to it, whether in grain, ready money, fur- 
 niture, jewels, or whatever it may be, that the respectable 
 nuns, the abbess, and sisters of the said convent, have re- 
 ceived in common or individually, or other persons of the 
 convent (have received), from the said Hebele, be it little 
 or much ; and we have promised and do promise, by these 
 presents, in good faith, for us and for our heirs, that neither 
 w’e, nor any person on our part, nor yet our said cousins, 
 nor any of their heirs, nor any person on their part, shall 
 either demand, gain, nor claim of the said convent, nor of 
 the abbess, nor of the convent in general, nor of the persons 
 who may be found therein individually, the said property, of 
 whatever kind it may be, either wholly nor in part, and 
 that we will never demand it again, either through an ec- 
 clesiastical or civil court, or without the aid of the law ; and 
 that neither we nor our heirs will ever molest the said con- 
 vent, either by words or deeds, either secretly or publicly, 
 in any manner. And as to the books, which I, the said 
 Henne, have given to the library of the convent, they are 
 to remain there always and for ever; and I, the said Henne, 
 propose also to give in future, without disguise, to the li- 
 brary of the said convent, for the use of the present and 
 future nuns, for their religious worship, either for reading 
 
HISTORY 
 
 35 
 
 or chaunting, or in whatever manner they may wish to make 
 use of them according to the rules of their order, all the 
 books which /, the said Henne , have 'printed up to this hoar , 
 or which I shall hereafter print , in such quantities as they 
 4 may wish to make use of; and for this the said abbess, the 
 successors and nuns of the said convent of St Claire, have 
 declared and promised to acquit me and my heirs of the 
 claim which my sister Hebele had to the sixty florins, which 
 I and my said brother Friele had promised to pay and de- 
 liver to the said Hebele, as her portion and share arising 
 from the house which Henne, our father, assigned to him 
 for his share, in virtue of the writings which were drawn up 
 thereupon, without fraud or deceit. And in order that this 
 may be observed by us and by our heirs, steadfastly and to 
 its full extent, we have given the said nuns and their con- 
 vent and order these present writings, sealed with our seals. 
 Signed and delivered the year of the birth of J. C. 1459, on 
 the day of St. Margaret.” 
 
 From this it will appear, that his new establishment had 
 actually produced the long wished-for effect. He appears 
 to have carried on the business ten years; for in 1465 he 
 entered into the service of Elector Adolphus of Nassau, as 
 one of his band of gentlemen pensioners, with a handsome 
 salary, as appears from the letters patent, dated the 17th 
 January 1465, and finally abandoned the pursuit of an art 
 which, though it caused him infinite trouble and vexation, has 
 been more effectual in preserving his name and the memory 
 of his acts, than all the warlike deeds and great achieve- 
 ments of his renowned master and all his house. Gutenberg 
 died on the 24th of February 1468. His printing-office and 
 materials had passed into the hands of Conrad Humery, syn- 
 dic of Mentz, who had probably assisted him with money, and 
 
36 
 
 PRINTING, 
 
 who appears to have been in some degree his partner. He 
 afterwards sold them to Nicholas Bechtermunze of Elfield, 
 whose works are greatly sought after by the curious, as they 
 afford much proof, by collation, of the genuineness of the 
 works attributed to his great predecessor. 
 
 There does not appear to be any record of the early life 
 of John Fust or Peter Schceffer before their partnership 
 with Gutenberg, save that the former was a wealthy gold- 
 smith and an ingenious man, and that Schoeffer, surnamed 
 de Gernsheim, was a scribe. It is very likely that the com- 
 bination of character and qualifications of these three men 
 may afford a good clue to the wonderful taste and beauty 
 which distinguish the works issued from their press, and 
 consequently to the great general improvement of the art 
 during their life. The ingenuity of Gutenberg would readi- 
 ly suggest a new and expeditious method of manufacturing 
 types ; the practical skill of Fust as a worker in metals (and 
 the working in gold and silver had at that time attained 
 a most extraordinary nicety and beauty), and his large pe- 
 cuniary resources, would readily supply the necessary ap- 
 pliances, while the taste of Schceffer would give all possible 
 grace and beauty to the new forms. For Schoeffer, it must 
 be recollected, was a scribe, one of the ancient and honour- 
 able craft whose occupation was destined to fall before the 
 new art ; a transcriber, perhaps an illuminator, of the ma- 
 nuscript works in use before printed books ; and those who 
 have had the happiness of viewing those exquisite speci- 
 mens of skill which beguiled our ancestors into study and 
 devotion (when will modern typography produce such feasts 
 for mind, and eye, and imagination ?) will readily conceive 
 that Schoeffer’s eye was already schooled for the conception, 
 and his hand for the execution, of all the beauty the tram- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 37 
 
 rnels of a new art and limited skill would allow. Aided by 
 his own taste and his partners’ invention and wealth, Schoef- 
 fer proceeded to a new enterprise, namely, the casting of type. 
 The entire conception and execution of this invention has 
 been generally attributed and allowed to Schceffer. It seems 
 most probable, however, that where three ingenious men 
 are bound together by art and interest, no one of them can 
 lay exclusive claim to any invention or undertaking exe- 
 cuted in the workshops and for the mutual benefit of all. 
 Allowing, therefore, to Schceffer the honour of having sug- 
 gested some such plan, the other two may fairly put in a 
 claim for their portion of the credit on the score of their 
 suggestion and assistance, especially since Fust, as a worker 
 in metals, would have been the party to engage workmen 
 to elaborate the conceptions of his partners’ brain. Ac- 
 cordingly the only evidence upon the subject appears to 
 show that the firm had for some time practised a method of 
 taking casts of type in moulds of plaster ; for it must be 
 remembered that the types of Gutenberg’s earlier efforts, 
 both at Strasbourg and at Mentz, were cut out of single 
 pieces of wood or metal with infinite labour and imperfec- 
 tion. The method of casting, however, although a great 
 improvement, was at best but a slow and tedious process. 
 Every new letter required a new mould ; no skill or care 
 could enable the workman to impress so small a thing as a 
 type is at the face, yet so elongated in the shank, fully, 
 freely, and steadily, into a soft material ; and it would be 
 necessary afterwards, under the most favourable circum- 
 stances, that the squareness and sharpness so indispen- 
 sable in type should be given by another slow process, so 
 that at best this advance was but an imperfect and tedious 
 operation. Schoeffer has therefore an undoubted claim to 
 
38 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 be considered as one of the three inventors of printing ; for 
 he it was who first suggested the cutting of punches, where- 
 by not only might the most beautiful form of type the taste 
 and skill of the artist could suggest be fairly stamped upon 
 the matrix, but a degree of sharpness and finish quite un- 
 attainable in type cut in metal or wood could be given to 
 the face ; whilst to the shank, by the very same process by 
 which the face was cast, the mould would give perfect 
 sharpness and precision of angle. Add to this, that the 
 punch being once approved of, could be kept ready to 
 stamp a new matrix in precisely the same condition and 
 form as the first, should that be worn out or mislaid, or 
 make a duplicate should the demands of business require it. 
 It is nevertheless rather singular, that the mould represent- 
 ed on the right side of the press of Ascensius, shortly after 
 the time of SchcefFer, should be precisely the same in form 
 and manner of use as that of the present day. This was 
 evidently an immense stride towards perfection ; let Schcef- 
 fer therefore take a place on the right hand of the inventor. 
 
 Within eighteen months of their separation from Guten- 
 berg, Fust and SchcefFer produced the celebrated Psalter. 
 This was printed with large cut type. As it was impossible 
 to prepare a new fount and print this splendid work in 
 that short space, it must be evident that the partners did 
 great injustice to Gutenberg in suppressing his name from 
 the colophon. This book was produced in the month of 
 August 1457, and is the first book which bears the name 
 of the place where it was printed, those of its printers, 
 and the date of the year in which it was printed. The 
 first book, however, bearing date, was issued by Fust and 
 SchcefFer in 1455, viz. the Liter ce Indulgentiarum Nicho- 
 lai V. ; it is on a single piece of parchment. This Psalter 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 39 
 
 was reprinted in 1 459, 1490, and 1502, and always in the 
 same type, which, it is remarkable, was never used for any 
 other work, probably because its great size made it unfit 
 for any other works than those not intended for popular 
 reading, but to lay on desks like our church Bibles. On the 
 16th of October 1459, Fust and Schceffer published the Du~ 
 randi Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, with an entirely new 
 fount of type ; in 1460 the Constitutiones dementis V and 
 in 1462 the celebrated Latin Bible. Fust enjoyed this suc- 
 cessful and glorious practice of his art but ten short years ; 
 yet in this period what an immense advance from the mis- 
 shapen and irregular lumps of their first efforts, ugly in 
 themselves, and more ugly in their utter want of relative 
 proportion and allignement, to the well-proportioned, evenly 
 standing type of the Bible ! The plague carried him off in 
 Paris about the year 1466, full of years, and perchance full of 
 honours. Schceffer survived many years, and, in conjunction 
 with Conrad Henlif, produced a great number of works. His 
 name is found in the colophon of the fourth edition of the 
 Bible of 1502, about which time he is supposed to have de- 
 ceased. 
 
 Were we to take tradition for our guide as regards the 
 character of Fust, we should regard him as a conjurer and 
 an adept in the black art. The popular story (and many 
 “ grave and discrete old men” have given credit to the tale) 
 runs, that having kept these proceedings profoundly secret, 
 as soon as their Bible was finished, Fust transferred himself 
 to Paris with many copies of the new work, and palmed 
 them upon the learned as manuscripts, to which, as they 
 were printed on vellum, in a type bearing much resemblance 
 to the written books of the period, and the vignettes and ini- 
 tial letters were splendidly illuminated, they were not very 
 
40 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 dissimilar ; that some eager scholar or devotee became the 
 possessor of the first copy, supposing it to be a rare chance, 
 at the moderate price of four or five hundred crowns ; that 
 as he brought the work into the market, the price fell ra- 
 pidly to sixty, and then to thirty crowns, by which time the 
 extraordinary glut produced suspicion, and Fust was accused 
 of multiplying Holy Writ by the aid of the devil, and was 
 accordingly persecuted by the priesthood, whilst the laity, 
 looking to their temporal interests, prosecuted him for his 
 inroad into their pockets ; and that from these things F ust 
 was obliged to quit Paris precipitately. The whole story 
 is an impossible fabrication. 
 
 Having thus given a sketch of the origin and history of 
 the art of printing, a brief account of the works issued by 
 the illustrious triumvirate will not only be proper here, but 
 will give the general reader a better idea of the astonishing 
 perfection to which the art rose under the taste and genius 
 of its inventors. There is not a single work of Gutenberg 
 which bears his name ; yet, as before remarked, there are 
 several which bear such internal evidences, that the literati 
 of all parties and opinions are unanimous in attributing them 
 to his press. 
 
 Of these works, Dr Dibdin, the well-known bibliographer, 
 gives the following account: 
 
 “ First, as to the character of the type used by the early 
 Mentz printers. This appears to have been uniformly what is 
 called Gothic; and if we except the varieties of the larger type 
 (from three eighths to two eighths or to a quarter of an inch), 
 which appear in the Psalters of 1457, 1459, and 1490 (the 
 type common to most works executed about the same pe- 
 riod), we shall observe three distinct sets or forms of let- 
 ters used in the printing-office of Faust and Schoiffher. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 41 
 
 Of these three typographical characters, two only (if we 
 except the one with which the Bible of 1455 was exe- 
 cuted) are visible in the publications which appear to have 
 been printed in the lifetime of Faust ; that is to say, the 
 larger Gothic used in the Bible of 1462, and the smaller 
 Gothic in the Offices of Cicero, of the dates of 1465 and 
 1466. These appeared united, the former, for the first 
 time, in the Constitutions of Pope Clement V., of the date 
 of 1460. Schoiffher introduced a type of an intermediate 
 size, which may be seen, among other works, in the Rudi- 
 ments of Grammar of 1468, and in the Decretals of Pope 
 Gregory the Ninth , of the date of 1479. This intermediate 
 type is of a narrower form, and prints very closely. Of 
 the three types here mentioned, the largest is undoubtedly 
 of the handsomest dimensions ; but they all partake of the 
 Secretary Gothic , and may be said to be the model of that 
 peculiar character which was adopted by the early Leipsic 
 printers, Thanner and Boettiger, and was more especially 
 used by John Schoiffher and the other German printers 
 for nearly the whole of the sixteenth century. Shew me, 
 Lisardo, one book, nay, one leaf only, printed in the Ro- 
 man type , in the colophon of which the name of Faust or 
 of Peter Schoiffher appears, and you shall immediately 
 have the amount of the balance in my favour, at my bank- 
 er’s, be it great or small, be it L.200 or L.20, for such a 
 precious and unheard-of curiosity. 
 
 “ We shall now, in the second place, say a few words as to 
 the character of the printing , or of the mechanical skill , of 
 the early Mentz press. There can be but one opinion upon 
 this point. Everything is perfect of the kind, the paper, 
 the ink, and the register, or regularity of setting up the 
 page. The Bible of the supposed date of 1455 is quite a 
 
42 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 miracle in this way ; l but the Psalters are not less mira- 
 culous, nor is less praise due to the Constitutions of Pope 
 Clement V. y of the date of 1460, and the Bible of 1462 ; 
 while the Durandus , of the earlier date of 1459, exhibiting 
 the first specimen of the smallest letter, strikes one as among 
 the most marvellous monuments extant of the perfection of 
 early typography. Almost all the known works before the 
 year 1462 are printed upon vellum , doubtless because they 
 ventured upon limited impressions ; and even of the Bible of 
 1462 more copies have been described upon vellum than up- 
 on paper. Upon the whole, the vellum used by Faust and 
 Sclioiffher, although inferior to the Venetian, is exceed- 
 ingly good, being generally both white and substantial. 
 
 “ In the third place, let us notice the nature or charac- 
 ter of the works which have issued from the press of Faust 
 and SchoifFher. Whatever may be our partiality towards that 
 establishment from which the public were first gratified with 
 the sight of a printed book, candour obliges us to confess 
 that the fathers of printing were not fortunate, upon the 
 whole, in the choice of books which issued from their press. 
 
 “ In the fourth place (for I told you I should be somewhat 
 
 1 This is even sober praise. The mechanism of the press- work, 
 and appearance of the ink, beautiful, regular, and glossy as the whole 
 appears, does not strike one with more astonishment than the ma- 
 nufacture of the paper. “ Charta,’’ says Tungendres, “ ejusdem 
 est crassitudinis, qualem illo tempore libris imprimendis consumere 
 mos fuit.” And again, “ Charta ob ejus densitatem atque spissitu- 
 dinem haud ingratam ubique se maxime commendat.” (Disq. de Not. 
 Charact. Libror. p. 27, p. 46.) And see Meerman’s testimony in fa- 
 vour of the paper of the Soubiaco press, Orig. Typog. vol. i. p. 9, 
 note. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 43 
 
 tautologous), consider what is the typographical appearance 
 of those books which Gutenberg is really supposed to have 
 executed. It is quite unique. A little barbarous, and certain- 
 ly wholly dissimilar from any thing we observe in other con- 
 temporaneous productions of the Mentz press. You will 
 please to understand that I think very doubtfully of the Do - 
 statuses , which are considered to have been printed by him ; 
 as well as of the Speculum Sacerdotum , and Celebratio Mis- 
 sarum ; concluding the Catholicon of 1460, and the Vocabu- 
 laries of’1467 and 1469, to be the more genuine productions 
 of his press, or of the types used by him. Is it not surpris- 
 ing, I ask, that these works are executed in types quite diffe- 
 rent from anything we observe in the Mentz productions ? and 
 this from a man who is considered as the parent of printing 
 in that city. No wonder, if they be the actual productions 
 of Gutenberg, that Faust and Schoiffher thought so meanly 
 of his talents, and that on a dissolution of partnership they 
 adopted a different and a very superior character.” 
 
 In confirmation of these remarks of the learned biblio- 
 grapher, we shall here insert a specimen of Gutenberg’s Bal- 
 bus de Janua , which will also be a curious illustration of an- 
 cient art. Notwithstanding the appearance of these types, 
 the reader is assured that the original is really printed from 
 separate pieces of metal. 1 
 
 regufarifmofculariS uoai» Fra m 
 
 r— -j ligmficatiua p:ormri acorn pfiopalim^ ab 
 
 ^ i::= ^_k4Acciis vm filiate. Regulars & ab bz am. 
 j metric? TtiobuUcom's et accmtuwon 
 
 1 The initial A is illuminated in a very brilliant blue. The rea- 
 der who is desirous of obtaining the full effect of this specimen can 
 fill up the printed outline in water-colour. 
 
44 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Dr Horne, in the appendix to his Introduction to Biblio- 
 graphy, says of the Psalter, “ This precious work, as Santan- 
 der justly calls it, is one of the most known among early 
 printed books, from the various and correct descriptions of 
 it which have been given by different bibliographers. Un- 
 til the discovery of Pope Nicholas’ Literce Indulgentiarum , 
 this was supposed to be the very first article ever printed 
 with a date affixed ; the book is executed on vellum, and 
 of such extreme rarity that not more than six or seven 
 copies are known to be in existence ; all of which, however, 
 differ from each other in some respect or other. The most 
 perfect copy known is that in the imperial library at Vien- 
 na ; it comprises 175 leaves, of which the Psalter occupies 
 the 135 first and the recto of the 136th. The remainder 
 is appropriated to the litany, prayers, responses, vigils, &c. 
 The psalms are executed in larger characters than the 
 hymns, similar to those used for missals prior to the inven- 
 tion of printing ; but all are distinguished for their uncom- 
 mon blackness. The capital letters, 288 in number, are cut 
 on wood with a degree of delicacy and boldness which are 
 truly surprising ; the largest of these, the initial letters of 
 the psalms, which are black, red, and blue, must (as Lich- 
 tenberger has remarked) have passed three times through 
 the press. Copies are now in the Queen’s library at Wind- 
 sor, and in that of Earl Spencer at Spencer House.” A fac- 
 simile of the initial B, and a portion of the first verse of 
 this beautiful book, and of the colophon at the end, will be 
 found in Plate CCCCXIV. 
 
 The extraordinary praise awarded by these eminent bib- 
 liomaniacs to the first productions of the Mentz press may 
 perchance excite in the minds of the more sober public a 
 suspicion that these writers have been led away by their eh- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 45 
 
 thusiasm beyond the limits of matter-of-fact truth, and have 
 seen merit in defects, beauty in deformity, and lustre in an- 
 tiquity. Assuredly, nevertheless, such' is by no means the 
 case; and the happy individual who gains access to the chef- 
 d’ oeuvres of Fust and Schceffer will return from the inspec- 
 tion a wiser man ; for the beauty of these works is inconceiv- 
 able. England fortunately possesses several of these trea- 
 sures of art, there being copies of the Bible of the supposed 
 date of 1450-55 in the Royal Library, in the Bodleian, and 
 in those of Earl Spencer and Sir M. Sykes ; whilst of the six 
 known copies of the Psalter of 1457, two are in England, 
 namely, one at Windsor, and one in the possession of Lord 
 Spencer. Of the Latin Bible of Fust and Schceffer, 1462 
 (the first bearing date), there are copies on vellum at Blen- 
 heim, in the libraries of Lord Spencer, the Earl of Jersey, 
 and Sir M. Sykes, in the British Museum, and imperfect 
 in the Bodleian. Copies on paper are rarer still, there being 
 but three in this country, viz. those in the Royal Library 
 and the British Museum, and one lately in the possession 
 of Mr Willett. 
 
 Apparently, in retaliation of the injustice done to Gu- 
 tenberg by his partners in depriving him of any share of 
 the honour of producing the Psalter of 1457, which, as be- 
 fore stated, must be the joint production of all three, al- 
 though it was not finished until after the secession of Gu- 
 tenberg, bibliographers have generally agreed in attribut- 
 ing the printing of the Bible of 1450-55 to Gutenberg alone, 
 when it is equally manifest that Fust and Schceffer had as 
 much claim to the honour as their coadjutor. It is an ex- 
 ceedingly beautiful book, in two very large folio volumes, in 
 two columns, containing from forty-one to forty-three lines 
 
46 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 each, in very large well- cut types. It consists of six hun- 
 dred and forty-one leaves ; it has no title, paging, signatures, 
 or catch-words ; the initial letters are not printed, but paint- 
 ed in by illuminators, and the initial letters of each verse of 
 the psalms are painted alternately red and black, by way of 
 guide to the priests in their alternate reading. From the 
 lustre and blackness of the ink, its evenness of colour, and 
 beautiful execution, it is a very superb book ; but it is never- 
 theless surpassed by the Fust and Schceffer edition of 1462 ? 
 when they had attained greater experience in the practice 
 of the art. By far the choicest, however, of these editiones 
 principes is the Mentz Psalter or Codex Psalmorum before 
 mentioned, the initial B and first few lines of which form 
 part of Plate CCCCXIV. Dr Horne says that the six 
 known copies of this edition differ from each other in some 
 respects, and proceeds to give some particulars in which 
 variations are found ; but, upon a comparison of the royal 
 copy with Earl Spencer’s, it will be found, that although 
 they bear the same date, they are in fact two distinct edi- 
 tions. It would have excited no great surprise had it 
 been found that the printed ornaments differed, as nothing 
 would be more easy than to change the colours with which 
 the different blocks were worked ; but the text varies in such 
 a manner that there can be no doubt of their perfect dis- 
 tinctness. By comparing the following terminations of the 
 lines of the Windsor copy with the specimen, this will be 
 clear. The first line of the Windsor copy ends with afittt ; 
 the second with the contracted et ; the third with gtettt ; 
 the fourth with non ; the fifth with tint ; the sixth with lege. 
 This will be found to arise from a difference in the con- 
 tractions of the following words : 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 47 
 
 Windsor Copy. 
 
 Earl Spencer’s Copy. 
 
 First line q 
 Second line, coi 
 
 q instead of 
 
 congtfto instead of 
 peror no instead of 
 
 qut; 
 
 JgtftO ; 
 
 pecatorm non ; 
 tn ; 
 
 Third line, 
 
 Fourth line, f 
 Fifth line, no 
 
 instead of 
 instead of 
 
 non. 
 
 These differences arise apparently from the desire of so 
 apportioning the words that each line shall be completely 
 justified out in the Windsor copy, which (as may be seen 
 in the plate) is not the case in Lord Spencer’s copy ; from 
 which circumstance it is probable that the latter is the 
 earliest. The book 1 is a very large folio, on vellum, con- 
 sisting of about a hundred and thirty leaves, printed on 
 both sides. There are generally twenty-three lines in a 
 page, in Gothic type. Every psalm begins with a splendid 
 initial letter, about two thirds of the size of the B, printed 
 in two colours in almost every case. Occasionally, how- 
 ever, this appears to have been neglected, and then the 
 letter is painted in by the illuminator, but not in imitation 
 of the printed letters. The initials consist (like the B) of a 
 bold character, of Gothic cut, surrounded by a scroll, which 
 is sometimes of great length, that of the B extending from 
 the top to the bottom of the page. The same wooden block 
 is used as often as the letter occurs, but it is not always of 
 the same colour ; moreover, every verse commences with a 
 smaller initial printed in a red colour, in the same manner 
 as the & in the specimen. Nor is this work destitute of th e 
 embellishments of the illuminator ; for at the commence- 
 
 The copy described is that at Windsor : the illuminations, no 
 doubt, vary in every copy. 
 
48 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 merit of every psalm is a rubric, painted in a most brilliant 
 red, in a smaller letter, of precisely the same character as 
 the text, and also the music of the chant, with the words 
 underneath it painted in black. The initial letters of both 
 are splendidly illuminated in various colours. The paint is 
 used in such profusion that the letters are absolutely in 
 relief, often to the extent of one sixteenth of an inch ; and 
 besides these, the letter following the grand initial has a 
 broad bar painted down it, and very frequently the first 
 letter after the pauses indicated in our authorized version by 
 a colon is illuminated in a similar manner. One page is par- 
 ticularly splendid; it consists of short verses, in which the 
 first words are constantly repeated. It commences with a 
 grand initial, and there are twenty-two smaller initials to 
 the verses ; the second letter of the first verse, and the first 
 letter after every pause (twenty-three in number), having 
 the broad illuminated bar. Wherever the psalm commences 
 too near the bottom to allow of the full exuberance of the 
 scroll, a piece of paper appears to have been laid over a 
 portion of the cut, to prevent the impression from appearing ; 
 and in one psalm where the chant is of unusual length, 
 the lower part of the initial O, and a corresponding portion 
 of the scroll, are thus suppressed ; the music being illuminat- 
 ed in its place, and the scroll continued below it. Some- 
 times the illuminator has omitted to add his initial letter ; and 
 in this copy the double device is omitted. The accuracy 
 with which the coloured blocks are printed within the text 
 and within each other is perfectly astonishing. From this 
 description it may be conceived how very superb is the first 
 book ever printed, the date, and place, and artist of which 
 can be accurately ascertained. Dr Dibdin in the Biblio- 
 theca Spenceriana, Mr Savage in his work on Decorative 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 49 
 
 Printing , Dr Horne, whose wood-block is not coloured, and 
 several other writers, have given fac-similes of the same 
 copy (Lord Spencer’s), which, however, all differ from one 
 another. The lines given in the specimen in Plate CCCCXI V. 
 are copied from Dibdin, whose initial B does not accord 
 with that of the Windsor copy ; the B here given is very 
 accurate, and the colours are as similar possible to the 
 latter copy, but the colour of the scroll in the original seems 
 somewhat faded. 
 
 The capture of the city of Mentz by Count Adolphus of 
 Nassau in the year 1462 had the effect of interrupting the la- 
 bours of Fust and Schceffer ; and moreover the distracted state 
 of the city enabled, perhaps compelled, the workmen initi- 
 ated in the mysteries of the art to flee into the neighbouring 
 states, and thus spread its practice over the whole civilized 
 globe. Such, indeed, was the fame it had already acquired, 
 and such the idea entertained of its importance, that every 
 community with the slightest pretensions to literature ap- 
 pears to have sought a knowledge of it with the greatest 
 avidity. Thus, within six years of the publication of the 
 Psalter, it had spread to several cities having some connec- 
 tion with Mentz, and within fifteen years to almost every 
 town of consideration in Christian Europe. A chronolo- 
 gical list of the cities which first seized upon the inven- 
 tion would be greatly too long for this article ; it may be 
 interesting, however, to extract a few of the principal, with 
 a notice of such printers as are remarkable either for the 
 beauty or the scarcity of their works. The reader is not 
 to suppose that all, or indeed any great number of these, 
 learned the practice of the art under the tuition of the first 
 masters. A few are known to have been pupils of the in- 
 ventors, and it is probable that many others of them were so ; 
 
 c 
 
50 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 but the majority, in all likelihood, were men of learning, en- 
 terprise, or capital, who derived their typographical know- 
 ledge from such facts as had transpired, or from inferior 
 workmen of Fust and Schoelfer or Gutenberg, supplying 
 deficiencies by their own ingenuity. 
 
 Strasbourg. Mentelin. Some writers have claimed for 
 Mentelin the invention of printing, representing that Guten- 
 berg was his servant, without, however, showing the slightest 
 ground for their assertions ; but others, more reasonable, say 
 that he was acquainted with Gutenberg, and instructed by 
 him, and that on the latter’s quitting Strasbourg he esta- 
 blished a printing-office, and carried on the business suc- 
 cessfully. Mentelin most probably printed about the year 
 1458. His type is rude and inelegant. The only book 
 bearing his name is Beauvais’ Speculum Hisloriale , of date 
 1473. Schaepflin says, that he, as well as Fust and Schceffer 
 at Mentz, printed 300 sheets per day. 
 
 In 1461. Bamberg. Albert Pfister. He printed a collec- 
 tion of Fables , of date 1461. This book is excessively rare ; 
 it is printed with cast metal type, and is illustrated with 
 101 wood-cuts, in much the same style as the old Biblia 
 Pauperum. All his other works are printed in the same 
 
 type- 
 
 1465. Subiaco and Home. Schweynheym and Pannartz. 
 Their known works are, a Donatus , without date ; Lactan- 
 tius, 1465 ; St Augustin on the City of God> 1467 ; Cicero 
 de Oratore , without date ; and the Commentary of Be Lyra 
 on the Bible , 1471, all in folio. These works were print- 
 ed in a new letter, very closely resembling the type now 
 in use called Roman , and of which they were the intro- 
 ducers. In De Lyra are the earliest specimens of Greek 
 types worthy of the name ; some few letters appear in the 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 51 
 
 Cicero de Officiis printed at Mentz, but so wretchedly im- 
 perfect that they are unworthy of mention. It is curious 
 that the Greek fount of Schweynheym and Pannartz at 
 Subiaco was evidently very small ; but upon their removal 
 to Rome they cast a much larger fount. The cut and ap- 
 pearance of this Greek is more than respectable. There is a 
 very curious petition from them to the pope, praying for as- 
 sistance on the ground that they had entirely ruined them- 
 selves by printing De Lyra , for which there was no sale, 
 and representing that they had on their hands no less than 
 eleven hundred folio volumes of that work. Subiaco is the 
 first place in Italy in which printing was practised. At 
 Rome Ulric Han and Lignamine were contemporaries. 
 Their works, particularly those of Han, are excessively rare. 
 
 1 467. Elfield. Henry and Nicholas Bechtermunze. They 
 purchased from Conrad Humery the types and materials 
 of Gutenberg. Their works are not at all remarkable for 
 beauty, but are very rare, and much sought for as afford- 
 ing evidence of Gutenberg’s w r orks. 
 
 1467. Cologne . Ulric Zell. His type ia Gothic, and of 
 no beauty ; but his works are rare. 
 
 1468. Augsburg. Ginther Zainer printed the first book 
 in Germany with Roman type. 
 
 1469. Venice. John de Spira, whose works are of the ut- 
 most beauty. His edition of Pliny is splendid, and enor- 
 mous sums have been given for those printed in vellum. He 
 did not use Greek characters ; but Greek passages are com- 
 posed in Roman types. In the same city, at the same time, 
 printed Nicholas Jenson, whose works are equal, if not su- 
 perior, to those of Spira ; they are not so rare, but are almost 
 equally sought after. A copy of his folio Latin Bible of 
 1479, printed in Gothic type, was sold at Mr Edwards’ sale 
 
52 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 for L.115. 10s. Venice was also the residence of Chris- 
 topher Valdarfar, whose works gave rise to a most extra- 
 ordinary event connected with bibliography, viz. the sale of 
 the first edition of II Decamerone di Boccaccio , printed by 
 him in 1471. For many years it had been known that a 
 single copy of this work was in existence, and the most de- 
 voted bibliomaniacs had used their utmost endeavours to 
 discover it, but in vain. At length, about 1740, an ances- 
 tor of the Duke of Roxburghe obtained possession of it for 
 the sum of one hundred guineas. In lapse of time it be- 
 came the property of John duke of Roxburghe, the ac- 
 complished, indefatigable, and undaunted bibliomaniac, after 
 whose death the gorgeous library was dispersed by the auc- 
 tioneer in the year 1811. The interest excited amongst the 
 learned by this sale was intense. It was known that the col- 
 lection contained the most superb specimens of every kind of 
 ancient lore ; that the illuminated manuscripts were the most 
 brilliant, the ballads the most obscure, the editiones prin - 
 cipes the most complete that the world could produce ; that 
 the rarest Caxtons, the finest Pynsons, and grandest spe- 
 cimens of the foreign printers, were here to be found ; above 
 all, it was rumoured that a mysterious edition of Boccac- 
 cio’s Decameron would become a bone of contention amongst 
 the noblest of the literati. The public, learned and un- 
 learned, were infected with the mania, and the daily papers 
 teemed with notices of the sale. At length the important 
 day arrived, the 17th of June 1811. St James’ Square was 
 the place. Mr Evans presided. The room was crowded ; 
 Earl Spencer, the Marquis of Blandford, the Duke of De- 
 vonshire, and an agent of Napoleon, were amongst the most 
 prominent. The book was a small folio, in faded yellow 
 morocco binding, black-letter. “ Silence followed his (Mr 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 5 3 
 
 Evans’) address,” says Dibdin. 44 On his right hand, standing 
 against the wall, stood Earl Spencer: a little lower down, and 
 standing at right angles with his lordship, appeared the Mar- 
 quis of Blandford. The duke, I believe, was not then pre- 
 sent ; but my Lord Althorpe stood a little backward, to the 
 right of his father Earl Spencer. Such was 4 the ground 
 taken up’ by the adverse hosts. The honour of firing the 
 first shot was due to a gentleman of Shropshire, unused to 
 this species of warfare, and who seemed to .recoil from the 
 reverberation of the report himself had made. 4 One hun- 
 dred guineas,’ he exclaimed. Again a pause ensued ; but 
 anon the biddings rose rapidly to five hundred guineas. 
 Hitherto, however, it was manifest that the firing was but 
 masked and desultory. At length all random shots ceased, 
 and the champions before named stood gallantly up to each 
 other, resolving not to flinch from a trial of their respective 
 strengths. 4 A thousand guineas’ were bid by Earl Spencer ; 
 to which the marquis added 4 ten.’ You might have heard 
 a pin drop. All eyes were turned ; all breathing well nigh 
 stopped. Every sword was put home within its scabbard, 
 and not a piece of steel was seen to move or to glitter save 
 that which each of these champions brandished in his va- 
 lorous hand. See, see ; they parry, they lunge, they hit ; 
 yet their strength is undiminished, and no thought of yield- 
 ing is entertained by either. 4 Two thousand pounds’ are 
 offered by the marquis. Then it was that Earl Spencer, 
 as a prudent general, began to think of an useless effusion 
 of blood and expenditure of ammunition, seeing that his 
 adversary was as resolute and fresh as at the onset. For a 
 quarter of a minute he paused, when my Lord Althorpe ad- 
 vanced one step forward, as if to supply his father with an - 
 other spear for the purpose of renewing the contest. His 
 
54 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 countenance was marked with a fixed determination to 
 gain the prize, if prudence in its most commanding form, 
 and with a frown of unusual intensity of expression, had not 
 bade him desist. The father and son for a few seconds 
 converse apart ; and the biddings are resumed. 4 Two thou- 
 sand two hundred and fifty pounds,’ said Lord Spencer. 
 The spectators are now absolutely electrified. The mar- 
 quis quietly adds his usual ‘ ten,’ and there is an end of the 
 contest. Mr Evans, ere his hammer fell, made a due pause, 
 and, indeed, as if by something preternatural, the ebony 
 instrument seemed itself to be charmed or suspended * in 
 mid air.’ However, at length down dropped the hammer^ 
 and, as Lisardo has not merely poetically expressed himself, 
 ‘ the echo’ of the sound of that fallen hammer ‘ was heard 
 in the libraries of Rome, of Milan, and Saint Mark.’ Not 
 the least surprising incident of this extraordinary sale is^ 
 that the marquis already possessed a copy of the work, which 
 wanted a few leaves at the end ; he therefore paid this 
 enormous sum for the honour of possessing a few pages. 
 The prize of this contest is now in the possession of Earl 
 Spencer.” 
 
 1469. Milan. Lavagna. In 1476 Dionysius Palavasinus 
 printed the Greek Grammar of Constantine Lascaris, in 
 quarto, which is the first book printed entirely in Greek. 
 The first printing in Hebrew characters was performed at 
 Soncino, in the duchy of Milan, in 1482. 
 
 1470. Paris . Ulricus Gering, M. Crantz, and M. Fri- 
 ll urger. 
 
 1471. Florence . Bernard Cennini. In 1488 Demetrius 
 of Crete printed the first edition of Homer’s works, in most 
 beautiful Greek. 
 
 1474. Basle. Bernardus Richel. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 55 
 
 1474. Valencia . Alonzo Fernandes de Cordova. 
 
 1474. Louvain. Joannes de Westphalia. 
 
 1474. Westminster. William Caxton, the Game of Chess. 
 
 1475. Lubeck . Lucas Brandis. 
 
 1476. Antwerp. Thierry Martins of Alost. 
 
 1476. Pilsen in Bohemia. Statuta Synodalia Pr ageusia ; 
 printer’s name not known. 
 
 1476. Delft. Maurice Yemantz. 
 
 1478. Geneva. Adam Steinschawer. 
 
 1478. Oxford. Theodericus Rood. 
 
 1480. St Albans. LaurentiiGuillielmide Saona Rhetorica 
 Nova ; printer’s name not known. 
 
 1482. Vienna. John Winterburg. 
 
 1483. Stockholm . Johannes Snell. 
 
 1483. Harlem. Formula Novitiorum , by Johannes An- 
 driesson. This is the earliest book printed at Harlem ivith 
 a date. In giving this as the first work known to be print- 
 ed at Harlem, the claims of Koster, his grandsons and suc- 
 cessors, must, of course, be reserved. 
 
 1493. Copenhagen. Gothofridus de Ghemen. 
 
 1500. Cracow. Joannes Haller. 
 
 1500. Munich. Joannes Schobzer. 
 
 1500. Amsterdam. D. Pietersoen. 
 
 1507. Edinburgh. A Latin Breviary ; no printer’s name. 
 From a patent of James IV. it appears that the first print- 
 ing press was established at Edinburgh in 1507. From the 
 style and types, it is probable that they were imported from 
 France. 
 
 1551. Dublin. Ireland was apparently the last country 
 in Europe into which printing was introduced. The first 
 book printed is a black-letter edition of the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer, printed by Humphrey Powell. 
 
58 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 1569, Mexico . Antonio Spinoza, Vocabulario en Lengua 
 Castellana y Mexicana. 
 
 1639. United States , at the town of Cambridge. Printer 
 Stephen Daye. 
 
 It was the custom of the early printers to distinguish 
 their books by the most fantastic devices ; and by these their 
 works may be readily recognised. Many of them were of 
 exceeding beauty, and all the skill and appliances of their 
 art were employed to render them striking ; they are really 
 an ornament to their works. The invention of these has 
 been ascribed to Aldus ; but the very first printers, Fust and 
 Schceffer, used each for himself, yet conjoined, devices of 
 rare excellence. Their celebrated Bible is adorned with 
 one which is well worthy of being adopted as the arms of 
 the art and mystery of printing. This is given in the plate 
 of illustrations with those of Caxton, Wynkyn de Worde, 
 and Pierre Regnault, who, with his brother, printed the 
 first English Testament at Paris. 
 
 Our chronological arrangement has precluded us from 
 mentioning some of the most skilful typographers. Their 
 works, however, are so numerous, and their efforts so well 
 known, as to render it unnecessary to do more than men- 
 tion their names. Such men as the Aldi, Frobenius, Plan- 
 tinus, Operinus, the Stephani, the Elzeviri, the Gryphii, 
 the Giunti, the Moreti, and hosts of peers, have universal 
 fame. The printing-office of Plantinus, in the Place Ven- 
 dredi, at Antwerp, exists in its full integrity, and in the pos- 
 session and use of his descendants the Moreti; the same 
 presses, the same types, with the addition of every improve- 
 ment modern skill has effected, are still in use, and an in- 
 spection of these singular relics of olden art will well re- 
 pay the investigation of the curious. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 5? 
 
 The First Presses. 
 
 Of the mechanical means by which these beautiful im- 
 pressions of the old printers were produced there is little 
 or no record ; but it is quite evident that they must have 
 been effected by some more skilful process than mere ma- 
 nipulation, that is, than the appliance of a burnisher, as is 
 evident in the first wood-cuts, or of a roller, or superficial 
 pressure applied immediately by hand. It is very proba- 
 ble that one of the difficulties which Gutenberg found insu- 
 perable at Strasbourg, was the construction of a machine of 
 sufficient power to take impressions of the types or blocks 
 then employed ; nor is it at all wonderful that the many years 
 he resided at that city were insufficient to produce the re- 
 quisite means ; for, with cutting type, forming his screws, 
 inventing and making ink, and the means of applying his 
 ink when made, his time must have been amply occupied. 
 Moreover, the construction of a press would require a versa- 
 tile genius, and excellent mechanical skill, not to be looked 
 for in one man. But upon his junction with Fust and Schcef- 
 fer, the gold of the former, and the invention of all the three, 
 would soon supply the defect ; and, for aught that appears 
 to the contrary, the press used in their office differed in no 
 essential point from those in use until the improvements 
 of Blaew in 1600-20. Fortunately, amongst the queer de- 
 vices with which it pleased the earlier printers to distin- 
 guish their works, Badius Ascensius of Lyons (1495-1535) 
 chose the press ; and there are cuts of various sizes on the 
 title-pages of his works. It appears from these, that, like 
 that of Gutenberg, they could print only four pages at a 
 time, and that at two pulls ; and when it is stated that the 
 table and tympan ran in, and that the platten was brought 
 
 2 c 
 
58 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 down by a powerful screw, by means of a lever inserted 
 into the spindle, the professional reader will easily recognise 
 the wooden presses laid up in ordinary in many old London 
 houses. 
 
 The colour which the earliest typographers used was pro- 
 bably made according to the style of work in hand. The 
 earliest copies of the Speculum and Biblia Pauperum were 
 printed in a brown colour, of which raw umber is the prin- 
 cipal ingredient. It appears to have been well ground and 
 thin. It was, most likely, of the same tint as the old draw- 
 ings of the same subjects, and would be better adapted for 
 the filling up in various colours, as appears to have been 
 the practice, than a black and harsh outline of ink. Fust 
 and Schceffer, however, introduced, and their followers adopt- 
 ed, black ink, and were so skilful in compounding it that 
 their works present a depth and richness of colour which 
 excites the envy of the moderns ; nor has it turned brown, 
 or rendered the surrounding paper in the slightest degree 
 dingy. From the above-mentioned colophons we have also 
 the method of applying it to the types. This was by means 
 of balls of skin stuffed with wool, in every respect the same 
 as those used thirty years ago. The ink was laid in some 
 thickness on a corner of a stone slab, and taken thence in 
 small quantities and ground by a muller, and thence again 
 taken by the balls and applied to the types. The types 
 appear to have been disposed in cases very much the same 
 as ours. The composing-stick differs somewhat, but cannot 
 now be very clearly made out. The different operations 
 of casting the type, composing, reading, and working, are 
 mostly represented in the same apartment ; but, it is proba- 
 ble, more for the sake of pictorial unity, than because such 
 was really the custom. There must have been many work- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 59 
 
 men engaged in most of the old establishments ; and they 
 well knew the value of cleanliness, which is unattainable 
 where all the operations are carried on together. 
 
 As the invention of printing has itself become matter of 
 serious controversy amongst the learned of all countries, its 
 introduction into England has not been suffered to pass 
 without an attempt of the novelty-seekers to overturn the 
 received opinion on the subject, and to give to another the 
 laurel of a public benefactor, torn from him to whom the 
 general voice had for two centuries allotted it. Fortunate- 
 ly, the quarrel is divested of one of the great difficulties of 
 the continental, inasmuch as there does not appear to be 
 any vestige of an art in any degree similar (such as block- 
 printing) having been practised prior to the introduction of 
 type-printing ; the art, when it was brought over, being in 
 a state somewhat approaching maturity. This controversy 
 concerns the claims of William Caxton and Frederic Cor- 
 sellis to the introduction of the knowledge of the art, and the 
 printing of the first book, in this country. 
 
 The general and original belief is that Caxton, who for 
 thirty years resided in the Low Countries, under the reign 
 of Charles the Bold, and who had taken every opportunity 
 of learning the new art, and had availed himself of the cap- 
 ture of Mentz to secure one of the fugitive workmen of 
 Fust and Schoeffer, established a printing-office at Cologne, 
 where he printed the French original and his own transla- 
 tion of the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troy ; that whilst 
 at Cologne he became acquainted with Wynkyn de Worde, 
 Theoderick Rood, both foreigners, and Thomas Hunte his 
 countryman, who all subsequently became printers in Eng- 
 land ; that he afterwards transferred his materials to Eng- 
 land ; that Wynkyn de Worde Came over with him, and 
 
60 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 probably was the superintendent of his printing establish* 
 ment ; that his first press was established at Westminster, 
 perhaps in one of the chapels attached to the abbey, and 
 certainly under the protection of the abbot ; and that he 
 there produced the first book printed in England, the Game 
 of Chess , which was completed on the last day of March 
 1474. 
 
 The correctness of these facts is not matter of dispute, 
 all writers agreeing that Caxton did so set up his press at 
 Westminster, and print his Game of Chess in 1474 ; but 
 it has been asserted that Caxton was not the first printer, 
 nor his book the first book printed, in this country. Neither 
 does the controversy rest upon the contradictory statements 
 of many writers, for all authors of the same and succeed- 
 hig period agree in ascribing the honour to Caxton ; and 
 when, in 1642, a dispute arose between the Stationers’ Com- 
 pany and certain persons who printed by virtue of a patent 
 from the crown, concerning the validity of this patent, a 
 committee was appointed, who heard evidence for and 
 against the petitioners, and throughout the proceedings 
 Caxton was acknowledged as incontestibly the first printer 
 in England. Thus Caxton seemed to be established as the 
 first English typographer, when, soon after the Restora- 
 tion, a quarto volume of forty- one leaves was discovered in 
 the library at Cambridge, bearing the title of Exposicio 
 Sancti Jeronymi in Simbolum Apostolorum ad Papam 
 Laurentium, and at the end, “ Explicit Exposicio Sancti 
 Jeronymi in Simbolo Apostolorum ad papam Laurentium, 
 Oxonie Et finita, Anno Domini m.cccc.lxviii. xvii. die de- 
 cembris.” Upon the production of this book the claim for 
 priority of printing was set up for Oxford. In the year 
 1644 Richard Atkyns, who then enjoyed a patent from the 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 61 
 
 crown, and whose claims consequently brought him into 
 collision with the Stationers’ Company, and who was desir- 
 ous of establishing the prerogative of the sovereign, publish- 
 ed a thin quarto work, entitled The Original and Growth 
 of Printing , collected out of the History and the Records of 
 the Kingdom. e ; wherein is also demonstrated that Printing 
 appertained to the Prerogative Royals and is a Flower of 
 the Crown of England. The book w as published u by order 
 and appointment of the Right Hon. Mr Secretary Morrice 
 In support of this proposition Atkyns asserted that he had 
 received from an anonymous friend a copy of a manuscript 
 discovered at Lambeth Palace, amongst the archiepiscopal 
 archives. The following is an abstract of this document. 
 
 Thomas Bouchier, archbishop of Canterbury, earnestly 
 moved the king, Henry VI. to use all possible means to pro- 
 cure a printing mold, to which the king willingly assented, 
 and appropriated to the undertaking the sum of 1500 merks, 
 of which sum Bouchier contributed 300. Mr Tumour, the 
 king’s master of the robes, was the person selected to manage 
 the business ; and he, taking w ith him Mr William Caxton, 
 proceeded to Harlem in Holland, where John Guthenberg 
 had recently invented the art, and was himself personally 
 at work ; their design being to give a considerable sum to 
 any person who should draw aw^ay one of Guthenberg’s 
 workmen. With some difficulty they succeeded in pur- 
 loining one of the under workmen, Frederic Corsellis ; and 
 it not being prudent to set him to work in London, he was 
 sent under a guard to Oxford, and there closely watched 
 until he had made good his promise of teaching the secrets 
 of the art. Printing was therefore practised in England 
 before France, Italy, or Germany, which claims priority of 
 Harlem itself, though it is known to be otherwise, that city 
 
(52 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 gaining the art from the brother of one of the workmen, 
 who had learned it at home of his brother, and afterwards 
 set up for himself at Mentz.” The Exposicio is asserted 
 by inference to be the work of Corsellis. That this docu- 
 ment is a forgery may be safely assumed ; because of the 
 more than unsatisfactory manner in which it is said to have 
 been obtained ; because no one ever saw this copy ; be* 
 cause no one, except the unknown, ever saw the original, 
 for it is not amongst the archives nor in the library of 
 Lambeth Palace, nor was it when the Earl of Pembroke 
 made diligent search for it in 17( ), nor was it found when 
 
 the manuscripts, books, and muniments were moved into 
 a new building ; because Caxton himself, who took so 
 important a share in the alleged abduction of the work- 
 man, states that twelve years afterwards he was diligently 
 engaged in learning the art at Strasbourg, and repeat- 
 edly ascribes the invention to Gutenberg, “ at Mogunce 
 in Almayne because, when three years afterwards the 
 Stationers’ Company instituted legal proceedings against 
 the University of Cambridge, to restrain them from print- 
 ing, this document was rejected, as resting only on Atkyns’ 
 authority ; because Archbishop Parker, in his account of 
 Bourchier, mentions the invention of printing at Mentz, but 
 makes no claim for his having introduced it into England, 
 and Godwin, de Prcesulibus Anglice , says that Bourchier, du- 
 ring his primacy of thirty-two years, did nothing remarkable, 
 save giving L.120 for poor scholars, and some books to the 
 university, and that he minutely examined two registers of 
 his proceedings during this term, without making any men- 
 tion of his having found therein any record of so remark- 
 able a transaction ; because, since these transactions must 
 have taken place before 1459, Henry VI. was at that time 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 63 
 
 struggling fearfully for his throne and life, Edward IV. 
 being crowned in that year ; from internal evidence of 
 the document itself, for, not to mention the weak evidence 
 for the city of Harlem, it is quite certain that Gutenberg 
 never printed there, and by Junius the theft is ascribed to 
 John Fust, who certainly was a rich goldsmith of Mentz ; 
 whereupon Meerman, finding these statements at variance 
 with possibility, boldly invents another theory, making the 
 sufferers Roster’s grandsons, who never printed, as far as is 
 known, and the robber Corsellis himself ; and, lastly, be- 
 cause six years elapsed between this asserted introduction 
 and the publication of his Exposicio , and eleven years be- 
 tween this and any other publication from any Oxford press. 
 Although these facts entirely confute the pretensions of Cor- 
 sellis, there nevertheless remains the book itself, and unless 
 some evidence can be produced, Oxford will still maintain 
 the proud pre-eminence. Some of the most learned biblio- 
 graphers entirely refuse their assent to the genuineness of 
 the book. Middleton asserts that there must be an error of 
 an x in the imprint, and produces many remarkable in- 
 stances of similar typographical errors. This, however, is 
 mere assertion ; and as, in the Lambeth record, the best 
 evidence is to be sought in the production itself, accord- 
 ingly the work is printed with cast metal types, which are 
 not proved to have been used by Roster at all, that art 
 being invented by Gutenberg, Fust, and Schceffer at May- 
 ence. The letter is of very elegant cut, the pages regu- 
 lar, and the whole work has the appearance of having been 
 executed at a considerably advanced era of the art. An- 
 other and a good argument is, that the work has signa- 
 tures, or marks for the binder at the foot of the page, such 
 not having been used on the continent before 147 2, by 
 
64 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 John Koethof at Cologne ; and it is no refutation of this ar- 
 gument to say, as has been attempted by some, that many 
 works executed by printers who did use signatures are with - 
 out signatures ; for the proof of a negative in one case is the 
 poorest of all possible arguments of a positive in another. 
 Let Caxton, therefore, be replaced in his old niche, the in- 
 troducer of the art of printing into England. 
 
 William Caxton was born about the year 1412, in the 
 Weald of Kent. His father was a wealthy merchant, trad- 
 ing in wool. He was brought up to the business of a mer- 
 cer, and conducted himself so much to his master’s satis- 
 faction, that on his death he bequeathed him the then con- 
 siderable sum of twenty marks. Caxton then proceeded, 
 probably as the agent of the Mercers’ Company, into the 
 Low Countries. He must have been a man of some wealth 
 and consideration, for in 1664 he and Richard Wethenhall 
 were appointed by Edward IV. “ ambassadors and special 
 deputies” to continue and confirm a treaty of commerce be- 
 tween him and Philip duke of Burgundy ; and, upon the 
 marriage of Edward’s sister Margaret with Charles duke of 
 Burgundy, he was appointed to the household retinue of the 
 princess, by whom he appears to have been treated with 
 much familiarity and confidence ; for at her instigation he 
 first commenced his literary labours, and he mentions her 
 as repeatedly commanding him to amend his English. His 
 first work was a translation of the Recuyell of the Histo - 
 ryes of Troye , which he afterwards printed at Strasbourg, 
 when his leisure had allowed him to turn his attention to 
 the study of printing. The first production of his press is 
 allowed to be the French Recuyell above mentioned, his 
 second the Oracion of John Russell on Charles Duke of 
 Burgundy being created a Knight of the Garter , which 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 65 
 
 took place in 1469. Of his transac- 
 tions between 1471 and 1474 there is 
 no record ; probably he was engaged 
 in the diligent pursuit of the art, and 
 preparing to transfer his materials to 
 England, which he accomplished some 
 time before 1477, when we find him 
 printing in or near the Abbey of West- 
 minster, of which Thomas Milling, bi- 
 shop of Hereford, was at that time ab- 
 bot. The first production of his Eng- 
 lish press was the Game of Chess , 
 bearing date 1474, which work, how- 
 ever, some assert to have been print- 
 ed by him at Cologne. We here pre- 
 sent a specimen of this famous book, 
 the initial letter being printed in red. 
 His next production was the JBoke of 
 the hoole lyf of Jason; but his first 
 book bearing date and place in the co- 
 lophon is the Dictes and Sayings of 
 Philosophres , a translation from the 
 French by the gallant Earl Rivers, “ at 
 Westmestre, the yere of our lord 
 m. cccc. lxxvij.” From this time he 
 continued both to print and translate 
 with great spirit. His “ capital work” 
 was a Book of the noble Historyes of 
 Kyng Arthur , in 1485, the most beau- 
 tiful production of his press. 
 
 There is but one copy of any of Cax- 
 
 
 o . ^ 
 
 & 5 
 
 & vSpTS' * 
 
 ^ a n'X. 
 
 a 3 
 
 3 * 
 
 I §12,3 
 
 I 
 
 *>' 3- 
 
 -S'-S'S f 
 
 5 S 43 > I 
 
 ill- 
 
 s'*! 3- 
 
66 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 ton’s works printed upon vellum ; it is the Doctrinal of Sa - 
 pyence. “ Translated out of Frensshe in to Englysshe by wyl- 
 lyam Caxton at Westmestre. Fynyshed the vij day of May 
 the yere of our lord M.cccc.lxxix. Caxton me fieri fecit.” 
 This unique copy is in the library at Windsor, and it is in 
 beautiful preservation. It is moreover doubly unique, for it 
 contains an additional chapter, to be found in no other copy 
 whatever, and which is entitled “ Of the negligencies hap- 
 pening in the Masse and of the Remedies. Cap. Ixiiij.” It is 
 a curious treatise of minute omissions and commissions like- 
 ly to occur in the service of mass, with directions how to 
 remedy such evils. Of their importance here are two spe- 
 cimens, “ If by any negligence fyl (fall) any of the blood 
 of the Sacrament on the corporas, or upon any of the vest- 
 ments, then ought to cut off the piece on which it is fallen, 
 and ought well to be washen, and that piece to be kept 
 with the other relics.” “ And if the body of Jesu Christ, 
 or any piece, fall upon the pale of the altar, or upon any of 
 the vestments that ben blessed, the piece ought not to be 
 cut off on which it is fallen, but it ought right well to be 
 washen, and the washing to be given to the ministers for to 
 drink, or else drink it himself.” This singular treatise finishes 
 with this grave confession, “ This chapitre to fore I durst not 
 sett in the booke, by cause it is not convenient ne apper- 
 taining that every lay man should know it et cetera.” At 
 the usual termination of this work is that colophon of Cax- 
 ton which is given amongst the illustrations of this article in 
 Plate CCCCXIV. ; it is, however, considerably reduced. 
 
 The Royal Library possesses another work of Caxton, 
 which, as a perfect copy, is also unique. This is the “ Sub- 
 tyl Historyes and Fables of Esope. Translated out of 
 Frenshe in to Englyshe by Wyllyam Caxton at West- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 67 
 
 mynstre In the yere of our lord m cccc lxxxiij Emprynted 
 by the same the xxvj daye of Marche the yere of our lorde 
 m cccc lxxxiiij And the fyrste yere of the regne of kyng 
 Ry chard e the thyrde.” It consists of 142 leaves. Each 
 fable is illustrated by a rude wood-cut, all of which are said 
 to have been executed abroad, where similar editions of 
 iEsop were frequently printed. They are, however, most 
 probably copied ; for there is nothing either in their de- 
 sign or execution that a most moderate artist might not 
 perform ; and this will equally apply to other wood-cuts 
 interspersed in Caxton’s works. 
 
 It has been said that the works of Caxton have been ea- 
 gerly sought for by English bibliomaniacs. The most re- 
 markable instances of this are the enormous prices given 
 for some of them at the sale of the Duke of Roxburghe’s 
 library before mentioned. The Chastising of God’s 
 Children was knocked down to Earl Spencer for L.146. 
 The Sessions Papers were bought for the Society of Lin- 
 coln’s Inn for L.37S. The Duke of Devonshire gave 
 L.351. 15s. for The Mirrour of the World , and L.180 for 
 the Kalendayr of the Shgppers. Gower’s Confessio Aman- 
 tis produced L.366 ; The Poke of Chyvalry , L.336. The 
 Recuyell of the History es of Troye gave rise to a start- 
 ling contest. It was the identical copy presented by Cax- 
 ton to Elizabeth Grey, queen of Edward IV. and sister of 
 his patroness. “ Sir Mark Sykes vigorously pushed on his 
 courser till five hundred guineas were bidden ; he then 
 reined in the animal, and turned him gently on one side 
 ‘ toward the green sward.’ More hundreds are offered for 
 the beautiful Elizabeth Grey’s own copy. The hammer 
 vibrates at nine hundred guineas. The sword of the mar- 
 quess is in motion, and he makes another thrust — ‘ One 
 
68 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 g> 
 
 S- 
 
 9 
 
 *? s 3 
 
 * «sk ^ 
 
 If E'§L 
 2 
 
 s*f & 
 ?«■§ 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 c? 
 
 ft 
 
 O’ 
 
 ir 
 
 cxl 
 
 *-f* ^ 
 
 g'8* 
 
 s 
 
 if! 
 
 Iff 
 
 # ila 
 
 thousand pounds/ 4 Let them be guineas/ said Mr Ridgway, 
 and guineas they were. The 
 
 marquess now recedes. He Specimens of Carton's Pilgrimage 
 n of the Sowle, and of the Royal Book . 
 
 is determined upon a re- 
 treat ; another such victory 
 as the one he has just gained 
 (the Valdarfar Boccaccio) 
 must be destruction ; and 
 Mr Ridgway bears aloft the 
 beauteous prize in ques - 
 tion.” (Dibdin.) At Mr 
 Willett’s sale Tullius of 
 Old Age produced L.210, 
 and became the property of 
 the Duke of Devonshire. 
 
 Caxton must have been 
 a man of wonderful perse- 
 verance and erudition, cul- 
 tivated and enlarged by 
 an extensive knowledge of 
 books and the world. Of 
 his industry and devoted- 
 ness some idea may be 
 formed, when Wynkyn de 
 Worde, his successor, states, 
 in his colophon to the Vitce 
 Patrum , that Caxton finish- 
 ed his translation of that 
 work from French into 
 English on the last day of 
 his life . He died in 1494 } 
 being above fourscore years 
 
 3^® 
 
 S' ft ST 
 
 vS ^ ^ 
 
 f&ag 
 
 4^- 
 
 s M 
 
 1 
 
 m* © jags 
 
 a 9>eT 
 
 g“. **• fi% 
 
 OI 
 
 B S « 
 
 tj’sf 
 
 & & SS 
 B™ A 
 o 
 
 aaS S 
 
 #«> 
 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 63 
 
 of age. His epitaph has been thus written by some friend 
 unknown : “ Of your charite pray for the soul of Mayster 
 Willyam Caxton, that in hys tyme was a man of moche 
 ornate and moche renommed wysdome and connynge, and 
 decesed full crystenly the yere of our Lord mcccclxxxxi, 
 Moder of Merci shyld him from thorribul fynd, 
 
 And bryng hym to lyff eternal that neuer hath ynd.” 
 The type used by Caxton is in design very inferior to 
 that used upon the Continent even earlier than his period ; 
 but in the latter part of his life he very materially improved 
 his founts, and some of his later productions are very ele- 
 gantly cut. The design is peculiar to him, and is said to 
 be in imitation of his own hand-writing ; it bears, however, 
 some resemblance to the types of Ulric Zell, from whom 
 Caxton derived most of his instruction, and is something be- 
 tween Secretary and Gothic. He appears to have had two 
 founts of English , three founts of Great Primer , one Don- 
 hie Pica , and one Long Primer . 1 He used very few orna- 
 mented initial letters, and those he did employ are very infe- 
 rior in elegance to those of foreign printers. He preferred 
 inserting a small capital letter within a large space, and 
 leaving the interval to be filled up according to the taste 
 of the illuminator, owing to which many excellent perform- 
 ances are destitute of these beautiful ornaments. Caxton’s 
 ink was not remarkable for depth of colour or richness ; his 
 paper was excellent ; and he probably used presses of the 
 same construction as the continental printers. His works are 
 not very rare, but are highly prized by English collectors. 
 
 1 These are terms by which modern English printers distinguish 
 the sizes of their type. 
 
70 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Copies of one or more of his works are to be found in most 
 collections of any pretension, and are well worthy of in- 
 spection. The number of his productions is sixty-two. Al- 
 though Caxton was the first English printer, he was not the 
 only one of his day, Wynkyn de Worde, Lettou andMach- 
 linia, Hunte, Pynson, the Oxford printer whoever he may 
 have been, and he of St Alban’s, being his contemporaries. 
 
 Wynkyn de Worde came, as we have already seen, 
 from Germany with Caxton, and remained with him in the 
 superintendence of his office until the day of his death, 
 when he succeeded to the business. He was a native of 
 Lorraine, and evidently a man of considerable information 
 and taste, and of great spirit in the conduct of his affairs. 
 After his succession to Caxton’s business, he carried it on 
 in the same premises for about six years, when he removed 
 to the “ Sygn of the Sonne in flete strete, against the con- 
 dyth.” De Worde appears to have immediately commenced 
 a complete renovation of the art, cutting many new founts 
 of all sizes, with vast improvement of the design and pro- 
 portion ; he moreover provided his contemporaries, then 
 becoming very numerous, with type ; and it is even said 
 that some of the letter used by English printers less than 
 a century ago are from his matrices, nay, that the punches 
 are still in existence. He was the first (or Pynson) to in- 
 troduce Roman letters into England, which he made use of 
 amongst his Gothic to distinguish any thing remarkable, in 
 the same manner as Italic is used in the present day. His 
 works amount to the extraordinary number of four hundred 
 and eight. “ His books are, in general, distinguished by 
 neatness and elegance, and are always free from professed 
 immorality. The printer has liberally availed himself of such 
 aid as could be procured from the sister art of engraving ; 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 71 
 
 although it must be confessed that by far the greater, if not 
 the whole, number of wood engravings at this period are of 
 foreign execution ; nor is it without a smile that the typo- 
 graphical antiquary discovers the same cut introduced into 
 works of a directly opposite nature.” 
 
 In his Instruction for Pilgrims to the Holy Land , printed 
 in 1523, the text of which is in Roman, and the marginal 
 notes in Italics, he makes the first use in England of Greek, 
 which is in moveable type ; of Arabic and Hebrew, which 
 are cut in wood ; and the author complains that he is ob- 
 liged to omit a third part, because the printer had no He- 
 brew types. Appended to the work are three Latin epistles, 
 in which he makes use of Arabic. 
 
 His works are, of course, not so rare as those of his pre- 
 decessor, but are nevertheless much sought after ; and, when 
 sold by the side of the Caxtons at the Duke of Roxburghe’s 
 sale, produced large prices. Bartholomceus de Proprieta- 
 tibus Rerum , the first book printed on paper made in Eng- 
 land, was bought by the Duke of Devonshire for L.70. 7s. 
 Chaucer’s Troylus and Cresseide, L.43 ; Hawys’ Exemple 
 of Vertu , L.60; Passetyme of Pleasure , L.81 ; Castell of 
 Pleasure , L.61 ; The Moste Pyteful Hystorye of the Noble 
 Appolyon , Kynge of Thyre , L.110. 
 
 De Wordedied about the year 1534. In his will, still in 
 the Prerogative Office, dated 5th June 1534, he bequeaths 
 many legacies of books to his friends and servants, with 
 minute directions for payment of small creditors and for- 
 giveness of debtors, betokening a conscientious and kind- 
 ly disposition. His device is generally that of Caxton, with 
 his own name added to the bottom ; but he also used a 
 much more complicated one, consisting of fleurs-de-lis, lions 
 passant, portcullis, harts, roses, and other emblazonments of 
 
72 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the later Plantagenets and the Tudors. A fac-simile of the 
 former will be found in Plate CCCCXIV. 
 
 John Lettou and William Machlinia printed separately 
 and jointly before the death of Caxton, but were very infe- 
 rior to him in every respect ; their type being most especial- 
 ly barbarous. Their works are not very numerous, and are 
 principally upon legal subjects ; they printed the first edi- 
 tion of Lyttleton’s Tenures. 
 
 Richard Pynson was a Norman by birth, and studied 
 the art of printing under his “ worshipful master William 
 Caxton.” It would seem that he was an earlier printer than 
 Wynkyn de Worde, having established an office before the 
 death of Caxton. His first work is of date 1493, and was 
 printed “ at the Temple-bar of London .” He enjoyed high 
 patronage, and was appointed by Henry VII. to be his printer 
 before 1503. He is perhaps inferior to De Worde as a ty- 
 pographer, his first types being extremely rude. He after- 
 wards used a fount of De Worde’s, and another peculiar to 
 himself in this country, probably imported from France. 
 Some of his larger works, Fabian’s Chronicle, Lord Ber- 
 ner’s translation of Froissart (which are the first editions of 
 these important additions to English literature), and some 
 of his law-works, are very fine specimens of the art. His 
 device was a curious compound of R and P, on a shield 
 which is sometimes supported by two naked figures. 
 
 Of Julian Notary, William Faques, Henry Pepwell, and 
 others, it is unnecessary even to mention their names, inas- 
 much as they add little that is interesting to the history of 
 English typography. 
 
 Richard Grafton, however, claims especial notice. He 
 w r as by trade a grocer, although of good family. Of his 
 education nothing appears ; but he w as one of the most vo- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 73 
 
 luminous authors of his time, having, by his own account, 
 written a considerable portion of Hall’s Chronicles, an Abridg- 
 ment of the Chronicles of England, and a Manual of the 
 same, a Chronicle at Large, and other books of historical 
 character, under what circumstances is not known. In 1537 
 Grafton published Thomas Mathew’s translation of the Bible, 
 which was printed abroad, but where is not satisfactori- 
 ly ascertained; and in 1538 the Testament translated by 
 Miles Coverdale, which was printed at Paris by Francis Reg- 
 nault. At this time it would not appear that English print- 
 ers were in high estimation ; for Lord Cromwell, desirous 
 of having the Bible in the English language, thought it ne- 
 cessary to procure from Henry VIII. letters to the king of 
 France for license to print it at Paris, and urged Bonner to 
 tender his earnest assistance. Bonner entered upon the un- 
 dertaking with such zeal, that in recompense he was soon 
 afterwards appointed to the bishopric of Hereford. Miles 
 Coverdale had charge of the correctness (see his letter, 
 Gent.’s Mag. 1791), and Richard Grafton and Edward Whit- 
 church were the proprietors ; but under what arrangement 
 does not appear. When the work was on the point of com- 
 pletion, the Inquisitors of the Faith interfered, seized the 
 sheets, and Grafton, Whitchurch, and Coverdale, were com- 
 pelled to make precipitate flight. The avarice of the lieu- 
 tenant-criminal induced him to sell the sheets for waste 
 paper instead of destroying them, and they were in part re- 
 purchased. The Testament was intrusted to Francis Reg- 
 nault, whose brother used the tasteful colophon which will 
 be found in Plate CCCCXIV. Under the protection of 
 Cromwell they next, after many difficulties, obtained their 
 types and other materials from Paris, and the Bible was 
 
74 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 completed at London in 1539. “ Thus they became print- 
 ers themselves, which before this affair they never intend- 
 ed.” The edition consisted of 2500 copies, Cromwell 
 next procured for them a privilege (not an exclusive one, 
 however) for printing the Scriptures for five years. Very 
 shortly after the death of Lord Cromwell, Grafton was 
 imprisoned for printing Mathew’s Bible and the Great 
 Bible, his former friend Bonner much exaggerating the case 
 against him. The prosecution, however, was not followed 
 up ; but in a short time he was, with Whitchurch, appoint- 
 ed printer to Prince Edward, with special patents for print- 
 ing all church-service books and primers. The document 
 is curious. It recites that such “ bookes had been prynted 
 by strangiers in other and strange countreys, partely to the 
 great losse and hynderance of our subjects, who both have 
 the sufficient arte, feate and treade of prynting, and parte- 
 ly to the setting forthe the bysshopp of Rome’s usurped 
 auctoritie, and keping the same in contynuall memorye 
 and that, therefore, of his “grace especiall, he had granted 
 and geven privilege to our wel-biloved subjects Richard 
 Grafton and Edward Whitchurch, citezeins of London,” 
 exclusive liberty to print all such books for seven years, 
 upon pain of forfeiture of all such books printed elsewhere. 
 
 One Richard Grafton, supposed to be the above, was 
 member of parliament for the city of London in 1553-54, 
 and also in 1556-57, and in 1562 was member for Coven- 
 try. He is supposed to have died about 1572, and not 
 in very affluent circumstances. He used a punning, or, as 
 the heralds would call it, a canting device, of a young tree 
 or graft growing out of a tun . His works are distinguished 
 for their beauty, and are very numerous and costly. He was 
 one of the most careful and meritorious of English printers. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 75 
 
 These are the titles of a few of his early Bibles, &c. 
 
 The Byble, 1537, folio. “ The Byble, which is all the 
 holy Scripture : In whych are contayned the Olde and 
 Newe Testament truly and purely translated into Englysh 
 by Thomas Mathew. Esaye 1 0^ Hearcken to ye heauens, 
 and thou earth geaue eare : For the Lorde speaketh, 
 m.d.xxxvii.” The title of the New Testament is, “ The 
 newe Testament of our sauyor Jesu Christ, newly and 
 dylygently translated into Englyshe, with Annotacions in 
 the Mergent to help the Reader to the vnderstandyng of 
 the Texte.” This was printed in France. 
 
 The New Testament, Latin and English. 1538. Octavo. 
 “ The new testament both in Latin and English after the 
 vulgare texte ; which is red in the churche. Translated 
 and corrected by Myles Couerdale : and prynted in Paris, 
 by Fraunces Regnault. M. ccccc. xxxvm in Nouembre. 
 Prynted for Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch, 
 cytezens of London. Cum gratia & priuilegio regis .” 
 
 The Byble in Englysshe. 1539. Folio. “ The Byble 
 in Englyshe, that is to saye the content of all the holy 
 Scrypture, bothe of y e olde, and newe testament, truly 
 translated after the veryte of the Hebrue and Greke textes, 
 by y e dylygent studye of dyuerse excellent learned men, 
 expert in the forsayde tongues. Prynted by Pychard 
 Grafton , and Edward Wliitchurche . Cum priuilegio — 
 solum. 1539.” This is a very superb book, and is the 
 one which was commenced at Paris and finished at London 
 under the circumstances before related. 
 
 Newe Testament in Englysshe. 1540. Quarto. 
 “ Translated after the texte of Master Erasmus of Rotero- 
 dame.” 
 
 The Prymer. English and Latin. 1540. Octavo. 
 
76 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The Byble in Englyshe. 1540. Folio. A noble 
 volume, called, from the preface, Cranmer’s Byble. 
 
 The Byble in Englyshe. 1541. Folio. “ The By- 
 ble in Englyshe of the largest and greatest volume, aucto- 
 rised and appoynted by the commaundement of oure moost 
 redoubted prynce and soueraygne Lorde, Kynge Flenrye 
 the VIII, supreme head of this his churche and realme of 
 Englande : to be frequented and vsed in euery Churche 
 within this his sayd realme, accordyng to the tenoure of 
 hys former Jniunctions geuen in that behalfe. Ouersene 
 and perused at the comaundement of the kynges hyghnes, 
 by the ryght reuerend fathers in God Cuthbert by shop of 
 Duresme, and Nicholas bisshop of Rochester.” The lines 
 of the title are printed alternately red and black. 
 
 Such, with many other manuals, primers, & c. were the 
 productions of this most eminent British typographer. 
 
 John Day was a printer of much eminence ; and his 
 works are numerous, beautiful, and useful. 
 
 The first complete edition of Shakspeare’s Plays was 
 printed by Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount, in folio, 
 in 1623. Of his single plays, the earliest is “ The first 
 part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of 
 Yorke and Lancaster,” which was printed by “ Thomas 
 Creed for Thomas Millington, and are to be sold at his 
 shop, under Saint Peter’s Church, Cornwall” (Cornhill), in 
 1594. These plays were printed by various typographers, 
 amongst whom appear the names of George Eld, Valentine 
 Simmes, R. Young, John Robson, and others who only give 
 their initials. 
 
 The first edition of Milton’s Paradise Lost was printed 
 in quarto by Peter Parker in the year 1667 ; the Para- 
 dise Regained in 167L 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 77 
 
 During the troublesome times that preceded the great 
 rebellion, the Puritans, jealously watched and persecuted, 
 introduced the anomaly of ambulatory presses, which were 
 constantly removed from town to town to escape the vigi- 
 lance of the Star-Chamber. At these presses many of Mil- 
 ton’s controversial pamphlets were printed ; and it is even 
 said that the identical press at which the Areopagitica -was 
 printed is still in existence, and was lately in the posses- 
 sion of Mr Valpy, the well-known printer of the Variorum 
 Classics. 
 
 It is a very pleasing reflection, that the earlier practition- 
 ers of the art did, by their uniform good character and reli- 
 gious turn, tend much to render their profession produc- 
 tive of a highly moral class of literature, and to raise it in 
 the estimation of all men. Had they been less respectable, 
 had they turned their attention to the many ribald and 
 tasteless writings of those times, the effect of the new art 
 would have been to degrade literature and lower morals, 
 to delay the spread of knowledge, and to give a depres- 
 sion to the character of the art and its practitioners, from 
 which possibly they might never have recovered. These 
 excellent and learned men appear to have received their 
 temporal reward, in public estimation, sufficient wealth, and 
 a length of years beyond the ordinary term of mortality. 
 
 Setting aside the claim of Corsellis, printing was first 
 practised at Oxford by Theoderic Rood and Thomas 
 Hunte from 14-80 to 1485. In Rymer, vol. xv. is a grant 
 by Queen Elizabeth to Thomas Cooper, clerk of Oxford, 
 for the exclusive printing* of his Latin Dictionary. In 1585 
 a printing press was established at the expense of the Earl 
 of Leicester, chancellor of the university. Joseph Barnes 
 was appointed printer to the university in 1585. 
 
78 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 At Cambridge John Siberch printed in 1521, when 
 Erasmus resided there, and probably executed some of his 
 books. Thomas Thomas, M. A. was the first printer to the 
 university in 1584. 
 
 At St Alban’s printing was very early practised, certain- 
 ly in the year 1480. It would appear that the printer was 
 a schoolmaster. It has been asserted, but without shadow 
 of argument, that printing was introduced here many years 
 before Caxton. 
 
 Printing was not introduced into Scotland till thirty years 
 after Caxton had set up his press at Westminster. Under the 
 patronage of James IV., who was a zealous encourager of 
 learning and the useful arts, Walter Chepman and Andro 
 Myllar established the first printing press at Edinburgh, as 
 appears by a royal privilege granted to them in 1507. 1 
 
 The only publications known to have issued from the 
 
 1 “ James, &c. To al and sindrj our officiaris liegis and sub- 
 dittis quham it efferis, quhais knawlage thir our lettres salcum, 
 greting; Wit ye that forsamekill as our lovittis servitouris Walter 
 Chepman and Andro Millar, burgessis of our burgh of Edinburgh, 
 has at our instance and request, for our plesour, the honour and 
 proffit of our Realm and liegis, takin on them to furnis and bring 
 hame ane prent, with all stuff belangand tharto, and expert men 
 to use the samyne, for imprenting within our Itealme of the bukis 
 of our Lawis, actis of parliament, croniclis, mess bukis, and portuus 
 ef'ter the use of our Realme, with addicions and legendis of Scot- 
 tis sanctis, now gaderit to be ekit tharto, and al utheris bukis that 
 salbe sene necessar, and to sel the sammyn for competent pricis, 
 be our avis and discrecioun thair labouris and expens being con- 
 siderit,” &c. 
 
 “ Geven under our prive Sel at Edinburgh the xv day of Sep. 
 t ember, and of our Regne the xx li yer.” 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 79 
 
 press of Myllar and Chepman are a collection of pamphlets* 
 chiefly metrical romances and ballads, in 1508, of which an 
 imperfect copy is preserved in the Advocates’ Library J 
 and the Scottish Service Book, including the Legends of 
 the Scottish Saints, commonly called the Breviary of Aber- 
 deen, in 1509. 1 2 
 
 It is difficult to account for the discontinuance of print- 
 ing in Scotland for about twenty years after this time : pro- 
 bably the disastrous events at the close of the reign of James 
 IV. may have contributed to render it an unprofitable trade ; 
 but in its revival by Davidson there was no deterioration, 
 either in the magnitude and importance of the works at- 
 tempted, or in the mode in which the mechanical part was 
 executed. It was probably about the year 1536 that he 
 printed, in a black-letter folio, “ The History and Croniklis 
 of Scotland, compilit and newly correckit be the Reuerend 
 and Noble Clerke Maister Hector Boece. Translatit laitly 
 be Maister Johne Bellenden. Imprentit in Edinburgh be 
 Thomas Davidson, dwelling foment the FrereWynd;” and 
 in 1540 he printed the whole works of Sir David Lindsay. 
 
 Davidson was succeeded by Lekprevik, Vautrollier, and 
 
 1 These pamphlets were reprinted in a handsome quarto volume, 
 edited by Mr David Laing. The preface contains much accurate 
 information regarding early printing in Scotland. 
 
 2 Of this Service Book, which forms two volumes octavo, hand- 
 somely printed with red and black letter, in the years 1509 and 
 1510, a beautiful copy is preserved in the University Library of 
 Edinburgh. As the name and device of Walter Chepman occur in 
 the work, without any mention being made of his partner, we are 
 led to the conclusion that Andro Myllar, if then alive, had relin- 
 quished his share in the concern. 
 
80 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 others ; but none were distinguished as printers till the 
 time of Ruddiman. 
 
 A mere catalogue of printers would afford little amuse- 
 ment, and less instruction ; especially since the produc- 
 tions of the English press, save in the works of the printers 
 above named, not only exhibited no advance, but even 
 much deterioration, in most requisites of good printing. 
 Indeed, to so low a point had the art fallen, and so little 
 spirit was exhibited by English typographers, that the re- 
 generation was left to an alien, whose perception of the in- 
 feriority and capacity of improvement at once raised the art 
 to the level of the finest productions of Bodoni and Barbou. 
 
 This was John Baskerville, a japanner of Birmingham, 
 who, having realized a considerable fortune, turned his at- 
 tention to cutting punches for type, and succeeded in pro- 
 ducing a series of founts of remarkable beauty, so excel- 
 lently proportioned, and standing so well, that the best of 
 modern type-founders (and this seems the Augustan age 
 of type-founding) have done no more than vary the pro- 
 portions and refine the more delicate lines and strokes*. 
 Added to this, his press-work is of most excellent quality ; 
 his paper the choicest that could be procured j and his ink 
 has a richness of tone, the mode of producing which has 
 died with him. The works of Baskerville are amongst the 
 choicest that can adorn a library. He died in 1775. His 
 types and punches were purchased to print the splendid 
 edition of Voltaire’s works at Paris. He was worthily suc- 
 ceeded by Bulmer, whose magnificent Shakspeare and 
 Milton are amongst the most superb books ever issued from 
 the press, and, with Macklin’s Bible and Ritchie’s, Bensly’s 
 Hume, and other works, may be fearlessly produced to win 
 for this country the palm of fine printing ; whilst in Scot- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 SI 
 
 land Thomas Ruddiman, and the two Foulis, may chal- 
 lenge the prize of classical typography from Aldus and the 
 Stephani. Indeed the larger Greek types of the Foulis are 
 without parallel for grandeur ; their press-work is beautiful, 
 and their correctness beyond all praise. 
 
 Modern printers, with all their faults, are not degenerate 
 successors of these worthies. The works from present of- 
 fices that make pretensions to fine printing need not be 
 ashamed of comparison with these chef d? oeuvres ; whilst, 
 from the vast improvements in the mechanism of the art 
 in all its branches, paper, presses, ink, type, and other ad- 
 juncts, the average of the printing of the present day is 
 infinitely superior to that of the last century. But in what 
 relates to practical skill, correctness, taste, and diligence, 
 we cannot hope to excel, though we may perhaps equal, 
 these departed masters. 
 
82 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 PRACTICAL PRINTING. 
 
 The first operation when the new fount 1 has entered the 
 doors of the printing-office, is to lay it in the cases , (See 
 Plate CCCCXV.) These are always in pairs, the upper case 
 being divided into equal spaces or boxes ; the part on the left 
 of the broader division being appropriated to CAPITAL let- 
 ters, figures, accented letters, particular sorts , &c. ; that on the 
 right to small capitals and miscellaneous characters. The 
 letters and figures are arranged in alphabetical and numerical 
 order, from left to right. The lower case is divided into unequal 
 portions, according to the average occurrence of the particular 
 letters ; for the compositor (the workman whose duty it is to 
 lay the fount, and afterwards to place together or compose 
 the separate types into words) never looks at the face of 
 the letter he picks up, but unhesitatingly plunges his fin- 
 gers into any box, being sure that the letter he picks out 
 thence is the one to which that box is appropriated, and 
 consequently the one he requires. As there is no external 
 mark or guide attached to the different boxes to denote the 
 
 i A fount is any weight of type consisting of every letter, 
 space, quadrat, &c. in certain proportions, instances of which are 
 given below. See Type-founding. 
 
CASE. 
 
 83 
 
 letters they contain, a stranger is not a little surprised and 
 mystified at the eccentric movements of the workman’s 
 hand. Accordingly, it will be observed, upon looking to 
 the engraving, that the letter e has a box one half larger 
 than any other, c, d, m, n, h, u, t, i, s, o, a, r, twice the size 
 of b, 1, v, k, f, g, y, p, or w, and four times the size of z, x, 
 j, q, or the [] crotchets, full points, &c. These boxes are 
 not arranged in alphabetical or any other order, but as ex- 
 perience has shown how the case may be most convenient- 
 ly divided into the requisite proportions. There are also 
 other pairs of cases similarly arranged for the italic letters. 
 The fount is therefore laid or distributed in these boxes, 
 when the following are found to be some of the propor- 
 tions of the letters in a fount of pica of 800 lbs. weight : 
 Capitals, of each from 400 to 600, 
 
 Small capitals, from 150 to 300, 
 
 z 200, 
 
 & 200 , 
 
 , 4,500, 
 
 , 2 , 000 , 
 
 the whole fount comprehending the number of 150,000 
 letters, spaces, and figures. 
 
 The compositor having placed his copy upon a little-used 
 part of the upper case, and having received the necessary 
 directions, takes up an instrument called a composing-stick 
 (which, as well as the way of holding it and its use, will 
 be better understood by reference To the drawing than 
 by description, see Plate CCCCXV.), and sliding that in- 
 ner moveable portion fastened by a screw, wider or closer 
 according to the desired width of the page, cuts to the 
 exact size a piece of brass rule, called the setting-rule , 
 
 a 
 
 8,500, 
 
 b 
 
 1,600, 
 
 j 
 
 400, 
 
 e 
 
 12,000, 
 
 c 
 
 3,000, 
 
 k 
 
 800, 
 
 i 
 
 8,000, 
 
 d 
 
 4,000, 
 
 m 
 
 3,000, 
 
 o 
 
 8,000, 
 
 f 
 
 2,500, 
 
 n 
 
 8,000, 
 
 u 
 
 3,400, 
 
 li 
 
 6,400, 
 
 q 
 
 500, 
 
84 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 which enables the letters to slip down without any ob- 
 struction from the screw-holes of the stick, or the nicks 
 by which one fount is distinguished from another. He then 
 reads the first few words of his copy, takes first a capital 
 letter from the upper case, the succeeding letters from the 
 lower case, and at the conclusion of the word a space , 
 which is merely the shank of a letter without any face, 
 and not so high as a letter by about one-fourth part. This 
 therefore separates each word by a space, which cannot ap- 
 pear upon the paper, because the ink cannot be distributed 
 upon it except by mismanagement, in which case it is a 
 fearful blotch upon a fair page, and must have been observ- 
 ed by most readers. He then proceeds with his next word, 
 which will probably consist of lower-case letters only, and 
 so proceeds until he has arrived at the end of his line. It 
 is most likely, however, that the words he has occasion to 
 compose, with the necessary spaces, will not fill up the ex- 
 act width of the line, and that there will be sometimes too 
 much, sometimes too little, room for getting in the next or 
 part of the next word. In this case he has to consider whe- 
 ther it will be better to crowd the line and get in the next 
 syllable, or make the line more open and take it over to the 
 next line ; his care being that his matter, when composed, 
 shall not look too white or too dark. Having decided, he 
 takes out the spaces he has inserted, and puts in their stead 
 others of greater or less width, as the case may require, in 
 such a manner that on the face of the line being touched 
 it shall not feel loose, or that it shall not require any parti- 
 cular pressure to force down the last letter into its proper 
 place. This being accomplished in an artist-like manner, 
 he takes out his setting-rule, and places it in front of his line, 
 and with a gentle pressure of the thumb forces both back in- 
 
CASE. 
 
 85 
 
 to the composing-stick ; he then proceeds in a similar man- 
 ner with other lines, until his stick is very nearly full, when, 
 placing it upon th e frame on which the cases are, his setting- 
 rule being in front, he lifts his lines out of the stick in order 
 to place them upon a proper instrument, called a galley. 
 If, however, the matter is to be leaded , that is, if the lines 
 of types are to be more apart than usual, the process is a 
 little different. The compositor then has before him a quan- 
 tity of pieces of metal called leads , of the exact width of the 
 page, only one fourth, one sixth, or one eighth as wide as 
 the type, and not higher than spacer After composing a 
 line, before moving his setting-rule, he takes one or more 
 of these and places it before the line, then places the set- 
 ting-rule, and so proceeds. Having thus gone on until a 
 considerable quantity of matter is composed, the compositor 
 next proceeds to make it up into pages, and then into 
 sheets. First, taking by portions as many lines of his matter 
 as are to be contained in a page, he adds thereto at the 
 bottom a line of quadrats, which are the same as spaces, 
 but much larger, being three, four, five, or six times as 
 long as they are broad, and places at the top the folio of 
 the page and the running head , or line which indicates the 
 title of the work or the subject of the page or chapter, and 
 then adds such leads or other things as may be necessary, 
 taking care that in the first page he places the signature (a 
 letter of the alphabet, intended for a guide to the binder), 
 because by keeping this always outside, and the second 
 signature on the next leaf, he cannot fold the sheet wrong. 
 He next ties it tightly round with page-cord, and places 
 it upon a piece of coarse paper. Having made up as many 
 pages as the sheet consists of, viz. four if folio, eight if 
 4to, sixteen if 8vo, he next lays them down upon the im- 
 
86 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 posing -stone (a large slab of marble let into a frame) in 
 the necessary order. This is, to a stranger, a very curious 
 arrangement ; they appear to him to be placed at random, 
 without any design or fixed rule, and as they are necessarily 
 laid down in two divisions, one for each side of the sheet, 
 one is of consequence the very reverse of the other. He 
 may tvery easily instruct himself, however ; for if he take a 
 sheet of paper, and fold it into any required size, marking 
 the folios with a pencil, and then open it without cut- 
 ting, he will find they fall in curious irregularity. The pages 
 are laid down on the stone reverse of the arrangement they 
 have on the paper ; for it must be remembered that every 
 type and every page is like a seal, the reverse of the im- 
 pression it leaves ; consequently, were the pages laid down 
 as on a marked paper, viz. the first page on the right hand, 
 it would, in type, be at the extreme left, and so on. The 
 following [schemes of the laying down and imposition of a 
 sheet of 4to, 8vo, 12mo, and 18mo, will give some idea of 
 the apparent confusion of this process. 
 
 Imposition of a Sheet of kto. 
 First Form. Second Form. 
 
 f 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z v 
 
 9 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
CASE. 
 
 87 
 
 Imposition of a Sheet of 8 vo. 
 
 First Form. Second Form. 
 
 16 
 
 SI 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 a 2 
 
 Imposition of a Sheet of 12 mo. 
 
 First Form. Second Form. 
 
 SI 
 
 81 
 
 91 
 
 S» 
 
 6 
 
 01 
 
 91 
 
 n 
 
 IT 
 
 OS 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 L 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
8S 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Imposition of a Sheet of 18 mo. 
 
 Outer Form. Jnner Form. 
 
 The pages being properly disposed upon the imposing- 
 stone, the compositor next takes a chase (a frame of iron 
 divided by cross bars into compartments, the inner angles 
 of which are made rectangular with much care) and places 
 it over them, and then having ascertained the size of the 
 paper to be used, adjusts pieces of wood or metal, called 
 furniture, between them. Within the chase, but next to the 
 pages, he now places other pieces of iron called side and 
 foot sticks , which are rather wider at one end than the other, 
 and between these and the chase small pieces of wood, 
 which decrease in width in the same proportion as the 
 side-stick, and which are called quoins . -With a shooting- 
 stick (which formidably-named weapon is merely a piece of 
 hard wood, a foot in length, an inch and a half in width, and 
 half an inch in thickness) and a mallet he forces the quoins 
 towards the thicker ends of the side and foot sticks, which 
 consequently act as gradual and most powerful wedges, 
 forcing the separate pieces of type to become a compact 
 and almost united body, so that, every side of the pages 
 being again and again locked up, the whole mass, consisting 
 of many thousand letters, may be lifted unbroken from the 
 stone. This united mass is called a form ; that one which 
 
CASE. 
 
 89 
 
 contains the first page being called the outer form , the 
 other the inner. 
 
 The compositor is paid by the number of thousands of 
 letters he composes, which is thus ascertained. The letter 
 m, being on a shank which is perfectly square, is taken as 
 the standard ; he ascertains how many ms the page is in 
 length, including the running head and the white line at 
 the bottom ; that is, in fact, how many lines of the particu- 
 lar type used there would be in a page of the given size, 
 supposing it were all solid type ; next, how many ms it is 
 in width, that is, how many times the letter m would be 
 repeated in a line of the given length were it to consist of 
 nothing but ms. This latter sum is then doubled, because 
 experience shows that the average width of the letters is 
 one half of the depth, or one half of that of the letter m. 
 The length of the page is then multiplied by the product 
 of this doubled width, then by the number of pages in the 
 sheet, and the result will give the average number of let- 
 ters in the sheet. This will be much better understood by 
 the following casting up of a sheet of 8vo in pica. 
 
 Number of ms long 47 
 
 ... ms wide, 24 X 2 48 
 
 376 
 
 188 
 
 2256 
 
 Number of pages in a sheet of 8vo 16 
 
 13536 
 
 2256 
 
 36096 
 
90 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The compositor therefore is paid for composing 36,000 let- 
 ters ; for odd figures are dropped, unless they exceed 500, 
 when they are paid for as if they completed another 1000. 
 If the sheet be of solid type, and of ordinary size, the price 
 paid in London is sixpence per 1000 letters ; if the small 
 type called minion, sixpence farthing ; if nonpareil, seven- 
 pence ; if pearl, eightpence. If, however, the type be 
 leaded, the price is a farthing per 1000 less ; and if the 
 work be composed from print copy, the price is three far- 
 things per 1000 less than it would be paid if the copy were 
 manuscript. Works in foreign languages are paid one half- 
 penny per 1000 more in the type of ordinary size, three far- 
 things per 1000 more in the smaller. Greek with leads and 
 without accents is eightpence halfpenny per 1000 ; with- 
 out leads or accents, eightpence three farthings ; with ac- 
 cents, tenpence farthing. Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, &c. are 
 paid double. 1 The compositor, it appears, must therefore 
 pick up 72,000 letters before he can receive an ordinary 
 
 1 In 1804, after a protracted litigation before the Court of Ses- 
 sion, the journeymen compositors of Edinburgh succeeded in ob- 
 taining the sanction of the Court for an advance of one penny per 
 thousand letters, or, upon an average, about one fourth on the 
 prices of their work. The grounds upon which the Court rested 
 this decision were, that the wages were much too low ; that they 
 had remained for forty years unaltered, whilst the price of the ne- 
 cessaries of life had very much increased ; that although it was pro- 
 per to avoid a rise of wages which might lead to idleness, yet it was 
 equally necessary to place the workmen upon a respectable footing, 
 so as to enable them to do their work properly, and also to encourage 
 them in cultivating and acquiring that degree of literature by which 
 the public must infallibly be benefited ; and that the fair criterion 
 was, to make the wages of Edinburgh bear the same proportion to 
 
CASE. 
 
 91 
 
 week’s wages, must moreover correct all the blunders mis- 
 chance or carelessness may have occasioned; and must 
 make up his matter into pages and impose them, with great 
 expenditure of time in many other particulars ; but, as is 
 hereafter described, he must have previously placed every 
 one of these 72,000 into the appropriate boxes whence he 
 has withdrawn them in composition. Now it is usually 
 reckoned that this latter operation, called distributing , oc- 
 cupies one fourth of a compositor’s time, and the other 
 operations another fourth ; he has therefore only one half 
 of his time for composition ; consequently he must pick up 
 letters at the rate of 144,000 per week, 24,000 per day, or 
 2000 per hour. His hand has in picking up each letter to 
 traverse a considerable space, say six inches, and back again, 
 to his composing-stick. His rapidity of motion is therefore 
 wonderful, and the exertion is so long continued, that the bu- 
 siness, although apparently a light one, is in fact extremely 
 laborious. The number of thousands of letters in a sheet ne- 
 cessarily varies with the size of the type, width and length 
 of the page, and the number of the pages. The casting up 
 
 those of London which they did in the year 1785, before the London 
 prices were raised. 
 
 That a court of law, whose province it is, not to legislate, but to 
 apply and enforce existing statutes, should have entertained a ques- 
 tion regarding the price of labour, for the regulation of which there 
 not only existed no law, but which had never been deemed a fit sub- 
 ject for legislative interference, appears to be a very singular inci- 
 dent in the history of judicial procedure. The prices thus fixed, 
 however (namely, 4^d. per 1000 for book-work, with an additional 
 halfpenny if nonpareil, and a penny if pearl, and 5^d. for law-papers 
 and jobs), being regarded as not unreasonable, have ever since been 
 adhered to by every respectable establishment in Edinburgh. 
 
92 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 above given is a solid pica sheet of demy octavo, of mo- 
 derate page ; a similar sheet of brevier would contain 81,000 
 letters, and the cost of composing it would be L.2. Os. 6d. 
 Single tables, forming one uninterrupted mass of type, will 
 sometimes contain 250,000 letters ; and the labour of the 
 compositor being very great in getting up tables, he is paid 
 double. Consequently the cost of composing such a table 
 in pearl or diamond (see the 13th of Bell’s Chronological 
 Tables, 4th edit.) would be not less than L.16. 13s. 6d., 
 without extra charges. Yet this infinity of types, by the 
 power of the wedge-formed side-sticks and quoins, is formed 
 into so solid a mass as to be moved without much danger 
 of disruption. 
 
 The sheet being now imposed, an impression is taken, 
 called a proof, which is carried down to the reader, who, 
 having folded the proof in the necessary manner, first looks 
 over the signatures, next ascertains whether the sheet com- 
 mences with the right signature and folio, and then looks 
 to the following folios. He now looks over the running 
 heads, inspects the proof to see that it has been imposed in 
 the proper furniture, that the chapters are numbered rightly, 
 and that the other directions have been correctly attended 
 to, marking whatever he finds wrong. Having carefully 
 done this, he places the proof before him, with the copy at 
 his left hand, and proceeds to read the proof over with the 
 greatest minuteness, referring incessantly to the copy that 
 no word may escape him, correcting the capitals or italics, 
 or any other peculiarities, noting continually whether every 
 portion of the composition has been executed in a work- 
 man-dike manner ; and having fully satisfied himself upon 
 all technical points, he calls his reading-boy, who, taking the 
 copy, reads in a clear voice, but with great rapidity and the 
 
CASE. 
 
 93 
 
 least possible attention to sound, sense, pauses, or cadences, " 
 the precise words placed before him, inserting, without pause 
 or embarrassment, from the most crabbed or intricate copy, 
 every interlineation, note, or side-note. The gabble of these 
 boys in a reading-room, where there are three or four read- 
 ing, is most amusing, a stranger hearing the utmost confu- 
 sion of tongues, strange unconnected sentences, and most 
 monotonous tones ; the readers plodding at their several 
 tasks with the most iron composure, not in the least disturb- 
 ed by the Babel around them. They follow carefully every 
 word, marking every error, or pausing to assist in decipher- 
 ing every unknown or foreign word. This first reading is 
 strictly confined to making the proof an exact copy of the 
 manuscript, and ascertaining the competency of the com- 
 positor, consequently first readers are generally intelligent 
 and well-educated compositors, whose practical knowledge 
 enables them to detect the most trivial technical deficien- 
 cies. Having thus a second time perused the proof, and 
 carefully marked upon the copy the commencement, sig- 
 nature, and folio of the succeeding sheet, he sends it by 
 his reading-boy to the composing-room to be corrected by 
 the workmen who have taken share in the composition. 
 These immediately divide the proof amongst them, and each, 
 taking that portion of it which contains the matter he had 
 composed, and going to his cases, gathers the letters mark- 
 ed as corrections in the margin, together with a quantity 
 of spaces of all sizes, and returns to the forms, which in the 
 meanwhile one of them has laid up on the imposing-stones 
 and unlocked. He then with a blunt bodkin lifts up each 
 line in which a correction is required, draw 7 s out the wrong 
 letter and inserts the right one, adjusting the spaces in such 
 a way as to compensate for the increased or diminished 
 
94 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 * size of the letter substituted, overrunning carefully seve- 
 ral lines should any word have been added or struck out, so 
 that the spacing may be uniform, and the corrected matter 
 exhibit no proof whatever of any alteration having been ne- 
 cessary. This is an operation requiring much practice and 
 skill ; and here is shown the value of attention in the prelimi- 
 nary operations. Should the types have been carelessly laid 
 or improperly distributed, should the workman have been 
 careless in composition, capitalling, or spacing, he will con- 
 sume as much time in amending his errors as in composing 
 his matter, to the great detriment of his work, the injury 
 and inconvenience of his employer and his companions, and 
 great delay in every part of the printing-office. Thus every 
 compositor having taken his share, another proof is pulled, 
 which, with the original proof, is taken to the same first 
 reader, who compares the one with the other, and ascer- 
 tains that his marks have been carefully attended to, in de- 
 fault of which, he again sends it up to be corrected ; but 
 should he find his revision satisfactory, he sends the second 
 proof with the copy to the second reader, by whom it under- 
 goes the same careful inspection ; but this time, most tech- 
 nical objections being rectified, the reader observes whe- 
 ther the author’s language be good and intelligible ; if not, 
 he makes such queries on the margin as his experience may 
 suggest ; and having again followed his reading-boy, he 
 sends it up to the compositor, where it again undergoes cor- 
 rection, and a proof being very carefully pulled, it is sent 
 down to the same reader, who revises his marks and trans- 
 fers the queries. The proof is then sent, generally with the 
 copy, to the author for his perusal, and he having made such 
 alterations as he thinks necessary, sends it back to the print- 
 ing-office for correction. With the proper attention to these 
 
CASE. 
 
 95 
 
 marks the printer’s responsibility as to correctness ceases, 
 and the sheet is now ready for press. 
 
 It need scarcely be remarked, that “ correctness of the 
 press” is a very material feature in every work, and more 
 especially in those of a scientific nature. When the atten- 
 tion and the mind are devoted to the train of some close 
 argument, or passage of surpassing beauty, it is surprising 
 how easily an error of the press, even although it may not 
 injure the sense, and may be as evident “ as the sun at 
 noon,” will destroy the charm, and break the “ thread bf the 
 discourse and even in works of ordinary reading they are 
 exceedingly offensive. Many curious anecdotes are related 
 of the methods which the earlier printers adopted to attain 
 correctness. It was the glory of the early literati to take 
 charge of the accuracy of new works ; and, in return, the 
 value and sale of each edition varied with the skill and re- 
 putation of the corrector. Of these Erasmus is an illustrious 
 proof. Many of the first printers were led to the practice 
 of the art by their love of learning, and their anxiety to 
 promote it by the production of classic authors. Hence 
 several are better known in the world of learning than in 
 the circle of bibliographers ; as the editors and correctors 
 of valuable works, than as the careful or beautiful printers 
 of them. Aldus, it is true, has so admirably succeeded 
 in both characters, that he has fully established his double 
 fame ; but whether he most valued himself upon his learn- 
 ing or his skill may be doubted. It would appear from 
 his letters that he considered it as his chiefest duty to 
 correct every sheet that passed through his press. In all 
 his bustle in preparing every material in use in his art, in 
 all his occupations public and private, this important duty 
 was never neglected. He tells us, “ that he has hardly 
 
96 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 time to inspect, much less to correct, the sheets which are 
 executed in his office ; that his days and his nights are de- 
 voted to the preparation of fit materials ; and that he can 
 scarcely take food or strengthen his stomach, owing to the 
 multiplicity and pressure of business ; meanwhile,” adds he, 
 “ with both hands occupied, and surrounded by pressmen 
 who are clamorous for work, there is scarcely time even 
 to blow one’s nose nor did his son or grandson depart 
 from his ways, but did themselves insure the correctness 
 of their works, even when the latter had risen to wealth 
 and eminence, and enjoyed the laborious dignity of a pro- 
 fessor’s chair. The beautiful Greek works of the Stephani 
 are especially valued for their correctness. Stephens cor- 
 rected his own press with intense labour and minuteness, 
 and is reported to have adopted a singular plan for obtain- 
 ing perfect similarity to the copy, by employing females 
 who had not the slightest knowledge of the Greek charac- 
 ters or language to compare every letter of the proof with 
 the manuscript ; a labour so intense as to be almost incre- 
 dible. He is moreover said to have hung up proofs on the 
 doors of his printing-office, and to have amply rewarded 
 any who could detect inaccuracies therein. Coverdale, it 
 will be recollected, corrected the first English Bible and 
 Testament, and received a bishopric- as his reward. 
 
 The experience of every printer will furnish a host of laugh- 
 able errors ; and indeed these defects have been deemed of 
 such importance as to deserve preservation. (DTsraeli’s Cu- 
 riosities of Literature .) The omission of the word not from the 
 seventh commandment, in an edition of the Bible, printed by 
 the Stationers’ Company, is well known ; and the company 
 richly deserved the severe fine they incurred for spreading the 
 immoral command, “ Thou shalt commit adultery.” The 
 
CASE. 
 
 97 
 
 Bible so misprinted has received the name of the “ Adultery 
 Bible;” and a copy is preserved in the British Museum, the 
 edition having been carefully suppressed. There is another 
 Bible known as the “ Vinegar Bible,” from a misprint in the 
 20th chapter of St Luke, where “ Parable of the Vinegar” 
 is printed for “ Parable of the Vineyard ;” this proceeded 
 from the Clarendon press. In the reign of Charles I. a very 
 curious traffic in Bibles, &c. arose ; they were printed by 
 any one who chose, and imported in vast numbers from 
 abroad. It will readily be imagined that these were made 
 for sale, not for use, and that they abounded with egregious 
 errors ; but, what is worse than this, they were full of mis- 
 translations and interpolations, and the omissions were fear- 
 ful. All these were done as much by design as by accident, 
 the Romanists and sectaries taking the opportunity of ad- 
 vancing their own tenets by interpolating and altering texts 
 to suit their views. These monstrous anomalies produced, 
 however, some good ; they occasioned the necessity of the 
 authorized version now in use, and printed under such au- 
 thority as insures perfect fidelity, whilst there is sufficient 
 competition to make it impossible that the Word of God can 
 ever become a sealed book to the humblest and poorest Chris- 
 tian. Some of the blunders in these editions are sufficiently 
 absurd to overcome the repugnance which must naturally 
 be felt at such license. Thus, in Luke xxi. 28, condenmation 
 has been misprinted for redemption. In Field’s Bible of 1653, 
 called the Pearl Bible, Rom. vi. 13, we find “ Neither yield 
 ye your members as instruments of righteousness unto sin,” 
 for unrighteousness ; and 1 Cor. vi. 9, “ Know ye not that 
 the unright eous shall inherit the kingdom of God ?” for shall 
 not inherit . It is said that these corruptions are in great 
 
 measure owing to Field’s cupidity, and that he received a 
 
 E 
 
98 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 bribe of L.1500 from the Independents to alter the text in 
 Acts vi. 3, to sanction the right of the people to appoint 
 their own pastors, “ Wherefore, brethren, look ye out among 
 you seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost and 
 w isdom, w hom ye may appoint over this business,” instead 
 of toe. This Bible is notorious, and, strange to say, valued, 
 for its gross incorrectness. It is asserted that no less than 
 six thousand errors of greater or less magnitude have been 
 noted in it. But the most extraordinary example of care- 
 lessness is presented by the Vulgate the printing of which 
 was sedulously superintended by no less an authority than 
 Sextus V., a curious example of the infallibility of the pope. 
 To the astonishment of the wmrld, it swarmed with errors ; 
 and a whimsical attempt was made to remedy the defects, 
 by pasting printed slips of paper over the erroneous pas- 
 sages. As this, however, was exceedingly laughable, the 
 papal authority was exerted to the utmost to call in the edi- 
 tion, and with such effect, that it soon became very scarce, and 
 a copy of it has produced the disproportionate sum of sixty 
 guineas. To add to the absurdity, the volume contains a 
 bull from the pope anathematising and excommunicating 
 all printers wdio, in reprinting it, should make any altera- 
 tion in the text. The monkish editor of The Anatomy of 
 the Mass , printed in 1561, a work consisting of 172 pages 
 of text and fifteen pages of errata, very amusingly accounts 
 for these mistakes by attributing them to the artifice of 
 Satan, who caused the printers to commit such numerous 
 blunders ; but he does not inform us whether it was really 
 the archangel fallen, or only his minor satellite, the printer’s 
 devil. The editor of an Ethiopic version of St Paul’s Epis- 
 tles innocently confesses, in palliation of his errors, “ that 
 they who printed the work could not read, and w T e could 
 
CASE. 
 
 99 
 
 not print : they helped us and we helped them, as the blind 
 helps the blind.” 
 
 The sheet being printed off in the way hereafter to be de- 
 scribed, and the forms returned by the pressmen to the com- 
 posing-room, and very carefully washed with lye, and rinsed 
 with water, the compositor lays up the forms on a letter- 
 board, and there unlocks them. Each compositor employed 
 on the work then takes a share of the letter, and, wetting the 
 face of it plentifully with a sponge, which causes the types to 
 adhere sufficiently to prevent accidents, yet not so much as 
 to retard the workman, takes up a portion on his setting-rule, 
 with the nick upwards, and the face turned towards him ; he 
 then takes between his fingers and thumb a few letters, gives 
 a rapid glance at the face to see what letters they are, andthen 
 passing his hand rapidly over the cases, drops each into its ap- 
 propriate box. In this operation the greatest attention is ne- 
 cessary, for it must be remembered, that every letter dropped 
 into a wrong box in distributing is sure to cause an error 
 in composing ; for the workman, as before stated, never looks 
 at the letter he takes up, relying upon the correctness of the 
 distribution. Compositors, therefore, should be especially 
 careful, when learning their business, not to sacrifice cer- 
 tainty to swiftness ; for in this instance most especially is 
 it found that too much haste is little speed. If the ra- 
 pidity of motion in composition strikes the stranger with 
 wonder, what must that of distribution occasion ? Most 
 compositors distribute four times as rapidly as they com- 
 pose ; if, therefore, he pick up two thousand letters in an 
 hour, he would distribute eight or ten thousand, or about 
 three per second. His letter being properly distributed, he 
 again proceeds to compose in the manner before described, 
 until the work is finished. The number of times the letter 
 
]00 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 is returned must depend upon the size of the fount. A thou- 
 sand pounds weight of types would get up five or six sheets, 
 and, therefore, in a fair octavo volume, the letter would be 
 returned five or six times. 
 
 The Press is the machine whereby impressions are ob- 
 tained of the type, when set up by the compositor as above 
 described. On the skill and care of the pressmen depend 
 the beauty of the work. If the press-work be not good, 
 all the labour of the compositor is thrown away; his work 
 makes no respectable appearance, and the master gets no 
 credit. 
 
 It has already been mentioned, that very little alteration 
 had been made in the printing press from the time of the 
 first printers to that of Blaew of Amsterdam, about 1620. 
 Blaew’s improvements, although of immense advantage, 
 only consisted in alterations in the details, and not in the 
 principle. Blaew’s presses have in their turn been super- 
 seded by those of Lord Stanhope ; and very few are in 
 existence, in England at least, save in old offices, where 
 they are used as proof-presses, or kept merely as curiosities, 
 A description of a bygone piece of mechanism would be of 
 little utility ; to show, however, Lord Stanhope’s ingenious 
 invention, it is necessary to make the reader understand the 
 original construction. As a great part of the old press 
 is retained in the new, one description will serve for both ; 
 premising that the old presses, as well as those first fitted 
 with the Stanhope power, were of wood, but that very soon 
 the latter were constructed of iron, and that, in consequence, 
 the general appearance of the press was much altered. 
 A press then consisted of two upright pieces of immense 
 strength, which rose perpendicularly from the floor to the 
 height of six feet and a half, and were connected with cross 
 
PRESS. 
 
 101 
 
 pieces. From about the middle of each of these a slide, 
 called a rib, projected at right angles, and perfectly parallel 
 to each other ; a spindle with a powerful screw, kept in its 
 place by these cross pieces, worked in a box called a hose, 
 by means of a bar or lever inserted in it ; the toe of the 
 spindle worked in a sort of cup fixed upon a large solid 
 block of mahogany, having the face planed perfectly smooth, 
 and called the platten. It will be evident, that when the bar 
 is pulled down, the spindle will descend in proportion to 
 the worm of its screw, and force down the platten to pre- 
 cisely the same degree, and with great power. A table 
 was made to run in and out upon the above-mentioned ribs ; 
 upon this was the form of type ; when run in, it was exactly 
 under the platten, and having been previously inked, and 
 the paper laid on it, the bar was pulled over, the spindle, plat- 
 ten, &c. descended, and the consequence was a very power- 
 ful pressure of the paper between the platten and the type, 
 causing the latter to give a perfect fac-simile of its surface 
 upon the paper. Lord Stanhope’s invention consists in an 
 improved application of the power to the spindle and screw, 
 whereby the power is multiplied many times. This will be 
 best understood by describing an iron press of the modern 
 construction. Upon reference to the engraving, this will 
 be found to consist of a very heavy mass of iron, called the 
 staple aa, the outline of which somewhat resembles that of 
 a vase. It is united at the top and bottom, but the neck and 
 body are open. The upper part is called the nut b, and an- 
 swers the purpose of the head in the old press, as it is in 
 fact a box with a female screw, in which the screw of the 
 spindle c works ; the lower portion of the open part describ- 
 ed as the neck is occupied with a piston and cup e/, d, in and 
 on which the toe of the spindle works. On the nearer side 
 
102 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 of the staple is a vertical pillar or arbor e, the lower end of 
 which is inserted into the staple at the top of the shoulder ; 
 the upper end passes through a top-plate f, which being 
 screwed on by the upper part of the staple, holds it firmly. 
 The extreme upper end of the arbor being hexagonal, re- 
 ceives a head g , which is in fact a lever of some inches length ; 
 this head is connected by a coupling bar h, to a similar 
 lever or head i, into which the upper end of the spindle is 
 inserted. 
 
 A, the arbor. B, the top -plate. C, the arbor-head. D, the spin- 
 dle -head. E, the coupling-bar. F, the bar or lever. G, the 
 spindle and screw. 
 
 The bar or lever k , by which the power is applied by the 
 workman* is inserted into the arbor, and not into the spindle, 
 by which ingenious contrivance, 1st, the lever is in length 
 the whole width of the press, instead of half, and is, moreover, 
 
PRESS. 
 
 103 
 
 in a much better situation for the application of the press- 
 man’s strength ; 2d, there is the additional lever of the ar- 
 bor-head ; 3d, the additional lever of the spindle-head ; and, 
 lastly, the screw itself may be so enlarged in diameter as to 
 have immense increased power. The platten is screwed on 
 to the under surface of the piston ; the table m has slides 
 underneath, which move in the ribs n> n , instead of upon 
 them, and is run in and out by means of girths affixed to each 
 end, and passing round a drum or wheel o. As the platten 
 is of considerable weight, the workman would have to waste 
 much strength in raising the platten from the form after the 
 impression has been given, were not a balance-weighty 
 suspended upon a lever and hook at the back of the press, 
 which counterbalances the, weight of the platten, raises it 
 from the form, and brings the bar-handle back again, ready 
 for another pull. These are the principal parts of the ma- 
 chinery whereby the impression is given, and are sufficient 
 for the general reader, with the aid of the engraving in 
 Plate CCCCXV. For the printer there are yet other ap- 
 pliances. At the right-hand end of the table is an iron 
 frame q , moving freely upon pivots, so as to fall upon the 
 table, or rise until stopped by what is called the gallows r; 
 this is covered with parchment very tightly stretched, and 
 is then called the tympan ; upon the tympan blankets are 
 placed, which are covered by an inner tympan, and fastened 
 by hooks ; the whole forming a solid yet elastic and yield- 
 ing surface, admirably fitted for impressing the paper upon 
 the type (for this is its use), inasmuch as the surface of the 
 parchment is soft and without grain, and readily receives the 
 impression of the type, while the blankets give freely to 
 every projection, without retaining any indentation. To 
 protect those portions of the paper which are not destined 
 
104 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 to be coloured from ink or soil, there is at the upper end of 
 the tympan another iron frame, of much lighter make, and 
 also moving upon pivots, so as to fall upon the face of the 
 tympan. This is covered with a sheet of coarse paper, and 
 the exact size and form of the pages are carefully cut out 
 therefrom, the parts left being an excellent protection of 
 the paper under them. This is called a frisket. 
 
 Such is the ordinary Stanhope press. Since this was 
 introduced many excellent presses have been invented, 
 and very extensively introduced ; but this is so simple, 
 so easily kept in order, and so powerful, that it has never 
 been excelled ; and being very intelligible, has been chosen 
 for the illustration. The manner of working is the same in 
 all. A notice of the principle of various other presses will 
 be found in a subsequent part of this treatise. 
 
 On the left front of the press stands the inking table. 
 This is a table of mahogany (which is best) or iron, about 
 four feet high and three feet four inches wide ; at the back 
 is a slightly elevated stage with a recess at each end, in one 
 of which is the ink, in the other stands the brayer or muller, 
 by which the ink is spread out in a thin layer upon the front 
 of the stage. 
 
 It must be fully understood that printers’ ink is a very 
 different composition from that used for writing. It is of 
 such consistency, that were a small portion taken up be- 
 tween the finger and thumb, when they were opened it 
 would produce a thread of an inch or an inch and a half 
 in length. Of all the materials used in printing, this is the 
 most important, and the most opposite qualities are required 
 in it. It must be of excellent colour. Formerly excellence 
 of colour was deemed to consist in an exceeding dark hue, 
 not exactly black, but black enriched with a hue of the dark- 
 
105 
 
 INK. 
 
 est blue or purple. This gave indescribable effect to the works 
 for which it was used, a richness, a gorgeousness, which it 
 is impossible to describe ; but the works of Baskerville and 
 Bulmer, especially the Milton of the latter, afford the best 
 specimens. Now we hold perfection to consist in the in- 
 tensest black, and all the resources of chemistry and the 
 arts have been sought to attain this end. It must stand for 
 ever; but here we have miserably failed. Compare the pro- 
 ductions of the old printers with those of twenty years back. 
 What a difference ! The works of the Aldi and Elzevirs, 
 of Plantinus, Caxton, Pynson, and Grafton, preserve their 
 colour as intense as the day they were printed ; there is no 
 yellowness or brownness, no foxiness, whilst the books of 
 those of 1810-20 are wretchedly discoloured. Where fine 
 printing, however, has been required and paid for , the mo- 
 dern ink is no whit inferior to the ancient. Witness the before- 
 mentioned works of Bulmer, Macklin, Ritchie, Bowyer, Bas- 
 kerville, and others ; but certain it is that the ink in general 
 use twenty years ago was of very inferior quality. It must be 
 perfectly mixed, and ground until it is absolutely impalpa- 
 ble, otherwise it will speedily clog the types and inking ap- 
 paratus ; it must adhere to the paper, and not to the type, or 
 it will tear off the face of the former, and clog up the lat- 
 ter ; it must be sufficiently thick ; it must keep perfectly 
 undried when in large masses, and dry very quickly when 
 it is distributed in thin surface. No printers of the present 
 day make their own ink, although some add ingredients 
 which they believe to improve the colour or quality. It is an 
 especial business, and, by the aid of machinery, capital, and 
 exclusive attention to the manufacture, the ink now sup- 
 plied is admirable in the qualities of thorough mixing and 
 grinding, drying, blackness, &c. ; but whether it will stand 
 
 e 2 
 
106 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the test of time, time alone can show. It is an expensive 
 article, the commonest book-ink being one shilling and six- 
 pence per pound, whilst the usual qualities are two shillings 
 and sixpence, three shillings, and four shillings per pound 5 
 those used for superior work are five shillings and six shil- 
 lings, and those for cuts as high as ten shillings, though it is 
 questionable whether, at the latter price, the consumer is 
 not paying for a mere name. 
 
 Every manufacturer has, of course, his own secrets, both 
 of ingredient and process. The universal ingredient is the 
 finest possible lamp-black ; the great secret probably con- 
 sists in the manner in which, and the material from which, 
 this is made. There are vast buildings appropriated to the 
 sole purpose of burning oil, naphtha, spirits, coal-gas, &c, 
 to produce this black, which is collected from the sides, 
 ceilings, &c. of the buildings. It is brought from Germany 
 and many other countries ; and no expense is spared to get 
 the most superior quality. The next most important article is 
 nut or linseed oil boiled and burnt into a varnish ; then oil 
 of turpentine, &c. The following receipts have been given. 
 The first is the method used by Baskerville and Bulmer, 
 and nothing can be better than the results. 
 
 1. Fine old linseed oil boiled to a thick varnish, and 
 cooled in small quantities, three gallons ; a small quantity 
 of black or amber rosin dissolved therein ; the mixture then 
 stands for some months, that all impurities may be deposit- 
 ed ; after which it is mixed with the finest lamp-black, and 
 carefully ground for use. 
 
 2. One hundred pounds of nut or linseed oil are re- 
 duced by boiling and burning one tenth or one eighth of its 
 bulk, and to the thickness of a syrup ; two pounds of coarse 
 bread and several onions being thrown in to purify it from 
 
PRESS. 
 
 107 
 
 grease. Thirty or thirty-five pounds of turpentine are boiled 
 apart, until, on cooling it on paper, it breaks clean, without 
 pulverising. The former is poured nearly cold into the lat- 
 ter, and well mixed. The compound is then boiled again. 
 Lamp-black is next thoroughly mixed with it, in quantity 
 according to the ink required, and being well ground, the 
 ink is then ready for use. Some add indigo, some Prussian 
 blue, which considerably improves the colour ; but these 
 inks are so difficult to work, and so clog up the type, that 
 the improvement is better let alone. The turpentine is 
 added to give greater varnish, and improve the drying qua- 
 lity ; but if the oil be old and fine, the quantity required is 
 proportionally less. 
 
 3. Mr Savage, an admirable artist, denies that any ink 
 can be depended on, of the varnish of which oil is the ba- 
 sis ; he therefore gives the following receipt : — Balsam ca- 
 pivi, 9 oz. ; best lamp-black, 3 oz. ; Prussian blue, 1^ oz. ; 
 Indian red, £ oz. ; turpentine soap dried, 3 oz. This ink 
 is of beautiful colour, but appears to work foul. There can 
 be no doubt, however, that the best and cheapest plan is 
 always to purchase what is required of a proper ink -maker. 
 
 At the right front of the press stand the bank and horse . 
 The bank is a deal table of some size ; the horse is an inclined 
 plane which stands upon the bank ; upon it is laid the white 
 paper prepared for working, which, when worked, is brought 
 from the press to the bank. There are two pressmen to 
 each press, one of whom attends to the inking only, to as- 
 certain the excellence of which he turns, whenever he has 
 a moment to spare, to the worked sheets upon the bank, 
 glancing his eye rapidly over each to see that every part 
 is of its proper colour, and that no picks, or other impres- 
 sions, mar the work ; the other attends only to the press, 
 
108 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 and gives the impression. These men are paid by every two 
 hundred and fifty impressions, or by the token . Thus, if 
 the number be five hundred, and the price fourpence-half- 
 penny per token, each man receives ninepence for the five 
 hundred impressions of each form, and the cost therefore is. 
 
 First form, two men, two token, at 4Jd Is. 6d. 
 
 Second form, do. do. do Is. 6d. 
 
 3s. Od. 
 
 The price necessarily varies with the size of the type and 
 of the form ; with the quality of the paper and of the ink ; 
 with the number, and the care required. Common work is 
 fourpence-halfpenny, good sixpence, superior sevenpence, 
 the very best eightpence, ninepence, or even twelvepence 
 per token. 
 
 The pressmen, having received the forms after the final 
 correction, lay the inner form, or that one which contains 
 the second page, upon the table of the press, and secure it 
 in the centre by quoins ; one of them, in the meanwhile, 
 pastes a stout sheet of paper upon the frisket frame, and 
 then secures it upon the tympan. They then ink the form, 
 and take an impression upon the frisket, and cut away all 
 the printed part, which therefore leaves so much of it as is 
 necessary to protect the paper from soil. The puller now 
 carefully folds a sheet of the paper according to the crosses 
 of the chase, and laying it upon the form, opens it careful- 
 ly, by which the paper is made to lie evenly upon the form, 
 with the same margin with which it is to be afterwards 
 worked. Having wetted the tympan, the pressman closes 
 it down upon the form, and takes an impression, when the 
 paper will be found to adhere to the tympan, and thus be- 
 come a guide whereby to lay all the subsequent sheets, 
 
PRESS. 
 
 109 
 
 and therefore much care should be taken to lay it properly. 
 They now choose their points, which are thin iron arms, hav- 
 ing a short point projecting from the end, and made to screw 
 on to the tympan-frame, which must be done in such a 
 manner as that the points may fall in grooves in the cross 
 of the chase ; because if they did not, they would be bat- 
 tered and broken upon it at the first pull. 
 
 The puller now brings his paper from the wetting-room ; 
 for be r ore any good impression can be taken the paper must 
 have been damped, by rapidly passing it, one fourth or one 
 fifth of a quire at a time, through water, and then allow- 
 ing it to soak for two or three days, until it is evenly and 
 thoroughly damp ; and, laying a ream upon the horse, he 
 takes a sheet, and placing it carefully over the tyrnpan- 
 sheet, closes the frisket over it, shuts both tympan and 
 frisket down upon the form, which in the meanwhile his 
 companion has inked (a process that will be described be- 
 low), runs the table in under the platten, pulls the handle 
 of the bar or lever over by his full weight, until brought 
 up by the stop, at which moment the platten descends and 
 gives a powerful impression to the tympan, &c. upon the 
 form, producing upon the paper a perfect fac-simile in re- 
 verse of the surface of the latter. The pressman now gra- 
 dually releases his hold, the balance- weight raises the plat- 
 ten, the bar returns to its first position, the table is run out, 
 the tympan and frisket are raised by the workman, and the 
 frisket thrown up to the catch. The sheet is taken off the 
 points, which the impression has caused to pierce through it, 
 and carefully examined to ascertain that the impression is 
 just and even, which is the great test of the workman’s skill, 
 and the excellence of the press. Invariably the first impres- 
 sion is defective ; the parchment may have been thicker in 
 
no 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 some parts than in others, the blankets worn, or one of two 
 founts of type may not have been of equal height, in which 
 respect “ the estimation of a hair” would be a monstrous 
 fault, the thinnest possible tissue paper being quite suffi- 
 cient for remedy. The pressman proceeds to overlay, that 
 is, to paste upon his tympan-sheets portions of paper of the 
 exact size of the defects, thicker or thinner as may be re- 
 quired ; or if the defect be great, he places a part of a sheet 
 of paper within his tympans. If there be any small portion 
 of undue prominence, or that “ comes off hard,” he rubs 
 away a portion of the tympan-sheet with wet fingers, or cuts 
 it away altogether. Having, as he supposes, remedied all 
 blemishes, he takes another impression, which he again ex- 
 amines with equal closeness, and carefully removes every 
 remaining defect by the same method ; having at length 
 satisfied himself, and his master or overseer, the work is 
 proceeded with, the inker taking even portions of ink well 
 distributed, and covering the form equally, the puller taking 
 a sheet, and laying it on the tympan as before. They thus 
 proceed until the whole number of the white paper is work- 
 ed off. The form is now lifted from the table, and carefully 
 washed with a very strong lye. The outer form is then 
 laid on and made ready. 
 
 This varies a little from the mode previously described. 
 It has been stated that the points penetrate the paper at the 
 first impression. These holes and points are the guides 
 whereby perfect register is obtained ; that is, whereby not 
 only the pages, but the lines, are made to fall exactly upon 
 the back of each other, a deficiency in which is a great 
 fault in good book-work. The form, therefore, having 
 been placed in precisely the same place as the previous 
 one occupied, one of the sheets which have been printed 
 
PRESS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 on one side is taken and placed with the face inwards, in 
 such manner that the points pass through the same holes, 
 but of course the opposite way, and an impression is taken. 
 If the pages do not back, the points are shifted until they 
 do ; or if the defect be in the form, such alterations are 
 made in it as may be necessary. The impression is then 
 brought up as before, and when all is ready, a thin sheet 
 of wfhite paper, called the set-off sheet, is placed over the 
 tympan-sheet and upon the points. It must be remembered 
 that one side has been worked, that the ink has not yet 
 dried, that the paper is still damp; therefore at every impres- 
 sion some portion of the ink will be transferred to, or im- 
 pressed upon, the set-off sheet. When this has taken place 
 in many impressions, the effect will be doubled ; for not only 
 will some of the ink of the print be transferred to the set- 
 off sheet, but some, a very slight portion, of the set-off will 
 be re-transferred to the sheet working, producing a most 
 unpleasing dirty appearance, very mystifying to the eyes, 
 and utterly destructive of beauty. The puller, therefore, 
 after a few impressions, moves the set-off sheet slightly, and 
 when it has become very dirty, discards it, and replaces it 
 with another. The pressman should be very attentive to 
 this ; and the master should not grudge ample supplies of 
 set-off paper, for it is not destroyed, but is very useful af- 
 terwards in other departments as waste paper. The form 
 is now lifted and carefully washed with lye, and the two 
 are sent to the composing-room, where they are again care- 
 fully washed and rinsed, and are then ready for distribution. 
 Two good pressmen are supposed to do about one token, or 
 250 impressions, per hour, of fair work. This, however, must 
 depend entirely upon the quality of the work required ; with 
 small type, stiff ink, and many rules, the work is more slow, 
 
112 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 and paid for accordingly. The finest work is seldom paid for 
 by the token, the pressmen being placed upon weekly wages, 
 and allowed as much time as they require, the rapidity 
 being at the discretion of the overseer. Frequently they are 
 limited to a certain number per hour, often as few as fifty, 
 the most careful inspection being given to every sheet by 
 both pressmen, and continual attention by the press-over- 
 seer and other chief persons in the establishment. In such 
 work the very best materials are employed. Instead of 
 parchment, the tympans are covered with fine calico, and 
 even silk ; instead of blankets the finest broad cloth, picked 
 blotting-paper for the thick overlays, the thinnest tissue- 
 paper for the finer. It will readily be understood, that in 
 all operations of the press-room, where everything depends 
 upon the skill of the workmen, there are infinite minutiae, 
 which it would be tedious, if it were even possible, to enu- 
 merate. Seven years apprenticeship are not more than 
 sufficient to educate a good pressman. It is the accumu- 
 lated labour of a life to make a first-rate one ; and, after all, 
 excellence depends upon the native talent and ingenuity of 
 the man himself. 
 
 The ink is distributed over the type either by balls or by 
 rollers. The rollers are of modern use ; the balls were, un- 
 til a recent invention, sheep -skins with the hair taken off 
 with lime, made into a ball with wool, gathered at all cor- 
 ners, and nailed upon a wooden handle. One of these was 
 held in each hand ; and a small portion of ink being taken, 
 they were well beaten upon the inking- table, and then up- 
 on each other, until the ink was so evenly distributed over 
 the whole surface, that if touched gently with the finger, 
 the prominent lines of the skin would be perfectly blacken- 
 ed, whilst the channels would be left perfectly clean. The 
 
PRESS. 
 
 113 
 
 balls were then beaten over every part of the type, so that the 
 whole surface should be evenly covered ; an operation requir- 
 ing much skill and practice. The skins were prepared and 
 softened by the nastiest processes imaginable, which convert- 
 ed a press-room into a stinking cloaca. Thanks, however, to 
 the observation and ingenuity of Mr Donkin and Mr E. 
 Cooper, this has been entirely done away, and a press-rooin 
 now almost regales the nose with a warm scent of ink and 
 paper, any thing but unpleasant. This invention has been of 
 the greatest consequence to printing. The printing machine 
 is popularly said to be the great engine of modern litera- 
 ture ; and so it is ; but without this, printing machines were 
 mere old iron and brass. For many years the workmen in 
 the potteries had used a composition of glue and treacle for 
 applying colours to their ware. Mr Donkin observed that 
 this composition possessed every requisite for the use of the 
 printing-office, and he immediately proceeded to form balls 
 of canvass, with a facing of composition. They answered 
 admirably, proved beautifully soft, distributed beautifully, 
 kept clean, and were easily washed and purified if soiled. 
 Some opposition was offered by the workmen ; but their 
 advantages proved so great that they were readily adopted 
 by the masters, and speedily drove away for ever the nasty 
 skins. The next step, however, was more important still. 
 Mr Donkin bethought him, that if he could cast rollers of 
 composition, without seam and perfectly cylindrical, it could 
 not fail to be of infinite utility to machine-printing. It re- 
 mained, however, for Mr Cooper to suggest the substitu- 
 tion of them for balls at the common press. In this he suc- 
 ceeded ; but it is astonishing how much difficulty there was 
 in persuading the men to lay aside their old habits. They 
 could not conceive that a straightforward rolling would an- 
 
114 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 swer the purpose of their laborious and careful beating. The 
 rollers were nicknamed “ rolling-pins,” but they made their 
 way, and are now in general use. They consist of a wooden 
 cylinder, with a thick coating of composition cast perfectly 
 true ; through the middle of the cylinder passes an iron rod 
 attached to a curved bar passing over the roller, upon which 
 are two handles ; and the roller revolves freely upon the rod. 
 The pressman having brayed out a narrow line of ink upon 
 the raised stage of the inking-table (or upon a distributing 
 roller which runs the whole length of the table, and, being 
 turned, presents a line of ink to the inking-roller), takes a 
 portion of this upon the composition, and distributes it care- 
 fully upon the table until the entire face is evenly covered, 
 and then rolls the form, taking care that the whole surface re- 
 ceives its due proportion. If he does this lightly and steadily 
 there is no fear of the result ; he cannot in rolling overlook any 
 part ; but it nevertheless requires some judgment. If there 
 be any heavy titles or large type, he must roll that portion se- 
 veral times ; if there be blank pages, he must take care that 
 the roller does not sink, and so leave the pages in line with 
 it slightly touched. The chiefest judgment, however, is 
 displayed in choosing the exact quantity of ink required for 
 the form. If the type be small, the quantity taken must be 
 small ; it must be very carefully distributed, and the form 
 rolled many times ; for if the quantity be too great the type 
 will become clogged, and if too little, the colour will become 
 faint. The pressman must from time to time examine the 
 sheets as they are printed, turning up the corners of the 
 sheets that he may see whether the colour corresponds to 
 that of the side first worked, and detecting with quick eye 
 every defect ; and he must be particularly careful that for 
 every sheet of the same work he take the very same quantity 
 
WAREHOUSE. 
 
 115 
 
 of ink, that the book when bound may present an even and 
 beautiful colour, every bold line being perfectly covered, 
 and yet every fine stroke clear and distinct. This can only 
 be effected by careful distribution and repeated rolling, with 
 exact judgment as to the quantity of colour to be taken. 
 
 The sheet having been thus worked off, the printed paper 
 is taken away by the warehouseman, and hung by the boys 
 upon poles stretched under the ceiling, by means of a peel, 
 which is a handle with a broad end, upon which a quire or 
 two is hung at a time, thence transferred to the poles, and 
 distributed in portions of four or five sheets. Here they hang 
 a day or two, until the ink and paper are perfectly dry. This 
 should be a gradual process, for if by artificial heat the dry- 
 ing is hurried, a skin will be formed upon the surface of the 
 ink, which will prevent that underneath from drying ; the 
 work will look very well until it is pressed or bound, when 
 the skin breaks, the ink spreads, and the sharpness of the 
 letter is entirely destroyed. When perfectly dry they are 
 taken down and laid in heaps upon the gathering board, 
 each signature separately; thus, first, a heap, say 1000, of B, 
 then C, D, E, F, and, lastly, the title-sheet A. The boys 
 then take one sheet from each heap ; consequently, when 
 they have got to the last signature, each boy has one com- 
 plete copy of the work. These are laid upon one another in 
 such a manner that each book is perfectly distinct. The 
 warehouseman then takes a collator (a needle inserted in 
 a handle) and goes over the whole with great rapidity, as- 
 certaining that no sheet has been carelessly omitted, and that 
 no two of the same sheet have been taken. The books are 
 then folded down the middle, counted out in tens, thirteens, 
 or twenty-fives, and tied up in fifties. The process of print- 
 ing is thus complete, and the work is ready for the binder. 
 
116 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Works of finer description, indeed most works of the pre- 
 sent day, are submitted to another process after they have 
 been taken down from the poles, viz. hot or cold pressing, 
 which very much improves their appearance. In cold press- 
 ing the sheets are placed one by one between glazed boards, 
 or sheets of coarse material pressed until there is a perfect 
 glaze upon both -surfaces. The heaps are then placed in an 
 hydraulic press, with cold iron plates at small distances, and 
 the whole is subjected to considerable pressure for some 
 hours ; they are then taken out and the sheets extracted 
 from the boards, when the indentations consequent upon 
 the working will have been all pressed out, the roughnesses 
 of the paper smoothed out, a slight gloss given to the 
 ink, and the whole will present a very agreeable smooth- 
 ness to the eye and the touch. Hot-pressing is used when 
 the paper is very stout and the ink strong. The sole dif- 
 ference is, that the iron plates are heated until they can 
 hardly be touched. The effect is much greater than that 
 of cold pressing ; the whole surface of the paper is perfectly 
 glazed, and the ink absolutely shines ; but the effect is not 
 so agreeable to the eye; it is too glossy. As these processes 
 also make the books lie perfectly flat, they render great beat- 
 ing by the binder unnecessary, doing away with the danger 
 of such beating causing the ink to set off upon the opposite 
 pages, which danger, should it from circumstances prove 
 necessary to beat the book much, is considerably diminish- 
 ed, as the pressing sets the ink very effectually. The glazed 
 boards must be often cleaned by rubbing with waste paper, 
 or they will dirty the sheets placed between them. Every 
 printing-office of credit should have an hydraulic press and 
 boards ; for it is incredible how much smartness pressing 
 gives to the work, and how greatly the warehouse work is 
 
WOOD-CUTS. 
 
 117 
 
 facilitated by the readiness with which the hydraulic is pump- 
 ed up, and by its great power. A press of eight- inch ram will 
 be found sufficient for most purposes ; but where much hot 
 and cold pressing are required, one of nine-inch ram will 
 prove cheapest, because, from its immense power, a few hours 
 are sufficient to give the requisite surface, and the press may 
 therefore be filled twice a day. 
 
 Wood-blocks are very often worked with the common 
 type. The block, having been carefully reduced by the 
 engraver to the exact height of the type, is placed in the 
 composing-stick, and justified to the width of the page ; it 
 is then made up along with the other matter in its proper 
 place. When laid upon the press for working, and an im- 
 pression of the form has been taken, the pressman examines 
 with great minuteness whether it stands well with the type ; 
 if not, the form is unlocked, and paper placed under it if it 
 be too low, or under any corner that may be lower than the 
 rest ; if the block be too high it must be scraped or filed at 
 the bottom. Anciently the artist in w'ood contented himself 
 with producing his lights and shades by cutting his lines in 
 greater or less degrees of fineness upon a plane, leaving to 
 the printer the task of producing the required effects by a 
 tedious process of overlaying ; but since the introduction 
 of machines, in which such method is impracticable, from 
 the nature of the impression, and from the immense loss 
 consequent upon the machine standing still whilst the cut 
 is in preparation, several eminent engravers have turned 
 their attention to the subject, and have succeeded in a me- 
 thod of so cutting away the block that it is put into the 
 printer’s hands in a great measure prepared. Notwithstand- 
 ing this vast improvement, the pressman has much to do ; 
 he is to a certain extent an artist, and must have a good 
 
118 
 
 PRINTING, 
 
 eye for perspective, and for the proper adjustment of tints. 
 These effects he produces by careful and skilful overlaying. 
 The cut may then be worked with the type without any 
 other care than that of keeping it clear from clogging or 
 picks. When done with, it must be very carefully cleaned 
 with spirits of turpentine and a brush. 
 
 The working of wood-cuts by themselves as illustrations 
 of works, differs from type-printing in no other respect than 
 the superior materials and skill required. The wood-cut 
 must be imposed in a chase, and locked up upon the table 
 of the press, which is generally a smaller one than that used 
 for ordinary printing, of most excellent construction, and in 
 good order. The tympans are often of silk or cambric. 
 
 There are in London, and probably in the larger provin- 
 cial cities, parties who make an especial business of the ma- 
 nufacture of composition balls and rollers, which they supply 
 to printers upon payment of a rent. The skill and experi- 
 ence of these persons enable them, as must be the case in 
 every instance where a manufacture engages exclusive atten- 
 tion, to supply a much better and cheaper article than could 
 be manufactured by any individual whose engagements are 
 varied ; consequently there are not many printers, either 
 in town or country, who do not avail themselves of these 
 opportunities. The rent is paid for each roller required, 
 and by the quarter ; that is to say, if a printer employs six 
 presses, and consequently six rollers, he pays for six rollers, 
 the manufacturer engaging to supply him with as many 
 changes as he may require from their getting out of or- 
 der or being injured ; in fact, to keep him supplied with six 
 rollers in good condition. The rent for a common press-roller 
 is the moderate sum of six shillings per quarter ; they are 
 sent into the country in boxes fitted for the purpose. There 
 
ROLLERS. 
 
 119 
 
 are, of course, situations in which it is not easy to obtain a 
 regular supply of the necessary article, and in this case the 
 printer may very easily make them for himself ; but the ex- 
 pense of the utensils is so great as to exceed the usual rent 
 for years. They consist of the following : For rollers, a hol- 
 low cylinder of brass, the bore of which must be most ac- 
 curately turned and well polished ; this mould consists of 
 two semi-cylinders closely fitted and brought into contact by 
 screws along the sides and collars at the end, and a head is 
 made to fit into the lower end. The core, a wooden cylin- 
 der, upon which the composition is cast, is held in the centre 
 of the bore by means of a star, through the radii of which 
 the composition flows. For balls are required a concave mir- 
 ror of about half an inch cavity, and a board of the same size, 
 and of a quarter of an inch in convexity. A kettle for melting 
 and mixing the composition is also required. This is made 
 double like a glue-pot, fitting exceedingly close, and with a 
 small orifice for the escape of the steam from the hot water 
 between the two ; and the inner vessel should have a large 
 lip. The recipes for making the composition vary, and this 
 appears to arise from the different circumstances under which 
 it is made. The ingredients are but three, and these easily 
 purchaseable, viz. fine glue, treacle, not that procured from 
 the bakers, which is adulterated, but the best from the su- 
 gar-refiners, and a small quantity of carbonate of barytes, 
 called in commerce Paris white. The first two are quite 
 sufficient with a little skill. The following are good recipes. 
 
 1. Two pounds of glue to one pound of treacle. 
 
 2. Two pounds of glue to three pounds of treacle. 
 
 3. One pound of glue to three pounds of treacle and a 
 quarter of a pound of Paris white. 
 
120 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Soak the glue in water until it is soft ; then place it in 
 the inner vessel, and boil quickly, until the glue is tho- 
 roughly dissolved ; add the treacle, mixing it well, and let it 
 boil fGr an hour or more ; then sift in the Paris white, but 
 do not stir it violently, or the mixture will be full of air- 
 bubbles, which are destructive to the roller or ball. Rub 
 the mould slightly with a rag dipped in thin oil, taking care 
 that no globules and streaks remain upon the surface. 
 When the mixture is ready, pour it gently between the 
 radii of the star, so that no air be detained within the cylin- 
 der until the mould be filled ; allow it to set, and then take 
 it from the mould, cutting off the superfluous portion with 
 a string. When the roller has been hung up twenty-four 
 hours it will be fit for use. In making balls, having oiled 
 the mirror, pour the composition upon the centre, and hav- 
 ing allowed it to spread itself, lay over it a piece of coarse 
 canvass, place the board upon it, and lay weights upon 
 it to press it down ; it will consequently be found that the 
 composition face of the ball will be slightly thicker in the 
 centre than at the edges, which, besides being a conveni- 
 ence in the working, will allow it to be knocked vjp with 
 much facility, which is done in the ordinary manner. These 
 balls and rollers are very easily kept in order ; if they are 
 too soft, cold water will harden them ; if too hard, warm 
 water will soften them. When not in use they should be 
 covered with refuse ink, and hung up in a room of even 
 temperature, and carefully scraped with a palette-knife be- 
 fore use. They should not be cleaned with spirits of tur- 
 pentine, as that will give them a hard surface. These rol- 
 lers will be fit for use for a long while if attention be paid 
 to them ; and when spoiled, the composition may be re- 
 
ROLLERS. 121 
 
 peatedly melted down, and, with an addition of new ma- 
 terials, will make as good rollers as before. When the pro- 
 per apparatus is wanting, small balls for w r ood-cuts or single 
 pages may be made upon an earthen palette, or even upon 
 a smooth dinner-plate. 
 
 F 
 
122 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 STEREOTYPING. 
 
 Stereotyping is a mode of making perfect fac-similes in 
 type-metal, of the face of pages composed of moveable types. 
 Letter-press printing being a very expensive process, the 
 price of books consequently high, and the heaviest expense 
 consisting in the composition, the printers of the Continent 
 very soon set up the entire of such small works as were in 
 constant demand, and thus were enabled to sell them at 
 little more than the cost of paper and press-work. Some 
 works of very great extent, especially Bibles and prayer- 
 books, were kept standing by the privileged printers. This, 
 however, was exceedingly expensive, as the cost of type 
 would be enormous ; the forms would occupy vast store- 
 rooms, and be liable to continual damage, both from the 
 accidental dropping of letters, from batters, and other ac- 
 cidents to which they would be unavoidably liable. Some 
 method, therefore, by which all or some of these disadvan- 
 tages might be remedied, was sought after with great anxiety. 
 About the beginning of the eighteenth century, Van der 
 Mey, in Holland, sought to avoid this liability to accidents, 
 by immersing the bottom of his pages in melted lead or sol- 
 der, and thus rendering them solid masses : “ c’est une re- 
 union des caracteres ordinaires par le pied, avec de la ma- 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 123 
 
 tiere fondue, de l’epaisseur d’environ trois mains de papier a 
 ecrire therefore the mass together would be of somewhat 
 less than the height of our type. It is not very easy to guess 
 how they contrived to make the backs of these blocks of 
 such evenness as to produce anything like a good impres- 
 sion ; but Dibdin says that the book is very handsome. The 
 same process was followed by a Jew of Amsterdam, in print- 
 ing an English Bible ; but he was utterly ruined by his spe- 
 culation. 
 
 Some time before the year 1735, there is sufficient evi- 
 dence that the French used casts of the calendars placed 
 before church-books. These plates are thus described by 
 Camus : “ It (one of the plates) is formed of copper, and is 
 three inches and a half long by two inches broad and one 
 seventh of an inch thick. From the roughness of the 
 casting, it has evidently been made in a mould formed 
 of sand or clay.” After the plate had been cast, the back 
 of it had been dressed with a file, in order that it might 
 bear equally upon a block of wood to which it had been 
 attached. 
 
 Who really invented the art of stereotyping as at pre- 
 sent practised (and, after all, he who finds out the efficient 
 modus operandi is the inventor of the art, though he may 
 not be of the principle), is, like the inventor of the parent 
 art, a matter of some controversy, which has been carried 
 on with more vigour than the subject merited. It seems 
 however most probable, when all assertions are weighed, that 
 William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh, deserves the credit; 
 thus exhibiting a singular coincidence with Fust. Accord- 
 ing to his statement, being in 1725 in company with a printer, 
 they lamented the want of a good letter-founder in Scotland ; 
 and the printer asked him whether he could do any thing to 
 
124 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 remedy the defect. He immediately answered, that it would 
 be more easy to cast plates from pages when composed in 
 moveable type ; and he undertook to produce, and very short- 
 ly did so, a specimen of his new plan, and not long after- 
 wards made arrangements with a capitalist to advance the 
 requisite funds. The latter failing to perform his part, Ged 
 made a similar contract with a London stationer, in conjunc- 
 tion with whom he made many attempts ; but being repeat- 
 edly thwarted, he parted from his partner, and made proposals 
 to the universities and the king’s printers to stereotype Bibles 
 and prayer-books. These all entered into the scheme with 
 some eagerness, and some works were produced quite equal 
 to the ordinary printing of the day. Nevertheless, so much 
 ignorance and prejudice prevailed amongst the workmen, and 
 others interested, as they imagined, in the old system, that 
 the undertaking was soon abandoned, and Ged entered into 
 several subsequent arrangements, in which he was equally 
 unsuccessful ; a type-founder, in particular, causing such ob- 
 structions that the art made no progress. Ged died, there- 
 fore, before he had met with any encouragement ; nor did 
 his son succeed better, although, as the practicability was 
 made more manifest, the very parties who had rejected 
 his plans subsequently made extensive use of his plates. 
 What was Ged’s method of stereotyping is unknown, as 
 he kept it private ; nor did his partners fully participate in 
 the secret. 
 
 Fifty years afterwards, Mr Tilloch made a similar inven- 
 tion ; but, from private circumstances, the design was laid 
 aside, not however before several volumes had been printed 
 from his stereotype plates at the press of Mr Foulis. Some 
 years after this Lord Stanhope engaged an ingenious London 
 printer, Mr Vfilson, to prosecute the invention ; and after 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 1*25 
 
 many trials, the noble lord’s ingenuity succeeded in bring- 
 ing the art into perfect use. 
 
 When a work is expressly intended for stereotyping, the 
 type used should be somewhat different from that commonly 
 employed. The letter should be cast without any shoulder, 
 but should rise in a straight line from the foot ; the spaces, 
 quadrats, and leads should be of the same height as the 
 stem of the letter, because the less the cavities in the page, 
 the less chance there is of any of the mould breaking off and 
 remaining in the form. The page having been composed 
 in the ordinary manner, and very carefully corrected, is im- 
 posed in a small chase with metal furniture, and the whole 
 is placed within a moulding frame, somewhat less than half 
 an inch higher than the type. The surface of the type is 
 then rubbed with a soft brush holding a small quantity of 
 very thin oil. 
 
 The plaster of which the mould is formed is the com- 
 mon material of which statues and busts are cast ; it should 
 be of two degrees of fineness, and may be easily purchased 
 ready prepared. These having been carefully mixed, a 
 small portion of the finer quality is gently poured upon the 
 surface of the page, and softly worked in with a brush, care 
 being taken that every portion is fully covered, and that no 
 air-bubbles remain in any part of the letters. Immediately a 
 larger quantity of the coarser plaster is poured on and spread 
 over the previous layer without disturbing it ; a straight- 
 edge is then passed over the moulding-frame, clearing away 
 the superfluous plaster, and leaving that within the frame of 
 uniform thickness. It is then left to set. When sufficiently 
 dry, the moulding frame is raised, and the mould with it ; 
 the mould is then dressed, and placed in an oven until it be 
 perfectly dry, and raised to an adequate temperature for the 
 
126 
 
 PRINTING* 
 
 casting. The oil with which the page is rubbed prevents the 
 plaster from adhering to the type. 
 
 The melting-pot is a square vessel of iron about two 
 inches and a half deep, having a separate lid, of which the 
 four corners are cut off, the inner face being carefully turned, 
 the outer face turned hollow towards the centre. A floating 
 plate, of which the upper surface is turned, is placed at the 
 bottom of the pot. Over the melting-pit is a crane with a 
 rack, upon which a pair of nippers are made to run. These 
 lay hold of ears upon the melting-pot, closing with its weight, 
 and opening when relieved. The metal does not differ from 
 type-metal, and must be sufficiently fluxed to flow easily, but 
 not made too hot, or it will prove brittle. The melting-pot 
 having been heated in the same oven with the mould, and 
 consequently to the same temperature, the latter is placed 
 within it, the face being turned down upon the floating- 
 plate. A bar or other piece of iron is screwed down upon 
 that part of the lid which is turned hollow ; and the whole 
 being suspended by the rack and crane, is swung over the 
 melting-pit, and gradually let down into the metal, which 
 flows gently into the pot through the openings left at the 
 corners. The metal flowing slowly in gradually expels all 
 the air ; the mould immediately rises to the inner surface of 
 the lid ; the floating-plate, being specifically lighter than the 
 metal, rises also to the edge of the mould ; consequently the 
 metal which has run in between is of the exact thickness 
 of the depth of the mould, the upper surface being the field 
 upon which are the casts of the type, the under surface the 
 smooth face of the floating-plate, and the rest of the melting- 
 pot being filled with metal. The pot is allowed to remain 
 immersed ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, that is, until 
 the air is supposed to be perfectly expelled. The pot is 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 127 
 
 then drawn up, and swung to a board resting upon a trough 
 of water, and there allowed to cool. The cooling is a pro- 
 cess requiring much care and attention. It is obvious, That 
 unless the whole mass cool equally, the plate will be warp- 
 ed, and consequently spoiled ; it is equally clear that the 
 heat will more readily radiate at the corners, and conse- 
 quently that the centre will remain fluid after the other 
 parts are set, and that the contraction must be unequal. 
 This is provided against by the lid having been turned hol- 
 low in the centre, and it will therefore allow the metal under 
 it to cool more rapidly. The mass having been turned out 
 from the pot, the metal under the plate is separated by a 
 smart blow or two of the mallet ; the floating-plate will be 
 readily disengaged, and the mould be removed from the cast. 
 Some defects will invariably be found in the new plate ; but 
 these are removed by the picker, who goes carefully over 
 it, clearing away the picks from the face of the letter, and 
 deepening the larger white lines with a graver, that they may 
 not blacken in working at press ; for it must be remem- 
 bered, that the quadrats and spaces used in stereotyping are 
 higher than those in moveable-type printing. If the face 
 of the plate has cooled evenly, and it is in other respects a 
 successful cast, it is placed, the face inwards, in a turning 
 lathe, and the back rendered a plane parallel to the face ; 
 the margins are then squared, and the edges flanched. 
 The plate is now ready for use. 
 
 A great improvement in the stereotype art was a few 
 years ago introduced by Mr Thomas Allan, printer in Edin- 
 burgh, into his establishment, by which a number of plates 
 are cast at once, whilst the risk of broken casts is consi- 
 derably lessened. This is effected by means of a pot suf- 
 ficiently deep to contain moulds placed in a perpendicular 
 
128 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 position. The pot is an oblong square cast-iron box, widen- 
 ing towards the mouth, and having placed inside, at each 
 end, a wedge-like block, of which one face is parallel to 
 the side, while the other is perfectly vertical. On the ver- 
 tical side are perpendicular grooves, at distances rather 
 greater than the thickness of the stereotype moulds. Into 
 these grooves are inserted plates of malleable iron, by which 
 the interior of the box or pot is partitioned into spaces suf- 
 ficiently wide to admit with ease the plaster moulds. The 
 moulds, when baked, being inserted into these spaces, a 
 cross bar of metal is placed over the top, instead of a cover, 
 which serves to prevent the moulds from being raised by 
 the liquid metal flowing beneath them ; and it is then sus- 
 pended upon the crane, and dipt into the metal-pit in the 
 usual way. By this method not only are the moulds saved 
 from all risk of breaking by being placed horizontally and 
 pressed between the two broad surfaces of a float-block and 
 cover, as in the method of single-page casting, but a num- 
 ber of plates are produced at one cast, and thus additional 
 celerity is combined with greater certainty of sound plates. 
 The plates of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which is 
 the most extensive work ever stereotyped, have been for 
 the most part produced by this process, in pots containing 
 each five moulds ; and it is especially advantageous for 
 large plates, the risk of breakage by the old method increas- 
 ing in a greater ratio than the increase in the size of the 
 page. 
 
 The plates are sometimes mounted upon blocks of ma- 
 hogany, the height of which is the difference between the 
 thickness of the plate and the height of the type. These 
 blocks are furnished with brass sides, the upper part of 
 which is turned over so as to take hold of the flange of the 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 129 
 
 plate. Many attempts have been made to accommodate 
 these blocks to the varying sizes of the plates, by forming 
 them in portions ; but, where much stereotyping is done, 
 the plates are usually cast to uniform sizes, corresponding 
 blocks being kept ready for use. An ingenious plan has 
 been devised to remedy this inconvenience, by a series of 
 hollow squares of type-metal of the requisite height and of 
 different sizes, by means of which pages may be easily 
 composed to any required size, from one pica m upwards ; 
 the plates being fastened on by brass holders. At a small 
 expense once incurred, the stereotype printer may furnish 
 himself for ever. 
 
 There are many smaller instruments requisite, which it 
 is quite unnecessary to mention. The founder requires 
 some practical skill, which, how r ever, it is not difficult to 
 acquire. The excellence of the casts will depend upon the 
 personal knack and observation of the founder. The metal 
 for stereotyping is generally purchased prepared for use, 
 in preference to melting down old type, the type-founders 
 allowing much more for it in exchange than the metal can 
 be purchased for. The price of prepared metal is about 
 40s. per cwt. The following, however, are proportions 
 which may be used when the prepared metal cannot be 
 procured : — 
 
 1. From five to eight parts lead, one of regulus, one 
 fiftieth of block- tin. 
 
 2. One seventh of pure regulus, six sevenths of lead. The 
 best lead is that which comes from China, in the lin- 
 ing of tea-chests. 
 
 The mixing of the lead is exceedingly injurious to the 
 workman, and should be avoided wherever it is possible. 
 
 f 2 
 
130 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The foundry should be thoroughly ventilated, as the fumes 
 from the melting-pit, and the moisture and smell of the 
 drying oven, are very noxious. 
 
 An extravagant notion prevails, especially amongst per- 
 sons not experienced in the mysteries of printing, of the 
 exceeding economy of stereotyping ; it would therefore be 
 of advantage to give a fair view of the case. On an aver- 
 age, the cost of stereotyping may be taken as the same as 
 that of composition, or even higher. It is quite clear,, 
 therefore, that if the first edition of a work is stereotyped, 
 the speculator at once incurs the expense of printing two 
 editions, minus the press-work. The consequence is, that 
 if his untried book does not succeed, he very much in- 
 creases his loss, or at best he increases his chance of loss, 
 because many books that just get through a first edition 
 never arrive at a second. Therefore the first edition of a 
 work should never be stereotyped, unless indeed the work 
 be of such a nature as to insure a general sale at a low price, 
 as, for instance, Ready Reckoners, Tables of Interest, and 
 such like. Again, what work is there so perfect as not to 
 require some alteration and amendment in a new edition, 
 which, in stereotype, is practicable only to a limited extent. 
 Supposing, next, that the great demand for a work is as- 
 certained, that the matter is sufficiently corrected to require 
 no farther alteration, and that the work has been stereo- 
 typed ; the owner must wait until the copies printed from 
 the types from which the casting has been made are sold, 
 before he has occasion to make use of his plates. On the 
 one hand, suppose that he print sufficient for four years con- 
 sumption ; and on the other, sufficient for one year at the 
 same rate. The account will stand thus : — 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 131 
 
 Type . 
 
 Cost of composition, 25 sheets, say L.50 0 0 
 
 Press-work, 4000 copies, 200 reams, at 7s 70 0 0 
 
 Paper, 200 reams, at 20s 200 0 0 
 
 L.320 0 0 
 
 Interest on average of two years (allowing for 
 
 periodical return of capital) 32 0 0 
 
 L.352 0 0 
 
 Stereotype. 
 
 Cost of stereotyping L.50 0 0 
 
 1st year, Press- work of 1000 copies, 50 reams, 
 
 at 9s 22 10 0 
 
 Paper, 50 reams 50 0 0 
 
 L.122 10 0 
 
 Interest, 1 year 6 months, plates 3 15 0 
 
 Ditto, 6 months, print and paper 1 16 0 
 
 L.128 1 0 
 
 2d year, Print and paper L.72 10 0 
 
 Interest, plates, 1 year. ..2 10 0 
 
 Do. print and paper, 
 
 6 months 1 16 0 
 
 76 16 0 
 
 3d and 4th year 153 12 0 
 
 L.358 9 0 
 
 Balance against stereotyping 
 
 ...L.6 9 0 
 
132 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Second, Four Years . — Type . 
 
 Composition from reprint copy 
 
 ..L.43 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Press-work, 4000 copies, at 7s 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Paper, 200 reams, at 20s. 
 
 ...200 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 L.313 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Interest, average 2 years 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 L.345 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Four editions from plates, and interest as be- 
 
 
 
 
 fore 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Balance in favour of stereotype 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Cost of first edition, type 
 
 L.352 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Ditto second ditto 
 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 L.697 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Cost of eight editions stereotype 
 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 Balance in favour of stereotype at the end of 
 
 eight years L.32 19 6 
 
 without taking into account repairs and incidental ex- 
 penses which would be incurred in stereotype only , and 
 also not reckoning the produce of overplus copies, which 
 would be proportionately greater in type. 
 
 IPthe type be small, and the composition expensive, it 
 would be considerably in favour of stereotype ; but on the 
 per contra would be the greater wear and damage of the 
 plates. 
 
 Such is a fair statement of the pecuniary profit and loss 
 of type and stereotype ; but there are other considerations. 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 133 
 
 Every edition from the plates must be in the same type, 
 without any of the improvements that skill or fashion may 
 require; whereas every edition from type may be varied 
 to the taste of the day, and any defects in composition or 
 making up remedied. Every edition from the plates must 
 also get progressively worse and worse. It is asserted that 
 no injury can accrue to the plates, but the fact is precisely 
 the reverse ; for these plates are particularly liable to injury, 
 from their weight and brittleness, from blows, from picks 
 and batters, which will happen notwithstanding the greatest 
 care, from fractures at the edges in placing on the blocks 
 or raisers, and many other fortuitous circumstances. These 
 it is difficult to remedy, and, when remedied, they present a 
 most unsightly appearance, sometimes from the same fount 
 not being at hand, or sent to the melting-pot (and great 
 changes occur in the types of a printing-office in the course 
 of eight years), sometimes from the new letters not stand- 
 ing of the same height, which is a common fault, and always 
 from their not standing in line. Again, printing from plates 
 never looks so well as that from type ; and the most inex- 
 perienced eye may instantly detect the difference, even in 
 the first edition. 
 
 Nevertheless, in some cases stereotyping is of great ad- 
 vantage ; but chiefly in books of numbers, in which it is of 
 the utmost importance that every figure should be correct. 
 In this case the proofs must be read again and again, until 
 the correctness is unquestionable, then stereotyped ; and 
 there is no fear of alteration from the error of compositors 
 or carelessness of readers, but the book remains the same 
 for ever. Such works also are most expensive in getting 
 up, and the cost of composition very much exceeds that of 
 stereotyping. Books of logarithms may be especially men- 
 
184 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 tioned, tables of longitude, indexes to maps, and other 
 works, which, being once written, remain unchangeably 
 the same: or where it is found expedient to have dupli- 
 cates of the work, as when immense numbers are required, 
 and it is necessary, for speed, to work on double-sized pa- 
 per ; such, for instance, is the Penny Magazine, from which, 
 when once composed, a cast is taken, and the original and 
 cast are worked side by side at the same moment, produ- 
 cing two copies instead of one, in which case there is ano- 
 ther advantage, for the casting does not exceed the cost 
 of composition, and, when worked, the stereotype remains 
 without further expense for another edition : again, where 
 it is expedient to send duplicate plates to a distance to be 
 worked, thereby saving the expense of carriage, and some 
 time ; as in the Penny Magazine, where several casts are 
 taken, and one sent to America, another to Germany, &c. ; 
 in Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, where one cast is worked 
 at Edinburgh, and another in London ; in Richardson’s Dic- 
 tionary, where one cast is used by the London publisher, 
 and another in the United States. 
 
 Wood-cuts may be stereotyped with great advantage, 
 for a small cut which has cost several guineas to engrave 
 may be multiplied indefinitely, and that at a cost of a few 
 shillings. 
 
 No printer should stereotype who wishes his type to be 
 a credit to his house. The wear of material in casting is 
 miserable ; the gypsum is at best a fine powder, and grinds 
 away the edge and face of the letter when rubbed in with 
 the brush, in a frightful manner. The letter can never be 
 entirely freed from the plaster, and will present a very dirty 
 appearance ever after. The wear of a fount of 1000 lbs. 
 weight, returned six times from the foundry, is greater 
 
STEREOTYPING. 
 
 135 
 
 than would occur in six years’ constant fair usage ; besides 
 which, the high spaces, quadrats, and leads, are all extra 
 expenses, for which the economical bookseller makes no 
 remuneration whatever. 
 
 School-books are most frequently stereotyped, in ordi- 
 nary cases with the advantages and drawbacks above re- 
 lated. Suppose, however, a Spelling Book or Primer, say 
 Guy’s, selling from forty to fifty thousand copies yearly, 
 in which it might be supposed that stereotype would be of 
 infinite advantage. For such a bock, stereotype plates would 
 not last, even in decent condition, four years. Calculate 
 the cost, without interest, the money being constantly re- 
 turned. 
 
 Type. Stereotype. 
 
 Seven sheets, say L.40 
 
 Stereotyping 
 
 
 Working 560 reams, at 5s... 140 
 
 Working 560 reams 
 
 at 6s... 168 
 
 Paper 490 
 
 Paper 
 
 490 
 
 . 
 
 
 — 
 
 L.670 
 
 
 L.672 
 
 . 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Rent to be paid to printer to 
 keep type standing, say one 
 
 fourth L.10 
 
 Print and paper 630 
 
 
 
 L.640 
 
 Print and paper 
 
 
 Cost in four years L.2590 , ...L.264 6 
 
 Balance against stereotype, L .56 ; 
 at the end of which time the types must be set up again, 
 and new plates cast. But any printer will keep standing a 
 work of which such numbers are required, without any 
 charge whatever ; and every worn or battered letter may 
 
136 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 be taken out and replaced, so that every edition will be in 
 perfect condition for generations. 
 
 The plan of stereotyping Bibles and prayer-books has 
 been nearly abandoned, and the entire sheets are kept stand- 
 ing in moveable type, at incalculable expense, by the Queen’s 
 printer, the University of Oxford, and, it is believed, that 
 of Cambridge. Before every edition, however, is worked, 
 every sheet must undergo a careful reading. 
 
POLYTYPAGE. 
 
 137 
 
 OF POLYTYPAGE, 
 
 The ingenuity of our lively neighbours the French has 
 been excited for nearly a century in devising a speedy 
 and cheap mode of making solid plates, either in sequence 
 or in substitution of moveable type. Many considerable 
 improvements in stereotyping are to be ascribed to these 
 artists ; but stereotyping has never been a favourite with 
 them, and they have rather exerted their invention in a se- 
 ries of experiments, which may be classed under the gene- 
 ral name of polytypage. 
 
 The first experiment noticeable is that of Dr Franklin 
 and M. Rochon ; but although curious, it is not polytypage 
 in the common meaning, or the art of producing letters in 
 relief. But it is very ingenious, and is the first step in that 
 art. Franklin made an exceedingly glutinous ink, with 
 which he wrote upon thin paper, in the ordinary manner, 
 but rather coarsely. This writing he powdered with pound- 
 ed emery or iron filings, and it was then placed between 
 two plates, of which the lower one was exceedingly hard, 
 and the upper one extremely soft. These were then passed 
 between a rolling press, when the iron-filings or emery sunk 
 into the softer plate, from which impressions might be taken 
 in the manner of copperplate printing. The effect, as may 
 
138 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 be supposed, was exceedingly rough and unsightly. M. 
 Rochon then proposed to write with a steel point upon a 
 prepared plate, and bite in the tracing ; this would give 
 impressions in reverse, which, whilst the ink was yet fresh, 
 were to be pressed strongly between clean paper, the set- 
 off upon which would be fit for use. By this unskilful 
 means Rochon says many private works were circulated ; 
 but it is rather doubtful. M. Rochon next undertook a 
 much more likely project, the stamping of punches, some- 
 what like types, into soft metal, in the same order and with 
 as much rapidity as they are composed in ordinary printing, 
 with mechanical contrivances to make the impressions stand 
 well, and also to insure the even depression of every let- 
 ter. These stamped plates were originally intended to be 
 printed by the rolling press ; but afterwards the scheme was 
 entertained of taking a cast from the plate in type-metal, 
 and printing from that. It does not appear that this idea 
 was brought into practice. 
 
 In 1780, Hoffman, a German, residing in France, brought 
 stereotyping to considerable height ; but, not satisfied with 
 his success, he made many ingenious efforts in polytypage. 
 He first used Rochon’s method ; and whilst he was thus en- 
 gaged, a practical printer, named Carez, started a new method, 
 which Hoffman afterwards pursued. The page, after being 
 composed in the ordinary manner, was attached, with the 
 face downwards, to the under side of a heavy block of wood, 
 suspended from a long beam. Immediately under the page 
 was an anvil, on which was a tray of oiled paper, into which 
 the workman poured a portion of melted lead, attentively 
 watching the cooling. When the metal seemed on the point 
 of setting, the page, block, and beam, were brought down 
 with a very smart blow, forcing the face of the type into the 
 
POLYTYPAGE. 
 
 139 
 
 cooling metal, and producing a very sharp mould ; which 
 again was made to take the place of the type upon the 
 block, was struck in a similar manner upon fused metal, 
 and would thus, as was said, produce a perfect and excel- 
 lent stereotype plate, which, having been properly dressed 
 at the edges and back, was affixed to the usual wooden 
 raiser ; nor does there seem any reason why more than one 
 cast might not be made from the same mould. Carez ap- 
 pears to have practised this art to some extent, and suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 Hoffman was no doubt acquainted with this invention, for 
 his next scheme was a modification of it. In order to avoid 
 the expense of composition, he prepared a series of punches, 
 consisting as well of single letters as of common French ter- 
 minations, which, with a very ingenious instrument, he press- 
 ed into a thin layer of prepared clay ; and this, when baked, 
 he stamped upon a portion of fused metal, in Carez’s manner, 
 producing a stereotype plate. It must be quite evident that 
 in practice this could never answer, because the lining of 
 the letters, and the exact plane of the surface, cannot pos- 
 sibly be achieved with that nicety which is indispensable in 
 printing. Unfortunately, also, the expense and trouble of 
 stamping in the punches separately must be considerably 
 greater than that of composing types, even were it practi- 
 cable, which it does not seem to be. 
 
 In 1791, M. Gegembre printed the fifty sous notes of the 
 Caisse Patriotique upon an improved plan. He caused 
 the whole print of the notes to be engraved in relief upon 
 a plate of steel, the letters and ornaments being run toge- 
 ther in a manner impracticable with separate punches ; and 
 this engraving he pressed into a plate of alloyed copper, from 
 which stereotyped casts were taken by Carez’s process. 
 
140 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Any number of these casts could be taken from the copper 
 mould, as indeed was necessary, since, from the softness of 
 the metal, they were rapidly worn out ; and if by chance the 
 copper mould became injured, a new one could be readily 
 made from the steel engraving. 
 
 When the revolutionary government commenced issuing 
 assignats, it became necessary to have an immense number 
 of plates to work the enormous quantity of these documents 
 required. A design having been approved of, artists were 
 employed to engrave three hundred fac-similes. Of course, 
 if three hundred so-called fac-similes could be engraved, 
 there could be no difficulty to other artists in engraving an- 
 other hundred, nor could even the bank-officers tell which 
 was a forged fac-simile and which were engraved by their 
 authority. The consequence was utter want of confidence in 
 the government paper. To remedy this, the committee of 
 assignats caused many experiments to be instituted for the 
 production of plates which should be not only imitative 
 and similar, but pro re identical. The plan adopted was 
 the engraving a plate in intaglio , from which copper punches 
 were obtained in relief, and called mother-punches . From 
 these daughters were struck, which were perfect fac-similes 
 of the original engraving, and were worked by the roller- 
 press in the manner of copperplates. Guillot, the director, 
 reported, that from one engraving, for the 400 livres assig- 
 nats, he had struck or polytyped 897 mother -punches and 
 1487 daughters , of which number only 190 were defective ; 
 of the plate for the fifty livres assignats, 4760 mother-punches 
 and 7684 daughters, 1140 of which were defective. The 
 chief defect was, that frequently the air compressed in the 
 mould of a single letter would effectually prevent the fused 
 metal sinking to the full depth, and thus there would be no 
 
POLYTYPAGE. 
 
 141 
 
 letter at all upon the plate. Upon the suppression of as- 
 signats this establishment was broken up ; but some of the 
 plates and matrices are in the public repositories of France, 
 In printing the tickets of the national lottery, Gatteaux ob- 
 tained the assistance of Didot the printer, whose firm soon 
 afterwards issued proposals for printing polytyped editions 
 of the classics, at very reduced prices; and in 1798 they 
 issued an edition of Virgil, followed by many other works, 
 remarkable for their neatness and cheapness ; so that their 
 plans may be pronounced to have been completely suc- 
 cessful. The process differs little from those before de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Types of the usual form, but of very hard metal, being 
 composed, are placed within a steel box, with the face down- 
 wards upon a plate of metal, and pressed slowly and smooth- 
 ly, but with great force. Since, therefore, all the letters 
 are forced simultaneously and evenly into the plate, no un- 
 even impression takes place. They are then disengaged, and 
 any faults are amended by striking in a punch of the de- 
 fective letter. From the matrix thus obtained plates in 
 relief are cast, from which the paper is worked, the matrix 
 being put away to strike other plates if needed. 
 
 M. Reran, Didot’s partner, having separated from the 
 firm, applied himself to the improvement of the art, and hit 
 upon a novel and ingenious mode. This was the formation 
 of a set of types the very reverse of the common, viz. in- 
 stead of the letter being in relief upon the shank, it was in 
 intaglio ; therefore every separate letter would be a die, 
 and instead of the letter being reversed, it would stand 
 as read on the paper. The spaces, quadrats, leads, & c- 
 were of the exact height of the type. These were to be 
 composed like types, so that the entire page would pre- 
 
U2 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 sent the appearance of a plate of copper into which words, &c. 
 had been punched ; the matter was to be read in the metal 
 without a proof, which, as the words read from left to right, 
 was matter of no difficulty. Upon the matrix thus com- 
 posed fused metal was to be pressed, which would obvious- 
 ly form a complete plate fit to be printed from ; and the 
 operation could be repeated until as many plates were struck 
 off as were required. M. Heran first endeavoured to cast 
 his types in a mould like that used by letter-founders ; but 
 the metal proved too soft, and he afterwards struck punches 
 into shanks of copper of the required size. Works executed 
 from such plates are of remarkable neatness, and the pro- 
 cess may be pronounced of very great utility, although, as 
 far as known, it has never been introduced into England. 
 
 Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Professor 
 Wilson of Glasgow, being engaged in a series of experi- 
 ments for making etchings upon glass with fluoric acid for 
 the purposes of art, thought it possible to make polytypes 
 of glass from engraved copperplates. In this he in some 
 degree succeeded, having executed several polytypes in in- 
 taglio from moulds of copperplates, and in relief from wood- 
 cuts ; but it cannot be said to have been practically suc- 
 cessful, the lines not having any degree of sharpness in ei- 
 ther case, whilst the brittleness of the material would be a 
 decided objection. 
 
 Messrs Heath, Perkins, and other ingenious men, hav- 
 ing turned their attention to the prevention of forgery of 
 bank-notes, have produced many excellent plans, amongst 
 which is that of Mr Heath, of taking the impression en 
 creux from an engraving of hardened steel upon a cylin- 
 der of soft steel afterwards hardened, from which cylin- 
 der any number of the plates, fac-similes of the first, may 
 
POLYTYPAGE. 
 
 143 
 
 be readily executed. This plan does not differ in any 
 degree from that of Hoffman and Carez, save in respect 
 of the cylinder ; but the manner in which the engraving 
 is executed on the original steel by the lathe is most 
 astonishing. These plans have not been adopted by the 
 Bank of England, but most country banks of issue have 
 greedily adopted this almost complete safeguard against 
 forgery. 
 
 Mr Brunei has lately invented an ingenious modification 
 in the making of moulds, which consists in spreading a coat- 
 ing of shell-lac upon a plate of iron, and hardening it in 
 the fire. This is then dipped into the melting-pot, and re- 
 ceives a thin covering of metal, and is then pressed upon 
 the types. The impression produced thereby is most beau- 
 tiful. The lead can never sink to any depth in the hollows 
 of the page, there are no picks or other soils to clear away, 
 but it may be doubted whether the lead would form a very 
 good mould to cast from. 
 
144 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 PRINTING IN COLOURS. 
 
 One of the most beautiful aids to typography, the art of 
 printing in colours, has been entirely neglected in this 
 country ; at least as far as relates to the embellishing works 
 of ordinary excellence with vignettes, capitals, tail-pieces, 
 and other devices of fancy, in beautiful tints, in the man- 
 ner of the early typographers. It is true that ingenious 
 artists of the present day have exhibited much skill in il- 
 lustrating works of natural history, and have shown won- 
 derful genius in publications professedly connected with 
 the fine arts ; but, as far as regards the average printing 
 of the day, it is entirely neglected. This may very easily 
 be accounted for. To print in two colours occupies more 
 than twice the time necessary to print in one ; and it also 
 requires more skill and ingenuity. These unfortunately must 
 be paid for ; and this pecuniary consideration is sufficient 
 to banish from our pages this lovely art. So did not our 
 forefathers ; they took pride in choosing the most tasteful 
 designs, the most harmonious colours, to illuminate their 
 productions, and beguile the reader into study by the illu- 
 sive charms of gold, and blue, and crimson. Fortunately, 
 either time was of little value, or the exclusive possession 
 of the market enabled them to demand remunerating prices 
 
PRINTING IN COLOURS. 
 
 145 
 
 for the time thus well bestowed ; but in the bustle and com- 
 petition of our more mercantile days, time is money, and 
 blue and gold, scarlet and green, give way to the equally 
 useful but infinitely less beautiful uniformity of unredeem- 
 ed black. To a country printer, however, some knowledge 
 of colour-printing would be of infinite advantage, because, 
 as his founts of type are more limited, he can create un- 
 limited variety by a judicious use of colours in job-work : 
 moreover, as he has usually much more time upon his 
 hands, his ingenuity would have ample scope for the pro- 
 duction of small works of vertu, in a taste which cannot be 
 indulged by the denizen of a busy metropolis. 
 
 Except in the execution of works of a very high order, 
 and the imitation of intricate and delicate patterns, print- 
 ing in colours requires no addition to the ordinary accom- 
 plishment of printing, other than considerable ingenuity, 
 and a little practice in preparing the colours. The latter 
 may, it is true, be purchased of the ink-maker prepared for 
 use ; but the charge for them is enormous, and they re- 
 quire constant replacement, whilst it is not possible to have 
 on hand every variety of tint. By the purchase of the 
 most simple materials from the oil-shop, the ingenious 
 printer has at his hand every colour that fancy can require, 
 at the most moderate cost, without waste or delay. The 
 appliances are few and cheap : a muller, a marble slab, and 
 a palette-knife ; the materials, a can of printers’ varnish, to 
 be purchased of the ink-maker, wdiich will keep any length 
 of time, and the raw' colours hereafter given, wdiich may be 
 purchased from time to time ; care, however, being taken 
 that they are of the best quality, or they w ill fade and turn 
 rusty in a short time, and be a deformity instead of an or- 
 nament to the work. 
 
 G 
 
146 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Useful tints of Red may be prepared of orange lead, 
 vermilion, burnt sienna, Venetian red, Indian red, and lake. 
 Vermilion is the most brilliant of these reds ; but its beauty 
 depends very much upon the particular parcel used. The 
 pale vermilion is best for a bright tint, as the dark, when 
 mixed with the varnish, produces a dull red. Orange lead 
 and vermilion ground together produce a very bright tint, 
 which is more permanent than vermilion alone. 
 
 Yellows are prepared with yellow ochre, gamboge, and 
 chromate of lead. Of these the brightest is the chrome ; 
 yellow ochre, when mixed with the varnish, produces a very 
 dull tint. 
 
 Blues are made from indigo, Prussian blue, and Ant- 
 werp blue. Of these, indigo is exceedingly dark, and not 
 very easily lightened. Prussian blue is a very useful co- 
 lour ; Antwerp blue is very light. 
 
 Greens may be produced from a mixture of any of the 
 blues and yellows, as gamboge and Prussian blue, chro- 
 mate of lead and Prussian blue. These may be mixed in 
 any proportions until the required tint is produced; but it 
 must be remembered, that the varnish has a considerable 
 yellow tinge, and will produce a decided effect upon the 
 mixture. With a slight portion of Antwerp blue it will, 
 without the mixture of any of the yellows, produce a de- 
 cidedly greenish tinge. 
 
 Purples of any degree of richness are made by judici- 
 ously mixing reds and blues. 
 
 Ssepia produces a nice brown tint, burnt umber a very 
 hot brown, raw umber a much lighter brown, bistre a 
 brighter still. Neutral tints may be obtained by mixing 
 Prussian blue, lake, and Gamboge. In fact, every pig- 
 ment that painters use can also be used in printing, avoid- 
 
PRINTING IN COLOURS. 
 
 147 
 
 ing, as much as possible, all heavy colours. In truth, if the 
 printer is desirous of imitating any particular colour, or of 
 producing any particular tint, he cannot do better than con- 
 sult the nearest artist in oil or water colours (oil in prefer- 
 ence), or in default of that, the neighbouring house-painter. 
 
 The necessary colours having been procured, the me- 
 thod of preparing them is very simple. Each must first be 
 well ground by the muller upon the slab, even although 
 they may have been purchased w r ell powdered. The co- 
 lour should then be well mixed with the palette-knife with 
 the varnish, until the pigment has attained the required 
 consistency, which will vary with the quality of the w'ork to 
 be executed ; for if it be a posting-bill or coarse job, the 
 ink should be very thin, and consequently a much larger 
 proportion of varnish should be used. If, however, the 
 work be a wood-cut, or in small type, the pigment should 
 be made as thick as possible. If the colour required be a 
 compound, the predominant tint should be first mixed with 
 the varnish, and the lighter tint added in small quantities, 
 until the exact shade required be produced. Thus, if the 
 colour be a dark green, the blue should be mixed up first, 
 and the yellow added ; but if it be a very light green, then 
 the yellow should be first applied, and the blue added. If 
 the tint desired ,be exceedingly light, it will be found that 
 the quantity of raw material to be employed will not make 
 the mixture sufficiently thick to be applied to the type or 
 wood-block : in this case whitening is added to thin co- 
 lours, and dry white lead to the heavier in considerable 
 quantities, which must be adjusted in the course of mixing. 
 To insure thorough combination, the mixture should be 
 scraped into a corner of the slab, and a very small portion 
 of it spread with the palette-knife, and well ground with 
 
148 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the muller until no specks or lumps appear, then scraped 
 up and placed in another corner. This should especially 
 be done when white lead is used, as it will be found that 
 every little lump when crushed will produce a white streak 
 upon the slab. If this be not carefully done, independent- 
 ly of its tendency to clog the type, it will very materially 
 alter the tint. When the pigment seems sufficiently mix- 
 ed, it is better to bray it out with the muller instead of the 
 usual brayer, and grind again each particular portion imme- 
 diately before it is used. Colours may be worked either 
 with a ball or a roller. If the job be large and coarse, and 
 the ink consequently thin, the roller will answer every pur- 
 pose ; but if it be small, and requiring much nicety in the 
 manipulation, decidedly with a ball ; but in either case the 
 ink should be well distributed, and the form well beaten or 
 rolled. When two or more colours are employed, they 
 must be worked at as many different times. In this case 
 extreme nicety in the register and justification is required, 
 in order that every colour may fall in its just place, with- 
 out overlaying any other tint employed in the print. This 
 w r ould be a great dis-sight in any case, but most especially 
 where the composition of colours would produce a third ; 
 as, for instance, if any part of a blue line should unfortu- 
 nately fall upon a yellow, a green outline would be the re- 
 sult. The simplest way to guard against this is to have the 
 wood-blocks all cut to precisely the same size, with the print 
 in the proper place upon each ; when, therefore, the first co- 
 lour has been worked, the form is unlocked, the block taken 
 out, and the second block inserted ; it then falls at once in- 
 to its proper position. If the form consist of type, each line 
 should be carefully composed in its proper body, that is, if 
 three colours be employed for as many different lines in Pica , 
 
PRINTING IN COLOURS. 
 
 149 
 
 Small Pica, and Long Primer, the one to be first worked 
 should be composed in pica letters, the other lines in small 
 pica and long primer quadrats. When the second line is 
 to be worked, its quadrats should be taken out and letters 
 inserted, while the type of the first line should be removed 
 and quadrats substituted ; and so of the third line. The 
 points on the tympan must never be moved. It is clear, 
 therefore, that if the paper be placed upon the same point- 
 holes as before, and if the form has never been moved, the 
 new line cannot fail to fall into its proper place. The illus- 
 trative Plate CCCCXIV. has been worked upon this plan ; 
 the black, being the largest body, was first printed, as it 
 afforded the best guide for subsequent working. The blue 
 was next worked, because it was much easier to adjust it to 
 the black, than to adjust the red so exactly that the blue 
 should precisely surround it and yet not infringe upon or 
 retreat from the black, while there would be no difficulty 
 in making the other red portions fall in their proper places. 
 In these cases the paper must never be suffered to dry ; 
 indeed the sooner each colour succeeds the other the bet- 
 ter. If it be covered with a wet blanket, and the edges 
 well sprinkled, the danger will be little ; but if it should 
 dry and shrink in the slightest degree, it will be impossi- 
 ble to obtain register. For printing red-letter days in 
 almanacs and the rubrics in prayer-books (an almost ex- 
 tinct practice), an especial type is used called rubrical ; it 
 is cast about an m higher than ordinary t} 7 pe. The black 
 is first worked, quadrats having been inserted in the places 
 of the red letter, which are subsequently withdrawn, and 
 the rubrical type inserted. But as, in so small an inser- 
 tion in so large a body, this process does not attain any 
 very good register, and is expensive withal, the red-letter 
 
 9 
 
150 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 days have been abandoned, and some other distinguishing 
 type (generally old English or black) has been substitut- 
 ed, which sufficiently indicates the day. It would not be 
 possible here to give sufficient instructions to enable a 
 printer to execute landscapes, portraits, and other delicate 
 subjects, in various colours and shades. The chief differ- 
 ence between this and other colour-printing consists mainly 
 in the superior individual skill and ingenuity of the artist, 
 the excellence and truth of his engravings, and the superi- 
 ority of his appliances. In truth, before the printer can pro- 
 duce any great effect, he must be excellently qualified as a 
 painter, which it is not the province of an article on print- 
 ing to teach. It will be sufficient to state, that the lighter 
 and more extensive tints, and especially those in which 
 transparent colours are used, are worked first, the colour 
 been gradually deepened by successive blocks, until the 
 required effects are produced ; and that the outline is 
 printed last, to give sharpness and finish to the design. 
 The curious reader is referred to Mr Savage’s beautiful 
 book on Decorative Printing, and to the many admirable 
 productions of Mr Baxter and Mr Vizetelly. Mr Charles 
 Knight has taken out a patent for a new process in print- 
 ing in colours, the principle of which consists in a new 
 mode of obtaining register of the different colours. It is 
 understood that all the colours are printed before the sheet 
 of paper is taken from the tympan, but not at one impres- 
 sion. The outline is printed at a second operation. The 
 means whereby this is effected may be learned as soon as 
 the specification is enrolled. If the plan succeed (as yet 
 it is but imperfectly tried), it will materially reduce the 
 cost of coloured prints of all descriptions, and especially of 
 maps. 
 
PRINTING IN COLOURS. 
 
 151 
 
 There is no difficulty in printing in gold ; it is within 
 the power of any typographer. The type is composed and 
 made ready at press in the usual manner. A quantity of 
 raw or burnt umber is mixed with printer’s varnish, to the 
 same consistency as it would be were it intended to be 
 used as ink ; but this mixture is then compounded with a 
 considerable quantity of gold size, the same as that used 
 by gilders and japanners. The first mixture is necessary, 
 because it has been found that the umber will not combine 
 with the size. The type is then rolled with this compound, 
 in the same manner that ordinary ink is applied, and the 
 impression is taken upon the paper. Leaf-gold is then laid 
 over it with a piece of wool, and pressed slightly upon it. 
 When the varnish has had time to set, a piece of wool is 
 rubbed roughly over the part printed, and the superfluous 
 leaf is thereby removed, leaving the gold adhering to the 
 varnish. The sharpness of the print will vary with the 
 judgment of the printer in the quantity of sizing applied 
 to the type ; for if the press-work be bad, the print will be 
 bad also. For inferior gold-printing bronze powder is 
 extensively used. For this the varnish is made very much 
 thicker than for gold ; the method of printing is the same ; 
 but after the impression has been given, the powder is 
 brushed over the print, and will adhere thereto, whilst the 
 superfluity may be easily removed. In printing the golden 
 Coronation Sun with this pow T der, a very distressing disease 
 arose, the hair became perfectly green, and the men were 
 very seriously affected ; great caution should therefore be 
 taken that particles of the powder be not allowed to fly 
 about the room. Dutch gold cannot be used as a substi- 
 tute for gold leaf. 
 
152 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 BANK-NOTES. 
 
 The numbers of bank-notes are printed by an exceed- 
 ingly ingenious process, which, being regulated by machi- 
 nery, makes it impossible to commit any fraud by printing 
 two notes with the same number. The apparatus consists 
 of a series of brass discs, of which the rim is divided by 
 channels into projecting compartments, each containing a 
 figure. The numbers 1 to 9 having been printed in the 
 course of the revolution of the first disc, and this disc hav- 
 ing returned to figure 1, the second disc comes into play 
 and presents a 0, and the two together therefore print 10. 
 The first disc now remains stationary until, in the course of 
 the revolution of the second disc, the numbers 1 to 19 
 have been printed, when it presents the figure 2, and does 
 not again move until another revolution of the second disc 
 completes the number 20 to 29. Thus the two discs proceed 
 until 99 notes have been numbered, when the third disc 
 comes into operation, and, with the two first, produces 100, 
 consequently the first disc performs one hundred revolu- 
 tions to ten of the second and one of the third. The 
 notes may be numbered indefinitely by this process, with- 
 out the possibility of error, the machine, meanwhile, being 
 its own check. 
 
PRINTING PRESSES. 
 
 153 
 
 PRINTING PRESSES. 
 
 In the description of the Stanhope Press it has been 
 stated that many other presses upon different principles 
 have recently been invented ; most of these, however, con- 
 tain some application of the Stanhope power. The most 
 powerful, but the most expensive, of these is the Columbian 
 or Clymer Press. The power in this is acquired by an ex- 
 tremely powerful lever, the pivot of which is in the top of 
 the near staple : it passes entirely over the press, and is 
 pulled down by a bar inserted in the near side, connected 
 with the Stanhope coupling bar, &c. The platten is at- 
 tached to the centre of the lever, therefore the impression 
 is perfectly vertical. The principle may be popularly un- 
 derstood by balancing a ruler upon the edge of a piece of 
 wood, holding firmly one end in the left hand, and press- 
 ing down the other with the right : indeed a very fair im- 
 pression of a small wood-cut may be obtained by placing it 
 with the face downwards upon a soft pad, fixing one end of 
 a bar of wood under a staple, and pressing down the other. 
 
 Cogger’s Press is very powerful. Its principle is a sector 
 or piece of curved steel, so arranged that the lower portion 
 is more curved than the upper ; a steel stud traverses upon 
 this. When it moves over the lower and more inclined por- 
 
 2 G 
 
154 ? 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 tion of the sector, it brings down the platten with great 
 rapidity ; but in traversing the upper portion, as it presents 
 a less inclined plane, the power is consequently much in - 
 creased, and is greatest, very great, at the pinch. These 
 presses are complained of by the workmen as being very 
 slow ; but the greatest objection to them is, that in making 
 short pulls a ledge is worn upon the sectors, which is a 
 great obstruction to a long fair pull : with proper attention 
 by the pressman this would not occur. 
 
 The Albion Press, manufactured by Cope’s executors, is 
 a general favourite for its exceeding lightness ; it runs very 
 easily, the pull is short, the power great, and the means 
 whereby it is attained so simple that there is little fear of 
 the press getting out of order ; it is very easily taken down 
 for cleaning, and put up again. The power is gained by 
 causing an inclined piece of steel to become perpendicular ; 
 in so doing the platten descends, and the impression takes 
 place at the moment the piece of steel is assuming its up- 
 right position. 
 
 Cope and Sherwin’s Imperial is another very excellent 
 press, upon principles which do not greatly differ from the 
 Albion : they are very numerous. 
 
 In Harrild’s Press the power is obtained by the straight- 
 ening a knuckle or elbow-joint, in precisely the same man- 
 ner as the bent arm is straightened. Being of very expen- 
 sive construction, they have not obtained great sale. 
 
PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 155 
 
 PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 As long as the thirst for literature was confined to books 
 and a few periodicals of limited sale and size, the ordinary 
 printing presses sufficed to supply the demand ; nor was it 
 discovered that any further speed was requisite, until the 
 increased facility of conveyance, and the important events 
 at the close of the last century, created a demand for news, 
 that the utmost exertions of the printers were unable to 
 supply ; for the attempt to increase the speed by the com- 
 position of two distinct forms of type would avail little, so 
 long as the presses could turn out only two hundred and fifty 
 or three hundred sheets each per hour. Accordingly, for 
 this branch of the art were the first machines projected. 
 Many schemes were proposed for accelerating the move- 
 ments of the press ; but the first attempts at anything like 
 the machine afterwards introduced were made by William 
 Nicholson, a gentleman connected with periodical litera- 
 ture, who took out a patent about 1790, for a printing ma- 
 chine, of which the chief points were the following : The 
 type was to be fixed upon a cylinder, being cast narrower 
 towards the bottom, in order, as it were, to radiate from the 
 centre of it. This cylinder, with its type, was to revolve in 
 gear with another cylinder covered with soft leather ; an 
 
156 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 inking apparatus was applied to the type-cylinder, and the 
 paper was to be impressed by passing between the two ; 
 most of these plans were, when modified, adopted by after- 
 constructors. This machine was never brought into prac- 
 tice. Konig, an ingenious German, was the next who un- 
 dertook to construct a machine ; and, having made consider- 
 able advance in his plans, obtained a contract with Mr Wal- 
 ters, the proprietor of the Times newspaper, for manufac- 
 turing two for that journal. In these Nicholson’s plan was 
 so far altered, that the type was laid upon a flat surface, 
 and the impression was given by their passing under a cy- 
 linder of great size. He afterwards invented a machine 
 in which the sheet was printed on both sides before it left 
 the machinery ; but, in both, his arrangements for the equal 
 distribution of the ink were so complicated and clumsy, 
 consisting of not less than forty wheels, and the works of 
 every part of the machine so intricate, that it never came 
 into practical use. The first really useful machine was con- 
 structed by Messrs Applegarth and Cowper, being an ex- 
 tensive modification of that of Konig ; its principle improve- 
 ment consisting in the application of two drums between 
 the impression-cylinders, for the purpose of insuring the re- 
 gister of the sheet, by retaining it, after the impression of the 
 first form, just so long that it may pass on to the second cy- 
 linder in exact time to be impressed thereby upon the se- 
 cond form ; and of the distribution of the ink upon a plane 
 surface, instead of by a complication of rollers, by which 
 Konig’s monstrous machinery was got rid of. These ma- 
 chines are now in general use. 
 
 For newspapers, machines are generally made to work 
 but one side at a time. It is manifest that a machine will 
 work a much greater number (more than double) of one 
 
PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 157 
 
 form than of two ; and that the machinery will be lighter and 
 less expensive, and of course require less motive power. 
 One form, therefore, of a newspaper, containing advertise- 
 ments and the less important matter, is worked at leisure ; 
 and the second form, containing the leading article, impor- 
 tant news, and other matter of consequence, is reserved 
 until the last moment, and is then thrown off with immense 
 rapidity. For the usual description of book-work, machines 
 are constructed to work both forms. In these, perfect re- 
 gister and the exact and even distribution of the ink are of 
 the greatest consequence, and such immense rapidity is not 
 necessary. These machines, therefore, differ very much in 
 construction, though not in principle, from those used for 
 newspapers. 
 
 In Plate CCCCXY. will be found an engraving of Cow- 
 per’s admirable perfecting machine, an explanation of which 
 will comprehend a sufficient description of the single ma- 
 chine. Upon slides running the length of the frame which 
 supports the whole machine, traverses a carriage which con- 
 veys the two forms of type, and attached to both ends of 
 which are tables for the distribution of the ink. The reci- 
 procating motion is given to this carriage by means of a 
 pinion, which works alternately upon the upper and under 
 surface of a rack. In gear with this carriage, and, suppos- 
 ing the paper to be omitted, in immediate contact with the 
 type, revolve two cylinders of large dimensions, by which 
 the impression is given ; these cylinders are separated by 
 the registering drums, but are kept in uniform and steady 
 motion by two large wheels, the teeth of which work within 
 each other. The ink is distributed over the forms by an 
 apparatus attached to each end of the frame, consisting of 
 a trough which contains the ink, in contact with the edge 
 
158 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 of which, or very nearly so, a metal roller called the due - 
 tor is made to revolve slowly by means of a catgut, which 
 passes over a pulley attached to the axis of the impression- 
 cylinder. A composition-roller is made to rise into contact 
 with the ductor and receive a portion of ink, with which it 
 descends, and thus communicates it to the inking-table as 
 that passes underneath it* at the extremity of the traverse. 
 Two composition-rollers are placed somewhat diagonally 
 across the frame, and their spindles being of extra length, 
 as the table passes under them they are caused to re- 
 volve and also to travel slightly across it, thus evenly dis- 
 tributing the ink all over the surface of the inking-table, 
 the cross motion removing any accidental accumulation 
 of ink. The table now traverses under four other com- 
 position-rollers, supplying them with an even quantity of 
 colour, which they in turn distribute over the type as it 
 passes under them in going and returning, the form being 
 thus rolled no less than eight times. These rollers are mere- 
 ly dropped into notches in the frame, their own weight suf- 
 ficing to retain them in their places, and give the necessary 
 impact upon the type. For the purpose of carrying the 
 paper round the different cylinders there are two distinct 
 series of endless tapes, one of which, coming in contact with 
 the left surface of a small roller , 1 passes from thence to the 
 right surface of the first cylinder, and underneath it ; thence 
 over the first and under the second drum ; thence to the 
 
 1 The description commences with that portion of the machine 
 where the paper first enters the machinery, for endless tapes can 
 of course have no beginning ; the words first, second, and third , &c. 
 must therefore be understood to refer to the position as respects 
 the right hand of the reader. 
 
PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 159 
 
 left surface of and under the second cylinder ; from this it 
 passes to the right, until it arrives at the roller first men- 
 tioned. The course of the second series of tapes is dif- 
 ferent ; for, following the course of the first series, and in 
 contact with it (supposing the paper withdrawn) until it 
 has passed with it under the second cylinder, it then takes 
 a different direction, and, turning to the left, passes over 
 the machine until it arrives at the roller from which we 
 have commenced the description. Both series of tapes are 
 kept tightly stretched by means of various small rollers re- 
 volving in different parts of their course. The paper being 
 laid upon other tapes from a table at the right of the ma- 
 chine, is moved forward until it comes in contact with the 
 endless tapes, and being received between them, it is pass- 
 ed under the first cylinder, and the first side is then print- 
 ed ; thence passing over and under the drums on to the 
 second cylinder, it receives the impression upon the other 
 side ; thence it passes onward to the point where the tapes 
 take different directions, when it is shot out printed on 
 both sides, upon a board between the cylinders and under 
 the drums. The whole machine is put in motion by means 
 of a strap which passes over a wheel under the frame, and 
 may be worked by the power of men, but is mostly worked 
 by steam. It is capable of doing very fair work at the rate 
 of from 2000 to 2400 impressions, or 1000 or 1200 perfect 
 sheets, per hour ; it requires but two boys, one to lay on and 
 one to take off the sheets. 
 
 The machine with which the Times is printed is also con- 
 structed by Messrs Applegarth and Cowper. It consists 
 of four impression-cylinders, two of which are in contact 
 with the types at the same moment ; the other two rising 
 in the meanwhile. There are consequently eight series of 
 
160 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 tapes, two for each cylinder. It requires four boys to lay 
 on and four to take off, and the machine will give 4200 
 impressions within the hour. Its appearance, of course, 
 differs very much from the machine before described. 
 
 The ingenuity of these gentlemen, especially of Mr Cow- 
 per, has been exerted in the invention of many mechanical 
 improvements in printing. Several of his machines, upon 
 various constructions, have been brought into use with con- 
 siderable success. These, however, are the principal ma- 
 chines of his invention. They at first, it is believed, turned 
 their attention to the fixing stereotype plates upon the pe- 
 riphery of the impression-cylinder, and brought the scheme 
 into practice ; but these are superseded by the simpler and 
 more useful machines above described. 
 
 The machines of Mr Napier are in very general repute. 
 They have the advantage of being easily worked by two 
 men, thus saving the great expense and unavoidable dirt 
 where a steam-engine is employed, with its necessary ap- 
 pliances, boilers, coals, &c. They stand in a very small 
 compass, and do beautiful work. As far as regards motion 
 and impression, they do not greatly vary from those pre- 
 viously described ; but in the methocj. of conveying the pa- 
 per, obtaining register, and inking, they are altogether dif- 
 ferent. The paper is laid to a certain gauge, when in the 
 revolution of the cylinder grippers are made to compress 
 the edge of the paper upon it, very much in the manner in 
 which the fore-finger closes on the thumb. It is by these 
 means conveyed entirely round it, in the course of which 
 the first impression is given. At the commencement of 
 the second revolution these grippers open at the precise 
 moment the grippers attached to the second cylinder close, 
 and thus convey the sheet over the second form. Tapes 
 
PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 161 
 
 pass under the second cylinder, between the blanket and the 
 paper, and over a pulley upon a bar, by the mere friction 
 of which the sheet is thrown out upon a board. These 
 grippers are made to act with such perfect certainty that 
 the best possible register is obtained. The inking appara- 
 tus consists of a trough with a ductor and vibrating roller, 
 which communicates the ink to composition-rollers, by the 
 revolution of which in contact with each other the ink 
 is perfectly distributed, and from these to the type. A 
 cross motion is communicated to the distributing roller by 
 means of a worm in the elongated spindle. As but one im- 
 pression is given during the traverse of the table in each 
 direction, the cylinder which does not at the moment hold 
 the paper would be in contact with the type, had not Mr 
 Napier added a beautiful adjustment, whereby the cylin- 
 ders rise and fall alternately, so that the one not in use 
 passes over the form intact. This machine will work from 
 1000 to 1200 perfect sheets per hour, and requires but two 
 boys. Mr Napier has constructed several other machines 
 of great merit, one of which, for newspapers, will perfect 
 2000 sheets per hour by the labour of two men. Another 
 with four cylinders, for rapid newspaper work, prints the 
 Morning Chronicle newspaper at the rate of 6000 sheets on 
 one side per hour. But the perfection of speed will be ob- 
 tained by one for which he has lately taken out a patent, 
 by which the extraordinary speed of 15,000 or 20,000 per 
 hour will be obtained. The ordinary type is affixed to the 
 periphery of a cylinder of enormous dimensions, in contact 
 with which ten smaller impression- cylinders revolve, each 
 with its inking and other apparatus so arranged that every 
 revolution of the large cylinder works ten sheets of any 
 size ; and yet so steady and so silent is its motion, that there 
 
162 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 is no danger of any disruption of the type, even at that ex- 
 traordinary rate. The types are held in their place by 
 means of the rules, which are made considerably larger at 
 the top than at the bottom, thus occupying the space which 
 would be found in consequence of the types not being so 
 formed as to radiate from the centre of the cylinder. Mr 
 Napier is the inventor of many very ingenious improve- 
 ments in the machinery of printing. 
 
 Mr Rowland Hill has brought into partial use a machine 
 giving 10,000 impressions per hour ; the types are slightly 
 pyramidical, in order to radiate from the centre of the cylin- 
 der upon which they are fixed. These machines, however, 
 are better adapted to printing stereotype plates, to which a 
 curved form could be given, which is the principle of Ni- 
 cholson’s and other early machines. 
 
 A machine-press has long been at work in Mr Spottis- 
 woode’s office, in which the impression is given by a self-act- 
 ing platten, tables, rollers, friskets, and tympans. It does beau- 
 tiful work, at the rate of 600 or 700 impressions per hour. 
 
 A well-seeming press has also lately been imported from 
 America, in which there is an admirable application of two 
 friskets, which are made to run in and out and rise and fall 
 alternately. The tympan is upon the platten. There ap- 
 pear, however, to be some practical defects in the work- 
 ing. Owing either to this or their high price, or prejudice, 
 they have not been successfully introduced. 
 
 These are by no means all the machines that have been 
 devised, constructed, or brought into use. They are, how- 
 ever, all that it is necessary to mention, as the same prin- 
 ciple is common to all. Every maker is at liberty to build 
 them, with such modifications as his own talents may sug- 
 gest. 
 
PRINTING MACHINES. 
 
 163 
 
 The many-coloured excise stamps and cheques are print- 
 ed by very complicated and ingenious machinery, the inven- 
 tion of the late Sir William Congreve. They are printed 
 from steel or copper plates, the plate from which the do- 
 minant colour (as black) is transferred being cut away in 
 those parts where the red appears, whilst the red plate has 
 the parts which are to receive the ink in relief; the edges 
 of the two plates being bevelled, the relievo of the red plate 
 fits with exquisite nicety into the corresponding parts of the 
 black plate ; these being properly adjusted on the machi- 
 nery, the red plate descends, and is then coloured by rol- 
 lers, as is the black plate, which remains stationary ; the 
 red plate now rising, fits itself into the black plate, and the 
 impression is instantly given, thus printing both colours at 
 once, and with such excellent adjustment, that it is almost 
 impossible, by the minutest examination of the print, to 
 form any guess of the mode of execution. The apparatus 
 for adjusting these plates has of course nothing in common 
 with ordinary printing machines, and it differs materially 
 from them in other respects : the table is stationary, the 
 cylinder traverses over it, and the inking appliances follow 
 it in its traverse. 
 
164 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 READER’S MARKS OF CORRECTION. 
 
 The opposite plate of the marks used by printers in mark- 
 ing corrections (from the plate given in Hansard’s Typo- 
 graphy), and the following explanation, will be found very 
 useful to authors. 
 
 1. A wrong letter. A line is drawn through the wrong 
 letter, and the proper one written in the margin. After 
 every mark of correction a line / should be drawn, to pre- 
 vent its being confounded with any other in the same line. 
 
 2. A wrong word. This is struck out, and the proper 
 one written in the margin. 
 
 3. An omission. A caret \ is marked in the place of 
 insertion, and a similar mark is prefixed to the omitted 
 word. When a letter is omitted from a word, the caret 
 should have a head, thus A* 
 
 4. A space ( techn.) wanted. This mark is also used 
 when the spacing is insufficient. 
 
 5. A space to be removed or diminished. 
 
 6 A w 7 ord or letter to be deleted. 
 
 7. A turned letter. 
 
 8. A space or quadrat slicking up. It is sometimes mark- 
 ed thus £ both in the text and margin. 
 
reader’s marks of correction. 
 
 165 
 
 An Exemplification of Typographical Marks. 
 
 * a 
 
 2 city 
 
 3 the 
 
 “ The art of Printing is but three hundred and 
 ninety years old ; end it long remained an undeter- 
 mined point between the town of Mentz in Ger- 
 many, and A city of Haerlemin Holland, concerning 
 the place where, and the per_son by whom, this 
 divine art was first invented and practised ; b^, 
 but, at this time, the majority of voices have deter- 
 mined the dispute in favour of Mentz ; however, 
 wefshall give both their pleas. 
 
 “ It is said to have been first | at Mentz | attempted | 
 between the years 1440 and 1450, by John Fust or 
 
 Faust, John Meydenbuch, and John Genesteisch, 
 
 r 23 
 
 surnamed Guttemberg. [_It was a long controverted 10 IV r .P. 
 question by many learned antiquarians A whether ,j 
 Guttemberg or Faust was the inventor of that art, 
 till happily the original instrument was found 
 
 5 $ 
 
 tr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 
 f 11 JYo break. 
 
 ^ Whereby it appears, that A on account of the great 12 a See below. 
 expenses attending the cutting of the blocks of 
 wood; which, atfer they were once printed from, 9 ft 
 became e n tirely useless for any other work. This 14 stet. 
 instrument, which is dated Nov . 6, 1455, is decisive 13 /^. S.Caps. 
 in favour of Guttemberg ; but the honour of single Caps. 
 types made of metal is ascribed to Faust A wherein 15 ,j ‘,j :j 
 received great assistance from his servant and 
 '^on-in A law Peter jgchoeffer, who, A &c. 16 H 19 w f 17 Z, 
 
 a the latter only connected the others with him for the sake 
 of their purses f he not being able to proceed without , 
 

 
reader’s marks of correction. 
 
 165 
 
 9. A word or letter to be transposed. Where letters 
 only are to be transposed, it is better to strike them out, and 
 write them in their proper sequence in the margin, like a 
 correction. 
 
 10. A new paragraph. This should be avoided as much 
 as possible, as it causes great trouble and expense. 
 
 11. No new paragraph. This is equally troublesome 
 and expensive. 
 
 T2. Insertion of a sentence. 
 
 13. Alteration of type. One line is drawn under the word 
 for italics , two for small capitals, three for CAPITALS. 
 
 1 4. A word struck out, and afterwards approved of. 
 
 15. Correction or insertion of stops (points). These 
 should always be encircled, as otherwise they might escape 
 notice. 
 
 1 6. Mark for a hyphen or rule. 
 
 17. The manner in which the apostrophe, inverted 
 commas, the star and other references, and superior letters 
 and figures, are marked. 
 
 18. When letters or lines do not stand even. 
 
 19. A letter of a wrong fount. 
 
 The reader should be careful to make no mark in the 
 ^ext without making a corresponding one in the margin, 
 otherwise it will not be attended to. The author should 
 also understand that he should always look out for “ print- 
 ers’ errors,” the printer not being fairly responsible after a 
 proof has passed under the author’s eye, unless he has been 
 palpably deficient in care in his reading department. 
 
166 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 The following scales of the prices paid to compositors 
 in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, will be found useful 
 to printers, and not deficient in interest to the general 
 reader. 
 
 LONDON SCALE OF PRICES FOR COMPOSITORS’ WORK, 
 
 Agreed upon at -a General Meeting of Master Printers , at 
 Stationers Hall y April 16, 1810. 
 
 Art. 1. All w T orks in the English language, common 
 matter, with space lines , including English and Brevier, to 
 be cast up at 5Jd. per 1000 ; if in Minion, 6d. ; in Non- 
 pareil, 6|d. — Without space lines , including English and 
 Brevier, 6d. per 1000 ; in Minion, 6^d. ; in Nonpareil, 7d. ; 
 in Pearl, with or without space lines , 8d. Heads and di- 
 rections, or signature lines, included. A thick space to be 
 considered an n in the width, and an n to be reckoned an 
 m in the length, of the page ; and where the number of let- 
 ters amounts to 500, 1000 to be charged ; if under 500, not 
 to be reckoned : and if the calculation at per 1000 shall not 
 amount to odd threepence, the odd pence to be suppressed 
 in the price of the work ; but where it amounts to or ex- 
 ceeds threepence, there shall be sixpence charged. M and 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 167 
 
 n quadrats, or whatever is used at the beginning or end of 
 lines, to be reckoned as an m in the width. 
 
 2. W orks printed in Great Primer to be cast up as Eng- 
 lish ; and all works in larger type than Great Primer, as 
 half English and half Great Primer. 
 
 3. All works in foreign languages, though common type, 
 with space lines , including English and Brevier, to be cast 
 up at 6£d. per 1000 ; if in Minion, 6|d. ; Nonpareil, 7^d. — 
 Without space lines , including English and Brevier, 6^d. ; 
 Minion, 7d. ; Nonpareil, 7|d. ; and Pearl, with or without 
 space lines , 8|d. 
 
 4. English Dictionaries of every size, with space lines, 
 including English and Brevier, to be paid 6|d. per 1000 ; 
 without space lines , 6^d. (In this article are not included 
 Gazetteers, Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences, and works 
 of a similar description, except those attended with extra 
 trouble beyond usual descriptive matter.) Dictionaries of 
 two or more languages, of every size, with space lines, in- 
 cluding English and Brevier, to be paid 6^d. per 1000 ; 
 without space lines , 6|d. If smaller type than Brevier, to 
 take the proportionate advance specified in Article 1. 
 
 N 
 
 5. English Grammars, Spelling Books, and works of 
 those descriptions, in Brevier or larger type, with space lines, 
 to be paid 6d. per 1000; ivithout space lines, 6^d. If in 
 two languages, or foreign language, with space lines , 6|d. 
 per 1000 ; without space lines , 6Jd. 
 
 6. Small-sized folios, quartos, octavos, and works done 
 
168 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 in Great Primer or larger type (English language), which 
 do not come to 7s. when cast up at the usual rate, to be 
 paid as follows : — English and larger type, not less than 
 7s.; Pica, 8s. 6d. ; English 12mo to be paid not less than 
 10s. 6d., and Pica not less than 11s. 6d. per sheet. 
 
 7. Reviews, Magazines, and works of a similar descrip- 
 tion, consisting of various sized letter, if cast up to the 
 different bodies, to be paid 2s. 6d. per sheet extra. 
 
 8. Pamphlets of five sheets and under, and parts of works 
 done in different houses, amounting to not more than five 
 sheets, to be paid one shilling per sheet extra; but as it 
 frequently occurs that works exceeding a pamphlet are often 
 nearly made up without a return of letter, all such works 
 shall be considered as pamphlets, and paid for as such. 
 
 9. Works done in sixteens, eigh teens, twenty-fours, or 
 thirty-twos, on Small Pica and upwards, to be paid Is. 6d. 
 per sheet extra. If on Long Primer, or smaller type, Is. 
 per sheet extra. Forty-eights to be paid 2s. per sheet extra, 
 and sixty-fours 2s. 6d. per sheet extra. 
 
 10. Works requiring an alteration or alterations of margin, 
 to be paid for each alteration, Is. per sheet to the press- 
 men, if altered by them, and 6d. to the compositor as a 
 compensation for making up the furniture; if altered by 
 the compositor, then he is to be paid Is. for the alteration, 
 and the pressmen 6d. for the delay. This article to be 
 determined on solely at the option of the employer. 
 
 11. Bottom-notes consisting of twenty lines (or two notes, 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 169 
 
 though not amounting to twenty lines) and not exceeding 
 four pages in every ten sheets in quarto or octavo ; one 
 page (or two notes, though not amounting to one page) 
 and not exceeding six pages in twelves; two pages (or 
 two notes, though not amounting to two pages) and not 
 exceeding eight in eighteens or above, to be paid Is. per 
 sheet; but under the above proportion no charge to be 
 made. Bottom-notes consisting of ten lines (or two notes, 
 though not amounting to ten lines) in a pamphlet of five 
 sheets or under, and not exceeding two pages, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet extra. Quotations, mottos, contents to chap- 
 ters, &c. in smaller type than the body, to be considered 
 as notes. [Where the notes shall be in Nonpareil or Pearl, 
 in twelves, the number of pages to be restricted to four ; 
 in eighteens, to five pages.] This article is intended only 
 to fix what constitutes the charge of\s , per sheet for bottom- 
 notes ; all works requiring a higher charge than Is. for 
 bottom-notes are to be paid for according to their value . 
 
 12. Side-notes to folios and quartos not exceeding abroad 
 quotation, if only chapter or date, and not exceeding three 
 explanatory lines on an average in each page, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet; in octavo, if only chapter or date, and not * 
 exceeding three explanatory lines on an average in each 
 page, Is. 6d. per sheet. Cut-in notes, in smaller type 
 than the body, to be paid for in a similar manner. Side 
 and bottom notes to many, particularly historical and law 
 works, if attended with more than ordinary trouble, to be 
 settled between the employer and journeyman. 
 
 13. Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, &c. or any of the dead cha- 
 racters, if one word and not exceeding three lines in any 
 
 H 
 
170 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 one sheet, to be paid for that sheet Is. extra ; all above to 
 be paid according to their value. 
 
 14. Greek, with space lines , and without accents, to be 
 paid 8Jd. per 1000 ; if with separate accents, lOd. ; with- 
 out space lines , and without accents, 8-Jd. ; with accents,, 
 10|d. ; the asper not to be considered an accent. (If Dic- 
 tionary matter, to take one halfpenny advance.) 
 
 15. Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, &c. to be paid double. 
 Hebrew with points to be cast up as half body and half 
 points doubled. 
 
 16. Music to be paid double the body of the sonnet type. 
 
 17. Index matter, though but one measure, to be paid 
 2s. per sheet extra. 
 
 18. Booksellers , Catalogues (in whatever language) to be 
 cast up at 7d. per 1000, not including the numbering. 
 
 19. Night-work to commence and be paid for, from ten 
 o’clock till twelve. Is. ; all after to be paid 3d. per hour 
 extra, till six. Morning work, commencing at four o’clock, 
 to be paid Is. extra. Sunday work, if not exceeding six 
 hours, to be paid for Is. ; if for a longer time, 2d. an hour. 
 
 20. Jobs of one sheet or under (except Auctioneers’ 
 Catalogues and particulars) to be cast up at 7d. per 1000 ; 
 if done in smaller type than Brevier, to take the propor- 
 tionate advance specified in Article 1. If in foreign lan- 
 guage, of one sheet or under (except Auctioneers’ Ca- 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 171 
 
 talogues), to be cast up at 8d. per 1000 ; if done in smaller 
 type than Brevier, to take the proportionate advance spe- 
 cified in Article 1. 
 
 21. Where two pages only are imposed, either opposite 
 to or at the back of each other, they shall be paid for as 
 two pages ; but if with an endorse, or any other kind of 
 matter constituting a third, then to be paid as a sheet if in 
 folio, a half sheet if in quarto, and so on. 
 
 22. Broadsides, such as leases, deeds, and charter- 
 parties, above the dimensions of crown, whether table or 
 common matter, to be paid the double of common matter ; 
 on crown and under, to be paid one and one half common 
 matter. The endorse to be one fourth of the inside page, 
 as common matter. 
 
 23. All corrections to be paid 6d. per hour. 
 
 24. The imprint to be considered as two lines in the 
 square of the page. 
 
 25. Different volumes of the same work to be paid for 
 distinctly according to their value. 
 
 At a Meeting of the Masters, held Jan. 16, 1816, the fol- 
 lowing Modification took place in the Compositors Scale 
 of Prices of 1810, as far as regards Reprints. 
 
 All reprinted works to be paid three farthings per thou- 
 sand less than the Scale of 1810. All manuscript or ori- 
 ginal works shall continue to be paid for as at present. 
 
ABSTRACT OF THE SCALE 
 
 J72 
 
 PRINTING, 
 
 •xdiHOSfiNVw UNiRtiaa 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 173 
 
 EDINBURGH. — 1805. 
 
 1. That all works considered as common be cast up at 
 4^d. per 1000, including heads and directions. 
 
 2. That Session-work and Jobs be paid at the rate ot 
 5Jd. per 1000. 
 
 3. That all Dictionaries done in the manner of a Lexi- 
 con be paid at 5d. per 1000 ; but not to extend to Diction-- 
 aries of Science, or such as, from their nature, can be con- 
 sidered only as common matter. 
 
 4. That Pamphlets of five sheets and under be paid one 
 shilling per sheet above what they come to by letters, for 
 furniture and extra trouble. 
 
 5. That all works heretofore paid double (Greek and 
 Scheme), take a proportionate advance according to the 
 first proposition. 
 
 6. That all works printed in a foreign language, though 
 common type, be paid at 5d. per. 1000. 
 
 7. That all works done on Nonpareil be paid at 5d. per 
 1000 ; and on Pearl, at 5Jd. per 1000. 
 
 8. That Grammars and School-books, where Homan and 
 Italic words occur alternately, with braces, different justi- 
 fications, &c. be paid at 5|d. per 1000. 
 
174 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 9. That newspapers be considered as liable to a propor- 
 tionate advance, according to the first proposition. 
 
 Corrections are paid in Edinburgh at 6d. per hour. 
 
 DUBLIN. 
 
 1. All works in the English language, common matter 
 (including Brevier and English), to be cast up at 5d. per 
 1000 ; if in Minion, 5Jd. ; Nonpareil, 6^d.; and Pearl, 7^d.^ 
 head and direction or signature lines included. A thick 
 space to be considered an n in the width, an n to be 
 reckoned an m in the length of the page ; and where the 
 number of letters amount to 500, 1000 to be charged; if 
 under 500, not to be reckoned ; and if the calculation at 
 per 1000 shall not amount to an odd 6d., the odd pence to 
 be suppressed in the price of the work ; but where it 
 amounts to or exceeds Gd., there shall be Is. charged: m 
 and n quadrats, or whatever is used at the beginning and 
 end of the lines, to be reckoned an m in the width. 
 
 2. All works done in Great Primer, or larger type, to 
 be cast up as English. 
 
 3. Works that do not come to the under-named prices 
 per sheet, when cast up according to Article 1 (such as 
 small-sized folios, quartos, octavos, or under, &c.), to be paid 
 as follows : English, and larger type, 7s. ; Pica, 8s. 6d. 
 [octavos and under, in Pica, 9s.] ; Small Pica, 11s.; Long 
 Primer, 14s. ; Bourgeois, 17s. ; and Brevier 20s., per sheet. 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 175 
 
 4. Manuscript copy, or a work having been printed be- 
 fore, but now so varied or corrected as to equal manuscript 
 in trouble, to be paid Jd. per 1000 in addition to the rules 
 which govern book-work, except manuscript copy for 
 jobs. 
 
 5. All works in foreign language, though common type 
 {including Brevier and English), to be cast up at 5^d. 
 per 1000 ; if in Minion, 6d. ; Nonpareil, 6 Jd. ; and Pearl, 
 7fd. 
 
 6. Greek without accents (the asper not to be considered 
 one) to be cast up at 8d. per 1000; with accents, 9d. 
 [When Greek, or any of the dead characters, is intermixed 
 (as in Grammars, &c.), to be paid as if the entire were 
 Greek or such other dead character, &c.] 
 
 7. Hebrew, Arabic, Saxon, Syriac, & c. to be paid double 
 the prices specified in Article 1. [Hebrew with points to 
 be cast up as half points and half Hebrew doubled. Irish 
 to be paid 7^d. per 1000.] 
 
 8. When any quantity of Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, Syriac, 
 &c. or any of the dead characters, is interspersed, and does 
 not exceed one line in any one sheet, to be paid, for each cha- 
 racter, 6d. for said sheet; from one to three lines, Is. ; from 
 three to six lines, 2s. ; and from six to twelve lines, 3s. ; all 
 above to be paid according to their value. [Not less than 
 an average line of the work to constitute a line.] 
 
 9. Algebra, Greek, or Hebrew, &c. ruled work, to be 
 paid one half in addition to the price of the work. 
 
176 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 10. Arithmetics, and similar works, to be paid 2d. per 
 1000 in addition to the specified prices in Article 1. 
 
 11. Algebraic works to be cast up at lOd. per 1000; 
 where Algebra is interspersed, and amounts on an average 
 to two pages (but does not exceed three and a half pages) 
 in a sheet of quarto ; three pages (but does not exceed seven 
 pages), in octavo ; five pages (but does not exceed eleven 
 pages), in twelves, to be cast up at 8d. per 1000. Where 
 Algebra does not amount to the afore-named smaller quan- 
 tities, or only interspersed with signs, &c. to be cast up at 
 6d. per 1000. 
 
 12. English Dictionaries of every size (including Brevier 
 and English), to be cast up at 5Jd. per 1000. [In this Ar- 
 ticle are not included Gazetteers, Geographical Dictionaries, 
 Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences, and works of a similar 
 description.] Dictionaries of two or more languages, com- 
 mon type (including Brevier and English), to be paid 6d. ; 
 if in smaller type than Brevier, to take the proportionate 
 advance specified in Article 1. 
 
 13. English Grammars, Spelling Books, and works of 
 these descriptions (in Brevier, or larger type), to be paid 
 51 d. per 1000; if in two languages, or foreign language, 
 5jd. per 1000. 
 
 14-. Works, or parts of works, done in columns, to be 
 paid Is. per sheet for each column after the first. [Ar- 
 ticle 13 not to take advantage of this Rule, unless the co- 
 lumns exceed three, in which case an additional Is. only 
 can be charged.] 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 177 
 
 ] 5. Booksellers’ Trade Catalogues (in whatever language) 
 to be cast up at 7d. per 1000 ; Sale Catalogues, 5^d. ; and 
 Auctioneers’ Catalogues, as common matter. 
 
 16. Bottom-notes, not exceeding twenty lines, in a work 
 amounting to more than five sheets, to be paid Is. for each 
 sheet in which they occur. Bottom-notes in a pamphlet 
 of five sheets or under, not exceeding ten lines, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet. When they are heavier, or attended with 
 extraordinary trouble, the price to be settled between the 
 employer and journeyman. [When the notes shall be in 
 Nonpareil or Pearl, the number of lines to be restricted to 
 one half. Quotations, mottos, contents to chapters, &c. in 
 smaller type than the body, to be considered as notes.] 
 
 17. Side-notes to folios or quartos, not exceeding a broad 
 quotation, if only chapter or date (and not exceeding three 
 explanatory lines on an average in each page), to be paid 
 Is. per sheet ; in octavos, if only chapter or date (and not 
 exceeding three explanatory lines on an average in each 
 page), Is. 6d. per sheet; in twelves, if only chapter or date 
 (and not exceeding three explanatory lines on an average 
 in each page), 2s. per sheet. Where side- notes are heavy, 
 and attended with extraordinary trouble (as in law and his- 
 torical works), the price to be settled between the employer 
 and journeyman. 
 
 18. In-cut notes, in smaller type than the body, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet for each sheet in which they occur ; when they 
 are heavy, an additional charge to be made. 
 
 19. Making up furniture for pamphlets, and works or 
 
178 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 parts of works done in one or different houses, amounting 
 to five sheets or under, to be paid at the following extra 
 rates per sheet, for each sheet of furniture made up : Oc- 
 tavos, and upwards, Is. 6d. ; twelves, 2s. ; eighteens, 2s. 6d.; 
 twenty-fours, 3s. ; and thirty-twos, 3s. 6d. 
 
 20. Different volumes of the same work to be paid for 
 distinctly, according to their value. 
 
 21. Works done on different sized paper (as medium and 
 royal, &c.), and requiring an alteration in margin, to be paid 
 Is. per sheet for each alteration. 
 
 22. Music to be paid double the body of the sonnet type. 
 
 23. Where two pages only are imposed, either opposite 
 to or at the back of each other, or otherwise, to be paid for 
 as two pages ; but if with an endorse, or any other kind of 
 matter constituting a third, then to be paid for as a sheet, 
 if in folio ; a half sheet, if in quarto ; and so on. 
 
 24. Ruled work to be paid double ; ruled work with 
 blank columns, tabular, or schedule matter (as Jackson’s 
 Book-keeping), to be paid one and one half. [Two or three 
 head-rules and four columns to be considered tabular ; all 
 above to be reckoned table-work. The first to be paid one 
 and one half ; the second double.] 
 
 26. Headings to be paid one third what the face of the 
 job will come to by letters, leaving a fair margin at the bot- 
 tom, the same as worked at the head ; when the heading is 
 under size, one third of the prices in Article 3 to be paid. 
 
SCALES OF PRICES OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 179 
 
 Endorses on folio headings, below demy, to be paid one 
 half the price of the heading ; above demy, one fourth ; 
 headings, with one column down the side, to be paid the 
 amount they would come to by letters. Endorses on such, 
 below demy, to be paid one fourth the heading ; above, one 
 eighth. 
 
 26. All extra work at the stone to be paid 6d. per hour ; 
 where the time spent at the stone does not amount to an 
 hour, less than 6d. shall not be paid for each time of laying 
 up. 
 
 27. Jobs of every description, not otherwise provided for, 
 to be entitled to an increase of 2d. in each Is. according to 
 the rules which govern book-work. Any work making a 
 sheet not to be considered a job, but paid for as book-work. 
 
 28. Different labels, with or without rule or flower bor- 
 ders, imposed together, to be paid double, according to the 
 size page they make, but not less than 6d. each shall be 
 paid when they do not exceed the size of a twelves page. 
 
 29. Posting broadsides (as charity-sermon bills, ship ad- 
 vertisements, &c.) to be paid as follows : Post, 4s. ; me- 
 dium, 5s. ; royal, 6s. ; super-royal, or double crown, 7s. ; 
 those having a large portion of type not less than Great 
 Primer (as proclamations, play-bills, &c.), to be paid one 
 half in addition to the aforesaid prices. Broadsides in smal- 
 ler type than Great Primer (as leases, &c.), to be paid one 
 and one half what they come to by letters. Broadsides 
 ruled and figured (as rent-rolls, accounts, &c.), under me- 
 dium, to be doubled ; medium size, or upwards, to be trebled. 
 
180 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Endorses on broadsides to be paid one sixth of the broad- 
 side as plain matter. [Should the endorse be ruled, to be 
 paid one third.] 
 
 30. When works of an intricate nature occur, and can- 
 not be governed by the existing rules, the price of the work 
 to be settled between the employer and journeyman. 
 
AMENDMENT OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. 181 
 
 AMENDMENT 
 
 OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. 
 
 In 1839, in consequence of the numerous vexatious pro- 
 secutions under the Seditious Societies Act, the London 
 printers procured an act to be passed for the modification or 
 repeal of the obnoxious clauses. As this statute is not ge- 
 nerally known in the trade, and very little by the public, 
 it has been thought advisable to include it in the present 
 publication. 
 
 2 Vict. cap. 12. 
 
 An Act to amend an Act of the Thirty-ninth Year of King 
 George the Third , for the more effectual Suppression of 
 Societies established for Seditious and Treasonable Pur- 
 poses , and for preventing Treasonable and Seditious 
 Practices , and to put an end to certain Proceedings now 
 pending under the said Act . [4th June 1839.] 
 
 Whereas, in an act passed in the thirty-ninth year of 
 the reign of King George the Third, intituled “ An Act for 
 the more effectual suppression of societies established for 
 seditious and treasonable purposes, and for the better pre- 
 venting treasonable and seditious practices,” certain provi- 
 sions are contained, to restrain the printing or publishing 
 
182 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 of any papers or books whatsoever, which should be meant 
 or intended to be published or dispersed, without the name 
 and place of abode of the printer thereof being printed 
 thereon in the manner in the said act specified :* And 
 whereas the said provisions have given occasion to many 
 vexatious proceedings at the instance of common informers, 
 and it is expedient to discourage the same : Be it therefore 
 enacted by the Queen’s most excellent Majesty, by and 
 with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and 
 Temporal, and Commons, in this present parliament assem- 
 bled, and by the authority of the same, That so much of the 
 said act as enacts that every person who, after the expira- 
 tion of forty days after the passing of the said act, shall 
 print any paper or book whatsoever, which shall be meant 
 or intended to be published or dispersed, whether the same 
 shall be sold or given away, shall print upon the front of 
 every such paper, if the same shall be printed on one side 
 only, and upon the first and last leaves of every paper or 
 book which shall consist of more than one leaf, in legible 
 characters, his or her name, and the name of the city, 
 town, parish, or place, and also the name (if any) of the 
 square, street, lane, court, or place in which his or her 
 dwelling-house or usual place of abode shall be ; and that 
 every person who shall omit so to print his name and place 
 
 * By the 39th Geo. III. c. 79, s. 27, a penalty of L.20 was imposed 
 on every copy of a work printed without an imprint on the first and 
 last leaves. By sect. 1 of the 51st Geo. III. c. 65 (an act to explain 
 and amend the 39th Geo. III. c. 79), the number of penalties was 
 limited to twenty-five ; and by sect. 2, justices were empowered to 
 mitigate each penalty to a sum not less than L.5. These two sections 
 are virtually repealed by the 2d sect, of the present act. 
 
AMENDMENT OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. IBS 
 
 of abode on every such paper or book printed by him, and 
 also every person who shall publish or disperse, or assist in 
 publishing or dispersing, either gratis or for money, any 
 printed paper or book which shall have been printed after 
 the expiration of forty days from the passing of the said 
 act, and on which the name and place of abode of the per- 
 son printing the same shall not be printed as aforesaid, shall 
 for every copy of such paper so published or dispersed by 
 him forfeit and pay the sum of twenty pounds, — shall be 
 and the same is hereby repealed.* 
 
 II. And be it enacted, That every person who, after the 
 passing of this act, shall print any paper or book whatsoever, 
 which shall be meant to be published or dispersed, and who 
 shall not print upon the front of every such paper, if the 
 same shall be printed on one side only, or upon the first or 
 last leaf of every paper or book which shall consist of more 
 than one leaf, in legible characters, his or her name and 
 usual place of abode or business, and every person who 
 shall publish or disperse, or assist in publishing or dispers- 
 ing, any printed paper or book on which the name and place 
 of abode of the person printing the same shall not be print- 
 ed as aforesaid, shall for every copy of such paper so print- 
 ed by him or her forfeit a sum not more than five pounds : 
 Provided always, That nothing herein contained shall be 
 construed to impose any penalty upon any person for print- 
 
 * In addition to the penalties imposed by the 39th Geo. III. c. 79, 
 e. 27, for the omission of the imprint, it has been held, that a printer 
 cannot recover for work and labour or materials used in printing any 
 work, unless he affixes his name to it. Bensley v. Bignold, 5 B. & A. 
 335. This case is equally applicable to the 2d sect, of the present act. 
 
1 84 * 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 ing any paper excepted out of the operation of the said act, 
 either in the said act, or by any act* made for the amend- 
 ment thereof. 
 
 III. And be it enacted, That in the case of books or 
 papers printed at the University Press of Oxford, or the 
 Pitt Press of Cambridge, the printer, instead of printing his 
 name thereon, shall print the following words : “ Printed at 
 the University Press, Oxford,” or “ The Pitt Press, Cam- 
 bridge,” as the case may be. 
 
 IV. Provided always, and be it enacted, That it shall 
 not be lawful for any person or persons whatsoever to com- 
 
 * The act here referred to is the 51st Geo. III. c. 65, by the 3d 
 section of which it is enacted, “ That nothing in the said recited act 
 (39th Geo. III. c. 79) or in this act contained shall extend or be con- 
 strued to extend to require the name and residence of the printer to 
 be printed upon any bank-note, bank post bill, bill of exchange, or 
 promissory note, or upon any bond or other security for payment of 
 money, or upon any bill of lading, policy of insurance, letter of attor- 
 ney, deed or agreement, or upon any transfer or assignment of any 
 public stocks, funds, or other securities, or upon any transfer or as- 
 signment of the stocks of any public corporation or company autho- 
 rized or sanctioned, by act of parliament, or upon any dividend war- 
 rant of or for any such public or other stocks, funds, or securities, or 
 upon any receipt for money or goods, or upon any proceeding in any 
 court of law or equity, or in any inferior court, warrant, order, or other 
 papers printed by the authority of any public board or public officer 
 in the execution of the duties of their respective offices, notwithstand- 
 ing the whole or any part of the said several securities, instruments, 
 proceedings, matters, and things aforesaid, shall have been or shall be 
 printed, any thing herein or in the said recited act contained to the 
 contrary thereof in anywise notwithstanding.” 
 
AMENDMENT OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. 185 
 
 mence, prosecute, enter, or file, or cause or procure to be com- 
 menced, prosecuted, entered, or filed, any action, bill, plaint, 
 or information, in any of her Majesty’s courts, or before any 
 justice or justices of the peace, against any person or per- 
 sons, for the recovery of any fine, penalty, or forfeiture made 
 or incurred, or which may hereafter be incurred, under the 
 provisions of this act, unless the same be commenced, pro- 
 secuted, entered, or filed in the name of her Majesty’s At- 
 torney-General or Solicitor- General in that part of Great 
 Britain called England, or her Majesty’s Advocate for Scot- 
 land (as the case may be, respectively) ; and if any action, 
 bill, plaint, or information shall be commenced, prosecuted, 
 entered, or filed, in the name or names of any other person 
 or persons than is or are in that behalf before mentioned, 
 the same, and every proceeding thereupon had, are hereby 
 declared, and the same shall be, null and void to all intents 
 and purposes. 
 
 V. And be it enacted, That immediately after the pass- 
 ing of this act, it shall be lawful for any person against 
 whom any original writ, suit, action, bill, plaint, or infor- 
 mation shall have been sued out, commenced, or prosecut- 
 ed, on or before the day of the passing of this act, for the 
 recovery of any pecuniary penalty or penalties incurred 
 under the said recited act, to apply to the court in which 
 such original writ, suit, action, bill, plaint, or information 
 shall have been sued out, commenced, or prosecuted, if such 
 court shall be sitting, or if such court shall not be sitting, 
 to any judge of either of the superior courts at Westminster, 
 or to any justice of the peace before whom any such plaint 
 or information shall be pending, or any conviction shall 
 have been had or obtained, or to any other justice of the 
 
186 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 peace acting for the same county, riding, division, city, 
 borough, or place, as the justice of the peace before whom 
 such plaint or information shall be pending, or such con- 
 viction shall have been had or obtained, for an order that 
 such writ, suit, action, bill, plaint, or information shall be 
 discontinued, or such conviction be quashed, upon payment 
 of the costs thereof out of pocket incurred to the time 
 of such application being made, such costs to be taxed ac- 
 cording to the practice of such court, or in case of any pro- 
 ceeding before a justice, to be taxed and ascertained by such 
 justice; and every such court or judge, or justice of the peace, 
 as the case may be, is hereby authorized and required, upon 
 such application, and proof that sufficient notice has been 
 given to the plaintiff or informer, or to his attorney, of the 
 application to make such order as aforesaid ; and upon the 
 making such order, and payment or tender of such costs as 
 aforesaid, such writ, suit, action, bill, plaint, or information 
 shall be forthwith discontinued, or such conviction shall be 
 quashed, as the case may be : Provided always, That in all 
 cases in which any such writ, suit, action, bill, plaint, or in- 
 formation shall have been sued out or commenced subse- 
 quently to the sixteenth day of April one thousand eight 
 hundred and thirty-nine, it shall be lawful for such court, 
 judge, or justice, as aforesaid, to make such order for dis- 
 continuing the same, or quashing any conviction had there- 
 on, without payment of any costs; and in every such case, 
 on the making of such order, such writ, suit, action, bill, 
 plaint, or information shall be forthwith discontinued, or 
 such conviction shall be forthwith quashed, as the case may 
 be : Provided always, That nothing herein contained shall 
 be deemed or taken to enable any person to recover back 
 any money paid before the passing of this act, in pursuance 
 
AMENDMENT OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. 187 
 
 of any judgment or conviction duly obtained under the pro- 
 visions of the said recited act. 
 
 VI. And be it enacted, That the said act, and all acts 
 made for the amendment thereof,* except so far as herein 
 
 * The clauses of the 39th Geo. III. c. 79, relating to printers, unre- 
 pealed by this act, are, — 
 
 Sect. 23. “ That every person having any printing press, or type* 
 for printing, shall cause a notice thereof, signed in the presence of and 
 attested by one witness, to be delivered to the clerk of the peace act- 
 ing for the county, stewartry, riding, division, city, borough, town, or 
 place, where the same shall be intended to be used, or his deputy, ac- 
 cording to the form prescribed in the schedule hereunto annexed ; and 
 such clerk of the peace, or deputy, respectively, shall, and he is hereby 
 authorized and required, to grant a certificate in the form prescribed 
 in the schedule hereunto annexed, for which such clerk of the peace 
 or deputy shall receive the fee of one shilling, and no more ; and such 
 clerk of the peace, or his deputy, shall file such notice, and transmit 
 an attested copy thereof to one of his Majesty’s principal Secretaries of 
 State ; and every person who, not having delivered such notice, and 
 obtained such certificate, as aforesaid, shall, from and after the expi- 
 ration of forty days next after the passing of this act, keep or use any 
 printing press, or types for printing, or, having delivered such notice 
 and obtained such certificate as aforesaid, shall use any printing press 
 or types for printing in any other place than the place expressed in 
 such notice, shall forfeit and lose the sum of twenty pounds.” 
 
 Sect. 29. “ That every person who, from and after the expiration 
 of forty days after the passing of this act, shall print any paper for hire, 
 reward, gain, or profit, shall carefully preserve and keep one copy (at 
 least) of every paper so printed by him or her, on which he or she 
 shall write, or cause to be written or printed, in fair and legible cha- 
 racters, the name and place of abode of the person or persons by whom 
 he or she shall be employed to print the same ; and every person print- 
 ing any paper for hire, reward, gain, or profit, who shall omit or ne- 
 glect to write, or cause to be written or printed, as aforesaid, the name 
 and place of his or her employer on one of such printed papers, or to 
 keep or preserve the same for the space of six calendar months next 
 after the printing thereof, or to produce and show the same to any 
 
188 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 repealed or altered, shall be construed as one act together 
 with this act. 
 
 justice of the peace who, within the said space of six calendar months, 
 shall require to see the same, shall, for every such omission, neglect, 
 or refusal, forfeit and lose the sum of twenty pounds.” 
 
 Sect. 34. “ That no person shall be prosecuted or sued for any pe- 
 nalty imposed by this act, unless such prosecution shall be commenced, 
 or such action shall be brought, within three calendar months next 
 after such penalty shall have been incurred.” 
 
 “ SCHEDULE.— No. IV. 
 
 “ FORM of Notice to the Clerk of the Peace , that any Person keeps any 
 Printing Press or Types for Printing. 
 
 “To the Clerk of the Peace for \liere insert the county, steio- 
 
 artry, riding , division , city, borough, town, or place~\, or his deputy. 
 
 “ I, A. B., of , do hereby declare, that I have a printing press 
 
 and types for printing, which I propose to use for printing, within 
 
 , [as the case may require ], and which I require to be entered 
 
 for that purpose, in pursuance of an act passed in the thirty-ninth 
 year of the reign of his Majesty King George the Third [set forth the 
 title of the act ] . 
 
 “ Witness my hand, this day of . 
 
 “ Signed in the presence ) 
 of ”1 
 
 The clauses of the 51st Geo. III. c. 65, which remain unrepealed, 
 are the 3d and 4th sections, of which the former is set out in p. 184, 
 ante, and by the latter it is enacted, “ That if any person or persons 
 shall think himself, herself, or themselves aggrieved by any conviction, 
 judgment, or determination of any justice or justices, relating to any 
 matter or thing in the before-mentioned act contained, then and in 
 that case, he, she, or they may appeal to the justices of the peace at 
 the general quarter sessions to be holden in and for the county, city, 
 or place, where such conviction, judgment, or determination shall have 
 been made, next after the expiration of twenty days from the making 
 thereof, first giving six days’ notice of such appeal to the person or 
 persons prosecuting for such penalty or penalties; and the said jus- 
 tices shall hear and determine the said appeal at such general quar- 
 
AMENDMENT OF THE SEDITIOUS SOCIETIES ACT. 189 
 
 VII. And be it enacted, That this act may be amended 
 or repealed by any act to be passed in this present session 
 of parliament. 
 
 ter sessions, or, if they think proper, adjourn the hearing thereof until 
 the next general quarter sessions to be holden for such county, town, 
 or place ; and the said justices may in like manner, if they see cause, 
 mitigate any penalty or penalties, and may order any money to be re- 
 turned which shall have been paid or levied under any conviction as 
 aforesaid, and may also order and award such costs to be paid by either 
 party to the other as they shall think and judge reasonable.” 
 
190 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 COPPERPLATE PRINTING. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that the principle of 
 printing from engravings on copper or steel is the very 
 reverse of printing from types, inasmuch as the former are 
 graven in intaglio and the latter in relief, and consequent- 
 ly the pigments are contained within the lines of the one, 
 and the surface of the plate is free of all colouring mat- 
 ter, whilst the surface of the other is carefully covered 
 with ink, and the depressions are as carefully kept clean. 
 It must be sufficiently obvious that these essential differ- 
 ences must require very different manipulations. Accord- 
 ingly, the printing of such engravings has little in com- 
 mon with letter-press printing. The copperplate or rol- 
 ler press may be described as consisting of two upright 
 cheeks, with ribs diverging at right angles. At a short 
 distance above these ribs is a solid iron cylinder, which 
 is made to revolve by means of a star, consisting of many 
 radii, as long as the height from the ground will per- 
 mit. Upon the ribs runs a carriage ; under the carriage, 
 but not attached to it, is a roller, which, by means of a 
 lever, is made to rise, thus pressing the carriage with any 
 degree of force against the upper cylinder. The cop- 
 perplate is laid over a brazier of ignited charcoal, and 
 
COPPERPLATE PRINTING. 
 
 191 
 
 when at a sufficient heat, the workman takes a consi- 
 derable quantity of ink upon a rubber of linen rag, and 
 smears the whole face of the plate, working it carefully 
 into every mark of the graver ; the heat of the fire, at once 
 expelling the air and thinning the ink, causes it to enter 
 into the minutest strokes, so that the slightest scratch or 
 corrosion in the copper presents itself upon the paper : a 
 plate even not sufficiently polished, that presents no visible 
 defects to the clearest eye, will cause the paper to appear 
 dirty ; so exact are the effects of this mode of printing. 
 When the ink has been sufficiently rubbed in, the face of 
 the plate is cleared of the superfluous ink with another 
 linen rubber ; the workman then, with the balls of his 
 hands, carefully cleanses the surface, drying his hands up- 
 on a lump of whitening, until the face is perfectly cleaned 
 and polished. In this operation the skill of the workman 
 is exhibited, for in thus cleansing the plate he must be most 
 careful not to rub out the ink from the gravures, and to 
 leave colour proportioned to the depths of shadows required ; 
 for although the engraver may, indeed must, have defined 
 every stroke, much depends upon the manner in which 
 the printer does his part. It is not every man that has a 
 rolling press that can produce first-rate prints. On the 
 contrary, he must be himself no inconsiderable artist, and 
 stands in a much higher relation to the engraver than the 
 bellows-blower to the organist. The plate being ready for 
 printing, is removed from the brazier to the carriage of the 
 press ; the paper, well damped, is laid upon it ; a leather 
 tympan is closed over it, the carriage run in a little, and 
 the lever raised ; the carriage, &c. being thus brought into 
 close contact with the upper roller, the latter is made to 
 revolve by turning the star ; this causes the carriage and 
 
192 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 plate to run in, and thus an immense lineal impression is 
 given to every part. The ink used in copperplate print- 
 ing differs somewhat from that used by letter-press print- 
 ers. It is of two kinds ; one for fine ornamental work, 
 one for common printing. For fine work, such as large 
 and delicate engravings, the material used is the finest 
 Frankfort black ; it is ground on a stone with a muller, 
 and mixed with weak burnt linseed oil, until it attains a 
 consistency of thick paste ; a little strong burnt oil is then 
 added, and it is then ground up again, a drier to make the 
 ink set firm on the paper being added. The drier is com- 
 posed of small portions of litharge, white copperas, and su- 
 gar of lead ; these should be well pounded with the muller 
 before they are ground up with the oil and black. A small 
 portion of the best Prussian blue may be added ; but the 
 greatest care must be taken that it be well triturated, as 
 otherwise it is liable to make the best work smear. The 
 blue must be ground up by itself with weak oil ; to this 
 driers are to be added. The whole compound is then to 
 be ground up again, and added to the black : the mixture 
 must be then ground upon the stone for about ten mi- 
 nutes, the palette-knife being freely used until all portions 
 are thoroughly commingled. The ink for common w^ork 
 is prepared in the same manner, but without the Prussian 
 blue ; and the common English black is substituted for that 
 of Frankfort. 
 
 Copperplate presses, of a superior description, made 
 chiefly of iron and brass, have lately been introduced, in 
 which several excellent appliances are to be found to di- 
 minish the labour and improve the general quality of the 
 w r ork. The most important improvement would appear to 
 consist in heating and inking the plates, without removing 
 
COPPERPLATE PRINTING. 
 
 193 
 
 them from the press, and distributing the ink over the surface 
 and in great measure removing it by means of composition- 
 rollers, the ultimate cleansing being left to manual skill as 
 before. In copperplate printing, however, so much de- 
 pends upon the skill and care of the workman, that what- 
 ever improvement may be made in the mode of gaining 
 pressure and other mechanical means, it does not appear 
 probable that the present slow and careful process will 
 ever be superseded. 
 
 i 
 
194 . 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Lithography is the art of taking impressions from 
 drawings or writings made on stone. 
 
 The principles upon which this art is founded are, first, 
 the quality which a compact granular limestone has of 
 imbibing grease or moisture ; and, secondly, the decided 
 antipathy of grease and water for each other. 
 
 A drawing being made upon the stone with an ink or 
 crayon of a greasy composition, is washed over with wa- 
 ter, which sinks into all the parts of the stone not defend- 
 ed by the drawing. A cylindrical roller, charged with 
 printing ink, is then passed all over the stone, and the 
 drawing receives the ink, whilst the water defends the 
 other parts of the stone from it, on account of its greasy 
 nature. 
 
 This process, therefore, depends entirely upon chemical 
 principles, and is thus distinct from letter-press or copper- 
 plate printing, which are altogether mechanical. On this 
 account it has in Germany been called chemical printing ; 
 and as metallic plates can be prepared to be printed from 
 in a similar manner, lithography is considered only as a 
 branch of chemical printing. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 195 
 
 I. HISTORY OF LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 The invention of lithography was the result of acci- 
 dent. Its inventor, Alois Senefelder, the son of a per- 
 former at the theatre-royal of Munich, was placed for 
 education at the university of Xngolstadt, as a student of 
 jurisprudence ; but after his father’s death he attempted 
 a theatrical career. Not succeeding in this, he became 
 an author, though his poverty prevented him from publish- 
 ing his works. He now tried many plans with copper- 
 plates and compositions, as substitutes for letter-press, in 
 order to be his own printer. He found, in the course of 
 his experiments, that a composition of soap, wax, and 
 lamp-black, formed a good material for writing on his 
 plates ; that, when dry, it became firm and solid, and that 
 it resisted aquafortis. Wanting facility in writing back- 
 wards on the plates, he got some pieces of Kilheim stone, 
 as cheap materials, upon which he could practise after 
 polishing their surfaces. One day being desired by his 
 mother to take an account of some linen about to be sent 
 to be washed, and having no paper at hand, he wrote the 
 account on a polished stone, with his composition ink, in- 
 tending to copy it at his leisure. When he was after- 
 wards about to efface this writing, it occurred to him that 
 he might obtain impressions from it ; and having eaten 
 away the stone with acid for about the hundredth of an 
 inch, he found that he could charge the lines with print- 
 ing ink, and take successive impressions. This new mode 
 of printing appeared to him very important, and he perse- 
 vered through all difficulties in applying his discovery to 
 practical purposes, and in improving it. 
 
196 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 In the course of many experiments, he found that it 
 was not necessary to have the letters raised above the sur- 
 face of the stone, but that the chemical principles by which 
 grease and water are kept from uniting, were alone suffi- 
 cient for his purpose. This point obtained, lithography 
 may be said to have been fully discovered. All that was 
 required was the improvement of the materials, and the 
 mode of working with them, and the construction of a 
 proper press for taking the impressions. 
 
 The perseverance with which he followed up his expe- 
 riments, in order to overcome the difficulties which suc- 
 cessively arose in his progress, is astonishing, and the 
 more so, considering the total want of method in his pro- 
 ceedings. Often did he waste months in surmounting a 
 difficulty which a little knowledge, or a very little reason- 
 ing, would have enabled him to conquer immediately. His 
 uniform plan seems to have been, to try the first thing that 
 came to hand, and so on in succession, till chance rewarded 
 his assiduity by presenting to him the material suited to his 
 purpose. 
 
 The first essays he made to print for publication were 
 some pieces of music, executed in 1796 ; but afterwards 
 he attempted drawings and writings. The difficulty he 
 had in writing backwards led him to the process of trans- 
 fer ; and the use of dry soap, which w 7 as found to leave per- 
 manent traces that would give impressions, naturally led 
 to the mode of chalk-drawings. 
 
 Having made considerable improvements, Mr Senefel- 
 der obtained, in 1799, a patent privilege for Bavaria, when 
 he made known his process, and afterwards entered into 
 partnership with Mr Andre of Offenbach, who proposed 
 to establish presses, and take out patents at London, Paris, 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 197 
 
 and Vienna. For this purpose Senefelder came to Lon- 
 don with a brother of Andre’s, and the invention having 
 been much spoken of, under the name of Poly autography, 
 most of the principal English artists made trials of it. Un- 
 fortunately, however, the art of printing from the stones 
 was not then fully understood, and the difference between 
 the materials of Germany and those of England, used both 
 for the purposes of drawing and printing, caused constant 
 failures, and the artists in succession abandoned the prac- 
 tice of it. To this cause is to be attributed the slow pro- 
 gress which lithography made for many years in England, 
 as it was left entirely in the hands of amateurs , whose pro- 
 ductions, generally speaking, did no credit to the art, and 
 whose faults were in some degree supposed to be those of 
 the art itself. 
 
 In August 1800, Senefelder, who had now separated from 
 Andre, went to Vienna, where, after much difficulty, a 
 patent was obtained, and extensive preparations were made 
 for applying his process to print cottons ; but bad manage- 
 ment, and some unfortunate circumstances, prevented his 
 success, and he returned to Munich in 1806, leaving the 
 establishment in other hands. 
 
 In 1806, Mr Mitterer, professor of drawing at the public 
 school at Munich, practised lithography to multiply copies 
 for the pupils, and is said to have invented the chalk com- 
 position in its present form, or at least to have improved it 
 greatly. 
 
 From this period, the practice of the art has extended and 
 improved rapidly, and more particularly at Munich, where 
 several establishments were formed for the purpose of apply- 
 ing it to the fine arts, as well as for printing writings and offi- 
 cial forms for the different departments of the government. 
 
198 
 
 PRINTING, 
 
 In October 1809, Senefelder was appointed inspector of 
 the royal lithographic establishment at Munich, for printing 
 from stone a complete map and survey of Bavaria ; after 
 which period he devoted his time to experiments, and to 
 writing the history of his invention. Among other points 
 of improvement to which his attention was directed, was a 
 substitute for the stones, which are inconvenient to use on 
 account of their weight ; and they are also liable to break 
 in the press when used without due caution, or when they 
 contain flaws. For this purpose he made a composition of 
 drying oil, finely ground earth, and other substances, which 
 was thinly spread over pieces of parchment; but nothing 
 of this sort has hitherto been found to answer. The sur- 
 face cracks after repeated wetting and exposure to the 
 power of the press, and the printing ink then enters the 
 cracks, and spoils the impressions. Thus a very small 
 number only of good impressions can be obtained. A pub- 
 lic exhibition of printing from this stone paper was made 
 in London, on the 23d July 1821, by a partner of Mr Se- 
 nefelder ; but the result was not such as to induce much 
 confidence in the ultimate success of the trials to form this 
 desirable substitute of a light material for a heavy one. 
 
 In England lithography was never entirely given up from 
 its first introduction in 1800, although it was but little prac- 
 tised after 1806, till its revival at the latter end of 1817. 
 Since then it has been most sedulously cultivated, and with 
 such success, that its importance as a branch of trade is now 
 almost equal to the art of engraving. 
 
 In France but little was done in lithography till 1815, 
 when it was established at Paris by Lasteyrie, and being 
 taken up by good artists, it soon attained great excellence. 
 
 Since this period it has extended most rapidly, and there 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 199 
 
 is not now a town of any importance, either in Europe, 
 North America, or in the East or West Indies, where litho- 
 graphy is not practised. 
 
 II. DESCRIPTION OF THE MATERIALS, AND THE MODE OF 
 PREPARING THEM. 
 
 1. Of the Stones , and the manner in which they are prepar- 
 ed to receive the Drawings. 
 
 As calcareous stones will all imbibe grease and moisture, 
 and effervesce with an acid (the use of which will appear 
 when we speak of the process of printing), they are all cap- 
 able of being used for lithography. Those are best adapted 
 to the purpose which are very compact, of a fine and equal 
 grain, and free from veins, or imbedded fossils or crystals. 
 
 The quarries of Solenhofen, near Pappenheim, in Bava- 
 ria, furnished the first plates, and none have as yet been 
 found to equal them in quality. They are of a very uni- 
 form pale yellowish-white colour. The fracture is perfectly 
 conchoidal. The beds divide into thin portions of consi- 
 derable size, with perfectly flat surfaces, and were on this 
 account carried to Munich and other places, for paving 
 kitchens and halls, and thus came in the way of Senefelder 
 when he discovered the chemical process of printing. 
 
 The stones of this quarry vary in their quality, but the 
 best may be had in great abundance. Generally speaking, 
 the hardest are the best, provided they are quite uniform 
 in texture. Such are necessary for fine chalk- drawings; 
 softer ones may do for ink, or for coarser drawings in chalk. 
 
 In France, stones have been found near Chateauroux 
 
200 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 ( Departement de V Indr e), of a similar colour to those of 
 Solenhofen, and even harder and of a finer grain ; but they 
 are so full of large spots of a softer nature, that it is scarcely 
 possible to get one perfect of a greater size than twelve 
 inches square. 
 
 In England, a stone has been used for lithography which 
 is found at Corston, near Bath. It is one of the white lias 
 beds, but not so fine in grain, or so close in texture, as the 
 German stone, and therefore far inferior. But it is good 
 for transfers, and does tolerably well for ink drawings or 
 writings. Another stone, found near Stony Stratford, is 
 also used ; but it is of a brownish-gray tint, and too dark 
 in colour to show the effect of the drawing with sufficient 
 clearness. 
 
 To bear the pressure used in taking the impressions, a 
 stone twelve inches square should be at least an inch and 
 a quarter thick. The thickness must increase with the size 
 of the stone, but two inches and a half are a thickness suf- 
 ficient for stones of three feet by three feet and a half. 
 
 The stones, when sawn to a proper size and thickness, 
 are ground level by rubbing two of them face to face with 
 water and sand, and very carefully examined with a straight- 
 edge, to ascertain that they are perfectly level in all direc- 
 tions. This applies only to the side which is afterwards to 
 receive the drawing, as the natural division of the stone is 
 sufficiently true for the back. 
 
 To prepare them for chalk-drawings, two stones, which 
 have been perfectly levelled, are well washed, in order to 
 free them from any of the coarser grains of sand which have 
 been previously used upon them. They are now to be 
 placed on a board over a trough, and a small quantity of 
 water and fine sand being strewed over the surfaces, they 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 201 
 
 are to be rubbed face to face, adding occasionally a little 
 fresh sand and water. The best sort of sand in England 
 is that called silver sand for preparing the stone, and the 
 common brown sand for giving a fine grain. The sands 
 must be passed through a sieve of the fineness required, 
 which will vary with the nature of the drawing ; and the 
 greatest care must be taken to have the sieves perfect, and 
 to prevent any coarser particles of sand from being mixed 
 with the rest. A single grain would fill the stone with in- 
 numerable scratches, which would all appear in the draw- 
 ing. The upper stone is in this operation moved in small 
 circles carefully and equally all over the under one, taking 
 care not to move the one beyond the edge of the other, 
 or the faces would become rounded. When the grain is 
 equal, and sufficiently fine, the stones are carefully washed, 
 and wiped with a clean cloth. The stone, thus prepared, 
 should have, when dry, a perfectly uniform appearance 
 in the colour and grain, and resemble a sheet of vellum. 
 It should be free from scratches, and have no shining 
 parts. The upper stone is always the finer grained of the 
 two. 
 
 To prepare the stones for ink-drawings or writings, the 
 process just described is first followed. They are then well 
 washed to get rid of the sand, and the same operation of 
 rubbing two together is continued with powdered pumice- 
 stone and water. When perfectly smooth, they are again 
 washed, and afterwards separately polished with a large 
 piece of fine pumice-stone, or Water of Ayr stone. The 
 polish now given to the stone should be such as to show 
 the reflection of objects to the eye placed close to the stone, 
 and looking along it towards the light. 
 
 When a writing or drawing has been fully used, and the 
 
 i 2 
 
202 
 
 FEINTING. 
 
 stone is to be again prepared, sand is strewed over the sur- 
 face, and it is sprinkled with water, and rubbed with an- 
 other stone, as before described, till all traces of the draw- 
 ing have disappeared. After this, the stone is again prepared 
 for a new drawing with fine sand, by being grained or po- 
 lished, as before. 
 
 Ink -drawings sink deeper into the stone than the chalk, 
 and require the stone to be more ground away to efface 
 them. The longer drawings remain upon the stone, the 
 deeper the ink or the chalk penetrates. 
 
 2. Lithographic Ink and Chalk. 
 
 For these materials, the union of several qualities is re- 
 quired ; and as no single substance possesses them all, it is 
 necessary to combine several substances together. 
 
 Lithographic Ink. 
 
 The qualities required in lithographic ink, by which is 
 meant the ink for drawung on stone, are, first, that it shall 
 have in its composition such a quantity of greasy or fatty 
 matter as will secure its imparting to the stone, even when 
 it is laid on in the most delicate lines, a trace strong enough 
 to attract readily the ink afterwards to be applied by the 
 roller ; and, secondly, that this grease be so prepared, by 
 being mixed with alkali and other substances, as to be easily 
 soluble in w T ater, and to flow readily from the pen or brush 
 when used for drawing. Many receipts have been given 
 for this purpose, but the following is one of the most ap- 
 proved ; and, ordinary care being taken in its preparation, 
 it will be found to answer. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 203 
 
 Composition of Lithographic Ink for drawing on Stone. 
 
 Tallow candle 2 oz. 
 
 Virgin wax 2 oz. 
 
 Shell lac 2 oz. 
 
 Common soap ..2 oz. 
 
 Lamp black, about one twentieth of the whole. 
 
 These materials are prepared in an iron saucepan, with 
 a cover. The wax and tallow are first put in and heated 
 till they ignite ; whilst they are burning, the soap must be 
 thrown in in small pieces, one at a time, taking care that 
 the first is melted before a second is put in. When all 
 the soap is melted, the ingredients are allowed to continue 
 burning till they are reduced one third in volume. The 
 shell lac is now T added, and as soon as it is melted, the 
 flame must be extinguished. It is often necessary, in the 
 course of the operation, to extinguish the dame, and take 
 the saucepan from the fire, to prevent the contents from 
 boiling over ; but if, after the process above described, any 
 parts are not completely melted, they must be dissolved 
 over the fire without being again ignited. 
 
 Sometimes a larger proportion of wax is used, when 
 only half of the soap is put in, and the burning goes on 
 until the quantity is reduced one half. The remainder of 
 the soap is then added over a fire which keeps the mass 
 melted without igniting it. 
 
 The black, being previously mixed with thick varnish, 
 such as will be described when we come to treat of print- 
 ing inks, should now be added ; and when it is completely 
 dissolved, the whole mass should be cast on a marble slab, 
 and a heavy weight laid over it, to render its texture fine. 
 When cold, though not so hard, it should in its fracture 
 have an appearance resembling Indian ink. 
 
204 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 So much here depends upon the manipulation, that 
 even the most experienced person can never be sure that 
 the desired result is altogether attained, until the product 
 is subjected to experiments; the mass may have been 
 burned a little more or a little less than enough ; too much 
 or too little time may have been allowed to elapse betwixt 
 the putting in of one ingredient and another : such cir- 
 cumstances, trifling as they appear, are quite sufficient to 
 render the ink altogether unfit for use. It not unfre- 
 quently happens, therefore, that such faults as the follow- 
 ing are to be found : If it has been too little burned, it may 
 appear soft, and, if soluble, it may, when mixed with 
 water, speedily become thick and slimy, in which case it 
 must be re-melted and burned a little more ; but if, on the 
 other hand, it has been burned too much, it may appear 
 to be composed of sand, and when used, although it will 
 flow pleasantly enough, may not have enough of grease 
 left in it to attract the printing ink when applied. This 
 fault may be corrected by remelting it, and adding a 
 small quantity of soap and wax. 
 
 Keeping in view the principles here pointed out, any 
 one can, after a few trials, make good lithographic ink. 
 
 Ink for Transfers. 
 
 This ink may be composed of the same materials as the 
 ink for drawing on stone, with the addition of a little more 
 wax. If it is too little burned, the lines of the writing or 
 drawing will spread on being transferred to the stone ; if 
 too much, a sufficient quantity of grease will not be im- 
 parted to the stone to attract the ink from the roller when 
 it is applied : but either of these defects may be corrected 
 as before directed. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 205 
 
 Lithographic Chalk. 
 
 This should have the qualities of a good drawing cray- 
 on ; it should be even in texture, and carry a good point. 
 It is, however, difficult to avoid making it too soft and 
 greasy on the one hand, and too brittle on the other. For 
 the chalk, as for the ink, more or less of the soap, wax, and 
 tallow may be used, as the extent of the burning may render 
 necessary; and the remedies pointed out for defects of the 
 ink will enable the operator to judge of what is wanting. 
 
 The following proportions are the best. 
 
 Common soap 1^ oz. 
 
 Tallow 2 oz. 
 
 Virgin wax oz. 
 
 Shell lac 1 oz. 
 
 The manipulation is similar to that for the ink. It is 
 well, however, to throw in a little of the wax just before 
 the flame is extinguished. Less black must be mixed with 
 the chalk than with the ink, its only use being to colour the 
 drawing, so that the artist may see the lines he traces. 
 
 When the whole is well mixed, it should be poured into 
 a mould, and very strongly pressed to prevent any bubbles, 
 which would make the texture irregular. 
 
 3. Mode of Draiving. 
 
 With these materials the artist proceeds to work on the 
 prepared stone, taking care first to wipe the stone with a 
 clean dry cloth. The ink being rubbed with warm water 
 like Indian ink, is used on the polished stone; and it is to 
 be observed, that a gradation of tints can be obtained only 
 by varying the thickness of the lines, and the distance at 
 
206 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 which they are placed apart, as the line traced by the ink, 
 being sound and unbroken throughout, receives the print- 
 ing ink all over. Hence it follows, that the artist cannot 
 gain any advantage by diluting the ink for the lighter tints 
 of the drawing, as the printing ink will take effect equally 
 upon all the lines, and at once render all of them equally 
 black. The object of the artist is to mix the ink to that 
 consistency which, whilst it works freely, shall yet be 
 strong enough to stand perfect through the process of print- 
 ing. A consistency a little stronger than writing ink is 
 sufficient for this purpose. 
 
 The chalk cannot be used upon the polished stone. 
 
 The grained stone, prepared for chalk, being carefully 
 wiped to free it from dust, must be drawn upon with the 
 crayon as common drawing chalk is used on paper. The 
 subject may be traced on the stone with lead pencil or 
 red chalk, but care should be taken to do this very light- 
 ly, so as not to fill up any of the grain of the stone. In 
 drawing, the degree of pressure of the hand will vary the 
 strength of the tint, and it is desirable to give the requisite 
 strength at once, as the surface of the stone is a little 
 altered by receiving the chalk, and hence it does not take 
 any additional lines with the same equality. Practice is 
 necessary to give a command of the material, as it does not 
 work quite like the common crayon, there being great diffi- 
 culty in keeping a good point. There is also much diffi- 
 culty in obtaining the finer tints found in the impression ; 
 and for the light tints it is necessary to put the chalk in a reed, 
 as the metal port-crayon is too heavy to draw them, even 
 without any pressure from the hand ; and therefore the artist 
 cannot draw them with freedom, as his touch will be unsteady, 
 by being obliged to support the pencil from the stone. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 207 
 
 It is necessary to observe the grain with which the stone 
 is prepared, which should vary with the fineness of the 
 drawing. Several pieces of chalk should be prepared to 
 use in succession, as the warmth of the hand softens it. 
 
 It is useful to cut the chalk in the form of a wedge rather 
 than a point, as it is less likely to bend in that form. 
 
 Small portions of the point will break off during the draw- 
 ing ; and these must be carefully removed with a small 
 brush. 
 
 4. Printing Press and Roller. 
 
 The printing press for lithography does not differ mate- 
 rially from the ordinary copperplate press, of which a de- 
 tailed description of one of the most approved construction 
 is given under the head Copperplate Printing. 
 
 The Roller. 
 
 The following is a representation of the roller. 
 
 The length may vary, 
 
 A 
 
 but it ought to be full 
 four inches in diame- 
 ter. It is covered with 
 flannel, rolled tightly 
 
 three or four times 
 round, and nailed at the ends. It is then covered with a 
 stretched calf-skin, fitting quite tight. The seam must be 
 made neatly with the boot-maker’s closing stitch. The ends 
 of the leather are gathered with a string, and tied round the 
 projecting ends of the roller. Loose handles, A, A, made 
 of thick leather, are put on these ends when it is used. The 
 
208 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 leather must be put on the roller with the smooth side out- 
 wards. 
 
 5. Printing Ink. 
 
 The printing ink is composed, as other printing inks are, 
 of oil, varnish, and very fine lamp-black, well mixed to- 
 gether. To prepare the varnish, a saucepan is about half 
 filled with pure linseed oil, and heated over a fire till it 
 ignites from the flame of a piece of burning paper. It 
 should then be allowed to burn till it be reduced to the 
 degree required ; and if, during the operation, there ap- 
 pear danger of its boiling over, it should be immediately 
 taken off the fire, and the cover, wffiich ought to fit quite 
 close on the saucepan, must be put on to extinguish the 
 flame. This is to prevent accidents ; and the operator 
 cannot be sufficiently cautioned against the danger attend- 
 ing the burning of the varnish, which ought never to be 
 performed in a room with a boarded floor, or indeed in 
 any part of a house. Wet sacks are the best things to put 
 out the flame in case of accident. 
 
 Several inks must be prepared, differing in the degree of 
 viscidity or thickness of the varnish from which they are 
 made, and the quantity of black mixed with them. The 
 longer the oil is burned, the thicker the varnish becomes. 
 The thinnest varnish is burned till it has lost nearly one 
 fourth of its volume, the next till it is reduced one third, 
 the thickest till it is reduced one half. 
 
 These directions are to be considered as very general 
 ones ; and the state of the varnish is best judged of du- 
 ring the burning, by taking out some with a spoon, and 
 letting a drop fall on a cold earthenw r are plate, and trying 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 209 
 
 its degree of viscidity with the finger. The thinnest sort 
 should be like common honey, and the other should draw 
 out in strings, which will be longer as the varnish is thicker. 
 The thickest will draw out in strings two or three feet in 
 length. 
 
 It is quite essential to have the oil pure, and the sauce- 
 pan perfectly clean, and to keep the varnish in clean close 
 jars in a cool place. It is best not to make the varnish 
 long before it is wanted ; for if any decomposition takes 
 place in it, the drawing will be spoiled by the printing ink. 
 The black is mixed with the varnish on a grinding-stone 
 with a muller, in small successive quantities ; care being 
 taken that the first portion of black is equally mixed with 
 the varnish before a second is added. In the thickest inks 
 this requires considerable labour. By mixing the varnish- 
 es together, any degree of stiffness of the ink may be ob- 
 tained ; and by putting more or less black, its thickness is 
 regulated. The printer must always have by him several 
 small pots, each containing a different printing ink, to be 
 used as occasion requires. A small quantity, not more 
 than the size of a hazel-nut, should be used at a time ; for 
 it is desirable to charge the roller with as small a quantity 
 as possible. It must be worked well on the colour table 
 with the roller in all directions, that it may be equally 
 distributed all over the roller. Ink-drawings are general- 
 ly printed with a stiffer ink than chalk- drawings. 
 
 6. Preparation of the Stone for Printing. 
 
 The drawing being finished on the stone as before de- 
 scribed, is sent to the lithographic printer, on whose know- 
 ledge of his art the success of the impressions in a great 
 
210 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 measure depends. The first process is to etch the draw- 
 ing, as it is called. This is done by placing the stone 
 obliquely on one edge over a trough, and pouring over it 
 nitric acid very much diluted. It is poured on the upper 
 part of the stone, and runs down all over the surface. 
 The stone is then turned, and placed on the opposite 
 edge, and the etching water, being collected from the 
 trough, is again poured over it in the same manner. The 
 degree of strength, which is little more than one per cent, 
 of acid, should be such as to produce a very slight effer- 
 vescence after the etching water has lain on the stone 
 for a second or two ; its strength must vary according to 
 the heat of the atmosphere and the degree of fineness of 
 the drawing. It is desirable to pass the etching water 
 tw T o or three times over the darkest parts of the drawing, 
 as they require more etching than the lighter tints ; and 
 when the drawing is fine, a little green should be mixed 
 with it. Some stones, also, and different chalks, require 
 different degrees of strength of the acid ; and experience 
 alone can guide the lithographer in his practice on this point. 
 Chalk-drawdngs require weaker acid than the ink. 
 
 The stone is now carefully washed, by pouring clean 
 rain-water over it, and afterwards with gum-water; and 
 when not too wet, the roller, charged with printing ink, is 
 rolled over it in both directions, viz. sideways, and from top 
 to bottom, till the drawing takes the ink. It is then well 
 covered over with a solution of gum-arabic in water, of 
 about the consistency of oil. This is allowed to dry, and 
 preserves the drawing from any alteration, as the lines can- 
 not spread, in consequence of the pores of the stone being 
 filled with the gum. After the etching, it is desirable to 
 leave the stone for a day, and best not to leave it more than 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 211 
 
 a week, before it is printed from. In some establishments 
 a few proofs are taken immediately after the drawing is 
 etched, but it is better not to do so. 
 
 The operation of the etching requires great nicety, and 
 must be done quickly. If the drawing is etched too strong- 
 ly, the fine tints disappear ; if too weak, the printing ink 
 mixes with the darker parts, and the drawing runs into blots. 
 A soft stone requires weaker acid than a hard one, if they 
 are equally pure in quality. The differences in the com- 
 position of the stones also require differences in the strength 
 of the etching water, so that no strict or certain rules can 
 be given. 
 
 The effect of the etching is, first, to take away the al- 
 kali mixed with the drawing chalk or ink, which would 
 make the drawing liable to be affected by the water ; and, 
 secondly, to make the stone refuse more decidedly to take 
 any grease. The gum assists in this latter purpose, and 
 is quite essential to the perfect preparation of the surface 
 of the stone. 
 
 7. Printing. 
 
 When the stone is to be printed from, it is placed on 
 the bed or platten of the press ; at this time a proper 
 sized scraper for the printing is very carefully adjusted to 
 the surface of the stone. The gum on the stone is now 
 sprinkled with rain-water, and being gradually dissolved, 
 and a wet sponge passed lightly all over it, the printer 
 works the ink which is on the colour table placed beside 
 him, with the roller, in all directions, till it is equally and 
 thinly spread all over the roller. He then, the stone being 
 wet, passes the roller all over the stone in both directions. 
 
212 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 observing, as his experience enables him to do, that all parts 
 of the drawing take the ink in due proportion. The roller 
 should be applied with an equal motion and pressure, which 
 must be regulated according to the mode in which the draw- 
 ing takes the ink ; if it does not take it readily, the pressure 
 must be increased, and the roller moved more slowly. The 
 roller should turn freely as it passes over the stone ; if it 
 slips, the cause is either that the stone is too wet, or that 
 too much of the gum remains upon the stone ; in the first 
 case, a drier sponge will correct the evil ; in the second, 
 the stone must be again washed with a little water ; but 
 this must be done wfith caution, as the gum should not be 
 entirely washed off the stone. 
 
 At first the drawing receives the ink with some difficulty, 
 and it is frequently necessary to wet the stone and roll it 
 in several times, before it will take the ink readily. Care 
 must now be taken not to wet the stone too much ; the 
 less dampness the better, provided it is sufficient to keep 
 the stone from taking the ink in the parts where there is 
 no drawing ; at all events, no drops of water should be 
 seen upon the stone, as they spoil the printing ink, and 
 also are imbibed by the roller, which therefore becomes 
 unfit for use. After the drawing is thus rolled in, the 
 sheet of paper is placed on the stone, and the impression 
 taken in the manner described in the account of the press. 
 When, after the impression, the paper is taken up, the 
 stone appears dry, the moisture having been imbibed by 
 the paper. It must be again wetted with a damp sponge, 
 and rolled in with ink as before, taking care to work the 
 roller well on the colour table each time before applying it 
 to the stone. 
 
 Generally the first few impressions are imperfect, from 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 213 
 
 the drawing not taking the ink fully ; but this is gradually 
 corrected in the succeeding impressions. 
 
 During the printing, some gum must always remain on 
 the stone, though it will not be visible, otherwise the ink 
 will take on the stone, and also spoil the drawing. If, by 
 too much wetting, or by rubbing too hard with the sponge, 
 the gum is entirely removed, some fresh gum-w r ater must 
 be laid on. If the stone has, in the first instance, been 
 laid by with too small a quantity of gum, and the ink stains 
 the stone on being first applied to it, gum-water must then 
 be used to damp the stone instead of pure water. Some- 
 times, however, this may arise from the printing ink being 
 too thin, as will appear below. If some spots on the stone 
 take the printing ink, notwithstanding the above precau- 
 tions, some strong acid must be applied to them with a 
 brush ; and after this is washed off, a little gum-water is 
 dropped on the place. A steel point is here frequently 
 necessary to take off the spots of ink. The edges of the 
 stone are very apt to soil, and generally require to be wiped 
 with an old sponge or rag after the rolling in. They must 
 also frequently have an application of acid and gum, and 
 sometimes be rubbed with pumice-stone. Chalk-drawings 
 are much the most difficult to print. After this general 
 description of the printing, the following development of 
 the principles on which it is regulated, and notice of the 
 difficulties which arise in its progress, will be found useful. 
 An ink which is too thin , and formed of a varnish not suffi- 
 ciently burned, will soil the stone, notwithstanding that the 
 proper precautions are taken of wetting the stone, and pre- 
 paring it properly with acid and gum. Ink which is too 
 stiff will tear up the lighter tints of the chalk from the 
 stone, and thus destroy the drawing. 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 214 
 
 The consideration of these circumstances leads us at 
 once to the principles of the printing. These accidents 
 arise at the extreme points of the scale at which the print- 
 ing inks can be used ; for it is evident, that the only inks 
 which can be employed are those which are between these 
 points, that is, thicker than that which soils the stone, and 
 at the same time thinner than that which takes up the 
 drawing. Any increase of temperature will diminish the 
 consistency of the printing ink ; the stone will therefore 
 soil with an ink which could be safely used at a lower tem- 
 perature ; hence a stiffer ink must be used. Now, if the 
 temperature should increase so much that the stone will 
 soil with any ink at all less thick than that which will take 
 up the drawing, it is evident that the printing must cease 
 till, by standing, the lines of the drawing shall have acquir- 
 ed additional strength. This, though it sometimes occurs, 
 is a rare case ; but it shows that it is desirable to draw 
 with a chalk or ink of less fatness in summer than in win- 
 ter ; and also, that if the printing-room is in winter artifi- 
 cially heated, pains should be taken to regulate the heat as 
 equally as possible. 
 
 We will now enumerate some other difficulties which are 
 not referable to the above general principle. 
 
 If the pressure of the scraper is too weak, the ink will 
 not be given off to the paper in the impression, although 
 the drawing has been properly charged with it. Defects 
 will also appear from the scraper being notched, or not cor- 
 rectly adjusted, or from any unevenness in the leather or 
 paper. 
 
 Inequalities in the roller will cause the drawing to re- 
 ceive the ink unequally, and if the roller or its leather is too 
 hard, it will not ink the drawing clearly. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 215 
 
 After printing a considerable number of impressions, it 
 sometimes happens that the drawing takes the ink in dark 
 spots in different parts. This arises from the printing ink 
 becoming too strongly united with the chalk or ink of the 
 drawing, and if the printing is continued the drawing will 
 be spoiled. A little consideration will show us the reason 
 of this accident. The printing ink readily unites with the 
 drawing, and being of a thinner consistency, it will by re- 
 peated applications accumulate on the lines of the drawing, 
 soften them, and make them spread. In this case it is 
 necessary to stop the printing, and let the stone rest for a 
 day or two, for the drawing to recover its proper degree of 
 hardness. If the drawing should run smutty, from any of 
 the causes before enumerated, the following mixture will 
 clean it. 
 
 Take equal parts of water, spirits of turpentine, and oil 
 of olives, and shake them well together in a glass phial, 
 until the mixture froths ; w r et the stone, and throw this 
 froth upon it, and rub it gently with a sponge. 'The print- 
 ing ink will be dissolved, and the whole drawing also will 
 disappear, though, on a close examination, it can be dis- 
 tinguished in faint white lines. On rolling in again with 
 printing ink, the drawing will gradually re-appear as clear 
 as at first. 
 
 Accidents sometimes occur in the printing, from the 
 qualities of the paper. If the paper has been made from 
 rags which have been bleached with oxymuriatic acid, the 
 drawing will be incurably spoiled after thirty impressions. 
 Chinese paper has sometimes a strong taste of alum ; this 
 is so fatal as sometimes to spoil the drawing after the first 
 impression. 
 
 When the stone is to be laid by after printing, in order 
 
216 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 that it may be used again at a future period, the drawing 
 must be rolled in with a preserving ink , called by Senefel- 
 der, aetzfarbe , as the printing inks would, when dry, be- 
 come so hard that the drawing would not take fresh print- 
 ing ink freely. The following is the composition of the pre- 
 serving ink. 
 
 Thick varnish of linseed oil 2 parts. 
 
 Tallow , 4 do. 
 
 Venetian turpentine 1 do. 
 
 Wax ,..l do. 
 
 These must be melted together, and then four parts of 
 lamp-black very carefully and gradually mixed with it, and 
 it must be preserved for use in a close tin box. 
 
 Very fine effects are produced in lithographic prints, by 
 printing from two or more stones with different coloured 
 inks. This is managed by preparing a composition of 
 
 Wax 2 parts. 
 
 Soap 1 do. 
 
 A little vermilion. 
 
 Melt them in a saucepan, and cast them into sticks. 
 This must be rubbed up with a little water to the thick- 
 ness of cream, and then applied to the surface of a polished 
 stone. An impression is taken in the common way from 
 a drawing, and applied to a stone prepared in this manner, 
 and passed through the press, care being taken to mark, by 
 means of this impression, two points in the margin corre- 
 sponding on each of the stones. The artist having thus 
 on the second stone an impression from the first drawing 
 to guide him, scrapes away the parts which he wishes to 
 remain white in the finished impression. The stone must 
 now be etched with acid stronger than the common etch- 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 217 
 
 ing water, having one part of acid to twenty of water. The 
 whole is then washed off with turpentine. 
 
 This plan has been very much followed at Munich, and 
 in this country some splendid specimens have lately been 
 produced. It is generally used to print a middle tint from 
 the second stone. The black impression being given from 
 the first stone, a flat transparent brownish tint is given 
 from the second, and the white lights are where the paper 
 is left untouched. The dots are necessary to regulate the 
 placing of the paper on the corresponding parts of the two 
 stones. 
 
 The coloured inks for the tints are differently made, ac- 
 cording to the tint required, but the varnishes alone make 
 very good light browns. 
 
 The paper for lithographic printing should not be so 
 damp as for copperplate printing. 
 
 8. Different manners of Lithography . 
 
 Besides the manners already described of drawing with 
 ink and chalk, lithography is practised in various other ways. 
 
 Transfers. 
 
 The most useful of these is the transfer before alluded to 
 in speaking of the inks, as it saves the labour and inconve- 
 nience of writing backwards. This is performed by writ- 
 ing with the composition ink on a prepared paper, and then 
 transferring the writing to a stone, by passing it through 
 the press. 
 
 Dissolve in some water half an ounce of gum-tragacanth, 
 
 K 
 
218 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 to which, after it is well mixed and strained, add one ounce 
 of glue and half an ounce of gamboge. 
 
 Then take of French chalk 4 ounces, 
 
 old plaster of Paris.. ditto, 
 starch 1 ditto. 
 
 Powder these, and sift them through a fine sieve ; grind 
 them with a portion of the gum-tragacanth, glue, and gam- 
 boge ; then add sufficient water to give it the consistency 
 of oil, and apply it with a brush to thin sized paper. The 
 writing must be made with the ink on the prepared side. 
 
 When the transfer is to be made, a polished stone is 
 warmed to about 130° Fahrenheit, and placed in the press. 
 The paper is then carefully damped at the back with a 
 sponge, and placed between some sheets of soft paper. It 
 is next placed on the stone with the writing towards it, and 
 passed through the press as in printing an impression. This 
 must be repeated four or five times without raising the 
 leather cover of the bed of the press, beginning with a 
 slight pressure at first, and increasing it every time. The 
 press is now to be opened, and the paper, being damped, 
 taken off, when the writing will appear to have come off 
 the paper on the stone. 
 
 When the stone is quite cold, it is etched and prepared 
 for printing in the usual manner. 
 
 This mode is peculiarly valuable for maps, plans, writ- 
 ings, &c. when expedition and economy are objects of im- 
 portance ; and the impressions produced by skilful litho- 
 graphers retain all the purity and sharpness of the original 
 drawing or writing. 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 219 
 
 Imitation of Wood Cuts. 
 
 This is a very easy mode, though not much practised. 
 A polished stone is covered all over with lithographic ink, 
 and the parts which are to be left white are scraped away 
 with a steel point. Very fine lines are most easily obtain- 
 ed by putting them in with a hair pencil. The stone is 
 etched as before described. 
 
 Etchings on Stone. 
 
 A polished stone is prepared for this mode by washing 
 it with diluted acid as weak as the water used for etching 
 a drawing ; and after that is washed off, and the stone is 
 dry, it is to be covered with weak gum-water and a little 
 lamp-black. This forms a coating to the stone, and the 
 artist works on it with an etching needle, as in etching 
 upon copper. The lines which he traces appear white, but 
 look stronger than they will appear afterwards. The stone 
 should be a little warmed, for the needle to w r ork freely 
 through the coating, and care must be taken not to breathe 
 upon it. When the etching is finished, the surface is to be 
 rubbed all over with linseed oil, which penetrates into the 
 lines drawn by the needle. After this the coating is to be 
 all washed off with water. 
 
 In this mode lines can be drawn as fine as on copper- 
 plate ; it is however but little practised in England, though 
 it is often employed in Germany. 
 
 The great distinction between lithography and engrav- 
 ing, when employed for works of art, is, that the former 
 gives a fac-simile of an original drawing, which retains all 
 
220 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the freedom and touch of the artist’s own hand ; whilst, on 
 the contrary, an engraving must be a copy. This charac- 
 ter in a lithographic print arises from the facility with 
 which the drawing is produced, as the process is exactly 
 that which the artist would follow in making a common 
 drawing : and the further advantage of a great saving of 
 expense is derived from the same cause ; for the drawing 
 being made at once on the stone, the whole expense of the 
 engraving is saved. This is particularly the case with 
 drawings in chalk, or with outlines or slight works in ink ; 
 and thus the door is 'opened to the production of many 
 works which could not otherwise be published on account 
 of the expense of engraving. 
 
 The more finished drawings in ink, however, have not 
 the same advantages, for the gradations in tint can be ob- 
 tained only by the variations in the breadth and distance 
 of the lines, which is the same principle as that on which 
 the engraver works ; and hence the labour is more nearly 
 equal in the two methods. 
 
 There is, however, much less difficulty in drawing lines 
 on the stone than in cutting them on copper, and of course 
 the operation is less expensive ; and the cost of printing 
 from stone is also considerably under that of printing from 
 plates, which renders the employment of lithography doubly 
 advantageous when a large number of copies are required. 
 The number of impressions that may be taken from a chalk 
 drawing varies according to the fineness of the tints and 
 the manner in which the drawing has been executed. Some 
 drawings will be exhausted by 1500 or 2000 copies, others 
 have stood 20,000, and some even 30,000 impressions. 
 
 Ink drawings and writings give considerably more ; the 
 finest, if properly managed, will give from 6000 to 10,000 ; 
 
LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 221 
 
 others it seems to be impossible to exhaust, hundreds of 
 thousands having been printed from some without any mate- 
 rial injury. 
 
 The advances which lithography has made within these 
 few years have been really immense. Specimens in the 
 chalk manner have been produced which vie in beauty 
 with the stippled engravings in the line manner. Efforts 
 equally wonderful have been made, and there seems no 
 reason to doubt that further improvements will yet be ef- 
 fected in this infant art. The external delicacy of tint of 
 the finest engravings, there is reason to believe, as has al- 
 ready been shown, it never can equal ; and it is more than 
 probable that the station which it has already attained is 
 that which it is destined to fill ; that is, betwixt the first 
 class of engravings and the middling productions of copper 
 and steel, its greatest advantages being economy and ex- 
 pedition in the execution. The innumerable instances in 
 w T hich the public have already been presented with valu- 
 able works by means of lithography, which could not have 
 been produced by the more expensive and tedious mode 
 of engraving, are sufficient evidences of its vast import- 
 ance, and afford ground for the anticipation of still greater 
 benefits. 
 
222 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 In the treatise on Printing the reader will find that the 
 invention of the art of type-founding was a very early con- 
 sequence of the discovery of the rude art of taking impres- 
 sions from laboriously excised letters of wood and metal ; and 
 that after an investigation of the statements of various au- 
 thors, the honour of the invention has been given to the 
 illustrious partnership of Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer, 
 the larger share being allowed to the latter, as having had 
 practice in the design and proportioning of letters in his ori- 
 ginal employment of an illuminator ; that the place of the in- 
 vention was the city of Mentz, and that the time was about 
 the year 1457. Nor, upon examination, will it appear that 
 any other can dispute the honour with these worthies, in- 
 asmuch as they indisputably used cast metal types before 
 the secession of Gutenberg from his associates, and conse- 
 quently before the dispersion of their workmen by the capture 
 of Mentz in the year 1462 ; nor will the claims of Koster of 
 Haarlem in any case interfere with these, the most sanguine 
 of his supporters carrying his pretensions no farther than 
 the art of taking impressions from excised characters of 
 wood, of lead, and lastly of tin. The necessity of some 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 223 
 
 improvement upon the original method of forming types, 
 even on the very limited scale upon which the first efforts 
 of typography were conducted, must be obvious, and it 
 appears to have advanced in a natural and rapid course. 
 The first step seems to have been the striking of a letter 
 of approved cut, answering in some degree to the modern 
 punch, into soft clay or plaster, and the infusion of metal into 
 the mould thus formed ; the shaft or body , which by so rude 
 and uncertain a method must necessarily have been rough 
 and untrue, being dressed into correctness by manual la- 
 bour. The art of casting and working metals, however, 
 being at that time by no means defective, and Fust being 
 by profession a worker in gold and silver, it is probable 
 that a process not unlike the modem was soon invented ; 
 but of this we have no certain evidence, the whole art of 
 printing being carefully kept a “ mystery” by the initiated 
 until about half a century after the probable date of the 
 invention . 1 This evidence is afforded us by the device of 
 Badius Ascensius, an eminent printer of Paris and Lyon in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, and also by that 
 of an English printer, Anthony Scoloker of Ippeswych, 
 who modified and adopted the device of Ascensius, as indeed 
 did many other printers of various countries. This curious 
 design exhibits in one apartment the various processes of 
 printing, the foreground presenting a press in full work, 
 
 1 A copy of the Speculum Humana Salvationis, in the library of the 
 late duke of Marlborough, presents probably the earliest specimen of 
 cast types ; twenty-five of its leaves being printed from solid wooden 
 blocks, or perhaps from wooden blocks on which the designs have been 
 so cut that the scrolls, cut upon other blocks, were inserted in spaces 
 left for them ; while, in thirty-eight leaves, the scrolls are in cast type, 
 inserted in the designs in lieu of the engraved scrolls. 
 
22i 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 the background on the left the cases and the compositor, 
 and on the right the foundery ; the matrix and other ap- 
 pliances bearing a precise resemblance to those at present 
 in use. This introduces to observation the fact that the 
 earlier printers generally combined all the various processes 
 of their profession in their own offices, although it would 
 appear, that as the art spread over Europe, and secrecy be- 
 came less and less necessary, the most enterprising speedily 
 began to furnish their distant brethren with types from their 
 respective founderies. Thus it would appear that the first 
 types of the English architypographer Caxton were sup- 
 plied by Ulric Zell, and that it was not until the establish- 
 ment of his printing-house at Westminster that he began 
 to cut letter in imitation of his own hand- writing, and more 
 agreeable to the fashion of writing at that time in use in 
 England. Lettou and Machlinia are supposed to have 
 purchased their types from foreign founderies, perhaps from 
 Lyon or Milan. But Wynkyn de Worde discarded that 
 jealousy which had hitherto obstructed the progress of the 
 art in England, and having cut many founts of considera- 
 ble beauty, supplied his contemporary typographers. His 
 black letter in especial was so much esteemed as to have 
 been in use to a very late period, and it is said that rem- 
 nants of his founts are to be found in some of the most 
 ancient printing establishments; nay, it is even possible 
 that some of his original punches or matrices might yet by 
 a diligent antiquary be discovered— a valuable and interest- 
 ing addition to our many curious relics of the art. 
 
 The first record of the separation of the art of type- 
 founding from that of printing, would appear to be a decree 
 of the star-chamber in the reign of Charles I., dated 11th 
 July 1637. This was probably one of the attempts to sup- 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 225 
 
 press the printing of seditious works by the rising puritans, 
 who, after establishing secret printing-offices in various 
 parts of the kingdom, found it necessary for secrecy to cut 
 their founts themselves. The decree seems to have been 
 in some degree a revival of one of the same nature, 28 
 Elizabeth, limiting the number of printers to twenty. By 
 the first-mentioned decree it was ordered, 
 
 That there shall be four founders of letters for printing, 
 and no more. 
 
 That the archbishop of Canterbury, or the bishop of Lon- 
 don, with six other high commissioners, shall supply 
 the places of those four as they shall become void. 
 
 That no master founder shall keep above two appren- 
 tices at one time. 
 
 That all journeymen founders be employed by the mas- 
 ters of the trade, and that idle journeymen be com- 
 pelled to work, upon pain of imprisonment, and such 
 other punishment as the court shall think fit. 
 
 That no master founder of letters shall employ any other 
 person in any work belonging to the casting and 
 founding of letters than freemen or apprentices to the 
 trade, save only in pulling off the knots of metal hang- 
 ing at the end of the letters when they are first cast, 
 in which work every master founder may employ one 
 boy only not bound to the trade. 
 
 The four founders appointed by this decree to serve the 
 whole kingdom were John Grismand, Thomas Wright, 
 Arthur Nicholas, and Alexander Fifield. 
 
 This decree was revived 14th Charles II., renewed 16th 
 Charles II., and again for seven years 1st James II., at 
 which term it expired, and was never renewed. 
 
 The founts in use in English printing-offices may be di- 
 
226 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 vided into two kinds ; those used for book, and those for 
 job printing, that is, hand and posting bills, &c. Of book 
 types there are twelve regular bodies, viz. Great Primer, 
 English, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Bre- 
 vier, Minion, Nonpareil, Ruby, Pearl, and Diamond. Be- 
 sides these, Minion-Nonpareil is a good deal used ; and 
 some founders have introduced intermediate founts, as 
 Emerald. 
 
 It is much to be regretted that no uniform standard 
 has been adopted by letter-founders for their founts of the 
 same-named letter ; they vary not only from those of other 
 founders, but even from their own, owing to which it sel- 
 dom happens that any two founts stand together. This is 
 the cause of much inconvenience, as in the instance of 
 capitals and small capitals, accented letters, signs, and other 
 sorts introduced into common matter; the printer being 
 obliged to purchase a small quantity of each with every 
 fount, whereas, were there any uniformity, he might have a 
 considerable quantity to be used with any fount as occasion 
 required. 
 
 Great Primer (Fr. Gros Romain ; Ger. Tertia) is the 
 largest type in use in book printing, being chiefly for large 
 Bibles, on which account it is sometimes called Bible Text ; 
 but it is very seldom employed. There are about 51 \ ms 
 to a foot : it is double the body of Bourgeois. 
 
 English (Fr. Saint Augustin ; Ger. Mittel) is much used 
 for church Bibles, and for works in folio and quarto. The 
 French name is probably derived from its being first used 
 to print the works of St Augustin ; the German from its 
 being the middle of seven standard founts used by the early 
 German printers. There are about 64 ms to a foot : its 
 body is equal to two Minions. 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 227 
 
 Pica (Fr. and Ger. Cicero , from its having been first used 
 for Cicero’s Epistles) is the fount which is used as the 
 general standard of measurement in casting leads, quota- 
 tions, cutting rule, and regulating the price of press-work, 
 &c. It is in very extensive use for works of a standard 
 character, history, art, and other library works : it is suffi- 
 ciently large for weak eyes, and not too great for moderate- 
 ly sized 8vo pages, being in fact the just medium. There 
 are 71 ms to a foot, and it is equal to two Nonpareils. 
 
 Small Pica (Fr. Philosophic ; Ger. Brevier ) is perhaps the 
 most extensively used of all the founts, being a very useful 
 and well-proportioned letter. Novels are almost always 
 printed in this body. 83 ms to a foot ; equal to two Rubies. 
 
 Long Primer (Fr. Petit JRomain; Ger. Corpus) is like- 
 wise much used, being very well adapted for works in 12mo, 
 dictionaries, and other works in which much matter is to 
 be got into a small space : it is the type of the Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica, and of this volume. 89 ms to a foot : two 
 Pearls. 
 
 Bourgeois (Fr. Gaillarde ; the Germans have none to cor- 
 respond) is much used for the same purposes as Long Pri- 
 mer, and in solid matter is difficult to distinguish by the 
 eye from that body. 102 ms to a foot : two Diamonds. 
 
 Brevier (Fr. Petite Texte ; Ger. Petit or Jungfer) is so 
 called from its having been much used for printing breviaries. 
 It is much employed for small works, and for notes. 1 12^ 
 ms zr 1 foot. 
 
 Minion (Fr. Mignonne ; Ger. Colonel) is chiefly in use 
 for newspaper advertisements; it is a very pretty fount, and 
 well adapted for pocket editions, prayer-books, and Bibles : 
 it is perhaps the smallest of readable sizes. 128 ms = 1 
 foot : half English. 
 
228 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 Nonpareil (Fr. and Ger. Nompareille), used for the same 
 purposes as Minion. 143 ms = 1 foot: half Pica. 
 
 Ruby (no body to correspond in France or Germany), 
 used for pocket dictionaries, prayer-books, &c. ; but it is too 
 small for any but the strongest sight. 163 ms = 1 foot: 
 half Small Pica. 
 
 Pearl (Fr. Parisienne ; Ger. Perl\ used for the same pur- 
 poses. 178 ms = 1 foot: half Long Primer. 
 
 Diamond (Fr. and Ger. Diamond) is the smallest body 
 cut ; it is distressingly small, and is used mostly for notes 
 to works in Nonpareil and the descending bodies. The 
 French have succeeded in cutting the face so small as to 
 be illegible, and an annual lately sold in London in this 
 letter is accompanied with a magnifying glass. 205 ms 
 = 1 foot : half Bourgeois. 
 
 The principal apparatus in the casting of type are the 
 punch, the matrix, and the mould. The punch (or puncheon) 
 is a piece of steel bearing upon one end a single letter, which 
 is formed by hammering, filing, and other processes, and 
 differs in no other respect from ordinary punches than the 
 unusual care and accuracy with which it is worked. It 
 must be remembered, that as each letter is but one of a 
 large number with which it is to harmonize, the height 
 must be obtained with the greatest precision, the breadth 
 both of the heavy and the fine strokes must be carefully 
 proportioned, the turns graceful. This general harmony is 
 not very difficult to attain in the coarser fancy type, there 
 being in this, as in other arts, little merit in imitating the 
 vulgar or the grotesque ; but the elegant and symmetrical 
 face of book type is as difficult to attain as the exquisite 
 grace of the higher productions of the arts ; and yet, to 
 such perfection have modern artists attained, that the prac- 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 229 
 
 tised eye has little difficulty in assigning an individual letter 
 to its proper fount, and even, if the printer has turned his 
 attention to the particulars of his art, to the foundery and 
 the artist, the punch -cutter of a foundery of character having 
 a professional reputation, like a painter or engraver. Mr 
 Moxon, a mechanician of great ingenuity, in his Mechanical 
 Exercises, has the credit of first assigning rules for the shap- 
 ing of letters, laying down geometrical rules for the angles of 
 inclination, the curves, and for adjusting the base from which 
 the shoulders of the letter should rise to obtain the greatest 
 strength. From this the modern artists have varied, obtaining 
 great sharpness of appearance combined with strength and 
 durability. Although beyond a doubt Mr Moxon’s formulae 
 have been of great advantage to subsequent punch- cutters, 
 he was by no means a successful artist himself ; his type, cut 
 upon the most philosophical principles, being uglier than 
 that of his contemporaries. The matrix is a small piece of 
 copper into which the punch is struck. Much care is also 
 requisite in doing this, although, provided it be struck suf- 
 ficiently deep, the surface of the copper may be filed 
 down so as to leave the impress of the exact depth. It has 
 been explained in the treatise on Printing, that to obtain 
 equality of impression, the face of the composed type must 
 be in an exact plane, from which it will be easily understood 
 that the just depth of the impression in the matrix is a mat- 
 ter of much importance. The copper must now be care- 
 fully dressed at the ends and sides, in order that when 
 adjusted in the mould, the character, when cast, may be 
 so placed upon its body that it shall stand exactly even 
 with its brother characters : the nicety required in this is 
 surprising. * 
 
230 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 The mould is a very simple but very ingenious appara- 
 tus, consisting of two parts, so contrived that, being pro- 
 perly placed together (viz. a 2 in a 1, b 1 in b 2, c 2 on 
 c 1 , and d 1 on d 2), they form, in the centre e , a space, 
 which is geometrically described as a parallelopiped, being, 
 in fact, the mould in which the type is formed ; the ma- 
 trix f is placed at the bottom ; the metal is poured in at 
 the orifice formed by the closing of the upper parts. It 
 will be seen that the two parts which form the mould slide 
 upon each other, and that the extent to which they close is 
 regulated by the width of the matrix ; and that therefore 
 all types of one fount, whether the broad 4-m quadrat or 
 the narrow i or 1, may be cast in the same mould. The 
 spring at the bottom of figure 2 retains the matrix in its 
 place, and without removing it the new letter cannot be 
 disengaged ; the hooks at the top are used to remove the 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 231 
 
 letter from the mould, f is an enlarged drawing of the 
 matrix. 
 
 The caster, with this apparatus, stations himself by the 
 side of a furnace containing the melting pot and the fluid 
 metal, of which he takes a portion with a very small ladle, 
 and having poured in a sufficient quantity, jerks the mould 
 into the air with his left hand (a very singular movement), 
 which has the effect of expelling the air and forcing 
 the metal into the finest strokes of the matrix. He then 
 with one finger releases the spring, separates the mould, 
 and hooks out the letter with one of the pieces of bent wire 
 represented at the top of the mould ; and so proceeds with 
 considerable rapidity, casting about 500 letters in the hour, 
 of ordinary sized type, although the smaller and the larger 
 sizes require much more time, the first on account of the 
 care requisite, and the latter to allow of the setting of the 
 metal. 
 
 The types are now removed from the caster’s table by a 
 boy, who strikes off the knob at the bottom, caused by the 
 superfluous metal at the orifice of the mould. A workman 
 next rubs the sides of each letter upon a slab 
 of very gritty stone (his fingers being guarded 
 by a piece of leather), which removes any small 
 knobs or globules attached to the sides or edges. 
 
 This is done with great rapidity, from 1500 to 
 2000 letters being rubbed in an hour. The 
 letters are then set up in a long stick, and again 
 dressed, and the bottom grooved, by which exact 
 height is insured; and the fount being then proportioned, 
 is tied up, and is ready for the printer. 
 
 The matrix for very large type is differently prepared, 
 the nicety of the punch-cutter’s art not being required. 
 
232 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 The letter having been accurately shaped out by rule and 
 compass upon a piece of copper or brass, the part so mark- 
 ed out is cut a\vay, care being taken to cut the back some- 
 what wider than the front, the sloping edge forming the 
 shoulder of the future type. The piece of brass now very 
 much resembles the plates used for stencilling the large 
 headings of legal forms : it is next riveted upon a smooth 
 surface of brass, which forms the face of the letter. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in script type which is deserving 
 of mention. Script being an imitation of hand-writing, 
 it is necessary that the fine strokes at the beginning and 
 end of each letter should be in close contact with those of 
 the preceding and succeeding letters. This M. Didot en- 
 deavoured to achieve by a very curious shape in the type, 
 by which each should so lock in with the other that the 
 required contact should not fail ; but he carried his inven- 
 tion beyond the power of practice, for having resolved the 
 characters into their component parts, he cast a series of 
 signs exactly resembling the “ pothooks and hangers” of a 
 schoolboy’s copy-book, so that not only was every word to 
 be composed, but every letter : 
 
 7 t 7 7 t ^ it m w 
 
 The English founders soon improved upon this idea, cast- 
 ing each letter complete. This however requires several 
 letters to be cast in several forms, the initial, medial, and 
 final letters not being always quite alike. The following 
 will give an idea of how script is cast and composed : 
 
TYPE-FOUNDING. 
 
 233 
 
 Most of the English type-founders, aware of the practical 
 defects of this method, have, by a careful adjustment of the 
 fine strokes at the beginning and end of each letter, cut 
 founts upon the ordinary square body, which answer every 
 purpose. From the nature of the metal, however, and its 
 liability to wear and become battered, script is an expen- 
 sive fount. 
 
 L 
 
234 
 
 SPECIMEN 
 
 SPECIMEN OF TYPES. 
 
 Although in the treatise on Type-Founding the names 
 of the different sizes of type used in the printing of books 
 have been given, yet it has been deemed advisable to append 
 here a specimen of the founts which are more commonly 
 in use, with their names affixed, in order that authors may 
 be enabled more readily to point out the type on which 
 they wish any work or part of a work to be printed. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 ct Every printing-house is, by the cus- 
 tom of time out of mind, called a Cha- 
 
 PICA. 
 
 pel, and all the workmen that belong to it are 
 members of the Chapel ; and the oldest freeman 
 
 SMALL PICA. 
 
 is father of the Chapel. I suppose the style was ori- 
 ginally conferred upon it by the courtesie of some 
 
OF TYPES. 
 
 235 
 
 LONG PRIMER. 
 
 great church-man, or men (doubtless when chapels were in 
 more veneration than of late years they have been here in 
 
 BOURGEOIS. 
 
 England) who, for the hooks of divinity that proceeded from a 
 printing-house, gave it the reverend title of Chapel. 
 
 BREVIER. 
 
 “ There have been formerly customs and bye-laws made and 
 intended for the well and good government of the Chapel, and 
 for the more civil and orderly deportment of all its members 
 
 MINION. 
 
 while in the Chapel, and the penalty for the breach of any of these 
 laws and customs is in printers’ language called a Solace. 
 
 “And the judges of these solaces, and other controversies relating 
 
 NONPAREIL. 
 
 to the Chapel, or any of its members, were, plurality of votes in the Chapel ; it be- 
 ing asserted as a maxim, that ‘ the Chapel cannot err.’ But when any contro- 
 versy is thus decided, it always ends in the good of the Chapel.” 
 
 THE END. 
 

PLATE ccccxm. 
 
 fringing. 
 
 Jfac ^imUe of % JStfJlta $auperum. 
 
 i j 
 
 
 t|U f9 
 
 Jau5mettre:Ptt 
 
 ^Imletfjiere 
 
 tff tttcsffljgfr aiefiln w toon tHfoiuc 
 
 Jo Siitib totA_puiri)'f aicamca 
 efinamlflno e intenjeiftitiiCB 
 uiea rtLfmwtttPjptt) wr9 
 \faneps qmftffnnu’oj eftpla 
 qje aiafute macula cTtrpcci eb 
 vnrturiti Cflirqmc c&nfll 
 cnniwtiflMiiofmiifimo 
 
 to fip)c 0iti;t)qej«dA9thna 
 
 tu cet< i (pile IuUb ftbi oiitt_- 
 RVdifln’A'briiJvrit all eimtorc 
 lab fw rftTJjfotemffsf nucrcio 
 loqxtuCad OHi 6 mnu aliubre * 
 fnantpi eaTcultabu I fpli A£ ; 
 
 
 ... - . i 
 
« - 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 PLATE CCCCXIF. 
 
 FUST . 
 
 SCHCEFFER. 
 
 tefrlFaiR€'6TiaiR€| 
 
 iFat-Sbfmflj of fte jTCltnt? pallet, &.W. 1457. 
 
 6amainrt|mnon 
 alnitin^Ulioiinjjioii 
 ft inuia pmatont non 
 Crtit:tmrati)ftira|ffti= 
 irntir non ftoit . j$TrD 
 mlrgecomininolutatf 
 


 
 
 
 
SCIENTIFIC TREATISES 
 
 REPUBLISHED FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. 
 
 In tii'o vcls. 8 vo. price 12s. 
 
 TWO TREATISES ON 
 
 P HYSIOLOGY AND PHRENOLOGY. By P. M. Roget, M.D., 
 Secretary to the Royal Society, Author of the Fifth Bridgewater Treatise, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 “A luminous and most candid and impartial account of Phrenology In the Treatiw 
 
 on Physiolog 3 r , that science is treated clearly, fully, and in the systematic manner which a 
 masterly instructor might adopt for the benefit of his pupils.” — Tail's Magazine. 
 
 II. 
 
 In a thick vol. post 8vo. price 9s., illustrated with Plates and Woodcuts, and 
 prefaced by a Biographical Memoir of the Author , 
 
 T HE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SIR JOHN LESLIE, on the following 
 important subjects of Natural and Chemical Philosophy : — 
 
 1. Achromatic Glasses. 
 
 2. Acoustics. 
 
 3. Aeronautics. 
 
 4. Barometer. 
 
 5. Barometrical Measurements. 
 
 “ We scarcely know any scientific bookpnore attractive .” — Midland Counties Herald. 
 “ We cordially recommend the publication .” — London Conservative Journal. 
 
 6. Climate. 
 
 7. Cold and Congelation. 
 
 8. Dew. 
 
 9. Meteorology. 
 
 III. 
 
 In post 8 vo. price 6s., illustrated by upivards of 100 Engravings on Wood, and a 
 Chart of Magnetic Curves, 
 
 A TREATISE ON MAGNETISM. By Sir David Brewster, LL.D., 
 F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Royal Institute of France, cS:c. Ac. 
 “ The splendid article by Sir David Brewster on Magnetism .” — Morning Herald. 
 
 “ The only treatise yet published in which all the recent discoveries of importance are to 
 he found collected together, and properly arranged.”— Observer. 
 
 IV. 
 
 In one vol. 8 vo., price 9s. 
 
 D issertation on the progress of ethical philo- 
 sophy, chiefly during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. 
 By the Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh, LL.D., F.R.S. With a Preface 
 by the Rev. William Whewell, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 
 “ Done with taste, discrimination, and, as far as the subject would admit, that ease and 
 perspicuity which flow from the complete mastery of a congenial subject .” — Quarterly Review. 
 
 “ That inimitable ‘ Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,’ which is piefixed to the new edi- 
 tion of the Encyclopaedia .” — Francis Jeffrey. 
 
 V. 
 
 In 4to. price 1 2s., with Fourteen highly finished Engravings , 
 
 TALEMENTS OF ANATOMY, GENERAL, SPECIAL, and COM- 
 JLJ PARATIVE. By David Craigie, M.D., F.R.S.E., &c. &c. &c. 
 
 “ Without branching out into unnecessary details, the leading points of each division are 
 placed before the reader in a clear and concise though sufficiently comprehensive manner, 
 the whole forming a volume which may be perused with pleasure and advantage, both by 
 the non-professional man of science and the practical anatomist ” — Lancet. 
 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA TREATISES CONTINUED. 
 
 VI. 
 
 In post 8 to., illustrated with upwards of Sixty Woodcuts, price 6s. 
 
 T HE FRUIT, FLOWER, and KITCHEN GARDEN ; forming the 
 Article ‘ Horticulture.’ By Patrick Neill, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Secre- 
 tary to the Caledonian Horticultural Society. 
 
 “ One of the best modern books on Gardening extant ; clear, comprehensive, and in every 
 respect well arranged”. — Loudon's Gardener's Magazine . 
 
 VII. 
 
 P 
 
 In post 8 vo. price 6s. 
 
 AINTING AND THE FINE ARTS. By 
 Hazlitt. 
 
 B. R. Haydon and William 
 
 “ This inimitable Dissertation on Painting.” — Tait's Magazine. 
 
 “ We have mentioned the gratification we have experienced from the penisal of Mr. Haz- 
 litt’s Essay; we must add a similar testimony in favour of his fellow-labourer, Mr. Haydon. 
 His Treatise seems to us the result of study and observation extensive and profound.” — 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 In post 8vo. price 6s., copiously illustrated with Woodcuts , 
 
 M INERALOGY, according to the Natural History System. By Robert 
 Jameson, F.R.S.S. L. & E., Regius Professor of Natural History and 
 Lecturer on Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 “ Distinguished by perspicuity of style and arrangement, and by copiousness and accuracy 
 of detail.” — Constitutional. 
 
 IX. 
 
 In 4 to., with Thirteen Engravings, price 9s. 
 
 A SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE. By James Cleghorn, Esq. 
 
 jrA_ “ The best account of the Agriculture of the Scotch Counties is to be found in Black’s 
 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.” — Loudon's Agriculture, p. 1178. 
 
 X. 
 
 In ito ., with Tiventy-seven Engravings, price l'2s. 
 
 A SYSTEM OF ARCHITECTURE, with the PRACTICE OF 
 BUILDING. By William Hosking, F.S.A., Architect. 
 
 XI. 
 
 In post 8 vo. price 6s. 
 
 A TREATISE ON PROBABILITY. By Thomas Galloway, M.A., 
 F.R.S., Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society. 
 
 XII. 
 
 In a handsome volume ito., price 9s., with numerous Engravings, and copious 
 Musical Illustrations interspersed with the text, 
 
 A N ESSAY ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MUSICAL 
 J\_ COMPOSITION, with an Appendix and Notes ; being an extension 
 of the Article “ Music.” By G. F. Graham, Esq. 
 
 “ A masterly and comprehensive Essay.” — Athenwum. 
 
 “ We never saw so much sound practical information on the subject compressed into the 
 same space.” — Spectator. 
 
 “ A lucid and harmonious arrangement of the principles of the art. — Musical World. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 In post 8 vo., with Fourteen Plates, price 6s. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE MICROSCOPE. By Sir David Brewster, 
 LL.D., F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Royal Institute of 
 France, Ac. &c. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA TREATISES CONTINUED. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 In post 8 vo, price 6s. 
 
 TREATISES ON 
 
 P OETRY, MODERN ROMANCE, and RHETORIC. By George 
 Moir, Professor of Rhetoric in the University of Edinburgh, and Wil- 
 liam Spalding, Esq. Advocate. 
 
 “ Learned, able, and eloquent.” — Edinburgh Advertiser. 
 
 “ Well fitted for a Class-Book in English Classical Literature, and as such we recommend 
 it to the attention of teachers, and to the reading public generally.” — Argus. 
 
 XV. 
 
 In post 8 wo, price 6s. embellished ivith Plates and Woodcuts. 
 
 A TREATISE ON GEOLOGY. By John Phillips, F.R.S. F.G.S. 
 
 Professor of Geology in King’s College, London ; Author of “ Illustra- 
 tions of the Geology of Yorkshire,” “ A Guide to Geology,” &c. &c. 
 
 “ A masterly compendious exhibition of the general principles, objects, and ascertained 
 data of the youngest, but not least robust, of modern sciences.” — Glasgow Argus . 
 
 “ An admirable digest of geological knowledge. — Edinburgh Advertiser. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 In post 8 do, price 6s. with a Map of Ancient Rome. 
 
 T HE HISTORY OF ROME. By the Rev. W. M. Hetherington, M.A. 
 
 With an Account of the Topography and Statistics of Modern Rome, by 
 the Rev. J. Taylor. 
 
 The want of a compendious History of Rome, combining the views and discoveries of 
 modern enquirers, with the perspicuous and attractive style necessary to fit the work for the 
 young student, has led to the publication of the present volume. Without suppressing 
 those traditionary legends which are blended with the earlier records of Roman History, an 
 attempt has been made in the present Work to distinguish between Fact and Fable, and 
 to make the latter subserve the important purpose of elucidating and of fixing in the me- 
 mory those real events from which the fabulous legends have arisen. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 In post 8 do, price 9s. illustrated with Woodcuts and Engravings. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAYS, explaining their Con- 
 struction and Management, being the article under that head in the Ency- 
 clopaedia, with additional details. By Lieutenant Lecount, R.N. F.R.A.S., 
 C.E. of the London and Birmingham Railway. 
 
 “ The best and most complete treatise on the subject.” — metropolitan Conservative Journal. 
 “ By far the most valuable work on the construction and management of railways extant.” 
 — Manchester Courier. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 In Ato, price 12s. with Fifteen Engravings on Steel , and numerous Woodcuts. 
 TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 
 
 N AVAL ARCHITECTURE, forming the article “ Ship- Building,” in the 
 Encyclopaedia, with additional details. By Augustin F. B. Creuze, 
 Member of the late School of Naval Architecture, President of the Portsmouth 
 Philosophical Society, and Editor of the Papers on Naval Architecture. 
 
 “ One of the best, because the clearest, and at the same time perfectly comprehensive, 
 disquisitions on Ship- Building, is contained in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.” — Liverpool 
 Mail. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 In post 8 do, price 6s. illustrated with Woodcuts, Maps, and other E?igravings , 
 including Humboldt's Map of the Geographical Distribution af Plants. 
 
 P HYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By Thomas Stewart Traill, F.R.S.E. 
 
 Regius Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edin- 
 burgh, &c. &c. 
 
 “ A most elaborate digest of facts judiciously arranged, and, as a general exposition, per- 
 aps the most complete that has vet appeared.” — Leeds Mercury. 
 
BLACK’S ATLAS COMPLETED. 
 
 Just published, Trice £2, 105., beautifully coloured, and hand - 
 somely half-bound in morocco, gilt leaves, 
 
 A GENERAL ATLAS OF THE WORLD, 
 
 IN FIFTY-FOUR FOLIO SHEETS, 
 
 Engraved on Steel by Sydney Hall, in the first style of the Art. 
 
 WITH GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS, STATISTICAL TABLES, AND A 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX CONTAINING UPWARDS OF 39,000 NAMES. 
 
 Geographical accuracy, beauty of execution, and cheapness, are the distinguish- 
 ing features upon which the present work rests its claims on public support. 
 
 In the construction of the Maps, access has been obtained to sources of infor- 
 mation the most recent and authentic. Among these may be mentioned, the 
 Admiralty Charts, the Ordnance and Trigonometrical Surveys, the Charts of the 
 Colonial Office and East India House, and some Documents in the Admiralty 
 hitherto unpublished. The other authorities consulted include all the Continental 
 Maps, on the accuracy of which it is safe to place reliance. Among these may be 
 mentioned, the Imperial Atlas of Russia, and the Works of Lutke, Humboldt, 
 Lapie, Lopez, Antillo, Lamoke, Raglovitch, Parsell, Le Blond, Keller, Dolago, 
 and Schomburgk. The value of the Atlas has been farther enhanced by the ad- 
 ditions it has received from Modern Works of Voyages and Travels, from the 
 Transactions of the Geographical Society, and from such Books of Special Geo- 
 graphy as possess the highest claims to Topographical and Statistical accuracy. 
 The names of British Navigators and Travellers whose discoveries have been em- 
 bodied in the present work, are too numerous to be included within the limits of 
 an advertisement. It may be sufficient to state, that the Maps have been revised 
 by Geographers well qualified for the task, and compared with the Works of 
 Ross, Parry, Back, Franklin, Denham, Clapperton, Lander, Owen, Barnett, 
 Spix, Crawford, Smith, Martin, Jackson, and many others. 
 
 To the high degree of Topographical and Statistical accuracy which such ar- 
 rangements are calculated to ensure, these Maps unite a beauty of execution 
 rarely to be met with in works of the class. The scale upon which they are en- 
 graved, is also considerably larger than that of any other Atlas at the same price ; 
 the leading countries of the world being exhibited on a scale commensurate to 
 their respective importance. The general reader will therefore find that the pre- 
 sent Atlas is not only much more commodious than the expensive works of the 
 same class, but that the extent of its information will be amply sufficient for all 
 the purposes of reference. 
 
 An Alphabetical Index of all the names occurring throughout the several Maps, with their 
 Latitude and Longitude, is appended to the Work. When it is stated that this Index con- 
 tains three times the number of names which occur in the last edition of Brookes’s General 
 Gazetteer, the completeness of the Atlas itself, and the comprehensive nature of this valu- 
 able addition to it, will be readily admitted. 
 
 In a review of the Work which appeared in a recent number of the Atlas Newspaper, it is 
 observed:— “ We may now say with certainty, that as no Atlas exceeds that of Black’s in 
 the neatness of its form and the utility of its dimensions, so, in Geographical accuracy, and 
 beauty of execution, it equals any work extant of similar pretensions and yet greater charge. 
 We have not been disappointed in a single reference to any of the Maps yet issued, and we 
 have severely tested those of the present number.” To this testimonial the Publishers could 
 add many others which have appeared in the leading Journals throughout the kingdom ; but 
 limited space prevents their multiplying these recommendations. They will therefore only 
 add the opinion expressed by the Metropolitan Conservative Journal : — “ For Geographical 
 accuracy, beauty of execution, cheapness of price, and readiness of reference, we do not 
 knotv any similar work which can at all approach it.” 
 
 ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. 
 

 
 

 
 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00140 2433